THE 


AMERICAN JOURNAL 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


obscioowlb” BF 
PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B, SILLIMAN, Jr., 
xen 
JAMES D. DANA, 


IN CONNECTION WITH 


PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, 
PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, 
DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. 


SECOND SERIES. 
VOL, REXT—-MAY. 1663. 


WITH FIVE PLATES AND A MAP. 


NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 
1861. 
PRINTED BY E, HAYES, 426 CHAPEL 87. eS 


MissouR! BOTANICAL — 


1 ae: 


spit 
el x 


a Se * - at the Girard College, Philadelphia, between the years . 1840 


CONTENTS UF VOL URS 2a at, 


NUMBER XCI. 


Pag: 
Art. I. On the Optical Phenomena presented by the “ Silver- 


Spring,” in Marion oe ri m Prof. Joun Le- 


Il, On Nobert’s Test Plate ad the Stris of Disickie 3 by w. s. 
Sutiivant and T, G. Wormtey, - 

lif. On the Track of an Animal lately found in ihe Poudais 
Formation; by Sir W. E. Logan, F.R.S., . . - 

IV. Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey, - - 

V. bs motions of Fluids and Solids relative to the Barth's Sur. 


; by W. Ferre. - . : 

¥i Serenata Notices ; 5 D. C. om x. XV, - 

retic Explorations—The Hayes Eipedition, 51.— 

Fall's Search for the Relics of Franklin’s Expedi- 

tion, 54.—Capt. Parker Snow’s Proposal to Search 

for the Franklin Relics, 57.—Heuglin’s Search for 

Dr. Vogel in Central Africa, 59.—Medical Statistics 

of the U.S. Army : Squier’s Collection of Original 

Documents concerning the Discovery of America, 60. 

VII. Researches on the Platinum ree Py Prof. Wotcott 

Gisss, M.D., . 

VIII. On a Method of Gioia: bisreldeghe by ea: by 
Prof. O. N. Roop, (with an illustration,) 

IX. Note on Sources of Error in the Me iohnsnieds of Pietic 

Acid to detect the Presence of Potash; by M. Cargy Lea, 

X. On a Series of New Combinations of Ammonia, Picric Acid 
and Metallic Bases; by M. Carry Lea, 

XI. The Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites,—a ‘ini ac- 


count of the phenomena attending their fall, with a chemical _ ‘ 


analysis of them; by Prof. J. Lawrence Situ, M.D.,_— - 
= Abstract of a Discussion of the Influence of the Moon on the 
* Declination of the Magnetic Needle, from the observations 


ee 


and 1845; by A. D. Beene, Supt. Vs s..C Consens ies 
a PHapiniss 0 : - 


3 


iv CONTENTS. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics——On the Chemical ie of the Solar Atmosphere, Kircu- 
HOFF, 103.—On a New Alkaline Metal, : On the colors of Flames, MERZ, — 
105.—The Dichroscope, 107.—Dove’s ey Pat : Method of mingling at will — 
colors produced by absorption or interference: Influence of binocular vision upon the 
estimation of the distance of — en by reflexion me refraction, 109,—On the ap- 
plication of the Stereoscope t from fac-similes: Electric Light : Im- 
provements in the cence M. C. Wiles: 110.—Tolles’ Orthoscopic Eye-piece : 
Contributions to Analytical Chemistry : Alumina from Lime and Magnesia, 112.—Sep- 
aration of Oxyd of Iron from Lime and Magnesia: Separation of Alumina and Iron 
from Manganese: Separation of Manganese from Magnesia and Lime: Separation of 
Strontia from Lime, 113. 


Technical Chemistry.—Test for Fusel Oil, W. Stern: Value of different kinds of Soap, 
R. Grarcer, 114.—Pig-iron which contains Copper cannot be puddled, C. List, 115. 3 

: ion of Oxyd of Lead free from Copper and Iron, Ta. WicHMANN, 116,-~~ 
Cleniaslne of Mordanted Cloth before Dyeing, J. LawenrTuat, 117. —Incineration of 
Filters: On the Occurrence of the Hydrocarbon yaad in Coal Gas, Ba rreEr, 118.— 
Action of Carbonate of Soda on Cast-Iron, C, Tissiz 


.—Geological Survey eit Canada; Report of Progress for 1858, 122.—Geological 
Surveys; Kentucky: Arkansas: Illinois: Texas: California, 124.—Canada: Ne 
York: Descriptions of new soot of Crinoidea and Echinoidea from the Carbonifer- 
ous rocks of Illinois, and other Western States, by F. B. ta and A, H. WorTHEN: 
Description of New Carboniferous Fossils from a and other Western States, by 


F. B. Megx and A. H. Wortuen, 125,—Systematic Catalogue, with Synonyma, &c., 

of Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Phas collected in Nebraska, by the Expl. 

Exp. under the command _ Lieut. G. K. Warren, by F. B. Meek and F. V. Haypen, 
.— Observations 


the Cretaceou: a Seed of Texas, B. F. Saumarp: Die Silu- 
rische Fauna des as Saale by Dr. F. Roemer, 127 
and Zoology.—Thesaurus Capensis, or Illustrations of the South African Fiora, 
etc., Wm. H. Harvey, M.D., F.RS., &c.: Flora ecieda being a pee 
scription of the Plants of he Cape Colony, Caffraria, and Port Natal, by A. Har- 
vey, M.D., F.R.S., &c., and Orro WitnELM verte a D., 128.—Flora be a Brit- 
ish West Indian Islands, A. H. R. Sapo ai M.D.: Plante iigdiiane e Cuba Ori- 
rightiange et prs etc., D.C. Eaton: 


A Catalogue of Plants found in New Bedford, Mass., and its vicinity, by E. W. Hien 
VEY: pease Pheenogamous and Filicoid Plante of New Castle County, Dela- — 
tranged according to the Natural System, with the ypoerne of Mode rm 1 Ate 


, or rare, or imperfectly known species of Ferns; from 

various parts of the World, by Sir bcc eee! Hooker, K.H., &c.: Species 
all ; Tih ustrated with fees: by Sir 

WILitaM csics Hooxer, K.H., &., aaa Farngal ‘on D 
Merrentus, 133.—Filices Horti Botanici. Lipsiensis, G, MerTenivs, 134. 


* 


CONTENTS. v 


on Notices.—On the genus Peasia: On the genus Bipaliura, ie Wa. Stimpson, 
—The Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Mass., 
Astronomy and Meteorology.—Three more Asteroids: New Comet: Further observations 
m the Shooting Stars of August 9-10, 1860: At Chicago, HI., by Mr. Feancis Brap- 
LEY and others, 136.—Paris, France, by M. Coutvier-Gravier : Rome, Italy, by M. 
Srccui: Shinai Stars in November, i860: Near Cape Hatteras: New Haven, Conn., 
137.—New York City: Montgomery Co., Md., 138.—Bloomington, Ind.: Narrative of 
the American Expedition to N.W. British America, to observe the total Selar Eclipse 
July 18th, 1860, by Wm. Ferren, 139. 
Book Notices. —On the Impurities of Commercial Zinc, with Special Reference to the 
Residue insoluble in Dilute Acids, to Sulphur, and to Arsenic, by Cuaries W. Exiot 
and Frank H. Storer, 142,—A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum, and other dis- 
tilled Oils, by ABRanam Gesner, M.D., F.G.S., 147.—General Problems from the Or- ~ 
or ae: pies. of Descriptive Geometry, etc., by Prof. S. Epwarp Warren, 
- ooke’s Chemical Physics : Sillimon’ s Principles of Physics, 149. 
oe Sia Fatelligence.—Earthquake, 150 —T'wo new Meteorites, by J. Law- 
ENCE SMITH, 1 
po P. Espy, 151.—David Dale Owen, 153.—Mr. S. A, Casseday, 155, 
Bibliography—By J. Nicxugs, 155. 
Proceedings of Societies, 156. 


NUMBER XCIHIl. 


Arr. XIII. On the Appalachian Mountain Eanes Prof. Ar- 

noLD Guyot.—( With a map), 157 
XIV. On the Formation of Picramic Pe bp. M. Kesar ree 188 
XV. Remarks on a proposed Process for the Estimation of Nitro- 


gen, and on an Acidimetric Process, by the same, - - 189 
XVI. On the Dimorphism of — vsti and Zine; by 
Josian P. Cooxs, Jr., -- - 191 


XVII. General Account of the Redes of Part Th of the ili 
sion of the Declinometer Observations made at the Girard 
College, Philadelphia, between 1840 and 1845, with special 
reference to the Solar Diurnal Variation and its Annual In- 
; apie te a. U, ere bed ss U. S. Coast aaa Le with 
a pla °? 
XVIIL T fe Silurian Beds of en Denpenieet and 
Dr. F. Roemer’s Monograph ; by Prof. J. M.Sarrorp, - 205 — 
XIX. Correspondence of Joacuim Barranpg, Sir Wiuuiam E. 
Logan and James Haut, on the Taconic System and the age 
of the Fossils found in the Rocks of Northern New England, — 
and the Quebec Group of Rocks.—I. Introductory Remarks, 210 s 
Hl. On the Primordial Fauna and the Faconic System o OF ne 


ay 


~_ ‘CONTENTS. 
Page. 9 
Emmons, in a letter to Prof. Bronn of Heidelberg, 212.— 
Ill. Remarks on the Fauna of the Quebec Group of Rocks 
and the Primordial Zone of Canada. In a letter addressed 
to Mr. Joachim Barrande of Paris, by Sir William E. Logan, 
216.—IV. Letter from James Hall, Palontologist of New 
York, to the Editors of the Americah Journal of Science 
and Arts, 220. 
XX. On a new Lead-Salt, rie Sein to Cobalt Yellow ; “4 
S. D. Hayes, - 226 
XXI. Sketch of the Geology of the we about . Head. wa- 
: ters of the Missouri and Yellow Stone Rivers; by Dr. F. V. 
Haypen, with an Introductory letter by Capt. Raynotps, 229 
XXII. Remarks on the Atomic oe of the Elements ; 2 


Prof. Woxcotr Gisss, M.D., 246 
XXIII. Abstract of a Meteorological Sia for a year "1860, 

kept at Marietta, Ohio; by Dr. S. P. Hitprern, - 252 
XXIV. On the Theory of = in eo i ?. Semmes 

Hunt, F.R.S., - - 256 


XXV. Description of three new sini. =e ere 
Meteoric Stone : Oldham County (Ky.) Meteoric Iron: Rob- 
ertson County (Tenn. ) Meteoric Iron; Prof. J. Law- 
RENCE SMITH, : a? 264 

XXVI. Correspondence of Mr. Skene Nitin alee ry: Du- 
méril, 266.—M. Payer, 267.—Pierre Daussy : Insalubrity 
of the air of Paris, 268.—Diffusion of Germs, (Panspermia,) 
Researches upon Spontaneous Generation, 269.—Chemical 
Synthesis, 270.—Acclimation, 272.—The Serimetre, 273. 
—Pseudomorphism and Pseudomophosis, 273.—The ques- 
tion of Inundations: Bibliography, 2 

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. " 
and Physics—On a Compound of Boron with Ethyl, FraNKLAND and Dees, 


pou 

276.—On the vapor-density of Chlorous Acid, Minton: New Researches on the Oxyd of 

Ethylene, Worrz, 277.—Transformation of Olefiant Gas into complex Organic Acids, 
of : 


Wor Zy 278.—On the determination te ric Acid, C ‘i, _ 
preparation of Oxygen, H. St.Ciain Devine and Desray: — neta Polyethylenie 
Alcohols, Lovrenco, 280.—On Baudrimont’s Phaisenbphia ot arbon, PLAYFaiR, 251. 
Analytical Chemistry.—Contributions from the ee of the Yale Scientific School ; 
ee by Profs. Brusu and Jounson,—Observations on Chancel’s method of 
estimating phosphoric Acid, by Henry I. — 281. 
aids Physics —On the loss of ie t by lass Shades, i in a letter to the Editors, by 


Mr. Wii11am Kina, 283,—Note by Mr. Poa 284. 
Technical Chemistry —On the ih of Copper and Zinc, by Frank H. Srorer, 286. 
» 4 


CONTENTS. Vii 


Geology.—On Prof. J. W. Dawson’s papers on the Coal, 290.—Thirteenth Annual Report 
of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, 292.—Geological = yg ae 
Tennessee: Kentucky: Texas: Trilobites of the Wisconsin ‘ Potsdam,’ F. H. Bra 
LEY, 294.—Chrome Garnet, T. S. Hunt, 295. 

Zoology, scagnide ae to the Natural History of the United States, by Louis Acassiz, 
Vol. 111 

5 haar saNibiada of the Sirya-Siddhanta, a Text-book of Hindu Aistroniaaiy: 298. 


_ Miscellaneous meee Intell es Sf na tcxcspn discoveries of Saurian and other fossil 
remains, in a ‘o9 . M. Wue : Uphe — ed me sea and inundation 
at Kahului an  Mitibo ia Sandwich | Islands. 301.— ooper’s reply to Gov. 


Stevens's charge of Plagiarism in vol. xxx, 302: Fu Jee ta or Cauing tubes, by Dr. 
Hrrescock : New Meteorites from Finidoatan: 302.—Results of a Scientific Mission to 
India and ay Asia, by Hermann, Adolphe and Robert de poe ert The 
tanical Society of Canada: Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition < 
The American Association for the Advancement of Science, 303. 

Obituary —Major John LeConte ; Charles W. Hackley, 303. 

Book Notices.—Ritcutt’s Illustrated Catalogue of stom Apparatus: Education ; 
intellectual, moral, physical, by Hersert Spencer, 304 

= Re clde 304.— Brocheures— Agricultural Chemie, a ep Chemistry : 

ralo; “SY 306.— Zoology and Botany : Miscellaneous, 30 
308-310. 


VAS, 


NUMBER XCIII. 


2. 
Art. XXVII. The Aurora, viewed as an Electric Discharge be- 
tween the Magnetic Poles of the Earth, modified by the 
eg Bi by Benzamin V. Marsu. With two 

- 311 


iit. amare upon es Atoll of Bon, in : Monit “ 
E. T. Doan - - - 318 

XXIX. On Normal dean Whion of the Boras Bonde -corpus- 
cles, within the Retina of the Human Sit by Levi 
Revspen, M.D., —- 

XXX. Upon some Rxperiments eonnisoted with Dover Theory 
of Lustre; by Prof. O. N. Roop, of Troy. - 

XXXI. The Quaternian or Diluvian Period, considered in its re- 
lation to the present Epoch; by F. J. Picrer, 

Il.—On the Presence of Posteo Acid in —— Rioka, 
by James Scuten 

XXXII. Ninth Supploneint to Dane’s Mineralogy by Prof. 
Gro. J. Brusu, - 

XXXIV. On the conversion of certain Ciicielcnieveion into Tal- 
cose and Micaceous Schists and Gneiss, by the Elongation, 
Flattening and Metamorphosis of the Pebbles and thie Ce- 
ment; by Prof. Epwanp Hitcncock, - 

. On some Rp in American Geology ; tEREY 


Vill CONTENTS. 


SCIENTIFiIic INTELLIGENCE. 


Physics. —QOn Regelation, 414.—On the changes produced in the position of the fixed lines 
in the spectrum =f hy pouistie acid by changes in density, Wetss, 415.—Note on Dr. J. 
Musical Sounds on the flames of a jet of Coal Gas), 
ith an experiment by Dr. Charles — and Note by Dr. Sharswood, 416.— 
Color of Blood Globules—Editorial Note to Dr. Reuben’s paper: Subjective Optical 
n some dilusions, ale oer phenomena, attendant on vision 

through colored media, by Simon Newcoms, 418. « 
Chemistry.—Researches on the mutual relations of the Equivalents, by J. S. Sras, 419.— 
e the polyatomic bases of the nitrogen, phosphorus and arsenic series, A, W. Hor- 
NN, 420.—On the cyanid of Ethylene: On the separation of Mono- Bi- and Triethy]- 

ite, "422, 
Technical Chemistry—On the Alloys of Copper and Zine, by Franx H. Storer, 423.— 
: th : 


B. F. Crate, 429 me the Amounts of Lead contained in some Silver Coins, by ELior 
and Storer, 430. 

Geology.—Botanical and Paleontological Report en the Geological State Survey of Ar- 
kansas; by Leo Lesquereux, nea f. Heer’s reply to Dr. Newberry on the Age 
of the Nebraska Leaves, 435. he causes which gave rise to the generally elonga- 
ted form and parallel arrangement a the pebbles in the Newport Conglomerate, by 
Prof. WitxiraM B. Roger 

Mineralogy.—Note on Chioritoid from Canada, by T. Srrrry Honv, F.R.S., 442. 

Botany.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnsan Society, 443. 

Review.-Life on the Earth, its = and crac by Prof. Jonn Purturrs, M.A., 
LL.D., F.R.S., 444.—Species not! e Result of Secondary Causes 
by C. R. Bree, Esq., M.D., ELS, &c., 449. 

Book Notices.—The Manufactnre of Vinegar: its Theory and Practice, with especial ref- 
ence to the Quick Process, by Cuartes M. WetTueri.u, Ph.D., M.D., 450.~Cham- 
bers’ Encyclopedia: The American Cyclopedia: Second Report of a Geological Re- 
‘connoissance of the Middle and Southern Counties of Arkansas, made during the years 
1853 and 1860, by D. D. Owen, 455. 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence-——Catalogue of the Meteoric Collection of CHaRLEs 
—s Saran, 456. —Note and Correction to Mr. T’. Sterry Hunt’s paper on Types : 

ey : Kentucky Geological Reports, 460 
is a Haeusser: Prof. Hochstetter: Prof. J. G.C. Lehmann: G. H. 
Sckakens : Dr. J. F. Klotzsch: oo de Vilmorin, 61-—J. B. Payer: John E. Le. 
Conte, 462,— Prof. : 
‘New Comets: New ee aE ian for Ady. of Science, 463. 
Undex, 464. 


ERRATA. 
ep inet * Rock” read “ Rocks.” Jor form line 15 from ie ro 


1 tep by step.” —244, 1. 18 bottom sted, 134 ftp, i: 17 
from sa, for wr West” read “this region.”--274, |. 14 from top, for close. — 245,17 
“+ phytomorphosis.” —275, |. 11 from top, for “It” read “ Grass.” 2B AE Form tops 
*“ flanes”’ * flanes.”"— bottom, for * brocheure” read brochure. or, 


4.16 from top, for * * gellatinous” read “ gelatinous.”’—302, 1. 19 from top, for “ 
al > othgiariath, #5! some copies ad rs . 15 from 18 Tom tp, Trachea rend 
— ure. 2-308, 1. 11 from top, for * mabe post ao in some copies only. 


any 


4 
4 
‘ 
% 
i 
4 
: 
4 


. 


ih 


THE 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, 


[SECOND SERIES.] 


Art. L-* -On the Optical Phenomena ee by the ‘ Silver- é 
Spring,” in Marion County, Florida; by JouN LeCont#, M.D., an 
Prof, of Hasaest Philosophy i in the South Carolina College.* 


THE extraordinary reports in relation to the optical phenom- 
ena said to be exhibited by the “Silver Spring,” induced me, 
under the invitation and guidance of my hospitable ane t Col. 

. G. Summer of Florida, to visit it during the month of De- 
cember, 1859. And although, as might have been anticipat 
many reputed facts vanished under the scrutiny of careful obs 7 
vation, and all its so-called mysterious and wonde nomen 
are obviously referable to well-known hysical rineiples; e 
it may be interesting to give a brief statement of them, and to, 
eae how they may be referred to the recognized laws 

ysics | 
J This remarkable “Spring” is situated near the centre 0 
rion county, in the State of Florida, in latitude (about) 2 
North, and longitude 82° 20’ West. It is about five miles 
east of Ocala, the county seat, and nearly in the axis of 
ninsula, being equally distant from the peasy | 
Its waters are discharged b 
- me (viz: _puvenepnagy 
unites with the Sg iweb 
iver. 


= 
2 ~~ —s«S. LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 


“basin i is nearly circular in shape, about 200 feet in diameter, and 
is surrounded by hills’ cicrta with live-oaks, magnolias, bays, 
and other gigantic evergree The amount of water discharged 
is so large, that small sonnets and barges readily navigate ‘the * 
Silver Spring” up to the pool or head-spring, where there is a 
landing for the shipment of cotton, sugar, and other produce. 
These steamers and barges make regular trips between the Silver | 
Spring and Palatka on the St. Johns. The boatmen pombe me _ 
that at its junction with the Ochlawaha, more than one half of | 
the water is contributed by the Silver Spring stream. By means | 

of a canoe, I explored the stream for about two miles from its j 
head ; its breadth varied from 45 to 100 feet, and its depth, in the 
shallowest parts, from 10 to 15 feet: the smallest depth measured 
— no t less than 10 feet in the channel of the stream 


We 
ae So eee 


arc ely ever exceeding two 6 feet 
These ico « of "level seem rs be connected with the season 
of rains. € commencement of the rainy season varies from 
the 15th of June to the 15th of July. The waters of the spring 
begin to rise about the middle of the season of summer rains, 
and attain their maximum height about its termination. e 
maximum depth of water in the pool or basin constituting the 
head of the silver spring, was found to be not more than 86 feet 
in the deepest crevice from which the water boils up: the gen- 
eral depth in the — and deep parts of the basin was found 
to be about 30 feet. These measurements were made by means 
of a heavy plumb-bob attached to a twine, to which bits of 


ag 
1@ 
8 
ct 
oe 
® 
pgs 
5 
8. 
oO 
S 
ch 
i) 
4 
2 
i) 
cr 
* 


2s 


hoy of f inverse squares, 
Doubtless, the greater portion of the Mince’ which fom int 
gags ng river is furnished by this p . 


J. LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 3 


but there are several tributary springs of similar character along — 
> course of the es which contribute more less to the vol- 

me of water. These usually occur in deep basins, or coves (as * 
amhey are called), in recesses along the margin of ream. 
~ ‘The depth of one of these coves situated pene ; 200 yards below 
the head-spring, was found to be 82 feet in the crevice in the 
poameor f — from which the water boiled: in other deep 
é basin, the depth was about 24 feet. The “ Bone~ 


parts 
» yard, ” ni "called from the fact that several specimens of the 


; th 
| limestone, indicate the risa 2 currents of water by the ] 
~ milk-like | appearance produced by the agitation of their contents, 
o bury itself in 


bones of the Mastodon have been taken from it,) situated two 
miles below the head-spring, is a cove or basin of a similar char- 
acter. Its maximum depth was found to be 26 feet. a 

The most remarkable and interesting phenomenon presented > 
by this spring, is the truly extraordinary transparency of the 
water; in this respect surpassing anything which can be imag- 
ined, ll of the intrinsic beauties which invest it, as well as 
the wonderful optical properties which popular re orts have as- 
scribed to its waters, are directly or indirectly referable to their 
almost perfect diaphaniety. Ona clear and calm day, after the 
sun has attained sufficient altitude, the view from the side of a 
small boat floating on the surface of the water near the centre 
of the head-spring, is beautiful beyond description, and well 
calculated to produce a a powerful impression upon the imagina- 
tion. Every feature and configuration of the bottom of this gi- 
gantic basin is as distinctly visible as if the water was remov ved, 
and the atmosphere substituted in its place ! we 

A large Been of the bottom of this pool is covered with a 
luxuriant growth of species of water-grass, and gigantic moss- 
like plants (fresh. water Algze), which attaix a height of 3 or 4 
feet. The latter are found in the deepest parts ‘of the basin. 
Without doubt, the development of so vigorous a vegetation at 
such depths, is owing to the large amount of solar light which 


these points my = -bob was observed to 
the mass of boilin 


ttom of this rem: p 
nothing obstructed the light. The shadows. 
of our over mange heads and hats, of projecti 

of the s forest, of the a 


4 J. LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 


of the slender and delicate moss-like alge, by means of the cur- 
rents created by the boiling up of the water, and the swimming 
f numerous fish above this miniature subaqueous forest, imparted 

a living reality to the scene which can never be forgotten. And 
if we add to this picture, already sufficiently striking, that ob- 


jects beneath the surface of the water, when viewed obliquely, 


were fringed with the prismatic hues, we shall cease to be sur- 
prised at the mysterious phenomena with which vivid i imagina- 


tions have invested this enchanting spring, as well as at the inac- 


euracies which have been ——_* in relation to the won- 
derful properties of its wa On a bright day, the beholder 
seems to be looking down “on some lofty airy point on a truly 
fairy scene in the i immense basin beneath him, a scene whose 
beauty and magical effect is vastly enhanced by the chromatic 
tints with which it is invested. 

opular opinion -has ascribed to these waters remarkable 
magnifying ower. In confirmation of this, it is commonly re- 
ported that the “New York Herald” can be read at the bottom 
of the enn parts of the pool. It is almost needless to state, 


that the waters do not possess this magnifying a that it is. 


only the large capitals, constituting the heading o A 
which can be read at the bottom, and that the — na 


were oo ie and colored by sr Numerous compara- 
tive experiments were likewise executed, in relation to the dis- 
tances at which the same. cards could be read in the air. The 
results of these experiments may be announced in a few words, 
namely :—That when the letters are of considerable size, say a 


those who were ignorant of the words on them. The experi- 
ments were made on various siz a iptiars, and at depths varying 
eto eo tive | iionts in reading the 

n air and. water, serve to convey a more distinct idea of 
the qonderful iaphanous p properties of theta ater, than aur ver- 
bal descriptio 


* Bovover, in his Traité a ise sur la graduation de la lumivre, (Paris, 1760,) 


gives of e experim on sea water 


oe ves the 
% _ the loss of light in a ann a 3™11 is -_ of sea pe derma oe gers 


* 


: 
4 


J. LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. & 


probably, from two causes: First, because the extraordinary 
transparency of the water rendered subaqueous objects — 
luminous; and Secondly, — the gigantic evergreens whic 
fringed the pool cut off most of the surface reflection, which 
would otherwise have meee the visual impression roduced 
by the more feeble refracted and dispersed light proceeding from 
the objects. The shadow of the surrounding forest formed a 
dark ee, analogous to the black cloud on which a rain- : 
bow is projec 

One of the al phenomena presented by this spring, at 
first sight, seemed somewhat paradoxical :—namely, that when 
i vertically, the depth of the _ appeared to ods exagge- 


The ‘teenies near the surface underwent a somewhat greater ap- 
parent mona oe than those nearer the bottom, but all were ex- 
aggerated in length. This phenomenon was observed in all 
places and under all circumstances, was the same whether viewed 
with one or both eyes; and padi the same appearance 
all observers. The apparent length ri the upper fathom was 
variously estimated at from 8 to 10 fee 

In ordinary cases of considerable sbiiquity of view, it is a 
ites fact, that the water appears to be shallower than it really 
is, in consequence of the seeming elevation of the bottom pro- 
duced by refraction. Hence the foregoing facts in relation to 
the apparent exaggeration of depth, may seem to be income - 


prismatic box with plates of pokes giass at the ends was in the 
compared with the eorstrscyodoe ndle in au. As w e had Sarge 


on it 
Silver Spring, and aided by the 
opin eae wn 


6 J. LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 


with recognized optical principles. But a little reflection will 
show that when the eye is placed near the surface of the pool, 
and when we are looking down in a direction approaching the 
vertical, the only method of estimating its depth is by means of 
the apparent intervals between intervening objects, as for exam- 
le, the intervals between the branches of a sunken tree and the 


as the rays of light proceeding from the fathom mark which is 
nearer the surface make a greater angle of incidence than those 
coming from the mark next below, they must undergo a greater 
degree of refraction, hence the apparent angle subtended at the 
eye by the interval in question (one fathom,) is greater than if it 
had been viewed in the air, and therefore the length seems to be 
exaggerated. 

Moreover, as the apparent length of a fathom depends on the 
angle subtended at the eye, while the degree of refraction is 
proportional to the sine of the angle of incidence ; it follows 
that when the incidence is large, the augmentation of the angle 
by refraction will be relatively greater than when it is small. 
_ Hence the uppermost fathom should appear to be longer than 

those below it; this is precisely in conformity with observa- 
tion. Our estimate of the decrease of these apparent lengths 
with increasing depth, is doubtless vastly exaggerated by the 
greater fore-shortening of the lower fathoms. But asall of them 
seem to be more or less elongated, and as the whole depth is thus 
—as it were—measured by exaggerated linear units, it must ap- 

ear to be greater than the reality. : 

The general result to which these optical laws lead is, that to 
an observer sitting ina boat in the’middle of the pool, the bottom 
near the margin (if visible at all, for if the angle of incidence is 
too large, the light from subaqueous objects will be totally re- 
flected, and will not emerge from the water,) will seem to be ele- 
vated and the water appear to be shallower than it really is; 
while the bottom near the centre will seem to be depressed, and 
the apparent depth exaggerated. In other words, near the 
‘margin, the depth is measured by the angle made at the eye by 
the rays proceeding from submerged objects with those coming 
from the shore-line; this angle being diminished by the refrac- 
tion of the former, the depth is apparently diminished. On the 


aes 
ee 


: 
: 


a a ee 


J, LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 7 


other hand, when looking directly downwards, we measure the — 
depth by the angle made at the eye by rays emanating from 
upper and lower submerged objects, this angle being augmented 
by the greater refraction of the former, the depth is exaggerated. 
These physical principles thus afford a satisfactory CEs 
of the peculiar inverted bell-shaped appearance, which t 
presents to an observer floating near its centre. rid iicawise 
explain a fact which strikes the m sual observer: namely, 
that when the boat is advanced toward : spunea shallow 
spot situated at some Smcon it appears to grow deeper as we 
approach the point in questio 

The foregoing is a ge sacra physical explanation of the\ phe- 
nomenon of exaggeration of depth; but the principles of optics 
furnish us with the means of submitting i it to a numerical test, 
and consequently, of showing its adequacy to account for all the 
facts observed. Following out the graphic method, the validity 
of the physical explanation was at first tested by construction. 
While this illustrated in a 


af 


Er 


th iN 
tions which had been drawn, ot | 


Qa 

raul 

g 

bar 

oO 

S 

pai 

2 | 

ia") 

ro, 

oO 

Dp 2 

oS 

BY) 
pe mee 


ry wy 


st “ 


phenomena, at the same 


4 
a 

q 

A 


Assuming the surface of the © 
water to be a _ horizontal 


ee 
° 
eS 
@ 
< 
o 
4 
ee 
_ 
Oo 
pes) 
Bee 
oF 
| ag 
ro) 
=) 
fe 
Oo 
cy 
- a ene 


water, H, A, F, F, F’, ete, ) 
the sounding-line, E, the \er 
position of the eye receiv- ; 
ing light from the succes- 
sive fathom marks, F, F’, PY, ete,, eymensn no ee 
interposed, and EH’ the position of the eye ving 

ponding rays after — by 3 bless 


8 J, LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 


Let . ii A =h, (the height of E above the water). 
=d, the depth of first fathom mark). 
3 TF’ FE’ Fete. =L, (the length of the fathoms). 


it #; a ,etc., — e angles of incidence. 

- " r', rl etc., =the corresponding angles of refraction. 

“ =the index of meee for water=1-336. 
Breti the law of refraction, sin r=n Xsin 4, and sinr’=nXsin 7, 


etc. By geometry, the angle iibtendad at E by FR’=i-?7: 
also the angle at HK’ after refraction =r—7’. Then by ap 
+2 


- nee az . go 
etry we have cotz hd) Xtan 6} cot 2 > (eedyx tans 


Hence it follows, that when A, d, L, and 7 are given, is pL elt. ate. 
ae be calculated, and conseque ntly, *,?", xe ete., may b 
found: hence the angle subtended at E by PE (= =i—1) as well 
as that subtended at H’ (=r—*’) by the same fathom-interval, 
ene known. For the sake of illustrating this is point, let us as- 
me h=2 feet; d=1 foot; L=6 feet; and 7=30°. Then, by 
the application of the formula above given ‘and the geometrical 
and physical principles already indicated, the following table 
has been calculated for the foregoing condition of things: 


Ratio off 
* 1h to EB’ 


| Angle su>tended at E. Angle subtended at E’ 
n| ¢ 


a # 41° 54/46" By F FY —19° 6/24" By F FB! —279 17! 186 : 837 
109 53! 36") 14° 37! 28” a RY FY _. 4019/94" & BY PH _ 50 4g 84/16: 8: 
a = igs 7 35! 12!\rl! == 8° 48! CRM FM! oe 19 BQ) 18 6 HY W_. 20 BO Bz 6: eee 
© 49154". BO 18! 7" “ Pu Rn JO gr 4" & Pep 10° 237 56"6 


From this it follows, that, under the assumed aie. the 
first fathom-interval is exaggerated in the ratio of 6 to 85 

whilst the others are elongated in a ratio but slightly greater 
than 6 to 8. the angle 7 (other conditions being the same 

had been taken larger, the excess of elongation of the first fath- 
om-interval would have been greater. It thus appears, that all 
of the fathom-intervals are exaggerated nearly in the ratio of 6 
to 8 or 8 to 4:—that is, sensibly in the ratio of the sines of the 
angles of incidence and refraction for water. This is only true 


in that case, cee sa may be consid lered oe ge to the an- 
bela ; the ap- 
parent Bik 2 h, sancined to be measured by the sade linear 

_ units would be 48 feet 


Strictly speaking the rays of light emanating from the succes- 
fathom marks, which, under the ee teptiem of no refrac- 


J. LeConte on the aiid in Florida. 9 


tended at E and E’, would be wholly i inapprecia 
The rigorous fae Bs of this problem in BEF optics, in- 
volves the application of that refined physico- ~mathapaasl | rea- 


Herschel shows, that sain the aes surface is — ee 
the refraction is made from a denser into a rarer medium, as from 
water into air,.* esi Lhiacaustic curve is the evolute of an —— 


exaggeration and distortion which ‘submerged obj ects geo 
when viewed by the eye placed in various ieaeoes above the 
plane refracting medium, 

Thus, it has been shown, that all of the beautiful optical phe- 
nomena presented by the Silver- a are referable to recognized 
physical principles, and that all of the so-called le as os 
its waters vanish under the rite of exact science. It only 
remains to indicate the causes which produce the oon 
transparency of the water, upon which, as has been shown, the 


piston summer rains oceur, the waters of thi, stream. shou 
rendered turbid by the surface drainage. But the: 

Y vanishes, when we consider the peculiar charac 
drainage of this section of Florida. Although the su 


* ae Herschel’s Treatise on Light, een Article 
‘tee Ms. ag as nde ane toeuodas von F. ee 
et 4. 
jin iting eget 0 
indensee: 


10 J. LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 


country is quite undulating or rolling,—the summits of many of 
the hills being 30 or 40 feet above the adjacent depressions,— 
yet, there is no surface drainage: there is not a brook, rivulet, 
branch, or swamp to be found in this part of the State. The 
whole drainage is subterranean: even the water which falls 
near the banks of the Silver-Spring passes off by under-ground 
channels. There is not the slightest doubt, but that all of the 
rain-water which falls on a large hydrographic basin passes down 
by subterranean channels, and boils up and finds an outlet to 
the St. Johns river, by means of the Silver-Spring and the smaller 
tributary springs which occur in the coves along the margin 0 
the stream. The whole surface of the country in the vicinity of 
Ocala,—and probably over the area of a circle of 15 miles radius 
whose centre is the Silver-Spring, is thickly dotted with lime- 
_ sinks; which are the points at which the surface water finds en- 
- trance to the subterranean passages. New sinks are constantly 
occurring at the present time. ‘The beautiful miniature lakes, 
—whose erystal waters are so much admired,—which occur in 
this portion of Florida, are, doubtless, nothing more than exten- 
sive lime-sinks of more ancient date. 

Under this aspect of the subject, it is obvious, that all the wa- 
ter which falls on this hydrographic basin boils up in the Silver- 
Spring, after having been strained, filtered and decolorized in 
its passage through beds of sand and tortuous under-groun 
channels. It thus comes out not only entirely free from all me- 


ane 
mentioned conditions, which persistently secure the waters of 
this Spring from the admixture of insoluble materials as well 


tion must be comparatively small. 


PR OEMS 2 rate ey tn ae rt ae WER So Wy Nate a ele es 


SOD TORE Se ty SSRI I ee i i i ee ih nM ae tt OO oh Sa ec ee 
i - 


* 


J. LeConte on the Silver-Spring in Florida. 1] 


Doubtless there are many other springs to be found in the 
State of =u a, whose waters possess the same optical prop- 
erties as those of the e Silver-Spring; although perhaps, their 
oe hae be less perfect. The “Suwanee Spring” is 

exhibit analogous phenomena; and the famous foun- 
tain sea ten miles from Tallahassee, called Waehulla or 


ape 
s in some measure related to the peculiar system of sub- 
terranean yaaa above indicated, it may not be deemed in- 


produced the several qualities of surface soil, which are found 
in the neighborhood of Ocala and the Silver- ‘Spring. The 
whole of this portion of the Peninsula appears to have been 
— composed of a mixture of sand and shell-limestone; 
of the Eocene period. The lime-rock comes to the 
at ne almost everywhere; in some cases, it is composed of 
nearly pure carbonate of lime; in others, silicification, to a 
greater or less extent, has taken place by the displacement of 
the _ by silex. But in all cases where its structure can 


aqueous sn In the ae and densely-w 
mock lands, large quantities of soft carbonate of lime may aw 
found at or near the surface. In the Mulatto pine lands, which 
are extensively cultivated in cotton and Indian corn, the 
amount of surface carbonate is less abundant; a considerable 
portion of it having been either silicified or removed from the 

soil. While in the sterile sandy pine-lands, no lime is to be 
found: the whole of the rock having disap eared, excepting 
that which has undergone silicification. In the ammoc 8, an 
impervious substratum of clay has prevented the lime 


clay) the substratum is a ne rvious, so t 
of the lime has been removed -_while i in the Pics 


s 
ing no surface rocks excepting those which 
— to this seid ae sn hat pine - lands, 


iy 


12 W.S. Sullivant and T. G.Wormley on Nobert’s Test Plate. 


cotton with so little labor, are in the transition stage to the pine | 
barrens, and cannot be expected to retain their fertility for any : 
great length of time, unless lime is restored to them by the cul: — 
tivator. ‘The heavily-timbered Hammocks require @ greater out- | 
lay to bring them under cultivation; but they constitute the — 
most valuable and enduring lands in this section of the State. | 
Unfortunately they embrace but a comparatively limited area, — 
when contrasted with the space occupied by the pine lands. — 
The outlines of the Hammocks, as indicated by the dense growth — 
of gigantic evergreens, is singularly and sharply defined, either © 
dotting or intersecting the desolate pine-barrens; sometimes — 
forming narrow sinuous verdant bands extending ten or fifteen 
miles, which, at a distance, remind one of extensive swamps, Or — 
the bottom lands bordering a stream. . 
Columbia, S. C., June, 1869. 


Art. IL.—On Nobert’s Test Plate and the Strice of Diatoms; by 
W.S. SULLIVANT and T. -G. WorM.eEy. 


? 


amination of Nobert’s Test Plates, was unable to resolve any lines 
closer than the ;;,4;5 of an inch. In Prof. Carpenter's work 


rom the foregoing it appears that actual experiment fixes 
h: this does 


which seems theoretically possible gone , 
ished.” ee 

~ On the other hand there are authorities who assert that | 

much closer than the ;;,}55 of an inch are resolvable, P 


ae oS ee 


_ through a small achromatic lens of long focus, was effective i 


W. S. Sullivant and T. G.Wormley on Nobert's Test Plate. 13 


years since Messrs. Harrison and Sollitt published (Microscop- 
ical Journal, vol. ii, p. 61, 1854) their measurements of the strie 

of several dia toms, assigning to Amphipleura pellucida strice 
as close as the ¢sglsa5 tO rsa)507 ; of an inc ese measure- 
ments have recently been Rose ad with exactly the same 
results, by Mr. Sollitt alone (Mic. Jour., vili, p. 51, 1859) who 
a expresses the opinion that stria as close as the 


the number of its zealous devotees—that so few experiments 
have been made, bearing on this interesting point. 
Asa contribution toward that object, we propose to offer pre- ' 


aie oo era of rare actions in al res 
besides {3 —_ and ;},ths of other eminent opticians, both English 
and American; also a solid eye-piece eee by Tolles, and 
an hades cobweb micrometer of Grunow’s accurate work- 
manship. Smith-and Beck’s stage scales fartnied the —— 
for fixing the micrometrical values of the eye-pieces. 

of Tolles’ amplifier, an achromatic concavo-convex ear between 
the objective and the eye-piece, an amplification (by the ‘star 
dard of 10 inches) as high as 6000 times was obtained. Th 


” 


high amplification, with sunlight variously applied after passin 


Bia a? 


resolution, and essential to the distinct counting under the mi- 
crometer of the lines of the test plate. The test plate used e 
sisted of 30 bands of lines, each band varying but litt 
the 5.2,; of an — in width, and having its lines a un 
tance a one end of the plate is engraved by. 
parts of the Paris line, the distance epartrol the 
the first band, and thence on, the distance betwee 
ae me omipetdaug sn hes olu: 


14 W.S. Sullivant and T. G.Wormley on Nobert's Test Plate. 


a Ye ene | 
| 1 | 0001000 | sr435 20 0000167 | srdrs | 
pets 0:000550 | sadrr || 25 0000143 | rater | 
Es . | ct URE RS ae 0000125 | gydrz 
0200 | ser 


of the English inch found by multiplying the decimals in the — 
8815. if 


2d and 5th columns by ‘08881 
Analysis of Nobert’s Test Plate of 30 Bands. 


i f 
— aan ‘saan Baal h tok eee. rogue’ Boalieh j fle 
1 7 ti ti6 16 30 ordre 
: 8 13,062 17 31 5eb23 
4 10 seb 19 33 xecee 
5 12 a 20 34 1 
6 13 net a 21 36 iis 
7 15 sidux 22 37 rides 
; = bic 23 38 za,teo 
24 40 ; 
B78 T2236 
10 23 cutee 25 41 
a wa 15,063 26 42 78,105 
12 25 cedex 27 43 ee 
13 26 sudo 28 442 ry 
14 28 sz.é10 29 wcdor 
15 29 334 30 


The figures in the 3d and 6th columns, showing the distance 

ce of the lines in each band, are the mean of numerous and 

ightly variant trials, particularly on the higher bands. Up to the 
26th band there was No serious difficulty. in resolvin 


i 
a 
Ty 4 


~~ Par. line. } Eng in. Band. Par. line. ~) Eng. in, aay 


We add the 3d and 6th columns, giving the distances in parts 4 


ones;*spectra se that is, lines each sie aes of two or more — 


separa into the sees ones on the whole of the 26h, 


ca mtn cece incr Bl eet 
or spurious li 


power, to run into each other readily 
e shown by a ess objective on the low tone 8 Hence the mere exhibition lines 

is not always conclusive evidence of their ultimate ac A A practiced eye will 

generally drstinguish the false from the true. Recourse to a higher objective often 

accomp) the same; but When fail, the micrometer only, toget 

a previous knowledge of the actual a of oe on lines, can determine whether 

the lines exhibited are real or spurious sy vse bac Gace 


bands on this plate aaa and beat striped with lines 
the true ones hea with the 1, cn the ga 


a a TO a es a ae 


W. S. Sullivant and T. G.Wormley on Nobert’s Test Plate. 15 


and very nearly on the whole of the 27th band; but on the 28th, ” 
and still more on the 29th, they so prevailed, that at no one focal 
adjustment could more than a portion (a third or a fifth part) of 
the width of these bands be resolved into the true lines. 

The true lines of the 30th band we were unable to see, at least 
with any degree of certainty, still, from indications, we have no 
doubt they are ruled as stated by Nobert. 

It will be observed that our measurements of the lines on the 
Ist, 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th, bands vary somewhat from Nobert’s reg- 


crepancies are to be expected, and by microscopists familiar with 
operations of this kind, are looked upon as unavoidable; but 
that on the 25th band is rather large to be accounted for in this 
way. Weare unable to explain it, and can only say that our 
repeated measurements of it were very carefully made. 

These experiments, together with those of others before no- 
ticed, induce us to believe that the limit of the resolvability of 
lines, in the present state of the objective, is well nigh estab- 
lished; but that this limit may be carried somewhat higher, we 
are not prepared to doubt, since the handsome advance lately 
achieved by Mr. Tolles in his ;,—combining wide aperture, 

ne definition, and high amplification—shows that the objective 
had not, as we were inclined to think, reached the stationary 
point. 

The theoretical view of this question, that is, what may be 
the closest approximation of lines consistent with their separa- 
tion under the microscope, we leave to those competent to the 
task, by whom, it is to be hoped, we may be favored with fur- 
ther information on this point. 

With regard to the striation of Diatoms, an opinion generally 
prevails that the number of striz on a given portion of a frus- 
tule, varies among individuals of the same species, within wide 
extremes. This opinion is probably traceable in part to one 
the earlier publications on the subject, the paper of Messrs. 

arrison and Sollitt before referred to, wherein (as in the more 
recent paper of Mr. Sollitt) measurements of sever iatoms 
are given showing great variableness in their striation. To = 
these gentlemen much credit is due for their discovery of high 
markings, before unsuspected, on certain diatomaceous frustules; 
their measurements however and the alleged variableness of these 
markings we have not been able to verify, as will be seen by the 
following extract from our paper published (this Jour., March, — 
1859,) on this subject. ees : 


Number of striz in 001” eee 


‘Hand 8. Sm. Syn. 8. an 
Navicula rhomboides Oto tt cee 

igma fasciola 50 to 90 64 52to56 
Niteschis sigmoidea | 105 we 70 


16 W.S. Sullivant and T. G.Wormley on Nobert’s Test Plate. 


Many frustules of these a spt from different localities, a : 
‘Ple 


been measured by us and always with the same resu 


not afew under 1; of an inch in length, were measured, and 

on no one were found striz less than 52 or more than 56 in 
001”, much the larger number being 54. A similarly uniform — 
striation has always been observed among the individuals of — 
us 


many other species examined b 


o such uniformity of striation Amphipleura pellucida forms q 
ong © 


as yet no exception; this diatom is still a “res vexata” am 


microscopists ; neither the striation nor the aeueiubs of its frus: 
tule is at all satisfactorily understood. The record of its stria- — 


tion is found to be thus :—in 1854 Messrs. Harrison and Sollitt’s 


measurements made its strize 120 to 130 in -001”;—Prof. Carpen- — 
ter Se akint — suggests the probability of some error in these | 
measurem —the writers of this paper declared themselves — 
(this oo, “March, 1859) unable to “glimpse” the striaze;—Mr. — 
gain and finds them 


Sollitt (Mic. Jour., Oct. 1859) measures them a 


° 


still as low as 120 to 130 in 001”, but gives it as the opinion — 
of Mr. Lobb that “even those figures are too low and that they — 


ought to be set down at 140 in O01": ;’—1in the same number 0 


the Microscopic Journal, Mr. Rylands sees “‘strize, but much more | 
distant than the 130 in “QOL of the Hull microscopists ”"—lastly 4 
Mr. Hendry states (Mic. Jour., July, 1860) that he has “come to — 
a satisfactory conclusion, that ‘* is a sad ictapsoteniicl to seb — 
down the lines so high in the scale as 180 in 001”, and that on — 
a few ae ne lines may be counted at 42, and many at 60, 70 and — 


80 in rplexing — truly |—reminding one ¢ 
the celebrated Tor a Hill coal case (Mic. Jour., ii, p. 

It is our impression, notwithstanding these radar Nt state- 
ments, that the diatom before us presented to all these gentlemen 


the same appearances, but their eee rictataas of these appear- — 


ances have been widely differen 


The testimony of our ace. as we understand it, seems ~ 


to indicate that this diatom has a minutely and irregularly bro- 
ken up surface, which even on nig from mi 2 can be nqde bas 


specimens from "Hall, sent us 7 Mr.G. Rowen 
failed, with glasses too of unsurpassed es to 


W, E. Logan on an Animal Track. 17 


regular, distinet ape unmistakable strize such as would be, at once, 
- so recognized b eye practiced on the striz of other diatoms. 
Aas all, it is ee improbable, that true striz yet unresolved, 
may exist on the valves of this species, and sr ramen that the 
apparent strie of different observers may be similar to the spec- 
tral or spurious lines before noted as occurring on the bands of 
Nobert’s Test Plate, when examined by an aajoesive incapable 
of resolving them 
q summary of ‘the foregoing may be briefly stated thus :— 
that our experiments lead us to believe 
1st. That lines on Nobert’s Test Plate, closer together than 
about the ;,,1;; of an inch, cannot be separated by the modern 
se ye 
That no true strizs have yet been seen on the valves of 
ia hipleura pellucida. 
3d. That the alleged variableness in the striation of diatoms 
among individuals of the same species has been greatly exagge- 
rated: on the contrary, we find a remarkable uniformity, thus 
sustaining the opinion of Prof. Smith (Synop. Br. Diat., v. 2, 
Introd., p. 26) that for characterizing — “striation is the 
best guide.” 
Columbus, Ohio, Nov., 1860. 


Art. IIl.—0On the Track of an Animal lately foun in the Pots. — 
dam Formation; by Sir W. HE. Loean, F.R.S.* 


(Read before the Natural History Society of Montreal, June, 1860.) 


THE Potsdam sandstone is recognized in Danaea pre new 
York as the base of the Lower Silurian series 
are certain of the formation in the province it, rests agen Pel 
ably upon the Laurentian series; but on the north shore of Lake 
uron, the Huronian series supports unconformably a sandstone 
which has been supposed to be Potsdam ; as no fossils, howev Be 
ave been met with in it there, its equivalence i 
doubtful, ernie as the superior fossiliferous rock into hak 
it passes, appears to be of the Bird's. -eye and Black River group. 
arrande in a paper communicated to the Geological Soci- _ 
ety of France about a year ago, compares the Potsdam formation 
with the Primordial Zone, and Pea? Sanere to unite it with ~ 
the strata marked by Paradoxides n nin ichusetts 
and Placentia Bay in Nowiuntiasd” tt first locality 
Paradoxides Hariani which he identifies with his P. sp 
the latter Mr. Salter's P. Bennetii, and probably ot 
era and species. But while no well ascertal 
" # From the Canadian Naturalist, Aug. 1860. 
Am. Jour. srg et om au SS sa 


ste 


18 W. E. Logan on an Animal Track 


cies have been met with in the Potsdam of Canada and New 
York, the formation appears in Canada to be rather allied to the — 


strata above than those below it. 


dam is characterised in many parts. 
Immediately beneath these beds of passage are the celebrated 


| : assion 
which is about an eighth of an inch below, shews wind-mark, in 
a number of sharp and straight parallel ridges from two to four 


n being marine, we have 
Proverbially unstable as water is, the niean. evel of us ee 
between high and low water, 

* Since this paper was read two ies of Orthoceras Ophileta ‘deta have 
adaeieed ex Canada associated with Lingula posh we Real ers Sand- 
stone. The trilobite Conocephalites minutus (Bradley) has also been since described. 


found in the Potsdam Formation. 19 


haps not more than fifty feet. We have thus a bench-mark to 
test the rise not only of these strata at Beauharnois, but of their 
equivalents, wherever else they may be met with. 

Finding that this ancient sand bank was exposed at the ebb 
of tide we naturally look out for some coast to which it was 
_ related. The Potsdam sandstone terminates some twenty miles 


REESE “ip Ss 
Se FS SO 


One-thirtieth natural size. 

to the north at a very low angle against the foot of the Lat 
ide hills, which rapidly rise up 500 or 600 feet above the Silu-. 
rian plain. There is little doubt that we have in the flank of 
Boas Si —_- a _palergpeg 
_ ,0f«which is thus traceable from Labrador by the northwest, to 
the Areti distance of 8,000 miles. But though w 


those hills the ancient limit of the Lower Sil 
Mribicenigs * 


iy 


20 W. E. Logan en an Animal Track 


have thus evidence of a Lower Silurian dry Jand and can scarcely 
suppose that it was wholly destitute of vegetation, we have not 
yet discovered any certain drifted vestige of its plants along 
many hundred miles of its coast. 

The crustacean which impressed the tracks at Beauharnois 
must have been a littoral animal, tracks of which have now been 
found in several places nearer than Beauharnois to the marginal 
limit of the sea to which it belonged. These localities are St. 
Ann, Vaudreuil, Presqu’ile, Lachute, and St. Elizabeth, and they 
were last year observed in the neighborhood of Perth. In the 
last locality they are associated with a new and remarkable de- 
scription of track, for the discovery of which we are indebted to 
my friend Dr. James Wilson of Perth, who sent me specimens 
of it in the month of November last. 

The largest of the specimens was between two and three feet 
long by a foot wide, and the track upon it so singular that I 
became desirous of obtaining a greater extent of the trail. For 
this purpose, in the beginning of December, I sent Mr. Richard- 
son to Perth, where he was guided to the quarry by Dr. Wilson, 
and shewn the bed in which the tracks occur. The quarry, of 
which the strata are nearly horizontal, isabout a mile from the 
town, and with the aid of Mr. Glyn, the proprietor, Mr. Rich- 
ardson obtained in fragments, a surface which measures about 


2. 


pure silicious character which is 
so well known to belong to the 


application of snow. This of 
course cracked and destroyed thethin bed with the impressed 


\ 


found in the Potsdam Formation. 21 


tracks, but it left the mould of them on the underside of the 
upper bed, and by plaster one from this we have obtained the 
true form of the original trac 

These tracks consist of a Sema of parallel ridges and fur- 
rows something like ripple marks, which are arranged between 
two narrow continuous paralle ridges, giving to the whole im- 
pression a form very like that of 

a ladder, and as the whole form 
is usually gently sinuous it looks 
ike a ladder of rope. e sur- 
face obtained shews six different 
— (fig. 1,) the longest of which 

about thirteen feet, but the 

are all of the same breadth, and 
they may all have been: im- 
pressed by one and thesame ani- 
mal. The breadth of the trails & 
is about six inches and three- = 
quarters to the outer sides of 
them. 

The transverse ridges and fur- 


3. 


3, 4, 5.) When straight and reg- 
ular they measure about an inch 
and three-quarters from the mid- 

le of one furrow to that of the % 
next. The height of the ridge is — 


of the Nevins is about ah inch 


tops of the ridges, and the bot- 
toms of the fatrowa are somewhat 
rounded, 


Though the transverse rid a 
are occasi eeeaty straight, (fig. 2 


chord of the curve i m quite at pit ang es tot 
tion of the aaiel se oa one end of the poe in the 
greatest ae ol much as two inches and a 


22 W. EH. Logan on an Animal Track, &c. 


quarters. It is often somewhat pointed, and the highest part is 
not always in the middle between the parallel side ridges (fig. 4). 
The concave og s the curve is always on the steeper side of 
the tranverse ri 
There runs nai the track a ridge intermediate between the 
two parallel side ridges, (figs. 3, 4, 5), and though it is not so 
conspicuous as these, it is seldom. altogether wanting, but ap- 
pears to be, most obscure when the transverse ridges, or rounds 
of the ladder, are straight. This intermediate ridge does not 
keep parallel with the side ridges, but,occasionally runs in sinu- 
ous sweeps from within an inch and a half of one side (fig. 5) to 
the same distance from the 
other; sometimes, however, it 
runs nearly parallel with the 
sides for a considerable distance, 
either in the middle-or some- 


the course of the intermediate 
ridge a sudden dislocation of 
an inch and a quarter (fig. 3 
towards the top,) on the oppo- 
site sides of one of the trans- 
verse ridges. The course of 
the intermediate ridge avi 
in general to coincide with th 

successive most salient parts of 
the transverse ridges when these are curved, - this is not al- 

The 


One-fifth nat. size. 


i 
ridges and furrows, though not 
to so great a 
The inner fispkes of the side 
ridges appear to be continuons- 
ly even makin 
angle of 155° with the plane 
of the intermediate spaces, and § 
against these sloping flanks the == 
surface of the transverse undu- 


Be 


an 
inclined plane in the direction = 
of its strike. The side ridges One-fifth nat. size. 


C. Dewey on Caricography. 23 


are rounded at the top, and while their exterior flanks are more 
precipitous than the interior ones, they swell out opposite to 
each transverse furrow, thus giving to the site ridges a beaded 
or knotted aspect, each bed of the series standing opposite a fur- 
row. The highest part of these lumps is about three lines above 
the bottom of the furrows, and about a line anda half above the 
surface on which the track is impresse 

My naturalist friends to whom I have exhibited the speci- 
mens, appear disposed to consider the tracks those of some spe- 


cies of gigantic mollusc, and I am given to understand there is 


3 


SE ee aa Pre OMe gee eee eee 


w living some small mollusc, whose track presents a. series of 
transverse ridges and furrows, witho ut, however, the longitudinal 
ones. From the resemblance of the track to a ladder, the name 
proposed for it is Climactichnites Wilsoni, the specific designation 
being given in compliment to its discoverer, Dr. Wilso 


Art. IV.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. DEWEY. 


(Continued from vol, xxix, p, 348, Second Series.) 
No. 265. Carex Emoryi, Dew. 


Spicis staminiferis ternis oblongis cylindraceis terminalibus, 
inferioribus brevioribus sessilibus approximatis et densifloris ; 
pistilliferis quaternis longo-cylindraceis densifloris sessilibus foli- 
aceo-bracteatis apice staminiferis, infima omnino fertili subre- 
mota; fructibus distigmaticis ellipticis basi teretibus brevi-rostratis 
ore integris squama ovata oblonga subacuta duplo longioribus. 

Culm erect, scabrous above, triquetrous, with bracts long and 
leafy, surpassing, and scarcely sheathing it; the upper stami- 
nate spike clubform and short-pedunculate, the other two short, 
contiguous and sessile; the three upper pistillate spikes staminate 
at the te the lowest wholly yea nearly sessile and slightly 

sheath all cylindric, erect, a out 1% to 2 inches long ar 
dena flowe red; stigmas two; "rat narrow-elliptic, ap 
below, flattish, obovate and apiculate or short-rostrate, with 


fice entire, and scale ovate- -oblong acutish and half the length 0 of 


_ jor Wm. H. Emory, United States Commissioner on the -U 


the fruit. Whole plant glaucous or pale 
On the Upper Rio Grande; Bigelow. Sena in honor of ee 


States and Mexican Bounda Survey. ae 
This and all the he 2g this seas were described. in ‘the 


_ ii, part 1, pp. 229-232 of the Mexican 


: very important Botanical Report of Prof. Torrey, LL.D., in vol. 
: Boundary: Survey, pub- 
_ lished by ongress, 1859. 


24 C. Dewey on Caricography. 


No. 266. (C Barbara, Dew. 


Spicis staminiferis 2 (raro 8) cylindraceis erectis terminalibus- 
que, suprema longa pedunculata, infima subelongata ; pistillif 
eris 8 longis 9-4 uncialibus rE eieisies dy pg erecta brevi: 
bracteata apice staminifera, inferioribus longioribus subremotis 
subrecurvis basi laxifloris brevi- racinatls foifacels -bracteatis, om- 
nibus nigro-purpureis; fructibus distigmaticis oblongo-obovatis 
apiculatis ore integris squama oblongo-obovata dorso pallida mu- 
page brevioribus ; culmo erecto “glauco es -foliato et va 


anes the fees onier than the fast and more remote; pis- 
tillate 3, long cylindric, 2-4 — long, and slender, the upper 
staminate at the apex and erect; the lowest longer, subremote 
and subrecurved, short- sheathed ‘and loose- flowered at the base; 
stigmas two; fruit oblong-obovate, short rostrate, entire at the 
orifice, with the scale oblong-obovate, pale on the back, with the 
nerve extended into a mucronate point and sometimes making 

e scale emarginate. 

Banks of streams af Santa re ie California; Dr. Parry. 
The locality gives name to the spec 


No. 267. €. Mack: Dew. 


Spica staminifera solitaria sublonga, terminali squamis ob- 
longis obtusis mucronatis ; pistilliferis ‘ternis oblongo-cylindra- 
ceis § vix nutantibus densifloris, infima exserto-peduncu- 
lata sublonge ‘vaginata fructibus éristigmaticis ovato-oblongis 
‘aiccetece is brevi-conico-rostratis subventricosis bidentatis 
posse 220 brevi oblonga obtusa dorso trinervata scabro-aristata lon- 
oribus vel basi m brevioribus. 
= alin two feet me erect, sca scabrous above and pace — 


; pistillate scale 
short-oblong, obtuse, scabrous-cuspidate, and — than the | 
fruit except at base of the spikes, — Telaed to . hystricina, — 


illd., but remote. 
At Mabibi, Sonora, in June; Thurber. It ere the honored 
name of its discoverer, oné of the exploring party. 
No. 268. ©. Wrightii, Dew. 3 
Spicis staminiferis 2 (raro 3) oblongo-cylindraceis erestis ae 
teatis subremotis cum squama oblonga acuta vel inferne aristata; a 


, 


C. Dewey on Caricography. : 25 


ogee 2-3 oblon 2a ger ke gracilibus remotis sublaxi- 
floris exserté pedunculatis, suprema apice stamenifera, infima 
longe vagttnts exsertaque, ine foliaceo- bracteatis : fructi- 
bus éristiymaticis ovatis subconicis subtriquetris brevi- rostratis 
subscabris vix ventricosis bilabiatis squama ovato-oblonga cus- 
pidata paulo longioribus vel basi paulo brevioribus. 

Culm about a foot high, erect or subflaccid, leafy towards the 


oh pe leafy bracteate ; spikes 3-6, oblong eylindric ; Serge 


, upper an inch long and pedunculate, the next one-thir 
TORE and near it usually, rarely a third which is remotish, a 
all bracteate; pistillate spikes, commonly 2-38, rarely one, rather 
remote and pedunculate, the upper staminate at the apex, the low- 
est longer pedunculate and exsert, all rather lax-flowered especial- 
elow ; stigmas 3; fruit ovate, sub-conic, slightly triquetrous, 
short and round, short- rostrate, many nerved, bilabiate and sub- 
scabrous, a little longer than the ovate- oblong, rough-cuspidate 
~~ except at the very base of the spike: color of the plant, 

ark green. 

n woods on the Colorado of Texas; Wright. It is honored 


by the name of its discoverer, another of the exploring party. 


This species resembles C _ scabrata Schw. : ; but it differs great- 
ly in its staminate spikes, as well as in the pistillate and the 
fruit. 

No. 269. C. Schottit, Dew. 


Spicis staminiferis terminalibus 3-5 cylindraceis seepe gemi- 
natis erectis approximatis nigro-rubris, superiori triunciali medio 
dilatata, reliquis brevioribus sessilibus contiguis vel infima re- 
mota et interdum geminata; pistilliferis 8 (raro 4) prolongo- 
cylindraceis oe is 6-8-uncialibus per-laxifloris inequaliter 
pedunculatis bracteatis, inferioribus longo-pedunculatis vix frue- 
tiferis vel abortivis cum fete amis oblongis arctis obovatis vix 
acutis; fructu abortivo vel nimis immaturo 0 distigmatico ; culmis 
superne scabris, subprostritis? foliis bracteisque viridi- claucis. 

Culm near 20 inches high, triquetrous and scabrous above, sub- 
prostrate, with green glaucous leaves and bracts; spikes 6-8; 
sometimes staminate 5 and pistillate 3, or 4 and 38, 3 and 3,3 
4, most of which are long, and some very long, upper 3 stamin- 
ate, near and almost geminate and quite variable, t the t 3 
inches lon ng and enlarged in the middle, with the ale 
oblong and obovate, pale on the back; pistilldte spikes 8, rarely 
4, cylindric, very long, 4-8 inches and cory slender, very lax- 
flowered and eationgh peteristes the lowest long pedunei 
late and long vaginate, all -bracteate and with scaree 
rudiment of fruit or else bere ; Petillaie 
row-obovate, scarcely acu pad: 

Am. Jour, bee pte Vor. XXX, Ho. Bion JAN., 1 


26 C. Dewey on Caricography. 


Banks of rivers, Santa Barbara, California; Dr. Parry. This 
species has some affinity to C. Darwinii, Boott, Trans. Lin. Soe 
vol. xx, p. 120, but differs much, The prostration of the culms 
may have been caused by some crushing force, Mae | “ 
the pistillate spikes must have been long- -retrocurved, a n C. 
pendula, Goodenough. It bears the name of pg distin: 
guished member of the exploring party. 
No. 270. ©. monticola, Dew. 

Spica staminifera solitaria inferne tereti erecta brevi-bracteata 
cum squatnis oblongis obtusiusculis dorso excepto castaneis; pis- 
tilliferis binis sub-laxifloris, superiori sessili staminifera conti- 
gua, inferiore interdum subremota vaginata exserte pedunculata,; 
fructibus di-tristigmaticis “ictal oblongis convexo-concavis 
re he tne vix rostratis subvillosis nervosis ore Integris vel - 
bi 


J ike near it and another vistllat eh Sicbreabes often sheath- 


ger than the fruit, while the others are acute and shorter than 
the fruit. 

In the cases where the fruit is lenticular while the stigmas are 
sometimes three, probably one of the stigmas is barren or abortive. 

ountains east of San Diego, California ; Dr. Parry. This is — 
another of the few 2g having two stigmas with a single sta- 
minate spike. 

Note 1.—C. Uinbellata, Schk., Tab. w. w. w., fig. 171, and its 
var. vicina Dew., vol. x x, [1], 31, and wel %, [1], 317, this Journ., 
have been found wide over the co 

The variety occurs also with sag an three pistillate spikes, in- — 
stead of one, near the staminate, besides the short and somewhat _ 
umbellate pistillate Pou Bs xt ‘the root ‘of the culm. Mexican © 
Bound. Survey, vol. 1i, P 

vee on the Cilchans snd a news rivers in Texas; Wright. — 
Numerous specimens were brought by the discoverer, of = 
form Fa by Schkuhr, and of the variety mentioned ; the la 
being most common. we 

C. decidua, Boott, yok XXvVii, 2}, p. 78, of this Journal, first — 
found in Tierra del Fuego, afte s in — ates 6 

a 


Note 2 se SS p- 231, Mex. Soe Surv., is a mis- 
take for C. Geyeri, Boo : 


BE ee eee eee aE ea, eee eee 


a 


W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Sclids, ge 27 


ArT. V.—The ee of Fluids and Solids relative to the Earth's 
Si Tipe by W. Ferret, Assistant in the Nautical Almanac 


° 
he 


of the atmosphere near the tropics than at the equator and the 
poles, and of the greater pressure generally in the northern hem- 
isphere than in the southern, to account for the motions of 
revolving storms in both hemispheres, from the equator towards 
the poles i in the parabolic paths, and to establish completely their 
gyratory character; none of which phenomena had ever been 
satisfactorily accounted for by any of, the theories which do not 
take into account the effect of the earth’s rotation. It has been 
suggested by several that a paper more popular in its character, 
although less complete, which should contain only the more 
essential parts of the analysis, and in which familiar illustrations 
should supply in some measure the more difficult parts of the 
cna would be more satisfactory to many readers. It is pro- 
, therefore, in this paper, in consequence of the general 
Steet taken in the subject, to treat it acecording to this sug- 
gestion, and to give only the most essential part of the analysis, 
showing the influence of the earth’s rotation, which being 
upon well known principles, instead of being deduced from gen- 
eral fundamental equations, is Very BPE but i is sufficient for a 
general understanding of the su 


I. The effect of the earth's rotation mck moving bodies at tts 
surface ; 


2. If a body were set in motion upon the surface of the sath 
supposed to be entirely without friction, it would not in ae 


move in the circumference of a great circle around thee 
would be continually deflected he one side by a force | 
from hs earth’s rotation 
the radius of the earth, 
y the Hie distance in are, 
* 


ee te oe body earth’s surface 
from the axis of rotation, and r sin onthe eninge = 


28 W. Ferrel on motions of fluids and Solids 


the djivotite of a perpendicular to the earth’s axis, arising from 
the earth’s rotation. If in addition to the angular motion com- 
mon to all bodies at rest on the surface of the earth, the body 
has an angular motion Dg relative to the _ earth, then ‘the centri- 
fugal force becomes rsin#(n+D¢)?. Now if we resolve the 
preceding force in the directions of the mendes and a perpen- 
dicular to it, the part acting in the direction of the meridian, neg- 
gees the small effect of the earth’s ellipticity, is 7 sin 4 cos @ 
(n+ D)?. The part of this force which gives ellipticity to the 
earth’s surface, and which is necessary to kee ep a body at rest on 
the elliptical surface, and Sushil it from sliding toward the pole, 
is sin @cos 4n2, Hence the difference of these two forces, 
when the bade has a mbEG eastward relative to the earth, isa 
deflecting force which has a tendency to cause the body to move 
from the pole toward the equator. The difference of these for- 
ces is rsin §cos6(2n+D,~) Dp, and hence when the body is 
entirely free to move in any direction, we have 
(1 ) r D,;?0=r sin 6 cos p (2n + Dy) Dig. 

n, if the body has a motion toward or from the pole, 
it must nauely the well known principle of the preservation of 
__ areas, so that as it approaches the pole, and Perea the axis 
of rotation, the angular motion must be increased, that is, it 
must ee eo a motion eastward relative % the earth, but if it 

recedes from the pole, it must acquire a relative westward mo0- 
tion. In iss to satisfy the a principle, the motion 
must satisfy the following equation . 
(2.) 7? sin? 6 (n+ Da). = constant. 
Taking the derivative with regard to t we get 
(3.) r sind D29—=—2r cos.0(n+ Dig) D/P. 
4, Equations (1) and (3) determine the motions of a free body | 
bo the earth’s surface. If the body is constrained to move either 
ion of a meridian or a parallel of latitude only, the © 
eng force instead of causing a deflection, causes only 4 


earth’s rotation, india acts in the direction of a salle OF 
tude, we have 
6= Boat Dew. : 
In the ge equations 7D, represents the lineal abew 
of the boty: in the direction of the meridian, and r sin Aon the 
lineal velocity relative to the earth in the direction of the pes 
lel of latitude. Hence the deflecting foree i is Aces same in : 
directions in the same lineal velocity. : ae 


relative to the Earth's Surface. 29 


v is the velocity of a body moving in any direction 
whatever, and F the deflecting force perpendicular to this direc- 
tion, by ‘yesolving the preceding forces and velocities in the 
direction of v and the perpendicular to it on the right, we get 

(5.) F= 2nv cos 6. 

In the northern hemisphere cos 4 is positive, but in the south- 
ern negative. Hence, we have established this important prin- 
ciple, in whatever direction a body moves, wt is always deflected to 
the fate in the northern hemisphere, and the contrary in the southern 
hemis 

The fovien resolved in the direction of v cancel each other, and 
hence the velocity is never accelerated or retarde 

ince rn? represents the centrifugal force at the equator 
arising from the earth’s rotation, and is ‘known to be sty Of g or 
gravity, the preceding equation may be reduced to 
2v cos 
(6.) = 9800 

This form of a equation is convenient for comparing the 
force F with gra 

7. In the eonalies equations rn is the lineal velocity of the 
equator, sa is Pot to 1523°2 feet, the : second being the unit of 

="000072924. Also feet. 

It may be feniaked here that the areoelied deflecting force is 
not an. absolute seg such as would be required to deflect a 
moving body fr a fixed direction in space, but is only rela- 
tive, being minieahia of the nature of a centrifugal force, and 

from the fact that the direction relative to the earth to 
which the moving body is referred, is co ——s changing its 
direction with regard to fixed directions in space. 


Il. The general Motions and Pressure of the Atmosphere. 


8. By the Sees och Caio of the atmosphere are meant all 
those motions produced by a difference of density between the 
equatorial and polar regions arising principally from a difference 
of temperature. If the mec in all parts of the earth had 
the same density, every part would be in a state of statical equi- 
librium, and its surface and “te strata of equal density wou 
assume the elliptical figure of the earth’s surface, and conse- 


quently the -pressure of the atmosphere at the earth’s surface 4 
ene 


would be everywhere the same. But the temperature of the at- 
mosphere being less and consaguesth its density greats , the 
ec than the equatorial e greater pres ae 
o3 ar regions causes the areas of ‘the atmosphere @ and 

of equal density in the equatorial regions to rise a. tle a “peel 
the level of equilibrium, and hence the atmosphere in the upper 
regions flows toward the poles, while ae greater pressure 0. of the 


30 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


polar regions causes a counter current qoinaia the equator in the 
parts nearer the earth’s surface, which would extend down to to 
the earth’s surface, if it were not for the bebe — ari 
from the friction of the earth’s surface, which will be expan 


sphere above in flowing toward the poles acquires an n eastwal 
motion relative to the earth’s surface, and after descending in i ' 
polar regions and flowing back nearer the earth’s surface toward — 
the equator, it tends toward the west, and on arriving in the 3 
equatorial regions it has a westward motion. If it were not for : 
the resistance of the earth’s surface, the mutual actions of the 
strata upon one another, whatever the initial state of the atmo ' 
sphere, would cause t them to have fina ally the same east or west 
motion at all heights in the same latitude, and this motion 
would be such as to satisfy pemeat (2), and also, aa the m 
. actions of the strata upon one another could not affect t 

m of the moments, it would ei such that the sum ret the m 
eadnts of all the particles would be the same as that of the init 
state arising from the earth’s rotation and from any i ial 
motion relative to the earth, which it might have had. . 
latter condition determines the constant in equation Q), 9 whie 
was shown in my paper in the Mathematical Monthly, to w 
I must refer for the method, to be, on the hypothesis of an in 
state of rest relative to the earth, equal to 2 7r2n. Wit 
value of the constant the equation gives Ais 


2 
T: D ef ee be f 
. ) ag (; sin 20 1)n 


9. Near the poles, where sin?6 is very small, D,g and 
ya lineal velocity rsin6D,@ must be ‘very great. 7 
e equator D;¢ is negative, and hence the motion the 


ne is equal to 4, which | =e nearly to the parallel of 38 
ence bet tween this paral] le the tion: is. . 
ward, but between it an Sea kes 

what has been shown 

tae ae p “et 

parallels er 85°, kd "etc cnn apres lara or 


the there, and a depression st ies poles and at the eq 
e amount of the pressure is represented by the term 7 
6(2n+D,4) Dig, and hence toward > pole, where D 
reat Hie this pressure is very great, and at the ches 


relative to the Earth's Surface. 31 


be infinite. Hence at the poles and at some distance from 
them, on the hypothesis of no resistances from the earth’s sur- 
face, the atmosphere cannot exist. Between the parallels of 
85° and the equator D;¢ is less and also cos 6, and consequently 
the pressure from the equator and the depression there are com- 
paratively small, It was shown in the Mathematical Monthly 

in the case of a fluid surrounding the earth five miles 
high, the fluid would recede from the poles about 28° and be 
depressed at the equator about 4000 feet. This, however, is 
upon the hypothesis that the upward expansion of the atmos- 
phere arising from a greater temperature is insensible. 

10. The preceding results, it must be remembered, are all 
upon the hypothesis that the atmosphere is not resisted in its mo- 
tions by the friction of the earth’s surface. Although these re- 
sults are much modified by the resistance of the earth’s surface, 
yet they will be of great advantage in explaining its general mo- 
tions; for as there can be no resistance until there is motion, the 
atmosphere must have a tendency to assume, in some measure, 
the same motions and figure as in the case of no resistances. 
Hence, towards the poles the general motions of the atmosphere 
must be towards the east, and in the torrid zone towards the west ; 


but as these motions, in consequence of the resistances, are small 
in comparison with those in the case of no resistances, instead of . 
the atmosphere’s receding entirely from the poles, there must be 


32 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids - 


only a comparatively small depression there, as represented in 
the figure, and instead of its being about 4, 000 feet lower at the 
equator than at the place of its maximum height near the trop- 
ics, there must be-only a very slight depression there, both on 
account of the small pressure from the equator, and ¢ Iso on ac- 
of the upward expansion arising from a greater tempera- 


“AL That the ene must assume the preceding figure in 
consequence of the eastward motion toward the poles and west- 

ward motion near ‘he eqmudtor: will be readily understood from the 
following illustration. It is well known that if the atmosphere 
had the same motion of rotation with the earth, that it would 
assume the same figure. Now, if the whole atmosphere had a 
greater angular motion, that is, if it had an eastward motion Te- 
lative to the earth, the increased centrifugal force would evi- 
dently cause it to accumulate at the equator and to be depressed 
at the poles. On the other hand, if it had a less angular mo- 
tion, that is, a motion westward "relative to the earth, it would 


ae The force which overcomes the resistance of the earth's 
surface to the east and the west motions of the atmosphere de- 
pends upon the term in equation (3) containing D, 4 as a -_ 
which depends upon the es nging motion of the flui 
tween the equatorial and the polar paar om hence the gin 
must val ‘ish at the ig ral 
motion of Se ee aphere is consequently ay by the re- 


there is a ahh ee of calms at the equator, called the equatorial calm 
belt, and there must be also a es of calms about the poles. 
18. As the motion of the a at ere is is east towards the poles 
r, Somewhere — the equator and 
io east or west, which 


and west motions of the aesetene tere earth’s ee = 


be such that the sum of the resistances of each part of the earth's 4 


multiplied into its distance from the axis of rotation, 


must be equal to 0, else the velocity of the earth’s rotation eo | j 


ee ee ees ap 


relative to the Earth’s Surface. 33 


be continually accelerated or retarded, which cannot arise from 
any mutual action between the surface of the earth and the sur- 
rounding atmosphere. Now, as the part of the earth’s surface 
where the motion of the atmosphere is west is much farther from 
the axis than the part where it is east,.the latter part must com- 
prise more than half of the earth’s surface, unless the velocity of 
the eastern motion towards the poles is much greater than that of 
the western motion near the equator. Therefore; since one-half 
of the earth’s surface is contained between the parallels of 80°, 
the parallels of no east or west motion at the earth’s surface must 
fall within these parallels, and they are accordingly found on 
the ocean to be near the tropics. Hence the maximum height 


equator, these tendencies combine, and produce a strong surface 
current, wh 


: can have no motion 
at the earth’s surface, there are calm belts there, _ 

4a Jour. Scr.—Szconp Series, Vor. XXXI, No. 91.—Jay., 1861. a 

5 : 


34 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


called the tropical calm belts. Near the polar circles, where the 


polar and passage winds meet, there must also be calm belts, — 
which may be called polar calm belts. The motions of the at- — 
mosphere, therefore, at the earth’s surface, if they were not modi- — 
fied by the influence of continents, would be as represented in ~ 


the interior of the figure, in which the heavy lines represent the 
calm belts. On account of the influence of the continents, these 
belts are somewhat displaced and irregular, and on account of the 
varying position of the Sun, they change their positions a little 
in different seasons of the year. 

‘The southern limit of the polar winds in the northern hemi- 
sphere, and also the limit between the trade and _ passage winds, 
has been determined by Prof. J. H. Coffin, from the discussion 
of a great number of observations at different points, and given 
in a chart, in his treatise on the winds, published in the seventh 
volume of the Smithsonian Contributions, 

17. That the atmosphere is depressed at the equator and the 
_ poles, and has its maximum height near the tropics, as has been 


ics, and also a little less at the equator. Says Captain Wilkes: 
“The most remarkable phenomenon which our observations 


_ Says Sir James Ross:* “Our barometrical experiments ap- 
ig to prove that the atmospheric pressure is considerably 


the column of mercury between the 20th of November, 1839, 
and the 31st of July, 1843.” : 
Extract from Ross's Table. 
j___Latitude. Pressure. | Latitude. Pressure. | Latitude. Pressure. 
j atitude. soe titude. ee. ore {wateeed 2 or #09 
Eqvator, 29974 | 42° 53° 29950 | 55° 59r 
13° 0S. 30016 | 45 0 29664 | 60 9 
22 17 30085 | 49 8 29467 | 66 9 
84 48 30023 | 51 33 29497 | 74 9 
54 26 29°347 


* Voyage to the Southern Seas, vol. ii, p. 8383, ee: 


a 


relative to the Earth's Surface. 35 


18. The following table, se published by M. Schouw, and 
reduced here from millimetres to English inches, shows that 
there is a similar bulging of “Aly atmosphere in the middle lati- 
tudes and depression at the pole in the northern hemisphere, as 
has been observed in the southern hemisphere 


Place. Latitude. Pressure. Plaee. ' Latitude. Pressure, 
—_ 
inches. : inches. 
Cape, 38° 0’S. 80040 | London, 51° 30’ 29-961 
Rio Janeiro, 23 Ss. 80078 | Altona, 53 80 29°937 
Christianburg, 5 30 N. 29°925 | Dantzic, 54 380 29925. 
a Guayra, 10 29°928 Konigsberg, 54 30 29°941 
8t. Thomas, 19 29°941 nrade, 5 29°905 
acao, 30039 | Edinburgh, 56 29°851 
Teneriffe, z 80°087 | Christiana 60 29°866 
Madeira, 82 30 30°126 | Bergen, 60 29°703 
li, 33 30°213 | Hardanger, 60 29-700 
Palermo, 38 80°036 | Reikiavig, 64 29°607 
a 41 80°012 | Godthaab, 64 29°603 
Florence 43 30 29996 | Eyafiord, 66 29°669 
on, 0°000 | Godhaven, 69 29°674 
Bologna, 44 30 30008 | Upernavik, 73 29°732 | 
Padua, 45 88-008 | Mellville Isle, 74 30 29°807 
_ Paris, 49 29-976 | Spitzbergen, 75 30 29-795 | 


19. From the preceding tables, it is seen that the barometric 
pressure is much less, especially in the southern hemisphere, 
towards the poles than at the equator, although the density 
towards the poles is much greater, and hence the depression 
there must be considerable. 

20. It has been seen (§ 1), that, in consequence of the earth’s 
rotation, the interchanging motion of the atmosphere between 
the equator and the poles give rise toa force, by which this mo- 
tion itself i is counteracted. nibs instance, the motion toward the 
uses an eastward motion — 


motion toward the equator. The motion of the atmoupheisy 
refore, between the equator and the poles, is not pate by 

the whole force arising from the difference of density between 

the equator and the poles, but by a small difference only between 

the two forces. Hence if the earth had no rotatory motion, the 

force which produces this motion would be very much g 

and there-would be a sweeping hurricane from t pole t 


qua, 
21. Tt i 


pono 
have an 


@e 


36 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


must have an eastern motion in the middle latitudes; but it 
cannot have such a motion, unless it also have a motion toward the 
poles, in order that the deflecting force (§ 5) arising from this mo- 
tion ~— overcome the resistance to the eastern motion. But 
it is evident there cannot be a complete reversal of the motions 


greater ee 
the tropical calm-belts, where the motion is westward below it — 
must be toward the east above. This is also evident from the | 
general consideration, that the whole amount of deflecting force — 
eastward arising from the motion of the atmosphere towards the — 


cond 
towards the east, the observed notions nearly all the higher 7 
clouds was from some point towards the west. 4 

23. From what precedes, the limit between the atmosphere | 
which moves eastward in the middle latitudes and westward — 
nearer the equator, which at the earth’s surface is at the tropical 


Sy, eS ee oT — 


relative to the Earth’s Surface. 37 


calm belt, must be a plane inclining toward the equator above. 
And since, according to (§ 21), the atmosphere near the earth’s 
surface cannot have an eastward motion, unless it also has a 
motion toward the poles, this plane near the earth’s surface 
must nearly coincide with the one which separates the atmo- 
sphere moving towards the poles from that moving towards the 
equator, in the trade wind regions, and hence the latter must 


peak gradually becomes north of it; and hence the southwest 
wind, which always prevails at the top, gradually descends 
lower on the sides of the peak until it reaches the base. Hence, 
when this plane reaches its most southern position, in the latter 
i of winter, the southwest wind prevails at both the base and 
the top. 

24. The depression of the atmosphere at the poles and at the 
equator, and the accumulation near the tropics, may be explained 
in eo agiesea manner by means of the principle in (§ 5) that when 
a body moves in any direction in the northern hemisphere, it is 
deflected to the right, and the contrary in the southern. The 
atmosphere towards the poles having an eastward motion, the de- 

ecting force arising from it causes a pressure towards the equator, 
and the motion near the equator being westward, the pressure is 
towards the poles; and hence there must be a depression at the 
poles and at the equator, and an accumulation near the tropics. 
Since this deflecting force is as cos 6, it is small near the equator; 
and, consequently the depression there is small. _ 

25. According to the preceding tables of barometric pressure, 
there is more atmosphere in the northern than in the southern 
hemisphere. Says Sir James Ross, “ the cause of the atmosphere 
being so very much less in the southern than in the northern 
hemisphere remains to be determined.” This is very satisfacto- 
rily accounted for by the preceding principle; for as there is 
rebern — land, with high nega ranges, in the northern 

m | 4 y i é e } a 


38 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


depression there, and a greater part of the atmosphere to be 
thrown into the northern hemisphere. 

This also accounts for the mean position of the equatorial 
calm belt being, in general, a little north of the equator. But 
in the Pacific Ocean, where there is nearly as much water north 
of the equator as south, its position nearly coincides with the 
equator. 

For the same reason the tropical calm belt of the northern 
hemisphere is farther from the equator than that of the southern 
hemisphere ; and, on account of the irregular distribution of the 
land and water of the two hemispheres in different longitudes, it 
does not coincide with any parallel of latitude. In the longitude 
of Asia, where there is all land in the northern hemisphere an 
the Indian Ocean in the southern, this belt, which is also the 
dividing line which separates the winds which blow east from 
those which blow west, is farther from the equator than at any 
other place, as shown by Professor Coffin’s c 

6. 


In winter, the difference of temperature between the equa- _ 


tor and the poles, upon which the disturbance of the atmosphere 
depends, is much greater than in summer; this causes the east- 


ward motion of the atmosphere in either hemisphere during its _ 


winter to be greater, while in the other hemisphere it is less. 
Hence a portion of the volume of the atmosphere in winter is 
thrown into the other hemisphere; but, although the volume or 
height of the atmosphere is then less, yet, being more dense, the 


barometric pressure remains nearly the same. The difference — 


at Paris, and in the middle latitudes generally, between wint 
and summer, is only about J of an inch. 
On accoun 


t of this alternate change with the seasons of the — 
velocity of the eastward motion of the atmosphere in the two _ 
hemispheres, the equatorial and tropical calm belts change their 
ena ag little, moving north during our spring, and south in 


III. The Motions of the Atmosphere arising from local disturbances. 


27. Besides the general disturbance of equilibrium arising 


from a difference of specific gravity between the equator and the 
poles, which causes the general motions of the atmosphere, treat- 
ed in the last section, there are also more local disturb: 
arising from a greater rarefacti 

portions of the earth’s surface, which 


storms, tornadoes, and water-spouts, en, on account of greater 
heat, or a greater amount of aqueous vapor, the atmosphere at 
any place becomes more rare than the surrounding portions, it 
ascends, and the surrounding heavier atmosphere flows in below, 
to supply its place, while a counter current is consequently pro- 


a ' a 
tion of the atmosphere over limited a 
Spite oc : , give rise to the various 
irregularities in its motions, includir cyclones or revolving — 


relative to the Earth's Surface. 39 


days, wh 
the general motions of the atmosphere may carry this disturbed 
area several thousands of miles. 

28. When the area of rarefaction is such as to cause the 
atmosphere to flow in below from all sides toward a centre and 
the reverse above, thus establishing a constantly interchanging 
motion between the internal and external part, the case becomes 
very similar to that of the general hemispherical motions of the 
atmosphere in which the motion is between the polar and equa- 
torial parts. For if the earth’s rotation on its axis is analyzed 
with reference to any other axis, the pole of which is at the dis- 
tance of 6 from the pole of the earth, it is found to have a rotation 
around this latter axis equal to n cos 6 (Peirce’s Analytical Me- 
chanics, § 25). ence the interchanging motion between the 
internal and external part in this case must cause the internal 
gate to gyrate around the centre from right to left in the northern 

emisphere, and the external part the contrary way, and thus 
give rise to a cyclone or revolying storm just as in the case of the 
hemispherical motions the part nearest the pole acquires an east- 


40 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


of all those which Redfield has investigated, and given in his 
charts of their routes, none have been traced within 10° of the 
equator. The typhoons or cyclones, also, - - China sea, have 
never = observed within 9° of the equat 

. In the case of the general Semiiegheinicid motions the inter- 
nal or polar part is most dense, but in the case of cyclones the 
external part. Hence the motions between the centre and the 
external part are different, in the former case the motion toward 
the centre being above, bat in the latter below. In the case ’ 
no resistances from the earth’s surface this does not affect th 
gyrations, since on aes of the action of the different idl 


the eR re to recede en es from the centre, but on account 
of the resistance the very rapid gyrations are in general in a 
great measure prevented, so that instead of a complete vacuum 
the strata of the atmosphere are somewhat, cape in 


of no resistances, is acti is in a great measure destro troy: the 

resistances of the surrounding atmosphere, so that it is, for the 
most part, insensible to setae and only the more Ly ae 

gyrations of the internal observed. The motion of 

ration combined with the mde at the earth’s surface to 

the centre, gives rise to a spiral motion towards the aie 

exactly in accordance pose the Senet —— i -~ atmo- 

sphere in great storms or hurrica’ shown by — 

Redfield, in a number of papers on the tae oablidhed in this 

Journal. 


Se eT ee ee ey ee ey a Oe eee ee ee 


Se ee 


LO ee ne aS ee Cee eT 


Sa ee See ee er ey ee ee ee ree cide it er a i si 


relative to the Earth’s Surface. 41 


31. Since the atmosphere is depressed in the middle of cy- 
clones, they must sensibly affect the barometer; and this is the 
true cause of all the great barometrical oscillations, as was first 
suggested by Redfield.* As the cyclone approaches, there is 
generally a very slight rise of the barometrical column, which is 
at its maximum at the greatest accumulation near the external 


: ‘ 6 


42 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


of pressure between one part and the surrounding parts, the 
equilibrium would be at once restored if the motions toward the 
centre produced by this difference of pressure, did not give rise 
to a cyclonic motion, and thus to a centrifugal force combined 
with the deflecting force arising from the earth’s rotation which 
in a great measure counteracts the force arising from a difference 
of pressure between the external and internal parts. If therefore 
the earth had no rotation, the oscillations of the barometer woul 
be no greater in any part of the earth than they are at the — 
equator. 
33. When the disturbance of equilibrium is great, but extends 
over a small area only, the centripetal force is much greater than 
in the case of large cyclones, and the gyrations are then ve 
rapid and very near the centre, as in the case of tornadoes. 
Tornadoes generally occur when the surface of the earth is very 
warm, and the atmosphere calm. For then the strata near the 
surface becomes very much rarefied, and are consequently in a | 
kind of unstable equilibrium for a while, when from some slight — 
cause, the rarefied atmosphere rushes up at some point through ~ 
the strata above, and consequently flows in rapidly from all sides © 
below, and then, unless the sum of all the initial moments of 


generally st 6 small in comparison with that of the initial state — 


centre of 


e 
° 
5B 


sistances. ce fe evclon 
while small tornadoes, depending principally upon the 
initial gyratory state for their violence, are soon overcome by 
the resistances. a ee 
. On account of the centrifugal force arising from the rapi 
gyrations near the centre of a tornado, it must frequently be 
nearly a vacuum. Hence, when a tornado passes over a build- 


il ea 


relative to the Larth’s Surface. 43 


When tornadoes happen on sandy plains, instead of water- 
spouts they produce the moving pillars of sand which are often 


west, the deflecting force causes a pressure toward the p 
Now these deflecting forces being as the sine of the latitude, as 
may be seen from (§5), the pressure on the polar side toward 


44 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


the pole is greater than on the other side toward the equator, and 
hence the cyclone moves in the direction of the greatest pressure. 
It is not to be supposed, however, that there is an actual transfer 
of all the atmosphere of a cyclone from the equator to the polar 
regions. For the motions and pressure of the cyclone being 
greater on the polar side, where the deflecting forces which cause 
it are greatest, its action upon the atmosphere in advance of it i3 
greater than on the equatorial side, where these forces are much 


3. 


less, and hence new portions of the atmosphere are being contin- 
ually brought into action on the one side, while the resistance of 
the earth’s surface, and the adjacent portions of atmosphere on 
the other side, are continually overcoming the comparatively 
weak forces there, and destroying the gyratory motion of the 
cyclone; so that the centre of the cyclone is being continually 
formed in advanced portions of the atmosphere. Since many 
cyclones are more than one thousand miles in diameter, the 
difference in the violence of its action on the two sides is very 
considerable. Hence the interior and most violent portion of @ 
cyclone, always gyrating from right to left in the northern hem- 
isphere, and the contrary in the southern, must always gradually 
move towards the pole of the hemisphere in which it is. While 
between the equator and the tropical calm belt, it is carried 
westward by the general westward motion of the atmosphere 
there, but after passing the tropical calm belt, the general motion 
of the atmosphere carries it eastward, and hence the parabolic 
form of its route is the resultant of the general motions of the 
atmosphere, and of its gradual motion toward the pole. 


relative to the Earth's Surface. 45 


IV. The Motions of the Ocean. 


action of the atmosphere upon the surface of the ocean, and the 
other, the difference of density between the water near the equa- 
tor and that towards the poles, arising from a difference of tem- 
perature. ‘The general motions of the atmosphere at the surface 
of the ocean have a tendency to cause a westward motion of the 
water in the torrid zone, and an eastward motion in the middle 
and higher latitudes; and from what we know of the effects of 
strong winds upon the ocean, we have reason to think that these 
general motions of the atmosphere are adequate to produce sensv- 
ble motions, since, after thetinertia of the water is once overcome, 
which, however small the force, is only a question of time, the 
only force necessary is that which is adequate to overcome the 
resistance of friction, which is very small where the velocity is 
small. The difference of density between the equator and the 
poles causes a slight interchanging motion of the water between 
them, and consequently, where not interrupted by continents, it 
in the 


produces a system of motions in the ocean similar to those of 


the atmosphere. Hence these two causes of oceanic disturbance, 
whatever their relative weight, both act in the same directions, 
and conjointly cause the observed westward motion of the ocean 
near the equator, and eastward motion towards the poles. 

39. The westward motion of the water of the ocean in the 
torrid zone was first observed by Columbus, and is now well 


46 V. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


Man, pp. 189,190.) The torsive or deflecting force which causes . ; 


the westward motion of the atmosphere and the ocean in the 
equatorial regions, and the eastward motion in the higher lati- 
tudes, has been shown to be as the velocity of the interchanging 
motion between the equatorial and the polar regions; and hence 
if this motion in both were similar, the relative amount of this 
force in each must be as the whole mass multiplied into the velo- 
city of this motion between the equator and the poles. I 

suppose the ocean to be 3 miles in depth, its mass is about 500 
times that of the atmosphere, and hence if the motion between 
the equator and the poles were only ;}, of that of the atmos- 
phere, the part of the force which gives it a westward motion 
near the equator, and an eastward motion towards the poles, 
arising from this cause, must be greater than that of the action 
of the atmosphere upon it, since the‘whole amount of this force 
in the atmosphere is not spent upon the ocean, but only that part 
which overcomes the resistances to its motions. Although the 
effect of temperature in producing a difference of density, and 
consequently of disturbing the equilibrium, is very much less in 
the ocean than in the atmosphere, yet since the amount of motion 


which a given disturbing force will produce where time is not — 


considered, depends as has been stated, upon the amount of the 
resistances, and not upon the amount of inertia to be overcome; 
and since the resistances diminish as the square of the velocity, 
a very small amount of disturbing force arising from a difference 


of density must be adequate to cause an interchanging motion in — 
the ocean between the equatorial and the polar regions equal to — 


sta Of that of the atmosphere; and hence we have reason to 


think that a greater part of the motions of the ocean is due to — 


this cause than to the action of the atmosphere upon it. 
_ 41. The motions of the ocean being similar to those of the at- 


they must cause a slight elevation of the surface about — 


mosphere, 
the parallels of 30°, and a depression at the equator and the poles, 


just as in the case of the atmosphere, except that it will be less 


in the ratio of the relative velocities of the motions of the ocean 
and of the atmosphere. If we suppose the east and west motions 


bottom of the ocean as at the surface, there would be no tenden- 
cy of the water to flow out at the bottom from beneath this 


accumulation; but since the motions there must be much less, it — 
must flow dut both towards the equator and the pole, especially - 


relative to the Earth’s Surface. 47 


toward the latter, as the depression there is much the greater. 
Since the density of sea-water does not increase below the tem- 
perature of 28°, the density of the ocean does not increase 

eyond a certain latitude, and hence there is no flow of the water 
at the bottom from the poles toward the equator, arising from 
the maximum density at the pole, as seems to be the case in a 
very slight degree in the atmosphere, but the under current at 
the bottom, arising from the greater pressure about the parallel 
of 30°, must extend entirely to the poles; so that there must be 
a slight tendency of the water to rise at the poles, and flow at the 
surface some distance towards the middle latitudes. As the wa- 


intercepted by continents, as in the northern hemisphere, the 
water receives a slight gyratory motion from left to right. The 
‘westward motion of the waters of the Atlantic in the torrid zone, 
impinging against the continent of America, causes the surface 
of the water of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico to be a 
little above the general level, while the eastward motion of the 
northern part of the Atlantic causes the surface of the water ad- 
jacent to the eastern coast of North America, in that latitude, to 
ea little lower. Hence there is a flow of warm water from the 
Gulf of Mexico along the coast of the United States toward the 
lower level about Newfoundland, which, on account of the pecu- 
liar configuration of the coast about the Gulf of Mexico, and the 
peninsula of Florida, gives rise to the Gulf Stream. ast: 
ward motion also of the northern part of the Atlantic causes the 
surface of the water on the western coast of Europe to be a little 
higher than the 
torrid zone caus 


43. A portion of the equatorial ¢ 
biting Pp eq te 
Brazil 


, 


43 W’. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids 


ward motion of the Southern Ocean. The east side of the South 
Atlantic, as well as that of the North Atlantic, seems to have a 
motion toward the Pin aor Says Sir James Ross, “ There is a 
current from the Cape of Good Hope along the west coast of 
Africa 60 miles wide, 200 fathoms deep, with : velocity of one 

mile per hour, of the. mean temperature of the cean.” (Voyage 


a Mozambique current from the warm “waters of the In re 


Hence the South Atlantic also has a Pceane. to assume a over 
tory motion, and the equatorial current of the Atlantic is merely 
the equatorial portion of these two gyrations, with perhaps a 
small part of the Mozambique current passing around the Cape. 
e general eastward motion of the water of the northern 
part of the Atlantic, and the consequent depression of the water 
next the coast of North America, is the cause of the cold current 
of water flowing from Baffin’s Bay and the east coast of Green- 
land, between the Gulf Stream and the coast of the United States 
called the Greenland current. Since the warm water of the Gulf 
tream, in flowing northward, is deflected toward the east (§ 5), 
and that of the Greenland current, in pre south, tends toward 
the west, there is no in termingling of the waters of the two eur- 
rents, but they are kept entirel y separate as if divided by.a wall, 
as has been established by the Coast Survey. 
. There must be a motion of the waters somewhat similar 


there is the warm China current, flowing toward the north, sim- — 
eg to the Gulf Stream, and the cold Asiatic current insinuating © 


mingle with the general eastward current of the South Sea, and 


hence there is a slight tendency to a gyratory motion in the In- © 


dian Ocean also. 
46, On the western sides of the continents there is a motion 


somewhat the reverse of this, and instes ad of a warm current j 


ete Se oh Seay = 
a ee Sa i, Se ege eAG ey ATS Se 


eI eo ar PI 2) MICO oY ey Pe Sa ree: 9 tale Eye: 


relative to the Earth's Surface. 49 


along the coast from the north, and on the west coast of South 
America is Humboldt’s current, much colder than the rest of the 
ocean in the same latitude, both tending toward the equator to 
join the great westward current there across the Pacific, and to 
fill up, as it were, the vacuum which this current has a tendency 
to leave about the equator, on the west coast of America. 

47. With regard to the gyratory motion of the oceans, it may 
be further added here, that such gyrations are clearly demon- 
strated by the positions of the isothermal lines, as has been 
shown by Professor Dana, in a paper read at the twelfth meeting 
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 
(Proceedings, vol. xii, p . According to this paper, the 
isothermal line of 68° F., in winter, extends, in the North At- 
lantic, from 56° N. on the American side, to 12° N. on the 

frican, and in the South Atlantic, from latitude 31° S. on the 
South American coast, to 7° S. on the African side. Similar 
evidences are given of gyratory motions, in a less degree, in both 
the North and South Pacific, and also in the Indian Ocean 

” en a portion of fluid on the earth’s surface gyrates from, 

left to right, the deflecting force arising from the earth’s rotation 
being in this case toward the interior, the surface assumes a 
slightly convex form. The water of the North Atlantic having 
a very small gyratory velocity in comparison with that o 
earth’s rotation, the interior is a little elevated above the general 
‘level, and consequently the pressure upon the bottom increased. 

ow the gyrations which cause this elevation in the middle being 
principally toward the top, the increased pressure upon the bot- | 
tom causes the fluid there to flow out on all sides with a very 
small velocity, towards the circumference, and hence the water 
at the surface has a slight tendency to flow in from all sides to- . 
wards the interior to supply its place. This completely accounts 
for that vast accumulation of drift and sea-weed, covering a large 
portion of the interior of the North Atlantic, called the Sargasso 

rom what has been stated, the North Pacific must als 

have a slight gyratory motion from left to right, and hence it 
likewise has its Sargasso Sea. ! 


V. The Motions of Solid Bodies at the Earth’s Surface. 


49. Tt has been shown that if a body were set in motion upo 

_ the earth’s surface it would move with uniform velocity, 

_» Would be continually deflected to one side. When the range of — 

_ Motion is s cos 9 (equations (5)) may be regarded as con- 

Stant, and hence the deflecting force in this case is’¢o: and 

pre cause the body set in motion to describe the ¢ 
ie . 


le. If we pute for the radius of curvature, nd m for 


: 

d 
_ Am. Jour. Sci—Snconp Sertms, Vou. XXX, No. 91.—Jan., 1861. 
q 


. 


50 W. Ferrel on motions of Fluids and Solids, &c. 


the ag velocity about the center of curvature, the centrifu- 
gal force of the body is gm? which must be put equal to the 
Milscting force, omrasn Be Hence we have 

= 2nv cosd 
Also, since x is the lineal sealer of the moving body, 

em. 
From these two equations we get 


ee Vv 
oon cos f 
=2ne 
50.. When the range are ohana is so small that cos 6 may be 
regarded as constant, g@ and m are constant, and hence the hod 


then moves with a uniform angular velocity i in the circumference — 


~ acircle. If we put 7’ for the time of a revolution, we shall 
ve 


wpe wus = 4 day X sec 6.* 


m necosd 


Hence, — v disappears in the result, 7’is independent of the — 


aes ve 


Body i is forced to move in a straight oe F (equation — 


6) is the pod pressure of that body. If we put v=60, which 


is ™ velocity of about 40 miles per hour, the be totes gives P= — 


3Tzz 9, at the parallel of 45°. Hence if a railroad train moves 
in a straight line 40 rte es hour at the parallel of 45°, the 


lateral pressure is 51; of its weight, and this is precisely the | 
same in all directions, em not in the direciion of the meridian 


only as has been generally supposed. 
52. The deflecting force (§ 5) also causes the gyration of a vi- 


brating pendulum. If the pendulum were suspended at the : 
pole it a evidently vibrate in the same plane in space, and — 
rform a gyration in one day. Since the beers : 


of the artis revolution around any other point of the e 


surface is ncos@ (§ 28), the time of gyration there is iy : 


6 
1 day x sec. 4. 


3 
the motions of a rotating 


~rta Minie in which it is, gives the axis of rotation cade : 


to assume a ndicular position. But there are other forces 


beside these icereenbidly deflecting forces, so that all the forces — 
* This result was erroneously given in the Mathematical Monthly, 1 day X sec.f. 


same my may be used to explain some of : 
=, i Ane such a body be placed — 
with its axis of rotation in 1 with the hori- — 


Arctic Explorations.—Hayes Expedition. 51 


which tend to change the position of the axis would not be in 
equilibrium with the axis in that position: For the equatorial 
side then would have a motion coinciding in direction with the 
motion of the earth’s rotation, while the other side would have a 
motion the contrary way, and consequently the centrifugal foree 
arising from the motion of the earth’s rotation, combined with 
that of the rotating body, would be greater on the equatorial 
than on the polar side, and give the axis of the rotating body a 
tendency to move in the plane of meridian. It might be easily 
shown, when the axis has a position parallel with the axis of the 
earth, that the forces which tend to change its direction are then 
in equilibrium, and consequently the axis, if free to turn in any 
direction, does not change its position. 

54. These deductions from theory are in exact accordance with 
some very delicate experiments made by Foucault with a pecu- 
liar form of gyroscope, an account of which is given in this 
—— Second Series, vol. xv, p. 263. See also vol. xix, p. 


Art. VI.—Geographical Notices; by D. C. Gruman. No. XV. 


ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 


thou, et soe the official re : 
gra iety of New York. Every thing had pi- 
ous up to the time of his writing from Upernavik, an 1 Com- 

r and crew were in excellent spirits in view of their long 
prospective seclusion from the inhabited world. Dr. Hayes still 


adhered to his plan of wintering at Cape Frazer (lat. 79°42’). - 


52 Geographical Notices. 


The following is his letter :— 
Ex. 8. wo aa Harbor of SF seyret, ; 
Gre eenland, Aug. 14, 1 
Gentlemen—I have the pleasure to joan for the sosmien of the 
patrons and friends of the expedition my arrival at this por 
e made a quick passage from Boston. The schooner proved herself 
to be a good sea boat, and behaved admirably during some very heavy 
urred. 


On the twenty-first day out we were off Godhaven, and on the 5th 
inst. we anchored in the harbor of Proven. That settlement or outpost 
in the Upernavik district is forty miles southward from Upernavik. We 


Company. She will be rea r sea to-morrow, and | shall send my 
mail by the side of Dr. Rudolph, a retiring Governor of Upernavik, 
who returns in her to Copenhagen, and who has politely offered to do me 
this favor. 
rough the kindness and liberality of Mr. Hanson, the Governor of 
avik, and of Dr. Rudolph, 1 have obtained at Proven and Uperna- 
vik all - dogs that I require, and such furs as are essential to my party. 
tr. Hanson and Dr. Rudolph ey generously placed at my disposal 
arerything isaac their personal property or the public stores will afford, 
for the promotion of the interest of the Expediti 
I have also been fortunate in obtaining the services of an excellent in- 
terpreter, Mr. Peter Jonson. He has had much experience in the man- 


iy as we in the ital pround ~~ the 
church at Upernavik; and I have e directed a railing to be ructed 


It is pi apa ri me ‘* predict anything with respect to the prospects e 


before us. 


The season has been backward, but the weather has been very mild 
during the past ten days, and the recent southerly gales have double 


broken the ice. The wind now blows fresh from - — and if 
there is much ice before us . ies be driven to the so 


We shall leave here to-morrow, and attempt at ssi em Melville Bay . : 
passage, and shall hope to ke Smith’s Strait not later than the ist of — 


an RRS or ase es 


Arctic Exploration—Hayes Expedition. 53 


Sept. If successful in this endeavor, we shall have abundant time to 
secure a convenient harbor on the coast of Grinnell’s Land. You are 
already aware that I anticipate (from observations made by myself upon 
bs WA eas in 1854) reaching Cape Frazer, lat. f ‘ meg 42 — 
e I propose spending the winter. <A lower, ho 
will ae one within practicable reach of my "a oa field. of spies 
tion, If the condition of the ice will permit, I will immediately—after 
a winter harbor has been selected—carry forward the boat which I intend 
using for next summer’s labors, and some provisions, as far north pos- 
sible, and then leave them, secured against the bears, and return to the 
schooner after the winter has firmly set the ice. Early next sil we 
shall push forward advance depots, and should we find either ice or water, 
we shall endeavor to accomplish with boats or sledges, or with both, the 
chief object of the voyage before the close of the summer. If this for- 
tune awaits us, we shall then return home without unnecessary delay. I 
do not, however, anticipate this result, but I expect that we shall be de- 
tained two winters. 

I shall endeavor by every means to avoid a third year’s absence. We 
carry with us, however, food and fuel for that period, and in the event of 
our being so long detained I do not fear adverse open With the fresh 
supplies we have on board I believe we can resist the scurvy. 


I am informed by Governor Hanson that the ehelinge fleet did not 


‘succeed i in passing Melville Bay this year, but you are aware of the fact 


that after a certain period it would useless for them to succeed ; August 
is the most open month of the yea 
I shall however avoid every dies risk of being caught by the 
winter in the middle of the ice. Should the prospects of success a 
to be peculiarly epi [shall return southward and winter at one 
of the Danish settlem 


ys zips on eg this last sup of 


ane ish a a veel well sit forte sew, r Be 


P aie es 
mae Bay) Lee 


54 Geographical Notices. 


Trusting our lives and fortunes to the keeping of Him who —— is 
omnipotent, we sever in afew hours our connection with the 
= and enter upon our work, looking hopefully to the sana: 
the best wishes for the prosperity of you and yours, and with 
il sincere tha: or the liberality which you and your associates 
have displayed in our outfit and preparation, I beg you to believe me, 
With great regard your obedient servant, 
Isaac I, Havzs. 
To Peg singe i Esq., of New York; oor Baker, Jr., Esq., of Boston; Prof. 
, of Washington; Wm. ‘Parker Foulke, Esq., of Philadelphia, and 
pce — Scaibjetad to the Bepeition. 


p ree of Bosto many interesti ing details ig eset the early 
part of the voyage, oa the limits of this Journal will not 
allow us to reprint. expedition sailed from eee Au- 
gust t L4th, for Tontinsake where it had arrived on the 23d of that 
month. [t was here that Dr. Longshaw parted from the com- 
pany Dr. tages found a small village of Esquimaux at Tes- 
sinsak (the home of his interpreter,) some of whom were em- 
= to make up into clothing the furs purchased at Uper- 
navi 
2. Hall’s Search for the Relics of Franklin’s Bagi? —A 
short time previous to the departure of Dr. r. . B, 
of Cincinnati, conceived the project of Miia oi for fur- 
ther remains of the Franklin expedition. About the first o: 
June, 1860, he set out from New London, in a whaling vessel 
named the “ Geor rge Henry” belonging to Messrs. Williams & 
Haven of that port. A letter just received from him dated 
at Holsteinberg, Greenland, July 17th, was communicated to the 
American > tere Society by Mr. Grinnell, at the meet- 
In respect to the plans and outfit of 


“New London, Nov. 20, 1860. 
* * * Mr. C. F. Hall is a printer who has resided at Ci 
nati. He has had no experience whatever as an Arctic ca 
but has always felt interested in northern voyages of discovery 
and has pernonletlys turned his attention to the various expe- 
' ditions sent out i rch of Sir John Franklin. On the return 
of M’Clintock’s ey he conceived the idea of fitting a 


é 


Hall’s Search for the Relics of Franklin’s Expedition. 55 


Fish river, for relics of Franklin’s Expedition, as he thinks 
it was not thoroughly explored by Rae or M’Clintock; and he 
will make particular search among all the natives of that region, 
for such of Franklin’s men as may be still living. Hall takes 
with him such scientific instruments as he may need, a quantity 
of provisions, articles of trade for the natives and a full supply 
of ammunition on which latter he will mainly depend for his 
subsistence. His expenses are paid by contributions from in- 

ti, Phi Messrs. 


di viduals in Cincinna ladelphia and New York. 


56 Geographical Notices. 


From Mr. Hall’s letter to Mr. Grinnell we present a few extracts. 
Holsteinberg, July 17, 1860. 

“Our voyage thus far has been attended with calms, ee: and head winds, 
= Prolonging it to 39 days. The usual time may be set down at from 
We arrived here in Holsteinberg arbor & on the morning of 

j ay ts "The Rescue, of your first re in search of Sir John Frank- 
lin, in 1850, arrived at midnight of July 11. The George Henry and 
Rescue parted company the third night out, during a heavy wind; but 
Holsteinberg being the rendezvous, each vessel made its course direct here. 


In this connection, I must speak to you of the codperation I receive 
from Capt. Buddington, who has the sitiguaaa’ of neg the George Henry 
and Rescue. could have had the choice of 10,000 men, excellent 
navigators in the waters of the north, and withal good and true men, I 
d not have selected a better one than Capt. Sydney J. Buddington. 
The house of Messrs. Williams and Haven, whose generosity in behalf of 
my voyage to the north should ever be remembered, know well that 


i board the George qe, and in acta do they seem 
more pinaresind than in examining the records of the first and second 
Grinnell Expeditions of 1850~51, and 1858-5455, as written a 


illustrated by the lamented poo Happily, T had these volumes with me. _ 


e Horeenor was also interested in the work of Captain (now Sir) F. L. 


were 
much amazed with the pre nes of Gov. Elberg, in ‘reading before the - 
whole co mpany present McClintock’s account of his gift of some coals to 


“the priest’s,wife, who was ne with cold.” “The priest’s wife,” Mrs. 
Kier, be eg of the party and seemed to enjoy the joke quite as well 
as any of 


I must ‘ake the only copy of McClintock I have with me, as there are _ 
many statements in it that I wish to investigate personally, when on King _ 


William’s Land next ral 


I have visited various mountains of Greenland during our stay here, — 
and know of no part of the world where there is better st geyicne for — 
the geologist to investigate the stratification of the earth’s crust than here _ 
in the north. By the by, Gov. a has presented me with anee . 
speriment of fossil fish, from North Strom Fiord, the only place where — 
they can be obtained. ‘Mr. MoClatack says nye Oey Sok } interesting as being — 


of unknown geological date.* 
Before me, on the table in my cabin, where I am writing this, is a 


beautiful bouquet of Arctic flowers, in great re ie me by pone : 


young Esquimaux ladies of i eins I am asto 
fuseness of Nature’s productions her 


* See this Journ. [2], xxi, 313-338 and xxvi, 119, for age of Arctic cline sed oe ; 


Capt. Snow’s Search for the Franklin Relics. 57 


July 18.—It is intended that we leave here at the earliest moment. 


also Repulse Bay. I shall learn much practical information this winter. 
uly 23,1 o'clock, s.m.—A fresh breeze now prevails. We are now off 
for the west side of Davis’s Straits.” 

P. S.—Since the foregoing was in type, a later letter has been 
received by Mr. Grinnell from Mr. Hall. It is written from his 
proposed winter quarters, lat. 62° 51’ 80” N., long. 65° 04! 45” 
W., but the day and month are not specified. Hall had lost his 
expedition boat, but was in good spirits, hoping to prosecute his 
journey early in the spring. He claims to have discovered that 
Frobisher’s Strait is not a strait but an inlet. 

