AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTs, CONDUCTED BY : Prorrssors B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. S. W. JOHNSON, or NEW HAVEN, PROF. GEO. J. BRUSH, or NEW HAVEN. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XXXVI.—NOVEMBER, 1863. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS, (1863. PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL S87. MissoOuUR! BOTANICAL . +» GARDEN LIBRARY - CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI. NUMEER CVI. Arr I. On Cephalization, and On Megasthenes and Microsthenes, in Classification (being in continuation of an article on the Higher Subdivisions in the Classification of ance bel James D. Dana, - - fi. Observations upon some of the yas tee with ae to the genera Cryptonella, a — and allied q forms; by James Hatt, - If. Hydraulics of the Report on the Mississippi River of ‘Eis ’ phreys and Abbot; by Prof. F. A. P. Bannaro, LL.D., - 16 4 IV. Observations on some of the Double Stars; by Marta Mitcnety, 38 _ V. On the Flora of the Devonian Period in Northeastern Amer- ica; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., etc., - 41 VI. Action of Bromine and of Bromhydric Acid on the Foor of Ethyl; by J. M. Crarrs, - - - 42 VIl. New Facts and Conclusions respecting the Fossil rican of the Connecticut Valley; by Epwarp Hrrcucock, - 46 VIL On Hydrastine; by F. Manta, Ph.D, - - + + 57 IX. Description of a Photometer; by Prof. O. N. Roon, - - 60 X. On Aerolitics, and the fall of Stones at wore laa a 1861; by N.S. Masketyne, - 64 XI. The Sun and Stars photometrically compare ad ee CrarK - 76 Xif. On Giese a: ae its i nciad ; by Prof. Cassie ‘ Joy, 83 XIlf. Remarks on the Luminosity of Meteors as affected = La- tent Heat; by Bensamiy V. Marsu, - «92 XIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies :-—-1. On Radiation ; 7 through the Earth’s Atmosphere; by Joan ‘T'ynpaut, 99.— 2. On the Photegraphic Transparency of various Bodies, and on the Photographic Effects of Metallic and other Spec- tra obtained by means of the Electric Spark; by Prof. a iv CONTENTS. W. Auten Mitrer, 103.—3. On the Long Spectrum of Electric Light; by Prof. Gzorce G. Stoxes, 108.——-On the Reflexion of Polarized Light on Polished Surfaces ; id the Rev. Samuet Haveuton, 109. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Physics. —-Gemsbart eres Kozeun, 111.—Conductibility and specific heat of Thallium, De La Rive, 113. Chemistry.—On the ‘iia fluo-tungstates and silico-tungstates, Martanac, 113.— On the preparation and properties of a Jenene Bunsen: On the prepara- tion and properties of metallic magnesium, H. Sainte-Cxiaire Deviiie and H. Ca- kon, 114.—On the chemical constitution ree the bites rock oil, ScHORLEMMER ; w organic compounds of silicon, FrigpEL and Crarrs, 115.—On the col- oration of flame by phosphorus and its compounds, CurisToPLe and Beitstein, 116. Analytical Chemistry.—On estimation of nitric acid by conversion into ammonia, 116. Mineralegy and Geology.—Annual Report of the State Geologist of California for the year 1862, 118 seedy of Childrenite at Aries sn in Maine, 122.—On the Height De = Fossil Remains of a long-tailed Bird from jhe ikasepiic alate of Balenhoten - by Prof. Richarp Owen, F.R.S., 127. Botany ond Zoology. —Botanical Papers in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science, i28.—The Enumeration of the Species of Plants collected by Dr arry P. Harbour, in the Rocky Mountains: Paullinia sorbilis and its products, 129.—Aerial rootlets on the stems of Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis quinquefolia): Martius, Flora Brasiliensis: Dr. Charles Wilkins Short, 130.—The late Wn. Darlington, 132. RE on ‘the genus Unio, etc.; by Isaac Lea, LL.D., 139.—Researches upon the Anatomy and Physiolegy of Respiration in the Chelonia; by S. Weir. Mircui.y, M.D., and Georce R. Morenovuss, M.D., 141. Astronomy and Meteorology.— Discovery of Asteroid (78): Comet II, 1863: Comet pee 1863: Observations of the Zodiacal Light; by Stittman Masterman, 143.—Resul of Observations of Variable Stars at ‘Weld, — Co., isamkde by SULLRE Mas TERMAN. 144.—Evidence of th al of early star-showers, H. A. pewsion, 145. —The meteoric iron from Newstead, 149. _ iron from Sarepta, 150.—Meteori rom ‘Tuescn, Arizona, Meteor of April 19th seen at Philadelphia, 154, Scientific oe oe ake | ae on Stellar Spectra, L. M. Ruruerrvury, 154. | Miscellaneous Scientific Intellig a system of Mounting lost for the Microscope ; by Henny T. Vicxrns, B.A, 1 —Collection of Minerals and Chemical Apeartus of the late Prof. Manross, 158.—Transacti f th di Note on Sneecteans: Officers of the American Academy 1863, 159. { Arts and Sciences, for Book Notice —Chauene! Spherical and Practical pc CONTENTS. ¥ NUMBER CVII. Art. XV. On the Velocity of it and the Sun’s Distance ; “d Prof. Josep Loverine, 61 XVI. Further Remarks on a nes of ‘Reduciag Ciservations of Temperature; by Prof. J. D. Evererrt, - 173 XVII. On the Coal-Measures of wake inc N.B., ivits a si tion; by J. P. Lestey, - 179 XVIII. Hydraulics of the Report of Hawtin ni Abbas on the Mississippi River; by Prof. F. A. P. Barnarp, - #987 X1X. Qn Inhalation of Nitroglycerine ; by Joun M. Merrick, Jr., 212 XX. On the Chemical and Mineralogical Relations of Meta- morphic Rocks; by T. Srerry Hunt, F.R.S., - - 214 XXI. On the Appalachians and Rocky Mountains as Time-bound- aries in Geological History; by James D. Dana, - XXII. On the Homologies of the Insectean and Crustacean Types : by James [D. Dana, - 233 XXIII. On the genus Centronella, wilh Nts on some hes genera of Brachiopoda; by E. Bititnes, 236 XXIV. Qn the Explosive Force of paloma by Profaadé F. A. P. Barnarp, - 241 XXV. On Childrenite from Hebron, “Maine: vl Geo. J. eke 257 XXVI. Crystallographic examination of the Hebron mineral, and comparison of it with the Childrenite from Tavistock ; “8 oo ke WOKE, Pia. - - - | XXVII. Meteoric Iron from Dakota Terriory—Dererpin a ag : analysis; by Cartes T. Jackson, M.D., 25 SCTENTIFIC INTELL GCan ce: Pkysics—On Celestial Dynamics; by Dr. J. R. Mayer, 261: Sources of Heat, 262: On the Measure of the Sun’s Heat, 264.--Kirchhoff’s Second Memoir on the Spect : An Improved Spectroscope—Analysis of the fixed line D; by Professor Jostan P. Cooxe, Jr., 266.—Spectrum of Phosphorus—Green coloration of hydrogen by phos- phorus, CurisTorce and BertsTein: Osmium Spectrum, Witutam Frazer, 267.— New reaction fur Veratrin, Trarr: Reaction for Molybdenum, Bravs, 263—On the quantitative estimation of Arsenic, WiTTsTEIN, 269. Technical Chemistry. —On the manufacture ty Pty Chlorine, and Sulphuric and Chlor- hi wane hoes ater Tuomas MacFARLAN Ph ‘y.——On the excretion of webels in animals, 271. uid J vi CONTENTS... Metallurgy.—New works: Zusammenstellung der statistischen Ergebnisse des Berg-. — werks-, Hiitton- und Salinen-Betriebes in dem Preussischen Staate, etc., von E. AL- 4 THANs: Handbuch der metallurgischen, von Bruno Ker, 272.—Etat present de la Métallurgie du Fer en Angleterre, par MM. Gruner et Lan: Berg- und Hiittenmin- 4 . Jahrbuch, ete., P. Tunner: Die Fortschritte des metallurgischen Hiittenge- werbes im Jahre, Dr. Carv. Fr. ALEX. HARTMANN: International Exhibition of 1862, — na eres: Ye -peeond. Annual Report apon the Natural aga Pes and Geology of t the ceans fi the Coal ii sadaies and Devonian Rocks tish ‘Kies ; by J. W T mbri nd Huronian Formations; by y: On the Rss Carbomferous Brachiopods of Nova Sco by Tuomas Davips s . D fos: rise, and their distribution; by T. Rupert Jones: On a new Labyrinthodont Reptile, from the Lanarkshire Coal field; by T H Ee vatins i ~-Anniversary Address before the Geological Society of London; by Prof. A. C. Rameay: On the prodneton of crystalline limestone by heat, 278.--On the ‘Pra ” % Devonian Period in North- eastern America; by J. W. Dawson, L.L.D., F Botany and Zoology.—Dimorphism in the Flowers of es | 279.—Variation and Mimetie Analogy in ae 235.--Notes on the Loranthacew, with a Sake: be the Genera; by Danint Oxiver, F.L.S., 291.--Parthenogenesis in Plant : Struc! and Fertilization 2 certain Orchids : Pistenihiens flava, or Habenaria ster 292 ae nadenia tridentata, 293. eenameen of the Aye-Aye (C. di C by RicHarRD hg D.C.L., etc., 294. aS the * Acacis Yorchtacs Lower Jaw,” 299, lea on the Megatherium iy Prof. A Agassiz, 300 Astronomy and peheoroten 9 - —Procession and Periodicity of the November Star-shower, 300.—Star shower in 1606: Meteorite of ‘Tucson: Observations of the — meteors ; by Prof. H. A. NewTon, 301. Miscellaneous Scientific —-- —Flectric —— at Boston — Photometrical powers of the light; letter from . Win . Rogers, 307.--Vermillion Rock Salt Mine at Petite Anse, cee wa. ia aah Rule of Pacis 4 Thirty-third Meeting of the British Associ : Perso sabeetie: Wolcott Gibbs, 309. Book Not gi aes eonsidered as a mode of Motion, ete.; by Joun Tynpatt, F.R.S., &e., 310.--Brai siping Taylor's Chemistry: Supplement to Ure’s Dictionary: The American A ] dia and Register of Important Events of the year 1862, 311. cianianiins of the inc 2 me Society: On the Origin of Species, ete. ; by Tuomas H. 2, Obituary.-—Dr. Samuel Prescott Hildscth, 312.—Joseph Stillman Hubbard, 313.—James’ Renwick Chilton: Stillman Masterman, 314. NUMBER CVIII. Art. XXVIIL Qn certain parallel relations between the classes of Vertebrates, and on the bearing of these relations on the question of the distinctive features of he. Faye nee by James D. Dana, - XXIX. The Classification of i: Sie on the princi of lization; by James D. Dana.—No. 1, - Ens CONTENTS, vil XXX. On Vibrating Water-falls; by Prof. Erras Loomts, - 352 XXXI. On the Rocks of the Quebec Group at Point Lévis,—(in a letter to Mr. Joacnim Barranpe of France, from Sir Wituiam E. Locan), - 3 XXXII. Chauvenet’s Manual of Spherical wid Practical eau: 378 XXXII. Remarks upon the causes producing the different char- acters of vegetation known as Prairies, Flats, and Barrens in Southern Illinois, with special reference to observations made in Perry and Jackson counties; by Henry EnceLMann, 384 XXXIV. On the Earth’s Climate in Paleozoic Times; ‘ T. Sterry Hunt, M A., F.R.S., - - XXXV. Correspondence of Jerome NicKés. ener César Mansuéte Despretz, 398.—Marcel de Serres: Horace Ben- edict Alfred Moquin-tandon: Auguste Bravais, 401.—Léon Péan de St. Gilles: Discovery of fossil man, 402-—The manufacture of alcohol by means of iljuminating gas, 403.— New method for the concentration of mineral waters, 404. —Manufacture of ice, 405.—Building Materials—Preserva- tion by means of the residuum of coal-tar, 406.—Bibliogra- phy, 407. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics —On the density of vapors at very high temperatures, DevILLe and Troost, 408.—On the work of elastic forces: On the atomic constitutiun of liquids, Wainer, 409.—On the absorption of gases by charcoal; by Dr. R. Ancus Chemistry—On Anilin dyes, sigh 8 On the constitution of American Petroleum, — PeLouvze and Canours: esium, separation from Rubidium, Bekein: 413. _ Equivalent of Cesium: woke of CsCl: Spectram of Cesium, 414 —Prelim- inary notice of a New Metal; by F. Re:cu and Tu: Ricuter, 415—On some volatile alkulvids given off during putrefaction ; ~ Dr. Crace Catverr, 416, de Bibomorgariide in Photography; by Mr. Emerson J. Revvowps, 416.— A process for the reduction of ope waste, seus and Sautiibi vk: Sulphocyanid of ammonia as a fixing agent, by G. W. Simpson and Mr. Lewirsxy :. Redevelopers BLANCHARD, 417 a ese sty 419. _ Agricultural Chemistry.—On the fertilizing action of Gypsum, Drniratn, 419, Mineralogy and Geology.—On the phosphatic (or guano) rock from the Island of Som- brero, W. L; by Dr. T. L. Parrsox, 423.—Observations on the Sombrero Guano; by A. A. Jotten, 424—On the nature of Jade, and on a new mineral species described by Mr. Damour; by T. Sterry Hont, F.R.S., 426.—Geological a of Canada, 428. —Air-breathers of the Coal Period ; by J. Ww. Dawson, LL.D., _ Botany and Zoology.—Origin of Varieties in Plants, 432--Review of Mémoires et Sou- __-venirs de Augustin Pyramus DeCandolle: On Welwitsehia, a new genus of Gnetacee ; by Josern Hooker, M.D., F.R.S., etc., 434—American Tea-plant: The Compass Plant, 439. * viii CONTENTS. ‘oology.—Classification of animals based on the principle of Cephalization; by J. D. Dana, 440.—On the E in a species allied to oe 3 a g “<4 ° 2 =e au ne 3 > : S = qe: a Lic} =) co. sent to different Institutions in exchange for other specimens, with Annotations; by A. Acassiz: On aynthe tic types in Insects; by A. S. Packarp, Jr.: Beitrige zur Kenntniss der fossillen Pferde und zu einer os ay ee Odontographie der Huf- thiere im Allgemeinen ; von Prof. L. Ritimeyer: Methods of study in Natural His- tory; by L. mae’ On the nomenclature of the Foraminifera; by W. K. PaRKER and T, R. Jonzs, Astronomy and ee of a new Planet, Asteroid (79), in a letter from Prof. James C. Watson, 443.—-Observations in Brussels of the meteors of August, AL 1863; by Mr. QuereLtet: Observations by Mr ex. S. Herscue. of the August Meteors, in Engl Observations on the August Meteors, by 1s, at Mun- ster, 444.— se Feuerkugel welche am Abe es 4 Mars, 1863, in Holland, G Deutschland, Belgien und England geschen worden ist, von Dr. Epvarp Hets: Die Meteoriten, ihre Geschichte, mineralogische und chemische Beschaffenheit, yon Dr. Orro Bucuner, 445,—Shooting Stars of November, 446. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence——-New Achromatic Object-glass, 446. Book Notices.—Storer’s Dictionary of the Solubilities of Chemical Substances : Practical tise on Limes, Hydraulic Cements and Mortars, ete.; by General Quincy A. GiumorgE, A.M., 447. i cups ——— 448,—Major Edward B. Hunt, 450.—Professor Eilhard Mitscherlich, 45 ‘ Proceedings of Societies, 451, 452. me 453. ERRATA. in Vol, XXIV, p. 195, line 23 from top, for Rominaa, read Rosinazr.—Vol. XXXV 4 iat Tepe, p: 471i, invert WC. Minor on fasion in Aunatica . ; : P, 243, 1.5 ag Sas for Schiesspulver read Nc PIMOS a —P. 198, bn Ae pend = p—P. 205, 1.6 from top, ver formula, read column.—P. 209, | 8, Beatrcias read 5, 4 5(e+2)22—P. 210, 1.9 from top, for eat read obtained.—P. 378, ]. 19 from bottom, for “ does not treat the,” read * “does not treat of the.”’-—-P. grate 17 from top, for “ the time,” read “ for the first time.”’—P. 407, rine 30 : from top, for depruis read depuis.—P. 408, lines 11 and 15 he aime Flamen, read THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, [SECOND SEBIES.] _ Arr. L—On Cephalization, and On Megasthenes and Microsthenes tm Classification (being in continuation of an article on the Higher eicaMeag die in the Classification of Mammals); by JAMES D. DAN In the paper on the Classification of etna published by the writer in the last volume of this Journal (p. 65), and also in his earlier paper on ns hee aciege the Saey e of cephalization i is shown to be exhibited among animal e following ways :— 1. By a conse of saceahons from the locomotive to the ce- phalic seri 2. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to some ieee in cephalic functions. creased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and perfection of Stet in the parts and organs of the anterior erie of 4, By jnéreased a pbreviakion, ean tte and perfection of structure, in the posterior, or gastric and caudal, portion of the body: as, in the greater compactness and larger number of seg- ments combined in the sacrum of the higher Megasthenes than in that of Cetaceans, or Edentates; the less posterior elongation of the vertebral column and body in the higher Megasthenes than in ceans, Or wo the tazlless Batrachians than in the tailed species of the group, e 5. By an sowed rise in the cephalic end of the nervous sys- tem. This rise reaches its extreme limitin Man. Birds thus show their superiority to Reptiles: but not to Mammals; for the bird-type, like the Reptilian, is relatively diminutive in life- Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Series, Vow. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juny, 1863. 2 J. D. Dana on Cephalization. system (p. 9, beyond); its relation to the Reptilian type is much © like that of Insects to the Crustacean (p. 6). decline in the grade of cephalization is shown by the re- verse of these conditions: as (1) by a transfer of members from the cephalic to the locomotive series; (2) by the posterior ce- phalic organs participating in locomotive functions; (8, 4) by in- creased laxness, length and breadth, or spacing, among the parts of either the anterior or posterior portion of the body; (5) by in- creased proneness in the ‘pages of the nervous system. Also— — t }. By an adaptation of the organs of the senses to locomotive or prehensile purposes: as in the case of the proboscis of the Elephant, which is a perverted nose; also the prehensile termin- ations of the second antennz of many inferior Crustaceans. 7. By an abnormal! multiplication of the parts in the anterior portion of the body: as in the excessive number of teeth m some Cetaceans and Hdentates. s an abnormal multiplication of the parts in the posterior rtion of the body: as in the abnormal multiplication of mem- 84 and segments in Phyllopod Crustaceans, Myriapods, ete. hind, or a degeneration or obsolescence of the parts or organs: as in the absence of teeth in some Cetaceans ant the absence of antennz in Articulates, provided. the senses cor: — responding to these organs are absent or comparatively imperfect} the coalescence of the head and thorax, or of these with the ab- domen ; the extension towards, or into, the head of the gastric — r viscera. 10. By excessive size of body through mere vegetative enlarge ment: as in the Megatherium, the female Bopyrus, Limulus, ete. Degradation, ora decline below the normal-level, may hence I. Multiplicative—Methods 7, 8, above. II. Degenerative-—Methods 8, 4, 9. . IIL. Vegetative—Method 10. Also IV. Phytoid (or plant-like), when animals (as Polyps) have (11) the power of budding, or (12) a radiate structure, or (18) attachment below; and in suc the decephalization is often almost as complete as in plants.’ Examples of cephalization by the first method, or by a trans: fer of members from the locomotive to the cephalic series, (oF 1 The methods of decephalization in : Crustaceans are embrace ‘ ’ ( ced under two heads < by the writer, in his paper on the Classification of Crustaceans, (this Jowr., [2], 0h _ 28, and Expl. Exp. Rep. on Crustacea, p. 1412,) as follows :— : “ First: A diminution of centralization, leading to an enlargement of the circut- or sphere of growth at the expense of concentration, as in the elongation ; transfer i » foot-series, the elongation so “Second: A diminution of force as compared with the size of the structure, leading to an abbreviation or obsol “of circumferential organs, as the — 9. By a further degradation of the structure before and be — NE FEE Eee ce Sie 80 oh cE pe ra eae Roa ete | On See ent ae ae ee er SSUES! No Sein: Egg ae ST SNC, See J. D. Dana on Cephalization, _ : 3 of decephalization, by the reverse,) occur in the two highest sub- kingdoms, those of Vertebrates and Articulates. They fail in the two lower subkingdoms, those of Mollusks and alse because of the absence of the gg om structure for showing it he examples under Vertebrates and Articulates, and the rela- tions of the orders among Molluske, may be briefly considered. ble, owing to the fixed nature and simplicity of the head, and 4 also the limited number of feet, two igen being the maximum. Mammals. In passing downward from the exalted position which Man holds, there is a transfer of the fore-limbs to the locomotive series: the structure of the head in Vertebrates, even to the lowest Fishes, admits of no other case of analogous trans- fer.” In the Walrus, the tusks have some locomotive a as they serve to rest the fore-part of the animal or i the ice, while the body is in the water; but this is an cena under the second method. The feet are wholly absent in Snakes, and the ribs aid in locomotion; but this is only a degradation of the vertebrate type, and not dectohidication by the firs method. In most /ishes, and in Whales, the locomotive fine tion is transferred mainly to the elongated vertebrated posterior Sires of the body—a case of degenerative degradation, simi- _ iar to the last, and analogous also to the muliiphicative It is of sufficient interest in this connection to be re ated posterior thoracic _ such appendages exist in the secondary type embrac Feces the species), _ “These circumstances, moreover, are “independent of a St ree of intelli gence, by an extension of "the sphere of growth beyond the proper limits of the sphere of activity.” ? To the zoologie al characteristics of Man, mentioned in the writer’s article on - Mammals,—that is, the extreme cephaliza’ ization of his system and the erect form con- _ nected therewith,—should be added the following, se while 4 pe in Prof. Huxley—is of small importance in this conne The writer's view of aracteris ties af Nba geal celta iitrsecad ial ae are given in the last volume of this Journal, on page 452. + _ J. D. Dana on Cephalization. appendages. Passing down from Insects to Spiders, the mouth loses one owe of organs, the posterior, and the feet gain one pair, there ing four pairs of feet in Spiders—that is, there is a transfer of one pair from the cephalic to the locomotive series. The absence of antennz in Spiders is no mark of degradation, since the senses exist in good perfection. Descending lower, to the Myriapods, the Articulate type passes below the range of normal variation into a degradational form, and one which, like that of Worms, admits of indefinite posterior ngation or multiplication of segments (by the eighth method of decephalization), and hence it has no closed or fixed limits, like that of Spiders or Insects. Under this loose and multipli- eative condition of the system, there is no regular transfer back- ward of another pair of mouth-organs: the type is distinguished instead, by the degradational character just mentioned. _ 2. The facts among Crustaceans have already been pointed out: that, descending from Decapods, (Crabs and Lobsters,) which have six pairs of mouth-organs and five of feet, to Tetradecapods, two pairs of the mouth-organs are transferred to the locomotive s& ries, making the number of pairs of feet seven, and of mouth- organs four. escending further, to Hntomostracans, or the third order, the mouth-organs lose one or more of the remaining pairs, and some- times, as in Limulus (or the Horse-shoe Crab, as it is ealled) all, for the mouth-organs in this species are all true feet. The kn- tom¢ exemplify decephalization by degeneration (ninth method): as in the absence of one or two pairs of antenn®; — the absence of one or two or more posterior pairs of thoraci¢ — the series of abdominal members; 22 Limulus, by the reduction of the abdomen toa — mere spine. They are degradational forms, as well as the Myra — ence, the apparent difference of grade, which might — rder. The distinction of the Entomostracans from the higher E ON Ee EPR eT ee ee leh acea J. D. Dana on Cephalization. _ 5 Crustaceans consists rather in their degradational characters than in any peculiarities of the — In the tribe of Ostracoids (Cypris, etc.) alone, one genus has two pairs of mouth-organs, the rest being legs, another ites and another four, the Tetra- decapod nu amber TIL Mollusks.—It has been remarked that the subkingdom of Mollusks cannot, from its nature, exemplify the first method of cephalization. The methods exemplified are the third, fourth, ninth and tenth. In the transition from the order of Cephalo- pods—the first—to that of Uephalates (Gasteropods),—the second—. there is a loss of the feet or arms, and a diminished perfection of the senses, and activity is reduced to sluggishness. Descend- ing to the third order, or Acephals, the antennz fail, the eyes be- come imperfect or obsolete, locomotion becomes very imperfect. and in some fails altogether. Among —— a still inferior order, all the organs of the senses fail, and t is the radiate structure of vegetation as well as its sessile shefceen The difference in cephalization between an oyster and a clam is very strongly marked, the oyster, when placed in its normal position, having its body nearly all posterior to the beak, being —_ a large gastric mass, and the clam having one-third of ly anterior to the eak, and really exhibiting something masely:3 in mien compared with the oyster. Other illustrations of the subject might be given; but they are not necessary to explain the general principle in view The number of pairs of feet in the subkingdoms of Vertebinide and Articulates, under those types which afford eee of the method of cephalization, is as follows I. VERTEBRATES. 1, in Man; 2, in all other Vertebrates. ‘TL. ArricuLatEs. 1. Under Insecteans : 3, in es A, in Pes rs. 2. Under Crustaceans : 6, i ; 7, in Tetradecapods. The number oe rs of ‘feet in the different groups are then 1,2, 2, 4, 5, 7. one case of typical transfer occurs in each of the three pee: ustrating the subject, Mammals, Insec and Crustaceans; and these cases occur uniformly between the two highest orders ‘of the class. Man’s title to the place assigned him in our former paper 8% therefore to be unquestionable. ol The types of tiger = and Articulates do not admit of Roeclogical compari a4 The types of Thnsetenias and Crustaceans are modifications of a pone on types et the two are so widely different, that it is far Crustaceans corres- the Jive pairs in the highest 6 J. D, Dana on Cephalization. pond to the four in Spiders plus a preceding pair of mouth- organs. The head and locomotive part of the thorax in the Land-Articulates appear to correspond unitedly, as stated by Latreille, to the cephalic portion of the Crab, that is, to nine an- terior segments out of the fourteen cephalo- thoracic. In other words, this part of the body of an Insect is an extreme concentra- tion of the anterior portion of a Crustacean—an example of ex- treme cephalization ; while a Crustacean is a diluted Insect, being much Sesto and more numerous in segments and mem mbers obster (or any ordinary Macrural Decapod Crustacean) has an n eligi body, and an abdomen well developed and far- nished below with a full series of mémbers. In the male Crab, also a Decapod, the body is very short, and the abdomen is with- out its members, besides being so small that it folds into a groove in the under shell of the bo ody; this diminution of size and increased compactness are a inpregeree of the "Grabs t ce- is dais 6 f the riobest instincts under the Articulate type. From these examples it is evident that where there is a com- pacting of the body connected with rise in grade, it is not merely a general compacting of the different parts alike, or a genel concentration and perfecting of the system, but a true cephaliza- tion of the system,—the compacting and seer showing itself primarily in a greater concentration, predominance, and domina- tion of the cephalic extremi Among Articulates having feet, an Insect and a Limulus stand at the opposite poles of cephalization. The mouth-organs and = in both correspond to those of the head (or the mouth- appears to be no reason to doubt that, in all types, not Laie oes: gat pair of members BASS excluded) correspon nds to a separate segment of the pine at Audouin & Edwards are sustained in their views on this point by the fact, that in a Squilla, three anterior cephalic segments (those of the eyes and two none of antenne) and four Besterion thoracic are actually cates and in an aie being presen obsolet nsect, * the Saute seit, fos PON arias to oe | ea three to the thorax); in the latter, two-thirds (or fourteen); the dominal, | iscera are ; a Crustacean (exce F | : : i nm ag eal AES UE PE En eee eee Oe J. D. Dana on Cephalization. 7 organs) of a Crab. But in Limulus there is extreme of degra- dation, all the members being large and stout feet, only the basal joints of the feet serving as Jaws,—the body being enormously enlarged by mere vegetative growth,—the antenne wanting, or reduced to a pair of aor and the animal sluggish, a sport of the waves on a beac ile in Insects, there is extrem cephalization, the pairs of feet only three and pi pat small and slender, and the body minute in comparison—the antenne well develo ped and serving as delicate organs of sense—the animal active, and wonderful in its instinctive habits and knowledge. The parallelism, above shown, between Insecteans and under the classes of Insecteans and Crustaceans constitute par- allel series, the first two of each being closed types, within the range 0: of normal variation, and the last one of eac and Hntomostracans) being a degradational type, though differ- ore one from the other, in kind of degradation. The parallel- ism between the series would be well exhibited if the orders were thus named : tween Deca ntomostracans: on the ree hey lie quite out of the range of either. The Decapods, in their de- dational species, pass almost into Entomostracan fora: and tae into Tetrad s. So among Insec i e the same isolated position and canned limits. Insects, in E their degradation, sppEnaes to Myriapods, not to Spiders. | ers more ney eee Insects and Crusta- There is, here, a cross affinity aa Insecteans and Crus- taceans which is of great interest. The relation of common Spi- ders to Fraebpuea bas a Sree is seen, aes in me a * The mouth-organs and naa gent of fest; of a ds, in gee throug i ite number of segments and feet. Hence, to include iene A tera, as done by. some naturalists » who ado opt the oat ai vision of in Profes siz recognizes the same three classes of Articulates, as above, by the writer, and the same subdivisions, or Fane rs, of Insecteans, but “ from embryo- logical data.” The writer t felt y to deprive Spi dere and Myrinpods of nosects, C: rustaceans and 8 J. D. Dana on Megasthenes and Microsthenes. form or habit of body (some Crabs are called sea-spiders) ; and (2) in the coalescence of the thoracic and abdominal nervous ganglions into a single central thoracic ganglion. At the same time, the division of Scorpions, among Spiders, is fag aeg toe. related to that of the Macrural Decapods, (1) in the body con- sisting of a series of segments; and (2) in the crs ganglions being neler one to each abdominal segment. Moreover the ds are ae and chelate, ik the outer pair in some in- forior I acruran ain, the Mynipede are distantly related to the Tetradecapods, they being similar in their annulated structure, each segment having its pair of feet, and some species of the former (as those of Glomeris) even resembling the nese quite closely in form, articulation, and antennz, and many of them having also the habit of some Oniscidce (Tetrsdecapods) of rolling into a ball. Thus, the second order of Insecteans is related, as regards form, to the first of Crustaceans; and the third of Insecteans, to the second of Crustaceans. The earliest of Crustaceans, the TJrilobites, one of the compre hensive types as styled_by the writer, are, ‘therefore, not only intermediate between Entomostracans and Tetradecapods, but also, in some respects, between these and the Myriapods. nes like the latter, Trilobites are abnormal in the very large of segments of which the body is composed; and some times at pe P present no distinction between the ‘cephalotho- a “tthe facts pointed out prove conclusively that Insecteans and rustaceans constitute classes of equivalent value. 2. Megasthenes and Microsthenes. The two grand divisions of typical brute geen the Meg- asthenes and Microsthenes, are not separated by any very marked difference in type of structure; and still there is a profound fun- damental difference between them »—that, to which the names - This is in contrast with the fact among Crustaceans, the i and microsthenic divisions of which (the Decapods d Tetradecapods) stand widel ely apart. But in the class of Crus nag oaks limited range of variation. Hence, in the distinctions of Megasthenes and Microsthenes, among Mammals, we cannot look ‘he the marked diversity that subsists between Decapods and Tetradecapods, although the naturalness of the subdivisions is none the less real. bed Ph egencephals and Micrencep signifying large-brained small-brained Mammals) may better _ sty ” the desire for rhe expressing something tangible in ucture. Yet they do not appear to indicate the fanda- mona stinction between the groups. A general structural — ' 3 E . ; j ‘ J, D. Dana on Megasthenes and Microsthenes. 9 characteristic may oe be detected corresponding to these m thenic and microsthenic qualities; but even then, the distinctive idea of the subdivisions er hardly be better expressed than by the names proposed. The parallelism between the Megasthenes and Microsthenes among Mammals and the Decapods and pig spay among Crustaceans suggests, that if the subdivisions be called orders in the latter case, they should be so called in the Semmes The distinction betwee egasthenes and Microsthenes may, rhaps, become more retathigttie if we regard a living structure as a life-system, or, speaking dynamically, a life-battery. In order that such batteries may have a very wide range of size, two or more plans of construction, more or Jess different, appear to be requisite. With one plan, there is a certain magnitude which is that of most efficient action and power; and from this magni- tude, there may be a series of larger and ‘smaller _ reaching to the outer limits of norma perfection ; and then, if these limits be passed in either direction, that is, either on he side of too great magnitude, or of oe little, degradation ; in the structure and its powers begin to a ; To carry the species ghrbah another range of sizes, with nor- perfection of structure, another somewhat differ ent plan is required. The Megasthenes represent one such plan, the Mic- rosthenes another. is idea is brought out by the writer in his chapter on the Classification of Crustaceans already referred to. He there says, eaking of the orders of et: viz: Decapods, Tetra- ecapods, —< Entomostracan other words, the sy ert is of different orders for the different types, and the structures formed exhibit ~~ extent of their spheres of action, such as are gaan ny use the force most effectively, in accordance given type, » as the first, for example, the same “Ah ones may be of different « bobs webs ada\ to structures of different sizes. But the size in either direction for structures of efficient ‘ction is limited, To pass these limits, a life-system of another order is required. The Macroura, as they diminish in size, finally pass this limit, and the organ- isms (Mysidz, for example) are no longer perfect in their members; an obsolescence of some p: ns to take place, and species of this small Tetra are actually complete 3 when provided with the structure etradecapod. The extreme size of structure admitting of the highest efficient ac- vty Speed three to six times lineally the average or mean typical these gigantic species, three or four times longer than the a Jour. — onD Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juny, 1863. 10 J. D. Dana on Megasthenes and Microsthenes. type, there are examples among the hres and Macroura, which ave all the highs attributes of the species. There are also Amphipo- da and Iso ree inches in length, with full vigorous powers. Among ilshibeten ‘the Calanide, apparently the highest group, include spe- cies that are three lines long, or three times the length of the mean type. “TIT. But the limit of efficient activity may be passed; and when so it is attended with a loss of active powers. - u ture, s in the fe- ale Bopyrus and Lernzoids, and the Cirripeds, outgrows "This res the proper sphere of action of the te of fore t fentarics on the Cirripeds. “IV. Size is, ieeralore an important element in the system of animal structures. As size diminishes, in all departments of animal life, the he same seems to be the case among Crustacea. The Decapod, as the size diminishes, Ce the lowest limit; and then, to continue the range of size in species, another structure, the Tetradecapodan, is instituted; and as this last has also its limit, the Entomostracan is introduced to con- tinue the het soa fae as oe end, the Rotatoria begin. Thus Crus- .tacea are made to es, from a length of nearly two feet S two hundred sid fifty Hines) ag the t of a one-hundred-and- papi o e. These several types of structure among Crustacea do not graduate, size, directly from one to another, but they constitute ove pling lines, as has been sufficiently shown.” While on this rip lies of life-batteries, the writer would sug- gest that the grand dynamical distinction between Mollusks and Articulates may be this: A Mollusk corresponds to a quantity-battery, but one of very weak force; that is, it is analogous to a galvanic battery of to or three small pairs, at the most. This is indicated, i several in the one Apa es thora ganglion, as in In the highest Soles ag és halopods (Cuttlefish, a the Invertebrate quantity-ba et peatien its greatest power. Vertebrates also ap rrespond to a paantiny- belie one shown b of the split of of the nervous system); but 4 E 4 SSeS ORS Wo ee me ge Nea ry, J. Hall on ipa Centroneila, Meristella, etc. 1 Arr. Fae Observations upon some of the Brachiopods, with repent to the genera Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristella, and allied form by JAmes Hatt. Abstract of a paper read before the ‘Albahy Institute, February 3d, 1863.’ (Communicated by the author.) (Concluded from vol. xxxv, page 406.) In the Thirteenth Report on the State Cabinet (p. 74, 1860), I a posed the Genus Meristella, to embrace certain species before in- eluded under the Genus Merisia, and which were shown. not to ossess the peculiar shoe-lifter process, or transverse septum, char- acteristic of the latter genus. I remarked as follows: “ Restrict-. ing, therefore, the signification of the genus Merista to such forms as were originally included by Prof. Suess under that name, it becomes necessary to designate those species of similar form, but without the Beettins appendage of the ventral valve, by another generic term; and [ would therefore suggest the name of Meris- age proposed by me last year.” After describing the genus, I cited as illustrations several spe- cies from the Lower Helderberg group; and gave figures of the exterior of Meristella princeps and M. nasuta, the latter species from the Upper Helderberg group. In the same Report I described three other species of the genus, viz: Meristella Haskinsi, M. Barrist and M. Doris, but ba giving illustrations of these. ce, on the one side, this genus has been claimed to be ccieivaloar to Athyris , and, on the other, the same author has dai: sore of its species under a later created genus Charionella, seems necessary to repeat some ¢ the characters of the genus in this connexion. nus MERISTELLA Hall, 1860. —The genus ingore terebra- tuloid or Athyroid forms which are ovoid, more or less elor sometimes elliptical in outline, and not et 8 2g transverse of oes Pert unequally convex, with or without a an fold an us, and this feature usually confined to the ver half of the ‘shell. Ventral beak more or less closel incurved (when se a incurved apparently im dei stk termi- nated by an aperture, the lower be formed by the umbo of the dorsal valve, or by a lett Area none,’ ' From the Transactions of the Albany Institute, Mipet wove verbal corrections “ aaa om dhe State Cabinet, 1059, page, 18; ia ref naviformis of vol. ii, Pal. N. Y. to Merist T said?» This pie cs others of the Clinton and wie groupa, differ somewhat from true ng and should ala differences prove of generic importance, I propose for them the es with the ventral valve closely incurved are ly imperfo- map vores taba is visible above the umbo of the dorsal valve. In the se att salves of these species, [have not seen any deltidium ; an open space exists above the points of the dental lamell, and this communicates with the open cavity of the valve. 12 J, Hall on Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristella, Valves articulating by teeth and sockets. Surface smooth o ark y fine concentric lines of growth, not lamellose, a8 Sadigtact or obsolescent radiating striz, which are usually mo Fig. 27. Meristella nasuta = Atrypa nasuta, Conrad,—Dorsal view oung individual —Fig. 28, An older indivi opine F 29. Interior of the on ge ve Fig. 30. Cast of the ventral note Fig. 31. Dorsal view of the same species.-—Fig- 32. Interior of the clorsal valve of M. Sala bowing | the hinge plate and median a ria 3. Cast of Santis valve of J. Barrisi.—Fig. $4. Cast of ventral . Has conspicuous in the east or exfoliated surfaces than on the exte Tior. Shell fibrous. The ventral os is much thickened on each side towards he beak, rostral cavity margined by ose 1 jental _* The casts of Mf. Barrisi and M. Haskinsi are obtained from solid specimens the and therefore have not tb: of tthe uscular pbc tin on Soggy weathered casts, ea A Fea ‘ and allied Brachiopod cilia | 13 _ of these features, In the dorsal valve there is a strong hinge plate or process, by a median septum which reaches from one-third to one-half the length of the valve, and on each side, marked by deep den- tal fossets, while the anterior _—— are produced into the erura which support the internal sp Spires arranged as in Aayee and WMerista, being a double cone with the apices directed outwards. From the lower lateral margins of the cardinal process or hinge plate, there is a callosity extending beneath and anterior to the dental fossets, and joining — the thickened margin of the valve, as in the’ other allied fa the cast of the dorsal valve we have the mark of the me- dian septum, with an elongate, lanceolate muscular impression, reaching nearly to the middle of the valve. The imprint of the Bienguler process, and the cavities made by the crura are often = The species of this genus may be readily distinguished from Merista, by the absence of the shoe-lifter process, which, in nu- - merous specimens compared, constitutes the principal difference between the two genera ‘The illustrations on the receding page will serve to show more clearly the characteristics of se us. In the dorsal valve of I. Barris ab iaive a hinge plate, with a median septum reaching more shan one third the length of the shell, and the same characters exist in Mf. Haskins. In M. e cas genus. f ieee New of New York, vol. iii, plate 39 * In reclaiming these species of Meristella, I am not impugning the validity the genus Charionell i “dorsal valve of Charionella as represented o 274, No. 38 of the Canadian itil, et 9 ery distinct from an 1, which is not only clearly unlike Meri of Spiriferide before described. 14 J. Hall on Cryptonella, Cenironella, Meristella, towards the beak. This character pertains to the limestone spe- cimens, while those in the Hamilton shales, as figs. 7 and 8, have thinner shells, and Jess deep and strong muscular i impressions. Ihave already (Thirteenth Report on the State Cabinet, pp. 73-75, and illustrations on p. 98) pointed out the distinction between Athyris= Spirigera and Meristella. This difference is everywhere clear and unmistakable, in the external lamellose surface of a = = the almost smooth character of the other. The mu impressions of the ventral valve of Athyris are at eh distinguishable from those of Meristella; as may seen on somparison of figs. 35 ae 36 with figs. 29 and 30. Fig. 35. Interior of ventral valve of Athyris spiriferoides.— Fig. 36, Cast of same. In the dorsal valve, the muscular impressions differ from parties a hinge plate is of somewhat different character, and the median ney is « is soarcdy developed, Note on the Ge —Among the specimens sent to me by Dr. Rominger, are ae individuals of Lepioceelia concava, showing the existence of internal spires; and a careful exam- ination of my own ieee from e Lower Helderberg group has shown several spec S possessing these internal organs which have their Bis a raced obliged outwards, ang are sion at the rocess, and below this is a flat ca a. _ A critical re-examination of the fossils seleered iocthis genus nal form and features, which, in the absence of Scored cigs tee legen 2 structure, were grouped together. A fr | i that there are at least three distinct types, in their exter, : 2 d 3 : : ; a 3 a A jihad a i ce rs _ and allied Brachiopod genera. — 15 Trematospira camura. ‘he £. concava, both in its exter- L. flabellites, L. fimbriata and L. acuti- plicata, I would propose to indicate forms of this external character with similar crura and spires as Celospira. The difficulty constantly attending the references of the Bra- chiopoda, to establish genera from external form and characters, renders it very desirable to search for the interior organization and appendages; but the condition of specimens does not alwa’ admit of satisfactory investigations, and not unfrequently the specimens possessed are so few as almost to preclude examina- tions of this kind. As an example of the diversity of internal structure in similar external forms, I may mention the Terebratula altidorsata of Bar- rande, which so nearly resembles the Centronella Glans-fagea that ) utting a Celospira coneava, | 16 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. Art. II].—Hydraulics of the Report on the Mississippi River of Humphreys and Abbot; by Prof. F. A. P. BARNARD.’ writer upon the same subject. Dr. Robison, ae ie out the extent to which the interests of every civili le are involved in questions relating to the control and distribution of the running waters of the globe, and the great variety of ways in which we are constantly engaged in endeavoring to secure such control and distribution, proceeds as follows “Such having been our incessant occupations with moving waters, We _ th should expect facts and ex is, the man of speculative and scientific curiosity, & j Vi e Ee siderable progress in the science ; and that the professional engineer would : be daily acting from established principle, and be seldom disappointed 10 ty 3 * 7 i of the * * . . 4 rflow ; and up Nhe Deepening of the 4 61. 4to, pp. 456 and exivi and Lieut. H. L. A —_ Messrs. peaisecagy Abbot. 17 state of the case: each engineer is obliged to collect the wpa 4 part of his knowledge from his own experience, ane by many dear bought lessons to direct his future operations, in hig e still proceeds with anxiety and hesitation: for we have not yet acquir red principles of theory, and experiments have not yet nae aR Peet and pone by which an em- _ pirical practice might be safely formed. * The motion of waters has be n-really so little investigated, that hydra may still be called a new study.” And again “As to the uniform course of the streams which water the face of the wishes, w e in a manner totally. ignorant. Who n pretend to say ees is ti veloc 0 of hy river, of which you tell hi: the broadiie the ions. are the want or uncertainty of our principles; the falsity of our theory, which is belied by experience; and the small number of proper observa- tions or experiments, and difficulty of abbey such as shall viceable.” Tn asserting that this extract continues to represent the state of the science of river hydraulics at the present day, as com- _ pletely as it did at the close of the last en at when it was 4 solutions in the works of the highest authorities on the subject, at the on ce, time, as they were then. And thx . Ro! himself proceeds to set “Porth a system—theoretie aise ractical —mainly adopted. from Dubuat, Thich an concludes with affirm- ing that he has “ established,” ‘and w hich he assures us “may +f : _ opinions and practice of our ablest engineers have been, and are _ yet, most widely at variance in regard to the airceilost problems _ which present themselves relating to the control and manage- _ ment of our natural streams; or that, just in proportion as —_ _ Streams are large, or are fed by numerous tributaries, dra _ their waters from regions tS to diversified climatic viciaat Am. Jour. — Senies, VoL. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juxy, 1863. 18 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. tudes, in the same proportion they are defiant of all the dogmas of the books, and all the laws, however carefully elaborated, of — hydraulic theorists. Indeed, in the very year in which the sur- — vey, of which we have in this report the results, was commenced, | there was submitted to the Bureau of Topographical Engineers, at Washington, a report covering a portion of the same ground, — viz: the question of the best means of preventing the overflows — of the Delta of the Mississippi, by a gentleman reputed to be one of the ablest civil engineers the country has produced—the late Col. Ellet-—in which all the received formule for determin- ing one of the most important elements in the inquiry—the mean velocity of the stream—are set aside, and a new one intro- duced; and in which the conclusion is reached that protection by levees in the lower parts of the valley, is entirely impractica- ble. The latter view is one which many others, both before and since, have strongly held: and inasmuch as this river is a subject which has more or less occupied the mind of every.man in the country having any pretensions to engineering skill, or any taste for this class of physical inquiries, it is a view which has been just as strongly discountenanced and as stoutly controverted, as 1 n confidently maintained. Now if the science of river hydraulics had not been in the condition of uncertainty and im- perfection which we have presumed to impute to it, how could it be possible that a great practical problem like this, the very foremost in magnitude of importance that could be stated in regard to the grandest of our rivers, could thus divide for years — the opinions, not merely of the inexperts who dwell upon the | banks of the stream and suffer from its ravages, but of the mathematicians and philosophers of the whole country, who — exhaust, for its solution, all the resources of science; and of the — The Mississippi has undoubtedly been, in this country, the ie scl er streams, 0 their occasional outbursts of disobedience, when they roar defi- — Bee Eee ha Fe ee ce ee Tee eee ee EI ee eet eee emt eet ae Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 19 be understood, because, like Proteus, it never presents itself t. All this Pe a disrespectful language, is however sadly misapplied. The Mississippi is not a lawless river: it is only a large river. It is not a capricious river; but, draining as it does an immense hydrographic basin or system of basins, its hydraulic pulsations faithfully respond to every meteorological vicissitude in all that vast region, and present therefore phe- nomena which, at the time and place, may not always furnish their own immediate explanation. It is not an inconsistent river; for though it may sometimes seem, to the hydraulic engineer'who studies its deportment, to conform itself with a docility truly gratifying to the formule which he has been taught to suppose should represent its movements, and at others may contradict them in a manner the mest unceremonious and the most pro- voking; yet it is quite an error to draw, on that account, a con- clusion injurious to the character of the stream. The true mode of looking at the phenomenon is this:—The formula is indeed inconsistent with the river, but not the river with itself For e river being one of the forms of embodied nature, if the th formula fails to represent it, then the formula is inconsistent with nature: and were the river to conform itself to the formula, it woul truly an inconsistent river. mls ae Bg It is probably in the fact that the Mississippi is a large riv that we shall find a clew to the reason that it has been pro- 20 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. hension of the Mississippi. The correctness of this view is, we — think, fully established by the Report before us; of which we will now attempt to present a succinct analysis. The properly hydraulic portion of the Report commences with a concise exhibit of the existing state of hydraulic science, including an exhaustive catalogue of the writers who have treated of the subject. This is followed by an elaborate detail of tlie operations of the survey, both in the field and in the the complications and uncertainties which these particulars would introduce must be — sige Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. a avoided. The laws which we are about to state, are, therefore, to be understood of waters moving uniformly in channels straight and regular. With this explanation, we cite from the report, i a form condensed from that in which we find them, the following ropositions :— 3 In a uniformly flowing stream, the maximum velocity of the water, in any vertical plane parallel to the current, is not found at the surface, but at a point situated a little more than three tenths of the ‘depth below the surface. o whatever cause it may be owing, there is a resistance to the flow of water at the surface, similar in kiud to that which takes place at the bottom, though u usually less in degree. This resistance is propagated downward, according to a law of dimi- nution similar Me sr with which the resistance at the bottom is propagated u If the daaiien in the same vertical plane, parallel to the current, be plotted as ordinates, and the depths at which they are observed as abscissee, the curve drawn anise the points thus determined is sensibly a parabola, having the filament of maximum velocity for its axis, which is, of course, horizontal. This parabola varies its curvature with the changes in the mean velocity of the river; the curvature being at its maximum when the velocity is greatest. When the velocity is zero, the parabola becomes a straight line. The law which governs the curvature is determined by the proposition, that the reciprocal of the parameter of the parabola varies as the square root of the mean velocity of the river. The reciprocal of the parameter of sub-surface velocity is therefore the ordinate in another parabola, in which the mean velaeney: of the river is the abscissa. sates of the parabola of parameters is, for rivers , o« Phe E generally, s nsibly constant. It is, wanes er, a function of the nat such a 5 exainion that the variations are nearly inap- | eoroiable for river formulz, except for depths less than twenty or perhaps twelve feet, he variations of alosity 5 in horisoutal planes, at the surface or below it, follow the same law as in vertical planes, the curve which represents them being a parabola having its axis in the thread of maximum velocity. The depth of the axis of sub-surface velocities in vertical planes is affected by the wind, being depressed when the wind is up-stream, and elevated when the wind is down-stream, The amount of displacement is Hpi proportional to the force of the wind and the depth of the river, and is sensibly the same for the same wind-force, in either direction Neither the velocity at the surface nor the velocity at the bottom, nor, generally, the velocity at any determinate depthya is ei py) Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. a function of the mean velocity of the river only. The methods of gauging which have been founded on the assumption of a simple ratio, existing between some particular observed velocity and the mean velocity, are therefore all erroneous. The ratio between the observed velocity, at any depth in any vertical plane, and the mean velocity, in the same vertical plane, is a function of three variables, which are the mean velocity of the stream, the depth of the river, and the force of the wind. There is one particular depth at which the ratio becomes inde- pendent of this last variable, and sensibly so of the depth of the river. This is the depth midway between surface and bottom. The simplicity of the relation, between the mid-depth velocity and the mean velocity in the same vertical plane, suggests a — method of gauging rivers, by which the labor of the process is atly diminished, and its accuracy promoted. A meth may be founded upon the observed velocity at any depth, pro- vided the variables which affect the ratio between that and the mean velocity in the same plane are duly considered. Such a method was employed in the measurements of the Mississippi, during a considerable period of the operations of the survey. _. The foregoing are the principal laws which govern the habi- tudes of water flowing uniformly in straight and regular chan- nels. The following relate to the relations which exist between the cross-section, slope, and mean velocity of the stream. The area of the cross-section, the wetted perimeter, the width, the slope, and the mean velocity of the river, are connected with each other by such relations, that, when the first three are ascer- tained by measurement, together with the discharge per second, the other two may be determined. For practical purposes, the — wetted perimeter and the width may be treated as a single — variable. The variables will then be four; and of these, if any two be given along with the discharge, unless the cross-section be and mean velocity happen to be given together, the others may — foun f asensible addition be made to the waters of the river in | The any given stage, all the variables will be increased at once. The — the increase of slope divided by the increase of depth be taken © s the abscissa, the curve to which these codrdinates correspond — is a parabola. The pai of this parabola is constant at the — different localities are different. _ as 1s : = Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 23 By assuming for the change of stand, or the rise of the river, a hypothetical value, the new slope and new mean velocity may be computed; from which, in turn, a calculated value of the rise may be obtained. Thus by a a simple system of trial and error, the true value of the rise will easily be determined; and the resolution of involved equations avoided. Ina similar manner, the depression of level, or the fall of the river, may be ascer- tained, in case any determinate portion of its waters be with- drawn by opening a new o The treatment of this raced Pr by the authorities generally has the advantage over this of being greatly more simple; but it = also the disadvantage of not in the least representing - natur statements embrace, in brief, the substance of the con- seibatione of this valuable report to the advancement of hy- draulic — and the basis of the new methods of practice which its authors have introduced. In estimating the effects of bends in the stream, they have adopted the principle of Dobe derived from observations on the flow of water in pipes, whi ch makes the loss of living foree proportional to the sum of the squares of the sines of the bending; the total amount of curva- ture being divided into angles below forty degrees. The agree- ment of the results of computation, upon this principle, with those of the observations instituted to test its correctness is very close, and is entirely satisfactory. Whoever claims to have discovered a new law of nature, or a processes by the results which follow from its application in cases where ductions from it may be tested by direct observation, or by the degree of their accordance with other truths already known. This has been anticipated by the authors of this report, and they have accordingly peprinore in the amplest form, the mate- rial for applying either of the tests above suggested. We can only indicate in outline the ee of the material, referring those who would sift it thoroughly to the report itse tself. Measurements of the daily discharge’ of the river were con- tinuously made for periods of twelve months at Carrolton, Louis- iana, of eleven months at Columbus, Kentucky, of ten months at Vicksburg, and one and a half months at Natchez. Similar ob- _ servations were made upon the Arkansas at Napoleon, for eleven months; and, besides these, many others less protracted were e upon n the main river and its tributaries and outlets, from the Ohio to the Gulf. These measurements required the deter- _ mination of the cross-section and mean velocity at each ee _ for every day. The cross-sections were determined by sound ings 24 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. made at frequent intervals, in a line at right angles to the stream. The place of each sounding was fixed by observation with two theodolites, from the extremities of a base-line of from four hun- dred to one thousand feet in length, measured upon the bank. — Two independent sections were sounded, two hundred feet apart; and soundings repeated on the same lines, at different intervals of time, showed that the bed underwent no sensible changes. Lines of level were also run up at the banks to points above the highest floods. From these data, with the daily gauge reading, showing the stand of the river, the cross-section was known for every da V cece both at the surface and beneath it, were ascertained by means of floats. In a river of such depth and power as the — ississippi, No kind of current-meter, or other contrivance in- volving mechanism, is available for sub-surface observations on velocity. The submerged floats were connected with surface — oats very much smaller, by means of cords. The sastane floats — dapried small flags which were observed in their transit across two lines at right angles to the river, two hundred feet apart, by means of theodolites at the extremities of a base of the same | length on the shore. The point in which each float crossed each — ‘section line was thus fi xed. As many observations as possible division was taken as — nting the mean velocity of that : division. For the shore divisions, ce the floats were not distributed through them, a slight correction was sometimes a These mean velocities were then multiplied by the areas — of their respective divisions of the cross-section; and the sum — of the products was divided by the area of the entire cross-See tion, ra Ce aie velocity of the river. by being multipled into the ratio between the Eibe on | pi, and ne mean velocity in the entire vertical plane lel to the current. This se had not been discovered while ahh baalies anieatcnie te were r the Sagi ee of the 2 lawot of velocities below the sur . eh of obs seek Mma ton rt eee ae Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 25 and Baton Rouge by means of floats at different depths, from boats anchored in the stream at various distances from the shore. All the observed velocities of each set, that is, from each anchor- determinate values, represented by x, ¥,, %» Y,, We may elim- inate P, and obtain the value of R? in terms of 2, ¥, 2,,, Y,» vertex of the curve, the plotted or tabulated velocities are not themselves the values of « required. Regarding the curve as a representation of the condition of things in a vertical abscissas will then be the differences between the maximum velocity and the velocities at other points of the curve; and the ordinates will be the distances of those points from the axis, in decimals of depth of the river. The values of R? as computed Am. Jour. sg naa Sexizs, VoL. XXXVI, No. 106.