THE AMERICAN JOURNAL Sarees SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY Prorrssors B. SILLIMAN ann JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH Proressors ASA GRAY, LOUIS AGASSIZ, ann WOLCOTT GIBBS, or CAMBRIDGE, AND Prorsssors S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH, ann H. A. NEWTON, or NEW HAVEN. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XL.—[WHOLE NUMBER, XC.] VOL. XL.—JULY—NOVEMBER, 1865. WITH AN INDEX TO VOLS. XXXI-XL. (“nc : ky ot Seay ee 1 i ee €xs ‘ f Cer eo ape wirn a FI NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1865. LL PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL 8T. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL. NUMBER CXVIII. ° * ‘ Page. Art. I. On the Deep Placers of the South and Middle Yuba, Nevada county, California, in connection with the Middle Yuba and Eureka Lake Canal Companies; by B. Sinuiman, = 1 II. On the Ice in Kennebec River; by Rev. Freperic Garpner, 20 lil. On the Origin and Formation of Prairies ; by L. LesquErevx, 238 IV. Preliminary notice of a small collection of Fossils found by © Dr. Hays, on the west shore of Kennedy Channel, at the highest northern localities ever explored; by P. B. Meex, 31 V. On the Replacement of one Alcoholic Radical by another in compounds of the Ether Class; 2 C. Frizpet and J. M. Crafts, - 34 VI. On Etherification ; : ‘ C. vine i J. M. re - 40 VIf. Contributions to the ee of Natural ag a by T. Sterry Hunt, - - 43 VIIL On Molecular Physics ; + Prof W. A. Nei: - ee | IX. On the Spectra of some of the Fixed Stars; by Wittiam Hueéins, and Prof. W. A. Mitter: and On the ae of some of the Nebule ; by Wittiam Hueeins, - X. Reactions of Gelatine; by M. Carey Lea, - oO. XI. Influence of Gravity on Magnetic asim cee by Pane -Earte Cuase,~ - - . ‘ 2-8 XIl. Researches on the Volatile Hydrocarbons; by C. M. Wikis, 89 XIII. On the nature of the Invisible “ited a sae ide pd M. Carey Lea, - XIV. Mineralogical Notices ; yt Prof, c. ‘U. eeueideg: te CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry ae us Oe the chemical constitution of tie brain, Ligsretcn, 113.— On an i method of preparing oxygen, FLErTMANN, 114.—On propyl-phycit, Carivs, 115, Mineralogy an SYy.—Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from the Paleozoic Rocks of ey — States, palachian Erosion, by J, P. Les ological Map of Russia: On the changes rendered necessary in the Geologi- cal Map of South Africa, by recent discoveries of Fossils, by Dr. R. N. Ru Pamtaee mire & new Carboniferous Reptile, Prof. Owen: Mineral wealth of ico, Baro MORNER : a with the impression of an Equisetum: Kalicine, Wit wa a 8 .") = o note on the hills of auriferous gravel. Some of meee which I measured, were fifteen to eighteen inches in diameter and ten to fifteen feet in length. Occasionally the mass of this ancient driftwood accumulated in these eddies of the current, where they were deposited with the fine sands, amount almost to a continuous bed of lignite Wedge-shaped and lenticular masses of tough yellow and whitish « clay also occur in the ancient drift, replacing the gravel and affording, by their resisting power, a ‘great impediment to — Saget of minin exposure of the hard gravel ‘cement’ produces, is due mainly, if net entirely, to the decomposition of the associated pyr before noted. It is remarkable how peg nt a A sac the smoothed and beautifully rounded large e- own’ or disintegration which a few months ~ 6 B. Silliman on the Deep Placers of sizé, undergo a similar slacking by atmospheric action, even in a very brief period of time, rendering it almost impossible to preserve specimens of the gravelly concrete unless they are pro- tected by varnish. The most unyielding of the ‘cement’ masses are sometimes left over one season by the miners, exposed to the air and frost, to secure the benefits of this disintegration, without which but little of the contained gold can be obtained. The gold is disseminated throughout the entire mass of this t gravel deposit, not uniformly in value, but always in greater quantity near its base or on the bed rock. The upper half of the deposit is found to be always less in value than the lower part, sometimes so poor that it would be unprofitable working by itself, but inasmuch as there is no practicable mode of working the under stratum without first moving the upper portion, in practice the whole is worked. The gold rarely occurs in large masses in this ancient gravel. Often on the polished and very smooth surfaces of the ‘bed rock’ and of the superincumbent masses of gravel when freshly raised from their long resting place, the scales of brilliant yellow metal are beautifully conspicuous. These are frequently idea of the remarkable features of this ancient floor, moulded and rounded by water or ice, as a series of good stereoscopic the kind assistance of Mr. C. F. Watkins, of San Francisco, so well known for his admirable California views. The “bed rock” varies of course in different portions of the area now under con- sideration, being either granite, gneiss, greenstone or shale. In the granite are observed numerous minute quartz veins pursuing a course parallel to each other often for hundreds of feet without interruption. In the ‘American Claim,’ at San Juan, the granite is suc- ceeded on the west by a large jointed blue siliceous shale, of the same strike with the main joints of the granite. This latter ‘ock 1s covered by numerous very boulders of meta- morphic conglomerate, of which no traces are seen in place. * bea Sar ee fA Sone ee ich the South and Middle Yuba, California. 