3. Capt. Parker Snow's Proposal to Search for the Franklin 
ftelics.—A. brief allusion has already been made in this Journal 
to the desire of Capt. Parker Snow of the British Mercantile 


in existence near King William’s Land, and the peninsula of 
Boothia. He even thinks that survivors of the party may still 
be found. Holding these opinions, he desires to go on the 


reach King William’s Land the first summer. ms 


A writer in the Tribune informs us that on account of inabil- 


4, McClintock's Arctic Soundings-—The London Atheneum 
for November 17, 1860, contains the following letter from Capt. 
McClintock, giving some particulars in respect to his attempt to 
Au. Jour. Sc1—Srconp Serres, Vou. XXXI, No. 91.—Jan., 1861. 
8 es 


ee 


* 


58 Geographical Notices. 


make a line of deep sea soundings from Cape Farewell, the ; 
southern point of Greenland, to Ireland. 4 
“ Bulldog, near Rockall, Nov. 6 M4 

“ Closed at Killybeg’s, Nov, 11. 
“ My dear Coillinson—We have nearly brought to a close about as 4 
a a bits as usually falls to. the lot of the most hardworking—even of — 
eying ships. I have been up (in the ship) to ~ head of Hamilton 
Inlet, but South Greenland we found enveloped in an unusual amount of 
pack, so much so that I had to go up to Godthaab (642 north) before I ~ 
could get into any harbor. On the 29th of September I succeded in get- — 
ting into Julianshaab, where I expected to find the Fox, but could obtain 


no intelligence whatever respecting her. Our vessel was the earliest t 
arrive there this season ; the ice having been ——* ble. The Fox ( 
Capt. Allan Young, Col. Shafner and Dr. Rae on board) had not arrived — 


at Hamilton Inlet on the 17th of Sept, ae I fear she has been 


deep meer again inside of the Rockall —_ 1,810 fathoms about nid: 


- 


Central Africa. 59 


lowing which has scarcely 
‘ly yours, 
L. McCutntoox, R. N.” 
N CENTRAL AFRICA.— 
ut in 1853, under the 
sodperate in the explo- 
idertaken by Richard- 
intil the present time 
rave young man, the 
shed School Director 
of March, 18538, (his 


n Kuka, on the west- 
rn to Kurope by way 

The items of intel- 
im various sources give 
ital of Wadai, Wara, 
of that land, although 
ill imprisoned in that 
finite information has 


of Gotha, the editor of 
e been informed of a 
alisting the people of 
ch the object will be 
Vogel, to recover any 
8 journal and observa- 
il and scientific inqui- 
' been an offering. 

this bold and dificult 
for seven years Aus- 
traveller and observer 


d is diligently engaged 

tthe aid. of liberal Ger- 

| dictates of humanity 
call for 


} committee have put 


| particulars. Mr. vo 


“his previous residence 
___ hential persons. 


* 
Heuglin’s Search for Dr. Vogel in Central Africa. 59 


way. * The same southeast wind is still blowing which has scarcely 
ceased since the 18th of October—Most sincerely yours, 
“ F, L. McCurntocg, R. N.” 


 enterpris : ore von Heuglin, for seven years Aus- 
_ tan Consul at Chartum on the N ler and observer 


-Yations,—a good draughtsman, and by h 
“and travels in Aftiea known to many infli 


te 
60 Geographical Notices. 


Mr. von Heuglin proposed to leave Europe last autumn, and 
since in Cairo and Chartum he is acquainted with trustwor hy 
servants and has a supply of scientific instruments, he will make 
the Nile lands the basis of his enterprise, eucesers at the 
same time, to have reserved supplies at Bengasi, a town on the 


North African coast which has direct commercial relations with _ 
Wadai. He proposes, if pecuniary resources allow, to secure — 


will fall between twelve and twenty thousand thalers. At the 
date of our last advices about one third of the necessary amount 
had already been secured, wholly from the German compatriots 
of Heuglin and Vogel. As the enterprise is regarded in “ the 
fatherland” as an expression of national union in the advance- 

ment of science, we cannot but hope mat Bein a adopted 
citizens of this country from Germany, any o he have 
acquired ample a there will se ‘tan of Mt berality be 
found ready and eager to aid in carrying forward a project which 
is full of promise. 


Jan. 1860, prepared by Ds R. H. Coolidge, Assist. Surg. U.S. A. 
Although this document is chiefly devoted to sanitary discus- 
sions, itis of great value to the student of the physical charac- 


ering a period of twenty years, from 1819 to co) and the sec- _ 
i i m 1 18: 


ral arrangement befo pted being still adhered to, that is, 
the details being arranged in a geographical divisions and regions 
having similar climato! y 


States, on a scale of 1: 10 ,000,000, Sake unincumbered with 


SquIER’s COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL Peck CONCERNING 


tHE DiscovERY OF AmeERIcA.—Mr. HE. G. Squier, well known — 


gal hd ae Bea Pe a Pe Pas ate ee ne ae hy ae ee ee nee oe ese os a 
Sa aa Eee ONE ee = ? rm say jock ia 


* 
Collection of Documents on the Discovery of America. 61 


for his archeological attainments and his printed works in refer- 
ence to the early history of America, has announced the publi- 
cation of a series of papers, chiefly from the Spanish i 
concerning the discovery and conquest of America, which he 
te poses to issue in the original, with translations, Heke 


series have been collected, partly from the Spanish archives, and 
partly from Central America, during a period of ten years’ study 
¢ erican ae The scheme is deserving of the ut- 


in every case, will meet with universal acceptance. The firs 
volume of the series, alae Palacio’s description of pr 
acapan, Izalco, Cuscatlan, Chiquimula, in 1576, has already ap- 
peared. Subseriptions for this and the subsequent volumes ma 
be addressed to the Editor, Mr. E. G. Squier, 205 East Tenth 
Street, New Yor 

Among the manuscripts collected for publication are the fol- 
owing: 


I. Carta dirijida al Rey de Espafia por el Licenciado Don Diego Gar- 

cia, de Palacio, Oydor de la Real Audiencia de Guatemala, afio 1576. 
on the Provinces of Guaza ree on Izaleo, Cuscatlan, and Chiquimula in the 

ancient stgreeg a of Guatemala, with an aceount of the languages, customs, and 
religion of the aboriginal inhabitants, and a description, the first ever given, of the 
Ruins of Copan. Original Spanish, Translation and ‘Notes, with a Map—(Ready.) 

IL. Relacion del Descubrimiento y Conquista de las provincias de Nica- 
ragua, dirijida al Rey de Espafia, por el Capitan Gil Gonzalez Davila, 
desde la Ciudad de ote Dontiago de Ja Isla Espafiola, 6 dias del mes 
de Marzo, de 1524 

Gil ther ge Davitk ws was ad first inte and conqueror of Nicaragua, and this 
is an account. under his own hand, of the circumstances of its reduction, and of = 
character of the count ry and its sabe bHanta. Although largely used by Oviedo, Pe- 
ter Martyr, and Hererra, it has never been published. 

II. Cartas del Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado, escrita al Rey de 
Espafia y al Capitan Hernando Cortez, sobre la Conquista y Pacificacion 
de los Reynos de Guatemala, y la Expedicion que hizo el Puerto 
de Iztapa 4 Peru, etc ; 

These letters of Don Pedro de Alvarado, the celebrated Lieutenant of Cortes in 
ape xico, the Conqueror and afterwards Royal Go Guatemala, are 


uatemala, and also of 
Balvaier and his Expedition to Peru. as 
IV. Relacion m sie, escrita al Rey, sucesos 
Juan Vasquez d ae Coronado, et las Provincias de Noto Poctes 7 py oes 


s 
62 Geographical Notices. 


Rica en la Pacificacion y Descubrimiento de ellas, ~~ Pr oo de la 
Ciudad y Provincia de Costa Rica, en 12 de Diciembre 

A very reine ae ee — come of the rng rt Juan Vasques 
de Coronado, in the Provinces tago and Costa Rica, and in their reduction 
and prciteation, py the Monicpality oC the City and gp aeen of Costa Rica, 
cember 12th, 1 

y3 Relagion poe al Rey por Pedrarias Davila, de las Tierras, Cos- 
tas y Puertos que estaban descubiertos en el Mar del ae desde la Villa 


guas; aio 15 
- Relation to te King of Spain, by Pedro Arias de Avila, concerning the lan 
coasts, and ports which have been discovered in the South Sea, from. the ae at : 
Broseles j in the Gulf of San cenig - -iseaepis called ie uzcatan, a distanc 
200 leagues. Dated in the year 
VI. Relation eo en el Bt Real de las Indias hizeo el Licenciado 
Antonio de Leon Pinelo, Relator de su Alteza, Sobre la Pacificacion y 
Poblacion de las Poocines del Manché i Lacandon, que pretende hazer 
Don Diego de Vera erg de Villaquiran, Cavallero de la Orden de la 
Calatrava, etc.; aio 
This isan smenntt drawn up by the ee Antonio Leon Pinceo, author of the 


‘*Tratado de Confirmaciones Reales, etc,” s capacity of historical Secretary or 
porter to the Council of the jas, on the r nd even now but little 
known district, pied by unconquered Indian _ which lies between Guate- 
a, , Tabasco, Yucatan, It gives a co ensive summa Il that 
was known of this wide region and its inhabitants t t in e, and 
st ve been compiled from original, and, as yet, unp hed, documents in 

e Arcl f the Indies, Th iaciones or Briefs were for the Coun- 
cil exclusively, and only enough were printed to give a oor e mem Prob- 
ably no the present d nt exists, except the under notice, which 


t 
elonged to Pinelo himself, as may be in atatied. from the MS. correc- 
tions Set emendations which it bears, and whieh appear to have been made by his — 
own 


Carta dirijida al Rey de Espafia sobre la Conquista y ahi pine : 
de Ja Provincia de Yucatan y sus poderosos Reyes, por el Fray Lorenzo _ 
de Bienvenida; afio 15 

IIL. Relacion de la Provincia de Honduras é Higueras, por el Obispo 
Don Cristoval de Pedraza, Obispo de Honduras, dirijida al Emperador, 
desde el puerto de Truxillo, con fecha de primero de Mayo, afio 1547. 

. Deseripcion de las Guanajas; parte de un Informe hecho ea 
1639, “de orden del Presidente de Guatemala, por Don Francisco de Avila 
i Lugo, Gobernador i Capitan General de Honduras. fe 

X. Relacion de la provincia y tierra de la Vora Paz, y de las cosas con- 
tenidas en ella, como son montes, fuentes, animales, aves, y plantas y are 
boledas, del numero de los pueblos y distancia de la Iglesias y fundacion 
de ellas, y de lo que cada uno tiene; y finalmente del numero de - 
sus eae su policia y Xpiandad, desde el afio de 1544, hasta este ie : 
7 : 

XL Discurso de Felipe de a sobre las utilidades y ventajas que 
resultarian de mudarse la Navegacion de Nombre de Dios y Panama * 
Puerto de Cavallos y Fonseca, afio 1865 

Eic., etc, etc., more than one hundred in euinbee. 


W. Gibbs on the Platinum Metals. 63 


ArT. VIT.—Researches on the Platinum Metals; by Wo.corr 

Gipss, M.D., Prof. of Chemistry and Physics in the Free 

Academy, New York. 
Reprinted by permission from the Contrib. of the Smithsonian Institution, Vol. XII. 

ie 

THE material which formed the subject of the present investi- 
gation was chiefly obtained from the United States Assay Office 
and from the Philadelphia Mint, and I am indebted for it to the 
kindness of Dr. Torrey and of Prof. Bache. Messrs. Cornelius 
of Philadelphia have also liberally presented me with about 600 
grammes of the Siberian osmiridium—a supply which has been 
of great assistance and for which I desire to express my thanks. 
The samples obtained from the mint at different times and which 
had been subjected to different preliminary processes, varied 
greatly in appearance. In some cases the ore was in distin 
scales rather whiter than the Siberian osmiridium ; in a sample 


weight of silver and the osmiridium allowed to settle. When 
the gol lloy is poured off, there remains a mass containing 
nearly all the osmiridium mixed with gold. This mass is fused 


in it shall create a deman 
* Dr. Torrey has kindly furnished me 
osmiridium, “For the first year or. 


whenever important Dee applications of the met 


64 W. Gibbs on the Platinum Metals. 


The density of the osmiridium obtained from California varies ‘ 
greatly in different samples: in one specimen, composed of large — 


the separate scales or grains have probably very different com- 
positions. According to G. Rose, the density of the Siberian ore 
varies from 19°3 to 21:1. Dr. Torrey has found among the 
seales of the Californian ore some which could be flattened un- 
der the hammer; these were probably platin-iridium. In gene: — 
ral, however, the scales are not malleable; some of a lead gray — 
or bluish tint being with great difficulty cut by the emory Gus : 
employed by the gold pen racine In color the scales vary 
from nearly silver white to dark gra i 

§ 2. 

The resolution of the ores of iridium, osmium, ete., and the 


as is known always been considered as among the most di# 
ficult problems with which the chemist has todeal. Though the 


have thrown eck light on the rhage and though Claus, in — 
particlar, in his elaborate “ Beitriige zur Chemie der Platin-Me- — 
talle” has done much to free the chemical history of this group _ 
from ue errors of his predecessors, I yet found that much re- 
mained to be done, especially as the Californian ore differs from 
the Siberian in the greater relative proportion of Ruthenium — 
which it contains. This difference alone renders a different treat: _ 


cise | 
lieving that it will 1 . useful to others, who may hereafter take _ 
up the same subject. | 


States Assay Office, the proportion of osmiridium in the California gold, did n a 
ceed balf an aes to the million of dollars. Afterward, th proportion al ey in 
creased till the average was seven or eight ounces to the million of gold. Thenfor 
: hag or more the quantity diminished, but for the last year it ae enas large 38 
upon the mposition of the native ce 
ie the constant discovery of new ’ diggings. ve 
The grains of osmiridium, suitable for pens, — soundish and ble to 
exfoliate when ‘ eke or heated. They seem to have a direst ot com pesto from 
the compressed and tabular crystals, The proportion of pels <A a 
than a tenth of all the alloy, but it is sometimes as large as i 
The carefully selected grains used by the gold pen makers pane so gos he that from — 
10,000 to 15,000 of them are contained in a single ounce. The very best are worth — 
at least $250 an ounce, and a cubic inch, which would be equal to about eleven ounces, — 
is worth $2,7 750. eee 


W. Gibbs on the Platinum Metals. . 65 


Fremy’s* most recent method consists in roasting the ore 
in a current of air or oxygen at a strong red heat. Under 
these ienieusdiows the osmium is in a gr eat measure removed 
as osmic acid, while the other metals are more or less com- 
pletely oxydized. The mass from which the osmium has been 
removed is then to be fused with nitre, after which the re- 
maining osmium may be separated by distillation with nitrie 
acid. remy gives a method for the separation of the other 


a state of.purity. The separation of the osmium by roasting, 
has undoubtedly the advantage of giving pure osmie acid in 


rune not remove all the se and react does not ob- 


sorts ine fusion with nitre and caustic See n an eX- 
perisent "ahh I made to test Fremy’s process and in which I 
employed California ore in the form of fine gray sand and heated 
to full whiteness in a porcelain tube, I obtained after long heat- 
ing but little osmic acid; the tube became clogged and broke, 
and after cooling I found that a ore had actually melted and 
presented a gray mass, having the shape of the tube in which it 

was fused. This mass res embled when broken a fine grained 
cast iron; it was very hard and distinctly crystalline upon those 
parts of the fracture nearest the surface. As the large scales of 
osmiridium from California do not melt before the flame of the 
compound blowpipe this result was very unexpected; it was 
es owing to the large quantity of iron which the ore con- 
tai 


In a memoir published in 1835, Persozi} gave a method 6 
working osmiridium by first converting the metals into sulphide 
The ore is to be mixed with carbonate of soda and sulphur and 
then projected into a strongly heated earthen crucible. 
crucible is then ee be heated to mearnes, allowed to ae and 


€ treated with water to dissolve the alkaline salah 
Temaining mass heated with oxyd of mereury which os 
of iridiam—according to Persoz—while oxyd of osmium and 
metallic mercury are expelled. iz 
: * Comptes Rendus, Xxxviii, 1008. 

+ Ann. ong Chimie bogie ie race 55, 210. 

Au Jove. Sci—Srconp Sens, VoL. XXXI, No. 91—Jay., 1861. 
9 


i aoe W. Gibbs on the Platinum Metals. 


Weiss and Doebereiner* confirmed the results of Persoz so far | 
as the conversion of the platinum metals into sulphids was con- 
cerned. They recommended the fusion of the sulphids, after re- 
moving those of sodium and of iron by washing with water and 
chlorhydrie acid, with carbonate of potash and saltpetre, so as — 
to oxydize the sulphur and the platinum metals at the same time. 
By this process the ore is almost completely resolved in two ope- 
rations. 

On repeating these experiments with the California ore, I ob- — 
tained the same results as to the formation of the metallic sul- 
phids. After digesting the fused matter with chlorhydric acid 
and washing, there remained a greyish mass of crystalline scales, 

: a “ieee saa 


which resisted even boiling nitro-muriatic acid,—no s of 
osmic acid being perceptible. These scales were however pow- 


with oxydizing agents may however be readily overcome by — 
previously reducing them to the metallic state. This is mostsim- — 
ply accomplished by a method suggested to me by Dr. Genth, — 
which consists in evaporating the sulphids to dryness with a — 
small excess of strong sulphuric acid and then igniting gently. _ 
A gray metallic sponge remains, which contains all the platinum 
metals with a small quantity of iron. It is easily reduced to a — 
fine ee by rubbing in a mortar and may then be completely — 
oxydized by Claus’ method presently to be described. Nitro- — 
muriatic acid acts very slightly upon this metallic mixture and — 
I have not found it possible by this agent to remove an appreck 
“ trace of platinum. . 


the materials are heated together. The danger may be avoided — 
by fusing the nitre and potash together and, after all frothing has — 
ceased, projecting the metallic sponge little by little into the eru- 
cible, waiting in each case until the resulting action has ceased — 
before projecting a fresh portion. I am of opinion that the pre- 


* Annalen der Pharmacie, xiv, 15. 


ie! se Para 


W. Gibbs on the Platinum Metals. om 67 sd 


vious conversion of the platinum-metals into sulphids and subse- 
quent reduction to the metallic a is upon the whole more in- 
convenient and requires more time than the —— resolution of 
the ore by fusion with an on ei mixtur 

Experiments which I have instituted upon a effects of fasing 
the ore with steel, phosphorus, arsenic and sodium to 
really valuable practical results. It is true that an ‘alloy vidle 4 
steel can be obtained by fusion at a high temperature. Acids 
slowly dissolve the iron in this alloy and leave the platinum me- 
tals in the form of a black powder which is attacked by nitro- 
muriatic acid, though not completely oe But the process 
is tedious and the results not very satisfacto 

ohler’st method of resolving iiekacliiees consists in passin 

moist chlorine over the ore mixed with common salt and heated 
to low redness in a glass or porcelain tube. This method is in- 


moreover less expensive ind can be carried ont with smaller. 
vessels. 


Claus’§ method of resolving the ore consists in fusing for an 
hour, at a red heat, a mixture of one part of ore with one = 


. 


* Since the above was written the eam memoir of Deville and 
the platinum metals has appeared he eee et de Bit bo , 3d, Ty 


I have not however init seo to re be per ocesses for su ae: 
izin, ng osmiridium given i bat st Ae it prcbaitie “that | the subdi- 
vf the o ga be simpler than that same 
I yaee ie above. 
es. ry _ nnalen, xxxi, 1 
ournal far prakt © Chen: xxxvii, p. 483. 
§ Beitriige zur Uhemie der Platio-metalle. Dorpat, 1854. 


ae 68 ai W. Gibbs on the Platinum Meials. 


of caustic potash and two of saltpetre. The fused mass is to 
be poured out upon a stone, allowed to cool, broken into small 
—_ or powdered, and then introduced into a flask which is to 

e filled with cold water and allowed to stand for twenty-four 
hours. The clear deep orange red solution of osmate and ruthe- 


po e 
unattacked ore is then to be fused a second time with potash and 
saltpetre and treated as before. Claus asserts t e has been 
able in thi ner to resolve the Siberian osmiridium com- 


en ae AEE eee ee SO 


= 

@ 
5 
° 
er 
e. 
S 

r 
g 
5 
nm 
fo) 
ea 
g 
= 
i=] 
Ls] 
er 
8 
a 
E 
ot 
& 
% 
3 
“ 
= 
i= 
a 
iB 


eee iy OTs TERE ar Ma Cee 


- dered soluble by two fusions with potash and saltpetre. I em- 
ploy at present the method of Claus with several modifications 


ot of 
e 3 & 
Be & 
et OS 
eo 6} 
oe 
4 ot 
dq S 
Sp B 
o See 
~ ra 
tio 
of 
3 oO @ 
oes 
3S 

BSP 
ea 
og 
5 °°o 
4 
oof 
oO nm 
2 © 
gee 
as} 

& a 
PoE 
ger 
2 
So 9, 
3 
a ea 
Rew 
7. 
cs 
Bae 


Ae Se ae FE BERET eT neg Sed a 


we . 
W. Gibbs on the Platinum Metals ci 


the first place, the quantity of water required to dissolve out the 
soluble portions is very large, and the subsequent treatnient of 
such bulky solutions by distillation with acids, tedious—very 
large retorts being necessary. In the next place, it is impossible 
in this way to avoid exposure to the vapor of osmic acid, espe- 
cially in transferring the solutions from one vessel to another. I 
therefore prefer the following process which leaves nothing to be 
desired in point of safety or convenience. The fused mass is to 

e broken into pieces with a hammer and brought into a clean 
‘ iron pot—a common skillet with a long handle answers this pur- 
pose extremely well. Boiling water containing about one-tenth 
of its volume of strong alcohol is then to be added and the whole 
is to be boiled over an open fire until the fused mass is com- 
pletely disintegrated. The osmate of potash is in this manner 
reduced to osmite KOsO,, while the ruthenate of potash is com- 
pletely decomposed, the ruthenium being precipitated as a black 
powder—probably a mixture of RuO, and Ru,O, or of the hy- 
drates of these oxyds. It is advantageous, after boiling for some 
time, to pour off the supernatant liquid with the lighter portions 
of the oxyds and boil a second time with a fresh mixture of al- 
eohol and water. In this manner we obtain a solution of osmite 


cohol and introduced into a capacious retort. By this p 
when carefully executed, no trace of osmic acid esc 
Wantawna nak tn be * ] a Se a ales fos 


* 70 oe W. Gibbs on the Platinum Metals. 


Fee 
upon the lungs have not been exaggerated and too much care — 
cannot be taken to avoid inhaling 1 7 
The solution of alkaline salts contains only a portion of the — 
osmium in the ore. The other portion exists in the mixture of | 
oxyd and must be separated by distillation. For this purpose | 
the retort should be provided with a safety tube passing through — 
the tubulure and with a receiver kept cold, and connected by a 
wide bent tube with a series of two or three two-necked bottles 
containing a strong solution of caustic potash with a little alco- — 
hol and also kept cold. All the tubulures and connections must — 
made perfectly tight. Strong chlorhydric acid is then to be — 
cautiously poured into the retort through the safety-tube in small _ 
portions at atime. The reaction which ensues is often violent; — 
great heat is evolved and a portion of the osmic acid distils over _ 
immediately and condenses in the receiver in the form of color- 
less needles. When a large excess of acid has been added, the 
action has entirely ceased and the retort has become cold, heat 
may be applied by means of a sand bath. The osmic acid grad- 


thrown away as worthless. ee 

The dissolved portions drawn off from the retort have a very _ 

dark brown-red color. The solution is to be evaporated to dry- — 

ness, redissolved in hot water and again evaporated, after adding — 
Tocess 


a little chlorhydric acid, and this p repeated till no smell — 
of osmic acid can be perceived. A cold and saturated solution — 
of chlorid of potassium is then to be added in large excess, This — 
dissolves the chlorids of iron and palladium which may be pres- 
ent, leaving platinum, iridium, rhodium and ruthenium as double 
* chlorids insoluble in a strong solution of the alkaline chlorid. — 


ON Se 


ee ee 


a ee Ree Te Clk a eee ae ee a ee ee ee aa 


O. N. Rood on producing Stereographs n Hand. 


The undissolved mass is to be well washed with a saturated so- 
lution of chlorid of potassium which, for reasons hereafter to be 
mentioned, is preferable to salammoniac. In this manner nearly 
the whole of the iron and palladium may be removed, while any 
insoluble impurities contained in the ore remain with the mixed 
double chlorids. 
New York, Oct. 31st, 1860. 
(Zo be continued.) 


Art. VIIT—On a Method of Producing Stereographs by Hand ; 
by Oapren N. Roop, Prof. of Chemistry in Troy University. 


[ With a Stereoscopic diagram. ] 


Sir Davip BRewsTER in his Treatise on the Stereoscope, (Lon- 
don, 1856) page 135, after describing a method of projecting the 
picture seen by one eye, of a symmetrical, geometric solid, and 
of sourons by reflexion from a maror a drawing of its stereo- 

¢ companion, states: “ When the geometrical solids are not 
pneu! their dissimilar pictures must be taken photograph- 
ically, from models, in the same manner as the dissimilar pictures 
of other solids.’ 

Upon page 200 of the same work he states, that though A 
ratus may be photographed directly, yet that stereoscopic diagrams 
can only be executed by the use of models made of wire, which 
are to be photographed in the usual wa 

ee same author in the article Stereoscope, Encylopedia Britan- 

ol. 1859, p. 690, writes: “As no artist, however 
skillful, is capable of executing two genie of any individual 


object, or group of objects, as the ey are seen by each eye sepa- 


rately, the stereoscope was of little sa before the art of ho- 
tography enabled us to take such pictures with the most perfect 
accurac 

In addition to pea statements, which would seem to imply 
the impossibility of producing stereographs by hand, I have not 
been able to learn from scientific friends nor from professional 
photographers, that any process is uow in use to effect this end, 
except the laborious and imperfect one of geometrical . 


jection. 
_ Under these circumstances, 1 venture to describe a sim ple method 
of drawing pA SOETAD HE, which possibly may manele a dans in- 
ent. 


this depart 
hen we examine attentively a photographic stere 
with the aid of micrometrical measurements, and adopt. the 


hand picture as a standard o hie wW find nom the | ht f 


os 


ae 6 Ls a 


pe 
Pe = & ° : ‘ 
12 O. N. Rood on producing Stereographs by Hand. 


hand; objects farther back, have their position shifted still more 
to the right hand, &e. 
This is illustrated by fig. 1, where A is in the immediate fore- 
1. ground, and D in the background. 
Now if we had a single drawing i in 
D perspective, of a house for example, 
ry and could produce a fac-simile of it, 
A this would evidently answer for the 
left-hand picture. If we could again 
reproduce this drawing on the right hand of the slide, with all 
the objects or points in it back of the immediate foreground, 
shifted to the right hand the proper distances, we should nerd a 
pair of pictures, which when combined in the stereoscope would 
give T elief, 
To oo this is the era o the machine seen in fig. 2. 
It s of a board, 10 in. by 


Ppwady 


eated in the figure: its motion is ef 
fected by the screw A, which acts 
: against the India rubber band I: the 
~ screw and its support are removable 
at pleasure. Ther mirror M serves for illumination ; the shade B 
moves on hinges, and regulates the amount of light which falls 

on the paper while the drawing i is being 
© produce a stereograph, the object or objects to be repre- 
are drawn in hs ib with ink on writing paper; this 


un 
hand has been pro educed eet is chs left-hand pict : 
The slider is now moved toward the right sand a paistensd of © 
9-6 in. and the screw with the India rubber band attached. a 
An object, or a small portion of an object, in the immedute — 
foreground is now traced, then the screw is turned slightly so as _ 
throw the next object, or the remainder of the first object, — 
slightly toward the right hand where it also is drawn, &e, Thus 
we advance slowly toward the background, turning the screw . 


; aM Jour, Scr—szc 


N > em ™ ae 
O. N. Rood on producing Stereographs by Han 1 yi 


each time that depth is to be represented. This in practice is a 
very simple operation, and if the displacements toward the right 
hand have been rightly proportioned the effect produced is good.* 

The process is also a rapid one, for it consists only in making 
two tracings. 

The question now arises as to the total amount of displace- 
ment allowable, and as to its proper distribution. 

If a number of stereoscopic photographs are examined it will 
be found that in those where the sum of all the displacements is 
not more than one or two tenths of an inch the two images are 
readily united, and a good general effect produced, while in 
those where this quantity is as great as three or four tenths, diffi- 
culty is experienced in effecting the union. 

Taking then -2 of an inch as the maximum total displacement 
allowable, the method of its distribution from foreground to 

ackground can be calculated in the following way : 
‘ Let EE’ be the distance between the eyes 
: =2°5 in., QD=6 in. the nearest distance of dis- 
tinct vision; CD=1 in. A small object being 
placed at D and another at C, the eye EH sees 
.g the two objects projected in the line FG ate 
and D; the eye H’ sees the same objects at D 
andc’. Here the total displacement, oe 
the picture seen by the left eye as a standd 
of comparison, is equal to the distance ec’, 
With the proportion :— ; 
QC : HQ=(1'25 in.) :: CD: cD= < 
we have at once the value of this quantity. In like manner 
this displacement on the line FG for 2, 3, 4 or any number of 
inches from Q is readily calculated. | 
As an example I subjoin the following table applicable to 


~ 


small models: 
For the 19th inch above 6 inches, 


Total displacement. 

or for the 25th inch, . 1-900 inch, eo 2s 
i ae ‘ «9022 
te ee ee es * +040 
ee ee os POU * -060 
id a ee 1980.“ “ +080 
ih 8 42 000. “* +100 
|. hice 2016 “ 4. ie 
se bin OO ‘¢_o. 
os eee 2045 « ‘ 145 
OR ak ek a ORE «  e. 
oN LU a wee 4) Be 
36 Ci 

: imes ha 

Th hidden in the left picture 


ee hu a 


* 


ea & 


- and stone and reproduced by the thousand. 


4 % > 3 : 
). IN. Rood on producing Stereographs by Hand. 


As in using this table objects in the extreme foreground are | 
supposed to be 25 inches distant from Q, we have for them not 
a displacement 1-900 in. but 0: for the 26th inch, viz. the Ist _ 
inch of depth in the picture the quantity ‘022, &. Thus if we 
know the distance from the spectators of the objects to be repre- 
sented, they can be located on the stereograph. In the same 
manner tables are constructed which apply to objects placed at 
greater distances from the eye. Indeed after some practice very 
tolerabie stereoscopic representations of many objects can 
made without reference to such tables. (See drawing.) 

This process was originally devised by me for the production — 
of stereoscopic representations of optical phenomena, which when — 
well executed form almost a substitute for the real illustrations. — 

Photography for obvious reasons is not well adapted to this — 
class of object 


many of these effects are greatly enhanced. The phenomena of 
complementary colors, and many other facts of 3h | 
not. i 


the same gentleman has suggested to me, be rendered intelligi — 
ble by the stereoscope without the use of costly apparatus. The 
stereoscope is thus capable, in the hands of an expert teacher, — 
of a far wider range of use than was at first seen. E 
At the suggestion of Dr. W. Gibbs, I have also made a few 
stereoscopic drawings of erystal models: these can be drawn 
by this instrument with perhaps greater facility and rapidity than _ 
ts. , 


. 


any other ¢lass of objec th 
The accompanying stereoscopic diagram was drawn with my 
a fees pip eco ve tab é : 
utline sketches of eve escription stereoscopi wings - 

of ideal objects or of obec not fat x ion ae: craps 
man, are by this process readily executed—problems evidently — 
beyond the power of photography. 
Finally the drawings thus made can be transferred to wood 


Troy, Oct, 11th, 1860. 


s Ee .s ae 


x» , . 
M. C. Lea on Sources of Error, etc. . 75 


ArT. [X.—WNole on Sources of Error tn the Employment of 
Picrie Acid to detect the Presence of Potash; by M. Canny Lea, 
Philadel phia. 


[Read before the Am. Assoc. for the Adv. of Sci., at Newport, August, 1860.] 


Proric acid enjoys a high reputation as a test for potash. 
operas in its alcoholic solution, or as soda or ammonia salt 
sometimes as magnesia salt, it gives with potash solutions a 
dense valley crystalline precipitate. If the solution containing 

otash be very dilute, the precipitate may not make its appear- 
ance till after some hours repose, and it then forms long delicate 
needles 

ens remarks that this reagent “1s even more sensitive than 
the solution of chlorid of platinum.” In his summing up, he 
observes, that of the various reagents, chlorid of latinum, tar- 
taric acid, picric acid, perchloric “acid, sulphate of alumina and 
hydrofluosilicic acid, ‘the latter is insufficient to distinguish be- 
tween potash an soda; and that the chlorid of platinum and 


I therefore believe that ee remarkable insolubility of ethane 
wise soluble —— es in alcaline solutions has not been” 
before pointed o If an alcoholic solution of picric acid be 
poured into a a of oaresbidls of soda, it occasions an imme~ 
diate dense yellow: precipitate, not to be distinguished in appear~ 
ance from a precipitate of picrate of potash, and liable to be 
mistaken for it with the greatest facility. The picrate of soda 
formed in the case just mentioned is the most soluble of all the 
alcaline picrates, and @ priori we should not expect to find it 
precipitated under these circumstances: an aqueous preven of 
picrate of soda added to one of carbonate of soda a 
cisely the same manner. 

0 ascertain if these reactions were extended to various com- : 
pounds of picric acid, examinations were made which gave with — 
the following results 

Alcoholic solution ‘of picric acid added to 
solution of carbonate of ammonia, ‘gave ai an immediate 
yellow seyatsllies precipitate. : 
‘ _ earbonate of soda gave not so instantaneous spre 
cipitate, but one which after ncn. sean 
even more dense. pet 

Rose, Handbuch der ytischen Chemie, 1F 6-108. 

t Plattner, die Poke dem fstisebes: Bend p- 178. 


* 


— , —_— 
a 76 M. C. Lea on the Sources of Error in the Employment 


“xcaraanen solutions of picrate a sey gave with 
solution of carbonate ammon’ 
sulphate of rater abundant precipitates. 
carbonate 0 
phosphate of ade, ‘slight precipitate. 
Aqueous solution of picrate of ammonia gave with 
solution of we of ammonia, 
ulphate of ammonia, ~¢ abundant precipitates. 
a row seh of soda, 
“ hosphate of soda, non 
-. Aqueous solution of picrate of magnesia gals with 
solution a carbonate of so 
arbonate of ammonia, 


When the ite, solutions to be tested are otherwise than 
very dilute there is absolutely no difference in the appearance of 
the precipitates. When the amount of precipitate 1s. small, the 
following differences may be observe 

The potash precipitate forms longer eee and when these 
are found only after standing, or when the precipitate is redis- 
solved by heat and allowed to crystallize by slow cooling, they 
exhibit a beautiful play of red and green colors. 

igad soda salt is of a lighter and Weett: yellow than either 
the potash or ammonia salt, Its needles are also shorter than 
those of either of the other compounds, and when the precipitate 

_ has been redissolved by heat, and allowed to crystallize by slow 
_ eooling, they tend to agglomerate themselves together in spheri- 
eal masses. This is a very marke eee and when exhibi- 
ted, is Coy daca but is not always 
e ammonia salt when engtallized in riaiies is very dis- 
tinct in ea e from the potash salt, but when thrown down 
in small ee even by slow erate ess, cannot be distin- 
epee m it with certainty. The prisms are flatter, but these 
ifferences are not apparent in very slender needles. The pay : 
of colors which the ammonia salt exhibits to a less degree than 
ee oueeeoa entirely in the soda salt. 
ty iti eactions ss that yo ee must be 
used 1n e chine picric acid as a test for potas e€ 
tates atove described do not redissolve a an cee ae | 
picrate, or of picric aoe nor is it to be supp that concentra- — 


t abundant precipitates. 


ted alcaline solntians a necessary to cause them—on the con- 
as, in many ¢ te dilute ones are sufficient. To deter 
mine within i nits such reactions are produced, the follow: | 
ing trials were made: 

A. Dilution of the alcaline solutions. Limits ohtaiatd, 

(L) With carbonate of soda, 


+ 
of Picric Acid to detect the Presence of Potash. 77 


A solution containing 5 per cent anhydrous carbonate of soda ti 


with alcoholic solution of picric acid, an immediate abundant pre- 
ag in 10 minutes the tube could be ats without 
ing the contents. 


spi 
with solution picrate of soda, an ey ye precpiye becoming in 
e course of an hour a very dens 
A solution containing 24 per cent atinininte of soda 
‘with alcoholic picric acid, a slight precipitate frisrendfad very much 
standing, so that after 18 hours the tube could be invert- 
ed without spilling the contents. 
with picrate of soda, non 
A solution containing 1 pari cent carbonate of soda gave 
with alcoholic picric ~ slight precip. after 18 hours repose. 


with alcoh. picric acid, immediate dense pre 


solution containing 2} p. c. sulph. ammonia gave 
- with alco - picrie on egetins dense precip. 
solution containing 1 p. c. sulph. ammonia gave _ 
with alcoh. picric acid, immediate dense precip. 
“ solution picrate soda, immediate slight precipitate. The solu- 
tion on standing gave a beautiful crystallization of long 
needles with ber Ried of colors, exactly resembling the 
reaction of potash sa 
picrate magnesia, by “vine standing, a very faint precip. 
picrate ammonia, - ne. 
solution soto zip anh. sulphate ammonia gave 

with alcoh. pieric acid, after a short interval an abundant precipitate. 
— containing =}, anh. sulph. ammonia gave 

alcoh. picri¢ acid, after a short pyr a oe precip. 

iction containing yo'gy anh. sulph. a 

with a Sa acid, no slelpleath, pe ata twenty-four hours’ 


“ 
its 


_B Lim oe ee — respect to indications of diluted solu- 
tions of alcaline picra 

A solution of picrate os ammonia in 200 parts water gave—with an 
equal volume of strong solution of carbonate of ammonia, an immediate 
precipitate of small yellow needles—in 10 minutes a considerable fies «0 
ty settled at the Arma of - vessel. 


The son to _ pk ie thes results is, 
That. alcoholic solution of picric ueous ; oe of 
picrate of soda will produce a Asin stnie weve won" most any alcaline 


oo 


78 M..C. Lea on New Combinations of 


agi whether of soda, ammonia or potash, except under cir- 
nees of great dilution, especially if allowed to repose for 
24 rivera: 
That picrate of ammonia os picrate of magnesia give the 
same results, but in a less degr 
hat picrie acid is therefeve wth unreliable as a test for 
potash; the results obtained being such.as would tend rb Se 
to mislead those who are not extrem mely familiar with t 4 
pearance of the precipitates, and that in some eases. the resulli 
are so deceptive that even eyes most familiar with these reactions 
might be —— for example, in the result-obtained above by 
testing a solution ’ containing 1 per cent. sulphate of ammonia 
with solution of picrate of soda. In this case a eetaiaileaation of 
aoe ve ammonia was obtained perfectly eintulating that of the 
otas : 
. Piano: acid is in fact a better test for soda, than for pot 
ash, because with a soda solution it gives a precipitate which + 
redissolved by heat generally (but not always) givesa character. 
istic spherically radiated, bright canary yellow crystallization, 
wares the precipitate obtained from a a potash solution can 
‘be positively distinguished by its appearance from that 
an ammonia solution, and we have just seen thata — 
Ration: containing ,1, of sul hate of ammonia or even less, is 
capable of producing such a precipitate. 
see Feb. 23d, 1860. 


« 


ae 


SO 


2 

) 

: 
~ ~ Awe econ a Series of New Chmabinations 3 Ammonia, Picrie : 
_. Acid and Metallic Bases ; by M. C 


[Read bitteae the Am. Assoc, for the Advancement of Sci., at Newport, Aug. 1860.] 
IN a paper published i in this Journal, aa xxvi, 379, for 1858, 
described tw genase picric and ammonia with — 


ng che in a state of tolerable 
*. purity. Since then T have found that many other metals im . 


compounds o ar nature, and have succeeded in obtaining — 
several of hae sufficiently ints for ap a analysis. — 
“results obtained are given brie vos So are in 


progress and I hope to communicate 
When a metallic salt is precipitated oe setae a and a lange 
excess of the precipitant added, a moreor less complete solotion: 
of the precipitate is frequently ‘obtained, especially if a consider- 
= quantity of ammoniacal salt be p resent. I have found that. 
these ammoniacal solutions when caer with an alcaline pirate,” 
for the most part yield an immediate precipitate con 


a. 


F Aibsiomia, Picric Acid and Metallic. Bases. 79 


ee ee eee ites: 


re ¢ 
80 _ MM. C. Lea on New Combinations of 


pia another portion the metallic oxyd was found by appropri- 
means. 


@ As far as examined, the ammonia-picrates all contain more 
than one equivalent of ammonia, and are represented either by 
the formula :— 


oNI,MO.C,, snd. ¢° or 8NH,2 [ m0. 0,, 9B jo} 


Ammonia-picrate of silver. 

Nitrate of silver dissolved in water and treated first with 
excess of ammonia, and the resulting clear solution mixed with 
cold saturated solution of picrate of ammonia gives a 
an abundant highly oe a yellow precipitate of amm 


nia-picrate of silver, which is to be thrown upon a filter, shall 
oughly washed with dilute read and dried in vacuo over 
sulphuric acid. 


Tt is to be observed that in the formation of this, as well as of 
# all the other salts here eco the metallic solution must inva 


rate. Hven with every precaution, it is difficult and in some 
cases apparently apne to obtain the ammonia-picrate per 
fectly free from this impur: 
daha 

*4245 substance gave ‘26382 picric acid. 

*5865 “ “cc “36 0 “ “ 

4245 i ” 157 7 chlorid of silver. 

"5865 od “ ad 

@10n “+4932 etdneiaaarusts of ammonia. 
This leads to the formula :— 


a «| 
gNH,AgOC, > 3x6, 4° 


Dried over sulphuric acid in vacuo :— ite 
Calculated. 


Found. < 
ae . 86 Mean. 
C,2H,N,0,,- - - 6162 61:73 61°11 61°42 
i a Ce 27°96 27°94 27°95 
OH, -. + - - + O10" 9-93 9°93 
100°00 99°62 99°30 


* See page 75. 


Re eae ee Oe NN a ee Ee EE Be Ne Rene ee eesEs aS 


Ce a ee ee ee ee ogee een ey ee ae ae ees 
eT ae ee Eres i i 


. * , ae 
Ammonia, Picrie Acid and Metallic Bases. 61 


The silver falls below, and the ammonia exceeds the caleula- 
ted amount in consequence of the impossibility of obtaining the 
salt quite free from admixed picrate of ammonia. 

This beautiful salt appears to be one of the most permanent 
of this very unstable class of substances. It dissolves readil 
in hot water containing ammonia, sparingly in cold, and erystal- 
lizes in fine needles from the hot solution. Heated on platinum 
foil it detonates and leaves a brilliant spot of metallic silver. 


Ammonia-picrate of copper. 


* A cold saturated solution of picrate of ammonia added to an 
ammoniacal solution of sulphate or nitrate of copper, immediately 
throws down an abundant precipitate which after washing with 
strong solution of carbonate of ammonia and afterward with 

ilute ammonia exhibits a beautiful pale greenish yellow color 
with a shade of red through it. Itis in fine scales and much 
resembles the dust ‘of the wings of butterflies. 

_ Analysis gave for this salt a constitution similar to that of the 
silver salt. — 


6059 gms. substance gave °4652 picric acid. 
9 “ “6 ce 


1279 oxyd of copper. 
14240 & “ +1577 metallic copper. 
"6059 « . “ +2190 chlorhydrate of ammonia. 


The copper was determined in the one case by. precipitating 
the cupric solution while boiling with hyposulphite of soda, dis- 
solving in aqua regia, evaporating to dryness, redissolving in 
dilute chlorhydrie acid, and precipitating with distilled zinc and 
estimating as metallic copper—in the other by precipitating at 

2° by caustic soda. oes 

These results lead to the formula :— 

eNH,0u0.C,, snd, 4° 
Dried over sulphuric acid in vacuo:— 
. Caleulated. : Found. 


2, Mean. — 
C,,H.N.O. 77-63 76:44 76°44 
ars or Ae 
Cu 10°79 10:97 11:07 11-02. 
2NH, 11:58 11°52 Be ie 
100-00 


In an experiment to ascertain whether all the moiste | 
Temoved by drying in vacuo over SO,, a quantity of two. 
grammes by exposure to a temperature of 210° to 212° for 9 


hours in the exsiccator lost a little less than one and a half 


- At Jour. Sct.—Szconp Suntes, Vor. XXXI, No. 1.—Jay., 1861 - 
ee XxX bi : 


| * 
82 M. C. Lea on New Combinations of — 


Heated on platinum foil the ammonia picrate of copper ex- 
plodes with some violence and with a dazzling light. 


Ammonia-picrate of Cobalt. 

To a solution of protochlorid of cobalt prepared from chlorid 
of purpureo-cobalt in the manner recommended by Gibbs and 
Genth in their interesting and valuable paper on the ammonia- 
cobalt bases, a large excess of ammonia was added, and to the fil- 
trate, cold saturated solution of picrate of ammonia. An abund- 
ant highly crystalline precipitate falls at once, which after dry- 
ing is yellowish green: while moist decomposes with great 
facility with separation of cobaitous ox 

“6293 substance gave °4784 picric acid. 

"607 5 oc “ . 6c “ 

6067 - “+1641 protosulphate of cobalt. 
*5416 “ “ *1475 “cc 6 “ 


6075 % “ +2065 chlorhydrate of ammonia. 
which results lead to the formula :— 
es H 
@NH,C0O0.C12 snd), bo+HO. 
Calculated. Found. 
1. , _ Mean. 
Ogg Ny Ous 75°87 75°69 75:29 75°49 
Co 9°82 10°13 10°29 10°21 
2NH, 11°32 10°81 10°81 
HO ee 2°99 
100°00 


Ammonia-picrate of Zinc. : die 
To a solution of pure sulphate of zinc, chlorhydric acid was 


added in sufficient quantity to prevent precipitation by the sub 


Ammonia, Picric Acid and Metallic Bases. 83 


sequent addition of ammonia in excess. To the a solution, 
a hot, strong solution of picrate of ammonia was a Imme- 
diately the whole became nearly solid with beautiful yellow nee- 
dles and scales—the beaker was rapidly cooled by cold water, 
the contents thrown on a filter, and washed first with a solu- 
tion of carbonate of ammonia mixed with caustic ammonia, and 
finally with dilute caustic ammonia alone 
The splendid gold yellow mass of interlaced needles and scales, 
was more or less decomposed, even by the most careful washing, 
so that the brightest and purest parts only could be taken for 
analysis, nor were even these satisfactory. 
CHIN O.. mean of 5 determinations, 81:26 
re é“ 3 eae - 9:06 
- - 10°08 
100°30 


3 
fae . ‘ e ‘ Zs 


The formula 8NH, 3[70.0,, iad bo. ] requires :— 
+ 


De ee 
Wig ecke A ee ae ee ie: AOE 
100-00 


The salt examined may be either this compound containing 
ed picrate of ammonia, or may be a mixture of :-— 


INH200.C25NG, t 0, wiee 


Ni,Zn0.C,, i, me 


of the latter hypothesis. 
Ammonia-picrate of Cadmium. | ee 


The cadmium salt is eee and eink eh in exactly re a i, 


manner as the zinc, which it nearly rese 


es: it is however not~ 
sO Siok in color, but pure anus y allow. Like Lt zine 5 


Heated on platinum the salt wih a beautiful 
Tight, - hose, 


eS 


- 


84 M. C. Lea on New Combinations of 


“7170 substance gave °5247 picric acid. 
6622 6“ ee A877 “ & 


1°1459 ac “ "8452 4“ ‘cc 
6496 # * +1653 sal ammoniac. 

1:1459 ‘7 nae A PS ite 
6045 * +6289 chlorplatinate of ammonia. 
7321 n Be * 1 bOL i 


These.results lead to the formula :— 
sNH,3| Cd 0.C,. and; ! 0.| 


Pe Te ny Nes ney eee Pn ee ree 


Calculated. Found. 


Z 2 Mean. 
2(C,,H,N,0,,) 7867 73-44 72:86 73°31 73°20 
aNiy ee 824 810 817 793 8-07 
2Cd 1809 1794 *  TT94 

100-00 


? 
It seems however not improbable that this substance may be | 
a mixture in nearly equivalent quantities of the salts :— : 


NH,Cd0.C,, 3nd, (0 and 2NH,Cd0.C,, and, (°- 


for reasons similar to those mentioned in the case of the zine 
salt. | 


Ammonia-picrate of Chromium. 
This salt is easily obtained from an ammoniacal solution of — 


chromoxyd which may be prepared in the following manner: 


idded. A strongly alkaline beautiful pu 
obtained which may be preserved in pt 


: 
: 
| 


Ammonia, Picric Acid and Metallic Bases. 85. 


precipitation of chromoxyd. On cooling, picrate of ammonia 
crystallizes out. Even with very careful washing the salt is al- 
ways partly decomposed, with separation of green oxyd of chro- 
mium 


The portions that were least decomposed were selected, but 
were not sufficiently pure to give any satisfactory result, al- 
though a number of specimens were analyzed. 


1. -6949 substance gave *5864 picric acid. 

2. 5587 “94785 

3. °4446 2 ae it arg ¢ 

4. 4446 * “ +0179 sesq. ox. chromium. 

5. 6949 “c a a “ 
These numbers correspond to 

ts, GyglighaVie 84:02 per cent. 

9. “ 85°14 “ %& 

3. iT 83:06 se “ 

4. Cr he lie SE 

5. “ 2:68 “a “ 


results which do not lead to any satisfactory conclusion, but 
show that the quantity of ammonia salt necessary to keep the 
chromoxyd in solution, throws down picrate of ammonia simul- 
taneously with the ammonia-picrate of chromium. This salt is 
very beautiful, its lustre is remarkable. 


= 
o 
=f 
° 
oc 
aah 
Mey 
he! 
@ 
oO 
oy 
o 
Qu 
nm 
a 
S 
: 
S 
8. 
for 
4 
= 
i) 
ey 
ed 
(2) 
a 
= 
Me 
po 
ay 
oO 
8 
j= | 
ete 
a 
ie 
a) 


vations made :— te 

A. If a cold solution of picrate of ammonia be poured into 

an ammoniacal solution of manganese prepared by adding to a 
ution of manganous sulphate an equal volu 


Served) is at once precipitated. The following were the obser- 


concentra sol 
of dilute chlorhydrie acid, and then ammania in large excess, 
foe falls. a cee of brilliant satiny scales, mised however 
ren re lenpaeeee gerne Tara 
able a he ace manganous oxyd, which is oes ot tinguish 
- If the ammoniacal solution is added to a hot moderately 
strong solution of picrate of ammonia and the whole be rapidly 


| 
86 M. C. Lea on New Combinations of Ammonia, etc. 


filtered, the liquid passes through before complete precipitation 
takes place, and on cooling, granular crystals are obtained which 
rapidly turn brown in the air. Heated on platinum foil, they 
turn brown, melt and deflagrate sharply with a brilliant white 
light. 

Neither A, nor B, yield a salt sufficiently pure for analysis. 
A, always contains admixed manganous oxyd and B, picrate of 


ammonia. A, bears considerable resemblance to the chrome salt 
j ibed. 


10115 of B gave 9115 picric acid. 
So large a percentage of picric acid corresponding to 89°72 per 
cent of the molecule C,,H,N,0,, probably indicates a large 
admixture of picrate of ammonia, which cannot be removed. 
The formula 


NH,Mn0. Os ake O requires 84:59 per cent. 
4 


Ammonia-picrate of Iron. 


nt ted to dissolve, but ferric oxyd is thrown down and picrate 
andpi ts ; node : 


impossible to obtain this salt in a condition to admit of even aa 
approximate determination of its constitution. 


If acetate of lead be treated with ammonia in excess, and ifto _ 


. 
. 


the clear solution be added picrate of ammonia, a curdy precip- 


itate, at first pale yellow, gradually deepening to orange color : 


falls. Heated on platinum foil it detonates with violence. 


Boiled with caustic alkali, it disen no ammonia. The re 
sult of an analysis showed it to be Marchand’s penta-basic ae 


crate of lead, 4PbO PO C,, gxig $0. ‘The above described — 
4 ; 
salts containing ammonia are all highly crystalline. The lead | 


‘compound just mentioned is amorphous. 
Other ammonia picrates exist which I propose to examin? 
hereafter. 
Philadelphia, July 14, 1860 


* 


: 


a 
ie 


J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 87 


T. XI.—Zhe Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites,—a complete 
account of the phenomena attending their fall with a chemical 
analysis of them; by J. Lawrence Smiru, M.D., Prof. of 
Chemistry in the University of Louisville, Ky. 


AGREEABLY to the promise made in the July number of this 
I propose giving, as far as possible, a complete account 
of the remarkable fall of meteoric stones that occurred in the 
‘month of May in the eastern part of the State of Ohio. 
I have thought proper to call them the Guernsey County Mete- 
orites ; since we are commonly in the habit of distinguishing the 
meteorites found in this country, by the name of the county in 
which they fell or were found. All but one of the great num- 
er of meteoric stones that fell on this occasion, were found in 
Guernsey county ahd that exceptional specimen fell in Musk- 
ingum on the edge of Guernsey county. 
Although the public have been notified of this phenomenon 
by various observers, especially by those who gave their observ- 
ations in the July number of this Journal; yet, as this paper 
was nearly completed at the time, and is believed to embrace a 
full description, it is as well to present it to the public as it is; 
combining all the particulars of this fall of meteorites, the most 
remarkable ever observed in this country, and equal to, if not 
surpassing the famous fall at l’Aigle in France, with which it has 
many points of interest in common, that will be stated in the 
course of this paper. s 
My attention was first directed to this occurrence, by a short a 
notice of it in a newspaper, as being an earthquake that had occur- ge 
red in eastern Ohio, accompanied with a shower of stones Sus- 
pecting the true nature of the phenomenon, I immediately visited 
the spot, where it was said to have occurred and collected the 
Statements of those persons who had witnessed the fall. It was 
ascertained that on Tuesday, May Ist, 1860, remarkable pheno- 
mena transpired in the heavens, of which the following are ac- 
counts given by different observers, men of intelligence and ob- 
servation. 


three minutes and seemed to come from the southwest, at an ele- : 
vation above the horizon of 80 to 40 degrees, terminating in the 


88 J. L. Smith on the Guernsey (Ohio) County Meteorites. 


southeast, at about the same elevation. In the district where the 
meteorites fell, the explosions were heard immediately over- 
head. 


The first reports were so heavy as to produce a tremulous mo- 
tion, like heavy thunder, causing the glass in windows to rattle. 
The sound was so singular, that it caused some excitement and 
ost many supposing it an earthquake. At Barnesville, twen- 

miles east of Cambridge, the cry of fire was made, as the 
is 88 sound was thought to be the roaring of fire 


e day was cool and the sky covered at the time with light 


loci os thunder or lightning had been noticed that da avi 
nor could any thing unusual be seen in the appearance of t 
clouds. Immediately on hearing the report, this observer looked 
in the direction it came, and noticed the eka closely but could 
not see any thing unusual. 

he next morning it was ae 3 in Cambridge that aerolites 


had fallen on a farm in the vicinity of New Concord, (eight miles 


zing sound to the earth—one striking about 300 yards to the 


southwest of them and the other about 100 yards north. 

hey immediately went to the spot where the first fell, and 
found it buried two feet in the ground. They dug it out and 
found it quite warm and of a sulphurous rine The other 
struck a fence corner and breaking the ends of some of the rails 


penetrated i | 

through a pose of dry leaves; the first weighed 52 ibs., the 
other was broken up but must have weighed about 40 ibs. 
Another of 41 md weight, not seen to fall, was discovered at the 
bottom of a hole two feet deep, where it had £ fallen on stiff turf, 


and was seen at the bottom of the hole, having carried the sod — 


before it. It must have come from the — at an angle 
60° with the horizon. Many were discovered to have fallen 


southeast of Cambridge but of nation a: S eeieons than those — 
already referred to. At the time of oceurrence nearly all. 

were at dinner, or in and about their — The stones ob- | 
tained were mostly found near houses, where they were seen to 
fall, as the sound of their striking es sat ebiseried attentions 


Another well informed observer, Dr. McConnel of New Con- 


cord, (a small town eight miles east of Cambridge), furnishes the a 
following particulars. On Tuesday, the Ist of May, at twenty- 
le of that vicinity — 


eight minutes past twelve o'clock, the people of 


oe 
i ae 
zai eed a 
= 2 eit e z ‘ pa ees 
Pe ee ee ee ee ee Pee eS eee Se eee te ne 


4, Seater 


Fle a ee ees 


ie 
J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 89 


were almost panic stricken by a strange and terrible report in 
the heavens, which shook the houses for many miles distant. 
The first report was immediately overhead, and after an inter- 
val of a few seconds, was followed by similar reports, with such 
increasing rapidity, that after the number of twenty-two were 
counted, “they were no longer distinct, but became continuous 

and died away like the roaring of distant thunder; the course 
of the reports being from the meridian _ the southeast. In 
one instance, three men wo orking in a field,—their self pos- 
Session being measurably restored from the shock of the more 
terrible report from above,—had their attention attracted by a 
buzzing noise overhead nae soon observed a large body descend- 
ing, stri uke the earth at a distance of about one hundred yards. 


from which they extracted an irregular quadrangular stone 
weighing fifty-one pounds, This stone ha buried itself two 


= McKin 
E ..-Uhe keinesd is leith those who heard the noises but did not see 
7 "he Liege the following are a few statements of the many I col- 
4 from those who witnessed the ~ ¥ the stones. I ex- 
4 a from their depositions made at the 

_, “Theard the reports and roaring as ltt ‘described. Anda 
few a a gt aierwards I saw a large body or substance deoosele 


@ noise as of a body falling 

— ground. And Miss A site also says that she was stant 

_ Mrs. Fillis, heard the same and saw some cuban eset 

_ Strike the earth some one hundred yards distant and 

’ Fill illis repaired to the spot and there found a stone 

_ Amt Jovz. Scr—Secoxp Sezes, Vou. XXXI, ae 1.—Jax., 1801. 
12 


$ 
90 J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 


beneath the surface weighing twenty-three pounds.” Signed by — 
Agnes Fillis, Mary J. Cherry. ’ 

“T distinctly heard the roaring and sounds as above described — 
and a few seconds after the above report, I saw descending from — 
the clouds a Jarge body that struck the earth about one hundred — 
and fifty yards from where I then stood, and 1 immediately re 
paired to the spot and about two feet beneath the surface found — 
a stone weighing forty-two pounds, a second or two after seeing _ 


the first stone, I saw another descend and strike the earth about — 


the same distance from where I stood, I also took the last men — 
tioned stone from the earth about two feet beneath the sur — 
face; both the above stones when taken from the earth were — 
quite warm. I also saw a third stone descend.” Signed by — 
Samuel M. Noble. : 

One observer saw a stone fall within three feet of his horse's _ 
head. One of the most southerly stones struck a barn; while | 
some people retired within doors for fear of being struck. ; 

These, with many others of a similar nature, were the data ob- _ 
tained near the region of the fall of stones. It is importantto | 
remember, that to these near observers no luminosity or fire ball — 
was visible. 


direction of the sound varied with the locality. An examination 


ball = fire about above the horizon. I mee , 
erly direction with great velocity. It appea: Nite a8 
melted iron, and left a bright ‘etek of fire > oe Fee é 
faded into a white vapor. This remained more than a min 
when it became crooked and disappeared.” eh 
r. Wm. C, Welles of Parkersburg, Virginia, (lat 89° | a 
long. 81° 24’,) about sixty miles south of Cambridge, saw 
meteorite as a ball of fire of great brillianey emerging from 


J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 91 


hind one cloud and disappearing behind another. Other obser- 
vers at some distance to the south of the point where the fall 
occurred saw this meteorite as a luminous bo 

The above I conceive to be all the observations worthy of 
note concerning the fall of this meteorite. 

The time of the day, and the number and intelligence of the 
observers, unite to give considerable interest and value to these 
observations. While some of them show points of difference, 
natural to the observation of sudden and startling phenomena, 
we can yet deduce from them many conclusions with more or 
less accuracy, thus :— ' 

Lhe direction of the Meteorite—My own observations of two of 
the stones which fell half a mile apart, enable me to give the di- 
rection of the meteor with some degree of exactness. The first 
of these stones struck the end of the rails of a Virginia (zig-zag) 


it subdivided and was scattered (‘exploded’ as usually termed,) 
over Guernsey and the edge of Muskingum counties, It is, how- 
ever, but proper that I should give Prof. Evans's computation 
from the data he collected; they were published in the July num- 
ber of this Journal, but their reproduction will not be out of 


Pp ere. ee 
“Mr. William C. Welles of Parkersburg, Virginia (lat. 39° _ 

10’, long. 81° 24’), a gentleman of liberal education, testifies — 

that being about three miles east of that place at the time of the — 

occurrence, he happened to look up to the northeast of him, and 

saw a meteor of great size and brilliancy, emereias rom behind 

one cloud and disappearing behind another. When about 

was 


east of north he thinks its altitude was 65°. Now the dist: s 
in a direction 35° east of north, from his station to the liz os 
rectly under the meteor’s path, is 20 miles. Calculating from — 


92 J. EL. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorite. 


these data I find for the vertical height, taken to the nearest | 


unit, 48 miles. This was at a point in Washington county near _ 
the border of Noble. 

“Mr. C. Hackley testifies that he saw the meteor from Berlin 
in Jackson county. It crossed a cloudless space in the northeast, 
and he thinks its altitude, at the highest point, was 30°. Now 


A te’ Deh ee Be 


the distance from Berlin to the nearest point under the meteors — 


path is 70 miles. These data give nearly 41 miles for its verti- 
cal height over Noble county, a few miles to the south of Sarahs- 
ville (lat. 39° 53’, long. 81° 40’). 

‘Many other reliable witnesses have been found who saw the 
meteor through openings in the clouds from various points west 
of its path; and whose testimony so far agrees with the fore 

oing as to give results ranging between 37 and 44 miles. Care 
as been taken as far as possible to verify the data in each case 
by personal examintion of the witnesses. The angles have in 
most instances been taken as pointed out by them from their 


the region east of its path. But it was a circumstance in some 
respects favorable to the definiteness of the observations made 
from the west side, that the observers in nearly all cases saw the 
meteor only at one point, or within a very small space on the 
heavens. It is impossible to reconcile the various accoun 

ithout granting that its ps was very nearly as above de- 
id not vary far from 40 miles as it 


between seeing the fire-ball and hearing the report, the state- 
ments are so vague that not much reliance has been placed upon 
them. It may be remarked, however, that they will essentiall: 
agree with the foregoing conclusions, if we suppose that the lou 
est explosion took place in the southern part of Noble county. 
“T will add under this head the statement of Mr. Joel Richard- 


son, of Warren, Washington county, who from a place six miles — 


? . 
west of Marietta, saw the meteor as much as 15° or 20° west 0 
north, at an altitude of about 45°. The direction in this easé 


J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 93 


height will be greatly augmented. I have found two persons 
living near Bear Creek, nine miles north of Marietta, who make 
statements closely corroborating that of Mr. Richardson. 

‘““D, Mackley, Esq., a lawyer of Jackson, Ohio, who at the time 
of the occurrence happened to be at Berlin, about six miles 
northeast from the former place, and seventy miles from the near- 
est point under the meteor’s path. He took pains to note all the 
facts as accurately as he could at that time; and he afterwards. 
returned to the spot in order to determine more definitely the 
points of the compass. His testimony, in answer to my interro- 
gatories is substantially as follows:— 

“The meteor first appeared to me at a point about 55° east of 
north. It moved northward in a line very nearly parallel with 
the horizon. When it disappeared it had described an are of 
about 15°. Jt was in sight about 6 seconds. Its altitude was 
about 30°. In regard to its size, I have since looked at the sun 
through a thin cloud, and I think the apparent diameter of the 
meteor was one-half that of the sun.” 

“These data give the meteor a height of 41 miles over the 
northern boundary of Noble county; a diameter of three-eighths 
of a mile; and a relative velocity of nearly four miles a second. 
The results agree sufficiently well with those before given.” 

emperature of the Stones.—Several of the largest stones were 
picked up ten minutes after their fall, and are described as being 
about as warm as a stone that had lain in the sun in summer. 


not rarer than the best air pump can produce, would reach us at 
all, or if so, in the manner described a observers? This 

‘lon 1s a more important one to consider, as some observers on 
fimilar data have calculated the elevation of meteorites, where 
they were first heard to explode, at one hundred miles. 


94 J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 


As regards the size of the meteorite, I have but to refer the 
reader to my experiments made in 1854, and published in this 
Journal in 1855,* to show the perfect fallacy of calculating the 

, size of luminous objects by their apparent disks, and I shall have 
more to say on the same subject in a future paper. It is import- 
ant to note that the nearest approach of the meteor to the earth 
must have been in the northern part of Noble and in Guernsey 
counties, the point from which its most wonderful display seem- 
ed to have manifested itself, yet we hear nothing of its future 
career by reports from observers north of this, while its approach 
from ig south to this point was noticed by a number of ob- 
serve 

I ned hardly state my own convictions are, that the me- 
teorite terminated its career in Guernsey county, and that the 
group of stones which constituted it were scattered broad cast 
over that county: many have been collected, and many lie buried 
* ae pat soil to moulder and mingle their elements with those 
of this e 1. 


come now to consider 
the stones ua fell and were 
collected. number 


was over thirty, and their 
places of failing have been 
plotted with oc care in 
the accompanying map. 

The scieatinie of twenty- 
four have been fixed. with 
precision, by the eset 
of the Hon. C. J. Albri 


largest stone was foun 


est, weighing8o0z. The larg- 
est were at the northwest ex- 
tremity, and smallest, at the 
southeast, the over ane 
wiih they were scattered, was about ten miles long iy three 


* Vol. xix, 340. 


J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 95 


The following is a catalogue of 24: 


No. Weight. Fell on farm of 
BPS PEA OOS TOR MO. Fea at Shenholt. 
Ses Sas UA i ata age ose ee esieiee Law. 

Bie FEO He BB Be sido ERI Amspoker 
ep re 0a view BO ae iveiweacks Amspoker, 
leads. +awes bie pee Tee ot re ape Torren 

Biiii j etx concn 26.5%. ate wedattvun Reasoner, 
ht sees cies BSE Fran leks cumin Hodges 

Dk dt ix silos oe Y Se S8% wid Lobe Fillis 

Gop sete Pea ok Fe er ae ie ey ae Adair 

EO Crew ch acs es TO ei ee eee Craig 

Eee op ee Pe es oe Crai 

1D... ees i Pi ee ass ae Waller 

13 .s<0 eee ee se ea eae Beresford 

14 scpendhane tes |) dg ee or eae oe Crai 

Ee oe ee ra Be ON ee ve eke Stevens 

AG pees i alee tere eae Wail. 

BT Gas thee: pe gee ee oo er ear Walker, 

Pe eee: ee ee ens eiwiees Claysville 

DO ann As een Or ae ie east é Steve 

p | antag ate NE eae Bo aia rake ey kes’ Wall, 

ZEA ee sans Ae Se oe Eee ree Savely 

22 ‘Rineenwun cas De ee eee Carter 

28a De eg eke oes Heskett. 

S45 eas gee fe ee Heskett. 


Others have been found but I have no correct record of their 

exact position. : 

me fifteen of these stones have come under my observation; 
they are all irregular in shape, cuboidal, wedge-shaped, glo’ 
and every conceivable form that irregular fragments of stone 
may be supposed to possess; they all have the well-known 
black coating with a sharp outline between the coating and gre 
mass of the stone, and there is quite a uniformity in the charae- 
ter of the coating in both small and large stones. 

When broken this meteor exhibits a grey mass, with metallic 
particles of nickeliferous iron,* resembling the stones I examined 
that fell in Harrison county, Indiana, on the 28th of March, 
1859, the latter however is the coarser grained of the two. Prof. 

epard who is familiar with the meteoric st preserved in tl 
cabinets of this country and in Europe, says: -“In its internal 
ee it approaches the stone of Iekaterinoslaw, Russi. sarip ak 

ou i , crust t 


ieje} 
=p 
o 
R 
D 
Qo 
3 
@ 
= 
ao 
& 
ch 
a=} 
® 
ms 
29 
=) 
Qu 
= 
3g 
tas) 
ie) 
co) 

3 
3 


sia, (Aug. 10th, 1818) ; and compares closely with th se of Po- 
hitz, (Oct. 13th, 1819), of Nanjemoy, Maryland, (Feb. 10th, 1828), 


rink have picked out pieces of the iron weighing two grains, closely cemented to 
es. : 


96 J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 


and of Kuleschowka, Russia, (March 12th, 1811), but the crust 
is less smooth on the Ohio stone than in that of the latter. In 
fact its character is, that of a large portion of the known mete- 
oric stones.” 

eter ane thickness of the crust is about from ;5 to 7 of 
an in 
The following is the figure of the largest stone that has been 
found, now in the cabinet of Marietta College, and described by 

rot. Andrews, (this Jour., July, 1860, page 104). We 
reproduce the figure from Prof, Andrews’s article here cited. 


Several specimens have been examined, they all show the pres 
ence of the same minerals with a slight. variation in their pro 
portions as might be expected in a mass not homogeneous. Its 
composition is S fairly represented as follows + Specific gravity, 
3550, varying slightly in different specimen 

In 100 parts, there are,— 

Nickeliferous i yen, < & “ ‘ ‘ a“ 10°7 
Earthy minera - - P : < - §9°3 

The eke semen: separated by a magnet from 
crushed stone and well washed, presented the following consti 
ents in 100 parts. 


on, . ’ : - - - 87-011 
Nickel, ~ “a a oe 8 = - ad eit 
Cobalt, - - - 

Copper, - - ° ~entaate quantity at estimated 
Phosphorus, - “ ‘ 
Sulphur, = - - - - - - - 1 per 


#* Mr. Johnson gives it as 35417, this Journal, [2], xxx, 111. 


PE Pe Ben ie ei RE eee ee ee Be ee gh ta AL ee. TES ee ee pee Meee ee ae POS eee ee 


J. L. Smith on the Guernsey County (Ohio) Meteorites. 9% 


The sulphur comes from magnetic pyrites that the meteorite 
contains and that it is not easy to —— me from 
the oe ere of nickeliferous iron 


on a filter first washed thoroughly with water, then with a solu- 
tion of potash to dissolve the last portion of the silica of the de- 
composed portion of the mineral. The result was in 1 


ee portion, - - - - - - 63°7 
Tnsoluble - me oe 36°3 
The aol material analyzed as a tiie was found to contain, 

Silica, - - - - - - 

Oxyd of iron, - - - - - - 28°03 
Alumin - - - - - - - 0°31 
Magnesia, - - - - - - : 24°53 
Lime, - - - - - - - - 02 
Soda, PS Gite pal Pare : 
Pulte sreekceompis a fo xnl castes oo t ‘ 
Manganese, trace. 


From these resis it is very eit that ve sin atltoiseidl con- 
stitution of these meteoric stones is about as follows in 100 parts. 


race: iron, - - - . -  10°690 
Schreibaata 6) eee = OO A Se Og 
Maxoeti re OP Bai - hate 005 
Olivine, - i ae Bee ee 6 BP SRE 
Pyroxene, - - - $82°416 


This sums up the tistoey of this meteoric shower, with as full 
an account as possible of the stones that fell at that time. 7 
the first part of this paper it was stated that this fall was qui 
as remarkable as that near L’Aigle in France in 1803. Altea 
it does not equal this latter in the number of stones that were 
collected, it exceeds it in the size of the stones that fell, The 


- . largest of the L’Aigle stones weighed 174 ibs., while the largest 


in the preserit case was 103 bbs. 

There are many points of cinag rae in the phenomena and 
circumstances <aieged the two falls. Were tt copy Biot’s 
description of a henomena "of the fall at L’Aigle as detailed 
to the Academ Sciences nearly sixty years ago, it wo 
=~ a repetition of what has been written in the first part of this 


r. 
The date of fall at L’Aigle was the 26th of April, the date of 
the ig th fall, May ist; time of the day of the former, one 
o'clock, of t . latter, iaaty minutes of one. direction of 
both falls from southeast to northwest. The extent of surface 
pean ide she fieak noua sola bal? miles wide by two and a 


! Am. Jour. Scl.—Szconp Serres, VoL. XXXI, No. 91.—Jax., 1861. 
: “73 


- 


98 Influence of the Moon on Declination of the Magnetic Needle. 


half broad, by the latter, ten miles long by three wide. And — 
both were seen by a large number of persons. 

ince my memoir on meteorites was presented to the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, and published, I 
have collected several important physical and chemical data that 
cannot be overlooked in the study of the nature and origin of — 
these bodies. I will merely enumerate some of them now; Tre- 
serving for a future occasion the proof upon which they are based _ 
and the deductions that may be drawn from them. Ist. The — 
light emitted from meteoric stones does not arise from incandes- 
cence, but from electricity or some other cause. 2nd. That the 
noise attending their fall is not that arising from the explosion 
of a solid, but that it is by concussion of the atmosphere arising 
from the rapid motion of the body through it or in part due to 
electric discharge. . 

d. t meteoric showers are not the results of fragments 
from the rupture of one solid body, but the separation of small 
and distinct aerolites that have entered our atmosphere in groups. | 
4th. That the black coating is not of atmospheric origin, but is _ 
already formed when these bodies enter our atmosphere. : 

would also call the attention of those engaged in the exami: _ 
nation of this class of bodies to the study of the true nature of their 
black coating, also to the fact that observers at a distance often 
see these bodies in a luminous state, while those situated where — 
they fall, do not observe this luminosity. 


liisletnsmansicausesitill: 


Arr, XIL— Abstract of a Discussion of the Influence of the Moon 
on the Declination of the Magnetic Needle, from the observations 
at the Girard College, Philadelphia, between the years 1840 and 
— by A. D. BAcuE, Superintendent United States Coast — 

urvey. : 


of the secular change, and of the annual variation may be sev" 

erally eliminated, leaving residuals from which the lunar influ — 

ence is to be studied. - 
ach observation was marked with its corresponding lunat 


hour and the hourly normals used for comparison. This method 


=e 


Influence of the Moon on Declination of the Magnetic Needle. 99 - 


of treatment of the subject is that followed by os Sabine 
in his discussion of the results of the British observations. The 
details of the method will be better understood a an canes 
The time of the moon’s passage over the meridian of Phila- 
delphia (upper transit) was obtained from the American Alma- 
nac, the small correction for the difference of longitude being 
neglected. The observation nearest to the local mean svlar time 
of the moon’s —— was marked with a zero, signifying Oh of 
lunar time. The time of the inferior transit was next obtained, 
and the 2 oS nearest to it in time was waited 124, The 
greatest difference in interval between the moon’s transit and 
the time of observation could in no instance exceed half an hour. 


one nearest er oa between tie two consecutive lunar hours 
was omitted. 

The month of March, 1842, is aclieud as an example of work- 
ing the bi- -hourly series, and the tables are given in the complete 
paper which, it 1s expected, will be published in the Smithsonian 
Contributions to 

ne of the first. questions . oi determined is, how many of 
these residuals must be used to give a definite result, another one — 


‘that no undue constiny: errors influence the coat 
The results of the discussions of these three groups were also 
, on by Bessel’s parses ae treated by Pte meted ot 

ast squares, Two te formula suffice represent 
| Wh observations, and thee is no eonstant term, Se 


100 Influence of the Moon on Declination of the Magnetic Needle. — 


we moon ~ no specific constant action of deflection on the © 
edle. coefficient of the first term is small, the character — 


ob 
values are indicated by dots and the smooth curve results from 
the equation. 

The difference between the curves of deflection for the eastern 
and western hour angles shown in the curve, enables us to de 
termine the diurnal lunar tide and is drawn on the plate and 
represented by the first term of the formula. The interference — 

of the two curves gives the observed form. 

The curves all agree in their distinctive characters, and show 
two east and two west deflections in a lunar day, the maxima 
W..and E. occurring about the upper and lower culminations 
and the minima at the intermediate six hours. The total range 
hardly reaches 05. These results agree generally with those 
obtained for Toronto and Prague. From 8000 to 10000 obser- 
vations seem to be required to bring out the results : aatistactorilf 
and the best results are derived from the use of both groups. 


ondary maximum occurs fourteen minutes after the upper cul- 
mination and amounts to 018. The principal maximum occurs 
at 64 17™ after the lower culmination, the easterly deflection be 
ing 0'22. The secondary maximum at 64 03™ after the upper 
culmination has a deflection of 0-19. The greatest range is 27” 
and the secondary 22”. The epochs of the maxima and minima 
are found from the formule to be at a mean, ten minutes after 
culmination. The probable error of a single computed value of — 
the lunar diurnal variation is +132. The Toronto observations — 

ve +1'"37 from more than twice the number of observations, s° 
that ris 8 observations appear to be worthy of every 
confi to from the second investigation, embracing — 

vey 14, 000 observations, the western and eastern deflections bal- 

anced, giving for the range 88’"3. The e observations also 
confirm the nearly equal deflections paver to the west and pe 4 
The epochs of the maxima and minima were found from the four — 
roots of the equation 0=0-029 cos (6+295°) +0: 414 cos (20-4859) 4 
which gave ten minutes as the mean time elapsed between the — 


tion. If we take the four phases into account the lunar action — 


seems to be retarded ten minutes, which may be termed the lunar — 


Influence of the Moon on Declination of the Magnetic Needle. 101 


magnetic interval for the Philadelphia station. At Toronto the 
intervals are not so regular. e secondary range exists there, 
] 


to March). For the summer season we have 11087 observations, 
and for the winter 10557. 

In the complete memoir the tables of the hourly sums of the 
lunar variations for the summer and winter seasons are given, 
and the tabular results are expressed-analytically. The curves 
representing them are shown in the annexed Diagram C. 

The characteristic feature of the annual inequality in the lunar 
diurnal variation is, therefore, a much smaller amplitude in win- 
ter than in summer. Kreil indeed inferred from the ten year 


irregularity consists in the earlier occurrence of the maxima and 
minima in winter than in summer. The winter curve precedes 


the annua curve) about six hours after the lower culmination. © 
Th the winter season this last mentioned maximum east deflection oe 
1s actually the smaller of the two. We have co 


- = 85'-4, secondary 31’ 
= 25 = i eo Be. : 


difeidies = sa oe IO 8, be i 


Maximum summer range, 
winter “ - 


At Prague the maximum summer range was 44”, — 
I next proceed to examine whether the phases, declinat a3 
parallax of the moon, have any sensible effect upon the 

magnetic declination. Dr. Kreil found from a ten years series 


es isk 


one at Prague, inferred that there wasa maximum of declination 
two days after the full moon. He also found a maximum cor — 
responding to the greatest northern declination of the moon, 
ut does not appear to have investigated the effect of distance. 
The residuals which we have been treating enable us at once 
to examine these several points. 


Sum of \Num- 
fe Behcotions. py Deflection. 4 oe 

ee d A 
_ Fall moon, +116 | 52 | 40-22 | +010 | +0“07 

Ist day after, = F161 en —0 -06 |. 

2d day after, — 93 | 48} ~—019] —0-08 | 

New moon, _ | —115 | 48 | —0-27 | —0 -12 | +009 

1st day after, + 15 | 47 | +0-03 | +0-01 oo 

2d day after, + 44 | 49 | +0-09 | +0 -04 bi 2 

e effect is very small, scarcely much beyond the probable | 
error; but the table indicates that the north end of the ma is 
deflected to the westward 0’1 at the full and as much to the 


eastward at the day of new moon, the range between full and 
new moon being 02. .A more definite result could hardly be 
expected from a series of observations extending over but five 


ears. 
qZ Treating the effect of the moon’s variation in declination 
precisely the same manner we obtain the following results: 


3 


cs 4 


oe 


Chemistry and Physics. — 103 
y 
Mean deflection. 
One day | before —0'20| from 54 days of observation. 
At moon’s mak. declin., —0O"10| “ 563 ie: 
One day after —0°09) “ 55 = 
Mean, |—0°'13) “ 162 “ 
One day before, —0°04) “ 54 ? 
At moon’s min. declin., —0"07;) “ 62 - 
One day after, +0°14, “ 652 q 
Mean, +001; “ 158 - 


The results do not positively prove a deflection of the magnet 
depending on the moon’s greatest north and south declination. 


‘The amount resulting from the oe being of nearly the 


same magnitude as its probable er 
similar investigation with sels to the moon’s distance 
from the earth gives the following results. 


an deflection. 
One day. before, — 0" i from 50 days of observation. 
At moon’s perigee, —O'l a a 41 
One day after, —0 00 i ee " 
Mean, —0'12) 150 
One day before, —0"02} “ 55 és 
At moon’s apogee, —0°20) “ 53 _ 
One day after, —0-'13) “ 47 = 
Mean, —O°12% “ 155 + 


The difference being of the same order of magnitude as the 
probable errors, no conclusion as to the effect of distance can be 
drawn from them 

I propose ar to extend the discussion of the moon’s effect 

on the dedlinataost to the effect on the earth’s magnetic force. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. . 
“ _ I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 


1. On the Chemical Analysis of the Solar Atmosphere. —Kircunorr 
has communicated some further results of his remarkable —— 
on the constitution of the solar atmosphere, a notice of w already 
been given in this Journal. The author maintains that pec sun has an 
ignited gaseous atmosphere which encloses a core of still — tempera- 
ture, If we could see the spectrum of this atmosphere, detect 


the view lines which are characteristic of the metals existing in it, and 
_ should recognize the 


104 Scientific Intelligence. 


degree of distinctness and purity. It exhibits in the solar spectrum 4 i 
thousands of lines with such clearness that they are easily distinguished — 


which lies between Fraunhofer’s lines D an 
This apparatus exhibits the spectrum of an artificial source of light with 
the same distinctness as the solar spectrum, provided only that the inte 
sity of the light is sufficient. A common gas flame in which a metalli¢ — 
compound evaporates, is usually not sufficiently luminous but an electn¢ — 
es with the ; 


a 
i 


: 

as easily as that of ’ 
A very simple arrangement permits the comparison of the spectra of 
two sources of light. The rays of one of the sources may pass through — 
the upper half of the vertical slit, while those of another pass through — 
_the lower half. When this is the case, one of the two spectra is seed 
immediately beneath the other, and it is easy to determine whether coin 
both : 


i . . ? . 
marked lines occur, resulting from the iron in the sun’s atmosphere. 
Tron is remarkable on account of the great number of distinct lin’ 


in their — but no distinct dark lines in the solar spectrum corres: 


; ese, ‘ 
Many metallic compounds do not give in a gas flame the tram of 
their metal, because a 4 é gerry 


of which the spectrum of every electric spark consists, it is n 
have recourse to a particular arrangement. The electric spark 
allowed to pass at the same time between two similar pairs of ¢ 


Chemistry and Physics. 105 


irotes, the light of one spark being allowed to pass through the up- 
per, that of the other through the ‘lower half of the slit, so that one 
spectrum is seen above the “other. When the two pairs of electrodes 
are clean, the two spectra are perfectly sat when however a me- 
tallie compound is placed upon one pair, the corresponding spectrum 
immediately shows the lines belonging i the metal introduced. The 
author has satisfied hiinself that in this manner even the metals of 
the rare earths, yttrium, erbium, terbium, etc., may be recognized most 
quickly and certainly. It is therefore to be expected that “by the help 
of Ruhmkorff’s apparatus, the spectral method of analysis may be ex- 
to the detection of all metals. The researches which the author 
h ertaken in connection with Bunsen nie ihe is hoped, determine 

this visi —Journal fiir prakt. Chemie, No. 1 
. Ona New aeannne Metal. —Bowst N has dnewrered in the waters 


an extremely characteristic spectrum, which at the e time sabia 
the remarkable simplicity of the spectra of the other kalne metals. Its 
spectrum consists of only two blue lines—a weaker li ing 
with the blue strontium line and another which. lies onl a little farther 
_ toward the blue end of the spectrum, and which vies in intensity and 
| Cela of Parole with the red line of lithium —Journal Sir prakt. 
mre, 16 
3. On the aan of Flames.—Merz has communicated some investiga- 
_ tions on the coloration of the flames of Bunsen’s burner and of hydrogen 
 ~gas Pei a he the presence of various substances. These observations 
_ may be considered as supplementary to those of Bunsen tee noticed 
in this Jecsnd: and in less certain, are simpler and m 
applied than the processes of the spectral analysis. The siiow ‘employs ; 
 @ flame of pure hydrogen as well as that of Bunsen’s burner, and in addi- 
tion, makes use of blue, violet, red and green glasses, The new 
ces which he describes as giving characteristic colors to the flame of 
_ Bunsen’s burner, are nitric, chromic and molybdic acids, while pho ae 
_ and sulphuric acids give a peculiar coloration to the dark core red the lame i 
_ of hydrogen. 


lors: e seen ett sell substance: 
Am. fog Sc1.—Srconp Serres, Vou. “XXXI, -“* 91.—Jan.. 1861, : 
4 ; 


m 3 Scientific Intelligence. 


: held in the bright blue colored mantle which forms the — portion of 
e flame. c. Flame colors. © produce these, the loo 

so and in the hottest part of the mantle. The ee ts flame 

yields another Ss} ecies of me the core colors. T hese are produced 


lue and green tinge to the Seid core of the hydrogen flame 

” ‘Nitric and ah ast give a bronze green border color, usually i 
an orange colored border. ‘The test is to be previously dried in the 
and dipped into a solution of bi-sulphate of potash, or into dilute cour 
acid, according as we wish to sat Re nitric or nitrous acid. The sensi- 


acid and held in the face: in the manner meee i ose out, in order to 
show the border color. The sensitiveness is g55 mgrm. The green core 
color is less sensitive, but indispensable in recognizing phosphoric acid in 
the presence of large quantities of boric acid, and is produced by alter 


loop i 

- middle of the flame. In the latter case, it is well to dip the test into 

eg muriatic or fluo-silicie acid. The sensibility for sulphuric acid is 
co Mgrm., for a sulphate, +555 mgrm 

Boric “acid: gives a beautiful green mantle color, which is so intense that 


aci 
Molybdic acid gives a yellowish green flame-color like that of baryta, which 
is however very fleeting, and on na 
riatic acid. 
Muriatic acid gives a very weak greenish blue scscpne ai which lasts 
for a very short time, and therefore does not dese: e acid 
is however oe into free ce which ie easily be recognized. 
ash gives a grey blue mantle-color and a rose violet flame color 
These colors ome reddish violet through the blue glass, violet through 
a violet glass, and blue green through a gree n glass. Potash is reco, ecognized 
in the presence of lithia, as well as through so thick a layer of bine glass 
that the lithium red is no longer visible. The test is to be moistened with 
sulphuric acid, and repeatedly exposed to the flame for a short ne The 
gol iS 37 mgrm., for blue, m. g 
iden 33 an orange yellow flame-color, which in very large quantities 
ce pure blue, but in small quantities is invisible through the blue 


me a i i a oT 


Pe a AI ae eee 


aay SF PO ES ee ee ee | ee 


Chemistry and Physics. * 07 


even with the smallest bape eat This glass is particularly adapted 
the recognition of soda in all its compounds. The sensibility is sgg4g_ 
mgrm. ‘The test is to i. me hice with sulphuric acid; dried and held 
in the hottest point of the flame 

ithia gives a carmine red flame-color which appears violet red through 
the blue, wiry ae through the violet but is invisible through the green 
glass. The test is to he ene with sulphuric acid and treated like 
potash, the Leouititity 4 is rza'soo Mgrm. In the presence of soda, lithia 
is recognized through the blue glass; in the presence of ger by the 
m 


glass; through the green glass, the soda flame appears orange ss at 
to 


to be moistened with sulphuric acid, carefully dried, and held in the hot- 
test point of the mantle. After all the alkalies have evaporated, the earths 
may be detected. 

Baryta may be recognized by the Baeble green flame-color which 
{the ae green through the green glass. The aes for baryta 
aione 1s gz55 mgrm. If the green snanipban and a red flame-color makes 
its appearance, the ng t is to oS re eatedly moistened with sbi se 


of muriatic acid, appears siskin green through the green glass. Stronti 
gives in this case a weak yellow. The sensibility of aL alone is zo/ga 
mgrm sites by employing the green oss 38 te 
Stron may be recognized by the urple or rose hdien which is seen 
vine hs blue glass when the — after mpistening with muriatic acid, 
18 evaporated to dryness in the flam 
Copper as chlorid gives an azure bhae zone, and as cae a pure green 
flame-color. By the combined observation of both colors may be 
distinguished ral all othiae metals which give similar colors. The sensi- 
bility of copper alone is zy'yy Mgrm. The other flame-coloring metals, 
such as arsenic, antimony, tin, lead, mercury id zinc, exhibit especially 
in the form of ‘chlorids, more or less intense bluish or greenish mantle- 
colors, which however cannot be advantageously used - venience for the 
metals themselves.—Journal fur prakt. Chemie, No. 16, 1860. 
4. The Dichroscope-—The apparatus to which Prof. Deve has given this 
hame is vied for the following purposes 
-) To esent interferences, and spectin’ in different-colored light, 
both 1 separately and combined. 
To imitate the phenomena of dichroism, both in the case in which 
dich rei crystals are viewed throug Haidinger’ s rhomb of eale spar, and 
in the case of the phenomena produce “ when the dichroitic a ere§ 
themselves are used as analyzers in a polariscope. a 
(3.) To combine Hoes mace sreatalys ps ceva, polarzed and 
unpolarized light, not in such a manner that the one is p ueed by the 
polarizing, and the ather by the Hen sabe | bie ems oa 0 od 
traverse the ot area Sane a 


«? 


% 


108 - Scientific Intelligence. 


eated in the figure; A, being t 
Nicol’s prism, and CD the polar- 
izing mirror, 

It is a brass box 81 millim. 


HEGF is the dichroscope which is placed in a polariscope as ind 
the ? 


closed by opaque slides, or by 
plates of colored glass; a single (ae 
glass plate, or sets of glass plates, can also be inserted ia the direction — 
, as seen in the figure. The side HE, is destined to receive cool 
glasses, crystals, or a rotating cireular-polarizing plate of mica, The side 
ean be closed by a slide having in it a slit for prismatic analysis or 
a circular aperture for experiments, with fine gratings. ‘Iwo mirrors be 
long to the apparatus: one is silvered, the other blackened. 
being assumed that the linear analyzing arrangement is so placed 
that in a crystal of cale spar cut at right angles to its axis and pla 
between A and IIE, the rings and black eross are visible, the following 
combinations may be obtained. 
_ 1st. Employing CD the silvered mirror and EF the glass plate: ordinary 
light reaches the analyzing prism from CD and linear polarized light 
from EF. 
{a.) FG closed by an opaque slide: white linear-polarized light. Re 
(6.) FG closed by the slide, in HF a colored glass: according to the 
on of the glass, monoghromatic or polychromatic linear-polarized 
ight. Pie 
(c.) Colored glass at FG, HF open: unpolarized colored light and white 
linear-polarized light. The cross is seen brightly colored in the tint of the 


ror. 
mica plate at HE is used, circularly or elliptically polarized, reach the 
Nicol’s prism, 
They are (a), both white or both colored, (4) white and colored, {c) dif 
ferently colored, according to the arrangements made. : 
. Between the mirror CD and the plate of glass EF, the mica plate i5_ 
inserted: in this manner combinations of cireularly or elliptically polarized 
light, with linear polarized light are obtained. , 
At silvered mirror is placed at CD and a set of six glass plates 8 
inserted at EF. This is so arranged that the light entering from CD and 
polarized by refraction in passing through EF is equal in intensity to the 
light polarized by reflexion at EF: the two beams are of course polarized 


1D, Re Sa eeY | eS ea ee ae ee eae 


Chemistry and Physics. “is = wo 


ows :— 

(2.) The calc spar crystal is removed, and the Nicol’s prism exchanged 
for a doubly refracting rhomb of cale spar. When a round aperture is 
inserted at HE, two images of it are obtained in different colors; by rota- 
ting the rhomb the tints pass into one another. 

Crystals improperly termed dichroitic are now represented by using 
plates of glass of the same color, and weakening the intensity of one of the 
beams of light. 3 

(6.) If a crystal of cale spar cut at right angles to its axis is inserted 
between A and HE the phenomena are obtained which dichroitic crystals 
exhibit when they are used in a polarizing apparatus as an analyzing 
arrangement. 


striking experiment. A cube of clear-glass 2 inches in diameter was 
placed upon a colored glass cube 1 inch in diameter. When viewed with 
both eyes from above, the colored glass appeared to be converted into a 
four sided prism of double the height. (A piece of glass 1 inch thick with 
two parallel sides, placed on a cork $ inch in diameter shows this very 
€ceptive phenomenon quite well.) If print be viewed through a lar 
thomb of calc spar by both eyes it will be seen that the two images do 


___* Optische Studien, by Prof. H. W. Dove, Berlin, 1859. 


iio & Scientific Intelligence. 


not lie in the same plane. This effect is imitated 4 as Dove in two 


printed stereographs—sce Sept. No. this Journal, p 

' [If a printed page be magnified by a plane cofivél fina 3 inches in 
diameter 24 in fucal length, and viewed by both e t will be seen that 
the letters are raised in the centre of the field, so that it putea - ayspear- 
ing flat seems to be convex. A single projection of a pyramid placed 
under the centre of the lens gains relief, though the lines i bee from the 
base to the apex rise toward the observer in curves. ‘The effect is due to 
the distortion A tigi by viewing the drawing through the opposite 
halves of the 

On the oti’ * nd if two perfectly cond printed pages be viewed 
through the lenticular stereoscope, attentive examination will show that 

the field is apparently concave: the bias: rising in shallow tiers, above 
and below; this is of course a defect in the instrument, since it alters 
relief in which the objects are seen, increasing or diminishing it according 
to their position in the field. 

On this account it may perhaps be advisable even where the most natu- 
_ral relief is desired to place the cameras somewhat farther apart than the 
distance between the eyes. Sir David Brewster, in his work on the stere0- 
scope, page 108, gives us to understand that Whieatstone’s reflecting 
stereoscope is not a “real or serge semi ) because pieces of looking 
glass are employed in it. Must we inte strike Sir David’s lenticular 
stereoscope from the catalogue of optical sbbolba atus because semi-lenses 
are employed in it, which alter the mavdeat relief, in which according to 
the same author it is so essential that objects should be viewe 

n interesting article on the apprscation of the Ster eoscope to dis- 
tinguish aloe — fac-simi rilies.—When two valde rinted ee the 


the stereoscope be seen to lie in gee planes—(See the illustration 02 


page 304, vol. XXX, this Journ 
y this means when poriile ‘and counterfeit bank notes are combi ned 
in the stereoscope the difference is at once detected. This is peer a 
method of apparently converting eee in a horizontal, into depth in 
vertical ar and great] magnifyin ng i 
n the Electric Light coats an analysis of the weaker varieties 
of electric light by means of colored glasses. In passing from n 


more like that of the pale flame of oe which | becomes gh ine and 
white by the introduction of solid m 
mprovements in the Microsco i ham’s Improved Biideli 


Microscope.—In the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science for acer a 
1860, Mr. Wenham has described an improved form of Binocular Micro- _ 
the 


The construction of this instrument will be understood from 


Chemistry and Physics. * 111 


accompanying figures. The rays from the two sides of the object glass 
are transmitted through a compound achromatic prism shown in fig. 1 
by which they are made to cross each other and diverge at an angle of 


ence after leaving the prism. In an instrument of 
this kind, made under the direction of the writer, by 
Messrs. Grunow, the flint prisms have each a refrac- 
ting angle of 26°, the lateral anglés of the crown 
prism are 44°; the opposite faces of the crown 
prism are parallel; the refractive index of the flint 
glass is 1:621 and of the crown glass 1°534 and the 
dispersive powers of the flint and crown prisms are as 1-000 :0°625. 

n hg. 2, @ represents the object-glass of the microscope, 8 is the com- 
pound prism, ¢¢, ¢¢ show the position and direction of the two lateral 
pencils, and dd are two eye-pieces at the ex- == 
tremities of the two branches of the compound 

y and the microscope. 


between the centres of the eye-pieces is 2 inches, 
and when drawn out two inches, the distance 
apart is 2} inches. This is as great a range as 
1s required to suit the eyes of most persons who 
Wish to use the microscope. 

A great superiority of this binocular micro- 
Scope over other forms, as Nachet’s and Rid 
dell’s, results from the extreme thinness of the 

chromatic prism. In both of the other forms 
named, the light, twice suffers total reflection, 
and passes through a thickness of an inch or 
more of glass causing much aberration and loss 


po + : 
N20 Scientific Intelligence. 


to all who have seen it. The stereoscopic effect is perfect ; vascular and — 
cellular tissues, and mucous membranes are shown in bold relief; anda — 


magnifying power of 200 to 300 diameters can be used with reflected 
light with entire satisfaction. With transmitted light the higher powers 
can be used on suitable objects. 

Note.—There is one defect in this form of binocular microscope, viz, 
object glasses of large angular aperture take in light from so greats 
field that a portion of light enters the branch of the compound body on 
the same side from which it originates. This gives, with low powers, as 


moved to a greater distance from the prism. this defect can be obvi- 

ated, this form of binocular microscope will undoubtedly prove greatly 

superior to all other forms yet devised. M. C. Waite.’ 
New Haven, Dec, 7, 1860. 


received a paten he e-piece consists of a double 
convex field-lens, about three-fourths of an inch thick, and a plano-convex 
| is formed in the solid substance of the field-leus. 


Alumina from Lime and Magnesia.—in the ordinary method of sept ff 


= 


rating alumina from lime and magnesia by means of ammonia, the — 
precipitate of alumina is apt to contain portions of the carbonates of the - 


earths, whic course cannot be removed by washing. To avoid this o 


difficulty, it is only necessary after precipitating by ammonia, to boil 
whole gently until there is no longer any smell of free ammonia. In 


¢ 


manner, the alumina is completely precipitated while the whole of the c 


In this 


carbonate of lime or magnesia is decomposed and dissolved by the ammo — 
niacal salt present. It 1s of course necessary that chlorid of ammonium — 
or some other ammoniacal salt should be present in sufficient quantity. 


The precipitated alumina is very difficult to wash out upon the filter; 


it is therefore better after bringing it completely upon the filter, to dry the — 
whole partially till the alumina has shrunk together and just moistens the — 
paper when pressed against it. The alumina may then be easily and 


seb 


= 


Analytical Chemistry. We 


completely washed with hot water. The separation of lime from eam 


by this method is complete, but extremely small traces of magnesia usu- 
ally remain with the alumina. 
Separation of Oxyd of Iron from Lime and Magnesia.—By precisely 
the same method, oxyd of iron may be separated easily and completely 
from both lime and magnesia. The oxyd of iron may be readily washed 
out by hot water, and is not gelatinous like alumina. 
ration of ‘Alumina and Iron Jrom Manganese—Alumina may be 


too small to be detected by the blowpipe. The same process may be ¢ 
Bere directly in separating manganese from iron, when the quantity ‘of 
Manganese is comparatively small. When however this is not the case, 


ammonia i is expelled. It is also necessary in casio the bases by this 
process to bring the solution to the boiling point before adding ammonia, 
and to boil without intermission till all the free ammonia is expelled. I 
this manner, we avoid the formation of traces of sesquioxyd of manganese, 
When iron, manganese, alumina, lime and magnesia are present, and the 
quantity of magnesia is not too large, the solution may be saturated with 
chlorine, precipitat ated by ammonia, and the alumina, iron and manganese 
separated from the other bases by boiling with the solution. The manga- 
nese may then be separated from the alumina and iron by a precisely 
similar lg 

Separation of Manganese ire Magnesia and Lime.—tThis is best 
effected ‘ye ik acetate of soda to the solution, heating and passing a 
current of chlorine gas through it gia hot. The purple red solution is 
to be supersaturated with ammonia and boiled till the free ammonia is 
expelled. The ma —— is preci J esrgecid as sesquioxyd, while the mag- 
hesia remains in solution When alumina and Leas are pee 


as mina, manganese, nesia are 
ie the dilute Blution is is - be oxydized by hicrna and then the 
alumina and uioxyd of manganese precipitated by ammonia and the 


solution boiled till the free apes is expelle 


eparation of Strontia from Lime ~The best method of separating 
ese bases, according to Rose, is the old: rocess of Stromeyer, viz: by | 


ing the nitrates with anhydrous alcohol, which dissolves the nitrate of lime. io 
18 ; 


pie iti omy 1860. 
Au. Jour. crepe 


nt 3 Scientific Intelligence. 


aye CueEmist 
9. Test for Pusel Oil ; by W. Srer.—Small bits of porous chlorid 
of calcium having been plac ced in a beaker glass, portions of the spirit 
which is to be tested are added until the mass is moistened to such an 
extent that it appears wet. The beaker is then covered with a glass plate 
and left to itself. If the spirit contains fusel oil, the odor of the latter 


detected after a while in the beaker, being still more strongly 
en only minute traces of 


ay b 
anion, after the lapse of several hours. 
fusel oil are present, one —— allow the mixture to stand for a condi 

le time, before smelling 

According to Stein, this ae is only a modification of the eom- 
mon test in which the spirit to be investigated is thrown into warm 
water. Since the impossibility of perceiving small portions of fusel oil 
in spirit docuits upon the fact that the odor of this substance is masked 
by that of the alcohol vapor which is evolved at the same time, 
the formation of the latter must be prevented if one wishes to smell 


the alcohol with water, or better, as previously stated, by mixing wit 
it an excess of chlorid of calcium, Bras which substance the alcohol 
combines so strongly, that its odor o longer interfere with that 
of the fusel oil—From aipmdlatahe | Centralblatt, 1859, p. 1627; ip 
eggs — Journal, cly, 158. 
ue of different Hale of Soap ; by R. Gr arene ee 

of consumers in regard to the value, or rather efficacy of sam mples of 
soap, which to the best of the manufacturer’s knowledge, have been well 
prepared, are not uncommon 

It is very probable that the usual explanation which is offered, Pies 
ever a soap fails to fulfil the expectations of its consumer, viz: 
contains too much water, ma b ei cases correct. ae 


ing upon the value of a soap, “there appears to be another obvious rea 


son why different soaps containing equal amounts of water may still po 
differen of effi ae 4 : 


sess different degrees of efficacy. 


It is evident from the different equivalent weights of the various fatty — 
acids, that the amounts of caustic alkali taken up by them in the form® 
tude, a 


tion * soap must be of unlike magnitu 


true, that the detergent er of soap is pasa depend . 
ent Bo the amount of alkali chick ae contain me f cou i t follows 


that those soaps which contain the largest proportion of aks ae im 


other words, those containing a fatty acid, the equivalent weight 4) a 


which is small,—must be the most efficacious, 
Since the difference between the equivalents of the common fatty acids 


are not large, — cotierations are it’ heile or io pe 


ance in so ei as concerns the consumption of soap in household 


my—the total a cians used in a single family, beg but small. In “as : 


EF tactnsitin pore however, where fifty or a hundred 


n ‘ a 
For example, the equivalent ig oat of several soaps, (regarded as at 


hydrous,) in common use, are as follo 


Technical Chemistry. - - 2a 


Oleic acid (red oil) soap, - - - == 8800-95 
Palm oil “ - - - = 3588°85 
Tallow 43 - - - == 3300°95 
Cocoanut oil ss - - = 3065°45 


Calculating from these weights how much of each of the other soa 
would be required to replace 1000 pounds of tallow soap, the following 
quantities will be found: 

1151 Ibs. of Oleic acid soap, @. ¢., 15°1 p.c. more than of tallow soap. 

1087 “ “ Palm oil soap,2e, 87 * e 

928 “ “ Cocoanut oil soap, é.e., 7°2 “ Jess than 

Differences like these must certainly be of importance in practice ; 
and could, doubtless, be detected by direct experiment, if any one would 
undertake a comparison of the various kinds of soap,—a research which 
would not be easy however.—Beetiger’s polytechnisches Notizblatt, 1860, 
xv; 65. 

11. Pig-iron which contains Copper cannot be puddled; by Dr. C. 

List.—It has been stated as a matter of belief among practical iron- 

workers in Germany, that pig-iron which contains copper cannot be 

puddled ; assertions having even been made, that when one puddler 

wishes to annoy another he will sometimes throw a bit of co per—a 

small coin, for example, into the furnace, so that the iron cannot be 
”? 


ae 


of the phenomena which ordinarily occur, when iron is pnddled, ap- 


time that the balling together of the iron should have commenced, it 
i it was therefore 


Ibs. having been lost in the scales and slag. Analyses [for details of 
which, see the original memoir,] were made of the ori a 
h 


it lay beneath the scales, 


ved from the furnace, (il 
: s | 
Bileon; Maar oes Mag gg 029 
‘Sulphur, - ~- | =" 098 alae. 


Manganese, 2°’ $56. le 


le 3 Scientific Intelligence. 

It was evident, therefore, that the 400 lbs. of pig-iron used did séally 4 : 
contain nearly and a half of copper. It more 
that copper cannot be removed from iron by puddling. Calculating how 
much copper ought to be left in the iron which lly removed 
rom the furnace, in case none had been = in the slag, it is found that 
there should be 0°58 per cent, almost exactly the quantity obtained m 


analysis No. 3.—Dingler’s lei laecke Joma 1860, clv, 


2. Preparation of Oxyd of Lead free from Copper and Tron; ; by Ta. 
ich. —Of the many plans which have been proposed for utilizing 
the sulphate of Jead which is formed in considerable quantity as a secon 
dary product ia the preparation of alumina mordants at print works, the 
method of reducing it in furnaces to the metallic state has been gr fre- 
quently resorted to, since the quality of the lead thus prepared is of pect 
liar excellence. Instead of thus reducing the sulphate of Jead, Wichmann 
proposes to convert it ie into oxyd of Jead, maintaining that the 
oxyd thus prepared being uncontaminated with copper or iron will be 
well suited for the ies iar of white cs for pottery—[ probably also 
for making flint giass| it being somewhat ult to obtain in commerce 

oxyd of lead which does not contain traces ‘of these impurities. In his 
method, suggested by that of Mohr* - a preparing caustic baryta, a quan- 
tity of caustic soda lye of from 28° to 30° (B.)= about 1-25 sp. gr., hav- 
ing been brought to boil in an iron Kettle, the sulphate of lead is added 
to it little by little, with constant stirring, oxyd of lead and sulphate of 
soda being produced. The amount. of sulphate of lead which shall be 
added to a kettle of soda, and a is somewhat less than the pe 
which theory would indicate, must etermined once for a by direct 
experiment} sulphate of lead being added until the sharp caustic taste a 5 4 
the soda is no longer manifest. It is en however, to leave some 
_ soda in the solution Jest a portion of undee epee sulphate of lead should 
contaminate the oxyd of lead which is faeiiaal Ithough a small amount 
of the latter will combine with the soda and remain in solution, During 
the belay. the decomposition is rapid, and complete, unless the soda lye 
tained much carbonate of soda in which case a white scum of cal 
sles of lead will — 


an ‘equivalent ‘Seige ot albica ay nitrate of fdhoring added. As soon as the ba 
ryta sa completely dissolved, the hot solution shpuid be be rapidly filtered in of 
der to separate any sulphate or carbonate of baryta which may have been formet 


erop of crystals of hydrate ef baryt . These cryst e 
from the solution of nitrate o u funnel loosely plugged with cotton and 
drying completed [according t | ofa 

required fur pu where the adhering nitrate of soda should be avoided the 

ate of baryta may be ryst ° of the nitrate of baryta 
use chlorid of barium—or in pla tash ; bu 
of chlorine in the product would be more objectionable than that of nitric 

mall seale the pr iling is best conducted i ge but where 

larger Taser are desired a covered iron kettle may be u 
met ing caustic alkalies, or ee chiv as Pirate. ani 38; ia 


hod : 
Chemises Conrallat, 1856, [N. F., 

‘+ For y method of obtaining ‘he ‘ecicht of moist hag oy of lead, see Mr. 
F. Shiny ee: in the March No. of this Jourual, [2], xxix, 280.] 


Technical Chemistry. 117 


When the proper quantity of sulphate of lead has been added to the 
lye and the decomposition is finished, the contents of the kettle must be 
thrown into a vessel containing water in order that the sulphate of soda 

‘which has been formed may be retained in solution, which would not be 
the case if no water were added to the mixture. The oxyd of lead, which 
is in the form of exceedingly fine crystalline scales of a light yellow ish 
red color* and of great — is ~~ deposited ; after being thoroughly 
washed, to remove the sulphate of soda, it is dried and finally ignited in a 
reverberatory- furnace—the args being subsequently allowed to cool as 
slowly as possible. 

s thus seat ed the oxyd is an exceedingly soft eps of a yellowish 
red color like prepared litharge; it contains about 2 ent of alumina 
which can not readily be removed, but which is not at “all conaseieaia to 

- its use in glazing pottery, and also a larger or smaller quantity of carbonate 
of lead according as the soda lye was more or less contaminated with car- 
bonate of soda. 

The crude sulphate of lead as it comes from the print works should be 
agitated and washed with water—or, better, forced through a fine seive 
in order to break up lumps and to remove any foreign substances, —be- 
fore being used. 


, 18 
13. Clacneag of “Mehiianted Cloth before rt go A ; by J. Lewentnat. 
—It is weli known that cotton cloth upon which alumina or iron mor- 
dants have been gure must be submitted * the so-called dunging pro- 
cess before it can be « 


ing it readily soluble so that it can be easily removed from the clot 
y direct experiment he has satisfied himself that the addition of malt 
to baths of bids » (previously ssp or of cowdung, is decidedly leerern 


A temperature of 35° to 40° R. {ou to [ap alc that 
’ the malt shall act pooutalies 


__ * Ifa more concentrated be used, say of 40° somewiat lager ry 
| ey of = eek. red color cng ig 4 = 


118 Scientific Intelligence. 


14. Incineration of Filters.—The great difficulty with which in many 
eases, the last portions of the carbon of a filter are consumed when igak 


t does p 
appear, however, that the following simple method of obviating the diffi- 
ulty—as practised in the laboratory of Prof. Scheerer in Freiberg—has — 
ever received the publicity which it deserves, ede 
Vhenever a filter upon which a substance capable of injuring platinum — 

ible or eaps 


H,, an 
carbide of hydrogen. It is evidently the prototype of a series of yy dro 
carbons, the general formula of which is ethicies i 
Berthelot, acetylene is formed whenever olefiant gas, or the vapo 
hol, ether, aldehyd, or of wood-spirit is. passed through a red hot tube 


This explosive compound has also been described Quet, (Comptes 
decomposing 


1858, xlvi, 905), who obtained it when the gas prepared by 2. x 
ries of electric sparks was tr with an ammoni solution of dichlorid 

copper. It was observed in 1839,—long before the the 

above mentioned, by Prof. Torrey of New York, on the oceasion of its occurrence ® 

the copper service pipes at that time in use for distributing gas ( 

Gas-Dight Journal, Oct. 1859; Répertoire de Chi ppliquée, i, 493 

Bettger’s Notizblatt, 1860, xv, 117), (note 


Technical Chemistry. 119 


It is formed also when the vapor of chloroform is brought in contact with 
red hot copper; and is moreover a constituent part of ee gas, 
Of the —_ sources, ether furnishes it in the greatest abundance. In 
whichever of t methods t e gas may have been’ prepared, howaver, it 
is always pein with a large quantity of other gases, from which it must 
be separated in the manner indicated by Beettger before it can be ob- 


Acetylene is a colorles & s gas, somewhat readily soluble in water, having 

a disagreeable ms oie odor, and burning with a very luminous 

and smoky flame. Its sp. gr.=0°92; it has not been liquified either by 

eold or ng "Mixed with chlorine a a = a ed 
d 


vapor, 

In general the properties of this gas are similar to those of olefiant gas 
(C,H,); and by combining with bromine, sulphuric acid, the elements 
of water, and with hydrogen, it forms compounds parallel to those formed 
in similar cases by olefiant gas. 

[In a technological point of view this gas is of great interest; for not 
only is Berthelot’s observation of the first importance in itself as a contri- 
bution to the chemistry of gas lighting, but further investigation of the 
subject will no doubt lead to the elucidation of several of the vexed ques- 
tions upon which gas engineers are at variance. For example, the fact 
that a quantity of useful gas—probably much more Juminous than an 
bat bulk of olefiant gas, is produced when the latter is strongly heated, 

ust be a most acceptable suppcrt to those who advocate * high temper- 
sent as the best system of gas making ;—as it must also \ materially 
modify, the prevailing notion that the luminiferous properties of olefiaut 
gas are entirely destroyed by such treatment. In a word, those who from 
theoretical premises — sate se asco that th employee ent of 


posed this system, wens mist ey their argument.* 
Again, the kno owledge that a luminiferous gas so readily soluble as 
_ acetylene occurs in coa! gas is a subject most worthy the consideration o 
_ those gas engineers who advocate the use of much water in the purifica- 
tion ,—or who, in the terse langu age of “the opponents of their system, 
“would ‘scrub’ the life out of the 
occurrence of ag Sach ee no she bt of some of its homol ogues, 
in illuminating gas is moreover ano other evidence of the error, still 
quently fallen apie by chemical writers, of attributing all the lu minif- 
* We would in no wise affirm either that fhe researches of Berthelot and Boott- 


ger have demonstrated oe excellence of the 
it would be advanta: in 


120 Scientific Intelligence. 


Jaa 
erous power of coal gas to the olefiant gas, and homologues of the series 
ontained in it. The incorrectness of which view has been — 


1853, i, 438), and by others, and has been recognized, we believe, by — 
every chemist who has latterly made a special study of the technology of 
as making. 
_ Berthelot promises soon to publish the results of his examination of — 
the compounds which acetylene forms with chlorid of copper and with 
nitrate of silver* and of mercury, and of the analogous compounds which 
the last two salts form with olefiant gas. He also alludes to a method of 
isolating olefiant gas, the publication of which can hardly fail to interest 
s makers. 
It is to be hoped that in the same connection. M. Berthelot will make 
some slight allusion to the labors of Edmund Davy, (Annalen der Phar- 
macie, xxiii, 144; from the Records of General Science, Nov. 1836, 


en Ha, 
C,2H,,), which accord with the general formula of the ace ylene series, 


ploy ed. He found further, w 1en a piece of cast iron was submitted 
high temperature, with this mixture, that it was first converted into sth 


* Compare Beettger, Joe. cit., also V oak Sikes : will’s 
Jahresbericht der Chemie, ft 1858, p. ag r, in Kopp and 
: was called klumene by Leo Gmelin, in his k (Caver 
Soc, Ed., viii, 150). o Hand Book (Ca 


Technical Chemistry. 121 


and finally into malleable iron. This led him to try the effect of the ac- 
tion of carbonate of soda alone on both malleable and cast iron—mal- 
leable iron thus treated, remained unchanged, while the soda salt extrac- 
ted the carbon and silicium from the cast iron, thereby converting it into 


The author hoped by this method to convert large masses of cast- 
heretofore could only be obtained 


at a red-heat. ect a 
Am. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Serres, Vou. XXXI, No. 91.—Jax., 1861. 


Pere wae ee 


basi 


122 Scientific Intelligence. 


il. GEOLOGY. 