—JuLr. 1863. 26 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. from these jesse - every tenth of depth, though never absolutely zero, are alw mall, and are positive in a part of the curve and eaediaee in ” the rest. A mathematically regular curve was not to be expected; but the approach toa parabola i is so near as to warrant the conclusion that this is the curve according to which the differences of velocity are regulated, and according to which, therefore, the resistances are distributed through the moving mass The equation of the parabola is easily deduced. In the equa- tion of the common parabola, if we assume particular values, Ly Y;,, for the codrdinates, we shall obtain the expression, eee tle y*; 3 Bigs and if an ee increase, =x, be given to all the abscissas, this will becom : 2—2 = wll ae or ry y?+2,. In applying this equation to the observations, x, is to be re- placed by the maximum velocity, and «,, and y,, by the values of those eudipaies at the points most distant from the axis. The values of x are then to be computed for all the depths at which actual observations of velocity have been made. The sums of e computed and observed values are then to be compared, and their difference, if any, divided by the number of points observed, — is to be app lied as a aBleesys to «, and to all the values of a: an operation which amounts to moving the whole curve slightly | along Me aXis, ry altenitg its curvature. By varying - : depth of the axis, or the position of the point z,, y,, it m easily be found where the closest oe ner between the e: : servations and the computations can be se ured. : The equation of the grand mean curve of subsurface velocities — having been obtained by the processes here described, the degree _ of its accuracy may be tested by comparing severally the values — of the velocities computed by means of it, for all the points be- _ neath ~ ersten at which MS deen were actually observed, with : the ta mean observed value The comparison as ma Sartishes | the following results : The actual maximum velocity — erved being in feet 3°2611, the greatest difference found be tween pis Desa aa and any ‘observed mean value is onl ¥° and the t is ‘0006. The sum of all the differences, nkek. without found to sign, is only ‘0245, which is Jess than three- tenths of an inch. This test is certainly very satisfactory; but ‘it, e porroborted by others to be presently mentioned. _ The forms of the ma hee Dregs subsurface velocities at high 4 tages of the river, indicated rvature consequent upon a change of mean velo- d : Oe ee ee i ape Ss Ae ate hs Bye Cee RS a Nw ge eee eee ee ee cee! ee ora ge any ke 8 RR ee ce i : Ese Bee . - : Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 27 city. The next object was to determine the law of change. The — which presented themselves were the high water mean, the water mean, and the grand mean curves; to which another purpose. e idea was then conceived of sont the same investigation in regard to the velocities in horizontal planes; or at the surface of the river. Data for this i inquiry had been am- ns furnished by the observations for daily discharge. These observations, which were made at a depth of five feet below the surface, were grouped according to the even feet of approximate mean velocity of the river; and thus were obtained material for eight mean curves, corresponding to as many different mean velocities. From these was deduced a grand mean curye, as in the case of subsurface velocities. The result was a very clear disclosure of the parabolic law In proceeding to the study of the law of variation of curva- ture, equations were deduced for each of the eight mean curves, The reciprocals of the parameters of these parabolas were plotted as ordinates, the corresponding mean velocities of the river being the abscissie—the reciprocal of the parameter of the limiting parabola, or straight line, which is zero, indicating that the curve intersects the axis of abscissx at the origin of codrdinates. A eurve resulted which cited closely to the sect om and thus furnished a general expression for the reciprocal of the parameter of any parabola of surface velocities corresponding to any given mean velocity of the river. This r by applying it to the formation of a general quail for the curve of velocities five feet below the surface; and empl is equation to SS the velocities potas wd the — mean curves which as compone the grand mean. The differences were all sana, seh pecs than those in the grand mean subsurface curve; a conse- Fee probably of the fact that each of these eight curves was upon a much more limited series of observations than that. A law of parameters having been thus deduced for the horizontal curves, the —— naturally suggested itself that a similar law governs those of the vertical curves also, Mate- Tials which are insufficient to reveal the exi istence of an unknown mean nena of the pao mean curve were the pair best determined, next to those of the straight line, which 28 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. parameter of the curve of parameters, and 5p o the ordinate, 1 = 1 ( =) peed | eed pot (bv)? The value of . Bs ges from the equations of subsurface veloct- ties, was 0° Referring es ‘the equation of the parabola before given, as adapted to the case in which the curve intersects the axis at @ — point of which the coérdinates are x=x,, y=0, viz: = x, 7", rz, it will be seen that this value of = >is the coéfficient of y?, or 2, ms — = me the negative vee ea cae by the nature of the case, — since x, is the maximum velocity in the vertical curve. Putting — then V for ie general value of the velocity in the subsurface — curve, and Vu, for the particular velocity at the depth d,, which — denotes the depth of the axis, the general equation of the sub- . surface velocities is =Va,— (b0)*d,2, where d,, denotes the distance of the point whose velocity 8 | - ere om the axis, expressed in decimals of the depth taken 3 — his curve ° was not so ph see 2 obeeryed and compute velocities, scree mean diference is not a sixth of an inch. § : . Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 29 medium-stage curves, deduced from 52 observations at Columbus and 20 at Vicksburg, the mean differences were 0056 and ‘0155 respectively; the maximum velocities in the curve being 4°1958 and 45709. In bayou Plaquemine the mean difference was ‘036 a a maximum velocity of 6491; and in bayou La Fourche "003 on a maximum velocity of 3-250. In these two cases, the curves are deduced from the results of a single day’s observation. he same equation was also further tested by being applied to the original curves, which had been combined, as above stated, on the principle of ee eo The correctness of that principle of combination ha t been quite certain; but the te of this final test left no » ante of its legitimacy. The an discrepancy between the computed and observed veloci- ties amounted in only one case to so much as one per cent of the maximum velocity in the curve; and _in this oe the absolute ee hee Re a little over an inch. Usually the agreement was much n “But a st till more saieurteathe test of 0 accuracy of the law of parabolic velocities is furnished by a comparison of its results in the okt’ curve varied, in the first instance, from w two 3 feet to nearly three; and in the second, from about one aie a to over two Set: The observations are recorded in the one case at fifteen different depths, and in the other at thirteen. The ‘ a discrepancy, between these observations and the results of mputation for the same points from the parabolic equation founded on them, amounted, in decimals of a foot, to only 0330 and 0243 for the two cases "respectively. _The largest of these neh. _ mean errors is less than four-tenths of an i It will be noticed that in all the computations made for the _ subsurface velocity of the Mississippi, in its different stages, and for the aes one and the same equation was constantly em- BE pioyed =%a a (01 8560) ¥a,25 stream, but as this will not be very far in error Kf taken at oak tenths of the velocity on the surface, it may be assumed to be 30 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. well enough known for the purpose in hand. The numerical coéfficient of d,,?, in the equation of the parabola, being then divided by the so-assumed value of 3, will give the square root of the value of d which is sought. is value is found from equation of the trough to be a little above unity. In the equa- tiou employed in the previous computations, being that which | ad been derived from the grand mean.curve of the Mississippi, the numerical value of 6, as we have seen, was 071856. It appeared probable, therefore, that this quantity, that is, the parameter of the parabola of parameters, varies inversely as some function of the depth. For the sake of further testing the truth of this supposition, careful observations were made upon a feeder of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal near Washington, having a depth of 7-1 feet and a width of 23; being, in these dimensions, much smaller than the. river, and much larger than the trough. The mean maximum velocity observed was a little over two feet and a half, and the mean difference between the computed velocities for the several points observed and the means of the observations themselves at those points was less than a quarter of an inch. The equation of the parabola de- duced from the observations gave a value of } equal to 0°58. The value of 5 (or of the parameter of the curve of parameters) — changes, therefore, very slowly at considerable depths; and is practically at its minimum value for rivers when it equals 0°1856, The following expression is given as representing the observa ons: 5 (D415)? in which D denotes the depth of the river. It being once established, that the curve of velocities in the . vertical plane parallel to the stream is a parabola, and the — equation of the parabola being known, the mean velocity in the — whole vertical curve is easily deduced. The area representing — the sum of all the velocities is made up of a rectangle and 2 — parabolic segment above the axis, and of another rectangle 4 parabolic segment below. Dividing the sum of these areas by — the total depth will give the mean velocity required. But the dividend in this case is an expression necessarily inyolving the — of the axis as an element; and, although this mean depth had been found to be nearly constant, the actual depth is observed — tovary. This variation is apparently dependent on the direction — and force of the wind. = _ In the investigation of the effects of wind-force, the selected - observations were divided into three classes—those in which the - se in which it blew down-stream, an¢_ bs H : 2 : ‘ : j _ y serves to reduce the observed depths of axis to the position of 2 _ Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 31 those when it either did not blow at all or blew directly across the stream. The wind-forces were estimated according to the usual scale of notation, 0 being a calm and 10 a hurricane. For the first two classes of observations; the sum of the products of the numbers of observations at each point by the force of the wind was made out for each, and the difference between the two sums, divided by the total number of observations at all the oints, was presumed to give the effective force of the wind: Five sets of determinations were thus obtained, in each of which the number of observations, the depth of the axis, the mean velocity of the river, and the resultant force and direction of the wind were given. If « be the unknown depth of the axis due to a calm, and d, d,, d,,, &c., the observed depths, and if y denote the amount of movement of elevation or depression of the axis which would among the data be denoted by 7 7, 7,, &c., then the movements ‘A the axis will be /y, fy, 7, y, &e. Accordingly, we shall ave ttfy=d, t+f,y=d,, c4+-f,y=d,, &e., the negative sign being used when the wind is down-stream, and the positive, when it is up. Multiplying both members of each of these equations by the number of observations from which its constants were deduced, and adding the whole, member for member, we obtain one equation containing both a and y. - But if we consider that the sum of all the movements of the axis, taken without regard to sign, must be equal to the sum of all the differences between x and d, w and d, &c., taken positively—that is, taking 2-—-d when x is the greater, and d—z when dis the greater, we shall, by multiplying once more all these differences and the corresponding movements (fy, fy, &e.) by the numbers of observations to which they respectively be- long, and adding the products as before, obtain a second equa- tion containing both x and y. From these equations combined, both « and y are determined. The deduced value of « is 817 which is the depth of the axis when the wind force is zero, in decimals of the total depth of the river. The deduced value of calm. A comparison of the values of x so obtained (which should _ all agree with each other, and with the value of « given by the 32 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. differences found being all very slight. n these cases, the outstanding force of wind, after balancing opposing forces, was never much above l. Velocity observa- tions had, moreover, been found to be impracticable, with a wind above 4. The results of the investigation, so far, would hardly therefore justify the assumption that the movement of the axis 1s equation) verifies the general correctness of the procedure; the approximate discharge, a mean depth or radius of the river, 3 — five feet bel or recorded this discharge may be taken as proportional to the m Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 33 the corrected discharge. The truth of the following proposition will then be manifest :—As the recorded discharge is to the cor- rected discharge, so is the observed mean velocity, five feet below the surface, to the velocity which would have been observed at the same depth had it been calm. But, had it been calm, the axis would have been at the depth ‘317. In the general equa- tion of velocities, therefore, =v,—(n)ta,2 + if d,, be put for the distance from the known position of the axi to the point five feet below the surface, and the velocity ee for that point by the last proportion be put for V, there will remain only one unknown quantity, which is Vg, or the maxi- mum velocity in the vertical curve. * This velocity is therefore easily deduced, and, being substituted in the same equation, will enable us to compute the mean velocity in the entire vertical plane. For this mean velocity, being derived from the areas of the rectangles and parabolic segments, above and below the axis, which form the figure bounded by the curve of velocities at one end and by a vertical line at the other, the extreme length being the maximum velocity in the plane, and its breadth the depth of the river, is determined when the velocities at surface and bottom are given along with the maximum velocity and depth. The last named velocity is that which was just found; and, by the help of this, the equation gives the other two, when’ the r values of , viz., distance from the axis to ‘the surface and distance from the axis to the bottom, are substituted. his operation was performed for each of the wind- -forces, 1, 2,3, and 4. In each case, the unbalanced wind-force of the olseteationd was but a fraction of the total force of the wind at the given intensity. It was desirable to know the effect due to ee entire force; and, in ae to arrive at this, it was only to reverse the o operation. Thus, taking the corrected apprcsiinate discharge as the discharge due to a calm, and in- ng and diminishing it by the amountof the empirical cor- rection corresponding to each wind-force successively, we may obtain the hypothetical discharge due to the full wind-force in pate down or up the stream. Then the proportion may be ted:—As the corrected discharge is to the hypothetical dis- ee ge, so is the velocity in calm, five feet below the surface, to the Pelocity at the same point under the assumed wind _-force. The value so determined may be substituted for V as before, or for U on the left of the more general equation following; which differs from the former only in replacing V, the velocity in a par- ticular plane, by U which is intended to denote aa Bie in the mean of all planes parallel to the axis of the ri UU z,—(b0)*d,2=Uy—(0" bkasthess: Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Sexies, Vou. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juty, 1863, i] 34 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. In this equation, Uw, and d,, are both unknown. The equation for mean velocity in the vertical plane contains (as above stated) values of U at the surface and at the bottom, both of which are aeppees, from the equation just given, in = containing only the same two unknowns, Ug, and d,,."_ There will therefore be two = Sepa equations, involving only es unknowns, and from these the depth of the axis, on which the values of d,, depend, may be determined. This determination having been made for the four wind-forces he ment is directly proportioned to the wind-force, that’ it is equal for the same wind-force in opposite oat , but that it is a depression for an up-stream wind and an e vation for a down- stream wind. ee also appears that the ein of penta is independent of the mean velocity of the river. And although, in this Seveewientices the data for determining the effect of each wind-force are entirely independent of those for the others, yet ' the results exhibit a remarkably close agreement. As a result of the ae ste obtain the following formula which is a general the depth of the axis, (denoted by d,,) /repre- senting ‘the force of the wind, and r the radius, or mean depth of the river d=(0'317-L0-06f)r. Since the process just described furnishes the means of ex- pressing the velocity at the surface or = any depth below it, : terms containing all the variables affect its value, it manifestly practicable to deduce a svete of gauging a river in which the true discharge shall be obtained from observations at one unvarying depth. But, as the ie be the so observed velo- city to the mean velocity is a varyin , no system of ‘gauging founded on this method of oder vation ty ’ be relied on, in which account is not taken of this variation. sg bears a ratio to the mean velocity in the vertical as this, e dHieretine to adopt the following symbols: has, apparently, two distinct values as employed above: :—it ting ad tao re itis he axis to the * catee: tied for the IS SE TREO ee OE ae GRE eR ee Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 35 -D==depth of river. d=distance’ below the surface (variable). dj—=depth of axis (line of maximum velocity in the eonage aaah m= depth of line of mean velocity in the vertical plan ==velocity at any point in the vertical plane. Va,=velocity at the axis, or maximum velocity V,,==mean velocity in the vertical plan Vv, =velocity at the surface. Tyseee at the bottom. Then V,,D will be the value of an area equal to the t rectangles and two parabolic segments concerned in the ae mination of the mean velocity. The truth of the following equation is therefore manifest :— V.D=&(Ve,—Vo)4,+Vod-+2(Va,—Vo) (D—d,)}+-Vi(D—d)) Which, reduced, becomes, VetVet Vet 3e(V, —V>). tees now the general equation for the vertical plane, heretofore en, * 4 4/d—d,\? V=Va,— (bv) "d,2=Va,— (bv) = ‘) nate substitute in it the value of d at the surface, =e ee at the m, =D, and we have the two expressions follo 2 Vv o=Va—(o)' (7) rn oh a4) These values of V, and V, being introduced into the expres- sion for the value of Vm, we shail have, after reduction and yonnnan 10n, Hj4 Hed) Va=VeH(0o)" (t+ 75). And eo ealties this value of Vg, in aie foregoing § eral peopel for velocity in the vertical plane, there is t after uctio aie = 92 sori te Divide the identical equation, V,,=V,,, member for member, by this expression, and we obtain finally. ‘the general ratio of the velocity at any depth to the mean velocity in the vertical plane, ¥. P* Vv ale oh a 3d,D —3d? 6dd,) 3D2 i in which d, must be replaced by its value as deduced from the inyestigation of the effect of wind-force, in order that all the variab es may explicitly appear. = 36 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. If any value could be assigned to d in this expression, which should reduce the fraction in brackets to zero, it would follow that the depth m (which would then be d) is inde oe of the =r agape of the river, v. This cannot one; but if d de =4D, the ratio is greatly simplified, and the equation Teste — Vin Vartre(be)t Since both D and d, fies from this expression, the ratio of the mid-depth velocity is independent both of the depth of the river and of the force of the win f the velocities in the mean of all vertical planes parallel to the current be represented by U instead of V, we shall have pene ane Ua ae (ov) 4 -98u, the coéificient remaining cay. constant. ” abetentiad this ‘value, the authors of the report have tested the formula, by _ computing the ratio, “93v 930-L-A-(bv)” for every even foot of velocity from 1 to 8, and employing the results in the computation of mean velocities from many mid- depth velocities actually observed. The observations include 4 number the Mississippi and - outlet bayous, in fees stages of “the water, and also those made, as before mentioned, on the feeder of the Chesapeake a ef Ohio "iaaal, together with others by Messrs. Hennoeque and Defontaine on ‘the Rhine, @ finally those by Mr. Boileau on his experimental wooden trough. he position of the axis, among these data, varied from the surface to a point below. mid- -depth, and the mean velocities varied from a foot and a half to more than four feet. The dif ferences between the observed and computed values of vi | however, were, for the most part, practically insensible, and in — the few eases in which this was not true they amounted to but two or three per cent. | The near approach to constancy, and equality of the ratio be tween the mid-depth velocity and the mean velocity, is is easily — intelligible when the fact is once detected e resistances to — motion proceed from the perimeter; that is, “from the bottom and — the surface. The discharge remaining sensibly constant, ear in a a uniform channel, the cross-section also, whatever vo at = Lee ee Ee Ree ee eg Ea ee ee Ce EE Ne Plater SRE _ Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 37 An up-stream wind, by diminishing the velocity at the surface, ereates a slight increase of slope; and this would increase the mean velocity of the stream, but for the fact that, as much as the new slope would add, the wind destroys, so that the mean velocity remains constant, What the wind destroys at the sur- face must therefore be compensated at the bottom; and, as these effects are propagated through the mass according to the same laws as the ordinary resistances, the curve of velocities continues to be parabolic, but the level of its axis is changed. The simplicity of ~W fen suggests an improved method of gauging streams; but into these practical details it is eo im- portant that we should aise: here e may here convenientl resent, in a single group, the most important of the formule which result £ from the investiga- tions of which we have been endeavoring to give an account. Those which have not been fully explained, are easily deduci- ble from those which have. V=Va— (bv)? ( <5) ‘< Veeve, —@)(Z), Vi»=Va,— (50)*( 1 —<). Vio= otis (0)?. 2 1 ld V.—= gv arts Vots5 (Vo esa V>)- = Vite) ‘(eS =~. v2v i+: (oj# (PAD 4)-a024—d) d,=(0°317-+0°06f)r. U,,==0°93». U,=0-930-+(0-016—0-06f) (bv). U,=20-980-+-(0-06f— 0350)(60)?. Va=0-930+( (0°31 7-+.0-06f)? —0-06f-++0-01 8 )(bw)8. a “ 0-06/-.0016) v=((1 -08Uyr-+-0-0028)* — o-04s8*)?. (To be continued.) Sd 38 M. Mitchell on some of the Double Stars. Art, IV.—Observations on some of the Double Stars; by MARIA MITCHELL. Tus instrument with which these observations were made is a five-inch equatorial telescope, by Alvan Clark. I have not attempted to measure the double stars of a distance less than 2”, even where I considered the telescope capable of the work, supposing that I should better meet their difficulties after longer practice in micrometrical measurements. Previous to October, 1861, the observations were made at Nantucket, in lat. 41° i I have taken great pains to notice the colors of the stars be fore my eye was fatigued, and have frequently noticed compara tive colors. The terms yellow, pale yellow, ruddy, &c., are very vague; Sirius, «Geminorum and Capella are called white by observers, but they are decidedly unlike in color. If a color — scale, made from certain stars, could be adopted, to which other | stars could be referred, the errors of eyes and observers would — be eliminated; but an analysis of the ray from each star cal — alone decide the question of real likeness. q Angl No. " No. Name of Star. Date. rt at | eed ik Position. Obs,| °° |Obs. 35 Piscium, 1860, Jan. 2, | 152°-2 11’"-9| 2 |The color of the sme a peculiar; there is abrowa) mingling with its reddish light. he is light ager The two re- sem t et ated 1860, Jan. 8, | 154 -4 2 1862, Nov. 23, 149 °4 Small star reddish-brown 1862, Nov. 30,| 150 Air not clear. . ‘ . 30, 1 “t : 38 Piscium, 1860, Jan. 9, | 243 -5 4 ie siscib ities dene ta bole j« © ——— |1g62, Nov. 28 237 «9 6 | 3 -4 eS 3 +3] 6 4 [25 Cassiopie, 1860, Nov.8, | 354 -3| 3 [5g -6| 3 |The colors are yellow and} 2 | © Bev. 16, | [59 : aie Nes eh a it te gl 39 Table continued. le | No. No. ie : Dis- Name of star. Date. a Pd | tance. a Remarks on color, &c. ieti °. La ta ] Il small 179 P. I. Arietis, |1861, Jan. 22,/ 1719-1) 2 ree prog A pehakg os iffer much “2 eg but nuch <1 brillia '98 P. IIL Eridani, |1861, Jan. 27,| 230 -6 3 | 6’’-3) 2 |The nigut poor. large tar is menevaanis the mall one gray. “« & 1861, Jan. 30,| 237 -7, 8 The a good, but the wind hie TI ane is oran, i- kingly so, when c red ith the star [2/south of it. sé x 186], Jan. 31, 238 -7 3 The night is good, and the ipeasurements are ered good. 32 Eridani, 1861, Jan. 31, | 347 °2) 4 | 5 -6| 2 |The dexell star Je pale blue, i 5 the a pgs oh At ; “ 1862, Dec. 28,| 350 +3). 4 The ide : yell ond | pale g = “ “ 1863, Jan.1, | 350 -8 5 Colors yellow and green, “ “e 1863, Jan. 2, 347 *2 Air poor; the stars ran to- 6-319 gethe: “6 “6 1863, Jan. 3, 7 . 2} 2 {Ni d. Th Her st 2 479, 1861, Feb. 4, | 150 , ds) 7 re a nitue raddier than the lar; mentioned by Admiral | Seay is easily seen. E 494, 1863, Jan. 17,| 186 -3 : 6 -B 3 ane alike yellaw 5 546 _ |1861, Feb. 17, 188 -6 3 | 9 © . 559, 1861, Feb. 16, 93 og] Ble 3 an alike, color pale F Th ht d sy 1861, Feb. 1, fe eh a nis are better than those of Fe : 5 653, 1861, Feb. 21, 227 “5/4 [18 <1) 2 [A tint Siar, seem 278 P. IV. Orionis, |1861, Feb. 6, | 48 *1| 4 [12 *o| 3 |Colorspale ber tei am + the difference in size only half a grade, in 1833; they eer y differ more present. 7 i -o 2°| 5 “6 2 |The large star is yell 118 Tauri, 1860, Feb. 9, | 195 -9 ae laa ‘0! 2 ht poor. The hi oS 1860, Feb. 27,| 195 -o “ple Fellow, the smell one A Orionis, 1860, Feb. 20,| 43 -2} 3 Colors yellow and bluish. 23 Orionis, ar. 6;| 30 -4| 2 The small is of a darkish : A. B. ait i M. a's : 2 et, 9 At A pale yellow, B bluish, C 22-4 2 yellow. Castor, 1868, Mar. 20,) 941 -o| 3 The North and r dedly smaller than the 1863, Mar. 21,| scot cols el « : calbthe rs warm f | 242-7) 4 . and pale yellow. : E 1282, 1863, Mar. 26,) 257 -g 5 4 4 pa : has the more color. “6 1863, Mar. 27,| 257 -6 5 Small star ruddier in than large one, “ 1863, Mar. 80,| 259 -7| 3 v’ Hydre, 1863, Mar. 29, 2 -4) 3 ao wind , 1863, Mar. 30, 66 °8! 5 |Th winged. by 1273, ane Apr. 1,| 220 -5) 3 i The sar wa dma and the E1311, 1863, Apr. 21,' 201 -g 3 40 M. Mitchell on some of the Double Stars. Table continued, Angle | No. P No. Name of star. Date, a ae Bcc | Riser lor, &e. : . Position. Obs.| '*"°°-/Obs. | 35 Sextantis, 1863, Apr. 27,) 238°-9) 3 | 67-8) 3 |a blue color has been noticed) ‘ = oo smal] star, which I) — oO not see a ’ | The lar t 1863, May 1, | 239 -9 4| 7 “6 6 color, the small triply | t lilac. ¢ Urse Maj,, 1860, Apr. 80,| 103 -5| 3 Phe stare ere both veloute but t n ther eeper hu 4 5 Corvi, 1862, May 25,' 212 °6) 4 Air eae very good. 1862, May 26,| 214 -1) 4 By daylight. The measure- ments are considered very & y Vinginggs 1981, Jane 14, 378 9) 4 Miiate fou ope a Jlow. 18) ations marked “ good.” 1861, June 18, 167 -6| 3 1862, June 14, 170 +1) 3 By daylight. The wind is bigh oad the vey run to- get § Bootis, 1862, July 5, | 320 -6) 3 ote cad yellow, 4 light. easure- ; one, a hts 994 9) 4 fret be aes not very good. 28 Aquila, 1859, Sept. 1, 17517) 2 Stars yellow and lilac. beg si 1859, Sept. 6, 52.12 pe es 1860, Sept.1, | 273 -9) 2 Stars yellow and re h-a5s 1860, Sept.18, 149 -4 5 | 6 -3 A beautiful pair, the very much alike = Er than the —s ommonly’ called ‘‘w “T notice 1 little sites age sas 1860, Sept. 22, 151 -6) 2 | B Cygni, 1859, Sept. 7, 56 -1 2 The celeck ace Seen tom tian orange ane z Sagitte, 1859, Sept. 9, 313 -6) 2 : 1859, Sept. 29, 314 -1) 2 a 1860, Aug. 29, 312 -9 5 | 6 -g 3 The colors are yellow) — 57 Aaquile 1859. Sept. 30. Pra rene ae 7 Z re : rs yellow wi! Eo 1 sept. 00, 174 -g 3 (38 “8 Sites: tee ei 1860, “ 6 the more gree! ere ug. yb 37 - E 2613, 1860, Sept. 2 . . y ‘el . “ 1860, Sept a ; é The stars uch alike, bu P 349 9, 415 6 3 the auseler. Sas igh “ 1860, Sept. 26, 5 oe J, p 3 . +3) “ 1860, Sept 30, My . + I noticed the colors only. They are much a the northern one = 2621, 1860, Sept. 26, 223 -6| 3 stars are sma on ; those of 5 2613, and is more difference has e reddy Gut as a ru 1860, Sept. 30, The small star seems 226 P. XX. Antinoi,/1860,Sept.3, | a11 -ol 6 46 | 1860, Sept. 10, 208 -o 4 | 3 -5 \f Aquarii, 1859, Nov. 23, 342 | | 343 a} 4 git 5 yr gt i 4 ) 4 » Sra tee ee ee oe ee ee Se err ie mae Ga be i> oe 8 ee | J. W. Dawson on the Flora of the Devonian Period. 41 ART. V.—On the Flora of the Devonian Period in Northeas America; by J. W. Dawson, LL D,, E.RS., Prinuival a of McGill University, Montreal.’ [ConoL.tbep FRoM Vou. xxxv, P. 319.] In the course of the preceding pages, I have endeavored to notice points of general geological and botanical interest as they occurred; and it will now be necessary only to mention a few leading results, as to the Devonian Flora, which may be deduced from , hospi chewe- Be above recorded. 1. ts general character, the Devonian Flora resembles that of the Carbouiieiis Period, in the prevalence of Gymnosperms and Cryptogams; and, with few exce tions, the generic types of the two periods are the same. Of thi irty-two genera to which the species described in this paper belong, only six can be re- garded as peculiar to the Devonian Perio ome genera a however, relatively much better represented in the Devonian than in the Carboniferous deposits, and several Carboniferous genera are wanting in the Devonian. 2. Some species which appear early i in the Devonian Period continue to its close without entering the Carboniferous; and the great majority of the species, even of the Upper Devonian, do not reappear in the Carboniferous Period; but a few species extend from the Upper Devonian into the Lower Carboniferous, and thus establish a real passage from the earlier to the later Fl The connexion thus established between the Upper De- vonian and the Lower Carboniferous is much less intimate than q that which subsists between the latter and the true oe large part of the difference faeween the Devonian and Cachoniterae oras is probably related to different geographi- cal conditions. The wid ee flats of the Coal Period do not seem to have existed in the Devonian era. The land was probably less extensive and more of an upland character. the other hand, moreover, it is to be observed that, when in the e Devonian we find beds similar to the underclays of the Coal-measures, they are filled, not with Stigmaria, but with rhi- * Copied from the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Nov., 1862. Am. Jour. Sci.—Szcoxp Sexies, Vor. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juxy, 1863, 6 D bl ry a4 42 J. M. Crafts on the Action of Bromine and of zomes of Psilophyton ; and it is only in the Upper Devonian that we find such stations occupied, as in the Coal-measures, by Sigillaria and Calamiites. hough the area to which this paper relates is probably equal to any other in the world in the richness of its Devonian Flora, still it is apparent that the conditions were less favorable to the preservation of plants than those of the Coal Period. The facts that so large a proportion of the plants occur in ma- rine beds, and that so many stipes of Ferns occur in deposits that have afforded no perfect fronds, show that our knowledge . of the Devonian Flora is relatively far less complete than our knowledge of that of the Coal-formation. , evonian Flora was not of Jower grade than that of the Coal Period. On the contrary, in the little that we know of it, we find more points of resemblance to the Floras of the Mesozoic Period, and of modern tropical and austral islands, than in that of the true Coal-formation. We may infer from this, in connexion with the preceding general statement, that, in the progress of discovery, very large and interesting additions . will be made to our knowledge of this Flora, and that we may possibly also learn something of a land Fauna contemporaneous with it. 6. The facies of the Devonian Flora in America is very simi lar to that of the same period in Europe, yet the number of identical species does not seem to be so great as in the coal-fields of the two continents. This may be connected with the differ- ent geographical conditions in these two periods; but the facts — are not yet sufficiently numerous to prove this. 7. The above general conclusions are not materially different from those arrived at by Goeppert, Unger, and Bronn, from a — consideration of the Devonian Flora of Baten ne OH Art. VI.—Action of Bromine and of Bromhydric Acid on the — Acetate of Ethyl; by J. M. Crarts.* ae Mr. Wurtz proposed to me to seek to obtain from the action of bromine on the acetate of ethyl a product of substitution — represented by the formula’ C,H,BrO,, in order to study its — reaction with the oars of silver in the presence of water. The — treatment with oxyd of silver and water, of products of ‘substi- — tution of bromine and iodine in organic radicals, serves to Te — place these elements, and Steak ast Ba equivalent of bydro- — gen, whose place they occupy, by the peroxyd of hydroge®, — * i tnses _ of heat, and a diminution of the original volume _ after the mixture of two liquids has become cool; but no brom- Rrentgldsideid obdhe Acetate of Ethyl. - 43 HO, and is a reaction which of late has attracted the attention of chemists. ; In the case of the body, C,H,BrO,, which I hoped to obtain from the acetate of ethyl, it was a question of some interest to determine whether this reaction would be represented by the first or the second of the two following equations: Glycol. Acetate of Silver. C,H,O C,H C,H,0 L C2 y pO tAg20+H0= 24102243 OF ARBr; bgt prt Alcohol. ©,H,BrO Ea aN oF : Il. OH "0-+Ag,0-+H,0= *agcet 27,°O-+AgBr: in other words, whether the bromine had been substituted for Acetete of ethyl. C,H,0,+2Br=C,H,BrO,+-HBr. The reaction of bromine proved, however, to be entirely differ- No product -ent from that of chlorine on the acetate of ethy of substitution was formed, and therefore the question proposed ve could not be resolved; but the results which I obtained in making the experiment possess sufficient interest to induce _ me to publish them. romine dissolves in the acetate of ethyl with sor ee es place hydric acid is disengaged, and the mixture, even after it has been exposed to the diffuse light in the laboratory for several weeks, when distilled, passes over mostly between 60° and 80° C., and can be separated, by washing with a dilute alkaline solution, - into bromine and acetate of ethyl unchanged. f, however, one molecule of acetate of ethyl and two equiv- _ alents of bromine are heated together in a glass tube y _ drawing the end to a point and melting it with the blast lamp, _ the color of the bromine disappears almost immediately at a _ temperature of 150°, or after twelve to twenty hours at 106°. _ No bromhydric acid is disengaged on opening the tube, and the _ liquid contains only a small quantity in solution, which is given - 44 J. M. Crafts on the Action of Bromine and of off in heating it. The liquid obtained from several operations in sealed tubes was distilled. About one-half distilled at a tem- perature near 45° C.; the mercury then mounted rapidly to 200°, while only a small quantity of an acid liquid passed over; the residue was allowed to cool in the retort , The first portion, distilling near 45°, washed with a solution of potash and dried over solid hydrate of potash distilled at 38°-5-39°, and had all the properties of bromid of ethyl. An analysis gave :— Found. Theory, C,H,Br. Crs 22-66 - - - os £55 - - - 4°59 The portion that distilled at 45° to 200° consisted mostly of acetic and bromacetic acids: when diluted with water it deposited only a small quantity of bromid of ethyl, together with a few ps of another bromated compound, whose point of ebullition was higher, but of which not enough could be obtained to enable me to determine its nature. The liquid, boiling above 200°, which had been left in the re- tort, on pee was transformed in greater part into a crystal- lized solid. The crystals, pressed between folds of filter-paper, and then heated to 180° in current of carbonic acid to free them from bromhydriec acid, possessed the properties of bromaceti¢ acid, C,H,BrO,. Their solidifying point was about 46°. A determination of bromine gave :— a Found. Theory. SEE SISG OO hos SR TB y Aa The portion of the product, boiling above 200°, which did not solidify in the retort, was without doubt a mixture of brom- — acetic and bibromacetic acids; it contained 67 p. c. of bromine, while bibromacetic acid contains 73°4. The quantity of this — latter acid produced in the reaction was small. Tt will be seen from these data that the acetate of ethyl, instead | of giving a product of substitution with bromine, is decom a by it into bromid of ethyl and bromacetic acid. The chief reat- 4 tion is represented by the equation :— Acetate of Ethyl. Bromacetic acid. Bromid of Ethyl. C,H,O C,H, O +2Br — 2 Br O a C,H,Br mine on the bromacetic acid might have reacted upon a portion — Fae PETTUS ee ser Be i va : _Bromhydric Acid on the Acetate of Ethyl. 45 of the acetate of ethyl to produce bromid of ethy] and acetic acid: Acetic acid. Acetate iL ra : ri T O Bromid of ethyl. C CH. Oo aR Se oo eee I was induced to try by direct experiment whether this latter reaction really takes place. * the acetate of prove that the reaction in question did not play any part in the formation of the acetic acid observed above. Bsperinent.—One equivalent of bromacetic acid in crystals, _a sealed tube to 180° during three hours; at the end of this _ time the greater part of the crystals had disappeared, and, on - distilling th _ bromacetic acid, a considerable quantity of an acid liquid dis- e contents of the tube, besides acetate of ethy] and tilling between 100° and 170° was obtained. This liquid was _ diluted with a large quantity of water, and the portion which _ did not dissolve was washed with a very dilute solution of caus- _ tic potash, and dried over chlorid of calcium; it began to distil _ at 80°, at which point a little acetate of ethyl passed over, the : he ay then rose rapidly, and remained constant between e limits, 156° to 158°, while the greater part of the liquid dis- An analysis of this latter portion gave :— Found. Theory, C,H,BrO,. <= 29-35 . - - 28°74 H = 446 - - le 4°19 ® Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc., xi, 22. 46 E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. The boiling point of amy of ethyl is 159°, and its p erties correspond with those of the liquid obtained above; t slight difference in boiling siniae and composition arises without doubt from traces of acetate which the liquid still contained. The portion which dissolved in water was a strong acid; the solution, neutralized with carbonate of lead and evaporated over sulphuric acid, gave large and well formed crystals, whose form and angles, measured with a hand goniometer, corresponded to those described by Gerhardt as belonging to acetate of lead. The double decomposition which takes place here is represented by the equation :— Acetate of ethyl. Bromacetic acid. Bromacetate of ethyl. Acetic acid. cH 0 rs Ca aBrOg es if: Colts, The decomposition of acetate of sihyl by bromine is analo- gous to that which Mr. Gal* has observed with anhydrous aceti¢ acid and chlorine :— Anhydrous acetic acid. Chloracetic acid. Chiorid of acetyl. €244290 per es MEG 4 028,00 pee ide reaction is another among the many which tend to de monstrate the close analogy existing between the composition of the ethers and that of the anhydrous acids. Paris, a Art. Vil—New Facts and Conclusions respecting the Fossil Foot marks of the Connecticut Valley; by Epwarp Hrrcxcocs. I HAVE devoted a considerable time during a few years q to the preparation of a Descriptive Catalogue of the Fossil Foot — marks in the large collection of Amherst College. Moreover, 4 | Canis py “i 570. E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. 47 and photographs, and, should the Society ae it, these I think will fully sustain the conclusions at which I have arrived. The collection of Footmarks at the College, whose examina- tion has led to the following unexpected conclusions, is now quite large. I have counted the number of individual tracks them are the tracks of insects and small crustaceans. It was, however, some of the specimens in the collection purchased the past winter, by the generous contributions of the friends of sci- ence, that first opened my eyes to the facts detailed below. Supposed Mistake as to the number of Phalanges in some of the Lnthichnozoa.—It is well known that the number of phalanges and their order, in the toes of living birds, enable the anatomist - to distinguish them from other animals, with only a few ex- ceptional cases. In four-toed birds it is two in the inner toe, three in the second, four in the third, and five in the outer toe, and where there are only three toes, the numbers are the same as in the three outer toes of the four-toed birds. But since the penultimate and ungual phalanges would make only one im- het we should expect in the track that the numbers would e one less than above indicated. And such they seemed to be to every observer without exception in the three-toed pachydac- tylous Lithichnozoa, viz: two in the inner toe, three in the middle and four in the outer toe. This of course was regarded as the grand argument to prove them made by birds. For some time past my suspicions have been that we have all been mistaken as to the true number of phalanges, and when I went into an examination [ found it even so in respect to the _ outer toe. By looking at the drawings which myself and others __ have published of these tracks, it will be seen that what we have _ supposed the posterior phalanx, in that toe, lies wholly behind the _ first phalanx of the inner and middle toes, and sometimes also a little out of the line of the other parts of the toe. Now by looking Pp his fact, I confess, very much unsettled my conviction that any of the Lithichnozoa were birds. And they were still farther shaken by the facts I have already detailed respecting that most 48 E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. anomalous animal, the Anomcepus. The trifid tracks of its hind feet had been mistaken by us all for those of birds. Indeed, the number of phalanges in the toes were found without much f doubt to correspond with those of living birds, and also with — those Lithichnozoa which I had regarded as birds. But the — Anomeepus had been proved without question to be four-footed: Are we not forced to the conclusion that all the Lithichnozoa — with similar trifid feet must be quadrupeds 4 | Another development as to the Phalanges.—Probably I should — ere long have come to this conclusion, had not another discovery awaited me. Among the new specimens purchased sh one very — gs beautiful tow of thick-toed trifid tracks, such as e ha in the habit of supposing made by birds; ‘put I haste: little doubt — that they were those of an Anomcepus, though no marks of fore 1 Poth yin ote nt The sketch ea examining gives an lacs onsli of- os disor tenok end on X E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. 49 the remarkable slab of Anomcepus intermedius already described in this paper, I found on that, also, evidence that in some cases the outer toe had four phalangeal impressions beside the heel bone. So far as the Anomcepus is concerned, then, I feel sure that we have in its phalangeal impressions the normal number and order in the feet of living birds. I was at once led to in- quire whether the same thing might not be true in respect to those thick toed Lithichnozoa which 1 have regarded as birds. I have found proof enough to satisfy myself that it is so, and that the reason the fact has been overlooked is that the penultimate and ultimate phalanges (omitting the a rarely made separate impressions. But occasionally I can see a faint line of demarca- tion between them. But I had frequently noticed that the length of the ultimate phalangeal impression on the outer toe (as a reference to the outlines of these tracks in the Jchnology will show) was as long as, and sometimes longer than, those which preceded it, whereas, so far as I have examined the osteology of birds’ feet, they decrease in length toward the extremity. I think that ag y two phalanges have been mistaken for one, in this part of t If these are mente conclusions they lead to important results. The first is, that if we strike off the posterior impres- sion of the outer toe in the thick-toed bird tracks referred to, we shall still have the normal number of phalanges in the feet of living birds. But the same thing is proved still more de- cidedly i in regard to the Anomcepus, which is four-footed. Hence the conclusion —— that in the fossil footmarks birds cannot be a fro m quadrupeds by the number = temas seer results, + examinations have been confined vhiefly to the feet of birds, and the following facts have been obtained. The most important question under isaniderition 3 is this:—Is it the —e or the articulations of the toes that make the deepest impression on mud or other plastic material trod upon? This will be ewer by finding under which of these parts the protuberances are the most prominent. If under the pha- langes, the number in the toe will be one less than if under the articulations; that is, if we count, as one of them, the articulation with the tarsal or tarso-metatarsal bone. Am. Jour. — Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juxy, 1863. 50 E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. The protuberances on the foot of the turkey, both wild and — tame, correspond neither with the phalanges nor the articula- — tions, but are more numerous than either. The same is true — of the domestic hen. There is a general resemblance, however, — in this respect, between different individuals of these genera, tanus lentiginosus, the protuberances seem to cor — respond with the articulations, or joints. : n the Coot, the wings along the toes expand most in the mid — dle of the phalanges. In the Crow, the correspondence seems to be essentially with — the articulations, judging from some tracks of this bird on clay — in the cabinet. But the Struthionidse have feet more nearly — resembling the tracks under consideration. And in the hea — Americana or South American Ostrich, although these protube _ rances are tolerably distinct on the middle toe, yet the inner and — oes do not show them. A large heel shows itself behind — the middle toe. (Casts of the feet of the above bird were exhibited to the — Academy). These few examples show that there is a great diversity among — living birds in the matter under consideration. Sometimes the | tuberances correspond with the articulations, sometimes to the — halanges, and sometimes to neither. But I have never found — eet that would make such distinct and marked tracks, and with — always the same number of rounded impressions, as did the — thick toed Lithichnozoa; and I am still inclined to believe that | E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Vailey. 51 uunced it a reptile. Others, however, as Prof. Owen of puter and Prof. Dana of New Haven, believe it to have a predominence of ornithic characters, so as to make it a bird. Some important parts of the skeleton are wanting, as the head, neck, dorsal atin and sacrum, and the ribs are detach and scattered abou e forearm consists of radius and ulna, a metacarpal bone, ae a few detached small fingers; also two sbuait slender bones with sharp claws like those on the hind 0 may have been used for clinging, or as weapons of The lower right limb consists of a femur, tibia, and tarso-meta- _ tarsus, to which ene hind toe and three foretoes are articulated, _ the phalanges being one, two, three, and four, though the last _ number is a little doubttal, on account of the position of the _ outer toe. The tees are all armed with sharp claws The tail is six inches in length and consists of twenty verte- bree, of narrow elongated form, diminishing in size to the last. The feathers of the tail are attached in pairs to each vertebra throughout its entire length. Now between these paareyn and these of some of our _ Lithichnozoa there are some remarkable analogies or resem- blances, so far as I ean judge, itor which I would now indicate —at least such as have arrested my attention, with some of the inferences that follow. It is perhaps unexpected that they ally the Archeopteryx rather to the quadrupedal Anomeepus than the biped tridactyles in my Ichnology. 