7 The course of the ancient current where I had an opportutity of measuring it, appears to have been about 20°-25° west of north, (magnetic,) which it will be observed is nearly at right angles to the mean course of the middle and south forks of the Yuba; but it is not far from parallel with the axis of the Sac- ramento river valley, or of the great valley between the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. I have noted the same general direction of the scratches elsewhere in the great gold region, but additional observations are required to justify any comprehen- sive generalization. This much appears clearly shown, however, by the present state of our knowledge on this subject, viz: that the spread of the ancient gold-bearing gravel was produced by a cause greatly more elevated than the existing river system, or, which is more probable, at a time when the continent was less elevated than at present,’ and noving in a direction con- formable to the course of the valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquim. We find it impossible to admit the existing river- system as a cause adequate to the spreading of such vast masses of rounded materials; the facts plainly point to a much greater volume of water than any*now flowing in the valley. The sec- tion already given illustrates perfectly the relations of the pres- ent river-system to the more ancient one whose grand effects are chronicled in the bed rock and its vast superincumbent mass of auriferous gravel. It serves also to illustrate the process now still in progress, by which the existing river system derived its gold-bearing sands, in great part at least, from the cutting away and secondary distribution of these ancient placers. Those who have had the opportunity of visiting other por- tions of the great gold region of California than that now under consideration will at once recognize the local characters of the details given as perfectly consistent with the general phenomena of the ancient placers as observed elsewhere; while at the same time great differences are found in many of the details. Thus in Calaveras and Tuolumne counties, 80 or 100 miles farther south, the volcanic matter capping the auriferous gravel is found in the form of basaltic columns, beneath which recur the same phenomena already described. Here the wood contained in the gravel beds is beautifully agatised, or con- verted into semi-opal, as is the case also at Nevada City, Placer- ville, and elsewhere, associated with beautiful impressions ¢ leaves of plants and trees similar in appearance to those now found in this region. a ? It is the opini i the larger of the erosion excavating the valleys of He cosaet ke tae thee the Tertiary venbed: It was probably ring this same time that the d plying auriferous gravel was produced from the degradation of the metamorphic schists and quartz veins of the Sierras by the joint action of water and of glaciers. a eed 8 B. Silliman on the Deep Placers of This general description of the deep-lying placers of the Yuba might be greatly extended from my notes, but enough has probably been said to convey the impression that the phenom- ena here described are on a grand and comprehensive scale, and referrable to a general cause long anterior in date to the exist- ing river-system; a cause which has been sufficient to break down and transport the gold-bearing veins of the Sierras, with their associated metamorphic rocks, thus laying up in store for human use deposits of the precious metal in amount, on a scale far beyond the notions generally prevailing of the nature of placer deposits. ; Quantity of Gold in the Deep Placers of the Yuba.—The exten- sive mining operations which, since 1852, have been carried on upon the ridge of land between the South and Middle Yuba riv- ers, have supplied the data requisite for a pretty accurate estimate of the average value of gold actually saved in mining and wash- ing a given quantity of auriferous gravel. Without making an exact survey of the ground, it would be impossible to give a precise statement of the total quantity of gravel which has been washed away, much less of what yet remains to be washed. Fortunately, Mr. George Black, a skillful English engineer long resident in California, has twice made a reconnoissance of the ground now under consideration, and his Report,’ privately printed, has been placed at my disposal. I shall use its data with freedom so far as they are required to confirm or extend my own observations. The mining ground in this area stretches along both margins of the delta from French Corral, a place near its western ex- — in a line pretty closely parallel to the Middle Yuba, skirted by the claims known as Birchville, Sweetland’s, Sebas- topool, the Kureka claims (at North San Juan), Badger’s Hill, through Grizzly Gulch to Woolsey’s Flat, Moore’s Flat, Orleans Flat, and Snow Point to Eureka, and thence crossing to the South Yuba slopes ; it includes Mt. Zion, Relief Hill, Bloomfield, Lake City, Grizzly Hill, Columbia, Pleasant Hill, and Monte- zuma, the entire cireuit being over sixty miles. But I was fully convinced from my own examinations of this ground, in November of last year, that but a very small part of the mining ground available for early development and quite within easy control of the existing flow of water furnished by the Middle Yuba Canal Co. and the Eureka Lake Co. has been taken up, much less opened for work. Mr. Black estimates the length of the mining claims at present supplied with water by the Middle Yuba Canal Co. at five miles, with an average width of three hundred and fifty yards, and an average depth of forty ® Report on the Middle Yuba Canal and Eureka Lake Canal, Nevada Co., Cali- fornia. By Gzorex Brack, Civil Engineer. San Francisco, 1864. pp. 32. 4 er q : 3 1 the South and Middle Yuba, California. 9 eight millions of dollars. But the total area of the various places where gravel deposits have been worked on this ridge is estimated by Mr. Black as equal to fifteen square miles, all of which, and much more, is controlled by the water of the Eu- reka Lake Co., or of the Middle Yuba Canal. If this area is esti- mated at an average of forty yards in depth (it varies from eighty to two hundred and two hundred and fifty feet in depth), we shall have one thousand eight hundred fifteen million nine hundred and thirty-six thousand cubic yards of gravel, and if this be estimated to yield only thirty cents per yard, we reach the grand aggregate of five hundred and forty-four million six hundred and ten thousand dollars as its probable yield in gold. e average cost of the water required to wash away one eubic yard of gravel has heretofore been seven and a half cents: but if its price is reduced to six and a quarter cents (=1632 cents for one miner’s inch of water) for each cubic yard, the cost of the water to perform this work will be nearly one hundred and twenty millions of dollars ($119,316,320). It is easy to see from these statements that the amount of gold contained in the deep placers of the Yuba alone is probably greater than the aggregate of all the gold yet exported from the whole Pacific coast, which (including silver) amounted on the first of Janu- ary, 1865, to $695,944,786.