Geological Survey of Canada.—Report of Propels for 1858, 
ontiant 1859, 8vo, pp. 263, with 4 Maps and Sections.— In the pr resens 
volume Sir William Logan continues his description of the distribution 
of the rocks of the Laurentian series. These stratified rocks, the oldest — 


as ®fndamenal gneiss. Laurentia is peaaestind to fon a domain second onlf — 

importance to Siluria, embracing, as it does, in Canada, a mass of 
strata omg tdi ual in amount to the wea palzeozoic series in’ its 
greates 


tions, ae meiy considerable of which jis 1000 feet in thickness. These 
are associated with .gueiss, emeat with sept and great beds pene 


, are enhanced, a the fact that it is still to a very great extent 

: fa primeval fores he outcrop of the limestones, howeveh, 

is generally marked by ain well watered and with a fertile soil which — 
has invited settlers to some distance from the frontier of the region, and 


and Argenteuil, including fifty miles of the valley of the river a 
from the map of this exploration, which ac accompanies the Report, we may 
get an idea of the complexity of structure in this region. 


alike in dolomites, steatites, argillites and iliitian ‘chlortoia slates, 
rally disseminated in the beds, but ova in veins of quartz and 
spar, and more rarely with specular iron and n ch 
itself is rarely native, generally outa as erubescite, copper g 
copper aceon The famous Acton mine is a deposit ‘bilvein : 


; 


Geology. . : 123 


a 
| 
a. 
a 
oj 
2 ug 
& 
i 
= 
oa 
i) 
dQ 
= 
S 
2 
—_ 
~ 
7) 
° 
he 
“a 
= & 
te 
a ~~) 
od 
oD 
° 
c 
7) 
PY) 
3 
= 
ol 
3 
+ 
=| 
n 
“ 
i) 
c) 
<n 
° 
=) 
=] 
1 


sam regio 
Mr. pr teths Murray makes a report upon the Thessalon and Missis- « 
sauga rivers, givin the results of his topographical examinations, and 
contributing farther information as to the structure of the Huronian rocks, 
which upon Lake Huron attain a thickness of about 10,000 feet and are 
intercalated between the Laurentian and Lower Silurian series. They ar 
made up of quartzites with two great bands of slate conglomerates, — 
masses of interstratified diorites, besides two or more bands of limestone, 
whose distribution has been most serviceable in making out the structure 
of the region. e copper of the Bruce and Wellington mines, of Root 
River and Echo Lake occurs chiefly in veins cuttin the diaries of this 
series, although the metal is also found disseminated in some of the beds. 
fh Murra has considered the disturbances of ibis, set ies of rocks with 


us @ section, together with a map showing the distribution of the Huro- 
nian limestones. A smiaaicarate dislocation occurs in the valley of the 

essalon, bringing the Laurentian gneiss in contact with the upper por- 
tion of the Huronian series by a vertical displacement of 9,200 feet. 

The results obtained by Mr. J. Richardson in an examination of a part 
of the district of Gaspé are next given, with a map showing the distri- 
bution of the rocks. The Shickshock mountains, which are a continua- 

a 


around their southern slope, repose the Devonian rocks. Associated with 
these crystalline schists are great masses of serpentine, which at Mt. Albert 
are seen sweeping around the base of the hills. A remarkable section 


' Serpentine which succeeds to the black eenldanda. slate is beautifully and : 


distinctly stratified. The weathered surfaces exhibit opaque Mises or 
fawn colored bands of from one-eighth of an inc 4 


with deep red bands, sometimes including grains 
sallsge. as well as thin layers of asbestus. 


. 


124 Scientific Intelligence. 


In the present Report Mr. Hunt gives the results of a series of investi- i 
gations upon the intrusive rocks of the vicinity of Montreal. These im 
clude orthophyres, some of which are very beautiful porphyries, — 4 


and are followed by the continuation of Mr. Hunt’s researches on the forma 
tion of magnesian rocks. With this investigation our readers have already 
been made acquainted. (See this Journal, |2], xxviii, 170, 365, xxix, 285.) 

By way of Appendix to this Report, we have a catalogue of the plants — 
and animals collected in the counties of Argenteuil and Ottawa by Mr 
W. M. 8. D’Urban, an accomplished voung naturalist now at the Cape 
of Good Hope, who accompanied Sir William Logan during the summer — 
of 1858—and made as complete a collection as possible of the flora and 
fauna of the district. A similar collection was made in the Lower St. Law — 


eee 


T. 8 

2. urveys.— Kentocky.—The fourth volume of this Sur — 
vey now in press contains the stratigraphy and paleontology of all the 
coalfields of Kentucky excepting a few of the southeastern counties. It 
is provided with five plates and a great number of comparative sectiols 
illustrative of the general distribution of the coal measures. . 
Arxansas.—The second volume of this Survey contains a ge 


propriation of money which a State so intelligent and prosperous as JH : 
nois, cannot withhold—for a work which will be at once so useful apd 8 
honorable to her enlightened liberality, ae 
Texas.—We hear with great regret that the able Director of this Sut 
n removed from his post to m _ 


r delay—and was making 
once on the active duties of his post. 


a4 act tee 


bc oa 


7 Naticopsis, 23 # tatyoaigmnts, 2; Hunema, 1 ; Lozonema, 55 5 STORE 3 


Geology. 125 


Cawnapa.—The results of the labors of Sir William Logan and his — 
a + Se wogpenta far as they have been made publie are boven * 
page 122, 

It is act to all who take an interest in the progress of souks in 
the United States, that an active discussion is now imminent on the ques- 
tions touching Barrande’s primordial zone. In this discussion the ‘ Ta- 


with some of the slehinee of the Contidias sue “The subj is 
already before the Boston Society of Natural History, where Mr. Marcou 
appears as the advocate of the Taconic System. his geologist finds evi- 
dence of the existence of the primordial fauna not only in the meta- 
morphic black slates of Georgia in Vermont, but at the Falls of Mont- 
morency, in the region between the Upper Mississippi and Lake Supe- 
rior, near Lake Michigan, on the north shore Pi im e Superior near the 
Pic, in the Black Hills of Nebraska, and in 

ew Yor«.—Prof. Hall’s third volume (text) « on the Paleontology of 


~ New York, so long looked for, has been in print, for some time, bat “has 


been held back to ensure completeness under the important genus Euryp- 
terus. It is now before us, and we are assured by him that it ‘will be speed - 
ily distributed. The Introduction handles with master ly skill the difficult 
subjects connected with the proper classification of the lower horizons of 
life in our planet. A review of this important chapter with reference to 
the views of Barrande will probably appear in our next. ‘The plates for 
this volume are not yet all ready for delivery. 

8. Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea and Echinoidea from the 
Corbosiferon rocks of Illinois, and other Western States ; by F. B. Merk 
and A, H. Wortnen, of the Illinois State Geological Survey, pp. 19. 


seday. If so, the latter genus will have to take precedence, ini priority 
of publication 
4, Diesiottehions of New Carboniferous Fossils from Illinois and other 
Western States; by F. B. Mcex and A. H. Wortney, of the Illinois 
State Geological "Survey, pp. 26. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Read Oct. 
23d, and published Nov. 24th, 1860.—This interesting ‘paper. rises - 
69 species, all of which are supposed by the authors, to have been here- 
tofore u deseri . They may be sachet are as hee opteri~ 
4 species; Palasterina, subgenus Schenaster, 1 cman: ; Pro- 
ductus, . See ae mtear 1; Athyris, 1; Pecten, 1; + Av 
ryalina, 3 + Solemya;: 15 ’ Leda, 13 Schizo 
ea aha Bellerophon, as & Pieurotomaria, 11; 


126 Scientific Intelligence. 


Macrocheilus, - ha 1; Orthoceras,1; Cyrtoceras, 25 Maw 
tilus, 73; Gon . 

The nase rat established a remarkable new — of Zobphyte : 
S: x Nena rte from opyy, a wedge, zoryguoy, a cup. 

“This small group of corals appears to be more a aeull related to Cya; — 
thoceris, of Simonds and Haime, than to any other genus, either re 
or fossil, with which we are acquainted. It differs, however, in — E 
the outer walls perforated, and in being destitute of distinct rays, as 
as in the peculiar wedge-like form of the base of the corallum, which a 


ing report of the Illinois hee which promises to be one of ‘coma m- 
terest. Bes ides the numerous invertebrate fossils, it will contain illustra 
tions and descriptions of over one hundred new species of fossil fishes of 
r. J. 8. Newberry ; a report on the Bryozoa of Dr, H. A. Prout; at 
port on Fossil Plants of Mr. Lesquereux ‘and a report on the Lead veo 
of Mlinois by Prof. J. D. Whitne : 
5. Systematic Catalogue, with Synon nonyma, &c., of Jurassic, Crete : 


many, ve another — cordiformis) i is probably not distinct from — | 
A, cordatus, Sowerby, which occurs in the Jurassic series of England, : 


tem (the Lower Oolite and Line) 4 in the _ world, and _ yeral of them 
= 7 — on farther compariso 3 
el etaceous species the fiveiag seven are common to the 
Nebraska and New Jerse ersey beds, viz.— Nautilus Dekayi, Ammonites pl — 
cenia, A. com ; us*, Scaphites Conradi, Baculites on a 
and Gryphea esata is —_ the following five species are probably 
re re oe 8 foreign loca ocalities, viz— Nautilus Dekay?, o 
icus, Gryphea vesicularis. brosa, and 
corbacia coranula, teat : 
The 57 Tertiary species are believed to be mg distinct from foreign forms, 
and none of them have yet been found in this country east of N. 


pecies west. 
ihinstrations ses fa over one thousand figures of Mollusca and doce 
forty-five quarto plates. 


Geology. 127 


6. Observations on the Cretaceous faa of Tecas ; by B. F. Suv- 
marp, M.D., (Tra ns. Acad. Sci. St. . vol. i, No. 4, ; 582).—The 
leading points in Shumard’s paper acm upon the disputed geology of 
the southwest are e these. First he recognizes at the base of the Cretace- 


Kansas as Shumard = and he finds great numbers of Cretaceous fos- 
sils in me —— no leaves 
A 


These beds Meek and Hayden had also placed on a parallel with No, 
2 and 3, of the Nebraska section, as Shumard states. Thus as is seen, all 
explorers concur in the opinion that what Marcou calls Jurassic, at least, 
at the localities where he found fossils, is Cretaoeo ous. There doubtless 


at the tain localities cited, are Cretaceous beds. Shia ard’s paper is an 
important one, and when we consider his opportunity to understand these 
ea in making State explorations, is entitled to great weight. M. 
Die Silurische Fauna des wesilichen Tennessee ; 4to. pp. 97 ; three 
lith hographie and two — a ; by Dr. Ferpinanp RoeMER; res- 
lau, 1860,—In this work Dr. Roemer has noticed and figured 58 spec 
of fossils from the Upper. Silurian rocks of Tennessee. Of these he 
identifies ~ as occurring in the Niagara group of the State _ New 
York, and 28 in Europe, in the Wenlock formation of England and in 
the fenmcnes of the Scandinavian Islands, Gothland and Malmé. The 
most interesting are those which he has described as meen sponges un- 
der the genera Astylospongia Palwomanon and Astreospongia, The 
specimens are spheroidal sub- -cylindrical or cyathiform like the sponges 
of the cretaceous and Jura formations. They are silicified and in the 
polished sections, numerous radiating canals with star-like groups of spi- 
cule are clearly exhibited, presenting an internal structure altogether 


analagous to that of the more recent sponges. ere are six §) 
described, one of which, re ay 7A ia premorsa is identified with the 
mre Sip eolateat). ee oa sponge are rare in 


lurian rocks of Kentucky for which the nin Scyphia dente dentata has been 
ric (See the 2d Report of the Geo. Sur., of Kentucky, page 111.) 
ada a species closely allied to Roemer’s A. sieiiatsonentente, oc- 


; Proceed. Acad, Nat, Sci., Phila., 807, 0. 188. 
+ As we had also shown in Prooeed. ead til ac aaaitin’s pr10e. 


128 Scientific Intelligence. 


curs in the Trenton Limestone while two or three others have been fo 
in the Chazy and oe ee see These will be described 


tains an interesting comparisoneof the Upper Silurian Fauna of Tennes 
see with that of the same age in Europe. All the species are w roe 


[We have oS too late for this issue, an important paper fu 
Prof. weap “On the Upper Silurian beds of Western Teuxosseé, a! 
s Mo seria Olt pr rineipal ae in this paper is to ind 


thickness of the rocks of the U Silurian in Tennesse 
memoir will appear in the succeeding number of this Journal. Eos} 


I. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 
frees “ena or Illustrations of the South African Fr, 
a ‘by Wa. H. Hanver, M.D, PRS, é&c.—No. 4, 1860, completes 
century of aelaaen rancate a first volume of this work. The plates ate 


most interesting one to us is tha a Loasaceous 
Fissenia Capensis, sh " geographically eng saity severed ~ 
its coérdinates, and has ocular ovary. 
. Flora Capensis ; Pa a Systematic eit of the P Ins 
the Cape pa Caffraria, and Port Natal; by Wu. H. Harvey, 
F.R.S,, &e., and Orro Witneta Sonner, Ph. D., &e., vol. I, Ranunculact® 


re ere ee ee 
pace Pais aie 


Botany and Zoology. ; 12g 


out independently, without reference to his brother author ;” although, to 
ensure uniformity of plan, the ordinal characters and gene ral remarks are 


all written by Dr. Harvey, upon whom the general editorship devolves, 


e descriptions are moe full, so that only about three Ba ea: appear 


midable task they have undertaken. Noting that Dr. Sonder has adopted 
Dr. Klotzsh’s genus Dianthera, in the Capparidese, we beg to say that 
there is a Linnean genus of that name, unaccountably neglected by 
recent botanists (North American ones excepted), but not rightfully to be 
m4 seded. > &. 

. Flora of the British West Indic meee by A. H. R. Grisz- 
Bacu, M.D., Professor of Botany in the Uni versity of ves Lon- 
don: Lovell Reeve. Parts 1 Le , 1859, pp. 192, 8vo.—This is another 
of those Colonial Floras now fostered by the B fbich Government; in- 
deed this is the first strictly belonging to the series. It is written through- 
out in English, eis wonderfully good English too, ioreie- that the 
author is a German. Through abbreviations and the omission of refer- 
ences, it is more compact than the Flora Cape nsis, and will probably be 
comprised j in one or two volumes. The work is much needed, and Dr, 
Grisebach is doing si dbtieie service in clearing up the manifold confusion 
and obscurities of West Indian Botany, and indeed of Central American 
Botany generally, to which he has paid much attention. The third part 
of this work, ree ae the Polypetale and Apetalze combined, is, we 
learn, already publis 

e third part of 8 West Indian Flora has just come to hand. It 
finishes the Poly—apetalous orders, and closes the first volume o iss 
pages. The larger orders it comprises are the Leguminose, the Myr 
and the Melastomacee, the two latter are very eee y and sil 
re-elaborat ed. 


Dos b 


> 


“ upwards of 
ne _ meet 


qualities, and an indomitable spirit of Reece a 
Vest Indian flora; and the fruits are beginning 
Planice Wrightiane e Cuba Orientali, a A. G 

_— rs of the American Academy 
s 


130 Scientific Intelligence. 


5. Filices Wrightiane et Fendleriane, etce., cura Daniet C. Earor, — 
A.M., an enumeration of the Ferns of this same rich Cuban collection, 
along with those of Fendler’s Venezuelan collection, with characters 

new “species, etc. The sets of Fendler’s Ferns issued to subscribers are — 
exhausted ; but those Lf aes are stil to be had, and are to be ce 
mented by new collectio 

6. Local Botanical Catiaigies —These are interesting as belpiue to 
determine the geographical at of our species, and also as indicating 
the zeal and activity of our local botanists, le never greater than 
now. cde flowing, published during the Mad ag ot before us:— 


versity of “Wise sin. tee umber of species and varietion added to Mr. 
Lapham’s latest Catena published in 1852, “amounts to 283, of 
which 112 are Mosses, Liverworts, and Lichenes.” ‘The catalogue of 
these is contributed b Mr. Lapham, The most notable addition is that 
of the rare Sullivantia Ohionis, before known at mae one station, ie the 


er. 

ey fs oe Flowering Plants and Ferns of Ohio ; by J.8 
Nigsiaey, 1 oo prepared for the Ohio State Medical Soci- 
ety, but now published y the Agricultural Society, prefaced by some it- 
teresting remarks upon the influences, “ physical, geological and climatic, 
which have determined the distribution of the species. 

9. A Catalogue of Plants found in New Bedford, Mass., end its vicin- 
ity ; by E.W. Hervey. The plants are arranged according to the season 
of their flowering. Nine species only come into bloom between the 
middle of March and the first of April,—viz., the common Chickweed, 
the English Groundsel, which are introduced, two Poplars, two Has els, 


and an Alder , Epigea, and Draba verna, We suspect that the latter is a 


its an introduced plant. : 

10. Catalogue of the Phenogamous and Filicoid Plants of New Cas- — 

ile County, Delaware, arranged Geqording to the Natural System, with : 
. (Published 


. 


112 pages, including a list of expected species, and an extended on 
of the Diatomacea = Desmidee detected in that district, 


11. Fung Caroliniani Exsiccati: Fungi of ——- attustrated 
natural specimens of the ssi by H. W. Rave 
Acad. Nat. Sciences, &c. c. I-V. Charleston, 8. "C. Russell & 


gia 


Pa ME eS 


Botany and Zoology. 131 


Fungi-have been noticed and commended in this Journal. The fifth 
century is equally interesting and full. Perhaps the proof-reading of the 
letter-press, or the niceties of the typography have not been so heedfully 
attended to as could be desired; but we must not be over nice or too 
critical. We are truly grateful for what Mr. Ravenel has done, and hope 
that his strength and patience will still hold out through as many more 
centuries of Hungi Caroliniani. A. G, 

2. Uber Polyembryonie und Keimung von Ceelebogyne : ein Nachtrag 
zu der Abhandlung iiber Parthenogenesis bet Pflanzen, von A. Brawn. 
(Aus, Abhandl. der K. Akad. Wissenschaft, Berlin, 1859.) Berlin, 1860.— 


oceupies 263 quarto pages, and is illustrated by six plates. It discusses 
in great detail not only polyembryony, but many recondite incidental. 
questions arising out of parthenogenesis. The principal direct, a 


of embryos as it occurs in this case, and in orange seeds, where 1e 
flowers are hermaphrodite, indicates, not superfluous impregnation, but 
i A. Ge : 

Linnzan Society. Part Second, Tab. 201-310. London, 


182 ee Intelligence. 


sate we think the rule of priority might have been w 
exa, bromoides, glaucescens, turgescens, Elliotia 4 
folliculata, subulata, Shortiana, debilis, glabra (a new species gleaned from 
our old fields by Dr. Kneiskern), retrorsa, tentaculata, Haler, squarrosa- 
stenolepis, Nove-Anglie, Emmonsii, varia, Penns ee umbellata, 
nigremarginita, F loridana, Richardson, ailiacea, —not to mention sev 
am ee further north or the ok no st. We hear er even a third : 


works, “Carice pastus deta aren ae rear upon the rs a : 
every land, and ruminated his vast stock of materials with unwearied 
patience and = long may he still flourish to produce pay yer 
volumes as t 

14. A Seiad Century y of Ferns ; being Figures with brief Devoripiions 
of one hundred new, or rare, or imperfect ly known species of Ferns ; hg: 


pe. 


ae writers on Ferns, The ison a orn consists entirely o 
new matter, well selected, oy its publication brings to light many: 
or obscure species. A new Struthiopteris (S. orientalis, Hook.) ff 
ples figured at plate 4, ant the imperfectly known Camptosorus Si 
s, Rupr, (here reduced to ner ne ete at plate 35, will especially 
itr the American botanist. The latter Fern differs from our 
or ti fe es ‘by the entire absence of lobes or auricles . se > 
the fi 
45: pees Filicum ; being Descriptions of ail known Foon. “le : 
“trated with Plates ; by Sew i M JA 3 Ara Hooxer, Kf, 
Parts XT and XIL, or vol. iii, parts lt sik IV. pp. 161-291, tab. 18I- 
210.—This portion of the work is mostly taken up by the latter part of 
the great genus Aspleatien, including Darea, Athyrium, Diplaz 
rs. 


too che he: to be s ies a 


ol genus, thus sonoohdit ‘pecs are 
sides many dubious or unknown forms, which a re_barely enumer 
ae ori Pa little Fern from Florida, distributed by Dr. Chapman 
the names of Aspl. Anchorila, A. verecundum, &e., and which in 


Pine is semtind the myriophyllum, Presl., is here reduced to’ Aspl. 


. Botany and Zoology. 133 


phyllu m, Kunze, var. myriophyllum. Tt is undoubtedly through some 


gadiata, Link., of a wider range, follows next to Asplentum, The usual 
Index concludes the volume. ‘The distinguished i te is now fertg 
the Aspidioid Ferns, which, we trust, will in due time spre the 
one. volume. . On: 
Uber einige Farngattungen ; von Dr. G. Metrenivs Profheick a 

oe Univ ersitit zu Leipzig. Frankfort-o n-Main. Heinr. Ludw. Bronner, 
1857-9, 3 vols. 4to.—The first contalbation (I.) contains an essay of six- 
teen pages on the classification of Ferns, which being in German is not 
accessible to the majority of those whom it would naturally interest and 
doubtless enlighten. The learned author carefully considers the subject 
of the venation of Ferns, and after studying it more deeply, perhaps, 


monograph of the genus Polypodium, in 121 pages, in which 268 species 


_ are recognized, many of them described and illustrated by references to 
the numbers of distributed ee =e often by fragmentary but care- 

_ ful sketches of the venation, in three crowded Sitiaaaphde plates. There 
are also tf the names of a anaied or more dubious or imperfectly 
nown species. In the index the names of not less than fifty genera of 
_—-Yarious coors are given a onymous with parts of Polypodium 

__ The species are classified mainly according to the venation and the shape 


The second part (pp. 158, tab. 4 ), contains (II.) a aaa of Pla- 
ogyria, a new genus of six species, (since reduced to Lomaria 
Hooker) (III.) a notice and figure of i ves calaris, Moritz, feos Vene- 

uela, showing a donble involuere, similar to that known to exist in Pt. 
agstina and its allies, and ee an able monograph of Phegopteris 
and Aspidium, treating these a in the same way as Po lypodium 1 in 
the first article. Of Aspidium sets are given forty-seven generic syno- 
nyms, excluding such universally adopted genera as Asplenium, Poly- 
podiu oodsia, &e., to which some species have been incorrectly 
ferred. The admitted species number et rage and thirty, and thie 
are perhaps half as many more doubtful o 


anthes, and (VL) As splenium, two hundred and forty-nine a i 
bar a — being TeCO: 

series of sel ca comprehensive treatises “ n- 

i Peeves Motienivas has followed out — and early the 

prine is he laid d 

m portance of conor ete., botanists may have, “all must aac 

to be writing a consistency as well as ability not often met with. In the 

identifica On at pene Seaton Ane st ianshe large eed 


* 


The third part (pp. 210, tab 6,) treats in a eabiullat way of (V.) het 


134 Scientific Intelligence, 


valuable herbarium of Kunze, his predecessor at Leipzie, and has been 
intrusted with numerous collections from various idl baria, Bg 0 the 
original specimens of various authors, as Swartz, Desvau resl, dc, 

ed many of the Ferns pa Ro by Wilkes Explor: 
ing Expedition, so that he will be able to identify in his future works 
the species described by Brackenridge in the report on the Ferns xf ae 
Expedition. 

17. Filices Horti Botanici Lipsiensis ; G. Metrentvs. ss 1856, 
fol. pp. 135, tab. 30.—In this work, which preceded those above-mentioned, 
Professor Mettenius has had an opportunity of applying his principles of 
classification to the whole class of Vascular Cryptogamia. Phegopteris, 
though without an indusium, is retained as a genus among the Aspidiee 

because the stipe is cecmetie with the rhizoma, and not articulated as 
» in Polypodiew, and because the habit, which has nothing in common with 
Polypodium so closely oir mbles that. of many Aspidia, that botanists 
are popenes making interchanges petneon the two genera, as the 


tichece of course give Professor Mettenius some trouble, “and it is 
doubtful if he can a limit them to the five genera recognized i in 


_ The book is beautifully printed, and the plates are of seattial wick: 
sad distinctness. 
LoeicaL Notices 


had observed creeping among, ye re leaves in his a n, and i 
he called “ground leeches.” One ese we fortunately secured, which 
was found upon examination to the ing characters. The — 
body was linear, nearly two feet in length when a, exten and 
scarcely more than an eighth of an inch in breadth surface was 
slimy, ‘like that of a slug, and of a greyish color, oP gn va or three 
longitudinal black stripes above. The head was as lunate, transverse to the 
, With the convexity in front, and the auricles projecting Saas» to 
distance equalling about half the width of the _ Upon the ae 
sates of the head, were scattered some minute black specks, which 
——— imperfect eyes (ocelli). On the inferior surface of the 
there were two small apertures in the median line, the sem 
which, at the middle of the body, was the mouth. 


HE 


Botany and Zoology. 135 


eration. This description has been overlooked by all subsequent authors, 


“Systema Helminthura” of Diesing, 1851, who overlooks Gray’s desevip- 
tion,—until the appearance of my Conspectus of the Turbellaria Dendro- 
ceela in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences 
for February, 1857, where the genus is described under the name of Bi- 


“Corpus. lineare, depressiusculum. Caput discretum, lunatum, trans- 
versum ; auriculis sat longis, retrorsum tendentibus. celli numerosi, 
bes ° . . le 


Four species were described, all from the Japanese islands. The origi- 
nal species observed in China was not found named in the Synopsis, as 
the specimens of that species were unfortunately lost. 

In 1859 the genus was renamed by Dr. Schmarda in his “ Neue Wir- 

ellose Thiere.” He calls it Sphyrocephalus and gives a colo , 
and an anatomical description. 


Both Schmarda and Wright have overlooked previous labors, so that — 
the genus now rejoices in three distinct appellations, all given within four 
_ years. Of these Bipalium is the earliest. Eight species are now known. 
20, The Museum of Comparative Zodlogy in Cambridge, Mass., was 
dedicated with ce ceremonies and addresses, to the service of 
Science and the Commonwealth, on the 13th of November, in the pres- 
_ ence of a large concourse of invited gudetas® orice deel. fe csch i 


136 Scientific Intelligence. 


Iv. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 


Three more Asteroids.—Three more of the large group. of little og 
ets iene Mars and Jupiter have been discovered since Sept. 1, 1860, — 


vanced to No. 60. It is proposed to call it Titania. 
The numbering of the asteroids is in danger of becoming confused on 
any plan yet devised. It is scarcely possible to say what is the order of 
iscovery in absolute time, for 4 planet is sometimes seen several days be- 
fore its true character is determined. The exact order of numbering is of 
little importance, but it is desirable that the numbers once adopted should 
not be changed without urgent reason. The number of the second 
Daphne is not even yet well settle 
The 59th asteroid, ate oe Santina) was discovered by M. Chacor- 
nac at Paris, Sept. 12 
The 61st, named pier ‘(of 10-11th magnitude) was first seen Sept. 
9, 1860, by Goldschmidt, but on account of his illness it was lost for seve- 
ral days. 


by M. Temple at Marseilles. Its place, Oct. 23, 162 30™ m. t. Mars 
R. A. 102 4m 383, N, - el. 28° 27". 


tween 11 pa. of the 10th and 2h a.m, of the 11th, ‘they cherie 384 
different shooting stars, ae as follows, viz: 
11h to 12a" 12a to la in to Mh 
N.E. 23 N.B. 23 NE. 15 
-E. 40 K. 31 EH... .19 
S. 26 8. 85 8. 15 
S.W. 32 S.W. 35 S.W, 24 
N.W. = A z NW. 22 
as 95 | 
_ During the fe hour clouds a and increased so > mach ‘hat nie 


ant, which for the night of Sie 10th-1ith wae a circle vei two “degrees 
in diameter, whose centre was in A.R. 24 8m, N. P.D, 2 

e Aurora Borealis was visible me 8, 10, 12, ir, i, being un 
cats fine on the night of the 10th-11th 


Astronomy and Meteorology. 137 


(2.) Paris, France, by M. Coutvrer-Gravier.—this indefatigable ob- 
server has published in the Comptes Rendus of the French Academy 
(li, 263), a table giving the results of his observations from July 13 to 
Aug. 12, 1860. The mean hourly number at midnight of shooting stars 
Aug. 9 he finds to be 62, Aug. 10th, 54, or about ten times as large as 
he finds it in the middle of July. 

(3.) Rome, Italy, by M. Succut.—The shooting stars observed early 
in the month gave a decisive maximum on the 10th of August, viz., 

9th, from 91 to 10 30 p.m. 50 shooting stars, of which 8 were very brilliant. 

10th, “ 8245™“102 30" « 194 “  « eee 

1lth,“ 8. 30™“ 9.30" “ 25  * . : ok a 

The observations at Chicago of the 10th-11th, taken with those at 
New Haven of the night before, show that the August meteoric display 
continues to agree closely in all its characteristics with the henomenon 
as observed more than twenty years ago. e number of shooting stars 
at this epoch is at least six times the common average, increases from even< 
ing twilight to morning dawn, is about equal on the night of the 9th and 
the night of the 10th, and the apparent direction of nearly all is from 
the vicinity of the constellation Perseus, C. Herrick. 

4. Shooting Stars in November, 1860.—For a few years before and after 
the ever-memorable meteoric showers of November 13th, 1832, and No- 


© 


4 withstanding this is leap-year, the night of the 13th—14th is the most 


he saw an equal number the previous night when they were North of 
Cape Hatteras. The night of the 8th nothing unusual was seen. — 

(2) New Haven, Conn—Wedn, morning, Nov. 14, 1860. Sky very 

clear and no moon. Prof, H. A. Newton, watching alone, from 35 15" — 

_ to 4h 15™ and looking to the SE. observed twenty-one shooting stars. His 

view was limited by high buildings and other obstructions, and embraced 


t 30°; the constellation being in the centre of the field of view, 


_ the sickle in Leo, a larger number would intersect near the zenith. 

_ Were remarkable for size or for train. 

Jour. Sc—Szconp Serres, Vor. XXXI, No, 91.—Jay,, 1861. 
13 


138 Scientific Intelligence. 


Nov. 15. Sky very clear. Prof, H. A. Newton watclingoal fore, 
during 45 minutes from 35 40™ to 4 25™, observed fifteen shooting stars, 
having the same general characteristics as those of the morning previous, 
_  (3.) New York City—November 14, Prof. A.C. Twining watched for 

shooting stars during one hour, from 3 A.M. to 4 a.m. His position was — 
at an open area commanding a good view of the S. E. quarter of the sky. — 
The atmosphere was uncommonly clear, but the glare of the street lamps 
doubtless interfered with the visibility of very faint meteors. During the — 
first fifteen minutes by estimate, he observed ten meteors, eight of whieh 
had paths conformable to the radiant i of 1833, and two of Macs had 
paths not conformable. For the next half hour not a meteor was seen 
At 35 45™ the largest of all spies: with a long, corihirins tb and bril 
liant path. After this till 4° three non-conformable were seen, two of 
which shot from near the zenith. The observed number during the hour, 
was therefore 14, nine conformable and wh unconformable. In conclt- — 

arks :— seri pared 


uring 
the two entire nights of Nov. 19 ana 13, (both eas under the direction 
of Mr. Francis ee principally by the students of the Stanmore School, 


in Montgomery Co., Md. The following table shows the number of — 
shooting stars Ans during the different hours. 
s. E. Ww. 
Noy. 12, 6}: P.. to 7a P, a, 0 1 3 0 4 4 
4 =“ 5 8 5 3 21 
8 “9 9 12 6 3 w 
“10 11 9 18 5 e 
10 “11 8 12 14 4 ge 
11 “19 12 14 13 6 2 | 
N.W. E; S.W. a 
NO O48 * Tie 13 20 9 oot 
1 “9 10 13 6 29 
3 ee | 25 30 13 68 
3 “4 19 83 18 60 
4 io 16 20 12 8 
423 
. 8. J 
13, 6bem “Yeu, 4 3 e i: 4 
be 13 6 14 9 a2 
8 “9 8 4 13 < 
9 “10 6 5 12 7 3 
10 “11 10 8 19 " od 
“4 4 6 12 13 
4.02%." .ee li 9 13 13 
“ 9 25 18 20 20 
2 aA 8 24 20 10 
3 “4 Yi 17 12 10 
4 “5 16 16 11 15 


115 119 154 112. 


Astronomy. — .139 


For. the purpose of comparison, Mr. Miller with some of his scholars 
observed on the night of December 12, 1860, and during 3 hours and 40 
minutes ending at midnight, they saw 180 different shooting stars, 
tributed as follows, vi viz: 


a 8. ‘E. W: 
82 20" to 9h P.M. 13 8 5 4 80 
9 ee ee : 13 8 a“ ] 34 
10 sas Lo" 30 7 -9 56 
11 hea 16 15 2t 8 60 


It should be remembered that the season from December 6th onward 
a few days is one in which shooting stars are sometimes unusually 
_ humerous. (See this Jour. th XXxv, 3 

(5.) Bloomington, Ind.—In a letter to the Editors of this Journal, 
Prof. Daniel Kirkwood of the aren State University writes as follows : 

“ Assisted by several members of the Senior Class, I kept an incessant 

watch for meteors during six hours on the night of ‘the 12th inst. (No- 
vember, 1860.) The number of observers was at no time less than five, 
so that the entire hemisphere was kept in view. The first to notice the 
<7 tape of a meteor announced it aloud, that it might not be counted 

ore than once. The whole number seen was 381, as 5 follows: 


From 10h to llAPuw. . - - - - 45 
ip «oy 6 S - 66 
(so ey > é : <i 08 
Breet egies’ ; . . - - 66 
PO ey wie ; ‘ - 90 
Se SEY Se . ; ; “ at 


About one half of those seen after one o’clock appeared to diveid from 
the usual oils n Leo 
5. Na the American Expedition to VN. W. British America, 
to observe the total Solar Eclipse o July 18th, 1860; written by Wm. 
Ferrer, and communicated by Capt. Dav vis, U.S. N., Superinten- 
dent of the Nautical Almanac.—The party consisted of two assistants 
sent from Pe Nautical Almanac Office, and of Mr. S. H. Sendder, of 
as sent by the Museum of Comparative Zoology to make 
collections in "Nataral History, and who was also engaged to assist in 
making observations on the day of the eclipse. Leaving Boston and 
Cambridge at different times, the members of the party met at St. Paul 
on the 14th of June. Engaging a wel here on Mr. Barbenke line 
aed n the 


140 Scientific Intelligence. 


the Jake from Red river to the mouth of the Saskatchewan, and during 
the whole time it was enabled to proceed only one entire day without 
interruption, and was obliged to spend three consecutive days and nights 
on a small island in the lake on account of a long continued and violent 
storm. On arriving at the mouth of the Saskatchewan it was found that 
he river was never known to be higher, and that the ascent over the rap- 
ids and up the current the whole distance to Cumberland House would 
be unusually difficult only a little more than four days were left; yet the 
party still hoped to be able to accomplish it against the time of the 
eclipse. e erew labored very hard in ascending the rapids, being 
obliged at some places to drag the canoe along close by the shore by 


ee eee le ey 


* 
Astronomy. 141 


and thickening of the clouds before a heavy shower of rain. e dark- 
ness was at no time so great that the title page of the Nautical Alma- 
nac could not be read with facility. The instant of the end of the total 
eclipse was determined by the observation of a sudden change in the in- 
tensity of the light, although the disc of the sun was not seen for some 


- time afterward ere were two strata of clouds, an upper stratum 


With openings through which the dise of the sun was at times seen, and 
a lower stratum of thin scudding clouds, which served as a screen dur- 
ing the greater part of the time, for observing the eclipse when it was 
seen through the openings in the stratum above ‘ 
he following are the results of the observations made with the tele- 
scope and sextant: 
Latitude of station, - - - 53° 45/ 46” 
Chronometer fast of local time, - - jh 54m 14-1 


Ending of total eclipse, - 18 30° -589 
Last contact, - - - - ware Meer s 91 
Last contact with large spot, - - i ee 


e 
means of getting away or writing home. Finally an arrangement was 
made with Mr, M’Kinney, ae coming through to St. Paul with — 


~ 


142 Book Notices. . 


train of ox wagons and carts for merchandize, to take the party — 
ple its baggage with him: hence its long delay. Twenty-two days — 
were occupied in crossing the plains from Fort Garry to St. Paul, by © 

way of Pembina on Red river and Crow Wing on the Mississippi, 130 
miles above St. Paul, so that the party were not able to get back to 
Cambridge before the 20th of September. 


VY. BOOK NOTICES, - 


1. On the Impurities of Commercial Zine, with Special Reference to 
the Residue insoluble in Dilute Acids, to Sulphur, and to Arsenic; by 


Cuartes W. Extor and Frans H. Sro pp. 40, 4to. (From 
Memoirs of the Deans Academy of raat and Sciences, [N.S.,] vol. 
‘vill, p. 5 


In the eiaborts memoir before us the authors have given a detailed © 


‘account of their investigation of the impurities of eommercial zine 4 


of their endeavors to obtain precise and definite knowledge upon the sub- 
ject, with which to replace the loose, inaccurate and often contradictory 
statements which are current in chemical literature. 

Having in the first place given a very complete synopsis of the opin- 
ions which had previously been recorded, they proceed at once to de 
scribe the re made by themselves. In order that their results 
should be as ral as possible they examined authentic specimens of all 


w 
_ commercial zine, and that the carbon, tin, copper, , arsenic, and 


other impurities found in it by previo sbaervers, occur i cited in very 
ly.” 


e amount of lead in each of the zincs above specified was deter 


mined quantitatively with great care. The sdanlta are as follows :f- 


Name of Zinc. Amount of lead in percent 

Silesian, - “ x . : ae oe : 
Vieille s Montagu, 3 ‘ : = é - 0-292 

New A = (0079 

Pantages oe ee ra - = 0-000f 

Mint, fig to ieee tee oe eee 040s 

Rousseau Fee, ai Seis ae ‘ - 0-106 

Berlin, - * . - 1:297 


* Communicated to the Academy, i 29th, 1860, 

+ For the methods of analysis followed and precautions anes as well as 
merous other interesting details which brag of space compels us to omit, the 
is referred to the original memoir.— 

t This zine leaves no appreciable suaiciod when dissolved in dilute acid. 


‘ 
; 


C. W. Eliot and F. H. Storer Me Impurities in Zinc. 143 


Name of Zinc. Amount of lead in per cent. 
from Wrexham - - - 1192 
: “ Mines Royal (Neath - - 0°823 
aca Dillwyn ye pe - 1661 
essrs. Vivian, - - L516 
Minute vase of ee ig of tin were observed in several of the 
samples of zinc. In no case however gy the sum of both these 
metals have aacuaual pie one ; twenty. fif one rj coher Se ae 


That tron is usually present in commercial zinc—in quantity gener- 
ally less than 0-2 per cent—being derived from the mals ip which 


hat from New Jersey contained 0°2088 per cent of i 
In regard to nickel, cobalt, manganese, etc., which haes’ been said to _ 
eur at times in sti, the authors remark. that, “the occurrence of 


metals a never to und in any spelter mich 
may be safely asserted, sa that - nickel, eh ae sieugi 

are ever to be found i commercial z inc, they occur there saeldentally: 

ree ey pt Sap and in quantities hid to be appreciated, 

utterly insignifican 

* Carbon,—With a to carbon as an impurity of zine, we have attempted 

to determine this single point,—Does it occur in the residue insoluble in dilute acids, 

as has been generally believed, but never to our knowledge proved? One fact alone 
ders the ence of i 


W 
Jersey, Rousseau Fréres, Berlin, and Mint zi 
chlorid of iron, acidulated with chlorhydric acid. If carbon or silica were 
any appreciable oe complete solution of the residue in this reagent 
not be expected. g the residues from our various spelters for carb we 
net 


From thirty to forty grammes of the zine to be tested were dissolved in pure 


PM sass by Karsten in Karsten u. Dechen’s Archiv f. Mineralogie, xvi, 628; 
also Dingler’s Polyt. Journ. lxxvi,l93. 


144 Book Notices. 
lin zines, and from the zine of Rousseau Fréres, As precisely the same result was 
obtained hae 3 each of these zines, it may be stated once for all. 

i ing the mixture of residue and chromate of lead till the chromate fused 
there a appeared in each case a very slight deposit on the upper surface of the lime- 
water column in the fine tube. This deposit could not have been smaller and yet 


w 

e of car ; e i P 
rity was infinitesimal, and not at all to be compared in quantity with the lead 
and other metallic admixtures of which the residue mainly consi a ad. oa pres: 


carbo! 
baat for 
ceedingly small cloud of carbonate of lime produce ‘ 
zines is even less considerable than that detected in the New Jersey zine. 


te ; 
nearly as much carbonate of lime in the test-glass as we ° Et m the calle 
poantbie 


there is never anything more than an infinitesimal pom 
siderable residue which remains when thirty or forty pene of me geen po 
are dissol age auie a — 
_“ Against tet mmon bon is one of the principal impur es of 
zine, we would refer to the "previously ¢ pain a t of Wackenroder, ma 
carbon only an accident and mechanical impurity, and to the exact 


hur.—It ont Lon frequently —- that su mmon impurity of 
zinc, and that it even occurs in the insolu — Baer rg in na duasies with Jead. 
We — tested the: insole residue a ilesian zine for 


ne is there- 
fore free from lead, and certain! art pace no carbon or sulphur which manifest 
thémselves as an insoluble residue, The New Jersey zine i #. 


se ibis 


Ue CuniP 


he aes 
dissolved in boiling nitric acid. The partial solution gave no precipitate w Sir — as 


) 
FP 
— 
3 
B 
mn 
a 
bs = | 
= 
i=] 
= 
=) 
o 
Qo 
gg 
P-) 
“ 
oO 
~) 
2. 
a 
far] 
oO 
co 
Goes 
gees 
Ba 
= 
nm 
S. 
rete 
#59 
Eg 
all 
eS See 


v f. Mineralogie, Karsten u. Dechen, , xvi, 607. Karsten also says: i 


have nesta sheet zinc with coal for es vara and then melted it; but in te 
resulting mass of zinc 1 have found no trace of carbon.” Ibid, 608. 


BF DY eT ae ee 


C. W. Eliot and F. H. aac Impuritiesin Zinc. 145 


“Tn addition to t hat no precipitation is produced by, —— 
salts in the dilute rr nitric acid a v4 ‘the residues from the Php zines, 
would adduce prea exper riments to show that any compound of sulphur =a a 

metal, which might be pre “yp in _ Pare a in all probability, be decomposed 
is presence of an omens of zin e aci 
“ Wackenroder,* in the memoir already ce rye aoe states that the black resi- 
due from zine is sulphi id of lead,—a at first sight sufficiently plenatilas 
but really inconsistent with the — a case. Then precipitated sulphid of 
lead is mixed w — —— excess of granulated a (Silesian, Vieille Montagne, or 
m p or 


are woes a If, after all the aa has been completely dissolved, the insoluble resi- 
due is fused before the eee act et of soda free from sulphuric acid, 
the mass thus obtained will n n si 

“If powdered galena be sSouieed for gene tare sulphid of lead, the same 


ffects i ough mu 
fore, suffers complete ecom posi tion in pre of a ess of zinc and free acid, 


and it is of ae — rman diss “this eek ero: er te found in the 
insoluble res 


an is§ say, that ‘the form 
can only be attributed to the partial dca of the sgivstie acid by the nas- 
rogen.’ Su elain,| dou i 


To obtain a satisfactory solution of be problem, it is necessary to use an acid which 
does sin se fp ealpioor in any form. Sulphuric acid will not answer the purposes 
we hav ee riment ; oe: though it is undoubtedly possible to pre- 
pare suiphurie aeid renee sulphurous acid, Fg the doubt wor ill remai 
cerning the reduction of the 5 salphufic acid by the h gat Rect reduction not impos- 
y concentration. In testing 


cate 
which gives - on itate with rie sai but it is very difficult to _— 
this acid from common salt and sulphuric acid, so that, while containing no chl 
it shall be absolutely free from oe ous acid, or some lower compounds ‘of a 
rm., 1834, 


der Pha * 
: We have observed that ‘the *sulphids of tin and copper are also decomposed er 
mixed with an excess of zine and dilute ae. The we of copper was 


tions Pon, co ee 
ions of sulphur fire his | blow < Siihongat € this mig 
in the tinfoil from which ig 8 = prepared, yet it wal pine thatthe de 
position a len the sulphid of tin is effected wi depukgtes ter difficult y than thst the 

— Coane: Sra 543, in Dingler’s Polyt. Jour. 1841, Ixxali, 425. 

i Ann. de Ch. et Fags 1843, [3,] vii, 189 
Am. Jour. Scl—Srconp SERIEs, Vo. XXXI, No. 91. —Jas., 1961. 

19 


# 
146 Book Notices. 


ee Loewenthal’s* _ with ses wena of iron and —— of potas 
um will reveal the presence of suc! unds of sulphur in chlorhydric acid 
made ro the utmost care, and in other respects pure. By means of chloviae or 
some of su sulphur tg pi dly be oxyd- 
es or en tae the larger part of these wigan perk may ted into sulphu- 
ric acid; whether their last pried can be oxydiz ized in this iis is a point by no 
ns beyond a doubt. But if the hyd d has been treated with chlorine 


f barium 
ting to dryness. The residue was dissulved in distilled ‘tte, and in this solution 4 
slight excess of chlorid of barium was present, as was proved by the sng 
uced by a solution of penaque’ of lime. ae acid free from sulphur 
then prepared by the follo i 
treated with enough cold ‘tear to duaclve alow f of the acid taken, and the 
pee ; 


Id solution thus obtained y aporated ie: crystallized; the mass of 
cry was ed with a saturated solution of ms crystals, and was 
finall ved in distilled n these two calcium 


$5 

and the oxalic acid, so prepared, no sulphur could be detected, either by barium salts, 
Loewenthal’s test, or by the blowpipe reaction on 

“We app ied to every zinc in our possession the following test for sulphur. 10 

ne were intr pee a into a small soap of the solu- 

tion of chlor! id of calcium and of oxalic acid added the ret os drogen gas was freel 
developed, and was as tested for any sl huretted hyd which it pack contain, e 
placing a slip of paper moistened with alkaline acetate ‘of 1ead in the narrow 9 
of the flask. In every case the paper — immediately and strongly coscean 
showing conclusively that every one e following zines contains sulphur in 4 
_ a xtremely minute, but distinctly oars ifa ‘ootiaianily delicate 
a 


1. cars Montagne zine (in two distinet samples). 
ilesian 

The United States Mint zine. 

eB Proves nes sine 


SIOOe Se 
od 


Silesian —e (subjected to Meillet’s} process for purification from arsenic). 


8. w Jersey: zi 
_ 2 us from the Ni bi a 
10, — zine (in ee distinct mye les). ew Jersey white zinc oxyd)- 
ae aia t api oboe e previous obser 
ee eine that sulpbur is not cob- 
tained in eilecidet zine, from the fact eae ers sulphur is 


* Jour. pr. ‘Chem., Ix, 267. 
+ Dingler’s s Polyt. Jour., 1842, Ixxxiii, 205, from Jour. de Pharmacie, 1841, 625. 


= Sse eS es 


Book Notices. 147 


MEE os ea ee 


| tions that a delicate black precipitate is produced when the hydrogen from zinc is 

4 passed through nitrate of silver; this precipitate was probably sulphid of silver, and 

| not metallic silve er, as Karsten cues ure 

j gain, Jacquelain, in the memoir already referred to, bites that sulphur 
as not contained in the speciiien of French zine which he examined, because a com- 


ie! 
me 
i] 
= 
fa) 
D 
£. 
Ss 
=. 
oS 
&. 
<i 
o 
rp 
9,6 
S 
= ° 
& 
4h 
aS 
Fe 
° 
& 
S 
= 
ie 
=] 
boned 
z 
FE 


e 

8 ‘alle paper, Jac seine slab: criticiain the observation reported by Fordos and Gélis 

vf the generation of sulphuretted hydrogen from zine and dilute sulphuric acid, im- 

plies that there is no sulpbur in zine by stating that the development of sulphuret- 
avoided i i 


to be wondered at, but it is not ri argued from this fact, flint there is no ag 
: 


Tg 


rey 
os 
co 

a) 


A vigorous evolution of re ins hydrogen was the immediate re- 


phur in zine, ith regard to sulphur in the ie from New Jersey, Alger* has re 

: earkes that the New Jersey zine ore is known to contain no sulphur; but, on the 
: r hand, Jackson+ observed the sulphuret of zinc in the fanen of red oxyd of 
; ion in Fr anklin, Sussex County, New Jersey, and a simple experiment demonstra- 
; o us the existence of sulphur in that ore. 10 or 15 wee i s of the red oxyd 
| of zinc, not ent ly free the ae. of carbonate of lime in which the ore oc- 
: curs, were reduced to a fine e powder, a reated with moderately dilute pure sul- 
sl 


e have vere purposely — any allusion to “ valuable discus- 
sion upon the occurrence of arsenic in zinc into whic the authors have 
been drawn, since we pune to cite their neh es upon this subject in 
~— in a subsequent number. 

. A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum, and other distilled Oils ; 
Awnanan GEsn NER, M.D., BGS. New York. Bailliére Brothers 


congene 
contribution to the recorded technology an an obscure lamin it. is ne - 
paid in advance. as the 


pie sea st Proc. Am, Association, 1850, iv, 336. 


148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


The author recognizes the igo oat of the manufacture of coal oils _ 
with the production in such in ing abundance of petroleum, destined 
to become a powerful pi Fs of | the artificial product, for economic use. — 
He states the number of oil wells in Western Pennsylvania and Ohio as 
not less than five hundred and fifty, opened or in process of boring, “a 
yielding by estimate not less than 25, 000 to 30,000 gallons daily. It is 
- instructive in this conneciion to recall the fact that the natural product 
ponies) which has been well known from the earliest dou of hu- 
istory, should Rees: remained comparatively useless and almost 

Magen until the modern art of coal oil distillation, has ened its 1 
dustrial value. It is quite possible that the future historian of the indus 
trial arts may look back on the coal oil distillation as only an episode in 
the history of the iis oan of the use of petroleum. 

e would not be understood however as giving to Dr. G.’s book an 


5.14, which he says “ on ays an a Spiporthite part in the pie ‘whi 
occur ’ during distillation.” It is time this foree ceased to be the poms — 
ver in matters of science ignorance lacks the courage 0 — 
“avow its weakness, When (as on p. 59) the author says, “ A number of 


Lewis, C,H, ,, or it may be * Ca ‘i at he meant to say ae 


Chemists will a curious to know the evi oiins nee on whic 
the “Homologous series obtained from oo — * nidad? ‘we : 
86) —— by enumeration nineteen consecuti ompounds 0 7 
assu type CyyiH,. Such vague paouatin will a as he sup 

“interest the professional chemist,” or extend the bounds of science — 
Like too many technical works printed in this country, this book abounds 
in typographical errors—such as the oo use of analine for aniline, 

Considering the author’s well-known position as plaintiff in the case 
Gesner vs. Cairnes—we esteem his ithe to the “ Albert Coal” to bein 
bad taste, since it gives only a oe. view of a case ont the: 


ond editio tio 
3. Gente Problems Srom the ¢ 


* Report of a case tried at Albert Circuit, 1852, before his fied t J ) 
and a eas ery Abraham Gesner vs. William Cairnes, copied a oe Tt 
Notes. . St. Jobo, N. B, 1853. _ Svo, pp. 167 


ba ek 


— 


ee ee ee ee 


a 
Miscellaneous Intelligence. - 149 


Warren, C.E., Professor of Descriptive Geometry and Geometrical 
Drawing in the Rensselaer Polytechnic ete: — N. Y., 412 pp., 
8vo. New York: Joun Witry, 1860.—This is a more extended work 
than any other. American ones on Deaviptive Genlaniane which has 
hitherto appeared. It is rigorously systematic and truly philosophical 
in its general plan, but is open to the objection of being encumbered 

with a complex system of divisions, and subdivisions in a descending 
scale, that will not be apprehended readily by the student. Notwith- 
standing this objection, the work is on the whole admirably adapted to 
secure the important educational benefits to be derived from such a study 
—the realization of a 0% mental culture, as well as the acquisition of 
exact know ledge. m this point of view the most striking feature is 
the plan of vided is tiie detailed solution of each problem, an out- 
line sketch of the process, sive en without reference to a diagram, which 
the author saat mien a “ Solution in Space.’ gee eon feature 


of treatment of some of these topics the author has iistiapeaa consider- 
able originality. The doctrine of tangency especially is presented in a 
new light. A new definition is given of a tangent line not liable to cer- 
tain plausible objections that may be urged against the definition gener- 
ally adopted, and which may be more readily and more distinctly appre- 
hended by the student, and conducts more readily to the rules for draw- 
ing tangents to special curves. But if the author desires that the defi- 


oo extended for use in the pa m. We have, aces Ae 
doubt that it will find its way into the library of students: who are ambi- 


rati in rime recomposition tion of 
: ete the whole of the first two Scat the whole is enriched by 
_ humerous additions, designed to make it an exact and useful manual for 
© teacher as well as for the student. 


a 
150 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 3 
1. Harihquake-—About 6 a. M., on the 17th of October, 1860, Can- i 


= of greatest intensity was low down on the St. Lawrence. 

iviére Ouelle and Riviére du Loup, proceeding thence with diminish 

ing intensity as far west as Hamilton. It was ahead felt shone 
; s Aubu 


be seen to be but lit tle less than that Jie to ‘the difference of an 


was slight and the testimony of only one observer was recorded, there 
may be an error. e shock thus appears to have been nearly simular 
neous throughout Canada. 


aes 6 a.m. Three shocks at intervals of some seconds, noise continued for tet 


inutes. 
gr Island, 6, A.M. 
Riviere du Sac a.m. A series of shocks lasting nearly five minutes. y 
schooner off this place ap ei ete shock resembling that of striking on a sand- 
nk, and the waters of the Gulf were unusually agita 
River Ouelle, 6.15 a.m. oe iolent, damaging walls and throwing down chim 
nds, 


boulements, near Murray Bay, 5.30 a.m. Violent. Five —_ feeble shocks in a 
rapid : succession, another at noon and another - LNs P.M, This is where 


behinds c nit Eboul ] pe other 
a St. Paul, 5.50 a.m. Violent shock ; chimneys fell. 
Thomas (fon ees) oy Two shoc 

3t. Joseph de la Beauce, 6.1 ak 

uebec, 5.50 a.m, Several sea, severe, especially in lower ee of the ¢ 
in the environs; but less so than at River Ouelle, a ; 

atte Megantic, 6a 10 to 6.15 

Richmond, 5.45, a. 

hree megs about Ga, m. Shocks felt for two minutes. 


: 
Tae Je PTD TD wet 
By) 


reported damaged. 
M ere 6 a.m. Shocks felt for more than a minute, su tot 
north to pposed | 
aun . 50. Two or three perceptible shocks, felt less on the 
on lower grou mountain 
St. Martin, Isle Jesus, 5.55, At Dr. Smallwood’s o observatory, two distinet 2 
ond tiny ‘The wave passed from east to west. Barometer ' 29-964 inches, te 
e 40° 8, wind N.E., cloudy. 4 


Prescott, 5.30 A ; 
Belleville, 5.30 rom One shock. 
Hamil 


* Canadian Naturalist, Oct., 1860, 363. 


¥ 

* 

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 151 
E 


“Tn all or nearly all of the above places the earthquake was preceded 
by a rumbling noise which gradually decreased after the vibrations had 
passe he difference of duration ascribed to the shocks appears to 
arise mainly from the circumstance that some observers include the con- 


nean sound ; and in this way it is oo that by some persons two or 
‘pote shocks have been regarde 
e observation of Dr. Sindligiad that the wave proceeded from east 
ie we st, may be regarded as correct. At the same time the nearly simul- 
~_ taneous occurrence of the shock throughout Canada, perhaps — 
- that the wave did not move horizontally but reached the surface from 
great depth and at a high angle as Perrey of Dijon gti to suppose the 
earthquakes of Eastern America have usually done. It must however be 
observed that at the rate of propagation given by Mallet for earthquake 
waves through hard rock, which is not less than 10 ,000 feet per second, 
it is quite possible that even a ean wave may appear to be felt at 
the same instant at great dist 

ll the observers agree that the sound preceded the shock and con- 

finued after it, and that the first shock was the most violent; and it is 
also very generally noted that it was most severely felt on low ground 
and least so on rocky eminences. This last character which belongs to 


™e 
a 
3 


= 
rh 


re 


; by J. Lawrence Satu, (in a letter to the 


into my possession, two new meteoric irons; one weighing one hundred 
and twelve wos ‘from Oldham County, hear LaGrange, Ky. ; the other 
_ Weighing thirty-seven pounds, from Ro bertson county, near Coopertown, 
Ten description of them with alate ® will Pe Seen in an early 
number of this Journal. 

OBITUARY. 

J. P. Espy.—The death of Mr. Espy was s announced by us in vol. xxix, 
is 304; the following notice of his life was ering by Prof. A. D. 
ache, ‘at a recent meeting of the Board of Regents of the Bontheosien 
psec eieaes and forms part of the hii for wise, P- hi 
is eae el Gace en se 

 Prgeeie in innati, Ohi on the ror of January, 1860, in the 
‘year of hin ‘age,’ after an Siaeae of a week, at the ary of his nephew,  Jobn 


The e early career 
- to his later distinction in science. He was one of the best classical and m 
matical instructors in Philadelphia, sm at iy day numbered Dr. Wylie, Mr. 
ey » and Mr. Crawford among its’ 
ypimpressed by the researches and writings weet Dalton and of Daniell on meteorolony, 


diffusion of the science finally became 
‘School, and to rely herr lometne his researches upon 


‘wo ven ew 
Editors, een “Louisville Ky. , Nov. 19th, 1860).—There have just come 


of Mr. pm as an instructor was marked by the qualities 1 which 


ings and the success of etre, roti the mot orignal wih av eer bean a 


2 
152 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


delivered on this subject. His first course was qpeiien: agnor the Franklin Insti- 
een ek enns bee of which he had long been an mber, and where he 


research. s chairman of the ieaenlttog ee on meteorology Mr. r Bop had a ane 


ha mys ‘theo ory of storms was developed in Pen Journal 
of the Franklin Institute, containing te ons ‘of the nae of te tem ciel re, pres- 
sure, and moisture of the air, and in the direc tion and force of the wind aa pee 


iall: United States. A oir submi 

Philosophical Society of cheng — for Mr. Espy the award of the 

lanic premium in the year , afte a discussion remarkable for ingennity aad 

Spceness,| in its progress, and a the Dasa unanimity of its resu 
spy was eminently soc in his mental habits, full of bonhommie and of 

Peat 1 i asil glow by social mental action. In the meetings and 

free discussi 


tion in watching the development of Mr, Espy’s scientific id e progress of his 
experiments, and the results of his reading and studies; the pe fee ye ves 

Pp f the storm, t ornado, 
and of the aurora. Mrs, Espy’s mind was essentially literary and ” coul not aid 
her husband in his scientific inquiries or experimeuts: her neon ag esr and 
she could not assist him in his out-door observations; but she plied what re of 


noe took the & pall saplanon, though past middle age, to throw himself into a new 
career, laying aside all o ee mployments, and devoting himself to the diffusion 

e which he had collected and increased, by lecturing in the towns 
villages, and cities of the United States. This proved a suecessful undertaking, apd 


hy. uld have be 
probably, in in any other psec sata remarkable power in explaining bt 
Ideas, His simplicity and Sibachom satel ie hearers to follow him without too 
great effort, and the earnestness with which he spoke out his convictions 
the 


m away in favor of his theory. The same power which enabled him to succeed 
in his lecturing career procured subsequently for Mr, Espy the support a and encour: 
agement of some of i especially in the gare tsa 
also in the executive departments. Their attention was arrested 

$ Vi ar in ting them, and he im 
conviction of their truth as to ind y of our statesmen 
exert themselves to procure for him, under the e of the government, cod 
portunities for study, re and the compa’ obse: a 
ten s scientific friends, and particularly o : 
Institnt‘on, Mr. Espy owed much in obtaining the sppervomies of keeping in 
ntific career. His reports to the Surgeon General o rmy, to 


to the Secretary of the Navy, are among his latest efforts i in this direction. 


Miscellanccat Intelligence. 153 


The eon and deep epnynetions af the truth of Me enc in all its parts, and his 
glowing enthusiasm in regard to it; perhaps, also, a he had eres 
prevented Mr. Espy from passing tives a certain Spot ard s development 
titution of mind rendered ot sadontions from pie often ter 
is views were positive and his conclusions bsolute, and so was the expression of 
them. He was not prone to examine oH re-examine premises and conclusions, 
cosine what bad once been passed upon by his ewes as finally settled, 
Hence his views did rein ake that impression upon cooler temperaments among 
men ‘of eerie . tipi ting & were € ee btaining more credit among scholars 
g 


Feeling that his bod dily vigor was failing, and that his life must soon close, the 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution induced him to re-examine the various parts 
of his meteorological pr of storms, tornadoes and water spouts, and to insert ~ 
in his last spre while it was going th rough the press, an account of his most ma- 
ture views. I trust that ‘ae Secretar y will, in one of his reports, give us a thorou 
and critical cxaiination of the works and services of this remarkable contributor to 

a branch of science, the kno oes a Ms the Smithsonian Institution ti already 
ya so much te advance and to 

On motion of Professor ne thé following resolutions were adopted : 

Resolved, That the Regents of the eat Institution have learned 


with deep regret the decease of James P. Espy, one of the most useful 
and zealous of the meteorologists cpapaatug with the Institution, and 


whose labors in both the Increase and diffusion of knowledge of meteor- 


cere condolence i in the loss which they have sustai 

On motion of Mr. Pearce, it was go a that dha Seta arice of Professor 
Bache be onidiel in the proceeding 

Davin Date Owen, well- oe as a geologist and igen died 


mas eae Bw. ‘AN., 1861. 


* 


154 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Tennessee. He received his Medical diploma from the Ohio Medical Col- 
lege, in 1835, after two years’ assiduous devotion to medical studies Im 
Cincinnati. In 1837, he married Miss Caroline Neef, daughter of Joseph 
F. N. Neef, the former associate of Pestalozzi, in Switzerland, and later 
with Mr. William Maclure, in New Harmony. 9 

r. Owen’s responsible labors, as an explorer, commenced in 1837, 
when he took charge of the Geological Reconnoissance of Indiana, per- 


Wisconsin and Minnesota. ts of this Survey appeared in 
uarto volume, in 1852, under the sanction of Congress.¢ ‘This elaborate 
was illustrated by plates of fossils, some of which were ‘ medal- 


his assuming new duties. The first volume, (8vo,) of the Arkansas Re : 
port, appeared in 1858, and the materials for a second volume, were 2 
the printers’ hands, at the time of his death; indeed he continued dicta — 
ting daily, portions of this Report to within three days of his decease. U@ — 
had, in 1859, accepted the offer made him by the Board of Agriculture, for 
the State of Indiana to direct the new Geological Survey of that State, 
with the understanding that the work should be performed by his broth 
er, Dr. R. Owen, until the completion of the Arkansas Survey permitl 
his personal attention to that of Indiana. This work, we understand, 
remains in Dr. R. Owen’s hands. Besides these great and responsi? 


als and Corporations. It is a great satisfaction to know that Sciene? 
* This Journal, [2.] xi, 294. ¢ See this Journal, [2,] xv, 296, xvi, 91. 
t This Journal, [2,] ix, 1850. ; 
§ This Journal, xxil, 272, xxv, 283, 447, xxix, 287. 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. : 155 


will have the benefit of all Dr. Owen’s public labors. The second report 
on thé Geological Survey of Arkansas is in the hands of the printer, as 
also the fourth volume of the Kentucky repor 

He has also left a monument of his industry and success in a fine mu- 
seum and laboratory, at New Harmony, completed during the last year. 

The disease of which Dr. Owen died, if not induced, was gre atly aggra- 
vated by the long and severe exposures and privations to which his almost 
constant field labors exposed him 

e sleeps in the vault, (which was also that of his own family), of 

WiiaM Mac org, the father of American Geology, a already consecrated 
to science as the last resting place of the eminent naturalist, Tuomas Say. 

—s men have labored more harmoniously with their oak Se than 

n; whose catalogue of ollabor ators yes Norwoo umard, 


oe Sei son, for the a year or ee o, has ‘a his sceaneae sisal 
and erin In view of his nck senegae and scientific ability, rich 
ce 


to which he had devoted a large share of attention. He was a native 
= resident of Louisville, Ky. 


Bibliography ; by J. Nroxxis. 


Paris, chez MALLET-BACHELIER. 

Recherches sur Véquivalent mécanique de la chaleur, par G. A. Himx. 1 vol, in 8° 
d. 340 pages, avec planches.—Cet ouvrage a été couronné, par la pra de Phys- 
ique de Berlin, qe . avait mise au concours la question si important, de — 
mécanique de la haleur 

Paris, chez ee rue Pierre-Sarrazin, 
4 Sate rs de Droit Naturel, par Jourrroy, 2 vol. i * ai d. 430 pages; ouvrage essen 
ie Segoe philoso ue et d'une tras pis 

tin A "- n Europe, par Marmirr. 1 pa 12° d, 480 pages.—Cet ouv- 
rage at are docstone lu avec intérét par les habitans des anciennes colonies fran- 
falses, telles que le Canada, la Louisiane, etc., est la réimpression d'une séri ar’ : ticles Ss 

Mondes. L’au y fe 


Miaege cert littéraires sont re en vogue en France. oS eee 
inten orvege, par Louis Exaur, 1 vol. in 12° d. 450 pages.—C’est un ot 2a 
e genre aA Ne récédent et ee Me ag imé. a 
bape in 12 00 ges, 


'année scientifique et industrielle, ar L. Ficurer. 1 vol. 
4me anneé.—Ou cat ay . 


dobre découvertes accomplies dans l'année dans le di main 
pen arnisbaimete - par Scupo.—A Youvrage de M. Ficus vat sa annexer Yannée 


| oa littéraire et Xt Sapetions, de M. Varrennav. 


156 Proceedings of Societies. 


PrRocEEDINGS Boston Soo, Nat. Hist., continued from vol. XXX, 1860, MARES 
p. 241, (also 251.) O 
ae ations, as fardshiog arguments against the theory of Darwin; Prof . 
p- 249, Dis set on same b Prof. Rogers ; and p. 244, rejoinder ; Aganigt on a 
On the colors of the Nacre of fresh water bivalves ; J. Lewis.—p. 246, Views of the 


etratigraphical relations “of deposits formed’in an ocean under each of the three con 
, a subsiding, and a rising position of the sea-bottom; W.d. — 
og Mere p. 249, Occurrence of Bed native Iron in Africa, (vol. v, p. 250, and vol 


> p. 279, B.S. Proceed.) denied; A.A. Hayes—p. 252, Description of new Ophi- — 

#, belonging to the S ah oman Institution and to the Museum of Comparative — 

Reckitt Theodore we apron 262, Genus Pygorhynchus (genus known before only 

fossil, ) found li iving at Acapulco; Agassiz—APRIL.—p. 271, O i 

faune in time and space ; Prof. "Agassiz.—p. 21%, aig oa (supplementary) on the 
- W.BR $812, 


movements o ed ve floo ogers.— od by Agassiz, 
and Gould.— Exhibition of the ibe sNildren and a sketch of albinism, by 
Dr. Kneland. P aki and distribution of t illa ther anthropoid apes 
fro: observation on the West — of Africa; Mf. Du Chaillu.—p 
Table comprising phe el iy gs and height of 100 men from a Military Company 
Boston —On es migratory parasites ; Prof. J. Wym 
3, ‘On: some su ‘Peat ] Peaaits of Diatomacee; A. M7. ards, New York— 
p. 287, On the American White (Termes frontalis, Hald.); Seu 
A pearl;” a rare cal aus concretion found in the interior of 
he Cocoa-nut ; Dr. J. Bacon 293, Dissection of the poison apparatus © 
Rattle Snak —p. 294, On the Albert Coal; Pro B, Rogers.— 


n. as 
p. 296, Descaiplions of five new species of mammals discovered in West equatorial 
Africa; P. Bal Du Chailiu—p. 305, Analysis of juice of the ont of common — 


ing hermometer 0 t Dr ames Lewis; Prof. W. B. Rogers.—p. 319, Observations — 
; 0. A. White. 


s. Nor nets 
ee: 323, hy of iat of new shells collected by the United 
iti A, A. Gould.—SEP 


so 
5 
Y 
g 
5 
i) 
is 
Q 
4 
v= a 
= 
o 
ae 
= 
i 
oO 
we 
p 
ot 
4 
he 
wn 
=e 
QO 
a 
oy 


; Dr.A. 
y of the species of Cyrenella, a — of Mollusea belon o the family of 
ucinide ; Temple Prime.—p. 348, On a very fusible eer ne Be from Lake 
rod containing boracic acid; Dr. A. A. Hayes.—p. 349, Account of a reall 
vis lo ; 


the coast of Labrador; Henry Bryant,—Account of a visit to some 
in vicinity of Franconia, N CT. Jae — , On the 
growth commonl California seed; Dr. White~—Fossil skull of the 
President,—OCTOBER.—p. 353, On the conglomerate of Vermont; 
Prof. Edward Hitchcoc 355, Letter in reference to a Can lynx (Lynz 
adensis), killed in » Sept. 9 —p. 356, Account 
f are sit to Lake Winnipeg andthe Saskatchawan River; S. H. 


! en Island, y 
Scotia, by Bs eh ag a Bean Halifax; Dr. Bryant.—p. 382, i 
ee Sele collects y the North Pacific xpediti inv 
De kA Guld Exploring Expedition ( 


For list of ire received, see March Number. 


DISCUSSION OF THE MAGNETIC 


IN 1840, 41,42, 43,44,& 45 


Lunar-diurnal Variation of the Magnetic Declination 


ee Pe Pe ee age a 1s yr en 

345 4 

=.40t- a =A 
35. Diagriam A. a 


X | 
ee 
AN a 
| ee, 
mi gh vol ate 
-o ae 
50 
+40 
S-45 
ety ee 
Of] 2° 4°5° 6° 9 BS 30 Nr 2 
Bae L.C: 


From 4900 obs Live Ls 4 1840 & 4] : 
6H... td 


ee ee tar 84S L oR 


AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE GIRARD COLLEGE PHILADELPHIA 


DIAGRAMS TO PART 3.1860 A.D. BACHE L.L.D. SUPERINTENDENT 


Lunar-diurnal Variation 


fn Sunvaner 
Winter 


ce 
sie | 
a 


Lunar-diurnal Variation 


. 
BREE seas we 


D 


i hs: / : 
\ : 


eer: 4 a es os See oe ee 


mae 


aoe / | ee 


ee 
piss “A . =“ 
“nl 1 
e 
{ 
ei | 
- Ff | 
sky a | | 
as ie ae Seat | ep eee ol. Fe ee | bij ete Ske ne fae pt | po oe 
Pea fat AS 6.7 6-2 10 a7 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Zl: 22 23 24> GO POO 2 eA ee $100 122.63 u4 16 3 a8 18: 20: 21 23 24 
re J ©. 
rc Peel LP ie U.C, 
: fi gon : Summer curve trom. L087 earns 1 7 My et ea “ 
21644 observations at P, hiladelphia tron 1840 to l845 Winter curve fromm 10557......... Ry eee re Ay 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SERIES.] 


Arr. XTII.— On the Appalachian Mountain System ; by ARNOLD 
wa Professor in the College of New Jersey, ‘Princeton. 
1t 


time ag, ne in the forth: pes have ney howe pr 

ae be exact when compared with the measurements which 

° Made with greater care and under more favorab 

But we must not ae the rarity ant 

nountain measurem: wholly to a 

vt alt te a coral propondefince a “the 
It is du , in 


- 


can | 
- the volume of “Meteorological and Physical Tables 


158 A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


onl 
5 
Pe) 
09 
s 
ct 
<< 
a 
“ 
Rage 
2) 
o 
3° 
mh 
et 
ps 
a>) 
b> 
gs 
i) 
— 
= 
ot 
ede 
2 
B 
oO 
=2 
i) 
mie 
5 
@ 
™” 
ge) 
oO 
o. 
= 
S 
oa 
o 
= 
fey 
= 


identifying them in every case are by no means numerous. B a 
sides all this, if the relative height of different culminating pomts . 
has been determined correctly, there still remains, in 0 erto. 


ished within the last ten years. Excellent barometers are 10W 
made in America and are within the reach of any willing ob- 
server. The railroad surveys cross all the pritisipat wesipa and 


These various difficulties, or at least some of them, have dimin- 


2 
3 
Es 
. 
E 
oO 
ie 
85 
E 
3 
5, 
S 
3 
oO 


ye me! 

scales, partly compiled and partly computed by the 

been published by the Smithsonian Institution, and 

observer of the most tedious and time-consuming portion of his 
hts to th 


ae 


A. Guyoi on the Appalachian Mountain System. 159 


One of my first labors, on arriving in America, in 1848, was 
collect all the measurements of the ‘Appalachian’ system which 
then been published. Except the elevations determined for 
railroads and canals, nearly alt the more remarkable heights 
ich been measured were in New England or New York, 
that is 8 say, in the White, Green and Adirondack mountains. 
Add to this the secondary. heights measured, in considerable 
number, in Maine, New H ampshire and Massachu setts, a few 
points in Pennsylvania and Virgin Nee and some rather vague 
determinations in North Carding by Dr. Mitchell, and we have 
neer'y all the hypsometrical wealth then at the service of the geog- 
rapher. Massachusetts, the only state in the Union which has 
had a regular trigonometric survey, furnished besides some geo- 


he comparison of ess last soon led me to see in the heights 
published by different authors se differences as indicated either 
a confusion of names, or errors in measurement too consider- 
able to be attributed to the fotinciied employed in calculating, 
and which could only be attributed to imperfect ghar or 
to circumstances too unfavorable for the work which was under- 
taken. As for detecting the error, when there was a “disauteee 
ment, it was hopeless; for, since most of the authors gave merely 
their results, without the observations from which they were 
deduced, and without describing the instruments emplo 
the circumstances of the measurement, a discriminating criti- 
cism was impossible. Moreover, the measurements which I had 
occasion to verify were ee, all found to be affected ee errors 


Sines 1849, I have Aevctod 1 my summer excursions to a stat 
of the physical configuration of the Appalachian system, and to 
he barometric measurement of those points which were most 

rtant in me establishment of the laws of its relief. Ib 
wil the m g groups, namely, the so 
Mountains, + hare I made four excursions in as many different 


Lit 


fen, as my irons ne ya show, the eulminatiog Baits of 3 


acc «5 


160 A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


idea of the normal proportions of the system in all its parts. 
Meanwhile I present the list of results already obtained, hoping 
that this preliminary publication will afford some interest to sci- 
entific men, At the same time I desire to have it considered as 
a resumé merely of special memoirs in whic shall give the 
original measurements, and shall indicate the details of the work 
and the method employed for deducing these results. It is my 
wish to do my part toward establishing an usage which should 
be invariable among men of science, to give the elements on 
which are based the results, which should be in the common 
treasure of our knowledge. This would furnish to sound criti- 
cism the means of determining their proper value. In this par- 
ticular case, however, such details may be more fitly placed 
in the transactions of scientific societies. 


a 


observers themselves. At another time I may offer some further 
remarks upon this subject. At present I will only add thatthe 
value of the coéfficients in the formula of Laplace must be slightly 
modified, in accordance with the more recent determinations of 
the physical data which it employs, and that the corrections 
which depend upon the temperature and the hour of the day in 
which the observations are made, deserve a much closer degree 
of attention than has hitherto been accorded to them. 

In the volume of Physical and Meteorological Tables, pub- 
lished by the Smithsonian Institution, I have mentioned two 
instances in which my barometric measurements were followed 
the next year by leveling with a spirit level. This occu 
the two culminating points of the Appalachian system, Mount 
Washington in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and the 
summit of the Black Mountains in North Carolina. The received 
height of Mount Washington had previously been 6226 feet. 
measurements in 1851 gave 6291 feet. e€ measurements 
spirit level, by U. A. Godwin, Civil Engineer, in 1852, gave ¢ 


feet, and a similar leveling under the direction ¢ 
vey in 1853, gave a height of 6293 feet. 


A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 161 


For the Black Dome of North Carolina, the culminating point of 
the Black Mountains, (lately called also Mitchell’s High Peak, but 
not the former Mount Mitchell,) my measurements in 1856 gave 
_ 6702 feet, or, by adopting the modification of the coéfficient 
~ just alluded to, 6707 feet. A measurement by spirit level in the 
following year, 1857, by Major J.C. Turner, Civil Engineer, who 
had my figures in his hand, and who set out from my point of 
departure, gave an altitude of 6711 feet. 

o these coincidences I may add examples still more recent. 
Waynesville, the chief town in Haywood County, North Caroli- 
na, 27 miles from Asheville, being one of my principal stations 
for the measurement of all the culminating region of the Appa 
lachian System, I determined its altitude with care by a series of 
hourly correspondent observations extending through several 
days, one at Asheville, the other at Warm Springs, thirty-seven 
miles below the French Broad river, near the boundary of Ten- 
nessee, the altitudes of these two points being given by the Sur- 
vey of the Charleston and Cincinnati railroad which follows the 


lished elevations, already mentioned, to wit, the summit ¢ { the 
route which crosses the Balsam chain at the upper end of | 
creek, and the confluence of this creek with the Tuck 


twenty miles from Waynesville. In both cases, the railro dle 
lings agreed within a yard with the barometric measul 
___ these last being the hig ’ 


est, era Z 

;. «cn Dhese. 3 neasurements, entirely independent, and proceedin 
_ from the same given points, present an argument which is well 
‘tted to inspire confidence in barometric results obtained with 


SPs ead * ; A 
be ioe Toe 


162 A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


Institution. They have been kindly left at my disposal by the 


| compa 

not only before and after each pire but also during the cone 
of each, whenever there has been an opportunity. The 

co nding observations have always been made with one OF 

the other of the barometers thus compared, and their relative 

corrections, resulting from the equations thus established, ha 


ae 


clita |» 


DS ae Na Mais | Se ee oe 2 ee Seren eee Se Oe eS | ena ke 


xi 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 163 


always been applied in the calculations. A long familiarity with 

ay Lussac’s syphon barometer, with Bunten’s improvement, as 
well as with Fortin’s cistern barometer, modified by Ernst, has 
convineed me that the latter is to be preferred, notwithstanding 
its weight and its greater length, if the utmost accuracy compat- 
ible with the method is to be sought. The variations of capil- 
lary attraction, and the soiling of the tube of the short branch of 
the syphon by the oxyd of mercury in the Bunten barometer 
are serious inconveniences. The impossibility of repairing such 
barometers in case they are injured in travelling, is a still more 
serious difficulty. I carry with each of my Fortin barometers, 
two extra tubes and a bottle of purified mercury which enable - 
me in case of accident to reconstruct my barometer in two hours 


Acting in its behalf I superintended the construction of 
a series of meteorological instruments of which the manufacture - 
was entrusted to a skillful optician, Mr. James Green, of New 
York, and which are now extensively employed throughout the 
United States, under the name of the Smithsonian Meteorologi- 
cal Instruments, I especially endeavored to render these instra- 
ments strong, simple and adjustable. By the latter phrase, 
mean that their construction allows them to be regulated by a 
standard instrument so as to eliminate the error of zero in the — 


with that of the scale. In the barometer I obtain ‘this result 


¥ means of a moveable scale which slides upon the brass casing 


164 A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. rag 


of the barometric tube and which is so placed as to make its in- 
dications accord with those of the normal barometer. A line 
traced on the fixed scale marks the natural height of the column 
of mercury and makes apparent the value of the applied cor- 
rection. 


not only stronger, but it greatly facilitates the cleansing of the 
mercury, which it is well to attend to frequently. Finally it dis 


now in use throughout America, having been substituted for 
those of Bunten in the army meteorological stations, and having 


servations I would mention that they have been constantly: 
companied by corresponding observations made by my young 


SoS ahs eh ge ARE a ay Ceca ge aL! oN, es ea a ee ee len ee ae Ses ey ng eee 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 165 


friends who have attended me in the various excursions, an 
who have studied under my direction the use of the barometer. 
I ought particularly to mention Mr. Ernest Sandoz, who has been 
with me in nearly all _ excursions, and Mr. Emile Grand 


ome for the measurement of Mt. Washington in 185 1, 
be made “2 two of his assistants, Messrs. Edward Goodfellow 
and B. F. Wes 

I would a mention Dr. Algernon Coolidge, who oe 
nied me to the Green Mountains, and to whom I ow addi- 
tion to sorteapessitiris observations, the ehoesaseribely ‘of the 
Camel Hump. My young friends, Alexander Agassiz, Edward 
Rutledge, and Herbert Torrey, have given me active codperation 
in the White Mountains. To my friend and fellow traveller in 
the Black Mountains, Rev. W. H. Green, of Princeton, I owe a 
number of corresponding a observations, and likewise 
a number to Prof. W. C. Kerr, of Davidson College, and to Mr. 

. A. Benners, of Waynesvi ile. 

The corresponding observations, made by my companions in 
travel, were taken hour by hour, and sometimes even once every 
quarter of an hour, so as to slink the construction of a complete 
barometric curve which represents with great exactness the state 
of the barometer for any hour of the day, and renders the error 
of interpolation almost nu 

For the purpose of distinguishing accurately the relative posi- 
tion of the regions explored, it may be well to descri e gen- 
eral structure of the system of mountains to which they belong, 

he upheavals of ancient rocks which constitute this well con- 
nected physical structure, for which, as a whole, it is proper to 
Tetain the common name of the a system, extend in 
an undulating line thirteen hundred miles in a mean direction of 
N.E. to S.W., from the promontory of Gaspé upon the Gulf of 
t. Lawrence to Alabama, where the terminal chains sink down 
and are lost in the recent and almost horizontal strata of the 
cretaceous and tertiary pe gm which cover the oa por- 
tion of the surface of this state. This long range of elevations 
is composed of a souptelaoable number of chains, sensibly par: le L 
to each other, occupying more particularly the eastern part which 
faces 4 “i a ocean, and of an extended too whi 

wards the west and map and nes s y 
ae Exe end Or- 


The | base on which this large belt of mountains rests, and 


_ which may be considered as bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on 
; ee and aria the Ohio and St. Lawrence rivers on the other, 


» Srrius, Vou. ——* Maxc, 1861, 


166 A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


is formed, in the east, by a plain slightly inclined towards the 
‘Atla ntic. The width of that plain, in New inaiont does not 
sede much from fifty miles. Near the mouth of the Hudson, . 
however, in New Jersey, it nearly disappears, but gradually i ine 4 
state towards the south to a width of over two hundred mi 
Its elevation above the sea, at the foot of the mountains, ‘aul a 4 
New Boglond, from 800 to 500 feet. From the neighborhood 
of the of New York, where it is nearly on a level with the 
ocean, it. rises gradually towards the south to an altitude of over 
1000 feet. On the west the table-lands which border upon the 
Ohio River, and which may be considered as the general base of 
the system, preserve a mass-elevation of a thousand feet or more, 
in the thickness of which the river-bed is scooped out to the 
depth of from 400 to 600 feet, thus reducing the altitude of the 
Ohio een full one-half from that of the surrounding lan 
elt of the Appalachian highlands forms the mar- 
gianis ast of the American continent on the Atlantic side, and. 
termin 4 


ae uniform, Toms not, like the Alps, or the other great 
tems of fracture, have a central or main axis, to which the 
secondary cnet ate subordinated. But it is properly compared 
to the system of the Jura, for it is composed like that of a series 
of long folds, or chains, which run parallel to each other, often 
with great regularity. In the same part of the system the gen- 
eral height of the chains is sensibly equal and their summits 
show sii many nor deep mealies, In the middle region, es 
pecially in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, they present t the oe 
pearance of long and continuous sala the blue summits of whi 
trace Sng the horizon a uniform line seldom varied by any — 
peas’ or crags. In the extreme northern and southern portions, 
owever, this character opr aks modified: There the sys 
om. : : d : 


= 


There is one feature of the A palachian system which distin 
guishes it from the ranges of the ' nae it is the well marked divis- 
jon into two longitudinal zones £ elevation, one turned towards 
the shores of the Atlantic, in ky the form of parallel chains 
just spoken of predominates, ae the other turned towards 
interior, which is composed of elevated and continuous plateaus, 
descending from the summit of their eastern escarpment, in the 
centre of the system, in gentle stages towards the basins of | 
lakes and the valley of the Ohio. Occasionally minor chains, ver} 
little elevated from their base, wrinkle the per of the ta 
lands. Their parallelism with those of the eastern 


A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 167 


zone shows that they are but the last undulations due to the ac- — 
tion of the same forces which have upheaved an folded that 
region, and which have raised at the same time, the mass of these 
more uniform plateaus. Thus when from any.point we traverse 
the Appalachian system from the Atlantic, we encounter first a 
plain more and more undulated and gradually ascending to the 
foot of the mountains; then a mountainous zone with its ranges 
parallel and its valleys longitudinal; at length a third zone of 
uniform plateaus slightly inclined towards the northwest, and 
‘cut with deep transverse valleys. 
Another feature not less conspicuous characterizes the region 
of corrugations properly so-called. is is a large central val- 
ley which passes through the entire system from north to south, 
forming, as it were, a negative axis through its entire length. 
This is what Mr. Rogers calls the Great Appalachian valley. 
At the north it is occupied by lake Champlain and the Hudson 
river; in Pennsylvania it bears the name of Kittatinny or 
Cumberland valley. In Virginia it is the Great valley; more 
to the south it is called the valley of East Tennessee. At the 
northeast and at the centre its average breadth is fifteen miles; 
it contracts in breadth towards the south, in Virginia, but 
reaches its greatest dimensions in Tennessee where it measures 
rom fifty to sixty miles in breadth. The chain, more or less 
compound, which borders this great valley towards the southeast 
is the more continuous and extends without any great interrup- 
tion from Vermont to Alabama. In Vermont it bears the name 


form throughout 
Although thes 


at the cent: 
its 


4 - 


168 A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


River to the southwest extremity of the system, the direction of 
which is nearly straight or forming a gentle curve concave to 
wards the northwest. These three divisions, diminishing in ex- 
tent, from the north to the south, are well marked, at the north, 
by the deep valleys of the Mohawk and the Hudson, which 
break through the Appalachian system to its base and across its 
entire breadth; at the south, by the New River whose deep val- 
ley with vertical walls also separates regions whose orographi¢ 
ebaracters present remarkable differences. 

The northern division is much the most isolated; it is geolog~ 
ically the most ancient, since its upheavals appear coeval with 
the Silurian and Devonian epochs, and are thus much anterior 
to the rest of the system, which only emerged after the deposit 
of the carboniferous rocks which it has elevated. Four hundred 
feet more of water would separate all the vast territory of the 
northern division from the American continent. One hundrec 
and forty feet would conyert into an island all New England 
and the British possessions as far as Gaspé; for the bottom of 
the valley occupied by Lake Champlain and the Hudson does 
not in any part exceed this level. 

I distinguish in this northern portion three physical regions; 
Ist, the triangular plateau of the Adirondack, with its mountain 
chains more or less parallel, between Lake Champlain and the 
St. Lawrence, Lake Ontario and the Mohawk: 2nd, New Eng: 


narrow about New York, presents towards the centre, 12 


very 
Pennsylvania, its greatest breadth which again diminishes to 


wards the south. It is composed of a considerable number of — 


tion, 
to 25 


SS ee ee 
a Mee eas Re Ge ee ee 


i el ed etre en 


ee ete ee Se 
ag 


A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 169 


in the plateaus in the neighborhood of Lake Erie, where the mean 
altitude of the plateau reaches 2000 feet, the valleys preserving 
a height of 1500 feet while the hills reach 2600 feet. ' 
_ This tableland forms a remarkable water-shed from which the 
waters descend by the Susquehanna into the valley of the Chesa- 
peake and the Atlantic ocean, by the Genesee and St. Lawrence 
to the same ocean, and by the Alleghany and Ohio to the Gulf of 
Mexico, The Susquehanna thus starts from Lake Erie at the 
extreme western border of the plateau, and runs across all the 
Appalachian system and its mountain ranges to its eastern base. 
More to the southward the eastern escarpment of the plateau 
divides, as far as the sources of the Potomac, the waters of the’ 
Atlantic coast from those of the Gulf of Mexico. It is the same 
escarpment which bears the local name of Alleghany Mountain, 
a name which continues to be applied, south of the waters o 
the Potomac, to the dividing ridge along the sources of the va- 
rious branches of James {iver, and even to the irregular hills 
which form a water-shed between the waters of the upper Ro- 
anoke and New River, across the Great Valley, near Christians: 
burg. Through all this middle region the name of Blue Ridge 
is applied to the main eastern chain which separates the Great 
valley from the Atlantic slope, and which is cut by all the 
rivers which flow out of it. ; 

he southern division, from New River to the extremity of 
the system, is much the most remarkable for the diversity of its 
physical structure and its general altitude. Even the base upon 
which the mountains repose is considerably elevated. Although 
the elevation of the Atlantic plain at the eastern base of the 
mountains is only 100 to 800 feet in Pennsylvania, and 500 in 


_ Virginia near James river, it is 1000 to 1200 feet in the region 


of the sources of the Catawba. In the interior of the mountain 


170 A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


land region, passes now suddenly to the eastern chain, upon the 
very border of the Atlantic plain, The reason is that the terrace 
which forms the base of the chains, and the slope of which 
usually determines the general direction of the water courses, 
attains here its greatest elevation, and descends gradually to 
wards the northwest. The base of the interior chain which runs) 
alongside the Great valley is thus depressed to a lower level, and = 
though the chain itself has an absolute elevation greater than 
' that of the Blue Ridge, the rivers which descend from the sum- | 
mits of this last, flow to the northwest towards the great central 


see. It commences at the bifurcation of the two chains in Vil- 


pe 
i] 
a 
= 
mo 
a 
@ 
m 
° 
7] 
et 
St 
(39) 
bar | 
3 
| 
ro) 
bi | 
er 
° 
ry 
4 
. 
) 
= 2 
a) 
° 
4 
” 
A 
o 
4 
2 
<4 
oO 
oe 
= 


tion as far as the Bald mountain separate the basin of the Nole- 
chucky from that of the French Broad river. Between the ! 


eee tt ea eS 


i Sire ee bie BEG teks Bi oe ase 


‘Cn ae 


Laas 6 oe 


‘ 
ie 
: 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 171 


ter and the Big Pigeon river stretches the long chain of the Pis- 
gah and the New Found mountains. Further to the south the 
elevated chain of the Great Balsam mountains separates the ba- 
sins of the Big Pigeon and the Tuckasegee; next comes the chain 
of the Cowee mountains between the latter river and the Little 
Tennessee. Finally the double chain of the Nantihala and Val- 
ley River mountains separates the two great basins of the Little 
Tennessee and the Hiwassee. The bottom of these basins pre- 
serves in the middle, an altitude of from 2000 to 2700 feet. The 
height of these transverse chains is greater than that of the Blue 
Ridge, for they are from 5000 to 6000 feet and upwards; and 
the gaps which cross them are as high, and often higher than 
those of the Blue Ridge. In these interior basins are also found 
groups, more or less isolated, like that of the Black mountains, 
which, with the Smoky mountains, present the most elevated 
points of the system. 

Here then through an extent of more than 150 miles, the mean 
height of the valley from which the mountains rise is more than 
2000 feet; the mountains which reach 6000 feet are counted 
by scores, and the loftiest peaks rise to 6700 feet; while at the 
north, in the group of the White mountains, the base is scarcely 
1000 feet, the gaps 2000 feet, and Mount Washington, the only 
one which rises above 6000 feet, is still 400 feet below the height 
of the Black Dome of the Black Mountains. Here then in all re- 


172 A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 
the Smoky mountains and the Cumberland mountains, but 
where it has a mean elevation of not more than about 1000 feet, 
that is, only one-half of the height of the neighboring valleys 
in the mountainous region of North Carolina. 


the central portion of which, near Lexington, preserves an alti- 
tude of more than 1000 feet. 


mination of the mountains. 


ae ey a a ag See te ai a 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 173 


The following figures demonstrate the law which I have an- 
nounced above 
Upon the dae which borders the Connecticut ~~ oh the 
east se where the elevation gradually increases fro e sea 
coast until it reaches in Connecticut 1000 feet, in > Mauss 
1100 feet, and in New Hampshire 1600 feet at ‘the sources of the 
Connecticut river, we meet with a series of mountains more or 
less isolated, which appear to have a Pits? tug eg to each other 
than that they are placed on a com 
The most remarkable of these, proceeding from the south to- 
wards the north are the following 


Mount Wachusett, in Massachusetts,  - - 2018 feet high.* 
Grand Monadnock, in mi om Hampshire, > 16. * + 
Moosehilloc oS “eo 
Lafayette Mount, Sionp Oe so 
Mount Washington, 1 White Mountains, - | 6288 “ * 


In the double chain of Green Mountains are the following re- 
percincan peaks gradually increasing in height from the south to 
the north : 

North Beacon, in the Highlands of the Hudson, 1471 feet high. 

Bald Peak, in "Massachusetts, 624* “ “ 


Greylock, or Saddle Mount, in Massachusetts 3505" * Me 
Equinox Mount, in Vermo nt, - - + oot. * 
Killington Peak, - - - 721° x 
Mansfield Mountain, “ - - - - 4430 “ 


North Beacon was prey measured by Capt. Partridge, the 
others were measured by my 

In the Adirondack group T a cited only the most elevated 
point, Mount Tahawus or Mount Marey, which is the only one of 
the great peaks which have as yet measured. I found its height 
5379 feet. This height differs from that of Redfield given in the 
Geology of the State of New York, (5467 feet), and from that of 
Prof. T. Benedict, (6341 feet). But it is to i remarked that 
the heights given by the first are all too great by reason of the 
defective nature of the instrument employed, as I have ere led oc- 
casion to convince myself; and also that Prof. Benedict, although 
provided with a Bunten barometer, was only able to make use 
of Fok observations made at a considerable istance. 

From es awus the height of the peaks diminishes both 
the north and towards the south and the chains dwindle away 
before they reach Lake Champlain or the Mohawk River. 

In the southern part the law of gradual increase is still more 
regular, It can also be exhibited at the exterior base of the 
mountains, along the Great valley, and in the prineipal chains 

* Geodetic points in the triangulation of of Massachusetts. 
Am. Jour. Sci.—Sxconp Series, Vor. XXXI, No. 92.—Maxce, 1861. 
23 


174 A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


which border it. I have already said that the interior border of 
the Atlantic on rises gradually from 50 to 1200 feet, from 
New Jersey to the upper region of the Catawba, near Morganton. 
The grade of the railroads ; gives us in the Great valley a series 
of significant points: 


The Great valley * Sige ce. on the Delaware in Penn., 165 ft. 

ar the Schuylkill, Penn. 250. “ 

Toe ee at Pabaty. on the Susquehanna 328 * 

. = * at Chambersburg, Pen 600 “ 

s 2 “ near Staunton, south fork of Shenandoah, in 

entral Virgi nia, 1261 ® 
SO fo ie eth ‘Sale, in the upper valley - the Roa- i i 
1014 | 

oe . Hevten | in the valley of New Ri iver, 2065 “ 
” “4 “Mt. Airy Ridge, Ham point near the sources : 
of the Holsto 2595 “ 
. i “« — Abingdon, in Ress herk Virginia, 2071 % 
lie cece « — Bristol, on 2. = eer of Tennessee, 1678 “ | 
oe Greenville, Te 1581 “ : 
“ ac “ Knox ville a 898 “ ; 
ar ee haRance _ 675 “ 


The principal chain along the eastern border of the Great 
valley under the name of Blue Ridge, Iron, Smoky and Unaka 
Mountains, presents in the same manner an increasing altitude. 


Blue Ridge in New Jersey about 1000 to - - 1500 feet. 
_ Peaks of Otter in Virginia, the highest - 3993 “ 
igen hed on i. bou ae of Virginia, North Carolina, 
5530 


_ Bald Molin Jeu a the Black ‘A uietatine 
Smo ome, Clingman’s Mountain, gulminating ag in 
chain of the Smoky — 6660 
Thunderhead, in Smoky Moun 5520 
Great Bald, highest peak, in Smoky Mountains, near the 
Tennessee Ri 47 
angover, highest peak of the Unaka AMbéninias about 5600 


Great Frog Mountain in onset hi cs ves near mae 
south end of the Sys a gy 2 42 


south they mee 


* J am indebted to Prof. Jas. M. Safford, State Geologist of ee for 9 state 
ment of the altitu des on the railroads through this State. 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 175 


Grandfather Mountain, - the sources of the Yadkin and 


Watauga rivers, measures 5897 feet. 
The High. Pinnacle, a wit touches the Black Monstais. 5699 “ 
Great Hogback, at the sources of the Tuckasegee,-  - 4792 “ 
White-Side, near the sources of the Chatooga, - - 4931 8 


Mud Creek Bald, near the head of Little Tennessee, lies oe 4705 * 
Tray Mountain, in de od at - sources * ct 
River. - 4426 « 

Virtheoncns the transverse on eg in North Carolina 
unite the two principal chains, and the interior isolated groups 
in which the highest summits are found, present altitudes in- 
bes easing as they proceed, culminating, however, more towar 
ti rth. 


Roan Mountain, High Knob, which joins the Iron moun- 


tain chain on the east, 6306 feet. 
Black Dome, or Mitchell’s High Peak, the culminating 

point of the Appalachian System, - 6107. * 
Richland Balsam, in Big Pigeon Valley, - - - 64295 * 
Amos Plott’s Balsam, in Tuckasegee v ae. 


‘ellow Mountain, Cowee Chain, between the boric hi 
nd Little Tennessee valle eys, 
Standing Tada highest point in the Nantihala chain, 5518 
Fodders’ B ald, in Hiwassee valley, Georgia, = - aco) * 

e law of general increase of altitude towards the southwest 
in all parts of the Appalachian system, is thus fully established ; 
but it is to be remarked that the different elements of which it 
is coniposed do not arrive to their maximum of altitude in the 
same locality nor in the same latitude. The bottom of the Great 
valley oe i its greatest elevation near the sources of the Hol- 
ston, at about 87° N. lat. The mass elevation, or ow eee 


4 


SESE AIL aot ht Bees tet ery MONE ME CARER a Ste SR oer we 


citadel which i 
~ lachian systen a: 

To complete this brief review I ought to add stat increas- 
; ing altitude towards the south which is Ee are in in the 
3 mountain zone of the Alleghanies, is scarcely observed in the 


176 <A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


zone of the plateaus. A transverse section from New York to 
Lake Erie shows that the depression of the system does not ex- 
tend to the western zone which preserves in appearance a height 
very nearly uniform, from the plateau of Adirondack in the 
State of New York as far as to the Cumberland mountains in 
Tennessee. There is here no well marked region of subsidence 
as in the eastern zone, but only a tendency to it which is slightly 
manifested upon a line between the maximum of eastern depres- 
sion and Pittsburg. It is towards that central line of depression 
that the Allechany and Monongahela rivers flow from opposite 


1600 feet. Towards the south also the plateaus rise to the sources 
of the Monongahela. In Virginia and Tennessee they appear’ 
to reach 2000 or 2500 feet, at least near the mountains, but the 
measurements which I possess are too few in number and too 
uncertain to allow me to speak with certainty on this subject. 
This remarkable depression of the Appalachian system in 
t 


e : 
ter, causes a great part of the continental plains, which form 
ei natural base of the mountain folds, to disappear under 


bathe the very base of the mountains, and the region of plains 
fades away on the frontiers of New Jersey and New York, while 
towards the south the emerged portion enlarges gradually #8 
it rises according to the law of gradual increase indicated above, 
so that it reaches a breadth of more than 200 miles in the Caro- : 
linas. This depression seems to be due to a local subsidence of 

: 


New York through the Narrows and adyanees far out under the 
waters of the ocean. It is not possible to suppose that such 4 
channel which is constantly liable to be oblite 
bani i 


_ A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 177 


above, or very near the surface of the ocean. The shallowness 
of the ocean for a considerable distance from the coast of New 
Jersey also indicates a prolongation of the continental plains 
under the sea, and the limit of the deep waters is there found 
at a distance nearly double that which is observed off the coast 
of the Carolinas. Moreover the parallelism which exists be- 
tween the line of coasts and all the great general inflections of 
the Appalachian system, a parallelism which is well marked 
from Nova Scotia to Florida, here undergoes a modification 
which is well explained only by a local depression of this part 
of the system. ‘The fact that all New Jersey is now undergoing 
gradual submergence from Cape May to the Bay of New York, 
which is proved by the numerous facts gathered by Prof. G. H. 
Cook in the Geological Survey of the State of New Jersey, is 
ere not without signification. : 
he disposition of the relief indicated above would be readi- 
ly accounted for by supposing that it is the result of a tilting 
motion from the north to the south, which, while depressing the 
northern portion below the mean altitude, elevated the south- 
ern region in the same proportion, the centre or axis of the tilt 
being in the vicinity of Christiansburg, near the Great Bend of 
the New River. As the movement affected more particularly 
the eastern, or mountainous belt, and not that of the plateaus of 
the west, the result of it was a twisting, the effect of which was to 
raise,,in the southern part, the mass of the land on the extreme 
eastern border and thus to produce an inclined plane towards the 
northwest; while in the northern part, the general depression of 
the land along the Atlantic, a depression not participated in 
the plateaus of the northwest, left to these latter all their alti- 
tude and produced an inclined plane from the extreme western 
border towards the southeast. It is then this particular disposi- 
tion of these two general slopes which gives us the key of the 
hydrographic system of the central and southern divisions of 
the Appalachian mountains, which at the first glance appears 
soabnormal. In the central section, as has been remarked above, 
north of New River, the water-shed is situated along the edge of 
the plateaus in the Alleghany mountain proper in Virginia and 
Pennsylvania, from which descend the James River and the Po- 
tomac; and still further to the west in the plateaus of New York 
from which flow the Susquehanna and the Delaware, traversin 
all the chains of the méuntainous region to the Atlantic. In the 
southern division, south of New River, the water-shed between 
the Atlantic and the Mississippi basin is situated upon the 


mit of the Blue River at the extreme eastern edge, and the nu- 


oe oe of the Tennessee which descend from sta 
raverse the whole mountainous region, but in an inverse direc- 
Yon, from the southeast to the northwest, and, united in the 


ae 
Pies Moers. 


178 A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


Great Valley .* the very foot of the plateaus of the northwest, 
w down e sole channel of the Tennessee to the basin of 
the Mississippi 
As many of the names of mountains given below in the list 
of the Meiats measured are new, I may be allowed a few words 
on the subject of mountain nomenclature. 

It is a mistake to suppose that names have been given to even 
the most tea points in the mountains of the Appalachian 
stem. Just in the wildest and most elevated regions, such as 
western North Calin os i. the great majority of them 
have yet to ben In a country without a regular chart, and 
in the midst of mote rebels: visited, far from any human habi- 
tation, and in places where the primitive idhabitanta have disap- 
pear red, mane) searcely a ned * their traditions, it is not sul 

be the cas 


always be identified, or afterwards traced upon a chart. Itis, 
ane almost a matter of necessity for him to sketch such & 

while proceeding, and to name, either ill or well, the points 
demetnwed by his observations. A good geographic nomencla- 
ture, however, is not an easy thing; the =ctinat of the United 
States proves this. 


happily without mea In the south ring are rarely 
applied to mousey aba the Tridiat name of a river whi 
to a neighboring chain of — 
tains. Indian names, designating special mountain peaks, ate 
not common, per erhaps because not preserved by the white se 


tion. The more modern descriptive names have the defect ¢ 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 179 


great similarity, for in an extent of thirteen hundred miles the to- 
pographical characters are singularly analogous. The multipli- 
cation of the same name in all parts of the system becomes here, 
as in political geography, a serious evil. Green, Blue, and Black 
mountains are found ‘alike at the south: and at the north ; 

White mountain, White face, White side, &c., are also numerous. 
Chestnut, Oak, Pine mountain and Laurel mountains are found 


or with its analogous 5 oer pre Frazeri, which only grow on 

heights which exceed 5000 or 6000 feet. The Bald Mountains 
whose summits are dessin of forests, a thing comparatively 
rare at the south, are yet very numerous. It only remains for 
the geographer, in order to avoid intolerable confusion, to add 
to such names another name, or epithet, as Richland Balsam, 
Smoky Bald, and other similar designations. 

These difficulties eae and excuse yeep in part, the 


frequent use in America of names of men to designate places, 
rivers, and sie tata This course et the least effort of 
the imagination. A river without a name commonly takes that 


of the first planter who erects there ile cabin or farm-house, and 
if there is a remarkable mountain near, it is soon designated by 
the same name. This is the origin of a great number of the 
names, more convenient than elegant, of the mountains and val- 
leys of the Alleghanies. It is ut recently, since scientific meas- 
urements have been made, that the names of men, distinguished — 
either in the political or ‘scientific world, have been given to 
prominent mountains in New England, in the state of New York 
and at the Sou 


ie ood of the point designated. 


has been given to the same point, as 
from : 


seg the posi- 
3 have at Seaiawed: by instruments, or or otherwise, with 
derable care. But it is evident that popular usage 

the last resort and that the name universally adopted 


180 A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


will, in time, become that which geography ought to accept. 
When I have myself given names to mountains, | have almost 
always preferred a descriptive name to any other; but I ac 
knowledge that the invention of names is a thankless and dif 
ficult task. I have, therefore, frequently had recourse to the 
names of neighboring rivers, or to a fortuitous circumstance, or 
to some little adventure, connected in my memory with this or 
that point to designate it, without any other object than that of 
distinguishing it from every other, since here as elsewhere it is 
better to accept almost any name rather than to leave it all in 
confusion. 

‘he map which accompanies this paper was first published in 
Petermann’s Mittheilungen, No. vii, 1860: it was drawn, in Gotha 
with all the data at his command, by my friend and assistant 
Mr. E. Sandoz under the kind and skillful direction of Dr. A. 


vations, in the Smithsonian Contributi i must 
= — details. ee 

he accompanying list of heights which I have measured is 
classified according to physical regions. The measurements are 
of two kinds: those which are marked B are the heights reg 
larly measured by the barometer; those marked P L are heights 
measured at a distance with a pocket level in the following 
manner. Wishing to measure a mountain in sight, at a mode 
rate distance, and not exceeding in elevation the one on which 
I stand, I seek, with the instrument in hand, a point on a levé 
with the summit of the mountain to be ‘attokieed.” Taking thet 
at that point a barometric observation, I consider the result, col 
rected for the curvature of the earth and for refraction, as the — 
height of the mountain. With an accurate level, a signal upo 


ee 


the mountain, and the knowledge of the exact distance a meas 


Pe ee es 


Pe ee ee oe ee ee ee) ees 


‘ao: eh PP eel ae Vo es ee 


Pee ae ON ee ee ee 


Pee eee 


"I 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 181 


roads, and L, which are also determined, for other purposes, te 
spirit- level. The cue was in part engraved before the revision 
of the heights given below ew measurements of points pre- 


to have their due influence on the final values. Itm may ha appen 


' ages that there may be found a difference of several feet be- 
tw 


n the figures given in the table and those inscribed in the 
ae in those cases the figures given in the table are those 
which I regard as nearest to the true height. Some ancient 
measurements of heights in New England have been inadvert- 
ently inserted in the chart such as Wachussett 3000 instead of 

018, and some others of this sort which have been recently 
corrected. 
The heights are given in English feet, and above mean tide- 
water. They are all reduced to the ground, or, for the rivers, to 
the level of the water. 


Be ose dexiones REGION OF THE NoRTHERN SECTION. 
WHITE MOUNTAINS AND VICINITY. 
Western Slope.— Valley of the Amonoosuc. 


Height. 
te sacs River, etn _ Wells — : § é aa 
R.R. Lisbon Tillage, ; 577 
RR. and B. Littleton, R. R. statio . ee ae 
R.R. Mle ea pamets — itn i and Lancaster, ; i 1057 

Whitefi vies; ; 957 
R.R. pry a 860 
R.R. Israel River, Lancaster bridge, st. Lawrence and Atlantic R. R ; 849 
B. — mn village, : 1450 
ooh “si 2 ; . ‘ é . 
P.L. Brabrook’s re hots “oe Se hpitmocte, : ‘  —— 
B. Fabyan’s Hotel (old house, now burnt), . i a 
= Creator rd Hotel gl ies <i White Mt. Notch, . j .  -:1920 
'. onia.v village, . High i is 4 
3 Gitnatiton Hill, tn between Franconia and Littleton, . “7 
" tema nia. yaley, Ce of road to Beth] : ou 
B. Praaconie Nee height of land towards matote: ‘ . aole 
Bis: Bebe bares: a height : “16 
B. Cherry Mt., it Feith tec sonal meee See 
B Cabin, foot of Laiayette i ‘ “ . - os 
Bu Hlams hee road ont of ue Hote ee ae 
RE ee xe ee t Office, “daar yeni . ‘ 473 


i, daa: baie aes 4 Se a ck Ok 
24 


182 A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


Eastern Slope.— Valley of the Saco. 


Height. 
B. Notch o~ White Mts., Crawford house, . : j : . 1920 
B. The tgs ‘ ‘ ¥ ‘ -  —:1004 
B. oe se, road opposite the hotel, . = ; ; - «=: 
Se Oe Crawford? s or Davis’s hotel, é : . 986 
B. Hart’s location, Farm 2 ga 'Sawyer’s River, ‘ . : 880 
B, per Bartlett's Post bs} 
B. Crossing of the road’s junction of the Saco and Ellis River valleys, 450 
B. South Conway Post Office, oe 
4 Pleasant Mt., east of Freyeburg, Me. (Coast Survey), | . . 

Valleys of Ellis and Sawyer’s Rivers. 
B. Jackson Village, hotel dpe of the Falls, : . . . “aa 
B. Pinkham Notch, summit near Glen Ellis Falls, : : . 494 
B. ‘Junction of Carriga in Broo x and Sawyers River, < . : 1 
Northern Slope 

R.R. Gorham, N, Hampshire, R. R. station, St. Ladveics and Atlantic R. R., b- 
L. Glenhouse i : 46 
B. owman’s place, Summit road, between ‘Moose and Israel Rivers, : 1 re 
R.R. Lowest Summit, R. R. . ne 
B. Peabody River, crossing of path near Gle ich ; 4 : 32 
R.R. Great Androse oggin River at Bethel anes . : 308 
R.R. Paris station, St. Lawrence a Atlan a . 276 


R.R. Little Androsco oggin River a Deueaneton 
Mt. Washington, the main gone or the chain i 8 Presidents, snctncliay fal 


Mountain Notch. , 
3B. Mt. Clinton, . P : ; . . ; 
B. Mt. Pleasant SS 468 
B. Mt. Franklin : : : : : : . 408 
B. Mt. Monr < Jee 
: a Washington, culminating point of northern n section, : ‘ = 
E a ‘ < d 
Mt. Jetenok, : ‘ é . Silt 
Mt. saree! ; ; ‘ * ‘ 5104 
Mt. Madis 8365 
. Lake of the tense “head waters of f Amoncome River, foot of Monroe, ed 
a Gap between Madison a an ren Jeffers z : 4939 
: Jeffers Adams, ‘ é : : . 
‘ he ey Clay a id a Washi gto ; ‘ ‘ . . oH 
‘ . Washington and Monroe, ‘ : : : - 
B. Little Monroe, W.S.W. of Mon ; " : . 5208 
x Gap betwee en Franklin and Pleasant, : : - . = 
. . easant and Clinto : : : 4130 
\. aoe of fier on eee ag ® side, and Maldiso ‘ : "gaan 
po alfw ouse on new r w the Stee 2 . : BU 
> Edeatt ob ston on Chiat ee : < slope, awe one a 
chains seed ae main.— West ¥. Amonoosue River. a 
B. Mt. Death on near Faby: : F : 
P.L. Cherry approximat Lone 2 * 3670 : 
Chain, East —— I: the Woke eee 
P.L. Wildcat Mt., : ise eed es oC ee 
Pils Mt. Cae South Peak, | 5 ? oe : : a8 4 
P.L. Mt..Carter, North Pe eal, x a e 3 : ‘ 02 
PL. Mt. Moriia ah, a7 hee ee a = 
PL. wford Mt., Rita 3 4 oe 4 2 vee 
Chains South es the Amonoosue River. a 
P.L. Echo Mt., highest point ee 
Pi. The Villey, 0 or Notch chai n, the lowest or $d N. N. Ww. bi 7 
P.L. Middle or highest a veer ti so, ae 
P.L. dora Mt. prop per, etapa t nee 
P.L. Twin Mt., the highest : : oe 


A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


South side, between Saco Valley and Merrimac River. 


B. Carrigain Mt., : : < 
B. Summit of Eastern Spur, . ‘ : a 
P.L. Brick hou - Mt., in the _ N.E. 2 miles from Carrigain, ‘ ‘ 
P.L. Pemigewas Peak, : . 
a " ‘remon é é 
P.L. Green's Cliff, ‘ ° : ° 
P.L. Table Mt., 3 ‘miles S.S.E, of Hart's ledge, : ¢ : 
P.L. Sandwich’ ome, above Campto' ‘ ‘ : : 
P.L. Mad River peak, head of Mad River, ‘ : . 
P.L. Whiteface, N.E. peak, the highest, A : : 
P.L. Tripyramid, N. W. of ates 8 of Carrigain, ; ‘ A 
P.L. Chicorua, highest peak so . . . 
Group pe Franconia Mts. 
P.L. Eagle Cliff, facing the Profile house, : ; : 
B. Eagle head, near the pond, : . 
B. pe pond, foot of last peak, . : 
od La ayette or Great aoc oon: : . 
P.L. Summit wt Bing or Bow Fady Mt., the highest part of the chain of 
Cannon, Kinsman and = "Mt., 
aN Kinsnen | Mt. a bout . : 
B. Cannon Mt., the prospect, appr., . . 
West and South of the White Mis. 

B. Moose hillock, hi — k — “ « ‘ 
PL. ees 8 Mt. , highe ant Pat, : : . 
Pal. s hea : R p . 
Pb. Webster side, south side of the R. R. opposite, ; ; A 
B. Highest farm foot = Moose hillock 8., ‘ ‘ e 
RR. Warren Village, ‘ Fe f . 
R.R. saci = Road, . ; ‘ . . . 
R.R. East A - . 
RR. Woodville R. RB. station opposite ‘Wells’: River, : ‘¢ 
R.R. Connecticut low w: : . . 
R.R. Rumney R. R. static te ‘ x ‘ - “ 
R.R. Plymouth village, R. R. station, . ; : . « i 
R.R. Meredith Village, « . * = 
R.R. Concord, N. Hampshire, R. R. station, . : : : fe 


Redhill and Winnipeseogee Lake, 
ag and Canal. Lake Voom re tak mean level, 


‘ 


Senter house at Cen Lake Winnipeseogee, : t 

B tern summit of B . 

B, Western summit “ ie ag : : ; : : 

GREEN MOUNTAINS. 

B. Manchester R. R. irre F . c 2 ; i 

= BEd a ~ ope : : : ‘ ‘ = 

quinox - “ ‘i : e 

R.R. Rutland R.R. station, ed : : = ° : ’ 
> = fr os near Botand, * A = ‘ ‘ 
Re Pico Mt., north of Killington, ; Cgamee ; : e ue 
B. gton Peak, . ~ “. . ° ex ate 
R.R. Waterbury R. R. station, . ~ : . ‘ : oe 
PL. He og ie Mt, ° . . &e2 as 
B. Stowe Stowe Village, foot of Mansfield Mt., - epee eae 

S ~ a ME the the Loa Be ¢ i . Pe Gao 

Manette hin, high . “ * * jd 

PL Fide - . ge ‘| = 

BL Gueelliuep, ee ce ee 


184 


. 