1. In both we have on the hind foot three front toes articulated to a stout tarso-metatarsal, and not as in all animals except birds, _ toa tarsus of several bones. This resemblance applies also’ a _ the biped, thick-toed, tridactyle cores rye. as well as to the Anomeepus, for they must all have had tarso-metatarsals below the tibia and fibula, though no impression among the any such bone. a we have the most decisive evidence that these animals had only three toes, and where in existin nature do we find that ss artionlated with anything but a ——— except a few cases in the Ruminantia and Soli 2. They both had the same number of phalanges in the three _ front toes, though a little doubt remains as to the outer toe of _ the latter. The same number of phalanges existed in a 52 E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. feet to the ground, that we suspect it could have been four — 4 . foote 4, Precisely how much correspondence there may be in the — anterior extremities of the two animals we cannot decide, The — Archzopteryx is thought to have-had but one metacarpal bone, — and the fingers are so scattered that their number is not given, — but two are described as slender with long claws. The most perfect track of the fore-foot of the Anomeepus has five toes, the two hindmost showing two phalanges, the third, four, the — fourth, three, and the farthest two. The four last toes at least show small claws. The fingers are arranged so as to be fan — shaped, all pointing more or less outward, resembling an ex panded wing. But they seem to be genuine fingers, and there — is no appearance of feathers on any of the tracks, on the hind or fore-feet. The figure 2. annexed shows an outline of the most perfect track of the fore-foot yet found. This certainly looks more like the fore-foot | of a lizard, and still more like that of some - mammals, than the forearm of a bird, and it is difficult to conceive how it could have been used as an organ of flight, though possibly it O might. have been employed for prehension. But on the other hand we have conclusive evidence that it was not used for walking, ex- cept perhaps occasionally, and imperfectly. The right and left anterior feet that made the tracks were placed almost invariably | nearly abreast of each other, as if the animal were resting, a not in alternation as in walking. But of more than forty steps of Anomeepus intermedius, shown on the remarkable slab described in this paper, the fore-feet show themselves only twice, and th when the animal rested. Indeed, we may safely assume that the principal object of the fore-feet was not locomotion, and the © same remark is applicable to other species, even the gigantic — Otozoum. What other purpose in the economy of these animals — eould have been subserved by such a structure, except perhaps . snare prehension, 1 will not attempt to decide. Yet the fact has awakened an inquiry whether such a structure may not have — existed in an animal whose predominant characteristies were fore the discovery of the fossil at Solenhofen. But that animal had a tail six inches long with twenty vertebra, and yet the ogists i Sock The ch: a] haracters of “ markings on stone and the tail Pe Eee oe eee E.. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. 58 have three distinct phases. The largest species left a heart-sha indentation, which was repeated every few inches. Would not such impressions be just what we might expect if this animal had such a short ees tail as the Archeopteryx? And does it not suggest one of the uses of such a tail, viz: to furnish the animal with a sort of third hind-foot to help sustain it while it might use ~ fore-feet perhaps for seizing upon objects above aud aroun The tail of the Anomepus intermedius, although rarely leaving an impression, did sometimes dra along and continuous trail. This would indicate greater length and perhaps tenuity. But how much of attenuation and elongation might be consistent with an ornithic type we have no means of knowing. Prof. Dana speaks of a posterior elongation of the body as “con- nected profoundly with inferiority of grade in the different types of animal life,” and says, that “it is the very one of all abnor- mal features to be looked for in the early birds Upon the whole the singular markings of the tail upon stone, with the exception perhaps of A. intermedius, do really suggest a curious coincidence between the the caudal. extremity of this ee _ that of the Archeopteryx. s I had reached this point in my conclusions, a renee Han ete awaited me. In examining some new specimens, a singular trail showed itself eg one which I had never elias noticed; or if I had seen it, I had not connected it with the tracks, but considered it among those inexplicable markings due perhaps to water and wind, which so frequently puzzle the stu- dent of ichnology. But in this case there is a series of some six or seven rather flat and broad grooves, each one or two tenths of an inch wide, and the whole forming a trail more than an inch wide, running across the entire specimen, ssing over one very distinct three-toed narrow-toed track, which is half an inch deep, and the grooves show themselves on opposite sides of the wih mark, certainly two thirds of its depth, appearing as if som flipper-like appendage had dragged behind the aconas ae of easily conforming itself to the irregularities of the surface, __ The fact, that the marks follow the depression of the track, shows that they were made subsequent to the track, and suggests at once the idea of a broad and singular tail. What a pity it is that there is only one track upon the specimen: but so far as I ean judge, the trail runs in the direction in which the ciareal was movin In these conclusions I should have acquiesced with considera. ble confidence, had I not found, on examining our new specimens, as well as others in the cabinet, that we had quite a number with similar markings, and that the trails in these do not always follow the line of tracks, but are sometimes on one side of it and 54 E. Hiichcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. sometimes on the other; now and then on both sides, and then crossing the line of tracks, so as to seem to have no connection with them. In general, however, it seems as if some flipper-like animal, whose feet are all less than an inch. I have hence been sometimes inclined to believe that the trails were made by some animals swimming along near the bottom, and occasionally striking and grooving it with its flippers or fins. But my more mature conviction is, that they are gonnected with the tracks. But it needs a series of expensive drawings to make the facts fully understood without specimens . But to return to the Anomeepus ; which characters shall we are the most numerous a striking. It may, after all, have been a bird, of so low a e, however, that, even with its skeleton before him, the sa would hesitate where to place it, as in the case of the Arc teryx. 7. This conclusion, to which the facts and reasoning have conducted me, not without remaining doubts, would, ae long since, have appeared very absurd. But, if it could be itted, see what a relief it would ap to difficulties: If the ‘Auctnsepil were a lizard, or marsupial, w must give up that firmly estab- lished law of correlation hints aaale us to distinguish different. classes of animals by the number and order of phalanges; but if it were a bird, that law can still be reckoned upon among the fossil as well as living animals, If a bird, we can see also how it was that it generally walked upon two feet, although it had another tee to be used perhaps for several purposes, but rarely for locomoti 8. If we a presume that the Anomcepus was a bird, it lends strong confirmation to another still more important conclusion, which is, that all the fourteen species of thick-toed bipeds, which I have described in the Jehnology, and in this paper, were birds. In case, if we can retain the law as to the phalanges, all the 2 6 4 of the animal, as made known by their tracks, belong — to with little variation from the existing bird type. They is unquesti eS ‘Since they are the most abundant cks Ih vi nds of them, and had fore © | am seare they 0 would occasionally have left some yey se Sa ee ee ieee ey ee eS ee ee ON ee PS ~ E.. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. 55 trace of them, as is the case with every other species of Lithich- nozoa. They had but three toes: at least, if a fourth existed in any case, it must have been articulated so ‘high as not to reach the ground. These three toes are articulated to a tarso-metatar- sus, as is the case with nearly all tridactyle animals. They had the same number of phalanges as the birds. e impressions left by the cushion beneath those processes of the tarso-metatarsus which form the heel correspond to those which living birds would make, and, so far as I have examined, not to those of any other class of animals, though my examina- tions on this point have been few. The claws and papille agree essentially with those of birds. Finally, the great length of stride in some cases, and the position of the tracks nearly on a ies line, sera long legs of wading birds, and not any other ind of a Most of me arguments are good for the ornithic origin of these tracks, whatever opinion we may entertain as to the Ano- moepus. The only difference is, that, if we regard it as a reptile, the argument from the number ‘of phalanges must be given up; if as a bird, that strong evidence is retained. But even without this, I cannot hesitate to reckon the biped thick-toed Lithiehno- zoa as birds; for I see no characters in their tracks that ally them to any other animals. I must consider them not only as birds, but as forming a quite perfect type of birds for sandstone days. The analogies taught us by paleontology (see Prof. Dana’s appended letter) would lead us to expect also in the same peri a lower group of birds, and these may have been the Archxop- nye and perhaps the Anomcepus, with some other genera of Sag which I might name, How then could I avoid the conelusion that these animals were birds? Doubtless with some peculiarities of structure, brin ve them into the “ comprehensive types of Daa but still ever maintain the avian’ character of dies animals. It is cer- tainly gratifying even isd seem to touch soundings, after having e sea of difficulty, and I cannot but hope that subsequent paseaahies will show that we have not cast anchor ey in quicksand. tews.— Having occasion while engaged in the investigations ‘Setalled | in the preceding paper to write a letter on business to Prof. J. D. Dana, [ mentioned some of the results to * A new and much needed word used by Professor Richard Owen ina recent venture to introduce into print. ’ letter, and which I 56 E. Hitchcock on Fossil Footmarks of the Connecticut Valley. which my mind was coming. His reply hae too much good reasoning and important suggestions to be and I venture, without his leave, but trusting he will wastiae ei to annex his remarks to this paper. ‘* New Haven, Feb. 7th, 1863. My Dear Sir :—Your new results from recent researches amon the necks of the Connecticut valley are of great interest, me should be glad to put your conclusions, when you are ready with on, in the J ournal, I am satisfied that we cannot infer the Ctenoids an T Brciide— —the Marsupial from iat Mammals —and Amphibians (or Batrachians) from true Reptiles. You normal sick related to the class next below. This ret 80; 4 wide ve of form in the abnormal group are to : looked for Cryptogams, that is, the Acrogens, of which the Fern is the typit cal group, (2) the lowest Pheenogams, the Conifers, and (3) inter- mediate (or comprehensive) types in each class, Lep idodendra of the Lycopodium tribe, a type coniferous in habit, wae Sigillarie — of the Phzenogams, also intermediate between Conifers (in the Gymnosperms) and the Lepidodendra. By such an a the flora was rendered remarkably harmonious. Had the pro- ess of life consisted in an advance of Cryptogams to Vo ong with the introduction of Conifers, it would have been far aa n, (1 1) the gm fishes (Ganoids), @) and dic sb ke ian Betas (Ma Eosaurus) made up a harm assemblage of animal Me si the Carboulleren age. Ags sw semi-oviparous ours (Marsupials) along with oviparous Reptiles, &c., were in harmony with one another; and if true non-marsuy IL inesivores Ea eracal sine, yas ll ic barns the seers wore mainly Insec oreover the r were. pf she tighee. development of the Mane F. Mahila on Hydrastine. | | 57 malian class. Now, if, along with the semi-oviparous Mammals and swimming, crawlin; g, and flying Reptiles, there were Reptilian Birds, waders and others, the harmony would be only the more complet e. The presence of the same number of phalanges in birds and reptiles would be not at all improbable—certainly no basis for an argument against the bir In pea business letter of Feb. 14th, I find the followin “The strongest argument for the ornithic a of the feathered fossils are, (1) that the animal had feathers: for the idea that they were not true feathers is a mere oupposiiide without ‘any facts ~ sustain it: (2.) That the expanse of the wing was made by feathers on a short arm, and not as in the Pterodactyl by an expanse of the skin supported by an elongated finger. The structure of the foot in the Pterodactyl also shows that the animal had no close relation to the Birds. The world will have finally to settle down to the belief that there were Reptilian Birds in ancient times, as well as Ichthyoid Reptiles and Odéticoid Mammals. This is my strong persuasion.’ Amherst, Mass., May, 1863. Correction for part of edition—On the precedin e, in the last paragraph, after (2), the i 5 seeckindie asole be leveled. wiht z _ Arr. VILL—On Hydrastine; by F. Mana, Ph.D., Chicago, IIL. HYDRASTINE was detected by Durand, in Philadelphia, as early as 1851, who noticed its alkali ine nature, but did not succeed in aes it from this plant in pan mae and Sacnia some ft not itatitute an elementary ped 6) At thet ime of Mr. Perrins’ oP T had, prompt Fh to the liquid from whi the berbariie has bees previ- oualy separated by an addition of chlorhydric acid. The cipitate, obtained “ander these circumstances, is collected on a ico filte t, freed by expression from water, and mixed with strong elect in which it easily disses by application of heat. On t epolings the hydrastine crystallizes adi ily, and may be pu- Scr.—Sxconp Sextes, VoL. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juty, 1863. * 58 FI’, Mahla on Hydrastine. rified from adhering coloring pvr: by redissolving and recrys tallizing it several times with ale Hydrastine erystallizes in sortie which belong to the right prismatic system. ‘They are combinations of the longitudinal ‘with the vertical prism, in which the planes of the first men- tioned form are prevailing. It is perfectly white, and its crystals exhibit great brilliancy. Hydrastine in the pure state is taste- less; its salts, however, have a ee heating, acrid taste. It melts like a resin, when heated to 135° C.; it — ata aa alcohol st in ether. It is not affected a a dilute silatiog of caustic potassa, even if boiled with it for a prolonged aici: Concentrated nitric acid does not at first act on it, but disso. it afterwards with a red color Hydrastine dissolves in cold concentrated sulphuric acid, and annette io it a yellowish tint; this mixture when slightly armed, assumes a red color; bichromate of potassa produces with it a dark brown coloration, which is distinct, however, from the strychnia reaction, in as far as it does not show any blue or violet shades. It dissolves oe in diluted hydrochloric acid; ammonia and caustic potassa uce in this solution white precipitates, which ~ insoluble i Or an excess of the reagent; ferrocyanid iodid of potassium generate also white deposits ; ; iodine dissolved — in asolution of iodid of potassium produces a cinnamon brown precipitate, which, when heated with the liquid in which it is suspended, contracts readily to a resinous mass. Bichlorid of platinum precipitates the solution of riparia dl j hydrastine with a yellowish red, chromate of potassa with a yel- — low, color. This latter precipitate dissolves when heated with the liquid, in which it is suspended, but separates again on cool- ing; before mrad hee , it assumes, in the liquid, the eS | of a \ melted res In order to subject the hydrastine to an it was desiccated at a Hemperature of 100° C. ey it seabed io diminish i in wei The analysis itself yielded the following results : : Ne -0°5013 by es | es with oxyd of ve 11-2260 Ab and. = Pia ai ga ( water. EK Mahla on Hydrastine. 59 IL. 0:5085 hydrastine, burned with oxyd of copper, gave 12377 cig acid, and 0°2608 wa Ill. 04469 Siti sa = io = - ba 12 -! - - - 1 20 The full Moon, - .- - - + 8,000 The Sun - : - = _-1,200,000 Epa anally een ran under such a reduction ; which pe Ted me to believe that iti Pia ee Be Ay wet ee ee, eee (i RS a a tice Rete | meal ie ate lt eg As Dial ie re aE ge oy ill oe” ee a i A, Clark on the Sun and Stars photometrically compared. 5 the limit at which the naked human eye could ever perceive this great luminary. I have an under-ground, dark chamber, 230 feet in length, one end terminating in the cellar of my work-shop, and the other communicating with the surface of the ground by a verti- cal opening, one foot square, and five feet'deep. In a moveable partition, between this opening and the end of the chamber, a lens of such focal distance as I choose can be inserted. A twen- tieth of an inch focus I have employed, of the best finish possi- te its flat side cemented to one face of a prism with Canada alsam, No light whatever can enter the dark chamber, except through this little lens. A common, plane, silvered, glass mirror, placed above-ground, over the vertical opening, receives the direct rays from the sun, and sends them down into the prism o total re- flexion, by which they are directed through the little lens into the chamber. _ An observer, in the cellar, 230 feet distant, sees the sun re- duced 55,200 times; and its light, in amount, varies but little from that of Sirius. Upon a little car, moveable in either direction, by cords and a pulley, is* mounted another lens, with a focal distance of six inches, The eye of the observer is brought into a line with the lenses, or so near it, that he sees the light through the six inch lens; then, by the cord, he sends the car into the chamber, to the greatest distance at which he can see the light, like that from a star of the sixth or seventh magnitude. . At noon, March 19th, with a perfectly clear sky, I found the sun visible through the six inch lens, when it was removed to e distance of 12 feet from the eye. The distance between the lenses being 218 feet, the reduction by the small lens, if viewed from the point occupied by the six inch lens, would be 52,320 times; and that again by the six inch, distant from the eye 12 cet, or 24 times its focal distance, is reduced 23 times; the total reduction 1,203,360 times. - ; 7 mes now an important matter to ascertain as nearly as Possible the proportion of light lost, by and through the media _ above described; the looking-glass, the prism, and two lenses ; though joining the little lens with balsam to the prism, it may __ be regarded as one piece. | minimum visibile, does not exceed one-eighth part of the entire , and could not reach one-seventh, when the prism and 78 eee! k is tne than unity, we see that the specific heat of a gramme of air, and generally of any gas wha’ , will increase when the clatie fore, p, becomes In the above, ¢ represents the specific heat under constant pressure. ce’ “ “ sc volume. is the pressure. " ‘ with barometer at 29°92 in. — and be 5 and assumed =1-3750. cay specific heat,” and makes no mention of “latent heat” in looking this a and i ge writ to even o t misquot and assum: er seems Me ee i ve girs 4 ~~ heat” might be trea of ith the increase of is _ altogether too trifling to sr a the ae of an tion of the ie pheoherena te uest ao E at that hei nt leg ape stated is 589680 degrees. f tical dedue which has been ay ake agra pepsi erroneous by the sepermects of Berane’ who has shown the spec the same for all ; so that the explanation as it ce tied be entirely without gaadee an pub et -tapons Szrres, Vor. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juy, 1863. 98 B. V. Marsh on the Luminosity of Meteors. | If, as above maintained, the observed splendor is not due to _ the cenereians of the meteoric bodies themselves, but to thatof — mere envelopes of air, brought to the most intense degree of in- : candescence by the development of their latent heat, it is evident, that, inasmuch as this heat is nearly constant for all considerable heights, the most splendid results must be developed in the rarest fe ace of the atmosphere, because there the mass of the air to acted upon by ibis. fixed amount of heat is least; and thatas a poin be reached where the mass is so great that ‘lon, womans will “fall short of that required to produce in- candescence, and all luminosity must instantly cease. Theme — teor will then have ‘entered a medium whi ch has not the een ments necessary to its continued brilliancy.” The table shows that at the height of 10} miles, with the assumed degree of condensation, ve intensity ; will not pepe one thousand degrees, even without making any allowance for — the portion of heat which must pa eon be absorbed by the _ meteor itself. Luminosity must therefore cease above this limit, and the meteor must perform the remainder of its journey to a a pi as a dark body, unless the velocity be such as to pro duce uch greater condensation. The daylight meteor of a Hoveaier 15, 1859, owing to its amazing velocity, passed this limit, disappearing at the height of only six or eight miles with: out any perceptible diminution of velocity, but this is believ to be a rare instance. Whilst the luminous track of those meteors which have their g power and very @ Bra ase eat rh first eatedug the atmosphere abs so large a a portion o of the whole heat d as to prev of luminosity until a very considerable Proceedings of Learned Societies. 99 _ of air had been traversed. On the other hand, we have in the great daylight meteor of 1859 an example of the effects of the most extreme velocity—probably, between fifty ae : hundred miles per second. is body became visible at a probable height of near two hundred miles, and oxi: a brilliancy almost if not quite equal to that of the sun, being a conspicuous object to persons who were more than two undred miles from the nearest point in its path, i maintained its tomiacniey until within a few miles of the ea Philadelphia, May 23, 1863, Art. XIV.—Proceedings of Learned Societies.— Foreign. I, Royax Institution or Great Brirain.—Friday, Jan. 23, 1863. 1. On Radiation through the Earth's Atmosphere ; ; by Jonn Tynpatt, Esq., F.R.S., Professor of "Nat. Phil., Roy. Inst.—-Nobody ever obtained the idea of a line from Euclid’s definition that it is length te breadth. process o stecmcaos more avs into accordance with the conditions of the atten So also with regard to physical phenomena; we must help ourselves to a conception of the invisible by means of proper images — derived aes the —. afterwards purifying our conceptions to the need- ful extent. Definiteness of co nceptions, even though at some eapenies to _ term radiation. It is well known that our edineent se is Palit com- posed of the two elements, oxygen and nitrogen. These elementary _ atoms may be figured as small spheres beaters thickly in the space : per acid, of amm onia, an and of s vapor. In these substances _ diverse atoms have coalesced to form li aod a of atonis. The mole- _ cule of aqueous vapor, for example, consists of two atoms of hydrogen _ United to one of oxygen; and they east as little triads ae the _ monads of oxygen and nitrogen, which constitute the great mass of the 5 itiosephare _ These atoms and molecules are separate; but in what sense? They te from each other in the sense in which the individual fishes are separate. The shoal of fish is embraced by a common which connects the different ininbield of the shoal, and renders ell 100 Proceedings of Learned Societies. intercommunication between them possible, A — ” embraces our atoms; within our atmosphere exists a second, ner, atmo- phere, in whieh wg atoms of oxygen and nitrogen bang lke a queous vapor was defined to be an invisible gas. Vapor was per- mitted to issue horizontally ae erp ure force from a tube connected with a small boiler. The of the of condensed steam was vividly illuminated by the oe light. “What was seen, however, Was not vapor, but vapor condensed to water. Beyond the visible end of the jet the cloud resolved itself into true vapor. A lamp was placed under — the jet at various points; the cloud was cut sharply off at that point, and when the flame was placed near the efflux orifice the cloud entirely | dis is same vapo vessel containing a freezing mixture, from which it was scraped in quat- — tities sufficient to form a small s nawball, The beam of the electric Tamp, : moreover, was sent through a large receiver placed on an air-pump. single stroke of the pump caused the recipitation of the aqueous vapor within, which became beautifully illuminated by the beam; while, upon a screen behind, a richly-colored halo, due to diffraction by the lit tle cloud within the receiver, flashed forth. e waves of heat t speed ist G3 Bey earth a ab our snag i) ig fe) ot 2} =r oOo > 5 ej 8 eo Bo &, 3 SB ys s 2 @ a ces a : Sak e a] = is) 3 a. e+ 2 § as these are, we might saneraie think ste of them as sta to nas wave e ht i meee t spaces between the vapor molecules would be an open door for the sage of the undulations; and that if those waves were igs all int it would be by the substances which form 994 per cent of ree: speaker that this small modicum of aqueous vapor intercepted fifteet with was not perfectly pure, and that the purer the air became the mor it approached the character of a vacuum, and the ey by comp the action of the aqueous vapor. The vapor w 0 with 80, 40, 50, 60, 70 times the energy of the air in oki it sed; and no doubt was entertained that the aqueous vapor of ; f 3 é J. Tyndall on Atmospheric Radiation. 101 air which filled the Royal — theatre, during the delivery of the discourse, absorbed 90 or 100 times the quantity of piss heat which was absorbed by the main body of the air of the roo Looking at the single atoms, for every 200 of onyget and nitrogen there is about 1 of aqueous vapor. s 1, then, is 80 times more ache erful than the 200; and hence, sigan a single atom of oxygen o nitrogen with a single atom of aqueous vapor , we may infer that the action of the latter is 16, 000 times that of the form er. This was a very n testing it to the uttermost. From such opposition, a discovery, if it be name, emerges with its fibre strengthened; as the human vee gathers force iin the healthy .antagonisms of active life. It as urged, that the result was on the face of it improbable; that there te moreover, many ways of accounting for it, without ascribing so ous a comparative action to aqueous vapor. For example, the surface of a plate of les eee, and it is well known abot brine is very plate upon a screen, the a breathed through a tub for a moment on the salt; brilliant colors of thin plates (soap-bubble colors) flashed forth immediately upon the screen—these being caused by the film of formed when undried air is sent into the cylinder; it was, therefore, the absorption of a layer of brine which was measured, instead of he “oe of salt when pets to ictest examination show sage of a film of moisture. Secondly, s abolishing the plates of . alto- gether, and obtaining the same results in a cylinder open at ends, ari and the sea-beach near Black Gang Chine. @ aqueous vapor of the air from — localities intercepted at least seventy times me amount of radiant € radiation, The - pet pieaies a wags —You permit molt 102 Proceedings of Learned Societies. A air to enter your cylinder; a portion of this moisture is condensed as a | liquid film upon the interior surface of your tube; its reflective power is thereby diminished; less heat therefore reaches the pile, and you — incorrectly ascribe to the absorption of aqueous vapor an effect which is really due to diminished reflection of the interior surface o' 70 ' cylinder. five inches produce their proportionate absorption. The driest day, om the driest portion of the earth’s surface, would make no ap roach to proportional to the quantity of vapor present. It is next toa phy impossibility that this could be the case if the effect were due to co densation. But lest a doubt should linger in the mind, not only bee a the plates of rocksalt abolished, but the cylinder itself was dispensed with. Humid air was displaced by dry, and dry air by humid in the free atmo ere ; the absorption of the aqueous vapor was here manifest, as in all ; | | 3 a No pets therefore, can exist of the extraordinary opacity of this substance to the rays of obscure heat; and particularly — — as are emitted by the earth after it has been wavhe rmed by the sun perfectly — nope that more than ten per cent of the terrestrial aan from : ; / say scovered peoerty of sen vapors must exert on the pheno- . mena = seo ogy. : fast. in the iron grip of frost. The aqueous vapor pana a - local dam, by which the temperature at the ori surface is dee pice the dam, _— finally overflows, and we give to space all that we receive from the sun. by their levity, —. have penetrated the vapor screen, which lies close to the earth’s surface, what must occur? : of aqueous vapor is 16,000 times that of air. Now | we fo abnor aud the power trad are perfectly reciprocal and pro- _ portion The atom of aqueous’ vapor will st radiate W 0 times the energy of a an atom of air. Imagine then this W. A. Miller on Photographic Transparency, etc. 103 ful radiant in the presence of space, and with no screen above it check its radiation. Into space it pours its heat, chills itself, conder and the tropical torrents are the consequence. The expansion of the air, no doubt, also refrigerates it; but in accounting for those deluges, the chilling of the vapor by its own radiation must play a most import- ant part. The rain quits “the ocean as vapor ; it returns to it as water, wasted = radiation —_ apap Similar remarks rhe to the cnanh of our latitudes. The warmed air, charged with — rises in columns, 50 as to penetrate the wan screen whic ugs earth; in the pres- ence of space, the head of each pillar wastes it heat by radiation, con- denses to a cumulus, ne constitutes the visible capital of an invisible column of saturate mbe e unendurable ; in Sahara the dryness of the air is sometimes such, that though during the day “ the soil is fire and the wind is flame,” the chill at night is painful to bear. In Australia, also, the thermometric range is enormous, on account of the absence of this qualifying agent. A clear day, and a dry day, moreover, are very different things. The atmosphere may possess great visual clearness, while it is charged with aqueous vapor, and on such occasions great chilling cannot occur by terrestrial radiation. Sir John Leslie and others have been perplexed ise different metals were in a saad degree imilan if not ‘detical, Sub- sequent investigations have, however, shown him that the absorbent ef- fects of the bisulphid upon the chemical rays are so great, that the con- clusions then drawn from observations made by this sh medium tion. Notwithstanding the great length of the chemical spectra obtained by the aid of the bisulphid, not more _ than one-sixth or or one-seventh of the true extent of the spectrum produced q by the electric spark betwe is procured, as may shown 104 Proceedings of Learned Societies. by comparing the spectrum with one of the same metal furnished by the use of a lens and prism of rock-crystal. ceiaabiestal, however, possesses but a comparatively small refit and dispersive power, whilst it almost always affords some trace o ble refraction in one portion or other of the spectrum procured by its means. to a description of the electric spectra of some of the more im nee tary bodies, and the effect of varying the gaseous media in — may The —— these spectra are made to originate. n the ta action of the different media, the source of light em- upon was the electric spark obtained between two metallic wires (gem erally of fine silver), connected with the terminals of the secondary wires m was received upon a collodion Alin coated: with :iodid: of “—_ this supported in the frame of a camera, and after an exposure, general} lasting for five minutes, the i ~—” was developed by means of pyr acid, and fixed with cyanid of potassium. The general results of these experiments were as follows : 1. Colorless bodies, which are equally — to the y vinibhe my = greatly in permeability to the chemical es which are photographically eaneparent; in the solid frm, "eit their transparency in the liquid and in the gaseous states. 3. Colorless transparent solids, which exert a considerable hotographia absorpti mee preserve their oe _ with greater onl both in the liquid and the gaseous Whether the compound is Hiquefied by by heat or dissolved in water, these usions respecting liquids are equally true. The perfect t permeability of water to the chemical rays, conjoined with the circumstance that in no instance does the process of solution seem to interfere with the special ac- tion upon the incident rays of the substance dissolved, renders coll practica- vi j | aki nat bs ple yy rial. lass, crown, hard white Bohemian, plate-glass, ‘window-sheet, and : Se tedh wide thin arson the spectrum W. A. Miller on Photographic Transparency, etc. 105 from three-fifths to four-fifths or even more of its length. Mica produ- ces a similar effect. Indeed, the only substance which the author found could be employed with advantage i is rock-erystal cut into thin slices and om isbed. The value of this material in researches upon the more refrangi- I querel several years a In order to hold the liquids for experiment, a small trough was prepared by cutting a notch ina thick plate of plate- glass, the sides being completed by means of thin plates of quartz, which were pressed against the ground surfaces of the plate-glass by the aid of elastic bands of caoutchouc; a a of liquid of 0°75 inch in depth was thus obtained for each experim The substances which, after assume air and certain other ; are most perfectly diactinic, are rock-crystal, ice, as well as pure water, and white fluor-spar. Rock-salt is scarcely inferior to them, if at all. Then follow various sulphates, including those of baryta, and the hydra- ted sulphates of lime and magnesia, as well as those of the alkalies. The carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline earths, as also the phosphates, ar- seniates, and borates, are likewise tolerably transparent, though satura solutions of phosphoric and arsenic acids exerted considerable absorbent power; so also did those of the alkalies, potash, and soda, possibly from the presence of a trace of some foreign coloring matter, as those quid had an extremely faint greenish tinge. soluble fluorids, as well as the chlorids and bromids of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths, are freely diactinic, but the iodids are much Jess so, and exhibit certain ae All the a acids and their salts which were tried by the author exerted a marke rbent however, much more difficult to obtain organic compounds in a state of purity sufficient to furnish trustworthy results, than is the case with the salts of the inorganic acids. The author, therefore, expresses himself with more reserve upon some of setae organic bodies, Pees the acetates, than in other cases. The different varieties of sugar freely diactinic. : Amongst the salts of i inorganic acids, the nitrates are the — remark- able for their power of arresting the chemical rays. A solution of each of these salts, in all the instances tried, cut off all the more ‘sabeatigible rays, and reine the spectrum to loss than a sixth of its ordinary length. The chlorates, ss do not participate in this absorptive saree to nearly the same Although the mire ray asa lass, are largely srvenne’ = ~~ are much less so; and the hyposulphites cut off about the length of the spectrum, Eoriet only the less re age. meer eighteen different liquids tried by the author, two only can be re- garded as tolerably diactinic, viz: water, which is eminently so, and abso- hol, —— however, exhibits a considerable falling: off The tie wh hich fol —— in the order of their chemical trans- most trans t being mentioned first :— Dutch liquid, PPO ites ether; then eae on distilled glycerin, which b dir but Am. Joun. Bok—-Racox Ssrizs, Vou. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juxy, 1 14 106 Proceedings of Learned Societies. little; then fusel oil, wood-spirit, and oxalic ether, which are also nearly alike ; acetic acid, oil of turpentine, glycol, carbolic acid, liquid eps boiling at 360° F., and bisulphid of carbon. Finally, tereblorid and oxy- chlorid of phosphorus, although saifeatly colorless and limpid, arrest all the chemical ra The experiments upon aeriform bodies yielded important results ; they : mah but little coincidence with those of Tyndall on the absorptive power — the gases for radiant heat. These experiments were made by interpo- — ee in the track of the ray between the vertical slit and the quartz prism, : a brass tube two feet pee closed at each end air-tight by means of a — plate of quartz. Each or vapor in succession was introduced into the — tube, and the results Siaapaeed with those ae by causing the rays — to traverse the tube when filled with atmospheric mongst the colorless pases, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, oT : This absorbent action of these compounds of sulphur and phosphorus is very striking. appears to owe its remarkable power of arresting the — a column of atmospheric air two feet long, exerts a still more power? absorbent effect than coal-gas. n the other hand, the effect of a similar arrangement, in which pupae of ether, of chloroform, and of oil of turpentine was onlay for that of benzol, gave effects which, though perceptible, were muc marked. An arbitrary scale is laid down, by which a comparative es mate of the absorptive power of each compound, whether solid, tuted a series of ex periments, in which a part metallic specul stituted for the lens of rock-crys stal; but the loss of chemical pore the reflected rays was so considerable, _ this loss occurred so un at different points, that the method was abandoned. The reenlt of the RIE a action — light palleched! at an angle of 45° from the pol ished surface of several of the principal metals is given. The reflection from god, although He very intense, was found to be more uniform an that from any other metal that was tried. Burnished leat io deficient in some portions of the less refrangible rays, althou; fe in me ar ae the Fedention:s is = perfect, — for rays Pe SE Nee AE 8 See ee Penis A oe cn ia OG ‘ i a ee Oe MING ee Fa SR ee oy ee TTS Ree ae ae W. A, Miller on Electric Spectra of the Metals. 107 es. ranging a quartz-train in the manner already described. Among the elements so examined are the following :— Platinum, Arsenic, Copper, Palladium, Tellurium, Aluminum, ; Tungsten, Cadmium, Silver, Molybdenum, Zine, Mercury, Chromium, Magnesium, Lead, Manganese, Sodium, Tin, ron, Potassium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Graphite, and Antimony, Nickel, i Gas-coke. The commencement of each spectrum in. its less refrangible portion is similar in nearly all cases; and, as it is this portion only which is trans- missible through bisulphid of carbon, this circumstance explains the sim- ilarity of all the spectra procured by the author from different metals in his earlier experiments, already laid before the British Association. the more refrangible parts of the spectrum, great and characteristic differ- ences between the results obtained with the different metals are at once manifest. In some cases, as in those greatly prolonged in the more refrangible extremity, whilst the intense es. It will be observed, on examining the photographs of these spectra of the various metals, that the impressions, particularly in the more re- frangible portions, consist of a double row of dots, running parallel with the length of the spectrum, and forming the terminations of lines than lines themselves, as though the intense ignition of the detached par- ticles of metal, necessary to furnish rays capable of exciting chemical action, had ceased before the transfer of these particles to the opposite electrode had been completed. If each electrode be composed of a different metal, the spectrum of each metal is impressed separately upon the plate, as is evident on exam- ae the photographs. hen Pitti ans exaployed as electrodes, the spectrum exhibited is that 108 Proceedings of Learned Societies. due to both the metals; but if the metals made use of are approxima — pares the spectrum is hardly to be distinguished from that of the e metal. In the case when alloys are used as electrodes, it is not al- the more volatile metal which impresses its spectrum most strongly, thongh an alloy of three parts of gold and one of on gave a spectrum in which the lines due to silver predomina The author then proceeds to describe a number of experiments upon the anima of sparks between aleetroiles of different metals in a — uthor esti od that many of these gases, such as protoxyd eer greiat ae a and sulphurous acid, presented a considerable ob- to the passage of the sparks from the induction-coil, higher refrangibility, which were quite intercepted by glass, but that quartz transmitted these rays freely, Aonontings he was led to procure prisms and a lens of quartz, which, when applied to the examination ¢ ieee aic are, or of the dischar. rge of a Leyden jar, by fora ubstance, re as the visible spectrum. This long spectrum, as formed iehags arc with copper electrodes, was exhibited at a lecture given 3 Royal Institution i in 1853; but, the Athan, for reasons he alien rays ae to! saaiapelialy ox: dated As the bright aluminum lines 2 ‘high refrangi Sabet do not appear to have been by photography, § S. Haughton on the Reflection of Polarized Light, etc. 109 drawing of the aluminum spectrum is given, with zinc and cadmium r com sar eabe The author has also described and figured the mode of absorption of the invisible, rays “4 Pa aT of various alkaloids and glucosides. Bodies of these classes, inds, are usually intensely opaque, acting on the invisible spectrum with an Sater comparable to that with which col- ering matters act on the visible. This intensity of action causes the ect of minute impurities to disappear, and thereby increases the value of the characters observed. It very often happens that, at some pe or other of the oe spectrum, a band of absorption, or maximum o city, occurs; and the position of this ae, haces a highly distinctive 3 ter of the substance which produc Among natural igo Masia ‘i previously known yellow uranite, the author found that in adularia, and feldspar ge ggte, a strong fluo- rescence is produced ath the action of the rays of high refrangibility, referable not to impurities, but to the essential constituents of the crystal, particular variety of fluor-spar shows also an interesting feature, though in this case referable to an impurity, exhibiting a well-marked reddish fluorescence under the exclusive influence of rays of be. very highest refrangibility. This property renders such a crystal a useful instrument research. With some metals broad, slightly convex electrodes were found to have @ great advantage over — exhibiting the invisible lines far more strongly, while with some metals the difference was not he blue negative light rane when the jar is removed and the ectrodes are close together, was found to be ch in invisible rays, especially — rays of moderate refrangibility. These exhibited lines independent of the electrodes, and therefore referable to the air. This blue light ‘i a very sas jaca and is formed by what the — calls an are dise r concludes with some speculations as to the cause of the superiority of broad electrodes, and of the heating of the negative a On the Reflexion of Polarized Light on Polished Surfaces ; by the Rev. Samvet Haveston.—When a plane-polarized beam of light is in- “cg on a polished surface at a certain angle of incidence, and polarized certain azimuth, the reflected beam of light is circularly polarized. “The ween of this angle of incidence is called by the author the Coefficient of Refraction, and upon it appears to depend the brilliancy ofa olschod surface, seg of the azimuth of incident polarization is called the Coefficient of Reflexion, and upon it appears to depend the rich dustre, strikingly exhibited in polished copper an The per contains an account of the experiments made to a with precision, these constants for the following substances :— A. Transparent Bodies. oo ee pe ass gee Munich glass . Glass o timony. 3. Pari (°). 6. Quartz crystal. : 110 Proceedings of Learned Societies. B. Pure Metals. 1, Silver. 4. Zine. 2. Gold. 8, Lead. 3. Mercury. 9. saa - Platinum, 10. 5. Palladium. 11. ves and steel, 6. Copper. uminum. C. Alloys. 1. Copper om tin (speculum ones he Copper and zine CC 2. Copper an 10 (2Cu+-Za). 3. (9Cu-+ Zn). i . (Cu-+Zn), —<— = ze «(Cu Zn ). i - + (cua ee ee “ (7Cu+Zn). ._. - “i (oa Ss “ (6Cu-+ Zn). ry ee « (Cu44Zn), eae: . eg 16; 3° “ (Cu+5Zn), 8 ' “ (4Cu-+-Zn). The determination of the optical constants of these substances leads to many interesting conclusions; among which the following may be — stated :— 1. That Transparent bodies, as well as metals, possess a coefficient of reflexion, which is aleamag very sensible, although there are bodies in = it is very sm oy at Silver is ie only substance which possesses the qualities of brillia Shiieg and lustre, represeni> ted by the coefficients of refraction and sega rar in a high de, . Of the metals wei have high “soe and little Zustre may be a Mercury, Palladium, Zine, and 4, Of the metals which have high Ietied and little brilliancy there are only two, Gold and C 5. Results of the highest interest appear from an examination of the optical constants of the alloys of copper and zinc, which cannot be “a in an a 6. In the details of the several experiments, the author calls a to several remarkable laws, or indications of laws, which appear to oy to — some notice from theorists Z the azimuth of the incident beam is less than the eireulat Hat, the axis major of the reflected ellipse, at the principal incid lies in the plane of incidence; but when the azimuth is greater than ts circular limit, it is perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and as the incidence varies, the axis major twice approaches to a minimum distance from lan prane. . b. There appears to the author to be some indication in the expat ments on metals, that the quantity known to theorists as (;) is not function of the ——s only; a conclusion which, i Laeger — the intervention of a nt Ailey e suppressed, or eeeuice® ion, to account for Scientific Intelligence. 111 “SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, PHYSICS. 1. Gemsbart Electroscope.—Prof. Kopett made an interesting com- munication to the mathematico-physical class of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, in their session of Jan. 10th, 1863, on the electroscopie prop- erties of the so-called “ Gemsbart,” a name given by the Alpine hunters to the long hairs which grow along the back of the male Chamois in the au- tumn of the year, and are well known as the trophies with which the Ty- rolese hunter decorates his hat. These hairs from a four years’ buck reach d more, are very fine and generally terminate in a white point. If several are taken together by the root and stripped through the fingers, they repel each other to a great distance; if held by the points and rubbed towards the roots, a similar but weaker effect is electric. If both are attracted, the body is either non-electric, or a good conductor, in which latter case it must be insulated. To determine the examine it with the stronger + indicator, which has to be drawn through the fingers from time to time. By this method the poles of small crystals of boracite, thin needles of scolezite, calamine and Brazilian topaz were easily determined, small crystals generally giving a more constant and decisive reaction than larger ones. Highly electric crystals, as those of tourmaline, often show the poles plainly, even after they have become perfectly cool externally.. For their examination it is most convenient to attach the hair in the middle with wax to a Hauy’s needle, and at right angles to the same, and then in the aforesaid manner to excite the opposite electricities in the two ends, when the brass needle is immediately set in motion upon the approach of the electric tourmaline, and the poles can be distinctly shown by alternate repulsion and attraction. > € two-fold electricity of such a hair is evidently connected with its re, for it is smooth from root to point, and feels rough in the opposite direction. This is corroborated by the fact, that, if a hair by frequent use has been made smooth in the latter direction, it changes ___ its negative electric character into the positive. This occurs after about _ ne hundred experiments, when it can no longer be used as an — indicator. _ Prof. Bischof, who examined the hairs with the microscope, states that __ they have a highly developed epithelium, while the fibrous cortical sub- __ Stance is subordinate, and is almost entirely wanting towards the lower __ Part, where it is replaced by the epithelium. The cortical fibres, as usual, 112 Scientific Intelligence. q contain the pigment. They are distinguished by the large proportion of pith, which begins a short distance from the point and very soon constit tutes almost the entire thickness of the hair. The pith consists of large polygonal cells. Thus the opposite electrical state of the two ends may possibly be caused by the prevalence of the cortical fibre in the upper and of the pithy substance in the lower part, this pith being filled with air ce.ls. rof. Kobell considers a closer ey of ee — prope . _ erystals, induced by friction, very des rable ; he nds deer-skin stretched over a wooden eats asa a im ie xe = latter with other fibre. Employing this rabber, (and in case of thin laminz, as those of mica, merely the dry fingers,) and soe examining the electricity with the “ Gemsbart,” he has made the following electrical groups of minerals: I Groupe. Good insulators When rubbed attract the indicator. ; i De. Electro-positive insulators repel th indicator : Calcite, aragonite, fluor, barytes, Ais rite, gypsum, anhydrite, oii quartz, topaz, emerald, grossular, idocrase, kyanite, orthoclase, albite, to a maline, axinite, zircon, muscovite (Grafton, N. H.), spinel, alum, wa i. t, ete. oo 2. Ey, bia ahi, ala insulators i repel the — indicator. oe Tale, sulphur, orpiment, amber, asphaltum. Group. Good conductors. : | Do not attract the serene and are coated by a oaon frags when 7 immersed with a zinc holder lution of sulph. ¢ : : gold, vo Line) pyrites, ibiplaess stiitoopy tite: eobaltin ne, amt i magnet Il ee Bad conductors and bad insulator as compared with Group II. Do not attract the indicator, or only feebly, and are not coated with so, eae if treated as in Group IL ond, celestine, almandine, melanite, biotite and hinge: ride lite any clinochlore, pennine, analcime, sphene, stibnite, hemati linite, zinkenite, jamesonite, chromic iron, red copper, pea et = ganite, psilomelane, hausmannite. To determine the kind of electricity of Groups IT and ITI, the minerals must be insulated; this is readily done by fastening them with wax o® the end of a glass ‘rod of sufficient diameter, taking care e face to be rubbed projects far enough beyond the wax, to prevent ney rubl from coming in contact with the latter. a _ In the examination of small sasiali st it is often convenient to mount them on shape rated insulating them to thes merannen 7 the mi the crystal with Etiek, when Ww fit be - not loose its sey. : cS I eR ka Chemistry. 113 2. Conductibility and specific heat of Thallium—Der 1a compared the conducting power of thallium with that of mercury by the method of Wheatstone. The density of the metal was found to be 11,853 at 11° C., which agrees well with the determination of ion my, namely, 11,862 at 0° ; ; the density of the wire is 11,808. The conducting power of silver being taken as 100, that of mercury is 1°63, and that of thallium 8°64, a value which lies between those for lead and tin, and which is much lower than the corresponding values for the alkaline metals, The specific heat of thallium was found by Regnault to be 003355, as a mean of two experiments. The product of this number by the equiva- lent 204, gives 85°55, half of which is 42°77, so that thallium in its thermic relations is associated with the alkaline metals, and the formula of its protoxyd should be T,O if potash is written K,0,.— Comptes a hy ly, 887 and lvi, 588 Ca a Ser: tr ere Bite were eee oe, PP ee er ere ee Pen a a Pere tee II. CHEMISTRY. O, 4 wo 3+ ag, and the acid in them is not precipitated by stronger acids. The ordinary tungstates contain the insoluble modification of formula 5RO, 1 2WO,. Lotz and Scheibler gave them the oat formula 3RO, 7 “WO, ‘but Marignac is disposed to return to the formula of Sea hy mecha ire ng the compounds, however, as double salts. The author did Javier in Mioiieg fluo-tungstates free from ips ee euseredie 4 id seat this respect with Berzelius, whose results expressed by the panel formula RO, WO,+RF, WFE,. Aecosdide 4 to Marignac, the same two salts combine i in other proportions also, but the most remarkable circumstance is the ps ie of cop CuO, WO,+CuF, WF,, with the fluo-silicate, fluo stannate and fluo- oe of ¢ copper, the last having the formula CUR, TiF,. This “nlp ism becomes intelligible when the formulas are written Cu,W,0?F,, and Cu,Ti,F,, so that it must be admitted that fluorine and oxygen may in certain cases replace each other atom for atom, though not equivalent for equivalent, and further that Berzelius’ mode of viewing the constitu- tion of the salt cannot be correct, since it furnishes no explanation of the oe The silico-tungstates form a new class of salts, and may ral be easily obtained by boiling a solution of an acid tungstate with c Inous silicic acid: they are easily soluble, and usually crystallize well. oe ye Bot.—Szcoxp Surtes, Vor. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juty, 1863. 15 * brilliant, like silver, white with a scarcely perceptible tinge of yellow. In the erucible, — faves a single a As thus prepared, magnesium ¢¢ tains car sen, ag mal the author distil the raw product in tubes of gas-retort 114 Scientific Intelligence. eqs. of tungstic to 1 eq. of silicic acid: the neutral salts contain four equivalents of base, but it is perhaps more proper to double the formulas, ve the neutral salts the general formula 8RO,20W0O,, 2Si0,, in order to include the acid and double salts— Comptes Rendus, a i Ann. der Chemie und Pharm., exxv, 362. 2. On the preparation and properties of metallic rubidium. Ronell : has prepared metallic Ponte by igniting in a proper apparatus the carbonized bitartrate of the oxyd. From 75 grammes of the salt, 5 metal were obtained in a single mass. Rubidium is very the air it oxydizes creed to pam cer ga and takes fire, after @ few minutes, much more easily than pire assium. 10° C, it is still as soft as iron: it melts 8°°5 C., below a as hee} is converted into — a blue vapor with a wade of préen. Riese to Bunsen, the true fusing — — of sodium is 95°6 C., and that of potassium 62°-5 C.; the latter does not pass through an intermibdinte e pasty condition in Fata: The density of Ghiditini is about 1:52. It is considerably more electro-positive than potassium, takes fire upon water and burns with a flame which cannot be — distinguished from that of potassium by the eye. Rubidium burns with brilliancy in chlorine and in the vapor of bromine, iodine, ule and arsenic.—Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, exxv, 367. . G 3. On the preparation and properties of metallic vidipniiced calm See ees Devite and H. Canon have given a description of the ost recent and improved method of preparing magnesium, and of the o rg i= ya ‘oO a) S jo) a8 th Ss ° = Qn j=} a ~O = 8 g. So B 5 Eh So @® 3 Qu oO ™ a 4 3 Es °o 3 ae by fusing together 60 grammes of chlorid of sodium and 75 gra mmes| chlorid of potassium (Wohler’s pct peas “Pe a cooled mass, 4 wing with the ao ede 1 floa t, but, as the | the magnesium becom paiialty hotties, on to the bottom nm and nitruret of um. To obtain the pure Se Seleeet by & current of byt g ' 4 2 ‘ ; Chemistry. | 115 flame, as already observed by Bunsen. The light of burning magnesium contains all the rays peculiar to the metal, without the inversion observed y Fizeau in the combustion of sodium.—Annales de Chimie et de Physique, \xvii, p. 340. Ww. G 4, n the chemical constitution of the American rock oil—ScuoR.EM- ° kerosene. The oil in question is found to contain a series of homologous hydrocarbons of the general formula CnHn-+-2 and consisting of the hydrurets of the alcohol radicals. The oil, which boils below 120° C., ‘ contains the four hydrurets, C,,H,., hydruret of amyl, boiling at 39° C., 12) 14) . hexyl, % 68° C., ©, ,H . heptyl, “ 98° C,, 63 octyl, ” 119° C. The author found precisely the same products in the American petro- leam or rock oil. e oils are first purified by strong nitric acid, which leaves the greater part unattacked, but removes benzole and toluole. After washing, drying over caustic potash, and distillation with sodium, the four hydrurets already mentioned were obtained as in coal tar. Benzole and toluole are found in larger proportion in cannel coal tar than in petroleum. —Proe. Manchester Phil. Soc., March 11, 1863. W. G, e new organic compounds of silicon—FriepEL and Crarrs have prepared, in the laboratory of Wurtz, some interesting compounds of Silicon with organic radicals. By heating together silicic ether, Vv (.i.), Lo,, and bichlorid of silicon, Si,Cl,, the authors obtained a : iv ¢ new compound having the formula PS "er Og. This body boils at is ae | Cl about 156° C.; the density of its vapor is 7-05 by experiment and 6-87 by theory. It may be regarded as silicic ether in which one equivalent of the body, C,H Op is replaced by one equivalent of chlorine. A second f Iv Product is found at the same time, the formula of which is »/@'2, ) | Oy 2(C,H1,) i and which is therefore the dichlorhydrine of silicic ether, Equal equiva- lents of the mono-chlorhydrine and the amylic alcohol give a new ether, iv : Si the formula of which is 3(C,H,) | Og, that is, normal silicate of ethyl, C,oHi, e 116 Scientific Intelligence. in which one atom of ethyl is replaced by one atom of amyl. When chlo- rid of silicon and zinc-ethyl are heated together in a sealed tube, a lim — pid liquid is obtained, which is insoluble in water, and not acted upon a concentrated solution of potash or ee nitric acid. This liquid is silicon- ethyl, the formula of which is “C, WT 2 t The density of the vapor of , silicon ethyl is 5°13 by observation and 499 by theory: it corresponds in constitution to distannethyl, Sn,(C,H,),, and diplumbethyl, Ph, (C, . The authors promise a more extended 6 study of this 14 which, as the first organic nips esa “artis only of silicon, ree : and hydrogen, is of much interest. The a SiO, or Si,0, silicie acid appears to be at last definitively wtabliaied — Comptes ad, x lvi, 590 6. On the coloration of flame by phosphorus and its compose 2 | CuristopLg and BeiisteIn —_ that, when phosphorus is added to the — ‘materials for preparing hydrog n, the flame takes a beautiful emerald: green color. With the spectroscope, this flame gives two ma nificent green lines having about t egree of intensity, and a third rather phorus, phosphorous and hypophosphorous —_ give the same result, This reaction is extremely sensitive, and may be used in cases of ere by phosphorus, and in detecting the presence of minute papa phosphorus in iron.— Comp les Rendus, lv, 3 ANatytTicaL CuHemistry. et an pee Af nitric acid by conversion into ammonia.— 14th of June, 1848, J. C. Nesbit read — sad Chemical Society af Rv Se awe Rey NO,H+8H=NH,+6HO, ; Nesbit ascertained that, by the observance of certain eae whole of the nitrogen of nitric acid or of nitrates may be thus t hyd n, and obtained as ammonia. His directions are as follo “If ten grains of salt, such as nitrate of potash, be taken for analysis, a ai rters of an ounce of chlorhydric acid, sp. gr. 1°17, must be pouté out into a small measure, and about one-tenth part added to the zine a0 water. When effervescence has fairly commenced, a portion of | re. “The temperate ure of the whole must, if necessary, 8 ns the vessel i in cold water. After a short period, a little Analytical Chemistry. 117 acid is added, and then a little nitrate, until all the solution of the nitrate with the washings is poured in, and about one-fourth of the acid is left... Care should be taken that, for the first hour, the effervescence is slow. hen the whole of the solution of the nitrate is poured in, the remainder of the acid must be added from time to time, and the whois left until effervescence ceases. The liquid is then carefully separated from undissolved zinc, which is well washed with the smallest quantity of water, and the whole distilled with hydrate of lime, the ammonia being col- lected in a proper condenser. The great danger to be avoided consists in allowing the hydrogen to be liberated too rapidly, by means of which so much heat is generated as to cause a portion of the nitrogen to esca as binoxyd of nitrogen.” Nesbit estimated the ammonia by a volumetric method. He gives the results of sixteen determinations of nitric acid, by five different operators, in nitre both pure and mixed with 6 to 9 times its weight of common salt, and in the nitrates of baryta sot a In each case, the accuracy of the estimation left nothing to be d Nesbit’s method has been employed in this laboratory with satisfaction, though several trials were requisite for learning the precise method o procedure, e have thus noticed the method of Nesbit, because it has not, to our koomledge, been described in any treatise on chemical analysis, and ecause, since its publication, others have — — based on the same principle which are more or less worth Several years after the method of Nesbit was pubis, Martin gave out the same A tase as original, Comptes Rendus, xxxvii, 947, with this ect the accuracy of ne sige, though in presence of gelatine the reduction proceeds very sl In 1861, Schulze, of Rostock, proposed to convert nitric acid into am- monia by the action of sodium-amnalgam or of platinized zinc in e of excess of alkali (Chem. Centralblatt, 1861, pp. 657 and 833). The manipulations described by Schulze for — peepee results are some- Iff, often practical, by Kno nop and himself, in which the nitrogen of the ammonia is liberated by a —— of hypochlorite of soda and bromine, and estimated by measurement. e ‘tals of nitrates by reduction with a mixture of zinc and iron in alkaline liq uid has also been the subject of nearly cotemporary study * 118 Scientific Intelligence. operating. For the reduction of 0°54 grm. of NO,, iron and 8-10 grm. of zine filings, 16 yrm. of solid caustic potash, and 0 ¢.c. of alcohol of sp. gr. 0°825. The substitution of aleohol for water prevents the troublesome frothing of the mixture when undergoing distillation. The apparatus employed is an evolution flask of 300 to 360 ¢. ¢. capacity, which is connected by a rather long doubly-bent tube with e potash, zinc, iron, and alcohol bei principle. It is scarcely needful to remind the analyst that several of the reagents employed are liable to contain either ammonia or nitric acid, and that ir purity must be carefully attended to, 8. W. lil, MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. ae 1. Annual Report of the State Geologist of California for the year 1862, 12 pp., 8vo. San Francisco, 1863.—From this brief letter, ad- dressed by Prof. Whitney to the Governor of California, and from & further communication made to the California Academy of Natural Sciences, % — to the progress of fee They contain a compilation of near _ ? See this Journal, [2], xxxv, 279. Mineralogy and Geology. 119 at that office in regard to the geography of the State. The maps, as thus blocked ouit, have been np by us in the field, by filling in the topography wherever our route has lai The maps which have a or are now being prepared for publica- tion are: Ist. A map of the vicinity of the Bay of San Francisco, on a scale of half an inch to the mile, four feet by three; it extends from near Santa Cruz on the south to Napa on the north, and from the Pacific to Corral Hollow, east and west. The area of land which it covers is 4,248 square miles, which is just twice that of the State of Delaware, and only lacks and has about thirty inhabitants to the square mile—the average density of the age of California being but little over two to the square mile. is map, on which all the details of the topography are given, as minutely as the scale allows, is nearly completed, and will be soon ready _ for the engraver. 2d, A detailed map, on a scale of two inches to the mile, of the vicinity of Mount Diablo; this is about two and one-half by three feet in dimensions, and includes the most important coal mining district yet own to exist in the State. The map can be made ready for the en- graver in a few days. map of the Coast Ranges, from the Bay of Monterey south to Santa Barbara. It is about three feet by two and one-half in dimensions, is on a scale of six miles to the inch, and embraces about 16,000 square tuiles of territory. To ponies it will require about another year’s work in the field with two sub-part Map of the Washoe silvettolnkos region—three and one-half by two and one-half feet in dimensions, on a scale of two inches to mile—and extending over fis the important mining ground of the district. This map is from an accurate trigonometrical survey by V. Wacken- reuder ; it is nearly sie 5th. Ma ap of the Comstock Lode, on a scale of four hundred feet to the inch, completed. 6th. Map of the central portion of the Sierra Nevada; scale not ye determined on. Extensive surveys have been made r. Wackenreuder for this vase of the work, and these will be continued during the present above mentioned maps, Nos. 1 and 2 will accompany the first iets of the Report. Nos. 4, 5, and probably 6, the second volume. It is intended, if the survey is carried to completion, to construct a final map of the 'State on a — of six miles to the inch, in nine sheets, each about three feet squar In addition to the Sra topographical work, an extensive series of barometrical observations has been made, for the determination of alti- _ tudes, and some two hundred and ey important points have been as- cended and measured. The most interesting operation in this Tietanenk _ Was the determination of the height of Mount Shasta, which, by an elabo- _ Yate series of observations, we found to be 14,440 feet above ‘the sea level, _ This is the first of the lofty voleanic peaks of the Sierra Nevada which _ has been accurately measured. 120 Scientific Intelligence. a In the department of geology proper, our explorations have extended — over portions of forty of the forty-six counties into which the State is divided; and when it is remembered that the average size of a count is equal to half that of the State of Massachusets, (California having jus: twenty-four times the area of that cee some idea of the m tude of our work may be obtained. The chain of the Sierra Nevada may be parallelized with that of the Alps for extent and average elevae tion; while the ree — are nearly as extensive as the Appalachian ‘ chain of mountai 2 Coast Ranges fro Angeles to Clear Lake; the vicinity of of San Francisco aes cae worked out in considerable — ine all of San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Alameda, : dati ur observations have also been extended to the Washoe — Region, e have received considerable collections “ nee from the Humboldt Miviog District, (known by this name on Pacific Coast, - but designated on Warren’s Map as the “ West ale yee River Range,” and in longitude 118°,) by which we have been able to fix the age ies formations in that region r. Gabb has been chiefly occupied, the past year, in iene ng and seribing the Cretaceous fossils of the Coast Ranges and t foun na the Sierra, of which he has nearly two hundred new s ot re: publication. He has also described the Triassic fossils, collected by ie Survey at Washoe, and by Gorham Blake, Esq., in the Humboldt Range The fossils older than the Trias have been referred to Mr. Meek for inve® tigation. A portion of the fossil plants have been placed in the hands of Dr. J. S. Newberry for description. , _ It is to the department of General Geology that, up to the present it contains, is then to be laid down upon the map, in ‘the in which its outerop dni on te surface. The general ch = Es 8 i—s 2 3 aR a a & a. Oo o 28 S 78 & @ 1 ead e. a aa currence, their relative abundance, and the facilities which ma may in each separate district for making them economically available — the peereene eee eral work has been done, be obj in 8 ge ge pee 4: 28, & ® $e ° 8s e + would not ste "° thoroughly ang more . miles in a very rich mineral alias and aos ee OO Se ee a ge fee” AY ee Pe ee eet Mineralogy and Geology. ‘121 often to engage in expensive mining operations to decide what was real of permanent value. It is our task, rather, to limit the field of research, try of the Pacific Coast. Considerable work has been done, preliminary to a full report on the geology, mineralogy, and metallurgy of the as. n. In the department of botany and agricultural geology, the work has thus far been chiefly confined to collecting the plants of the State. Extensive duplicate suites have been preserved, both for study and for exchange, the specimens now collected amounting to not less than twelve thousand or fifteen thousand in number, and embracing probably half of the species described from the State, besides many new an scribed ones. The collections have been made by Professor Brewer while engaged in geological explorations, at a very trifling expenditure of time and money... limited means. Partial preparation was made for investigating the sub- ject of grape culture, and the production of wines; but discontinued tom the same cause. Especial attention has been paid to our native g | : crease of forage in this State, and correspondence entered into to obtain In the zoological department—in charge of Dr. J. G. Cooper, who has been employed about half the time since the Survey was commenced— the annexed table gives a succinct idea of what has been accomplished, up to the close of the year 1862, in the way of collecting. ey : = on es 23 ‘ nice Sha SS | 25 | 42 | S32 | 86 (283 38 re rad H yee Sos 60 i 233 bee | Sta | gs | O83 | 273 | B2e. en = . ao 2°22 #02 | $52 | Fe | sco | ase | esce 538 see gos 5S5 B= 5233 32 10 38 45 47 14 170 28 4(?)} 150 320 141 6 9 45 0 16 16 16 133 | 0 335 128 123 65 400 | 0(%) Sci.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juny, 1863. 16 122 Scientific Intelligence. Of Articulates and Radiates no mega can be given for want of works works, we have been able to add materially to the known Faunaof California, = of the country at large, even among the highest and best a known classe 4 Arrangem bl have been made for having the collections in natirll history aed to the highest authorities in each branch, and portionsof our materials have already been placed at t the disposition of eminent men eich of the appropriation to fifteen thousand (15, 000) pve for the year, made it necessary to suspend this work soon after it was commen in order that the whole force of the Survey might be cotignsteatie on the field operations. A small sum has been allowed va Mr. F. H. Storer, of Boston, for 8 chemical investigation of the bitu in different will soon see the ates! Siessieiss to be Meivei from this oe in developing mense mineral and agricultural resources of California, — will liberal appropriations to have it conducted in a manner al and honorable to the State. We have no doubt that, in he establi of such a laboratory as lee a y Prof. Whitney for the investigat of questions in regard to the eae and apc ag pines ores, more than enough would be saved in one 7 ae sa : dagen the G ey Se Survey. 2, Discovery of Childrenite at Hebron in Maine,—The * minute : matic abo barrow nine” mentioned io my es te pe ee + » noes oe ie eae Pae ee ane Mineralogy and Geology. 123 sehlygoniie’ prove, on further examination, to be childrenite. Mr. O. D. Allen has recently visited the locality, and obtained a sufficient quantity of the mineral to determine its specific characters, and a description of ’ these, Oa crystallographic a by Prof. ms ie — i I. J. Bru the next number of this Journal. G. On the Height of Mt. Shasta, California by J. D. Wa eb in charge of the Geological Survey of California——A careful and elaborate series of barometrical observations by sa State Geological Corps of — ifornia, made in September, 1862, has fixed the elevation of Mt. Shas at 14,440 feet.2 Previous to this, the om of Shasta had been a estimated at from 13,905 to 18,000 feet. The ~— 13,905 result of a barometrical observation wos by , Moses, August 20th, 1861; 18,000 feet was the height as sassdanad by the Pacific Rail Road expedition, under Lieut. Williamson; Fremont’s estimate was 15,000 feet, which is much nearer the truth than Williamson’ a bees American Cyclopedia is 14, 390 feet, which is a very close approximation Where these figures were obtained, Thave been unable to ascertain.’ It is aes certain that they were not ‘the result of any actual measurement, as it is known ie “ Moses was the first person to ascend the moun- tain with a barom 4. The Human 2 38 at Abbeville——Vague and inaccurate statements have been going the rounds of some of the — ssi weekly papers re- garding the proceedings of the conference of men of scienc e—English and French—-which was engaged at Paris last io in investigating the ease of the asserted discovery of a human jaw at Abbeville in the fossi state. The following is a résumé of the a :—The English deputies consisted of Mr. cone es Falconer, Dr. Carpenter, and Mr. Busk, ree of whom reached s on the. 9th and the other on the 10th. The French members were, MM Milne-Edwards (President), M. de Quatre- fages, M. Lartet, M. Delesse and M. Desnoyers. Three days were occu- pied in discussing the race of the flint Aaches, and in the examina- tion of the jaw, the latter of which was taken up on the third day. No decisive result was arrived at. The English members of the Com- mission maintained the unauthentic character of all the flint aches which were yielded by the “black band,” and nothing was sciakinhed on the other side to shake their convictions. The jaw was sawn u washed; the black coating was removed from it with the utmost facility ; there was no infiltration of metallic matter through the walls of the bone, and the section was comparatively fresh looking. The tooth also was in every respect beige: eee The confidence of some of the rencl ae This Journal, [2 xxxiv, 243, i oon of (2 mountain, as see’ ae the South-west-by-South (compass : =) is contained in this Journal, [2], vi 251. ter ae in is said to be 1 4,360 feet: but Lieut, Emmons thinks it is not 124 Scientific Intelligence. ing in every appearance which commonly Ee fossil bones, and Sepecially those found elsewhere in the Somme depos Had the con- Commission, and direct testimony to the actual occurence of the jawin th 1” w t forward to the conviction of the mission. But there was not the same unanimity respecting age of j the jaw itself. Two of the English members of the Commission, Dr. Falconer and Mr. Busk, handed in notes of the opinions at whic they had arrived on the general case. These we insert.— ae “ Abbeville, May 13, 1863. 4 “T am of opinion that the finding of the human jaw at Moulin- | Quignon i is authentic; but that the characters which it presents, taken in connexion with the conditions under which it lay, are not consistent with the said jaw being of any very great antiquity. H. Farconsr.” ea et. es De Abbeville, May 13, 1863. | “Mr. Busk desires to i that signee he is ‘a opinion, judging from the external condition of the j aw, and from other _considerations of ‘3 more cireumstantial A that ther re is no Leese ason to doubt that — as found in the situation and under the siadvsene reported by , M. Boucher de Perthes, nevertheless it appears to him that the internal condition of the bone is wholly irreconcilable with an antiquity equal to | that assigned to the deposits in which it was found.” ae Mr. Busk of course refers here to the received opinion that the Moulin- eo Quignon deposits belong to the “high level” gravels of Mr. Prestwich, ee: which are considered to be the oldest of the Somme beds. 8 From all this, it will be seen that the question of ue relative anciqulll s of the relic is left open to discussion. It is manifest that the evidence was very conflicting; that it is in some respects of an incompatible char- % acter; and that a great deal still remains to be clea oe anges re the “a scientific world can arrive at a definite judgment on the oe further add, that the subject was again brought before the he Academy of Sciences, on Monday eo in two distinct notes, by M. Miln Edwards and M. de Qua trefages, who, we. understand, did ample pecon! ‘0 the can- tion of their remarks, M. Elie de Beaumont stated that, in his opinion, the gravel deposit of Moulin-Quignon did not alg to the Quater- nary or Diluvian age at all, but that it was a mem | the eee meubles of the actual or modern period, in which he dele not be the Jeast surprised if human bones wake found ; adding, moreover, that: did not believe in the asse ence of man as a contemporal | a me. extinct —. thinoceroses, a of the Quaternary pans Mineralogy and Geology. 125 opinion of this very eminent and veteran geologist imports a new element of doubt into the question. e understand that the English savants were received everywhere by their French opponents in the most cordial and friendly manner, and that the various questions involved were discussed in the best possible spirit. The conference lasted five days. “The Moniteur of Saturday last, the 16th inst., contains an article by M. Milne-Edwards, giving a brief résumé of the constitution and labors of the conference, and of the results to which they were conducted. It is clear that we have still much to learn regarding this very remarkable ease, alike in its geological, paleontological and archeological aspects.— Athen., No. 1856, May 23, 1863. : 5. The Geological evidences of the Antiquity of Man, with Remarks on Theories of the Origin of Species; by Sir Cuartes Lyett, F.R.S. 518 pp., 8vo, with woodcuts. Philadelphia, 1863. George W. Childs. —Man is now the absorbing subject in science. Geology and zoology ume, a review of the progress which investigation has already made; and the extent to which the work has sold, both in this country and Britain, shows that in preparing it he has responded to a public demand. He reviews at length the geological developments of the few years past bearing on the subject, stating the facts with discrimination and fairness, and with all essential details. It is a work, therefore, of real value; and when science has gone forward to established conclusions, it will stand to mark a stage of progress in the important investiga The subject is so new that it is not reasonable to regard the work as says, has been raised 27 feet. The interior of a continent may be sup- to have changed some scores, or even hundreds, of feet in a single period, without doing violence to geological probability. This, then, is : Ss o ce] oO 5 6 SB S a g = i 3 ; & > oO densation of moisture about the heights, enlarge rivers, augment their eroding and transporting power increasing slope and amount of water, and thereby rapidly thicken the resulting deposits. More- over, the same action, either in high latitudes or in low, may change, as Lyell has shown, the climate of an entire continent. This is one example of a variable, of wholly unknown limits of variation ;—and one affecting calculations frem coral reefs and seashore formations, as well as from allu- vial beds. It is sufficient of itself to show that the future has yet much to do, before present inferences can command full confidence. Moreover, the doubts connected with the Abbeville deposits, mentioned on the preceding page, show that there are still other variables or unknown quantities to be considered. 126 Scientific Intelhgence. It is quite unnecessary to give here an abstract of a volume whichis made accessible to all readers, in a convenient and excellent form, through ology, on the ground that ali facts are not yet known, her been searched for the missing links. Inductive science says, on the coM- trary, have no faith in any hypothesis of the kind until the missing links a in the head this method, and sets up an assumption in place of an in- uction. ! 6. Ichnographs from the Sandstone of Connecticut River ; by James Deanz, M.D. 62 pp. 4to, with 37 lithographic and 9 photographie — plates.—For this beautiful volume, on the footprints of the Connecticut — valley Mesozoic sandstone, the public are in a large degree indebted t0 the liberality and science of Thomas T, Bouvé, Esq., of Boston. Dr. ane, as all readers of this Journal well know, was one of the earliest completed, t additional explanations by Mr. Bouvé, and a biographi nry L. Bowditch, M.D. The lithographs, as well as ph aad.none ape more ipiereating than those of insects, and oth _ Eleven slabs of these minute tra * Mineralogy and Geology. 127 No one can turn over the leaves of this volume without a feeling of seuncnth regret that death should have brought the author's labors to so untimely a close; nor without a sense of peter towards Mr. Bouvé for the pb of the unfinished work of his frie ce of some new — of Fossils, from a locality of the Niagara group in -Jukons, with a list of identi oe 7 from the same place ; by Prof. Jamzs Hatt. Published May 2, 1863. 34 pp. 8vo. Abstract read before the Albany Institute, April ast 1862. te Ctenodipterinen des Devonischen Systems ; ; von Dr, CaristT1aAn Hetwricu Panper. 66 pp. 4to. St. Petersburg, 1858.— Ueber die Saurodipterinen, Dendrodonten, Glyptolepiden, und Cheirolepiden des Devonischen Systems ; yon Curtst1an Hetyricn Panver. 90 pp. 4to, with 17 te ne plates in folio. St. ae 1860.—These works Owen, F.R.S.—The author details the citotmetances, pe heater with the discovery of the fossil remains, with the impressions of feathers, in the Lithographic slates of Beleshhotes, of the Oxfordian or Corallian stage of the Oolitic period, and of the acquisition for the British Museum of the specimen which forms the subject of his paper. __ The exposed parts of the skeleton are—the lower portion of the fur- — ¢culum; part of the left os innominatum; nineteen caudal vertebrx in a o ’ se — humeri, and antibrachial bones; parts of the carpus an ost) _ with two unguiculate phalanges, probably belonging to the right wing ; both femora and tibize, and the bones —* the right foot; ir the quill-feathers radiating fan-wise from each me us, and diverging in pairs from each side of the long wei sle tail. The above parts in- _ that of a rook. The several: bones, with their impressions hose of _ the feathers, are described, and the bones are compared a wick their homo- _ logues in different Birds and in Pterodactyls: whence it appears that, with the Soupsice of the caudal region of the vertebral column, and ap- ndaeted a biunguiculate manus, with a less confluent condition of the _ Metacarpus, the preserved parts of the skeleton of the feathered animal accord with the ornithic modifications of the vertebrate skeleton. The main departure therefrom is ina part of that skeleton _most subject to . respo' _ number with the vertebra, diverging therefrom at an nner of 45° back- ward, ing more acute near the end, and the last pair extending _ ‘Nearly parallel with, and 34 inches beyond, ‘the last caudal vertebra. - feathered tail is 11 inches long and 3} inches broad, with an obtusely * 128 Scientific Intelligence. . % rounded end. This character of the tail is novel and unexpected because of the constancy with which all known existing and Tertiary birds have presented the short bony tail, with the terminal modification, in most of them, of the ploughshare bone Professor Owen next gives the results of iaventigations into the oste- ogeny of embryo birds, showing the number of vertebrae corresponding to the anterior caudals in Archeopteryx which alee with the pelvis in © the course of growth, and the degree to which the posterior caudals re- =~ a resemblance to those of Archeopteryx in the Birds with rudimental ings. From eighteen to twenty caudal vertebrae may be counted in the oithe Ostrich. In Archeopteryx the embryonal separation persists, with such continued growth of the individual caudal vertebrae as is commonly seen in fong-tailed ae ee —— ee or Mamm alian. The stage, at which, in Paleozoic and man y Mesozoic ‘fhe it was arrest Thus he discerns, i in the main differential character of the Mesozoic bird, a retention of structure which is embryonal and feabaitory in the modern representatives of the class, and consequently a closer adhesion to the a general vertebrate ty The least equivocal parts of the present fossil declare it to be a Bir, ie with rare peculiarities indicative of a distinct order in that class. Ap oie the head is absent, the author predicts, by the law of reece s k-shaped mouth for the preening of the plumage; and he oe infers a broad and keeled sternum in correlation with the remit feathered organs of flight. a The paper is accompanied by drawings of the fossil and its parts, and a. of homologous parts in Birds and Pterodactyls. The author assigns t0 the fossil animal the name of Archewopteryx macrurus.— roceedings Of — Royal Society, Nov. 20, 1862, in the Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Beier : ie No. 62. VI. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. Botany and Zoology. 129 mann also contributes an interesting peer of the structure and m ology of Melumbium luteum ; a note on the nature of the pulp in the fruit of Cactee, showing that the pulp ponies to the funiculi of the seed or its appendages ; also on the pulp of wpa: and gooseberries, which he finds “to consist of the arillus and of the modified epidermis of the testa ;” a considerable paper entitled “ Additions a the Cactus-Flora of the terri- tory of the United States,” mostly from the collections of Dr. Newberry (in the Colorado.Expedition, 1857-58) and of Henry Engelmann in prays Simpson’s Expedition to explore emigrant routes into Utah. On P aristata, a new species of Pine discovered by Dr. C. C. Parry in ate Alpine ~~ of — Territory, and on some other Pines of the ocky Mountains. P. aristata was probably confounded by the late Dr. James with ‘his P. flexilis, but was distinguished by Dr. Parry. Both are five-leaved species, but they belong to two very different sections. They are now well cleared up by Dr. Engelmann; and, as see roaring by Dr. Parry in considerable quantity have germinated in this ountry _ and in England, they may hereafter be familiar. Dr. Engelmann appends to this paper a revision of the-character of the genera of Abietinee, in a somewhat new arrangement, adopting as genera, 1. Abies Link. (non Linn.), the Balsam Firs; 2. Tsuga, Hemlock Spruce; 3. Lariz, (these bd Ce DA ee AAT EEE ST eee ee NP and 5. ea Link, non Li inn., the heme nga in another group; and Dr. E q paver on on “ New Species of Gentiana from the Alpine regions of the Roc _ Mountains,” with some aoa asic of other species, &c. The plates, from t5tot 11, mens illustrate Pinus aristata, Gentiana Wislizeni, G. he- q epala, ilis, G. — var. and G. prosirata, G. Parryi, and | &. jarbellata, a Mane man The Enumeration of the Species of Plants collected oy - Dr. o. ¢. al and Messrs. rekege: Hall and J. P. Harbour, during the Sum and Autumn of 18 1862, on or near the Rocky Mountains in Colorado Pere _ ritory, lat. 39 wae is published in the Proceedings of the Academy of _ Natural Sciences, lustre elphia, under date of March 24, 1863. The collection, whi wo has already been mentioned in this Journal, proves to be amount bean 5:07 per soy as agains! ood black a, which 4 An Joen. So1—8 Ther cece Ral ot. XXXVI, No. 106.—JULy, ae 130 Scientific Intelligence. yields 2°13, and Coffee, from 0°8 to 1:00. The mode of using the Gua- rana js curious and interesting. It is ape = in the ae" of almost effect is very agreeable, but, as there is a large quantity of tannic “er also present, - is not a good thing for weak digestions.” —Zztr. Chron., May 2, p. ; deta rootlets on , the stems of Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis quin- quefolia).—Referring to the note on p. 445 of the last No. of this Journal, we may add that we have received, from Dr. Parry of Iowa, specimens of the stem of this plant abundantly garnished with aerial rootlets, thus confirming the character in Michaux’s Flora, and in the lamented oan Darlington’s Flora Cestrica. 5. Martius, Flora Brasiliensis, fasc. xxxi, xxxii. (Jan., 1863). per new parts of this great work contain the Dilleniacee, by Dr. Eichler, with 14 plates; and the Sapotee, by Prof. Miquel, 31 eae: = orders appear to be well elaborated. . Dr. Charles Wilkins Short died at his residence at Lotta Ker Y i hi “Ae é enial duties of “his sere te Bok and ns the eka ope of botany, #l favorite pursuit of his life. At the close of the year 1838, he rem he along with some of his distinguished colleagues, to Lonisville, filling the same chair in the Univers rsity of that city, until 1849, when Short’s botanical publications were neither la Aah were chiefly articles contributed to the Transylvania Journal of ich y . 4 important is is his Ca : = widely and gervbetaed explored), bette ral Supplements; with well considered char. new species, and acute and discrimin: it known ‘Plants. ‘These, and the co he was accustomed for ma 3 to co : * See this Jour, xxv, 451. “upon sata acronis Wii € Botany and Zoology. 131 excellence and beauty, and in lavish abundance for the purpose of sup- plying all who could need them. Dr. Short’s disinterested activity in might be expected, Dr. Short’s own herbarium is a model of taste and heatness, It is also large and important. To one himself so solicitous “to do good and to communicate,” contributions from numerous sources naturally flowed in abundantly. He, moreover, subscribed to all the Open to be consulted by botanists. It will there form an excellent and Conspicuous nucleus for a collection of American herbaria, such as our Science needs, and the country ought to possess. The natural effects upon his scientific career of a fastidious taste, an unwarrantable diffidence. and a too retiring disposition, were enhanced by a constitutional tendency to depression of spirits. But this never obscured the native kindness of bis heart, and the real, though so qui Seniality of his disposition, or checked an unobtrusive and consic ; hor even cynical. All who knew him well, and also his more intimate correspondents who never enjoyed the privilege of a personal acquaint- ance, can testify to the nobility and Christian excellence of his character. PPpreciative tribute to his memory, from the pen of a former colleague, 132 Scientific Intelligence. will be found in the Louésville Journal, issued a few days after Dr. Short’s Jamented deat wo or three species - Kentucky eae a the name of Dr. Short as their discoverer. Also a new genus, Shortia, inhabiting the Alleghany Mosuasins was dedicated to him ee the present writer, But, alas! too like the botanist for whom it was named, it is so retiring xcept by a single botanist of a former generation, in some secluded recess of the Black Mowatt of North Carolina. It will some be! found again a appreciated. e Wm. Darlington.—Not unexpectedly are we called | to “add to ihe list of the departed, the name of this venerable and excellent maa. The Nestor of American Botanists died, at his residence in West Chester, glia he has long been honored and venerated, but also by a “ i of friends and correspondents throughout the country and in o If not a veer profo = he was a ‘most a ceurate and faithful botanist one addit acervo:” his orn for the familiar objects which 208 attracted his life-long interest was characteristically shown in the inscription which he wrote for the stone that now covers his sates resis “ Plan ca can rene with Simeon of old, ‘ Lord, now lettest thou thy se i But, much as he cultivated Botany, this was only the side-issue, recreation of his life, which was actively devoted to professi sae and | rious civic occupations, and to the discharge of many hon : Buch biographical notices as may well be added here, we will sleet - Wn. Darlington, M.D.”, drawn up by one of his t men, of which a copy has just been received by us. _ “He was born near the ancient village of Dilworth, now called Dilwor Se Birmingham township, Chester county, Pen psylvania, April 28, aa)" ise Teed Tee sae oak Ea Darlington, the son of Job and } : an Botany and Zoology. 133 East county. He married Han nnah, a pete of a gg a co oO 4 -— ia) 3 oe ce oO mS oO > o oy “& ward Darlington, the — son of Thomas pe ccc of piliscam was me by j ternal grandfather, from m he r ab so farm in Birmingham epics pes on which he was én seared: xis “whi is n the Aso ‘of his grandchildre ied Hannah, a daughter - “Toh —— of East repose etl county by whom he had five and two daughters. He w Pent man, Ap eng en and isenieds a cons piieralite influence fesse the citizens of his county, by whom he was several times elected a member of i ov died in Pico gton, of whom we shall now speak, was the eldest child of mak Darlington, ‘aid sic ae reste , each branch was an un ace of plain English He rly d to the severe taboo ot agrictiiara’: life, and, hen old enough to drive or hale the plough, was kept at work in the summer, and only permitted to go to school 1n the w r sea nm coun ay were lamentably deficient as compared with those of mod- ern times, yet he succeeded in obtaining a plain English arse under ohn Forsythe, an Irish Friend, one of the best teachers of that time in the nty, and who, durin a long period spent in that vocation; imparted the _ Tudiments of education Ste many ; who have since become eminent and useful izens of the republic. “ Becoming tired and a with = pst of farm eraey _—- then Was not one tithe as attractive s it has e been made by the inducements offe e by Agricaloural Chemistry, and Agricultural = Horticultural Sicisties and i in machiner pence Ae Phiten! a pier pete se of tate of Delawar pursuing with assiduity the study of that profession which he had as the bus ——— meek his life, he devoted those hours which, with many, idle recrea sag i of the ei i Aap an i ptt bee i pontlonm —— with the . fa) + 4 canes the Union and scourged the country with a violence that made * . * . ik ast skrin from pater awful ravages. olen other es, it age ted Wilmington, carrying and desolation in its train, ; ers of the citizens sought ciety in in — even icians left ai epld He the wie of 1802-3 and 1803-4, William Darlington attended the dical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, and on the sixth of June, he received the degree of Deetor cet Maliink, being, as the writer i 134 Scientific Intelligence. believes, the first citizen of Chester county who took that degree in that University. Fora long term of years, and until he prtcnpa the dats of his As ane - was confess sedly the head of. Sat pepipesions in the countyof his birth. The su bje ect of his inaugural Thesis “the mutual intuenae of habits and disease,” an essay which, from the s Bs 8 of i its noes and depth of scientific research, rec cael a flattering ss from Professor Rush,at a public examination on the day prior to the commencemen ae “ Whilst preparing his Thesis, after the close of his second course of med- e arlingto ed otani n a whose beauties and poses he has, in later years, done so much to illus din so successful a manner as to make his name known an throughout the ese world. i: On receiving his diploma, he returned to his ante place and commenced the practine of medicine, and in his leisure hours dace himself of the first f fi the take anguage, which in those days see med to hold the key of the sent of the physical and natural sci th he was icia Chester County Alms House, and also surgeon to a regiment of militia. The latter apeeia ntment, however, caused his eau by the Society of Friends, in, of which he was a member, as it was see to their discipline to assist or encourage, war, in any manner whatev * Since that day, however, the views tg the ‘Friends’ seem to hav: e changed somewhat, upon this subject, and the former ate of the discipline in n regard to it has rel, , and there are now in the Union armies large num ers of young Friends, who are offering their eee in os service of their country, 1D earnest and effectual a manner, and with as unselfish a patriotism, as the mae n. _ “In 1806, Dr. Darlington wrens the appointment of surgeon to an East India Merchantman, belonging to "Philadelphia and made a voyage to Cal- cutta,’ whence he returne a the fi ol aig year. He availed himself of the . . mak . = tions made ie ring this voyage was, some a fterwards, published in the form of familiar letters in the Analectic Magazin “In the eceeding his return from Caleatta, he octet) in West Uhes. ter, and resumed the practice et, medicine, and was soon in the enjoyment 0 se detained him at home without an act of Congress; for, on the first of June that year (1808), he was married to Ca thane, , daughte r of General John ieee ie of New Jersey, an officer Bs had se with credit and ability 4 revolutionary war. “Always anxious for self-i -improvement, Doctor Rerligies commenced German language about that time under a private tutor, and soon made hims sufficiently — with it to be enabled to enter into che spirit a enjoy Si —~ 8 writers in that tongue. The love of the G Beg years, and at the ripe age of 81, and up to of hi his deat he « he oe the immortal works of aya Lessing, German authors, with which his library was sto ith all the 2 which the strength of — capes of gens and beauty of characterize the writings of those e men, are so well cale ated is seeagienechacts congenial acquaintance of the Iate Dr. Wallich, the Hen tani estar of the Caleutta Botanic Garden—Eps.] Botany and Zoology. 135 sata re. He was fortunate, too, in havi ying instilled into one of his daughters me love of language which i mbued his own min , and her familiar - When the war vgn England broke out in 1812, the Subject of this sketch, with other young men of the neighborhood, offered their serv ices in defense of the altars and firesi es of their country in case of invasion. A volunteer company was formed and drilled at West Chester, ready to serve ir called company was incorporated chose him Major of the first battalion. In this post he served until the a was disbanded, and was rewarded like his fellow-soldiers with the meagre pay of that — and the still more meagre national ao of af acres of the public dom — the anti —— his fellow ditizens at home, A pier es his fc) physi sician, ‘a friend of e education, a citizen soldier, and an enlight- “ning statesinan, elected him unsolicited, a member of the eriavene In = Duri his second term the celebrated Missouri question agitated the Union from one end to the other, and called fo orth the ablest efforts of the best i that occasion he said: ‘We a re solemnly bound not — to secure _ our own welfare, but to provide, as Pos an, for that of o x. r posterity. hen we know that the welfare of our desoondants in Saatiods as well as diffusion it to our sense of duty to permit the unnecessary i usion of an evil which ve are sure wi// be the scourge of countless genera- “Dr, Rata was one of the members of the first board of Canal Com- missioners, and w was associated with = men as Albert Gallatin, John Ser- geant, Robert W. Patterson, — David Scott, whose names hold a distin- guished place in our country’s i He —_ in that station two years, : itis the last of which he was President of the board.” aa incon —_— alluded to, oe tibraal though a ae and exacting, did not Dr. Darlington from owing some attention to Natural Science, aad nda ng his taste for hanes In 1826, in conjunction with some of his te feeds he assisted in organizing the Chester County Cabinet of aon Science, of which institution he was President from its origin; and : is * Pl : : abat in the same year he published his ‘ » being ac. Plants growing pF aba = borough of West Chester, Pennsylvania. “The e of Cana , being then per- aabosly, ety calling ‘an away from more than either in ro’ rk ative county, by his political and personal friend, the late lamented Governor Schulze, the duties of which office he continued to discharge till 1830, . 136 ; Scientific Intelligence. « Whilst in the office of Prothonotary Dr. Darlington and some of his med- ical friends co-operated, and formed the Me sm Society Chester county, — an institution which has had the good effect of uniting in a fraternal uniom — almost all the physicians of the county. Through its pS meetin addresses, written communications, and debates, it has been = pate 0! moting the increase of medical knowledge, of establishing a rit de corps amongst medical men, and of removing those petty jealousies * ttich are too apt to arise in a profession whose coun °y — live in comparative tion, and have very little communication with one another. From his long” cote in his eethaincre and the skill sehieh he had pecs by an extensive e, Dr. Dar n was unanimously placed at the head of the Society, eins pouiticl he “held ¢ “ 1852, when he resigned and was immediately elected an hono en time mt beset] in exploring a route for a railroad from. 7 Columbia railroad. line of p “In 183 “gee ae ae president of he Bank of Chester County which | poate he had been one of the commissioners ~be in the pe arter for ving subscriptions of its capital st oo and a director almost ever since its establishinent in 1814. He was re-elected siceailly, gee coeur in that ne of his death.” ey was so regulated, and its discounts so discreetly made, that it still somanied to be an instrument of good to the citizens of the ¢ ounty in which it was were - eames their entire confidence, and its no ‘ae were y ht a: n preference to those of most other banks within of its ciculstion, These hace results were mainly due to the fin abilities of the president and his old and long tried friend, David Townse! te cashier of the bank, a gentleman who, it is not im his exchanges of plants with European botanists, obtained oe ce of having his name conferred upon a new and interesting c¢ American and Rocky Mountain plants, by his friend Professor the learned cat talented Diector of the Royal Botanical Gardens at K ondon. eA similar honor was conferred on Dr. Darlington in 1825, b I DeCandolle, of Geneva, for his eminent services in the beaatiful sc The genus ——— to him by DeCandolle did not, however, c i cg cg ie ge friend Profescot Torrey, of New York, dedicated to him eauty, constitutes a w ing trious laborer agreeable fields ~ botanical scienc “To his pee oe friends it may be ] of ee has just succeeded in a ain it on the Atlantic slope, _ may soon have the pleasure of cultivating in our gardens the beaut! ingtonia, “Tt is too seldom that we find a love for natural science, or to The Ba. of Chester Botany and Zoology. 137 ery of new and ars anabae species and varietie “Tn the year 1837, Dr. Darlington published his ‘ Flora Cestrica, a descri tion of the flowering shits 6 hester county, which was a new edition of his former Bobi muc se and eet mprove “This work is regarded as one of the most complete local Floras exta his soil. This work is one of the prac tical benefits which al Whe nce sometimes besto és upon mankind, and there is good reason Wg believe that its influence has already seodiend a beneficial sleet upon hus : bandry, not only in Chester county but oe on ere, “The deep interest he always felt in every votary of natural science, with a vw personal shicbinest for a friend, mean him out 1843,) o collect together the letters, memoranda, &c. an Baldwin, a native of his own cou ope te et was shass “passtoniely ifficul- ey had to encounter in etd early settlement of the hese: during their expeditions into the wilderness in the prosecution of their favorite science. _ The former home of Humphrey Marshall still stands at Marshalton, in Chester and the rare curious forest trees that he ted i is gtebicntees e of ce ale botanists affords a ee ing into angers they have grown with years, until es have become objects of votary of botani cal learni Por Cestrica,’ revised and Hecottiticted on t fistated which seems to be the system most mi itd adopted by siete at the present day. Besides thle in connection pre some of the inded men of his neighborhood, he was en ieee in si tatter 5 years in position of a work descriptive of the otc 0 of the satin sel of County in all its branches. his Som * soak the same love of science and ‘pean which had at foal cag «Te ocd ch beyond the usual period _ Aw. Jour, Sct—Sxconp Senres, Vor. XXXVI, No. 106.—Juy, 1863, . eee 3 138 Scientific Intelligence, “In order that all o s People of oe county, who desire improvement in natural science, may continue to have, after his death, the same sources knowledge as he could afford them in’ eg, life, he has bequeathed his most valuable Seabee of plants, an his botanical a8 most of his other sci- entific works to the Chester County Cabinet of Natural Bclenee, on njoye ndship of best botanists of his day, and his c espondence orith the distinguished DeCandolle, and Sir William Jackson Hl ooker, of the old world, and Doctors Torrey and Gray of the new, attest the high yale they placed on his contributions to the gentle er nd which he was so fond, and which, with them he assisted so much to illus se in his an i gots he was the kind friend, whose heart and re open to assist struggling merit, in whatever walk of life it might be Sand, and his cinketbiaiors to all purposes of benevolence, philanthopy, oF knowledge, were, according to his means, of the most generous cha e was an indulgent parent, whose earnest desire was to make his family useful to sosignnghcd and the community, in which he has happily succeeded, and he e pleasant neighbor, whose extensive know lesated excellent co Ae d was, throu ih face heii life, ever prompt and active, and in the last ork rar his hands, ¢ nses,’ or sketches of the most disti men of county, ak oat ep tat en with his friend, J. Smith ‘He died as he lived, a christian gentleman, of great purity and ogi of character, whose w. ole life was never staine by a mean, ungenerous, OF aishonest action “ From this slight 3 —_ os Dr. Darlington, it will be observed that he has been a man of both thought and action, of books and deeds, and has § rag shag in the service ico af | his s county, his state and nation, and endeavored, In and unostentatious manner, to disseminate information amongst # a of the people. : “Although greatly seg vd his aside abilities, which have been highly self-cultivated, yet his st t hold on the public regard arose vo’ agreeable and useful task of diffusing knowledge among men. ee co is ds gree to know that those labors have been properly a so long as plants shall grow and bloom; that he received in 1 honorable degree of LL.D., spent i peters: was elected a ter are! Kehr of Satu fren the Wes Satie VOORS and ane a taste itrary ne cue Pinformation into the § Botany and Zoology. ; 139 of the young around him. * * * They have been the means of awaken- ing a thirst of knowledge amongst the people of the place of his ee a desire for good educational institutions, until Chester county h Ses — for the general intelligence of its citizens, and the peed of i | numero chools, “Temperate in in =a habits, moral and religious in his character, in the full maturity of yea with his mental neces almost unimpaired to the last, he enjoyed with fanaa ection, at a 0 e, the consciousness of a life well spent, and the contemplation of the ripened Fruits produced as the results of his earlier and late ter labors, and in the ——— of the respect of a grateful _ community, he was enabled to feel that his career had been a useful.one to e people amongst whom Providence had signed him, and that bis years were not aie like those of the fool or the sluggard, bit improved to the bene- It is ee ree Dr. Daring a left in the hands of a friend an autobiography. e know not whether this was written in view of future publication ; but it wu probably with propriety be printed, after some lapse of time, along with selections from his correspondence, for the e gratification of the numerous ~_— of the writer, or even for the instruction of a wider circle of rea G. ZooLoey— 1. Observations on the genus — together with descriptions of new ies, their soft parts and em forms, in the family Unionidae, 229 new species = Melanidz, the figures executed on stone with remark- _ able beauty and correctness. For the greater part of these Melanida Mr. ostoma s having a cut in the upper part of the outer lip. having a retrorse callus at base, and usually a nearly 140 Scientific Intelligence. Trypanostoma having an expanded outer lip, and an auger-shaped 4 aperture, | Goniobasis having usually a sub-rhomboidal aperture, sub-angular at base and without a channel. Am~nicola having a round mouth and no callus, Pe The number of new species of Unionide which Mr. Lea has described, since he commenced the study of this family in 1827, already amountsto over 550, nearly all of which are indigenous. Full descriptions, accom- — ven of eac grea h “be required ; and when so, it is important that they should be based, a8 i he animals, of form in the two sexes, a fact unappreciated by European had been observ 4s é _ -asBieionat in grsttly indcblsc:to. MeLap, fot Isla untiving labore tell so many years in this department of Natural History. naa ae . Sy ese EF er ae AS eee ee eee ee oat Se rg Bott - By ehh) en ; om. Ti - made between the respiration of frogs and turtles, proves to be un- - founded,—and the abdominal muscles, which in other air-breathing ver- __ tebrates are expirat ry, become inspiratory in the turtles, while the pre- Botany and Zoology. 141 2) 2. Researches upon the Anatomy and Physiology of Respiration in the Chelonia ; by S. Wetr Mircaitt, M.D., and Gzorce R. Morenouss, M.D, (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, xiii, 169.)—This memoir is one of great interest, not only on account of the admirable manner in which the results have been worked out, and the valuable contribution which they are to physiology, but as showing how the labors of a carefu and truthful observer may pass for more than a half of a century negleet- ed, until, falling under theaotice of those who know how to appreciate em, the place which is their due is claimed for them in the history of science, The authors have made a thorough demonstration of the manner in which the respiratory movements are executed in turtles, and have shown that, with one exception, all writers on the subject from Malpighi to Agassiz, including no less authorities than Cuvier, Johannes Muller, and ine-Edwards, have fallen into error. The mechanism of breathing in these animals, as described by naturalists, has been supposed to be as h by the raising of the hyoid, air is driven from the mouth through the glottis and trachea into the lungs, when inspiration is completed; expira- tion is effected by the contraction of the abdominal muscles, and the consequent compression of the lungs. This is all wrong. cave during expiration, the hyoid apparatus all the while being motion- us tHe) parison which, since the days of Malpighi, has been sumed homologue o¥ the diaphragm is the true muscle of expiration. Eee 142 Scientific Intelligence. The authors had reached the conclusion set forth in their memoir, when, on looking into the literature of the subject, they found that in they had fallen unappreciated, and that in many instances they had not even been honored by a notice, or when noticed had been pee Fe only to be condemned.” In the dissertation above referred to, Townson fairly demonstrated the action of the abdominal muscles, and fairly recognized their true use, his conclusions being based upon a series of well devised experiments. ’ He 4 how ad but an imperfect knowledge of the compressor muscle, being ignorant of the anterior portion of it, and supposing that pressure was applied only to the hinder lobes of lungs instead of the whole of Townson’s explanation, which has been not only for the most part neglected, but criticised by Cuvier as erroneous, has at length been from obscurity, and proved, s it goes, in all respects true, and will hereafter receive the credit which it so richly deserve add es the above mentioned resul memoir contains a very impo! ras we are informed, an entirely new, investigation E of the seaieles of the nerves governing the movements of the glottis. : We should pass beyond the limits of a merely bibliographical notice if we en upon the anatomical and experimental details on which it rests, and will simply add the following fae ists of them by the authors, so far as they relate to the nerves of the larynx Ist. In Chelonians, the superior laryngeal nerve is distributed both to the opening and closing muscles of the glottis. 