° Mr. Black’s estimate of the area town, situated on the north bank of the Middle Yuba, immedi- ately opposite Snow Point, the volcanic ash bed covers the ‘great Blue Lead’ (part of the ancient auriferous gravel,) where it has yielded almost fabulous wealth to the explorers. The * Mercantile Gazette for January 12, 1865. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Series, Vou, XL, No. 118.—Juny, 1865. 2 10 B. Silliman on the Deep Placers of ‘Live Yankee Claim,’ for example, at Forrest City, is rena to have paid its owners over three millions of dollars. The : south side of the Middle Yuba yet remains to be aoe for the continuation of this streak of ‘rich pay’ which points nearly in gr direction of the section given in this Report. 1 be observed that these estimates apply only to the aie of gold actually saved. That this amount is small com- pared with the total contents of the placers, will appear when we come to describe the method by which it is saved, and see how crude that process yet is. What goes down the ravines from the washing is not all lost, as it is oartially washed again in the rivers below by the Chinese and others, but there are no data for determining how much is thus saved. No account is taken in this connection of those extremely rich deep placers, which, like the workings at Forrest City, &., just named, and other ‘localities, yield ate so rich in gold that the whole mass is often worked in crushing mill. Process of Hydraulic ing. —With the more or less complete exhaustion of the shallow placers in the ravines and river beds in California, where the gold was first obtained with little labor and by the most simple means, came the necessity of devising a system by which the deep placers, like these under consideration, *could be peeouuioa ly worked. The accomplishing of this ob- ject demanded the use of a large amount of capital, to be expen- _ | ded in the Reirasion of canals and aqueducts to convey water © from the mountains and fountain heads of the streams, at a suit- able Spelt and in sufficient quantity to command the ground worked, as well also as for the opening of tunnels and shat in the ‘ ‘bed rock,’ for the discharge of the gravel, an ope- on requiring much labor and skill, and consuming often sev- _ oe years in their prosecution. e association of labor and capital thus demanded, called into existence in various parts of the State, Canal and Ditch companies, the associates being generally miners, whose lim- ited finances were eked out by borrowing money from bank- ers, at rates of interest ranging from three to five per centum ee We the South and Middle Yuba, California. 11 miner’s measurement, the second to 2280 miner’s inches.* The Kureka Lake Water r Company’ s works, commenced in 1858, have cost about one million of dollars. Experience has demonstrated that the larger the volume of water employed in the process of washing, the more the efficiency and greater the economy of the operation. The proper a mi om tion of the great mechanical force furnished by large volum water under a great pressure was a problem solved. satisfactorily only after many abortive trials and hg experience. This pro lem involves the following conditi Ist, The whole mass of neriferous gravel must be moved, whatever its depth, quite down to the ‘bed rock.’ 2d, This must be accomplished by the action of water alone, human labor being confined to the application of the water, and the preliminary preparations it involves, the amount of material to be m isposed of in every day of ten hours being from 1500 to 3000 cubic yards for each first class opera- tion, involving the use of 400 inches of water. , The mechanical disintegration of the compact conglome- rate as a part of the uninterrupted operation of the whole system. 4th, The contemporaneous saving of the gold, without inter- rupting the continued flow o 5th, The disposal of the accumulations resulting from the removal of such vast masses of auriferous grave These conditions are in practice met by the following steps, The nesta ground being selected, a tunnel is projected from the nearest and most convenient ravine, so that starting in the ‘bed rock’ on the face of the ravine, it shall approach the center of the gravel mass to be moved at a gradient of about one in twelve to one in twenty. The dimensions of this tunnel are La tion. These tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to _* The miner’s inch of water, in California is that quantity of water which will pass through an opening of one square inch area under a mean pressure or head of six il . In practi i asuri inches. In tice the water from the canal is conducted into a m ig box (see the accompanying map for a figure of this ) twelve or = urteen the sides of which openings are made t and extending across three of the sid ones are cl 0 ide ves when not in use. The sectional area ander’ which the water flows deter- nes of course the volume by rement. us slit by two inches in depth, under a head of six inches, is called te — miner's A ones foot (=7 749 U. S. gallons) eq s inches. any “working y le ten hours, 1,098 cubic feet. The average consumption of © ing claim ia active work is equal to three hundred mane s inches. oar me as sere flowing ten hours i is equal to 329,400 cubic fee: or 2.4 70,500, Uni aed a a greater quantity than is feanieet for the fry of the city population of over one ‘hundr api e—Black. 12 B. Silliman on the Deep Placers of The object of this laborious exploration is obvious. The long tunnel becomes a sluice-way through the whole length of igh enough above the pavement to control the stream. The pavement is usually composed of blocks of wood six inches in thickness and as wide as the sluice, cut across the grain of the wood, e are placed about two inches apart at the ends and held in position by cleets of two inches square. In the interstices (‘rifles’) of two inches by four thus left, a small portion of quicksilver is placed, to aid in catching the gold ~ which finds its way into these hollow spaces. The vertical shaft is intended to furnish a fall of sufficient height to break up the harder masses of conglomerate and cement as the gravelly stream is precipitated, dashing from side to side of the shaft, and finally with great force upon its rocky bottom. The water from the canal is brought by side flumes or aque- ducts to the head of the mining ground, with an elevation of : : mu- nicate at the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast iron, glib ind Be a TS ha il le el lll the South and Middle Yuba, Cali ornia. 