* 


Seed dent foved ‘feet bead Pd 
ee ? 


a eae ee eee Pheed bend 
wr 22 8 2 oe oe ee 


fad al cal al sash Book: 


Leal 4 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


PLATEAU AND MOUNTAINS OF ADIRON 
Profile from Lake Champlain to Mt, Tahawus je Zz to W. by N. 


Height. 

Lake Chetapletn, mean leyel,_. F : ; : : 93 
Crown Point tavern ‘ ‘ F i » 

porn ety ek road summit, . ‘ ‘ : . . 695 

Amyhill summit road, : . ‘ 844 

Bue “ee llow, hamlet water of Putnam Creek, . a : é 719 

Penfield, water of Putnam Creek, # 7 

Beets of =o Nga the Hudson and St. Lawrence waters, ‘ Bi 

e, 
I Paradox Creek at iene s saw-mill . git 
crossing of road from Paradox Lake to Root’s, . ‘a 


Summit of ‘iia between Paradox crossing and Johnson’s pond, m 
Johnson’s 964 
Summit of road’between 1 Johnson’ 8 pond and Root's in Schroon valley, 1262 
Root’s farm, ground, in n Valley, $42 
turtev: cope auton Med oe . 2 : . . : 
ednond er eek, é . 
Summit of phe between Mona creek, crossing of Freneh’s, > . 
French’s farm, road befor . 


jen, . ‘ 
ees River, Great Bend, ‘ i 
Lito tet on te, Ady and Waele, i a 
t, Tahawus or M — ‘ ‘ 
Toke a ‘ 
' Head of Falls, 
of Beaver m 


Surtace 
Summit above Beaver mi 
Surface of opalescent iover' (Hudson 


), 
These last five — are d d ‘taken by 
Dot Ee it ion erived from tavel shane Lake Sandfor 


fbi 


Reh Pho 


kd 


emnyas REGION OF THE SouTHERN SECTION. 


——e of Flat Creek = Benence Pi . 2250 
oseph Stepp’s —— : 2360 
Burnetts hous house, ' bd 
ower Mountain hot Jesse . 
W. ation’ cio end cx Stepp’ s mee floor of Piazza, : sis 
be! . 
Dipnar Metintein hae — : : . 5246 
‘Main bran no f 
Tox liver Gen, ch o Swannanoa above Stepp’ 8 ascending to 3902 
Toe River Gap, between P, High Pinnacle, . 5188 
High Ir Gap, bp Blu ts, ago xe ssa s : ‘ 5701 
Rocky Knobs, south : c M : . 5306 
Big Spring on a Rack y : : . 5080 
Gre Ceres Iasi, at 
_ Oreany Chain. ae 
Bal? Vs ve then ma ‘ 3 : = : oS 
«y Pinnacle, ; 3 i * = 5065 
The Black Mountain, main chain. te 
Potatoe Top, ‘ : . ‘ : : : 6388 
Mu Mitchell, : : ; : : 6582 
Mt. Gibbs, . eee ee ee 6591 
Stepp’s Gap, the cabin, : ‘ | 6108 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 185 


Height. 
BR Mi geen? (or Sugarloaf), ff 6408 
B. Black e (or Mitchell’s high peak, or Clingmann af State — 6707 
B. Dome nas 5 6352 
i — Cone ‘(Guyot of State map) - ‘ ‘ ‘ d 6671 
B. Bear. ‘ $ . ; # 6610 
B. Gan ‘ 3 ‘ te s 6234 
B. Black Brother (Sandoz of State map), j P x ‘ $ 6619 
B. il Peak, 5 hae ' : : 6611 
B. es - Trail Gap, 
B. Rocky Trail Peak 6488 
B. ; d 5720 
B. Deer Mt.,-Nort’ t, s ‘ ; é $ i 6233 
B. Long — South Point, ‘ ‘ é : i j 6208 
B, Middle Point, ‘ : - ot Rea ; 6259 
B. North Point, : j ¢ 6 , f 6248 
B. Bowlen’ s Wiad rene En : : _ ‘ j 6348 
The Black Mountain, Vorthwestern Chain. 
B. = Blackstock > garg ‘ ; : : 6380 
B.  Yeates’s Knob, , di aa ae . : 5975 
B. Cock’s Comb, Pe : : ~ 5426 
Cuil Ri ver Pilg. 
B. Green oo at Th. Wilson’s, highest ~ ¢ : : 3222 
a new house, . j q y , 3110 
B. Wheelers" ¢ op osite Big ivy Gap, * ‘ ; ; 
B. Cattail fork Junction with Caney River, ‘ ; ‘ j 2873 
B. Sandofer Gap or low Gap, Summit of Road, . ‘ . é 3176 
B. Burnsville, courtsquare, : - «2840 
B. Green Mountain near —- highest point, 4340 
oup of the Roan Mountain. 
B. Summit of Road from sa to Toe River, 3139 
= Le Be River ford on the Road from Gatuatiie to the Roan Mountain, . 2131 
B. _Brigg’s house foot of Roan Mt., Valley of Little Rock creek, ; 2757 
P.L. Yellow Spot above Brigg’s, . 5158 
PL rape Be ga Mount, highest, . ‘ ‘ ‘ ; 5195 
B. The a pen summit of Roan, , . : 6132 
ads conn Ri e Bal N.E. mansiniantios of Roan Mt. “ ig ee 6230 
; oan high : % fs ; 6296 
B. Roan high Knok, : . - 6306 
| From 1 Durell to Grandfather Mountain. 
B. South Sot River Ford, . : : : - 
B. Toe River; ford near Autrey’s, . : : : : : 
B. North-Toe River ford, below a f : : : 
B. Blue Ridge, head of Brushy cree : . - B45 
= poe ioe goa hy below head oF Brushy creek, : = 
inville 360 
B. o¢ Linville a and Watauga River, foot of Grandfather Mt. = 
B. father Mt. : 
B. Watauga River ‘at Schill millpond, , : 
B. Ta — yeaa ~ * 
B. p, Virginia, comer of Tenn. and N. Car. . ; 
ie ‘ From Burnsville to the Bald Mt. 
Sampson’s Gap, : : : : i Se 
B. ypt cove at Proffitts, . : : : : «we ae 332 
B. olfs’ camp ( : 
B. | Mt. it Je : — 
These four r points com AE nt byt we. Kerr of . 
ege. 


_ Davidson C 

alley of the Big Ivy Creek. 

B. Diliin hams J geese below tates Knob, or Big Butte, 
the three of Big I VYi 


be Ssiomon Carter's howe ; a : 2 a 
Mouth oy ure Bink Stock Nasik om 


186 A, Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 


REGION OF THE GREAT BALSAM MOUNTAINS. 
. From Asheville to Mt. Pisgah. 


Meight. 
B. Asheville courthouse, : i ‘ 
B. Sulphur springs, the sprin : ae . ‘ 2092 
= pong cove a omon Davis 's ; é x ‘i ron 

. ttle west 
B. Great Pi mea ; ‘ z 5757 
Big Pigien Valley. 

B. Forks of Pigeon at Col. Cathey’s, ‘ : Sian 2701 
B. — fork of Pigeon, at Cap. Th. Lenoir’s, : : 2855 
B. Waynesville, courthouse, A 2756 
B. Sulphur spring, Richland Valley, # ‘at James Love's Esq. eer ; 2716 
B. rm, on Crabtree cree : F 2714 
B. Crab 1 Tree creek, _ ow _ heer i : : ; . «252d 
B. Cold Mountain, ‘ 6068 


_ Chain of the Richland | 8 between Richland Oreck and Bi Page River. 
2988 


B. Richland creek, at E. Medford’s, . 

B. _ E. Medford’s farm, foot of oe Mt. iy 

B. pence oo Moun ntain, ‘ ‘ - ; 

B. Deep Pigeon Gap, s ; 3 ‘ Y ‘ «40 

B. Cold Spring Mceentiiies Z 2 : : 5915 

B. Double Spring Mt., - : A . 6380 

= d or Caney fork Balsam divide, : A : 

B. ruce Ri Top, . ( . j : : . 6076 

B. Lone Balen an = : : = 5898 

B. Old Bald, head of Richland Creek, ; : : . 57% 
Chain of Westener Bald. 

B. Westener Bald wg hae x ‘ ‘ z : 5414 

B. nacle, 5692 


Great Middle Chain of Lee Mountains between Scott’s Creek 0 and Soco 5 Oreck. 


road summit, . ts 
Amos 08 Plot's farm, in Jonathan’s Creek ther rs 


B. Enos Plott’s farm ‘te ~_ of chain, . é : ° 3002 
B. Old Field Mountal ; : s ‘ 7. Oi 
B. Huckelbe : : 5484 
B. — Plott’s Balsam first Balsam North End, 5 ‘ 6007 
B. naleska, or Jones’ Balsam N. Point, - ; 6223 
B. ‘ i . ; . 6055 
B. Bockstand Knob, . ; : : s . 6008 
B. _ Brother Plott. : sor et oY BS ae 
B. Amos Plott’s Balsa, or Great divide, { “ > “ . 6278 
B. Rocky-face, - , : : : : pe 
Beebe sh OO oe Fie ee ae 
i. Wee rg : : pace ie a 
B. Kno ° . bd 5026 
Valley Pe Soot Oreck. 
B. Love's Sawmill, on Richland Cree Ber ene a 
B. Maclure’s farm r : “ s 3285 
B. Road Gap head of Seot U's Creek, : : . 3352 
B. — was farm, Be —" nage Valley, ; : ; . a 
a cha Le Lone osy farm, . : 2 5 z ‘ : (6 
B. Webster Courthouse, A : ‘ : : 2203 
Valley of Tuckasegee and Me 
B.  Tuckasegee River and mill below Webster near F rosa to Qualla, . 208 
B. Junction of Sayannah creek, es oan 
B. cot ‘ = reek, : ‘ ; ‘ ‘ oo 
Se A ce ae 
B. Beco River, “ford rh “Gccsabateen” : é See — 
B. ° . - == 
B. nae Per £ 


A. Guyot on the Appalachian Mountain System. 187 


Height. 
B. Oconaluftee River, junction Bradley fork, ‘< 3 2508 
B. Robert Collins, Esq., highest house, : . ~ - 2500 
B. Junction of Ravens, and Straight dass rks, : Z ; 2476 
B. Junction of Bunch’s creek, : : F : 2379 
CHAIN OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. 
North of Road Gap. 

B. Luftee Knob, head of rusetars fork of heen it aoe : 6232 
B. Thermometer Knob - are 6157 
B. Ravens Kn opt é ‘ E ror 
B. = Tricorner Kn : . 61 
B. or Guyot, (Soaiamed by Mr, Buckley), i in Tennessee, ‘ i 6636 
B. eee YY) ‘ : 6373 
B. Mt ‘ ‘< 4 P 6447 
B. Mt. rence om South k, : 5 : . 6299 
B. he Three Brothers, hest or central peak. : ‘ : ‘ 5907 
B. - Thu hie : ‘ 5682 
B. rel p d . . ; ‘ ; 5922 
. Rela nha fae Gap, iis x ; ‘ a i : : ae 

5 op of Richland Rid "% 3 : ; . : : 
B, Tudian Ga #ap, = . ‘ ‘ : : : 5317 
B.  Peck’s pe “ ‘ A > ‘ . : 6232 
4 . Mt. 0 . A ‘ ed 

peer >| nN iuand or new Ge f . 
BR Me Mi —-. Ps 5694 

Gritee of Bullhead Ponsa 
B. Central peak or Mt. ponies e, 6612 
B. West peak, or Mt. Cu 6568 
B.... No k, or Mt, Saffo . 
B. Cross Knob, . : 5931 
B. Neighbor, . BP gags 5 
B. Master Knob, ‘ ; ; ‘ ; ; y ‘ 6013 
B. Tomahawk Gap, . : ‘ ‘ i 5450 
Sele — Cave, : : : 4971 
B. Alum Cave creek junction’ with little Pigeon River, . : : 3848 
Great Smoky Mountains, South of Road Gap. 

] .  RoadGap, . J : : ; : ‘ : 
B. Mt. Collins, . : . 

- Collins Gap, ; : _ : 

» Mt. Love,~.. y 3 é i é : 

»  Clingmann’s Dome, ‘ ; . : . 

Mt. = ie ‘ 

. ~ Chim 

. Big Sta re Me ore of Forney Ridge, . 

- Big Cherry 
B. Corner Koube 3 

. Forney Ridge ; " . 

.  Snaky Mountain, ‘ : 
: Eagle Top, Mountain, : é ‘ 2 
be ea Cabin, % : t » 

. Serato: Gap ‘ aaes 

- North Bal Ps Gi; 
B. The Great uld’s Central Peak, near the Gap of Little ‘Tennessee, oe 
Bee, South Peak, Sti 
Pte Brera , Hardin’s, : “bug e 
B. Canes Mus Summit road to Montvale Springs, : s 
5. Montvale Springs Tennessee, Main Building, é ie 


__ The numerous altitudes measured in the summer of 1860 du 

oe an caplet of two oe not being rea y for publica- 
10n, will be given in another communication. — : 

Weick: New rome, mye 


188 M. C. Lea on Picramic Acid. 
Art. XIV.—On the Formation of Picramic Acid; by 
M. Car ; 


Ir is to Mr. Aimé Girard that we owe the first isolation of 
ficromis acid, and correct determination of its constitution. His 
views however of the circumstances under which it is formed do 
not altogether agree with the results of my observations, and I ad- 
vert to them now, because his second paper contains a criticism 
on the results obtained by another chemist, which criticism I 
think depends upon an inexact view of the reactions 

In a paper published by Dr. Evan Pugh in Jickig’s Annalen, 
he endeavored to establish the identity of picramic acid wit th 
Wohler’s nitrohzematic acid, Mr. Girard, while he agrees with 
Mr. Pugh in his —o rejects his experiments and reason- 
ings as ‘insuffici 

“This rhs in fact” he says “proceeded exactly as Mr. 
Wohler had done before I demonstrated the formation of picra- 
mic acid by means of sulphydric acid. His process consists in 
mixing picric acid with protosulphate of iron, boiling with excess 
of baryta, precipitating the soluble baryta salt with ammoniacal 
acetate of lead and finally in decomposing the lead salt by sulphy- 
dric aci ow it is evident that under these circumstances, 
even supposing that the protoxyd of iron had not converted the 
picrie acid to picramic, the sulphydric acid alone would have 
produced this reduction 

. At first sight this het seems perfectly legitimate, so 
much so, that it is probable that no test by experiment was 
thought necessary. Had such been made it would have been 

ascertained that alblydeic tid is wholly without power to reduce 
ge eg whether free or in combination with lead, to picra- 


_ The fact appears to have been overlooked that sul phydric acid 
vl ie ape of producing this reaction either upon picric 
<3 or as far as ef experiments go, agaee any ean It is 


sulphydric acid is passed aoa such a solution, sauiphydt 
of ammonia is form xe and acts on ‘ic aci 


Puiladeiphia, Wor. $0, 1860. 
* Comptes Rendus, xiii, 59. 


M. C. Lea on Estimation of Nitrogen, etc. 189 


Art. XV.—Remarks on a proposed Process for the Estimation 
of Nitrogen, and on an Acidimetric Process ; by M. CAREY Lea. 


Iw a late number of the London Chemical News* a modifica- 
tion of Will and Varrentrapp’s process for the estimation of ni- 
trogen is proposed by Mr. J. Walker. He decomposes the sub- 
stance in a combustion tube in the ordinary way, but instead of 
conducting the products of the combustion into chlorhydric acid, 
conducts them into solution of chlorid of zine, and in place of 
determining the ammonia in the usual manner, determines the 


years, and gives most accurate results, and I can with perfect 
confidence recommend it.” 

ew chemists would be apt to adopt a process so obviously 
worthless, but as its author recommends it especially for the 
analysis of manures, and as in that way it might be employed 
for technical purposes, it seems desirable that its gross inaccu- 


be added, the precipitate redissolves. Obviously if more am- 


metric Analysis, highly recommends a 


* Nov. 24, 1860, p. 280. ss 
Am. Jour. Sct.—Sxconp Szrims, Vox. XXXI, No. 92,—Maxcu, 1861 
y 5 


190 M. C. Lea on Estimation of Nitrogen, etc. 


of the exact saturation of the acid liquid by the joint action of 
the ammonia and copper. Dr. Mohr observes :* 

“Donec le moindre excés de la liqueur de dosage formera un 
précipité bien net, tout 4 fait insoluble dans la dissolution des 
deux sels complétement neutres.” 

Here is an important error, this precipitate is by no means 
insoluble in such solutions, it is soluble with considerable facility 
in solution of sulphate of ammonia (in the above passage Dr. 
Mohr refers more particularly to the dosing of sulphuric acid) 
and also, though to perhaps not to so great an extent, in solu- 
tions of sal-ammoniac and of nitrate of ammonia. Consequently 


no doubt sufficiently great to have awakened suspicion. But 
the error is just sufficiently great to make the process dangerous. 


sulphate of ammonia, tested in this way, would give quite a dif- 
ferent result from one in which 5 grammes of free acid was con- 
tained with 20-or 50 of sulphate of ammonia. Likewise its re- 


free sulphuric acid was over-estimated, the ammonio-cupri¢ $0- 
lution having been added till a erp was obtained, which 
ill after the saturation point 
has been reached. y 2 
The precipitate which appears in all these cases is spoken of 
by Dr. Mohr as hydrated oxyd of copper. It appears to be 
basic (probably quadrobasic) sulphate, 
* Not having a German copy at hand I quote from the French translation made 
by Forthomme under the superintendence of Dr. Mohr. 
+ Forthomme’s translation, p. 409. 
it.,-p. 412. 


On Dimorphism of Arsenic, Antimony and Zinc. 191 


In making these observations on a single process of Dr. Mohr, 
I wish at the same time to bear testimony as to the candor with 
which he has given the results of his experimental trials. The 
proposal of a mode of rae ope such as that of Mr. Walker is a 
new proof how much it is to be regretted that any chemist 
should offer a new mode of analysis, ‘without having first econ- 
pore it by the analysis of one or more specimens of substance 

known composition. In this way MM. Glénard and Guil- 
faaninds hav recently proposed* a method of estimating the qui- 
nine in barks. It has been however shown} that not “only the 
presence of cinchonine destroyed the accuracy of these results, 
but that owing to a mistake of the authors as to the reaction 
of the sulphates of quinine upon tincture of logwood, the 
cess when performed with pure quinine gave only one-half the 
true result. 

In connection with the foregoing observations on zinc I may 
remark that an error has crept into the description of zinc reac- 
tions in Gmelin’s Handbook. It is there stated that zine salts 
- preciptates with ferrocyanid and ferridcyanid of potassium, 

of which are soluble in chlorhydric acid.t As respects the 
petbiiants with ferrocyanid, this is certainly erroneous, the pre- 
cipitate does not redissolve in that acid. 

Philadelphia, Dec. 28, 1860. 


Art. XVI.—On the eae ee of Arsenic, Antimony and Zine ; 
by Jostan P. Cooks, JR. 


THE rhombohedral forms of arsenic, antimony and zinc are 
well known. Those of arsenic and antimony have been ve 

mined by several ohatiens and that of zine first observ 
Noggerath,|| on a furnace product from the smelting works of 
the Vieille Montaigne Zinc Co., near Aix la Chapelle, was sub- 
sequently redetermined on the same specimen by Gustay 
It is the object of the present paper to show that these elements 
may also crystallize in regular octahedrons and therefore that 
they are dimorphous. Supposed monometric crystals both 
arsenic and zine have been previously described but since these 
observations have been discredited, the author has thought it 
best to publish his results. 

rsenic.—in the “ Journal fiir praktische Chemo,” vol. xxii, 


344, 1841, Elsner describes, as crystals of arse c, octahedrons, 
* Rep. de Chimie Appliquée, 1859, p. 131. Idem, pias Ft 
t Handbook, vol. v, ag Carendie albtiot. : 


§ description of erystal of rhombohedral arsenic, in Proceedings of Amori 
can Academ and Sciences, vol. iii, 86. . .. 
| Popgeadoett Aunslen, vol, nents 323 q Ibid, Ixxxiii, 129. 


192 On Dimorphism of Arsenic, Antimony and Zinc. 


 enrii a greyish color and a bright metallic lustre. These 


with the strongest aqua ammonie for twenty-four hours, but the 


crystals were not dissolved by either reagent nor was their sharp- 


ness apparently impaired. 


On Dimorphism of Arsenic, Antimony and Zinc. 198 
s 


In another ydrogen gas was reduced 


2 © ee a | h 
in a bohemian glass combustion tube in the usual way, when 


tube having two branches each provided with a stop-cock with 
a hydrogen generator on the one hand and on the other with a 
gas bottle generating arseniuretted hydrogen. The last was 
provided with a safety tube by which the excess of gas not 
needed in the experiment might escape. Before heating the 
combustion tube it was filled with hydrogen from the generator by 
which a uniform current of gas through the tube was maintained 
during the process. A portion of the tube two or three inches 
long was next heated to a red heat and then by opening the 
stop-cock a very small amount of arseniuretted hydrogen was al- 
lowed to mix with the hydrogen current and the experiment con- 
tinued until a metallic mirror was formed on the glass beyond the 
heated portion of thetube. This mirror examined by the micro- 
Scope, was found to be studded with minute octahedral crystals, 
which were submitted to the same test as before and with the 
same results. 


vations were made on the ordinary regulus of antimony, which 
1s now known to have ccavaenal cleavages. After crystal- 
lizing arsenic in octahedron by the process last described the 
author succeeded in obtaining octahedral crystals of antimony 
with the same apparatus, using antimonuretted hydrogen in 
Se of arseniuretted hydrogen. The tube was heated with & 


and presented the same characteristic forms. T id angles 
of the octahedrons were very frequently observed modified 
the faces of the cube and in ‘one the edges were 


fications are of importance as ey remove all doubt in regard 
to the system of crystallization. The crystals being microscopic 


their interfacial angles could not of course be measured, but the 


194 On Dimorphism of Arsenic, Antimony and Zinc. 


+ 
existence of these modifications is even more satisfactory evi- 
ence on this point than an actual measurement. 

It is well known that oxyd of antimony is capable of erystal- 
lizing in octahedrons belonging to the monometric system and 
although from the construction of the apparatus it was deemed 
impossible that any sensible amount of air could become mixed 
with the’ hydrogen in the tube, yet in order to remove all doubt 
on the subject, the crystals were exposed to the following rea- 

ents 


A portion of the glass tube covered with crystals was first 
boiled for a long time in water and subsequently treated with 
the strongest liquid hydrochloric acid; but although exposed to 
the action of the acid for several days in a warm room, the crys ; 
tals were not dissolved, They also resisted for some time the 4 
action of boiling hydrochloric acid, but after prolonged boiling 
they disappeared. Exposed to the action of chlorine gas at a very 
gentle heat, the crystals were immediately consumed, leaving no 
residue and rendering the gas cloudy from the fumes of chlorid 
of antimony. Lastly, a portion of the tube (on which was de- 
posited nothing but distinct octahedral crystals), was treated with 
a few drops of nitric acid, and a gentle heat applied. The 

: were at once attacked and the familiar white powder of 
antimonious acid was theresult. This dissolved on adding a few 
drops of hydrochloric acid and the solution evaporated nearly to 
dryness, diluted with a solution of tartaric acid and subsequently 
treated with a solution of sulphid of hydrogen, gave the famili 
red precipitate of sulphid of antimony. 

the metallic mirrors of arsenic and antimony obtained b 

Marsh’s test, the metals seem to be always in the octahedral mod- 
ification, and when deposited slowly are more or less crystalline. 
The author has obtained the best crystals by resubliming the me- 
tallic mirrors, after they were first formed, in a slow current 0 
hydrogen, and it is in this way very easy to obtain the crystals 
entirely isolated on the surface of the glass tube, and in the case 
of antimony the author has traced with the microscope every . 

dation between the distinct crystals and the granular coating, 
which forms the mass of the mirror. The process of crystalli- 
zation in the formation of the mirror is similar to that of sal- 
ammoniac on a glass plate and the lines of erystals shoot out in 
the same way parallel to the axis of the tube. 

Zinc.—In the “Annales de Chimie et de Physique,” vol. xxii, 


been questioned by Gustav Rose* on the grounds first thatthe 
* Poggendorff, Annalen, vol, Ixxxy, 293. os 


2 2) See 
ae ae 


On Dimorphism of Arsenic, Antimony and Zinc. 195 


mamillary concretions of zine, which are frequently deposited on 
the cooler portion of the retort during the process of distillation 
might readily be mistaken for pentagonal dodecahedrons without 
any exact measurement of angles, and secondly that this form 
which is characterized by a peculiar law of symmetry, has never 
been observed unless this case is an exception, on any metallic 
erystals. The question might readily be settled by a reéxamina- 
tion of the original specimen and it is to be hoped that, if they 
still exist, such an examination will be made. 
I al 


zing the series of crystals as well as the alloys in 


a 


~ 


196 On Dimorphism of Arsenic, Antimony and Zinc. 


memoirs in vol. vi, of the Memoirs of the American Academy of 
Arts and Sciences. It is sufficient for the present purpose to 
state that the composition of the crystals was in every case 
sensibly the same as that of the alloy. : 

is investigation seems to prove that zinc is capable of assum- 
ing a monometric condition and thus of crystallizing in connec- 
tion with copper in the same way that sulphate of copper may 
be made to crystallize in connection with sulphate of iron, taking 


the form of green vitriol although it generally assumes the form 
: 


history of the subject 
uring the course of some experiments on the compounds of 
uct 


with carbonate soda was determined in the usual way. The 
result gave 


Zine, : - - - - - - - 81°18 
Arsenic, PCa ele eel er Lop egg 
100°00 


ments. ‘The presence of a certain amount of impurity seems to 
favor metallic crystallization and it is possible that it may be the 
* + . * . . if 


works near Clausthal in the Harz, are familiar to mineralogists, 
and the author has found that a small quantity of lead on the 
other hand greatly facilitates the crystallization“of antimony. 
Similar facts have been noticed in.the ease of bismuth so that dis- 
tinct crystallization instead of being the test of purity in the 
case of a metal is quite the reverse. ‘'o what extent the presence 
of these impurities may effect the crystalline form of the metal 


* 


clination, in reference to tl 
pointed out by General Sabine 
.Presented, i 


A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observaticns. 197 


has not yet been determined but it is certain that this influence is 


cally determined but they were undoubtedly similar in form to 
those before described and entirely different from the octahedral 
erystals noticed above. Is it not possible that all the prismatic 
crystals of zinc, which have been described, including those of 
Noggerath and Rose, may belong to the same crystalline system ? 
If so the apparent anomaly presented by the above facts would 
disappear, and as the observers themselves do not claim that the 


Cambridge, Nov. 14, 1860. 


oy” 


Art. XVII.— General Account of the Results of Part Il. of the ms 


of the Declinometer Observations made at the Girard ol 


6 
ry 


THE 
the am 
aa that 


an ie, . 
resented, is of the annual solar diurnal variation and its annual 
Ax. Jour. Sct—Szconp Sertms, Vor. XXXI, No. 92.—Manrcu, 1861. 
26 oe 


198 A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observations. 


inequality. The complete results of the computations, as in the 
other case, will be given in the Smithsonian Contributions to 
Knowledge, and the present paper will contain merely a gene 
account of the results. 

The normals, or means, freed from the disturbances, are used 
in the discussion, avoiding thus the necessity for rejecting the 
observations of months in which disturbances are frequent. The 
same course is followed by the Rev. Professor H. Lloyd in his 
discussion of the Dublin observations and also by General Sabine 
in the third volume of the discussion of the Toronto observations. 


of nearly 10} minutes and the winter months one of 51 minutes. 

Diagram B shows the same results in a different form, the mean 

early curve of the first diagram ~ being straightened out to 

rm the axis of the second (B). The curves represent the wil 
* This Jour., [2], vol. xxix, p. 36. 


A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observations. 199 


ter and summer variations, the oii being the difference be- 
tween those of the yearly curve, and of the winter and summer 
curves respectively. This di ingrem shows very perepicnoualg 16 
progress of the annual variation at different hours of t e day. 
It shows that at 6 or 7 A. M. the annual variation isa maxi- 
_ disappearing at a quarter before 10 A.M. That it reaches 
second, Aer apis maximum at 1 P. M. nearly disappearing 
shor tly after 5 p. A still smaller maximum is reache 
. M. and half oe hour before midnight the annual variation 
again disappears. At, and: before, and after the principal maxi- 
um between 6 and 7 A. M. the annual variation causes the 
‘ioctl end of the magnet to be deflected to the eastward in the 
summer and to the westward in the winter. At1 Pp. M. the deflee- 
tions are to the west in summer and to the east in gene the 
range of diurnal motion being thus increased in the former sea- 
son and diminished in the latter. The needle is — — 
in summer, more to the east in the morning hours more 
the west in the afternoon hours, or has greater elongation Stas 
it would have if the sun moved in the equator. In winter _ 
reverse is the case. The range of annual variation from sum 
ii to winter at Philadelphia is about 3’, and its daily range 
about 2’°6 
In diagram C similar curves are given, = ag PRES hs it 
cae and Hobarton, of the winter and su 
gress of the annual variation. The comparison aie that 
Toronto and Hobarton are not normal types of the half yearly 
deflections and the near coincidence of the forms at Philadelphia 
and St. Helena, seems to show that the type for different places 
is one and the same in general character, affected by incidental 
irregularities. 
In reference to the annual variation, Gen. Sabine, in the rectifi- 
cations and additions to the last volume of Humboldt’s Cosmos, 
presses himself as follows 
“Thus in each nelgpliehs the semi-annual deflections concur 


nsequently ——— them, and oppose and diminish them in 
ihe other half. At the magnetic ees as : no mean die 


m 
noon when the sun has moat declination and the reverse when 
south declination. » to the same authority the annual 
variation is the same in ie ake bamepieaes the north end of the 
magnet being deflected to the east in the forenoon, the sun hav- 
ing north declination, whereas in the diurnal variation the north 


200 A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observations. 


end of the magnet at that time of the day, is deflected to the 
east in the northern hemisphere and to the west in the southern; 
In other words, in regard to direction, the law of the annual va- 
riation is the same as that of the diurnal variation, but opposite 
in soa from the northern to the southern magnetic hemi- 
sphere. 

Some interesting conclusions as to the law of change of the 
annual variation, will flow from a closer discussion of the obser- 
vations at the two hours of maximum, namely 6 to 7 A. M. and 
1to2p.Mm. The general table, by subtracting the annual mean 
from each monthly value, at the respective hours, gives the fol- 
lowing values for the annual variations at or near the hours of 
principal and secondary maxima of range, the signs + and — 
indicating as usual westerly, or easterly deflection from the an- 
nual mean position. 


6to7 lto2 
A. M. P.M, I 
‘ é 
+201 -0°98 || July, 

February, 41:31 —112 ucust, 
March, +047 -— 047 September, 
April, +015 | +106 : 
May, — 1:38 -++0:93 || November, 
June, — 1:90 +0°89 December, 


The greatest range at 6 to 7 A. M. is 5’-0 the easterly deflection 
being greater than the westerly by 04. That from 1 to 2 P. M. 
is 2'*7, the eastern and western deflections being equal. A gen- 
eral inspection of the columns shows that the solstices are approx 
imately the turning epochs of this annual variation, and that the 
signs change at the time of the equinoxes. ‘T'o determine these 
points with the more precision the numbers of the table were 
irene by an analytic formula. According to this, January 1st 

nd July 1st (ten days after the solstices) are the dates of the 
greatest values, and the transition from positive to negative val- 
ues, and the reverse will occur on the first of April and first of 
October (ten days after the equinoxes). . 

_A table is given in the memoir showing the satisfactory coit- 
cidence of the observed and computed values. This result agrees 
with that deduced by a different method by General Sabine. — 

To give a definite determination of the law of the phenom- 
enon, so as to embrace the whole progress shown by the series, 
the regular solar diurnal variation has been expressed as a func 
tion of the time, by four terms of Bessel’s formula, the equation 
being found for each month, and also for each half year from 
April to September and from October to March and also for 
the whole year. Allowance was made in determining the ¢0- 
efficients for the different weight of the readings at the even and 
at the odd hours. nota 


~~ 


= 
A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observations. 201 


The following table exhibits the close correspondence of the 
computed and observed mean annual value of the seiied A solar 
diurnal variation. 


Philadelphia | Diurnal variation. | pjffer- || Philadelphia | Diurnal variation. Differ- 
mean time. [C d./O} d ence. mean time. (Compared. | Observed ence, 
; ™ 
0195 -049 | -047 | -0:02 12195 | +369 | +8°65 04 
Eke -048 | ~051 | +0°03 §,-" +4 +432 | +004 
“Bins ~O51 | ~044 | -0:07 a +381 | +877 | -0-04 
ae 0°67 O71 | +004 5 3 i +277 | +276 | -0 
4“ ~109 | -1:19 | +010 16? 4 +171 | +180 | -++0-09 
5: -182 | -164 | -018 1p +088 | +0°78 01 
eS -277 | -2°72 | -0°05 OS Wale +0°33 +025 - 0°08 
_ Dias - 3:49 347 | -002 | 19 “ -00 -0 - 0:00 
oc * —344 | ~850 | +0°06 20 “ —0'38 | -033 | -00 
kes — 2:29 | ~ _ os 58 i -057 | -—060 } +0°03 
Aes — 0°24 05 eae -—062 | -064 | +0°02 
sa 2:03 res 17 Pee 14 2 ite -0O57 | -O71 | +014 


The greatest difference at any one hour is less than 11” and 
the a robable error of any single computed value is +019. 
lagrams D and E give the resulting curves for the computed 
hourly cabal of the diurnal variation for each month of the 
year. Diagram D contains the curves for the six months of bere 


rom the computed values é given in the the table assisted 

by the diagrams, the general features of the diurnal variation 
and of its annual aera are readily deduce 

The general character of the diurnal motion is nearly the 

same for the summer half year, for the winter half and therefore 

for the whole year. The greatest eastern deflection is, at a mean, 


reached a quarter before eight a. M. being a quarter of an gt 
ear this 


earlier in summer, and half an hour later in winter. A 
hour the declination is a minimum. The greatest western defle 
tion is reached, at a mean, at a quarter after one o'clock P. M., a 
few minutes earlier i in both the summer and winter. At this hour 
the declination is a maximum, The diurnal curve presents > 
a ing the ho wave, slightly interrupted by a deviation occurring ec 

hours near midnight, or fc te 10 P. M. to 1a. M. when 


the magnet or westerl ‘Shortl) rla.M 
the north end of the magnet va coll pees 


f 


202 A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observations. 


cycle, and arriving at its eastern elongation aneety before 8 a. M. 
gee nocturnal deviation is well marked in winter, vanishes in 


oak the 
that if if Fhe effect of disturbances was completely obliterated in 


the results, this small cugican would disappear. In summer 
when it is not noticed the needle remains near! y stationary from 
8p.M.to3a.M. The ie curves for the year, show a similar 


result. The diurnal curves for the months when the sun’s decli- 
nation is north, = those when. it is ne. resemble each other 
closely, as is shown by diagrams D and E. 

For greater peteisien in regard to the epoch and amount of the 
diurnal variation we must recur to the analytical expressions 
representing the numbers of the table. 

he following table contains the results for each month and 
for the summer and winter seasons and the whole year, also the 
critical interval between the two adjacent hours of the mean po- 
sitions. 


stical ¢ Epoch of mean oo 

OE ne ae ge ee 
: Ps ae M.- 2. min. to ma A.M EM) eee 

58 1s 429 10 52 7 08 8 16 

$4 1 32 458 10 52 4 26 8 34 

07 1 34 5 27 10 46 4 35 8 46 

12 1s 15 10 34 7 40 8 56 

29 12 5 bY 10 19 6 57 § 38 

33 1 20 547 10 25 8 26 10 01 

36 1 238 5 52 10 80 9 32 11 02 

18 1 05 B47 10 10 8 40 10 30 

30 0 45 5 15 9 58 6 45 8 47 

00 11% 517 10 30 5 23 6 53 

54 1 O§ 5 14 10 16 6 08 7 62 
54 140 4 46 10 50 617 Lae 

33 1 08 B35 1017 7 43 9 26 

24 125 5 O01 10 40 6 49 8 09 

48 116 5 28 10 26 7 08 3.42 


The formule also give for the time of the seondary minimum 
of tore declination in winter 9h 42m p. wr. and for its amount 


For the time of the secondary maximum of western declina- 
tion in winter, 18 15™ 4. w., and for its amount —0'26; differ- 
ences 35 33™ and O”71. 
For the secondary minimum of eastern deflection for the year: 
104 11™ p. m. and its amount, —0”62. ; 
For the secondary maximum of western deflection for the 
year, 12 13, and its amount —0°47; differences 34 02™ and 0’ 15. 


in the foregoing table, the eastern elongation occurring earliest 
the summer solstices and the autumnal equinox, 
latest about the winter solstice. 


bis 
A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observations. — 208 


and the same holds yout for the morning epoch of th 
declination. The afternoon epoch, however, occu 


hich are most constant 

during the year, are those of the western elongation ae: of the 

morning mean declination. The greatest difference between any 

month and the mean of all the months, is 31 minutes in the 
former and 28 in the latter. 

To exhibit the features of the diurnal variation and its annual 


he magnetic surface is formed by contour lines 05 apart. The 
curves in dots (....) are lines of mean position. Those in 
ashes (-- --) are eastern deflections from the normal position 
and the full lines are western deflections. This Diagram and 
the table from which it is deduced are immediately applicable to 
the practical problem of furnishing the correction to be applied 
to a single observation, made at any hour of the day and month, 
to reduce it to its mean value. It also renders unnecessary the 
development of the annual variability of the coefficients in the 
analytical expression. The diagram distinctly exhibits the diur- 
nal minima and maxima, the former coms by a valley, the 
latter by a ridge, on the ‘magnetic surface 
ext, the magnitude of the diurnal range is studied. The 
rb table exhibits the amount of the deflection at the east- 
ern elongation and the diurnal amplitude of the 
asiostion for each month in the year derived from the equations. 


Deflection at [Diurnal Deflection at Diurnal 
E. Elong.|W. Elong.) range. E. Elong. W.Elong. Tange. | 

any, = Orde “43°52 | 5°98 || July. —5°58 | +546 | 11704 
Feby. ~2°64}+3°11 | 5°75 || Aug. -5 79 | 46°36 | 12°15 
March, -8 73 | 44°03 | 7°76 || Sept. ~4-71 | +5 -60 |} 10°31 
April. -4-02 | +528 | 9°30 || Oct. 218 | +8 -23 41 
May. —4°89 | +516 | 10 05 || Nov. -1°92 | +2°85 | 4°77 
June 5-26 | +5 06 | 10 32 ll Dec. -1°65!+8-14] 4°79 


e diurnal range for the summer months is 10-45, for winter 
months 5/56, and for the whole year 7°89, all corresponding to 
an epoch about a year and a half removed from the epoch pra a 
ii ae of the solar perio 

he numbers denoting the diurnal range, exhibit three re- 
markable —- namely, the maximum value in August, the 
sudden falling off in September and October, Cae HH) and 
the minimum value in November and December. In other re- 
spects, a Wy on is regular. The curve is nee e crested, 
Moe pei in the eastern, as well as the western deflections 
en viewed separately. This is of special im — as ib 18 
probable that Rg aah of th ese. separate curves at other 


204 A. D. Bache on Declinometer Observations. 
stations chiefly determine the double crested character of the 
curves of di - 


ag 
O 


russels, Greenwich, Dublin, etc., for instance, exhibit two 
ne alte 


<ima, 
mallér, about the summer solstice. The system to which 


of the secular change, and it was then shown that the Philadel- 
hia observations share in this respect a similar difficulty with 
other stations in consequence of which the results must be Te 
ceived with caution.* 
_ In the mean monthly values of the declinometer readings and 
in their differences, when compared month for month, are com- 
bined the joint effect of the secular change, and of the annual 
inequality. To eliminate the effect of the secular change, condi- 
tional equations were formed, which give a value deduced by the 
eats of the method of least squares, of 1-227 divisions, 28 
he monthly effect of the secular change.t The effect 0 the 
secular change was deduced from the mean monthly values, and 


* Dr. Lloyd's instruetive note on this subject in his discussion of the Dublin ob- 
pare is as follows: “ The siiciebatign of the annual variation is much more 
ifficult than that of the diurnal, both on account of the much smaller 
of the period and the difficulty of preserving the instrument in the same un 
condition during the much Ionger time, or of determining and allowing for its 
changes when they do occur; ingly, although the annual period may traced 
in the observations of Gilpin and is Seared in those of Bowditch, it 
rese f recent Th indi of its 
existence in the Gottingen observations, which w A. 
1 p.m., and Prof, Gauss and Dr, Goldsmith, find in the analysis of these observations 
no important fluctuations iy ag upon season. A lar negative result is de- 
duced by Dr. Lamont from Munich observations which were made twelve times 


a day. 
+ This value '6’7 of annual change, tho not preferable to alue (4/5) de- 
—* Pegs method in n lof this pe ae a Pala Mera far 

loyed in the present investigation. The most reliable value 5”-0 was deduced 
re independent observatious, as already announced. — 


. 


s 


J. M. Safford on the Upper Silurian Beds of Western Tenn 205 
» tx 


H Jan. |Feb. | March} Apr.; May|June July; Aug. | Sept. Oct. | Nov.} Dec. 
Mean declinom, readings,/563* |563°1} 563-5 |562-6/561-1} st 2-2} 562-1|561-2/558-4/558°1 1554 : 
Corr. fur secular change, | -4'4| ~-3:6| —2-8 | ~2-0) -1-2} -0 4; +0-4 +13 +20) +2: 

Annual variation in are, |-+0'-5|+0-4! 0-1 | —0-11 40:2} —0°6} —1-0| -—u°9! 0-0) —0-2/ 46: 


This result has been adopted as representing the annual vari- 
ation. From June to October the north end of the magnet is 


are. It is ref tones that this range at the same station is increas- 
ing, or diminishing, 


Art. XVIII.—The Upper Silurian Beds of Western Tennessee ; and 
Dr. F. Roemer's Monograph; by Prof. J. M. Sarrorp, Leba- 
non, Tenn, — 


valent to 
the Niagara group of New York. This bed I have denc inated 
i ge 


the sponge-bearing bed, the appropriateness of which name is at 
once seen by referring to Dr. r’s eS 


a. Die Silurische Fauna Des Westlichen Ter . Bine Pa gare 


on- 
ographie von Dr. Ferdinand Roemer; Breslau, 1860. See this Journal, xxi, 127. 
Am. Jour. Ce pot gee: Vou. XXXI, No. 92,—Marca, 1861. 


206 J. M. Safford on the Upper Silurian Beds of Western Tenn. 


The object of this article is to point out the fact that the fauna 
pammasted i in the above work is not the only one occurring upon 
2. He eke not a little confusion has existed with 

ence to the different beds of this pire To this day, so 


p , 
flat lands ae east. The beds are arranged in descending 
order, The term Niagara is mate to include both the Clinton 
and Niagara groups of New Yor 

9. Top of ridge es the valley of Eagle 
Cannontrerovs. Strata concealed ; loose cherty masses scattered — ye 

aaa ning ’ occasional fossils, 53 feet 
“~ a (when weathered) bluish or greenish siliceous 
“ib shale Hight feet at the base interstratified with thin, 
fine-grained sandstones which are charged with indi- 
5S rl group? ae of a small Lingula, 42 feet. 


7. Fine-grained erm highly charged with the same 
eae as anager 


nen ipo: tone—Fossils obscure at this point, 
j iret ag - {si ae horizon,  howeeer of well marked Lower Helderberg 
4 rocks siiar points in Wayne county, 25 feet. 

4 de-forming pawchest and Caleareous pha 

es Sponge Bea limestone grey often coarse crinoida j—soretiein ag illaceo 
‘ ing Bed. er Met “ssliferous—occasionaly containing layers of 

¢ i. 90 
& Ni. pagers, | the ( 4. Vari shat Limestone ; brownish-red and grey layers 
Variegated interstratified—man ny layers argillaceous—orthocerata abun-, 
\ Bed. C er part, 96 feet. 


a 


Greenish calcareous Shale, ve ipiore Leptena sericea, 
ied Strophomena alternata, 15 fee 
2. Blue Limestone in rough thick-bedded layers containing 
Stro ena alternata, 8. tenuistriata, Rh 1d 
Lower Sriurran. hy ees a, Cyclonema bilix, Col sllata, &c. 
eet, 


Limestone—in thin th la 
separated ated ealy or been used a “Saydrai 
b= ay Lingulee, 7 Trilobite, ty TO feet, 


The beds numbered 4, 5, and 6, represent all the glade-form- 
ing limestones and shales, and it is to these that attentige. is 
especially invited. In this art of ee county, their entire 
thickness is seen to be 211 fe 


e 
J. M. Safford on the Upper Silurian Beds of Western Tenn. 207 


No.4. Variegated Limestone.—This bed, tic ast T notice, rests 
directly upon the Hudson river rocks. The junction is well 
seen at Clifton and below that place, for several she along the 
eastern bank of the Tennessee river. This bed is seen in the 
glade region occupying generally a ‘low position. Outside of 
Wayne and Hardin counties its base is rarely seen. The vicin- 
ity of Clifton is the most favorable ot for studying the entire 
bed, that has come under my observat 

It is easily recognized by ‘aterstratified brownish-red layers, 
some of which, when crinoidal, furnish a pies good marble. 
It is, however, often argillaceous and erum 

Its red color, due to sesquioxyd of iron, may indicate its 
Clinton affinitie 

This bed is, in sb penlaind: comparatively barren in fossils. Occa- 
sionally its layers are crinoidal. Atrypa reticularis, and several 
species of orthocerata are met with. At Clifton, the base of the 

bed, the entire mass, is exceedingly rich in individuals of several 
species of orthoceras and in large erinoidal stems and roots. The 
sponges especially are abundant 
oO. ray Limestones and Shales, or the Sponge-bearing Bed. 

—This is the division to which Dr. Roemer’s fauna belongs. . It 
is a series of gray crinoidal limestones and calcareous shales, the 
latter often predominating. On the sloping marly glades the 
layers of limestone frequently crop out in two or three success- 
ive ledges separated by masses of shale. Thin layers of chert 
often occur interstratified with the limestone. Fossils aboun 
among them Astraeospongia meniscus is shi characteristic, 1 in 
fact the mass might well be called the Meniseu: 

The general thickness of the bed is from m 80 to 100 feet. In 


above it is given at 90 feet; it is quite possible, however, that a 
portion of the overlying bed (as in it, at this point, no character: 
istic fossils were observed) ought to be included, thus making 
the thickness to a small extent greater. 

The e-bearing Bed is the prevalent rock of the glades_ 


Spong 
in Hardin, Wayne, Deceit and Perry counties. It also oti : 
to some extent, in Humphreys, Benton and Henry. et, 
Nearly all of the species given by Dr. Roemer in his mono 
graph are found in this bed. There are a few, bait which, 
so far as my observations extend, are confined to he bed next 
above, naviee.} been seen, in place, only in these wie 3 
important, perhaps, i is Pentamerus galeatus. Pate” weropleure 
(S. ie ene of the monograph) although 1 


@ ove oye 
Cileels faeces a is s the ones wae C. Atnericant: 


208 J. M. Safford on the Upper Silurian Beds of Western Tenn. 


oemer. It occurs well marked at numerous points within the 
glade region and in the counties mentioned. ‘The place of this 
bed is immediately below the Devonian shales and sandstones 
cropping out, when present, from beneath those on the hill-sides. 
At many points it is the surface rock. Many of the glades, 
with naked summits, present only Niagara rocks. Some, how- 
ever, are capped by this formation. his division, as a bed, and 
looking over the whole region, is to a considerable extent cut up 


In thickness it varies much ; at some points it is entirely absent, 
No. 7 or 8 resting immediately upon the Sponge-bearing bed ; 
then again it swells out to 60 or 70 feet, and perhaps to as muc 
as 100 feet although I have not any where, as yet, measured so 
great a thickness. « Pir 

So far as it regards the particular section presented, it 1s not 
certain that No. 6is wholly, or even in part, Lower Helderberg, 
no characteristic fossils having been seen. It marks, however, 
the horizon of these rocks. Within a few miles of this point, 
the bed holding this position is well characterized in g 
sections.* 

To my mind it is evident, that this bed was subjected to very 
considerable denudation before the deposition of the Devonian 
shales and sandstone ; hence its variable thickness, or its absence 
when, in complete sections, the latter rocks are present. Going 

urther , 


furth I have reason to think that the floor of Niagara 
rocks, upon which this bed rests, was also previous] subjected, 
(but not in so great a degree,) to denudation, and h e 


* I take this opportunity of expressing thanks to friend and former 
pupil, A. B. Gant, Jr, of Cravens Mills, Wajas county, for’ valuable assistance 
investigatio and e creeks. Mr. Gant has dix 

is al and zeal promise much more with referen to the interesting 

geological features of this region. oe 


J. M. Safford on the Upper Silurian Beds of Western Tenn. 209 


are quite different. Here the characteristic sponges of the Ni- 
agara bed disappear; and so do the crinoidal forms so well illus- 
trated by Dr. Roemer. 
In their places we have other species, mostly brachiopods, the 

larger portion of which are known to occur in the 
derberg rocks of New York. Below is a list of some of the 

escribed species. These have all been collected by the writer 
from the bed in question. Most of them may be found in all, 
or nearly all the counties bordering the Tennessee river. With 
the exception of the last, they have all been compared directly 
with New York specimens. 


Eatonia (Atrypa) singularis. Rhynchonella mutabilis, Hall. 
Merista cP Per Orthis subcarinata, 
% (“) bella, Hall. “ — oblata, Hall. 
Rhynchospira formosa, Hall. “  yarica, Hall. 
. lobosa, Hall. - Spirifer perlamellosa, Hall. 
Nucleospira ventricosa, Hall. Strophomena punctulifera, Conrad. 
2 concentrica, Hall. Phacops Hudsonicus, Hall. 
Pentamerus Verneuili, Hall. Anisophyllum Agassizi, Edwards 
. galeatus, Hall. and Haime. . 


: y 
Plete lists of the fossils they contain. 
Lebanon, Tenn., January, 1861. 


210 Barrande, Logan, and Hall on 


Art. XIX.— Correspondence of JOACHIM BARRANDE, SIR WIL- 
LiAM LoGAN and JAmEs HALL, on the Taconic System and the 
age of the Fossils found in the Rock of Northern New England, 
and the Quebec Group of Rocks. 


more salient points. 

ocks under discussion occupy a belt of country east and 
west from twenty to sixty miles wide,.stretching from the vicinity 
of the city of New York in a northerly direction to Lake Cham- 
plain and thence through Vermont and Lower Canada to Cape 


Gaspé at the mouth of the St. Lawrence. The strata consisting . 


of slates, limestones, sandstones and conglomerates are greatly 
disturbed, plicated and dislocated, and are often, copaniall ee 


resemble in lithological characters those of the Hudson River 
group and thus along the western side of the region, where the 


masses 
and where the best of observers may arrive at diametrically 
oppos fe opinions. 
r. smmons, one of the geologists of the New York Survey 
Nevacif geolog 


manner in another work entitled “ THe Tacontc SysTEM,’ pub- 


lished in 1844. In this latter work he figured several species of 


fossils which had been collected in different parts of the forma 
tion. T'wo of these were trilobites and were described under 


JRE STS eS aa ee 


the Taconic System, &c. 211 


the names of Atops trilineatus and Elliptocephala asaphoides. The 
others were graptolites, fucoides and apparently trails of anne- 
ides; he considered all the species to be distinct from any that 
had been found in American rocks of undoubted Silurian age. 
The pre-silurian age of the formation has also been maintained 
by him in several more recent publications such as his ‘‘ Ameri- 
can Geology ”—the several reports on the geological survey of 
North Carolina and in his “ Manual of Geology.” 

On the other hand, Professor Hall placed the whole region in 
the Hudson River group. In the first yolume of the Palzontol- 
ogy of New York he identifies Aiops trilineatus with Triarthrus 
Beckii the characteristic trilobite of the Utica slate ;—Hihipto- 
cephala asaphoides he refers to the genus Olenus and describes as 
congeneric therewith another trilobite (O. undulostriatus) said to 
be from the true Hudson River shales. It is scarcely necessary 
to state that these identifications have always afforde Ro. 
tremely powerful objection against the correctness of the position 
assumed mmons, because no species of trilobite is known to 
range from the Primordial Zone up to the top of the Lower Si- 
urian. Hfall’s first volume was published in 1847 and as it is 
Unquestionably the most important work on the Lower Silurian 
Fossils of North America it has been very generally accepted 
by our physical geologists as a guide. It is not surprising there- 
fore that, in all the discussions that have taken place during the » 
last fourteen years upon the age of these rocks, the majority of 
those who did not profess to be naturalists should have arranged 
themselves on the side of the leading Paleontologist of the 
countr E 


The formation was traced from New York through Vermont 
and there identified, by Prof. Adams the State Geologist, with 
the Hudson 
it with great labor through a mountainous and partially unin- 
habite country for nearly five hundred miles Phen from the 


and thence along the south side of the St. Lawrence to the mouth. 
of that river at Cape Gaspé. In Canada the nomenclature of the 

ew York Survey was adopted for all the formations and it ap- 
Pears from his several reports that Sir W. E. Logan could ie 


ae 


Ae be seen by the following correspondence that the new 
eros upon the question of the age of these rocks by 
; Bn nmorery of a large number of fossils near Q 
to P 


212 Barrande on the Primordial Fauna and Taconic System. 


ticed in Mr. Barrande’s letter to Prof. Bronn have been found 
may be subordinate to the Potsdam it seems probable that the 
sequence contended for by Emmons will turn out to be at leas 
for the greater part the true one. 


it, 


On THE PrimorpiaL Fauna AND THE Taconic System or Emmons, IN A 
ETTER TO Pror. Bronn or Hewerserc.* 
“Paris, July 16, 1860. 
re i I have recently received, thanks to the kindness of Mr. E. Bil- 
lings, the learned palzontologist of the Geological Survey of Canada, a 
very interesting pamphlet entitled ‘Twelfth Annual Report of the Re- 
gents of the University of the State of New York, 1859.’ If you possess 
this publication, you will find there, at page 59, a memoir of Prof. J. Hall, 
entitled ‘ Trilobites of the Shales of the Hudson River Group.’ This sa- 
bo ag describes three species under the names Olenus Thompson, 
8 


i 
ion to be expected from so skillful and experienced a paleontologist as 
James Hall. 


ood en 
cies render sufficiently exact. The first is 105 millim. long by 80 broad, 
the other two are somewhat smaller, 

“The heads of the two Oleni being deteriorated, the furrows of the 
glabella cannot be recognized. The thorax has a common and remarka- 
ble character, which consists in the greater development of the third seg- 
ment, the point of which is stronger and longer than in all the other 
pleura. This is astriki 


* Proceed. Boston 8. N. Hist., vol. vii, Dec. 1860, p. 872. 


Barrande on the Primordial Fauna and Taconic System. 213 


“Besides, all who have seriously studied paleontology know well that 
each geological epoch, or each fauna, has its proper and characteristie 
forms, which once extinct reappear no more. This is one of the great 
and beautiful results of your immense researches, which have generalized 
this law, recognized by each one of us within the limits of the strata he 
describes. 


eat American paleontologist arrived long since at the same con- 
clusion, for in 1847 he wrote the following passage in the Introduction to 
the first volume of the Monumental Work consecrated to the Palzontolo- 


performed their parts in the economy of creation, have lived their period 
and perished i 


Sauna, and giving them names the most significant of this first creation, 
he thinks it his duty to teach us that these three trilobites belong to a 


_ “In effect, according to the text of J. Hall, the three trilobites in ques- 
tion were fou 


g0 beyond indicating the horizon of certain fossils, and no one would 
think of as ing a guaranty for such indications. But on this occasion 
the great American paleontologist thinks it necessary to support his stra- 
‘pectable 
his Memo} 
the «nom In addition to the evidence heretofore possessed regarding 
of Position of the shales containing the Trilobites, I have the testimony 
of Sir W. E. Logan, that the shales of this locality are in the upper part 
ie Hudson River group, or forming a part of a series of strata which 
It 1s inclined to rank as a distinct group, above the Hudson River proper. é 
“ould be quite superfluous for me to add one word in support of the 
pg of the most able stratigraphical geologist of the. os es. 
“Now, when a savant like J. Hall thinks himself obliged to invoke 
es to guarantee the exactness of the position of a few fossils, it is 
“Sar that the determination of this position is diffienlt 
: 40 Journ Sci.—Suconp Sexizs, Vou. XXXI, No. 92.—Manox, 1861. 
28 


214 Barrande on the Primordial Fauna and Taconic System. 


Georgia were found appears to me, a , to have been 
but doubtfully determined, and incomplete opposition to palzontolog- 
ical documents. < 

“T do not think, then, that I weaken in the least degree the respect and 
confidence justly inspired by the labors of the American savants whose 
names have just been mentioned, when I ask them in the name of science 
to make new researches and new studies, that may lead to a final and cer- 
tain solution of this important question. 

“ Doubtless, thanks to the progress of our knowledge, we are now no 
ta bound by the ancient conception of the simultaneous extinction and 


from sustaining the reappearance of a fauna after the extinction of the 
following fauna, which the three trilobites of Georgia would do, if they 


: had really lived after the deposit of the Hudson River group. 


“ This reappearance would be still more astonishing, as among the three 
great Silurian faunz the second fauna occupies the greatest vertical space 
and is probably the one which enjoyed the longest existence. Thus, to 
verify such a reappearance, the most incontestable proofs are required, for 
such a decision would compel the entire re-formation of one of our mos 
important scientific creeds. “Yours very truly, 

J. BARRANDE. 

In another letter, dated Paris, 14th August, 1860, Mr. Bar- 
rande says :— 

“You will easily perceive the interest and importance of the question, 
even if it were only raised on account of the three Oleni of Georgia; but 
it takes in now a much wider field, owing to a letter I have just received 
from Mr. Billings, official Paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Ca®- 
ada, who informs me that he has found lately, in the schists and limestones 
near Quebec, considered as being the prolongation of those in question 12 
Vermont, nearly one hundred species, almost all new. ‘Twenty-six 
come from a white limestone, and seem to him to be the true represent 
tives of the Primordial fauna, and he cites among them Conocephalites, 


” 


rey 


Rae Sa aes FE 2a, Sule 


Seo eons eee 


Barrande on the Primordial Fauna and Taconic System. 215 


Vermont, in other words the Taconic system, will reproduce in Ameri 


Zoic faunze of America and that of the contemporaneous faunz of Europe, 
leaving to each the imprint peculiar to its continent. 

“T can well imagine, from the position previously taken by our learned 
American brethren on the subject of the Taconic system, that the final 
solution of which I speak will not be obtained without debate, and per- 

aps some wounding of self-love, for some opinions that appear to be 
dominant must be abandoned. 

“But experience has taught me that in such cases the most elevated 
minds turn always first to the light, and put themselves at the head of 
the movement of reform. Thus, when in 1850 I recognized the Primor- 
dial fauna in the Malvern Hills, where the second fauna only had been 
found, Sir Henry de la Beche and Sir Roderick Murchison were the first 
to adopt my views, to which little by little the other official geologists 
agreed; Edward Forbes ranged himself publicly on my side in 1853 in 
‘The Geological Survey,’ while others still hesitated, until now there is no 
longer any o ponent. 

“T think pt will be the same experience in America, and that in a 
few years from this time the opinions of your savans will have undergone 
* great hange as regards this question. Be 

Js a fine opportunity for Dr. Emmons to reproduce his former ob- 
Setvations and ideas with more success than in 1844. - 
“ Yours very truly, 


“ S 
3: BARRANDE.” 


216 Sir W. E. Logan on the Fauna of the Quebec Rocks. 


BR 
Remarks on roe Fauna or THE Quesec Group or Rocks AND THE 

Prmorpra, Zone or Canava.* (In A Lerrer appressep To Mr. 

Joacum™ BarranpE oF Paris, sy Srr Witu1am E. Locan, Director 

oF THE GeoL, Survey or CANADA. j 

Montreal, 31st Dec., 1831. 
My Dear Mr. BarranprE: 

Iam much indebted to you for your letter of the 6th of Au- 
gust, which was accompanied by a copy of your communication 
to Professor Bronn of Heidelberg, dated 16th July. Agrees 
to your request, I took an early opportunity of letting Mr. Hall 
have a copy of your communication to Prof. Bronn, and he 
received it on the 11th or 12th September, 1860. 

am of course aware, from the correspondence you have had 
with my friend Mr. Billings and myself, how far you are ac- 


erops dip to the southeastward. 
From the more northern out-crop (which we shall call A*) we 
have obtained Orthis 1, Leptena 1, Camerella 1, Lingula 2, Dis: 
cina 1, Agnostus 8, Conocephalites 1, Arionellus 4, Dikellocephalus 
6, Bathyurus 4. From the more southern out-crop (which we 

_ shall call A*) we have Dictyonema 1, Orthis 2, Leptena 1, Siro 
phomena 1, Camerella i Cyrtodonta (?) 1, Murchisonia if park ag 
é a rollus 2, Capulus 2, Agnostus 

Bathyurus 4, Cheirurus 2, Singin en ee third out-crop, 
which is still farther southward, and supposed to be ano er 


Sir W. E. Logan on the Fauna of the Quebec Rocks. 217 


us) 1. 

ese two species occur in the same fragment of rock. Of all 

these fossils, 1 Orihis is common to A?, A? and A‘; 1 Leptena, 

1 Camerella, 1 Lingula, 1 Agnostus, and 1 Bathyurus, are common 
to A? and A*; 1 Asaphus is common to A® and A’. 

The dip at P is to the southeastward, and therefore an in- 
verted dip. Northwest of this, and therefore above it, at such-a 
distance as would give a thickness of between 200 or 300 feet, 
we have a band of shale with nodules of limestone, the nodules 
made up of other rounded masses in a matrix holding fossils, 
many of them silicified. From afew of these compound nodules 
we have obtained Orthis 11, Leptena 1; this band we shall-call 
B'. A band like this occurs about half a mile or more to the 
southwestward. It may be a higher band, or it may be the 
Same band, but we shall call it B?. From this we obtain On- 
nowdea (columns) 3, Orthis 1, Camerella 1, Nautilus 1, Orthoceras 
1, Leperditia 1, Trilobites (2 genera undetermined) 2. In another 
position to the southeast, on the southeast of the same anticlinal 
previously mentioned, we meet with a conglomerate band sup- 
Posed to be the same as B?; but, in case it should be different, 
we shall call it B®. Here we have Orthis 3, Pleurotomaria 2, 
Murchisonia 1, Ophileta 1, Helicotoma 1, Nautilus 1, Maclurea 1, 
Orthoceras 8 or 4, Cyrtoceras 1, Bathyurus 1, Illenus 2, Asaphus 1. 
Of all these fossils, 1 Orthis and 1 Camerella are common to B! 

*; the same Orthis and Camerella with 1 Leptcena are com- 
Mon to Bt, At, A? and A?. 
_ To the north of all these exposures, and on the northwest 
side of a synclinal running parallel with the synclinal already - 


are supposed to be not far removed from A? and A?, We shall 
call this cliff A. The fossils from it are Telradium 1, Orthis 1, 
Lingula 2, Trilobites (genus undescribed) 1, with a great collec- 
tion of compound Graptolide, described and being described by 
Mr. Hall under the genera Graplolithus 25, Retiolites 1, Reteo- 
pete 2, ae dine 5, Dendrograptus 3, Thamnograptu 3, 
onema, 


IT have given you these details of localities, because as the 
Sudject requires further investigation we do not yet wish to 
Sommit ourselves entirely as to the equivalency of separate ex- 
Pestres. But there is no doubt that the whole is one Phe 
Whee deposited under one set of alternating circumstances. the 
Whole fauna, as known up to the present time, is composed of— 


218 Sir W. £. Logan on the Fauna of the Quebec Rocks. 


ArGeulhta; ao. 68 066s PARE BE RE 36 species. 
Molden. 465 bees). coal. taeel idan sawes 56. = 
RGDLOUGM, 5.55 Gia dle + sais Od wi cos ee Ce 482. 4 
MOEN Ss dp dence é six cea xe oe Ce 4.55 


137 
Of this fauna not one species is found in the Anticosti group, 
where we have a gradual passage from the fauna of the Hud 

River formation to that of the Clinton, and not one of any forma- 
tion higher than the Chazy. Mr. Billings recognizes one species, 
Maclurea Atlantica (Billings) as belonging to the Chazy, and six 
species as belonging to the Calciferous. They are Lingula Man- 
telli (Billings), Camerella undescribed, Ecculiomphalus unde- 
scribed, Helicotoma wniangulata (Hall), H. perstriata. (Billings), 
and one remarkable species of an undetermined genus, like a 
very convex Cyrtodonta, which occurs both at Mingan and point 
Levi. All of the forms, particularly the trilobites, remind the 
observer of those figured by Dr. D. Dale Owen from the oldest 


From the physical structure alone no person would suspect 
the break that must exist in the neighborhood of Quebec, and 


from Lake Champlain. From this it proceeds in a gently CUT 
ing line to Quebec, keeping just north of the fortress; thence it . 


Sir W. E. Logan on the Fauna of the Quebec Rocks. 219 


coasts the north side of the Island of Orleans, leaving a narrow 
margin on the island for the Hudson River or Utica formation. 
From near the east end of the island it keeps under the waters 
of the St. Lawrence to within eighty miles of the extremity of 

aspé. Here again it leaves a strip of the Hudson River or 
Utica formation on the coast. 

To the southeast of this line the Quebec group is arranged in 
long narrow parallel synclinal forms with many overturn dips. 
These synclinal forms are separated from one another on the 
main anticlinals by dark grey and even black shales and lime- 
stones. These have heretofore been taken by me for shales and 
limestones of the Hudson River formation, which they strongly 
resemble, but as they separate the synclinals of the Quebec group 
must now be considered older. I am not prepared to say that 
the Potsdam deposit in its typical form of a sandstone is any- 
where largely developed above these shales, where the shales are 
in greatest force. Neither am I prepared to assert its absence, 
as there are in some places masses of granular quartzite, not far 
temoved from the magnesian rocks of the Quebec group, which 
require farther investigation; but, from finding wind-mark and 
Npple-mark on closely succeeding layers of the Potsdam sand- 
stone where it rests immediately upon the Laurentian series, we 
know that this arenaceous portion of the formation must have 
been deposited im mediately contiguous to the coast of the ancient 
Silurian sea, where part of it was even exposed at the ebb of 
tide. Out in deep water the deposit may have been a bl 
artially calcareous mud, such as would give the shales and 

mestones which come from beneath the Quebec group. 

Canada no fossils have yet been found in these shales, but 
the Shales resemble those in which Oleni have been found in 
Georgia (Vermont). These shales appear to be interp - 
tween eastward dipping rocks equivalent to the magnesian strata 
of the Quebec group, and they may be brought up by an over- 
lapping anticlinal or dislocation. We are thus led to believe 
that these shales and limestones, which may be subordinate to 
- the Potsdam formation, will represent the true primordial zone 
in vate pe 

t. Murray has this season ascertained that the lowest rock 
that is well Shaniceacod by its fossils in the neighborhood of 
Sault Ste. Marie, near Lake Superior, really belongs to the 
= ye‘and Black River group, and that it rests on the sand- 
Stones of Ste. Marie and Lacloche, the fossiliferous beds at the 
Alter place being tinged with the red color of the sandstone 
immediately below them. These underl 


1 Vivalent to the Quebec group and the black colored shales 


220 J. Hall on the Primordial Fauna, 


series of that region, and rests unconformably upon the lower 
copper-bearing series, which is the Huronian system. The upper 
copper-bearing series holds nearly all the metals, including gold, 
and so does the Quebec group, each making an important metal- 
iferous region. Hach when unmetamorphosed holds a_ vast 
collection of red colored strata. The want. of fossils in the Lake 
Superior group makes it difficult to draw lines of division, but 
if any part represents the primordial zone, I should hazard the 
conjecture that it is the dark colored slates of Kamanistiquia, 
which underlie all the red rocks. 
Professor Emmons has long maintained, on evidence that has 
been much disputed, that rocks in Vermont, which in June, 


wm 


Mr. Joachim Barrande, Rue Meziére No. 6, Paris. 


IV. 
LETTER FROM JAMES HALL, PALAONTOLOGIST OF NEW YORK, TO THE 
EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


Gentlemen,—In the Twelfth Annual Report of the Regents of 
the University* upon the State Cabinet of Natural History, 1 


age of the Hudson River group. These trilobites had been ™ 
my possession for some two years or more; and knowing the 
great interest that would attach to them, whenever published, 
had waited, hoping that some new facts might be brought out 
eyed the stratigraphical relations of these rocks in the tow? 
of Georgia. . . : 
After the descriptions had been printed and a few copies dis 
tributed, I learned that Sir William Logan was at that tim@ 
* The same to which Mr. Barrande refers in his text to Prof. Bronn, p- 312. Bic 4 
preceding communications sufficiently explain the subject under discussioM. 
~ : : : 


and Point Levi Fossils. 221 


actually investigating the rocks of that part of Vermont. De- 
siring to know the results of his latest researches in regard to the 
stratigraphical relations of these rocks, I withheld the final pub- 
lication till the Meeting of the American Association for the 

dvancement of Science, in Springfield, and there showed to 
Sir William my descriptions as they now stand in the Report, 
and I then received his authority for the addition of the note 
which was appended. 

This in a few words is a simple history of the matter relating 
to the publication of these species. I made no remarks or com- 
parisons with the primordial fauna of Barrande in Bohemia, 
knowing that these features would be at once recognized by 
every paleontologist; while their reference to the genus Olenus 
showed my appreciation of the nature of the fossils. 

I received a copy of the communication of Mr. Barrande, from 
Sir William Logan in September, a few days before setting out 
for my field duties in Wisconsin. Since my return to Albany, 
constant and pressing occupation has left me no time to consider 
areply to a question of so much importance. 

Later discoveries in the limestones associated with the shales 
at Quebec leave no longer a doubt, if any could have been enter- 


show a remarkable agreement between the trilobites of ‘this 
stoup and those of the Potsdam sandstone, in the occurrence of 
Sw Species of Dikellocephalus and one of Menocephalus ; while the 
°ccurrence of many others is in agreement or not incompatible 
with the fauna of the Potsdam and Calciferous sandstones. The 
Parative values of the Trilobitie faune of this group and of 

me Primordial zone of Europe, as established by Barrande, is 
_ “Ser shown in a tabular form which I here append. 
Jour. Sci.—Szconp Seems, Vou. XXXI, No. 92—Mancs, 1861. 

29 


222 J. Hal’ on the Primordial Fauna, 


The Crustacean fauna of the primordial zone of Europe. 


Paradoxides, - 
Olenus, ee 
Conocephalus. % se genera are all limited to the fauna primordiale, and 
“ae P pane none of the other Fae 2ire genera of trilobites are 
Saeed known in this faun 
= ld eat 
Arionellus, - = - 
gnost ~ Of the first and second fa 
Amphion, -— - Placed with doubt in the “frst fauna, and is well developed 
in the second fauna. 


The Crustacean fauna of the Quebec Group. 


Y, 
sae ten nes : t Genera of the primordial zone. 
Agnostus, - < A genus passing from the first to the second fauna. 
ra } Genera of the Potsdam period. 
Bathyu - Quebec group. 
Asaphus, - Of the second fa’ 
llleenus, - - Of the second and third fau 
Amphion, - - Of the Ie second fauna; and doubtfally of the first fauna in 
' 


Sw 
Ceraurus = Chierurus, Of the — and third Silurian faune, and of the Devo- 


We have therefore in the Quebec Group, two established 
genera of the primordial zone; one, Agnostus, which passes 


cond; and three,—Asaphus, Illenus and Chierurus, which begin 
their existence in the second fauna. Of these, Asaphus begins and 
ends in the second; Illsnus begins with om second and continues 
to the third; while Ceraurus = Chieru us begins in the second, 
ie through the third Silurian, and appears in the Devonian 


Bathyurus is a ty er and as yet has no stratigraphical 
ae in comparis ‘Those - whic I described as Olenus 


The gen eeu Ditetncaphotus ai Monecipha are of the Pots 
dam group; and so far the ee group is in parallelism m with 
the Potad ait and Calcifero 

Of the other genera, we aw, Acaphns, Illeenus and Ceraurus 

= Chierurus) in the Trenton and Hudson River 
groups; Illszenus and Ceraurus i in ae 0 Seopa me ne are 
Niagara age, or the third fauna of Barrande ; e Cel 
_* Not Elliptocephalus of Hautes ie. of 
Thirteenth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of N, Yo" 
State Oabinet of Natural History, Albany, December, 1860. 


and Point Levi Fossils. 223 


occurs also in the Devonian of Europe. Amphion is eee in 
the second gg in sai and, doubtfully in the firs 
eraurus doe occur in this country, so eae 

“ode the pa one aun known in the Devonian ake 
of Europe. 
The following tabular arrangement of the. genera found in the 
Quebec group will serve to express more distinctly the relations 
of the Crustacean fauna of these roc 

The letters at the head of the Fit pe have the same refer- 
ences as those used in the communication of Sir William Logan. 


one [ A) A?) A? | A®| At | Bi | BBS 
| OS ORR PRGA RIE re eB w ve veleeealeees 
Conocephalus, i wet PU, ie Ha ove shone >| ene 
Mess abu dy es wks —|3 1 RN Ee 
i ellocephalus, ........ ie TO, 2a sede Cate 
flenocephalus,.......... — 41 ] — | — a ee 
Bathyurus, ............ icmp te 5d hs Sieg ta an wes We aes Re ee 
Barrandia, adh: IE iPers Cees (bid Bos Boe Ga Pee ige 2 
athynotus, cdsent PRA OA. OPA ASAE As ws. 
MN rs 5 pee. oe: PS IAC 
ete tae Ee : 1 ee oe aude, seg 
MUN st Bepy terse, é Ser ot oe 
Chierurus “eg : 2 ewes ee 
Teperditia, iihivaeeedtaide.% ghcode elidel 
PR Bias 6 orice Bend 2 a are 
Saat Pao Ey wet 
DR ceases hawt Pos ee ae ee ee ee ee 
am... pie OE Be a BE Be Re 4S pe 
Strophodonta, .......... a hes Se Se oe 
eee 4. , Sat i 2 Eee 
Cyrtodonta? ........... : 7 i, oes cies 
ots. SS Ee ye a eee ee 
Murchisonia, geri iied s Slr f oe: pe eee fia | 
Pleurotomaria, Bee BG ‘ es ee a. 04s 3 ke rs a) 
tee ees iisporvruhd ae ahd 
meporcnitay<. 2 hy ek A Ae GRAAL Os 
Capulus, pele Xe suites ere OR een 1 lee isvekecae 
RO oe aes asi. < whiceeccth sacs ¢ aboecual allele eas 
autilus, CORRE REN ES in geri es re ea : 1 1 
te : ihe ee Ce ee ee 
- Cross a ee ee os * . ee +l er 58 
reas ve satin ae Ce ape 
Tetradium isle oT ie Rees fog he aE 
s jowee le 1 viacdees Spun es <* 
25 es eA as 
1 of . of ef * sieea aeee 
2 * eee =2,8 i ae Se eS ee 
ee es ele ee 
3 Fae Ee See Mee see sRiscdilaa tin Ba ainsi a tadiea nas 


224 J. Hail on the Primordial Fauna, 


pee Silurian rocks as well as some of them in Devonian. 
‘he same is true of the Cephalopoda enumerated. 

Tetradium is known in the second fauna of the Lower Silu- 
rian rocks, and in the upper part of the Hudson River group at 
the west. Dictyonema is a genus known from Lower Silurian to 
Devonian strata. 

Graptolithus proper extends to the Clinton group of New 
‘ York; and the same is true of Reteograptus. Thamnograptus 


known in the Quebec rocks only; while the typical form 
Beg on i ag occurs in the Potsdam sandstone, and, likewise, 
in three other species, in the Quebec rocks, 

_ We find, therefore, in the other genera except trilobites, very 
little satisfactory evidence, on which to rely in the present state 
of our knowledge, for determining the position of these strata. 

In the present discussion, it appears to me necessary to go fur- 
ther, and to inquire in what manner we have’ obtained our ad 
ent ideas of a reo, or of any successive faune. I old 
that in the study of the fossils themselves there were no means 
of such determination prior to the knowledge of the stratigrapb- 
ical relations of the rocks in which the remains are inclosed. 
There can be no scientific or systematic paleontology without @ 
stratigraphical basis. Wisely then, and independently of theo 
ries, or of observations and conclusions elsewhere, geologists ? 
this country had gone on with their investigations of struct al 
geology. The grand system of the Professors W. B. and H. p 3 
ogers had been wrought out not only for Pennsylvania and 


and Point Levi Fossils. 225 


Virginia but for the whole Appalachian chain; and the results 
were shown in numerous carefully worked sections. In 1848 
'44 and ’45 I had myself several times crossed from the Hudson 
River to the Green Mountains, and found little of importance to 
conflict with the views expressed by the professors Rogers in re- 
gard to the chain farther south, except in reference to the sand- 
stone of Burlington, and one or two other points, which I then 
regarded as of minor importance. . 

ir William Logan had been working in the investigations of 
the geology of Canada; and better work in physical geology 


oe 2 


lle of small trilobites undistinguishable from Conocephal 
Sandstone near Trempaleau, Wisconsin, on the Mississippi river. 


226 S. D. Hayes on a New Lead-Salt. 


now appears, é . 
reference to the successive faunz of Trilobites as established in 
Bohemia and the rest of Europe. ee 

For myself I can say, that no previously expressed opinion, 
nor any “artificial combinations of stratigraphy previously adopted 
by me, shall prevent me from meeting the question fairly and 
frankly. ave not sought a controversy on this point, but tt 18 
quite time that we should all agree that there is something of 
high interest and importance to be determined in regard to the 
limitation of the successive faunse of our older palaeozoic rocks. 

I am very truly yours, &c., 
JAMES HALL. 
Albany, N, Y., January 23, 1861. 


——_— 


Art. XX.—On a new Lead-Salt, corre onding to Cobalt Yellow; | 
. by S. D. Haygs, of Boston. 4 


Iy the ‘course of some investigations on the cobalto-cyanid 
compounds, I was obliged to use a quantity of cobalt yellow, 
the pi ment discovere by M. Saint Evre in 1852.* 


; po ; then by 
passing a current of deutoxyd of nitrogen (NO?) through the 
mass, the cobalt yellow is obtained; but the greater part of t 
NO? passes through, without being absorbed ; the experiment 
requires hours; and the amount of salt so obtained is very sm#! 

As the composition of this body is considered doubtful, # 
oceurred to ye that it might be made from peroxyd of nitroge! 
(hyponitric acid, NO*), and after a few trials, I obtained it by ™ 


* Annal. Ch. Phys., 3d series, xxxyiii, 177. 


S. D. Hayes on a New Lead-Sailt. 227 


Prismatic crystals; nitrate of potash oryetallices at the same - 
time, and if the NO* has been passed through the lead oxyd 
mixture too long, nitrate of lead is formed. 

The yellow salt was easily separated and recrystallized. The 
were determined as sulphates, with the following results: _ 
I. 07462 grms. pure salt gave 0:4200 grms. sulphate of lead, 
and 0:0097 grms. lead =0'3195 grms. oxyd of lead, and 0°2472 
gms. sulphate of potash =0°1335 grms. potash. : 

I. “459 erms. ae 0°6387 rake oxyd of lead, and 02593 

h 


ee the -- oxyd, being used in the combustion tube with a 
€ Ox 
re small apparatus, then transferred to the eudiometer, where 
it Was measured. i 

By 01926 grms. salt gave 45°6277 cubic centimeters, nitrogen, 
oo perature 60° C.; pressure 277-5 millimetres =16°30¢. c., at 
6. and 760 mm. pressure =0°2048 grms. 
* Ann. Ch. und Pharm., xcvi, 228 


} 


228 S. D. Hayes on a New Lead-Salt. 


IL. 0°1958 grms. gave 16:23 ¢. c. at 0° C. and 760 mm. pres- 
sure =°0226 grms. i 

The water was determined by combustions with metallic 
copper. 

I. 0°7834 erms. gave 00274 grms. water. 

II. 09145 grms. gave 0°0314 grms. water. 

Ill. 0°4735 grms. gave 0°0177 grms. water. 

These results sum up as follows. 

I 


: IL. 11. Iv. 
Oxydoflead, - - - 4281 43 08 42°59 43°22 
Potash, - - - = 17:90 TTT 18°31 " 
Nitrogen, er 10:63 10°35 s 
Water, So - -.. $49 3°43 3-78 y 
Oxygen, by difference, - 25:16 * 25°02 


0-00 100°00 | 
_ The above analyses correspond to the following calculated 
formula: 


PbO, - - - - 11156 42°98 
WG 2 Ss Sogy egy 18:10 
Ne, = me - : - 28° 10°78 
O03, - - - - bd 64° 24°67 
pi 1 SSeS He Sat Or de cerca 9 347 
259°56 10000 


with the sulphate of lead. It loses its atom of water at 100° ©, 
but if the temperature be raised a few degrees higher, the 
fumes are given off abundantly. The crystals are of a bright 
yellow color, and remain unaltered in the air. ; 
Tam not yet prepared to give this salt any decided rational 
formula, but its composition may be expressed in several way 
as below. When 2NO, are passed over 2KO, we get KONO, 
and KONO,, two distinct salts, but if 2NO, be passed over 
CoO and KO, as in the ease of cobalt yellow, or over PbO and 
KO as in this salt, 


we get only one salt of a double compositio? 
which we must write— ; 
KONO, CoONO, or 
KONO, or PbONO,+HO <1 wie 
But there are objections to this: cobalt yellow is almost °F 
quite insoluble in water. ese 


salts may also be looked upo? 
as double per-oxyds, in which two e eeticnse of oxygen have 
been replaced by two equivalents of NO. but from the nature 
of the salts, I hardly think that NO, exists in them. How . 


iF. V. Hayden on the Geology, &c. 229 


ever, Gmelin describes a salt to which he gives the formula 
bO, NO, Aq,* and we express the composition of these salts 
quite as well, by writing them thus, 
KONO, CoONO, or 
KONO,, or PbhONO,+HO 
This subject will be pursued, and I hope to get several other 
salts, which must give some reactions that will lead to the right 
rational formule. 
Heidelberg, Baden, Dec. 5th, 1860. 


waters of the Missouri and Yellow Stone Rivers; by Dr. i 
HAYDEN, Geologist to Capt. Raynolds’s Expedition, with an 
Introductory letter by Capt. W. F. Raynolds, U.S. Topograph- 
ical Engr. 


Arr. XXI.—Sketch of the Geology of the Country about the oe 
. ue 
A. Capt. Raynoups’s Lerrer. 


Honorable Seeretary of War. 
The district that was examined by the expedition is bounded by the 


country was such as to foree my division of the party across the main 
chain of the mountains. 

The expedition was in the field for two entire seasons (1859 and 1860) 
and during about half of the first and the whole of the last season, was 
divided into two sections or divisions, the first under my immediate con- 


Cénting tra ¢ m ast fift twenty years. 
D § trappers and not by them for the past fifteen or twenty 5 ie Platte, 
* Hayden made a geological examination of the country to the south- 
ward along the base of the tain chain to near Pike’s Peak. 
* Handbuch, Bd. 8, s. 142. 


Aw Jour. Sct.—Szcoxp Sens, VoL. XXXI, No. 92—Mazos, 1861 
| 30 


230 F. V. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


ing the active operations of the party he accompanied that part of the 
comn and that was with myself—the geological examinations made by 
the :econd division were under the immediate direction of Dr. C, M.- 
Hin:s of this city. 
It is believed that the final results of the expedition will add largely to 
all lranches of the scientific knowledge of the country. 
W. RAYNOLDS, Capt. Top. Engrs. Comdg.] 
Washington, D. C., Jan. 17th, 1861. : 


B. Dr. Haypen’s SKETCH. 


: 


I. Granite, Stratified Azoic, and Eruptive Rocks,* ” Pe 
i ilurian ae 


* By granite or granitoid, I mean those unstratified crystalline rocks in the West ” 
| m 0 t : 


y stratified series of non-fossiliferous. ‘a a se 
ary between the granite and Potsdam sandstone, y eruptive rocks, thos 
have been melted by volcanic heat and brought he surface in a more 
fluid condition, at various periods, is i ie ag a ET: 


- 


about the head of the Missouri, &c. 231 


I, Granrre, Stratiriep Azoic, anp Eruprrve Rocks. 


showing the wide geographical area under which the elevating 
forces acted. 

_ Tallude in the first place to the Black Hills, the northern por- 
tion of which we examined on our route from Fort Pierre on the 
Missouri to the Yellow Stone river. These Hills form the most 
eastern outlier of the Rocky Mountains and would seem to be an 
independent elevation were it not for alow anticlinal which ex- 
tends across the plain country southward connecting it with the 

waramie Mountains. The central portion is composed of a coarse 
flesh colored feldspathic granite with a series of metamorphic 
slates and schists superimposed, and thence upon each side of 
the axis of clevation, the various fossiliferous formations of this 
Tegion follow in their order, to the summits of the Cretaceous, 
the whole being more or less inclined against the granitic rocks. 

The distance across the granitoid nucleus, is from fifteen to thirty 
miles and on each side of the crest or axis of elevation we find 
the corresponding portions of the fossiliferous beds from the Si- 
lurian to the summit of the Cretaceous. The evidence therefore, 
18 conclusive that all the unchanged sedimentary strata at a peri- 
od of comparatively recent date extended continuously over the 
Whole area occupied by the Black Hills. The eruptive rocks 
reveal themselves at various localities as at Bear Peak, Inyan- 
kara Peak, &. Bear Peak is a protrusion of very compact 


See rocks, almost isolated from the main ran ge of the Black 


rtant detached o stern | 
continent. This seems to trend nea 


mentary strata to the summit of the Cre- 
and including a portion of the Lignite Tertiary can be 


232 F. V. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


seen in regular sequence outward inclining at greater or less an- 

les. From the observations of Dr. C. M. Hines, who acted as 
Geologist to the exploring division under Lieut. Maynadier, we 
know that the corresponding formations occur on the opposite 
side of the axis of elevation and as we remarked of the Black 


great heighth in but a partially fluid condition and then to have 
gradually cooled, affecting toa greater or less extent the foss 
iferous strata in contact. 
Near the junction of the Popo Acie with Wind River, W¢ 
eame in full view of the Wind rede osathins sh form the 
dividing crest of the continent, the streams on the one side 
flowing into or Atlantic, and those on the other into the Pe 
is range is also composed toa large extent of red a on 
feldspathic granite with the foasiliGerans rocks inclining 


TS Oe ae eer 


about the head of the Missouri, &c. 233 


observed them have the same igneous origin and the mountains 
l along the sources of the different branches of the Columbia 
exhibit these rocks in their full force. In Pierre’s Hole, Jack- 


these ancient volcanic rocks seems to have been poured out 
over the country and to have cooled in layers, giving to vast 
thicknesses of the rocks the appearance of stratified beds. 
€ mountains about the sources of the Missouri and Yellow 

Stone rivers are of eruptive origin and in the valley of the 
Madison fork of the Missouri are vertical walls of these ancient 
voleanic rocks one thousand to fifteen hundred feet in height, 
exhibiting the appearance of regularly stratified deposits dip- 
ping at a considerable angle. As we pass down tlr¢ Madison we 
find some beds of feldspathic rocks and mica and clay slates 
beneath the eruptive layers, dipping at the same angle. A 
passing the divide below the three forks of the Missouri we see a 
number of partially detached ranges which appear to be of the 
fame igneous character. In the Belt, Highwood mountains and 
Indeed all along the eastern slope in this region we find continual 
evidence of the outpouring of the fluid material in the form of 
surface beds or in layers thrust between the fossiliferous strata. 

hese igneous beds thin out rapidly as we recede from the point 
of effusion. A large number of these centres of protrusion 
may be seen along the slope of the mountains west of the Judith 
range. The erupted material sometimes presents a vertical wall 
three hundred feet high, then suddenly thins out and disappears. 
The Judith, Bear’s Paw and Little Rocky Mountains seem to be 


omposed for the most part of granite and other rocks, with 
paper 


et observations have convinced me that these rocks which I 
Reds defined by the term eruptive compose by far the greater 
h st. 


The a II. Potspam Sanpsrone. (Silurian.) = 
ene discovery of this formation in its western extension has 
ad y been announced in a former paper.* It was first made 
OWN as occurring in the Black Hills and resting upon the up- 
turned or nearly vertical edges of the schists, clay slates and 
Btanito nitoid rocks, and the inference was drawn that the same rocks 
‘# This Jour., [2], xxvi, 276. 


234 F. V. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


would be found forming an outcropping belt all along the eastern 
slope of the Rocky Mountains. After leaving the Black Hills 
we next observed it along the margins of the Big Horn range 
near the summit, holding the same relative position and exhibit- 
ing the same lithological characters. A few thin layers of fine 
calcareous sandstone were observed filled with fossils charac- 
teristic of this period. At the head of LaBonte creek in the 
Laramie range I noticed a bed resting discordantly upon azoic 
slates, fifty to one hundred feet in thickness, holding the same 
position and possessing the same lithological characters which 
it reveals at other localities. I could discover no fossils in it 
at this point but I am confident that this bed represents the 
Potsdam sandstone. The same bed seems to occur all along 
the mountains from Laramie Peak to Cache la Poudre creek un- 
derlying the well-known Carboniferous strata and resting upon 

ecomposing granitoid rocks, which form the nucleus of the 


la Poudre, a distance of over one hundred miles. It was also 
seen along the eastern slope of the Wind River mountains but 


in the 

position. 
Sometimes they are n 

the Laramie and Platte R 

a that they have either been removed b 


y 
are alternate layers of sandstone 
stones, many of which show obl 


about the head of the Missouri, 6c. 235 


to fifteen hundred feet and incline high upon the sides of the 
mountains at an angle of 50° to 70°. They contain few fossils but 
these indicate rocks of the same age as those in the Black Hills. 
Along the Laramie mountains, from the Red Buttes to Pike’s 
Peak, apparently the same limestones are seen inclining against 
the sides of the elevated ridges at greater or less angles and on 
the opposite side of the axis sloping down to the Laramie plains 
the corresponding strata are seen, though leaning at much smaller 
angles, usually from 9° to 15°. Along the Sweet Water and 
Wind River mountains these rocks are highly developed and in- 
nite against the sides of the ridges of elevation as heretofore de- 
scribe 


Powder River, I observed at one locality a series of beds which 
indicated the presence of Permian rocks. These beds whieh are 
nh uposed of cherty magnesian limestone are very much like 
those already described in northeastern Kansas and contain in 
§teat abundance some of the same species of fossils as Myalina 
ratienuata and others. I have also seen similar limestones in 
Pet localities but no fossils were detected va though haying a 
; lan appearance they may belong to the upper portion 
the Cabins y may g ee ieee 
_ The evidence is clear in many localities that prior to the de- 
Position of the Red Marls succeeding the supposed Permian, a 
bey great erosion of the surface of the Carboniferous rocks took 
Place. We find, for example, in many localities only a thin rep- 
Fesentation of the Carboniferous rocks and again a full develop- 
ment, one thousand to fifteen hundred feet in thickness. | 


236 F. V. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


IV. Rep Arrenaceous Deposits. 


Overlying the Carboniferous rocks and equally persistent with 
them is a series of red arenaceous Marl beds or gypsum-bearing 
marls which are coéxtensive with the upheaved sedimentary form- 
ations along the Rocky Mountains. The largest development of 
these beds which I have observed, occurs on the northeastern 
side of the Big Horn mountains and on the west slope of the 
Wind River mountains near the source of the Gros Ventres Fork 
of Snake River. From the Red Buttes on the North Platte to 


gh | 
creek, about ten miles below the falls. They are also distinctly 
revealed around the Judith mountains. Along the Big Hora 
mountains thick layers of gypsum occur, but the 
" ; 


River the aggregate thickness of the gypsum strata is about one 
hundred feet while near the source of Snake River there 15 ® 
thickness from fifty to eighty feet. It also occurs to2 COM 
siderable extent at the foot of the mountains, on La Bonte 
creek, a branch of the North Platte. re 


about the head of the Missouri, Gc. 237 


V. Jurassic Rocks. : 

These rocks are everywhere revealed, oe the red de- 
posits just Atta and possessing an equal geographical exten- 
sion. Their fullest development and most fossiliterous condition 


Along the northeastern slope of the Big Horn mountains, this 
group of rocks presents its a appearance of grey and whitish 
calcareous and arenaceous layers, with indurated somewhat vari- 
egated beds of more or less laminated mars, containing in great 
abundance Cais densus, Pentacrinus asteriscus, a new species 
of Sar Pecien 
Red Buttes we 6 find a fair development of these beds ie. 
di ho fossils, but as we proceed southward toward Long’ 
Peak, the intercalated laminated marls disappear and be rene 
ormation seems to be reduced to a thickness of fifty to one hun- 
dred feet, with very few fossils. Along the southwest side “of the 
ig Horn mountains and the northeast side of the Wind River 
mountains we have a thickness of Jurassic rocks from eight 
hundred to one thousand feet containing organic remains in the 
greatest abundance. Crossing the Wi nd Ri ver mountains we 
observed the strata corresponding to those upon the eastern side 
with B. densus, Ostrea, &c. Returning to the eastern slope at 
the sources of the Missouri we see occasional indications of their 


7 


cae, Ginarke that the older fossiliferous beds dies pass 

beneath the more recent Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits and 

Seupy a greater or less area underneath the prairie country east 

of the ‘divide’ of the Rocky Mountains. I have made this in- 

ference from the fact that where any elevations occur the com- 
Plete series of fossiliferous beds are exposed around the axis of | 
posit That I may be not misunderstood by those geolo- os 
's who have colored large areas Triassic and Jurassic on pa oo 
eal maps of the West, I would say, that I have never se ‘no 
any of the older fossiliferous rocks from the Potsdam to the. lu ie 
Tassic Inclasive, ees except in narrow outeroppi 
the margins of the mountain elevations. The 


*« arenaceous deposits are exposed over about the same area, 
he * “yee Jurassic form a zone never more than one-fourth of a 
_— miles in width. 
Sci.—Szconp Series, VoL. Xx], No. o2.—akancs, 1861. : 


238 F. V. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


VI. Cretracrous Rocks wira Suppivistons.* 


The various subdivisions of the Cretaceous group in the West 
were observed at numerous localities. The strata in many places 
occupy large geographical areas, holding a horizontal position, 
in others forming a belt or zone of greater or less width around 

‘the mountain elevations. No.1 is a well marked and distinct 


its existence, but no well marked typical beds were seen. 


into No. 2, so that No. 3 in the west and southwest may give 
place to an increased development of No. 2. Nos. 4 and 5 are 


. . fr tic 
slope, six to eight hundred feet of alternations of black plaste 
clays, arenaceous marls and beds of sandstones and limestone with 
a few seams of Carbonaceous matter passing up into calcareous 
and arenaceous compact rocks. In 
near the middle of the series and extending upward, quite er 


ca near ay rogks of the West have been divided into five form 
numbered 1, 2, 3, &c. A more careful st . render it neces 
rh Tae study of No. 1? may render it nete 


about the head of the Missouri, é. 239 


well marked Cretaceous beds pass up quite imperceptibly into an 
enormous thickness of Lignite Tertiary. Passing over the divi- 
ding crest to the head waters of the Missouri, we did not observe 
any indications of Cretaceous rocks until we had descended be- 
low the three forks, where we find traces left after erosion. The 
do not reveal themselves conspicuously until we arrive within: 
twenty or thirty miles of Fort Benton where the black plastic 
clay begins to overlap the Jurassic rocks with its characteristic 
fossils, and on reaching Fort Benton the plastic clay is quite ho- 
mogeneous and is developed to a thickness of eight hundred feet. 
As we proceed toward the mouth of the Judith River and near 
the Judith mountains we find quite thick beds of coneretionary 
sandstone which form the “Stone Walls,” “Citadel,” &. Iti 
from these beds that we have obtained a group of fossils which we 
have referred provisionally to No. 1, but which seem to be spe- 
cifically distinct from all others in the West. It may be that when 
this group of beds now referred to Nos. 1 and 2, comprising a 
thickness of fifteen hundred to two thousand feet in this region 
are more carefully studied that several subdivisions will be made, 
having equal importance with the others. Durin the past sea- 
Son our route led us along the ‘divide’ between the Missouri and 
ellow Stone rivers south of the Judith mountains, so that we 
passed outside of any good exposures of No. 1, as well as beyond 
the limits of the estuary beds at the mouth of the Judith. We 
Must await a more thorough and detailed exploration of this re- 
ag we can state with entire confidence the succession of 
e beds. 


VIE. Terrrary Deposrrs. 


In speaking of the Tertiary deposits of the Northwest, so far as 
known at the present time I propose to separate them into four 
divisions which will be sufficient for our immediate oses 


Ist, Estuary Deposits. 2nd, True Lignite Beds. 38rd, Wind - 


River Valley Deposits. 4th, White River Tertiary Deposits. 
J 


Ing character. “ Opinions of a somewhat conflicting nature have 


been entertained in regard to them, owing to the peculiar char- 
that the 
fossils, A thin 


240 FV. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


occurring at the mouth of the Judith. The researches of Mr. 
H. Engelmann, in Utah, have also established the existence of an 
estuary deposit in the country bordering upon Green river,— 
scarcely less interesting than that of the Judith. These deposits 
pass up into the true lignite beds without any perceptible line 
of separation gradually losing their estuary character and ever 
after containing only land and freshwater shells. The lignite 
strata are chiefly remarkable for yielding in the greatest abun- 
dance, finely preserved vegetable remains. A few fragments of 
eaves of Dicotyledonous trees and silicified wood, with very im- 
pure lignite beds, are formed in some of the estuary-deposits but 
no groups to indicate the great luxuriance of vegetation which 
must have existed during the accumulation of the lignite 
Strata. : 
The geographical extension of the lignite deposits of the West 
is now a matter of the highest interest, and from what is already 
known, I am convinced that they will yet be found to cover a 
greater or less area on both sides of the main ‘divide’ of the 
Rocky Mountains, from the Arctic Sea to the Isthmus of Darien. 
The estuary and lignite beds seem also to have partaken equally 
with the older fossiliferous rocks, of the influence which elev 
the mountain chains. Along the Laramie mountains, and from 


the Laramie mountains, far to the northward, 


about the head of the Missouri, §c. 241 


ponding beds are shown in the valley below, we infer that they 
were accumulated long before the mountains were raised to 
their present height or perhaps during the gradual process of 
elevation. This is especially shown at the upper end of the 
Vind River valley. Passing over the Wind River mountains 
We again see them holding the same position on the western 
slope and possessing the same lithological characters. While 
the lignite beds on the west side of the ‘divide’ incline at a large 
angle, the more recent beds although in some places occupying 
the very crest of the mountains, seldom incline more than 3 
to 5 degrees, 
The most interesting additional facts which we have obtained 


Mountains to Willow Springs within ten miles of Cache la Pou- 
dre, that they also extend up the North Platte to the Box 
Elder creek, and even beyond are small outliers, showing that 
much has been removed by erosion. Passing over into the 
Laramie Plains we find at the source of the Box Elder and ex- 


pier over to the head of Bates Fork a large development of 
18 ‘lert} ‘ 


W 
Weh 


su 
‘ ticed 
Ch 


lignite Tertiary are often 


heighth by the upheaval of the mountains, but they do not in 
: aoe than 1° while north of Se lack Hills 
Along the Platte I have seen 
especially on La Bonte creek and about 


242 F. V. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


fifteen miles east of the mouth of that creek. Often the beds 
seem to have been raised up several hundred feet above their 
original position, without inclination, resting upon the upturned 
edges of the lignite beds which we have before observed, par- 
took equally of the disturbing influences which have given so 
great an inclination to the older fossiliferous rocks. Along the 
Big Horn mountains and the North Platte the lignite beds some- 
times incline from the foot of the mountains 80° and often the 
influence of the elevatory power has affected them far out into 
the plain country. 

In the above accounts of the Tertiary deposits of the West we 
have shown that the older members are clearly separated into 
four divisions exclusive of the Pliocene deposits of the Niobrara. 
Let us examine the evidence in regard to the age of these de- 
a If we study the upper portions of Cretaceous formation 

o.5 when not removed the erosive power of water to 
any great extent, we then observe from the time we pass from 
No. 4 to No. 5 a gradual change in the sediments and other in- 
dications of a slow approach to shallow water, arenaceous sedi- 
ments begin to take the place of argillaceous so that we have 
alternate thin layers of sand and clay, the sand continuing to 


We have also mentioned the fact that the fossils of upper pat 
No. 5 seem to have existed upon the verge of the Tertiary period, 
that they eo present peculiar forms more closely allied to 
of the genera Buculites, Ammonites, Inoceramus, ete., which are 
every where supposed to have become extinct at the close of the 
Cretaceous epoch, we would be in doubt whether to pronounce 

em Tertiary or Cretaceous. These facts would seem to ind 
cate a foreshadowing of the Tertiary era and that the transiioB 
from one great period to the other was gradual and quiet, ie 
change in the physical conditions being ultimately sufficient 


about the head of the Missouri, &c. 243 


physical break occurring in the sediments. 

Will not these statements go far to show that the estuary de- 
posits ushered in the dawn of the Tertiary epoch and induce the 
belief that they belong to the first part or Eocene period? This 
point 1s an important one to establish, on account of its bearing 
upon the history of the physical development of our western 
continent. . 


ave no evidence, so far as I know, of long continued 

deep-water deposits in the west, until far up in the Cretaceous 

Tiod _ If we examine the Potsdam sandstone we shall find that 
Where it reaches its greatest force, the lower portion is comp 


{uite compact with fucoidal markings, ripple-mark, &c. Every- 
> are most abundant examples of oblique laminze of deposit, 
and ripple and wave-markings—evidences of shallow waters. 
During the long period that elapsed between the deposition of 
ot aniest part of the Silurian epoch and the commencement 


ment: | 
and all the proofs of shallow as well as turbulent waters 
shown. We then pass up through the red arenaceous de- 


244 F. V. Hayden on the Geology of the Country 


posits and Jurassic beds, and find no rocks that indicate deep 
water deposition. Cretaceous formation No. 1 commences in 
many places with a considerable thickness of an aggregation of 
water-worn pebbles passing up into thin alternate layers of are- 
naceous and argillaceous sediments with thick beds of sandstone 
with ripple markings and oblique laminee, then gradually ceases 
in No. 2 and through Nos. 2, 8 and 4, the sediments indicate 
that they were accumulated in comparatively deep and quiet 
waters. No. 2.is a black plastic clay, No. 3 grey marl, and No. 
4 a dark indurated sometimes Jaminated clay with many calea 
reous conerctions, In No. 5 we gradually approach indications 
of shallow water until dry land appears, as already stated. 

It will not be possible at this time to mention in detail all the 
oscillations of surface and other physical changes to which we 
have reason for supposing the country was subjected during all 
these periods. It is sufficient for our present purpose to show 
that except during the middle Cretaceous epoch no long continued 
periods of quiet water prevailed in these ancient western seas. 

The evidence appears to me to point to the conclusion that a 
much milder climate prevailed throughout the western portions 
of our continent, during a greater part of the Tertiary period 
than that which exists in the same latitudes at the present time. 
The organic remains appear to indicate a subtropical climate or 
one similar to that of our Gulf States. Near the close of the 


epoch. 

Again, he luxuriance of the flora which has been so perfectly é 
preserved in the lignite strata of the West point to the same 
conclusion. It is true that until recently no species have P 


) P' 
found which belong exclusively to a tropical vegetation, bat dur: 
ing our Jast expedition we obtain species of true fan pa 


. . 


34°- 
and of Chamerops humilis in Europe, near Nice, in 43°44" 


FV. Hayden on the Geology, &c. 245 


air ladened with moisture from the Pacific ascend the western 
Slope of the mountains, become condensed and deposit their bur- 
dens for the most part before reaching the eastern slope 


rent, sweeping over the Pacific Ocean, and consequently charged 

with moisture, will impinge on the Coast range of mountains of 
Oregon and California, and, in ascending its slopes, deposit mois- 

ture on the western declivity, giving fertility and a healthful 

climate to a narrow strip of country bordering on the ocean, and 

Sterility to the eastern slope. All the moisture however 

Rot be deposited in the passage over the first range, but a por- 

tion will be precipitated on the western side of the next, until 

it reaches the eastern elevated ridge of the Rocky Mountain sys: 

‘em, when, we think, it will be nearly if not quite exhausted. 
We are how supposing that the climatic conditions, winds, cur- 


the present day. We therefore venture the suggestion that up 
th ie rtiary deposits 


‘ * Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom, p. 136. 
_ Washington, D. C., January 20, 1861. 
AM. Jour. Sc.—Secoxp Series, VoL. XXXI, No. 92.—Marcu, 1861. 
32 


246 W. Gibbs on the Atomic Weights of Elements. 


Art. XXII.—Remarks on the Atomic Weights of the Hlemenis ; 
by Wotcorr Grszs, M.D., Prof. of Chemistry and Physics in 
the Free Academy in New York. 


In the present communication I shall endeavor to show that 
if the atomic weights of oxygen, sulphur and carbon are taken, 
respectively, as 16, 82 and 12, those of a majority of the other 
elements must be doubled. Ido not at present adopt the view in 
question; my object is simply to point out the logical consistency 
of the change. For the sake of convenience and precision of 
language I shall employ the terms atom, molecule and equiva 
lent, in the sense in which they are understood by the chemists 
of the new or unitary school.* An atom of any element is the 
least quantity of that element which can exist in combination: 


a molecule is the least quantity which can exist in the free state. — 


The definitions of atomic and molecular weights flow at once 
from those of atom and molecule. The equivalents of bodies 
are the relative quantities which replace each other in actual or 
ideal substitutions; they may correspond to atoms or to mole- 
cules, or may bear a simple numerical relation to either of these. 
The atomic weights of carbon, oxygen and sulphur are now gen 
erally considered — respectively 12, 16 suit 32, chiefly upon 


organic compounds, independently of any assumption as 1 
po Hiker the number of atoms of carbon, oxygen and 
phur is always even. : 

3. en oxygen or sulphur replace hydrogen in organle 
compounds, 2 units of weight of hydrogen are replaced by 16 
of oxygen or 82 of sulphur; 4 units of hydrogen by 32 of oxy- 
gen, and so on; in no case is one unit of weight of hydroge? 
replaced by 8 of oxygen. 

4. The least quantity of oxygen or sulphur set free in 9Y 
reaction is either 32 or 64, or is some multiple of 32 or 64. 3 
like manner the least quantity of oxygen or sulphur which 
reacts with any compound body is.a multiple of 16 or 82 by 
even number. 

The assumption is now generally made that the molecules of 
all substances in the gaseous state occupy the same volume: 


* See for example Kekulé, Lehrbuch der Organischen Chemie, i, 97, Erlangen, 1859 


W. Gibbs on the Atomic Weights of Elements. 247 


combining at a lower temperatute to NH,Cl. In this manner, 
among others Koppt and Hofmannt have shown that’ it is un- 


now we admit that the molecules of all substances occupy 
2 vols. in the gaseous state, and if the reasoning which has led 
chemists to double the old atomic weights of carbon, oxygen, sul- 
Phur, &c., be correct, it follows that the atomic weights of the 
teater number of the el ts must be doubled. For we find re 

_ 1. That nearly all volatile inorganic oxyds, chlorids, oxyehlo- 
Mids &e. contain’ in 2 vols. of vapor ae 1) two or four received 
gluvalents of metal or radical. Thus the compounds ed 
formulas are now usually written SiCl,, TiCl,, ZCl,, SnCl., 


and niac heitee cna 
Vapor even at a temperature of 1040° C, At this temperature ammonia must © re 
Tesolved into its jose and its vapor-density ought to correspond, ply pated 
Ccxtof 4. The explanation in the text is therefore not applicable : 


248 W. Gibbs on the Atomic Weights of Elements, 


HgCl, Hg,Cl, HgBr, Hg, Br,, Fe,Cl,, Al,Cl,, Al,I,, Al,Br,, 
cro, Cl, must be written Si Cl, Ti, Cl, Z . Ch; Sn, Cl,, 
Hg, Cl,, Hg,Cl,, Hg,Br He, is Fetis Al Che Al Pa eet 
Al, Br,, Cr .0 Clos i in order to correspond to 2 vols, of vapor. 

2, All volatile metals and metallic oxyds contain two or four 
received equivalents in 2 vols. of vapor. Thus the vapor-den- 
sities of mercury and So acthen renerens the apes weights 

g,and Cd,. Arsenous and osmic acids correspon n the form 
of vapor to the formulas As, 0, and Os,0,. 

3. All volatile compounds of metals with organic radicals 
contain an even number of equivalents of metal in 2 vols. of 
vapor, excepting only those in which triatomic metals occur. 

us we have corresponding to 2 vols. of vapor the formulas:— 


Sie C,H, 

CH 2 | Zo CH &h Zina, | CoH, t ,Sn., | Cas } S00 
C,H,) (C,H,) C,H C,H,) t 
fe }2 | Sn, 4 Ql? | sna, (C, B? | Sn, (C, u Sn., 


C,H 
(CH) sn, 


4. ithe volatile compounds of the triatomic radicals, nitrogen, 
phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth and boron, contain m 
2 vols. of vapor only one ein atomic weight of the radical. 
yee we have the compou 

PCl,, AsCl,, SbCl, “BiCh, BCl,, P(C,H,)g, As(CsHs)s 
sve, H,)s; B(C,H,),, BO, 3C,H,0, é&e. &e ee 
To this there are SOAR Thus we bite corresponding to 2 
vols. the formulas 

(C,H, C,H C,H 
As,0,, (C,H oe bai, {G2 a}? t As.09, to ny As,Sz 

5. The specific heats of the atoms of nearly all the gar 

are = if the molecule is in each case referred to 2 vols. 


eae. we consider it proved from the above considerations 4 


Carbon, 12 oe. Le 208 652 
Silicon, 28 lage 108 6°40 


Zirconium, 44 — Rhodium, 102 5°62 
Titanium, 48 — Ruthenium, 106 “ 
Niobium, 96 — Platinum, 198°: 048 
Tantalum, 136 — Tridini, 196 = 700 
Tin, 116 652 Cnninn, "406, eee 


* The only exception to this law occurs carbon, and cannot st 
Bern Seo Ban ead. = a 


a ae ete 


W. Gibbs on the Atomic Weights of Elements. 249 


The first column of numbers giving the atomic weights, the sec- 
ond the atomic heats or the products of the atomic weights into 
the specific heats. It is possible that thorium belongs to the 
tetratomic group, as thoria appears to be ismorphous with stannic 
acid, Sn,O,. ‘Lead is placed in this group from the analogy of 
the compounds which it forms with ethyl, methyl, &c. to stan- 
nethyl, &c.: it appears however like tin, palladium, ruthenium, 
platinum, rhodium, iridium and osmium to be also diatomic; the 
so-called protoxyds having the formulas Pb,O,, Sn,0,, & 
For similar reasons we admit the existence of 6 triatomic ele- 
ments, namely :— 


Nitrogen, 14 — Antimony, 120 611 
Phosphorus, 31 5°85 Bismuth, 208 6°41 
Arsenic, 75 6°10 Boron, 11 a 


The diatomic elements, according to the reasoning above men- 
tioned, will be 30 in number, and may be arranged in natural 
families, as follows :— 


Oxygen, 16 + Tron, 56 «638 
Sulphur, 32 6:48 Manganese, — 
Selenium, 80 = 608 Cobalt, 60 6-42 
Tellurium, 128 6°08 ickel, 58 6°28 
Chromium, 
Magnesium, 24 — Aluminum, 275 5°88 
ium, 40 ‘Zine, 
Strontium, 88 — Cadmium, 112 6:36 
’ 136 opper. 63 6°04 
Uranium, 1 
Cerium, 92 a Mercury, 00 3=- 640 
Lanthanum, 4 oe He eae FD Eo 
Didymium, 96 one Molybdenum, 96 6°91 
Yttrium, wade ‘eum Tungsten, 184 6°67 
Erbium, shes IS pa Vanadium, ? 188 — 
Terbium, sass atic nee 
Glucinum, 10 ith 
riu 118 


This classification into natural families appears to me to repre- 
Sent the present state of our knowledge, though the re of 
Several elements must be regarded as doubtful.* ‘The mona- 
tomic elements are only 10 in number; they may be arran 
In t grou 


S3 
Chlorine, 35-6 Hyd 1 — Silver, 108 6°16 
s oor ydrogen. er, : 
Bromine, 80 -674 Lithium, 7 — Gold, 107 68 
odine, 127 6:88 Sodium, 23 6°71 
Fluorine, 19 oo Potassium, 39 6°60 


soa ttete is reason to believe that vanadium belongs with boron to the nitrogen 


250 W. Gibbs on the Atomic Weights of Elements. 


It is however to be remarked that, of the other elements, at 
least two, namely copper and mercury, are monatomic in certain 
combinations, as for example, in Cu,Cl and Hg,Cl. It is true 
that we may write these formulas Cu,Cl, and Hg,Cl,, in which 
case we have two additional diatomic forms of copper and mer- 
cury with the atomic weights 126 and 400 respectively. This 

ode of viewing the subject obliges us to admit atomic heats 
represented nearly by the number 12, or twice as high as in 

of the other elements, and appears therefore less simple than 
that first stated. 


- 


other arguments in favor of the same change. 
pares oxyd of zine Zn,O,, with oxyd of ethylene (C,H,)03' 
the hydrate of oxyd of zinc will then correspond to glyco) 
n 
H, O,. In the same way we may consider hydrate of ses- 
quioxyd of iron as corresponding to glycerine, Fe 0; = 
a 3 
C,H een : : 
"H: O,, Fe, being here triatomic. 
Should the further progress of the science show that the views 
above mentioned are the most simple and consistent expressio2 
* Limpricht. Lehrbuch der i i . 
4 Giusy J cura al the Oneal Badioey ool oF im : and 3. 
The same, vol. xiii, p. 124, : : : yt 
Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, lx, 239, and Repertoire de Chimie p™*® 
| 0 


nuovo Cimento, vii, 321. I have not seen the original paper and quote * 
hand from the Jahresbericht of Kopp and Will for 1858, p. 12 q 


W. Gibbs on the Atomic Weights of Elements. 251. 


Hydrogen 1 Oxygen, 8 16 
Phioeak : 4 ee 35°5 Carbon, 6 12 
Bromine, 40 80 Zine, 32°5 65 
Potassium, 19°5 39 Iron, 28 56 
Nitrogen, 7 14 &e. &e. 


in which table the first column gives the atomic and the second 
the molecular wei 4 ‘ : 
The formula of water thus becomes H,O and its atomic 


weight 9; caustic potash is rt O and its atomic weight 28; 


oxyd of zine will be ZnO and its atomic weight 405; chlorhy- 
dric acid will be HCl and its atomic weight 18°25. The dashed 
symbols H, G1, K, &c., may also be employed, as in the Berze- 
han notation and would in many cases be extremely convenient. 
All the typical formulas now so generally employed will be 
written as at present, the actual weights only being changed. 
The general acceptance of the views of the new school would be 
greatly facilitated by the adoption of the system of atomic 
Weights here proposed. : 
Th another paper I propose to discuss the question of the 
bs city of the elements with other points of special theoretical 
Interest. 