2d. The wkend ee nerve is Fistributed solely to the opening muscle of the . A true iicn exists between the two sn ni laryngeal nerves. — This last proposition covers a curious and hitherto undescribed distr- bution of the laryngeal nerves, viz: a complete decussation or interming- ‘ age sesh of the larynx not only get fibres of the superior netba i upper continue, because filaments of the undivided nerve not only pass to the muscles of the same side, but, by means of the chiasm, to those of the ps cena if the upper nerves of both sides are divided, th 6 parayee Fneigi contains a dig 3s number of anatomical details and | si experiments of great interest, which we must leave ese hr a Astronomy and Meteorology. 143 ticed: we will only add that the investigations have been conducted throughout with great care and skill, showing vat the authors are adepts in the only school which is likely to enlarge the boundaries a ese logical knowledge, viz: the school of Greemalii and experimen Vv. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 1. Discovery of Asteroid ().—This planet was discovered by D: Luther, at Bilk, March 15, 1863. It appeared as a star of the Toth RES DAR ‘lei Me a bo fos) or fo») phe log. « 0°441271 2. Comet II, 1863.—On the 12th of April, en crgoremoniit discovered a new comet in R, - ec. 3° S. s discovered independ ently by M. Donati at Florence on the 15th. ‘On the 19th of re this comet was only ten degrees distant from the North pole, presenting the appearance of a round nebulos _ 5 or 6 minutes in diameter. The fok lowing yore have been comput wy. > i=] Re Longitude of perihelion, 256° 1 517" mean eq. 1863-0 : Leeenns of node, 251 is 51 Inclinat . 112 37 57% Log. carillon distance, 0026080 3. Lomet III, 1863.—This comet was discovered by M. Respighi at y M. Becker, near Berlin, and by M. Te oe at Marseilles. On the 25th of April its tail was 2 degrees in length. M. Valz has communicated following _ elements rednest tae the ramen sae of M. Temp ~ Loti of perihelion, Longitude of node, As 20 Inclination, 85 27 Perihelion ‘distance, 06144 “gee: direct. servations of the Zodiacal Light wn MasterMax.— 4 The sodiacl coheed is one - the most hee to observe, i in our latiti of the estial phenomena. Besides the unfavorable position or invisi- _ bility in the twilight, sens it unobservable for a considerable portion 144 Scientific Intelligence. of, the year, the moon and even the larger planets completely eclipse its mild light much of the time when it might otherwise be seen. ince the commencement of 1859, I have been able to obtain a few extremity of the axis of the cone; these codrdinates being then easily convertible into those of longitude and latitude, thus giving the position referred to the ecliptic. : I have devoted very little attention to the physical phenomena of this body. Perhaps the phenomenon of rapid variations in brightness, ob- tved more than once, may not be without interest. These are not witho was particularly observable on Jan. , last. e annexed small table of observations, the column headed 4-@ contains the difference between the observed longitude of the apex of the ee light, and that of the sun taken from an ephemeris; in other words, the angular distance of the vertex from the solar centre. That headed # : shows the observed latitude of the vertex, north latitudes being regarded as positive. Date. A—() B b ° Le 1859, Jan. 23, — 104°8 +2 49 26, 8-2 1038 +317 1, 75 10I'7 +3 31 1861, Jan. 4, 7°5 86-5 +o 38 ae 3a 84:4 +2 38 Feb. 1, 7:2 72'9 —214 » &o 78-1 — 247 AM a 74:8 -3 3 Mar. 6, 8-0 70°8 + 3 33 » &5 7 Eat 28, 8:5 Phe me 2 8 +) ier Pied sa 79 —o 2 1862, Dee. 11, 7-0 704 +317 1863, Jan, 8 86-8 +3 °7 18, 8-3 905 ~ 6 8 Weld, Franklin Co., Maine, Apr. 15, 1863. 5. Results of Observations of Variable Stars at Weld, Franklin Maine ; by Simimax Masrerman.—I send you the results of my servations of variable stars since the commencement of the year. formed a design of observing all of those variables visible to the n eye, also such as require only a small optical power for that purpo but a long-continued illness, from which I now find myself far from a Astronomy and Meteorology. 145 6 Perset. Minimum, 1863, Feb. 2, 75 24m 488, Wash. M. T.—Wt.,, $. Minimum, 1863, Jan, 18, 10h 23, Wash. M. T.—Wt., 1. 5 Cephei. Minimum, 1863, Jan. 8, 114-6,—Weld, M. T.—Wt., 3. Feb. 4, 8 -5,— “4, t EN Minimum. 1863, Mar. 23, Oh—Wt., 1. | 1863, Feb. "25, 7h_Wt., 3. Apr. 1,1 ge F Mar. 12 5 17, 16 we * : : 22, 6 4. May 1, 7 hi 2. | 6 Lyre. neipal Mini 1863, Jan. 1, “gh se thibr jo I 1863, "3677 ‘Ti, 5h3—Wt, 1. og Pag 19. 290-8 Wt, 1: « Herculis. gpreatbacica’ bere asd 1 on this star, Feb. 15. time of Maximum, 1863, Feb. 6. yap te4 = 1863. dence of the cosmical origin of shooting stars derived from the dete of ¢ early ~ showers.—Mr. Quetelet, in his Physique du Globe, de- votes a chapt ter to shooting stars. Dou bts see m to have arisen in the return of the Rois and other showers on oe days of the year cal cha — possibly be due to meteorologi nges. But if the magnetism, é heat, the electricity, or the other properties of ve atmosphere pro- a on, XXXVI, No. 406,—JuLy, 1863, 146 Scientific Intelligence. Quetelet’s list, in some cases changed to agree with the authority cited. approximately corresponding dates of the tropical year. The later dates are generally omitted. To express these Sy ied in a sidereal year there is given at the same time the corresponding day (and fraction of a day 1850; that is, hen time when the pase on ude in her orbit, meas- ured from a equinox, was the same as on the day of the shower. The Sapte. peas is used in the computation he number of days to be added fo the actanel date ex- pressed in th e Gregorian oe “ the given year of the Christian era, n the number of leap years between the given date and A.D, 1850, and 1 the length in days of the aiictoal § year. Then, evidently, (1850 —t) (=2+4-365 (1850—2)-+N. To reduce this to a form better suited for computation, observe that N is equal to the integral part of $(1851—2), minus 12, plus the cor rection between the Gregorian and Julian calendars for the given date. Let ¢ be this correction, ¢ be the remainder after dividing 1851—¢ by 4, 1=3654-256374, and we obtain, by reducin x=(185 0= 1) X-00BT44H(¢—1) +12 —« The integral part of + the value of 12 : Itw ill be observed that Oe secular variation in the value of i, the : —i , Minus the integral part of wai apie of longitu e. n of the historic date is taken when it is not stated whether the te. was in the morning or the evening. This involves an error not e n-tenths of a day. It should borne that the shower in August (and probably those in other months) must be co ed as continuing through more than a single d > ita get vol. x, Paris, 1848, to the paper of Chasles in the Comptes Rendus, xii, 499, and to Herrick’s, eatalogue of star-showers, this Journal, bai 040. 349. oe dates reported by Biot are from the Chinese se 1 shower.—The following seem to belong to eg aa i, Mar. 16, corr. to AD. 1850, Apr. 19-9. i # 2B “ 19°6. “ 31, ‘“ “ “ 18-1. Chasles. ioe. ae 96, bd te eT. er 1094, * “10; * “ eee | = 1C S48 aL... ny Meee mY - ee yt a ye ee Ok 4 aot — “eer ge 4, corr, to Apr. 221. Chasles, Astronomy and Meteorology. 147 A.D. 1095, Apr. 96, corr. to A.D. 1850, Apr. 20°2, Herrick. 1096, “ 10 “ «“ “213, iss * jou “ «202, lie, * ir * “ “20-4, Chasles. 1803, “ 196, “ “ « 1949, Herrick. Ul. The August shower.—To this belong the following dates: A.D. 830, July 26, corr. to A.D. 1850, Aug. 9-2, Biot. es: cee 2 “ 10-4, “ 885, “ 26, “« « « 3g « 841, “ 25, iii ce ee 924, “ 26-98 « « S1-101. « 925, “ 27,98, « “ “ $893, « 926, ’ ce “« B “< 933, “ = “ “« 58-108. “ 1243, Aug. 2, ad .% alee ha’: Herrick. 451, “ 5& “ “ “100, Biot.? Til. The November shower.—The following appear to be exhibitions of this shower :° A.D. 6585, Oct. 25, corr. to A.D. 1850, Nov. 12:8. Chasles. 902, “* 29o0r30, * 11-0 or 12-0. Herrick. 1582, Nov. 7 ¢ “ oe 107 Wartmann. 1698, “ 86, « « “ 116. «“ 2 ss Rema © Sk + re & Feet 1833, 137, ss 3 se 13°3. IV. The December periods.—Ther appear to be t mae n De- cember, each marking a distinct aia viz: Dee. Gth_vth, ‘iat Dec. 12th. There is no early <4 te corresponding to the first epoch. The fol- lowing belong to the seco A.D. 901, Nov. 30, corr. to A.D. 1850, Dec. 13-3. Herrick. 930, “ 29 « “ « 116. jot. 1571, Dec, 8, ‘f . ae 5G Wartmann. lee — 7 _- of Quetelet’s Ls are arranged here rison wh ompa th those alread ich do not foubeian $5 indieats peer cnr are pens, Many of oF Gines retained doubtles refer to auroras, or to moderate exhibitions of shooting stars. January. A.D, 599-600, Dee. * corr. to A.D. 1850, Jan, es : ei 145, Jan. ; Perrey. 765, : a tay as * Hey 20-2. Biot and Perrey, 84 ec. 31, sid: oy * 41. Chastes. 1118-1119, a 2, se vs 54. February. A.D. 308, Jan. 20, ogee to AD. 1850, Feb 9-0. Biot. 913, Feb. 7, « 20-2. : 918, ee “ * 18-9, « oe « « 186, “ 1108 “ 19, « « = 287. Herrick. -_* Biot gives July 27th, 0.8, or Aug. 7th, N. S., which are not consistent. oes = Old miied nthe begioni | presumed to to be the = aes nm . Scientific Inielligence. March. A.D. 36, Feb. a corr, to AD. 1850, Mar, 2-1. Biot, 807, Mar 2, 16-4, Chaslea, 842, 5, = = o> AGS. . a “ + “ 6“ “« 81-4. “« “6 “ * 98-6, “ 98", Feb, is Me 4 Fi ne bg 1584, 28, “ bes ee Wartmann, April. A.D. 401, Apr, 9, corr. to A.D. 1850, Apr. 29-2. Biot. i ee 6 “ “« 94-4 Chasle. ,M 9, rs . pee ig 839, Apr. 17, “ “ “ 30-9. Bi See . = oe Chasles, eed aw | fs “ “ “ 90-8, Biot. 934, “ 18, « « $08. - 1y00 8 @ “ - = To. Chasles, S000, oS ef fo aoe. tot 1009, * 16. pe - Se Be Chasles, ay. A.D. 839, May 12, corr, to A.D. 1850, May 26-2. Chasles. 842, “ “ec “ “ 19:4, “ ei © 1 bd = 934. « : 965, “ 1: “ce “ 6 29:7. “ 1158, “ 8, “ “ec « "19°4. “ No shower in June, July, A.D. 36, D Jari 265, corr. to A.D. 1850, July 20-8. 784, July 1 29 1022, June 28-80, * “ “ 9°3-11°3, August, A.D. 714, July 19, corr. to A.D. - 1850, Aug. 2-9. 865, Aug. 5, Po SO September. A.D. 532, Aug.30, corr. to A.D. 1850, Sept. 17-6. 1012, Sept.17, a. * ee 1037, Aug. 217, 2 4 = ee 1063, “ 28, “ cl “ 7-5. Ci ee aa el Sd Sp ge Nae aT AN aa aria oo Astronomy and Meteorology. 149 November. A.D. 855, Oct. 21, corr, to A.D. 1850, Noy. 4-1. Chasles. 856, “ 21, “ “ “ 48. “ 970, Nov. 8, % is * 263. 1G Se Se “As 4 «44%. Chasles : “ Tt, ‘ “a “ 18°0., 1101, Oct. 24, ae us a BO. Perrey 4 OG; s&s bs - 284 Herrick. 1366, “ 29°56, “ “ Lid 5-6. “ 1533, Nov. 38, af ae 2 7-0. Biot. December. A.D. be Dec. 1, corr. to A. D. 1860, Dec. 159. Chasles. 9, Nov. 18, 1:8. ick. Bee Dec. 13, as ss “ 17-14 This Jour., (2), xxxv, 461, The following dates are ae a this table as pate the atten- tion of observers, viz: Jan. 15— eb. 19, Mar. 1-4, Apr. 28-30, Oct, nodes of the November ring a procession of one day in 70 years most of these would be brought into the November For five of the dates given above, the day of the month depends oe the time of Easter. An error of the year, which might easily be m would change the date if for 538, 840, 1000, 1009, and 1158 we could read 536, 842, 1002, 1010, and 1160, the dates of the showers would correspond respectively to April 18°9, 20-4, 20°4, 19-4, and — “9. Yale College, June 16, 1863. H. A. ‘Newr 7. The meteoric iron from Newstead.—In the year 1827, whilst ciggng a cellar in the village of Newstead, Roxburghshire, Scotland, siaking.. in the clay at a depth of from 3 to 4 feet, the second and largest mass ing 35 years, until it attracted the attention of Dr. John who read a paper on it at the meeting of the Royal Physical Society of hari (April 28d, gale. from which we learn the oe par- fi true nature had been overlooked, it has been preserved as a wer eeu kisah ae Dec. 3d, Si alate Se rene Sate shovkd to the first December shower og be Dee and this belongs to , 150 Scientific Intelligence. four irregular smoother planes, which, meeting one another with two acute and two obtuse angles, form a somewhat pyramidal four-sided figure, tapering rapidly towards this end of the mass, and terminating in an irregular quadrilateral extremity. _ _ In its greatest length it measures 103 inches, and in its widest part, about the middle of its length, 7 iuches; its circumference round the larger extremity is 1 foot 3 inches, in its widest part, round the lobular projections, 1 foot 84 omg d “Seow within 14 inches of the point its circumference is only 94 inc It weighed 32lbs., 11 ounces cane 14 drachms avoirdupois. Its surface has a dark reddish brown, in some parts a blackish, calor: the lobulated parts show here. and there, e especially in the furrows, spots a brighter red color. For the purpose of preserving the original shape, plaster casts were taken before it was cut u It was cut longitudinally into two portions, and one of them again into ee slices. I ound to be entirely free from any foreign admixtures, such as ee ‘As. and of a bright white a and solid, dense, and hey -like u ort y ilar appearance, but displays more distinctly the characteristic and f like lines of crystallization crossing each other at Hee angles lines are very fine and minute in texture, and the rite resannblla in structure that of hazelnut size found many years “aio ge Leadhills, and described by R. P. Greg, Esq. Dr. Murray Thomson found the spec. grav. of different portions, 6° 1919, 6-499 and 6°7400; that of the pyramidal portion 6°750; that of the lobed portion 6-350, that of the whole mass =6-517, The 5 composition of the meteorite is sonicing to Dr. M. Thomson: - - - 93°51 Nickel, - . - 4°86 Silica, - - - O-oL Carbon, - - - 0-59 ; 8. The meteoric iron from Sarepta.—Director Wm. Haidi ar “a as neeting of on 24th, 1862, of the ete fe tow fi of —-§nte r obse on ee iron from 8: His} 2 Astronomy and Meteorology. 151 Sarepta iron in three positions, the other representing prints from a galvanoplastic pre prepared from the etched slices of Sarepta and Arva iron, showing — structure; together with two prints from the —e plates themselve though it is very difficult to form without these illustrations a cor- rect idea of the appearance and structure of this meteorite, we will give the following abstracts It was found in 1854 on the right bank of the river Volga in the steppes of the Kalmucs, 30 miles (German) from Sarepta in the district of Zarizin, - Saratow in Russia. Its original weight was 32lbs. 58 — nik, =31°58 lbs. neha or 14325 grs. The first notice of it w Sarepta, at whose os apne ‘plas aster casts were made ak the mass, the original however being cut to pieces oe a It is a compact iron mass, pretty rich in nickel, rounded at the edges, and entirely free from olivine or any dhe oreign substances. The gh repta meteorite is one of the most remarkable and peculiar known; a most characteristic difference, distinguishing its two sides, can readily ‘be again ed. The front side has the form of a genty sloping arch, similar o a spherical surface, the _— of which 1 about 9} in inches. The ation of which can be easi y imagined to _ been pear by the aerek off by pointed flames uniting backwards. The m show well the characteristic sharply turned ar ridges produced by the meting of the crust. m all these data there seems to be no doubt that the position here suggested was really that which the meteorite had during the cosmical part of its path. The centre of gravity sen wariageed nearer fs ined flat spherical ag or than inside of the @® ae o. : or it. siaeene iron aes not appear to have been very long exposed to the atmospheric influences, its surface being hard!y acted upon by rust. It presents in its structure many analogies with that of Arva. The schreibersite in the figures upon the plates of the Sarepta iron does not show any interruption in its direction, although it does not penetrate them uniformly. The meteoric iron immediately adjoining the schreibersite shows distinctly fine characteristic strie and hatchings, most plainly in the darkest portio ; 2 ie more lustre and S Gad s nd gece hich are now then 152 aon Intelligence. dark gray, more granular in texture and sreeeais ange from the other. Held oe the light in very oblique angles, it shows a paler gray ~ and a little lustre caused by the damask. frog wis the d ark mass are very minute brighter — parti gray without — in one corner there is some aphite, ning a roundish parcel of sulphid of iron. The plates from Arva iron, howev present great differences eae themselves, FA. Gm 9. Meteoric Iron from Tucson, Arizona.—A mass of meteoric iron from Tueson has been presented to the city of San Francisco by General Carle- ton. In a recent letter, Prof. Whitney ies that this iron is 4 feet 11 and weighs 632 lbs. It was found at or near Tucson, Arizona, by Gen. Carleton’s California column on coe march ‘throngh that region, and has evidently been used for an anvil, although it is not the one fig- ured by Bartlett as aves served that purpose. A een en of this me teorite was sent to Prof. Brush, of Yale College, cavities which, on the fresh fracture, were lined with a white silicious mine ral, giving the surface 5 porphyritic, or ee appearance. ie a specific gravity is 7°2 en a fragment of it laced in a solution — of neutral sulphate 8 copper, it oars quickly jesioe with cnetalile cope per, proving the iron to be ‘active.’ Attacked with an acid, a potion of the iron was dissolved, leaving the silicious mineral projecting from face of the — and, with a magnifier, black particles of ncbeibeal 3 ite could b n. er complete solution of the i iron, a careful micro- scopic mine was made of the insoluble residue. With a magnify: ing power of 25 diameters, it appeared to consist chiefly of two substal- ees: one a milk-white to pont Sa mineral, having a fused, rounded sur face, occurring in little globules, or elongated, rounded particles ; while the other constituent was black and angular, and attractable by the er? net. The first named substance, when observed with a magnifying p of 100 diameters, proved to contain minute specks of the black minated through it; some of the silicious fragments were trp: cen and of a milk-white color, and others colorless and transparen arg number, however, were transparent at one end, shading into milk at the other, , thus aT a to nee that the eeeapanent Astronomy and esr) 153 m sia, with unweighable traces of chlorine, sulphur, and alumina, For the quantitative ara, “of the meteorite, a fragment weighing 4°3767 grammes was treated with nitro-chlorhydric acid (aqua regia), ‘and after - solution of avin iron the whole was evaporated: on approaching dryness eet silica separated, showing that the silicate had been pa ally, least, decomposed by the acid. ter heating until the silica rendered insoluble, it was repeatedly treated with acid and évaporstale as to insure the oxydation of all the schreibersite, and finally the solu- ble part was taken up with chlorhydric acid, and on dilution separated by filtration from the silica and insoluble residue. The insoluble residue, containing free silica and undecomposed silicate, was perfectly white and free from ‘all traces of schreibersite. It wei ghed 0°1855 grm., equal to 424 per cent of the specimen analyzed. It was fused with carbonate of soda, and the silica and bases determined in the usual manner, v8 contained 0°159 grm. silica; 0°0054 protoxyd of iron, with a minute trace of alumina; 0:0028 ime, and 0°0168 magnesia. The soluble ris insoluble portions gave in the analysis the following percentage composition : . - iy : ] ; . th 25 + cat lie. oc 55 8 Considering n S08 ot Si a ee eS 79:44 Nickel oer % Cobalt 0-44 O44 Ps ab ee 0:08 Phosphorus SS a te VES es kee cea O49 wes es Wek es "63 Protoxyd of | eae with 2°73 sees a tree eat soil 0°12 + toxyd of i Pag: f 10°07 seam 1-16 | pies olivine Magnesia.,....... 2-43 J Chlorine, Sulphur, minute traces traces. Chromium ; = toned Me ne y to deduct 2°12 per cent from the amount of metallic | 2°73. per cent of prays of iron), in order to give the sete the olivine formula (RO, SiO,). Admitting this to be the cor- _ Tect view, the mass analyzed ‘oitaion 10°07 per cent of olivine, and by _ the addition of oan of the protoxyd of iron the analysis adds up 99°69 instead of com eon a this meteorite corresponds very closely with an- phe meteoric iron from Tucson, discovered by Mr. Bartlett, and described by Prof. J. Lawrence Smith, in the Am. Journ, of Science, 2d ser., vol. xix, oe 161. Yor, Smith’s analysis gives iron 85°54, nickel 8 ‘55, cobalt 61, copper 0-03, phosphorus 0°12, chromic oxyd 0:21, magnesia 2-04, * silica 3°02, alumina trace, 100-18. He considers it to correspond to _ Nickeliferous iron 93°81, chrome iron 0°41, schreibersite 0°84, olivine 5-06 - =100-1: By an evident inadvertence, Dr. Smith ae the magnesia AM. Jour. Scr. —SEconD xirns, Vou. XXXVI, No. 106.—Jvty, 1863. 20 Be ia ces eB ig 3 4 z 154 Scientific Correspondence.’ and silica together, and gives the sum as olivine; these substances are obviously not in the proportions to form the silicate 3RO, SiOg, and if we consider the silicate to be olivine, we must reckon the excess of silica as combined with protoxyd of iron. To do this, we must deduct 2°83 from the amount of metailic iron (equal to 3°64 protoxyd of iron), neces- sary to be combined with the silica and magnesia to give the olivine n will then be 8-70 per cent. Thus the two masses of iron will be seen to agree very nearly in composition, the only trifling difference being, that Dr. Smith has determined quantitatively the small amount of chromium contained in the Bartlett meteorite, whilé I have found a little lime and fore of es. and oe in the specimen you sent to me. specific gravity I have stated to be.7:29; this was taken on about 125 grammes of the iron, et sibalis | is somewhat higher than the portion which I analyzed, as the two surfaces of the larger specimen had rubbed down, and as thus a considerable portion of the exposed silicate would be mechanically removed, it would make the density corto ue ingly higher. E . Meteor of April 19th seen at Philadelphia. —A brilliant mould as was seen at pal gst and vicinity, on Sunday evening, April 19th, o'clock, at 10 minutes ‘halore ; ts apparent size was oagor less than that of the full moon, its brillianey considerably greater, form globular, and direction of motion nearly from west to east, tending slightly southward. It seems pr obable that its first appearance was over the eastern edge of Chester County, although the data are not sufficient to determine satis- factorily either the place of beginning or the velocity. It is very clearly . P Town (4 miles east of West Chester), Wilmington and Odessa, that it get ter over the — ee of Camden County, i The Seaton of visibility was estimated at from 3 to 6 seconds. Both at Wilmington a and West To own, it was — pa an interval of about 3 minutes, by a noise like thunder. the former place, @ gentleman who did not see the meteor woibg Joc oe poe to that of cannon at Fort Delaware. ten miles dist VI. SCIENTIFIC CORRESPONDENCE. — Observations on Stellar Spec eseribed i in their Oise a Donat used a large burni tha ike nches aperture rab c sronca inches focal distance, atorially, the ¢ light hroug sary 9,166. oy, Apri 10, 1368. ‘ vo hy Astronomy and Meteorology. 155 which it was received by a small achromatic objective, and observed with an ey a sae magnifying twelve times, in the focus of which was placed a bar movable by a micrometer screw. my experience in the atc kt of stellar spectra, [-shou note several defects in this arr angement. Ist. The absence of achromatism in the great condenser, in te of peririe but a small portion of the spectrum can at any time be brought to ‘an approximate focus, and fine definition of the lines whee obtained. much power in the observing telescope, the objections to which are manifest. ad. The uncertainty of making a contact of the micrometer bar with the te — being no illumination. ; waut of a che ck, such as the presence of a flame line in the feld of view, nn insure the detection : such small displacements of the The results of these Jastrutsental pie will I think be seen when we hereafter examine the ceeasgi sae T twelve inches aperture. He says “The pencil of light from the glass, which has converged to form the image of the star, then ite ges, and falls in a wide and divergent state upon the prism; after emergence it is received on a combinati ton of lenses which causes the pencils for the different colors to converge.” é image is a with -a micrometer, the field being illuminated by an annular reflector. In this form neither slit nor cylindrical lens is used, but breadth is oun to the spectrum of the star by the creation of aberrations in two ways; first, by placing the prism in a pesiios not that of least deviation, and second, by the uncorrected state of the “ com- ete of lenses” through which the hight reaches the micrometot after manuer: net err peti y a hole =}, of an inch in lant is ence is Saadeh’ with a aatiee in a Lice tabs and the position of the small hole observed. At night, the pe ae oa is removed, and the image of the star is made to occupy the same position when seen in the lateral eye-piece oceupied by the sun-illuminated hole, the eye-piece and re- fiector are then removed, and the observation made by the micrometer upon the star strize Mr. Airy, in his description, speaks of this form of spectroscope as = perimental, and expresses some doubts of its ability to define with sharpness, is defect must necessarily result from the construction of the i lustrument, since the lines are only rendered visible by the existence of ec tions, which are destructive of fine definition. The spectrum not being confined during the observation to any certain part of the field of 4 view, . BY a slit or other check, the truth of the measures depends entirely re exact running of the equatorial driving clock, which is not to tah trusted, ‘The ijlumination of the field must necessarily obliterate the 156 Scientific Correspondence. extremities of faint spectra, and render the observation of many lines , impossible, Be. Secchi’s spectroscope is on the whole much better me pe of the a former. The light of the great Roman equatorial passes through a slit at the focal point, then traverses a cylindrical Jens, then is pa par | allel by a lens, and then falls upon the prism, which is a compound strue- ture composed of four flint glass prisms of 90° cemented to five crown glass prisms of the same angles and. so ae age that the axis of the n amount to about the ante of two 65° prisms of flint ns iss. This di persion is so great that the lines in the stellar spectra are seen without an observing telescope. They are referred for measurement to an illuminated scale retiected from the last surface of the prism. This -scale is made by fine perforations in a metallic plate. The instrument is provided with a reflector for the purpose of comparing the star lines with those of @ any eniion i in Ke a of the s m. The advantage first named is mu os greater than would at first be sup: posed, as I have recently proved by the substitution of a bisulphid of Gine s ist for the flint glass formerly used in gas star s : With,an eye-piece of one half of the power forme rly oh spectrum longer than before with more than double the i intensity of light, and a consequent revelation of striz not before seen. I have perhaps trespassed too much upon deed space in this note upon the instrumental agency so far brought to bear pon the spectral anal of the stars. But these znvoatigndione are yet in a ihe cradle, and if, as 18 hate they are destined to assume a great importance in the the constitution of the universe, it will not be amiss to point - bees about to embark in obs new field of abo the advantages and di the star spectroscope as it at present stands. é In the April No. of the Monthly Botioss, Mr. Glaisher describes servations on the length of the spectrum obtained from the sky at differ- ent a made by him during his balloon ascension on the _ h las - 2 i are wing to want of oy (alt | han ; the s! oe at the time was of a p dark. blue, as tha is possible the light was inenflicient.”. - of the spectrum observed by. Mr. Glaisher ie serine cee bate and, to the monochromatic Miscellaneous Intelligence. 157 of the blue sky, which at that great altitude _ but little vapor in suspension capable of reflecting white li ght. It is to be regretted that he did not make a series of observations upon the oon obtained directly from the sun. Such a series would have been of great v value in deter- mining the agency of our atmosphere in producing lines in the spectrum ; and it is very necessary for the precision of astronomical chemistry to determine cree which lines are telluric, and which are attributable to a celestial origin. You will remember that in my note to you April last, siete in the May No. of this Journal, I sent you a diagram of the nine lines of which I found the solar D to be composed. I have since that date satisfied myself that of this group four only are truly solar lines and five telluric. Of this nature are a three faint lines on the red side of Kirchhoff’s central line and the two faint ones next adjoining i on the green side. My proof is that thie. om slihongh difficult objects at noonday with a battery of eleven prisms, are seen with ease near “ sunset with two. The whole of the yellow region of the spectrum is crowded with nog lines, and it is most desirable that they should be accurately know am very peaaeoete yours, Lewis M. Rornerrurp. New York, June 8, 1863. VII. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. On a System of Mounting Insects for the Microscope; by Hen T; Nec. B.A. (From the Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, on 24, p. 271. )—The insects, after being caught, are put to steep in a solu- tion of caustic potash, until they become clear, or nearly so; the strength of the solution which I think the best for general purposes is, half a drac m to the ounce. If stronger than this is used, _I find it acts on : a it, I float the insect on to the oiid of the aide, and-not - mid dle (the reason for this will presently appear). I then ‘place the insect as nearly as possible in the form in which I wish it finally to appear; and, taking another slide, at tha end of which I hold a small bit of blotting paper, I lay it over the slide which has the object on it, the blotting paper being over and next the object; then gently and gradually press the two slides together, and pass over them a small clip made of flat brass-wire, and put the entire se em in water, to remain for sin hours, at least. 158 Miscellaneous Intelligence. be drained off. And now the eye-glass or dissecting microscope must be brought into action, and the object finally set out. The parts are still limber, and can be arranged, which they could not be if the objects were soaked in turpentine to make them clear, in the first instance, as they g to mount, I select a number of covering glasses, such as are likely to suit one of the bundles, and, after cleaning, place f wards, of course), to the object on the slide, slip on another brass clip, which is made so as to touch the cover only in one point, and that pomt — i a bundle or bun- mens are perfectly dry, they are entirely rubbed off the slide once cleaned off with benzole and washing-soda. ioe _ 2. Collection of Minerals and Chemical Apparatus belonging to t late Prof. Manross.'—This collection consists of about 500 good s meus of rocks and minerals, together with many hundreds of smaller _ [. It will be remembered that Professor (Captain) Manross fell at the batt t i i cones h = a mo: worthy act Antietam, Sept. 17, 1862, while would hy a recognition of his patriotic devotion to purchase his instruments and collections i “ . Sg ae * Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 They are mostly from New England, and igh several large lumps of the Haddam chrysoberyl rock now no longer to be obtained. “Many valu- able specimens of gold and sulphur from Bont America and Mexico are also embraced in the collection. The entire cabinet has been apernnar at the moderate sum o mong the apparatus are balances for analysis, a reflecting adic: ter of the most finished and perfect German construction, and platinum and silver crucibles. The whole may be viewed at any time at the resi- dence of Mrs. Manross, at Forrestville, Conn., or information respecting them may be obtained by apaicalign.! ie Fist C, U. Shepard (one of the a 37 of the estate) at Amherst e, Mass. : Aranaactsons of the Academy Y of Sei of St. Louis, Vol. If, No. 1, valuable papers, among which are the ane: on Botany and ee age 128, ah hee by G. En scctuane on Geo and Paleontology, by B. F. Shumard, G. C. Swallow, and H. Eaccioune: . on Atmospheric goed by Fg Wisllecuts: on the Ascent of Pike’s meal oh i C. C. Par . Insecteans.—On base e 7, in mentioning names for the subdivisions of lee ea the word for the second division is written Oc topods, this is identical with the name for a group of Cephalopods, it gine be better to ae the equally, or even more, correct form of the word, 5. Officers of t the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, chosen May 26, 1863.— President, Asa Gray. Vice-President, Cuar.es Becx. Corresponding Secretary, Wiittam B. Rogers. Librari an, Jostan P. Cooxe. Treasurer, Eowarv Wiceiesworts. Council, The President, Vice-President, and the Secretaries, ex officio, THomas Hn, George P. Bono, Jouy B. Henck, A. A. Gouin, Louts Acassiz, Jerrries Wray, Rozerr C. Winrurop, ‘Gzorer E. Etats Henry W. Torrey. Rumford Committee, Josep Lovertne, Moret yMAN, Wii1aM B. Rogers, Josepx Wiy.ocn, Cuartes W. hig | Turopuitus Parsons, Cyrus M. Warren. Finance Committee, The President and Treasurer, ex officio, J. Incersott Bowprren. Publication Committee, Joseru Loverine, JEFFRIES ites, Cuartes Becx. Library Committee, A. A. Gov, Wiutam P, Dexrer, J. - Hencx. Auditing Committee, Tuomas T. ouvé, CHARLES E. War Boox 6. Ch Remake Spherical and Practical Astronomy.'—In this work we have fresh evidence of the success with which astronomy has been culti- A al uals ’ ing the General Problems of Spherical Astronomy. pecial Applications to Nautical Astr y, and Use of fixed and portable Astronomical Instruments. With an Appendix on the Method — ae eee or too 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Cambridge and Edinburgh as a text-book, — commended by leadtog English astronomers as the best in the lahgt ve. The success of that a omy some of its most original and important improvements—as, for ex ample, the American, or chronographic, method of transits, the tele- graphic method of longitude, and Talcott’s method of “ “5 de—so we should also give to it a treatise of corresponding impor th an one, in fact, as the work before us—the ht complete othe shee ough that has yet appeared in any country or ss na Reserving for a following number of dite Journal a more elaborate re- view of these volumes, we can here only indicate in brief their scope and . leading features, 1e first volume, on Spherical Astronomy, discusses, with almost exhaustive completeness, the questions of parallax, refraction, time, latitude and longitude, eclipses, aberration, astronomical constants, ete. These discussions are characterized throughout by that remark- able generality and Ebtheniaticnl rigor, ernie belong sedate to the ods by Bessel, and others of his school. upon these m ethods, Pe Choad ee tk represents astronomy in its. most sasae and per ee forms of + research. Many of the investigations are, either wholl y or in part, origi- : nal—suth, for example, as Of ‘some: of. the formule for latitude and Be a nes: ae eae mer hy circle, aerate id azimuth triste finite dente elescope, equa- torial telescope, heliometer, and the filar and ring micrometers. Old instruments and old methods are wholly discar ee Not the least valuable part of the work is the Appendix of a hundred pages on the Method of Least Squares and Pierce’s Criterion—examples of the application of which in the discussion of observations abound throughout the work, A few an tables—altogether too few—are given at the clos, nearly half of them belonging to the author’s method of lunars. eel plates Shasteauive! of i instruments, sheet on a scale, are very fiche . oe sufficiently in detail for the purpose they were intended to The mechanical execution of the work- type, paper, &c.—are worthy of its scientific merits, and all that the mo fastidious could desi The eats, of Orbits and Perturbations—topics, in part at least, belonging to practical astronomy, and naturally looked for in a work li ee oe ould “ have been included without too great conde repare at an erat day. Fy RETEST a eT ee Am Si AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.} Axrt, XV.—On the Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance; by Prof. JoserH Loverine, of Harvard College. Foucav.t’s recent experiment on the velocity of light, though . of a less popular character than his celebrated pendulum exper- y In the circle of the sciences, the centre may be placed any- where and the cireumference will be everywhere: such is the mutual dependence of each upon all the rest. After the science _ Of optics has furnished astronomy with the teléscope, the astron- omer discovers with it the satellites of Jupiter and the aberra- tion of light, and with the help of these phenomena assigns the value of the velocity of light, and thus oss to optics the debt incurred by his own special science. Now, for the first time, the science of optics has relinquished the guardianship of astron- . omy; ascertained by direct experiment one of its own funda- mental data; and thereb ibly, put astronomy under a new obligation, to be candid ie with interest, hereafter. Let us glance first at the two astronomical methods of meas- uring the velocity of light. While the senses of touch and taste ouR. Sct.—Seconp Serres, Vo. XXXVI, No. 107.—Sepr., 1863. " 162 J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance. act only by contact, those of hearing and seeing bring the mind — into communication with distant objects. The air and the omni- present ether supply the delicate and ever ramifying threads Se which telegraphic intercourse is maintained with the ear and eye. When the origin of the sound or the light is at a large Taccncs compared with the yocaty of the acoustic or luminous wave, allowance must be made for the time taken by the news os an audible or visible event to come to us. ly the vast aces of astronomy are commensurable with the great velocity of light, and furnish a sufficiently large theatre for a direct experiment upon it. But, in stellar astronomy, the magnificence of the extent of view so far transcends in magnitude even the velocity of light, that the luminous ray, vast as is its velocity) gq seems to loiter upon its long wa : ence, in astronomy, a distinction exists between the actual interval of successive events and the apparent interval. For » — example, the first satellite of Jupiter revolves around its primary in about 423 hours; and, therefore, enters the shadow of Jupiter, months changes back again ; and — the earth is nearest to Jupiter, the news of an eclipse reaches us in about 32 minutes, — whereas, if the earth is at the Piet distance, 50 nis : require Consequently, the intervals between successive eclipses, a8 they exist for our eyes, are variable, being cornea larger and sometimes smaller than the real intervals. This regular aa the apparent peareae of the eclipses of the same e satellit te, ab first attributed to errors of observation, finally condue mgr according to Encke’s computations, the quotient, o statute miles, is the velocity of light in a secon _ The second process which astronomy has su ing the velocity of light may be calla, the indirect viens a velocity which is commensurable ty of light. If two such velocities are co inciple of the J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance. 163 tons, there is a resultant motion, the direction of which deviates sensibly from that even of the largest motion which enters into the composition. In nature, the velocity of the earth is com- pounded, in this way, with the velocity of light, and im the light an apparent path differing by a small angle from the true pa are proportional to the indices of refraction inversely: which in the case presented are as 1 to 1:000294. This theoretical dif- ference of velocities is less than 37,5 of the whole, or less than - Compare with these conclusions of astronomy two experi- mental results on the same subject. Although Wheatstone’s experiment on the velocity of electricity, published in 1834, suggested the possibility of measuring, in a similar way, other great velocities, I shall consider first a contrivance of Fizeau, 164 J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance. equally applicable to light and to electricity. If a wheel finely cut into teeth on its circumference is put in rapid rotation, a ray of light, which escapes between two consecutive teeth, wi ill after being reflected perpendicularly by a mirror, return to strike the wheel at a different point, and either be intercepted by a tooth . or admitted at another interstice. Suppose the velocity of the | wheel just sufficient to bring the adjacent tooth to the position whence the ray first started, in the time which the light occupies in going to the mirror and returning, In this time the wh as moved over an angle found by dividing 360° by twice the number of teeth which the wheel contains. Therefore the time teeth, and the slowest velocity which produced peachiahee bs 3 ane 6 turns a second, it —, rie light required ;;}s7 : to go 8633 metres and return. Hence its velocity was : 313, "O74 308 metres or 194, 667 x tiie a second, The Fre Academy thought so favorably of this attempt that they refer- red the subject to a scientific commission consisting of J 6; he Pouillet and Regnault, with authority to procure a ' machine for repeating the experiment. | sea Arago advocated the claims of Wheatstone to the va cant place of Corresponding Member of the French A [oS in the pet of Physics, it was objected that Wheatstone 4 only made a single experiment without having discov: oe principle, Ara ed to prove that the candidate hadi troduced a fertile method of experimentation ag: abe be felt in other sciences as well as electricity. For example: @ gas scular theory of light requires that the veloanieh of light ie ifferent media should vary directly as the Raper of refrae tion, whereas the undulatory theory inverts this ra Arago prepared for the trial by experiments on rapid oe theme chanical difficulties to be overcome, and the comparative advan- tage of slower rotations assisted by several reflexions, in > Bae ee _ of a single mirror turning with its maximum s Aided by the refined skill of Breguet, he realized velocities in the mirror — of 1 eh as eee eee the mir- — it J. Lovering on ies . Light and the Sun’s Distance. ey: “A pencil of solar light, reflected into a open et direction ey a he- Hostat, falls upon the micrometric mark, which consists of a series of ver- tical lines: distant from one another one-tenth of a millimetre. This mark, which in the experiment is the real standard of measure, has been div ided very sarebalty by F aps nie The rays, which have traversed this initial, surface, fall upon a plane rotating mirror at the distance of a metre, where. they suffer pete first reflexion, which sends them to a concave mirror at the distance of four metres. Between these two mirrors, and as near as possible to the plane mirror, is placed an Gian having in one of its conjugate foci - virtual image of the mark, and in the other the surface of the concave mirror. These ete being ful- filled, the pencil of light, ae wavereing the lens, forms an image of the mark on the surface of this concave mirror. “Thence the pencil is reflected a second time, in a direction just ob- lique enough to a void the rotating mirror, an image of which it forms is placed, facing so that the pencil, once more oe returns to the “The = of these mirrors, a er — the © pieced one, which returning _— and tha vena ae on the last mirror but one coa- en we are sure that the pencil retraces its steps, returns in ie to the plane mirror, and all the rays go back primes the mark, point for point, as they went forth. “This return of the pencil may be proved on an soceaitla imag apa 3 reflecting the pencil to one side by a airy of glass at an angle of 4 and examining it through a & A eas cabal SS besosein pages, cles lc ated ~ with the mark ee the Erélined ag one solid Piece of appara' “The real i etn! sent into the microscope, and formed by the returning oo partially reflected, occupies a definite position in relation to the glass and the mark itself. ‘This is position is precisely that of the virtual image of the mark seen by reflexion in the glass, At least, this is true When the plane rotating mirror is at rest. But when this mirror 166 J. Lovering on Velocity iy Light and the Sun’s Distance. a | i=} ot > @ 5 ry pa ° = iP o im @o Zoe s | = ° = a 7 Rp => fa) Qu > nm bs o 2 pe ° = =) i] Q. and this displacement increases with the velocity of rotation: it also in- creases with the length of the route passed over by the rays, and with the gene of the mark from the plane mirro call V the het of light, » earl uae of times the mirror turns jn a second, / the distance between the plane mirror and the last concave mirror, 7 the athe of the ak from the turning mirror, and d the observed displacement, we have V = ae : an expression which gives the velocity of light when the other ero bin are separately meas- ured. The distances 7 and r are measured directly by a rule. The devi- ation is observ en eae it remains to show how the number is mounted directly upon the axis of a small siarting of a well known cra bola irably constru a by Froment. The air is er byia bigh between these two forces, which tend to equilibrium, cannot fail to re ceive and to preuitve a uniform velocity. Any check whatever, a upon the flow of the water, allows this velocity to be regulated wi wy extensive limits “It re emains, to estimate the number of turns, or rather to impress OD | = teeth appear immovable pore then that the ae idk m te circumference, turns once in a second, and that the turbine wp. ti. ay fs oer reg er dow of air, the teeth are made to appear J, Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance. 167 clock-work, which resolves, in an elegant manner, the problem of uniform motion in the particular case in which there is no work to be done. The success is so complete that it is my daily experience to launch the mirror not allow of the degree of accuracy willingly attributed to it. To meet this difficulty, I have introduced into the system of observation a modifi- cation which ts simply to a change of the variable. Instead o measuring micrometrically the deviation, I adopt for it a definite value in advance, suppose seven-tenths of a millimetre, or seven entire parts the image; and I seek by experiment to find the distance between the mark and the turning mirror necessary to produce this deviation: the measures extending over a length of about a metre, the last fractions ve a magnitude directly visible, and leave no room for error. “ By this means the apparatus has been purged of the principal cause of uncertainty: henceforth the results accorded, within the limits of errors of observation, and the means are settled in such a way that I am able assign confidently the new number which appears to me to express nearly the velocity of light in space, viz: 298,000 kilometres in a second of mean time.” This value, reduced to statute miles, shows that the velocity of light is 185,177 miles in a second; which is less by 6836 miles than the velocity for light usually admitted into science, : times greater than the variation between the velocity deduced the velocity by Foucault's experiment nor the value of tion ¢ r of any error roaching to this large discrepancy. How is the ‘ee velocity of light to be reconciled with the old value of aberration? I have said that aberration establishes only the ratio between the velocity of light and the velocity of the earth. this ratio cannot be tampered with, and if one term of it (the velocity of light) must be diminished by three per cent, to suit Foucault's experiment, then we must at the same time diminish the other term (the velocity of the earth) proportionally; and the old ratio will be ‘preserved, and the 168 J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance. value of aberration will be left unchanged. Is it possible, there- fore, that there can be an uncertainty to the extent of three per cent in the velocity of the earth? If so, the tables are turned: and, instead of employing the ratio which aberration supplies to calculate the velocity of light from the velocity of the earth, as the best known of the two, we henceforth must calculate the He locity of the earth from the velocity of light. For, Fouca has found the latter by geal more accurately than iz tronomy gives the former. If there is an error of three per cent in the velocity of the earth, it is an error in space and not in time. To diminish the velocity of the earth sufficiently by a change of time would demand an increase in the length of the ear amounting to eleven days nearly. “The only other way of reaching the velocity of the earth is by diminishing the circumference of the earth’s orbit, and this, if diminished, changes , broportionally the mean radius of the orbit; that is, the sun’s mean distance. The question, there- riety resolves ne! into this. Can the distance of the sun from earth be considered uncertain to the extent of three per sent of the whole distance ? sare answer to this question will lead me into a brief discussion f the processes by which the sun’s distance from the earth has etn doientniad: and the limits of accuracy which belong to the received value. To see “ia distance of any body is an actof binocular vision. When t ly is near, the two eyes of t same individual converge pe it. The interval between the ie is the little base-line, and the angle which the optic axes of e ve eyes, when directed to the bod , make with each other > : ; , llax; and by this simple triangulation, i in which an a inbactve geometrical sense supersedes the use of sines and loga- | rithms, the distance of an object is roughly calculated. As the — | distance of the object increases, the base-line must be cial e : but the geometrical method is the same, even when the object is a star and the base of the triangle the diameter of the earth's z orbit. Substitute then for the two eyes of the same observer — takes its stereoscopic view of the universe, sad plunges into i fon ts of space. In this way it is that the distance of the sum iods ‘of revolution, if the astronomer finds * J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance. 169 tance by observation, the others can be computed from this law. As the solar parallax is only about eight seconds, and an error of one-tenth of a second includes an error of more than a million of miles in the sun’s distance, he takes advantage of the law of Kepler, and selects a planet which comes occasionally nearer to the earth than the sun. The choice lies between Venus at infe- ° fore, may be nearer to the earth than Mars, and the parallax more favorable. But Venus cannot be seen at conjunction ex- cept when its latitude is so small that a transit across the sun’s dise occurs. Then the two observers refer its place not to a star but to the sun, and the quantity they determine is the difference of parallax between Venus and the sun; which will vary from about 21" to 25”. Moreover, the difference of parallax is meas- ured, not directly, but through the influence it produces on the duration of the transit at the two stations: and, therefore, upon a greatly enlarged scale. What are the results which have been obtained: 1st, by ob- servations of the transits of Venus, and 2d, by observations on Mars at opposition ? 1. Only two transits of Venus have occurred since the time when the sagacious Dr. Halley invoked the attention of posterity to these rare astronomical events as pregnant with the grandest results to science; viz: those of 1761 and 1769. The astrono- mers of the last century did not neglect the charge which Halley consigned to them. The transit of 1769 was eminently favora- ble, offering a chance which comes only once in a millenium, as Professor Winthrop happily explained in his lectures on the last transits. Whatever verdict posterity shall pronounce on the deductions from the observations then made, they will never, says Encke, reproach astronomers or governments with negligence or want of appreciation towards this golden opportunity. The solar parkibex which Encke deduced from an elaborate discussion all the observations, fifty years after they were made, is 857116. ‘his corresponds to a solar distance of 95,360,000 statute miles. Although transits of Venus will take place in 1874 and 1882, and astronomers already begin to talk of preparing for them, I have the authority of Kncke for declaring that, in compariso With that of 1769, the next two transits will be so unfavorable that nothing short of perfection in the construction of instru- _Ments, and in the art of observing, can compensate for the natu- Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXVI, No. 107.—Szpr., 1863, » a 170 J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance, ral disadvantage: so that the reduction of the possible error in the sun’s parallax within the limit of one one-hundredth of a second is hopeless for at least two centuries more. 2. The solar parallax may also be derived from the parallax of Mars, when this planet is in opposition. In 1740 the French 7 i=} Qu z i ss o = Z io) ing < sy) oc. © 5 ta x = i=») = wa is G m. 5 0a et = @ @ 3 9 09 2 ‘2 fa) 217 nights, covering a period of nearly three years, the codpe- a ration of northern astronomers was so insufficient that only pe corresponding observations were made. On this account the ck WO ose, Mayer, as early as 1 parallax at 7’"8. In 1824, Burg cal tter observations at 8’°62. Lapla ihc had done by going to the ends of the earth. Lap eee a ge RE Pace eee, hg cd ae fy a eee cate Been wae ee ae Se age c = J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun’s Distance. 