13 third cubic feet of water, wee 1632 pounds, aete discharged against the fac the bank under a ure of ninety to two hundred ona mg to the square inch, vecying gs the height of the column. Under the continuous action of this . enormous mechanical force, pont Lae the softening power of the water, large sections of the gravelly mass come crashing down with great violence. The eben speedily dissolving and disap- pearing under the resistless force of the torrent of water, is hur- ried forward to the mouth of the shaft, down which it is precipi- tated with the whole volume of turbid water. Boulders of one hundred to two hundred pounds in weight are shot forward by this impetuous stream, accompanied by masses of the harder cement, which meet in the fall down the shaft and in the con- aeente of ve ee boulders, the crushing agencies required to inte, stratum on the ‘bed rock’ = strongly cemen opi sul. phuret of iron and great pressure, resists even the full force of the water stream until it has been loosened by gunpowder. For this purpose adits are driven in on the ‘bed rock’ forty or fifty feet from the face of the bank, and a tunnel extended at right angles therefrom to some distance each side of the adit. In this tunnel a large quantity of gunpowder is placed, from fifty to two hundred kegs, and fired as one blast by a train laid from without. In this manner, the compact conglomerate is broken up, and the water then rapidly completes the work. Sometimes the system of tunnels on the bed rock is extended much as ina coal mine, by cross alleys leaving blocks, which are then washed away, when the whole mass settles and disin- tegrates easily under the influence of the water. e tunnels in the bed rock already described are made dounle, for the convenience ie ‘cleaning up’ one of them while other is in action. The process of cleaning up is performed every ten or twenty days, ace to the size and richness of the work, and consists in removing the entire pavement of blocks from the bed of the sluice, and removin ng all the amal- gam of gold and ‘rich dirt’ collected in the ‘rifles,’ and re- placing the blocks in the same way as at first; advantage is taken of this occasion to reverse the position of the blocks when they are worn irregularly, and to substitute new ones for pees which are worn through. The mechanical action of the process on the blocks is of course very rapid and severe, so as to command a complete renewal of them once in eight or ten” weeks. Some miners prefer a pavement of egg-shaped stones 14 B. Siliiman on the Deep Placers of set like a cobble-stone pavement, the gold being deposited in the interstices. Most of the sluices are however paved wit rectangular wooden blocks as described. Standing at the mouth of one of these long bed rock tunnels in full action, one unaccustomed to the process is filled with a sense of amazement amounting almost to terror, as the muddy sweeps with great velocity onward, bearing in its course great boulders which add to the roar of the water, the whole being’ precipitated down a series of falls, at each of which it is caught up again by new sluices of timber lined like the first ; one, and so onward and downward many hundreds of feet, until the level of the river is reached at the distance perhaps of half a mile or more from the mouth of the first tunnel. At each of these new falls of twenty-five or fifty feet, the process of com- minution begun in the first shaft is carried forward and a new portion of gold is obtained. Another ingenious device to secure the gold is by means of what are called under currents. At the end of the last sluice box, and beyond the mouth of the tunnel a grating of iron bars is arranged lengthwise in the bottom through which a portion of the water and finer material falls upon a series of more gently graded sluices of double the width of the main sluice. ese sluices are placed at right angles to the other while the great body of the gravel with the large boulders go hing forward over the fail, while the finer part thus di- verted is more gently brought in contact with a new set of mercurial rifles, from which it rejoins the main torrent; and the same process is repeated at each succeeding fall, until the river is reached. Rude as this method of saving the gold appears, experience shows that more gold is saved by it than by any other method of washing yet devised, while the economical advantages it offers are incomparably greater than any other. In fact, it would be entirely impossible to handle so vast a body of poor material in any other way now known. 'o show the enormous advantage gained by the present sys- tem of working, compared with those formerly in use, Mr. Black states that, taking a miner’s wages at four dollars per day, the cost of handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel is as follows: With the pan,” - : ‘ . _ - $20.00 — 5. Wite the ticker oor 8 Wi oe6 O08 Mee ok ee LOU With the hydraulic process, : p : .20 In fact, man has, in the hydraulic process, taken command of nature’s agencies, employing them for his-own benefit, compell- ing her to surrender the treasure locked up in the auriferous a ost o aes PL Le. ee eT ee Pee eee Binnie: Ze ¥ = aie i ery the South and Middle Yuba, California. 15 gravel by the use of the same forces which she employed in dis- tributing i I have dwelt with the more fullness on this process, so famil- gravel, rising in vertical cliffs with red and blue stains, serving to ment at the changes, geological in their nature and extent, which the hand of man has wrought. move it, w we stay our hand! ‘The process is but just commenced. It has required already twelve years to re- OV ve seen, eight per cent of the mining ground, auriferous gravel. The water shed between the two bra of the Yuba River now under consideration, includes not only the tributary streams which rise in the Sierras, such as Cafion Creek, Pass Creek, and others, but a great number of small and lakes, from a few acres to several miles in area which nes- tle among the hills. Of these the largest is the Truckee Lake; 16 B. Silliman on the Deep Placers of and although the waters of this considerable reservoir are not now flowing in either of the canals under consideration, I am credibly informed, on high authority, that they are likely to do so ere long. Cail n Creek Lake (called on the map Hureka Lake) is the most sekeiierais reservoir of the Eureka Lake © Canal Co. I visited it in November, after the first fall of snow, but