New York, Jan, 12th, 1861. 


252 Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 


Art. XXIII.— Abstract of a Meteorological Journal for the year 
1860, kept at Marietta, Ohio: lat. 39° 25’ N., and long. 4° 28 
W. of Washington City; by S. P. Hitprera.—[Thirty-fourth 
annual report. 


THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. 
| ry Zz 
Elgia s 3 Prevaili I g 
ae eleleizis/T| weer [alate 
Ss ielela/s} 8 BE a 
BS \e/2/e/5/ 2 pe ee 
January, 32°66, 61) 8) 15| 16| 3-25] sew. dN. /30:00,2005) 9 
February, 35°00 71, 2 16) 13) 1:25|\ss.w., d& Nw. |29°75/28°55 12 
March, 14:13 71| 16) 18| 13 8.8.E,, & N.W. |29°55/29°00) “5! 
April, 54°30, 83) 24| 13/ 17] 5°30) ssn, dn. [29°75 28°65 /1'1( 
May, 35°50 91) 39| 18| 18| 2:88] nsx, dx. [29-58)29°10) “4 
June, 38-03) 94! 44 15| 15| 2-01] sm, c& w. |2970/2883) 81 
July, 13°68, 95| 49| 16| 15] 5°87) ws. & s.w. |29°60/29°08) 5: 
12°23 95, 4s 3\ 414) nse, & Nn. (2958/2920) “3 
September, 62°10 88! 88 15| 15| 326, sx, dn. |29°7029°15 56 
ber, 62:17) 84! 88 16| 15| 4:85] ssw. & w. |29-65,28°95) “70 
November, 40°29; 79). 1 | 15| 15) 4Olis.w.,w., & v.w./2¢ 60) 8°85) “75 
ber, . 30°1: | 11} 4% 24] 2-08 w.nw., & E nee rl 
a 


from the face of the earth with the impetuosity and force of gun- 
powder, raising the question whether its main power was not de- 


sore throat,’ chiefly confined to children, but of a most fatal and 
destructive type. Like the cholera, it appears to be epidemic Pr 
certain period will run its course 40" 


= 


4nd Evans of the Marietta College, and Dr. J. 


Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 253 


TEMPERATURE, AND REMARKS ON THE SEASONS. 


times as low as twenty-six degrees. The first week in January 


. was the coldest of the winter, the temperature being below 


? € . 
Was in the rivers that fall into the Ohio, on the north side, as the 
Scioto, Muskingum, Beaver and Alleghany. The southern afflu- 
ents were not very high, or the water would have equalled that 
of 1832. But little amage was done below Marietta, which, 


At this town the water was four feet below the flood of 1882, 
but twelve inches higher than any other one. 3 

Treat meteor of May, 1860.—On the first day of May, about 
twenty minutes before one o'clock, P. M., a tremendous explo- 
“on was heard at Marietta, like the discharge of a piece of heavy 
artillery, the sound coming from the north. It was found to 


pilace about fifty miles north of Marietta, and twenty east of 

hesville. Its course with a description of the accompanying 
Phenomena has been given in this , ene by Profs. Andrews 
L. Smith; th 


d last named gentlemen having personally visited the locality 
AM. Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Sunims, Vou. XXXI, No. 92—Manc, 1861. 
33 ‘ 


254 Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 


where it fell, a few days subsequently, and minutely examined 
all the attending circumstances noted by the inhabitants in the 
vicinity. One of the largest fragments, weighing over one 
hundred pounds, was purchased and placed in the cabinet of Ma- 
rietta College. Appearing, as this meteor did, in the middle of. 
the day, when hundreds of spectators were in situations to see 
it, the history of its course and appearance has happily been 

ade out more accurately and satisfactorily than that of any 


m 
other which has visited North America. 


Louisville, Ky., by two o'clock, Pp. m., at Cincinnati by half 
three, at Portsmouth by half past four, and at Marietta about 


it began to rain a little. A quarter before six, wind very violent — 
from the southwest and tes: with ‘hard. rain, blowing steadily 
and not in gusts as in ordinary storms, lasting about ae 
minutes. As soon as the rain ceased, the sky or clo 
in the west and southwest put on a deep orange or copper colot, 
and after seven until dark, a brilliant red, like the rays of 38 


Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 255 


In the aurora borealis. The night following was calm and clear. 
€ mercury in the barometer, in the forenoon, was 29°10, and 
kept rising during the violence of the tempest, being at 29°15 at 
5 P.M. and at 29:23 at 9 o'clock. At Wheeling, Va., 80 miles 
Southeast of Marietta, there was only an ordinary gale, its force 
being spent before reaching there. No similar tornado has visited 
the valley of the Obio since Sunday, the 28th day of May, 1809. 
This struck Marietta about 4 o'clock P. a. with more violence than 
in 1860. There was little or no rain or thunder; several houses — 
were unroofed and some blown down, with immense destruction. 
of forest trees. It was greater in breadth and probabl as eX- 
tensive as that of this year. I was living in the town at that time 
and witnessed its ravages. Brown’s Cincinnati Almanac for the 
year 1810 contains the only printed account of it that I have 
Seen; but probably the newspapers of that period noticed it, as 
there were then nine or ten published in Ohio. 
: mer.—T he mean of the summer months was 71°31, which 
8a full average for this season of the year. Heat and moisture 
Were distributed by a beneficent Providence in due season and 
“2 quantities fully adequate to the wants of vegetation, produc- 
mg one of the most abundant harvests in all the various varie- 
ties of cereal productions common to this climate. In some of 
the southern counties whole fields of wheat were destroyed by 
that pernicious insect, Tinea granella, after it had attained its 
full growth. This miller is a different insect from the Hessian 


em 


= 


Was very injurious, its larvze devouring the grain in whole fiel 
leaving none for the farmer. Happily its ravages were limited. 


' the pastures were green until late in the autumn. In some 
fields the potatoes valieied from the disease called ‘the rot,’ but 
senerally the crop was abundant and good. — 
Autumn.—The mean of the autumnal months was 54°85, & 
temperature adequate to the wants of the season. Indian corn, 
,, main crop of the valley of the Ohio, and of more 1m rt- 
ance to the farmer than that of any other grain, was very a0 4 
‘nt in quantity and excellent in quality. It ripened early, Thi 
"as teady to be cut up by the twentieth of September. — se 


et 
of 
i 
: 
; 


Da , from the supply of rains at the right time, the crops on the 
bi sod plaid wees nearly as’ good as in the rich bottom lands 
tape’ Zivers, while on the latter, the heavy deposits of vege 

~ © ™ould left by the overflow in April added unusual fer- 


256 1. S. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemistry. 


tility to the soil, producing crops of corn from eighty to one 
hundred bushels an acre, remunerating the husbandman for his 
extra labor in replowing and replanting his fields. Fruit of all 
ki was abundant, especially apples and peaches. All the 
smaller fruits were in great perfection. Grapes matured without 
much loss from mildew or insects. Melons were never better 
or more plentiful. The forests abounded in’ acorns and nuts, 
bending their branches under their uncommon load. every 


ae Eig Sugar maple; 26th, Golden bell or Forsythia virl- 
late frosts.—April 1st, Primrose in bioom; 8d, Hyacinth; 6th, 
11th, white Narcissus; 15th, Apple tree in bloom; 16th, 
ud or Circis canadensis, Hydrastis canadensis; 18th, Cornus 
: : 1 


Florida; 234d, Lilac; 26th, Tulips in bloom.—May st, Black 
w tree in bloom; 2d, Quince tree, Harebell; 5th,- Native 


nD 
Pseudoaensia; 14th, Prunus Virginiana; 25th, Syringa Phila- 


ee ere 


_ Apr. XXIV.—On the Theory of Types in Chemistry; PY 
T.. STERRY hoon ER. : 


In the Annalen der Chimie und Pharmacie for March, 1860 
(cxiii, 293), Kolbe has given a paper on the natural relations 
between mineral and organic compounds, considered as ® acl 
entific basis for a new classification of the latter. He objects 1 
the four types admitted by Gerhardt, (namely, hydroge?, hyare 


chloric acid, water and ammonia,) that they sustain to omen? 


compounds only artificial and external relations, while he com 
ceives that between these and certain other bodies there af 


ural relations having reference to the origin of the orga™° ‘a 


T. 8. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemistry. 257 


cies. Starting from the fact that all the carbon compounds found 
in the vegetable kingdom are derived from carbonic acid with 
the concurrence of water, he proceeds to show how all the bod- 
ies of the carbon series may be deduced from an oxyd of carbon, 
which is either carbonic acid, carbonic oxyd, or the hypothetical 


the replacement of a second Sef would yield C,0,H,, 


thy], C,H,, for one or more atoms of hydrogen in the preceding 


glycerin 


like citric from a triple molecule, C,0,, @ moreover com- 
pares sulphuric acid to carbonic acid and deduces from it by sub- 
stitution the various sulphuric organic com s. Ammonia, 


PbE 
PbO, , and BiO,. 

Ad. Wurtz, in the Repertoire de Chimie Pure for October, 1860, 
has given an analysis of Kolbe’s memoir (to which, not ohio 
the original before me, I am indebted for the Lat sketch), and 


€ 4 
bon, sulphur, and the metals, Wurtz would maintain but three, 
pis rogen (H,), water (H,O,), and ammonia (NH,), and these 
three types, as i 


_* See on this subject Dr. Frankland’s late excellent lecture on Organo-metallic 
bodies in the Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, July, 1860, Nos. L, LI. 


258 T.S. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemistry. 


N 
of nitrogen and six of hydrogen, which being reduced to one- 
third corresponds to a triple molecule, M,M,, so that these three 
types and their multiples are reducible to that of hydrogen more 
or less condensed.—(Wurtz, Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, [3], 
xliv, 302.) 

As regards the rejection of water as a type of organic com- 
pounds and the substitution of carbonic acid, founded upon the 
consideration that these bodies in nature are derived from C,0,, 
Wurtz has well remarked that water, as the source of hydrogen, 
is equally essential to their formation, and farther that the car- 
bonic anhydrid, like all other anhydrous acids, may be regarded 
as a simple derivative of the water type. Having then adopted 
the notion of referring a great variety of bodies to a mincr 

ies of simple constitution, water is to be preferred to car- 
bonic acid, Ist, because we can compare with it many mineral 
compounds which can with difficulty be compared with carbonic 
acid, and 2d, because the two atoms of hydrogen in water being 
replaceable singly, the mode of derivation of a great number of 
compounds (acids, alcohols, ethers, etc.) is much more simple 
and natural than from carbonic acid. As Wurtz remarks, Kolbe 
has so fully adopted the theory of types that he wishes to roulti- 


plication that it is worthy “to form the basis of a system of 
oe (Repertoire de Chimie Pure, 1860, pp. 856-359.) 


monia as typical forms, but even look upon water as the deriva 
tive of hydrogen, which is itself the primal type. 


T. 8. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemis'ry. 259 


As to the history of these ideas, Wurtz remarks that the prop- 
osition enunciated by Kolbe that ‘all organic bodies are derived 
from mineral compounds, from which they take their origin, in 
part directly, by processes of substitution of great simplicity,” 
is not new, but “known in the science for about ten years. 
Williamson was the first who said ‘alcohol, ether and acetic 
acid are compounds comparable to water, organic waters.’ Hof- 
mann and myself had already compared the compound ammo- 
nias to ammonia itself. * * * To Gerhardt belongs the merit of 
generalizing these ideas, of developing them, and supporting 

em with his beautiful discovery of anhydrous organic mono- 
_ basic acids. Although he did not introduce into the science 
the idea of types, which belongs to Dumas, he gave it a new 
form, which is expressed and essentially reproduced by the prop- 
osition of Kolbe.” ‘‘ Gerhardt reduced all organic bodies to four 
types, hydrogen, hydrochloric acid, water and ammonia.” (Reper- 

tc., p. 355 


toire, etc., . 


this idea of mineral types is to be found in an essay by Auguste 
Laurent, (Sur les combinaisons azoteés, Ann. de Chimie et de Phys- 
ique, Nov. 1846,) where he showed that alcohol may be looked 


the type of the monobasic vinie acids, as water is the type of 
dibasic acids. In extending and developing this idea of Laurent's 
insisted in March, 1848, and again in January, 1850, upon the 
telations between the alcohols and water as one of homology, 
Water being the first term in the series, and H, in like manner 
the homologue of formene and acetene, while the bases of Wurtz 
Were said to sustain to their corresponding alcohols the same 
Pathe that ammonia does to water. (This Journal, v, 265, 1x, 


Tn We tides ‘of his‘ cmtay published: in September, 1848, (Ibid, 
¥i,178,) T endeavored to show that Laurent’s ener 
extended so as to include in the type of wee, : 


260 T. S. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemistry, 


not possess a saline character are derivatives of acids which are 


acids are derived from it by a substitution of Cl and NO, 
or H, are necessarily monobasic, and I then pointed out the 


the discovery of the very anhydrids whose formation I h 
foreseen.* 


I also showed that hydrogen is to be looked upon as the fan- 


I farther pointed out that sulphur in its ordinary state was . 
be regarded as a triple molecule, S, (or S,=4 volumes), a0 
referred sulphurous acid, SO, (S,0,), to this type to which 
. : A i ested that 

orant Jorm of oxygen, ozone micht be O.. urtz has sin 
adopted sulphur vapor at 400° ©. = S, as the type of the triple 

* The anhydrids of the monobasic acids c ; equivalents of the 
acid minus one pat of water, regen Sogo et hile those of the 

ibasic acids are formed from one equival ; imilar eli 
of an equivalent of water, thus COs} Mes 7a renee both classes ¥ 
anbydrids are to be referred to the type of one molecule of water, H202 : 


b 


T. 8. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemistry. 261 


no other foundation than the observed order of generation, and 
” ] Cc ‘ 


ord j 
(differentiation). When in these changes only one species is 
co 


We should endeavor to show their ordinary modes of generation. 
(See On the theory of chemical changes this Journal, xv, 226; 
L. E. & D. Phil. Mag., [4], v, 526, and Chem. Centralblatt, 1858, 
P. 849, also Thoughts on solution, this Journal, xix, 100, an 
Chem. Gazette, 1855, p. 92. bs 

-eeping this principle in mind, let us now examine the theory 
id s we have just seen, I ta 


of. .0,, H,O,, and H,O,; thus (PO,'H)0, 
Wes", )Os, and (PO,""H.)O,. ‘These radicals evidently cor- 


respond to PO, which has lost one, two and three atoms of ox- 


vec May not nit , under certain conditions 
reper rogen, as we have elsewhere suggested, ; c 
‘ate ammonia and a nitrite, and may not this reaction enter into certain pro- 
Au - hitrification? I propose at an early day to consider this question, 
; Oo 


262 T. S. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemistry. 


ygen in reacting upon the hydrogen of the water type, and the 
acids may be accordingly represented as found by the substitu- 
tion of the residue PO, —O, for H, ete. 

this manner of representing the generation of polybasic 
acids we object that it encumbers the science with numerous hypo- 
thetical radicals,* and moreover fails to show the actual succes- 


phoric anhydrid P,O,,=(PO,),0, is placed in contact with 
water it combines with one equivalent, H,O,. The union is 
followed by homogeneous differentiation, and two equivalents of 
metaphosphorie acid result; (PO,),0,+H,O, =2(PO,H)0,. 
Two equivalents of this acid in contact with one of water at 
common temperatures are slowly transformed into two of pyro- 
phosphoric acid, by a reaction~ precisely similar to the last; 
2(PHO,)=(PHO,),0,+H,O, =2(PHO,.H)O,; and two equiv- 
alents of pyrophosphoric acid when heated with a third equivalent 
of water yield in like manner two of tribasic phosphoric acid; 
2(PH,O,)=(PH,O,),0,+H,0,=2(PH,0,.H)O,=2PH,9,- 


was on aving for four years opposed them to 
Gerhardt, that this chemist in J ie 1809, renounced his former 


views, and without any acknowledgment, adopted my own (An”- 
- - Al my 


‘veloped the ideas relative to the water type to which Wartz 
h editor of Gmelins 


Those who are familiar with chemical literature will remember an 2 
jeu Mesprit of the lamented Laurent in which ia invited the attention of the adyo- 
cates of the radical theory to a new electro-negative radical which he Euthi- 
zene, (Comptes Rendus des Travauz de Chemie, 1850, pp. 251 and 376). It was pot 
without a smile that we observed a late writer in The Chemical News, vol. i, 326, 
proposing as a newly invented radical under the name of hydrine, the peroxyd 
hydrogen HOs, the eurhizene of Laurent! ee 


amusing — 


T. S. Hunt on the Theory of Types in Chemistry. 268 


Handbook, ascribes the theory. The notion of condensed types, 
and of hydrogen as the primal type, was not so far as [ am 
aware brought forward by either of these, and remained unno- 
ticed until resuscitated by Wurtz in 1855, seven years after I 
had first announced it, and one year after my reclamation pub- 
lished in this Journal in March, 1854. 

y claims have not however been overlooked by Dr. Wolcott 
Gibbs; in an essay on the polyacid bases, he remarks that in a 
paper he had attributed the theory of water types to 

illiamson and Gerhardt, and adds ‘‘in this I find I have not 
T.S 


chemical speculation and research, remembering that my own 
publications on the subject, which cover the whole ground, 

some years earlier than those of Williamson, Gerhardt, Wurta 
or Kolbe. Ss 


Montreal, Canada, Jan. 5, 1861. 


Sudsalts, whic 
bibasic and tribasi 
sustain the . 
rates be . 

line subn pat 
HO (tribasic), and NO,.M,0,.H aie 
Which retain their water of composition at wegres Wea 
sulphuric acid are, Ist, the true monobasic sulphate, - 
ponding to the Nordhausen a drous Dam called 
the one neutral sulphate, ee a 3d, | ree deial ack! 
hates, S.0,.M,0,, corresponding to the crystallized or gia turpetl 
density 1-780 ; 4th, the sulphates, 8,0,-M,0 , represented vi — 
mineral ; and, 5th, the so-called quadribasic sulphate, S30, -Ma SHO at 
copper salt of this type, according to | vo aeahgeg 


sulphates of zinc and 


264 J. L. Smith on new Meteorites. 


HQ... 
Jour. de Pharmacie, 1848, vol. xii, and this Jour vi, 336.) These salts, 


cals: a, S atomic; 3 
tomic; d, 8,, hexatomic; and e,S,—0O,, 

apply a similar reductio ad absurdum to the radical theory in the ease of 
the oxychlorids and other basic salts and to show that the radicals of the 
dualists are often merely algebraical expressions. (See farther my re 
marks, this Journal, vii, pp. 102-104.) 


Arr, XXV.—Description of three new Meteorites.—Lincoln County 
Meteoric stone which fell in August, 1855— Oldham County (Ky, 
Meteorite Iron—Roberison Cownty (Tenn.) Meteoric Iron; by J. 
Lawrence Surru, M.D., Prof. Chem. Med. University of 
Louisville. 


Lincotn County Mrreorire.—This meteorite was examined 
several years ago having been sent to me for that purpose by 
Prof. J. M. Saff 


. 


tion. The. following particulars in regard to its fall were fur- 

nished by the Rev. T. C. Blake of Cumberland University. _ 

“Tt fell two miles west of Petersburg, and fifteen northwest of 

Fayetteville, . wipes county, about half-past three o'clock; 
gu 


were heard by many persons in the surrounding country. eri 


Dooley, Esq., to fall to the ground. It approached him from 
the east, appeared, while falling, to be shbrotinded bya“ milky” 


n 
patches of white, yellowish and dark minerals. a 
the exception of the broken edge, it is covered, and a 


i : 
when first obtained was entirely covered, as most meteorites 


J. L. Smith on new Meteorites. 265 


this kind are, with a very ‘ black, sical crust, as if it had 
pom — with pitch.’ 


iheyuler rhomboidal eis averaging 22 b inches. Pla- 
cing the stone upon this end, ‘the body of it ee the form of 
an irregular, slightly oblique, rhomboidal prism e upper 


end, occ is not well defined, but runs up to one ve in a 


The specimen a s upon the needle; fragments of it readily 
yield particles of nin eas iron by trituration in a mortar. 
The specific gravity of the entire Attias! is 3:20. Its weight, 
in its present condition, 3 Ibs., 1 

e minerals found in the meteorite x ae 

Pyr yroxene—principal portion of the 

Olivine and orthocl a gt then rte arvophtt the mas 

Nickeliferous iron—forming about one half per cent of the 
mass, 


Tn addition to these, there are specks of a black, shining min- 
eral, not yet examine ed.” 
The general analysis is as follows : 


49°21 
Alumina 11°05 
Proton of iron 20°41 
Lime 901 
Magnesia 813 
Manganese ee. 
tion <5 ., She oe 
Nickel .... minute quantity. 
ae ON iss cress ‘ diners zs we 

ulphur . ‘ : 

Soda i uae si whew "82 

99:23 


The minute quantity of nickel that was separated did not 
Permit of my examining for cobalt, but there is no doubt that 
this metal was present. 

JLDHAM County METEORITE.—The announcement of 
discovery of this iron meteorite with the one that follows was | 
eth In a note in the last number of this Journal. 

t was discovered in the month of October 1860, by Mr. Wm. 
Dating near Lagrange, in Oldham ey, Ky. ‘There is noth- 
ing known with reference to the time of its fall. Tt came into 


266 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


fourths, and thickness six and a half inches; its shape was elon- 
«gated and flattened. Its specific weight is 7°89 and an analysis 
furnished 


ron 91°21 
Nickel 781 

Cobalt ee 
Copper minute quautity not estimated. 
Phosphorus ies SE 
99°32 


Rospertson County METEORITE.—This mass of meteoric iron 
came into my possession during the month of December, 1860, 
being sent by Prof. Lindsley of Nashville, Tenn. It was dis- 
covered by in. D. Crockett, near Coopertown, in Robertson 
county, Tenn. The time of its fall is not known. 

ts weight was thirty-seven pounds, its form was wedge-shaped, 

and its extreme dimensions, length ten, breadth nine and a half, 
thickness five and a half inches. Its specific gravity is 7°89. 
~ On ass through the mass, a module of sulphuret of iron was 


discovered about $th inch in diameter, and there are doubtless 
others in its interior. The iron on analysis furnished 
er vee. 89°59 
ea ic ae 
teat Oat is thias a ae 35 
Phosphorus minute quantity no selene 


ae 99°10 
Louisville, January 29, 1861. 


Arr. XXVI.—Correspondence of Mr. Jerome Nickles, dated Nancy, 
, December 5th, 1860. 


q 
2 


least known of the three. He died the same day as M. Payer, vi2s the 


& 


Obituary.—Duméril and Payer. 267 


debted to him for many curious observations, among which was the anal- 
ogy of structure existing between the vertebre and the bones of the cra- 
ium. He may be considered as one of the founders of those anatomical 
theories which four years later exercised a powerful influence upon the 
direction of the studies of naturalists. 
About the same time Duméril succeeded Cuvier as professor at the cen- 
tral school of the Pantheon, where he had for his colleague, Alexander 
Brongniart. In 1802, Lacépide entrusted to him, the course on herpetolo- 


- Payer.—Jzan Baprisrz Paver, died September 5th, 1860. Born 
February 8d, 1818, at Asfeld, (in the Department of Ardennes,) he was 
at an early age distinguished for the splendor of his oratory. He entered 
upon the study of law and the sciences and was made doctor in 1840. In 
the same year he was appointed Professor of mineralogy and logy at 
the Faculty of Science of Rennes. He did not long retain this position 


the pursuits of chemistry and lhistory. P there, th 
. ry and natural history. Payer passed there, th 

following year, his fourth examination, as did the chemist, Gerhardt, the 

hext subsequent year, and sustained with great honor a thesis upon the 

natural system of botany. me ors 

> 1848, after the revolution of February, he was a pointed Minister 
Foreign Affairs, by M. de Lamartine, chief of the ca | 

he belonged to the dem : : istractions, he did 
We ocratic party. Despite these dist oe 

not lose sight of his plans for fatiie, for they were realized in"1852, . 

mee * See this Journal, [2,] vol. xx, p. 105. 


268 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


when he was named for the chair of vegetable organography at the Fac- 
ulty of Sciences of Paris, in place of Auguste de Saint-Hilai 

This chair was soon united with that of Vegetable Anatomy and Physi- 
ology, which became vacant by the death of Adrian de Jussieu. It was 
about this time that Payer published his principal works on Natural 

istory. 

We are indebted to him for memoirs upon various questions in vegeta- 
ble anatomy and physiology, but his most important labors were rela 
to a new science called by M. de Mirbel, Organogeny. He developed the 
latter in a great work, entitled “Zraite d’ Organogenie Végétale Comparée.” 
He also published “ Botanigue Cryptogamique ou Histoire des Familles 
Inférieures.” He edited D’Adanson’s “ Le Cours Elémentaire d’ Histoire 
Naturelle,’ to which is added an introduction and notes on the natural 


His memoir upon the perturbation of planets was in 1813 honored 
by the Academie des Sciences. Besides various articles furnished to the 
Connaissance des Temps, we are also indebted to him for a report upob 


in the country. This may explain the numerous failures of Velpeas 
chief surgeon of the Hospital La Charité. M, Castelnau declares th 


the patient to a healthy locality.” Surgical operations performe 

ris, are frequently followed by erysipelas of a character more or less co 
ing, which appears to pass from one patient to another, as though ca 
Czsarian section has never been successful at Paris. Amputations of the 


* sur la determination de la |, Pare du iridien entre les pat 
alli BD Dunk que et L Fi Pr ongueur de are ™ : 


eae 


Researches upon Spontaneous Generation. 269 


ore 


rom the cellars of the Observatory, contained only one-tenth 


ce this Journal, [2,] xxvii, p. 253, and xxix, 414, 
| See this Journal, 2, pela AT: 3 


Jour. Scr—Seconp Serms, Vou. XXXI, No. 92.—Maxc#, 1861. 
35 


270 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. 


tanvert, (Savoy), at 2000 metres above the level of the sea; and he has 
proposed to take the air from a much greater elevation by the aid of a 
bal 


the conditions, it will doubtless be possible to obtain others, as Paul Lau- 
rent has already done with the infusoria in a work of which we shall 


&c., but it has heretofore lacked the indispensable element, ph e 
acid, w never been detected in ra is chasm in the 


? . 
series of fertilizing principles of meteoric waters, has at length been filled 
by Barral, wh 


hectare (or 24 English acres). Now since the researches of Boussingault 
have proved that a hectolitre, (2% bushels), of wheat takes from the sol 
about one kilogram of phosphoric acid, we see that to obtain seven a 


Chemical Synthesis. 271 


“chemistry. Berthelot is not a vitalist, (see our last contribution) ;* he is 
convinced that, “we may undertake to form de novo, all the substances 
which have been developed from the origin of things, and to form them 
under the same conditions, by virtue of the same laws and by means of the 
same forces which nature employs for their formation.” Let us hasten to 
add a distinction upon which Berthelot properly insists and which it is 
necessary to recognize, between organs and the matter of which they are 
composed. “No chemist pretends to form in his laboratory, a leaf, a 
flower, a fruit or a muscle, these questions relate to physiology,” and it 
was by not observing this distinction that it was possible to form that school 


of medicine of which mention was made in my last communication—and 


~ 


The hydrocarbons thus d starti i - 
s prepared become the starting point for the syn 
thesis of alcohols; with marsh gas and oxygen we form methylic alcohol, 
- bi Olefiant gas and water—ordinary alcohol, &c. ) 
o The synthetic production of carbids of hydrogen and of alcohols con- 


ds by ordi 
fact that organic chemistry reposes 
"pon the same basis as mineral chemistry. ! 
s been said of the alcohols may also be said of various other 
of sage compounds, and among others of that new group, which 

lls the Phenols, and to which he has devoted a very interest- 
_ * This Journal, [2,] xxx, p. 412. 

+ See this Jour f2] wi 111 and p, 265. 


272 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


eS ee ee 


Starting from ben cizH6 ‘ it is ieee by nitric acid into 
C12H5NO# (nitro- ena), which under the influence of nascent hydro- 
gen, (the Zinin process) becomes C1?H7N, (aniline), and this under the — 
influence of nitrous acid is changed ne Pag C12H6O2, as was shown 
by T. S. Hunt, in this Journal, [2,] vi 

In Synthesis, or the forces of a Ma  ihetituted for hypothesis, we see 
the basis of the truly original work, now under notice. lala is sa 


Acclimation—We have before mentioned a project conceived b 
Society for Zodlogical Acclimation, (Societé Zodlogique i detintation 
of enning a model garden for conducting the acclimation of useful plants 
or animals, and for cultivating an interest in this kind of enterprise. This 
gar was opened the 6th of October last, and immediately made 
available to the public; considerable sums of m money h 


jen by a great number of aquatic bi 


_The collection of the Zoological Gatden “of A Vat Zool 
} which they 


for use or mera Already th the Société Taelbiiane acim mation e ex- 
tends throughout the entire world. We have recently mention suc’. 
cessful efforts of this society to introduce the dromedary into the desert 
plains of Brazi 

The Arch-Duke of Austria has sought Lapeer for making experi: 
ments of acclimation in the Isle of Groma n Italian silk agi 
favored by the relations of this Society, has sncoeded in Leaping city 7 


Society we refer the reader to the Bulletin ie la Socié stb Zo 


* Biographisch-litterarisches Handw: scteiaish Poggendorff, 1858- 
nS See thes Journal, [2], xxviii, p. 481. ad - 


a das ee 


; The Serimetre.—Pseudomorphism and Pseudomorphosis. 273 


@’ Acclimatation, where he will find, besides this memoir, other reports, 
as that of Guérin Mannaville concerning the important subject of silk 

uring the sojourn of Castellani in China he learned the important 
fact that in that country no species of silkworm is reared in the open 


success of experiments undertaken in the early part of the year 1859. 
The Bombyx Cynthia feeds upon the leaf of the Aylanthus glandulosa. 
The Serimetre—We cannot leave the subject of silk without men- 
tioning the interesting machine invented by Froment for the purpose of 
determining the relative tenacity and elasticity of different kinds of silk. 


Ist. 
ght necessary to break it. 2d. The elasticity, by the elongation it 


el 
upon the tenacity of silk, for example, the cocoons raised in _Avignon 
Save a tenacity of 12, while cocoons of the same species raised at Paris 
gave only 8. 
: 2d. It appears that the male cocoons furnish silk finer and more tena- 
cious than that of the female cocoons. s for an equal length the 
wognt of the male cocoons being represented by - - - 11°28 


at of the female cocoons was - —- - i ae 
ain a mean of 200 experiments gave for male cocoons a 
te - - - - - - 10-63 


nacity - - 

For female cocoons the tenacity was . - ; - 
By reason of the small difference between these numbers the results are 
for the present offered with some degree of doubt, but the Société d’Ac- 

tation has taken measures for removing these doubts. The Serzco- 


rection of Persoz, from whose report we have taken them. oa 
Pseudomorphism and Pseudomorphosis.—Metamorphism, considered 


rals to minerals or to rocks. The first—the metamorphism of mine 
‘ib Thas been made, by A. Delesse the subject of profound study, 
Witch he has distinguished by the name of pseudomorphism. When a 
ow rphism, The substance ‘to which a mineral 
ts its form may vary; it may even be of an organic nature, for a 


274 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


mineralogist sees a case of pseudomorphism even in a bone, phosphate of 
lime is not there found in its usual form.* Delesse makes a distinction 
between the original or substance pseudomorphosed, and the pseudomorphic 


e also distinguishes between pseudomorphism by alteration and 
pseudomorphism by displacement ; in the former the pseudomorphic 


pseudomorphic by displacem 

Delesse arranges among pseudomorphs, the forms by envelopment, 
so well described in Prof. Dana’s Mineralogy; also those phenomena 
which Naumann has called zoomorphosis and photomorphosis, produced 
when organic matter is replaced by a mineral substancet or by other 
matter in a different condition. ‘ 

Thus vivianite is sometimes developed in the interior of bones, 1m 
the shell of mollusks and in vegetables. Prof. Dana has seen it com- 
pletely replace the calcareous beak of belemnites, and I myself have seen 
it developed in human bones buried in ferruginous soil; a part 0 this 
phosphate had even crystallized in the form of vivianite (see this Journal, 


Pseudomorphism by alteration is more frequent than pseudomorphism 
by displacement, inasmuch as the mineral newly formed more frequently 
depends upon the more ancient. The same mineral may be pseudomor 
phic or pseudomorphosed, without the existence of any rule in this respect, 
this condition is often presented by such minerals as quartz, carbonate 
of lime and pyrites as they occur in nature. Delesse has found among 
105 pseudomorphic minerals and 119 pseudomorphosed minerals, oF 
224 in all, only 60 minerals that are both pseudomorphosed and pseu 


* Grasses and lichens belong to this class; the first owe their structure to silica, 
. 1 generali i 


: organ an 
“peel invariable type, very unlike those pseudomorphs or forms obtained 
To us the Saurian does not appear more different from a bird than the pare 


i 
morphic bodies arranged in this ease tis the author 0 
aram ism, who ine et ee a3 —_— : those pm 
which have a different composition and whi isomorphic but in different 
tems,” thus octohedrie AuOs We pabiiinoeple ae peinmnitie Bb0:, and prismatic AsO 
is paramorphic with octohedrie SbOs, &c,—(Laurent, Méthode de Chemie, 1854 


J 
Chemie et Pharmacie, t. xxxviii, p. 383), The ideas explain 97 


inted with the research? 

of Prof. Cooke on allomerism (see this Journal [2], xxx, p. 194, and Journal eck oe 
i iil of Prof. Cooke esp aoe 

well the difficulties met with by Delesse and other mineralogists. —— 


The Question of Inundation.—Bibliography. 275 


domorphic. Now admitting that the total number of minerals known 
is 642, the proportion of minerals in which pseudomorphism is found 
reaches one-fourth this number. 
In this connection we may remark that these minerals are found for 
the most part in the metaliferou rocks, 
ati 


475 centimetres eep. Gueymard has concluded that the inundation 
which on the 30th of May, 1856, overflowed the valley of the Isére would 


v 
earth would then cate absorbed a layer of water 9°5 centimetres deep 
and the evil would have been averted. 
@ principal remedy for inundations is nap olor to be found in turf- 
mg. Gueym pend estimates -— years as the time necessary to produce 
upon the flanes of panei a sod of i acas consistence to resist 


the sappeared under the t of he petal. es with it the 
Most oficient protection against Satins 
The French government has taken these observations under serious 


Consideration, and made them the subject of careful study. 


Bibliography. 
BOSSANGE, Paris, has recently published: —- 
Pe ie du Jeune Age, par sins Leresoutter, Professor de Zoologie & la ‘ac- 
ulté des Sciences de Reve —This is a beautiful beret in quarto w ith colored 
figures. Professor Lereboullet is one ‘of the + distinguis! ts in 
La Ch A co nsiderable part siggy eg entary and in the fori @f) : 
ing imie Organique ve fond la Synthese, par MarcELLIn BeRtHoLet, 2 vols. 
vO, 1860, [This work is snitioed above, p. 310.] 
Les’ Elec ectro-animants et Vadhérence Magnetique, par J. Nioeuds—This i is a 
Ee new, and full of facts uot before published, (see this Journal 
Pp. 
elementary Coo sique, par Pouituer, 3d edition in 12mo—This eae coelinnt 
“sentary work for those who are commencing the study of Physics. 


276 Scientific Intelligence. 


Das Buch der Natur, par Dr, Fox. Scnorpier, 11th edition, 2 vols. 8vo.—This is 
a work of the same class as the preceding but much more complete, for it enibraces 
not hysies, but physical geography, astronomy and chemistry. The first 
edition appeared in 1844, and was received with such favor. that it has 
through eleven editions in sixteen years. 

tu kysiologiques sur les Animaleules des Infusoires Végétales, par Pavt 

Laurent, Professor a Ecole Forestiére de Nancy. 2 vols. in 4to with numerous 
illustrations. This work has acquired much importance from the recent discussions 
upon spontaneous generation. M. Laurent has given the results of 25 years of 
observation. The first volume is entirely devoted to infusoria, the second volume 
treats especially of the elementary organs of vegetables. 


stir iaaeaanatiisiiilia 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 


1. On a Compound of Boron with Ethyl—Fraxxtanp and Duppa 
have succeeded in forming a combination of ethyl and boron by the 
action of zine-ethyl upon boric ether. The reaction is represented by the 
equati 


ath 
2(BO, .8C,H,0)-+3Zn,(C,H,), = 2B(C,H,),4+-6C,H,0, 200. 


to be interrupted. The remainder in the retort solidifies to a crystalline 
mass, which is a combination of ethylate of zine and zinc-ethyl. he 
distillate after two rectifications, boils between 95° and 97°. It then 
5 
5° 


corresponds to the formula B| C,H Borethyl is a colorless soluble 
EC 


; 
@ 


atts 
liquid which has a sharp odor: its vapors strongly irritate the muoow 
membranes and provoke a flow of tears. Its density is 0°6961 at 28 + 
it boils at 95° ; the density of its vapor is 3°4006. The theoretical vapor 
density, calculated according ‘to the condensation of chlorid of boron, 
would be 3°3824. 


Borethyl is not easily decomposed by water, in which it is i 
The liquid itself spontaneously in contact with the alr @ 


aH, ae 
formula B C,H .0,. 
C,8,0,, + 
This compound dissolves immediately in water, decomposing into 
hol and a white crystalline substance which may be sublimed 
alteration in a current of carbonie acid gas. It then forms ma 


Chemistry and Physics. 277 
seales like those of naphthaline. Its constitution is represented by the 
formula B HO,, and its formation depends evidently on the substitu- 
tion of two atoms of hydrogen for two atoms of ethyl in the compound 
B CHO. This substance possesses an agreeable ethereal odor, and 


a very intense sweet taste. When exposed to the air, it volatilizes slowly 
at ordinary temperatures, and is partially decomposed, always leaving a 


sitio 
The authors promise an extended study of oe substances as well as 
of the reactions of zinc-ethyl with silicie carbonic Rae xalic ethers. 
~ de oped et de Physique, |x, 374, November, 1 Ww. G. 


n the vupor-density of Chlorous Acid. the ecmetiell ty of 
iii acid was found by Millon to be 2646. This sintehaty toa 


able exception to the law now eerily satane hat all inbebanidie’ in 
the state of vapor eorrenpond to 2 se eh it also renders it necessary 


ene G. 
3. Vew propiat td on the Oxyd of Hthylene.—Wevntz has communi- 


cated some exceedingly ‘mitegn: and aan results of his continued 
Pg aie of the et hylene series. These may be briefly stated as 
follows: 1. Ox xyd of ethylene unites ainetly with acids and neutralizes 
them, hen the oxyd is heated in a water-bath with concentrated 


be oxyd unites iu like manner with anhydrous or hydrous 

acetic acid, and gives among other products the neutral acetate. 2. In 
uniting any acids the oxyd of ethylene is capable of forming basic salts, 

_ *us in the last experiment, after separating the neutral acetate by dis- 
popes there remains a considerable quantity of a liquid boiling above 


This oa three products which may be considered as basic ace- 


tates of oxyd of ethylene, and which constitute in reality the acetates of 
milan alcohols. The first boils at about 200°, and constitutes 
dieth tylen tate, which is Grain in consequence ‘of the following 
— on : ce He 6: 


HOMO C.H,0, =C, H 6Oey 2c, B, On , a(t i 202)s 
. 


278 Scientific Intelligence. 


When saponified by baryta, this acetate is resolved into acetic acid and 
diethylenic alcohol, (Cal s)o 

The second product boils toward 290°, and constitutes triethylenic 
acetate. C,H, 


4 
C,H 
3(C,H,0,)4+C,H,O, =C,H,0,, 8C,H,0,= C,H, O.- 


( 4H,0, 2 
Under the influence of baryta it yields acetate of baryta and tri-eth- 


ylenic alcohol, Shake } O,. Finally, the third product boils above 200°, 


and when distilled in vacuo is a thick colorless liquid, tetrethylenic 
acetate. C,H } 


C,H, { 
4(C,H,0,)+C,H,O, = C,H,0,, 4C,H,0, = oat O10: 


ane 
ae (C,H,0.)2 
Baryta transforms this into acetate of baryta and tetrethylenic alcohol. 
This last is a thick colorless neutral liquid, soluble in water and boiling 
above 300°. 
Oxyd of ethylene is also capable of combining with diacetie glycol to 
form polyethelenic acetates. 


C,H 
CoH 44 
CH.0.+(6 f,0.)0 Lo, = oH! Og. 
This reaction is comparable with that whick transforms acetate of lead 


into basic acetate, when the neutral salt is brought into contact with an 
excess of oxyd of lead. 


Pb Pb ; 

2(Pb,0 ee thd ; i 

s x 2) (CHO) $+ 2= (6.1405), fc : ‘— 

The basic properties of oxyd of ethylene are especially shown ne 8 

action which it exerts upon saline solutions. When the oxyd is mixed 

with a concentrated solution of chlorid of magnesium, the liquid after 

some hours solidifies; magnesia is precipitated, while chlorhydrate nf 
oxyd of ethylene is formed. | 

The oxyd on the contrary is displaced by potash, when this is made to 

A I upon a water-bath with a pane" 

of perchlorid of iron, the oxyd of ethylene precipitates the hydrate 0 


Zn bp H 
H,JOu  HfOu “at fF Oe 2 
—Repertoire de Chimie Pure, Sept. 1860, p. 340. ee : 


4. Transformation of Olefiant Gas into complex Organic Acids— 
memoir on the glycols, Wurtz had cijesied Ge tptiion that these MIE 


Chemistry and Physics. 279 
be considered as the alcohols of diatomic acids: the following facts sorve 
to confirm this view. By oxydizing diethylenic aleohol O,H, ‘0, he 


bd . . . . . . 2 . 
has obtained an acid isomeric with malic acid, and under the same cir- 
C,H, 


cumstances, has transformed triethylenic alcohol yi O, into a still 
“nH, 
more complex acid. 

e oxydation of diethylenic alcohol is easily affected by nitric acid 
which acts very violently ; the acid liquid crystallizes when evaporated. 
The liquid is to be saturated with milk of lime, when a small quantity of 
oxalate of lime separates. The filtrate yields a lime salt + long and 


C,H, 09;- This acid does not crystallize, but after separation remains 


of molecules of ethylene, C,H,, into glycolyl, C,H,0,, as the following 
formulas show. 
Oris C1H202 iH C1202 CiH: } 
Hf Hf OH Gif: 60s, CiH202 40s, Cul Lo; 
Glyeo _ Glycolic acid. 2 (1H [~" 


Diethylenic alcohol. Diglycolie acid, 


Triethylenic  Dygly cal a 
alcohol. _ethy. 
These acids possess the molecular composition and th 


e charaeters of the 
vegetable acids; they are obtained synthetically from olefiant gas, which 
4S successively transformed into bromide of ethylene, glycol, oxyd of ethy- 
lie and diglycolethy- 
p. de Chimie, Pure, Sept. 1860, se ‘eke 

_, 5. On the determination of Phosphoric Acid.—‘I ae of CHANCEL 
for the determination of phosphoric acid by means of the acid nitrate of 

bismuth, has already been described in this Journal (vol. xxx, 122). The 

or now gives further details which are necessary to ensure the success 


lene, polyethylenic alcohols, and finally into diglyco! 
lenic acids—Rep, de Chimi 


280 Scientific Intelligence. 


of the method, especially when iron is present. In this case, the precipita- 
ted phosphate of bismuth always contains iron, unless this metal is presen 
in the form of protoxyd. The process to be pursued in general is as follows : 
1. Treat the weighed substance with an excess of concentrated nitric acid 
by the aid of heat, so as to transform, if necessary, metaphosphoric or vy 


oe 
o 
5 
S 
Ss 
o 
m 
i 
af 
Qu 
oO 
wm 
be] 
e 
§ 
5 
~ 
Oo 
| gl 
o. 
Sa 
at 
g 
= 
> 
b> J 
2 
oO 
Qu 
td 
g, 
iS 
fas) 
=P) 
a 
fee] 
= 
Ss 
GR 
ee 
a 
- 


carbonic acid through the liquid, till the gas no longer darkens paper 
soaked in acetate of lead. 4, An excess of acid nitrate of bismuth is then 
to be added to the filtered liquid, the precipitate allowed to settle, collected 
on a filter, washed with boiling water, dried, ignited and weighed. 5. The 
bismuth may then be removed from the filtrate by means of sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen, and the bases present determined in the ordinary manner. 
—Comptes Rendus, li, 882. W, ©. 

[See on p. 281 an interesting note on this subject by Mr. McCurdy.] 

6. On the preparation of Oxygen.—H. Sr. Cuatr Devitt and Depry, 
in studying the economical production of oxygen upon the large scale, 


a retort of about five litres capacity, filled with thin platinum foil and 
heated to redness. The acid is completely decomposed into oxygen, watet 
and sulphurous acid, which last is absorbed by an appropriate washing 


diethylenic, triethylenic and tetrethylenic alcohols of Wurtz are among. 
at of the reaction and may be separated by a fractional dnt 
‘ zc : es al! 


CH, 
CL, 0 g==C 29H 29 12- 
C,H . 


_is a viscid liquid like glycerine, soluble in water, aleohol and ether, and t 
at about 281° under a pressure of 0-025™™, that is to say almost in vac" 


i 

7 

3 
_ 


Analytical Chemistry. 281 - 


Hexethylenic alcohol is only to be distinguished from the last by its 
greater viscidity. It boils at about 325° under the same pressure of 
C,H, | 


4 
C,H, 
0-025", Its formula is C,H, }O,,=C,,H,,0,,4- 
C,H, 
CH; 
“Hy 


When the operation is conducted for a sufficiently long time and an 
excess or glycol is employed, other alcohols of the same series are ob- 


tained, the general formula being the H, | Ones: 


The compounds become more and more viscid as their molecular com- 


plication i increases. e remark a difference of about 45° in their boiling 
poin ‘hen the mixture of bromid of ethylene and By col is heated 
above 130°, very different results are obtained. The liquid becomes 


brown and the alcohols disappear, giving rise to the ciceehaiay brom- 
a ethers— Comptes Rendus, li, p. 365 W. G. 

; n Bau Paichids Protosulphid of Carbon —Ptayrratr has exam- 
ined the different processes given by Baudrimont, for the preparation of 
the Sater aa of carbon. These processes are not less than five in 
n 


is no sufficient evidence of the existence of protosulphid of bert all 
the processes described for its preparation, having failed to yield it. 
W. G. 
Anatyticat Cuesiste 
Contributions from ee Laboratory of the Yale voce per School ; ;—com- 
orgs red by Profs. Brus and Jon te 
on Chancel’s method of estimating sksdokod orie acid % Dy 
oo IL valor —The following new method for the ner 


lately recommended by Chancel as of universal applicability. A 
Nitric acid solution of the substance ares ge acid is treated 
With a solution of nitrate of bismuth* peta is formed 
cd Best s 
prepared, according to Chancel’s latest eg 
.Pure crystallized eoeal nitrate of bismuth, poe nam tice ina an = quay a -od 
ting 68°5 Lage of ce apres gh wit 


Pers Each cubie cen tS pieapitstie 1 con. 
tigram of of phosphoric acid. 


282 Scientific Intelligence. 


It is then boiled, filtered and the precipitated phosphate of bismuth is 
washed with hot water, dried, ignited and weighed. Chlorine and sul- 
phuric acid, if present, must first be removed by means of the nitrates of 


baryta and silver. Too great an amount of nitric acid must be avoided, 


of iron, as manifested by the color of the precipitate, which was sets 
red when a large proportion of iron existed in the solution and of a ye 
low tint when the amount of iron was small. : 
_A strong solution of nitrate of alumina was prepared by estate 
nitric acid (of sp. gr. 1:16) with pure, freshly precipitated hydrate 


alumina, and some experiments were made with this solution, = ss 
0 


Technical Physics. 283 


periments were made with a solution of nitrate of sesquioxyd of 
chromium and it was found that 5 ¢. ¢. of chromic nitrate employed to 
1c. ¢. each, of the solutions of phosphate of soda and nitrate of bismuth, 
were sufficient to prevent the formation of any precipitate. The solution 
used was a rather strong one. 


large amount, dissolves the precipitate entirely. The phosphate of bis- 
muth when thrown down from a solution containing uranic nitrate is 
contaminated with the latter. 
similar series of experiments was made with the nitrates of ammonia, 
potassa, baryta, strontia, lime, and magnesia. The presence of these bases 
8 not seem to interfere with the success of the method. 


and is likely to remain valueless in just those cases where a new method — 
would be most acceptable, viz. for the estimation of phosphoric acid in 
Presence of alumina. S.-W. J. 

Yale Scientific School, Feb. 15, 1861. 

Tecuxicat Puysics, 

9. On the loss of Light by Glass Shades—(To the Editor of Silliman’s 
American Journal of Science and Arts)—Sir: In the November num- 
ber of your Journal I find a notice of my experiments on the loss of 
light by glass shades, with an account of additional investigations by 
Mr. Frank H. Storer; his communication induces me to offer so 
ther remarks on the subj 


n of the amount of light, falling for example, upon 
book held near to its source, which 
‘ition of the shades enumerated.” 


po the ° : of a 
would be occasioned by the interpo- 


+ Prof, Verver had another object in view. and his experiments ‘iments do not 
ply to this subject. He was ay igating the illuminating power of 


oa hen burnt in an Argand burner with, and without, a chimney. The 


284 Scientific Intelligence. 


gas in these two cases is burnt under very different conditions, while in 
Mr. Storer’s experiments, and those which I have tried, the gas was 
burnt under precisely the same circumstances whether a shade was in- 
terposed or not, the only difference being in the substances through 
which the light was transmitted. 
conducted my experiments in the following manner :—In order to 
avoid the trouble and inaccuracy arising from the use of a candle, I em- 
ployed a gas-light as the standard of comparison throughout the trials 
of all the shades. This could easily be done, asin the blackened experi- 
ment chamber of the Liverpool United Gas Light Co., there is a dupli- 
cate set of apparatus, two governors, metres, burners, &c., being fixed at 


qual 
lear 


reading on the photometer staff was then found to be 1118 
side of the centre of the staff nearest A, or, in other words, the propor- 


: ined. 
After all the shades had been examined, the lights were again com- 


per hour. The gas was taken from the strect mains. ; 
By using a standard light of unvarying intensity, all the errors ro 
mption of a d 


] 
candle are avol 


The divisions on the photometer staff do not necessarily represeD® 
candles, but the proportion that one light under examination, bears . 
the other, when one of them is taken as uni 
I may observe that the single experiment made with a sheet of ree! 
mon window glass was tried simply to confitm the result obtained PY 
the globe of clear glass, : 
The distance at which the glass is placed from the light does not seem 
in the slightest degree to affect the amount of light transmitted through 
it. I am glad to find that my own experiments on this point are 00 
tirely confirmed by Mr. Storer’s statement. Wuiam Kiva. 
Liverpool United Gas Light Co., Dec, 28, 1860. 


Nore sy Mr. Storer. 


: 


Technical Physics. 285 


surface of one side of a lamp-shade, of any form, would be compensated for by that 
sila hs pag from the opposite side—and that no similar compensation could 
occur in my own experiments where only ingle sheets of glass were used,—is evi- 
dea ‘but Tam ignorant of any experiments 1 which go to show that the amount of 


which is cut off fr 
ent “ah that which ead be stopped by § a s curved screen of the same itty tig Let 
a : out 


ire and, having interposed the apparatus s between a flame and the photometer, 
oe - re uch light is cut off by th e glass, i. e., bring the photometer to rest, 
w, h s and fasten 


Tess j in case than in the a supposition accordance non received 
eories (see Art, Light in “Boeyelopedin Meola, p. 847, $$ 42, 48); nor 
would it be cr om what 3 is known of nalogous cas e of radiant nie 


i screens, 
As for the experiment of Prof. Verver, to which Mr. King takes pai he 
must e pply to the 


‘ er is in some 

the orien: he be entirely exempt from the same se eng me 

as of Verver. In making this fotvark, I would not in the least 

tered that 3 Mr Ben § yotheine are not most excellent. For my own part, I en- 

to no doubt of thei —for, thro ied ¢ ut the conceivable slight error 

whi which I hats alluded: ‘his his welhod of experimenting is pecieir bly the best 
's yet known. I urge only that the observation of a a ang not be re- 


poston, Feb. 6, 1861. 


ovr. Scr.—Srconp hn Vou. XXXI, No. 92.—Marcu, 1861. 
37 


x 


oN ee 


286 Scientific Intelligence. 


ee ye inh 


Tecuntcat CHEMISTRY. 

10. On the Alloys of Copper and Zinc ; by Frans H. Storer. (From 
the Memoirs of the American Academy, [N.S.,] vol. viii, p. 27),* Cam- 
bridge, 1860, pp. 32, 4to. 

In the words of the author :—“ This research was undertaken in order 
to ascertain what, if any, definite chemical compounds could be detected 
among the alloys of copper and zinc.” 

“ Several chemists had already been led to believe in the existence of 


Mr. Storer has prepared a large number of alloys of copper and zine 
containing different proportions of these ingredients, by methods which 
he has described in detail, and has found that they may all be crystallized 
by piercing the crust which forms upon the partially cooled molten metal 
and then quickly pouring off those portious of the latter which are 


portion of copper since they are liable to pass through a pasty plastic state 


similar to that assumed by zinc or soft-solder while solidifying. 


. The edges of all of them are rounded. The octahedra are in 
general more largely developed upon one side than the other, apparently 
upon the side from which the last drippings of the melted metal fell. 


en 9. eae 
+ “I must in this connection refer to and except, the valuable memoir of | : 
Mi je u. 8. w., 1839, XU, 395), wi 4 


der Mallet, the details of w are to be found only in the Re meee e 

( ow) Meeting of the British Associati Advancement of Scient > 

258, the re abstracts of this memoir which are given in the ch Lyd 

nals and t ks fail to convey a co idea of the results which have pore 
ch may serve to explain the ignc whi 


. ed,—a fact which m 
= to them, by subsequent experimenters. 
¢ Figured in oa 


the memoir. 


‘simple ixture o: oO or of an 
{ Memoirs of the Amer. rg S.,] v, table to p. 256. 
$ 


‘ 
Storer on the Alloys of Copper and Zinc. 287 


but their edges have the rounded character of the edges of the crystals. 
This general character is maintained throughout the whole series of 
crystals, from those of pure copper down to those of the lowest white 
alloys which I have obtained. No doubt can possibly be entertained 
of the complete resemblance of these crystals to each other throughout 
the series, while the striking similarity to the well-known crystals of pure 
copper (obtained by fusion) which they exhibit, strongly indicates that 
they belong to the regular system. As it is of course impossible to meas- 
ure the angles of such crystals, they cannot be erystallographically deter- 
mined; but the most obvious conclusion is, that they are monometric. 
This opinion, however, must be based rather upon analogy'than on any 
distinct measurements. 

“Upon the assumption that the crystals which I have described belong 
to the regular system, as well as upon the fact, which will appear in the 
sequel, that none of the crystals have been found to contain any larger 


erystalline form of zinc which have hitherto been made. 
A minute deseription with figures of the crystals as obtained from al- 
‘oys of various composition follows. These crystals vary in size accord 


half an inch in Jen , others were quite minute. : 
“Very fine groups of erystals were obtained from those alloys which 
contained only one or two per cent of zine. It is worthy of note, thai 


ee 


It must not be su d that this view supports in the least the idea of the 
older chemists, that fe 4 meena ngtion ‘mixtures’ of thei nt metals. For 


er com ia ; 
the experiments of Karsten (Joc. cit., pp. 898, 400) have already shown that the 
a d © acids 


ani "ings yd 
ie salts, is that of chemical compounds, being entirely unlike that ee 
mechanical mi : 3. 


Ann. Ch, et Phys., [3,] xxii, 37. 


288 Scientific Intelligence. 


it would almost seem advisable to add one or two per cent of zine to the 

metal employed in preparing specimens of erystallized copper for the cabi- 

A similar case is presented by lead, which is very readily erystal- 

ed when it contains a little antimony: a fact well exemplified by the 

beautiful cups of crystals of Krdtzblei, which are prepared by partially 

cooling the metal in ladles, at the Fraukensharner smelt-works near Claus- 
thal, and doubtless in other localities in the Hartz.” 

“Since the crystals rich in copper which have just been described do 
not possess in any marked degree the yellow color peculiar to brass, they 
are somewhat less interesting than those obtained from alloys containing 
more zine. Crystals of the latter can be obtained with the greatest ease 
by remelting old brass, or, better, by filling a Hessian crucible from the 
molten metal of the pots of a brass founder, in which case all annoyance 
from the formation of a false crust of mixed oxyd of zinc and metal is 
obviated.” * * * 

“The most perfect individual crystals were obtained rr quantity of 

ad 


brazier’s solder which repared at the foundry of the Revere 
t Co., in Boston, by fusing together 50 parts of copper with 50 
arts of alloy of about this composition solidifies, and 


have shot up three quarters of an inch, or more, from the bottom of | 
ingot, leaving only a sheet of metal about a quarter of an inch in thick- 
ness on top, which had cooled more slowly by contact with the air. * 
On removing portions of this upper layer, its inferior surface will be found 


over quite a space from alloys containing 57 or 58 per cent of — 
down to those containing only 43 or 44 per cent is next discussed. on 
coal 
upper limit of this fibrous tendency being the lowest—2. ¢., richest in zine 
—which can be rolled or subjected to the various processes 


alloy of peculiar homogeneity occurs ;—its fracture as seen when § ica 
bars are broken, being smooth and compact, and entirely unlike eine, 


_* Journal of the Franklin Institute, [3,] xxxvii, 200. See also Phil. Trane, exis 
867. + Vid. Savart, Ann. de Ch. et Phys., [2,] =i: 6 


ee 


= 


ead or eee Pee. oe Wee oe ee 


* 


Storer on the Alloys of Copper and Zinc. 289 

“This alloy readily admits of being sa pong! hot or cold, and m 
be subjected to the operations of hammering or drawing without det 
ment, while alloys containing on! aher’y e mf ore copper can be 


rolled hot only when the sheets are raised to a very high tettsaP atte err 

“Tn the preparation of the alloy of 60 per cent copper, now so exten- 
sively used for sheathing vessels under the name of Muntz’s sheathing or 
yellow-metal,—also known as malleable brass,—it is the custom of found- 


to reserve a portion of the zinc whic been weigh a 
charge, until the alloy in their pots or furnace has become sufficiently 
ot ; last portions of zinc are then added in small pieces, a sample of 


the alloy being tested after each such addition. This is done by aipping 
out a small portion of the melted mass and pouring it into a mould ; 

little ingot, five or six inches long by an inch or less in thickness, is thus 
obtained, which after cooling, is broken on an anvil, and its fracture ob- 
served. If this does not exhibit a smooth and homogeneous surface, more 
zinc is added to the allo oy. The accuracy with which an experienced 
workman can thus obtain the desired alloy i is truly astonishing, the more 
=. since this homogeneous alloy is confined within very narrow 


eee eed remark in this connection, that I have repeatedly obtained crystals, by the 
a iors pe aera cooling, from portions of melted yellow-metal taken from the 
funders pai at the Becket it had afforded them a satisfactory test. These crys- 
oo from those obtained by myself from alloys of almost 


« position 
Although! as mn es ‘been es the tendency to _ fibres seem ve ceased 
hs : 60 per of copper, I cannot but shink that 8 “limit of 
influence is ay aan Fee than the “test” of yellow-metal founders would 


_ ¥eem to indicate. In the circumstances under which this test is applied, it is doubt- 


true that no fibres are formed; but it is a matter of experience with manufae- 


Beery Qo 
oO 
Be 
c 
= 
a 
si HF 
“a ihe : 
2g 
R34 
8 
a 
a 


. a n 

Ng would soon be destroyed ;—not only because the salt water would come 

contact with a interior portions, but also ke the individual ro eg in fibres 

matter cy woul d doubtless resist its action more completely than the amorphous 

Would be attached to them or contained in their interstices ; from this a voltaic action 
Produced, which could not fail to promote the corrosion mn of the alloy.” 

(To be concluded.) 


# 
290 Scientific Intelligence. 


II. GEOLOGY. 


1. On Prof. J. W. Dawson's papers on the Coal.—Prof. J. W. Dawsoy, 
LL. D., of MeGill College, Canada West, has lately published in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Geological Society of London two very interesting me- 
moirs :—one concerning the vegetable structure in coal ;* the other ona 
terrestrial mollusk, a Myriapod and some new species of reptiles from 

' Nova Scotia. 


two different ways. In the shales and the sandstones the outline of the 
vegetable is marked just as it would be on the stone by the pencil of a 
lithographer; but no trace of internal structure is preserved ; and as 
remains are mostly broken parts of stems and of leaves, crushed cones, 
scales or blades, nutlets and. prints of various forms left on the bark of 
some trees at the point of attachment of the leaves, it is nearly impossible 
to determine with precision the species to which such fragments belong, 
or at least to get any indication about their mode of vegetation and 
their relation to plants now living. sits 
In the coal on the contrary we find a few remains of internal organism, 
chiefly vessels of various appearances. But in the compact, homogeneous 
matter of the coal, every trace of external structure of the plants having 
i ared, these isolated vessels can not, in any way, indicate the form 


is perfectly well answered by himself in a note from a former pape where 
ays: L have little confidence in the establishment of genera or ~ 


fossil wood can not indicate genera and species by their internal organi- 

zation, @ fortiori, neither can isolated vessels do it. The second q 

beds in the same coal-fields, does not appear to be satisfactorily 4 net 

Suppose we admit Liebig’s theory, that coal results from the submersion 
thin laminz of mineral chareodh 


* Vol. xy, 626. 


ae 


| 


Geology. 291 


generally no thicker than the »,th part of an inch, alternate some- 
times with equally thin layers or lamine of compact coal, the question 
arises how could such thin layers be exposed to atmospheric influence 
while the intermediate laminz were transformed to solid coal by immer- 
sion? The supposition that the mineral charcoal represents the wood 


cies predominant in the shales overlaying the coal. Thus one bed (No. 
1B Coal) has, especially in its charcoal, blades of Lepidostrobus and leaves 
odendro i i 


ee 


- 


ae. 
. 
é 
> 
= 
=] 
oe 
if 2] 
@ 
oe 
pt 
© 
Qe 
- 
pS] 
o 
Qa 
7 
a 
i=) 
i= 
GQ 
or 
+ 
a 
@® 
9 
D 
i?23 
Oo 
= 
= 
° 
5 
ead 
~ 
ey 
3 
8 
=. 
-8 
= 
oh 
S 
ij 
=>) 


the assertion of some authors—that Stigmaria is not found in the coal or 
es overlaying it is without any foundation whatever. Some 
coal have been formed by Stigmaria only. Whole strata of 
black laminated roof-shales contain only remains of Stigmaria. 

either the form or the size of the scalariform vessels can be admitted 
48 a generic character; the form of the perforations varies on the same 
vessel passing from round to oval, to equilateral and to true scalariform 
shape by gradual and inappreciable transitions. The size of the vessels 
Varies according to the size of the same plant. : 

e of the most interesting conclusions reached by Prof. Dawson is 
that the small cylindrical filaments, resembling black threads, so abundant 


il 
il 
5 
oo 
Ee 
® 
if) 
ce 
o = 


he vessels figured 8 to 12 of pl. 18, apparentl belong to some spe- 
cles of Stiymaria, especially to S. ficoides (compare Corda’s Beytrage, tab. 


wineral charcoal is a proof of my assertion, that Stigmaria enters largely 
into the formation of the coal. 

It is scarcely possible now to refer the genus Sigillaria to Cycadea or 
to the Conifere. Neither the internal structure nor what we know of the 
&xternal forms of species of this genus, the leaves, the fruits, &c., can show 
such an analogy, ot 

= Prof. Dawson .can not with certainty affirm the presence of tissue of 
true Conifers in the coal. This agrees perfectly with the result of ten 


SSM LR AY 


igs ie oe oe ee 


~The writer does not think that the coal measures of Nova Scotia Laie 
eg exhibition of the general formation of the coal. The coalfields of 
Mov. tty bear testimony to such continual disturbance by the repeated 

of the surface, repeated overflows, sudden invasions of littoral 


» 


= = 


292 Scientific Intelligence. 


* 


Pee eee 


debris, sand, pebbles, &e., that any general conclusion founded on the 
study of such geological phenomena, would be contradicted by what we 
see in the distribution of the coal strata in the coalfields of the United 
States, at least in those west of the Appalachian mountains. 

The general conclusions of this paper, appear to be perfectly just, 
though not necessarily derived from the microscopical researches of Prof. 
Dawson. But, if this assertion of the author is true; that the sigillari@ 


In his second paper,* Prof. Dawson most satisfactorily confirms a for- 
mer discovery made by himself and Sir Charles Lyell, of the presence of 
terrestrial animals in the coal measures of Nova Scotia. In like circum- 
stances, viz., in the hollow petrified trunk of a standing tree, he has fou 
numerous well-preserved specimens of the same land shell, Pupa vetusia 

w., before discovered at the same locality; some remains of a new 


of fossil botany, by incessant and conscientious labor. Discoveries of 


. 
x 
sate the want of codperation in such a thankless field of science as that q 
: 


2. Thirteenth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the 
State of New York, (for 1859), 128 pp. 8vo. Albany, N. ¥.—The cover 
and title page of this Report bear the date of 1860, with the addition, 
“made to the Senate, April 10,1860.” It contains in addition t0 © 

. . S 


s 
Appendises. Of these, A, B, C and D are catalogues of various collec 
tions and donations, The Appendix, E, is an interesting paper ©? ith of 
“ Ancient Monuments in Western New York, comprising the res? ts 
explorations by T. Apoleon Cheney, Civil Engineer, ete., 185 by ts 
illustrated by 24 plates and a map of various mounds, excavations and 
antiquities of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. Py 
ix (F) has a separate title page thus: “C ntributions to # : 
leontology, 1858 and 1859. By James Haut, Geologist - 
tologist, etc.” We are thus particular in noticing these dates” 
* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xvi, 268, 1860. 


rein ehese ees are sible 


Ba 


Geology. 293 


under new names several species which have been described by other 


the Report and circulated with no other information as to the date than 
what is given on the title page, paleontologists in other countries may 
possibly be led to quote its contents with a date as far back as 1858,* 


From what appears upon the cover of the Report itself most people 


printer). We have evidence that important changes were introduced 
into the text of the Geological part as late nearly as the above date, if 


S 
=i 
=] 
° 
co 
rs 
S 
5 
mee 
ct 
ek 
ms 
QQ 
mt 
© 
° 
=I 
ha | 
mc 
® 
i] 
Q 
® 
=] 
ard 
ct 
t" 
o 
nN 
pa) 
=] 
® 
S 
S 
OQ 
ais 
cr) 
@ 
co 
° 
mo} 
o 
mn 
Dp 
4 
=: 
& 
S 
=] 
° 
os 
ta 


ists should be guarded against, and nothing can be more likely to make 
&man of science feel that he has been unfairly dealt with than to see 


1, ‘IpiuM.—This genus if adopted will include several species heretofore 
referred to Orthis ; the dorsal valve fiat and the ventral valve of a pyramidal shape. 
+ AMBOCELIA—The types of this group are said to be Orthis umbonata, — 
7 it is therefore the same as cm 


* In confirmation of this suggestion we have received (January 19,) a bro- 
i t 


By Ji titled: “ Contributions to Paleon j, 1858 and 1859 
_ 4y James Hall, Geologist and Paleontologist, ete. (From the 


S of the Regents on the State Cabinet, . 55-128, 8vo.” On the cover there 

u te same title but the date there reads, 2 de and 1859 with additions in 1860.” 
MS is still too indefinite, ee ae 

No principle ly established in the ethies of science than that 


° is more thorough 
Be: one of publication and not the tats of composition or printing, settles the ques- 
ne of priority of authorship, Hence has arisen actice of Authors of distribu- 
4 ing separate copies of Memoirs in advance of publication of an official report—thus 
can 1.2 the earliest practicable date of publication. To this course no objection 
can be made, but no changes from the original text are admissible. 
AM. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Szrtes, Vou. XXXI, No. 92.—Mancu, 1861. 
ae 38 ri e : 


294 Scientific Intelligence. 


which sa more compressed than in Rhynconella proper. The internal struetur 
a o far as ascertained, to be the same as in aot weaker Freie pars)? 
eed 


which has . tumida Dalman, for th it i is: not probable that this vip 
will be accepted because, if McCoy’s genus is % be vided, then we have three 
names (long in use) to be accommodated, that is to say, Athyris, Spirigera 


erista, No new names can be admitted until all the old ones shail haat been 


Athyris, must be retained for the group with the beak of the ventral valve im- 
agree and closely incurved and with the mesial septum in the dorsal valve. 
‘ype mi 
Buctigina, must include those with the beak of the ventral valve pan and 

a rudimentary mesial septum in the dorsal valve. (Type S. concentr 
hese two genera are limited as above by Davrnsow in his “ Inttodeetion to the 
ion of the Brachiopoda,” pp. 84-87: and by F. Ramer in the last edition 


S, 
aSP2s 
=] 
5, 
i} 
& 
© 
GQ 
o 
° 
¥ 
< 
éo 
Sa 
' 
* O93 
> 
ka 
ct 
Sal 
+H 
QQ 
c 
= 
oO 
S, 
8 
oe 
a 
So 


ea G osti oi Pt 
if Meristella be retained then either Athyris. or  Spirigera must be suppressed in 
order to make a vacancy for it, There is no probability of this being agreed to o by 
palzontologists. The other genus Merista will no doubt hold good for those species 
which have the shoe-lifter process in the ventral valve 


Prof. Hall describes a new genus of Crinoids under the name of 

heirocrinus, and also proposes two new genera of trilobites Barrandia 
and Bathynotus to include the peculiar forms from Vermont heretofore 

erred by him to the genus Olenus. It has perhaps secant Mr. Hall’s 
notice that McCoy has published a trilobite genus “ gaat in 
the “ British Paleeozoic Fossils,” p- 149. McCoy’ $ genus appears 

isputed but still it must be retained until it is clearly shown ie be 
without foundation 

3. Geological hie ys.—Trnnesser. Prof. Safford is now publish- 
ing the first volume of his Report on this State. It will be in two 

rts. Ist. The Physical Geography of Tennessee, 2d. The Geological 
Structure and the Formations of Tennessee, It is in 8vo, and will con- 
tain a map of the State and 20 or 30 plates, chiefly fossils. Its comple- 
tion is expected in about three months. A second volume to be published 
hereafter, contain Part 3d, the Minerals and mineral resources 0 the 
State, and Part 4th, the Agricultural resources. 

Kenttcxy.—The publication of the fourth and concluding volume af 
this Survey is in the hands of Dr. Robert Peter, of Lexington, Ky. The 
matter will form a large and very valuable volume. ‘The ‘Legislature 
ordered 7000 copies to be printed. The completion of the work may be 
expected during the coming summer, if political causes do not arrest 
progress of the work, 

Exas— We fan with | ae ig that the removal of Dr. Shumard 0 
ticed on p. 124) was caused so solely by political Saran gh Cra suce 
sor being an “Old Texian,” which Dr. Shumard was not! An in ima 


mes | h: 
pears to have no foundation in fact, and was probably intended only t0 
oan 80 eure a ese The effect of ns dhetiges Wh will probably be 


re. 

rilobites sof the Wi ‘abbas ‘ Potsdam.’—U pon ogre of the ® 

6 con trilobites” from the Potsdam Ha from “ Black River Falls,” 
Wisconsin, presented to the rg Sota of Natural History by Prof. 
Daniels, as thy ee Rat Nee ge 310 of vol. vi of the Soeiety’s Prov 
are found to be i sitet ee the Conocephalites minutus | 

ings or N.Y. Accompanying them are i eee ts of two or Saag 2 


, | 


Zoology. Z 295 


cs 
cther small small trilobites too indistinct for absolute determination; one 
seems to be nearly allied to the genus Bathyurus (Billings). The speci- 
few Lingule, + satin while they way be LL, —— of New — dre beer 


rome Garnet.—\ have recently revert a beautiful ar a 
green garnet in Oxford, Canada, in ealcareous spar with millerite. It is 
massive, ranular, or in transparent ae cri ot resembles ouva- 


rovite, but is essentially a lime-alamina garnet 0 p. c. of oxyd of 
chromium. I shall soon send you a full Sessstgtion with an analysis 
ontreal, Jan. 21st, 1861 


Ill. ZOOLOGY. 

1. Contributions to the Natural History of the United States; by 
Lovis Acassiz, Vol. III.— eres in general—Ctenophere. Nothing 
goes farther to prove the necessity of a wide and far-r eaching study of 
animate nature than the faets brovght to light by the ee igs of jelly- 
fis es. It t is the misfortune most eralnaes! text- hooks of popu- 


Teservoir, into which to pour all small objects that cannot easily be seen. 
Again, naturalists are led, by such partial studies to make many false gen- 
eralizations ; such as, that the rapidity and force of motion are in direct 
ratio to the : size of the nervous centres and to the perron. of the mus- 
cular se ; whereas we see wh meduse as Cory Lee sia) and Pleu- 


ertebrates To this may be added the false ideas of rank among 

the die groups ; placing the whole of the Articulata below Verte- 

rata; the whole of the Mollusca below Articulata, and the whole of the 
paris 


complex mechaniam Hines Ae Ae aoa Vache or ‘the hd 
| “ Rotife 


hyivea like this third volume of “ Bontribasot: will do much to which 
penae of scientific men, those broad and philosophical views, w ich 
confined to the say We “a have rev ne to 


Syne x 2 clase which includes in its apparently humble : 


296 Scientific Intelligence. 


limits some of the most extraordinary phenomena of generation, of growth 
and of life 

The first chapter treats briefly of the history of our knowledge in this 
branch, from the time of Aristotle, (who confounded sea-anemones and 
jelly-fishes under the common term nettles), down, through many barren 
centuries, to near our own day, when Rondelet, three hundred years ago, 
published figures of medusze, with some observations of his own. Two 


F. Miller, however, had published the Zodlogia Danica, the colored plates 
; i ; i 


logy of the 


covered-eyed meduse. Th 

polyps and the naked-eyed meduse, was shown. In 1843, De 

jardin supplied the wanting link, by discovering that the meee : 
e 


parent, though with shorter rows of flappers ; 
insects, have no proper larval condition, but gain another pair of legs on 
ty. nee 
It would be natural to challenge the standing of a class, oacaer’ = 
such seemingly heterogeneous groups. What have they in common’ 
Not a common embryology :—not a common detail of structure :—least 
of alla common form. Here then we are compelled to resort, to ¥ 
we should daily resort to, without compulsion, the metaphysics é 
it we agree to call that a class which shows a plan of structure ¢ 
out in a peculiar way; then two questions come up: Ist, what 18 
peculiar way in which the general plan of radiation is carried out 


Zoology. ) 297 
the Acalephs? and 2d, do all the so-called Acalephs really agree in the 
way in which the plan of radiation is through them exemplified? The 


it with a polyp; for instance an Actinia ;—and first it is plain that the 
jelly-fish carries the so-called stomach of the pop ti turned inside out, and 
formin ng t the proboscis (compare Rhizostoma, Cyanea, c.) 5 even where 
there is no proper proboscis, the stomach is oe Comes into the body 
(Bolina, dic). What is commonly spoken of as the stomach of a medusa 
is nothing more than the visceral cavity, into which open the radiating 
tubes, just as the free chambers of the polyp open into its visceral cavity. 
The jelly-fish has however a circular tube, gine round the edge of 
disc, and m making a common receptacle for all the radiating tubes ; 

feature not found in the polyps. Then the fleshy interambulacral iad 


tions, so thin and regular a polyps, are thickened, among medusa, 
- and coalesce above a below, leaving only narrow, radiating t bes 
through their gellatinous mass ith the model thus hastily sketched, 
; all acne will be found to agree. The tm ich a and 


elella I 
needed he “tentacles ” (hydree) of Velella acoally produce pan medus@. 
Such elongated communities as D ‘iphyes may, in like way, be homolo- 


It cael 
probable. t that the whole of me Edwards’ SHvietaa ham which in- 
cludes sete Pocillop , &e., is to be con nsidered as ‘ag the 


atio in e greatest importance in satan 
a CA prope sitter of Part II, on Ctenophore, could not cs Untcns within 
De limits of this short notice. It consists of a critical analysis of Cteno- 
al; a consideration of their natural families ; me 


ae 


298 Scientific Intelligence. 


anatomical investigations of the North American species of Bolina, 
Pleurobrachia, and Idyia ; a systematic tabular view of the known Cten- 
ophore; and a table of their geographical distribution. Among the 
most interesting of these investigations are the variations of form as de 
pendent on the development of different “spheromeres” or radiating 
wedges of which the body is made up; and the remarks on the circula- 
tion of chyme. 

The illustrations by Sonrel, Burkhardt, and Prof. Clark, are unrivalled 
in their way; Sonrel’s large drawing of Cyanea arctica is a miracle of 
skill and patience. T. L. 

Note.—The important chapter on individuality among acalephs is not 
mentioned here, because it has already appeared in this Journal, (vol. 
xxx, 142), , 

IV. ASTRONOMY. ®: 


> 
; 
S 
SQ 
° 
=) 
3 
a 
co 
5 
far) 
> 
5 
oO 
Q 
PY) 
i] 
e) 
3 
oO 
=| 
ct 
2 
TM 
j=) 
S) 
& 
= 
i 
— 
4 
oo 
be] 
oO 
BG 


like Bailly, Delambre, Biot, or of Englishmen resident in India, as Da- 
vis, Colebrooke, Bentley, Warren, and many others. It is remarkable, 
however, that while so much has been written on the subject, no wor 
has appeared before the present, from which the occidental scholar could 
find out what the Indian astronomy is,—how it exists, as a system © 
theory and practice, a science and an art, in the Indian mind. It 1s the 
want of any such work, which has given rise to the publication peed 
us. Rev. Mr. Burgess, formerly missionary of the American 5 


j 
a considerable number (for the most part, yet unpublished) in the» a4 
krit language. ns fale for ‘au irtoes” ahs Borys Sites a 
which appears to be the most highly-esteemed and the most get™ 

used ae i gathering : 


Pandits. He left India, indeed, without having accomplished of le- 
sign; but desiring still that his work should be made available for | 


Astronomy. 299 


cause of science, he placed his collected materials at the disposal of the 
American Oriental Society. The result appears in the sixth volume of 
the Society’s Journal, in an article of 350 pages (more than half the 
volume), of which a separate edition has also been struck off, and can 
be obtained, at $2.50 a copy, from the Society’s agents (New York, 
John Wiley, 56 Walker st., etc.). It has been prepared by Mr. William 
D. Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit in Yale College, and Corresponding 
Secretary of the American Oriental Society. In revising the transla- 
ion, as aimed to make it, not only faithful, but also in some degree 
intelligible, by expanding the condensed expressions of the original, and 
by giving English equivalents for the scientific, technical, and mytho- 
logical terms which abound in it. In the last case, however, the de- 
mands of the Sanskrit scholar are satisfied by adding the original terms 
enclosed in marks of parenthesis. We say, “in some degree intelligible” ; 
for a mere translation, however skilfully executed, would of necessity 
present numerous and almost insuperable difficulties to the occidental 
_ Yeader. These difficulties arise, partly, from modes of conception pe- 
culiar to the Indian mind; partly, from peculiarities in the methods 
and processes of the Hindu arithmetic and geometry; partly, from the 
fact that the work is composed in Sanskrit verse,—a mixture of poetr, 
and science which is familiar to the Hindus, though to our view incon- 
gtuous and absurd. The style of the original is exceedingly condensed 
and cramped, and its language often vague and ambiguous. In fact, it 


- 


, 


cal science, accessible to the initiated, and employed by them for the 
Uses of instruction, the teacher supplying in his own oral comments the 
Indispensable explanation. : 

To remove the difficulties of which we speak, Prof. Whitney has 
added a copious and elaborate commentary, which follows the translated. 
text from point to point, and not only illustrates its meaning, but com- 
ro its principles and processes with those of European astronomy, 

r 


attractive style, which cannot fail to interest all who are capable of tak- 
ing an interest in the subject. The demonstrations which are given to 
show ; 


‘ € correctness, or (as the case ma ) incorrectness, of the 
Hindu rules and methods, are drawn out with much fullness and clear- 
hess, and offer no difficulty to those who have a fair acquaintance with 
the elements of geometry and trigonometry. It appears from an ac- 
knowledgment in the introduction, that Mr. H. A. Newton, iia 


Preparation of this commentary. i bite 70 
The subject of Eclipses is treated with particular care. This may be 
ed, indeed, as the centre of Hindu astronomy, the great end of 


F 
Mary 6, 1860, made by himself in strict conformity with the data and 
Methods of the Sarya-Siddhanta. We find also a calculation, accord- 
+ © Hindu data and methods, of the solar eclipse of May 26, 1854; 
‘\owever, was mainly prepared for Mr. Burgess by his Hindu as- 


300 Scientific Intelligence. ; 


sistant, and it illustrates, as we see from the accompanying criticisms, 
the negligence and looseness with which the methods of their books 
are applied in practice by the native astronomers. 

ne of the most interesting chapters is that which relates to the nak- 
shatras, or lunar asterisms, a series of star-groups, twenty-eight in num- 
ber, encircling the sphere, and seemingly known to the Hindus from a 


as they are and fond of speculation, they have never shown an er 
for the study of external nature, and could not have made the exact an 


homical observations. The division of the circle also presents traces of 
i are found 


Greek origin; and the Greek names for minute, hour, centre, 


8 ; 
really valuable improvement by substituting, in their calculations, the sines 
chor ic the Greek mathe’ aticlans- 
We must add, however, that Mr. Burgess does not accept these con- 
clusions. In a note appended to the article, he sets fo: is dissenting 
views, maintaining the originality of the Hindu science, and content”, 
that the features common to the two systems were either developed * 
Seeeodently in both countries, or were imported into Greece from "* 
t. we 


The value of the work is much increased by a copious index, ¥ 
farnishes to those who may not care to study it as a whole, the 1 
of finding readily all that it contains on any particular topic. 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 


VY. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, 


1. Interesting discoveries of Saurian and other fossil remains in the 
Red Sandstone of EH. Pennsylvania, in a letter from C. HEATLEY, 
Esq., of Phoenixville, Pa., to one of the Editors—I have within the last 
three months made some important discoveries in our black shales of the 
Pheenixville Tunnel. I have found a true “ Bone Bed” and have ob- 
tained from it Sourian Bones of very great interest, whether Clepeisarts 

a, Centemodon Lea, or Omosaurus Leid y; ted ficult to determine. 
These fossils are on masses of rock, too large fir removal; they comprise . 
3 vertebra, ribs, tibia, femur, coracoid, and other age "Twill describe 
. the bones on the masses of rocks as I obtained them, v 
On No, 1. Concave vertebra 24 inches in dintrietée ‘with spinous pro- 
cess 6 ate long from centre of vertebra, and other bones. 

On . Part of a very large bone 34 inches long measuring across 
et aa ‘Oh i in. and at smallest 2 in. with ribs, vertebra, and other 
nes, 


No. 
end, 34 achat over condyles. This bone ‘has 2 phe medullary cavity. 
Another bone on same rock is 104 inches long, diameter at smallest end 


1} inches: a iets on same stone, with other parts. Other pieces 
| exhibit ribs, vertebra ous — ‘teeth, coprolites, some with scales 
: and bones of Ganoid’ fishes in in 


eet calumnare! very ines specimens 15 to 16 inches in cireum- 
ference and 7 in. en he first time it has been noticed this side of 
Bichtiona (Va.) Coa 

Pterozamites lone like thos hi Se in Emmons’s North Seb 
Report. @, ymnocaulus alterna r Cones, 3 in. long 
wide, t two species of Hstheria, Hats ca pattie Priniylinions Contai 
) and a lot of undetermined fossils—some very like Crustaceans and possi- 
bly ort of Insects, 

. val of the sea and inundation at Kahului and Maliko, Maui, 
Sandwich Islands.—A sudden tide wave occurred on the 2d of December, 
1860, along the coast of East Maui, lying between Kalului and Maliko, 
and extending farther on toward the ‘Hana district, a distance along the 
shore of some twenty-five miles. The wave, of which there was but one 

occ 


awhart or 8 parts by the new sugar company at 
were eattied inland and left high and dry, when the water mae 
henomena are no doubt caused by the volcano of Mauna 

a submarine eruption ee a disturbance in the Sint Pockfe 
7 ser, Honolulu, Dec. 12, 1860. 

We Apok with interest to the tidal register of the Coast Survey to learn 
this vibration was felt on the Pacific Coast of this Continent 
a3 in the more remarkable case of the great ~ oy at Jeddo in 1854. 
om. oe Series, Vor. XXXI, No. 92.—Mancu, 1861. 


302 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


8. Dr. Cooper's reply to Gov, Stevens’s charge of Plagiarism in vol. xxx, 
p. 302.— We have received a long letter from Dr. Cooper dated at San 
Francisco, Nov. 20, 1860, in which he reviews the charges of Gov. Ste- 
vens with more detail than the public interest in the controversy warrants, 
or than our space can admit. 
Dr. Cooper’s manly explanation of the origin of Gov. Stevens’s com- 
plaints which we give below, and the laudable spirit which characterizes 
is communication, at once relieves this gentleman from any suspicion of 
intentional injustice to Gov. Stevens, and renders the publication of other 
details needless. 


was printed, had prevented his giving credit to Gov.S. for the authorship 
or the Chapter on Meteorology.” 


question of the propriety of his making farther acknowledgments or con 
<essions ”—we have only to say, while we believe that Gov. Stevens ‘0 


parties had the general title page of the “Contributions to the Natura 
History of Washington Territory,” stated in substance *‘ that these obser- 
vations were made in connection with the Expedition to survey i 
for a Pacific Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacifie Ocean near 
the 47th and 49th parallels of N, latitude, under command of Gov. ll 
vens, Q 


1860) that he has received from Dr. A. Cobb, of Montague, Mass., Mes 
cimens, which appeared to be some kind of slag, more or Jess Moat 


looking 
externally somewhat like branched coral; the branches nearly an mee 
diameter and flattened. In short, it was obviously fine sand which ba 
been fused by heat on the inside of the mas as 


$ 
3 
> 
5 


Massachusetts, on what eine supposed to be an old Indian camping : 


about noon from a cloudless sky—one of them weighing about 37 pou™ 
has reached this country as a wife from Rev, H. S Taylor to whom "2 


* 


ene of New York from 1833 to 1999, whee he was acc oed 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303 


8. Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition. — Prof. 
Hind’s interesting narrative of his explorations in this region (see vol. 
XXX, p. 288,) is about to be published by Longmans in London, in an 8vo, 
the neatly reduced maps for which edition have reached us. 

. American Association for the Advancement of Science.—This 
body adjourned to meet at Nashville, Tennessee in April next. The Local 
Committee had fixed on the 17th of April, the third Wednesday, as the 
day of meeting. We learn however that there is every probability the 
Standing Committee, who have charge of the affairs of the Association ad 
‘mlerim, acting with the Permanent Secretary, will advise a postponement 
_ meeting for one year, owing to the disturbed eondition of public 
affairs, 


Osrruary. 

10. Masor Joun LeContre.—This well known naturalist died at Phila- 
delphia, on the 21st of November, 1860, aged 77, having been born at 
“urewsbury. N. J., Feb. 22, 1784. He entered the corps of U.S. Engin- 
fers in 1818, and derived his title of Major from that service. His chief 
contributions to science have been in tany and zoology. Dr. Coates 
has been requested to preface a notice of his life for the Am. Phil. Society. 
_ 11. Caartes W. Hacktey, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, 
m Columbia College, died in New York, Jan. 11, 1861, of a nervous fever, 
He was born in Herkimer Co., N. Y., in 1809, entered the U. S. Military 
Academy at West Point in 1825, and was Assistant Prof. of ematics 
there from 1829 to 1832. Leaving military life he studied theology and 
a i orders in 1835. He was Professor of Mathema 

tk 


N.Y. He was the author of several elementary scientific works 


~8 “Treatise on Algebra,” pnblished in 1846, an “ Elementary Course 


304 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


on Geometry,” which appeared in 1847, and “ Elements of Trigo nometry, 
iene their Practical Application to Navigation and Nautical Astrontagtt 


K Nott 
12. soldlicstreted Catalogue of Philosophical Sees by Epwa 
8. Rircutz, No. 313 Washington st., Boston, 1860, pp. 84, 8yvo. Also 


not heretofore included in the catalogue of American instrument m 
Teachers will be agreeably surprised by an examination of the Cathie 
of School Apparatus to find how —— may be done for a very modest 
sum in illustrating the principles of ie 
3. Education : intellectual, moral, a by Hersert SPENCER, 
Author of “Social States,” ete. ete. New York, D. Appleton & a 


su 
The author belongs to the school of Compte, and the i of his 
_ treatise, especially under the topic of moral training, are ascribed to 
this circumstance. On the whole, howev rer, while the atiential of the 
reader is strongly drawn to the profound importance of the gene neral su 
_ a the views taken in the book are commonly w 
in 


e observe also that it is pro; posed to issue by subscription, Mr. 
Spencer’s System of Philosophy, comprising First Principles, 1 vol. The 
Fiinciples of Biology, 2 vols. The Principles of Psychology, 2 ¥° 
The Principles of Sociology, 3 vols. The Principles of —— 2 vols. 
Messrs. D. Appleton & Co., 443 and 445 Braden? . ¥,, are the : 
American publishers. 

VI. BOOKS RECEIVED. ) 

The Report of jon. 
Lon don so. 0 a ead vane apa oy Aberdeen, 1859. as the gas 
ir i by the ‘British ‘Gos — ment under the _ d ve 

overnmen the inten ence 0 
8 London: Long: iO, BP. 526. Presented by the ud goer 
Oceas ers on D.Cln PRS 
E i att "Black, : B08" Be Theory a Glaciers by James D. Foams 
Siluria: The history of an dest Fossitiferous Rocks, &e., by Sit "a 


London: rece Murray. 1859, 8vo, pp. 592, 41 plates. [The two last 


Ta RSE eee = 9 ee ne phe Ae tt germ oat Ra a 


rdi 
Thirteenth Annual Report of the Reser ity of the State 
York, on the Condition of the State-Cabinet oe Net meal Hasta 
ate. April 10, 1860, yy 1860. ‘See notice " i 
anufacture of Vinegar, its The: ry and Practice with especial 
the Quick Process; by C. M. We Ph.D., M.D. Philadelphia: 
on. 1860. 12mo, pj p. 300. (A review prepared for this 


a 


Books Received. 305 


; 


Manual of Geology: s desigend for the use of Colleges and Academies; by Espen 
EzER Emmons. Illustrated by numerous engravings. Philadelphia: Sawyer, Barnes 
& Co. 1860. timo o) 2 

Patent Office Reames "(Agricultus e), 1859. S8vo, pp. 589. ashington. 

hyena Petroleum, and other Distilled Vass i ABRAHAM ve emg ed o: F.G.8. 
8yo, 34. illiére rocket, : See notice in No. 91, p. 

Geotneinal Report of the Connie ti hi line of the Southwestern ples of 
the Pacific Railroad in Missouri; by G. C. SwaLLow, State Geologist. St. Lonis, 


His and Practice of ym ppiia Telegraph; by Gxo. B. Prescort. 
Boston: Ticknor A Fields. 
naual Report of the oes of Regents of the ra atu ny Fi ae show- 


ay the operations, &c., for ashington 
Warren’s Descriptive Geometry, Orthographic Projections by eo D WARRE 
C.E. New York: John Wiley. 1860. 8vo, pp. (See notice in hon 91, p. 148) 


ee wate Oe oe der Chemie Physik, hotel hog aa Geologie fiir 1859, Giessen, 


1 
Revloy om Sites of Canada. Reports of Progress for the year 1855. Montreal, 
fe ogi y ig = y 


9. 8yo0, PP: (See —_ in 91, p. 122 
Geologtal Survey be New York. Palzontolo ol, III. Containing Descrip- 
tions an Piguyes of the Pe aged Remains of the ower “ielderbers Group and Oris- 
gd Sandstone, 1855-1859. By a Haru. Part I: Text. Albany: printed by 
an Beatie uysen. 1850." 


to 
Memoirs of the Litera: and Paitiosophical Paps of Manchester. Vol. XV. 
| Philosophie "oF Ear 
Philosophical B Re cy ea er of om Royal nein re) ondon, 1850 to 1859 inclusive. 
0. oyal Society. 
Ne 4 aenetiten. Dyclopesia: a Sate ag gerade of General Knowledge. Ap- 
Pleton & Co., N.Y." Vol. XI. 8vo, pp. AC— 
Posy 3. “Les Mectreandaaghs et Taalicrents magnétique. 8vo, 5 planches, 
wcroin. 
ll Nuovo Chuetite: Giornale di Fisica, age E Storea Naturale ; Direttori Mat- 
Tevcct, Prrta, MeneGurnt. Tomo IX, X, XI. Torino, Pisa. 1859-1 
Répertoire de Chimie Appliquée; Comptes Rendu des Applications de A Chimie 
en France et a via rem er par BARRESWIL. Tome I et IT, 1859. 1860. Pari 
Répertoire de Chim © Pure Compte Rendu_ des Progrés de la Chimie Pike te 
France ma? itrance pat Mek p. Wurtz. Paris. Tome I et II, 185 
Der Sopra Garten Organ, fiir die Zoologische Gesellschaft a Dr. WEIN- 
Frankfurt a. M. He 
Polytechnisches Notiz —— " Flermuaegilint und redigirt von Prof. Dr. Rup. 
= 1 


erslagen en Medeacehn en der Koninklijke Akademie van pig tong: 4 
afta NATUURKUNDE. ‘Tiende Deel. Amsterdam. G. Van der Post. 


Th he same, a ea 2 LETTERKUNDE. Vijfde Deel. 8vo, pp. 401. 1860. 
ie Natural His story Review and Quarterly Journal of Science, by Profs. tue 
nice, Nand Wricut. London, 1860. 8vo. 

Iv ournal 6 f the Academy of Natural Sciences of Spy ge ae New Series. Vol. 
4 Part TV. Philadelphia, Dec., 1860. . 821 to 416 

lig Principles; by HERBERT. Sracen 0. 1. Part I I, The t Unknowable. New 
ork: D Appleton & Co. 1860. pp. 80. (See notice on 

chrift fiir Chemie und Phariaacte: correspondenzblatt, actly und Kritisches 
far r Chemie, &c. Von Dr. E, ERLENMEYER und Dr. G. LewenstErs, Er 


ee 


ultural — 
rig Hes the Composition of some of the Animals fed and slaughtered 
% n Food ; Pyke Bennet Lawes, R.R.S., 4s, and Josspu H. GILBERT, 
aoe F.CA., lees ths e PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 1859). London. - Ato, pp. 


iP the same ao gO 


of Experiments on the Com- 
Pa gen qualiti Peo x ite eng Picek of & f Sheep. Parts I, tl, and UL— 
ceding. —On the E aivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food.—On 
| Of Foods, in Sg, tion to and the oes rey Aoimals Exper. 
tal mood the Composition of some of the laughtered 


cultural Chetnistry, eapecially in relation to-the Mineral Theory of Baron 


306 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Agricultural Memoirs by LAWEs and GILBERT, continued. 

On the es of, and methods of estimating, Ammonia and Nitric acid in Rain- 
water. 

Report to the Right Hon. the Ear] of Leicester, on experiments conducted by Mr. 
Keary, o ye > i wth of Wheat upon the same land for four successive years, 


ply to Baron "Liebig? 8 deme ort os Agricultural Chemistry. 

On the Gro of Wheat by the s Weedon system, on the Rothamsted soil; 
and on the ses ned Saran in 

On the Growth of Barley by di iffer pout manures, continuously on the same land, 
and on the position of the crop in rotation. 
: On some points in the Composition of Wheat-grain, its products in the mill, and 

read. 

Report of Se with different manures on permanent meadow land, (with 
tabular append 

Report 0: cs veatauenne n the Growth of Red Clover by different manures. 
Letter on the Utilization of Town Sewage. 
Discourse on the cn n of the Animal portion of our food, and on its re- 
ions to Bread. (Abstract.) 
On ve nas of Lento: 

icultural Chemistry, delivered at the Smithsonian. Institution, 

Dee. 180 wl Professor SamuEL W. Jounson, of Yale College, Connecticut. 


59 


GEOLOG 
On the ‘Sitarian and Deyonian rocks of Nova Scotia; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., 


Pepe of — > ossils from Labrador, Maine, &c., and Remarks on the Cli- 
= Ceneta; in the new et pliocene © Reksioe rene period; by J. W. Da pigs 
Vegetable Serasgrae in Coal; by J. Awson, LL.D., F.G.8., &e. 

oat of seGih TY Co lege, Montreal. alley the Quarterly Journal of the Geological 

Ona “poke trial Mollusk, ration of Nora Se Myriapod, and some new species of 

Reptiles, from the Coal formation of Scotia; by J. ’W. Dawson, LL.D., F.GS., 
gs ae of : Gos ue Montrea 

Saneraieiele de L’'Tle de Sardigne. Supplément, 4t0. 


‘On certain theories of the formation of mountains, No.1. E. Br..res, from 
the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, December, 1860. 

Description of New Fossils from the Paleozoic rocks of the Western States 
the Transactions of the Chicago Avademy of Sciences, Ootober 11th, 1859; cats 
uted by J. H. McCuesney, Extract No. % P 

Notice of Geological Discoveries, made by Capt. J. H. Snevecs, ave 
Engineers, U. 8. Army, in his recent Explorations plc the Cont aragslt 

eriptions of new gag remains from the Ehages Cretaceous and eo J 

rocks of Nebraska; by F MEEK and F. V. Hayp Vv 

oa. = + De new species of Carisevavane fossils, ee 
Belknap, T: Dr. Moo: W. M. Ga es; 
Descriptions of ze Carboniferous foenihs from. Illinois and other Western States; 

of th 


by F. B. 2 ica] Survey. of the 
Descriptions of New Species of Crinoidea = the Carboniferous pe mn. 
Mississippi Valley; by James Hatt. m Jour. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., J 


The same in a different imprint. Phot 


CHEMI 
—— vo Método sete —— es Quimica en el ee eae 5" Cientiteo de 
tacunga. ASSOLA, Profesor de Quimica, Ecuado 
A Manual of eatiintivs oe Amin by DK Turrie, Ph.D., Univ rier 
a, 


Sea = 4 Union College. Charlottesville, Vi 
On the pee of of Lena contained in some Silver Coins; by CHARLES a 
ee Ont tite for shel me Qu titative A: < the eon erican Academy, Sept. Sept. i, 1 ‘a 
Se antitative Analysis of Urine; b 
sh mee in Shelby Enh stedical OOF 


aioesg~ r of Medi Jurisprudence in 
lege, Nashville, Tenn.” pero! dag Bg ae 


MINERALOGY.— wel = 
‘Mineralogie und Chemise’ 
Recherches sur Aa Pseudo morse: Bip Rios 3 Jahrb., 1860.) 
keit; y gag My plAny aac io Hinge Constanten —_ des 
eit; von Uuar, Assistenten 
feln.} Wien, 1860. am K, K. Ho 


ne a 


Fae ese ne ee hae can |g eae 


zi 
’ 
( 


a de ses Publications ; ~ A. Dy awcaieae, Ws 


Books Received. 307 
Mémoire sur les Formes Cristallines et les Propriétés Optiques de la Zoisi ite, de 
la Sillimanite et de la Wohlérite, et nae sur une Nouvelle Disposition du Micro- 


tradymite: reply to Dr. C. T. Jaacds of Boston; by F. A. GenrH. 
Der acres Bie St. Denis-Westrem im k. k. k. Hof-Mineralien-Cabinete ; yon deus 


NGER. 
‘Die Caleutta-Metecriten, von Shalka, in "jet pews on und Segowlee im 
kk. H ien-Cabinete ; von 
Der? Me se ee von Sha Ika in Banco cat mn der Piatingtoah: von dem w. M. W, 


Hairpin 
aa ¢ Meteoriten des k. k. Hof-Mineralien-Cabinetes, am 30 Mai, 1860; W. Har- 


Zoot reais AND Bota 


* 1 A 
Smithsonian Mincellaheous Collections.—Catalogue of the described Lenigopters 
of North America. Prepared for the Seclthaconels Institution by JoHNn 
Washington: Smithsonian Tnotivetio ion, May, 

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, --Check Lists of the Shells” of North 
America. prepare for the Smithsonian Institution, by Mags Lea; P.P.C 
ire Wm. Stm™ vo W. G. Hpesewy and Tem leg PRIME, Washington, June, 1860, 

ynonymy o ae famil & clades : by TEM 

Catalogue of the bs shes of the astern Co Coast rt ‘North America from Greenland 
to Georgia; by THE B Gini. Februa 

Catalogue of the pote! ogamous and File oer ants of Newcastle County, Dela- 

eter, ison Epwarp TATNALL. Published by the Wilmington Institute. Wilming- 


otto of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Ohio; by J. 8. NewBerry, M.D. 
Additions to the Flora of Wisconsin; by T. J. Hate, University of Wisconsin. 


< pepe he 
Mete rology ; ; by Professor JosepH LOVERIN fey of Harvard University. 

Notes ss ve Apparent Universality of a principle analogous to Regelation, on 
the Physical Nature of Glass, and on the Probable existence of Water in a state cor- 
ae’, to "tht of Shanes b —— W. Brayxey, Esq., F.R.S., &. From 

in e 


it : EG, F.G.S. 
Binocular Vision, theory of Images on Bathe apenas { Media, jaa the Stereomono- 
1; p by C, vs iste, Jt dr.,  pemnrg ntow IsbUs by wins is Mins 
rks on the Auro 
in guects and Pla: - of an n Tastinte of of sae &c., proposed to be established 
Boston, 1860. Prof. W. B 
eee sur es vie ra les traveaux de P suivie d’une liste neg hey he. 
ea Bo Société Géologique de 
Dans la poe ~ 21 May, 


Bulletin of oe, peat ee Tthnolegical Socie praia . a Stone implement from 
New Je Bullet, yi ; by Dr. Joun C. Evans, of Pemberton, New Jerse 
Bulletin of e Wisconsin Agricultural and Mechunical Association. Milwaukie, 


The Rock Oils, of Ohio; b J. 8. Newpreey. 
The e menokes am 9 of Lake Superior, ‘ith op a and — showing 


its m ineral Weal 
meee by L.A. Lapuam. Milwaukee. 
for ription oan Key to rep strom’ op (naomi with Practical Rul eon Examples 
using a same; by J. Nystrom. 
rt on the condition of the Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge; by Joun A. 
i ING, Civil En nginee: 


Ka € des Principat a pareils hr oat a qui se fabrequent chez RupotPHt 
“ENIG, a Paris, Place du L ig peck le-Gra 1859. 
at science the tru rer 


of atral Sel iT A Free Examinati 
awin's ser wea cinco we ah with Natural arb je ye logy: A Fe gece ~- 
at, M.D Fi ios Footents of Natural History in Harvard University. Cams 


308 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


8 Catalogue of Chemical gf topes exhibited in the ea . wee 
ment of the Museum of Science and Art, South Kensington. I. I. Gri 


n, 
A Notice of the origin, progress, and present condition of the Academy of Natu- 
ral Sistnces of Philadelphia; by W. 8. W. Ruscr HENBERGER, M.D., Surgeon U. 8. 
a ous Second d edition, revised and corrected up to January 1, 1860, by the Author. 
iladelphi 
Proceedings of the Essex Institute. Vol. iL; Raine 2. oo to 1859. Salem, 1860. 


Charter, eet ores and List of Officers of the Wisconsin Natural 
ey 2 —— ation. Milwaukee, 1860. 


iche Minétatshioche Museum in Dresden geschildert auf Hohe Veran- 
lassung vo wee B. Gernitz. Dresden, 1858. 


VII. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 


Journat or tHe Acap. Nar. Scr. or Puitapeipsra, (continued from vol. 
160.) Vol. 1V., Part LV., (N.S.), contains (Dec. 1860) Art. x11, Description of new 
irds of Western africa, in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia; John Cassin.—Art. a1, New Unionide of the United States and 
Northern Mexico; Jsaace Lea, —Art. xiv, Me Gab of New Species of 
American Ter tiary and Cretaceous Fossils ; % Ho 
- Proc, or Acap. Nat. Sct. oF Puixap. (Co d from vol. xxx, p- 
fee: )~—145, Plants appearing in flower, in dalghbovtisod Qe "Philadelphia pate Feb. 
to May, 68 species; Dr. Darrach—146, (labits of the Beaver; Smith.—147, Oc- 
currence hysa gyrina in cisterns and water from Artesian wells in Alabama; 
Lea—Diminution of petrolium in te Oil wells; R. #. Rogers —148, Eu- 
n species of shells off Nova Scotia; J. R. Willis—Modification of Gore’s ball 


u : 
Binney—A list of Shells in the ie of Wisconsin; L A. Lapham.—156, Contri- 
butions to nigger Lepidopterology, No.4; Bruckenrige Clemens, M. D.—\i4- 
Description ew species of Marginella; J. H. Redfield —175, ST ed of 

: e 4 


mus of Darien, collected by Lt. N. Michler, U.S. Top. Eng., with notes and descrip- 


: cademy; W. M. Gabb.— 
199, “Catalogue ss plants in ‘Auwer during the month of i near Philadelphia; 
Dr. Darrach— 201, Death o W. Carpenter noticed by resolution.—202 Re- 
marks on Combustion ; Ri z yf eles! the identity of Ammonites Texanus, 
Gabb- 


P ‘ 
—302, List of plants in flower near Philadelphia in June, 1860; 
—305, Descriptions of two new species of Usionzs from Georgia; three from Mex- 
ico; some Unionidae from the United States; six fro m Alabama ; and eat ape 
i new Fossil State 


species; I. Le ptions of co 
Utah, a the Expl. | Eepadlleane under com: command of Capt. J. H.S "Esp 
in advance of the official Report by sanction of Sec’y y Fay rb . 
315, Notes on the Coleoptera found at Fort Simpson, Macken with a 
ies ; LeConte.—821, Synopsis the phi of 
U. io J fonte.—324, Description of a new species of Ce opod, from 


the Eocene of Texas; W. Mf. Gabb.—325, Descriptions of new species of American 
Freshwater Fishes; ©. C. Abéott—328, Descriptions of new species. of North 
of the Sm: Steapr poned 


the M 
Reet Manan ste. Motes ot dates ee tt ittle known species 


oD 


ag * 
" Proceedings of Societies. __ 309 


of = ea Reptiles; #. D. Cope,—845, pete ter to American Lepidopter- 
0 ae Br. ackenridge eee ervations on pion White Moun- 
: es 


, Mr. Robe’ otes; J. 
Cassin.—379, Desc scriptions bop species s of Crinoidea and Echinoidea from the 
Carboniferous rocks of [lin vis, set other Western States; F. B. Meek and A. H. 
Worthen.—397, Observations upon the Form of the Oceiput in the various Races of 
Men; Dr. J. A. Mei eigs.—417, Systematic romps ce with Synonyma, c&c., of Jurassic, 
Cretaceous , and Tertiary fossils collected in Nebraska, by the — Expeditions 
under the command of Lieut. G. K. Warren , of U. S. Topographical Ragiaseres F. B. 
Meek and F. vy. Hayden.—433, Observations on American Tineina; H. 7: Stainton. 
—435, Descriptions of new Corals in the Museum of vas cademy; G. H. Horn. 

436, Catalogue of Carboniferous Plants in the Museum of the Academy of Natural 
oe. with corrections in Synonymy, descriptions of uns cies, &e.; H. C. Wood, 

x wes : 


of 1 new species of Plants; 5, Myr- 
micu (Atta) molefaciens, ‘Stinging Ant, ‘ -making iy exas; 8, B. 
Buck riptions of New Carboniferous fossils from Illinois and other 
ania Stat .B Mea nd A. H. .—472, Description new species 


bbott—480, Report upon the oenen of the sh ort os Pacific Seed ameyBe 

under command of Capt. John Rogers, U.S br. allowell. 
a in flower in July, August, eptember pi ‘October in the n meet Prt of 
iladelphia ; Dr. Darrach.--515, Experiments on the decomposing power of Car- 
vale: Be i ; 


rR. EB. : 
eege abt Ma on the occasion by Dr. Fisher—517, Descriptions 


_ of new apeclss of the Reptilian genera Hyperolius, Liuperus Tropidodipsas 
E. D. Cope sseript ew and species of Amorph 

0 n of Ne ; abb aaa Description of a new 

pa of Cassilulus, from th eous formati tion of A a; abb.— 

tributions t arboniferous Flora of the United sectek No.2; H. 0. Wood, 

-—-522, Contributions to American Lepidopterology, Dr, — 


: 0565: D9 
ret ated criticising Gasn’s Catalogue of Cretaceous Fossils; J. Marcou.— 


se 

to thesame; Mr. Gabb. —-549, List of the recent ae ae oro epresented 

in the Museum of the Acad. Nat. Sei.; Mr. Cope—651, The H ag Birds of 

Mexico; Rafael Montes de Oca, of Jalapa, ecomonens Catiiiaue of the Colu- 
+ . : ig Ci 


_ bride in the Museum of th Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, Part 3 ; 
567, Description: of some new species of Tertiary Fossils from Chiriqui, Central 
A H 568, Descriptions of three spe shes from 
Cape St. Lucas; John Xantus.— tions of two new species of Pimelodus, 


4 f 
3, C. C. Abbott—569, Descriptions of new North American Pree ry in 
Cabinet of the Entomologi reg — of Philadelphia; Geo. H. He 
TOLOG th t. Sci. Philad., JAN., 1860.—-1, Remarks 
 etrors in the Anatomical Dingiieale of poset : Dr. J. Woodward.—On Coreeral: 
zi 


tly discovered vurieties o rara 
their active ped le; Drs. W. A. Hammond and 8. W. Mitchell.-MAY.— 
Atlantic Coast of the United States (Alosa es 
aloe ececa; Dr 
ERIES, VOL. 'XXXI, No. 92.—Marcn, 1861 


* : 

310 Miscellaneous Inielligence. . 
Proceepines Boston Soc. Nat. Hisr., (continued om 7 le Vi ss sasvan 
—389, Mass of silicious slate, presented to the Soc 

i ining the imprin hells, and an goes ma "tk * ineoraee 
these fossils in some of pes pebbles of the chalenats of that region; Prof. W. % 
ogers.—391, On the gave rise to the generally elongated form 
and other arrangement tof — iahove) pebbles ; are W. B. Rogers.—394, Re- — 


marks upon the group o metas rar a the base of the Palzeozoic series z 
—396 red 


sandstone, containing the Sait 8 of nes, ly of an ornithic character; 
Pro n the Lake Superior Fagrsemernen in eA to Prof. 

; JSackson,— on same subject; gas. d W. B. Rogers. ; 
ret ABX —-400, Descriptions of shells collected by the Ni aaih, Pacific Explor- 
ing Expedition; Dr, , Impressions of fossil shells from an island 
in Saco ae obtained from a boulder tw es 2g feet above the level of i ihe : 
Prof. W. B. Rogers—Young growing ¢ om the river Gila; Jules 

; 


Account of f observations on the coiling 4 pe tendrils of the winter tbe : Prof 
11, On the habi so a species of hornet ( Vespa), which builds its 


W. Beadle, St. Catherines, C. W.—216, Report of meeting of Brit. Assoc. at A : 

—222, Communication by Dr. Dawson to the Geol. Soc. of London.—223, Distribu- 

tion of Forests in seve America.—227, Catalogue of Coloptera from Dre om B. 
itories —AU 


Territories. — Son; A onpeenete List of Lepidoptera colle 
Mey of eee. “Ww. S. M. D’Urban—567, Abridged sketch of the life of Mr. 
Lec. the Track of an Animal lately foun 
at Sir n on the Coal Fields of Pictou; H. Poole. 
—293, On new localities of Fossiliferous Silurian Rocks in 
oneyman.—299, Note f Menobranchus lateralis, taken at 


ev, D, t 

London, 0. W. ; W. yet Be tc mate some new species of Fossils 

ene pein Levi opposite Quebec; EZ. Billings.—325, The Oil 
R 


vex 29, Abridged sketch of the life of Mr 
Holiday Visit to the Acton Copper Mines.—363, on the Earthquake of Octo- 
ok —DECE 09, On certain Theories of the fo: 
£. Billings.—425, Notes on Birds ng in and around ; 
dr. es on Aboriginal ee ec recently discovered in the Island of Mon- 
, On an undescribed Fos: the Lo 


Scotia; J. W. Dawson.—461, ote ona specimen of Nea 

8. Fowler—462, ‘hea on Relics of the Red Indians cd Newfoundland 

Prd Mr, is eat Ma y.—472, Recut on the Fauna as 
gore ao i 6 a 


eee oF Sct TENCE eg 
xxvi, p. 156.) No. 3 of Vol. I ae P ets sana, as with pintes — 
ical St ructure of the “Jornad Bp, 20 0,” New 


856, An Astrono I ion seb the y 
G. Seyfarth —387, Notice of Fi m Permian Stra 
; re aaectie Notes on Com 
gar aang 7 <~ i of the United States, with 3 plates; Dr. 
Engelm ‘iptions of Bryo 
4 


tions upon the Cretaceous Strata of Texas; B. 
new Fossils ; BF 

Kansas and Nebraska; J. Marcou.—612, S' p 
of Kentucky; 8. 8. Ly 


THE GIRARD COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA 


t 
{ 


A.D. BACHE L.L.D, SUPERINTENDENT 


q 
t 


DIAGRAMS TO PART 2.1860 


[= 


NETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE 


Vie 
ia 


x. 