171 similar reflexion on this new triumph of theory. “It is won- derful that an astronomer, without going out of his observatory, should be able to determine exactly the size and figure of the earth, and its distance from the sun and moon, simply by com- paring his observations with analysis, the knowledge of which formerly demanded long and laborious voyages into both hemi- spheres.” The accordance of the results obtained by the two methods is one of the most striking proofs of universal gravita- tion. Pontecoulant makes the solar parallax by this method 8'63. Lubboch, by combining Airy’s empirical determination of the coéflicient with the mass of the moon as he finds it from © the tides (viz: ;,), makes the solar parallax 8-84. If the mass of ,; is substituted, the parallax is changed to 8-81. Finally, Hansen, in his new Tables of the Moon, adopts 8’-8762 as the value of the solar parallax. Moreover, Leverrier, in his Theory of the apparent motion of the Sun, deduces a solar parallax of 895 from the phenomena of precession and nutation. The conclusions of this whole review are summed up in the following table: in which the values of the solar parallax and of the sun’s distance, by the three methods of astronomy, and by the experiment of Foucault, are placed in juxtaposition: also the different velocities of light found by astronomical observa- tions and by experiment. Observer or Method. Parallax. Distance. Computer : Encke, By Venus (1761), 37-53 95141830 miles} Encke, “ # (2769), 3 59 95820610 ille, By Mars, 10’”-20 76927900 enderson, oa ) -03 90164110 Gilliss and Gould, CaP oe ‘50% 961 —— _— SN al Mayer, By Moon, 7/"-80 ~ 104079100 Burg, “ 8 “62 Laplace, “« « 8 61 915 Pontecoulant, « « 8 63 94689710 Lubboch, “ « 3 84 92313580 . « « 8 81 92652970 n, * 8 -88 91861060 Leverrier, “« « 8 95 91066350 Foucaul light, 8’"86 92087342 Sage - “ 8 51 95117000 Velocity of light, By eclipses 193350 * « « aberration, 191513 “ « « Fizeau’s experiment, 194667 = * « Foucault’s experiment, 185177 Foucault’s experiment on the velocity of light has been Popularly announced as ing a “revolution in astronomical Science.” But it appears from the preceding sketch that it has Taised no new question in astronomy, though it may have at- 172 J. Lovering on Velocity of Light and the Sun's Distance. tracted popular attention to an old difficulty, and possibly given a solution toit. The three astronomical metho ese la distances, which, even if we select the most trustworthy decision tions, and especially improvements in the lunar tables, have now carried that difference up to four millions of m iles. If Foucault's experiment were allowed to give the casting vote, it would decide in favor of the third method; thus making t the Sonia al Laplace, which I have already ‘quoted, still more ore In regard to the commonly received distance of the sun, which is based upon Encke’s profound discussion of all the observa: tions made at the last two transits of Venus, the case stan thus. Encke decides, from ue weights of the observations, dis- be a lingering nucer ena, to the extent of three or four millions of miles, in the sun’s distance from the earth, But the error, — whatever va is, is propagated from the esas system into the deepest s s which the telescope has ever trave sun’s ec. | is the measuring rod with which the astronomer. metes out the distances of the 1 fixed stars and the dimensions of J.D, Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. 173 Arr. XVI.—Further Remarks on a method of Reducing Observa- tions of Temperature; by Professor J. D. Everert, of Kings College, Windsor, Nova Scotia. J In an article in the January number of this Journal, I recom- mended for general use a method of comparing climates, as regards temperature, by reference to the curve whose equa- tion is ‘ =A,+A, sin (z+E,) We must first prove the following proposition: Any m num- bers, (m being either 2n or 2n+1,) can be exactly expressed by an equation of the form =A,-+A, sin (2+E,)+A, sin (2e++E,)+ ....-+-A, sin (nz+-E,), in such a sense that, by giving x the successive values, o, -<360°, 2 x360°.... = 360°, m ™m ™m / the resulting values of y will be the given numbers in order. We shall hereafter denote the terms on the second side of the above c. To prove the proposition, let the series be transformed, (see p. 25 of my former oy * 17S) g term, Q, sin nz, is to be omitted; and we shall have 2n equations to determine 2n constants. Hence, by the theory of equations, there will always be one and only one solution. = —__ The rule for obtaining the solution is extremely simple:— ~ To find the value of any one of the constants, multiply each quation by its coefficient of that constant, and add the m equa- tions thus obtained.’ It will be found that all the terms on the * It is worthy of remark that this rule is identical with that D quantities from a greater number of simple equations, when the latter are all of equal weight. This general rule is thus given in “Airy on Errors of Obser- vations,” p. 80: “Multiply every equation by its coefficient of one unknown quan- eicuhk ack oe Gaie cisee ouar, ott eonlh sages Bens ete ty; so on for every unknown quantity; and thus a number of equations iPM bs fitaid aegial 4a the teaser of vaknowe quantities” ie 174 J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. second side destroy one another, except those which contain the constant we are seeking, and the sum of these will be = 5 times the constant, eevee when the constant is P, in the ease wi ich the sum will be mP,,. When there are 12 given ed oe s process resolves itself into that described in my former article,’ (this Journal, [2], xxxv, 17), supplemented by the following formule Gr =k, tall —k,)+s,(k, 5 Qs Albis) tally habe ia? —K, +K.4-K, —~K,~K,— The monthly meahs at ae Se from the table in Professor Loomis’ “ Remarks,” reckoning the 31st of Januaky and ist of March as part of February, a 366 386 41:4 46:2 52°9 59°0 61°8 ee 565 49°9 43°2 393 These are exactly expressed by the formula, y=48.87 4-12-44 sin (2-4+262° 31')+-S4sin (22-4+57° 44’)+-18 sin (32-+838° 12’) 26 sin (42-+-258° 26’)+-20 sin (52-+252° 29’)4-18 sin (62x+270°), where « is 0° for January, 30° for February, 60° for March, and so on. Here ¢, is the constant 48°87. The values of ¢,, for the 12 months in order, are 12°33 —11:49 —7°57 —1-62 44-76 ‘be eS ihe 83 111-49 +757 +162 4:76 — The values of t, are a eT $74 $08 — 71 — 74 —-03 $71 4.74 4-03 —-71 — 74 08 These values, it will be observed, repeat themselves after the first ae six; and the sum of any consecutive six is 0. 4 The values of ¢, ar — OT 417 +07 — OLA 07 — 17-07 4-17 4-07 = which Lid or themselves after the first four, or go through their : cycle third of a year. Also the sum of any consecutive — ce ur is Te ae The values of ¢, are = —'24 406 418 —-24 4-06 4-18 —-24 4-06 4-18 —-24 004 which go through their a 4 times in the year. Also the — 4 of any consecutive three is a e values of : oe —19 +13 —-04 + Cannel coal, as above, - - i ~ ag ons Ire-clay, - - . 4 Fe * é . : M Sandstone cliff rocks 8 feet, over sandy shales 11 feet, - - Cannel coal, or jet black slate; sometimes growing compact like iS hl B, sive weath- u ering flaky 2, sandy flaky 9, sandy cliff shales 11, blackish 10, ‘ y cliff shales 5, sandy shales 20, clay descending into sand- _ stone 21, In this last ‘hs 160 ns : J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. 181 Top slat a 6 Coal ; ciate black slate wills es i of a. - - 4 Fire-cla 5 Shales: P black ga soft 4, any 2, wih poor ‘sandy ball ore % ray senegons flinty 1, fire-clay, compact below, 6, sandy shales 6, yel- w 6, gray 6, soft sandy gray 12, soft shales (nipped ony) 5, false: pied sandy shales, hard at top, s solt at bottom, 17, 694 This great mass of sandstone, thrown up ata ine angle, not by any general structural movement, but by original oblique deposition, has here resisted the wearing action of the waves, and left a curious and instruc- tive promontory. The mass begins at the bottom with 3 inches of pure clay, under which is an inch of Cannel coal which burns well and is full of fish scales. Shales, soft yellow, concretionary, clay slates 7, harder 1, gray 24, with iron nodules along its base, gray 4, soft paseo one sandy foliated 3, top = i, gray, blackish + foot, - Cannel coal, or flaming slat 1 Hard — le}, coaly matter halt an inch, hard sandy. shales 3, com- paet Ties are meee lowest rocks seen ietive reaching Little Glace Bay en- trance, in the low banks, which fall off suddenly into the deep channel ebay. A slight break in the section takes place here; it cannot be more than a few feet. The section commences again at the summit of the headland projecting from the south side of the bay, and runs thence uninterruptedly to the mouth of Great Glace Bie ay. Soft measures under the soil, - . 10 Coaly top slate 4 inches, CATER, coal 4 Golan eavamnok rails 1, green clay with horses of aud 4, feels 2, mpact 2, more sandy, Senger. macnn 2, eg sae: ste, thin flag-courses Shale fire clay 3, Ma siettee 4, sandy compact 24, i in pencils 6, sandy 4 15, crumblin The profile of . mass is one of singular architectural beauty. ‘See woodeut (p. 179). (n Sandrock 8, lnckiak: shales and fire-clays 4, sandrock massive 10, sandy fire-clay 2, shaly sandstone with six inch courses " dark shales 74, flags 3, gray top shales 14, - 4 Bituminous slates with one inch of cannel in inet dst, Shale fire-clay 1, sandy 1, sandstone 2, sandy 11, sacachay 5; whole forming cliffs beetling over the > names (woodeut %), - Cae 1, Harbor vein, - - 5 Wrought by the inhabitants for many years in an entry from the beachi:: A-new opening has been made on the outerop where it crosses to the northwest side of the harbor below the new brid, Bhales foliated, under which lies a plate of carbonate of j iron three ches thick, sometimes breaking up into balls, Cake with a centre streak of jet, perhaps sbaeintetatic of the bed, for it appears again in it at the new bridge, - red, green, } yellow 74, hard clay sandstone 2, clk dais 5, 144 182 J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. Coal. Regular bed of bituminous coal, - 2 went shales, foliated ; then — —_ in half inch layer 26, andstone then sandy sha Shales gray, blackish sees 5, "iets fesicliy ‘10 15 Sa ndstone greenish, 6, contorted 8; the local false bedditig has ona would throw a "geologist completely off the track, leading him to suppose the country infested with high dips and faults whereas, careful instrumentation has : phanaamieageand an ee woe narily quiet and regular condition of things 4 Fire-clay 2, shales gray, Sie harsh 4, gray, green 6, ‘% ae gray ° 20, 31 Sandrock in three equal layer 6 Soft fire-clay : top slate with ands of org, ne = > eee Coal half an inch, black slate six inches, - 4 Fire-clay, passing further on into red, green a sind: yellow shales; thet sa 6, false-bedded shales 12, — cedures 2, blackish slates 8 Sandstone, green, rough, shales passing into dass adie 12, baat: fully fa Ise -bedded, scalloped in all a like the blocks and aces of No. X (Upper Devonian) at viaduct of the Cone- zeae in prey Vaunty, Pennsylvania ein massive sand- stone 6 feet, 8 Shales, yellow sandstone . top, becoming yellow shales and then at bottom black, - 20 Catonste of. lime and i iron, a tight pies pad. . miele 5 Sometimes 14 feet thick, but will not average more than 10 or 11 inches. It forms a long fect into the sea, in the exact line of the distant headland. As a so litary specimen of this kind of rock in this section, it is all the more important to have it carefully traced inland. It rests on a green fire-clay full of nodules of ore, as large as filberts and walnuts, oxydized on the surface. a Blackish top slate, under which is a carbonaceous streak, - ee Shales (at the top sandstone balls a foot thick), yellow, ‘then green ie and full of nodules of ore 11, soft fire-clay 1, yellow, then sandy, = ‘i cog clayey, then fre sey, 8, , blackish fre-clay, then gray 10,> © 3 Fire-clay 2, with nodules of ore 2 fas sliales f relay fall of bd ules ‘as la arge as chestnuts; the appearan these sa hi ae ceeded with nodules of iron i is very ciking their gnarly, knobby outcrops form long reefs visible by lines of breakers as to prea of various shades 12, blue black 4, ee ig ow a nd green, é Sandstone, false- Fidded. then in n layers 12, , becoming clayey 4, blue ie fire-clay 5, - a1 These are the last rocks seen at the north side of the mouth — of Great Glace Bay. The whole thickness of roc measured bs as follows :— 5 sacha ER seepeapenatte Hird fet in all 907. pe eg IS a eh So Laces eae tas Bra ea of ten ee eee re PIN. eet ey Ng See Se Behr eS ae a eM aes eee ‘ a i ree J. P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. 183 _ Beneath these rocks lie formations of clay (including coal beds, one seven or eight feet in thickness), which form the west end Our section of 907 feet of rock, commences at the headland in the centre of the synclinal and runs along the coast southward. Commencing at the same headland and running along the coast westward, a similar section may be obtained of the same rocks as they rise from the synclinal in that direction at the same low dip. Such a section would be from Cadougan’s Creek, which corres- ponds to Little Glace Bay, to the mouth of Lingan Bay, which in like manner corresponds to Great Glace Bay. Many interes- ting variations in the metals would appear from such a compari- son. ile the general regularity and parallelism is remark- able, there are numerous minor irregularities; some fine instances of false bedding and local deposition; lenticular masses of sand separating adjacent mud-rocks; passages of shales into sand- stones, and wice versa; gradual coalescing of scattered nodules of clay iron-stone into solid plates, or their gradual pervading of a thick bed of fire-clay, hardening it into so refractory a rock, that its outcrop forms a reef far out to sea. Instances occur of of the splitting of coal-beds. The Lingan bed, for example, has, on the sea-shore, a clay parting of half an inch, which in a quar- ter of a mile inland, thickens to nine inches; and then, in four r ing, lea the creased to ten feet of tough rock, between two 6 inch beds of coal. This increase feet takes place without crush in a distance of only three or four yards, 184 J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. m, 69; interval 450 feet; Indian Cove, 48. Mr. Brown’s susie section extends to a depth « of 1860 feet, or along 5000 yards at a dip of 7° tothe N. 6 Mr. Brown ‘“ concludes pi a best information in his pos- session that the productive Coal-measures exceed 10,000 feet,” but w nothing in Cape Breton to justify the supposition. He pekirts ts that, “ owing to several extensive dislocations, it is im- possible to ascertion their total thickness with any "degree of .’ ITcan only suggest, with deference to his Jong ex- perience and acknowledged skill, that the structure of the east Ci one ins stance at b least, that of Cow agate the south dips are 45°, and the basin is sharp and narrow, greatly resembling the end of one of the anthracite basins of Pennsylvania. As at Sydney, at Glace Bay, so here at Cow Bay there are bat four workable oak beds in about 1500 feet of productive measures, and they are, no doubt, the Glace Bay beds.’ 4 Sir William Logan, Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Dawson, and other geologists who have described the Coal-measures of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, agree in assigning to them an almost im SS Sg tee ah eat saadible thickness. “The entire section of the e Joggins,” writes — Sir William Logan, “contains 76 beds of coal and 90 distinct Stigmaria underelays, ” with “24 bituminous limestones,” in “a vertical thickness of 14,570 feet.” — When we analyze the eight divisions into which this immensé — mass has been distinguished, we find them thus constituted: Nos. 1, a ranean and shales; drift-trees and erect cala- = | a See feet No. 3. ae eae coal ala: oe RSet 22 coal-beds, 2134 *— No. 7 wor and shales, gray; bituminous raters u coal-beds ; shells and fish-scales, 2539 “ _ No. Pt sSaivdntonion and shales, red ; curboutiad plants, - 2082 > The combined thickness of the Lower, Middle, and Upper Coal-measures, determined by Mr. Jukes, in South Staffordsh re, England, is = feet. The thi ness each e Coal-measu does exceed 2500 feet. Western’ Virgin Seeded sainuiaibte Woon. S00 fect woud bem fair average 1 en ee Se ook Sas delet oe J. P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. 185 No. 6. Sandstones, 2; os mgporacaiy limestone; 9 coal- beds ; shells and fish 2240 feet. Nos. 7, 8. ’ Sandstones, i at shales, nodular tina. stones, two beds af gypsum ; remains of ag - 2308 “ Interval, eee Massive. pie 14 Prod. ‘Liells aaa ofliee fone Car- boniferous fossils. It is very evident that the Sydney, Glace Bay, or Cow Bay section of less than 2000 feet of productive Coal-measures, can represent but —_ one of these divisions, and thatrit must be either No. 3, o. 4, or No. 6. Sir illiam Logan adds, in _ his resumé, that ‘Nos, 3 4, 5, and 6,* contain the equivalents of the productive Coal-measures of Pictou and Sydney, and, in part, of the sandstones which separate them from the Lower Carbonif- erous series.” Prof. Dawson describes minutely his own section of ‘2819 feet of the central part of the Coal Formation,” * in approaching which, after describing the lower parts,* he says:- “We have now, after r passing over beds amounting altogether to the enormous thickness of 7636 feet, — the commencement of the true Coal-measures.”’ the true Coal-measures he means, therefore, Division No. 4 a the learee part of Division No. 3, embracing less than 3000 feet of measures and containing but four coal-beds which can be ont workable, the rest being from one inch to eighteen inches thick. In descending order we have: Nine small seams in a thickness of measures of - - 586 feet. Main na seam, 3°6; parting, 1°6; coal, 1°6, - - . Three minute seams in an interval of - a = © 45 feet. Coal, *3; clay, 5; Queen’s vein, 1°9; shale, 4:4; wink 1-0 - «Ten small seams (largest 12) in an sass of = = 762 feet. Coal, with three clay partings, at: Bid 24. Three small seams in an waive of - - - - 206 feet. — . . - - 5. "Three small seams in an interval of - - - -. 17 feet. nterval of - - - - - - $2 feet. Coal and bituminous she: - - - - . Eleven small seams in an fe igs of - - - - 1153 feet. The aspect of this section resembles those on the east coast of Cape Breton, where Modiole and fish-seales are also abundant. The A bert or Pictou section is said also to contain but five or six ane of coal, two of which are of unusual thickness, as - follows; From the surface, down the Success Pit, 73 eet Main © ~ Coal, 39: 1l feet thick; Interval, 157 feet; Dee , 249. Both thes ps e coal-beds, however, are far from presenting “solid faces 4 ; Dawson’s Acadia, " at, Yh Ane ibed in Pree aeok: Soc., x, 1-42. : ayes Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Sexims, Vou. XXXVI, No. 107.—Szpr., 1863, 186 J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. of coal. On the contrary, they are built up, like the 30 and 60 foot coal-beds of the Anthracite region of Pennsylvania, of many layers separated by underminings. The peculiarity here is that these separations are plates of ironstone, not more t six inches thick, instead of being layers of fire-clay, coal-slate, or sandstone. The structure is certainly peculiar, and convinces us of the quietness of deposit and of the long-continued stability of the sea-level. But inasmuch as the 60 foot coal at Mauch Chunk, on the Lehigh, is identifiable with the Low Main or Mammoth bed of the Pottsville Basin to the west, and of the Beaver Meadow, Hazleton, Buck Mountain, and Wyoming Basins to the north of it, and through them with still smaller and separated beds fur- ther off in the Mahanoy and Shamokin Basins, and even with the bituminous basins of the Alleghany Mountains,—there can not be, a priori, a reasonable ground for doubt, that the 25 and 40 foot beds of Pictou are identifiable with 5 and 6 foot beds cap the highest mountains of the Alleghanies in Northern Penn sylvania, and have been swept away over wide intervals of Devonian valleys between them, descend also into the depths beneath the beds of the lowest valleys drained by the Swatara, the Schuylkill, the Lehigh, and the Susquehanna North Branch, so I have no doubt the coal-beds, whose edges we now see coal of Dudley, in England, “ which, forming at that place one solid seam in thickness, becomes split up into nine distinct seams by the intercalation feet of strata over the northern are the coal-field.”. The Main Warwickshire area is split up, according to Mr. Howell, into jive beds by 120 of intervening strata. The Main coal of Moira is noticed by Mr. xe am insta sete & J.P. Lesley on the ee 187 ee ao ae at, then, are the thou ands of fect of rocks included in Dickiows Nos. 5, 6, 7, a oe: 8 of Logan’s great section? In other words, the 7630 foi over which Dawson climbed to reach the a of his “true go -measures 3?” _ himself, sometimes, that he is not riding through Lykens or Lo- _ eust or Catawissa or Trough Creek Valleys in Dbietcy what _ ever the chocolate-colored soils of No. XI.’ This formation, _ 000 feet thick around the southern Anthracite coal-fields, be- comes, indeed, thinner and thinner northwestward, until it is but . Disiica: N 0. 5 of Logan’ s section consists of red shales and _ sandstones chiefly, 2012 feet thick. There is no reason why this _ should on be the representative of Formation No. XI, or of its _ Up # a Tf it b f it be objected that Division 6 is in fact a coal system - with nine beds of coal and numerous bituminous limestones, objection becomes an additional. sequniett rm ‘the identifica- or we see in this No. 6 the reproduction, at this immense Pistarses, of the Lower or False Coal-measures of Virginia, Where a productive coal system underlies the chocolate shales of ponation No. XI, and not only reapp with workable beds, tern Kentucky and Middle oceaieas: ‘but projects _ : a recognizable shape, through Western Indiana near] _ Chicago, and through a Pennsylvani nearly to the og Ww ; rmations, used in these pages, are those Pharma used in the te Her oft ode! Geol surveys of Deapeania and Virginia, Prof. Rogers 188 J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton, ] The chief objections to the hypothesis above sustained will come (1) from the absence of any general representative for the Millstone grit or Great Basal conglomerate of the True Coal- measures; (2) from the sub-position of Divisions 7 and 8, 2308 feet of sands, pebble-rocks, and limestones; and (3) from the presence at a still lower depth of what seems to be the genuine, massive, Subcarboniferous limestone. To break the full force of these objections, I can only remark, (1) that the Pictou coal-basin has a massive conglomerate under its productive Coal-measures, while elsewhere no one formation of the whole Palzeozoic Sys- Pennsylvania are overlaid by limestones with Subcarboniferous a fossils, the connection, as to limestone, is entirely cut away be — tween them and the Nova Scotia deposits, so that the massive — lower level. This argument is rendered all the more forcible by the fact that gypsum is unknown in the United States, ex cept in one or two anomalous positions, apparently connected with the Lower Silurian limestones, and in the closed basin of Michigan. a Beneath the red shale Formation No. XI, we have, in the southeastern ranges of the Appalachians, nearly three miles’ thickness of sedimentary deposits, separable everywhere into three great formations: No. X, white sandstone, 2000 feet, No IX, red sandstone, 5000 feet, No. VIII, green and olive — and very irre stones 0 : ea pest - 5 oo th fracture, verandah _ ted with small red dots of peroxyd of iron. a not too much to say that a geologist well accustomed to formations, along their great Appalac’ ian belts of moun J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. 189 tain and valley, stretching from the Appalachicola and Alabama Rivers in the South, to the Delaware and Hudson in the North, cannot fail to recognize them and distinguish them anywhere, The tout ensemble or facies of each is sui generis.* Fossils may come in afterwards as a satisfactory confirmation; but the eye has already determined the respective formations. Even in the est, where Formation IX has dwindled, like Formation XI, to an insignificant one or two hundred feet, and scarcely sepa- rates the green sands of X from the green shales o I, the characteristic features of the three formations, although modified and harmonized by the preponderance of the argillaceous ele- ment, are still in sufficient contrast to be recognized when fairly seen, o an eye thus trained among the broad outcrops of the Lower, Middle, and Upper Devonian of the Appalachians, it is evident that the mountains of Cape Breton and the hills of Northern Nova Scotia, surrounding or intervening between the already-mentioned red shale borders of the coal areas, are com- posed of these formations. True, the anticipation of finding these formations has a tendency to warp the judgment and de- lude the eye, especially when that anticipation is based upon such a probability as this: that a mass, three miles thick and a thousand miles long, will maintain its thickness (and of course its topographical height and geographical breadth) at least as far along the prolongation of its isometric axis (to use Mr. Hull’s new and much-needed term), as will such minor formations as the Coal over it or the Upper Silurian limestones under it. In other words, if analogies between the Nova Scotia and the United States coals compel us to consider them synchronic, if me originally conterminous; and if the Clinton fossils of New oc : Peiiad upon the Devonian conformably or unconformably, The rovince is in fact a wide belt of mountains partially ad : _ Merged; and may have been to some extent in the same con we may have principe, Formation VIII, while in the country _ South of the Lake Bras d’Or we may have the full series of VIII, ~*TX, and X. b X,andX. The _ Hall and Lyell to be Hamilton and Chemung, and now consid. . Soe gmap by Dawson, p. 58, supplementary chapter to Acadian Geology, 190 J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. ered by Hall and Dawson to be indisputably Clinton, although overlaid and concealed along most of its extent by apparently nonconformable Coal measures, gives us a fixed lower limit for the so-called metamorphic hill country of the Province, which makes this hill country necessarily Devonian, or Formations , [X, and X. Even if we object to the term Devonian, | and permit the paleontologists to carry down the term Carbon- iferous, or the term Subcarboniferous, step by step, so as toim- clude first, Formation X, perhaps rightly, and then the genuine Old Red IX, and even, as the effort is in the Western States, to include Formation VIII down to its black shale beds with coal, 4 the change of term will not change the lithology,—the moun- tains of Nova Scotia must. still be the representatives of the Catskill, Mohantongo, Terrace, and Alleghany Mountains of and Pennsylvania. The eye can hardly be mistaken in the features of the road- side banks between Antigonish and Merigonish; the road defiles through hills of VIII. Equally certain is it that the outcrops on the road from St. Peter’s to Sydney are of the reddish an greenish rocks of IX and X. The road for forty miles winds along the lake shore, and in and out of ravine8 descending from a group of parallel mountains of these formations, made parall by a system of parallel anticlinal and synclinal curves which — issue from the lake and throw the mountain dips to the north and to the south alternately, at angles from 5° to 45°. Great rib-plates of flinty sandrock rise to the summit and form tablets with broken cliffs upon the outcrop side, fine objects seen thus — against the sky. The mountains at the head of the east arm of @ the lake, and those on its northern side forming the peninsula, come down upon the shore in the same style, and belong tothe same system. On the south side of Miré Bay, in the ravines east of the Gabarus road bridge, there is no mistaking the aspect — of masses of slates of No. VIII standing at 45°; nor can one — be convinced that he is not riding through a forest grown ona — soil of IX, as he is whirled over the fine old road from Miré — bridge to Louisburg, although the highest elevation of the pla teau is but 350 feet. . Sa poin : oil _ At Pittsburg there are about a thousand feet of Coal-measu! {to the top coal), with a great bed 8 or 10 feet thick near the ‘top, a 6 foot bed half way down, two small workable sues ita NT alla eS RISEe A he ee Peak Meee Me ee en gS knee J. P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. 191 the lower half of the column, and a large bed (4 to 8 feet) at the bottom. At Sydney (Glace Bay), in like manner, there are about a thousand feet of Coal-measures, with an 8 or 9 foot bed towards the top, a 6 foot bed half way down, two smaller beds in the lower half of the column, and a 7 or 8 foot bed near the bottom At Pittsburg, as at Glace Bay, the upper 18 inches or 2 foot of the high Main coal is rejected. At Pittsburg, as at Glace Bay, the middle 6 foot coal (U errors of the Alleghany River and Cook Vein of Six is Run) is famous for its solid face and excellent qualit No one should admit that such coincidences furnish a demon- stration of identity. But it must not be overlooked that the beds of the Pittsburg area have bok traced and identified from end to end of areas with a diameter, in all, of over a thousand miles, even across the denuded interval of Central Kentucky, The expectation may, therefore, be pardoned, not as an amiable enthusiasm, but a logical inference, that when the fossil groups of the individual beds of Cape Breton shall have been thoroughly studied by Lesquereux and other competent bot- anists, their identification with the beds of the West may be made somewhat more than possible. The zone of sediment, when taken along its isometric axis, is equal enough over a a priort incredible distances. Logan and Hunt and Murchison are finding the Quebec group and the Huronian yee Jearentae . systems in Scotland and Scandinavia, not by » but by aspect. No one doubts the extension of the 8 sees ‘grit and the Mountain limestone of England to Pennsylvania. [by q should the remarkably homogeneous and conbinnasly Flora of any one of the immensely outspread_beds of the Uni not be ey hadi oe continuous to Rhode Island, New Bruns- _ wick, and Cape Bre One remarkable ack however, in this resemblance o: f the _ two coal columns at Pittsburg and Sydney, must not be forgot- ten. JI refer to the mass of red shales which cap the Glace Bay Section, A similar deposit occurs, at a fixed horizon, widely | he over bid ees: Pennsylvania, but beneath, not above, the igh Main co Note on Mr. sis Paper on the Coal-measures of C reton ; by : J. W. Dawson, Principal of McGill College, at oe The new facts and general considerations on the Nova Scotia coal-field contained in Mr. Lesley’s paper, are of the highest inter- _ est to all who ade worked at ty geology of Nova Scotia. I think duty, however, to take exception to some of the statements, , which, I think, a taiget seliotion of facts would have induced ~_» This note was read by Professor Lesley ro the ze enn eaioomphical: ip. ciety, and is is publiched in the same number of its 192 J. W. Dawson on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. Mr. Lesley himself to modify. My objections may be stated under the following heads. (1.) It is scarcely safe to institute minute comparisons between the enormously developed Coal-measures of Nova Scotia, and the thinner contemporary deposits of the West, any more than it would be to compare the great marine limestones of the period at the West, _ the slender representatives of the part of the group to the eastwar (2.) There is He best coe that the Coal‘measures of Nova Scotia never mantle the Devonian and Silurian hills of the Province, but wakes on = ies contrary, deposited in more or less a areas on their si es. (3.) Any one, who has carefully compared the Coal-measures of the Joggins with those of Wallace and Pictou, must be con- vineed of the hopelessness of comparing individual beds, even at this comparatively small distance. A fortiort, detailed com- parisons with Pennsylvania and more distant localities must fail. (4.) I do not think that any previous observer has su that the coal-measures of Eastern Cape Breton represent the whole of the coal formation of Nova Scotia. Coal-measures” of my paper on Nova Scotia are certainly want ing, and probably the Sydney coal- feld exhibits no stir pe than the middle of No. 4 of Logan’s section at the Jog ese do not occur at a (peat but are found § in genie Scotia, as in Virginia and Southern Pennsylvania, at the base of the system under the marine limestones. The Albert beds are the ogame of these Lower measures, and not of the Pictou — aper on the Lower Carboniferous Coal-measures oal. In my p os ete of Geological Society of London, 1858), will be found @ summary of the structure of the Lower Coal-meas asures, as shown at Horton Bluff, and elsewhere. The —_ “ true-Coal-measures,” quoted by Mr. Les esley, does not mea description, the SN eg pete te eee are eg es my 2 Middle Coal: a but merely that eit of them holding the ae workable coal-seam: hatever mae be the value of Mr. Lae s appliow tions of oe fossil flora to the identification of coal-se. spel m p seniy to state, as ti result of an excuses series :- Pa ile aes eee ee Se en ee ee ge es See Ee age Se FE eG ee ee a eS on ene ee, ae a RL ees mare = J. P, Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. 193 Coal-measures may be distinguished; but within these aes 2s the differences are purely local, and afford no means for identification of beds in distant place o not desire to offer any ont on the questions raised by some American geologists, as to the extension of the term Carboniferous to the Chemung group; but I know as certain facts, that the flora of the — Coal- ao ae under the marine Ww Professor Hall and others, and also of the groups in - Pennsyl- vania named, by Rogers, ‘Vergent, and Ponent (? IX and X of Mr. Lesley), is as deci idedly Devonian, and quite distinct from = the Carboniferous period.” r. Lesley’s ability as a stratigraphical geologist, I have the besbein respect; and, with reference to the present subject, woul merely desire to point out that he may not have possessed a sufficient number of facts to warrant some of his generaliza- tions, on which in the meantime I would, for the reasons above stated, desire geologists to suspend their judgment. J. W. Dawson. McGill College, Montreal, February 18th, 1863.” Mr. Lesley remarked that he read this communication of his friend, Dr. J. W. Dawson, with great pleasure, as it wou and any undue bhp i being attached to his own than to defend those opinions ptotealion in his paper, which had drawn down so earnest and valu able a iro from so high a sat identity in organic forms continues to be accepted as the supreme test of stradigeaphieal horizon, discord is inevitable. When paleontology is prepared to return under the mild aoe _ minion of her mother, lithology, which she has at ledst one-half cn Nesp ciy geology will advance more rapidly in her wor r. Dawson’ 's first t objection is a begging of the very ques- se whether the Coal-measures of Nova Scotia are ‘‘ enormously _ dey That, in one spot of the earth’s surface like Nova on Devonian Flora of Eastern — Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lin iva ering 1862, Also this Journal, May, 1863 Am. Jour, Sc1t.—Szconp SuRres, Vou. XXXVI, No. 107.—Sepr., 1863, 25 194 J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. Scotia, and that too midway between the great coal areas of America and those of Europe, wherein the thickness of Coal- measures proper range from 2000 to 5000 feet, if they even attain the latter size, there should be an anomalous deposit of 25,000 feet, is incredible." What the great Bohemian paleon- tologist, by unerring instinct, said to us after our thirty years’ war over the Taconic system, there must be a mistake somewhere, I must repeat to those who so “enormously develop” the Nova Scotia Coal-measures. And my intention in the paper on Nova Scotia coal was only to suggest one formula on which the error might be discussed. I ra id repudiated the safety of insti- tuting “minute ate amia par: My comparison of the Cape can be vias tend in 2 “tet of Coal-measures in Rene hope at the bottom of the box. es peo nat nade the study of the slack-heap at the mine’s mouth, our own identification she individual beds was very imperfect, and the search for a complete system of identification had been aban- doned with ee same sense of hopelessness. But how is it now? val weed against 1 have no doubt that some oe the Coal-measures of the British Previntes may have been “ sited in more or less separa ted areas on the sides of the Soxcenn and Silurian hills,” as Dr. i nib says (2). But I confess to a complete scepti ticism of | ; ability of the Coal-measures A oes the lower res frets se : cau - ‘ ia > eave. Pometved s Mots te from Dr. Dawson, written sh ie wks above remarks of Prof. Lesley, in which he says he never Saimed any such | Sets ss 25,000 feat fr the Coal-measures proper of Nova Scotia, but that the truly “thickness of nearly foots ancl tbat oe ae enormous 10,000 cot, and that it is to remarks apply. See Dawson's eee and 177.-—Eps. : J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton, 195 surface of Nova Scotia and _— Denti ag a are confessed unstudied and almost unknown; secondly, because the incredi- ble thickness assigned to the Bente -measures throws doubt upon the positions assigned to the non-conformable horizons; thirdly, because the coal-beds themselves stand almost vertical in ma any places round the shores; fourthly, because the mountains of Nova Scotia, with apparently conformable Cashonlieaes lime- Stones, have apparently an Appalachian structure and aspect, have suffered vast denudation, exhibit cliff outcrops and section ravines, and may just as well have carried coal upon their origi- nal backs, as wecan prove that our Tussey, Black Log, Nesco- pec, Mahoning, ete Bsa Brush, and other Silurian and Devonian mountains did. There is an immense non-con- formable chasm in the pee west of the Hudson River, and the Catskill Mountains over it have no coal upon their backs; but the coal comes in regularly enough on them at the Lehigh, (a less distance than from Sydney to St. Peters, or from Picto to Windsor,) and the unconlormability in the Upper Silurian and Devonian has already disappe Dr. Dawson’s fourth objection ont be good, if I had really “supposed the Coal-measures of eastern Cape Breton to repre- sent the whole of the Coal-measures of Nova Scotia.” But I when unfounded, or eae: $ as injurious to *Tthologieat truth, as m6 careless identification of surface aspect may at bed moment mialony: I will ce leave to ac tribution of ek ‘and all the Pie is a from the atid tothe top, 2. That, nevertheless, there are differences observa- 196 J.P. Lesley on the Coal-measures of Cape Breton. ble between different coal-beds. 3. That these are attributable rather to difference of station and conditions of preservation, than to lapse of time; that is, if we could take the beds, each one in its whole extent, and its fossils in their original condition, there would, after all, be no differences observable between dif ferent seams. 4, That groups or assemblages of species in the Lower, Middle, and Upper Coal-measures may nevertheless be distinguished; that is, while each and every species may be found occasionally in all parts of the column from bottom to top, yet this happens in such a manner as to group some of them more abundantly, or in certain peculiar proportions in the Lower, others in the Middle, and others in the Upper portions of it. 5. That, after all, however, these groups are not persistent, but differ at different localities, and are as worthless as the specific forms themselves for the identification of a single bed in more than one place.—Is it possible that all this has been made out, or can be made out, except in a country of horizontal Coal-meas- ures, well opened for study, where the stratification can be estab- lished beforehand, and the range of the fossils be made certain? n conclusion, I would say, that the want of clearly defined and applied names is a drawback to such a discussion. ‘I'he dis- cussion is, in fact, initially one of names, viz: how far down the name Carboniferous must be carried; what are the Lower Coal- _ measures, &c. But, in the end, it is a question of vital importance to the value of the paleontological imprimatur upon stratigraph- ical and structural deductions from field work. Is the discovery of specific forms to keep all our geological niveaux in a pel petual mirage-flicker? Are we never to know, from day to day, whether we are at work in Devonian or Carboniferous, in Trias, or Lias? Why not at once obey the marriage law of the weaker sex, and give up our names for our lords? Let geology forget the virgin nomenclature of her youth, and rewrite her cS with such titles for her chapters as these: ‘The Spiriferiferous formation; The Lepidodendriferous formation; The Lower The ont; The Middle Baculite; The Upper Pterodactylian for mation. Why has this not already been done? Simply be — cause it cannot be done. No paleontologist has yet been bold enough even to propose it. Yet, as I believe, the 26,000 feetot Coal-measures in the British Provinces will be found to be one of * al aa i Nova Scotia will take in all that part of the Paleozoic colum _ which has furnished goal, and that is from the top downws Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. — 197 Art. XVITI.— Hydraulics of the Report of Humphreys and Abbot on the Mississippi River; by Prof. F. A. P. BARNARD. (Con- tinued from p. 37.) For the solution of most problems in practical hydraulics, it is necessary to establish the relations which exist between the _ cross-section of the stream, its mean velocity, and the slope of its surface. As a basis of this investigation, it is assumed b equation presents no difficulty; it is simply the expression for the force of gravity. The other requires consideration. The authors of the report reject the idea that the cohesion of the particles of the liquid among themselves enters as an element into the resistance of the liquid to motion. ey hold that this cohesion is concerned only in determining the distribution of the resistance through the mass; but that the resistance itself is simply the adhesion of the liquid to its bed. It is unnecessary to stop just here to discuss the question by what name it is most fitting that the resistance to flowing water shall be called. It is quite sufficient, if we agree that were the resistances, irregulari- ties, and obstructions to motion, at the surfaces of contact be- tween the water and the earth or the superincumbent air, to be roportioned to the perinfeter and length of channel; and, also, use, when there is no motion, there is no resistance, to some function of the mean velocity at the surfaces in contact. Now, _ @=cross-section of the river, =width, p=wetted perimeter, r=="==mean radius, or hydraulic depth, _ Lelength of channel considered, A—=total head or difference of level, ' hy=part of head balanced against ordinary resistances of the channel, h,=part of head neutralized by bends, and irregularities, a 198 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. G=specific gravity of the water, g==measure of the force of gravity, s=7=slope of surface expended against ordinary resistances, slope expended against bends, &c. V, U, v, b=same values as before, we shall have, for the accelerating force of gravity, the expres: sion, Ggals, and, for the resistances at the perimeter, the ex- keto rss) U,+U, Ay as as +”) so ; or pew? If we substitute the eas of U, and U, given above, the equation ee itself immediately to the following : Rng FP $ pew =(0°93y—0:167(6v)*); which put —¢(z). Let 3 iv be denoted by r,=the radius of the entire perime- ter: the expression then be¢tomes ) 78=9(-930 — 167(bv)?)=(2). This Webi ad equation differs from that which is usually assumed, in two particulars. First, the radius of the entire secondly o(2) is used instead of g(v), or a function of the mean — velocity at the perimeter, instead of a function of the mean velo A of the river itself. Ae * In stating this expression, the a solecism, in arbitrarily changing t occurrence of what the vg ie Sa ne 2 Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 199 In order to determine the nature of the function 9(z) and the constants which must enter into it, a collection was made o the available data which had been furnished by the survey, or which could be gleaned from the publications of other observers; in magnitude from the dimensions of the Mississippi at high water, down to those of a small canal. In regard to slope, it was to be considered that a portion is expended in overcoming the irregularities of the channel and the changes of cross-section : and a portion, in compensating for the loss of living force at bends. It is only what remains after these effects have been subtracted, which constitutes the equivalent of the resistance of a straight and regular channel. The effect of bends must provided for in an independent formula; and the amount of vided for in the modification which they introduce into the con- stants which are derived from observation, on the supposition that, after bends have been allowed for, the channel is straight and regular, and the movement in it uniform. The method pursued by most writers, of putting 9(v)=Av+Bv?, and then seeking values for the indeterminate coefficients which shall most nearly represent the observations, was tried by the authors of the report, making F, rs Az+-Bz?, or LoA+By, in- which “ and z are co-ordinates in the equation of a straight line; but they found that a straight line would not represent the observations, and that the involution of z produced expressions of troublesome complexity. They then put . r,3 TS—Use", or et and plotted the values of C as ordinates to r,s,andv. The plots with r, and w produced irregular curves following no appa rent law. That with s was quite regular. It was inferred therefore that C is some function of the slope. After a very long series of trials, with a view to discover this function, the : 8 Cai55 was adopted, as most satisfactorily fulfilling the tequired con- ditions." Sahetitnting this, therefore, in the formula, it becomes « 200 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. 195ast t z==(195r,s ft =(-F ste) i From this are deduced values for each of the variables in terms of the rest (regarding p+ W as a single variable), viz: __((p+W)z?\? meres 7 TO fe a PEW? ct eee ie pws — Instead of p-+W, may be as oe ee error, for rivers, 2°015 W. Resuming the value 5s das bitte At and solving with respect to of, we obtain ot = —4/0-00815-+-(2257, s*)3-L.0-008%, 2 and v=(-470-00818-+4 (225°, s)? 40-0908 The negative value of the radical is that which it is necessary to take, in order to fulfil the condition that v shall become zero when s is zero. For rivers, the value of }, as heretofore given, is 0°1856. The term containing it under the radical will have only the value ‘0015, and may ordinarily be neglected. The expressions for the ever] variables will then become r=(oanen— (etn) }e= (onan (2) ooo (v? — 0-0388)4 ts (f= 0:0388)*\? * 225s8t ag: 225r, | If Q represent the amount of discharge per second, then v=—, and a=-. a v If Q be given, along with any two of the foregoing variables, the rest may be computed by the help pts this equation, unless the two given at the same Pe are v In estimating the effect of a the authors found the — 2 * In the last two formule, the second t erm of the sccmnggd has the nogat e two form involves at t all in the PE ee, Se Se ee a Dw te es = a Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 201 formula of Dubuat, with a modification of the constant, to represent very nearly the effect deduced from observation. This formula is (with the constant divisor reduced to English feet) in which sin?4 is the sum of the squares of the natural sines of the amount of bending, divided into angles not exceeding 86° or 40°. Dubuat derived this formula from observation on the flow of the expression for the effect of bends, co v? sin 74 "Aah been made, resort was had to the maps, and an estimate of the amount of bending made by measurement on the map. As & rough test of the correctness of t determinations, an independent formula was constructed, on the ‘siaal that the as measured by an air line, and by the river. Denoting this difference in miles by M, it was found that sin?é rarely differed essentially from 0°34 M. A series of comparisons somewhat extended, upon stretches of the river varying from three miles to more than eighty miles in length, gave, for the total of the Aw. Jour, Scr.—Srconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 107,—Sepr., 1863. 26 : 202 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. actual measurements of the quantities computed. As no ade- quate idea of the severity and thoroughness of these tests can be formed without an inspection of all the data, along with the | (Young’s coefficient)........... ei 84:3(rs)?. “Chezy ... 4 (Eytelwein’s coefficient) ........ ee 93°4(rs)?. (Downing’s and others’ coefficient) y=100-0(rs)?. Dubuat...v= UES att id A 0-086(r? — 0°03). \ In which L= common logarithm multiplied by 2°302585. Girard ...v=(2°69-++-26384 r s)* — 1-64 (For canals)........ v—=(0°0556 +-10593 rs)? —0-2851 Di Prony (For canals and pipes) v==(0°0237 + 9966 ra) — 0°1542. (Eytelwein’s coefficient) v==(0°0119 + 8963 rs)? —0-1080. (Weisbach’s coefficient) v=(0-00024-4 8675 rs) —0-0154 rie »=(Z i) 3 eae hag ihm Tae toe ~12A° ip Ahn Lie, a 15625 90 15 Tn which A=0°0000001 (4194+ apie +8 re 00296. int Se Sager PRAT oe ees cap aie eee Sk 5 SETS SERIE RE (ES ge Be EE See Re Oe Ry ema ny Ry ee Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. } ) "0001146 re + 6°88 0 > Gnp(27825 +-(0:0067-+9114 rs)? —0-082. 90072 ay r2-0°5 0-0000001( — sra 0-08 W Dupuit.... 4 1 =106-068 (rs)2*, St. Venant.. v the Si as 0°64 (AH)?-+0-04 aH. In which A denotes the maximum de v pth of the stream, and nl ne mile.” H the fall in water surface i + |28F10000-0 98F0- 6| 16 “wIad89¢q" "W/68810000-0 9686-8} 09 98660000-0 9922-8) 6 LT porocery 69260000. 0 GrLG- €| 06 Sg ‘O “NIFS860000-0 aera} 8 » — |T$869000-0 LBGL-1S-4 1 |1$869000-0 $z80-8)9- a ” seed ee ag 0 berths ” » ” ” ” ”» FG 89750000-0 GOLO-8) Le 43 Amngeatact BLEFTONO-O 6896. & % ‘Pua ‘OD “WW ¥7902000-0/6261'S| 8% « | 06 $8 $9 TOI 001 BST TSI '¢110000" 0.69889] 98T & AINgey[aqq TS0G0000'0, 8886'S} 9ST | | "90a | el £20704 x ‘AWIoy ny ‘edoig [ino ” 8 | 188 | Pecier 81 —ounp ‘BH AON 1vAIH og el S161! Tore [gr —oung| ‘utssny| NauoN yy [68 6h | SFG | Sox's [esl —oune “oO y 1OGLL 1 | 88 FES | TSB} O86'L | » » ‘qnour soddy SA » 146 OL | OOL | THIS |» 45 ‘PSA ON) MOLT ‘OUT 9 | 9 TeSt). 88 pict Be: ” Sipe = Soace THM » | 8 : e9It| Soir] ser‘er leg —oung “purl Ag ‘oul 2013] 86 ree |ooe legos lege Re eagie 9-09 | 8h [SS BBLT, sous] ‘ouyeyy JOAN be FLOT; SLO1] 818‘ [CRT ‘og"AON ‘yuvsvold ial ‘OAT OVO) 6T fet | fe | fat fist wach ota aoa rao ig JQ ie be, & i oh Us fe) Ouse | Ses 88's TS8T ‘8 Avy ” ” ” ” ” TS | S66] 496% |1cRT be Avy ” ” ” ” ” : 8B | 8%) SeO's [ISBT ee ” ee WEI, ” n | PT LE8B G+ | ISEF-G+ | 9EGO-T+ | LESO-G+ | FHOG-S+ | PLGE-S+ | OSFS-S+ | L10%-S+ ‘Pat Pat Pat ‘Pay sade Pau PAT "07 3 *sjuuns , “yougq ula cn s[RuvO “n[NU0F pg “Binu0y | “aynuTIoy \ sm aq -tordg hg pe jog| a PEt f -8A 4g sgindng | s,3unox | *s}USTOYJOOD YIM BpUTIOS s,AuO1g oc "R[NULOy §,pavaiy) “antag 8,7eNgNg sal Ate Oaee® ‘ oe ci bee 8 A Oe ES EA ee eee eee fe ON GS SP A STLO-0+ STOL O- 9OLET-O+ 1890-0- L9&S-0- £290-0- ‘ GPSF-0- iT. SPOL-O- | 9660-0— | 1060-0+ SESF-0- | 8986-0- | F980-0+ LL98-0- | F69T-0— | T060-0+ 9010-0+ | 6EL1-0+ | S80F-0+ OFEE-S— | 8000-S— | 9OFS-T- L190-6— | GOTL-T— | S8Se-1- SISF-OF | 9909-04 | FST8-0+ 6EF9-0F | 9982-04 | $886-0+ FL89-0F | 6Z8L-0+ | 4686-04 GLEF-OF | SG09-04 | PSFB-04- PEEL-O- | 88GF-O- | $600-0+ 6996-0~ | LOSG-0— | $600-0+- FS90-I+ | Te1F- 1+ | GO68- 1+ LESS-1+ | 69F8-1+ | G806-8+ 8688-0+ | [890-T+ | 8z08-1+ PLIG-T+ | LL9R- T+ | 9098-84- BSSC-0+ | GLL6-O+ | T69S- 1+ Sh9G-0+ | L9OL-O+ | SETS-T+ BIRT-S+ | POGE-S+ | CBSS-S+- FRPF-S+ | OSSS-B+ | SL69-64- 9898-B+ | L9BS-B4+ | LOTB-B+ FS80-6+ | 0686-84 | 8889-6+ 20 Ad ‘Pa s1ayj0 pun juromyeyscg) “Sune, SuMmog Jo wars “ “Wyeoo qt aw vnuoy 8. A049 “Miqwoj20 unaw sof aynutof posaaas ay} fo $)8aJ, Report of Messrs, Humphreys and Abbot. 205 In order to understand the signs prefixed to the numbers in the foregoing table, it must be observed that the authors have tabulated the differences as corrections, not as errors. That is, each number must be applied to the result of the particular computation to which it relates, with the sign as written. Thus, the first number in the Chezy-Young formula, viz: +2°6888 indicates that this amount must be added to the value of v which the formula gives, in order to make it equal to the observed velocity, 59288. The formula gives 3:2400, and 3-2400+2-6888 =5°9288. This mode of exhibiting results, though it makes the comparative error striking, fails to convey an sreanar im- pression of the comparative approach to truth, which is a different, and practically more important thing. Let us take, for illustra- tion, the first four examples, with the results by several of the old formule and the new. ; 2. 3 4, Vel. observed, 59288 58869 4:0838 39175 Chezy-Young, $2400 29702 1°3365 1:4253 Dubu 27468 2°4495 06796 07702 irard, 48148 43183 14181 15587 Prony-Eytelwein, 8°5314 8-2285 1-3960 14955 Prony- Wei : 3°5044 32663 1:4613 1:5593 Young, 32741 2°9869 1:2516 13455 St. Venant, 35907 38-1867 13804 14766 et, 30451 2°7369 10786 | 1°1545 Humphreys and Abbot, 5°8908 56444 87745 39117 Rhine, the Tiber, &c., than upon the Mississippi; though upon € Mississippi itself, their results show great discrepancies. There is, however, one curious exception in the case of small Streams. Numbers 17 and 18 are examples upon the feeder of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal near Washington. The follow- the results: are the = 4: 2. 1. 2, Vel. observed, 8-0823 2°7227 || Prony-Weisbach, 47199 47050 : Chezy-Young, 42858 42633 || Young, 44069 43830 Dubust, 47363 47084 || St, Venant, ~ 46793 4°6180 Girard é Ellet, - 45096 4 Prony-Eytelwein, 47056 46803 || Humphreys and Abbot, 31032 3-0821 206 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. The old formule all give here a velocity largely in excess ; whereas in large streams they are almost invariably in deficiency. The new formula represents these cases with as close an approac to observation as any others. The explanation of the anomaly is not obvious. The example of nearest general agreement of results, appears to be the small river Haine, No. 20, which gives the following :— Vel.observed, - ~ - 24947 Prony-Weisbach, - - - 26414 Chezy-Young, - - - 24046 oung, - - - 2°8893 Dubuat, - . - - 24494 St. Venant, - - - - 95540 Girard, - - - . 