before the waters had commenced accumulating. In four or five weeks time after it was = A substantial dam built of — blocks of granite, raises its waters to a present average height of _ forty-two feet above its outlet, me natural | of granite capable of receiving twenty feet more of t. Its base is transversely at bottom one hundred and ime feet, its height seventy feet, and from bank to bank its top measures two hun- dred and fifty feet. The water face is protected by a double covering of sawed planking, securely fastened, and in all five © | inches in thickness. The flow of water is regulated by a sluice- way of arched masonry. When full, the present capacity of this reservoir is estimated at 933,000, 000 cubic feet of water, By an increase of twelve feet in the height of the dam, Mr. _— esti- mates the iseaebed capacity of this reservoir to be 2 2,000,000 of cubic feet of water, equal to twenty-five days ier of the canal with a constant stream, or in all about six months’ supply. But the canal receives its supply for four months, say from pod middle of April to the middle of August, from ‘the moun- streams, which afford a plentiful supply from the constant aneeing of the snows during this season; the snow accumu- lates in great quantities in the snowy Sierras during the winter months, the melting of which supplies not only the flow of the streams, but fills also to overflowing all the mountain lakes and cial reservoirs, in which the waters are kept in reserve against the droughts of late summer and autumn. Rarely, asin © the a of 1863-4, does the snow-fall fail to meet the ~ mands. ring the year named, for the first time since the struction of “the canals, the reservoirs were not half fille d, but aa current year they were filled again by mid-winter. The — rain-fall for 1863-4 was less than has been known in California _ since 1850-51. The snow in 1863-4 measured only four feet.* a Mr. Black gives the following table, &e. intent of the Rain-fall, as registered - Sacramento for fifteen years : pence: ear. Rain-fall in inches, | ar. in inches. 1849-50 . wee BB. 1857-58 - 15.008 00-D 1 ig ee 4.730 | 1858-59 16.021 1851 ae ited 1859-60 22.107 1852-53.... nt eee eee! 1860-61 16.097 ; oe eae | 1861-62 35.549 1854-55 ... seane3.620 | 1962-6: 11.579 1 56... vid 8270 | 1 34 rer y 1856-5 rs 10.443 | Mean rain-fall, 18.64 From this table it will bet seen that the rain fall for 1863, ’64, is only 7.37, whilst — ee aaa Searcy ee er ce ee te ee eee ee ee ere ee ee eee ee ener hee 8 EES ES the South and Middle Yuba, California. 17 Besides the main reservoir se a smaller lakes or reser- voirs, of which the principal one is Lake Fauchaeig® on the course of Cajion Creek, perhaps font eaniles below the main res- poy ir. A timber dam of thirty feet in height has been con- tructed across its outlet, forming = reservoir of about two indeed acres, giving a volume of 217,0 0, of cubic feet. Dams have also been erected across oa ie outlets of several small lakes to the west and south of Lake panera from the outlet of one of which the main canal commen The Eureka Hr is constructed sarily, jin eee: and partly as a wooden flum _ The dim ensions of the main fats are feet per mile. The disc sais is ninety-six and f fectinta niles dredths cubic feet per second, or 3,485 miners’ inches, taking > depth of water at two feet nine inches. If the full depth and thirteen and thirty -three-hundredths cubic feet, or 4,306 inches ; but on account of the irregularity in the grade and. the subsidences which have taken place, it is not practicable, at pres- ent, to fill it to its full capacity. Taking 3,485 inches as the supply, and deducting ten per cent for loss by leakage, evaporation, etc., will leave 3, _ oe pa the supply which can be made availa able. The practical result which is 3000 inches, agrees very closely with this ; 3 037 inches of a constant discharge during a working day o ten hours is ual to 7,289 inches for twenty-four hours, heb latter quan- tity, therefore, is the available capacity of the canal, irrespec- tive of the Miners ’ and other confluent ditches. The disch feet, equals eight and one-third millions of cubic feet for twenty- four hours e yearly complement is therefore 3,041,000,000 cubic feet. The storage capacity for the supply of the Canal is thus stated : Cafion Creek pale shies ES eee 933 millions cubic feet. Reed PAUCHSTIA .» os 05) owen sot thees* nie ft Siow Smaller lak —" oc kee b ais ts oa bene ts 100. * ati Fore 1 9 50 “ a “ the a’ yt ade sled or the last fifteen years has been 18°64. In the mountains, rain rarely after the month of September. It is then converted into snow Bx the co of the clim it commences few following months all t and rivers have a plentiful supply of water. The rain-fall of the mountains (or the a which falls water) is from fifty to seventy per cent more than the rain-fall of the valleys; (according to experiments which I sie on the Middle Yuba in 1856-7, I found that seven feet of snow measured, after its Ang Pigdetat water; the refore, 96 a approximation, the fall of snow, divided by seven, is equal to the rain-fall.) Am. Jour. Sci.—Szconp Szrizs, VoL. xt iti 118—JuLy, 1865. dehes 18 B. Silliman on the Deep Placers of This amount divided by eight and one-third millions, the daily supply, equals one hundred and fifty days’, or five months’ stor- age supp artial deficiency exists during three months of the year, from the middle of January to the “middle of April, during a part of which period, however, the demands for wash- ing are ata minimum. In ordinary years the reservoirs are not drawn from before the middle of August. In 1864, however, — ry e draft commenced as early as July Ist, owing to the ve exceptional dryness of that season. h e main canal after leaving Cafion Creek takes a westerly ' direction, and follows the contour of the hills on the south side _ until it crosses Jackson Creek, a distance of about seven miles; thence taking a more northerly direction for two miles, it crosses a depression in the ridge, and keeping above Weaver's or Hu- — reka Lake, follows the north slope of the ridge to Kureka, a dis- tance of about eleven miles; continuing in the same direction two miles further, it erosses a low depression by means of the ar Magenta and National aqueducts. Sieg: this it still follows the regi ravines. Often these aewheea are see sacs in- across secure, but the Magenta and National (or Washington) aque- ducts on the line of the Eureka Canal are