2, 43,44, 2:45 


> 


IN 1840, 41 4 


DISCUSSION OF THE MAC 


al 


* 


East 


See et OF ee 


2 
: West 


| } iF 
Bel ales Talk Hall HEE a bats 
‘ urease 


Ono Wd ON HO 


~ 


atry, [Teoop wes 
6 


% 8L 


Pi C2 2% Te O 


ouL q uUeeut e rydjepey 


uaoyeUIpa(d ey) Jo to Nerre 4 


he 2t- Oz gt oT 
a a eee ty TT 
| 
eee, aid 
9 € qO _hZ 


ae A 


JI. Ue eur ve 


Zz 6L Sl 40 9t ST 


Te]OG-TepT Be 


aun. TRooT weap 
12 aooy 6 


fice tea Et) bs Eas era 
}-uorombyy aya Jo 
UONeLIeA TVUINIp-repog ayy Fo woQoepjep Te 
UbasVIg, aane.rceduroe, 


ung 


RL SLteer tr Oo 


Tet Jo soaany aday, 


vus[> "9S 


endoperyg 


Role oa ga TUTOS 9 tT jo 


rydjeperry 
3 eT 
rT 


between L840 £IB45 


poe Wil ah 


Abies Tea Pee 


fd. 
13 g 9 
EG Sah ae mee 
. oes TOYA, 
meerpansinitesiaieainsses rng ee ee: eee at = 
3 
N a 
ee es 
Se Sas 543 Gretna a aleecne aecincoars 
2] 
pod OM Wah WNL de ee Hee 


‘g Ure ey 


Teurnitp-refos em ur sontenbout TeNULe-THIIES 


eae 


womeLrme, Teum4p Tey 


Babee tae a ne by) 


‘eee ueeyy 


Fd 
i : 
S 


Kala ge Reed 


YG } 


GopeuIpe(T at fo woTerre, 


22,23 24 


att 


year 


as 


iation of the Declin. 


for Summer,Winter and the whole 


Mean Solar diurnal V; 


jee 
1 19 20 23 


“9 10 T1Noonl3 14 15 16 17 


Philadelphia mean tme 


8 


Diurnal range of the D etlination 


Piz]. 


oe 


ENDENT 


Y ey 


=. 
~ 
ia 


a 


RINT 


a. 
oh 
1, 


SUB 
Tiagranv showing the deflection (inminuies of arc) of the north end. of the magnet 
7 fe 


x 


-O1 


trom its monthly normal position tor every hour of the dav and month. ef the year-de- 


L.L.D. 


T 


JatiUas yf 


A.D. BACHE 


February 


etc Declmaton 


Wakes 


ats 
Ss 
gon 


IONS MADE AT THE GIRARD COLLEGE 


| oa tre 


N 


os ae ta Be 


Winter Half Year 


DIAGRAMS TO PART 2.1860 


Regular Solar -Diurnal Variation of the Ma 


<5 


onmtonnd 


otonn oT 


J 


SS]ON OF THE MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSE 


IN 18408 41 42, 43, 44,2 45 


REE, 


Summer Half Year 


Regular Solar-Diurnal Variation of the Magftetic Dechmation 


ee tee ea ay, ee 


eg 


a 


mean time 


Philadelphia 


rf 


‘. 


Zs @ 7 8 9 10 1 Woonl3 1415 16 17 18 19 20 2 22 23 


March 
MM. 
May / 


October 


NOVOCTILOVE 


AT 


September 
December 


J 
SJ 


ate eg ee Bie 


ipbia 


6 


Pha de 


| 


ee nea 


aA 


i 
LC 


November ——————- 
December 


hay 3 


ee 


MY. 
AYLCLY 


FAULIO 


Thine 


80 Wes}l. Linge von Greenwich 
| 
| 


85 = .ooege wae | 
PHYSIKALISCHE KARTE | 
ALLEGHANY - SYSTEMS. | 


Nach allen vorhandenen Messungen und Untersuchungen 
gezeichnet von H 
ERNEST SANDOZ. 
(Das unterseeische Terrain von A. Petermann.) 
Maasfstab 1:6.000.000 
20 30 


a 5 9 10 nian a $90 
Deutsche Meilen (15-1) | waa 
w_-o : Lee 60 390 120 eee 70 
See Melen (60-1°) ha 


= 
Die Zahlen bezeichnen die Hohe iiber dem Meere und ebenso die 


* 4 
nee: iffalo 4 . e “pet 
’ ees E ‘ : : cat \ 


ji 
eter 
AA 
\’ Sy 


pt ae 


St AANA 


20% 
aN 
330 


ai on 
: 
© 
; 
Sey . %, | 
y f . . g ‘ ( Sy, 
s ‘ , : Ms >. > HS 

4 ; ‘Me renee ; FLOW 

4 ¥ : Oe Stay: 

i F 3 


Masih 
Me 
i, 


ty a 
ay 
a Ma, 


ORIGINALKARTE 
2 : der 

BLACK MOUNTAINS )|| 
(SCHWARZEN BERGE) 


otch nor, ‘ Sere ‘ A : RY ea, i or 4 = ‘ : : 
i 3 “ ; A ® 2G = ta RS : 5 x ee eet Ni ES ‘ 2 a 
: Ni == ae : ig Gen AN | guar Ubersicht der Hohenmessungen 
& : von ; 


Rid 
att ok 


Professor Arnold Guyot. || 
Maasfstab 1: 600,000 | 
" = © = see 5 T 2 a i 
: a a fae Seemeilen (60 “P) | 
9 ' ! ae = gms Ne — 
85 A ; eres Westl. Lange 80 vonmPa 
‘ ‘ - Gest. v. Stier, Terrain v. Sonnekald. 


©. GOHA: JUSTUS PERTHES =, 
ip ak 1B Gin 


; AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SERIES.] _ 


Arr, XXVIL—The Aurora, viewed as an Electric Discharge be- 
tween the Magnetic Poles of the Earth, modified by the Earth's 
Magnetism ; by BeNsamin V. MarsH. With two plates. 


_ Ir was shown by Dalton that the appearances presented by 
_ the Aurora could be explained by supposing the existence of 
| horizontal bands of luminous matter near. y at right angles to the 
_ Magnetic meridian, and of columns parallel to the dipping needle, 
Be ~—the former constituting the auroral “arch,”and the latter the 
__ Streamers”—and he suspected that the streamers either stood 
upon the arch, or depended from it. 
| Subsequent observations have confirmed the reality of these 
bands and columns, and have shown that, ordinarily, the stream- 
ers stand upon the arch as a base. When the arch is nearly over- 
head we see the streamers through it, as through a curtain, and 


‘© auroral arch as seen over the northern horizon is gener- 
¥ 4 pérfect and regular are of a circle, its highest point being 


ye 


814 B. V. Marsh on the Aurora, 


In an aurora the centre of the corona being the vanishing 
point of the nearly parallel streamers which compose it, it 18 
evident that a streamer having its base exactly in this centre 


of the observer (at A, or B, fig. 1) being a continuation of its axis. 
But it is found that this line always coincides with the direction 
of the axis of the dipping needle, at whatever place the obser- 
vation is made, and, since the position of the dipping needle at 


as the appearances in the electric discharge in vacuo are wi 
different at the positive and negative terminals. 

It is true that we have succeeded in tracing the streamers only 
five or six hundred miles, out of the many thousands they must 
traverse to reach their destination in the southern hemisphere, but 
their illumination even thus far beyond the supposed limits of the 
atmosphere is probably due in part to particles of matter carried 
from the arch, just as portions of the platinum wire were con- 
veyed by the currents to the surface 3 the glass in the experi- 
ments of Prof. Pliicker—and the invisibility of the streamers 
beyond this point may result from their great distance from the 
observer combined with the greater diffusion of the current and 
the absence of matter to be illuminated.* 


* The experiment of Prof. Pliicker shows that electric currents have a powerful 
tendency to transport portions of the electrode, the cohesion of even so hard a sub- 


two hemispheres, although simultaneous, are not identical, Pn 
ely 


Se Te Cmte” OMNES et 


Viewed as an electric discharge. 315 


Whatever may be the material constituting the auroral arch, 
it does not seem capable of penetrating the denser portions of 
the atmosphere but rather glides over them with a horizontal 
motion. Its observed form and motions may perhaps be mos 
readily explained by supposing it to originate as a horizontal 
stratum of cloud, of a circular form, having its centre vertical 
over the north magnetic pole. Such a cloud, if repelled by this 
pole and attracted by the south magnetic pole, must, in com- 
mencing its motion southward (if there be any coherence between 
its parts) be converted into a ring, which would glide over the 
upper surface of the atmosphere, its diameter constantly increas- 
ing, like that of a circular ripple in water, as it moved towards 
the magnetic equator. In this case the ring itself would always 
occupy the position of a magnetic parallel of latitude; and the 
part of it visible from any place on the surface of the earth 
would appear as an arch with its ends resting upon the horizon 
and with its highest point on the magnetic meridian. Other 


_ similar clouds successively formed over the pole and then im- 


pelled southward would present the same phases, and when 

they were sufficiently near to each other, an observer would see 

several concentric arches, as is the case in some auroral displays. 

The material composing the arch seems, in the steadiness 

and mildness of its light, its rolling motion, and cloudy appear- 
iki e “glow” which i tl 


h 
ble in some forms of the “stratified discharge.” In the “ Pro- 


b 
describes many varieties of the “ stratified discharge.” In some 
instances several luminous cloud-like concentric envelopes sur- 


nee as platinum being insufficient to resist it; and the great height to which 
auroral streamers are seen to extend renders it probable that their visibility is due 
to matter so transported from the auroral arch—and since they are illuminated in- 
stantaneously throughout their whole length, the velocity of the particles of matter 
carried up must approximate to that of electricity itself. 


angular veloci ‘ : ogous 1 
the tails of comets shot out from the nucleus with inconceivable velocity and main- 
taining their rectilinear form while sweeping around the sun, in perihelion, notwith- 


: > an nts can transport particles of our atmosphere to 
distance of several hundred miles beyond its limits we may readily conceive that 
Similar forces may carry portions of the extremely rare ma composing the en- 
Yelope of a comet to a distance of even millions of miles from the nucleus. 


7 8 ‘1D . . ° 
_ Suspicion may therefore be indulged that the tail of a comet simply indicates the 
a Position of a stream of electricity rendered visible by its illumination of particles of 


316 B. V. Marsh on the Aurora, 


rounded one of the terminals, whilst in others cloud-like masses 
of light were successively developed from one of the terminals, 
whence they ae 89 towards the other terminal and were thus 
arranged in a line between them—their development being 
tently promoted by the presence of a powerful magne 

With a water-battery of 8500 cells, these are represented as 
faint and cloudy in their appearance; and with Grove’s nitric- 
acid battery of 400 cells although the action was so intense that 
they became extremely bright they still retained their cloud-like 
form and motion. In describing experiments made with this 
battery, the exhausted receiver being placed between the poles 
of the large electro-magnet of the Royal Institution, Mr. G. says, 
“On now exciting the magnet with a battery of ten cells, effil- 
gent strata were drawn out from the positive pole and passing 
along the upper or under surface of the receiver, according to the 
direction of the current. On making the circuit of the magnet 
and breaking it immediately, the luminous strata rushed from 
‘the positive, and then retreated, cloud following cloud with a delib- « 

erate motion, and appearing as if swallowed up by the positive 
electrode.’ 

In another experiment with the nitric-acid battery Mr. G. 
says, “four or five cloud-like and remarkably clear strata came 
out from the positive.” These were large lens-shaped masses 
arranged at regular intervals between the terminal foul sg won 
flattened surfaces facing these terminals, as shown in 
pr V, which is copied from Gassiot’s figure Proskedings of 

og Eieeieets vol. x, No. 39, p. 401). 

if in this case we imagine — glass globe placed 
oe its centre directly between the wires, it is evident that 
each of these cloud-like discs as it ‘came: at from the positive” 
towards the negative terminal, must, while passing the glass 
gore be pierced by it, and be converted into a ring, (see fig. ,) 
as the auroral cloud was supposed to take the annular as 
in oping over the spherical surface of the non-conducting at 
mosphere. 

This part of the auroral display may therefore prove to be some 
modification of the ‘ stratified discharge” —the magnetic poles of the 
earth being the terminals, and the auroral arches being analogous to 
the cloud-like masses 0 BA hight or glow ramet by Gassiot, the mag- 
netism of the earth aiding in their development. 

_* The follow me another of reat Skane 


terminal, — = aaa light “a 

some sudden aC on, flashes 0 ight strati 7 ena 
be ened the mene) but by carefully atoning. ee contact breaker the dis- 
a hil gw on the eee lal 
without, to the eye feadog any appearance of an intermittent 


eee are ee ey 


Viewed as an electric discharge. — 31% 


_ as the voltaic are tends to revolve around the pole of a magnet, 


this “luminous atmosphere” or glow must do the same; and if 
the material composing the auroral arch be of the same nature 


its motion corresponding with that of the streamers. In the dis- 
play of August 28th, 1859, such was actually observed to be the 
case, the fragments composing the arch, as well as the streamers, 
having a rapid motion from east to west. 

The foregoing considerations seem to render it probable that 
the aurora is essentially an electric discharge (see fig. 4, I 
between the magnetic poles of the earth,—leaving the immediate 
Vicinity of the north magnetic pole in the form of clouds of elec- 
trified matter which float southward through the atmosphere a 


t 
a height of forty miles or more from the earth, sometimes to a 


to 1852,” p. 487, the observer at Lowville says, “The arc remaine thre 
quarters of an hour, its highest point being at first about 10° north of the — 
i j he o a 


southerly direction, and continued its progress until it descended as man} as 40° 
south of the zenith, it then was broken up into parallel pieces which m majesti- 
cally westward, and gradually diminished in magnitude and lustre, till at length 
every vestige of the arc disappeared.” : 

Tn mc nisi aoa Ss aibanb i far north that it is too distant from obser- 
Vers in this latitude to permit them to determine anything as to the motion of its 


318 E. T. Doane on the Atoll of Ebon. 


nation; and for several hundred miles from the earth these 
curves are thus “traced through space in the most distinct wa 
and illuminated with bright electric light "—and further that the 
magnetism of the earth also causes these luminous currents an 
the electrified matter composing the arch to revolve around the 
magnetic pole of the earth, giving them the motion from east to 


west or from west to east, which the a and the compo- 


nents of the arch are observed to hay 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
Pl. V, Fie. 1. 
, N and S—The North and South magnetic poles of 


the earth. 
n and s—The ee of an imaginary magnet representing the magnetism of 


the 
pa and B —Points on — —— of the earth. 
ab, ed, a c’d’ he —Aurora 
f ond e/f—S Nees of SaEAY'G ieee 
of the zenith to an observer at A 
The arrows show tee position of the bet oe needle = the several er A ad om 
+ and peat the dotted lines represent the magnetic curves passing thr 


= observer a =. yes having its centre at a—the ered ab being 
re epot of of of light, and the streamers surrounding it appearing 
to to apie ‘ioe it ea all 
sees pps a havisiy its centre at ¢, 
Fic. 2 copied from Gassiot’s figure 
Fig. oe presesis an imaginary modification of the same experiment, 


N = S—The shag and South magnetic poles of the earth. 
ands e praeet auroral arches, ne Mi ch stand the stream- 
oa The d dotted hia, represent magnetic curves, and t won one of the arches 
s the direction - besa the streamers, and the components of of the arch revolved 
ts the 28th of Aug., 
Philadelphia, Jan. ri “1861. 


Art. XXVIII.—Remarks upon the Atoll of Ebon, in Micronesia ; 
by E. T. Doane. 


_ WE will begin our res upon the Atoll of Ebon by refer- 
ring in a general way, first, to that section of em wae 
embraces it, known as the ‘Marshall Islands. The name is that 
given by Krusenstern in honor of Capt. Marshall who wits the 
first discoveries there in company with Capt. Gilbert. The dis- 
coveries date back seventy-two years; the first island was seen 
in 1788, the last being discovered only in n 1824 
he whole group lies within the adie 166° and 172° 
east, and 4° 39’ and 12° north latitude. Of the atolls of the 
group, some are large, measuring forty, fifty, and sixty miles in 
circumference, while others are mere ban “reefs, two or three 
miles in circumference. Of the large ‘nlenila we may mention 
Jaluit or Bonham’s Rimski Korsakog, o r Rong-rik and Eong-lab, 


+ 


eee Seas 


E. T. Doane on the Atoll of Ebon. 319 


and Mille or the Mulgrave Islands. Of the mere bank-reefs, we 
may mention Avi or Hunter's and Lab or Princess Island, And 
we would here BOATS, perhaps no group of the Pacifie presents 
amore tangled mass in the nomenclature of its islands, than does 
the Marshall ida eres especially the Ralik range. Some of 
the terms we have given above may perplex the reader as he 
attempts to trace them out on ordinary charts. 

The Marshall Islands are divided by a deep sea about one 
hundred and fifty miles wide—into two chains—the Kastern or 
Radak, ra the western or Rakk, Their general Deanne is 
N.W and S.E. The Eastern chain esses thirteen atolls and 
the western sixteen. The general features of these atolls are 
similar to those of most coral islands. They are low—the 
_ reef-rock in none probably measuring more than ten or twelve 
inches in elevation. In form, however, there is much diversity. 
Mille or Mulgrave island is spel a parallelogram—AMajuro or 
Arrowsmith is oval; Hbon circular—while Jaluwith or Bonham’s 
Island and Arlinglab- lab or Elmore Islands, and many others, 
are without any definite forms. 

he atolls vary in fertility. Those south of 8° north latitude 
possess, from all native accounts, the most fertile islets and the 
most available soil. Their fertility may be accounted for from 
the fact, that more rain falls upon them. T ey are more affected 
by the ‘equatorial belt of “ nour precipitation” which is soe 
oscillating backwards and forwards over them, Dead |] 
ge wood rapidly | decay. 


true. The windward dae of Meguro is tp only of sma 

islets, while the leeward side is one continuous strip of land, 

twenty- axe miles long. Jaluith is much like this; perhaps, how- 
r, it not so continuous a piece of land on the lee wae 

side though there is here the most fertile soil. On 

is likewise true. 

An explanation of this fact may ‘perhaps be found, i in the 
strong winds—the ‘“‘ N.E. trades” sweeping with all their force 
fos one half the year over these ese strong winds and 

e heavy sea they raise, tend to sweep off the material which 
aon accumulate there; and bearing some portion on across 
the lagoon to the leowaed side is there lodged, and help forward 
most rapidly the accumulation of the “ beach form: 

The fact has been stated, that the northern atolls of f the Mar- 

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1 

42 


320 E. T. Doane on the Atoll of Ebon. 


an 
or 
©, 
— 
mde 
Sy 
5 
Le) 
3 
“ej 
&. 
5 
“4 
m 
s 
o 
&. 
& 
=] 
gg 
= 
‘oS 
f=) 
oe 
em 
2 
n 
fa) 
| 
ee 
Qu 
@ 
So 
so 
e 
wm 


e 
= 
ps] 
3 
bx | 
eae 
% 
3 
2 
co 
> 
oO 
n 
5 
= 
© 
8 
° 
Ga 
3 
ct 
oO 
mh 
= 
° 
io) 
Qu 
o 
Qu 
— 
~ 
B 
foe 
oe 
Ss 
i=] 
Qu 
= 


there—for this is the basis of the statement—be owing rather to 
the heavy seas and winds which there prevail? The natives 
ever speak of the heavy winds of that latitude, 12° N. Islands 
have been desolated by them. We feel disposed to offer this as 
a solution of the fact. ' 
nother fact, we would state as common to the whole group ~ 
—is the existence of large ship channels on almost every side of — 
the lagoon. Mille possesses four large ones—three of them, 
and one, the largest of all, on the windward side. Jaluith has 
its reef pierced by as many—and much in the same position. 
While Majuro has its channel on the windward side only, and 
Ebon on the leeward, we cannot speak of more from personal 
observation—though the natives say the other islands possess 
many channels and in much the same position of those above 
mentioned. 

With these remarks upon the general features of the Marshall 
islands, we proceed to remark upon the atoll of Ebon. 

The position of this atoll is 4° 39’ north latitude, 168° 49’ 30” 
east longitude. This is the position, from the anchorage of the 
ship “Morning Star” in the Lagoon. The atoll is the most 
southern one of the Ralik range. It was discovered May 25th, 
1824, by Capt. George Ray who named it Boston Island. In 
1834 Capt. Covel thought it a new discovery, when it took his 
name, by which it is often called. The atoll is nearly circular 
and measures some twenty or twenty-five miles in circumference 
Except the passage on the west side of the reef, there is no other, 
not even a boat passage, in the whole circumference of the atoll. 
The reef however, at full tide, can be crossed by native craft. 
There is a tradition that once a passage existed, of sufficient ca- 

acity to admit ships, on the N.E. side, and that it was destroyed 
owever by some powerful spirit, in his rage, and the present 
passage opened. 

The natives possess also an interesting tradition concerning 
the existence of a high island as having once occupied the most of 
the lagoon. It is said the tall hills, covered with bread-fruit and 
cocoanut, reared themselves where now the flats in the lagoon 
exist. It is said also that what must then have been the barrier 
reef possessed Jand, which is now Ebon islet. The present pass- 
age is twelve or fourteen fathoms deep, and at the inflowing and 
outflowing of the tide has necessarily a very strong current, 
being the only outlet for the whole Jagoon—when the waters 
are lower than the reef. As it flows in, against a strong wind, ~ 
its presence may be traced quite across the lagoon, from the 
ripple of the waters and the white caps. The reef-flats near the 
passage in the lagoon are being covered with sand and other — 


a ae 


a e 


E. T. Doane on the Atoll of Ebon. 321 


coral debris—the nucleus of some future islet. The small coral 
patches in the lagoon are all covered with a few inches of water 
at low tide. 

nis the largest islet on the reef, as shown on. the ac- 
companying sketch—a w gives name to the whole atoll. Its 


map oy the sign + pres sicita its position. On the north end of 
the islet it projects itself free from all soil or sand; and its course 
as marked, can easily be traced by its repeated outcropping. The 
we which lies on the sea side is of considerably more recent 
ormation than that on the lagoon side. The difference is very 
oe eh The ledge or embankment was formed, no doubt, 


Te 
es 


woe Sieh hci ee Td wee 


a, Ebon; 3, Dile; ¢, Eniaithok ; een S he Eri Mon; f, Remrol; g, Koie; 
h, Minlak; i, Enear; j, Enikaiori; & Riri; 2, Toko m, Bikri; n, Bivilil; o, Ane- 
mt P Baila; q, lu; 8, Jurith; i, Eni-armith; u, Worai- vai-thokithoks’¢ , The Komil ; 


322 E. T. Doane on the Atoll of Ebon. ° 1 


At the S.W. bend of the islet the surface is quite uneven,— 
hills and yales in miniature form and size show themselves. 
They are formed no doubt by the drift of the sand—blown u 
into little hillocks. From its elbow round to the N.E. point the 
islet possesses but little soil. It is however covered with a quite 
heavy growth of bushes and trees, all possessing a very rich 

een color—and this is indeed characteristic of the 


growth is beautiful. There is soil and rain enough to nourish 
well the tropical vegetation. 
I have not been able to obtain an exact classification of the 


the larger islets have just sufficient to raise oranges and figs, 
which the missionaries are now growing. 

This atoll is the home for a few varieties of birds. But in 
this feature of the island; the contrast is as wide between the 
“low coral” island and the “ high volcanic” one—as between 
their natural features. The high islands of Micronesia are 
largely supplied with the feathery tribe—but this atoll can 
claim only a very few bird i 


eo 
oceasionally its 9 whistle—and these, with the addition of 
another land bird whose I have not been able to learn 
—are all the feathery songsters,this atoll can claim. _ 


| 


bi 


E.T. Doane on the Atoll of Ebon.  =—S»=— 898 


The shores of the reef at low tide, and the bare rocks, are a 
little enlivened by the brown and white Heron. Small flocks of 
snipe (Scolopax) gather on the sand bars—or single individuals 
are running along the beach picking up food. An occasional 
plover (Charadrius) is to be seen. Sea swallows (Sterna stolida 


baw) 
oe 7 
> 
i] 
Ss 
“y 
3 
ce 
Pe) 
o 
jm 
B. 
Be 
BS 
Ss 
0a 
co 
ra) 
4 
a 
a 
° 
Lun) 
ot 
Do 
ca") 
— 
° 
i) 
5 


is want of caution is Pa ieg seen in he ject way a native 
will ascend a tree in which the bird is roosting and with a. slip- 
noose capture him, An interesting explanation of the origin of 


the single variety of the Cuculus is given by the natives—so 


skillful has this bird been in concealing its birth-place. As the 
natives find it only full grown they say that it is born and nour- 
ished in the clouds and falls to the earth of full size. 

At least five species of reptiles are found on the atoll. Four 
are of the Lacertinidaee—and one, Geckotidz. The Gecko readily 
domesticates himself, and lives upon the house flies and gnats 

efinds. The Lacertinids find their homes on trees and bushes. 

The varieties of insects are interestingly numerous. It might 
seem as though these atolls, so comparatively recent in their 
origin would be but. feebly represented 
mal life. But the entomologi falas ing here not an uninteresting 
field of study. The nat ae mon kind of insect is the par- 

asite veime disgustingly ae in the heads of natives; 
a large size He a dragon fly, is quite numerous, and a few 

of the diurnal and nocturnal Dee ee are found. dp ants 
mosquitoes ahd ce there are large swarms. 


e Crustacea are numerous on land and in the water. We 
Seem to have a great abundance of the Paguridae—hermit crabs. 
I have thought they were more numerous on these coral 
than on the volcanic ones. 

e Mollusca too are abundant. Some rare specimens are 
found. ane orange eon, is common to pom of he Es a 


smaller than Ebon, th “for their size they are equally fertile. 
sas of them seem to veritable fairy-lands—so soft is the 


324 E. T. Doane on the Atoll of Ebon. 


green grass which covers them—and the deep shade of the in- 
terlaced bushes and majestically tall bread-fruit trees, throwing 
out their long sweeping arms like the monarch oak— 
—“ Who has ruled in the green wood long.” 

In the growth of some of these islets, we have perhaps some 
interesting facts connected with the rate of growth of islets or 
coral reefs. Bikri is an islet containing not more than an acre of 
land. A few Pandanus self:sown from seed washed there by 
the waters of the lagoon or sea, have taken root. And there are 
a few bushes,—a variety which I have noticed as growing only 
on the frontier soil of an islet—soil which is but little more than 
sand. From the leaves of these bushes and Pandanus, soil is 
very slowly forming. But the present age of the islet is, as stated 
by ‘a native, who saw it when only a sand bank washed by the 
tides—some thirty-five years. He remembers it when a boy as 
only a sand bank. Now it has.a /itile soil and few bushes. The 
islet Nanming he describes as once only a sand bank. It is now 
about the same size and condition as Bikri. These facts are 
not stated of course as definite for determining the rate of growth 
of coral is/ets—for into such a calculation many other circum- 
stances might enter, such as the position of the reef for catching 
and holding the washed-up matter, &c. t we may learn from 
the facts here given, that the growth of land, like the growth of 
the reef-rock, 1s very slow. 


Oakey to have been the case with the growth of the islet of 
bon. There are several spots which may be indicated as 
the welding points of small islets. These places are usually nar- 
rower, and less overgrown with bushes and trees, and possess a 
thinner soil than other parts of the whole islet. Then again 
there are places which are expanded, just as if they had been the 
central nucleii of the islets. These are heavily wooded—have 
large bread-fruit trees and other trees of apparently an old age, 
growing upon them. We have reason to paige that ail the 
islets of this atoll will in time be thus united, and thus the 


Dr. Reuben on Moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 325 


whole reef possess, so far as it goes, one unbroken outer of 
2 bot 


We may not live to see it, but we oan that this sand see 
will yet become ficed—will enlarge itself—catch some floating 
seeds and appropriate them and then there will be another green 
islet on the reef. This will again expand itself and become the 
connecting link of Ebon and Eni-armath—thus completing the 
_ length of the green band of this Ebon islet on its northern ex- 
tremity. 
"Ebon Atoll, Marshall Island, Micronesia, Aug. 16th, 1860. 


Art, XXIX.—On Normal quasi- Vision of the Moving she 
Revie within the Retina of the Human Eye; by LEV 
EUBEN, M.D. 


I. Wuixe observing, in the summer of 1857, the apparent 
changes in the colors of natural bodies, due to transmission of 
the light from them through various colored media , L looked 


| The, eatliodl impression was that some of the lucid objects 
showed as mere points, others as bead-like bodies. The bead- 
form is, however, in this experiment, an Briere ‘ed due to a 
quick circuitous movement of some of t ts. 
2. The movements were by regular ent Se or in jets; 

as if, at each jet a new troop of “these objects entered siidelenly 
in all parts of the field of bee “reg as the eye would 
pronounce, distances varying from ¢ to 3 of a rap oe and ag 


whole of a pulsation 


326 Dr.Reuben on Moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina, 


. The movements were in all directions; in lines straight or 
contorted; generally indicating some divergency from certain 
points or from along certain lines; and only to be traced after 
some practice. 

6. Thus aided, however, it soon became evident that, as long 
as the eye was not shifted, the moving objects kept in each part 
of the field to certain directions, upward along one narrow band, 
downward or obliquely along another, as if confined to particular 
channels or paths. ; 

7. The blue glass showed the movements best; but the eyes 
were not at the time actually directed to the apparent place of 
the sky, but so that the optic axes met in the space seemingly 
snonmied by the moving objects—not more than four feet from 
the eyes. 

8. With this glass, there was no difficulty in converging the 
eyes to this space. The objects appeared so distinct, that the 
vision seemed involuntarily adj t 


8. Yet it was easy to observe that if the eyes were forcibly 


directed to the sky, or if in any way the direction of the axes to 
the apparent field of the shining points was lost, the latter were 
less distinctly perceived; and with media of most colors other 
than the deep blue, were wholly lost. 

e facts can only be reconciled with the hypothesis that the 
lucid lines are quasi-visible traces of the corpuscles of the blo 
moving in vessels. in the retina; and that they were such, I be- 
came convinced during the first observation of them. That the 
blood can be only that of vessels in the retina, becomes certain 
when we rememb 


Bt | OY CES age ee ee ee 


er— 
a.—That these vessels lie in the anterior half-depth of the> — 


transparent retina itself. 

b.—That the vessels of the choroid coat lie behind the retina 
or laterally to it, and imbedded in absorbent or black pigment. 

c.—That in the eye, subsequent to birth, there are no vessels 
other than those in the retina, that lie in the course of the cone 
of rays admitted by the pupil. 

us, these apparently trifling observations acquire at once 
both a physiological and a psychological interest, as showing the 
visual surface and the objects positively impressing it brought, 
a 


f 


certainly, to their extreme limit of contiguity! I have called 


this quasi-vision, because it does not arise from the presence of 
any object the rays from which are brought to foci by the crys- 
talline lens; that is, the case is not one of ordinary vision. Yet 
there is a positive impression on the retina, and of just such kind 
that the mind interprets it into the vision of real, glistening ob- 
jects in the air. The cause is a subjective one (physiologically 
considered); but the perception (so far as the mind is concerned), 
is clearly objective and real. That the phenomenon was not due to 


is very fugitive and uncertain, while their number is small. 

In Mackenzie’s ‘‘ Diseases of the Eye,” the phenomenon, as 
witnessed by the unaided vision directed toward the sky, is men- 
tioned as having been noticed at different times by different ob- 
servers. [I am not aware that before the observations I have 
now detailed, any one had noted the special applicability of col- 
ored media, or the superior vividness afforded by use of th 
cobalt-glass, ) 


offering an account of the subject for the pages of this Jour- 
nal, I furnished a brief statement to Mr. Seely, and it appeared 
in the Journal of Photography published by him, July 15th, 
1859. Professor Rood’s observations, in this Journal, Septem- 
ber, 1860, recalled the consideration of the subject, especially 
Am. Jour. Sor—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861. 
43 


* 


328 Dr. Reuben on Moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 


as I was already able to add some other and quite as sin- 
gular aspects of the phenomenon. Even before that date, I had 
also observed the appearance named in Prof. Rood’s second note 
(Nov. 1860), of the field of view resolving itself ‘‘ into a mass of 
small, round, densely packed moving bodies,” or rather into 
several currents of such, moving in different ways; and though 
without publishing it, had mentioned the fact before the Society 
above named, giving, however, a different method by which the 
appearance could be secured. 


color. The yellowish hue of the lines is not always apparent 


that, while this effect may, when present, —_ in intensifying 
or otherwise modifying the phenemenon, I am led to consider 
the true cause of the latter as to be sought in some effect of the 


Dr. Reuben on Moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 329 
blood-corpuscles, acting as lenses, upon the minute pencils of converg- 
ark 


ing and already almost focalized light entering the retina. 

IT. In the communications already referred to, certain other 
facts and principles were stated, which I will briefly recapitulate, 
= the liberty to present more clearly some points before 
implied: 


ied : 
1. Some of the lines did not remain lucid throughout; but 
before disappearing, along full half their length gave place toa 
distinct black line. This I have repeatedly observed; the change 
is marked and unmistakable. But owing to the brevity of the 
whole movement, I at first erred in judging that it was the last- 
formed half of the line that became black, and that the black 
rtion was the narrower. I have since ascertained that it is the 
Jirst-formed half of the line that becomes black, and either v 
soon, or just before disappearance; and what is strange, this 1s 
uniformly the fact, except that in rare instances, to appearance 
at least, a line is traced that is black throughout and from the 
first. The supposed narrowness of the black line also seems to 


* See a note on the Color of single blood globules, in this No., Scientific Intelli- 
gence— Prysios, 


x 


330. Dr. Reuben on moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina 


elevated portion of the membrane corresponding with the foramen 
centrale and limbus luteus, or “yellow spot” 5 


which is the seat of most distinct vision. It is difficult, however, 


sible spot. 
5. Let it be remembered, further, that though the posterior 
layers of the retina are of gray or vesicular nerve matter, yet 


the layer is so thin that the color must be quite ineffective; so 


that the retina through its whole depth is nearly as transparent 
as water. consequence is, that this membrane consisting of 


we may say, a real, though in one direction quite limited, solid- 


. ity of form. 


6. Now the red blood-discs, the most numerous variety, mov- 
ing in the vessels lying directly in front of, and partly in, the 
impressible portion of the retina, and, which, in the small capil- 
laries are probably separated in most instances so as to advance 


they lie with the concave sides transverse to the rays of light, to 
overcome part of the convergency given by the crystalline lens, 
or to cause the minute pencils transmitted by them to diverge. 
If, however, they present themselves edgewise to the light, 7.e., 
if their concavities\are transverse to the paths in which they are 


advancing, then we may suppose, either, that in the direction 


vertical to their path they act as convex lenses; or that, while 
this is the case, certain rays entering at their edges in such part 
as to strike afterward, from within, either of the surfaces that are 
outwardly concave, and of course inwardly convex, would un- 
dergo total reflection, and so an additional effect of concentrating 


or massing together the rays would occur, the whole being 


Dr. Reuben on moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 331 


brought to a focus more quickly or brighter in itself; and thus, 
the dise would project this bright pencil just beyond it into 
the impressible layer, and necessarily carry it along with its 
own motion. But if the capillary, as is sometimes the case, be 
too small, so that the red corpuscle becomes wedged, then it 
has been observed, under other circumstances, to be variously . 
changed in form, usually inclining to globular; and the latter is 
the form also of the few white corpuscles contained in the blood ; 
so that in these instances the effect of a minute spherical lens is 
secured or approximated. 

7. But, are the corpuscles more dense than the serum and the 
nervous mass, so that they can act as lenses? Itis well known, 
first, that the specific gravity of healthy blood slightly exceeds 
that of brain ; and I shall have to assume that the density of the 
retinal substance is not essentially different, as its composition 
and structure are not, from that of brain. But again, in blood 
whose coagulation is delayed for a few minutes after withdrawal 
from the veins, the red corpuscles are found rapidly sinking 
through the liquid, so that the clot thereafter forming is at top 
yellowish only, or of buff color, and the serum is quitered. The 
white corpuscles are to a greater extent entangled in the clot. 
Hence, it must be inferred that at least the red corpuscles have 
a density distinctly greater than that of the blood, and in all 
probability, than that of the retinal mass; and this is all that is 
necessary to show that they must act as lenses upon any light 
which they can transmit. 

8. And this brings me to the question, can the red blood dises 
transmit light of any hues, even green or blue? It must be re- 
collected that, in the minute capillary vessels, these dises can no 

onger advance in masses of several in thickness, but must ad- 

vance singly, or at most in layers of two or three deep. In such 
a case, the blood-dises can hardly present a hue deep enough to 
render them effectively colored, that is, opaque to their comple- 
mentary color. The thickness of two red corpuscles advancing 
side by side with their longer diameters presented in the direc- 
tion of entering rays, would not exceed in all about the ;,;th 
of an inch. Now, let us suppose a solution of the same absolute 
Intensity of red as that of the blood, introduced into a wedge- 
shaped glass of very gradual taper, and in which the film could, 
near the edge, be brought to a thinness of T7ssth of an inch: 
how much of the spectrum would the red medium at this degree 
of tenuity cut off? how much of the intensity of a green or blue 
beam would it destroy? Inappreciably little, it appears to me; 
and this view is sustained by an experiment named in Prof. Rood’s 

per. He says: ‘“ Yellow solutions, when combined with the 
blue glass or blue solutions, render the circulation invisible; and 
it does not re-appear till the yellow solution has been made so 
dilute as barely to preserve a yellow tint, and to transmit the spectrum 


332 Dr. Reuben on moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 


almost unaltered.” The words which I have here italicized de- 
seribe exactly what is true in regard to the red tint of dilute 
blood, and of course of the single attenuated streams of blood in 
the capillaries. The experiment itself disproves the possibility 
of a real or effective opacity of the blood-discs for green or blue 
rays. In seeing a blush on the cheek of another person, the eye 
takes in at once the hue of tens of thousands of closely aggrega- 
ted capillaries; and here the intensifying effect of concentration 
is experienced. But in witnessing the movement of the bl 

in the retina itself, the field is as it were spread out, and near 
objects thrust apart; and the effect of each pencil so small as to 
pass through one corpuscle, or two or three in succession, is no- 
ted by itself; so that no intensifying of color by mere contiguity 


separated, and the effect of glistening, or no sensible effect, should 
then be anticipated. i 


ey 
SS See ae 


Dr, Reuben on moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 333 


applicable to these; and being set aside as but an incidental, pos- 
ibly a modifying circumstance, no probable hypothesis other 
than that of action of the corpuscles as lenses seems to remain. 
nother curious phenomenon I early observed, and one 
for which I have not been able even to imagine a cause. It ap- 
pears with most of the media used, especially with the darker 
colors; and usually precedes or attends the vision of the shining 
traces, i 


gitation, or swarming, as it might be termed, 
over the whole field of view. These appear‘to be more distant 
than the lucid points, and equally diffused; and they are seen 


and the appearance suggests 
_ Streams covered with fine floating ice. But the eye must be 


1s uniform and their numbers greater. 

IIT. The following notes I select from among such as I have 
taken down during some of my latest experiments, the past 
autumn : 

a.—With a bright sun; view of thesky about 20° from the sun, 
through the cobalt glass: When the lucid lines are best seen, and 


334 Dr. Reuben on moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 


the eyes adjusted to their place, there is always at the same time a 
pretty distinct consciousness of the back-ground (sky or cloud) as 
distant, and as being, directly before the eye, mottled with pris- 
matic colors, faint but real; sometimes taking the appearance of 
mosaic pavement, or of small colored cirro-cumuli ; so that when 
the glass is aside, one is disappointed at seeing no cloud, or one of 
different appearance. In this case, the colors seem mainly due and 
red. The effect I had somewhat unconsciously noticed before ; 
have seen it very positively many times since. Sometimes the 


cused to the near field of the moving discs. 
j 


moving points seen as minute, not colored, few, very bright, 
quick-moving, and fugitive. Through two thicknesses of the 
rn glass: points fewer, and more fugitive, but quite well de- 

ned. 

d.—Through dark green formed by combination of yellow and 
light blue: Looking long and steadily, the eye finds the field of 
the objects, and so adjusts itself as to see many of them, though 
only tolerably distinct. 

e.—Through grass-green glass: The shining lines readily and 


e course of the whole line; though this may have been so. 
The black and the bright portions both suddenly and completely 
disappeared. 

.—Same time, and medium: Found, very evident and certain, 
a larger channel or spot of ingress where a more numerous, 
crowded and confused body of the moving objects came at every 
pulsation, pouring in, as of from without or beyond the rest, toward 


Dr. Reuben on ing Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 835 
the eyes ; and plainly thus discovered, not as moving in, but as 
emerging into the field of view. This spot seemed, with two eyes, 
a little to left of the axes of vision; and from it several streams 
arose. (Query: the termination of the arteria centralis, or of one 
of its large branches ? 

—Looking with but one eye, this point of ingress seems very 
near the axis of vision; and sometimes there is the appearance 
to be named in the next paragraph. 

' t—Looking to the west, clear sky, soon after sunset; through 
red glass; some few moving points; but chiefly, in the axis of 
view, a continual influx of a small stream of very small bead-like 
objects, faint, but real; seeming to move only into the field, and 
to disappear almost at once through it; not spreading out in it. 
This appearance I had noticed first of all with a violet glass; 
and with violet, red, or blue, it was often repeated. By shifting 
the eye, the movement could be made to occur apparently up- 
ward, or to one side; but it seemed to return usually to the 
downward course. I distinguished this as the cascade. The 
uniform movement seemed to forbid the supposition that this 
could be the appearance of the corpuscles in the artery; and 
hence, its explanation is doubtful. 
k.—Upon momentarily closing and opening the eyes, there 
was an appearance of a rosette-shaped space, its centre always in 
the axis of vision, which distinetly and always showed the com- 
plementary color of the glass before the eye at the time. This 
appeared with all glasses; it showed where the axis of vision 
pierced the sky at the time; and that the cascade was in this 
axis, the point of jetting in of corpuscles (g) in or very near it. 
This rosette seemed to me to mark the limits of distinct vision 


—Looking at midday against light cloud: The e, 
small, but very perfect, flowing up, or down. 
the cobalt-glass; more faint, through orange, red, and violet. 
o see any moving traces of the corp ellow or red 
cians, it was found n to compress the eye-ball, as could 
done by making the effort to retract it, and to look intoa 


Space very near the eyes. ‘ 
Tn regard to the facts mentioned in (&), it should be added, 
the traces of the dises were visible both in and around the cen- 
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861. 
44 


336 Dr. Reuben on Moving vee within the Retina. 


or acting a 
singular results which these observations seems to 
furnish, then, are the following: 
uasi-vision of moving blood-discs; showing, incident- 
ally, ‘also the plaiied and courses of certain capillaries of the 
retina. 
bb.—Discovery of some change, in which the momentarily illu- 
minated trace of the dise, in some cases, and usually at a little 
ind the advancing dise, gives way to black. 
—Quasi-vision, in different ways, of the cells or granules in 
sisteos portion of the reti ae 

dd.—Discovery, by apparent absence of these, of either a 
entire seat of sacet distinct, ordinary vision (“ yellow spot”); 
else, of the tin of the insensible spot, magnified. The Sitar 
view doubtful 

ee.— Appearance as of numerous, swarming, black points. 

f— Quasi-vision of numerous small bodies, moving close to- 
gether, and apparently steadily, in unlike directions, but so that 
the several streams cover nearly the whole field; as if the con- 
tents of many capillaries, or venous radicles, close together. 

99-—Obscure perception of cer mottled colors, ‘at the same 
time with vision of the moving disc 

hh.— Quasi-vision of place of ‘eth of a considerable propor- 
tion of the discs into the field of view ; suggesting the artery, or 
a large branch o 

— Quasi-vision of single stream, seen only in a brief course 
through the field, and seemingly without impulsive movement 
—the case 

rept ion of nearly circular, or rosette-shaped area, of 
subjective color, corresponding with the seat of most distinct 
Visi 

li. The actual visibility of this subjective (complementary) 
color, within and in mage of the generally diffused presence of 
the opposite color at t 

V. Among principles incidentally discovered or affirmed in 
course of the discussion, appear to be the following: ! 

aaa.—That the traces A the moving blood-dises are not inva- 
ably, no nor Prenpsersssss/ a color the gee pera of that 

the surrounding retina at the time 


a ee 


- Dr, Reuben on Moving Blood- 


6bb.—That the blood-corpuscles, aia or sparse, as in the 
retinal capillaries, can transmit, without appreciable diminution 
of intensity, rays of any color. In this way the coloration of 
the fine parts of images of pictures, landscapes, etc., on the retin 
is aes during our view of the objects, continually interfered 
ae. 


—That moving blood-discs, within the capillaries of the 
retina, according to their form and position, may affect the light 
pases & through them in various ways, by lens-action or total 
re 

—That i images in the retina are variable in their place, 
aun the limits . constituting, on either hand, myopia or pres- 

pia), by minute changes of depth; and are composed of a 
“ ct of solid images of as many colors as the light admitted to 
the eye contains, and more or less perfectly coalescing. 
Moreover, as general facts bearing on the explanation of the 
phenomena now detailed, the following propositions seem to be 
established : 
ece.—That the eye or es in order to discover any of the 
appearances named, must be focused or adjusted for vision of an 
object at some certain ee This necessity of focusing the 
eye explains why, usually, the appearances are so readily lost, 
‘f—That this tak ers for light of placid colors, 
the implied distance of the object being greater or less. Obs 
vations seem to indicate that the distance of the imaginary 
object is least for the red rays, and less generally for the less 
refrangible. 
g.—Hence, when either appearance is seen by merely looky 
ing steadily toward a lighted surface, or until the eye is fati 
itis probable that, involuntarily, the proper focusing or a ind 
ment of the eye takes s place. 
hhh,—With the single exception, if it be such, of the case of 
‘sores steadily at a bright surface, or with the eye fatigued, the 
light with which any of these phenomena i is discovered, is never 
mits or complete light, but always partial, of special colors and 
refrangibiliti ties. 
at is, all the media, or lights, showing these effects, are such 
afford rays of not all, but some certain refrangibilities, All 
toa general facts agree with the Pa Seen that the blood-dises 
become guasi-visible by m eans of their effect as lenses, Although 


tances, the divergency of more refrangible rays which have 
already passed their focus and spread out, (at the very time that 
red and yellow rays have their focal distance and proper effect), 


338 Dr. Reuben on Moving Blood-corpuscles within the Retina. 


that the impression of the retina through many of these bodies 
must be decidedly different from that which it receives or yields 
around their place. We may say, generally, that the visible 
corpuscles or cells become so from the fact that in certain ways 
and degrees they complement the effect already impressed on the 
light by the crystalline lens and the humors of the eye. This 
view suggests a ready explanation of the circumstance that media 
of different colors require a convergency of the optic axes toward 
points at different degrees distant from the eyes; since we must 
presume that this is one instance of “associated movements,” and 
one in which, accordingly, the mere telescopic adjustment of the 
place and convexity of the crystaliine lens, will be made to cor- 
respond, involuntarily and accurately, as in ordinary vision, with 
the degree of convergency voluntarily or otherwise given to the 
optic axes, 
The change by which certain of the lucid lines are replaced 
through a part of their length by: black, it is difficult to explain. 
The effect can hardly be that of the accidental or subjective 
production of black (total absence of impression), succeeding a 
previous impression of brightness; for, were it such, it should 
be more general, and follow through the whole length of the 
bright line. Assuming each line to be not less than twenty 


tints. An the caution must be added, that experiments of this 
kind can scarcely be protracted very long at any one time, or re- 
peated continually for weeks or months, with no long intervals 
af rest, without the risk of permanent injury to the delicate 
organization of the eye. 

New York, Jan. 16th, 1861, 


Norz :—WMarch 15.—Since the above was written, Sir D. Brewster's 
paper enumerating “Certain Affections of the Retina” (Philos, Maga- 
zine, Jan. 1861), has appeared, but containing no allusion to vision of the 
blood-di To the list, this, and certain related phenomena quite as 
singular, it appears, may now be added. By 


a 
: 
: 


O. N. Rood on Dove’s Theory of Lustre. 339 


Art. XXX.—Upon some Experiments connected with Dove's 
Theory of Lustre; by Prof. O. N. Roop, of Troy. 


in combination with iaaaiiee reflected, or dis isper rsed kt 
ustr re.” 


Scope and viewed through a plate of violet ee produced, in 
the act of combination, the idea of a polished metal. 
Similar to Dove’s theory of lustre is that of Prof. Ruete.* 
This view of the nature of lustre opens to us the possibility 
of reproducing by the stereoscopie combination of suitably col- 
ored surfaces, the individual lustre and appearance of gold, 
copper, brass, &c.; it also affords us a means of examining a 
arately the cctnpenaiia which may produce the appearances 
peculiar to eac 
. T combined in the ton on white or on black grounds 
—a piece of tin-foil one inch square with a piece of yellow paper 
of the same size. The value of the tint on the chromatic circles - 
of Chevreul was, Ist Cine orange-yellow, No.4. When the 


mbining in the same way tin foil with orange-tinted 
paper, st circle, orange,) the lustre and appearance of copper 


3. Te in- awit in the act of oe with Nos. 14 and 15 of 
ar ted and black scale imitate bism 
4. Tj in-foil or silver-foil in the act = combination = ultra- 
tain paper appears scnbtialy blue, rather black like f oliated 
a pve 


5. Gold-leaf i in combination w aper of of a dint nearly that 
of the green of the Ist circle nes 

6. Gold-leaf in combination with ft paper resembled 
a surface of graphite. 


* Das Stereoscop ; C. G. Th. Ruete, Leipzig, 1860. 


reflected. 


340. O. N. Rood on Dove's Theory of Lustre, 


Upon substituting dark grey paper for the tin-foil the same 
effects in degree were not produced, owing as it seemed to me, 
to the fact that the well known texture and appearance of the 
paper forcing itself on the attention, precluded the idea of any- 
thing metallic. To remove this difficulty I employed two means. 

1. A crumpled sheet of tin-foil was photographed, and fro 
the negative, prints were taken, by the “‘ammonia-nitrate pro- 
cess,” which were toned to the so-called black of the photograph- 
ers. This furnished dark paper upon whose surface was an 
accurate drawing of the irregularities characteristic of metallic 
be the surface of the paper was of course wholly without 

ustre. 


(2) Upon combining, in black or white fields, a square inch of 
one of those photographs, with the above-mentioned yellow 
paper, and dortas the photograph a little, a representation of 
gold was obtained but little inferior to that given by the use of 
the real tin-foil. 

(6) This photographic paper in combination with orange paper 
(1st circle, orange), made an imitation of metallic copper. 

The ultramarine paper in combination with the photograph 
of tin-foil gave a striking imitation of foliated graphite. The 
blue color is perceived much less than would be expected 

. The surface of a plate of brass 1 inch square was polished, 
and then rather heavily scratched by a coarse file. Into the 
scratches a small amount of yellow or white oil paint was 
rubbed, and upon this prepared surface dark grey or black paper 
was laid and the whole submitted to the action of a press as in 
- copper-plate printing. By this means a drawing of a scratched 
metallic surface was transferred to paper. These markings serve 
also to enable the observer much more easily to direct his atten- 
tion simultaneously to the two impressions presented. 

(2) Upon combining dark grey paper (black and white scale, 
Nos. 18, 19, 20,) prepared in this way with the above-mentioned 
yellow paper, the appearance of a polished, scratched plate of 
gold was obtained, 

(®) When these dark prepared papers were combined with 
yellow paper colored by gamboge (yellow and black scale, No. 9), 
the appearance and lustre of brass was obtained. 

According to Dove’s theory the darker surface in the stereo- 
scope represents the dispersed light, the brighter, that regularly 

the polish of a metallic surface is proportional to 
the smallness in amount of the light it disperses, we should be 
led to expect that by varying the shade of the black paper, we 
should be able to alter the apparent degree of polish of these 
imitated metallic surfaces, 

This is the case: yellow paper, (Ist circle, oran yellow No. 
4,) in combination with b (No. 21,) gives the idea of a very 


———S a 


O. N. Rood on Dove’s Theory of Lustre. 341 


them here. 

S we are accustomed to see gold tinted variously from nearly 
a yellow as in gold-leaf, to almost a copper-hue as in some speci- 
mens of our American coin, so the tint of the paper placed in 
the stereoscope, may be varied within certain limits, without 
greatly affecting the results. 

Prof. Helmholtz in his admirable work on physiological optics,* 
mentions that by a peculiar arrangement he was able to cause 
the homogenious golden yellow light of the spectrum to appear 
brown, proving thus that the tint brown is only weak yellow 
light. ‘These stereoscopic experiments give us on the other 
hand the means of apparently converting brown into a metallic 
golden yellow, for many specimens of even brown wrapping 
paper, when combined in the stereoscope with very black pre- 
pared paper, acquire the lustre and appearance of yellow plates 
in the shade, and reflecting images of dark objects. 

@ same manner, and corresponding to the investigations 
of Helmholtz, I found that the stereoscopic union of black glazed 
paper with red, (No. 14, red and black scale,) imitated with sur- 
prising perfection the appearance of a glazed plate of chocolate. 

he chromatic scales of Chevreul furnish us with a ready 
means of combining in rapid succession in the stereoscope a 
great number of definite tints; thus by cutting in a card-board 
two parallel apertures ;°, inch broad and one inch long, their 
distance apart haiti 2°6 inches, and pasting under one of them 
black prepared paper, the other can be brought over any de- 
Sired tint and the effect noted. 

1. In this way I found that a pretty good representation of 
the appearance of slightly tarnished lead was produced by the 
Stereoscopic union of grey No. 18 and No. 4 on the blue-violet 
and tack scale. a 

- A somewhat inferior imitation of antimony was given b 
No. 1 blue and black scale, with gray Nos. 18 to 20, or by using 
No. 17 blue and black scale with white. 


* P.281, Physiologische Optik (Eneyklopddie der Physik, Leipzig, 1860.) 


342 O. N. Rood on Dove's Theory of Lustre. 


8. Tarnished zinc surfaces may be imitated by the use of grey 
No. 5 with No. 18 blue and black seale. 

4. Ultramarine paper with some of the lighter violet blues 
gave an imitation of blue glass. The idea of blue polished 
glass was also obtained by using in combination with the ultra- 
marine paper No. 1 of the yellow and black scale. 

will mention here that the stereoscopic union of this blue 
with yellow paper, never induced in my mind the idea of green. 

I made some experiments to ascertain how far the stereoscopic 
mixture of two masses of different colored light corresponded to 
their true mixture by the method of rapid rotation, use being 
made of the imitations above described. It is however so diffi- 
cult to compare a varying with a fixed tint that I will not record 
the results obtained; in many cases a certain moderate amoun 
of agreement in the resultant tints was observed. Briicke found 
that when a deeply colored yellow glass was held before one eye, 
a blue cobalt glass before the other, that a landscape viewed 
through this combination was simply darkened in appearance. 
I repeated this experiment with similar glasses and obtained a 
like result; objects appeared darkened, but in their natural 
_ colors, though sometimes the blue or yellow tint predominated a 

little. But when I presented to a single eye these two masses of 
light a very different result was obtained; the plates of glass 
were attached to a blackened disc opposite suitable perforations, 
and it was set in rapid rotation; a landscape viewed through it 
appeared deep purple, though not a trace of this color was to be 
perceived in the binocular use of these glasses. 
hen these two glasses were held before the same eye, a 
landscape viewed through them was very much darkened but 
scarcely colored. 


Sir Davin Brewsrer’s Tuzory or Lustre. 


. en heh sh oa of Sir David’s experiment, Dove 
as shown that the objection founded on it is without weight— 
(p. 8, Optical Stndien). gia Ween 
_In repeating Brewster’s experiment I always obtain the oppo- 
sue result ; in combining uniform black and white s , with- 
ut drawings, I always obtain a distinct impression of lustre, 
_ like that of the blackened mirror of a polariscope, and in strict 
ordance with Dove’s theory, when the black field is so dark- 
ened that no light is sent from it to the eye, this lustre vanishes, 


O. N. Rood on Dove's Theory of Lustre. 343 


and the white paper alone is perceived. This disagreement is 
not a cause of astonishment when we reflect that de Haldat’s 
original experiment waited nearly half a century for confirma- 
tion. 
To Brewster’s own theory, the simple objection, which has 
already been made by others, that we daily perceive lustre 
plainly with one eye, would seem sufficient. 


Propuction or Lusrre 1n Monocutar Vision, 


I proceed now to describe some experiments where by the 
action upon asingle eye.of two masses of light of unequal inten- 
sity, the idea of lustre is produced. 

1. If a dise of colored card-board, out of which a number of 
sectors has been removed, be made to rotate rapidly, and an 
object be viewed through it by a single eye, two masses of light 
will reach the eye, which apparently proceed from the object; 
one is reflected from the surface of the disc, the other emanates 
from the object behind the disc, and passes through the first 
mass of light. Dark objects viewed in this way assume to me to 
asmall extent an appearance like that of blackened glass. The 
effect is not at all striking, and would be overlooked by many 
persons; I therefore prepared paper in a peculiar way so as to 
unitate distantly the appearance of foliated graphite or crumpled 
mica. 

White smooth drawing paper was rubbed over irregularly 
with a brush slightly moistened with a weak wash of India ink or 
lampblack; when dry another wash of a deeper hue applied as 
before, care being taken to leave many small spots untouched. 
The final wash was laid on with pure black. If the brush be 
kept nearly dry and passed only lightly over the paper, it is easy 
to obtain a surface bearing some very distant resemblance to the 
minerals above mentioned; it is of course without lustre. Sim- 
ilar papers were prepared with red and blue water colors. : 

When these papers were held behind discs of ultramarine 
or orange-tinted paper, from which equal alternate sectors had 
been removed, and which were revolving at such rates that their 
surfaces seemed uniform,.or at lower rates, they often-appeared 
to a single eye, highly lustrous, This was true of the preparec 
Paper in a state of rest; when moved slightly by the hand it 
glittered strongly. Dark photographs of tin foil held behind a 
revolving disc of ultramarine paper and viewed by a single eye, 
assume often to a striking degree the lustre and appearance of 
foliated graphite. : 

2. If a piece of this peculiarly blackened paper $ of an inch 
Square be placed in a blue field, (rather light ultramarine paper,) 
and be steadily regarded for some minutes by one eye it assumes 
& red orange-hue and appears suspended over the blue paper 

Am. Jour. Sc1—Srconp Series, Vor. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861. 


344 O. N. Rood on Dove’s Theory of Lustre. 


- and nearer to the eye than the latter; at the same instant it 
appears lustrous like crumpled mica. The illusion with me 
often lasts half a minute in great perfection ; this is particularly 
the case when the eye is not quite accurately focused on the 
for. 

: 5. If asheet of this prepared paper be brightly illuminated 
by light from a window, and be held so near one eye as to pro- 
duce indistinct vision, it often apparently becomes highly lus- 
trous. In this case enlarged images of the white and grey points 
are formed on the retina which overlap, so that again we have 
two masses of light, one passing through the other. 

4. Ifaroll of black paper like the above, but coarser in its 
. markings, be brightly illuminated on oneside and viewed through 
deeply colored plates of glass (red, green, blue,) in a few seconds 
it appears lustrous resembling a roll of polished zine which has 
been irregularly and deeply corroded by an acid. Upon remov- 
ing the giass the surface of the paper appears lustrous for an 
instant. 

5. A sheet of the finer variety of this prepared paper viewed 
through a large rhomb of calc spar gives often in spots the ap- 
pearance of lustre, particularly when the head of the observer, 
or the rhomb, is slightly moved. Some persons compared this 
to the appearance of water. 

It would seem probable that in all cases where two masses of 
light reach a single eye, one passing through the other, particu- 
larly when there is any perception of their individuality, that the 
appearance of more or less lustre is produced, though from habit 
we often overlook it. us Helmholtz remarks* upon the com- 
bination of two colored surfaces in monocular vision by m 
of a simple instrument he figures:—‘ It is particularly favorable 
when the drawings, or spots on the two surfaces are made to 
shift their position. - Then we often believe that we see both 
colors simultaneously in the same place, the one through the 
other. We have an impression in such cases of seeing objects 
through a colored vail or reflected from a colored surface.” 

I found in fact that by placing stereographs consisting of col- 
ored paper for one eye and a photographie drawing of tin-foil 
for the other in this instrument, that lustre could be perceived, 
particularly with the imitations of copper. 

The diagram represents the instrument referred to; it consists 
of a plate of glass, P, with parallel sides, 
which is properly supported over a blackened 
board B. Differently colored papers are placed 
at K and Y; one is seen through the plate, 
and the other by reflexion from it. The im- 
ages are made to overlap and their intensity x 
is regulated by altering their distance from F, 


* Physiologische Optik, p. 278. 


eae 


: 
: 


E. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period. 345 


Analogous to this is the observation of Brewster.* Speaking 


of uniting similar pictures, (patterns on hangi 
ulor vision, he remarks :—“ The 


object seen through another 

In closing I will remark that while many of the experiments 
above mentioned are easily repeated, others require considerable 
practice in this kind of observation. 


Art. XXXI.—The Quaternian or Diluvian Period, considered 
tn its relation to the present Hpoch ; by F. J. Picrer. 


| From the Bibliothéque Universelle ( Archives) de Genéve, vol, viii, p. 255.] 


I soon perceived that the zoologic population had not in reality 
been modified in passing from one to the other, and that they are 


Scipio Gras,t who is engaged in an importar 

dilayium of mee valleys of the Rhone and the Rhine, and also Mr. 
Lartet,§ who has recently sustained the same opinion in a memoir 
upon the geological antiquity of the human race m western 
Kurope. 


There are however some opponents to these views, especially 
Mr. Koechlin Schlumberger,|| who replying to Mr. Scipio ? 
has called my opinion a little radical and has sought to overthrow 


* The Stereoscope, p. 91, London, 1856. ition, tome 

+ Trait eneiscied paléontologie, note B, Ist edition, tome i, p. vin 

} Bulletin de la Société géologique de France, 2d Series, tome xv, p. 167. 

j Bibl. Univ. (Archives), tome viii, p. 193. July, 1860. i, p. 88. N 
a's letin de la Société géologique de France, 20 Series, tome xvi, p- 98. Now 

yiesg, 


346 * EE. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period. 


it. I therefore think it necessary at this time to furnish new 
— and to set forth more clearly those evidences which have 

ecided my own mind, and which I have no doubt will convince 
the most incredulous. 

This question may be considered from two points of view, the 
geological and the paleontological. I shall only approach the 
question in the latter aspect, for which my studies have better 
fitted me, but I ought to remark that we have no example of seri- 
ous disagreement between paleontology and geology when they 
are employed to distinguish the several periods of the history of 
the globe. There is no one of these periods which is not clearly 
distinguished by the character of its fauna, and no case can be 
cited where stratigraphy has required a division which palzeon- 
tology has not confirmed. If we survey the whole series we 
never find any two consecutive stages in which the zoological 
population has been identical. 

f this is so, the geologists and the palseontologists will be 
unanimous for uniting these two epochs into one, and for apply- 
ing to them acommon name. I think if I am able to prove, 
from the standpoint of palzeontology, that the two periods are 

only one, this result ought to be as fully admitted as in anala- 
us cases for anterior e ; : 

I know that this opinion is not without question, and that some 
geologists, whose learning and judgment I highly respect, think 
that in the condition of the globe and the forces which have 


deposits, following the glacial period, which certainly neither 
commenced nor ends suddenly, will give them very great diffi- 
culties, 

My object in this communication is simply to demonstrate that 
between the Diluvian period and the modern epoch there has not 
been any modification of the fauna having the least relation to 
the changes which characterize and distinguish other palzonto- 
logical faune. For this purpose I shall consider two disti 

ints, all demonstrate first that al/ actual or modern faunz 
ave existed from the origin of the Diluvian period. I shall 


EK ee 


E. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period. 347 


inquire afterwards what differences exist between the Diluvian 
fauna and the present fauna and shall show that they consist 
only in the disappearance of a limited number of the larger 
species. 


epoch, : 
I ought, as I have said, to demonstrate in the first place that 
all the present faunze have existed from the commencement of the 
diluvian period, as well as the last species, of which I shall speak 
farther on, For this purpose I have recently arranged a com- 
plete catalogue of the fauna of European mammifers, and I have 
inquired which have not been found in the fossil state, and what 
are those the bones of which have been found buried in the 
uaternian or Diluvian beds, with the fossil elephant, Hlephas 
Primigenius or with the Cavern Bear, Ursus speleus. 
oning upon comparable and sufficiently certain facts, I 
have excluded from this list: 
Ist, Marine mammifers in view of the difficulty of determining 
the age of marine Quaternian deposits. 
2d, Mammifers of remote regions whose bones are not likely to 
be found in the more explored and better known diluvian de- 
Posits of Central Europe. Thus I have not considered as impor- | 
tant either the monkey of Gibraltar, or the small species on the 
confines of Asiatic Russia, or those which have been recently 
iscovered in Sicily or in Turkey. I have confined myself to 
tually living in places where the Quaternian deposits 
are well known. Besides this, the excellent work of Eichwald 


348 E. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period. 


— the existence of the same state of things in Russia as in 
ngland, Belgium, France, Germany or Switzerland. 

The following are the principal facts obtained from an analysis 
of my catalogue, viz: 

Almost all the common species of Cheiroptera have been found 
in the Quaternary deposits. I have found, especially those here 
cited: Vespertilio:—V. noctula, V. pipistrellus, V. serotinus, the 
common bat, the lop eared bat, Vesp. auritus, the fer a cheval, the 
V. discolor, and the V. mystacinus. Is it not extremely probable, 
not to say evident, that the rare species more recently discovered 
which are wanting upon this list, are wanting because we have 
not known how to distinguish their bones or because they have 
not yet been found? What geologist will venture to affirm that, 
the varieties V. Leisleri, V. Kuhlii, &c., which only appeared be- 
fore the species named above, appertain to a more recent fauna. 

same results are furnished by the Jnsect:vora. 

dn these same Quaternary deposits are cited the hedge-hog, the 
mole and three or four species of the shrew-mouse. 

This is all our fauna, for, on account of the reasons mentioned 
above, I am not able to give any importance to the two species 
of Mygale (‘desmans’), one from the Pyrenees and the other from 
Russia, which have not yet been found in the fossil state. 

The group /odentia is of difficult determination and we may 
naturally expect to find some vacancies, but there are none, how- 
ever, of any importance. We may cite the squirrel, the marmot, 
the dormouse, the mouse, the hamster (Crisetus), the water-rat, 
the ordinary meadow-mouse, the beaver, -the hare, and the 
rabbit. The only striking vacancy will be that of the porcupine, 
but Mr. Arcas has fortunately found this also in the caverns of 
Sicily. There are wanting to our list only some small species of 
the mouse, the garden dormouse, the muscardin, &c., in regard to 
which we may make the same reflection, as was suggested by the 
Cheiroptera. . The jerboa, lagomys, &c., are found as fossils in 
Russia. 


The Carnivora being in general larger than those animals 
which represent the preceding groups and being at the same time 
more easily recognized scarcely present any vacuity. 

There have been found the lion, cat, wolf, domestic dog, fox, 
genet, white bear, brown bear, badger, glutton, martin, beech 
martin, polecat, ermine, weasel and the otter. There is lacking 
to this list only the lynx, and it is important to know whether 
the Felis engtholensis of Schmerling, from the caverns of Belgium 
is not identical with it. I have not supposed that any person 
could see an indication of a subsequent creation in the absence 
of some species from excentric regions as the fox of the north, 
ber a of Poland, or the P. boccamela of the Mediterranean 


ees a 


EE SNS ne ee 


——. = 


E. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period, 349 


The only Pachyderms of the present fauna yet found in our 
Quaternary deposits are three, the wild boar, the horse and the ass. 
Among Ruminants have been enumerated all our present deer, 
the deer properly so-called, the reindeer, the moose deer, and 


_. the roe-buck.. The fallow deer is not comprised in this last, but, 


as is well known, it is not native in Central Europe. There 


animals, modern discoveries authorize us to add man. this, 
as I have said elsewhere,* appears to demonstrate that man has 


to the fauna which then lived in 


What we have said of mammifers ma firmed 


ay also be a of 
birds and reptiles; but upon this part of the subject I shall not 


enter into details, for these classes are less known and do not 
furnish results so certain. The examination of a treatise on pa- 
leontology is sufficient to show that the existing species are al- 
ready indicated in the Diluvian deposits. 

The terrestrial and fluviatile mollusks are in the same cate- 
gory. Thus with the bones of the Hlephas primigenius are 


* Bibl. Univ. (new series), tome vii, p. 364. March, 1860, 


350 E. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period. 


those which destroyed one species of ox mentioned by Julius 
Cxsar, and which destroyed most likely the last representatives 
of the ure-ox (aurochs) and the elk. ‘The fauna of the eastern 
continent has been successively impoverished, and as the popu- 
lation and cultivation of the soil increased only a part of the 
species which once dwelt there remain living. 

It is not possible, in the present state of paleontology to pre- 
pore a complete and precise catalogue of these extinct species; 

ut it issuflicient for our purpose to sketch the principal features 
of such a catalogue. 

I am embarrassed in regard to the Alluvial deposits of Au- 
-vergne, which appear to present characters hat ptional 
It is not perfectly demonstrated that the fauna which they en- 
close has all been contemporaneous with the Quaternary deposits 
of the greater part of Europe. There are found many species as 
yet imperfectly known which appear to be extinct and which 

e not been recovered elsewhere. Such is the Lrinaceus 
major, many of the dogs, some polecats, at least three species of 
eer, the wild goats of Roset, &e. It will probably be necessary 
to add to them hereafter; but new investigations appear indis- 
pensable to make the proper additions with certainty. I have 
experienced some doubt in regard to many races or species of 
true Quaternary deposits, indicated as different from those now 
living, but which have been characterized without doubt by their 
orm and not by appreciable organic characters. It appears to 
me quite natural that species at the commencement of the Dilu- 
vian epoch, finding abundant nourishment in a country where 
great forests and immense virgin territories replaced our present 
culture, and being able there to develop in freedom should have 
frequently had a form a little superior to their existing represent 
atives, which, surrounded by hunters, restrained on every side, 
lead a more difficult and precarious life. I do not think it pos- 
sible to give a specific value to slight differences of stature, if 
all the other characters are identical, and therefore I consider as 
doubtful many of those species inserted in the catalogues of pals- 
ontology. Such are the Talpa fossilis, the Meles Morrent, the 
Lutra antiqua, the Sciurus priscus, the Arctomys primigenia, the 
Myoxus fossilis, the Sus priscus, &e. Some of these are probably 
identical with living species. By new researches we shall find 


ct. 

But aside from these difficulties and doubts a certain number 
_ of species have certainly disappeared which I will briefly enu- 

merate. 

In the family of bears I consider as lost the great Cavern 
Bear (Ursus speleus). Their bones characterize well the de- 
osits called Diluvian, or the formations more ancient than the 

t period of our globe. The Ursus priscus is more doubtful 


- 


= 


| 


o 


E. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period. 351 


many spe 
(1. major, H. minor, H. Pentlandi, and the hippopotamus of the 


The horse of Pézenas — to be another species differ- 
Ent from the one mentioned above as related to the existing 
se. 


The genus Cervus has been numerous from the commencement 
of the diluvian epoch, for to the species now living, and which, 
as I have said, existed then, is to be added the beautiful giant 
Stag of the peat bogs of Ireland (Cervus euryceros), the great deer 

the Sémme (Cervus dama giganteus) the Cervus martalis, 
ange, and many species from caverns described by Marcel 
€ Serres, 


._ Among the other species of ruminants lost from our fauna, it 
18 hecessary to mention the Antelope Christoli, M. de Serres, t 
Dichotoma, Gervais, and Ibex Cebennarum, Gervais. 
A. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serms, Vor. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861. 
46 


S52 E. J. Pictet on the Diluvian Period. 


I will not add the Bos primigenius because it was seen alive by 
Julius Ceesar. 


I have not found among birds or reptiles any species to add 


with certainty to this list. 

We shall find only a few in this category among the terrestrial 
invertebrata. 'The marine deposits on the borders of the Med- 
iterranean contain some mollusks of lost species, but their num- 
bers are small compared with species still living. 


have said, it is the very limited number of species of small size, 
or little connected with the wants of man, among those which 
have disappeared. 

Such is the opinion which has been formed in regard to the 


causes of this extinction. Irepeat therefore that these causes can. 


* Bibl. Univ. (new series), tome vii, p. 871, March, 1860. 


’ 


Ses 


J. Schiel on Phosphoric Acid in Igneous Rocks. 353 


° 
B 
pe 
= 


e contrary, we merely find extinctions which can 
no more furnish a basis for distinguishing two periods than could 
the destruction of the Bos primigenius or that of the Dodo. 


of the extinction of each species. Some investigations of this 


tion of bones to the Quaternary epoch without other details. It 
is important always where it is possible to determine accurately 
the position and the geological relations of the stratum which 
encloses them, and sometimes even to indicate whether they are 
found in the upper or the lower part of the stratum. It is impor- 
tant to examine with great care the bones in the deposits of the 
glacial epoch, for it is very probable that many species have 
extended even to that period. By such studies well directed we 
may obtain more accurate knowledge of this series of extinctions, 
and I doubt not we shall be more and more convinced that they 
have been gradual and successive. 


Art. XXXII—On the Presence of Phosphoric Acid in Igneous 


Rocks ; by JAMES SCHIEL. 


tar 
taric acid and some sulphate of magnesia added, and then the 
phosphoric acid precipitated with an excess of ammonia; the 


* Fownes (Prize Essay, 1845) demonstrated the general presence of phosphoric 
acid in erystalline recks,—Ebs. 


er ee 


354 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


Arr. XXXIII.—Minth Supplement to Dana's Mineralogy; by 
Gro. J. Brusu, Professor of Metallurgy in Yale College. 


List of Works, etc. 


C. F. RaMMELSBERG: Handbuch der Mineralchemie. 8vo, pp. 
1039. Leipzig, 1860.—This work is by no means merely a new 
edition of Rammelsberg’s former ‘‘ Handwirterbuch des chem- 
ischen Theils der Mineralogie.” It is entirely rewritten and re- 

ged, and, as its title indicates, it aims to give the complete 
history of the chemical properties of each mineral species. It 
has seventy pages of introductory matter upon the analyses of 
minerals—the calculation of analyses—a discussion on the value 
of analyses—the chemical constitution of minerals, including 
the function of water—heteromorphism, isomorphism, homceo- 
morphism, etc. ‘The whole is arranged according to a conven- 
ient chemical classification. 

Rammelsberg has done more to give precision to our know!l- 
edge of the chemistry of minerals than any other chemist since 


to the mineralogist, the grandest work of the kind ever pub- 
lished—still on careful examination, we are sorry to observe evi- 
dences of haste, if not carelessness, in its preparation. It is to 
be regretted in such a standard book—as this is sure to become 


Erni, and one by Smith & Brush. “The natural inference is, 
that but one analysis was made by each of the two first named, 
and one by Smith & Tetatesad Hach been the case perhaps 
Rammelsberg might have been justified in his remark, “that 
with such differences in results, the nature (composition) of the 


| 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 355 


mineral remained in doubt.” But how does the ease stand—and 


analyses, and besides showed by direct experiment that the min- 
eral contains no alkalies (this Journal, [2], xvi, 365). No allu- 
sion is made to this latter fact in the work before us, but from the 


Many years prec 

pacing it by the name Hydrargillite. It matters not what 
Hermann analyzed, it is an indisputable fact that Torrey’s Gibbs- 
ite is hydrate of alumina, and furthermore such a change of 
names as our author proposes, is against all usage, and followed 
out would cause endless confusion in nomenclature. We hay 


356 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


noticed only points in regard to American species; other exam- 
ples might be quoted to justify our assertion that the work, 
although of great value, is marred with evidences of haste in 
its compilation, but we ‘would not overlook the great services 
~ illustrious author has rendered to the science of Mineral ogy, 

which no better evidence could be quoted than the work we 
bev before us. 

Dr. Ernst Wess: Ueber die re ee or Mg Entwickel- 
ung des Quarzsystems. 4to, pp.102. Halle, 1 

Ausrecut ScurauF: Ueber die Kiyaaltorme des Kiesel- 

zinkerzes. 8vo, pp. 27, mit 6 Tafeln. ien 
_ AuBRrecut ScHravuF: Krystallographisch-optische Untersuch- 
ungen iiber die Identitiit des Wolnyn mit Schwerspath. 8vo, 
pp. 15, mit 8 Tafeln. Wien, 1860. 

H. DAvBER: Rrmitteleng krystallogra + oeonsi Constanten 
und des — ihrer Zuverlassigkeit (21. Akanthit). 8vo, pp. 18, 
a te 

AMMELSBERG: Ueber Isomorphie und Heteromorphie 
tei Fn Singulosilikaten von Monoxyden und Sesquioxyden. 
Pogg. Ann., cix, 584-94. 

J. Riteiany Buium: Handbuch der Lithologie oder Gestein- 
lehre. 8vo, pp. 356, mit 50 Figuren. Erlangen, 1860. 

W.H. MILER: Pivsinlingraiie Notices, containing obser- 
vations on the Employment of the Stereographic Projection of 
the Sphere in Crystallography ; on the Measure of the Dihedral 
Angles of Crystals; on the Cleavages of Rutile; on the doubly- 
refractive character of Thermophyllite. (L. £. and D. Phil. Mag., 
[4], xix, 325). 

J. P. Cooke: Crystalline Form not necessarily an indication 
of definite chemical composition; or on the possible Variation 
of the Constitution of mineral Species independent of the Phe- 
nomena of Isomorphism. (L. EF. and D. Phil. Mag., [4], xxi, 406, 
and this Journal, xxx, 194.) 

KE. Socutine: Die Einschliisse von Mineralien in krystallisir- 
ten Mineralien, nebst Betrachtungen iiber die Entstehung von 
Mineralien und Gebir rgsarten. 8vo, pp. 357. Freiberg, 1860. 

Des CLoIzeaux ET Damour: Examen des propriétés optiques 
et pyrogénétiques des mineraux connus sous les noms de Gado- 
linites, Allanites, Orthites, Euxenite, Tyrite, Saget et 
Fergusonite. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys, [3], lix, 35 

A. DELESSE: Recherches sur les Peesdomorphoses pp. 76. 
(Extrait des Annales des ens Xvi, os ay 

Aquitta SwirH: A ne ce Arrangement of the 
Simple “Minerals rt ai pea in plana (Dublin Quar. Jour. 
Sci., No. 1, Jan. 1861 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 357 


E. J. CoapmMan: A popular exposition of the Minerals and 
Geology of Canada. Under this title, Prof. Chapman has con- 
tributed a series of interesting articles to the Canadian Journal 
of Industry, Science and Art 
i NNGOTT: Pichersithit der Resultate ning coed 
Forschungen in Jahre 1859. 8vo, pp. 212. Leipzig, 1860.—A 
complete review of the Mi neralogical Researches published in 
1859, with additional observations and critical notes by Prof. 
enngott 
H. Kore unp H. Wiu: Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte 
der Chemie, und verwandter Theile anderer Wissenschaften, fiir 
1859. Giessen, 1860. 8vo, pp. 903.—Pages 765 to 820 contain 
180 Kopp’s excellent review of the progress of Mineralogy for 


ERMANN: Heteromeres Mineral-Systems. (Zweite um- 
sparse Anflage). 4to, pp. 214. Leipzig, 1860. 
. V. ZEPHAROVICH: Ueber die | iaprempecersgr des Epidot. 
8vo, pp. 22, mit 2 Tafeln. Wien, 1860. 


Descriptions of Species. 
MiTE,—For a rig on the crystalline form of this mineral by vom Rath, see 
ees Ann., ext, 25 
ALBITE [p. 240, ee VIII].—An interesting variety of albite ted 
With smoky quartz at Moriah in Essex County, New York. It hie A a Pssanh | wa 
anda peculiar lustre resembling green diallage. Cleavage an ke 
with great distin netness the ae striations. G.=2°633 ( ). Analysis. oy 
Mr. Edward H. Twining, Assistant in the Laboratory of the Yale Scientific 
Si a #e os Mg Na K Ign. 
6701 19°42 0°95 0°39 tr. 11°47 0°25 0°24==$9°73 
AKANTH II].—Kenngott cotisiders the mineral from Copiapo descri es by W. 
J. Tivlae as i eNagecio (Suppl. VILL) to be a cupreous v. stg of akanthite; ex- 
cluding the iron found in the analysis as FeS. the re SOT sulphids of pine and 
copper are in the proportions of 4AgS to 1€uS (Ken “ie apting: 1859, 115). 


2) 
5 
5 
° 
i=] 
S 
® 
g 
S 
n 
co 
2 
= 
5 
® 
Cy 
. 
B og 
ro] 
ca 
= 
Q 
= 
~~ 
= 
“ 
~ 
® 
m 
° 
© 
oe 
S 
SS 
5 
- 
3 


= 
i 


XXX 

Mine near Freiberg. Sp. gr. of Freiberg specimen 92—7199, from Joa 

thal 7-246, At Freiberg it i is associated with argentite and stephanite, —. 

of akanthite by P. Weselsky show it to be identical in chem 1270 ep ion with 
oe 


argentite, Spode: frou Freiberg contained 86-71 silver, 12° 70 8 4 from 
Joachimsthal, 87:4 silver. AgS requires by theory 87°03 Ag, and 1 —Ber, 
Wien Akad, in Jour. prakt. Chem., \xxx, 487. 
Atuminrre [p. ie a Are ses of aluminite by sneer and Dieck (2) fom from 
= vicinity of Halle show, accor to Heintz, that th yee ae 
f different basic poral of alumina, (Kopp, Jahre ahresbericht, 1859, 811): 
Al Fe Mg 
Li 9248 ne 1:92 oi 0-50 ea , 34-914 =10000 
2... 15°66 pee 46: 89 = 98:99 
foe difference. 
Ammoottre [p. 142 — poi: roa has published (Quar. Jour. Chem. Soe., xii, 27) 
an tegen exam amination a red mercurial mineral at ing | with apoio tetra- 


hedrite, atacamite, m satin Puuitite, limonite, and silica manganese and copper 
at Tamillos near Gbiitinibo 3 in Chile. It differs suktally inte the Minshiolte de- 


358 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


ribed by Dom rk) Wigs Gigees in regard to the action exerted upon it by acids; 
still Field considers s only a variety of the mineral, derived from the oxyda 
tion of a mercurial tetrahedrit fh ssa My prolonged digest ion in nitric acid, the 
red powder was found to contain in two different specimen 
He b s Fe H i 

1, 84°42 14:2} 5°43 2°68 4°46 85°50 = 96°70 

2. 37°94 15°26 598 2°94 498 29°78 = 96:80 
pie the sulphur re Laster the mercury and ant pron making the former 

imple eand the latter ptegey _ Syeschane the remainder of each metal, 
the ep considering the sities and oxy n as accidental inaperitinn and deducting 
the water, we have, according to Field's iene es: 
HgS 


a 

Field popeneless that this peg. meted n may be represented as a tribasic testy etd 
nite of mercury combined with tribasic antimonite of the same metal (3HgS, SbS3) 
sae HO, Sb.) sons sot to a 82°93, HgS 35°37, SbO, 17°07, Shs 14-68 


per giving e same percentage and compositi [Ww not ealiy see the 
these two formulas, in the first i dain ine atoms each of HgS 
poe GOs cad one atom ‘ah of SbOy and SbSs, and in the second formula 6Hg0, 
bor 2SbS,, and one atom SbOs. nace is nth reg impossible for these formulas 
to give the same percentage composition. B.] 
eg oa [p. 396, I—VIII].—H. Reinsch fas found in the phosphorite of Ambe 
niy chlorine, ’ fluorine, and iodine, but also bromine.—({Kopp, Jahreshericht, 
150, 805.) 
Bamutte.—See under Si/limanite. 
Barracuite.—See Monticellite, 


_ Beryt —Vi. a of beryl by Hofmeister, (1 and 2) Rosenbach 
in Silesia, Uy He Heubachtlia 


e Fe Ca 

G.=2'65 (es $i 34 21°01 11°32 1:21 026 O12 

65°69 20°41 11°60 — 0:20 O11 
G.=2'63 66:22 16°36 12-79 "63 o'78 083 
—Jour. prakt. Chem., \xxvi, 1, in Kopp’s ae 1859, 778. 

Brvorre [p. 133, I, 11}. —angelsiein has discovered this species at three localities 
near Filipstad in Formieen 1 Sw weden). It occurs in small rounded masses in lime 
yse 


vi 
2. 
3. 


stone, ree 


Mg Fe H 
: . 68°80 3°35 28°80 = 100°95 
G.=2°40 66°80 cas $950 =< Med ae 
;. OT Oi = 


The pure mineral contained no carbonic a —(Kong!. Vetenskaps- ‘heel Firhand- 
lingar, 1858, 187.) 


Bucuoizite.—See under Sillimanite. 


ee 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 359 


black, brilliant black on the surfaces of perfect cleavage; lustre, on ‘i vage surface 
— on cross fracture waxy; streak, greenish gray. Analysis of a specimen 
Leeds: 
Si Al Fe Mn Mg H 

26°30 87:10 25°92 0:93 3°66 6°10=100'01 
This variety of oy hoge: - —_ know ong geologists and mineralogists as 
phyllite, and ao. unt shows in his artic le a subject (given in this number of 

Journal) th fi i ro 


oe al. He r sugge 3 

variety of chlorotoid, although this latter suggestion — — — 
The abundance of chlo rotoid in the schists occurring o reas in Can 

and a Grads Mountain range, has led Hunt to name * sini te "ohlorotoid date 


E [p. 184, I—IV, VI].—Mr. Edw ait A. Manice, of the Yale econ 
Scho, prs amnyzed the olivine Fe by Prof. O. P. Hu bbard in a boulder 
oarse basalt at T hetford, Vermont, with the folcwg result: 
Fe Mg 
40° "5 9°36 50°28 = 100°36 
The oxygen of 3 silica, iron and magnesia is 21°73 : 2°08 : 20°11 or Si: B as 21-73: 
22:19, so 1:1 or (Mg, Fe)38i. 
Grains of green pekeyestite washed from voleanic-sand found on the sea-shore near 
Veuuvins, are ed by Kalle in Rammelsbe Heh ong ry (Pogg. Ann., cix, rae 


e 


contained Si 40°36, hs 46°70, Fe 12°34—=99'3 his gives the formula Fe*Si+ 
TMg*Si ae een very nearly » with the Socspmiiin of the beaver” a the 
Palias eidtene nev) 


of Mt. Som an 6 cecurs in erystals. Sp. gr.=3°243. The pa nase ‘oil 
ae pert she be fiiculty, pk trac dt acid. §i 42-41, Mg 53°30, Fe 2:33= 

“Od. cal be a mposition of boltonite as ceed by Smith 
upp I) ay the pari (Supp VID. 


«, CHINOCHLORE in? anne i i, = a ap of clinochlore from Achmatowsk by 


ruve (Kol in, Russla , in Kenngott’s Uebersicht, 1859, 54): 
ee 6: th ~ Me or ee H 
81°64 13:54 5°83 36°20 0°05 12°74 
8152 13:96 612 35°68 0:05 12: 


6 
agreeing very closely with the analyses by Craw and v. Kobell of the American 
and Bavarian mineral. 
PPER p. i shes , VI].—Hautefeuille has discovered the presence of mercury in 
& Specimen o ntiferous ne from Lake Superior.—(Compt. Rend., xiii, 160, 
Kenngott, Uaheraehe 1859, 1 


in Bohem ineral is jet-black; opaque; streak dark t “i ners afer 
hetie a ree po | mineral is ea oe 3. 
fuses to a black magnetic mass and wit h fluxes gives reactions for iron can iia 


8 gi 
hese, Dissolves i in acids, and on caporation yields gelatinous silica. Composition: 
‘in 


. Be “4 
29-08 ée 52 101 4:02 9°76 


Bi 
21° 
[A cece of the ri See of iron in this mineral = v. Kobell gave 
5°35 on which he recalculated one of gas s analyses (see Min.). We a 
nother anal, ae me eo mann ehh = here cesquiay adres i, Sag (Schweig. 
=100-78. 

mour gives the pit fie it, ro Bests, ln, or Mg Poeiish ery 
Qi ss Whitneyite. 
Davyyz.—See Nepheline. 
Au. Jour. Sc—Sgeconp Series, Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861. 


ae 


£60 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


Dratxroerre [p. 446, III, VII].—The variety of this sangony called Himbeerspath, 
oceurring at Oberneisen gave E. Hildebrand on analysi 
M Mg 


Mn Fe 
55°32 2:99 20 0°61 = 99°84 


Dra eeEs iii Kobell has given this name to a variety of what has pee ; 


tofore been considered as tantalite, from Tammela in Finland. The specific gra 


by Rose, Jac 

from 7°38—7'5. The pes of the streak blackish- e fro! 
Tammela analyzed by Jacobson was dark brownis a . In other respects dianite 
corresponds perfectly in an characters with tantalite. Von Kobell, however, 
finds it to contain a new metallic acid belonging to the same group as tantalic an 
columbic acids, Pye oe calls dianie acid, an ‘the uthor has also discovered this 

acid in euxenite, zeschivite and samarskite. For a description of the chemical 
apts of this raat see this re = ra (2), pa 74, and Bull. der Akad. der Wissen- 

tet March 10, 1860 (Mun 
ore [p. 206, II—VII at Fiernaite has published a continuation of his re- 

cards on Pog! “pace ( our. * spor sods  goige lxxviii, 295). We quote on ly the 
new analyse e@ paper is mostly t up witha a disenssion of the author’s views 
and Steptoe Ms the ee Leases 


Al Fe Fe be Mg Ign. : 
2 Road @Oisans, G. 3-42. 38-00 20°87 15°06 1°90 21°93 — 2-°08— 99°S4a 
ee 


G. 3°37. 37-32 22°85 11-56 1:36 22-03 0-77 2-93— 99°31 
G. 3-49. 36-79 21-24 12-96 5-20 — 2-86—100-32 
4, etait G. 3-41, 40-27 22 239 21-61 0-53 O41 
5. Sillbdhle G. 3-45. 39°67 18-55 14°31 8-25 20°53 162 123 Na052—99-68e 
Rae. G. 347, 40-08 16-91 15-93 1-44 19°11 4-97 1-20— 99 
(@) with trace Mn. 


ra ste on the crystalline form of epidote see v. Zepharovich in Ber. Wien 
Akad, XX 80, 
Favs se 28}.—A. Knop shows from the optical properties of this mineral 
that it ielonks to ‘the priate and not to the an system, in which it h 
heretofore been classed by many mineralogists.—( Ann. Chem. Pharm., exi, 375.) 


Fetpspar [p. 228, I—IIT]. ak oie eet from the trachyte of Drachenfels 
on the Rhine e gave Beameatitshdie (Zeit tsch. d. deutschen geolog. ——— xi, 487): 
Al 


#e K Na Ca Me 
65 ‘87 18:53 ir. 10°32 3°42 0°95 QO 39 ies 92 
Rammelsberg considers it an isomorphous mixture of a soda and potash Near 
For analyses of the feldspar of the Norwegian zircon-syenite, see Pogg. evil 
42 


A. Mitscherlich has found baryta as a constituent of the sponge from Hohenfels, 
Rieden nap tee en gene and in the adularia from St. ay thard in quantities 
varying from 0°45 to 2°33 —(Jour. prakt. Chem , Lxxxi, 1 

Fereusonire [p. 350 Cott —Nordenskiéld (Jour. re Chem., Ixxxi, 200,) 
gives a new analysis af de socalled Sergusonite from Ytter 


b w a Fe . H 
46°33 2°854 39°80 3°15 1¢ 0-70. 6°44 = 100°39 


(a) with SnQg. 
‘The crystals are wre pe have a dark brown color, translucent on the edges 
H.=4°5-5. Sp. gr., This differs very materially from the composition of the 


Greenland gt Se as phar by Hartwall and Weber, that mineral having 
be anhydrous, - 


Fournetire.—See Vetrah * 
Garnet Les 194, Vin, s. Hunt has discovered an emerald-green en garnet 
at Oxfo sige arse + with millerite, It is snssive, granular, or in 
g uwarowite, lime-alumina 


is. 
Samah wah € prea of doin (le Sowa fat 2 ). 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 361 


A bright red a dead asia ii (spessartine) from Miask, analyzed by 

Lissenko, contain 
A Mn Fe Ca 
0 17°48 50°60 14:32 0°51 = 99°21 
kine. tin Russlands, werng te Vebersicht, 1859, '74.) 
Gersporrrire [p. 58, VII, VIII].—A massive variety of ber hig Pele from Pfingst- 
wiese spear Ems afforded Pega "al prakt, Chem., 12): 
S As Sb Co Fe ie 

21°51 33°25 0°62 22- Pe 164 16°64 4°01=100°46 

Excluding the copper it resembles the ferruginous variety of gersdorfite from 


ca re in Styria analyzed by Ples 


BsitE [p. 134, 506, IV].—In noticing Rammels st be kd ocd we have 
siveady called attention to his ‘treatinent of this spec We here repeat, that 


onfirmed the original result as given by Dr. Torrey, namely, that the 
aa is a hydrate oa pth and even purer than the crystalline hgdrargillite 
the Ura 
e do n ot pr retend to determine what Hermann examined, if if was really a 
Dicsbolnte, “ most probably did not come from Richmond. e are, however, some- 
what at loss to understand the following statement made in Hermann 


tion of the alumina, then ammonia in excess, and finally su culph a e of magnesia, with- 
out producing any precipitate of phosphate of magnes hed. ammonia. This is 
pie a startling fact for a mineral in which he claims ito rene found from 11:90 
0 3762 pr. ct. 


clude that this negativ idence w sufficiently satisfacto: monstration of 
the absence of any considerable amount of phosphoric acid in so 
ave been un 0 : mg any reaction for phosphoric acid in Gibbsite oe the 
abov thod, but ve never experienced gif a in detecting it by this 


we 
ns in Wavellite or plieaphate of alumina.—. 
Gresrcrrre.—DesCloizeaux has confirmed the tert ges ad god Tes of this 
eae by a an examination of its spi properties.—(2¢ Mem 
3 Analysis of gmelinite, discovered by Gand 7 near it ba Ba in 
the ps d mg Ah by Damour (Bullet. Soc. Géol. (2) xvi, 675, in Jahrb. Min. 
1860, 78). 


Si Al Ca Na K H 
= 2°07 7% 19°55 5°26 5°51 078 22°00 = 99°47 
> tr ‘ ae I, If, V-VIl] ign gs r. Genth’s interesting bg ewbieccend on the 
ka see this Jou r. [2], xviii, 258. This paper has ae anslated 


a tepabietiee by Prof. Cotta in his “ Gangstudien.” Freiberg, 1 
ced [p. 92, II-IV].—R. See cameras — ae 


Kirghes e-Steppes, ‘covering an ee = A to 10 square were, x 
Werst == 3500 feet) occurring in cap pres in clay slate. This 
Stance had a slaty structure nee peri ed 40°55 ite, 56°56 earthy cls 


ru 
280 water. Specific gravity = 2°60.—Bull.d. Natur. de Moscou, 1858, 530, Kenn- 
gott, Uebersicht, 1859, (105. 
me [p. 323 f harmotome from Arsirensherg and Stron- 


tian, Cacasetie: (Pog. ‘Ann, ex, yee), 


rH K Ka it 
1. Andreasberg, 4849 1635 2008 207 tr. 1800 99:99 
2. Strontian, 47 2 age ‘04 ge. 1:00 103 © 13-45 10025 
ratio of R, is as 10:5, taking silica as Si02, Ram. 
RF eaagcaniy the formula ‘Bak K, Na) Bi8 ree Si? 4-58. For the relations ba. 
tween this species and phillipsite see the original 


362  —- Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


‘a we {I1, IV].—Dr. Genth informs us that he has now in his collection a 
specimen of harrisite containing a nucleus of unaltered galena; thus substantiating 
the arenes of his conclusion that harrisite is copper-glance pseudomorphous of 
galena 

Hatyrye [p. 230].—The blue transparent crystallized haiiyne occurring with 
pyroxene ae mica at Monte Somma, examined by Rammelsberg, (Pogg. Ann., cix,) 
577, gave in two analyses 


Si ( K 

G.=2-464 ; I. 11°25 34-04 undet. 10°89 11°41 2 os 

: 2. undet. 84:08 27°64 10°30 bag 8 ieee 6 
Mean, +105 34:06 27°64 10°60 11°79 496=100'30 

Oxygen, 6°75 1768 12°91 2°89 3:02 0°84 

(a) with traces of iron. 

Subtracting from the oxygen of protoxyds one third of 6°75, or the amount necessary 
to combine with the 8 esent, we have 4°5 remainder, and pe Pigg’ of R, 4, Si 


wil aking silica as SiOz, the formula (RY . The oxygen of 
ombined with § is to that c ith Si og . : 
sequently the formula of the mineral ma ressed as R §+2(R Si+-A! Si), 
wi i+241°Si#=5 11-10, $i 3419, Al 28°51, Ca 10°37, Na 11°48, 
Rammelsberg calls att ation to G. Rose’s observation that sod tag bas Hae ae 
nosean are isomorphou ial silicate (R, ae ee occurs in all; 
contains chlorine, as se asa ain amount o. The f eeieiposition a ‘the 
ree minerals m may be expressed as follows ; 


A. Sodalite = NaCl+n (R, Al, Sit) 
B. Haiiyne yaa aA Xi, Siz) 
C. Nosean =A 
NDITE oni: ]-—A specimen ne aden ema ge Tieger- 
Nitin in etl salon by py tg (Pogg. Ann., cx, 525) lost 1°91 pr. et 
when the air-dried mineral was left for two it ree sifigticns acid, panty 13°5 addi- 
tional on ignition, in all 15°48 pr. ct. Composi 


Si #1 Ca ‘3 N H 
59°63 15:14 6°24 2°35 046 15-48—=99°30 
Oxygen 30°95 707 1°78 0°40 0°12 13-74 
The ratio of R:Al:Si:H is nearly 1:3:12:6, considering the loss of 1°91 as 
brasserie ees the dry mines) couieiie Si 60°97, Al gf -49, Ca 6°38, K 2:40, Na 


0°47, H13 pie ving the oxygen ratio 1:3:12 the s ame as given in the 
Miscraloes Rant rg, however, Becta 3 the eae ratio ge be more correct, 
as the zeolites Sealy part with a portion of a: gs nd 1°91 pr. ct. is too much to 


called hygroscopic moisture, He Nag ‘the formula (Ca, . K, Na)? Si8 + Ais Sio +197. 
whic — the same general formula as stilbite, and in this view thes ——_ 
may 


e rokobe bodies. [It is d 
authors use the name s¢ilbite for the species which the Englis merican a 
thorities call heulandite, and desmine for the mineral we d thee as stilbite— 
G. J. B. 


HJELMITE.—WNordenskiéld, Jour. prakt. Chem., \xxxi, —This 
proposed by Nordenskiéld for a new tantalate found at KKararfihof j in Fi 
Crystalline form, undetermined. Color, jet black; lustre, metallic ; fracture granu- 
] =5°0 streak, blackish-gray. B.B. dec ecrepitates, falls to pieces 
gives off water. “In n oxydizing flame becomes brown, but does not fuse; with salt of 
fan dissolves to yee ee glass; with i ‘sien a colorless glass, 
es opaque on flaming; with soda and charcoal eo — spangles. 


: . 
> 


a Sn On da  ¢ - oe at Bcd 
62-42 6562 010 426 5:19 1-07 rs 806 3:32 S20qnoe oT 
8 Tega apres 


a 


: 
P 


June 15th, oe a 66°42, Boek H 374 


Ninth Supplement to Dana's Mineralogy. 363 


HORNESITE. ee has given this —_ to a new hydrated arseniate of . 
magnesia from the Banat, first observed and r ized as a new species by Dr. 


granular calcite. Crystalline form, monoclinic. The folie are dee et optically 
peel he on cleavage surface pearly; folix, flexible; H.=0 
474, cording to von Hauer it is insoluble in water, but ‘easily coluble i in seid 
Composi sitio on: 
a i 
24°54 29°07==99°94 
giving exactly the ape: 8Mg tei or Mg? As-++8H, analogous to the general 
formula R* As-+-8H for pee Baiting k6ttigite and symplesite.—(Kenngott, 
Uebersicht, 1859, 1 
HyYDROMAGNESITE [45 6].—P. Meyer de escribes an impure variety of hydromagne- 
site as occurring at Kaiserstuhl in Baden.—( Ann. der Chem. und Phar., exv, 129.) 
Kao [p. 249, V].—Analysis by A. Knop in Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1859 
573: 
Bi Al H 
49°92 85°28 tr. 14°85=100°00 
AMOHALITE [p. 382].—Analysis of bet so-called keramohalite from Maderan by 
Schweizer (Kenngott, Uebersicht, 1859, 12): 
S a ee a ee Oe oe 
35°96 1055 374 251 106 058 022 027 412 tr. 4426 


(*) With some ammmonia. 


8 dc. 
lar m 

Poi {p, 237, VII, Pari = 4g white feldspar from Radauthal in the Harz 
examined by R a con 


‘ydeais sabe Schweizer’s experiments to be a mixture of alum, with ls. Ma, herd 
nngott shows that Stromeyer’s mangan-magnesia-alum m 
a 


: ea Mg Na kK Ign. 
G==2'8tT. 51° 00 2951 1129 O28 314 209 2-48=99°79 
Is essentially labradorite. ie ai der deutschen geolog, Gesellsch., xi, 101, in 
Kopp’s hresbericht, 1859, 


Larts-Lazuut es Berg: as described a variety of la “4 -lazuli 
from Goauin ny hi eh which eng ns strongly on heating —(Bull. de la Soe. 
Géologique, ‘st xvii, 432.) 


Leap [p. 17, III, 1V].—C. v. Reichenbach has found ace piece in small globules 
in a variety of sicaiee tufa at Rautenberg i in northern Moravia.—( Verha ndl. d. k. k. 
geolog. Reichsanstalt, in Kopp’s Jahresbericht, 1859, 769. 


Levorre [p. 231, III, V, VIj.—Bergemann (Jour. prakt. Chem , lxxx, 418) 
describes a pseudomorph of cea from Miscokote = enthel which occurs in perfect 
B. 


> aeechdr yt H,=5'5; Sp. gr. =2°5 acts like irthl : DB pigs 

€composed by prolonged data in chlotegiiae — = one case 5°94 
taken u % Composition of 

Meg K Na 
60 46 22-11 1 98 1:22 13°53 0°52—==99°82 

Loss by ignition 1-22 pr. ct. re 2 ew mineral has the oxygen ratio 1:38-1:94 
or meh es of an Cigodanayit the soda is ot net by potash. 

Liserueyire ETHENITE [p. 420, VITI].— “Mercedes” mine near 
po arene eee with tagilite ae imonite. Tt me a ada Sng fp color and 


on, according to F. Field (Chem, Gazette, 


izeaux has proved this wage be a pseudomorph by an 


examination of of it its tial Prop properties. (2¢ Memoire 


364 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


Mascacntye.—On page 880 in the Mineralogy the formula for this species should 
read NH‘O serie instead of 2H. 


co oppositi in.) ha 
erystals of cuprite occuring in the same vein with melaconite are uniformally octo- 
and in his opinion there is no sufficient reason for considering the crystals 
orphs. 


ELANHYDRITE.—A new mineral found in a decomposed wacke from Schmel- 
zerthal near Honnef on the Rhine; described by A. Krantz ( Verha ndl. d. naturhist, 
ide u. West halens, xvi, 154). It is amorphous, occurs in irregu 


rn 
streak, blackish-brown. Does not fall t © pieces 
ments adhere to the tongue, G.= 1:82. Ana alysis by Rammelsberg : 


Si #e Fe Mn 
41°63 18° 3 2°36 4-838 2°51 5°23 167 20°71=100°66 


giving the formula R? se Si+12H a composition near that of palagonite. 
(Kopp’s Jahresbericht, 1859, 795.) 


Metturre [p. 475, II, VII].—Kokscharow describes two localities * Nee mineral in 
Russia, one at Maléwka in Government Tula, the other near Nertc sate au- 
thor gives new measurements, and an agate of the specimens from M by 
J. v. Iljenkow.—(Aokscharow Mat. Min. Russ., iii, 217, in Kenngoit, sani tf 
1859, vie ae 
1 


0 x H 
G.= 1597 aie 39 14-20 44-16 


e amount of carbon corresponds to 42°36 pr. ct. of mellitic acid, so that the results . 
agree very closely with these obtained by Wohler for specimens from Artern. 


Mrcroctine [p. 242, VI, VII].—Scheerer hg analyzed the siege ia which the 
Norwegian spreustein ‘is imbed ed, and also the feldspar inclosed in the spreustein 
crystals, (Pogg., eviii, 480, in Kopp’s Jahresbericht, 1859, 785), Anal, 1, is the guter ’ 

and 2, the enclosed felds spar, 


Sn Si x K Na Ign. i 
G.—2'580 1. 66.03 19.17 O31 020 696 683 O21=—= 99°71 
: 2. 65°68 1953 052 O22 693 %11 011100710 
This proves the feldspar matrix and the inclosed nucleus to be identical. 
Monrorite.—See under Sillimanite. . 


MonrTIceturre Ip. att} —An examination of this mineral by: Rammelsberg (Bion. 
Ann., cix, 569), shows it to be distinct from chrysolite, pees already podicaes by 
Scacchi. The crys stals analyzed had a yell perth “gray co 
rounded only on the edges, “The white ade te eons is Bei se in chlosbydrie 
acid, but by heating por aad Composi 


Ca Fe 
3T: 89 34:92 22°04 5°61 = 10046 

—o 19°67 9°98 882 1-24 

The oxygen ratio of the silica to the bases is 19:67:20°04 or 1:1 the same 
tna but ‘the mine ~ “gs9p isomorphous mixture of nearly equal parts wy a 

te of lime, and silicate of magnesia, a portion of the latter being replaced by 

Loe of iron. ‘Forma oat Si-t(ile #Pe)* § Sis =6i sa 18, Oa 34°65, Mg 21°65, 
Fe 5°57 pgp - the cleavage of ibe 
solite. Secanation se cine a tha of Britny 3 ener 
latter must henceforth hg sania. under mon spt bu ay 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. : ae 


Narrourre [p. 327, VI, VII].—I have analyzed the natrolite oe found “i 
ae rn New Jersey, in the greenstone taken fi rom. - tunnel constructed by th 
ew York and Erie Rai Road Company. on 
& Ca 


H 

G= 2-249 47° 31 26°77 0°41 1544 0°35 98410012 

showing it to be a Abe — natrolite and not thomsonite as has been supposed by 
NEPHELINE (i 089, 2 Th VII} —The so-called davyne of Monticelli — pedis: 
i d in the mineralogy under nepheline, has recently been pra b mels- 

ogg. Ann., cix, 579). née results obtained show dav oer ‘hon 
nepheline only in containing carbonate of lime. The crystalline pt iba cleavage 
s 


K H 6 
l. 8876 = 28-10 932 8©=—-15-72 1-10 196 = B63 = 99°59 
2. 8681 2866 10°33 15°85 1a — 6-01 
; 9°39 


If the carbonic acid and an equivalent eee of ‘hive be subtracted i in (1) we have 
Bi 45-41, Al 32-92, Ga 1-97, Na 18-41, This is nepheline, and davyne may 
be regarded a s aco mpound of carbonate of lime with nepheline, anew to the 


a 


mp: nD f cancrinite as nD . Rose. _Cancrinite differ davyne in 
that the amount of lime it contains is not sufficient to saturate the carbonic acid, and 
& portion of the carbonic aci us sumed ith soda, If these 
two minerals ained carbonic acid combined only with lime, and that in an inva- 
riable peg Ai it could be assum s nepheline and carbonate of lime erys- 
tallize in the A big that they might possibly be isomorphous mixtures, But 
Rammelsberg r ries sie s that the varying amounts of lime and water (in some specs. 
pr. ct.), m {tthe rational ey diepai der ee minerals as nepheline to a 
certain seer sdedeeh by the introduction = carbonate of lime—an analogous de- 
composition being found in the scapolite group. 


apolit 
Pecrotire [p. hag 4 in III, v—Vul] .—Inglestrém has found egg at ane, 
bans Iron-Mine in and, associated with chl and calcit 
resembles asbestos. “BB . give 3 - water and foes “Ct to a white ers A 
partial Baa gave—(Jour. _— t. Chem. Ixxxi, 396,) 
- Nak wer Mn 
52-94 38°83 8 48 175 3°70 
(a) by the loss. 
Bibra « .—For remarks on the formula of, see Rammelsberg’s article in Pogg. 
MN,, CX, 622 
Pao.ertre [p. 251, VIII].—Mr. Richard Miller of Carlsruhe has communicated 
to Prof Dana he following analysis of the so-called naecrite (Nakrit) recently found 
at the Fin igheit mine in Frei erg, Saxony. occurs as a white, scaly cry 
gate in seams in gneiss and is associated with galena. Composition 


Si 
46°74 39°48 14°06 
Oxyge 24-92 18°45 12:97 
The ratio of Si, Al, H, is as 4:3: : and Miiller ed ee — X13 $i4-6H or 
Al, Si? This is exactly the formula and co appl VE Genth fo: 
the pholerite of Tam maqua, Pa, eit Jour. [2], ‘xxviit, P61, phe ‘Supp vil. Kop 
an analysis P h fiir Min- 
eralogie, 1859, 545. . 
PP esta [p. 426, II, vi-vin|— F. Field describes ae from a 
une near Coquimbo which have a ag ares ‘is bales and consist 
Ca Cl ri 


on $ 
cat Ags 293 8769 36: “64 Ph 2°3 = = 99°91 

_ This he represents by the formula 2(On’, a ioe. )+Ca Cl or 2 atoms 

___ phosphocalcite, 10 ous of tribasic phosphate of lime, and 1 atom of chlorid of cal- 


366 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


cium, It pipes omg a hydrous apatite, and it maria be a whether the 
mineral is of u rm composition, there is how no doubt that the copper exists 
in the mineral hs as ngs hate.—( Chem. Gazette, Ju a 15th, 1859 

Payiiire—See Chlorotoid. 

PINITOID; A. Knop (Jahrb. Min., 1859, 558).—This nev name has been give 
toa sosiaaeal of a rock beerery: near Chemnitz, in Saxony. The rock poe 
according to Knop, of quartz 58°06, mica 6°19, feldspar 8°44 on pinitoid 25°77 woe - 
The pinitoid was essing .« ut from the other species by sulphuric acid. 

cl 


Mere cryeteliine ptt of a ty and Se ae character. ‘cers le “i oil a 
i i tisa 


posed pornty’ ry. ‘Com 
Si 


Mn H 
ATT 32°65 8: 94 5°86 150 0°49 tr 4:19 = 101-40 
This corresponds so closely to some of the analyses of the Saxon pinite, that it is to 
be Lontel the author has embarrassed the science with a new name for a species 
already overloaded with synonyms, 

PISANITE, onli Uebersicht, 1859, 10. This name is given by Kenngott to 

a cupreous variety aon copperas from Turkey, analyzed by Pisani, noticed in the VIII 
under probe 


Potycrase [p. 3 st) —This x one has been found by E. — in the syenite of 
the Plauenische-Grund near Dresden, (Letter from Prof. Geinitz). 

Proustire [p. 78].— Analysis of proustite from Chile by F. Field (Quar. Jour. 
Chem. Soc., xii, 12): 43 pe : , 

Ag As 8 
64°88 15°12 19°81 99°81 

3AgS, AsSy. 

Pyrarernirs [p. 77, IV]. rows red silver from Chile gave F. Field on analysis 
(Quar. Jour. Chem. Soc, xii, 


g Sb 
59°01 53°16 (pai = 99°62 
ou cia 
x [p. 158, I, II, V—VIII].—Crystals of pyroxene from Vesuvian la 
of rio erution in seay, analyzed by Wedding (Kopp’s Jahresbericht, 1859, 7 $0). 


Al #e 6 Mn 
48° ‘86 8°63 2°73 4: 54 20°62 14-01 tr, = 99°39 
: For pet ma on crystals of pyroxene from Warwick by vom Rath, see Pogg. 
nN., CXi 
ae [p. 120, V, VII]—Observations on Be 2d bah inved “tno of, see Kokscharow 


in Bull. Imp. A Acad, St. Petersburg, i, 229. Haiding marks on the crystals, 
of ates from Graves’ Mo untain, Wien at vere nd. st 5, 1860. “e 
00, II, VI).-—Rammelsberg (Pogg. Ann. cix, 570 


results given by Scacchi. Occurs i n transparent dimetric nist color, red- 
dish white; sp. gr. 2-982, Gelatinizes with chlorhydric acid. B.B, fuses to 4 
white enamel. 

i 


a Ca Na kK Fi 
A 39°79 2215. 81-59 3°30 1°20 tr, == 98:03 
2 40°78 21-07 ae _e_ 
3. 40°97 21°30 33°14 es Serr 
Mean, 4054 21°54 ~ + 32°36 3°30 1°20 ir. = 98°91 
Oxygen, 21°03 10°34 9°24 0°84 0°20 
The oxygen ratio of R: Al: Si is as 1 Rabe tee as in garnet. Rammelsberg 
writes the formula 3(Ca, Na, oe Eau This analysis agrees with the results 
obtained by Scacchi (Min. p. 200). Sarcolite differs from humboldtilite in contain- 


ing no magnesia, but the t "abaya eg are near pseu ta toe bane OS 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 367 


ScaPo.ire [p. ae fo If, V).—An examination of paralogite by K 
ee it to ¢, confirm rming its identity with scapolite, as  Berpev tad sug- 

ested oe Redingott' (Bul Imp. Acad. de 8t. Pensa, i, 229). 

Serrentine [p. 282, I-VIIT).—C. W. Hultmark has = the chrysotile and 
serpentine from Sala, Sweden (Jour. prakt. Chem., \xxix, 878). 

Si Al Fe Meg ere bese 

Chrysotile, 1. 41°03 1:43 125 4604231 te. IBZ 99°74 
Serpentine, 2. 41:02 1°84 1°81 42°21 &. 12°91 048100" 27 

Stiumanrre [p, 265, 513].—An optical examination of this mineral by DesCloi- 
see has fina ~ a = rest the question as to om relations to kyanite, Its optical 
eitt is ic. With thi 


e same opt tical properties, they also differ from kyan 
—_ ity. A new analysis of sillimanite by Sines gave: (Ann. des Mines (oh pe 
19.) 