32749 Ellet, . . - - 19707 Prony-Eytelwein,- - - 25987 Humphreys and Abbot,- - 24690 If we examine the numerical ratio between the sums of the errors of the several formule in these thirty cases taken without sign, as given in the table, to the sum of the observed velocities (115°4847), we shall find it to vary from twenty-two rcent for the formula ef Dupuit, to thirty-nine per cent for that of Ellet. The formula of Humphreys and Abbot gives five and a half per cent. If we take the algebraic sum of these errors, this last ratio is reduced to three per cent; which is the tendency, as shown by this table toward excess. Examining the other formulz in the same way, we shall see that they are all in deficiency, with the exception of Girard, who leans on the side of excess to the extent of eleven and a half per cent. The Chezy-Eytelwein formula gives a ratio of twenty-five per cent when the arithmetical sum of the errors is compared with the sum of the velocities; the Chezy-Downing formula gives twenty-three per cent on the same comparison. In these the algebraic sum of the errors shows a tendency to deficiency of fifteen and a half per cent for the first, and nine and a for the second. Of all the old formule, the Dupuit appears to be the best; for the arithmetical sum of its errors bears the least ratio of all of them to the sum of the velocities; and the oppo- site errors, in these examples at least, almost exactly balance. The second method employed by the authors of the report, to test the accuracy of their formulz, consisted in computing the differences of level between points of the river distant from each other, in regard to which this difference had been ascertained by measurement. The same computation was made by Mr. Hllets formula also, the results being introduced into the table along with those derived from the new formule, for the purpose comparison. No computations were made in this case from the other formule, their large errors already showing their inappl eability to natural streams. An exception was made in favor of Mr. Ellet’s, because it had been expressly designed for rivers. -he present test applies equally to the bend formula, and to that for mean velocity. The following table embraces both data and Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. Tesis of the formule for slope. FFSREGaTATPRSEO geen nSeEeSons +tter rs Frets ~~ | Srror. New formula, wv s aé =} i-} 2 — a) C WO HOM IO MAORVUNUNSS ee oo “011g Ellet’s formula. "e1 peindwoy Wa *eouRisi(y ———. Measured’ between level-stations "peulg eee ee ee *esByosiT “9jaUILIEg “‘undep ainuixepy ee wee ne tee eae “TIP ee d 2 700} 300} 320) 32 280 567) 221) 237) 26 ’ ’ ’ b ’ ’ ’ r t 7 ’ 5 3 3, Date. 4 W. 1. w. 1850 2 = 8 Level-stations, e. “ « d Ohio river, “ dian V) “ “ “a Red river, a“ “a and Arkansas river, “ “ “ emine and In a“ aL “ a“ “ “ Mn Lockport. “ “ “ “ u ‘ “ “ “ B. La Fourche and |Donaldsonville and a Red river Arkansas river an |Plaq: Stream. R. Ft. St. Philip and B La Fourche, 4 “ ppi R “ “ ca «“ ue “ uemine. a ‘ “ «“ “ “ “ tt “a B. La Fourche, Mississi “ B. aa “a Sum, 208 Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. results. The data were not in all the cases known with equal degrees of exactness; but the small ratio of the errors to the distances on which the computations severally depend is not only satisfactory, but even os eet In the last example but one, the error is regarded by the authors, as having been proba- bly i in great measure sitetiinad by the occurrence of crevasses ‘between the points observed. The error which is largest in absolute amount is that between the Arkansas and Ohio rivers at low water, whieb! is regarded as possibly due to sand bars. The final test, and, as it seems to us, the most satisfactory ¢ all, consists in the application of the new formula to the so tion of the important question, how much will the level of a river be raised at a ee locality, at which the cross-section and discharge are kno any given definite i rescines? of the dis- charge? In Seenstttteels F this question, it is commonly assumed that the slope of the river is unaltered by the fucteased voll discharge. But, as this assumption is not true, the results which are deducéd from it are equally erroneous. In order to which fopalaten't the change The level of the water at de mouth of a river is not wai ffected “ite a flood. For a certain distance up the course of the yet begun to rise. It is thereon evident that the same stand of the river is not always accompanied by the same eee at any e same for the same stand of the river in rising and P fallin ng It is evident that observations on the passage of the great fl waves may be best conducted in the upper parts of the valley; inasmuch as the wave in its progress down the river tends, from the greater slope on the lower side, to spread itself over a and wider base, and loses therefore in the degree of its convexity Columbus, Kentuky, Me on this Pimathte first selec stu The cross-sectio , perimeter, width, gauge-level ‘ia dischs e of the river oie aeternituied: for different dates during — the Baer 4 o— of six marked rises of the river, and the computed from the f formula for those dates. « ured, of course, the change pro- jot npg the i ev fp sa of discharge. : . Report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot. 209 n the endeavor to ascertain the law of change, the slopes ome first plotted as abscissz, to the a ee as ordinates ; and straight lines were drawn connecting the points representing the top and bottom of each rise. These lines were not parallel, showing that the rate of increase of slope varies for different rises. In the further study of their relations, it was discovered that the difference of slope divided by the rise is the abscissa of a curve sensibly parabolic, in which the gauge-reading at the top of the rise, measured from low water mark, is the corres- ponding ordinate. Or, if x denote the rise, ¢ the primitive gauge- reading, and e+a the gauge-reading at flood; also, if s, and s,, represent the primitive slope and the slope at flood, then the following equation will be true :— Sy ae 1 f0— 8) (e-pe)?, or 8 — §= 5P(e-+-a)?2. x The value of = is to be determined by dividing s,,—s, (of both which aif ‘the values are deduced, as just stated, by the formula, after the observations have determined We cross-section, discharge, perimeter, and rise of the river) by (e+2)?x. For the same locality it is found to be constant; but it is different at different points in the length of the riv ver, If now we put a, Q, p, W,v, for the cross-section, discharge, perimeter, width, and mean velocity of the river in the primitive stage, and a,, QP, W ,,and v,, for the same quantities after the tise; and if, in estimating the increased perimeter of the river occasioned by the rise, we neglect, as we may safely do for a large stream, the inclination of the banks, the new perimeter aga equal to the primitive perimeter increased by 2x, and we ay a4+W PutWy aoe W +22 Also, as — denominators are equal and numerators also, we shall hay Si which, rising along certain lines of dislocation, and nee spreading laterally, might produce alteration in strata . * “Proc. Royal Soc. London,” May 7, 1857, and “Phil. Mag.” (4), xv, 68; also m. Jour. Science” ii, 487, and xxv, 435. (3, . Contpteg Beads be Peeoa” Nov. 16, 1857; also “ Bull. Soc. Geol. France,” 1 XV, 103. 220 T. S. Hunt on the Chemical and Mineralogical versal alteration of areas of sedimentary rocks, embracing many iles. h hundred thousands of square miles well shown) are confined to certain sedimentary deposits, ap to definite stratigraphical horizons; above and below which, sa- a a ucing chernical changes only in those strata in which soluble alkaline salts are present.° Wh been broken up, and the periods during which they have Te mained unmetamorphosed and exposed to the action of infiltra- * It should be remembered that normal or regional metamorphism is in no WAY dependent upon the proximity of unstratified or igneous rocks, which are rarely present in metamorphic districts. The ophiolites, amphibolites, euphotides, d tes, and granites of such regions, which it has been customary to regard as ne trusive rocks, are in most cases indigenous, and are altered sediments. I have else- where shown that the great outbursts of intrusive dolerites, diorites and trachytes, 10 deavored to explain this by the consideration that the great volume of overlying ed j cent ‘ede strata now exposed by denudation, produced a. depression of the earth's suria’ Jn lines of fracture whieh : : ond. See my paper “On some Points in Ameria Geology,” American Jour. Science, 2], xxxi, 414. a cae ® See Report of the Geological ey of Canada, 1853-6, pp 479, 480; OF Canadian Naturalist, vii, 262. For a consideration of the relations of mimery cal formations, see Report on the Geology Canada os {now in press), p. 61; also chap. xix, on “Sedimentary and M = par : where most of the points touched in the present paper are di relations of the Metamorphic Rocks. 221 <= st which, even now, are active in removing soluble matters from these rocks. The crystalline Lower Silurian rocks in Canada acid, and vegetation. If, however, it may be assumed that this action, other things being equal, has, on the whole, been propor- tionate to the newness of the formation, it is evident that the chemical and mineralogical composition of different systems of rocks must vary with their antiquity, and it now remains to fi in their comparative study a guide to their respective ages. _ It will be evident that silicious deposits, and chemical precip- itates, like the carbonates and silicates of lime and magnesia, may exist with similar characters in the geological formations of any age; not only forming beds apart, but mingled with the impermeable siliecaluitisicll sediments of mechanical origin. nasmuch as the chemical agencies giving rise to these com- pounds were then most active, they may be expected in greatest 222 T. S. Hunt on the Chemical and Mineralogical ratio between the alumina and the alkali in the feldspar just named is 3:1, it becomes 6:1 in margarodite, an : 1 in mus- covite. The appearance of these micas in a rock, then, denotes a diminution in the amount of alkali, until in some strata the feld- spar almost entirely disappears, and the rock becomes a quartz- ose mica schist, In sediments still farther deprived of alkali, metamorphism gives rise to schists filled with crystals of kyanite, or andalusite, simple silicates of alumina, into whose composi- tion alkalies do not enter; or, in case the sediment still retains oxyd of iron, staurotide and iron-alumina garnet take their formed when magnesia and iron replace lime. In all these cases, the excess of the silicates of earthy protoxyds over the silicate of alumina is represented in the altered strata by hornblende, py- roxene, olivine, and similar species; which give rise by their admixture with the double aluminous silicates, to diorite, dole- rite, diabase, euphotide, eclogite, and similar compound rocks. n eastern North America, the crystalline strata, so far as yet studied, may be conveniently classed in five groups, correspond- ing to as many different geological series, four of which will be considered in the present paper. 1. The Laurentian system represents the oldest known rocks of the globe, and is supposed to be the equivalent of the Pnm itive Gneiss formation of Scandinavia, and that of the Western Islands of Scotland to which also the name of Laurentian is DoW applied. It has been investigated in Canada along a continuous outcrop from the coast of Labrador to Lake Superior, and also over a considerable area in Northern New York. ee _ 2. Associated with this system is a series of strata charactel ized by a great development of anorthosites, of which the hy- persthenite, or opalescent feldspar-rock of Labrador, may be taxe® asatype. These strata overlie the Laurentian gneiss, and @ relations of the Metamorphic Rocks. 223 3. In the third place, there is a great series of crystalline schists, which are in Canada referred to the Quebec group, an inferior part of the Lower Silurian system. They appear to correspond, both lithologically and stratigraphically, with the Schistose group of the Primitive slate formation of Norway, as recognized Naumann and Keilhau, and to be there represented by the strata in the vicinity of Drontheim, and those of the Dofrefeld. The Hu- ronian series of Canada in like manner appears to correspond to the Quartzose group of the same Primitive Slate formation. It consists of sandstones, imperfect varieties of gneiss, diorites, sili- cious and feldspathic schists, passing into argillites, with lime- stones, and great beds of hematite. Though more recent than the Laurentian and Labrador series, these strata are older than the Quebec group; yet, from their position to the westward of Series. altogether wanti ng, extremely rare in the Laurentian system, The aluminous sediments of the second class are, however, repre- Sented in this system by a diabase made up of dark green py- Toxene iddbiciale mo-ferrous garnet. This es constitutes 224 T. S. Hunt on the Chemical and Mineralogical small beds, often with quartz, and occasionally with a little py-: roxene. ‘These basic aluminous minerals form, however, but an insignificant part of the mass of strata. This system is further remarkable for the small amount of ferruginous matter diffused through the strata, from which the greater part of the iron seems to have been removed, and accumulated in the form of immense beds of hematite and magnetic iron. Beds of pure crystalline plumbago also characterize this series, and are generally found ° with the limestones. These are here developed to an extent un- known in more recent formations; and are associated with beds of crystalline apatite, which sometimes attain a thickness of several feet. e serpentines of this series, so far as yet studied in Canada, are generally pale colored, and contain an unusu amount of water, a small proportion of oxyd of iron, and nei- ther chrome nor nickel, both of the latter being almost always present in the serpentines of the third series. The second, abrador series is characterized, as alread remarked, by the predominance of great beds of anorthosite, composed chiefly of triclinic feldspars, which vary in compost- tion from anorthite to andesine. These feldspars sometimes form mountain masses, almost without any admixture, but at other times include portions of pyroxene, the latter passing into hyper- sthene. Beds of nearly pure pyroxenite are met with in this series, and others which ca and they will probably be found, when further studied, to 0: a complete lithological series. These rocks have been observed cording to Emmons, they form the highest summits. Sage In the third series, which we have referred to the Lower Silu- micaceous, OLeM passing into micaceous schist, a common variety of which cone tains disseminated a large quantity of chloritoid. Argillites relations of the Metamorphic Rocks. 225 abound, and, under the influence of metamorphism, sometimes develop crystalline orthoclase. At other times, re are conver- ted into a soft micaceous mineral and form a kind of mica-schist. Chiastolite and staurotide are never met with in the schists of set series, at least in its northern portions, throughout Canada New England. The anorthosites of the Labrador series are arian by fine grained diorites, in which the feldspar varies from albite to very basic varieties, which are sometimes associ- ated with an aluminous mineral allied to chlorite in composition. Chioritic schists, frequently accompanied by epidote, abound in this serie es. e great predomi nance 0 magnesia in the In some “parts of this series, pure limestones occur, which contd various crystalline minerals common also to the Laurentian lime- Stones, and to ‘those of the fourth series. The only graphite which has been foanast in the third series is in the form of impure plumbaginous shal and fourth series are contiguous! aliegag! =. heir: extent, so sp 4s examined, but are everywhere separated from the Laurentian and brador series by a zone of unaltered Paleozoic rocks. nasses ot intrusive granite occur among the crystalline strata of the fourth series, but are rare or unknown among the Am. Jour. Scr—Szcosp Sextus, VoL. XXXVI, No. 107.—Sepr., 1863. 29 . 226 T. S. Hunt on the Chemical and Mineralogical relations, etc. older metamorphic rocks in Canada. The so-called granites of the Laurentian and Lower Silurian appear to be in ever indigenous rocks; that is to say, strata altered in situ, and still retaining evidences of stratification. The same thing is true with regard to the ophiolites and the anorthosites of both series ; in all of which the general absence of great masses of unstrat- ified rock is especially noticeable. No evidences of the hypoth- etical granitic substratum are met with in the Laurentian system, although this is, in one district, penetrated by great masses of — syenite, orthophyre, and dolerite. Granitic veins, with minerals ese, g having formed, like metalliferous veins, by aqueous deposition in fissures in nthe strata. ‘The al whether they are susceptible of a general application. I have found that the blue akong labradorite of the Labrador series of Canada is exactly represented by specimens from Scarvig, in Skye; and the ophiolites of reins resemble those of the Lauren- tian series in Canada. Many of the rocks of Donegal appear to me lithologically identical with those of the Laurentian period; _ while the serpentines of Aghadoey, containing chrome and onegal cannot be distinguished from those which characterize the altered Paleozoic strata of Canada. It is to be rem ’ that chrome- and nickel-bearing serperitines are met with in the same geological horizon in Canada and Norway; and that those of the Scottish Highlands, which contain the same elements, a Roderick Murchison, would be of similar age. The serpentines of Cornwall, the Vosg ges, Mount Rosa, and many other aioe - agree in containing chrome and nickel; which, on the other seem to be absent from the serpentines of the primitive gneiss- formation of Scandinavia. It remains to be determined rat far chemical and mineralogical differences, such as those which been here indicated, are geological constants. Meanwhile, ree greatly to be desired that fature eae end mineral vestigations of crystalline rocks should be made with this ques -tion in view; and that the mater strata of the Britisa Isles, and the more modern ones of southern and central Europ be ied _ with 1 reference to the, a = — it lay before th "Montreal, Catiacdey Tas 28; 1863, OT ere See eee a I ye ee ee Pie oa Le eee ee ey eee J. D, Dana on Time-boundaries in Geological History. 227 Art. XXI.—On the Appalachians and Rocky Mountains as Time- boundaries in Geologiwal History; by JAMES D, Dana. limits of the vast interior continental basin. All other lines of heights are small in comparison. the oceans and the continental interior. The three eras, after the Azoic, recognized by geologists, are the Paleozoic, or ancient time, the Mesozoic, or medieval time, and the Cenozove, or recent time; the first and second having their intervening limit be- tween the Carboniferous and Reptilian ages, and the second and third, between the Cretaceous period closing the Reptilian age and the Tertiary commencing the age of Mammals.’ w, the elevations of the two mountain chains, referred to, date from the limits of these eras. At the first of these limits, or as the clos- ing act in Paleozoic history, the rocks of the Appalachian re- T " . Cenozoic time, the mass of the Rocky Mountains began to rise above the ocean. Prof. Agassiz, in a recent rin the Atlantic Monthly, places the close of the Paleozoic ny Sea Downie sol the writer's view, the whole bearing of the science is against any such new arrangement of the Geological ages. 228 J.D. Dana on the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains curring in the Mississippi basin, it is probable, as suggested elsewhere by the writer, that the epoch of uplift and disturbance ad its commencement even before the Permian peri e era preceding it. No raising of mountains is known to have occurred in North America between the Devonian and Silurian ages ; and only some limited uplifts and disturbances between Devonian and Carboniferous. The only elevations of prominent importance during these ages, of which we have evidence, 0c curred either at the close of the Lower Silurian or earlier. The Green Mountains, one portion of the Appalachians, date their first emergence, probably, from the close of the Lower Silurian. With a few small exceptions, therefore, the long era fromthe Zoic to the termination of the Carboniferous age was, com paratively, one of prolonged quiet, in which oscillations of level were in progress over continental areas, but no profound ané extensive disturbances. These oscillations throughout the Fale ozoic, had been, moreover, most profound along the Appalachi times the thickness acquired in the interior regi : +7 region—the y preparatory for that making of the mountains whieh was to commence when Paleozoic time should draw to a close. as Time-boundaries in Geological History. 229 With no great epochs of revolution to fix limits to the Silu- rian, and none to give bounds to the Devonian, the heights of the Appalachians loom up majestically as a time-boundary to the Paleozoic. It is fitting that the raising of one of the two border-chains of the continent—the eastern—should thus mark one of the grand- est of the transitions in geological history. The transition was as abrupt in the life of the continent and globe as in its formations; for it was the time when its ancient features were to a great extent lost:—when Trilobites, Cyathophylloid and other old styles of corals, and the Sigillarie and Lepidodendra of the old forests tory has its appropriate monument in the ky Mountains, the western border-chain of the continent. The Rocky-Mountain its rise, as has been stated, just before Cenozoic time began. The elevation was not completed at once, but continued in 230 J.D. Dana on the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains progress, as the investigations of Hayden have shown, through much of the Tertiary perioc On the eastern border of the continent, only one epoch of pro- found disturbance during the progress of Mesozoic time (or the Reptilian age)—has been distinguished: namely, that when the Triassico-J urassic Scan underwent displacement, and the trap ridges and dykes that are associated with it were formed in Nova Scotia, the Sammocout valley, the Palisade region of New York and New Jersey, Pennsylv vania, Virginia and North Car- olina. This a a epoch of disturbance divides off the pe- ensof of “i Triassico-J urassic beds from that of the Cretaceous ormati At close of the Mesozoic, there was some elevation of the continent on this same eastern border, but it was small in amount, compared with that on the western. e destruction of life closing Mesozoic time was as compre- mansive and complete in North America, according to present ge, as that closing the Paleozoic. Investigation with reference to this point has already extended over so wide a Tre- gion, that the fact may be regarded as quite well established. The exceptions that we have most reason to look for are those of oceanic fishes; for these species might have escaped the de- stroying agence y. (whether of climate aoa change of level, or the latter alone) which was in action over the continents and alon ong the ocean’s shallow borders It is, then, evident that in 1 North America the two boldest tran- sitions in the course of the Zoic ages correspond with tlfe raising of the mountain chains of the two oceanic borders, Thus time and geography are brought into direct parallelism. tensive metamorphic changes, after those which preced 3 Upper Silurian, appear to date from the time between the Car- oe annaine apa "Triassic periods, either at the beginning or close e essential conformability of the Cretaceous and siren. beds ee ae part 0 of the Atlantic sr ae borders shows that even aan oy in geo his not accompanied everywhere ‘by disturbances Ae ‘ar hos and cases of unconformity wees is no object pf Bre closing i the Permian beds jet th > the wor aoe wget os de Lady hag questioned in converwation with the wih ie as Time-boundaries in Geological History. 231 of the Permian period. Murchison remarks, concerning the epoch following the Carboniferous, that it was then “that the coal-strata and their antecedent formations were very generally broken up, and thrown by grand upheavals into separate basins, which were fractured by numberless powerful dislocations.” The formation of the main part of the Ural chain—the mountains on the eastern border of Europe (dividing the Orient into its eastern and western portion)—has been referred to this time. Again, the epoch of the elevation of the Rocky Mountains was similarly eminent in Kuropean history. From the Triassic onward to the middle or later Cretaceous, there had been in Eu- rope only oscillations of level, and relatively small uplifts or dis- turbances. The elevation of the range of the Céte d’Or and Cévennes in France, and of the Erzgebirge in Saxony, all north- Orient (for these mountains belong to the border-region of the Orient just as the Rocky Mountains do to that of the Occident, continued to the middle or later Eocene. But the transition in kinds of life which accompanied the transition in time from the was, in fact, the prominent epoch of physical change over the globe, notwithstanding the changes of level which subsequently during the Carboniferous age, and probably occupied in their ariot Rock menced their grand movements upward as the egg age was e Tertiary. ere are thus two specially prominent periods of mountain- 232 J.D. Dana on Time-boundaries in Geological History. nected with the two grand transitions in the life of the world, that of the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic, and that of the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic.’ Asia probably affords similar facts, The two opposing moun- tain chains of most prominence are the Altai on the north, and W act time of the main part of the elevation, the evidence is not yet —— Tt is, however, certain that the western por- tion, in which Cashmeer lies, was still 15,000 feet below its pres- ent level in the early Hocene; and the elevation, whenever com- menced, was completed throughout the chain, like that of the Alps an and Appenines, only after the Tertiary period had begun. Thus the progress was gradual; and it covered the same part of logical time as that of the loftier mountains of America and As above remarked, the great transition in the life of he glo obe which took place at ‘the close of the Cre etaceous, shows that, reer eens this prolonging of the era of elevation, there was a crisis in the move ement, climate and otherwise, at the close of Mesozoic time. The great physical changes in progress then made their profoundest mark on the world’s history. In South America, there is proof, as Darwin has shown, that the Andes were, to a ‘large gov raised from the ocean after the close of the Mesozoic. The elevation was not completed at once, any more than that of the ae Mountains or Alps, but con- tinued afterwards to increase at intervals, while undergoing 08 eillations, during the subsequent Tertiary period.’ The Rocky ountains and Andes were one, apparently, in time = origin, as they are one in position along the American contin Is : be then probable, that over ail the sragsesags oe making of t -mountains—the chains which give the land its dominaik asares, or rather which are its patchncea” as in America, with the two grandest epochs in the geolog! past, on in other words, gives bounds to Paleozoic a — zoic tim: in the extensive tii Star o rin el ine : ‘ and and elsewhere; so D: Forbes, @ J. Geol Sot. 180, p. 7. J. D. Dana on the Homologies of Insects and Crustaceans. 283 ? violence to reason in supposing that the profound movements which originated the lofty border-chains of one continent should have raat simultaneously (although it may have been very un- equally) at the two sides of the oceanic basins, and thus have produced world-wide results. If so, we have a universal cause for simultaneous universal effects. There is evidence that in the case of some of the minor oscillations there were synchronous parallel movements in the North American and European con- tinents ;—as in the formation of marine limestones alike on the vibrations of the crust, surely we may look for synchronous rs tains.. T In that the subdivison of time into Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Ceno- zoic should be registered in the strongest lineaments of the earth’s surface ArT. XXII.—On the Homologies of the Insectean and Crustacean Types; by JAMES D. DANA. IN a note to the article on cephalization, at page 6 of this volume, a brief statement is made by the writer on the relations between the structures of Insects and Crustaceans. foll . : aisaren and explanations will make the subject more intel- gible. Cc z A 3 : | eeemnen Y eerie 1 i ‘ Se ohio ta te 1s 144546 La iette 20 21 Coperscnas, 2-14 doe EPP PE ere ABR ae Paint cocnloantiae™ Seetncliaiiagtth iii : C x A iy," G =e "The diagram presents to the eye the succession of normal seg- Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, Vow. XXXVI, No. 107.—Sxpr., 1863. 30 ‘ 2384 J.D. Dana on the Homologies of Insects and Crustaceans, ments in the two types, that of the Insect or highest Insectean, and that of the Decapod or highest Crustacean (including Crabs, Lobsters, &c.). The spaces between the vertical lines stand for the segments, which are numbered from 1 to 21. C stands for the cephalic portion or head; T, for the thorax; A, for the ab- domen; C-T, for the cephalothorax. he number of normal segments in a Crustacean has been so clearly and conglusively demonstrated by Milne Edwards, that it is unnecessary to add here to what has already been said on the subject. The series and its subdivisions are illustrated in the line above, opposite CRUSTACEAN: fourteen segments are shown to belong to the cephalothorax and seven to the abdomen. It is established beyond all doubt, that each segment corresponds to a single pair of members, as follows: number 1, to the eyes; 2, 8, to the two pairs of antennz; then, in the Decapod, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, to organs of the mouth (or mandibles, maxillz and maxilli- peds); 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, to feet; and 15 to 21, to ‘the abdomen.’ The abdominal members in all Decapods which have them, and four or more posterior pairs of thoracic members or feet in degradational forms of Decapods (as in Gastrurans or the Squilla group, and in Schizopods), are two-branched, or have two jointed terminations proceeding from the second segment: aud this is the nearest approach in Decapods to that duplication of the pairs of legs to each segment which occurs in the Iuli and some other related Myriapods,’ s the true normal limit of the head in an animal is deter- mined by the fact that this part includes the senses, mouth, and mouth appendages, (for this is demonstrated by the principles of cephalization already explained, if not established on other grounds,) the head in the Decapod includes nine segments, and the thoraz, five, although there is no constriction of the body to make the division obvious to the eye. : The relation of the Insect-type to the Decapod is at once ap- parent from a comparison of the two lines in the preceding dia- gram. Supposing the parallelism rightly presented, the following facts are to be noted. 1. The Insect-type wants the 8 posterior segments of the Crustacean. . 2. The head and thorax together of the Insect-type have the same number of segments (nine) as the head alone of the De capod. 3. The head and thorax of the Insect-type contain half of 1ts 1 In the Tetradecapod, 4, 5, 6, 7, pertain to organs of the mouth, and 8, 9, 10, 11, 1 The writer hes that the mul f the Phyllopods writer multiplication o in might be as 0s thee bo part oe eure sof fect bacomng separate Bo = ment, and that the branches iar tetionded Whe double feet of the Iuli; but as the _members in these multiplicative types appear often (if not always) to have the full Bamber of has 8, this view does not appear to be tenable. J. D. Dana on the Homologies of Insects and Crustaceans. 235 Insect and Crustacean must be rightly given; consequently, if there is any doubt, it holds only with regard to Nos. 1, 2 and 8, he law of unity of structure under a type seems, however, to preclude even this chance for doubt. Comparing the higher Decapods among Crustaceans and the higher Insects, the mean size or mass is about as 50 tol, This ratio indicates approximately the amount of condensation in the Articulate structure connected with the elevation of grade from the typical Crustacean to the typical Insectean. | ® Only in a degradational of Decapods, that of the Gastrurans, do the vis- cera reach re she phclonniesid oan nts, or those following the 14th. The abdomen is very much elongated in these species, the cephalothoracic portion of the body is comparatively small, and the whole structure is lax and low in grade. The species «thus stand apart from the Macrurans, as a separate tribe, equivalent with those Brach urans and Macrurans; hile the Schi i d y degradational acrurans. See this Journal, [2], xxv, 338. In the fact that the viscera of the Squilloids or Gastrarans are contained in the abdominal portion of the animal, this group ap- Pears to a the order of Insects. But this seeming approximation comes, as observed, Jegradation, and is analogous to that between a Limulus and an Insect, as explained on page 6 of this volume, 236 E.. Billings on the Genus Centronella. Art. XXIIT.—On the genus Centronella, with remarks on some other genera of Brachiopoda; by EK. BiLuines.—In a letter addressed to the Editors of this Journal. Gentlemen :—As I fear that some confusion may arise with re- gard to the characters of the genus Centronella, I shall feel obliged by your permitting me to publish the original figures illustrating it, together with some others. i zs. 1, 2, 8. Ventral, lateral, and dorsal views of Centronella glans-fagea,—Fig. 4. Interior of dorsal valve, showing the loop—Fig. 5. Longitudinal section, showi oe Page of the loop in the interior.—Figs. 6,7. Figures 4 and 5 as copied by rof, Ha his at the most would be only a specific difference, but I have now some evidence that in C. glans-fagea the plate, when perfect, is as large as in @. Julia. I have lately succeeded in dissolving out four other specimens, showing the loop. ‘T'wo of these are, 1 For Professor Hall’s paper, referred to here and elsewhere in this article, se this Journal, [2]. xxxv, See aaa xxxvi, 11, ' LE. Biilings on the Genus Centronella, 237 ay eo) . : y . 405 i j i i Fig.8.A imen show- (p of his article) that Dr. Rominger’s tie the oop with oes of ae 2 th , two di- by Mr. Billings for Centronella glans-fagea, hac ta i and shows essentially the same character as F Fig. ee ger . Cryptonella.” This expression was used by #80". 8 plate, bikie (3 * Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, iv, 131, April, 1859, 238 E. Billings on the Genus Centronella. to the figures which he misinterprets. The only question (in this connection) that can be of any interest to men of science is this.—TIs there in nature a genus of fossil Brachiopods having the general structure assigned to Centronella by me in 1854? The dis- coveries of Prof. Winchell, Dr. Rominger and myself prove very clearly that there is, and I think I have a right to point out that Prof. Hall’s recently published observations have added nothing but words to these discoveries. served by shifting it to another genus. It will be observed that the new edition of the genus in Prof. Hall’s paper (p. 401) is in fact founded on the loop of Centronella Julia. e have no evidence that this species is congenerie with those which were made the typical forms in 1861. ‘There is 10 connection yet shown between the Cryptonella of 1861 and the Cryptonelia of 18638. I repeat that the genus Cryptonella can be sustained only by showing that the internal organs of the species upon which it was oon aaerge 8 founded are different from shoae of all prevent established genera. As these organs have never been seen, — that is known of the genus is expressed in the short description which I have given above in two lines. I do not say that it 18 not a new genus, but only, that we have as yet no published proof that it is, e question whether C. Julia belongs to the genus Centro- nella is one of some importance, as its solution depends 8 certain principles of classification much discussed of late. That our genera are founded on the modifications of the ultimate parts of animals, there can be no doubt; but how great an amount of modification is required to constitute a generic character 18 4 E. Billings on the Genus Centronella. 239 matter of opinion, I have reason to believe that the internal organs of the fossil Brachiopoda are much more variable than is generally supposed. Some of these variations I shall mention presently. I shall first make some remarks on the punctate tra and YT. rectirostra.* And when afterwards he figured the muscular impressions of C. eximia, I concluded that all of the species belonged to Charionella. I do not now think the punc- tate structure of the shell a good guide in classification, as it is a character which pervades the Brachiopoda widely and irregu- larly, without regard to the affinities of the groups of species in which it occurs. ‘ The grounds upon which C. Julia is said to be separable gen- erically from C. glans-fagea are the following. . The species of Centronella heretofore described have the “ventral valve highly convex or subangular in the middle, with the dorsal valve flattened or concave in the middle, or with a median depression, and convex at the sides.” (Prof. Hall, p. 402.) In C. Julia both valves have a “regular lens-like convexity.” In answer to this I have only to state that in almost all genera of Brachiopoda, where the species are numerous, similar differ- ences in the form occur. Let us refer to Waldheimia the genus orm of C, Hecate. W. Waltoni, W. lagenalis, W. ornithocephala and W. Ceéltica are examples of elongate ovate forms like the typical species of Prof. Hall’s genus Cryptonella, In Terebrutula proper, numerous examples of similar and even greater differences might be cited. The hinge, socket, and dental plates are also liable to small Variations in structure in different species of the same genus, Thus, most species of Orthis have a well developed divaricator process in the dorsal valve. But in O. Hlectra and O. Tritonia there is not a vestige of this organ to be seer, the umbo being simply hollowed out into a triangular cavity, to the bottom of which the muscles for opening the valve were no doubt attached. O. porambonites, this process appears in a rudimentary form, * See the on M: Haskinsi is described as hav- ing the bechamel Far te shell faroca, with an exterior covering which ap- Pears to be punctate,” and on p. 85, M. Doris as having the “ shell-structure punctate.” 240 E. Billings on the Genus Centronella, being represented by a narrow thread-like ridge. In others, it is larger, and, in many, strongly developed. In Leptena sordida and L. decipiens, there is no divaricator process. In Strophomena, all the Lower Silurian species have a wide foramen; in the Mid- dle and Upper Silurian rocks, species make t eir appearance with a much narrower aperture, and, in the Devonian, we find ‘many with this opening reduced to a mere line, and some wi it obsolete altogether. In this same series, we find also a grad- ual increase in the extent to which the area is striated; it peas smooth in the Lower Silurian, partly striated in the Middle an Upper one se and, in the Dev onian, sometimes, as in S. demissa, ornamented the whole length with transverse line We have are a gradual transition from S. slieeatta to S. de- missa, in which two species the characters of the hinge and area are so different that they have been placed in different genera.’ airertn Verneuilit has large dental pistes, but O. festinala none all. Spirifera Mosquensis has these plates extending more ie half the length of the valve, but S. mucronata is desti- tute of them. Almost precisely the same differences exist be- tween the internal characters of Zerebratula vitrea and T. elongata as those relied upon for the separation of C. Julia from C. glans- fagea. ane ip described by peewee. in I. elongata ae separate it from that genus ‘and make it the Soniation of i Cryptonella will not be successful. : ‘ species, idalis in the D RADI Sa Ww wide foramen and non-striated area of S. alternata. But a true Lower Silurian form, which appears t sprung from the stock of 8. and lived on ugh the Middle Silurian, Upper Silurian, and change. It may ed as a remarkable instance of Darwin's of divergence. In the Lower Silurian period this species pumerous congeners. But the interval to the Devonian the genus as 4 became gradually changed, S. rhomboidalis alone retaining ch mire Bir, In this comparison, species of Str of Montreal, Canada, Sly, 1863. F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder, 241 Art. XXIV.—On the Explosive Force of Gunpowder ; by Prof. F, A. P. BARNARD. AUTHORITIES very widely differ as to the degree of strain to which heavy guns are subjected in experimental or in service firing ; and still more widely in their estimate of the expansive force which gunpowder would be capable of exerting, could it be exploded in a space incapable of enlargement, which it ex- actly fills. 'The magnitude of the differences may be illustrated by the following examples. n the work published in 1742 by Benjamin Robins, entitled “New Principles of Gunnery,” the absolute expansive force of gunpowder exploded within its own bulk, is set down at one thousand atmospheres. This estimate was founded on certain experiments which may briefly be described as follows: First, by actually collecting the gases generated by the combustion of a given weight of powder, Mr. Robins inferred that these gases, reduced to the actual temperature previous to explosion, exceed, under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, the bulk of the pow- der by which they are produced in the ratio of 244 tol. In order to ascertain the effect upon elasticity produced by the heat of combustion, he drew out a portion of a musket barrel into a conical form, leaving an orifice at that end of only one-eighth of an inch. The other end being closed, he subjected the appa- ratus to the highest heat of a furnace, and then immersed the conical end (which he first stopped with an iron plug After the tube had sufficiently cooled, he removed the P allowed the water to enter. The amount of the fluid found in computed the maximum ible elasticity of the gases generated das at 9994 atmospheres; or, in round At a later period this subject was ghana by Gay Lussac. rding to bis determination, the bulk o tion at 1000° C.; and computes the resulting elastic pressure at more than 2100 atmospheres. Am. Jour. Sc1—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 107.—Sxpr., 1863. 31 242 F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder, Dr. Hutton, relying upon the approximate correctness of a formula which he had constructed for computing the velocities of projectiles fired from a gun, and taking as data the velocities actually observed, as ascertained by Robins’ pendulum, con- cluded the maximum pressure to be somewhere between 1700 and 2300, thus substantially agreeing with Gay Lussac. The results of Dr. Gregory are not materially different from this, the maximum pressure being put by him at 2250. In the year 1797, Count Rumford communicated to the Royal Society of London the results of an elaborate series of experi- ments upon the force of gunpowder, in which the estimates of pressure had been deduced among other methods from the ob- served effect of small charges of powder in lifting heavy weights. He puts the greatest force actually observed at about 55,000 at- mospheres; but, as the charges filled but a portion of the cavity beneath the weight, he infers that the maximum pressure in a space entirely filled with the powder ought to be as high as 101,000 atmospheres. e processes and results of Rumford are criticised by Piobert (Traité d’Artillerie, Paris, 1847), who regards them as unsatisfac- tory. According to his own determination, the maximum pres- sure should be about 7500 atmospheres. are not to the poe immediately before us. Mr. Woodbridge t t : cylinder, and the explosion being effected without escape of ga —without bursting the cylinder. ats Mr. Woodbridge also quotes Gen. Antoni, of the Sardinian army, as authority for the statement that fine military powder in a cylinder of half an inch diameter and height, with 00 1400 to 1900 atmospheres. ; : F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder, 243 In the Encyclopedia Britannica, last edition, article Gun-pow- der, Mr. Tomlinson, assuming that the gaseous products of the combustion of gunpowder are carbonic oxyd, sulphurous acid and nitrogen exclusively, computes a theoretic enlargement of volume as 1: 787:3. Assuming further that the elevation of temperature is such as to treple this volume, he make the maxi- mum pressure 2360 atmospheres. he interesting Reports of Capt. Rodman, upon metals for heavy guns, and upon the qualities of cannon-powder, published in 1861 by authority of the Secretary of War of the United States, contain statements of experiments in which powder was ode the for the purpose, contrived ot. Rodman himsel and described in the volume, was 185,000 Ibs. per sq. in.—equiv- ent to more than 12 atmospheres. For certain reasons aximum pressure cannot exceed 743 atmospheres, or about eleven thou- sand pounds to the square inch. i é These examples are cited not with any intention to exhaust the list of authorities, but simply for the purpose of illustrating the wide differences between them. None of the results pre- Sented can be said to rest upon entirely unexceptionable data; and among those which most largely differ, are some which seem possess almost equal claims to acceptance. In the year 1857, however, there was published in Poggendorf’s Annalen for No- vember, a paper by Messrs. Bunsen and Schischkoff, of Heidel- berg, entitled “Chemische Theorie des Schiesspulver,” in which -this subject is investigated with a thoroughness never before attempted, and the data are presented for determining the maxi- mum force of gunpowder in a form which seems to leave nothing to desire.’ This force is computed by them to - ? This Journal, [2], xxxvi, 106. 244 F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder. as compared with the original volume of the powder; thirdly, the volume of the fixed products, both at the temperature of of leaving the gun; and computing, according to recogni principles of physics, the initial pressures which would be neces sary to produce such velocities, - In making such a computation, one assumption must be made {at least in the first instance) which is not true; and which, in so far as it is not true, will have the effect to make the compu maximum less than the real maximum pressure. This assum) tion is, that the powder is completely fired before the project! begins to move. The same assumption was made by Robins and by Hutton, and it is implicitly involved in all the velocity formule which are found in treatises on artillery or on ballistics, at the present time. It being assumed, then, that all the gas which the powder is capable of producing is set free before the ball begins to move, we require to know, in order to determine the velocity it will generate in the projectile, the following particu-~ lars, viz: the original bulk of the gas, its initial temperature, its bulk at the atmospheric t t 1 pressure, its capacity — _ for heat both at constant pressure and at constant volume, the length of the bore of the gun, the part of this length occupied * F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder, 245 by the cartridge, and the weight of the projectile. All these data, except those which relate to the gun and projectile, are furnished by the as just cited; and the remainder ay be deduced or directly taken from any table showing the initial vege obtained by experiment, and the gerne rs. of eWithou s by means of which rtd were obtaine of the mixed gases during expansion depen on the ratio of their capacities for heat at constant pressure and ret ye volume: and of this nothing had been oeevisiesly kno The formula of Hutton and the formulz in present use, for ealsuiag ing the initial velocities of cannon balls, are a Be law of Mariotte for the relation of the pressure of a us body to its density, This law furnishes a curve of ceaeating in which the ordinates diminish as the bulk increases much less rapidly than the real pressures ; and accordingly, for the production of a given effect, it makes ‘the higher pressures too low, to compen- Sate for the excess of the lower. The United States Ordnance Manual furnishes a variety of examples of the initial velocities observed in firing round shot from smooth bore guns of different calibres. The calculations which follow are founded on a selection from these examples. In order to obtain a formula suitable for the purpose, we s ap. ~~ a to represent the length of the space, measured along t re, which the liberated gases fill, provided they are steals Set free before the shot begins to move; 2, the variable length, measured in like manner, Ai they fill at any time after motion has commenced; "FE the initial foree by which the ahos is urged; v, the velocity acquired, and 7 the ratio between the €apacities for heat of the gases as taken at constant pressure and at constant volume. This ratio requires to be so often referred to, that it seems to be desirable to have some mode of indicating it without cireumlocution. The term thermo-dynaimic index ap- pears to be sufficiently significant, and is believed not to be pre- Cccupied. It is therefore employe in the following discussion to denote the ratio in ques The conditions of the roblem give us immediatel y the ee which is founded on Poisson’s well known law for the pressure of expanding gases : dv=F(S)’ dt. And we have also de—=vdt, Hence ndo=F (2 )’ dz. And v?= oe rat aba40. os 2Fa 1 aaa But when z==a, v0; and Ca—+ 246 F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder. Whence, finally, 2Fa 9) v ad 2Far _—s«2Fa (; ay-l\_ 2Fa (7) yl. Gaiert y—1\ eA] yl om 7 In order to find the value of F, as compared with gravity, put p for the initial pressure of the gases in atmospheres, esti- mated at 14°72 lbs. per square inch, W, for the weight of the shot, S, for its specific gravity, and 0 for its diameter in a frac- tion of a foot, w, for the weight of the powder and §, for its specific gravity, 62°5 lbs. for the weight of a cubic foot of water, g for the force of gravity, represented by a velocity of 382} feet a second, c for the calibre of the gun in a fraction of a foot, its length of bore in calibres, 7 the length of the cartridge, and n for the ratio of the weight of the powder to the weight of the shot, or naw, Then the pressure per square inch of the section through the centre of the shot which gravity would produce is equivalent to 1440? And we have the proportion poapechively, 0:07672 and 0:05520. Their quotient is 1:39, which is the value of the thermo-dynamic index. . berated In order to find the original bulk of the gases, or the tude of the space within which they are compressed if h without expansion, we consider that the bulk of the powder be- fore combustion will be expressed in cubic centimetres by % > a cubic centimetre of pure water at maximum density weighing "one gramme, and W, being expressed in grammes. In like I. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder. 251 manner, if W, be the weight of the fixed residuum, expressed in grammes, the bulk of the residuum will be mi The space occupied by the gases will therefore be ut “ as = 050872 c.¢, As, at 0° C. and 0™™-760 of pressure, the same gases occupy 193°1 c. c. per gramme weight of powder, the elastic force due to difference of volume only would be expressed by 193-1 W 193°1 19371 FSET ee iste Snes — 379: WwW, Ww. (if W,=1 gramme) — 06806 aie ee 58, Bi ine 1039°——«O5 Thus, the pressure in atmospheres would be 379°58, if there were no elevation of temperature produced by the combustion. ~_-=-96246 1°039 c.c., and the space originally filled by the gases being 0°50872 c. ~ the relative original bulk of gas and powder will be 50872 "96246 the foregoing formulz, when / is unity. e volume of the gases having been reduced to zero of tem- perature, the effect of an elevation by combustion of 3340° C., may be computed by assuming the absolute zero at —274° C., which is the latest determination as given by Rankine. Putting then p for the pressure, we shall have 340 pr Be 9:58(1 _ oa) = 50065 atmospheres. The original bulk of one gramme of powder being =0°52856, which is therefore the numerical value of @ in This value exceeds that found by the experimenters them- selves by 632°9 atmospheres. The difference is owing almost powder, and 1-039 for that of powder w obvious that, in a gun, we must sgh the higher value. There is also a slight difference between the determinations, aaa, a difference in the assumed place of the absolute zero. The coefficient of expansion employed by the experimenters is (1+0-00366 t), which corresponds a zero at —273°-225 C. Adopting their specific gravity with the zero at —274°, the pres- © sure would be 4364, or about ten atmospheres less than the de- termination of the experimenters. _ We are now in condition to apply the formulz above given, to the computation of the velocities which the initial pressure 252 F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder. would be necessary, in similar cases, to produce the velocities actually observed. The examples which follow, twenty-five in number, are taken from the U.S. Ordnance Manual, and exhibit the results actually obtained in experimental firing at the Wash- ington Navy Yard. As the guns used were all smooth-bo and the projectiles round shot, the observed velocity is correct for the loss by windage. The formula for this correction which experiment has suggested, is, — c—b eas ’ in which C is the correction, ¢ and } have the values assigned them in the foregoing formule, and A is a constant determined by observation, and is usually put =6400 ft. The particulars which enter into the calculation for each form of gun are the following :— : Calibre) Windage |L’gth of bore| Weight of projectile| cp aces, in pounds | Kind of gun. in inches. | in inches.| in calibres “in pounds. peter oh pees 6 pdr. field, 3-67 | 0-09 15°67 6 1-25, 1°50, 2°00 12 pdr. field, 462 | 010 16-00 123 2, 2°5, 12 pdr. siege, 4°62 0-10 22 38 8 2, 3, 4. 12 pdr. 25 cal, | 462 | 0-10 25°00 123 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 24 pdr. siege, 582 | 014 18:56 24-25 3, 4, 6, 8. 32 pdr. sea-coast,| 640 | o15 | 16-78 323 4, 5°83, 8, 1067. 5°33, 8, 1001 | In the table which succeeds, are given the values of v which result from the formula when a is made equal to L—I+a; t is, when it has the value which belongs to it at the moment the shot leaves the muzzle. The columns “approximate values of n and “ No. of volumes expansion,” are introduced for convenient comparison. The second consists of the values of : at the mo- ment of the expulsion of the shot. These numbers are approxl- mate, like the values of n. In the calculation, the exact values are in all cases employed. The column of pressures contal the computed initial pressures which would be necessary to pro duce the velocities corrected for windage. The results egies: in the following table are certainly sur prising. While anything like a close agreement between com- tation and observation was hardly to be expected, every reason r anticipating a diserepancy would indicate that the computed : velocities should be ine not in deficiency; and the — mputed pressures in deficiency and not in excess. The for- mula assumes that the gases are fully developed before the shot begins to move. In point of fact we know that the combustion of cannon powder is far from complete eve n the shot F. A. P. Barnard on the Explosive Force of Gunpowder. 253 Kind | vq,| Approx |No. of vols. Velocity | V*l? The hil Nana's Redigerea bis ye by the product sheeal by the multi- css of the weight by the square of its velocity. The first. method, Owever, because it is the more convenient, is the one usually adopted ; and the numbers obtained therefrom may easily be expressed in other units. The heat ee raise 1 kilogram of water 1° C. will heat 1 Ib. av. of wasn ano kilogram == 2°2045 Ibs. av., it Silene that sper ag esi ee pom) 264 Scientific Intelligence. The product resulting from the multiplication of the number of units of weight and measures of height, or, as it is called, the product of mass and height, as well as the product of the mass and the square of its velocity, are called “vis viva of motion,” “ mechanical effect,” “dynam- ical effect,” “work done,” “ quantité de travail,” &e. The amount of mechanical work necessary for the heating of 1 kilo- m of water 1° C. has been determined by experiment to be 367 Km; therefore Km==0-00273 units of heat.’ ¢ metres, the corresponding development of heat will be expressed the formula 000139° Xc?, Ill On the Measure of the Sun’s Heat,—The actinometer is an instru- ment invented by Sir John Herschel for the purpose of measuring the heating effect produced by the sun’s rays. It is essentially a thermome- ter with a large cylindrical bulb filled with a blue liquid, which 1s acted upon by the sun’s rays, and the expansion of which is measured by a graduated scale. rom observations made with this instrument, Sir John Herschel cal- culates the amount of heat received from the sun to be sufficient to In order to obtain smaller numbers, we shall call the quantity of heat necessary to raise a cubic mile of water 1° C. in temperature, 4 cubic mile of heat. Since one cubic mile of water weighs 408°54 billions of kilograms, a cubic mile of heat contains 408°54 billions of units of * How this important result is obtained bas been explained in my paper “ Die le finds it =772 foo SS LEC 7 as geographical mile =7420 metres, and one English mile =1608 metres. Physics. 