remarkable exceptions to this. ‘They are thus described by Mr. Black “The an nta and a. ba bray which reflect “eee 8 on in carrying on the works of the Soe Nevada Lake oe Canal, on — the opposite side of the Yuba. The National nae ueduct is in length — 1,800 feet; its greatest height sixty-five feet. The ta Aqueduct is q - 400 feet i in length, and its greatest height one hundred and pee : eet. The size of the flume is seven feet by one foot and three inches ; the inclination, or grade, one foot per hundred feet. The sides were made as low as practicable, so that the high winds which swee . any part of them; they are whole from foundation to top. The sides of the flume, one foot three inches j in depth, are formed of whole les are placed — thirty — in length and seven inches in width. The trestles thirty feet apart from centers; they are well and securely braced. The eee on actica p across — this gap might have little effect upon them. The posts of the trestles — were all hewn from trees growing in the vicinity, no splicing existing in Oe eT ae eee ee ee Pe the South and Middle Yuba, California. 19 whole aqueduct was built in sections of thirty feet each; each sectio when completed, being raised on the spot where it was constructed, om — scaffolding was completely dispensed with. This work, to-day, i is rvation, the foundations and ene being alike sound substantial, and ‘likely to last for many yea The aggregate length of all the ditches in the Kureka Com- pany’s tps hal is about two hundred miles In the ownership of the San Juan Company the aggregate tee is about half this quantity, twenty-six miles being in the main San Juan ditch. The safe capacity of discharge of the canals of both Com- panies, being a constant stream during 10 hours, is as follows: Miner’s inches. SPARE, DUANE a i Ga Ries os ken hab s+ nas ke» cos : BREAD hid Ee 14 ok ay 4 ong Host «4 oe nth oe 7 Other Gistliows ..45 55s sce 5 Daweh in 6656s sane e un ae 250 —— 4,000 Middle Yuba Canal ........ 00.02.0003 Sage eree are et: : 1,500 5,500 5,500 inches for 10 hours, equals for 24 hours.......... 13,200 20 per cent deficiency in supply, stoppages, and other causes, 2,620 — 10,580 Say 10,000 inches per day. The laws of California are quite peculiar in respect to the rights of miners to the control of mining ground and of water. The miner has no ownership in fee, but an absolute control so long as he conforms to the mining laws of his district. Minin Vv all other property rights of real estate. As respects the own- ership ad: control of water, the laws permit and protect usages unknown under the En lish common -law, such as the . manent diversion of water from its original channels for min- ing uses. The right of ‘locating’ streams for such purposes is fully recognized and established as against adverse interests, ‘by numerous decisions of the highest Courts of law. An ab- stract of these mining laws may be found in Hittel’s Resources of California, page 354. 20 F. Gardiner on the ice in Kennebec river. Art. IL—On the Ice in Kennebec River; by Rev. FREDERIC — GARDINER, : THE following observations were made upon the ice on the — Kennebec river during the months of February and March, 1865. — The location isin the town of Gardiner, at a point where the © river is about 700 feet wide. The water is entirely fresh for many miles below, and the average ebb and flow of the tide here is five feet. The depth of water varies, according to the — state of the tide and the particular locality, from 17 to 25 feet. — In the course of the winter the ice is always observed to crowd ashore, crumpling up in ridges on the flats and near the edge of the channel. This process was already well advanced when, afte: . ter © various delays, these observations were begun, Feb. 6. A row of stakes was planted in the ice, by boring holes quite through to the water, at distances of about 100 feet apart, avoiding a © very near approach to either shore. Their positions were deter- — mined by observing the range of each with a near and a distant © fixed object on the shore, by means of an instrument with a small telescope, and also by the angles subtended at each posi- tion by fixed objects on the opposite shores. After an interval time, the instrument was placed in the same range, and the distance from it to the stake measured. The stakes were soon — broken off even with the ice by boys, and then a heavy snow ~ fall vith the consequent sinking of the ice and formation of a separate sheet of ice above, with water between and slush above, made it impossible to recover the ends of the stakes until March 18th. The distance between the eastern and western stakes was 500 feet. March 18, the easternmost stake was found to have ~ moved to the eastward 122 inches. A stake 200 feet west of — this had not sensibly changed its position. The western-most — stake had moved to the westward 12 feet 2in. There was thus a total expansion of the ice of 13 feet 22 in. in a breadth of 500 . feet, 0 is entirely independent of the action of gravity, and is due to variations in the temperature of the air, that of the water having been nearly constant, as will be seen below. It is to be regretted that there are no data for determining the of this motion in successive proportions of time—a defect which it is hoped the observations of another winter, and of observers in other localities, may supply. The temperatures observed at _ my house, 120 feet above the river, during the time, are as fol- _ lows, in degrees Farenheit: Mean temperature, Feb, 6 to 28 inclusive, 22°37"; mean of extreme heat of each day, 32°; mean _ of extreme cold, 12:74°; mean diurnal variation, 20-217°: ex- t } . 4 sees e heat, 45°; extreme cold, -17°; extreme variation, 62° | : per cent nearly, in 40 days. Of course this motion © proportion — * en, ee ey ee ee eee ee ae eee a eae ee ee Re ee a ee ee ee ee ene . FE re ee OE Pe PRR eT Le ae eee F. Gardiner on the ice in Kennebec river. 