Si Al Fe Mn 
39°06 59°53 1-42" 0'28=100°28 
from which DesCloizeaux concludes that the composition of sillimanite is _ 
while kyanite is —_ *, To establish this point fully, will require an accurate e 
ernie oo only of the dese of sillimanite, but also of fibrolite and on 
d 

Sriver re 15, III, 1V].—A oa of silver after stephanite is described 

byG. vom Rath in Pogg. Ann., cxi, 266 


Sopauire [p, 229, - VI, VUI).—Two varieties of sodalite from Monte 
have been analyzed by Rammelsberg (Pogg. Ann, cix, 574). 1. Colorless bare 
crystallizes in regular ae ae sagen is associa wit augite and mica; sp. gr. 
2°136. 2. Green sodalite, is are, crystallizes in dodecahedrons with cubic 
planes, Soren in limestone with yess and nepheline. The analyses, calculating 
the chlorine as combined with sodium give 
i Na 
a. 38°12 31°68 18°49 6°69 4°37=99.35 
2. 38°76 8462 21°18 2°55 1°67=98°78 


The oxygen of the soda, alumina and silica in Lae ie sigs 14°79: 19°79; in (2.) 
5-43 : 16°17: 2012, or very nearly 1:3:4 in both v 
a elsberg —— it as “Sat ADS er with varying portions of 

chlorid of sodium 1.) the amount of sodium combined with the chloro is 
equal to one-thir @ ths: a existing as siete, while in (2.) it is but one-ninth, The 
formulas given for the two varieties a 

1: Seeriti a AGH a Siac s-oteai KOS) 

2. ee ee ee 
The author argues a en double silicate is isomorphous with NaCl, as 
stances combined in various ie oa iene sil baie the same crystalline piso No.1 
has the same compositio Greenland, and the blue 
from it Litchfield, Sele, pts the Tmen one 


Decomposed sodalite 
ay. variety ne weat shoved Flean from Ppeert hg Te occurs in cagemnie 
cahedrons with black Sorabionts (arfvedsonite?). Decom ot acids. 
Si Al Na cl Hi (loss). 
43°20 82°54 11-42 3:00. i. 984 
Oxygen 22-48 15°19 ia Oat . 895 
The ratio for R, 41, Si, H, is nearly 1:4:6: 2, - which the author gives the for- 
mula 38 Si R184 60q, 3 but it may os questionable whether this substance is 
~ homog dw being considered my A distinct chemical compound, 


Am. Jour. Psat plese mag txt No. 93.—Mar, 1861. 
48 


C. T. Jack 
- composition with the Braiilien bornith 


368 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


Sritpyomenane [p. 287, II, ee —L. ah dogle eraiey, or, prakt. Chem., — 
397), has found stilpnomelane ab Pen ag n the Parish of Nordmark in Sweden 


occurs in veins sometimes four inches Bg ASE atte radiated foliated, sometimes in 
globular masses intermingled with actinolite Composi 
Si #1 Mg 
45°61 Sy 10 5°00 3°00 9:14 ==100°45 


[The author gives no poet that all the iron exists as protoxyd, thus leaving the 
e mineral in doubt; we have ay eviouly« arsioke attention to the 

ance of snetinicing £ e oxydation of the iron in this mineral, gps discussing 

its relations to the American chalcodite (this pag 12], XXV, 198). —<¢ 


eee [p. 426 ee Field has analyzed He re — the “ Mercedes” mine 
ear Coguimbo, Chili. It is a beautiful fibrous and occurs in considerable 
pot uantity associated with limonite. (Chem. Gaadtie, Te ae Tath, 1859.) 


61 70 27°42 10°25 = 99°37 


This gives the formula Ou‘ ® -++ 81, the same as obtained by Hermann for the orig- 
inal ic from Nischne Tagilsk. 


Ac [p. am —A peculiar ogee A pametiaty of this species occurs in v 
gneiss at riate, onnecticu t. It has a dark leek green color, and a wd “iudiee 
and feel. H.= =2'82. Reateeree Dr. H. H. Lummis in the Laboratory of 
the Yale Satanti rae aah 
i Fe Mg H 

6400 4°75 : 2747 4°30 

yaire [p. 21, 512, I, ye Ger. analyse of tetradymite from Cumberland 
Englanl. by Rammelsberg (Min. e, p. 4): 

Bi Te 


s 
na 6°73 6°43==97°49 
equal to Bi*+Te 
The telluret of os el ae Gold Mine near Dahlonega analyzed by Dr. 
, 39), = promagpe ced by him to be identical in 
ean 


reéxamined by Dr. F. A. Genth 
with the following result : (Min ot ins, (2), i, 358.) 
C 


Bi 0 Fe Au. Tere &e, Se 
Gr941 Ll 50°83@ 48-29 0-06 = tr.=100°00 
: 5097 47°25 0°06 0-2 ose tr== 99° $3 


' fa) by the difference. 


This agrees with the composition obtained by Ei — for the seg a from 

ee Oo. Pleo nia, and differs entirely from and the results of Dr, Jack- 
on. This difference is SF tore by the fact that th the ‘oth ds of ism vie employed 

b Dr. Jack unreliable, and consequently gave erroneous results; attentio 

has been called to this point i in an editorial notice in ‘Erdmann ns af ae praktische 

Coen, ae 507, also in a similar catigh in ue Réperet oire de Chemie gee “g 288, 

as W ent r. Genth (loc. cit.). 


_—G, J. B. 
IK enth has seated sl to Dr. Jackson, (Mining Mag., 
(2), li, 64, January,) ee the i inaccuracies of the methods used . the latter. i. 

Tere u, Vi ne has described a new om of tetra 
hedrite etic Ardihate | ak de Kine) F inci which he calls fourn It ge 
with galena in a quartzose porphy o physica ical characters, pte ciety, 
given. its composition in thr eo 


Pb Fe As Sb Quartz. 

1. G=4319 26:50 - oe Fivoo ©} 6 S50. . O60. 188). Ie: 
$ G.= 4305: 230° 870 1670 “210 580 1600 2740 — 
ag oust fy ds Bike: 1050: 19°20 4250 670 ie: 15°20 


; 
| 
| 
i 
‘ 
1 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s a inseiinate it 369 


rejecting the quartz gangue, the mean of the iste ate og Cu 32°00, Pb 12°00, 
S 23:00, Fe 3-00, As 8°00, Sb 22° Yee Rendus, li, 


in Silesia pal pra akt, Chem., \xxix, 41 5). In thin s he ers translucent. Co 
dark-brown alm ac H=4, Sp. gr. 
surface of the mineral is frequently coated with oxyd of manganese. The pure 
mineral dissolves in chlorhydric acid without evolution ot chlorine, ‘Conga sition : 
Mn Ca gn, 
32°76 81 19 80°83 155 1:19 032 0-41 0-93 1:28 = 100°29 
—— the formula Mn‘ +e: P. 


NOPHANE.— Websky (Zeitsche. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellschaft, xi, 384, Kenn- 
i, eterche, 1859, 193), has given a more complete notice of this mineral before 
b ie erber; 


got 

described y h m (loc. cit., v, 427). — in ag copper mines at Kupfer in 
ilesia, The minera appears s to be co’ amorphou oF the microscope 

reveals small acicular crystals which in weet have the doa at hexagonal 

prisms. Color of crystals ae Fe ~yellow, of the compact variety art green. Hard- 

ness somewhat less than 3 imen not ctly pu , vitre- 
us to ere e gives reactions for water (alkaline), tellurium, 

selenium; in forceps, fuses with difficulty to a bl glass, and giv i 

— to the “ni 5 on < yen becomes black, gives a reaction we or im enium, — 


and bism h fluxes, gives reactions for silica and uranium. De 
rest by both slphore and chlorhydric acids. Two analyses ie Gromaty mann, (1) 
a 


honey-yello had variety, (2) faint bh Barge green variety containing 
pitchblende a as Einar 

it Si RG Ge Me KB Bi Sb Te Fe Po Ow b Ag § 
1.1411 15°81 565 4994 469 135 171 0-12 Be 1-46 6 0:57 het ad 166— 99°74 
2.1219 11:19 2:80 54:23 - 1:19 0°80 0:05 1°77 1'86 0-22 089 038 5-24 3°96 =100°34 


(a) with some U&. (4) with some Cu. 
after subtracting from (1) 081 chalcolite, 0°18 argentite, 0-23 covelline, 0°33 A reieg 
1:21 iron- hn 119 ks oles ite, 1-29 bis tae bgp 0 ‘02 sulphur, r, there ains, 
according to Websky, for composition of uranop 

G 


Si Al eer K 
13°99 15°81 5°61 49°35 4°69 1:35 ris 
for a _ gives the ur se 5c) 3691. 
[ ineral is undoubtedly a secondary product, and one may reasonably ques- 
— iis “auniten cy of eninee. F i and its right to be considered a distinct spe- 
J. B.] 


vas ERmrcutite? [p. 292]—In the year 1851 Mr, W. W. Jefferis found near the 
clinochlore locality at Westchester, hus pelea a peculiar wiih zy yellow mica- 
ous mineral, which on pO. — to be optically-biaxial with alow angle, 
resembling phlogopite, and it has for some years io en shenisiad among mineralo- 
gists as pite. 


An examination of this substance made by Prof. J. Lawrence Smith and myself 
in 1853, showed its composition to be near that of chlorite, and it was considered by 
us to be a ween oe although our results were never published. My 


5 
ec 
o£, 
2 
oO 
2 
Z 
5 
ae 
a 
“BA 
4) 
ry 
4 
o 
=] 
2 
z 
> 
oO 
£ 
oe 


'y will scarcely - ; - : 

crystals in the near the locality. The crystals are six-sided prisms, with 
& mica like « structure and a perfec rfee . basal cleavage, they. vary form one to three 
inches in diameter Mr. Jefferis has 


370 Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 


= Jarge crystal measuring six by four inches. The mineral is yellow biaxial ; lam- 
z less flexible than chlorite, almost brittle; color. Fess game low.  light-yellow by 
tranemitted light. Snort gravity of the air-dried mineral Hardness, 
between gypsum and com salt, B.B. in forceps exfoliates woe meas pearly 
white and opa no and bt prokilied heating fuses to a dark gray mass. In close sed 
tube exfoliates, frequently. meee * om heated tube, and gives off water which re- 
acts alkaline. With the fluxe xes gives reactions for silica and iron. Decomposed b 
chlorhydric acid. The air-d suiode 419 pr. ct. in weight by dry ape - a sul- 
phuric acid desiccator, and 3°74 r. ct, additional when dried at 100° C G, ted in 
an air-bath to baoe C. it lost 417 ve. ct., but between 220° and 300° C. the ies was 
maa 


5 pr. = peck i ait ssum 
cuphuri acid to have been —— “9 mie we baie 18° . r. ct. of water 
od 


fs included as essential, but it is ct ai safest to take the mineral as dried over 


Si AL Pe 6 6fe 6 6CallCUMg «CKO H 
8710 1757 1054 126 056 19°65 043 tr. 18-76 = 100°87 
Other analyses ange in 1853 by Prof. Smith and myself gave similar results. ara 
iron in the mineral has und 


oubtedly been partially oxydized As weathering, many of 
the e infiltration of foreign matter between the ieikines and 
hey are quite friable from exposure. belongs to the chlorite section of magnesian 
hydrous silicates in view of its pyrognostic properties we refer it with a quer 
ermiculite, which its chemical composition approxim great difficulty 
of obtaining pure vermiculite in sufficient quantity for analysis has thus far pre- 
vented me from way wee it, in fact I have delayed publishing my results on the 
Weschester mineral for more than two years, hoping thereb to be able to ee’ 
mine more fully its iotakiong to this species. The oxygen ratio for the Si, #, R. 


as Calculated from the analysis is as 19°89 : 11°86 :8°36:11:28 or 7:4:8: e "equal 4 
3k*Si+ 4Si+-192 oft e more general expression (R*#) Si+-Aq. The mineral 
and so liable i 
to 


hlorite 
The chief ss ade in goers. it here, is a call attention ° its re- 
cape of hygroscopic i alabtore, as it Figs ot take place to ‘any ¢ considerable degree 
until the mineral is exposed to a temperature above 300° C.— 


Water [p. 11 Mare ro Dufour has found the density of ice 9° C., to be 0°9175. 
—( Comptes "Rendus,1, 39.) 
Wuarrserire [VII]. =p ie bape has were (L. #. & D. Phil. Mag, (4), 


423,) under the name darwi an arsenid of copper typi is identical in pupéeal 
and chemical properties with Genth's whitneyite. It is stated to occur i ae near 
Potrero Grande near Copia’ e. It is massive, without cleavage, ra tle, 
but ast Soe be distinetly impressed by the vm ammer : frac e uneven; lustre ‘etalie; : 
color of fresbly-fi e dark silver-gre y, one e dirty coast tara : 
streak shetalia: edo ig ; Opaque. H. be 5. G.=864, BB. gives reactions 
copper and arsenic with trace of silver. Composition: 
i, se 3. 4, 
Cu 88°35 88-07 ee Sk | 88°02 
Ag 0°38 0-24 | 0:08 0°42 
As 11:27 11°69 1181 1106 
[These Wilt leave no doubt as to the identity of the mineral th whitneyite 


pe Ao sie VIIL) fo = which Genth obtained reagan og a tad ft 8 


Ninth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 371 


Won a& memior on t e crystalline form and optical properties of, 
see faa pea (dae des Mines rs, xvi, 229). 


OLFR p. 851, I—ITI, IV, VIIT].—An interesting variety of this ies is 
deacttbad by oS F. A. Genth lining Me pare [2],i i 859). It occurs petdinas 
h sary nd mica, about rom Francis River, = Francis Co., Mis- 
souri aid to have been ant o omtiorabie ee e and 
cle etine ‘pacallll & the be bach or “Yen brownish-black ; Tastee Areca 
streak, cinnamon-bro nalyses by G. J. Pépplein 3 (1) Decom- 
posed by fusion with ‘carbonaede of hk (3) by chlorbydric acid : 
WwW Fe Oa 
‘ 75°29 5°69 19°02 113= yeh 
¥, 75°52 undet. 19-78 undet, 


The oxygen ratio of W, Fe, Mn, Ca, is 15°56: 1-26 : 4-28 : 0°32, giving a new type of 
this mineral with the formula Fe W-4-4Mn W. 
XENoLITE.—See rate Hea 
Yrrror © [p. 359, IV].—In a memoir (Jour. prakt. Chem., lxxxi, 198) on 
the chemi my ae seyotallgeeaphic characters of the tantalates and reentabe of 
or — skiéld gives a new analysis of yttrotantalite and points out the isomor- 
neg this mine ae ith po lymigni ite and polycrase. The new analysis of the 
lack vain of etrotantalit gave 
Fa ¥t Ca Fe U Ou H 
5656 387 19°56 427 8-90 0°82 tr, 6°68= 100°66 
mo [VII Ppa | to G. Ulrich, native zine has a — in basalt 
near Victoria in Australia. The y Ae samvert ee weighe es ounces, and was 
a 


E sume is deseri 


Ign. 
99 41 be 68 *23==100°38 
tre (p. 211, IV]. Se eapames eres has shown from the optical Labspeoet of this 
ere that it is distinct fro e, the former ree ~ the mo while | 
the fue has the triclinic Sot "dim des Fier! (5) xvi, 2 au} 


mn 99]. i tb aged 
a ey Ken ott Debersicht ee 30). The fee ar aorwe is ae ‘entity 
talling or es ( ical properties is further su mriccripet by wis ciastiarisg- of of 
chemical ¢ ssapeiation; = daa that zwieselite is but a variety of 


ERRATA. 


Pages 358, 35 366. For chlorotoid read 
ro. nfo of diallogite by eieirend is from the Annalen der Chemie und 
v, 348. 


Me 


372 -_ E. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


Art. XXXIV.—On the conversion of certain Conglomerates into 
Taleose and Micaceous Schists and Gneiss, by the Elongation, 

_ Flattening and Metamorphosis of the Pebbles and the Cement; by 
Prof. Epwarp HitTcHcock. 


important bearing upon that most difficult subject of geology— 

etamorphism,—for they show most conclusively the plastic 
condition of this conglomerate and the associated schists and 
gneiss, subsequent to their original consolidation. Other strong 
arguments do, indeed, lead to the same conclusion: such as the 
change exhibited by the Azoic rocks from a mechanical to a crys- 
talline condition, the complicated foldings and contortions of 
these rocks, the remarkable curvatures of the veins of granitic 
rocks; and the existence of superinduced structures, such as no 
mere mechanical forces could have produced. But I pass by all 
these proofs now, and present only that from the changes in cer- 
tain conglomerates. 

So far as my knowledge of geological literature extends, the 
facts, and some of the conclusions presented below, are mainly 
new ; ‘and this is the chief reason why I offer them to this Jour- 
nal. Professor Sedgwick has, indeed, described joints that “ have 
actually cut through the pebbles of quartzite and other hard 
masses which enter into the composition of the conglomerates.” 
(British Paleozoic Rocks, p. xxxvi, Introduction.) But he does 


to the joint in the Rhode Island or Vermont conglomerates. 

same thing is described by Jukes, in his Manual of Geology, 
more fully. He also notices as an effect of cleavage, the “ distor- 
tion of fossils and other small bodies imbedded in the rocks, 
lengthening and pulling them in the direction of the cleavage and 
contracting them in the opposite direction.” These facts, first 


= particles of rock in one 
hes om 2 
monize with these views and lead to generalizations still 
especially to the position so ably defended by Scrope, Bi 


Conglomerates into Gneiss, Talcose Schists, Fe. 373 


€ 

cat the whole subject of metamorphism becomes com- 
paratively easy and full of interest. This affords no small relief 
to one, who, like myself, has been for years perplexed and con- 
founded in studying the — — rocks of the Green 
sas Hea 


With these oe remarks I “in oat te the details, We 
in 


Geology of of 

We have i oe, feiens poe where the pebbles of conglomerates 
have been elongated and flattened so as at length to be converted into 
the silicious laminee of the schists and gneiss and the cement into mica, 
tale, and feldspar. 

In a Report on the Geology of Massachusetts made by me in the Lad 
1833 a singular conglomerate was described near Newport R. I. :— 
nodu 


posed of elo gated rounded of qu into - 
slate, with a cement of Talcose slate, the nodules ge fro sateen 4 
of a pigeon’s egg, to four and oes six feet in their longest 


another, lying in a north agi atk direction. The cong omerate is di- 
vided fissures running east and west vertical to the horizon, and 


pee as ma give the rock a quite peculiar « 

e facts were repeated in me pre Reports upon 
iacceninee 4 in 1885 and 1841. But it was not until we found 
an analagous conglomerate along nearly the whole western side 
of the Green mountains that the special bearing of Mok — 
mentioned upon metamorphism occurred to us. 
then (1859) visited Newport to get a clearer view of the ser a 
the hope that they wroath help us better to unravel the intrica- 
cies of the Vermont ee rhs Mae t same year I read be- 


fore the Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Se a aper on the subject, 
as it was developed at Newport and 4 E. Hey San where an 
interesting locality had been discovered ans another 


of my assistants in the geological survey a <7. 


374 E.. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


In 1860 my son brought the subject again before the Associa- 
tion for Adv. of Sci. But it was not until after that time that 
the last link in the argument was supplied by a visit to a locality 
in Plymouth, Vt., which was also discovered by A. D. Hager. 
We will now try ‘to state the facts and conclusions as they have 
been gradually worked out by us. If any should wish to verify 
our statements and see the force of our reasoning, we advise them 
to visit the different localities in the order in which we describe 
them. For the ee began at Newport, seem to be carried 
to the conclusion in Ver 


Perhaps the best iepcuehs ‘of the Rhode Island conglomerate © 


is at the well known ‘Purgatory,’ two and a half miles east of 
es and within the limits of Middletown. According to the 
paper of C. H. Hitchcock read before the Am. Association in 
Aug., 1360, the belt of conglomerate commences a little south of 
Purgatory, is a mile wide with interstratified belts of slates, and 
extends N. 30° E. probably as far as Sandy Point, in Portsmouth 
some 54 miles. It shows several folds, is underlaid othe a gritty 
schist or sandstone, and itself underlies ‘the coal m 
“It is a coarse conglomerate, composed of e aidaeetit sae 4 ened 
bles, from the smallest size, to bowlders nearly 12 feet long, cemented 
eagre amount of talcose schist, or sandstone,” with numerous 
small Tasctsteated crystals of magnetite. The pebbles are mostly a fine- 
grained, or compact quartz rock, which when partly decomposed appears 
like sandstone ; not unfrequently the pebbles seem to pass into an imper- 
fect mica schist, and show lamination. A few them are gneiss, and 
probably granite, and occasionally hornblende pte In their shortest 
diameter they rarely exceed a foot, while in seer ones two, and - 
feet are very common, and a few may be seen from 4 to 6, and one 
least, is as long as 12 feet. The following facts as to the pebbles, are of 
the most interest : 


1, They are often very much elongated in the direction of the 
strike ; 2. y The are flattened, but not so strikingly as they are 
elo ngated ; 3. Paar: , indented often deeply by one being pres- 
sed into another ; 4. They are sometimes a good deal bent, occa- 


pigs in two directions ; 5. They are cut across by parallel joints: 


ssures, varying in distance from each other from one or two 
Sishien to many feet. The most distinct of these joints, which are 
a rod or two apart; are ie pee to the horizon, and nearly 
at right angles to the st ttike, and make a clean cut from top to bot- 
tom of hills 80 or 40 feet high. Abrading agencies have often re- 
moved the rock on one side of these joints, or between two of 
them, so as to leave walls of pebbles Pecomly cut in two; the 
whole appearing like ne pile of wood neatly sawed. Acres of 

ah Nie may be seen in the vicini Often 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, gc. 375 


of the Pag ya ” off, perfectly correspond, and one part 
las never bee o slip over the other. In some minor 
e end where the rock is separated, 
and remain projecting hele the — surface. These joints 
k, 


do not always extend through the whole roc 
We should te glad to introduce is many — of speci- 

mens illustrating these statements. But one or two must 
suffi 


Fig. 1 will give some idea of an elongated pebble Hse Newport, 
orhick i is hy inches long and 3 inches across its broadest par 


Ae, ty iy A 
thi tj tj LG bg LILLIE 
Wigs LSE wee Lee 

oo: SB 

LL %e de Ss 

> ca 


"ale rth ne 
Ss 


* 


Fig. 2 shows a pebble 8 inches long with a pegs indentation. 
2. 


Perhaps I ought to add that oe the elongated pebbles partially 
or wholly lose their rounded for the ends, and begin to assu 
foliated or schistose aspect, and to ie somewhat blended with the talcose 
or micaceous cement. This though not general, is frequently the case. 


From these facts we could hardly avoid drawing the following 


piesa 
. This rock was once a conglomerate of the usual character, 
aus in the great abundance of the pebbles, ag it has subse. 
quently experienced great metamorphoses making the cement 
crystalline and schistose, and elongating — flattening the peb- 
bles, 2. The abhi must have been i state more or less 
y are elongated, flatten mr aa bent. If their 
their lasticity must of course 
‘0. 93.—May, 1 


pe 
plastic, when the 
shape ‘has been thus altere 
Am. Jour. Sci.—Srconp Sexrgs, Vor. XXXI, N 
49 ( 


376, E.. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


admitted ; for the attempt to change their present form would 
result only i in fracture and comminution. ‘The degree of plas- 
ticity, however must have varied considerably ; ‘for some of 
‘them are scarcely flattened or elongated at all—and as has been 
stated, some are not cut off by the joints. 
The neat and clean manner in which the pebbles have been 
an severed by the joints, implies plasticity. 
ugh occasionally we meet with one that has a some- 
what ores surface, as if mechanically broken, such cases are 
rare. Whatever may be our theory of the agency that has 
formed the joints, the conviction is forced upon every observer 
that the materials must have been in a soft state after their 
original consolidation. There is no evidence that the opposite 
walls have slid upon one another at all, as the opposite parts of 
the pebbles coincide. It seems as if a huge saw or cleaver had 
done the work. 
These proofs of Epiastioity. SDP apply essentially, though less forci- 


bly to the micaceo cement which has also been cu 
across by these joints. Tho Galena! small in quantity it 
sometimes forms layers of rade thicknchs interstratified 
with the pebbles. 


me have’ imagined that the elongated, flattened, bent, and 
indented pebbles ‘of this conglomerate may have been worn 
into their present shape and brought into a parallel arrangement 
by the mechanical attrition of waves and currents. We feel 
sure that an extensive and careful examination of the localities, 
and of beaches where shingle is now being formed, will convince 
any one that they cannot have had such an origin. 
do not believe that any beach can be found with peb- 
bles that have anything more than a slight resemblance to those 
at Newport. Those somewhat elongated may indeed be found 
where they are derived from slate rocks. But nowhere does the 


g 
> should have such an extraordinary development on 
ode Island, while it is not marked enough in any other con- 
pis anes in our country save in Vermont, to have arrested the 
attention of geologists. 
e remarkable joints in this conglomerate prove that the 
bbles have been in'a plastic state, and since the strata have 
n much folded, and consequently subjected to strong lateral 
pressure, how could the pebbles have escaped compression and 
modification of form? A mass of ae pag cone omerate when broken 
re on the une of strike, a eal resembles a plug oh 
a era has been rolled ite ote cae and then subj 
_ /strong presire, so that the lumps are distorted and made to con 
form to all the irregularities around them. 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, &c. 377 


3. The force by which the pebbles were flattened and indented 
must have operated laterally, as would result frome the plication 
of the strata; folds in which are frequent. If there was a great 
superincumbent pressure and less in the direction of the strike, 
the same lateral force might have elongated the pebbles. But 


these phenomena. We have been driven to the supposition of 
some see ete force acting upon soft materials. If, as Sir John 
oses, cleavage d 


erates, which we now proceed to deseribe. We select two local- 
ities, although doubtless many others might be found equally 
instructive. ck oceurs on both faces of the Green Moun- 
tains, and we can hardly doubt that it once formed a fold over 
the mountains, which denudation has swept away. — 

We have found this rock in connection with quartz rock, 
mica and taleose shists, and gneiss; sometimes merely in juxta- 
Position, as in the case of the quartz rocks, but sometimes inter- 
stratified. The conglomerates at the different localities may not 


378 E. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


be identieal as to geological age; yet we incline rather to the 
opinion, that, quartz rocks, micaceous and talcose schist and 
gneiss, may be varieties of the same original rock, which meta- 
morphism has sometimes converted into one and sometimes into 
others of the series. Quartz rock may be the residuum of certain 
silicates; the schists and gneiss are these silicates modified; any 
of these rocks, we think, might be formed out of the conglome- 
rate under consideration, as we shall now endeavor to show. 

so, we might perhaps find it in connection with them all, without 
implying a difference of age. 


In the NE. part of Wallingford, Vt.,on the western slope of the Green 
Mts. on the hill north of David Hager’s, is an interesting exhibition of 
the conglomerate. Numerous bowlders are scattered over the fields, 
which are instruetive, but the embossed ledge half a mile north of Hager’s 
is most so. It has been rounded and smoothed by the drift agency so as 
to show the pebbles and their alteration with the schists, very distinctly, 
as the following sketch of a portion of the ledge, taken by A. D. Hager, 
my assistant in the geological survey of Vermont, will evince. It will be 
seen that the schist often containing small pebbles or coarse grains of 
sand, is interstratified somewhat irregularly with the pebbles; just as we 
often see in the alluvial deposits, and in the sandstones that have not 
been metamorphosed. The drift strize are quite distinct upon it, running 
southeasterly, as shown on the sketch, fig. 3. 


‘West. ‘ 
ro strike of these strata is about N.E. and S.W. and the dip 70° W., 
t it i e i 


sometimes rises to 90° near by. To show its position in re- 
Spect to a micaceous quartz approaching micaceous schist, on the 
upper side, and to the Green mountain gneiss below it, we give the ad- 
joining sketch, Fig. 4. These rocks constitute a single massive ledge, 


P 


. 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, Gc. 379 


with very few distinct strata-seams, and they seem as if only varieties of 
same rock. 4 


6 c d 
a, mic q kk ; 5, 6, conglomerate alternating with tale schist; c, tale schist ; 
d, gneiss. ; 
To show that the gneiss sometimes lies above the quartz and the schist, 
we give the following section, Fig. 5, only a few rods long, tak 
easily accessible locality, on the east side of the mountain; where, as we 
shall shortly see, the same rocks occur in juxtaposition. In the road 
from Ludlow to Mt. Holly, and near the line between the two towns, a 
small stream has cut a gorge, 40 or 50 feet deep, through a ledge of 
quartz rock. On the west side a trap dyke occupies a considerable part 
of the face of the rock, though more or less worn away. Talcose schist 
succeeds the quartz rock on the west side, dipping beneath it at a high 
angle. But on the east side, and lying upon the quartz at a less dip, is 
distinct gneiss, with more of feldspar than is usual in the Green mountain 
"gneiss, The section below will give an idea of these facts, fig. 5. 


More than nine-tenths of the pebbles in the Wallingford conglomerates, 
at granular, : hyaline quartz. 


apes : 
veritable gneiss ; and perhaps the gneiss pebbles may all have thus orig- 
ated. Th of f : 


@ are of opinion that all the feldspar pebbles, as well as the narrow 


380 E.. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


strips of gneiss, are the result of metamorphism; that is, the pebbles 
were changed in mineral constitution, and the gneiss actually formed, by 
metamorphic processes. But we shall recur to this soy 0 again in the 
sequel. 

"Most of the pebbles are somewhat r ny 
elongated in the direction of the on ! 
on a horizontal surface, so as to give 


the following outline, fig. 6, will show. 
et even here, a few pebbles appear " 
not to have been at all modified i ma 


Qu 
Fy 
— 
So 
B 
i=} 
"a3 
eS 
b 
© 
<4 
fe] 
ee A 


a 
ot 
Se 
ag 
2 
4 
= 
be 
& 
® 
@ 
—w 


b dies a smaller one less curved, st 
inches long, and half an inch wide. 

A more interesting case is 
shown in another boulder, a few feet 
long, represented imperfectly i in fig. 8. 
Here the lamine of the schists are 


ii ae ee 


g 
ct 
@ 
) 
=] 
m. 
= 
= 
© 
Ss 
© 
5 
o> 
=a 
@ 
5 
=] 
@ 
“ 
bs 
a 
® 


y 

can hardly be distinguished from the 
uartzose laminz of the rock. At 
the time this sketch was taken, we 


Ss ae eae ea ok ae mee 


The prece rsccdiag WN would 1. 
justify some inferences ad- ) 
ditional to those drawn from 
the Newport rock. But we * 
will first describe another 


locality on the east side of - 
the Green mountains, where 
the metamorphic processes, Leguicksaidieger’ and cartied stil 


iets is Ap teea se 


eres. 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, é-c. 381 


farther at Wallingford, are completed in the most satisfactory 
manner. 


It is at Plymouth, along the west shore of Plymouth Ponds, most 
fully developed, perhaps, just where the ponds are separated by a mass of 
detritus, which was most probably the moraine of an ancient glacier, as 
will be described in our Report on the geology of Vermont. 


8. 


The schist, which here is decidedly talcose schist for the most part, and 
not far from some of the gold diggings 


i : 8 
rock, or if it be broken across, in the direction of the strike, the pebbles 
will for the most part, appear so flattened that they become almost len- 


9. 


382 E. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


from one of the specimens obtained at this locality. Looking at one of 
these edges, we should have no hesitation in referring the rock to a highly 
quartzose variety of talcose schist. But looking at the other edge, we 
should have no doubt that the quartz laminw are merely flattened and 
elongated pebbles, So strange and unexpected a fact leads the geologist 
to suspect that he may be deceived; but hundreds of specimens force 
him to the conclusion that he is not mistaken. 

The quartz in this rock, both in Wallingford and Plymouth is gener- 
ally white, or a light gray, and though sometimes granular, it approaches 
much nearer the hyaline variety, in most instances. It seems to be quite 
pure silex, rather than a silicate. In a few instances we find pebbles of 

anite, which are also flattened. 


The suggestion has been made that what I regard as pebbles 
may be concretions. But the following facts seem to me to show 
this position to be untenable. 1. We have no other example of 
concretions formed of hyaline or granular quartz. 2. Concretions 
are never, as these nodules are, drawn out into the lamin of 


tric structure. 4. Some of them consist of granite, gneiss, &c., 
which certainly never form concretions. 5. If these nodules are 


much different from east and west of each other, leads to some 
interesting suggestions and conclusions. The distance between 
these two points is about ten and a half miles. 

Myself and son, aided by the Senior Class of 1861, in Amherst Col- 
lege, have recently, (October, 1860), traversed this line, mostly on foot, 
and obt e result, the section below, fig. 10. The base of the 
section is the sea level, and the heights are laid off from the same scale, 
(about 13,000 feet to the inch), as the horizontal distance. This makes 
the Green mountains, (1390 feet above the ocean at Mt. Holly), appear 
of very diminutive size. But it is a true representation, except that the 
mountain for the sake of distinctness is a little too high. On both the 
flanks of the mountain, the dips are quite distinct, (they were measured 

83 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, &c. 383 


and the mean taken along the railroad from Ludlow to the summit as 
well as from the Plymouth Ponds). But in the central parts they are 
a good deal irregular. It will be seen that all the central portion of the 
mountain is gneiss of the peculiar kind known as the Green mountain 
gneiss. Above this lies, what has been called talcose schist, with which 


snow- upper part of the schist is the conglomerate already 
described, of a character s tke not to bas mistaken t 
end we found several beds of limestone, but none of quartz. Beyond the 


conglomerate, however, and probably lying seilttaably upon it is an | 
enormous development of granular quartz, which seems to have no coun- 
terpart on the east side of the mountain. 


YQ, 
A, B,C, H, D, 5, F. 


In this section a, b, shows the present surface, a being Wallingford, and 
b Plym outh, From A to B we have the taleose conglomerate ; from 


of | 
from C to D, gneiss with several trap dykes at.H, the poi ie level of the 
railroad ; from D to EK, gneiss with talcose schist ‘and at least two beds 0 
limestone, and several thin pe of qua sh age to a conglom- 
erate. This last rock, so distinct and peculiar, forms a good starting point 
for our reasoning. I think no asolot will "doubt that it once mantled 
over the mountain with the subjacent strata as represented in the above 
section. True, we have not found all the subordinate beds ‘of limestone 
and quartz to correspond on the two sides of the mountain. But there is 
a general correspondence. The beds of Vifeutoi especially, may have 
extended originally over the arch of the mountai n, although it is not com- 
mon to find limestone beds as thin as these, with 30 great | a lateral exten- 
sion. As to the beds of quartz, if this be in nearly all cases a rock pro- 


Taking this ess as a fair re Ps aoe of the Green moun- 
tains, several important inferences fo. 

1. Itshows the gneiss of the Green imitans to form a great 
anticlinal fold not a synelinal a as some have supposed. 

his gneiss underlies the taleose schist, the limestone, the quartz 
rock and the conglomerate. 3. All these latter rocks probably 
once —— over the gneiss, though they have mostly disap- 
peared from the eastern side, except the taleose schist. 

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Series, Vou. XX XI, No, 93.—May, 1861. 

50 


384 E. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


get an approximate idea of the amount of erosion from this part 
of the att mountains. We have flattened down the curve 
described by the strata originally, more than perhaps we ought — 
to do, yet it runs almost twice as high as Mansfield mountain, 
which is shown on the section at M, and is the highest point in 
the chain. The erosion at Mt. Holly cannot have been less than 
8000 feet, which is nearly six times as great as the present height 
of the mountain at the summit level of the railroad. 5. We see 
here how the schists and gneiss may be formed out of conglom- " 
erate. This is perhaps the most important inference, and there- 
fore it will be dwelt upon more fully in the sequel. 

e proceed now to draw some inferences from the facts de- 
tailed respecting the Vermont conglomerates, additional to those 
already given. The Vermont localities teach the same lessons 
as those of Rhode Island, but we think they develop other 
conclusions, 

F bre show, we think, that the elongating and flattening 
force in Vermont must have operated most energetically in the 
direction of the dip, whereas in Rhode Island, it was most pow- 
erful in the direction of the strike. In the latter case it was as 
if two men had taken hold of the ends of a plastic mass, and 
pulled it out horizontally; but in Vermont it is as if one had 
stood at the top of a steep hill, and the other at the bottom. 
This is evident from the fact that when we look at the edges of ~ 
the rock laid bare along the line of the dip, we see little more 
than the flattened edges of the pebbles in the form of laminz, 
but if laid bare along the line of strike we see the scattered 
and even lenticular ends of the pebbles, as shown in fi 
already given. The fact however, that the pebbles are lenticu- 
lar on the basset edges of the strata, shows that the whole force 
was not exerted in the direction of the dip. They were a 
deal flattened horizontally, but never so vertically. 

. We think we can get a glimpse in Vermont of the mode in 
which the force acted to elongate and flatten the pebbles. We 
refer to the bowlder shown in fig. 8, where it is obvious that the 
bending of the rock, if it was plastic could produce that effect, 

scause the outer portions must be extended over wider and 
wider spaces. Hence, as in the figure, a pebble on the interior 
part, might be only moderately extended while the outer ones 
were stretched almost into mere laminz. 

_ Apply now this principle to fig. 10, which shows the manner 
in which, as we suppose, the strata were folded over the top © 

the Green mountains. The effect would be to stretch them out 
more in the direction of the curve, or dip, than at right angles to 
_ it; although the strain would spread them in that direction also, 
to some extent, and it may be that the irregularities that must 
have aceompanied such great movements as the folding up of 4 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, G-c. 385 


mountain chain, wot make the horizontal elongation in some 
-places the ereates 

e do not es that this explanation of the pore saps = 
the true one, but only that it shows one mode in which the 
cess might hay e been performed. Whether any horizontal hex. 
ure can be Sante n the Rhode Island rock to explain the elon- 
gation there, we are unable to say, because the theory was not 
In 7 minds when we examined those rocks. 

. The facts detailed, disclose to us some of the modes in 


that we cannot doubt but both een from the same parent 
source. But the conglomerate at Wallingford affords still 
. Stronger evidence and shows us the modes in which the gneiss 
was produced from the conglomerate. Some of the elongated * 
pebbles there are gneiss. But we doubt 2 i they a 


who has seen the specimens will imagine that it could have po 
introduced mechanically, by deposition, for example. The last 
ways or crysta]lization from solution, is the only other probable 

mneiss, perhaps, has been ane formed by such an 


now that we know how to look for them. tune , some varieties 
of it contain nodular elongated masses of feldspar interlaminated 
with mica which may perhaps have been originally pebbles 
chemically changed and elongated mechanically. 

The second agency by which condleiserita has been converted 
into schists, is mechanical. By some force they have been flat- 
tened and elongated till they have become the quartzose laminz of 
the schists. It is not probably possible for us to convey a very 
clear and complete idea of the evidence of this position. ul 
that our readers could, as we have done, visit the localities again 
and again and become familiar with the striking specimens there, 
by ul examination. From our own experience, 
it would not surprise us, if the conversion of the pebbles of con- 


386 E.. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


glomerates into the lamin of schistsshould be pronounced prepos- 
terous by able geologists. So the idea seemed to us at first, 
when the facts forced it upon our attention. But as the facts 
compelled us to give up our scepticism, so we think it will be 
with any candid mind. Looking at almost any specimen of 
' the taleose conglomerate schist, on the edge corresponding to the 
dip (B fig. 9,) we should see nothing but alternating lamin of 
quartz and talc, or mica, and pronounce it a good example of the 
rock which we have called, and which is generally called, talcose 
schist. But a fracture at right angles reveals the flattened peb- 
bles (A fig. 9), and shows us that their edges are what we have 
regarded as laminw. Let the process of flattening be carried a 


As has been repeatedly stated, most of the pebbles in the Ver- 
mont rock are quite pure quartz, having often more or less of a 
vitreous aspect., In fact it is nearly pure silex; and it is that 
form of silex which is absolutely insoluble in anything but hy- 
drofluoric acid; nor can we suppose the presence of any heat 
high enough to melt it, without completely destroying the forms 
of the pebbles. Yet the evidence that they have been in a plas- 
tic state so as to be molded by pressure is too decided to be 
resisted. How then have they been softened? 

Let us recur to the conglomerate at Newport. . Most of the 


But suppose the silicates in the form of pebbles to be per- 

: ; ing alkalies, could their bases be ab- 
stracted without entirely peeeangeie form of the pebbles? 
done, if ept 


. 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Tulcose Schists, §:c. 387 


silex and some mica, [ations a a sandstone with nearly pure 
this mass, it passes, without an interven- 


n. , . 

In bowlders of this conglomerate found in Northampton, 
Mass., and probably deve from Whately, the most abundant 
pebbles are those of the brown sandstone, considerably meta- 
morphosed and flattened. Those of hornblende schist are com- 
mon. Sometimes they are merely crystalline hornblende, not 
generally laminated however, but mixed with some feldspar, and 


388 E. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


they may become syenite, and are frequently porphyritic by dis- 
_ tinct crystals of feldspar. The cement is syenite, often more 
hornblendic than usual. 
’ When the pebbles are highly crystallized, they become so in- 
corporated with the matrix that it is difficult to separate them 
with a smooth surface, and if we are not mistaken, they pass 
insensibly into those rounded nodules chiefly hornblendic, so 
common in syenite, especially that of Ascutney. .We think these 
are produced from the metamorphoses of pebbles which have 
ome crystalline since they were formed into conglomerate. 
We find them, as we think, in all stages of the metamorphosis. 

These facts certainly give great plausibility to the view which 
supposes granite and syenite to be often the result of the meta- 
morphosis of stratified rock. But they afford a presumption, 
also, in favor of the position, that pebbles, which have been 
plastic for ages in the rocks, may have greatly changed their 
mineral constitutions without essentially altering their external 
form. This might certainly be thoroughly done if those pebbles 
_ Were permeated by water containing in solution powerful chem- 
ical agents. Some of the ingredients might thus be abstracted 
from the pebbles and new ones supplied, if needed to form the 
new compounds. 

In all the cases of pebbles in unstratified rocks described 
above, syenite has formed the matrix. " But at the meeting 
of the American Association at Springfield, Prof. Hubbard of 
Dartmouth College exhibited a specimen of pure white granite 
from Warren in New Hampshire, in which there lay imbedded 
a rounded bowlder of hornblende rock, more than a foot in 
diameter, and easily separable from the granite. We had no 
doubt but that it was mechanically rounded, nor much doubt 
but that its mineral character had been changed since it was 
enveloped in granite. Hornblende bowlders in the drift are 
among the most infrequent of all rocks, because hornblende 
schist is very limited. But in the older metamorphic conglom- 
erates, such nodules are the most common of all, and this fact 
furnishes the presumption of their metamorphic origin. 

The facts which we have detailed respecting the occasional 
presence of feldspar pebbles in the Vermont conglomerates and 
especially of the occasional conversion of the cement into gneiss, 
are most probably examples of a change of mineral character 

uring metamorphosis. It seems hardly possible to account 
for a cement of crystalline mica or talc, in any other way. But 
when we find feldspar interpolated between the lamine, any 
other than a chemical origin appears improbable. We cannot 
therefore but regard feldspar in perhaps all cases in the — 
ine rocks, as the result of metamorphism. Silicates probably 
furnished the ingredients, which being abstracted by hot water, 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, §c. 389 


left the excess of silica in the form of quartz, and forced the 

feldspar and mica to fill up the interstices. The feldspar hen 

has converted the cement into gneiss, could have had no othe 

origin and this fact in connection with all the rest t which cowl 

been adduced, affords a presumption that feldspar in nearly all the 

ck deat rocks, stratified and unstratified, is a product of meta- 
— 


e bis 
ave specimens from Bernardston, Mass., in w which the bat we appa and 
flattening are decided in a conglomerate micaceous schist conneeted with 
clay slate and quartz rock. The same is true to some extent in a like 
rock from Bellingham, Mass. Still more decided is it in bowlders of 
the conglomerate-syenite described above from North Hampton; as it is 
also in the same variety of Ag on Little es rg Tn fact we predict 


oughly metamorphic ages aad although nt Tobed by observers, 
because their attention was not called to it. 

Less than a mile north of the i tei locality in Plymouth, Vt., 
on the east side of the pond, and nearly on the strike of the con nglome- 
rate, occurs a remarkable variety of ios Fa in an aewteatied bed sey- 
eral rods wide. It consists of a ground of dark limestone through which 
are nied numerous elongated masses from half an inch to six 
inches long, and from a quarter of an inch to an inch Sor of white, 
semicrystalline carbonate of lime. Their larger axes lie as nearly parallel 
to one another as those of the quartzose conglomerate. What their 


whether they are not masses elongated by the same force that has acted 
on the not far distant conglomerate. ‘This idea did not occur to me when 
in the vicinity, and therefore I did not go to determine the point 

there be any foundation for this sngyestion, we should expect that the 
longer axes of these nodules would correspond more nearly with the dip 
oa, with the strike. I have not the slightest recollection whether it 


The chief interest in the facts and conclusions in this pa 
lies in the light they cast upon metamorphism. We had in eed 
felt that there was a eed eal of gree: in the general doc- 

able men. But never 


ly under our eyes, and so Saye. as to confound our scepticism 


po 
sions have been the other way. But we rey ga resist evidence 
so clear, and we find that our new views greatly illustrate the 
subject of metamorphism. It seems to us difficult to conceive 
how geologists can avoid the conclusions we have presented, if 


390 E. Hitchcock on the Metamorphism of 


they will visit and study the localities we have pointed out. 
We have indeed, specimens from them ail, in the Amherst Cab- 
inets, to the amount of several hundred pounds, and they illus- 
trate "nearly all the points we have brought out. But we advise 
gentlemen not to substitute an inspection of find for the more 
satisfactory exhibitions in the mountains. 

Amherst College, Nov. 1, 1860, 


Nore.—A brief and imperfect ascuead of the preceding facts 
and arguments having been presente oy me last autumn before 
the Boston Natural History Sety. Tr. share os ——— 
who presided at the meeting, expressed his diss 
views as to the manner in which the pebbles had can flattened 
and distorted, and his conviction that eae had either been worn 
into these shapes by water, previous to aggregation, or that 
some of these were concretions. At a subsequent meeting, 
Prof. Wm. B. Rogers expressed similar views, which appeared 


in the published proceedings of the society.* I do not under- © 


stand these distinguished geologists to have made up their minds 
very decidedly on the subject, especially as they have not visited 
the Vermont localities. But objections suggested by gentlemen 
i ren large geological experience, deserve serious considera- 


i have already stated my objections to the theory which they 
adopt as to the forms of the pebbles. Prof. Rogers suggests as 
an objection to my views, that the pressure which I suppose to 
have flattened and distorted the pebbles, has not produced cleay- 


age. But this conglomerate is not a rock in which cleavage is 


Pin found. It is a foliated, or schistose rock. It has joints in 

it, such as prove very clearly that it was once in a state more or 
less plastic; but these (the most perfect ones oo ces ce 
the lamin at nearly right angles, and could never haye bee 
roduc y pressure. It isa fact, however, that some of the 
arger pelos particularly at their extremities, do show the com- 
mencement of a schistose structure, probably the fest of pres- 
sure. Yet the facts do not require us to suppose the pressure on 
this rock to have been of the most powerful kind. In some cases 
indeed, as at Plymouth, the pebbles are compressed into laminz, 
but in general, : ey are ‘only moderately flattened, and sie oni 
not at all. If only moderately hr such effects could not 
have hore a very enormous for 

Another objection is, that the enieibeasi cs has as distorted on 
fossil Lingulz found in the pebbles on Taunto , and a 
Newport. But I am not aware that the pebbles i in the Ciaplots 
erate of Taunton river, have Sia compressed and os erie 
nor have they been, in but a part of that around Newport. 


_* See under Grotoar in this mmber the remarks of Prof, Rogers. 


; 
4 


Conglomerates with Gneiss, Talcose Schists, &e. 391 


The result is, a conviction that the facts which ve given 
respecting the conglomerates, are only another phase of the phe- 
nomena Ti b ese eminent geologists. If the facts 


of most of the rocks, correspond with those which I have ex- 
pressed. If I am wrong, then, I have the consolation of being in 
good company. : ; 
Prof, Tyndall, in his recent work on the Alpine Glaciers, has 
referred to an interesting specimen in London, analogous to the 
conglomerates of Rhode Island and Vermont. 

n the museum of the Government school of Mines, he says, 
“we have a collection of quartz stones placed there by Mr. 
Salter, and which have been subjected to enormous pressure, in 
the neighborhood of a fault. These rigid pebbles, have in 
some cases, been squeezed against each other so as to luce 
&.mutual flattening and indentation, Some of them have 
yielded along planes passing through them, as if one hal: 
slidden over the other; but the reattachment is very strong. 
Some of the larger stones, moreover, which have endured pres- 
sure at a particular point, are fissured radially around the point, 
In short, the whole collection is 2 most instructive example of 
the manner and extent to which some of the most rigid substances 


Am. Jour. Sctr—Szconp Serms, Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861. 
51 


392 Review of the Progress of 


in nature can yield on the application of asufficient force —(Gla- - 
ciers of the Alps, p. 404, Amer. Kd.) 

Though these specimens are not so definitely described as we 
could wish, we presume they are conglomerates with flattened 
quartz pebbles, like those in Rhode Island and Vermont. Our 
objections to Prof. Tyndall’s hypothesis, which imputes the effect 
wholly to the mechanical compression of solid quartz, are as 
follows: 

1. The compression of pure quartz pebbles, such as some of 
those in Rhode Island, and most of those in Vermont, would 
break and crush them, nor have we any reason to suppose that 
the fragments could be reconstructed so as to form hyaline 
masses, without fissures. There is no fluid, as in ice, to produce 
regelation; nor could the particles be brought near enough for 
molecular attraction, without being crushed into the finest pow- 
der, by such a pressure as the facts show not to have been ex- 
erted upon the conglomerates. 

2. The compressing force has not been great enough to de- 

OY except partially, the form of the pebbles. It has not 
crushed but only moulded them, except that now and then, one 
has been fractured, If it had been powerful enough to compress 
and distort solid quartz and to reunite its particles, it must have 
destroyed all marks of a mechanical origin in the pebbles 

: ‘here is evidence, as we have tried to show, in the prece- 
ding discussion, that many of the pebbles, especially in the Ver- 
mont rocks, have undergone a chemical change; that certain 
silicates have been abstracted from them, leaving the excess of 
Silica in the form of quartz. This, of course, would require 
such a degree of plasticity, as to enable water to permeate the 
ass 


March 20th, 1861. 


Art. XXXV.—On some points in American Geology; by T. 
Srerry Hunt, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada. 


THE reeent publication of two important volumes on Ameri- 
can geology seems to afford a fitting occasion for reviewing some 
questions connected with the progress of geological seience, and 
with the history of the older rock formations of North America. 
The first of these works is the third volume of the Paleontology 
of New York by James Hall; we shall not attempt the task of 
noticing the continuation of this author's labors in the study of 
organic remains, labors which have by common consent plac 
him at the head of Ameriean paleontologists, but we have to 

attention to the introduction to this third volume, where 10 
about a hundred pages Mr. Hall gives us a clear and admirable 


3 
, 
. 
; 
; 

: 


American ie aes by T. S. Hunt. 393 


in a separate form, with some cia would we think be most 
acceptable to the scientific pu 

he other work before us is Prof H. D. Rogers’ elaborate re- 
port on the geology of Pennsylvania, giving the results of the 
Survey of that State for many years carried on under his direc- 
tion, and embracing a minute description of those grand exhibi- 
tions of structural geolog Bin oe have rendered that State elas- 
sic ground for the st udent. volumes are copiously illustra- 
ted with maps, dechicnts and fgectes of organic remains, and the 
admirable studies on the coal fields of Pennsylvania and Great 
Britain add much to its value. 

The oldest series of rocks known in America is that whick 
has been investigated by the officers of the Geological Survey of 
pena he nd by them designated the Laurentian system. It is 
now several years since we suggested that these rocks are the 
stytibvadeian of the oldest crystalline strata of western Scotland 
and Senge * This identity has since been established —_ 
Sir R. I. Murchison in his late remarkable researches in 
northwestern Highlands, and he has adopted the name of is 
Laurentian system for these ancient rocks of Ross, Sutherland, 
and the Western Islands, which he at first called ‘fundamental 
gneiss. These are undoubtedly the oldest known strata of a 
earth’s crust, and therefore offer peculiar interest to the geol 
As displayed i in the Laurentide and Adirondack mountains, t oy 
exhibit a volume which has been estimated by Sir William Lo- 
gan to be nee to the whole palzozoic series of North America 
In its greatest development. The Laurentian series consists of 
gneiss, generally granitoid, with great beds of quartzite, some- 
times conglomerate, and three or more limestone formations, (one 


» 


mba: . Intheu 
extensiee’ formation of ooke consisting chiefly of basic feldspars 
without quartz and with more or less oxene, is met 

The peculiar characters of these latter strata, not less than the 
absence of argillites and talcose and chloritic schists, conjoined 
with various other mineralogical characteristics seem to distin- 
guish the Laurentian series throughout its whole veamedie so far 
as yet studied, from any other system of ¢ It 


sse Géologique du Canada, 1855, p. 2 1. 
t beh Saeed Ged. Society, vol. xv, 353; xv, 215. 


394 Review of the Progress of 


appears not improbable that future researches will enable us to 
divide this series of rocks into two or more distinct systems. 
Overlying the Laurentian series on Lake Huron and Superior, 
we have the Huronian system, about 10,000 feet in thickness, 
and consisting to a great extent of quartzites, often conglomer- 
ate, with limestones, peculiar slaty rocks, and great beds of dior- 
ite, which we are disposed to regard as altered sediments. These 
constitute the lower copper-bearing rocks of the Jake region, and 
the immense beds of iron ore at Marquette and other places on 
the south shore of Lake Superior have lately been found by Mr. 
Murray to belong to this series, which is entirely wanting along 
the farther eastern outcrop of the Laurentian system. This Hu- 
ronian series appears to be the equivalent of the Cambrian sand- 
stones and conglomerates described by Murchison, which form 
mountain masses along the western coast of Scotland, where 
they repose in detached portions upon the Laurentian series. 
_ Besides these systems of crystalline rocks, the latter of which 


that the gneissoid ranges in Eastern Canada have the form of 
synclinals, and are underlaid by shales which exhibit fossils in 


I'o this notion of the existence of two groups of crystalline 
rocks similar in lithological character but different in age, we 


American Geology, by T. S. Hunt. 395 


have to ohjent that the seaigeege gneiss is identical with the Green 
Mountain gneiss, not only in lithological character, but in the 
presence of certain rare Soon such as chr rome, titanium, and 
nickel which characterise its magnesian rocks; all of these we 
have shown to be present in the unaltered sediments of the Que- 
bee group, with which Sir William Logan has identified the 
gneiss formation in question. Besides liek the lithological and 
chemical vharacters of the Appalachian gneiss are so totally dis- 
tinct from the crystalline strata of the Laurentian system, with 
which Prof. Rogers would seem to identify them, that no one 
who has studied the two can for amoment confound them. Prof. 
Jogers is therefore obliged to assume a new ie os aoe 
rocks, distinct from both the Laurentian and Hur uae 


sys e elsewhere indicated the general principles 
upon which this ion of a progressive change in the composi- 
tion of sediments is b and shown how the gradual removal 


of alkalies from aluminous ake has led to the formation of ar- 
gillites, chloritic and epidotic rocks, at the same time removing 
carbonic acid from the atmosphere, ‘while the re resulting carbon- 
ate of soda by decomposing the calcareous and magnesian salts 
i Dr carbonates for the formation of lime- 

stones and dolomites, at the same time generating sea salt. 
Closely connected with these oan a is that of the 
commencement of life on the earth. The recognition beneath 
the Silurian and Paseisn rocks, of 40, 000 feet of sediments 
analogous to those of more recent times, carries far back into the 
ihe 2 sew He in 1824 described an extensive tract of Aatheso rocks on Rainy 
Lake and Lake Lacroix, north of Lake Superior. The general course of the strata 
he states to 5 “from N.W. to N. by W., witha oping!) Ne easterly died wm 

“ 1s 1SS 


‘oo mM: to Dr. Bisby 
vations on the geogn mate of ge. Potty A 


396 Review of the Progress of 


organization ; plants by solar force convert water and carbonic 
acid into hydrocarbonaceous substances, from whence bitumens, 
coal, anthracite and plumbago, and it is the action of organic 

matter which reduces sulphates, giving rise to metallic sulphu- 
rets and sulphur. In like manner it is by the action of dissolved 
organic matters that oxyd of iron is epee reduced and dis- 
solved from great masses of sediments, to be subsequently accu- 


mulated in beds of iron ore. We ai Bee in the Laurentian series - 


beds and veins of metallic sulphurets, precisely as in more recent 
ese and the extensive e beds of iron ore hundreds of feet 


tian limestone which cannot be distinguished from the silicified 
specimens of Stromatopora rugosa found in the Lower Silurian 
rocks. They consist of concentric layers made up of crystalline 
grains of white pyroxene in one case and of serpentine in an- 
other, the first imbedded in limestone and the second in dolo- 
mite; we may well suppose that the result of metamorphism 
be uld be to convert silicified fossils into silicates of lime and 

agnesia. ‘The nodules of phosphate of lime in some beds of 


Gpoe Lingula, Orbieula, Conulari fpr the shells and 
tubes of which we have long since sane to be similar in com- 
oes to the bones of vertebrates.* So far therefore from 
ooking upon the base of the Silurian as marking the dawn of. 
‘life upon our planet, we see abundant reasons for. ee posing that 
organisms, probably as varied and abundant as those of the 


* Logan and Hunt, Amer. Jour. Sci. [2], xvii, 235, 


a ee 


a ae ee 


American Geology, by T. S. Hunt. 397 


palzozoic age, may have existed during the long Laurentian 
eri 

Al ong the northern rim of ros great palzeozoic basin of North 
America the Potsdam sandstone of the New York geologists is 
he 4 seman the lowest eateg from below Quebec to the Island 
eal, and thence passing up the valley of Lake Cham- 

sc and sweeping round the Adirondack mountains, until it 
reénters Canada and soon ‘ond ‘Black Bi to the north of Lake Onta- 


and furt 
_ great Lake Superior group of sla as rag sandstones, which re- 


posing on the unconformable Huronian system, constitute the 
upper penne aie rocks of this region. This Lake Superior 
group, as Sir William Logan remarks, may then include the 
Potsdam, Caleiferous and Chazy, and thus bé equivalent in part 
to the Quebec group hereafter to be described. 

Passing westward into the ee valley we again find a 
sandstone formation, which forms the base of the paleeozoic 
series, and is considered by Mr. Tall to be the equivalent of the 
Potsdam. Here it occasionally exhibits intercalate so 
silico-argillaceous limestone, in which occur abundant remains of 
trilobites of the gener a Dikellocephalus, Menocephalus, Arionellus, 
and Conocephalus. Pateing upwards this ae a is succeeded 
by the Lower Magnesian limestone, which is the mr sere of 
the Calciferous sand-rock of New York, and in Missouri, where 
it is the great metalliferous emai, alternates severe times 
with a sandstone, constituting the Magnesian imestone series, 
which in Missouri attains a thickness of 1300 feet. The same 
thing is observed to a less degree in Wisconsin and Iowa; 
throughout this region the higher beds of the Potsdam sandstone 
are often composed of rounded oolitic granules, and the of ° 

assage are frequently of such a character as to lead to the con- 
clusion that they have been deposited from silica in solution, 
and are not mechanical sediments.* For a discussion of some 
facts with regard to the chemical origin of many silicious rocks, 
see this Journal, [2], xviii, 

Kvidences of ‘disturbance during the period of its deposition 
are to be found in the brecciated beds, sometimes art feet in 
thickness, which pees in oe pire sandrock e north- 
west, and are made of the ruins of anearlier sandstone. In Mis- 
souri, the Birdseye and Black 1 River limestones directly 
upo Lower Magnesian limestone, while farther north, a 
Sacro ster oe occupying the class of the emben lime- 
ston 


* See Mr. Hall’s prt apieaes. to which we are indebted for many of these facts 
regarding the formation o west, and also the Reports of the Geological Survey 
of Missouri. 


398 Review of the Progress of 


The Potsdam sandstone of the St. Lawrence valley, has for 
the most part the character of a littoral formation, being made 
up in great part of pure quartzose sand, and offering upon suc- 
cessive beds, ripple and wind marks, and the tracks of animals. 
Occasionally it includes beds of conglomerate, or as at Hemming- 
ford, encloses large rounded fragments of green and black shale; 
it also exhibits calcareous beds apparently marking the passage 
to the succeeding formation, which although called a Calciferous 
sandrock, is for the most part here, as in the west, a magnesian 
limestone, often geodiferous, and including calcite, pearl spar, 
gypsum, barytes and quartz. Sir William Logan had already 
shown that the fauna of the Potsdam and Calciferous in Canada 
are apparently identical, (Can. Nat., June, 1860; This Journal, 
[2], xxxi, 18), and Mr. Hall has arrived at the same conclusion 
with regard to the rhore extended fauna of these formations in the 
valley of the Mississippi, so that these two may be regarded as 
forming but one group. While in the west Dikellocephalus oc- 
curs both in the lower sandstones and the magnesian limestones, 
Conocephalus minutus, found in the Potsdam on Lake Champlain, 
and identified by Mr. Billings, has lately been detected _by him 
in specimens from the sandstones of Wisconsin with Dikelloce- 
phalus, which aes has there been found to pass upwards into 
the magnesian limestones. On the other hand, the sandstones of 
Bastard in Canada, having the characters of the Potsdam, con- 
tain Lingula acuminata and Ophileta compacta, species regarded 
as characteristic of the Calciferous, together with two undeseril 
species of Orthoceras, and in another locality a Pleurotomaria re- 
sembling P. Laurentina. The researches of Mr. Billings have 


seozoic system, attain in Virginia a thickness of 1200 feet, and 


Primal slates, consisting of 700 feet of greenish and brownish 
talco-argillaceous shales with fucoids, ‘To. 


et a 


American Geology, by T. S. Hunt. 399 


Auroral division, consisting of sixty feet or more of reous 
sandstone, the supposed equivalent of the Calciferous aaa 
followed by the Auroral limestone, which is magnesian, 

often argillaceous and cherty in the upper beds. Its thickness 
is estimated at from 2500 to 5500 feet, and it is su e 

Rogers to include the Chazy and Black River limestones, while 
the succeeding Matinal division exhibits first, from 500 
feet of limestone Baybee. secondly, 300 to 400 feet black 
shale, (Utica), ‘ch thirdly, 1200 feet of shales with red slates and 
: conglomerates, (Hudson River Group), thus completing the Lower 

ilurian series, 

In Eastern Tennessee, Mr. rare describes (Ist.) on the con- 
fines of North Carolina, a great volume of gneissoid and mica- 
ceous rocks similar to those of Ponylvcti succeeded to the 
west by (2nd.) the Ococee conglomerates and sandstones, with 
argillites, chloritic, taleose and micaceous slates, and occasiona 

ands of limestone, all dipping, like the rocks of the Ist division, 
to the SE. In the 8d place we have the Chilhowee sandstones 
and shales, several thousand feet in thickness, including near 
the summit beds of sandstone with Scolithus, and considered by 


petabicdees to slates and etal ban magnesian lime- 
stone; second, a group of many hundred feet of soft brownish, 
greenish, and buff shales, with beds of blue oolitic¢ limestone, 
which as well as the shales, contain trilobites. Passing upward 
these limestones become interstratified with the third sub-divis- 
ion, consisting of heavy bedded magnesian limestone, more or 
less sparry and cherty near the summit. The limestones of 
Knoxville belong to this group, which with the 3d or Chilhowee 
group is designated by Mr. Safford as Cambrian, corresponding 
to the Primal and Auroral of Rogers, or to the Potsdam or Cal- 
ciferous dandtocle, with the possible addition of the Chazy, being 
Fe tat obi S si great Magnesian limestone series of Prof. Swal- 
w of Miss To these strata succeed Safford’s 5th forma- 
tdi Sonnsiating pod limestones, the equivalents of the Black River, 
Trenton and higher portions of the Lower Silurian : 
n Eastern Canada we find a group of strata sinitae to those 
described by Rogers sat Safford, Be lala Spine ld» Sir Wit 
am Logan as the Quebec group. It has for its ae 
binek aid blue shales, soften pili roofing slates, succeeded ed 
grey sandstones and great beds of conglomerate, with Gittins 
and pure limestones, often oe arr meet and having the charac- 
ter of travertines, ‘These are associated with beds of fossiliferous 
Kee, and with slates conning compound graptolites, and 
R, Sct.—Szconp Seems, VoL. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861 
52 


400 Review of the Progress of 


are followed by a great thickness of red and green shales, often 
magnesian, and overlaid by 2000 feet of green and red sandstone, 
known as the Sillery sandstone, the whole from the bese of the 
conglomerate, having a thickness about 7000 feet. These red 
and green shales resemble closely those at the top of the Hudson 


those of the Oneida and Medina formations, that the Quebec 
group was for a long time regarded as belonging to the summit 
of the Lower Silurian series, the more so by a great break and 
upthrow to the S.E., the rocks of this group are made to overlap 
the Hudson River formation. ‘Sometimes it may overlie the 
overturned Utica formation, and in Vermont, points of the over- 
turned Trenton appear occasionally to emerge from beneath the 
overlap.”* ‘This great dislocation is traceable in a gently curving 
line from near Lake Champlain to Quebee, passing just north 
of the fortress; thence it traverses the island of Orleans, leaving 
a band of higher strata on the northern part of the island, an 

after passing under the waters of the Gulf, again appears on the 
main land about eighty miles from the extremity of Gaspé, where 
on the north side of the break, we have asin the island of Or- 


eans, a band of Utica or Hudson River strata. To the south ‘ 


1 

and east of this line the rocks of the Quebec group are arranged 

in long, narrow, parallel, synclinal forms, with many overturn 

dips. These synclinals are separated by dark gray and black 

shales, with limestones, hitherto regarded as of the Hudson River 

age, res which are perhaps the deep-sea equivalent of the 
otsdam. 


* See Sir William Logan’s letter to Barrande, Canadian Naturalist for Jan, 1861+ 
and this volume, 261. oe 


American Geology, by T. 8S. Hunt. 401 


the Geological Survey of Canada for 1857, and thirty-six species 
of trilobites described by Mr. Billings in the Canadian Naturalist 

for August, 1860. ese species are as yet distinct from any- 

thing found in the Potsdam below or the Birdseye and Black 

River above; although the trilobites recall by their aspect those 

found by Owen in the Lower Sandstone of the Mississippi. 

Seven species alone out of this fauna have been identified with 

those known in other formations, and of these one is aid 
while six belong to the Calciferous, to which latter horizon Mr. 

Billings considers the Quebee group to belong. The Chazy has 

not yet been identified in this region, unless indeed it be repre- 

sented in some of the upper portions of the Quebee group. The 

Calciterous sandrock is wanting along the north side of the St. 

Lawrence valley from near Lake St. Peter to the Mingan Islands, 

but at Lorette behind Quebec, at the foot of the Laurentides, the 

Birdseye limestone is found reposing conformably upon the Pots- 

dam sandstone. 

It is not easy to find the exact horizon of the Potsdam sand- 
stone among the black shales which underlie the Quebec 
group. The Scolithus of Rogers’ Primal sandstone, and of the 
summit of Safford’s 3d or Chilhowee formation is identical with 
that found in the quartz rock at the western base of the Green 

mountains, and figured by Mr. Hall in the Ist volume of the 
Paleontology. It is however distinct from what has been 
ada. The value of this 


or sea-worms. We find however in shales which underlie the 
uebee grou 


land, in which Salter has recognized trilobites of the same genus. 
These shales containing Paradoryds, like those underlying the 
Quebee group, thus appear to belong to the Primordial zone, and 
are to be regarded as the equivalents of the Potsdam sandstone 


402 Review of the Progress of 


which both in Lake Champlain and in the Mississippi valley is 
characterized by primordial types. The intermingling of Pots- 

am and Calciferous forms to which we have already alluded, 
seems however to show that it will be difficult to draw any well 
defined zoological horizon between the different portions of these 
lower rocks, which at the same time offer as yet no evidence of 
any fauna lower than that of the Potsdam. So that we regard 
the whole Quebec group with its underlying Primordial shales 
as the greatly developed representative of the Potsdam and Cal- 
ciferous (with perhaps the Chazy), and the true base of the Silu- 
Tlan system. 

The Quebec group with its underlying shales is no other than 
the Taconic system of Emmons. Distinct in its lithological 
characters from the Potsdam and Calciferous formations as devel- 
oped on Lake Champlain, Mr. Emmons was led to regard these 
strata as belonging to a lower or sub-Silurian group. We have 
however shown that the palwontological evidence afforded by 
this formation gives no support to such a view. To Mr. Em- 
mons is however undoubtedly due the merit of having for a long 
time maintained that the Taconic hills are composed of strata 
inferior to the Trenton limestones, brought up into their present 
position by a great dislocation, with an upthrow on the eastern 
side. We would not object to the term Taconic if used as indi-, 
cating a subdivision of the Lower Silurian series, but as the name 
of a distinct and sub-Silurian system it can no longer be main- 
tained. The Quebec group evidently increases in thickness as 
we proceed toward the south, and the calcareous parts of the 
formation are more developed. In 1859, I visited in company 
with Mr. A. D. Hager the marble quarries of Rutland and Dor- 
set, in Vermont. The latter occur in a remarkable synclinal 
mountain of nearly horizontal strata of marble and dolomite, 
capped by shales, and attaining a height of 2700 feet above the 
railway station at its base. I then identified these marbles with 
the limestones of the Quebec group, considering them to be be 
of chemically precipitated carbonate of lime or travertine, and 
not limestones of organic origin. | 
_ The existence of great dislocations in the Appalachian chain 
is amply illustrated in the sections of Prof. Rogers, and in those 
given by Safford in Hastern Tennessee, where by the aid of 
fossils it becomes comparatively easy to trace them. See the 
Map accompanying his Geographical Reconnaisance of Tennessee, 
1855; where the magnesian limestones of formation IV, are 
shown to be not only brought up on the east against the Upper 
Silurian and Devonian, but even to overlap the black shales at 

1e of the Carboniferous system. It is remarkable to find 
that as parly.as 1822, the idea of a great dislocation of this nature 
in Eastern New York was maintained by Mr. D. H. Barnes in 
pred dis of Canaan mountain. (This Journal, [1], v, pp- 


American Geology, by T. 8. Hunt. 403 


To the southeast of this great fault in Canada we have as yet 
no evidence of Lower Silurian strata higher than those of the 
Quebec group. At the eastern base of the Green mountains, we 
find limestones of upper Silurian and Devonian age reposing 
unconformably upon the altered strata of the Quebec group, 
themselves also having undergone more or less alteration. Im- 
mediately succeeding are the chiastolite and mica slates of Lake 
St. Francis, which as we have long since stated are probably 
also of Upper Silurian age. 

T bite mountains as we suggested in 1849, (this Journal, 
[2], ix, 19), are probably, in part at least, of Devonian age, an 
are the representatives of 7000 feet of Devonian sandstone ob- 
served by Sir William Logan in Gaspé. Mr. J. P. Lesley has 
more recently, after an examination of the White mountains, 
shown that they possess a synclinal structure, and has adduced 
many reasons for regarding them as of Devonian age. (Amer. 
Mining Journal, Jan. 1861, p. 99). 

t will be seen from what has been previously said that we 
look upon the 1st and 2d divisions described by Mr. Safford in 
Eastern Tennessee, as corresponding to the hypozoic series of 
Rogers and to the Green mountain gneissic formation, w ich 
instead of being beneath the Silurian series, is really a portion 
of the Quebec group more or less metamorphosed, so that we 
recognize nothing in New England or southeastern Canada 
lower than the Silurian system, nor do we at resent see any 
evidence of older strata, such as Laurentian or Huronian, in an 
part of the Appalachian chain. The general conclusions whic 
we have previously expressed with regard to the lithological, 
chemical and mineral relations of the Green mountain rocks 


Laurentian, and Cambrian (Huronian) systems, overlaid by 
quartzites containing Scolithus, to which succeed limestones con- 
taining a numerous fauna, identified by Mr. Salter with that of 
the Chazy limestone. These strata, with an eastward dip, are 
covered by other quartzites and limestones, to which succeeds 
the great gneissoid formation of the western Highlands, consist- 
ing of feldspathic, chloritic, micaceous, and talcose schists resem- 
bling closely the gneissoid rocks of the Green mountains, and 
including the chromiferous ophiolites of Perthshire, and 
the Shetland Isles. ee 
This gneissoid series was by Prof. Nicol suggested to be the older 
or Laurentian gneiss brought up by a dislocation on the east of 
the Silurian limestones, but Sir Roderick Murchison, with Messrs. 
rkness, has shown not only from the differences 
in lithological character, but from actual sections, that the eastern 


404 Review of the Progress of 


and Silurian gneiss formations, as seen in the Laurentides and 
Adirondacks, and in the Green mountains. The same parallel- 
ism may be extended by Scandinavia, (where Kjerulf and Forbes 
have shown much of the crystalline gneiss to be of Silurian age,) 
marking as it would seem the outer edge of a vast Silurian basin, 
which may be followed in the other direction across the Atlantic 
' to the Gulf of Mexico. We also remark in Great Britain as in 
America, that whereas the northern outcrop of the palzeozoic 
basin offers at its base only a series of quartzose sandstones re- 
posing upon the Laurentian system and characterized by fucoids 
and Scolithus, we find further south in England an immense de- 
velopment of shales, sandstones and conglomerates, which form 
the base of the Silurian system and correspond to the Primordial 
zone and the Quebec group. 

e have said that upon Lake Huron and Superior the sand- 
stones of the upper copper-bearing rocks are the equivalents of 
the Quebee group. The clear exposition of the question by Mr. 
J. D. Whitney in the Mining Journal for 1860 (p. 485) left 
little more to be said, but the sections made last year by Mr. 
Alex. Murray of the Canadian Geological Survey place the mat- 
ter beyond all doubt. On Campment d’Ours, a small island 
near St. Joseph’s, the sandstones of Sault St. Mary are seen re- 
posing horizontally upon the upturned edges of the Huronian 
rocks, and overlaid by limestones which contain in abundance 
the fossils of the Black River and Birdseye divisions. The only 
fossil as yet found in these sandstones is a single Lingula from 


* Murchison, Quar, Jour, Geol. Society, vol. xy, 53 and xvi, 215. 


American Geology, by T. S. Hunt. 405 


Primordial zone, to which, however, palzontologically they ap- 
pear to belong. 

This Quebee group is of considerable economic interest inas- 
much as it is the great metalliferous formation of North America. 
To it belongs the gold which is found along the Appalachian 
chain from Canada to Georgia, together with lead, zine, copper, 
silver, cobalt, nickel, chrome and titanium. ave long since 
called attention to the constant association of the latter metals, 
particularly chrome and nickel, with the ophiolites and magne- 
sian rocks of this series, while they are wanting in similar rocks 
of Laurentian age. (This Joarnal, [2], XXvi, 2% 


the subsequent metamorphism of the strata these metallic mat- 


we conceive to be in a few words the theory of metallic deposits; 
they belong to a period when the primal sediments were yet 
impregnated with metallic compounds which were soluble in the 
permeating waters. The metals of the sedimentary rocks are 


metalliferous character of certain dolomites, which as we have 
shown probably owe their origin to the action of similar alkaline 
Springs upon basins of sea water. wet gst 

The intervention of intense heat, sublimation and similar ny: 
potheses to explain the origin of metallic ores, we conceive to be 
uncalled*for, The solvent powers of solutions of alkaline car- 


406 Review of the Progress of 


bonates, chlorids and sulphurets at elevated temperatures, taken 
in connection with the notions above enunciated, and with De 


h 
there already existed a marine fauna. At length, the marine 
limestones predominating, the coal measures come to be of little 
importance, and we have a great limestone formation of marine 
origin, which in the Rocky Mountains and New Mexico occupies 
the horizon of the coal, and itself unaltered, rests on crystalline 
strata like those of the Appalachian range. In truth, Mr. Hall 
observes, the carboniferous limestone is one of the most extensive 
marine formations of the continent, and is characterized over a 
much greater area by its marine fauna than by its terrestrial 
vegetation. 

“The accumulations of the coal period were the last that gave 
form and contour to the eastern side of our continent, from the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico; and as we have 
shown that the great sedimentary deposits of successive periods 
have followed essentially the same course, parallel to the moun- 
. tain ranges, we naturally inquire: What influence this accumu- 
lation has had upon the topography of our country, and whether 
the present line ot mountain elevation from northeast and south- 
west is in any way connected with the original accumulation of 
sediments?” Hall's Introduction, p. 66. 

The total thickness of the eee ic strata along the Appala- 
chian chain is about 40,000 feet, while the same formations in 

* Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xv, 580. 


? 


American Geology, by T. 8. Hunt. 407 


the Mississippi pared’ heaped the carboniferous ae 

which is wanting i east, have, according to all, a 
thickness of scarce 2000 “feet. In many places in chit valley 
we find the Silurian formations exposed, exhibiting hills of 1000 
feet, made of horizontal strata, with the Potsdam sandstone for 
their base, and capped by the Niagara limestone, while the same 
strata in the Appalachians would give them ten to sixteen times 
that thickness. Still, as Mr. Hall remarks, we have there no 
mountains of corresponding altitude, that is to say, none whose 
height, like those of the Mississippi ee equals the actual 
vertical thickness of the strata com pri them. In the west 
there has been little or no distasbanod fai the highest eleva- 
tions mark essentially the aggregate thickness of the strata com- 
prising them. In the distarbed regions of the east on the con- 
trary, though we can prove that certain formations of known 
thickness are inc luded in the mountains, m9 height of these is 
never equal to the aggregate amount of t e formations. “ 
thus find that in a country not antibistsen the elevations cor- 
respond to. the thickness ‘of the strata, while in a mountainous 
country, where the strata are immensely thicker, the mountain 
heights bear no comparative proportion to the thickness of the 
strata.” “ While the horizontal reese give their whole elevation 
to the highest parts of the plain, e same beds folded 
and contorted in the mountain region and giving a no jmoun- 
tain elevations not one-sixth of their actual caavite 

oth in the east and west, the vallefe exhibit the caees strata 

of the palseozoic series, and it is evident that had the eastern 
region been elevated without folding of the strata, so as to make 
the base of the series correspond nearly with the sea wee as in 
the Mississippi valley, the mountains exposed between these 
valleys, and including the whole paleozoic series, outed have 
a height of 40,000 feet: so that the mountains evidently corres- 
pond to depressions of the surface, which have carried down the 
ottom rocks below the level at which we meet them in the val- 
leys. In other words the synclinal structure of these mountains 
wee an actual subsidence of the strata along certain 
i 

We have been taught to believe that mountains are produced 
by opheaval, folding and plication of the strata, and that from 
some unexplained cause these lines of elevation extend along 


* In Michigan according to the late report of Prof. When ne “yee observed 
thickness of the strata from the top of the Sault St. top of 
the carboniferous series is little over 1790 feet, divic are! as rr bens Peenton and 
Hudson River groups, 50 feet, Upper Silurian 185, Devonian 782, Carbonifvrous 

ur 


cann 
und 169 feet of gypsiferous marls, which yield strong brine springs, 
Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Serts, Vou. XXXI, No, 93.—May, 1861. 
53 


~ 


408 Review of the Progress of 


certain directions, gradually dying out on either side, and sub- 
siding at the extremities. ave, however, here shown that 
the line of the Appalachian chain is the line of the greatest 
accumulation of sediments, and this great mountain barrier is 
due to original deposition of materials, and not to any subsequent 
press breaking up or disturbing the strata of which it is com- 
posed. 


the Alps, Pyrennees and Alleghanies, which are made up of 
aqueous sediments, has been imposed upon the world by the 


mountains, and later, in 1832, we find De Montlosier protesting 
against the elevation hypothesis of Von Buch, and maintaining 
that the great mountain chains of Europe are but the remnants 
of continental elevations which haye been cut away by denuda- 
tion, and that the foldings and inversions to be met with in the 
structure of mountains are to be looked upon only as local and 


accidental, 

In 1856, Mr. J. P. Lesley published alittle volume entitled Coal 
and is Topography, (12mo, pp. 224), in the second part of which 
he has in a few brilliant and profound chapters discussed the 
papeiples of topographical science with the pen of a master. 

ere he tells us that the mountain lies at the base of all topo- 
graphical geology. Continents are but congeries of mountains, 
or rather the latter are but fragments of continents, separated b 
valleys which represent the absence or removal of mountain 
land (p. 126); and again “ mountains terminate where the rocks 
thin out.” (p. 144. 

‘The arrangement of the sedimentary strata of which moun- 
tains are composed may be either horizontal, synclinal, anticlinal 
or vertical, but from the greater action of diluvial forces upon 
anticlinals in disturbed strata it results that great mountain 


J 


American Geology, by T. S. Hunt. 409 


ls on its opp lopes. Its form 
appears to result from three anticlinals, the middle of which has 


ward, bringing his great knowledge of the sedimentary forma- 
tions of North America to bear upon the theory of continents 
and mountains. These were first advanced in his a 

livered before the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science, as its president, at Montreal in August, 1857. This 
address was never published, but the author’s views were 


and central parts of North America is directly connected with 

ter accumulation of sediment along the Appalachians. 
He has further shown that so far from local elevation being con- 
cerned in the formation of these mountains, the strata which 


410 Review of the Progress of 


form their base are to be found beneath their foundations at a 
much lower horizon than in the undisturbed hills of the Missis- 


accumulated thickness of the paleozoic strata which lie buried 
beneath their summits. , 

Mr. Hall has made a beautiful application of these views to 
explain the fact of the height of the Green mountains over the 
Laurentides, and of the White mountains over the former, by 
remarking that we have successively the Lower and Upper Si- 
lurian strata superimposed on those of the Laurentian system. 
The same thing is strikingly shown in the fact that the higher 
mouvtain chains of the globe are composed of newer formations, 
and that the summits of the Alps are probably altered sediments 
of tertiary age. (This Journal, xxix, 118. 

e lines of mountain elevation of De Beaumont are according 
to Hall, simply those of original accumulations, which took place 


then due to a later action upon the earth’s crust, ‘‘ but the course 
of the chain and the source of the materials were predetermined 
by forces in operation long anterior to the existence of the 
mountains or of the continent of which they form a part.” p. 86. 

‘It will be seen from what we have said of Buffon, De Montlo- 
sier and Lesley that many of the views of Mr. Hall are not new 

ut old; it was, however, reserved to him to complete the theory 
and give to the world a rational system of orographic geology. 
He modestly says, ‘‘I believe I have controverted no established 
fazt or principle beyond that of denying an influence of local 
elevating forces, and the intrusion of ancient or plutonic forma- 
tions beneath the lines of mountains, as ordinarily understood 
and advocated. In this I believe I am only going back to the 
views which were long since entertained by geologists relative 
to continental elevations.” p. 82. 

‘he nature of the paleozoic sediments of North America 
clearly show that they were accumulated during a slow pro- 
gressive subsidence of the ocean’s bed, lasting through the pale- 
ozoic period, and this subsidence which would be greatest along 
the line of greatest accumulation, was doubtless, as Mr. Hall 
considers, connected with the transfer of sediment and the vari- 
ations of local pressure acting upon the yielding crust of the 
earth, agreeably to the view of Sir John Herschel. The subsi- 
dence of the ocean's bottom would, according to Mr. Hall, cause 
plications in the soft and yielding strata. Lyell had already in © 

ing upon the results of a cooling and contracting seaof 


od 


os Pee 


American Geology, by T. S. Hunt. 411 


molten matter, such as he imagined might have once underlaid 
the Appalachians, suggested that the incumbent flexible strata, 
collapsing in obedience to gravity would be forced, if this con- 
traction took place along narrow and parallel zones of country, 
to fold into a smaller space as they conformed to the circumfer- 
ence of a smaller are, “ thus enabling the force of gravity, though 
originally exerted vertically, to bend and squeeze the rocks as 
if they had been subjected to lateral pressure.* 
Admitting thus Herschel’s theory of subsidence and Lyell’s of 
plication, Mr. Hall proceeds to inquire into the great system of 
oldings presented by the Appalachians. The sinking along the 
line of greatest accumulation produces a vast synclinal, which is 
that of the mountain ranges, and the result of such a sinking of 
flexible beds will be the production within the greater synclinal 
of numerous smaller synclinal and anticlinal axes, which must 
gradually decline toward the margin of the great synclinal axis. 
This process the author observes appears to furnish a satisfactory 
explanation of the difference of slope on the two sides of the 
ppalachian anticlinals, where the dips on one side are uniformly 
steeper than on the other. p. 71 
n important question here arises, which is this;—while ad- 
mitting with Lyell and Hall that parallel foldings may be the 
result of the subsidence which accompanied the deposition of the 
Appalachian sediments, we inquire whether the cause is ade- 


the Alleghanies. Mr. Billings in a recent paper in the Canadian 
Naturalist (Jan. 1860), has endeavored to show that the folding 


which we have already alluded (Am. Jour. Sci. [2], xxx, 188). 
It is the condensation which must take place when porous sedi- 
ments are converted into crystalline rocks like gneiss and mica 
slate, and still more when the elements of these sedimentstare 
changed into minerals of high specific gravity, such as 2 ames 
garnet, epidote, staurotide, chaistolite and chloritoid. ‘his con- 
traction can only take place when the sediments have become 
deeply buried and are — metamorphism, and is, as 
many attendant phenomena indicate, conn with a soften 
and yielding condition of the lower strata. — 
’ We have now in this connection to consider the hypothesis 


which ascribes the corrugation of portions of the earth’s crust to 


* Travels in N. America, Ist visit, vol. i, p. 78. 


412 Review of the Progress of 


the gradual contraction of the interior. An able discussion of 
this view will be found in the American Journal of Science [2] 
iii, 176, from the pen of Mr. J. D. Dana, who, in common with 
all others who have hitherto written on the subject, adopts the 
- notion of the igneous fluidity of the earth’s interior. — 

We have however elsewhere given our reasons for accepting 
the conclusion of Hopkins and Hennessy that the earth, instead 
of being a liquid mass covered with a thin crust, is essentially 
solid to a great depth, if not indeed to the centre, so that the 
voleanic and igneous phenomena generally ascribed to a fluid 
nucleus have their seat as Keferstein and after him Sir John 
Herschel long since suggested, not in the anhydrous solid un- 
stratified nucleus, but in the deeply buried layers of aqueous 
sediments which, permeated with water, and raised to a high 


temperature, become reduced to a state of more onless complete 


igneo-aqueous fusion. So that beneath the outer crust of sedi- 
ments, and surrounding the solid nucleus we may suppose a zone 
of plastic sedimentary material, adequate to explain all the phe- 
nomena hitherto ascribed to a fluid nucleus. (Quar. Jour. Geol. 
Society, Nov. 1859. Canadian Naturalist, Dec. 1859, and Amer. 
Jour. Sci. [2,] xxx, 136). 

i othesis, as we have endeavored to show, is not only 
completely conformable with what we know of the behavior of 
aqueous sediments impregnated with water and exposed to a high 
temperature, but offers a ready explanation of all of the phe- 
nomena of volcanos and igneous rocks, while avoiding the many 
difficulties which beset the hypothesis of a nuclens in a state of 
igneous fluidity. At the same time any changes in volume 
resulting from the contraction of the nucleus would affect the 


ing altered by the ascending heat of the nucleus would erystal- 
lize and contract, and plications would thus be determined paral- 
lel to the line of deposition. These foldings, not less than the 
- softening of the bottom strata, establish lines of weakness or of 
least resistance in the earth’s crust, and thus determine the con- 
traction which results from the cooling of the globe to exhibit 
itself in those regions and along those lines where the ocean’s 
bed is subsiding beneath the accumulating sediments. Hence 
we conceive that the subsidence invoked by Mr. Hall, although 


not the sole nor even the principle cause of the corrugations of 5 
the strata, is the one which determines their position and direc 
tion, by making the effects produced by the contraction, notonly = 


a a ae © 


"Sees ee 


American Geology, by T. S. Hunt. 413 


the steeper slopes, the overturn dips or folded flexures, and the 
overlaps from dislocation are to the westward, so that the general 
ip of the strata is to the centre of the basin, on the other side 
of which we might expect to find the reverse order of dips pre-_ 
vailing. The apparent exceptions to this order of upthrows to 
the southeast in the Appalachians appear to be due to small 
downthrows to the southeast, parallel to and immediately to the 
northwest of great upheavals in the same direction 
adopts the theory of metamorphism which we have 
expounded in the pages of this Journal and in the paper just 
quoted above, (see also Am. Jour. Sci. [2,] xxv, 287, 485, xxx, 
135), which has received a strong confirmation from the late re- 
searches of Daubrée. According to this view, which is essen- 
tially that put forward by Herschel and Babbage, these: changes 
have been effected in deeply buried sediments by chemical reae- 
tions, which we have endeavored to explain, so that metamorph- 
ism, like folding, takes place along the lines of great accumula- 
tion. The appearance at the surface of the altered strata is the 
evidence of a considerable denudation. It is probable that the 
gneissic rocks of Lower Silurian age in North America were at 
the time of their crystallization overlaid by the whole of the 
palzozoic strata, while the metamorphism of carboniferous strata 
in eastern New England points to the former existence of great 
deposits of newer and overlying deposits, which were subse- 
quently swept away. : 
On the subject of igneous rocks and volcanic phenomena, Mr. 
Hall insists upon the principles which we were, so far as we 
know, the first to point out, namely their connection with great 
accumulations of sediment, and of active voleanos with the newer 
deposits. We have elsewhere said: “the volcanic phenomena 
of the present day appear, so far as we are aware, to be con- 
fined to regions of newer secondary and tertiary deposits, which 
Wwe may suppose the central heat to be still penetrating, (as shown 
by Mr. Babbage), a process which has long since ceased in the 
seozoic regions.” ‘To the accumulation of sediments then we 
referred both modern volcanos and ancient plutonic rocks; these 
latter, like lavas, we regard in all cases as but altered and dis- 
placed sediments, for which reason we have called them exotic 
rocks. (Am. Jour, Sci. [2,] xxx, 183). Mr. Hall reiterates these 


i 


414 Scientific Intelligence: 


views, and calls attention moreover to the fact that the greatest 


outbursts of i igneous rock in the various formations appear to be - 


in all cases connected with rapid accumulation over limited areas, 
causing perhaps disruptions of the crust, through which the semi- 
fluid stratum may have risen to the surface. He cites in this 
connection the traps with the palseozoic sandstones of Lake Su- 
peri ior, and with the mesozoic sandstones of Nova Scotia and the 
Connecticut and Hudson valleys. 

It may ee happen that the displaced and liquified sub- 
stratum will find vent, not along the line of greatest accumula- 
tion, but eed the outskirts of the basin. Thus in eastern Can- 
ada it is not along the chain of the Notre Dame mountains, but 
on the northwest side of it that we meet with the great outbursts 
of trachyte and dolerite, whose composition and distribution we 
— elsewhere described (Report of. Bobet Survey for 

1858, and Am. Jour. Science, [2,] xxix, 2 

The North American oe from ine grand simplicity of 
its geological structure, and from the absence, over gréat areas, 
of the more psig Gcianttods offers peeuliar facilities for the 
solution of some of the great problems of geology; and we can- 
not finish ren 2 article without congratulating ourselves upon the 
great progress in this direction which has been made within the 
last few years by the labors of American geologists. 

Montreal, March Ist, 1861. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, a 


I, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. : 
Pursics. sear’ 
1, On Regelation.—In the year 1850, Prof. Faraday directed Aine’ at 
tention of scientists to the remarkable fact that two pieces of moist 1¢e 
when placed in contact will unite, even when the surrounding tempera- 
ture is above 0° C. To the phenomenon in question the term “ regela- 


tion,” has been applied by Tyndall, who has made the fact above men- — 


tioned the basis of a theory of the plasticity of ice, in accounting for the 


descent of glaciers. Several theories have been advanced to explain nthe 


facts of regelation. Faraday* explained it by assuming that a particle “of 

water can retain its fluid condition only when in contact with ice on one 
side, but freezes when touched by ice on both sides, the general tempera- 
ture remaining the same. This explanation—with all deference be it said 
—is simply a re-statement of the fact and not an assignment of a phy 
ical cause. Person maintains that the solution of ice is a gradual pr 


contact with it; that a film of plastic ice or viscid water lies between the 
heat i 


ice and the water, and that is constantly passing from the water to : 


- Researches in Chemistry and Physics, pp. 373, 378. 


4 ae 


f 


Physics and Chemistry. ‘ge 


a ice through this film. The water therefore becomes colder and finally 
freezes. This view is adopted by Prof. J. D. Forbes.* Neither Person 
nor rRorbs explain why-a thin film of water in contact with a mass of ice 
has or can have any other temperature than the ice itself, nor why water 
at 0° should give off heat to ice at 0°. Prof. James Thomson’s theoryt 
is in his own words as follows: If to a mass of ice at its melting point, 


tact between small masses of ice. ’ Moreover Farada has shown that 
pressure is Fong ecessary in regelation. Of the numerous experiments 
which he has instituted the following appears to us the most convincing. 
Two round cakes of ice, convex upon the upper surfaces, are placed in water 


ri of hyponitric eid diminishes as the density of the 


The measurements were made with an Oertling’s circle pear phone 
to two ag oe a are i by a filar micrometer in the ocular, to a single 
second, The same phenomenon occurs with the spectrum of <hioraphale 


The stronger the extract in aiken the less is the distance of the 
bands... Thus the absorption-band in the red in the case of a strong 
extract corresponds quite well with Fraunhofer’s ‘tn C; in the case of a 
weak extract it stands at some distance from it. The other absorption- 
bands in this spectrum undergo similar tloations 

These changes in the distances of the dark lines are very sensible even 
in the spectrum of hyponitric acid, wh cae changes in the density of 
the gas are considerable; they are not t however equal for all the dark 
ines, 

Sea ee oa — waalan Bainburgh 
Am Lng adiees — Vou. mee No. = 1861. 

«64 


416 Scientific Intelligence. 


The cause of these dislocations is to be sought, according to Weiss, in 
a one-sided absorption which each line undergoes toward the violet end 
of the spectrum, when the deosies of the body is increased. This is shown 
by direct observations and comparisons with the solar spectrum as well as 
by numerous measurements. There is no specific absorption upon both 
sides of each line, but only an absorption upon the side of the line which 
lies toward the violet end of the spectrum. In this manner the bands 
ecome broader and the distance between them Jess. The author has ob- 
served similar changes in the breadth of Fraunhofer’s lines at sunset. In 
this case also the absorption was only upon one side. From this it appears 
that the lines of ee ee, acid cannot be used as standards in vet 
— of indices, &e.—Pogg. Ann., cxii, p. 153, Jan. 1861. 
Note on Dr. J. SeGuies ‘Paper on the i influenc + of M 
docsas on the ane of a jet of Coal Gas, it his Jour. [2], xxv, pres wit. ch 
an experiment by Dr. Charles ‘Sondhauss, ie of the Realschule of 
Neisse, {in a letter to Dr. William Shars ood).—* The observation of 
a 


particles of an or body, particularly at the high temperature of flame. 
Such an hypothesis, however, seems to me unnecessary as an explanation 
of the chensasiees. ; nor does this theory demonstrate that the gas-flame 
is a body different from air:—in which case the flame would be removed 
from the external tendency to oscillation, and by its own oscillation would 
even bring the pap tigen air or gas column into a state of fluctuation 
and singing, as in the case of the chemical harmonicon 

Thus a flame operates ‘to surround and hold together the gas column 
as a separate body, This becomes quite evident from the following ex- 
periment which I have devised. 


1. i mp sets a _ ~~ if the following 
a | Mier fig. 1, or fig. 2, w is open at both 
€ ends. Tait of hie uaa (c), is placed 


Nm close toa small flame of an alcohol thie, 
Bs (2): with the mouth fixed at (a), 1 blow a 
b : d slow current of air, when there is produced 


a 


a loud whistling tone, the pitch of which is 
oores by the dimensions of the appara- 
, a8 well as by the force with which the 
current of air is produced. The dimensions of t — ass tube used b 
e, are, 150-240 centimetres long, the opening at (c), 2-5 millimetres 
wide, and the diameter of the cylinder or spherival a PO a (b, ¢), 
amounts to 1-§-2°2 ctm. 
If we blow a current of air through such a glass a nar employ- 
ing the flame as above, there will be produced only a roaring —" 
which there is perceived a tendency to the production of nasi a to 
ote wood. physieists, who may be inclined 
to take up the investigation of singing flames, ete, I would suggest, 
that, the phenomena may be most conveniently produced, by sounding 
two imperfect intervals ip unison, on the flageolet, By two imperfect 
intervals in unison, I mean ,two-tbinds in n unison, one tuned a little flat of 
the other. _ 


Physics and Chemistry. 417 


I subjoin a list of the contributions to Acoustics by Dr. Sondhauss. 
They have been mostly pee as s Programmes, and are therefore not 
generally accessible in this country,* 

= Color of Blood Globules.—Editorial Note to Dr. Reuben’s paper, Pp. 

—With regard to the color of single blood globules, it must be ad- 
iia that when wenn blood globules are viewed under a magnify- 
ing power of from 600 to 800 diam., they certainly appear colored dis- 
tinctly yellow, and not ia If now one or two plates of cobalt glass be 
placed under the stage, or over the eye-piece, the blood globules by virtue 
of a yellow = actually do cut off much of this blue light, thacy 2 


t less than 50 or 60 cent. They then — much darker than 
the general field: their cnt at first sight seems simply dark grey, atten- 
tive examination shows it dark bluish-gr 


Compare also Heteohl ak on ~_ change of aa by an increase of thick- 
ness. Herschel on Light, Sect. 4 

In the 8th No. of the Aligeméine Encyklopedie der Physik, (Dec. 
1860), Hetmuontz details some observations of Purkinje on this subject, 
which agree with those of Prof. Wm. B. Rogers already published in this 
Journal. Helmh holtz seems in doubt whether to attribute this —— 


shutter of a dark ea re appeared then colored; reckoning 
rom the centre, white or bluish, darker blue, white, dark ring, white, 
greenish yellow, reddish. It is unfortunate that her he nor other 
observers have detailed the rates of motion they communicated to the 
slits, so as to re comparison of observations possible. I infer from 
a slight repetition of these experiments that the rates were much lower 
than those empl me. See ) of this Journal, 


ing par 
and oe: been ascribed by Vierondt, to the blood circulation in the retina, 
g momentarily visible.+ I have often caught distinct Laem 
of this, spiksianck 


* (I.) Ueber die Schalischwingungen der Luft in erhitzten G Glaserchern, 
Ricerten Pfeifen von ungleicher Weite—Ann. ch. u. Ph. Ixxix, pp. 1-84. 
ikreisel und der trobischen Pfeifen, 


(LIL) Ueber die beim Austrémen der den .— Programme der 
Realschule zu vo Helene, 1853, Pp. 13h fe sigs in Ann. hag u. Ph. xci, p. 129, et infra. 
(IV.) Ueber die Chemische iF Baafachale zu Neisse, 
_ 1859, pp. 1-43. _ (A very learned and’ hs resume, caesar Wik valuable contribu- 
tions to the subject). 
+t Pi —— Optik, by H. Helmholtz, 1860, page 381. 


418 Scientific Intelligence. 


. On some illusions, and other phenomena, attendant on vision through 
~ colored media ; by Siton Newcoms.—(1.) Let one put a red glass over 
the right eye, pressing it in so. closely that little or no light can get to 
the eye except through the glass, hold a green or blue one over the left 
eye in the same manner, and thus look at surrounding objects in general 
for a few minutes. On removing the glass he will find that white objects 
will appear greenish when observed with the right eye alone, and reddish, 
or tinged with orange, when viewed with the left eye alone. 

Evidently this illusion must be one of sensation, and not one merely of 
judgment ; the term illusion (or error) of sensation, being applied to the 
case in which the impression actually conveyed to the mind is different 


sation transmitted by one eye that it would respecting a similar sensation 
t i may be held so that it will be 
impossible for the observer to say which eye is covered by the red glass 
and which by the green one; yet on removing the glasses he can speed- 
ily solve the question by shutting the eyes alternately,” 

This phenomenon may be accounted for on the general principle that 
the increase of sensibility of the eye when placed for some time in dark- 
ness takes place independently with respect to the several colors of light ; 
so that an eye from which all the red light is excluded will become sen- 
sitive to red light with equal rapidity whether light of other colors is 
admitted or excluded : 

[This is analogous to the experiment of Count Schoffgotsch. His 
diploscope consists of a rotating disc painted half green, half red, and is 
observed through two tubes held before the two eyes. One eye becomes 
fatigued by the green light, the other by the red; if now the disc is set in 

tion, the first eye sees only red, the other only green light. (See Eisen- 
lohr, Physik, p. 327.)] 

2. The two following experiments illustrate very finely the doctrine of 
corresponding retina points, and the inability of the eye to distinguish the 
a y which observed sensation is conveyed 


white paper, having on it two s ts, f teary ay Ue 
other of a very brigh pots, one of a very bright red, a 


®ppear so nearly of the general color of the paper as to be scarecly visi 
8d will mot present theTafntnSndieaton of being vod he dh 
be closed the red spot will seem black, and the green spot will appear 


Chemistry and Physics. | ; 


the color of the eo oo if both eyes be open, the spots will both ap- 
pear of their natural ¢ 


rai we ought to expect. To fix the ideas, and avoid troublesome 
phrases, let I represent t the portion of the right retina on which the image 
of the spot falls, and I’ the Pil sip portion of the left retina. Let 
J’ represent the bon on of the retina of the left eye on which the i se 
falls, and J the corresponding portion of the right retina, Call 

E’ all those portions of the respective retinas except L+-I, and IN. 
Then the mind can make no distinction between the i impression conveyed 
by L, and that conveyed by L/, = so of the other portions. From the 
diclinaicl, of the glasses we hav 


On E red light, on E/ green ae result, an uncertain white. 
nI darkness, on I’ green light ; result, green 
On J red light, on # darkness ; result, red 


served t rat the greenness of the apparent image of the spot seen by the 


a) 
a double i image. It might then b gether that the red image wou 
preserve its color, since the nature of the light falling on the portions r 
J’, of the retinas is not changed; and that the other i image w would lose all 
coloration, since it is now produced by white light on the one retina and 
darkness on the other. But the real result will be singularly the con- 
verse of this. The first image will lose nearly every trace of red, appear- 
ing almost : perfectly black, while the second one will preserve its apparent 
greenness in all its brilliantty, an ae a Bae of green light (except 
what helps to form white,) can reach either eye! Vice versa, if the red 
glass be removed, the green mie will change to black, while the red 
one will preserve its apparent color. 

[No. 3 may be explained a the well known fact that when we rich at 
an object placed so near the eyes that a double image is seen, the ri 
image belongs to the left eye, and vice versa; also a black pigs on 

a red field soon assumes a green tint, and 2. v. 
bene _ 
Researches on the mutual relations of the Equivalents —With this 
tide 18 S. Sras has communicated the results of a ten years’ laborious 
investigation, devoted specially to the examination of Prout’s often dis- 


420 — Scientific Intelligence. 


cussed hypothesis. The memoir in question is one of comer 
thoroughness and detail, which requires to be carefully mee 
does not admit of an abstract. Full details are given of t e balan 
employed, of the methods of purification and analysis made use a of the 
vessels used and the changes which they undergo; in short of ‘all the 
precautions avanires to render the results as free as possible from errors 
of observat 

The Seale of this immense and conscientious labor is that there is no 
common divisor for the equivalents of the elements. In his own words, 
the author icc attained “the full conviction, and so far as is humanly 
possible the perfect certainty, that Prout’s law, together with the modifi- 
Sea introduced by Dumas, is nothing but a deception, a pure hy- ~ 


e 
The equivalents deduced by Stas are as follows: 
Potassium, | 39°154 from the decomposition of the chlorate. 
Sodi 23°05 


Ammonium, 18:06 
107°9 


Silver. 4 
a _ 103°45 from the synthesis of the sulphate. 
“ ; 2: 6“ “ “ 6“ nitr 
Chlorine, 35°46 
Nitrogen, 14-04 
Sulphur, 16:03 
Berazelius found for potassium 39°150; Pelouze 39-156, and Marignac 
39'161. By comparing the equivalents of ammonium Pe nitrogen in the 
table it will be seen that the difference is 4°02 instea As 


equivalent of nitrogen was deduced from the roti: of nitrate of silver, 

it follows either that this is inace iat or that ‘the equivalent of hydro- 

gen is inaccurate by the gio Of its value. Stas considers the last as 

pena. and proposes to institute a new Tinvcaetns of the composition 

echerches sur les rapports réciprociques des poids atomiques, 

Brux. 1860, quoted in Jour. fir prakt. Chemie, 29, p. 65, No. go 1861. 
. G 


8. On the polyatomic bases of the nitrogen, phosphorus and canis 
series. —A. W. Hormann has given some general views on the structure 
of the ammonia-derivatives which will serve as a useful guide in the study 
of the immense number and variety of new bases with which he has 
enriched the science, When dibromid of ethytene C,H,Br, reacts with 
a monamin, as for example with ammonia, either one or two molecules 
of the latter are fixed and there result two series of salts, one of which is 
monatomic and the other <a and the Some ees of which is ex- 
pressed in the following formul 


I. Diatomic series. Il. Monatomi , 
ey. Nabe (CaHsBr) tenibe nie 
| 4)"2HiN2|"Bra | - CaHsBr)2H2N |Br | Bromethy 
eae ae Ethylene — RGB ye H N|Br bases. 


(CaHaBr)a N]Br 

_In the salts of ta, second series bromine may be eliminated either 
wholly or hydric acid, formed either at the expense of 
water present—in ge case the atomic group HO, replaces bromine— 


Physics and Chemistry. | 421 


or at the nite of ethylene itself, in which case vinyl compounds are 


produced. Two new groups are formed in this manner which may 
formulated as follows: 

IIT. Oxethyl bases. IV. Vinyl bases. 
[(C+H4HO2) HsN]Br [(CaHs) H3N]Br 
ae Br * H GaElsya aN} Bs 
KG 4HsHO2)3H N|Br Cali3)3H N|Br 
(CaHsHO2)4 NIB, HGaEtsy NBs 


From this it appears that the action of dibromid of ethylene upon am- 
monia produces sixteen bases, independently of intermediate and secondary 


proc ducts. much simpler with pr imary, secondary 
and tertiary monamins, the zs class giving twelve, the second eight, and 
the third four bases. The author obtained the clearest expression of his 


theoretical views by opera in ng upon triethylamin, triethylphosphin and 
triethylarsen. When these alkaloids are treated with dibromid of ethy- 
lene the following three pine of compounds are formed : 

trogen group osphorus gro rsenic group 


(ou) "(C1Hs)sN ay’ ’Br2. [catia ‘ (CiHs)6P3} 'Bre. [(CaHay 1)" CaHls)e se]! ’Br2 
Il. Ai aedagi salts, 


Nitrogen scries. horus se Arsenic series. 
[(CsH«Br)(CsHs)sN ] Br. [(Gattesy(CaBte) :P Br. [(C+HsBr)(C1Hs)3As]Br 
Ill. Ovxethyl-iriethylized salts, 

Nitrogen series, Phosphorus series. enic se 
[(C:Hs02)(CsHs)sN ]Br. [(C+H502)(CsHs)3P]Br. [(CuHs0;\ CuHLsyeAs] Br 
IV i fash salts, 

Nitrogen series. Arsenic series. 
{(CsHs)(CsHs)3N ]Br. [(CsE3)(CuHls)pP]Br. [(C+Hs)(C+Hs)sAs]Br 
The bodies belonging to the second group, in Pas presence of other sub- 
stances, yield very elegant reactions, Treatment with monamines, mono- 


phosphines, and monarsines transform them ‘te an inexhaustible group 
of sb pie pe diphosphonium, and diarsonium compounds on the one 
hand, and of pear phospharsonium, and arsammonium salts on 

e i om Polyatomic bases of a higher order result from the action of 
the eeancualias diamines for instance—upon the atic ae 
Salts, 


The derivation of the oxethyl from the bromo-ethyl salts has ed 
been mentioned. We have, for example, the equation : 

[(CsH«Br)(CsHs)3P]Br+ H202= BH-+[ (CaH41102)(CsHs)sP Br. 
The new salt bears the same relation to the bromo-ethy! salt which alcohol 
bears to bromid of ethyl. Hence, as might be expected, the oxethy! salt 
may be eo into the bromo-ethyl salt by distillation with pentabromid 
of phosphoru 


The Brano-atiet brotnids may be r et as See! ce in 
which a molecule of ethyl has been mandate into bromo-ethyl. Nascent 
hydrogen converts the bromo-ethylized bromids into tetrethyl bromids, 
Thus we have: 


422 ; Scientific Intelligence. 
[(CaHaHBr)(CaHs)P]Br-+-2H—HBr-+ | (CaH:)sP Br. 


In conclusion the author points out the possibility of obtaining triatomic, 
tetratomic and pentatomic bases, either by the action of ammonia upon 
more highly brominated bromo-ethyl bases or by the same action upon 
bases containing two, three or four equivalents of bromo-ethyl. Thus we 
might have the reactions indicated by the equations 
{(CaHsBr2) HN ]Br+-2HsN=[(CsHs)"HoNs |Brs. 
[(CsH2Brs) H3N |Br-+-313N=[ (CaH2)'vHiaNa]’’’Bra. 


[(CsH4Br)2H2N ]Br+2N Hs=] (CaH1)2”HsN3)}"’’Brs. 
[(CsHsBr) 31 N]Br-+-3NH3=[(CaH4)’sHioNa]’”’’Bra. 
[(CaHaBr)4N ]Br+-4N Ha=[ (CaH4)"sHi2No |" Brs, 
Hofmann has already obtained a series of triatomic bases, of which 
diethyientriamin may bé regarded as especially worthy of notice. The 
base has the formula 
papre aibrs nee Me Ns 


— is the first triacid ammonia. It forms magnificent salts, the chlorid 
ing 


[(CsH4)"2HsN3]Cls. 
—Journal fir prakt. Chem., No. 2, 1861, p. 110, and Sitzwngsberichte 
der k. Preuss, Acad. zu Berlin, Oct. 1860 W. G. 

9. On the cyanid of Hihylene—Succinic acid bears the same. relation 


with an alcoholic solution of caustic potash, ammonia is given off and 
succinate of potash formed. The reaction is expressed by the equation 
CsHaCy2 +2KHO2+4HO=CsHiK20s+2NHs. 


404 
oeainid eal Ne; the diethylamin into diethyl-oxamate of ethyl 
2 ; ' Be 
Cs 
C105, 

Bea ae 
oxamid separates completely as a white crystalline powder while 

other two remain a fluid and are easily separated d by filtration. _ These 


bo, but leaves the triethylamin unchanged. The diethy]- 
: the 


iat 
bei 


ee 


Storer on the Alloys of Copper and Zine. 423 


may then be “gk by Lip the triethylamin boiling at 91° C. 
and the ether at 260° C. The two oxamates may then be decomposed 
by caustic potash and yield the pare alkaloids.—Zeitschift fiw dhe 
und Pharmacie, 1861, Heft. w. 
Tenn CHEMISTRY, 
2 the nee of Copper and Zinc; by Frank H. Storer. (Con- 
cited om p. 289.) 


whic e specimens of it exhibit to o friable, after an pare re of longer 
or shorter d on to sea-water, that the s shusets m il roken in pieces, 
met n be he fingers. Attention has ly bee ed to this 


: D ca 
subject. by eee ae cea refer such ees more toes | to chemical 
conditions depending, as thinks, upon the too great proportion of zine which is 

used in the preparation of ie alloy, salou aeeas as well as to changes of compo- 
sition produnas by hot rolling. 
I cannot agree w with this  conelusion, In my own opinion, the other alternative 
which Bobierre has suggested, namel uliar arr: rrangement t of the molecules | 
i i a diffic 


manufacturers more scrupulously than t 
“Tt must also be borne in mind, that, ‘of the enormous quantity of yellow-metal 


Ai + 
of which is composed of sixt ater ea of copper and forty parts of zine, and rolled hot, 
portion passes into the friable Selick to which I 


have alluc ed. 
e portion whi hich remains eae cde wear of Fsveral yeas is sail tia : 
Teaa. the absolute ean of sheathing whi ch beco piped is e ntirely out 


a 
be in every instance en ce gtian SS ae by methodically annealing or temperin 
sheets of alloy in such a man ee no fibres could form i n them, and that for 
structure should be homogeneo 
ierre in his able thesis, to baal x oth eee A alluded, has urged that 
it would be well to digneetians the use of the alloy containing 60 per cent of copper, 
which admits of being rolled hot, and to satatlnge for it stenting abe from 
perc rage about 66 per cent of copper, which can o! prepar a most 
us process of cold rolling. It is true that the fibres ice I have described 
would i in this tate probably never be encountered. Still several important 
* Théses ee a la Faculté des § Sciences de Paris. i 
Thése de Physique: Des Phé sont ] ag erty 
les eR ae : Imp. Busse 


Mer, des Aihages enpegies pour doubler 


185: 

Tt “ivhenever the destruction of a portion of the geet ing requ a ship be hauled 
up pairs, it is customary, since this operation is ane ensi mare oe i resheathe the 
vessel entire! igi for as the —o sheets are interspe! the others, and since all 
the shee a one would variate sae of ng ne being repairs, 

pean the owner of pire a entire phoat! s being worn te, 
Br oncyey aess ion of the durability of yellow-metal in accurdance with this view 


Aw. Joug. Scr.—Szcoxp — Vou. XXXI, ‘No. 93.—May, 1861 
55 


424 Scientific Intelligence. 


objections to the proposition of oF po geh 4 ot only would the method of cold 
milling consume a much greater amount of time and labor; but it would be exceed- 
ingly sete lt, if not impossible ise procure any alloy ¢ e composition of which ed 
ned so nearly constant a the case with yellow-metal.* It is 
probable that a test like the one applic’ to this j alloy could be found anywhere ed 
the w 
ag 1, : = frequently stated in chemical text-books that yellow-metal is always pre 
pared * best-selected” copper, and one is led to infer that a metal of peculiar ah 


ei 
tain a sufficient quantity of copper of uniform character, or indeed of any one kind, 
from which to am are the lange 2 geste ty of sheathing which is us fag an an estab- 
lishment where expense would a secondary consider eae as, for example, in a 
government gt fo it might vit ti pomible t repare an alloy cons netantly ‘from 
the same sorts of copper and of zine, in which cube, although the a mo cit of zine lost 
a rth 


h 
st varied kinds of copper, not only because the supply of the best sah is limited, 
bat particu larly f from the fact, at owing to the coal ss ag which exists between 
the various founderies.—or rather, by force of the laws which re nial et supply and 
eman rine ie are obliged to remelt large quantities of old copper sheathing,+ the 
ye of which is unknown to them, and which may have been originally prepare red 
m copper of inferior quality. 
“Now since many of the Pears of copper are eliminated when it cade Pe 
zine, being a i on the s e of the melted metal as a crust or hie 
fe 


; Oo tw e ase 
kind or nrg of | me the amount of it removed, or, Fahne is the same thing, 
eft to unite with a given weight of zinc,$ must continually 


the ge might ascertain at least “proxi stale the pri of . alloy. 4 
“That of the first iinjortines that every alloy used for sheathing shall possess 
some one sSeptastngs composition, so that it may endure equally w hee on all hore 
the ves ms: and that no Sail action ee occur between the m tal of differe 
siti 


—of kinds 
sr used in its preparation, is a pie piesa ig to ack use. “This 3 is true, and the 
a 


it must always depend upon the c opper metallurgy. It pi 
reibly, for example, to the low brass which Bobierre has proposed to 
aca tes for the ordinary s entree vernek for since the “test” eans of which 


* An alloy of constant syscacatogsin oak however, possibly be prepared, by adding 
known quantities of meite ae ~ determined volumes of molien yellow-metal which 
en prepared by the usual m 
The popular notion, thata canoe ‘more compact <yeinet-incesinen by remelting 

any alloy, may also have sume connection wil jens 

t This explains the remark of Karsten (loc. cit., S 336 "4 that perfectly pure copper ¢ 

e up from 15 to 25 per cer eatin scams mpure, and still afford product uf better 

a aah tenac ious and mo: le 


case, both by alloying with the foreign metal and by 
uniting with any oxygen whic may sori been suerte with the latter. As the work- 


co 
Scere »wever, that.os-e.tule: ile manufacturer of alloys of copper 
iways use the best copper they ean ¢ e itis generally m sre tn 
todoso For the purer mictal je,40-much the greater will: be 1 the total amount 
porlbegiees are. You atay wren as in ether words, the Joss, mentioned 
which would ocenr from elimination of impurities, will be smaller. 


r 


Storer on the Alloys of Copper and Zinc. 425 


ot be obtained if metals are present which are camer g ste pg in all pro- 
portions — this alloy, in which event small particles of the forei 
found irregularly disseminated u upon the fractured surface of the tot ingot, 
Hadvafactores are enabled to ascertain at once whether or no a given sample of 
pper is suitable for the preparation of patel Whenever ‘J “ found that 
i $ ca btai 


founders, ka applied to some on use, No milar means of nonce the purity 
of the brass in question are kno 

“It does not appear—at all panes it has never been proved—that any serious 
injury results in practice from the use of = ate varied kinds of copper, so long 
as they ne oo desired fh ontaining Ped per cent of zine. 