265 heat. The effect produced by the rays of the sun on ne surface of the earth in one minute is thonctory 5°5 cubic miles of h 20,589,000 poner * miles; the surface of this sphere would be equal to 5326 billions of squa miles. ‘The. surface seared by the intersec- tion of this hollow io and our globe, or the base of the cone of solar light which reaches our earth, stands to the whole pa of this hollow sphere as ae : 326 billions, or as 1 to 2300 millions. This is the ratio of the ag received by our globe to the whole amount of heat sent forth from the sun, hoes eas! in one minute amounts to 12,650 mil- lions of cubic miles to affect uniformly its hats mass, the tem mperature of the sun ought to decrease 1°-8 C. yearly, and for the historic time of 5000 years this Joss would Sinscouatle amount to 9000° C. uniform cooling of the whole of the sun’s huge mass cannot, how- ever, take place ; ; on the ponent | if the radiation were to occur at the expense of a Bree store of heat or radiant power, the sun would becom covered inas space of time wit a cold oa whereby radiation sun through countless centuries, We tay assume with mathematical certainty the OR of some compensating influence to jeu good its enormous los Is this restoring ; agency a chemical process ? If cg he case, the most favorable camepnen, would be to okie mass of the sun to be one lump o , the combus- tion of por kilogram of which produces 6000 units ta of ati Then the sun would only be able ‘o sustain for forty-six centuries its present e expend- iture of light and heat, not to mention the oxygen necessary to keep up such an immense combustion, and ate unfavorable circu ces. The revolution of the sun on his axis has been suggested as the cause oa radiating energy. closer RES proves this hypothesis able. Rapid roars i sk friction or resistance, cannot in itself alone be as a cause of light and heat, especially as the sun is in no way to be disGngaishad’ oes the other bodies of our system by velocity of axial ro ane The sun turns on his axis in about twenty- ee days, ter is nearly 112 times as ace as t , from which i it t follows that a point on the ar equator Gives but a little more than four times as quickly as a ‘aoe on the earth’ 's equator. largest planet of the dre system, whose diameter is about yyth that of the sun, turns on its axis in less than tem hours; a ‘pores on its equator resolves about six pres yuicker than one on "the solar equator. The outer ring of Saturn ex the sun’s equator more than ten times in No. 107. sa Scr.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXVI, 34 - 266 Scientific Intelligence. velocity of rotation. Nevertheless, no generation of light or heat is ob- served on our globe, on Jupiter, or on the ring of Saturn. It might be thought that friction, though undeveloped in the case of the other celestial bodies, might engendered by the sun’s rotation, and that such friction might generate enormous quantities of heat. But, for the production of friction, two bodies, at least, are always necessa which are in immediate contact with one another, and which move with different velocities or in different directions. Friction, moreover, has a tendency to produce equal motion of the two rubbing bodies; and, w this is attained, the generation of heat ceases. If now the sun be the one moving body, where is the other? and if the second body exist, what power prevents it from assuming the same rotary motion as the sun _ But, could even these difficulties be disregarded, a weightier and more formidable obstacle opposes this hypothesis. The known volume and mass of the sun allow us to calculate the vis viva which he trusted by Kirchhoff, owing to the injury to his eyes in his former re searches. Hoffmann has the lines of numerous elements not be- fore recorded, and gives a table of the atmospheric lines, and their coin- cidences with the elements and with the lines produced by the electric spark in atmospheric air. 3. An Improved Spectroscope—Analysis of the fixed line D; by Professor Jostan P. Cooxz, Jun. (Extracted, by permission, from 4 letter to Dr. Percy).—I have had a spectroscope constructed, which I i lied the back of the prism are so adjusted that, when pushed against the wheel, the back of the prism is tangent to the circle. By means of Ce ee eee ee Physics. 267 ound hha, with castor-oil between. This gives a ve prism. he the Fert 4 is here bent through almost art 2 we ete are about the limit of power, unless we can reflect back the rays over the same path. This instrument has grt a the following points: Ist. That the lines of the solar spectrum are as innumerable as th stars of heaven. It shows distinetly at least ten his chart, and an infinitude of nebulous bands rea Violet just on the point of being sunsineed a — out ah an idea I enclose a oe of D line of eee as seen by it. Riven gives — —the two broad ones and a faint central one. You notice — ca six others al a nebalo us ban two — of pore meg line so far a that I can readily distin- guish +515 of the intermediate space, and yet the coincidence with the two aan Fraunhofer evant is sti]l absolu 3d. It shows that many of the ipeds of the — spectra are broad colored spaces, crossed themselves by bright lines. This is the case with the orange band of the strontium spec erate and with the ulicls of the calcium and barium spectra to a remarkable extent.— ical News, July 4, 1863. 4, Spectrum of Phosphorus—Green coloration of hydrogen by phos- eb —Messrs. oeirenegeg Be aes Bemsrein, starting from the fact, long stated by Weehler (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm., xxxix, 251), that > artoeact acid veasmensieiaaks a beautiful green color to a hydrogen flame, determine that pure phosphorus, introduced into the nnn generation a rodu s the same effect. Dusart as a Spectrum.— sods tree wall marked ineniol gerior re color, and a fourth fainter ‘one: ese lines, measured by Steinheil’s apparats, occupied 6:0, 6°5, and 7:0 mmeeniechs the fainter line appearing , two being placed at the sodium line. It also affords a broad ot ‘band of blue light to the left. of these lines — Chem. News, July 18. % 268 Scientific Intelligence. AnNaLyTicaL CHEmistry, 6. On the Behavior of Dextrin and Gum Arabic toward Albumen— Rup. Gixsnexe (Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Academie, Mai, 1862) finds that mineral acids, added to the turbid mixture of fresh white of egg and water, have the same effect as organic acids, if the acid be employed in small quantity, viz: the albumen goes into solution more perfectly, in- tate is formed which disappears on further addition of gum arabic. heating the mixture, snow-white flocks separate. This observation fur- nishes a means of distinguishing these two carbo-hydrates, 8. W. J tric acid i 7. Detection of ni in waters by means of Brucin.—KuxstEN to be tested and finally 1 c. ¢. of sulphuric acid. The latter is allowed to flow down the side of the glass so as to gather beneath the water. At the plane of contact of the two liquids a rose-red zone immediately forms if the nitric acid be present in detectable quantity. 8. W. J 8 96. ’ : 9. Reaction for Molybdenum.—According to Bravx, (Zeitschrift fir Analyt. Ch., 1863, 36,) sulpho-cyanid of potassium gives, with certain solutions of molybdenum, a red color similar to that produ t in solutions of per-salts of iron. The brown, solation of Mo,0, in HCl, mixed with concentrated solution of an alkali | __* According to Goppelerdder (Verliandl. der naturforsch. Gesells. in Basel. 1861 180) foming Sihefilatoar wohed bees agente et uit co in the Sheffield Laboratory ye, Ws, Technical Chemistry. 269 eyanid, aie a reddish- Aap liquid which gradually becomes darker and finally appears carmin This reaction is obtained with molybdie acid or solutions of molyb- dates by putting a fragment of zinc into the liquid, adding a few drops of strong solution of sulpho-cyanid of potassium, and, finally, a little sulphuric or chlorhydrie acid, so that a gentle evolution of hydrogen is excited. The red wie shortly pings —— it is not permanen In this way, syy'5a0 Of molybdic acid is recognizable, a quantity less than can be detected by the usual tesende The sulpho-cyanid of mo- with it. It is not dissolved by chloroform or sulphid of carbon. Since ferric oxyd and hyponitric acid give with alkali-sulpho-cyanids red liquids, they interfere with the direct detection of molybdenum. C. Clau s has observed that — ue ea itebia: acids i the to aren the Rivet acid, then treated with phasor, pe and ~ iy with zinc and sulpho- eyanid of potassium. w. J. - On the ene estimation of Arsenic. — Wirrsrers (Zeitschrift hg te Chemie, 1863, 19) observes that the process of drying the et of magnesia in vacuo is extremely tedious, while at 100° C, of ammonia may occur. He recommends to expel all the water pene ammonia and weigh the pyro-arseniate of magnesia. To do this, it is necessary to heat the substance cautiously and gently in a sand- bath, until atree ammonia is expelled and the original snow- white color has to milk-white. Then the heat is gradually increased u ntil the porcelain cbutible almost glows. The residue is 2MgO AsO,, and no loss of arsenic is to be feared, except through too-rapid heating. . 8. Ww. J. Trcaxicat Cueistey. . ll. On =a ‘manufacture of Soda, Chlorine, and Sulphuric and Chlor- hydric Acids; by Tuomas Macrartaye.—lIn the Canadian Naturalist for Sebursiey, 1863, Mr. Macfarlane has described a series admixture of nt of i sie which renders the mass ~ fasible and keeps it ina porous state. 828 parts of green vitriol are dried and partially peroxydized by a gentle seit and are then intimately 270 Scientific Intelligence. mixed with 852 nome of cme ev and 78 of peroxyd of iron. The whole is then heated t w redness in a muffle cale cining furnace, the muffle of which is eantveltid | with an exhausting apparatus, by means 0 which air dried by passing over lime is brought in contact with the mixture. The temperature of this should be kept so low that no per- chlorid of iron is sublimed. The mixture is carefully are from time to time, and the whole of the chlorine is thus obtain a gaseous state, mixed with pont but available for the crore of bleach- ing salts and for other purposes. The mufile now w contains a mixture plete. This mixture is ground with 144 parts of coal and heated to n in a reverberatory furnace, the hearth “ which is made of ground quick-lime mixed with a — basic slag or glass, and saturated with sulphuret of sodium by means of an aie of sulphate e of soda and coal melted upon its iaciion The fused mass after cooling is treated with water, and yields a residue of sulphuret of iron, and a solution of caustic soda saga iy ae by a ortion of suspended or pac lved action of the air, by which it is soon converted into sulphate of iron. This is removed by solution from the Sides of peroxyd of iron, n, and we have again yo two substances necessary for the denen eee of a new portion of sea-salt. , Mr. Macfarlane employs, in eeceak with the chlorine evolved . the method just Gexsiton the sulphurous acid obtained by burning sulphur or by cal- cining iron pyrites. The two gases being mixed in equivalent propor tions, and passed with a jet of steam through a condenser ed with coke, yield sulphuric and chlorhydric acids, in accordance with the equation, SO REP Tees +HCl. The mixed acids are se y distillation eons proposed by Mr. Macfarlane for the manufacture of aoa onsists in calcining a mixture of one passe cneh fou rc acid i is wat Bt Sole, st caus We ane cie : Physiological Chemistry. 271 much of this acid is oxydized as to form sulphate of iron sufficient to convert the eH part of the sea-salt into sulphate . soda and chlo- rine gas, which is thus produced in the second of the heating. harging a series - furnaces with this mixture, - eeuiae together the chlorine from one and the sulphurous acid from another in the eou previous paper in the Canadian Naturalist for 1862 (page 194), Mr. Mac- farlane has detailed numerous experiments made with reference to this transformation into sulphate of soda and chlorine of a mixture of pe -salt in presence of a large excess of peroxyd of iron. The u Sapp CHEMISTRY n the exoretion of Nitrogen in animals.—The experiments of tim and Reiset, as well as those of Boussingault, have conducted that of the food. In such a case a airinial se counniadialy lose flesh. In order to silence ‘all cavil aed to establish so important a law on an irrefutable pencil Voit (Ann. Chem. u. Ph., ii, Sop. -» Pp. 238) has hcreted whould be found equal to the ingested nitrogen, any. loss of nitrogen by exhalation would result in the wasting away and final death of the animal. Voit fed a pigeon 124 days (from Oct. 5, a to February 6, eee exclusively with peas, The bird consumed 3642°8 grm. air-dry =3132 ox ac (at 100° C.) peas, which contained om 7 per cent —149°4 bt iioas The excrements dried at 100° C, weighed 976 grm. and the mean result -of 12 siatyonn 14:95 per cent =145°9 grm. of shvoget or 3°5 grm. less than was in the food. The pigeon had * Die Gesetze der Ernahrung des Fleischfressers durch neue Untersuchungen fest- gestellt. Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1860. 272 Scientific Intelligence. gradually gained during the trial 70 grm. in weight. Assuming that this increase consisted in Sitti tissue, as must be supposed from the character of the food, it corresponds to 2'4 grm. of nitrogen. This added to the quantity found i in the excrements leaves but 1:1 grm. un- accounted for, a quantity admitting of a loss of 3% milligramme daily, and so small, considering the duration of the trial, as to a ae attributable to errors of experiment. Il, METALLURGY. . New works.—Zusammenstellung der statistischen Ergebnisse des Diiiethis Hiitten- und Salinen-Betriebes in dem Preussischen Staate withrend dé? zehn Jahre von 1852 bis 1861; Bearbeitet von E. Arrays, 4to, pp. 156, with 4 lithographic plates. Berlin, 1 863.—This valuable collection of statistics of the mineral production of the Prussian States for the ten years, 1852-61, is published as a supplement to the 10th vol- ume of the Zeit tenet fir das Berg- Hitien- und Salinenwesen in dem Preussischen Sta From this we sees the following in regard to the productions for the year 1861: Total value of mineral a . 81,234,628 Thalers. Number of mines wor Number of workmen em eats ho ee Oe A Wik cease ets 115, a verage amount produced by | each mine 2581 Thalers. workman, 271 a ring the past twenty-five years the asine of, the mineral products has increased sixfold, the number of workmen 34 times, and the number < mines has increased ~~ 1587 to 2304. We have not apes o give further _— spans this pani ie) ace D o &. ° FS oe fj > ec aj eal 7 co oe os i) eo ° S = tic) So 4 fa") ae i S oc Z. = ae fe") n RD S O° o regard to ont r wealle and mineral productions, . 2. Handbuch der metallurgischen Hiittenkunde, von Broxo Ken vol. ii, mt ae 848, with 8 lithographic plates. Freiberg, 1863.— This second volume of the new edition of Kerl’s work on Metallargy treats "of | the special metallurgy of lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, tin, met- cury and bismuth. In the first edition these subjects occupied 384 pagesy while in the present volume more than twice the space is covered by nd accuracy of Kerl’s work commends it nob only to — —— but also to all scientific men who desire to have t idea i i T Prot, Calif. Acad. Nat. Sei., vol. iti, p. 6. * Metallurgy. 273 examples, show that the author is not only master of his subject as a practical metallurgist, but that he also has rare skill as a teacher in science. It is a work that should be in every public library, and in the hands of every metallurgist and practical chemist. It is to be completed in four volumes, accompanied with lithographic plates containing oe of Sie s, etc. Bla present de la ae du Fer en Sepia st MM. Gre NER et Lan. 8vo, pp. 850, with nine plates. Paris, 1862,.—This work has for the most part been published in a series of memoirs in the Annales des Mines; but many who have not the numbers of in the School for Mines at Saint Etienne. These gentlemen were sent by order of the Minister of Public Affairs in France, in May and psi 1860, to report upon the iron districts of Great Britain; they we offered every facility for making their investigations, and the ae which they have published in _ volume form a most pepeent con- tribution to the metallurgy o 4, Berg- und Hoteeaamasales Jahrbuch der k. k. Bergakademi en , Leo- ben und Schemniiz, und der k. k. Montan-Lehranstalt Pribram-Redak- teur: P. Tunner. 8vo, 261 pp. Wien, 1863.—This annual of the Mining Academies of Leoben and Schemnitz is one of the most important repositories of metallur urgical eh snc The present 12th volume, edited by Director Tunner, is of more than usual interest, as almost half of it is taken up with a report on the objects of interest in metallurgy which were contained in the International Exhibition at apa ti in —_ . 5. Die mea acer des ee Hiittengewerbes im Gel 1882, Dargestell Dr. Carn. Fr. Avex. Hartmann. Sixth volume, with 3 Bchogeaphis plates in tne 8v0, pp. gue? Leipzig, a —This we is an annual report of the of metallurgy, givi all that is published in regard to the metallangreal Aaa of the r Seve and new facts in a to fuel, blowing m: me ees and “ie Price 1 shilling sterlin aE This report has but just ieached us, and much that it sok tala has aieady been republished in this country. The rofessor of min- . . Metals : es being * tecord of what was contained i in Class I, it contains many aiakie notes as p gh in the Royal ‘School of Mines, and experience the Crown and to the Duchy of Cornwall, gave tases, but en ieee abies south a little ¢ Saudety atten more and yoni minute adva: The rein of ree coast is syenitic granite, bordered here and there hag a margin of trap or af Rb sp es slates, highly altered in places, and often verted into cherty flints as on Isle au Haut—and furnishes, from the pele: barrenness of the A nig a good opportunity to study the boulder phenomena. And this surface is 5 CORY Wnees eee | into furrows, often very deep and in the usual direction of the valleys, &c., resents the finest examples of em- bossed rocks as dbecrtbed by Charles i. Hitchcock in his Elements of Geol- ogy. This is so remarkably the case that one might, in the foggiest weather, easily point out north, south, sik , by na boop 95 at these mete for they represeae in minature, the hills and mou of the coast as ve des Sree ransverse indentations are pasa Ri common—/u mad furrows, I ro called them—from an inch in length to four and five feet, having ‘at horns pointing towards the northeast and northwest, and their steep walls Lag the south. These furrows, in all cases, are sufficient to tell the cardinal points of the compass as one passes along over t _Everywhere, too, the boulder strie may be found on the south sides of these hills at their bases, and on t a r sides when dipping at large or small angles wm the east or west, in finely veloped examples as are found on their northern slopes. It is a fact beyond COPMpOnSIEYs at the pouldes phenomena in the Penobscot bay are an character, and owe e to one agent and the same I have found these ede strie four hundred feet high on Be side of Isle au diges hill—which is five hundred feet above | the sea—and 0 n the pei grein wot M egunticook, t, a eres hundred feet above Camden harbor. Mount Bales south of that moun- n, the nearest to the village of any of those hills, an peop of quartz- ~~ con Sneath is everywhere scored and scratched, pe has av y abrupt Southern face. Vast masses rast been torn fro ie a thie’ rection, to. There is a series of terraces in Vinalhaven, as you remember, seven hundred ising one above another, the last wall of which forms the highest yards long, rising margin of dell running nearly due north-south oken for four hundred yar m twenty irty feet deep, and fifty yards wide. This is a trough cut out of the solid eae: gi d splendid et ete of Na- Sere ‘s sculpturing with c she ded in days, beft prepare a barren country ba no y fi ag fe e worker, man. Towards t of this ri which” be prospect w and fifty feet above the sea, goon Lice: a high roak cverlooking the village, apparently in its native bed, presenting a Vertical wall towards the south twenty feet high above the soil, oy twenty- broad. No blasting by art, however carefully kiséacted; could perform a better operation. If this rock be a boulder, as you and I doubted, it must 276 Scientific Intelligence. weigh upwards of a thousand tons. But many thousand tons from the south of it are utterly removed. Going a little further north, we reach one of the highest hills in the town, of granite, two hundred and fifty feet. ‘To the north, upon a tide “river,” now a mile long; but once three, before the land obtained its present height; and earlier still, very much lon- Looking around towards the east and south, we glance over a reine i o os d examination of the subject during the last few years, I have seen nothing to induce me to believe that the granite had been materially changed but of less on Meee and transported the farthest off, are more worn and roun- clays and sands crushed and ground from the detached rocks. On the Taconic slates beyond these mountains, towards Ellsworth, we have formation, and the granitic ers are in most wonderful _ round one of the quarries to the west of Carver’s harbor, the ground is literally covered with boulders, some of which are enormous. After repeated attempts, { could not make out more than five per cent of foreign rocks a em. i i often have little or no evidence as to their origin. We have specimens ot red and blue granite, trap, gneiss, mica schists, clay slates, and fossiliferous sandstones from the Katahdin region. We can well suppose them to have been dispersed by icebergs, or borne as freight to these localities by slowly moviiy glaciers, 8) We Rest My conclusions, therefore, from the facts which I have enumerated, are, that a glacier once filled the basin between the Camden hills on the west, and those of Mount Desert on the east, forty miles wide—extended to a great tance north, involving several hills beside those mentioned of # thousand feet high, and certainly not less than three thousand feet thick. : ; eae eae "Very truly yours, Jecember, 1862, ws Joun i Geology. Q77 2. Fossil Crustaceans froin the Coal Measures and Devonian Rocks of British America; by J. W. Sautsr, (Q. J. Geol. Soc., xix, 75, a and ak —The specimens described were furnished Mr. Salter by Dr. J. W. Dawe son. The Devonian species are from St. Johns, New Br unswick ; one is asmall Hurypterus; for the other, of undetermined relations (but sup- posed to be possibly related to the Squilla group), the new genus Amphi- 4 Nova Scotia, and belong to two species, one a Hurypterus, the other re- garded (and pens with good reason) an Amphipod, and named Diplostylus Dawsoni. 3. On the Cam sin and Huronian Formations; by J. J. Biessy, may recall to mind some which existed: in the Mesozoic period, it must be allowed that that number forms the minority, and that, on the con- trary, the great bulk of the Permian species, to whatever anes they may belong, bears the most positive Paleozoic stamp, and that the species — in many cases the same that lived in the Carboniferous era, and som even in the Devonian 5. On fossil Hs therie, and their distribution; by T. Rupert Jongs, se J. Geol. Soc., xix. 140) .—The Ostracoid Crustaceans, called Estheria n genus vania, named by Lea Cypricardia sabes, Mr. Jones regards as a new genus of Ostracoids, and names it Leaia, giving the species the name lyi. It is closely allied to,a species from the Lower Car erous of puso —_ and. - On a new Labyrinthodont Reptile, Anthracosaurus Russelli, the Lenerbidéin Coal. field j by T. H. Huxury, (Q. J. Geol. Soc., xix, 56). —The fossil is a “= of a skull, measuring 15 inches in length and nearl 12 in breadth. des this, there are vertebral bodies and a rib whi probably belong to ihe Anthracosaurus. Professor Huxley regards the Species as related to the Triassic Mastodonsaurus. He observes that the Vertebree closely Sle A in section the vertebre of the Hosaurus (from 278 Scientific Intelligence. the Joggins) described by Mr. Marsh; and he suggests that the Hosau- rian vertebre may have belonged to a Labyrinthodont, or to a species between a Labyrinthodont and an lehthyosaurian The best preserved rib is 64 inches long and half an inch bro The two types of species which have Seon ‘called Labyrinthodonts are at of the Arcuecosaurs [Ganocephala of Owen, but true Ganoids ac cording to Agassiz}, most abundant in the Carboniferous; and that of the Masroponsaurs (genera, Mastodonsaurus, Labyrinthodon, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus), common in the Triassic. 3 had, as von Meyer has proved, a persistent branchial sapivaiex “Nothing is — as to whether this was true or not of the Mastodonsaurs. With r with noe — to the Raniceps of ‘Wyman and the Hylerpeton of Owen, Prof uxley remarks that it is not aos safe to decide whether their affinities. are Archegosaurian or Mastodonsaurian. - 4. Anniversary Address before the Geological Society of London, Feb. 20, 1863, by Prof. A. C. Ramsay, President of the Society. 26 pp. 8vo. bers deceased during the sa ggg Trench, Dr. C. C, v. ebestoall Robert Raid, Rev. James Cumming, J. C. Nesbit, Dr. H. G. Bronn, B. de Doue, Dr. T. S. Trail and Marquis of Breadalbane,—takes up the topic of his discourse—Breaks in the succession of the British Paleozoic strata. 8. On the production of crystalline Eiiwsone by heat.—In this Journal, vol, xxxii, p. 112, an abstract is given of Rose’s ex xperiments on the deportment of carbonate of lime at a high temperature. inte other Further, “that the so-called crystalline marble, obtained by Sir James Hall in his experiments, was — bly nothing more than a slight coherent but otherwise unaltered mass, which Hall erroneously co. to - crystalline marble.” tates, in a recent communication to the Berlin Academy of iiiecees, that he was not entirely satisfied with his former res especially as Dr. Horner, President of the Geological Society of f Londot, assured him that he had inspected the specimen of marble made by Sit James Hall, and that it differed entirely from the amorphous pr bj from those he formerly published, and which fully confirm the correctness of Sir James Hall’s conclusion, that marble can be produced by exposing Botany and —— 279 Appendiz ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.GS., Prinetpal of McGill Uni- versity, Montreal. (Q. J. Geol. Soc., 1863. "Re ad Dec. 17, 1862)—In a recent visit to Perry, the author (with the aid of Mr. Brown, of that place) reali examined the present exposure of the plant-bearin ed. A e specimens obtained ne) A ge following. (1. 5 W. IV. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 1. Dimorphism in the Flowers of Linum.—Referring brief note upon the subject of dimorphous flowers in this Fecal if the two sexual forms in P a (in Jour. nnean Society, no. 22), we wish now to call attention to some still more curious observatio: experiments of Mr. Darwin, which were read to the Linnzan Society in Feb bruary last, and are just published in the 26th no. of its Journal. The pepe is entitled: “On the Existence of two forms, and on their sent cal Sexual Relations, in several species of the pasaale Linum.” The prin- cipal sae is that of the crimson Linum grandi which is now com- the stamens and styles in L. perenne and L. jectured that this dimorphism might have some influence on the man- tt cyte ome aa age sar aml in fig. i 280 Scientific Intelligence. ner of fertilization. But this had been wholly overlooked “in such com- mon garden-flowers as LZ. grandiflorum and avum,” until Mr. Dar- win detected it, and worked out the case to the striking results which we record below, chiefly in his own words. “The crimson Linum grandiflorum presents two forms, occuring in abou' equal numbers, which differ little in structure, but greatly in function. The a — stamens, and pollen (ex amined wor and distended _ oe like orms. The difference is co to the pistil: in the one sa which I will i “short-styled,” the sceonae: formed by the united styles and the short stig = ene is about half the length of the whole neg five stigmas in the short-styied pep diverge greatly from each other, and pass out between the filaments of the stamens, and th lie within the tube of the anthers, or reaching up only to about. thei eee Nevertheless, there is never the slightest difficulty in distinguishing between the two forms; for, be- sides th ence in divergence, the stigmas of the short-styled form never e bz orter stigmas, the papilla are more crowded and darker-colored than in those with the longer stigmas. Considering the slight and variable differences be- tween the two forms of this Linum, ” is not surprising that they have been “In 1861, I had eleve n plants growi in my garden, eight of which were long-styled, and only thre short-styled ‘y Two ; ia fine Sonp-etyiel plants Ina e a screen are stigma; and it was late in the season, namely, September 1 gether, to expect any result from this trial seemed almost childish. _From my experiments, however, on Primula, which have been laid before this Society i j i make the trial, ber of flowers, but the germens of not even one swelled. though their stigmas i so densely covered with their en. er plants, six long-styled and three short-styled, grew in the wer. Ai en. Four of the long-styled produced m no ab ut the sere long-styled plant grew 80 ¢ their hes touched ; — produced Botany and Zoology. 28h the long-styled: We shall immediately see that this is the case ina slight degree. But I suspect that in this instance oie difference in fertility Mf Pontes the two forms was in part due to a distinct cause. I repeatedly watched the flowers, and ed once saw a humble-bee momenta ily alight on one, and then were not to its taste. I ad visited the several plants, there cannot ss a doubt that the four hingeatiied plants — did not produce a single capsule would have borne an abundance. But several times I saw amall Diptera sucking the flowers; and these —— thou ugh not visi o the small quantity of pollen when sana ‘by small insects. greater num ‘Gales of long-styled than of short-styled flowers in the nila evidently the short-styled would be more likely to receive pear pollen from the cere eled.s wg long-styled from the short-style 1862, thirty-four plants of this Linwm in a ‘hotbed; and these pane of heleeeidets long-styled and seventeen short-styled fo sown later in the flow wer-garden yielded seventeen long-styled and twelve short-styled forms. These facts justify the statement that the two forms are produced in about equal mic The first thirty-four plants were kept un- net which excluded —_ I fertilized heteromorica ally fourteen ¥ goo : ible production for a .caple a that 6 sae climate cannot be very favor- phically the racwe * sccoes sanely a hundred flowers (but did not sepa- mark them) with their own pollen, but taken from sopkinss mR Sry so as to prevent any poss ssible ill effects from saa interbreeding; and many other flowers were produced, which, as before poten a get plenty of their own individual pollen; yet from all these flowers, borne by the seventeen long- ea great mistake in Sostsiig ch the two forms under the same ne witli i branches often interlocking ; and it is surprising that a greater number of Of the sho led flowers, I fertilized heteromorphically twelve with the pollen of the long-styled (and to make sure of the result I Eeyore castrated the majori ined seven fine seed-capsules. These included an aver- At three arate times, I fertilized homomorphically nearly.a hundred flowers with their own-form pollen, taken from separate plants; and numerous other flowers Were produced, many of which must have received their own pollen. From - these flow wers borne on the seventeen plants, only fifteen capsules were As oD. plants, some of these capsules were perhaps the product of a little pollen Saidanely fallen from the flowers of ae oe form. Nevertheless, a nyce pa yled ena : s ni Ir own : x gig pa nap lpi the real proportional excess in fertility ia p is probably a le greater, a8 ST igs ean flow i when not dis- turbed, do -sty] The greater — self-f “fortility of the aes styled flowers was, as ag. seen, also Am. Jour. Sc.—Szconp Serres, Vor. XXXVI, No. lawtaes, 1863, 36 282 Scientific Intelligence. shown by the plants left to themselves, and but sparingly sew met insects, in the flower-garden in 1861, and likewise by those raised in Next, with the view of ascertaining the immediate cause of ree almost absolate sterility of long-styled pistils | with their own form of pollen, stigmas wi © freely penetrated by numerous pollen-tubes. But when Weatibmnorphic unions were attempted, no pollen-tubes, or scarcely any, were emitted ; even after an interval of three days thé stigmas remained straight and fresh- colored, and the pollen inactive. When two or three a see stigmas were dusted with their own form of pollen, and the others h the opposite form, the difference was striking ; the former stigmas Selene straight, fresh, and unpenetrated or nearly so, while the latter soon discolored, twisted, half-shrivelled, and penetrated by a multi- tude of "pollen-tubes. ently simpy due to the Doane of the stigma. Yet we viainly see that two pollens and the two stigmas are widely dissimilar in action, i of rn ach aie being . oo powerless on their own pollen, but shear beak _ The results are nearly the same in LZ. perenne, except that pollen-tubes = found to be produced in attempted i tt unions, xa either em len, And then the twisting of the long styles in tl of the short ones in both species are noteworthy : me n speaking of the fertilization of plants or of the production of ris, vane refer to the wind or to insects as if the abeeeatren were indif- | 2 A Hi g, g Sei ec Botany and —— 283 rollas to serve as guides, and age gery as far as I have seen, visited by ins peers. When insects is is incomparably re frequent case, both with plants having separated sexes and wi hermaphrodies), the wind plays no part, but we see an endless number ‘of adaptations to ensure the safe transport of the pollen by the living workers. e can recognize these sdapaiionn most easily in irregular flowers; but they ich those of ow, “T have already alluded wi the rotation of each separate stigma in the long-styled form alone of Linum perenne. 8 the other species e. xamined by me, and in both forms when et cies are dimorphic, the stigmmalie surfaces ace the centre of the flower, and ho furrowed backs of the stigmas, to which the styles are attached, face the circumference. This is the case, in the bud, with the stigmas of the fone aiiel flowers of L. perenne. But, by the time in earlier in the ome the torsion mae ave “ee more Paes for after two days the movement was very incomplete. The ange Me examined honky after pele Siiension. for their duration is brief, n to wither, the Balad become spirally twisted to- gether, and ths, original aula d of the parts “He who will com npare the structure of the a flower in both forms of have t have been fertilized. fen it is, the styles diverge greatly and pass out between the filaments. The stigmas, being short, lie bAgcon the tube of the corolla; and their papillous faces, after the divergence of the styles, being turned up- wards, —— necessarily brushed by every entering insect, thus receive the fequi pollen, “In the long-styled form L. grandiflorum, the parallel anthers and s mas, slightly ip bss font =. axis of the flower, project only a little cud the tube of the somewhat concave corolla; and they stand directly over the open space ieaking oe to the drops of nectar. Consequently, when i visit the flowers of either form (for the stamens in this species occupy the same position in both forms), they will get their proboscides well dusted with the the 284 Scientific Intelligence. faces and margins of the long stigmas; and as soon as the insect ts proboscis to a rather greater depth into the short-styled flowers, it will leave pollen on their upturned stigmatic surfaces. Thus the stigmas of both forms will indifferently receive the pollen of both forms; but we know that the pollen of the opposite form alone will produce any effect and cause fertil- zation. gre cla ; , proboscides between the stigmas or between the anthers, but will strike against them, at nearly right angles, with the back of their head or thorax. Now, in the long-styled flowers of L. perenne, if each stigma had not rotated On its axis, insects in visiting them would have struck their heads against the backs of the stigmas; as it is, they strike against the papillous fronts of the s of co other form, fertilization is perfectly effected. Thus we can understand the meaning of the torsion of the styles in the long-styled flowers alone, as well as their divergence in the short-styled flowers.” Li on the ground of Planchon’s remark, that the styles are in the same — m stigmatic tissue.” ere the n es fertile unions possible is largely increased. These degrees of sterility in - homomorphie unions,—from complete inertness of the pollen to the oc- erles are so readily made by the study of some of the commonest plants, of occupation, nor suppose that the field is exhausted. Out of old fields, not only comes all this new corn from year to year, but ese are richer far in interest than any crop of new s tatim.” Let us add, in conclusion, that whet such fine biological discov- Botany and Zoology. 285 . Variation and vs metic Analogy in Lepidoptera.—Mr. Bates (whose ogi book of travels, Zhe Naturalist on the River Amazon, is ex- citing much attettion in England, and which we trust will be reprinted here) has contributed an elaborate paper to the Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xxiii (1862), entitled Contributions to the Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley, Lepidoptera, Heliconide. The materials were gathered by the author during eleven years of travel ols research in the Amazon region. e introduction to this paper treats, among for them ms less needful to copy large parts of Mr. Bates’ narra- tive now, sin abstract of his r has recently ap i the Natural History Review. The bearing es’ observations geration to say, that, whilst reading and reflecting on the various facts given in this memoir, we feel ourselves to be as near witnesses as we can ever hope to be of the creation of a new species on this earth.” The two subjects, variation and simulation, as may be inferred, are considered in rated theory was promulgated. The facts set forth about variation appear excellently to illustrate the formation of races and nearly related species trate the doctrine of natural sedathiols: ade a peculiar “i will first notice some of the reported facts about seca Such amount and such gradations of variability as Mr. Bates reports of atharfion we races ceased to think very extraordinary in the v world; yet we had been led to suppose that forms in the animal world oi everywhere more definite and fix ut Mr. Bates’ observations to convinced him “that there is a perfect gradation in varia- bility, from butterflies of which hardly two can be found arr to rh varieties, to well marked races, to races that can hardly be disti _ 30m species, to true and ies.” In the genus Ceaitaia, for . instance, those parts of structure fi e. the veining of the wings] which form neric ee in other groups are here variable in the Sexes, and in individuals of the same sex, C. Ninonia “ evidently varies in different ways in different localities; yet the local varieties are not m including the variations under one and the same detiition: or to descri ingen the type and the local varieties. ides these aciciplats Ocal modifications, easily traceable to the type, there are, as often ig: in the case of prolific, widely dis distributed, es variable species, a number of other forms rather more strongly marked and better defined, which inhabit regions rather more distant from ne locality of the type than those which the mere varieties inhabit. ese are admi on nds to be distinct species; but I think it would be difficult to prove 286 Scientific Intelligence. that these were not also varieties of C. Winonia, which have become more completely segregated from the parent form.” The emer are given. ‘This is essentially what DeCandolle concludes of Oaks, as we have seen in a former article. Mechanitis Polymnia affords one of the most striking cases. The typical form of the pores insect, as figured by Cramer, prevails at Para and elsewhere the region Eeaiertio type. Among the numerous forms, one, which he names M. Eyaénsis, predominates; but all the Satertapdisite forms between. it and the ver M. Polymnia occur there, only in fewer num At St. Paulo, 260 miles further west, the species was again extremely varia- ble, some "individuals coming near the type, but none identical with it. The varieties were quite different from those of Ega; the M. Hygaénsis lon edt to one spec csilieis minated over a oe area, and modi certain districts, He a affirms that the varieties were of such a nature, a8 to form and colors, that they could not be thought to be hybrids between two or more distinct species. And also, that the amount of local modifi- eation in no way accorded with obvious differences in the local sari a es 600 miles apart and very different in physical conditions. Extending the view up to the eastern slopes of the Andes, there are said to i other forms, some of them seins varieties of M. Polymnia, although they have been described a S species ; others more sharply defined am having the appearance of true species. So Mr. Bates thinks that, — “The wrpeyeet is + presser that these apparently distinct ies are modifications, well as undoubted we eties are; for we have the species all stages a ideation, Simple variation, loc variety scarcely dis- Eapanbente from a mere es he comp ete local variety, and well marked pecies. The forms of M. Polymnia found in Boal phe sone view. At Rio Mey the well mar pad race or m is ; Mabe at Bahia apse towards the home of the t a MM. Teysinia i in compa with M. M. Nesea ; at Se rage Tahoe northw: e occu a 3 a ed Para 4 this form is seen no more, an in its typical ‘dress monopolizes the field. These facts seem to Roald us baer in this and similar cases, a new species originates in a local variety, whe a or ee aie advantage 0 rent from its allies; ‘ ma two sister: Botany and Zoology. 287 Leptalis Theonée in exhibiting the production, generally, of only one local form in a district, instead of ey As far as my observations go, this seems to ha ihe en the most frequent course in n Ww Tac would with difficulty be formed i ig a fimited area, when the individuals live in close neighborhood, except in such cases as our Leptalis, where rigid destruc- tion of intermediate ide is going on, thus restricting na at - mates to the surviving forms; or in such genera as Ithomia, wher the insects carefully nik ‘their exact counterparts in pairing.” In the latter case, where each sort strictly sisePleeta the races once originated woul kept distinct as long as they existed. Mr. Bates always found the pair to be precisely the same in color and markings. variation to be h id. And it would, as Mr. Bates remarks, enable a number of closely allied forms to exist, either together or in contiguous areas, ibgeic ge matin In his n Mechanitis Polymnia, as illustrating the course apparently followed bys nature in the formation of local species, the author “We find, in this most instructive case, all the stages of the process, ier the commencement of the formation of a local variety (var. Egaénsis) to perfect es ip 8g of one (var. Lysimnia) considered by all authors as a bom cae n species, most of the local varieties are connecte vib pape feos PS tartsar exhibiting all the shades of variation; and i this secount on. A that we — them to be varieties. In the species allied to e form: in a complete state of cer Mes the exception af T. uisiiens, which throws light on the rest and ) a are consi pecies ; they are, in fact, pe good species, Tike rt forms considered as such in natural history. It is only of variable spec t we can obtain a clue to the explanation such species must be studied in nature, and wi ference to the geo- Heo eem relations of their varieties. Many a naturalists, who receive onnectedly the different varieties of any treat them all as inde- pendent species; by such a od giataases 6 it nh _ wonder that they have faith in the absolute distinctness and immutability of The mimetic analogies, of which many a the Heliconide are the ob jects, hav ve been mentioned by modern authors who have written on | all the same family aspect,’ while the imitators or capes species are dissimilar to their nearest allies,—are perverted, as it were, from the facies of Shay ai to which they severally belong. The resemblance is so close that it is only after 4 practice that the true ike be distinguished from the counterfeit when on the wing in their native 288 Scientific Intelligence. forests. 1 was never able to distinguish the Leptalides from the species they imitated, although they belong to a family totally different in eee and osis from the Helconide, without rey de them closely capture. They fly i in the same parts of the forest, and g enerally ig cunre with the species they mimic. I have already given an eee lone modifications to which the Heliconide are subject. It is a ee ee oF cir- cumstance ote: es races or species of counterfeiting groups ac- company these local forms. In some cases I found proof that such species are woaee vi slain to place to suit the peculiar forms of Heliconide there stati The details in evidence of this are fully explained and illustrated by plates. Nothing can be more curious. The Jthomie imitated are ex- cessively numerous in individuals; the imitating Leptalides are rare, not more than one to a thousand of the other. The latter has not been found in any sihisr district or country than in ihisae inhabited by the Ithomie which they counterfeit. The resemblance is often carri minutiz, such as the color of the antennz and the spotting of the abdo- en. Not only are the Heliconide thus imitated; some of them are selves imitators, i. e., they counterfeit each other, species belonging to — genera having been confounded, owing to their close resem- egret and marking. mitative resemblances, of which hundreds of instances could be i are re fall of interest, and fill us with the greater astonishment the closer we investigate them; for some show a minute and palpably intentional like- ness which is perfectly staggering. I have sm that those features of the portrait are most attended to in nature which produce the most effective de- ception when the insects are seen in nature.” Similar imitations are said to occur in the Old World, in other families of Butterflies and Moths; ; but no instance is known of a tropical s species of these Cuckoo hats aa flies, which all wore the livery of working aliar to the country.” Mr. W ses a noticed two similar and be og striking instances of mimicry in , a8 to the final cause of these saardale peeing: “When we see a species of Moth which frequents flow a day wearing the appearance of a Wasp, we feel compelled to infer as agi imita- tion is intended to protect the otherwise ce insect by deceiving in- sectivorous animals which persecute the moth amd avoid the wasp. May not the Heliconide dress serve the same purpose to the Leptalis? Is it not prob- able, seeing the excessive abundance of the one species, and the fe wness of oe other, ee the Heticonide is free from the persecution to which the Lep- is is es. ‘elieve th that the specific mimetic analogies exhibited in connection with nomena of precisely the same nature as Sie are assimilated in superficial appear bstances on Piesiy the bark amongst 1 of the nt o produced ae a Botany and Zoology. 299 A full series of such imitations by insects, both of inanimate and of living objects, is then given. That such imitative resemblances as we are con- sidering are of the same class as these, and subject to the same explana- tion, is obvious from the fact of one species mimicking an inanimate creatures that possess them.” op ses maintains its hold upon existence only through some re en enabling it to withstand the various adverse circumstances to which it is exposed ; and the means are re re) animals. Mr. Bates never saw them preyed u ie} birds or Dragon-flies, or molested by Lizards when at rest; and — e ies set out to dry were ies attacked by vermin. They all have a peculiar smell. So it is probable that they are unpalatable to insect enemies “Tf the owe their Pima existence ip this gk it would be intelligible why the Leptalide, whose scanty number of individuals reveals a less pro- tected condition, should be feed | in ape dress and thus share their immunity, This naturally leads to Mr. Bates’ explanation of the process by whi ch these mimetic resemblances and other such adaptations are brought about. The adotirer pe natural selection finds here a beautiful application of the pede Given the Heliconide as they are, segregated and i course of ti jn 0 variations, varieties, and species under ae aie of their more ex nalogues, in each Lonatity, a m to depend upon the closeness st their resemblance to the pr Heliconider of the district, such resemblance being apparently heed only ies vary from place to place, so must the imitators if they would retain their hold upon life. And, of all the variations which are constantly arising, only those which do resemble the protected form near enough to deceive the insectivorous enemy, will retain their hold, This is ie eatntal selection, the insectivorous animals being the selecting agents ; and the operation s to draw out steadily, in certain favorable directions, the suitable variations which arise from generation to genera- n, as a result of the extermination of those sorts or varieties which are not enough like the _——- species to deceive the enemy. some of its ust be more ey tat laaees of the shied mimicked. According therefore to the closeness of its persecution by enemies, who seek the imitator but avoid the imitated, will be its enaame to become an exact counterfeit,—the less perfect degrees of resemblance being, generation after generation, eliminated, and only the others left to propagate their kind.” “The fact of one of the forms Am. Jour. 8c1.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 107.—Sepr., 1863. 37 290 Scientific Intelligence. of Leptalis Theonoé, namely L, Lysinoé, mimicking an Ega, not an Ihomia, but a flo wishing ee of another quite distinet family (Stalachtis Duvalit), shows that the objec ct of the mimetic tendencies of the species is simply dis- an nally in the divcbtions not of an Ithomia, but of another object equally well answering the pu rpose, selection operated i in he direction of that othe er object.” tion of a va of o —* <4 a. 2 5 "9 4 [=] oy Beek ps C¢ =| So de i=] ba. | Ekists varieties of vet A nna nhl intererossing ais seg hogs place; this ‘would retard the process of seatgetion the speci , in fact, ai setidutiong the state of things (varieties aed bal formed 1 apecien) which J have already described as there existing.” “Such, I con ceive, is the only way in ‘ v At a time like the present, when the notion that species are derivative, somehow or other, is received as the most probable opinion by such an increasing number of competent observers and thinkers—including, it may be xdded, the names of Lyell and of Owen,—and when it appears to the thoroughly conservative and well-informed President of the nzan Society" “that the tide of iste among philoso hical naturalists is setting fast in favor of Mr. Darw s hypothesis,” such illustr ations of the latter as Mr. Bates has iNeed are worthy of attentive considera- tion. But we need not agree with Mr. Bates i in his reat atit: that the nor has it ever been shown, that they occur rlonlys and at aac - Ge 3. Flora Australiensis: a Description of the Plants of the Aware ‘Territory ; by Gzorce Bentnam, F.RS., P.LS., assisted by FerpiNaND Miter, M.D., F.R.S. & L.S., Government Botaniet, Melbourne, Vic toria, vol. L ( Ranunculacece to Anacardiacee.) London: Reeve & Co. * Address of George Bentham, Esq., President, read at the Anniversary M i the ily arial re May 26, 1863. Published at the r request pry is mainly a critical review of the recent ess of pinion &: S in its ceo iological) science, and is in lane, in some of Wyman's - efficien wo eponr dry es * * Botany and Zoology. — 291 1863, pp. 508, 8vo.—This is the first volume of another of those Floras of British Colonies, published under the authority of the Home Govern- ment, and in tlie present instance, we believe, mainly at the expense of ~¢onnexion with Mr. Bentham and Dr. Hooker. The Flora of Hongkong, by Mr. Bentham, was the first of the series. This related to a very sm the cotyledons are inserted,—a view which obviously suggests itself to the morphologist, and which, as we suppose, ma t by it position, its growth, and ee structure. We know of nothing which is Dante Outver, F.LS., Professor of Botany, University College, L —An important paper, read to the Linnean Society in January last and recently printed in its Journal, No. 26, Prof. Oliver repudiates Mr. Miers’ attempt to establish Viscum and its near a : wishes to unite Santalacee with the Loranthacee, and would even follow natural group, the great divisions of which are kept apart mainly, it Would seem, 292 Scientific Intelligence. anthers one-celled by confluence: indeed Prof. Oliver has found them ~ in some specimens of our North American Mistletoe, P. og SCENS. 1125 of Fendler’s Venezuela collection is found to belon to Peoppigie genus, Antidaphne. The a or scales subtending Heath in the genus Lepidoceras of Dr. Hooker are found to persist as the apex of a true lamina of a leaf, which is ssh aah Ps by a growth of its base in a very curious mannner. The scale does duty first as a braet, and iheviueda; by a basal growth, the insertion or papsidolen portion of this scale nis eg agree leaf. The true Loranthaceous genera here armit- Wrig tit of Ghee, one of Mr. C, Wright's ee aa be in oe be te type of a thirteenth genus, G. 5. sare a in Plants, —A ed Case of Parthenogeni sown, ta besa is now a vigorous stock so young plants.” In 1862 the same plant flowered again, and during a month produced only pistillifer- 8 flowers. “From the opening of “the first flower-bud until the last withered flower dropped off, not a day passed without a careful examina- being made by me for the traces of a stamen in the flowers, but without finding one.” ‘The fruit set from many of the ovaries; but the Structure and Fertilization of certain Orchids.—In this Jounal for N olemiber, 1862, I gave some notes on the arrangements of the genitalia, &e. of most of our Orchids of the Northern States of the genus Platan- thera or Haben naria. One common _— which was not met with last summer in season, I have now glanced at, viz., Platanthera jae. or Habenaria flava Gray. This, although ascer- tained by me to be the Orchis flava of Linneus, so ill deserves its spe- cific name, which I restored to it, (the flowers being in fact green, in of yellow) that, notwithstanding — one would like to see it Mulilenberg’s name of virescens, ln might well e rai be al ‘on the ground that the Linnean name is a “ nomen As respeets its arrangements for fertilization, I had | anticipated that this would be an interesting species, on account of the strong protuber- ance or crest on the base of its hiliaan, This narrow _ nasiform protuberanee projects upwards and backwards, so as almost to touch the = column between the two disks or glands of the stigma hed eer bein the two cups or deep grooves which contain them), and therefore - ee 4 over and dividing the orifice of the spur. The anther 0 are paral pee ‘but set at a little distance apart: they lie almost in line with the label im, pare yophamer deat Seep the fed is protberanee ; are: ree , rg et ‘ : Botany and Zoology. 293 to suck out nectar from the spur, inserted, as it must be, obli iquely fr above, cannot keep the median line at the entrance, but. will take.the the right or the left of the protuberance, as may happen, and so will slide into the disk-bearing groove of that side, The structure of the disk- bearing portion of the column answers, perhaps, to what is expressed by indley’s vague character af Gymnadenia, “ rostello complicato,” and is tanthera. But nearly every species has its peculiar iewed from the front (on removing the Jabellum), each disk is