21 March 1 to 18, inclusive-—Mean temperature, 33° _ ; mean of extreme heat, 41°33°; of extreme cold, 24°944°; mean diurnal variation, 15°44° ; - extreme eat, 50°; extrem e cold, T° ; extreme variation, 43°. These temperatures, of course, are each that of the shade ; they would be much increased by ‘taking into con- sideration the influence of the sun to which the ice was expose When the ends of the stakes were recovered, they were float- ing in greatly enlarged holes. The stakes were pieces of pine turned, 2 in. in diameter. They were placed in holes of 14 in. diameter, and frozen in firmly. When found, the holes varied from 14 to 64 in. diameter. his fact probably accounts for the anomalous temperatures given below, and must be due to the action of the sun’s rays in the substance ‘of the ice absorbed by the wood of the stakes. It also illustrates the effect upon the ice of objects within its substance. The larger holes were in the middle and near the eastern side of the river; the smaller were toward the western shore, where a high bank cuts off the sun early in the afternoon. The subjoined temperatures of the water and ice were taken with thermometers enclosed in cylinders of pine of such size as to leave a minimum thickness of 4in. of wood outside the bulb. The piece of wood covering the graduated side of the stem was confined only by an india rubber ring which could be slipped off in an instant. These thermometers were made by Green of New. York, accurately graduated to »4° C., an easily read to z5°. The ‘tem. mperatures of the air and snow were observed with ed sbaniainasiie: The minimum time of ex- posure in each case was a half hour, and it was not found that a. longer exposure produced any change, although an hour was repeatedly tried. The thermometers were sunk perpendicularly in the ice, by boring holes with an augur a trifle larger than the thermometer cases, sed after inserting them, stopping the top of the hole with dry snow. The measurements, in alle are to the center of the bulb, which was about 1h i in. long. The temperature of the water was always observed near the bottom | of the e river, and also immediately under the ice; but no differ- ence was observed except on Feb. 6, when the water near the bottom was 0-10, and just. below the ice —0-05, the ice at the time wasting a little. Feb. 15, 0°10; Feb. 22, 0-15; March 11, 0:35; March 18, after a heavy rain, producing a freshet and the river with melted he 0°15. This freshet terminated ‘lan ob- servations — the Ata t about the middle of the river and near the line of the staken phe however, a few feet for each observation, bo 5 following observations were made: Feb. 6, mean tem of air in shade, 0°; depth of snow on ice, 15 in.; “4 in.; of black ice, 6} in.; total, 13 in.—surface 22 F, Gardiner on the ice in Kennebec river. of ice 3 in. below surface of water. Temperature of snow just below its surface, 0°; just above the ice, —3°45°; of ice at depth of 10 in.,—1°95. Fe b: 15, air in shade, ~4 15; depth of snow, 6 in. Below this was a sheet of ice generally 33 i in. thick, then a layer of water 24 in., then about 12 in. of ice; in all, 18 in. The. temperature of the ice was taken at a point where the two _ layers were frozen together. Snow near surface, —1°55°; just ore: ice, —0°75° ; ice at depth of 2 in. 0°46°; - 14 in,, 665°) Feb. 22, thickness of snow, ice, and water, about the same. Temperature of air in shade, ~3-90° ; of snow near its surface, 6°; just above ice, 0°55° ; of enclosed water, 005°. The layer — of water prevented the examination of the ice below. March — 18, snow on the ice all gone; upper layer of ice,4in., butmuch isintegrated and in places wholly gone ; enclosed water v ary- 4 ing from 2 to 5 in., and the entire thickness of the whole reduced . to from 14 to 16 in. ate, Fone of enclosed water, 0°85°; temperature of air in shade, 390°; in sun, 725°. At ‘another point, where the draft of air nilee a bridge kept the surface nearly free from snow, but still fully exposed to the sun, the following observations were made: Februar ry 15—air in shade, —4-70°; insun, 0°; thickness of “snow ice,” 3in.; of black ice, 19 in.: ‘total, 22 in. Temperature of ice at depth of 2 i in., — 0°35° ; at 10 in., —2°15°; at 18 in, —2:25°. Feb. 22,—air in shade, ~2°25°; in sun, 9°50°; snow ice, 24 in.; black ice, 212 in.: satel a ‘Temperature of i ice at 2 in, ps 15°; ;* at 10 in., 1-00°; was arg freely. liaeh, ll —air in shade, —2°20°; in sun, oe 10 —— of ice thawing i in the sun. Thickness of black g no snow ice), 224 in. Tem erature, at 2 in. 190" at 10 in., 2°35°;' at 18 in., 1:25°. ~ : 4 ations show that the ice expands — —- to Tee ai ure of the water, and that the temperature of the — . ice itself, for such thickness as above given, varies SE its changes having little meena to the w ; * appears that mr rays of rg sun at these Serie (and probably the same would be true of much ter depths,) are absorbed largely by an enclosed object, even of a gets color. In the uni- 7 form water at various d epths, there is evi- — dence that the sudden disintegration of the ice, and its retest is not in this instance due to the action of the sires q oce urs constantly on the large ponds in the neighborhood, but rarely on the river. It never takes place until the “snow re ine entirely melted, and is believed to be due to the action — * Chips of the Seo lol NS Sale Soe melted, and thermometer case some- | Gardiner, Maine, March 2, 1865, - + Fo ee ee ee ee ee ee L, Lesquereuz on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. 23 Arr. I1l—On the Origin and Formation of Prairies; by Leo LESQUEREUX. {Concluded from vol, xxxix, p. 327.] E now come to the examination of the new theory of Prof. Winchell.’ A clear abstract is given by the author himself in the following words: 1. The soil of the prairies is of lacustrine formation, as proved by its physical characters, and by the necessary effect of logical changes of level which are generally admitted to have taken place 2, Lacustrine sediments enclose but few livin germs. ' 8. Diluvial es red “on the contrary, are found everywhere re- plete with living ger 4. The living area of the diluvial deposits were buried dur- in g the prime 5. In riot? as the diluvial surface became exposed, the flora of the _ glacial epoch was reproduced. vegetation which finally appeared on the drained la- custrine asbd was extra-limital, and was more mer to be herba- ceous than ar prairies, but nae that of the high rolling prairies, and as, in re- marking on the extent of the ancient lakes, he says that its arms reached into Iowa, we may admit that the high rolling prairies of this State are considered by him as resulting from the same lacustrine action. We might go farther west, and follow the same formation over a surface continually rising to an elevation of feet. But it is not necessary for our present argument. In Iowa the knolls of the high prairies are 1,500 feet above the Ocean, and as Lake Michigan is only 600 feet above