“ r 


oO 

impurities br out the mass of alloy of which the sheet was formed ;* but the 
influence must regarded as being of very slight nee in comparison with 

the changes of TRON which have alr ready been discussed,” 

A detailed account of the method of analysis employed [humid assay 
by means of iron] and a list giving the composition of the different alloys 
examined, follows. As also, ‘commente upon the violent action which is 
observed when zine and copper enter into combination with each other, 
and upon the remarkable tendency to separate into o layers, according to 
their relative specific gravity, without pee? which these metals 
exhibit when not mixed together by stirri 

“It is doubtless this tendency of the peat to remain 2 atone in sep- 
arate layers when not subjected to agitation, which has led several chem- 
ists to believe oe ys alloys of copper and zinc are apt to siaeras 
eliquation into two portions respectively rich in copper and zinc; from 
which pe have inferred, as I have previously remarked, the existence o 


5 or 80 per cent of copper is a the color of which is a — 


* It is not impossible that the small slg tee pst silver which, as ii i wall know Bsa 0 
“Ww: ¢ ea 
asrit ee heb | ee easapond ape’ tnd remedy cae oe arab 
i and 
gormnote sv, that the great ereter pat oth of — Faber is kotha in thet ereeadion of t the 
alloy when the old metal is ft 


426 ‘Scientific Intelligence. 


escent film forms upon the surface of o metal during the process of 
cooling. This is probably due to oxydati 

“ Marked changes not only of color but ry in other of the physical 
properties of some of these alloys may be produced by varying the con- 
ditions in which they pass from the liquid to the solid state. These 


in their practical ak but also from affording another instance of the 
phenomena of ‘ tempering’ which may possibly be of consequence in the 
study of this most difficult subject.” 

“In preparing the white alloys containing less than 45 per cent of zine, T have fre- 
quently observed, u pon the under surface of the sheet obtained by pouring off the 
Sa alloy, a thin layer of a soft, tenaciuus, ong e aller. of a ye ee peed 

at as i 


e formation of this singular sheet w attributed to eliquation t 
was difficult to conceive that an alloy ‘erareialy fichier in copper should igri at 
mass in erucible,—which must hav in 


surface of the melted been the 
order ane it should form the bottom of the ingot,—it was thought pteitte ‘that 
volatilization of the zinc might have increased the proportion of copper at the sur- 


) the melte y order to decide this question, a new series of alloys 

prepared, extending from the one obtained b ee together ¥ parts of cop- 
per plus 60 parts , to the mixture of 56 parts of a et i of zine 
—each alloy By ixture Sontein 


‘ a mixtur e per e copper 
than that used in preparing the preceding. Afte 5 dictwcch Asotin pt allen were 
into ingots of about five pounds’ weight. Tn the first four of these alloys— 


. In the series of ingots just mentioned, it oe nevert eles ra traced as 
up as the alloy prepared from 54 parts of copper plus 46 parts of z 
in order to ascertain wine this satt snodifigatton of the 


alloys could be obtained at will, afforded no positive result. An alloy of 42 
pper plus 58 parts inc being prepared, a portion of it was poured ll 
large mass of cold water. The surfaces of many of the granules thus 
cov ee with a sr eion d this pecially true of the 
smallest oF eta but the fil exceedingly thin, and the interior of the granules 
es Se brittle white alloy. r port thrown out upon cold 
iron ~_ to form yv: sheets. A thin yellow fil it is true, 


had previously been heated “ black-hot.” The 1 ow film was still formed where 
the alloy came.in contact with the ingot-mould; it was, however, exceedingly thin. 
On pouring some of the rettaiding alloy into a cold iron mould, a yellow film of the 
eso form ick ~ . obtained. 

wet me the phenomena of tempering exhibited by these alloys are more readily 
perceived among those t the normal color of which is white, it rs bighly probable that 


of these chauetnen with those which are known to occur with alloys of pee and 
tin; * but Dussaussoy+ has already shown that ordinary brass, co ie 6 to 70 per 


* Vid. d’ Arcet in Dictionnaire de de’ Industrie .. x, 500, Art. Tam-tam 
(eis, Baill pent ae et om Peet yen i See aleo Dusennsoy. 
(2) ¥. cit., p. 226, et Tubleau No. 


Technical Chemistry. . 427 


cent plus zinc 80 to rig per cent, is rendered softer, fons tenacious, and less dense by 

tempering it ;—a fact which Mallet* has very properly anes n explanation of the 

differences between several of the specific gravities of ‘a ltoys of copper and zine ob- 

served by himself, and a numbers which had been previously obtained by other 
en woul 


the sp 
himself.+ It is also the most probable explana tees oe the alloys of abnormal color 
which e has described. I should observe in this connection, that in the alloys of 
he i 


ae fits ‘be akes little no impre n upon the bites a reaute which 
agrees with those of Karsten$ of Mallet, | and. ‘of. Guettier.g] Calvert and John- 
son pte i a 


Vv : 
containing 54 per cent of copper, which is-still so tenacious that small bits a 
readily be broken from it, was found to be exceedingly difficult to cut with a 
chisel; for though still so soft that it coke be filed without any very great cabled, 
it ‘acest ont “ once the edges of cutting serene though the latter were well 
tempered. This peculiarity appears to ‘be connected with ihe fibrous structure of 
the alloy.” 


2. Preparation of Oxygen on the Great Scale. wed addition to the 
a q 


on page 280, Devitte and Desray have now published an elaborate ar- 
ticle containing the details of their labors upon this subject to which we 
would call the attention of technological chemists.. In this memoir, which 
forms a part of their remarkable monograph upon the metallurgy ‘of pla- 
tinum, &c., they have studied the comparative merits of all the industrial 
processes of manufacturing oxygen which were known ee and of 
the methods which they have themselves devised dere iew of ena- 
bling any manufacturer to decide which process m be best sited a rd 
locality or circumstances in which he happens to be situated. 
— ae a ethod of preparing oxygen from chlorid of time which 
o be well adapted for laboratory use-—when heated to low redness, 
chlorid of ime (bleaching powders) gives off, per pound, from twenty to 
t : hens ‘ " 


ter, the formation of this impurity may be prevented by adding enough 
slaked lime to the chlorid employed that this shall be strongly alkaline ; 
if this precaution be attended to, the operation may be conducted in iron 
vessels. It is of importance only to avoid heating the mass to the fusion 


t I have found it i ik he ob 
of this chemist, slthoogh it is oer clean that ih gre atest agin Akon tion is at a poin' 
some alloy compe equivalents of copper and zine, a ma 
between this point pe pure cope the pone gravity gradually increases with _— de- 
gree of regularity in proportion as the amount of copper increases Among the ubserved 
specific gravities of tbe white alloys rich in zinc, there is no larity whatsoever. The 
determinations of Mallet are, neve: ess, uestionabl best which have a 
pete made ; possibly ea are the best which could be ns any case. At all events, 
chemists are in t position to ca upon the method of preparing se aa which 


pete loyed by this di 
HS tar From th ‘this i gaegory as Save modified iy tempering must of course be excepted. 
; : ew Cit, = a a Gmelin’s fone peg haem Soc. Edit.,) v, 479. 


= 


428 Scientific Intelligence. 


point of the chlorid of calcium. The calcination may even be made in 
glass vessels. The production of oxygen from this source is very regular 
and unattended with danger, The process is moreover economical as 
compared with those commonly employed by chemists;—in the experi- 
ments of the authors the cubic metre [35°316 cubic feet] of oxygen when 
epdess from black oxyd of manganese cost about four francs, from chlo- 
rid of lime five francs, while from chlorate of potash it could not be ob- 
tained for less than ten franes; but the process is nevertheless far more 
expensive than their sulphuric acid method, the cubic metre of oxygen 
aving cost in this case not more than one or two francs,—and in prac- 
tice the price would probably be much less than this, since the sulphurous 

acid might readily be utilized. 
orthy of remark that the oxygen Lah geass —_ — acid 


—e 
3 


the simplest explanation of the shinidistouk appearances which mr be 

noticed and the precautions to be followed in the preparation 

butter, was to be found in the supposition that the original ‘albuminous 
m - 


offers experimental results, of which the following table is an abstract: 

As Mitscherlich proved long ago, ether dissolves only mere traces of fat 

when shaken with milk as it comes from the cow, and dissolves so muc 

the more fat in proportion to the length of time that the milk hes been 
t. 


ep 

This milk, which for the be % Wii hel had been diluted with 
an equal volume of water, ether in the mth hour after milking, 
in the vth hour after it had pee hitated with water, and after it had been 
mixed with ether for one hour,* / per cent of fat. 


No. m. v. Fi 
la. 2 1 O65: 
bo By 14 13 FAG soe 
2a. 18 z 085 
b. 38 21 1°52 
¢ 61 44 2:08 
3a, Gh 2: x 2°56 
b. 86 1 4°52 
oi 109 1 4°56 


The temperature of the laboratory during these experiments was 15° C. 
[=59 F.]. No. 3a, eurdled while being shaken with ether, 36, and 3c, 
were aces sour; the other samples were fresh and sweet when treated, 

[* spt ain with ether the author shows that h 1 

i oe ee porate 


amounts of inpen dodinaied ie in the table “00 ied Sacinalond 
ever no ccockeon: Saag aniston point in a : 


Technical Chemistry. | ae 429 — 


Although the specimens came from three different milkings, the results 
may nevertheless be regarded as a continuous series of determinations of 
the solubility of the fat in milk which had been kept from two to = 
The solubility of the fat increased with the a. 0 me ilk, fr 

0:55 per cent in that kept for two hours, to 4°56 per n that kept 
during 109 hours, evidently in consequence of the pi of the en- 
velopes of the particle s of butter, which had meanwhile been going o 

It is probabe that this solution of the coverings of the particles of bays 
ter is attended with oxydation, for the air of the vessels in which the milk 
was preserved contained less oxygen at the close than at the commence- 
ment.of the experiment; from the experience of dairies it is also to 

inferred that the solution of the envelopes of the particles of butter is re- 
tarded both by Jow and by high temperatures. Perhaps this solution is 
independent of the ordinary acid fermentation, but a more probable sug- 


v 


zs 
Zz) 
<. 
° 
==) 
77 
a 
oe 
oa 
— 
ior 
fa) 
om 
ue 
a 
o 
2) 
co 
nm 
g, 
a 
oe 
on 
Ry 
=) 
o 
cal 
tas 
~ 
ot 
o 
Ez 
% 
ss 
oO 


e 
which excites the acid fermentation of the milk iegen3 in one stage 
which the caseine is coagulated. 

The described solution,—or rather alteration, which the author propo- 
ses to designate as the “sweet fermentation (Siisse Gahrung) of milk” 
must be of importance in explaining the rationale of the preparation of 
butter,—in which the chief object is to accumulate the fat particles with- 
out at the same time collecting any admixture of caseine.—Journal fir 
praktische —* Ixxxii, 13, 1861, No. 1. 

é is from the geek ssc of Gunpowder under different press- 
ures; by B. P. Craic.—The perusal of the paper of Bunsen and Schis- 
koff on “ The Chueh Theory of Gunpowder,” whose publication about 
tng years ago attracted much. attention, (This Jour., [2], xxvi, 106), le 

e, as it no doubt did others, to make some experiments on n the residues 
of exploded powder. 

The inv estigations 0 of the above-named chemists were made on the pro- 


Such is actually the case, for the solution obtained by washing a gun 
with well boiled distilled water, immediately after its discharge, and filter- 
ing while hot, will = fuund to a conte in sulphuret of potassium with v ery 

ishoff | 


are colorless after the suspended carbon has been allowed to settte, or has 
been removed by filtration. 

e color above spoken of, is exactly the tint of a solution of a sesqui- 
salt of chromium ; it is not impaired by filtration of the liquid, but dis- 
appears in a few hours by exposure to the air, and immediately by the 


7 


430 Scientific Intelligence. 


action of acids. The cause of this color seemed to me at first obscure, 
but I found that by adding a very minute quantity of freshly —— 
sulphuret of iron to solution of protosulphuret of potassium, the sam 
color was produced, and a sensible trace of iron may always be found in 
Er ra ih 
A greenish color is frequently observed when sulphuret of iron is pre- 

cipitated in the presence of an alkaline sulphuret, but as it disappears o 
standing, it has ‘taoeg commonly attributed to the presence of particles of 
- sulphuret of iron held in — an opinion which must be erroneous, 
since I have obtained a solution of iron in sulphuret of Spamaiin of an 
intensely green color perfectly one and transparent, and permanent for 

many days in a sealed tube. 

Why this green compound should be formed under some ——— 
ces, and not under others, in a mortar, and not in a cannon, is not i 
_ ceptible of explanation. 

t has been shown that when powder is exploded under slight pressure 
the ralbeline metal remains in large part as a sulphate, but under higher 
pressure and corresponding temperature, it is reduced to the condition of 
a sulphuret. Now, by analogy, it would seem, that ike pe ordinary 
charges of a cannon or musket the iron is not reduced to the state of sul- 
phuret, but if, as is often the case in a mortar, the projectile is bap times 
the weight of the powder, or upwards, the gases are brought to a state of 
great some before the shot moves, and in that state of things “the car- 
bon is completely converted into carbonic acid, _ the iron, as well as 
the potassium, brought to the condition of sulphur 

Smithsonian Laboratory, Washington, D. C., 0. 


15. On the Amounts of Lead contained in some Silver Coins ; by Extor 
and Srorer.—The determination of the amount of lead in American sil- 
ver coin was suggested to the authors by finding half of one per cent of 
lead in a sample of zinc such as is used at the United States mint for re- 
ducing chlorid of silver. (See their Memoir on the Impurities of Com- 

mercial Zine in Memoirs Amer. Acad. [N. 8.], viii, 61; also this Journal, 
[2], xxxi, 142). For the sake of comparison other coins were subse- 
quently examined. 


Per cent of Lead 
Kind of coin. in the coin. 

1 American halt: dollar of 1824, - - = 0-310 
20 five-cent pieces of 1853, - - - 0209 
oe = - n-ce a 4 of 1864,. << - - 0°228 
wenty-five cent pieces ati 0-231 
. Fine Sie from the U.S. Assay Office in x. York, 1860, 0-161 
1 nish dollar of 1793, agai IV, 0°056 
exican “.,..* 9, - - - 0:043 
: English Shillings of 1816, - 0°485 


1 French five-frane piece of 1852, Napoleon I, - 0°428 


On the supposition that the zine used in the reduction of the silver is 
the source of the lead in the American coin, the authors calculate the 
amount of lead which would thus find its way into the coin. Their me- 

moir, already cited, gives the per cents of lead found in two specimens 
Vieille Montage zinc; if zine of the best quality (containing 0-292 Per 


a 


cent of lead) had been used, the silver coin would have contained 0° 


is the exclusive source of this impurity, for it is not at all improbable that 
a portion of the lead is derived from the leaden vats in which the reduc- 


tinct button of metallic gold was obtained in every instance, before the 
blowpipe, but the amount of gold varied to a considerable extent; it was 
abundant in the American and Spanish coin, less was observed in the 
English and Mexican, and but little in the French coin or in the American 


fine silver. Britel has remarked “that the process of separating lead and 
silver was we pe Sua in the ages of antiquity than is at pres- 
ent the case.” (Aa Ka u. Dechen’s Archiv. fiir Mineralogie, etc., 1844, 


hai 509), a in none "of the recorded analyses of ancient silver coins 


analysis—none of which are recorded—employed for separ ating lead from 
silver by other chemists, were less dehiate et those which the authors 
deseri t 


am 
metallurgists affords silver which is less strongly contaminated with lead, 
and is probably purer in other respects, than is produced by any other 
process of manufacture.—Proceedings of the American Academy, V, 52, 
Cambridge, Sept., 1860 

II. GEOLOGY. 

1. Botanical and Paleontological Report on the Geological State Sur- 
vey of Arkansas ; by Leo Lesquereux.—This is a separate issue of the 
Boiantext por diiin of A hove Geological Report of Arkansas, just pub- 
lished, from p. 297 t 9, large 8vo, with five good plates Hitega. 3 
hew species of fossil rants from the Coal formation and one of fossil-lea 
from the Tertiary. We regret that the separate title pata is not dated, 


rest and impo! P 
more thorough surveys under better aus joe especially as to what relates 
to the recent Botan: ny, and general distribution of the plants of Ar 
This part is introduced by the following we Ea 

Am. Jour. Sc1.—SEeconp Sexes, Vou. XXXI, No, 93.—May, 1861. 

56 


432 Scientific Notices. 


st. That it is stil uncertain if the Chatnical elements of the soil, even if it 
was proved that they are directly depending on the nature of the underlying 
Nyt strata. peetitte a perceptible influence on the vegetation which — 
el pecu ar place. That, in any case, the amount of influe 


the ee renitiear is still pro blem 
2d. ‘That the geological clement viz., the perele Singin 4 from the de- 
Suit paltion of the rocks and entering into the compos of the soil, even if 
eir influence on the veget: atic a ware well marked, ie pa cheba disseminated 
by water and atmospheric agency a great distance from the areas occupied 
by. oy a, from which they come. The lime of a limestone ridge, A 
of a of sandstone are vassied pee the declivities, spread ov 
, kin 7 of rearte transported to the alluvial pains, or Aipa ed on "the 
anks of rivers and thus mixed together in a peculiar compound which, 1 
new state, has but an indirect relation to the ee ie from “hich it . ‘denned 
nd no relat einer to the formations which i Mor r, the 
frequent paar of strata of asaialitinl min of fidlodestis which schlitioee the 
rocks of the great valley of the Mississippi, Silurian, Devonian, og eee 
and Tertiary, prevent an exact limitation of the area over which each of them 
may extend its influence. hagien it has 2 been generally admitted that pissin) 


c 
country than ¢ chemical phnatitae ts of the rocks. Consequently, that the 
direction of the t ike 8, ie amount of light and atmospheric heat and moisture, 
the thickness ue the soil, its hardness and pes for fetaintig water, are 
the essential causes of “the distribution of the plan 

These e brisidetitioné s may be it a they corre wut one side of a com-. 
plex and difficult question which cannot be discussed now. If the hardness, 


i e pl en 
depends principally on the che sina oe of the ge ologicn!: strata. 
other hand, if the dissemination of the geological elements renders the task 
ascertaining t ait) influence difficult in some places, it , fe a reason to 
reject as useless or impossible any attempt to compare the vegetation of a 
country with its geologiea formations. If this comparison can e any- 
where with a chanc success, is vaya in Arkansas, where the strata 
are nearly hetisiintal ind extend over vast a 
he exploration of the Botany of peepee: feaen too late and was se short 
to permit the fulfilling of a work which for its c vegans ould require some 
ontinual research. The Se owine: data collected a ong our ed of 
travel can vhs be considered only as the rst poi — delitatiog lines which 
may be continued and eres hereafter. 


supports, owing to the temperature of the water, pets tes 60 rab 

and the amount of air it is surcharged with. It would be well to know 

what proportion of this air is carbonic acid. The short section on the 
hy of Arkansas is of such general interest that we cite the whole. 

sof Ark. as.—Before entering into the examination of the botan- 

— nd 


iea fiscal fe chinieeed ristic the _part rt of Arkansas which I 
is still a base faeaes qvestion wh 


The Prairies of Arkansas do not appear to have been formed all in the same _ 
manner. me So are underlaid by different sane situated at various ele- 
vations, and th Fo seo aspect differs apparently so much, that it looks as if 
a peculiar law had directed the formation of eac : Be em, 

ave explained aaincen the age ral form of the prairies, and as- 
cribed it to the agency o water. the prairies still in a state of Siero 


to ry an slow recession o water, n land is continually cover 

by low ecigna nt its on fy egetation is ‘that of the rushes and of the 
sedges. en the same land is alternately subjected to Jong inundations and 
then to dryness, during 00 me months of the year, the same plants continue to 


the borders of the lakes, or hard, cold, impermeable when it is mixed wi 

clay or muddy alluvium, = in some marshes ide rlaid by clay or shales, or 
along the banks of Bote rivers. Land ae covered with stagnant 
water ome produc ip trees, because the tre ean for their aoe i 


roots. Neit er do trees et and grow ona ¢ wien alternately covere a 
with stagnant water and exposed to dryness for ‘some months o the year. 
From nie considerations, the hw of the general formation of the prairies can 
be deduced: While a land ora part of a country is slowly passing from the state 
of esi or marsh to the pats of dry land the ae alternative ot stagnant 
water and dryness causes the vegetation of peculiar plants, which, by their 
decomposition, form a peculiar ae weve di a the Pais of the trees. 
From this general rule of formatio ich regards only the prairies of the 
oye valley} all the different ‘chiethoasiank or soci appearances of the 
asil ed. 

The praitiog of r Aaah following their vegetation and their geological 

sab eigen may be separated in ree classes: 
he prairies of the North, rscitly underlaid by cherty limestone. 
a. The prairies of the West, on carboniferous shales and clay. 


d. The prairies of the South and East, overlaying tertiary and alluvial 
formations. 

Ist. The i gees of North Arkansas mostly belong to the counties 
whieh are examin next division. singular in this fact, that 
their surface is rani avays flat, and that they are mostly placed on soft iv- 
ities or cov ng or between the ridges. They are mostly of sinall extent 
and surrounded by thickets of low trees. The compact or somewhat porous 


Subcarboniferous Limestone which they cover does not absorb water with rapid- 

ity. Hence, inthe spring, Heme percolates slowly along the slopes, taking with 
it the detritus of the stone, and tome it where its course is either stopped 
or slackened. A scant swamp vegetation igi ida there, its decomposed 


thickness under the acto of water and of s on. This soil is naturally 
Sag gives water for a part ‘of the yee. ike the pom t, which it resem- 
bles, and thus cannot sustain trees. They establish ther i 
Hoand "all around. When by successive er “eitoey of limestone de 


coarser materials are of course heaped on anks of these creeks, a few 


* Bulletin of the Society of Natural Sciences of Neuchatel vg i 
PM The orig d of the far West along the éastern base of the Rocky Mountains, 
sandy deserts, caused by the Uryness of the a 


434 Scientific Notices. 


trees grow along them. They are mostly stunted specimens of the Post-Oak, 
the Rock Chestnut Nira oe Persimmon, the Mockernut, the Juniper, and a 
a, Pers, T 


shrub, Bumelia lan ers. e characteristic 1 herbaceous plants o 

sis ‘limestone prairi ae Gye ially: Ambrosia polystachya, Kuhnia Eupa- 
rioides, Aster haitan Croton cayitatum, Grindelia aeesteie Pda “yee 

Getbaphcs us albidus, &c., species which are not found on the prairies of o 


formation. Besides these plants ney are covered with a great number of 
pecies belonging to the prairies in general. 

Between this and the second iain of the prairies, viz., of those which 
are formed on the Carboniferous shales and ony, there is a remarkable transi- 
tion, which unites both divisions, Se er shows their common origin. In the 
western parts of Benton and the northern RN t of Washington counties some 


or red clay, have still at their surface some isolated patches of Subcarbonifer- 
ous chert rty ti ‘lin mestone, which appear here and there, preg the ere hori- 
zontality like small mounds, Possibly these low moun ould support the 
vegetation of the ee, and they may live i Ro a into oes by 
the influence of fire, which is a secondary agent of their formation. But the 
soil which covers them is exactly of the same nature as the soil of the sur- 
itges J prairies, and as their height is no more than two or three feet, they 
may have been formed in the same manner and by the agency of water. 
rairies on the Carboniferous shales are generally flat, surrounded by 
higher border, which gives them the appearance of the 
u 


ri ne 
marshes for . ie and have the vegetation of marshes: the rushes and the 
ges mi-aquatic Spinel gives, sceonting to the nature of the 
underlying errata, either a hard, compact, cold soil, gat mposition of shales 
clay ; or, when mixed with i the peaty black ail of the prairies of IIh- 
Soin me of the Northern States. In the summer months, these marshy pause 


es. 
she prairie are more sterile or rather more difficult to cultivate than those 
of ection, as we shall have occasion to see when examining the 
counties S Sebastian samanue , &c., where this kind of prairie is mostly found. 
A few t er Oak, ‘the Pin Oak, the Honey Locust,—grow along 
the crenks: which Gena. in ‘their middle. The -soil is, in its natural state, 
mostly covered with the great Composite of the prairies and the hard grasses, 
species of Beard-grass and Broom-c 
The prairies of the third class are extensively formed in Arkansas on the 
Tertiary or Alluvial land bordering some rivers of the South, especially Red 


the other sections. From the cecene of Mr. Nut- 
tall, who oe these plains, their plants appear so — pee) from 
those other prairies. They rather bear the characte a Western 
Flora, or of the Flora of the plains extending toward Mex 


Then the geological nature of the soil, and the sani characteristics 
of the vegetation, the agricultural capabilities, &e., of different ees 
of the State are considered in n succession, and lastly, there is a catalogue 
of the plants of Arkansas, as far as known, systematically arranged, their 
Latin names, their English names, Geological station, and natural hab- 


eae ee 


Geology. 435 


itat, being given in parallel columns, with well-chosen remarks upon 
i as and uses appended in foot notes. 

The Palzontological part, noting that all the coal-beds of the State 
appear to belong to the lowest member of the Coal-formations, briefly 
mentions the characteristics of different beds examined, and deser ribes 18 
new species of plants from their overlying shales, and oe 50 
others which have been elsewhere found. Leaves of upp 
Magnolia, of a Rhamnus, and of a Quercus, are paesires poe — 
from a tertiary deposit. 

2. Prof. Heer’s reply to Dr. Newberry on the Age of the Nebraia 
Leaves.—The article of | Dn Newberry in this Journal, xxx, p. 278, having 
a few days ago come to my notice, calls for an answer from me, although 
it is with great unwillingness that I enter me controversy. 

The point of dispute is known to be on the plants discovered in Ne- 
braska. Dr. Newberry had remarked in arate to them (cf. On the 


this “lige [2], vol. xxvii, a ; ‘the species of your fossil plants are 


g, that according to my views, the two last named 
genera were not correctly defined, and ‘that the rest of the genera, quoted 
by Dr. Newberry are represented in the Tertiary and not in the Creta- 
ceous, On this Dr. Newberry founded his charges, which, though 
answered already by Mr. Leona eet he repeats again. I allow myself 
to reply to them as follow: 

1. In relation to the Uindamia Dr. Newberry seems now to admit, that 
the leaves from Reyer cannot be assigned to this genus, as he himself 

Says: it may prove a new genus. In fact, all the characteristics of 
Credneria are wan Sadie n these leaves, (to wit: those fine lateral veins, 


those of Populus leuce, ste > n this pie © I had not only 
examined the drawings of Sena and ut also fine leaves 
of that species which were sent to me from Bog nasco and Sieblos, The 
margin of these Jeaves is only sparingly dentate or even entirely toothless, 
and also only slightly wavy or undulate. I cannot agree to Dr. Newberry’s 
Ettinghausenia any more than in regard to the Credneria. - the leaves 
of this genus, w ich are known to me, are serrate or denta' 


manica, M.) I have a representation in my work on the flora of Skopau 
(cf. Beitriige zur Flora des sachs, Braunkohlen). A comparison of the 
drawin ings of the Nebraska leaf (in the Proceedings Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil- 


436 Scientific Intelligence. 


adelphia, Dec. 1858, p. 223, Fig. 3,) with these Tertiary Sassafras species, 
and also with the Ettinghausenia, will satisfy every one that it is much 
more like the former and probably, therefore, is to be assigned to that 
genus. In relation to the separation of Ettinghausenia from Credneria, I 
did not intend to pronounce it in my letter to Mr. Lesquereux as unjustified. 
But Mr. Stichler certainly will willingly concede, that with the present 


Ettinghausenia. Dr. Newberry’s tate such a deviating form of leaf 
to this genus, proves the correctness of what I have said. Mr. Stichler 
has characterized excellently and circumscribed more strictly the genus 
Credneria, and separated from it a number of deviating leaves, which 


it is impossible to characterize in a satisfactory manner this group o 
leaves, which itself seems to embrace very different elements. Where- 


friendly scientific intercourse with him, and holding his works in the 
bigest esteem 
2. But if the Credneria and Ettinghausenia are now left out of the 
flora of Nebraska, and if the leaves so interpreted belong rather to the 
shee y 03 to a sein genera, the question may be put, on what 
unds the tion of Dr. Newberry be established: that these 
seit ah (Sete auialp to the Cretaceous species of the Old World ? 
As we remarked above, Dr. Newberry mentions besides Credneria and 
re aoa eleven other genera, to the list of which he afterwards 
adds Platan These are all, however, well known Tertiary genera and 
several of tthe bear an important part in the Tertiary flora. Two of 
them (Sphenopteris and Abietites) are not of any importance in this discus- 
sion, being present in nearly all the formations and therefore not pecu- 
rto any one of them; but this is not the case with the rest of them, 
Dr. Newberry now maintains, 1 oes several of these are contained in the 
work of Stichler (iber die ideflora des Hayes Palewontographica, 
v, 23), and puts the pote thee either I have not known the work - 
Stichler, and am, therefore, not competent to give an opinion upon it ; 
I have known it, and a severer expression would be justified. To ate I 
have to reply, that Mr. Stichler, in the work mentioned, describes only the 
era: Credueria, Butinghausenia, ¥ wens, Pandsann: Pterophyllum, 
rites, and mentions Salicites? fragili tah 4. and Juglans 
ent but in the intretio , (p. 50), he mentions, cot Mr. 
Hampe gives t lowing additional get rites, 
Getiinndie, Equ uisetum, Peeapteni, Flabellaria, Pinites, Geini itzia, Arau- 


le ee 


. 


Geology. 437 


? Comptonites, Salicites, Populus, Alnites, Acer? and Quercites, 
M. a however, says, (p. 50), that most of these vegetable remains 
need further examination, which was not possible, until more perfect 


ciently determined genera: viz. Comptonites, Salicites, Populus and Al- 
nites. Mr. Stichler, therefore, does not enter into those at all, although 
his work treats on the very flora of this locality, and ae evidently 


ignoring them. I confess freely, that in my opinion it is not possible 
to build such important conclusions on such uncertain data, and that 
it were better to lay them aside until a somewhat more correct solution 
is possible. But it, for argument’s sake, we should accept these defi- 


thereby bettered, as that list contains only two of the genera mentioned 
by him, Populus and Acer, and this last one, Stichler himself ———. 
immediately afterwards as eee ites? That Acerites is not t 
ar Alnites not Alnus, and Salicites not Salix, it is surely sag cessary 
ue any further at present. They designate only similar Gute of 
site which, however, are so incompletely preserved, that a stricter defi- 
nition ‘oni not be formed, as Mr. Stichler himself shows, that Salicites fra- 
giliformis is not a proper Salix, but is better to be designated as Phyllites. 
It is true, Messrs. Geeppert, Reuss and Dunker mention saliciform Jeaves 


are the veins sufficiently preserved to enable us to recognize in them the 
characteristics of the Salix: the definitions, therefore, have to remain yet 
unsettled. * 


Vorw elt, S 8), accor o him Salicites angustus uss belongs to 
Caevilics Comptoni stig. jose Nils., however, to Dryandra. ‘Thus 
stands the matter in relation to those genera, which, according to Dr. 


enera ment fs has ‘himeelt ae in favor of the Tertiary 
ora and not of the Cretaobo, and re Lees java his assertion, that 
the Flora of Nebraska is closely alli e Cretaceous of Europe, is 


not supported by the evidence. It is a incomprehensible to me, 


Salicites Hartigi Dunk., cannot belong to Salix: not only are the 
babsti rei different, but also the terminations of the ve 
tng Ue inate, 


arches, not margin, while in these Salic at least in the 
drawing), they them Salicites Potzeldianus Geep.,(Nov. Act. Acad. Leep 
xix, t. 47; fig. 18), Mr. Geeppert himself considers as very i ies 


occur ies those shortened lateral veins characteristic of the willows. Carpinites 
arenaceus Gp., (1. ¢. Taf. 47, ae te 19, 20) cannot be compared with Carpinus; the 
secondary veins terminate in 


438 Scientific Intelligence. 


how he can say “the fossil flora of Blankenburg is indeed strikingly Vike 
that of our lower Cretaceous strata,” (this Journal, (2], xxix, p. 211), 

a flora so wholly different from the present Europea an and Aseverieie, 
while living representatives still oceur in meagre of nearly all of the 

now known genera of the flora of Nebras 

3. If the relations of the strata and the fossil remains of animals make 
it indubitable that the fossiliferous sandstone in Nebraska and Kansas 
belongs to the Cretaceotis formation, it follows of course, that these 
plants have to be assigned to the Cretaceous flora. In this case the inter- 


. with the Msedaen flora of Europe; the Cretaceous pei ren 
would form a remarkable sxoephaunt We must, of course, not forget, that 
the Cretaceous flora of Europe has not been as yet vs st examined, 
and that many. new forms will shinkiiens yet come to light. The 
Tertiary flora shows such an abundance of insvipledeies, that in all pro- 
bability many more of its typical genera than are ee wn at pres- 
ent have their — forms in the Cretaceous epoch, among them, per- 
haps, some of those which came to our knowledge Sine } Kansas and Ne- 
braska. It is, however, worthy of notice, that the Eocene flora of Europe, 
(i.e, that of Mon é Bolca, of the Isle of Wight, of St. Zacharie in 
Frovence, and of Bore does not contain those e genera pr eit by 
Dr: Newberry (with the exception of Acer), and that they do 
their aera in Europe before the lower Miocene 1 epoch, ‘hil on 


] 


suppose here a nearer eh. RHE ch to the Tertiary Sore; than in oo lowest 


materials before us < énahl e us to assert, that the Cretaceous fe of Europe 
has an entirely different character from that of Nebraska, and I will try 


storily. 
We have in the Cretaceous flora of Europe; numerous and mostly pe- 


ian aaah differing in type from the present. European forms. We. 
notic them eis Gleicheniacez, (one genuin aap wiper 5 and 
large aia among wl b eichselia remin 


Cretaceous forms a peculiar feature. amen ssa ons we meet 
Palms, Paidatios and Scitamenee, (Cannopliite) 3 among the Gymno- 
also a considerable number w remind us of the © koecnonctse of 


Jurassic flora, (Cycadites, Pearptlon, 
and side { Coons and numerous peculiar Conifers, of which cues ms 
a , related to Sequoia, has spread ean cree. © 
cane forms which are closely allied to ndio-Austral 


amare, Cunninghamie and Arancarie, are mixed (according to episto- 
latory communications from Dr. Debeg), several most peculiar extinet 
genera; the Dicotyledons Bikey as is well known, appear first in the Cre- 
Seeainn formatio n, present t emselves in the lower chalk only in few, 
(namely in Credneria and gh gals but in the chalk of Aix, in 
humerous species. According to the communications from Dr. Debe 

to whom we owe an excellent work on these pants (cf. die urwelilichen 
Thallophyten und Acrobryen, Denkschriften der Wicner-Academie, xvi, 
and xvii), he has discovered in Aix about 200 species of Dicotyledons. 


= 


taccous] yeas in my opinion to Tees He Gat ya. This flora o 
Aix shows, therefore, a Ae ided Indio-Australian character, 
proaches thereby the Eocene flor ora, while that of the older Chalk hiitok 
is foreshadowing the URE to that of the Jura. How different the flora 
of Nebraska oe having all the now known genera in common with 
the Miocene flo: all the hag ho generic types met in Amer- 
ica at the present pri If it y belongs to the oldest Chalk forma- 
tion, the flora of that epoch Paes shu aly itself to the present flora of 
Ameri ica, and there faa | Gndging by the small amount of oat ig since 
that time not occurred any new arrangement which had materially 
changed the genera, while this was the case in Europe’ in a high “dees, 
Many peculiar forms join the older ie rie ee in the lower Chalk, and 
the Dicotyledons appear mostly in now extinct genera; after this the flora 
assumes more and more the TeaieA peas vie tet, which continues 
through the Pliocene flora to the commencement of the Miocene; then 
the In 8 igre types retreat by degrees into + background, making 
room for merican, this prevailing to the end of the Miocene epoch, 
and, in pir species, reaching i into Pieces while in the Quaternary 
epoch the Asiatic types make their apipdaritnds with the present creation, 
predetermining the character of the vegetation. No doubt it is possible, 
that the American flora has assumed from the Cretaceous period an en- 
tirely different development from that of Europe; but ere we accept such 
a remarkable phenomenon as a fact, we had rather wait for further exam- 
inations of the localities where the Nebraska oe are found. I must 
about the co 


urope. How easily accessible are our Alps in comparison to the parts 
of America in question, and how long a time did it take, before we on 
correctly informed on the rela tions ot the strata of the most oo 
Saeed and how much are we in the dark yet about some of 
those very mountains! It is now generally admitted, that with us oe 
tovidstioas are resting on Tertiary for an extent of over 36 miles. “Ther 

* They ca Feiss Sid to to Oytisus, because the secondary veins project too much; 

they “ur however, t racter of walnut -leaves. 

Am. Jour. rhage ont Serres, Vi ‘oL. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861. 

57 


440 Scientific Intelligence. 


exists,” says Studer, (Geologie der Schweiz, ii, f. 4), “in this mountain 
group of several square leagues, the w onderful screen that Flysch 
and Vummulite-sandstones, which we have learnt to recognize as the last 
sediment-formation in the system of the Alps, here appear in the founda- 
tion of the Verrunaco, of the Jura and of the Chalk-fourmation, not other- 
wise as we are used to see gneiss and mica-slate in other parts of the Alps 
or in the palwozoic formations in other mountain systems.” If Dr. New- 
berry could visit the Glarnisch, (Canton Glarus), on the eastern slopes of 
which true Jurassic to a great extent lies over nummulitic chalk in a 
nearly he as position, he, perhaps, also would find, that, without the 


shadov a doubt, one must believe the N ummulitic-chalk older than 
the Jit ura, 
I cannot close this note without expressing my deep Sle for having 


been obliged thus publicly to defend myself against Dr. Newberry. There 
are so few men engaged in the study of fossil plants, and the field is so 
immensely extensive, that it would be better to devote our time to this 
work, and not to useless disputes. lave, tke not sought this dis- 
cussion, a only entered into it compulsorily ; ope that in future 
eet Dr. Newberry, who has already pinta to science suc 
impor bie services, on more pleasant grounds. Oswaip H 

Zurich, Dec. 15, 1860. 

3. On the causes which gave rise to the generally vps form and 
parallel arrangement of the pebbles in the Newport Conglomerate ; by 
Prof. Witiiam B. Rogers (from re "Bosion Sci. Nat. eng seat —Refer- 
ring to the characters of the conglomerate as presented at Purgatory and 
other places in the vicinity of Newport and indeed generally througheatt 
its outcrops, Prof. Rogers commented on the hypothesis by which it had 


he. pre 
cisely wath the effects of wa rrent action on water-worn a and par- 


rocks, i in virtue of sharply Aine nee and steay hae: bi are ‘ie 


of this mode of cideeaaensoh are aan in the more altered belts of 
the Appalachian region, especially amo nf =e eee ci and to 
slates ong the soytbeastern bee an be seen at various 5 


action of powerful pressure upon the strata while the pebbles were in a 
soft condition from intense heat or other causes, Prof. Rogers urged the 
following objections : ' 
Ist. The effect of pressure upon a plastic solid, as shown by Sorby and 
deve | i 


yndal, is in all cases to develope mor more distinct cleavage planes 
throughout the mass, these planes being uniformly at right angles to the 
direction of the pressing force. Such an action applied on a large scale 


erate and of a similar fossil found subsequently by Mr. Easton in the con- 
glomerate of Newport shows that no such violence could possibly have 
operated on the mass. 

3d. While in the localities referred to the majority of the pebbles have 
the oblong shape and parallel arrangement above described, there are 
many scattered through t w a ve 
their longer dimensions more or less transverse or even perpendicular to 

s these c e 


all-pervading, softening action and pressure which the frenethakis aan es, 
their presence in these discordant conditions seems of itself a sufficient 
refutation of the theory. 

In regard to the curved form and close adaptation observed in some of 
the pebbles, Prof. Rogers thought that accidental peculiarities of shape in 
the original fragment and the effects of attrition and the close packing of 
the accumulated deposit furnished an adequate explanation both of the 
bent form sometimes met with and the accurate fitting of the contiguous 


glomerate rock, would not the argument founded om their shape and 
sition be even stronger than in the case of the Newport conglomerate ? 
vet nothing is more certain than that they owe their shape and arrange- 
ment to the peculiar movement and attrition to which they have been 
subjected by the action of the waves. 
Thus as regards the Newport rocks and most other conglomerates 
which had fallen under his notice, Prof. Rogers saw no difficulty in refer- 


442 Scientific Intelligence. 


ring the form and arrangement of the pebbles to the en, agencies 
indicated. He does not however doubt that in some highly metamorphic | 
districts, conglomerate rocks are to be found which have stained great 
internal changes through the effects of heat, chemical action and violent 
pressure. Such he has long thought must have been the conditions in 
some parts of the Blue Ridge and South Mountain chain in the Middle 
States, and such perhaps were the influences which operated on the 
Gneissoid conglomerates of the Green mountains, to which Prof. Hitch- 
cock has referred in his recent communication to the Society. 

MixgraLocy.— 

4. Note on Chloritoid from Canada; by T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S.— 
Among the crystalline Palaozoic schists of the Notre Dame Mts., which 
are the Canadian prolongation of the Green Mts., of Vermont, is a rock 
characterized by the presence of a mineral which has been designated 
in the Reports of the Survey by the name of phyllite, from the suppo- 
sition of its identity with a similar mineral from Massachusetts, de- 

Thompso 


a 
containing the mineral in question may be traced in the continuation of 
the Notre Dame Mts., as far as Gaspé. In the rock of Leeds the phyl- 
lite occurs in small lamellar masses rarely more than one-fourth of an 
inch broad and one-eighth of an inch thick. In some specimens it forms 
spherical agoregations half an inch or more in diameter composed of ra- 
diating lamellee and sometimes making up one-half the volume of the 
rock. In most localities however the masses are smaller and less abun- 
dant. The mineral has a vechis. cleavage in one direction and two less 
distinct transverse cleavages, ‘ the lamellz are often curved and are not 
easily separable. Hardness 6-0, density 3-513, color dark greenish-gray 
ich have 


a vitreous lustre ; the cross-fracture is granular and exhibits a feeble 
sc ustre. The str ee ge owder are greevish gray. ‘The mineral 
mbles somewhat a dark colored variety of hyper sthene’ oh analy- 
2 of a carefully eae’ specimen from Leeds gave as follows :* 
ee - - - pe sate aS 
Alum rs Sis ade peice ayin. -*. eee 
Protoeyd of iro - - - - - 25°92 
Protoxyd of manganese, - - - - 93 
Magnesia, - = - hit ween <0 * 3°66 
Water, - - . - - Sou is - 6°10 
100:01 


This analysis shows the mineral to be vehdieg with which its s 
“cific gravity and other characters agree. It s the barytophyllite of 
_Brei t, the masonite of Jackson and the ised of Delesse. All 
“of these minerals occur in argillaceous, micaccous or chloritic slates and 


* Report of Geol. Survey of Canada, 1858, p. 194. 


: 
3 


A 


Botany. 448 


having a hardness of 5°0—6-0, and a density of 3:45—8-57, have been 
united with rewire, with which they agree in composition. (Dana, 
Mineralogy, ii 
The phyllite are ‘Thompson according to the analysis of that _— 
contains a larger amount of silica than chloritoid together with mo 
manganese, au 6°80 p.c. of = sh, but having had Sonedton: to repeat 
ary 


cent of potash and in his retinalite, a pure serpentine, nearly nineteen 
per cent of soda.* In both cases the error was at the expense of the 
magnesia of the mineral. The substance examined by Thompson has 
not so far as I know been examined or identified by American mineralo- 
gists, but in the minerological cabinet of the Laval University at Que- 
ec, is a area: from the Piao of the late Mr. gts said ” 
be phyllite fro — is evidently chloritoid, and ¢ 
not be diatiapGishéel ti i spesim s of that mineral sok dese sheik, 


= 
Dp 
oO 
et 


Thompaed occurs in an ar sas slate in Belgium, and in a specimen 

efore me cannot be distinguished wok the phyllite from Massachusetts 
or the riba of Can ge This mineral has however been analyzed 
by Damour, whose n s a guaran sith for accuracy, and differs from 
ehiloritoid 4 in con taining a 5 diesen excess of silica, which might pos- 
sibly be derived from the gangue. The specific gravity which Damour 
has assigned to ottrelite is 4-4—which is so extraordinary for a mineral 


of that composition that we are | spect some error probably of 
ress or he question of the identity of ottrelite with chlori- 
toid is one which requires farther examination. the latter 


wide areas considerable masses of schists, which we have elsewhere de- 
scribed as chloritoid slate. 


II. BOTANY. 


. Journal of the ager semi of the Linnean Society ; Botany. No 

ng a 860), contains, (1.) Notes on Ternstramiacee, by George Bentham, 

critical survey “of the order (for which we could have wished 

she the name Camelliaceee were adopted), in which Mr. Bentham re- 

tains the Sauraujee, - to this refers Stachyurus, very properly re- 

aie yaar ie Saurauja ; also the Gordiniew or proper Camel- 
hi 


new plants of pn Rae ces n, 
(2.) Mr. Crocker, a foreman in Kew Gardens describes the curious ger- 
mination of Streptocarpus ae and a few other Cyrtandree of 
. . s S 


the cotyledons, which from a palate a speeds. in germination 
* Report of Geol. aie of Canada, 1850, p. 40. 


444 Scientific Intelligence. 


and at length — about a foot long, the flowerstalks springing “— 
its sinus. The two cotyledons grow equally for the first few days, but o 
of them is soon arr iene while the other grows on in this remarkable man- 
ner. S. Rewxit and S. biflorus show this remarkable peculiarity, but also 
_ develope a beep of two or three smaller Jeaves 
(: otes on Anonacee, by George Bentham, — the prin- 
ciples eddipied in the forthcoming revision - sag er for the new 
enera Plantarum, and characterizes several n e a The rather 
numerous instances in which the petals are imbricated in zstivation, as in 
Magnoliacee, are mentioned, and the estivation is (perhaps rather too 
much) used in the division into tribes, 
(4.) Botanical Memoranda, by George Bentham. In this short paper 
Mr. Bentham discusses several topics with his well-known ability an 
sense. e ane demur to his conclusion that the so-called involucre of 
ne ers to a single amplexical divided leaf, and would sta to 
the ‘estadabt of two opposite leaves in A. Virginiana and A. Pennsyl- 
vanica in proof of the contrary; nor can we regard the change tots veo 
ternate to opposite or verticillate leaves as so anomalous or so yunusual as 


i 
ensuing note on the stigmas of Papavaracee is clear and adm 

) On Fissicalyx, a new genus ie Dalbergiee (No. 2223 of Fendler’s 
Venezuelan coliection), by the same author. 

_(6.) Account of the plants collected by Dr. Walker in Greenland and 
Arctic America during the expedition of Sir Francis M’Clintock in the 
Yacht ‘ Fox, by Dr. J. D. Hooker. 

(7.) Hepatice India Orientalis, ay Mr. Mitten ; commenced. 

Supplement to vol. v.; Botany, 1860, contains the Florida Adenensis, 
by Dr. Thomas Anderson, a botanist of excellent promise; 43 pages, 
with 6 plates. Ninety-four species compose the known phznogamous 
flora of this arid little peninsula of Aden, bolonett to 79 genera and 41 
natural orders. Most of these species are scarce in individuals, only a few 
of the more arid forms predominating; all are more or less peculiar in 
their habit, and destitute of a bright green color; nearly all are glaucous, 


whitened, or hoary, many are fleshy, and 1 6 bear sharp thorns, “ All 
the species have to strive against conditions tending to the entire extinc- 
tion of vegetable life ;” and “the flora a to be a collection of des- 


ert species, selected from widely different patiial orders and genera, and 
all alike contending with the excessive heat and drought.” “In so dry a 
Sleaneg Ferns and other Cryptogamia except Lichenes, are wins un- 
kno 


Review.— 

2. Life on the Earth, its Origin and Succession ; by Joun ote 
M.A., LL.D., F.RS., late President of the Geological Society of 
don, Professor of Geology i in the University of Oxford. Cambridge ret 
London, Macmillan & Co., 1860, pp. 224, 12mo.—A book with this tak- 
ing title especially in these days, i is sure of a rompt and wide circula- 
tion,—all the more so when the author is an Oxford Professor, and a Rede 
i eiure at the sister University. The subject and the author here com- 
mand attention and respect, and excite a high degree of expectation. We 
imagine that tens: readers who take this nae for what it really is, viz., 


CJ 


SI a ie 


Botany. } 445 


an amplification of “the Rede Leeture,” delivered in the year 1860, be- 
fore the University of Cambridge, and as a popular exposition, sian an able 

geologist, of an interesting scientific erring not be disappoin 
On the other hand, those who take it,—as the title-page might lead 
them to do—either for an or gin npoesetiga upon the Origin and Suc- 
cession of Life on the Earth, or for a serious and sustained criticism of the 
oot ep pothesis which re Darwin has recently propounded, will 
y have their expectations satisfied. et, along with a large amount 


o 

e best point, as be strikes us, which Professor Phillips makes against 
Darwin is drawn from a comparison of fresh-water with marine sca, 
—the latter of numerous and waely diversified types, and of great change 
on the whole from age to age; the former of comparatively few types, 
and much alike all over the world and throughout geological time as far 
back as they can be traced. 

“Tf, in either of these cases, the Unionidae, the Paludinade, the Lim- 
nade, Planorbes, Physze, &ec., the modern forms are derived from the an- 
cient, we have the full fiends of the whole atution =e differentials 
of change are all integrated by time, and we behold the sum —how lit- 
tle! But if not so, if the modern and ancient species have sprung from 
different branches of a stem still older than either, how much stronger, 

ossible, is this decisive testimony against the doctrine of indefinite 
change through time and circumstance! Circumstances have varied, 
have away, and yet every generic group exhibits at every step the 
saine essential characters, and many of the little peculiarities, such as ero- 
ded beaks, plications on the surface, reflexions of the lip, carinations of 
the whorls, which cannot be consistent with accumulated tendencies to 
gk (p. 113). “The discovery of a land-shell allied to if not identi- 

with Pupa, in the interior a ge tree a in the coal-for- 
siakion of Nova Scotia,” (p. 116), is an anaiog 

To enforce the argument we — the ada we wonder 
Prof. Phillips has not adduced, and which we suppose may be safely ven- 
tured upon,—that flu viatile and terrestrial conditions must all along have 


446 Scientific Intelligence. 


plex which is condensed and rather boldly personified by the term Natu- 
-_ palactib on is no vega sueipesheriden by — naturalists than is the 


pra cretaceous : oking then at “ examples of avail forms 
of Mammalia now living with some of the tertiary quadrupeds once deni- 


zens of the same regions, or regions formerly connected by land,” or where, 
“without this close affin nity, a “considerable eres is found between 
speciai tribes now living and “ppt ag the same region,” as in a 
part of America “among the Edent aye though et quite confined 
to that) region are more plentiful Ay, ‘than elsewhere, and are successors 
of fossil raves also found almost exclusively in that country ;” noting also 
that the sarah mammais of Australia had marsupial predecessors, our 
author continues: 

“The peculiarity indeed is of far earlier origin; for it occurs in the 
eocene deposits of the basin of Paris, in the Jacustrine deposits over the 
upper oolite at Stonesfield, and probably in the Trias of Wurtemberg. 
In respect of the Stonesfield fossils, this is not the only evidence presented 
by that curious deposit of similarity of mezozoic life in the north and 
cenozoic life in the antipodal region of the south. It extends to other 
groups, both of the land and sea, and almost justifies the notion of some 

affinity even in the systems of life. For just as at Stonesfield, so in Aus- 
tratia, small insectivorous marsupial mammals are associated with Cyca- 
daceous plants and Ferns; as now in the seas surrounding Australia, Tere- 
bratula and Rhynchonella, _Trigonia and Cucullza, consort with Turtles 
and the Cestraciont Sharks, near reefs of coral, and rivers tenanted by 
Gavialian Crocodiles, so at Stonesfield in the she time, similar animals 
in similar combination. 

“ What does this teach us? Are we looking upon two partially simi- 
Jar, but really separate creations suited to partially similar conditions in 
very different periods of time? Or is the life-system of the modern Aus- 
tralian land and sea tray derived in some of its components by descent 

with modification from the older periods of the world, and preserved to 
this our day, notwithstanding displacement over half the circumference 
ot the globe, and all the vicissitudes of an immensity of time?” (p. 171, 

2). 


_ The author proceeds to answer these questions in the following passa- 
ges in which his volume culminates 


Botany. 447 


forms, as Oliva, Mitra, Triton, dentbinlats te ie n the earlier period, 
have come into view in the latter. But let it be prise) What follows ? 
These small differences then, accomplished in all that prodigious range o 
elapsed time, under all that variety of physical changes and removals, 


eT ee eee 


tem, deposited within the same grand period, and under much similarity 
of conditions, argue a facility in giving variations: let this operation be 
supposed to be continued in the interval between the epoch of Stonesfield 
and 4 of Australia, and the effects summed by natural selection, the 
result is the modern eovige scarcely differing more iu appearance from 

they differ one another. But, if not so deri 


ea fossil fesse than i from er 

] descent, but ng epara temporaneous 

j bia or on of life, how should it happen that plants and quad- 
rupeds on land and mollusks in the sea, should in each of these two ¢ 


for several similar sac ms in similar associations, fit with the Sport of 
continual developme 
‘This is neatly ae But it seems to be founded on the supposition a 
| variation in descent is somehow caused by time and change, and goes on 
3 by something like sia increments in equal times ; whereas, the cause at 
variation is wholly occult,—the fact is, that some forms remain long inva- 
riable or slightly variable under the same conditions in which others vary 
wr If Mr. Darwin’s theory is bound to explain variation, or to assign 
reason for one species varying when another does not, then it —— 
fails, for it can do no such thing. If, seated: it does not unde 
account for the diversity of species except by regarding — as vaftebes 
of earlier origin and wider divergence,—leaving the reaso why tke pro- 
geny is sometimes unlike the parent in one or more partic ieclans as much 
: unexplained as why it is usually like it, ~ showing how the struggle for 
lite ensures the extinction of crow termediate forms, and now the 
resulting natural selection may lead ona surviving races farther raed 
the lines of favorable variation,—then it avoids the force of many of the 
a which have been directed against it. 
uR. Sc1.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—Mar, 1861. 
58 


448 Scientific Intelligence. 


The eriticisms from which, eile it is least able to escape are those 
which call for lacking intermediate forms between tr ibes, families, and 
other great groups, or for some evidence that they ever existed. Here 
Prof. Phillips as a geologist feels his bo ig and urges his point more 
aptly than some other critics have 

“The explanation offered in the ‘Aappetied of Mr. Darwin is, that the 
groups of life which appear to be and really are distinct, in the Cambro- 
Silurian rocks are not aboriginal forms, but derived from progenitors of far 
earlier date, ge to few types or - one, the original form, and the 
transition forms being known to us. w they are not unknown to us by 

any impossibility of being preserved, ba the strata of the Cambro-Silurian 
series are of a kind in which organic remains of great delicacy are often 
preserved, and indeed such are preserved in these very strata; and by the 
hypothesis the life-structures which are lost must have only gradually dif- 
red in their nature from those which are preserved. It follows, therefore, 
that the earlier-living progenitors of the Cambro-Silurian or not only 
lived long before, but must have lived somewhere else. But as in all the 
_ known examples of this series of strata, or ane found, we ate every- 
where a of the same general type, and nowhere the traces of the 
bic progenitors, = is clear that everywhere we are required by the hy- 
thesis to look somewhere else ;—which may fairly be in ted : 


— 
How . it conceivable that the second stage should be Sraryarhere 
e first nowhere?” (p. 214, as} 

So, also, of what follo ows : 


remove ‘natural selection’ from the large synonomy of ‘chance’ except 
by giving to one of the variable conditions of which it is the sum, direc- 
tion, definite value, or effect. Is it not the one acknowledged possession 

of every species, au inherent tendency to ee its like? Would not 
the effect of this one constant among any number of variables without 


= 


uslarations, fixes a « constant” — would a tend “to pre- 
serve the characters of ‘the * variety’ forever 
“ And,” 


,’ continues our author, hit bt selection’ were regarded 
giving direction to these va riables, i in combination with that constant i 
deney, what would be the “final result but that which has always been 
recognized, viz: a species varying within limits which are to be sought 
out by experience. But finally, if natural selection be thus gifted with 
the power tof continually acting for the good of its subject, encouraging 
it, or rather Ree ra it to continual advancement,—how is this beneti- 
aient personification to be separated from an ever-watchful providence,— 


a 


Botany. 449 


which once brought into — sheds a new light over the whole picture of 
causes and effects?” (p. 215, 216). 

@ answer, nohow, ex eee by ean. to some extent the mode or 
way in which this Providence ma ny Re 


garded as remarkable inventions if they were due to human minds and 
hands,” “ cee be removed from the = of intelligent adaptations be- 


order of causes and effects constituted by the will of the Supreme hath 
of all things.” The points against Darwin’s theory made or suggested 
in the present volume, with so much acuteness, are all the more telling 
for the entire fairness and excellent spirit in which oe. are made, This 
is far more than can be said of the following 7 y, Vv 

3. Species not Transmutable nor mvt seep lt of Secondary Causes ; 
being a Critical sigperseaiteg of Mr. ns Work, &c; by ¢ REE, 

q, M.D., F.LS., &c.—London, Groombridge © Sons—A. favorable 
notice in the Atherton of Dr. Bree’s volume led us to suppose that it 
might be a contribution of some importance in the discussion of the 
nice questions which the publication of Mr. Darwin’s book has raised. 
But this expectation has not been fulfilled on perusal. The author’s 
intentions are praiseworthy, and his zeal in a good cause ee gee But 
we cannot entertain a great respect for the reasoning of a writer who, on 
the one hand sees design and adaptation in the distribution a sunshine 
and rain, and t ripen of the seasons, while on the other he insists 
that because “all the parts of a creature act harmoniously and co-ordinately 
one with another,” necessitating the inference “that they were pre- 
ordained to act collectively for the animal,” therefore “they could not 
have been produced by [through] oe natural selection, divergence 

of form,” or indeed through any secondary causes whatever. e 
po exactly to comprehend how one 5 0hs sees design and adaptation 
ized in the inorganic world through what are called secondary causes, 

is is entitled to declare that the establishment of the doctrine of the succes~ 
sion of species,—each marked with more special if not stronger evidences: 
of design than anything in inorganic nature,—through secondary causes, 
would “ destroy ri vestige of a shadow of Pa ina hermes Provi- 


450 teview of Dr. Wetherill’s 


IV. BOOK NOTICES, 


1. The Manufacture of Vinegar: its Theory and Practice, with espe- 
cial Reference to the Quick Process ; by Cuartes M. Wetuerit bt D., 
M.D. Philadelphia, Lindsay and Blakiston, 1860. 12mo, pp. 3 
This is a very full, correct, and much needed treatise on an im sti 
branch of technology, and the book does credit both to the author and 
to the publishers. It is well printed and contains but few pupereanies 
errors, among which w we remark “ Bertholet’ ” for “ Berthelot,” on p. 1 
and “Reaumer” in all cases for “Reaum ur.” 


a of — . with e especial reference to the gaits in hand,— 
an account of the nature, proparines and transformations, of sugar and 
alcohol rea to a discussion of various methods of determining the 


of our country, bring instruction within the reach of all who desire it, 
no one should engage as manager in the manufacture of vinegar, or 
in any other chemical manufacture, without previous study of chemistry 
and some training in chemical manipulation, One may learn a great 
deal from books, if he first learns how to understand books. One ma 
derive much benefit from experienced workmen, if he first. acquires a 
knowledge of natural laws and principles so that he can exercise a just 
es oyer the whims and prejudices which such workmen always 
e men of other trades, the vinegar maker too often insists 
on on ting point for which no better reason can be rendered than that 
such has been his beaten track; to such the work now under considera- 
tion will prove very useful, as it gives many actual variations in the 
practical details, seat showing that there are more ways than one of 
alTiving at the sam 
One or two cacideatal matters occur in the book, to al we must 
be allowed to take exception, Wood vinegar is spoken of as “pyroxilic 
acid,” and pyrorylic,—which is of pure Greek sin peaps it gi 
to have been called; but the mongrel word pyroligneous has 
‘ eg eetnsively in in use that it shoul pass as the established name. "The 
also su the term “raisin sugar” glucose, because 
“ glucose means sweet, and raisin sugar is.inferior in sweetness to either 


Treatise on the manufacture of Vinegar. 451 


cane or fruit sugar.” It would have been well to consider that glucose is 
derived from the positive yAuxdés, and not from the superlative yAdxeatos ; 
luck 


the sweetest thing known. ‘The transfor mations of starch, by the way, 
recall an undue extension given on we 66,—and indeed very commonly j in 
books,—to the name “ British gum.” Practical men—or at least many 


of them—distinguish roasted wheat starch as British gum, while roasted 
potato starch is called gum substitute. And the distinction is said to be 
founded on a real difference as great as that between the starches them- 
selves. 

In speaking of the expression “ proof spirits” the author says, “ the 
vinegar maker should be entirely aguorant of proof.” But as long as 
spirits are bought and sold according to ‘proof,’ neither the buyer | nor 

Td be ignorant. of what the term means. The common 
material used in this country for making vinegar by the quick process, 
is whiskey. The consumer buys it at a specified price for the quantity 

n 


To see whether this charge is correct he should test the liquor by the 
aleoémeter. One per cent of “ gts ” (absolute) alcohol is equal to two 
per cent of proof ohare is, New York proof. Hence pa the article 


given, one accustomed to nice chemical sa will find no 
culty in pave the ae of vinegar. But it is desirable oa 
common workman should have some simple mode for testing the 


ca 
a 


; is ss of lime prese 
which is known by a sudden change in the color of the solution to yel- 
low or brown and the precipitation of some flocculent matter. be 


The hydrometer strength of the clear solution is now aay 
and by reference to a table constructed for the apne hydrometer 
used, the strength in acetic acid will be found wit nough for 
all common purposes, Of course this method is applicable only to pure 
vinegars made from diluted alcohol. Whiskey vinegar is now very 
largely se in calico printing, and for this use it is commonly re- 
quired to contain five pes cent of dry acetic acid. The acetate of lime 
a hana a vues this strength stands at 8° of Twaddle’s hydro- 


452 Review of Dr. Wetherill’s 


The second part of the work describes several different arrangements 
of the apparatus for making vinegar as well as various modes of work- 
ing; and one about to start or remodel a manufactory, would derive 
much advantage from a careful study of the many plans here detailed. 
Yet some questions might be asked to which the book gives no satis- 
factory answer. The first point to be decided is, of valu size shall the 
graduators be made? They commonly have an average diameter of 
about 34 feet and a height not exceeding 12 feet. But they seem to 

e so made rather from precedent than from any actual necessity. It is 
vie likely coo there would be some advantage in having them much 


liq 
20 feet of ailing. drawn out at one as finished vine gar. ese ong 
graduators produce quite as much strong vinegar for the same amoun 
of filling as those of half on height worked in pairs; and sent escir 
be the feeding apparatus to be described presently, they dispense 
be a large part of the labor and attention required in the older ways 
of working. 
os to the form of the generators, a word may be said. They are made 
mewhat conical so that the hoops may be driven tight; but which 


advantage in having them so set. It is true the filling usually shrinks 
more or less in the course of time, and one might suppose that were the 
taper from the bottom upwards, the filling would draw away from the 
sides and leave there too free a passage for the air. But it is a some- 
what yielding mass we have to deal with. Therefore while it is short- 
ened vertically it presses 3 laterally. There are on the other hand 


There i is much difference of opinion and practice with reference to — 
ion of air. Some “practical” men insist on bori 
three or four feet above the false bottom. Others make them an ay 


or two above. Some lay pies stress on vgn ee in the air by one or 


terminating just below a miei beatin. on. Whiah’ the filling rests 
They forget that air is an alastie fluid and tends to diffuse itself equally _ 


Treatise on the manufacture of Vinegar. 453 


in every direction so that if it only has a chance to enter anyhow or 
anywhere below the filling, there is no danger of a partial distribution. 
There can be no simpler or better plan than to bore two or three holes 


ile speaking of air it may not be amiss to mention a very natural 
mathematical overs ht that occurs in Dr. Wetherill’s book on p. 259. 
It is said that :—“ Otto discovered by numerous experiments that the 


of oxygen, equivalent to from 4°9 to 6°9 per cent of the oxygen of the 
air employed in the vinegar arc ” As in atmospheric air rua 
is 20°9 oxygen to 79°1 nitrogen, an atmosphere that contains 16 per c 
of oxygen or 84 = cent of nitrogen, must have had originally with this 
84 of nitrogen Fy S482" 2 of oxygen. Hence it has lost aa aes 
=5'84 per aut fy the air itself or 27°8 p.c. of its oxygen. And so 
when an air en 14 p. ¢. of ee it has lost 8 p.e. of its first 
weight or 38°4 p.c. of its ox 
It is said that some mance allow the vinegar to flow out 
at bottom as on as it trickles down, yet we nowhere find a suffi- 
cient reason rendered A this plan. Our author after describing a 
00 e 


given in the proper r place.” This “ proper place,” howevér, is not to be 
found in the book, and a statement so very questionable is left unsup- 
ported by any reasoning. If there are any real advantages in the 
neck or any similar contrivance, it is desirable that they should be speci- 
fied; for one who has: never used such arrangements, can hardly con- 
ceive how sition} can ree on the whole, better than periodical drawings 
om a common co 
The filling is Sotdibionly looked upon as merely presenting an horsnarent 
surface over which the liquor to be acetified flows in a tortuous course 
from top to bottom. But perhaps the graduator ought cates to be 
considered as a kind of apparatus for “displacement.” It is not improb- 
able that the alcoholic mixtures instead of simply trickling over the 


/ 


454 Review of Dr. Wetherill’s Treatise, §c. 


have a chance each time to empty themselves partially of liquid and 
become filled with air; and the air will thus be brought into more inti- 
mate contact with the liquor of the next pouring. While with a con- 
stant flow, the air will be present only in the interstices and not in the 
pores. Our author very justly considers that pouring at intervals would 
be preferable to the constant flow, if it could be effected without the 
great amount of care and manual labor casa it commonly requires. He 
probably is not aware axe there has tec in some manufactories in 


of sheet copper, it is s able to obvious objection The writer has had 


Tie 2 shows the in- 
side of the end piece with i 
dove-tail grooves 
whole of the oscillator itself 


the triangles a bc, the side ac 
is 74 inches ris ab is 6 inches 
and 6¢ is 7 inches, e sides 
of the box a are 134 inches 
ge ae inlnding the dove- 
ail tongu Th 


or angular groove on each side 
to receive the lower edges f 
the side pieces d. These si 
pieces are held fast by the . 
- An indentation on the 


a. the oe may be still father adj lasses by varying the height 
of the cushions & on which the sides d ac whole nied 
be w aia before it is set on a sieve hea 


| 
: 


A Le ee ed ee 


i 


. 
4 


. 


Book Notices. 455 


2. Chambers’ Encyclopedia: a Dictionary of Univ ersal ayy oa 
Jor the people. Illustrated with maps and numerous engravi 
8vo. Vols. I and II. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. ow. & ray 
CHAMBERS, Edinburgh. 1860.—This excellent Eneyelopedia is on the basis 
of the German Conversations Lezicon. It is to be comple ted in six or seven 


the text and colored maps on steel. Its scientific articles are varied and 
generally able, ese | natural history, physics, astronomy, topography, 
geography and medicine. e maps are models of clearness and ele- 
—— in that style of illustration, which they understand so well in Edin- 
essrs, Chambers have earned a well deserved reputation for 


It will, by the terms of its prospectus, be the cheapest general encyclope- 
dia ever published, as va as one of the aati comprehensive. It con- 


strictly to the on 209m idea ote an eneyeopei which was first realized 
in English by Epnram Cuameers in his Universal Dictionary of Knowl- 
edge (1728), the basis after the 6th edition, (in 1750) of Dr. Ree’s Cyclo- 
pedia. We cordially commend the new Chambers’ Encyclopedia as 
worthy of a place in every collection of Sok for “pico 


. New American Cyclopedia. Appletons, N. Y. 1.—This able 
and useful work has reached its 11th volume, iiings with the word 
; . to close it with the 16th volume. Among 


scroscupe 
‘ Mineralogy, the first due, as we infer, to Dr. Reuben, and the last to 
Mr. Hodge, both authors of numerous scientific articles of merit in this 
Cyclopedia. It is to be regretted that a work in general so excellent 
should not include in its plan of publication those simple illustrations 
without which it is hardly possible to make Wis certain subjects, 
especially in physics and natural history. During the hoursedevoted to 
hrough these vo 


looking t lumes, lingering with sats to read not a 
few of their instructive a. we have been pressed with the 
great amount of discriminating labor and cabwleige involved in the 


Sir. me of so puis a anne of subjec 
5 ond Report of a Geological Reconnoissance of the Middle and 
Seathive Counties of Arkansas, made during the years 1859 and 1860, 
. Owen, Principal Geologist assisted by Roperr Peter, Chemi- 
eal Assis tant, Leo Lesquerevx, Botanist, and Epwarp Cox, Assistant 
Geologist. Philadelphia : C. Sherman aN Printers. 1860. 8vo, 
i 1 


& rive Jour. Sct.—Srconp Series, Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—Mar, 1861 
> 39 


456, 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


VV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1, Catalogue of the Meteoric Collection of CHARLES Urnam SHEparp, 
deposited in the Cabinet of Amherst College, Mass. 


& op 9 


fd 


© 


METEORIC STONES. 

1492, Nov. 7, Ensisheim, Alsace, Dép. du Haut-Rhin, France. 

1753, July 3, Tabor (Plan, Strkow), Bohemia, 

1753, Sept. 7, Liponas, Dép. de L’Ain, France 

1768, Sept. 18, Zucé en Maine, Dép. de la Sarthe, France, 

1768, Nov. 20, Mauerkirchen, Inn, Lower Aus 

1790, July 24, ep irk oiy eee Créon, Fuillac, Mezin, Agen, 
&c.), Dép. des Landes, Dép. du u Gers, Dép. du 
Lot = Garon, formerly Gascony, France. 


. 1794, June 16, Siena 


any. 
1795, Dee. 13, Wold a Yorkshire, England. 


. 1798, March 8-12, Sadés near Villefranche, Dép. du Rhone, France. 
. 1798, Dee. 18, Benares eek village), Bengal, E. Indies. 


1805, March 25, Doroninsk, Government Irkutsk, Siberia. 
1806, March 15, Aste = Peper de Solm and Valence, Dép. du 


rance, 
1807, March 13, Timochin, Juchnow, Smolensk, Russia. 


. 1807, Dec. 14, Weston, Connecticut, U. 

- 1808, April 19, Parma (Casignano, Borgo St. Domino), Italy. 

. 1808, May 22, Stannern, Iglau, Moravia 

; 1808, Sept. 3, Lissa, Bunzlau u, Bohemia. 

. 1810, Aug. Tipperary pores). roe 

- 1810, Nov, 22, Charsonville near Orleans, Dép. da rita ine 


1811, March 12, Kuleschowka, Gov. Paeas Russ 


. 184, July 8, Berlanguillas, near Burgos, Upper Castilia, _— 
. 1812, April 15, er Sie ceahe Madgeburg and Helmstaedt, 


1812, Aug, 5, YE cee between — and La Rochelle, 
de la Vendée, Fra 


P. 
. 1813, Sept. 10, wages (Adare, Scagh, Seine Faha), Limerick 


unty, Irelan 


. 1814, Feb. 3, peken i {Goy. Iekaterinoslaw), a era 
. 1814, Sept. 5, | Agen, Dép. du Lot and Garonne, France 
. 1815, Oct. 3, ewes near Langres, Dép. de la Hageeatone, 


Fra 
: 1818, April 10, Zaria (Saboryzy, Saboritz on the Slutsch,) 


Volhynia, Russia. 


1818, June, Seres sre foes ict rkey. 


81. 


3 1824, Oct. 14, 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


. 1822, Noy. 30, 


. 1825, 

. 1825, Feb. 10, 
- 1825, Sept. 14, 
. 1826 or 1827, 
- 1827, May 9, 
. 1827, Oct. 5, 


1828, June 4, 


. 1838, Oct. 13, 


. 1839, Feb. 18, 
- 1840, July 17, 
0 


: rey Mareh 2 

. 1841, June 12, 
; 1842, atte 26, 
. 1842, 

. 1843, March 25, 
. 1843, June 2, 


16, 


. 1846 or ~ 
. 1846, May 8, 


- 1847, Feb. 25, 
. 1848, May 20, 
. 1849, Oct. 31, 
~ 1850, Nov. 30, 


Sex 4s 17, 


. 1854, Found. 
. 1855, May 13, 


1855, Aug. 5, 


Futtehpore, near Allahabad, ecm As Indies. 
Nobleborough, Maine, U.S. 
Renazzo, Ferrara, Papal 
Zebrak (Pr raskoles), near Hordbwitd Beraun, Bo- 


Govern rare Iekaterinoslaw, on 

Nanjemoy, Maryland, U. 

Honolulu (Owyhee, Haya Sandwich Islands. 
aterloo, New, York, i 

Nashville, Tennessee, U 

Bialystok Sree or aaah —— Russian 
Pol 


peer “Virginia, Uv. 8. A. 


Forsyth, Georgia, wh a 


h, New aeieny, U. S.A. 
.), Mora 


en ravia. 
Charbelas near a Hisar E. Indie 
Macao, Prov. ande de Norte. Brazil. 
snauele, Dép. le i ‘Charente France. 
Chandakapore, Berar, E. Indies. 
sr hoe Bokkewelde), Cape of Good 


Little an et Pulaski County, Missouri, LS 8. A. 
Piedm 


Cereseto, near Offiglia, Casale 
‘one 1, New Hampshire, 
2, Griineberg (Heinrichsau), Prussian Silesia. 
héteau-Renard, Dép. du France. | 


iret, 
= me — ilyan), pg Selo, Croatia. 
8, Canto eorge, France. 
Bishapsrite South Carclin a, U.S. A. 
ir Blaauw Kapel, Losweahutye’ Nether- 
Kee 


“a 
ein- Wenden, near Nordhausen, Prussia. 
d. 


nce. 

Richland (near Columbia), So. Carolina, U. S.A. 

Macerata, Monte Milan village, Ancona, .Papal 
States. 


Linn county, Iowa, U.S. A. 

Castine, Maine, U. 

Cabarras county, No th Carolina, U. 8. 

Shalka (Sulker, near Beane feasioes India 
 Guetersloh, Westpha 

ezi-Maduras (and Fekete), Transylvania. 
gowlee (Soojoulee), India. 

Girgenti, Sicily. 

Pegu 


Biewavssvie, Landdrostei-Stade, Hanov 
Petersburg, Lincoln county, Tennessee, 0 8. A. 


458 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


82. 1857, Oct. 10, 


86. 1859, March 26, Harrison 


87, 1859, Aug. 11, 
88. 1860, May 1, 


Ohaba, East of 5 sit Transylvania. 
83. 1857, Feb. 27, Parnallee, 8. Hindos 

84. 1858, May 19, 
85. 1858, Dec. 9, 


Kakova, N 


orthwest of Posi tio Temesvar, Banat. 


Ausson, (Montrejean), France 


on county, Kentu 


cky, U.S. A. 
Bethlehem, near Albany, New York, U.S. A 
New Concor d, Muskingum county, Ohio, U. S.A. 


Mereroric [rons. 


Dates of Discovery or of Fall. 


1, Fell 


a. 
(3. 
4 


5. 


30. « Vi 
31. Discov. 
33... 4 1 


Discov. 


1751, ‘iad 26, ae (Hraschina village), Croatia. 
1751 Stet 


vod uly 30, 
5, 


bach, between Eibenstock and Jo- 


arsk, Go 

Toluca, (Kiguipileo), Mexico 

Tecuma Pui umpa), Aegunins Repub- 
S.A 


lic, meri 
Zacatecas, Mentos 
Cape of Good Hope, Africa 
— 


Burlington, Otsego County, New York, 
Guildford, North Carolina, U.S. A. 
ite N shi! Greadn 8. America, 


Ata 
Caille (6 ret Dép Du Var, France. 
Bohumilitz Prachin, Bohemia. 


Poland pg ‘Geo a, U.S. A. 

Cocke county ate. also Sevier 
county), Tennessee, U.S. 

N Ruff’s Mountain), South 
Carolina, : Aa 


ois ery county et s Mills), Tennessee, 


Oaxca, Nie 
St, ‘diuelinds 
Arva (alanieas), 1 Hungary, 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 459 


33. Discov. 1845, Otsego county, New York, U.S. A. 

My 1845, De Kalb county, Tennessee, U.S. A. 

35" 1846,” Carthage, Tennessee 

56; 08 1847, Chesterville, Chester District, South 

Carolina, 

37. Fell 1847, July 14, Braunau, (Hauptmannsdort ), Koenig- | 
graetz, 1a, 

38. Discov. 1847, Seeliisgen, actareeelt Brandenburg, 
Prussia 

30.304 1850, Schwetz, Province of Prussia. 

G05 7% 1850, Salt River, Kentucky, U.S. A 

ddis 1850, Pitisburg, Pennsylvania, U. 8. ie 

Se ee 1850, Seneca one: oe county, New 
York, U. S 

Discovered. 

43. 1850-1854, Lion River, Namaqua Land, South Africa. 

44. 2 nion county, Georgi 

| ae “Tazewell, Claiborne county, Tennesse, U.S. A. 

46, * “Santa Foes, sega Mex 

ll eon, 

oo aoe “  Hemalga, "dsinuath Chili. 

eg “ Haywood county, North Carolina, U. 8. A. 

| aes “ Oktibbeha county, Mississippi. 

8 ae “ Orange rata South ee 

52. 1854, Madoc, Canada Wes 

53. 1856, Hainholz, 8. “W. of Peiethith, Minden, Westphalia. 

-4....* Forsyth, ‘Taney county, Missouri, 

ee: Nebraska Territory, (between Council Bluffs and 

t Union), on the Missouri River. 

56.20" Campbell county, Tennessee, 

Btiio* Velson county, Kentucky, U 

58. + Jewell Hill, Madison, co., North gree U.S.A 

Ban Marshall county, a ppm 

60,:. 54 Brazos, Texas, U.S. A 

Six. 30% Denton county, Texas, U.8. A. 

= : Oldham — near —— er teem U.S. A. 

Robertson county, Tennessee, U. S. A 


Total—88 Stones and 63 Irons, or 151 Meteorites Theit aggregate 


ong the specimens 
Collina de Brianza, Brazil; Walker county, Alabama; Scriba, New 
York; Randolph county, North Carolina; Bedford co county, Pennsyl- 
vania ; Montgomery, Vermont; gag North Carolina, and some 
others. The black capillary ma to fall in a — aye at 


preserved i in this collection. 
New Haven, Conn., Nov., 1860. 


460 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


2. Note and Correction to Mr. T. Sterry H nt : ye on Types, this 
vol. p. 256-264.—To follow the note on :-—“The formation 
of a nitrite in the experiments of Cloez appears a yo independent of the 
presence of ammonia, and to require only the elements of air and water 
(Comptes Rendus, \xi, 935). Some experiments now in progress lead me 
to conclude that the appearance of a nitrite in the various processes for 
ozone, is due to the power of nascent oxygen to destroy by oxydation 
the ammonia generated by the action of water on nitrogen, the nitrous 
nitryl; so that the odor and many of the reactions assigned to ozone or 

ascent oxygen are really due to the nitrous acid which is set free when 
nascent oxygen encounters nitrogen and moisture. On the other hand, 
nascent hydrogen, which readily reduces nitrates and nitrites to ammo- 
nia, by destroying the regenerated nitrite of the nitryl, produces ammo- 
nia in many cases from atmospheric nitrogen.’ 

ab errors of the press occur in the first seven lines of p. 264—which 

rrected in the following paragraph : 
«Without owen the still more basic sulphates of zinc and copper, 
. described by Kane and Schindler, we have the following salts, which in 
accordance with Wartz’s pigeesier correspond to the annexed radicals: 


OE BIRBIG sr 2H O, =S8,0, monatomic. 
2. Bibasic, — - - - - §,H,0, =s.0, diatomic. 
3. Quadribasic, - - .- S,H,O,,=S,0, tetratomic. 
4. Sexbasic, vial a 92 ot. & 6 pip exatomic. 
5. oe . - - - Bi ma 891482 —O, octatomic. 


Philadelphia, March 28, 1861. 

4. Kentucky Geological Reports.—On page 294 we spoke of the fourth 
volume of the Kentucky Reports now in one as the ‘ concluding’ volume. 
As the survey of Kentucky is far from complete, it is to be hoped 
that new appropriations of money will diate Dr. Peter and his associates 
to Ai with the work. The chemical part of the fourth volume, cov- 
ering 390 pages and a vast amount of chemical Tabor, has just r ed 
“us, and will be noticed ane 


Miscellaneous ee 461 


Osrrvary. 
Eryest Haxvsser, an excellent cena and mining engineer, i 
in New York on the 18th of February, aged ab rs. na 


survey. Some of the results of his labors Cwthie his ney ave ap- 
peared in the Annual Reports of that survey. Frequent exposure to the 
sickly climate of the Southern States when exploring in North Carolina 
and elsewhere, broke down his health, developing by intermittent fever 
the consumption which carried him off, Cautious, truthful, excellent in 
character, lis decease is a great loss to mining enterprises, in besitiy there 
is always need of ris quniieles which distinguished Ernest usser. 
Botanical Necrology for 1860.—Professor Hochstetter of. Esslingen, 
Wirtemburg, died on the 19th of February, at the age of 74 years. The 


and his ot Steudel, whom he survived two or three years, were 
active promoters of botany through the Unio Itineraria, an association 
for ne Tbabediiie collections—of which they were the managers. 
rofessor J. G. C, Lehmann, of Hamburgh, who died on the 12th of 
February, in his 68th year, was a botanist of note, and a voluminous 
author. His earliest work, a monogra h of Primula, appeared in 1817, 
his monograph of the Asperifolice the year after, that of Potentilla in 
1820. He cabal the Onagracee and his favori 
for Hooker’s Flora of British pore and his latest publication of any 


rR 
72) 
9 
< 
° 
<a 
eF. 
oO 
99 
i) 
- 2 
oc 
n 
ey 
& 
= 
=. 
= 


magnitude and crowning work was his Revisio Potentillarum, a oH quarto 
volume with 64 plates, issued in the year 1856, an ei t monograph. 
. von Schubert, a Bavarian botanist of a form Tt generation, to 


whorn Mirbel in 1813, under the name of Schubertia, ‘dediested the genus 
established for our southern Cypress, which Richa rd had earlier called 
Taxodium—survived until July last, — attained the age of 80 years. 
He is commemorated in an Asclepi jadeous genus from Brazil, estab- 
lished by his fellow-countrymen, Martius and Zuccarini. 

Dr. J. lotzsch, keeper of the Royal Herbarium at Berlin for the 
last twenty-five years, died on the 5th of November last at the age of 
55 years. As a systematic botanist, Dr. Klotzsch worked industriously, 
observed discriminatingly, but generalized badly, or rather—like others 
of the same school—wanted that largeness of view which enables the 
able naturalist to discover, almost er ipa the true characters and 
just subordination of natural groups, in the midst of the most diversified 
details, and that gift of sound Pgment a to natural genera in which 


opposite systen. The distinction are Aion sedi te most part true 
and good ; their valuation is open to serious object 

is de Vilmorin, of Paris, died on ai 22d of ‘March, 1860, at the 
= of “44 years. Although his name and that of his venerable, still- 


462 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


surviving father (to whom DeCandolle dedicated the genus Vilmorinia,) 
hardly appears in the catalogue of botanical authors, yet both have rend- 
ered important service to botanical sage while contribu uting most essen- 
tially to the advancement of agriculture and cde by original — 
vations, and by experimental “ab vised and conducted u 
truly scientific apy eerees the etmnadions of varieties and 
fixation into races, and the amelioration and augmentation of the usefal 
products of cultivated plants, A notice of some of the brief but most 
Segre. iy ap of the Vilmorins upon this re was given in the 
e (new neces) of thie Journal (May, 1829). In devising and 
av such experiments, often requiring both physiological and 
chemical i a ‘delicate skill in manipulation, and a quick eye for 
natural affinities, the younger Vilmorin was unrivalled, and his death in 
the midst of so useful and so honorable a career, has left a serious void. 


arranging the sorts of Wheat known in fa under fifty-three 


researches of years, although only a pamphlet of fifty pages, and is his 
most aay publication. | His several say since collected cae 


only 42 > ears. The correspondence of M . Nicklés has already supplied 
a biographical notice of ayer, in the preceding. (March) number of 
this Journal. His speciality was organogeny ; his principal work Traité 

meraene Compar ée de la Fleur, in imperial octavo, with 154 
crowded plates, is a very handsome and Sap production, but per- 
haps not of the highest critical value. His seat at the Academy of 
Sciences has foram dl been filled by another organogenist, of excellent 
promise, M. Duchart 

John E£. Le Conte, ae Major of U.S. epic ge Engineers,— 

whose death, at eo Iphia, in November last, aged 77, was announced 


to ee psa to entomology and ad herpetlogy His first eee 
kee ge a Catal wing mensch ind on the 
sland of New York, pat just al a centu any of the 


choicest botanical stations even seventeen years later, icine Dr. Torrey 
issued his Catalogue of the same district, were as low as Canal St., and 
pes Slip. Even the earlier author lived to see nearly his whole florula 
swept away by denudation, or wi spn — od 
recent strata of stone, brick and mortar. Major LeConte mad 


ns Ge eo ER ee 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 463 


sive collections in Georgia at a period when that part of the country 

en little explored, and freely imparted his materials and his valu- 
able observations to working botanists. He also published several goo 
botanical papers in the earlier volumes of the Annals of the Se of 
Natural History, New York, and more recently, in the Proceedings of 
the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, an cucu = the 
North American Vines, and a paper on the species of Tobacco, with 
which, unfortunately, we are not acquainted. For the last ten or twelve 
years Major LeConte has resided in Philadelphia; and we are to expect 
from one of his scientific associates there, a fitting tribute to the memory 
of this ape genial, and accomplished gentleman and —— 


Death of Prof. J. W. Gibbs—Jostan Wittarp Gress, LL.D., Uecluaee 
of Sacred ——* in Yale College, died in New Haven, March 25, 
1861, aged 70 

He was born i in Salem, Mass., April 30, 1790, and graduated at Yale 
College in 1809. He was Tutor in this institution from 1811 to rib 
and Librarian from 1824 to 1843. From 1826 to the time of his dea! 


r r of Sacred Literature in the Theological Department oF 
the College, having been Lecturer here in 1824 and 1825 
of a valuabl ew Lexic n abridgment thereof, and of 


a a 
several minor works relating to grammatical and philological subjects, as 
well as of numerous contributions to the periodical works of his time. 
The earlier volumes of this Journal contain several important papers 
from his 

He a eminent for careful and thorough research, and all his produc- 
tions bear marks of exact scholarship. He had been: for several years 
an active member of the American Oriental Society, and of the Connecti- 
cut Academy of Arts and Sciences. The last named body, at their meet- 
ing of April 17, 1861, passed resolves expressive of their high estimate 

of the character of the deceased i and lamenting his departure. 

New Planets.—A new planet, of the 13th magnitude, was discovered 
April 9, 1861 by Mr. H. P. Tuttle, at the Observatory at Cambridge, Mass 
It is probably the 66th of the asteroidal group, me 64th and 65th hav- 
ing been discovered - se nstonmas pe 4 and 11, 

ie Comet.—A_ telescopic was Meeoreee early in April, i 

, by Mr. Thatcher, at the grt of Mr. L. M. Rutherford in 
en | York Cit es 

ae he American Association for the Advancement of Science-— 
The sdiok ¢ eon ttee have announced that the meeting pe nn to 
Nashville for 17th April, 1861, will be postponed for one year, to be 

rg in cae ae April 1862, unless otherwise ordered in the eatin. 
UR. Scr,—SeconD diese’ Vou. XXXI, No. 93.—May, 1861 
60 ¥ 


INDEX TO VOLUME XXXI. 


A. 
emy of Nat. Bet Philadelphia, Pro-| 
eedings, 1 
Acclimation, 272, 
Louis, Natural History of the 
United States, 29 
Alloys of nd fr ne, 286. 
Alumina and iron, separation from man- 
fanese, 1 


- ieeparation from lime and magnesia, 


America, 0 ocuments Eeenceming 
heometen e. G. Squier. 
prea Association for abadciban 


T. 8. Hunt , B92, 
icric acid and ge eog bases, 
n ey Lea, 73. 
Appalachian mountain ‘Gaus at Guyot, 


Appleton’s New American Cyclopedia, 
Arctic explorations, oh 


soundings, McClin 
nsas uber Se eters 


Do, 455. 
a and Saskatchewan exploring 


expedition 
Asteroids, Titania, Daniie, bag 136. 
Astronomy and Mete teorology, #. C. Her- 


ene translation of —— 


rarbonecs, W. Meirel, 88 
Atoll of Ebon in Micronesia, Z. 7. Doane, 


—" weights of the elements, W. Gibbs, 


Aurora, an electric discharge modified by 
earth's 's magnetism, B. V. Marsh, 311. 


B. 
Bache, A. D., declinometer observations 
at Girard Colle e, 197. 
influence of the moon’ 
on asslinasion of magnetic needle, 98. 
: “aoe ihe eg ordial fauna and T: 
conic sys 
Beer J. Nicklas, 155, 275. a 
apa oop t g, 


Bislosicnl Ce tea of Acad. Nat. Sei. 
aera” -corpuscles se 
Book notices, 142, 304, 450. 


Books RAH 304. 
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proceedings, 156, 


vine in the reti- 
o 


Botanical and Paleontological Report on 
the geological State survey of Arkaba: 
eux, 
necrology for 1860, A, ship 461. 
Society Canada, 308. 
ANY— 

Additions to flora of Wisconsin, Td. 
A second century of jou W. J. Hooker, 


Ca i a by C. Dewey, 23, 
Catalogue of hovering pi plants and ferns 
io, . Newber: 30, 


of plants fo ee in . New Bedford, 
—_ 
* New mnogimous and filicoid 
ieee of es astle Co., Delaware, 
ward Te 
Filices Hort “Botanic Lipsiensius, G. 
Mettenius, 1 
pte, onan thane et Fendleriane, etc., 
i Capenci, or plants of Cape Col- 
ny, Caffraria and Port Natal, Harvey 
on A 


of the British ee Islands, 
Fungi Sig ae epee H. W. Ra- 


Multiplicity of embryos 
tion of Celebogyne, A aes 131. 
does Wrightiane e Cuba Orientali, a 


Procee of the Linntean Society 
1860, contents and notes, Asa Gray, 


a Fda flora, Thesaurus Capen- 


Searles sviniong? descriptions of all 
known Mad Ua Hooker, 132. 
Uber Sines G. Metten- 


Uber 2 eatraie und Reimung von 


Bradley, F., shooting stars 
860, 136. 


Celebogyne, 5 ee ee’ 
at Chicago, 


INDEX. 


adley, F. 1% trilobites of Wisconsin| 
* Fosads 
Braun. luiplicity of eng 
fone ay “of Celebo: 
Bree, C. R., species not apm re- 
nti of Darwin’s boo 9, 
fe: Ninth "Supplement to 
Dan's a logy, $54, PP 
note on Tiseics 8 process for iron, 130. 
sen, @ new alkaline metal, 105, 
C. 
seological see daigs 
otanical society of, 303. 
ical survey, 122. 
ny bea and bole thee 310. 
IE 
bay death o 
ica, Heugiin'’s peel for Dr. 


Encyclopedia, 455. 


os and 


py ge : 


geclo 
— 
aricograph 
Casseday, 8. 
or Afri 


metal, Bunsen, 105, 
Alloys of camer na zine, F. H. Storer, 
Alumina ep iron from manganese, 113. 
e and magnesia, 112. 
Atomic enka of elements, W. Gibbs, 


Baudrimont’s protosulphid of carbon, 


Carbonate of soda, action on cast iron, 
C. Tissier, C 


120. 
Chemical analysis Soe solar atmo- 


aynthesis, 270. 
Chlorous acid, density of vapor, 277. 
Cleansing mordanted cloth before dye- 
ing, J. Loewenthal, 117. 
Coal, petroleum, and other distilled 
oils, 
Compound of of boron with bert 276. 


Cyanid of e len 
harass oil, eae for Ww. Stein, 114. 
ns, Cia, in coal gas, FA. 


Tnelucraton of filters, F. H. Storer, 118, 
Lead ome silver coins, 430, 
2 magnesia and lime, 
Manufacture of vinegar 3 the quick 
C. M. Wetherill, 4 
go relations of hss Re J. 8. 


465 


CHEMIS 

Phosphoric bay ge cet s method of 
oe S. W. Johnson, 281. 
hosphorie acid, Giecntuelion of, 279. 

Picramic ac 

Picric‘acid a test for potash, sources of 
error, ar a, 7 

Pig-iron containing copper cannot be 
puddled, C. List, 115. 


Rolveeuie bases of the nitrogen phos- 
phorus and arsenic series, WW. Hoff- 
man “£20. 


i fit eg alcohols, 280. 
reparation of oxygen on the esd 
scale, Deville and , 280, 427, 
n of gunpow. 
Craig, 


Products from combus 
under different psruclea. 
, 429. 
Separation of — bi-, and triethyl- 
min, Hofma 


Soar, value of ‘different kinds, 2. Grae- 


sito ita distinguished from lime, 113, 
Sweet fermentation of milk, A. Miller, 


Theory of types, 7. S. Hunt, 256, 460. 
Zine, impuiities of commercial, Elliot 
an 
Coal, J. W. Disa 8 papers on structure, 


Colo ors of flames, Merz 

Jolors produced by ecctoti or inter- 
roe begets of mingling, 109. 
omet, 


Cooke's pedehcrat, 22 oe 149. 
Cooke, J. P., Jr, age of arsenic, 
Ce cir — —— Gov. 8 302. 
ooper, reply to ov. Stevens, 
Coaeleree -gravier, Shooting stars. tars, Paris, Aug. 
Cours de Droit Nat fouffroy, 155, 
aig, B. F., produ ra from combustion 


pF age aad under different p 


D. 


Daussy, Pierre, obituary of, 

Davy, Capt. C. #., pene ren tion in re- 
rd to total solar eclipse, July 18, 1860, 

Dawson, Prof. J. W., papers on the coal, 


Dectinometer ae tenes at Girard Col- 
phe ae Bache. 


ion of oxygen 
on nthe great at so ree 


New combinations of ae Car picrie| 
metallic bases, MZ. Carey Lea, 


caricography, 3. 


Dishtioue. a 


w lead-salt sista to cobalt\iDictionary of Universal Knowledge, 


AE Hayes, 226. 


Oxya. of ethylen 
be of iron 


Ome 
per meee rca Bet 
Oxygen, 


transformed into organic Diffusion of germs, 269. 


orphism of arsen oe gegen le ccna 


e, 277. P Cooke, Jr, 1 
trom iis end magnesia, Doane, E T. sich of Ebon in Micronesia, 
31 


tudies, 109. 
Fh Mohan, 116 6°" [Dames obituary notoe of 26, 


466 


E. 
os rege in Canada and Northern U. 
7 Odt:, he 150. 
Danie 1 O, rites’ Wrightiane et 
Fendle eriane, ete. reed | 
hoe Sonata ingllectua, moral, physical, 
Electric fc light, 110. 
Hliot and Storer, lead in some silver coins, 
ere and Pp is impurities of commercial 
zinc 
Athérique et in Europe, hah ocd 355: 


ye, Cee, 
Espy, a P. 
Eye-piece, 


on 
151. 
Trolles' & SrRoboRIS: 112. 


F, 


Faraday, on regelation, — 
Fauna of Quebec group, W. EF. Logan, 216. 
, W.,motion of fluids and solids rel- 
ative to the earth’s surface, 


elise of July 18, 1860, 1. 

as Sdamthaus. et industri- 
Flames, colors of, Merz, 1 

Fossils of een ig England and 


Waeame or or lightning tubes, 302, 


G. 


Gabb, Wm. M., defends Dr. Moore of Texas 
surV 

Geographical notices, D. CO. Gilman, 51. 
Arctic ex xplorations the Hayes expedi- 


ri a nts concerning the d 


oni of America, 
0; pelt 7 of 


S. 122. 
ene is! vinaiy Arkansas 
ba ‘St, 5; California, j lets Cw : 
122, 124; Illinois, Kentucky, 204 
Texas New Byer iene mnessee, 294: 
‘exas 


OLOGY. cab, TJ. 
Age of ‘Wepracka leaves, iw Heer’s re- 


ply to Dr. Newbe: 


of the .|| Grisebach, 
60; Squier’s mcibociscas of orig: West India fade 80 


INDEX. 


EOLOGY.— 

Crinoidea and Echinoidea from Carbon- 
iferous rocks of Illinois i Bs =f 

’ Western States, Meek and Wort 125. 

Die Silurische Fauna des ocnsiat 
Tennessee, emer, 

Elongation and rallel arrangemen 
of pebbles - Newport conglomerate, 


oger 
Me abe esti: sib of certain conglomerates 
into talcose and ge tom schists and 
neiss, 
ew carboniferous  eade from Titpolg 
and other Western States, Meek an 


rihen 
Palwontoloy contributions to, byJames 


Paleontology in tog! of Regents of 
Univer of N 


sg Sir of geol 
; ca Pon Stone rivers, 


Syd 
Talobites of Wiseonsin Toda. 294. 
| bate sea at the Sandwich 


Upper: ie beds of Jotsomag Tennes- 
see , and F. Roemer's mon b 


P. mer, d., oa pee | petroleum and other dis- 
o 
bbs, me Wo oe of, 463. 
s, W., atomic weights “ vito a 
ontributions ee chem and phys- 
fie. “103, io 414, 

na lytical ‘chemistry, 112. 


S. 'e 
vel ghar notices, 51. 


r| Gra oe $s Botanical notices, 128, 431, 443. 
a ew of Phillips’ Life on the Earth, 

Bree’s Aig on species, 44 

bed peg of the British 

Plante 


Wrightianae e : Cuba Orientali, 


f Canada, report fo Guyot A., Appalachian mountain system, 


H. 


pees ee oe ge 


aeusser, E., obitua 


gog® 303. 
eaitiions es eating Pr Wisconsin, 


7 


Picea Hunt, 392. 
o> aarepaphag leconenias Ei T Doone, 


Catal of fossils found in Neb Hall’s search for Si 

Ate and Hage, 1 0 ebraska, he 2, Mors capensiya 
sia sneraur on 
‘Capenate 


Coal, 


morta fauna and Point Levi fos- 


lants of 
or South African 
alg V., see Meck and Hayden. 


ee stg 


cays lel aia a ae ela 


INDEX. 


467 


ge ology of headwaters o! Foe oe John E., death 
vine 


ellow Stone rivers, 229. ||LeConte. 


ris 8 Arete expedition, 

Hayes, 8. D., lead aa 
cobalt yellow, 2 

Heer, O., reply to Dr. ge on age 0 
Nebraska leaves Ss, 435 

Herrick, EB. C., erneetaas comet, shooting 
stars, "136. 
ervey, &. W., plants found in New Bed- 
ford, Mass. 

Hea s = for Dr. Vogel in Central| 


ee A., L’équivalent méchanique| 
eh is is chaleur, 155. 

Hitchcock, #., conversion of certain con- 
oostie Ss into talcose and abe molons 
schists and gneiss, by elongation, flat- 
He ria and Wiech of the peb- 


Hochsiette, Prof., death of, 


Lehmann 
ad-salt corresponding to Lesquereux, L., 


naa Silver n Spring of of lorie, rE 


tou ces ees. 
logical report on the agen ological 
survey of Arkansas, 43 
Light, loss of, by glass <n 283. 
List, C., pig iron ieee copper can- 
no ot be puddle ed, 115. 
Loewenthal, J., cleansing mordanted cloth 
before e dyeing, a 
Logan, W. of Q 216. 
tracks i = ‘poixaein Penn ty 
Lustre, ee theory, 342. 
s on Dove’s theory, 0. ¥. 


¢: 


me of, in monocular vision, 


13 +3 f infil a 


461. 
Hofmann, A. W., olyatomic — of t the||* 
nitrogen, phosphorus and arsenic series, 


, 


ne the moon, mg) 


separation of mono-, bi-, and triethyl- 
amin, 
Hooker, Sir W. J., a Second Century o 
Ferns, 132. 
Hunt, T. 8., hed some points in American||; 
geology, 392 
chloritoid from Canada, 442 
chrome garnet, 295. 
geological survey of Canada, 122. 


theory of types in chemistry, 256, 460. || 


I. 
Illinois geological surve per 
Inundations, causes of, 
ridium, resolution of one of, W. Gibds, 
64. 


J. 


Johnson, S. W., Chancel’s method of esti- 
mating hosphorie acid, 281. 
Jouffroy Edo ours de Droit Naturel, 155. 


K. 


King W bry survey, 294, 460, 
oss of light by glass shades, 


Kire vehhoff, cornet analysis of the solar 

atmosphere, 1 

irkwood,D., November meteors, 1860,139. 
Ficcmch, "Dr. J. F., death of, 461. 


solar diurnal variation and annual 
ole et a, 
Mi n Amérique et in Europe, 155 
Mars: h, B. ee sei an electric discha 
mrodied by t the earth’s wae 1. 
me a 


} 


Medical ntatiniios of U. 8. Arm 
Meek and Hayden, Catalogue of fossils 
eageaben in Nebra a by U. 8. explor- 
ng expediti is 
and Worthen, description of new spe- 
cies of Crinoidea and eye Pa 
the carboniferous rocks of ag 
other Western States. 
tions of new carboniferous fons — 
Hlinois and Western States, 125, 
Merz, colors of flames, 105. 
Metallic lustre, Dove's ‘theory of, , 109, 839. 
Metallu , researches on platinum met- 
als, W Gibbs, 63. 
Metamorphism of conglomerates with 
at as taleose and micaceous schists, 


72, 
Meteoric eoiiection of C. U. Shepard (cat- 
alo 
Meet description of new, /.L. Smith, 


from Hindu ay? Seg 
Guernse Go. ., Ohio, J. L. Smith, 87. 
phetocriory of iharethe Ohio, ), &. 


A, 252. 
ote "De G., Filices Horti Botanic! 
Li iensis, 134, 


ber einige Farngattungen, 133. 
inte, aa et dramatique, Vappe-| we esehiie. rovements of, AL. C. White, 
ik Seudo, 155. BF idagner: ne ee 110. of 18 

le, L. icrosco we 
scientifique et industriel ey Figuier, iy Sovember ost : : 
La Norvége, L L. Enault, 1 Mineralo , Ninth Supplement, 
Lea, M. Carey, .etimation Foe nitrogen, a ee ig B84. 
etric pro- $ 
Eyposed : ee note on chloriteld from Canada, T. 8, 
© formation ‘of picramic acid, Hunt, sna 
meals oe ei Aecmit. 
aad, pe: metallic e, 
picric acid as a test for potash, 75. Albite, vse H. Twining, 357. 


468 INDEX. 
ae nT 
eek 57. Nephel aune nig, to ari Donets, 365, 
Alumni, ’ Geist “pa oe 357. Ottrelite, see Chlo 


Ammioli i 


 Speron, 
le, 359. 


Davyne, see Nepheline. 
Dial oi, variety, ah from 
Oberneisen, 2. Hicd 


Faujasite, 4. Knop. 
Peldspar tg trachyte of Drachenfels 
on the Rhi 
Fergasonite! real Yiterby, ordenskisld, 
Fibrolite. ee 
Fournetite,s see Tetrahed. 
et, emerald greet Bool Oxford, 
- Canada, "TS t, 295, 360. 


ag edie -alumtnargarnet from Mi- 


ask, Lisye 
Gersdorffite, yoke yemann, 361, 
Gibbsite, i. 
Giesec ite, 361. 
Gmelinite from Cyprus, Damour, 361. 
Gold, Genth, 361. 
Graphite from Ajaguss, Hermann, 361. 
rin otome from Andreasberg and 
ntian, Rammelsberg, 361. 
- Harrisite eg of Galena, 


cron, 
Lied native in basaltic tufa in Moravia, 
Reichenbach, 363. 


Leucite, 
Libethenite: F Pt, 36 368. 
Liebeneri te, Des Cloizeauz, 363. 
ine, corrected. pier for, 364. 
Melanhydrite, ron i, Ramonaberg, 364. 
y pa) rantz 
Mellite, J. V. Dienkow, 364. 


Paralogite, see Soapotite 
Pectolite, at eas 365. 
Phillipsite, 

365. 


Pyrargyrite from aed ‘FE eld, 366. 
| Brn om Vesuvian lava, Wed- 

ding, 
esta rig oe ii 

arcolite, ammelsberg, 

capolite, identical with paralogite, 367. 
Serpentine and seveaiie er Sala in 

en, ¥. a) eltma 


ch eregegias Damou 

Silver, a se ser of, after Stephen- 
ite, 367. 

Sodalite, three varieties, Rammelsberg, 


oe a L. J. Ingelstrém, 367. 
Tale Ea cisebed ety fom Bristol, 
» Brush, Lum 
and Genth, 
Tetrahedrite from Ardillats, France, 
Oh, Meéne 
Triplite from Peilau in Silesia, Berge- 


mann, 


Uranophane, Websky and Grundmann, 


Seumivene’ 


Vermiculite ? Brush, 369. 
Water, Gresley of ice determined by L. 
Whiten tie D. Forbes, 370. 
yhitne ite 
Wolerite, 371. Pop, in 
olfram, Genth, in, 
Xenolite, ne Sthimanite 
A nig tant rdenskiold, 
Zine found ay Beaty sagen in Aust: 871. 
Zincite from Franklin, W. P. ral 9 
oisite, triclinic form “demonstrated by 
Zw fecctihe bas a vatict of triplite, 371. 
Motion of fluids and tas relative to 
Moesuata hhelghts of Appalaci 181. 
ountains, heights of Ap’ hian, 
Mill } weet fermentation of milk, 
N. 
Natural en of the United States, b. 
New alkalin 


etal, Bunsen, 105. 
a A ‘Bat floweri plants and ferns 
of hls, 480. ie 


INDEX. 


Nicklés, J. eathenpohabtibe of, 266; obitu-} 
ary 360" prea hn of the air of Paris, 
268 ; diffusion o germs, researches eae a 

spontaneous generation 8 ae 
synthesis, 48g ; mite per Pra O73. 
serimetre, 273; pseu morphism baa 
ae morphosis, m8: inundations, 
75; bibliography, 1 

Nitrogen, etd proetss fi fore mg! ae 

and acidimetric process, 

Wobars. test plate and ae St Saous, 

Sullivant and Wormley, 12. 


0. 
Obituary, 151, 266, 303, 461. 
cean, motion s of, 
Ontical p phantioaeis of “Silver Spring” in 
la, 
ve wae studies, Dove's, O. NV. Rood, 109. 
, vu. M., review “of Wetherill on the 
ween process for manufactu vine- 


gar, 
Orthoscopi ic so pag Tolles, 112. 


one resolution from or re, 64. 
n, David Dale, obituary of, 153. 


Paleontology, contributions of James 


469 


PHYSI 
Mingling colors gees by absorption 
r interference 
Motions of fiuids niet solids noe to 
the earth’s surface, W. Ferr 
yee 8 test plate yt strize of / a 
jullivant and T. G. Wormley, 12, 
Optical phenomena of “Silver Sprin ” 
Marion Co., Florida, J. LeC 
Philosophical. apparatus, Ritchie’s ilins- 
trated catalogue, 
ae of physics, 2d ed. ,B. Silliman, 


Quasi-v vision of moving blood-eorpuscles 
in the retina of the human eye, L. Reu- 


Regel lation, W. Gibbs, 414. 
Recherches sur | eatinient méchanique 
de la chaleur, G. A. Hirn, 155. 


Stereoscope eppuled to distinguish cop- 
ies from facsimiles, 0. WV. Hood, 110. 
Subjective optical phenomena, "0. N. 


Tolles’ "orthoscopic eye-piece, 112. 
Vision through colored media, S. New- 
com 
Wenham’s ‘improved binocular micro- 
scope, 110. 
Picramic acid, formation of, MM. C. Lea, 


primeval faun 

Paris, insalubrity of the air of, 268. 

Payer, Jean Baptiste, notice of, 267, 462. 
Philadetphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Proceedings 


Ha Hi, bee 
a, &¢., James Hall, 220, 


Phill ‘ohn, life on the earth, its o 
and (eso review, A. Gray ae | 
Puysics.— 
Aurora viewed as an electric discharge, 
B. V. Marsh, 311. 
Binocular vision influence upon estima- 
tion of distance, 0. V. Rood, 109. 
Chemical physics, 149. 
Color of blood-globules, 417. 
Declination of magnetic needle influ- 
enced by the moon, discussion of ob- 
servations at Girard College, 1840- 


Declinome ter observations at Girard 
College, 1840 to 1845, in 


sol re ailiceal raviath nual 
inequality, A. D. Bache, 
Lag 0. 


. Rood, 1 
Dove’s theory - lustre, 0. 1 "Rood, 339, 
" Electric _ t, O. N. Rood, 1 


Ful a or lightnin 
Paes e 
— of a jet of coal gas, C. Sond- 


ay in spectrum oe hyponitric 
Gibbs, 415. 


es, 302. 
uence of musical coors on_ the} 


\Picrie acid a test for c posh, M. C. Lea, 75. 

|| Pictet -, quaternian period, relation to 

| Pp t epoc 

[rospuon acid in igneous rocks, James 
Schiel, 353. 

: Planets, new, 463. 

‘Platinum metals, researches on, W. Gibbs, 


Potsdam formation, tracks in, 17. 
iy oe fauna and Point Levi fossils, 


Primordial fauna and taconic system, J. 
Barrande, 212. 
||Problems from 


orthographic projections 
pe descriptive geometry, S. £. 


arren, 


Decredings of Societies, 156, 308, 445. 
Pseudomorphism and pseudomorphosis, 
2738. 


Q. 


Quaternian period in ee to the pres- 
ent epoch, F J. Pictet. 


R. 
feorsneensid Ae C. F., Handbuch der Mine- 
Ravenel 2 . int fungi Caroliniani exsicea- 


i 
Light, 1 Toss of, by glass shades, 288. _|| Reuben, L., -corpuscles seen moving 
a of vision with the microscope, see|| in the retina, 325. : 
ts - ed catalogue of philo- 
Meteorites, in G county,|| sophical apparatus 
Fn vn Smith, 81. er, F. A Hy die il silu urische fauna des west- 
mer cal j 1 kept at Marietta,|| lichen 
rm hio, og 1 a by Pi 252. Aad B, cathe eof f elongated fo form and 
, Stereographs b, of pebblesin New- 


hand, 0. 


wi 


470 


Rood, . N., dichroscope, 107. 
e’s optical studies, 109. 


copie 
eubjective optical ey 417. 
Ruthenium, 65, 


INDEX, 


iene 2 np to o tissingalh copies 


aa allo ae) co coppers ig 4 


dling pig iron, 115; incteoratloe pu 
ters: _pgiyy ce of hydrocarbon, CsHa, 
in coal 

Strie of iadiitiie: Rf W. 8S. Sullivant and 
T. G, Wormley, 1 


8. 
es uber silurian beds 0 Fegonie syetem and ‘fossils of Northern 


Sagord. J. J. 
gandwich| ie ipheava al of th 


and other fossils in red scainduone, Tatnall, E., 


ee 
Scudo, L’année musicale, 155, 


rocks, 8 , phosphoric acid in = eg new 


G. H. von, death of, 46 


Seientitic mission to India and High Asia, } 


Secchi, M., a pegs stars of 1860, 137. 
Serimetr 
CU, catalo . 2 meteoric col- 
oe at Amherst 


gf stars, Nor. Fa | , 187, 
Shooting stars at adeno m., Aug. 1860, 


Paris and Rome, Aug. 1860, 

1280, a7 Haven ‘aia Cape Hatteras, Nov.|| 
Nov. 1860, at New York, 138, 

Montgomery Co., Md., Noy. 1860, 


Bloomington, Ind., Nov. 1860, 139. 
Shumard, B. F., cretaceous strata of Texas, 
Silliman - a of Physics, 

tion 
pried Spring of of at Sis optical phenom- 


Sinith, “a L. Pa of three new me- 


Snowe Capt Sans ‘to search for 
Franklin sea: 57. 
Solar pen > “kc chemical analysis of, 
Kirchhoff, 103. 
eclipse, 3 Jul Jo 39. 
m Flor Capensis, 


“Bey “gas; D 
not transmutable nor the result 
of ietonaies causes ; a nation of 
Darwin’s work, C. R. 

ae «et Education: intelibesiad, mor- 
teak physica eal, 304. 

taneous generation, researches upon, 


2d edi- Warre 


New England and Quebec group of 
rocks, 210. 
mous and filicoid 
pblants of New Caatle Co., Delaware, 180. 
rags peorrmice survey, 294. 
survey, 294, 460, 
isier, iG action of carbonate of soda on 
Tolles? orthoscopic eye-piece, 112. 
_ n Potsdam formation, Sir W. Z. 


Trilebites of Wisconsin Potsdam, F. #. 


Tuttle, ae discovets new planet, 463. 
Pata & a, Noy. meteors, New York, 


Vv. 
fe egg L’année littéraire et dramat- 


ique 
Vilmor Fa eae de, death of, 461. 
Vinegar manufacture, C. IL Wetherill, 450. 


W. 


2, 8. #., Book of Problems in De- 
scriptive Geome try 

eiss, lines rs spectrum of hyponi- 

i were sition of, varied by change 


s improved binocular micro- 
per 110 
. M., manufacture of vinegar 
“a — ‘quick peooen s, 450, 
fy 0 , improvements in the micro- 
1 


scope, 110. 
» preparation of oxyd of 
lead free. from copper and iron, 116. 
con. on causes 5 copper 


W. Ferrel, 
orthen, A. H., see "Meek and Worthen. 
a: 
Yale Scientific School, contributions in 
eee chemistry, Brush and Johnson, 


Z. 
Zoology, Contributions to Nat. Hist. of the 
Agassiz, 


United States, by L. 295. 
sje nt dig Cae! eg and suc- 
J. §., mutual relati 7 nIVA notic n the genus Bipali- 
Siete. W. Crgrenageet diag on the genus Peasia, 134. 
Stereographs drawn oe he Museum of Comparative Zoology