the sea, its waters, to reach the high prairies of Iowa, should have been 900 feet higher than they now are. How would this agree with the actual configuration of our country? Moreover, as the level : This Journal, Nore * Prof. ie Goth, Rages af lowe, p 19; for this and some of the follow- Those for Ohio are taken n from official surveys for canals. = Peer ere 24 L,. Lesquereux on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. above, all the highlands of Indiana and Ohio should have been also deep under water. For, the highest point of the Ohio canal, at Licking, being 890 feet above the sea, there is still about 500 feet of difference between this point and the level of the Iowa prairies. The whole high country in Ohio and Indiana 1s t. a indeed, can deny that the whole surface of the — extension 0 e Michigan, or of the basin of our lakes, a epoch of submergence which has left its traces over the whole extent of ntinent, is narrowing the phenomenon of a nearly horizontal plains, which vast sheets of water, lakes, and swamps. If the wider expanse of our lakes at former times is understood in that ways it is indeed undeniable. But, as we have already said, these lakes cannot be — considered in the phenomenon as causative or primitive agents. — And if it is so, all the deposits of that epoch belong to the same © lacustrine formation, and as all these surface deposits which were not horizontal are generally wooded, and often densely so, we — are already authorized to conclude that the so-called lacustrine — formation has, by its nature, no direct relation to the prairies. Before passing to another of the statements of the author, I would like to ask if there is not a contradiction in asserting that — there was “little difficulty in discovering the true origin of the so-called ‘wet prairies’ so common in Ohio and Michigan, and now usually termed ‘ marshes,’ ‘swales,’ ‘bogs,’ and in roving ere ee reson of the absence of ordinary upland trees from their surface,”* and to say, in considering my opinion identified by the author with the former, that “it is so well known that there is no situation _ so wet but certain trees will flourish in it,” (referring here to the — il of swamps.)’ Is it not also a contradiction to acknowledge that the wet prairies, along the shores of our lakes, are caused 6 : Manual of Geolog sc ebateesenardhioeke Sete Tid. p. 554. * This Journal, [2], xxxviii, 333. * This Journal, ibid, p. $43. a LS RN a en OT aE a Te ree Ee ae ee Tey ee ee ye ren rt nn Mien) oh Sent No pene AOR eer joker aca cca = si38 pr 4: * L, Lesquereux on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. 25 by humidity of the soil, and to assert that the high prairies, under lacustrine influence, owe their origin to quite another cause? Does the difference of time modify the action of lacus- trine influence? hough a number of fruits and seeds are brought by currents from the shores of America to those of Scotia and Norway, these se 0 not, or only very rarely, germinate, even under careful cultivation.’ The marine cocoa-nut (Lodoicea Seychellarum Lab.) ae of some seeds for centuries, have been quoted by authors. ic sub- stances, that we should consider the case of the preserved vital- * Alph. De Candolle Geogr. Bot., p.616. * Hooker’s Bot. Mag, t.2734. * Annales des Seiennen Saks vy, 378. Am. Joux. Sci.—Szconp Seis, Vou. XL, No. 118—Juzy, 1865. a 26 L. Lesquereux on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. ity of the raspberry seeds, as quite an exceptional one. But on this subject, Prof. Ad, DeCandolle, who mentions the same fact, and who has studied more closely than any other botanist this — interesting question of the preservation of seeds, says: ‘‘ Prof, Lindley has quoted a species of Rosaceze (raspberry) whose seeds i were found in a human skeleton, which was believed to be some centuries old; but after verification of the fact, the seeds proved _ to be more recent.”"® |DeCandolle says nothing of that dulbous root found in the hands of a mummy and which produced a beautiful dahlia, rightly passing the fact, as one of those apocry- ied stories with which science had better not be encumbered. Not that the statement of Prof. Lindley is to be doubted; but that this celebrated botanist, too prone to believe stories in con-— firmation of his opinion, may have been misled by false accounts. We know of old that the merchants of Egyptian mummies are _ drift, as in a kind of Noah’s ark, especially provided for the ** Alph. de Candolle Geogr. Bot., p. 541. ur - ere tee! * L. Lesquereux on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. 27 urse. And though the movement is slow, the materials carried on the back of the glaciers (moraines) are continually mixing and in a confused mass, and thus, though their thickness may be great, they are at repeated times ex- posed to atmospheric action. How then could it be supposed that mere seeds, especially large ones, like acorns, nuts, beech nuts, etc., could have resisted the crushing action of ice; when ard stones have been ground into sand and mud. For, accord- ing to the theory, the seeds ought to have been preserved within the transported materials, as it is positively stated that diluvial materials are full of seeds. Prof. Winchell says, “The general effect of the events which ushered in and marked the progress of the reign of ice was to destroy the vegetation flourishing over all the northern portion of the continent, and mingle its forms with cubic miles of debris - detached from the under-lying rocks,” ete. at has become of these forms of vegetation, remains of vast destroyed forests which have produced those seeds with which the diluvial is replete ? Are trunks and branches of trees more difficult to preserve than seeds? Who has found those trunks and limbs of trees buried 50 Conifers heaped in patches, within sandy clay, and which do om This Journal, 1, Cy, p. 834. re i es ‘sige e 28 LL, Lesquereux on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. invaded at once by a peculiar kind of vegetation, especially by trees? Along the Ohio canals, the exposed Drift remains abso- lutely sterile in the first years after its denudation. By and by, some seeds of the plants growing in the neighborhood, those of the Mullen especially, invade this new soil, and become for a time its predominant vegetation. Afterward, a few shrubs, also the most common in the vicinity, appear on it; and it is only long © years after, and when the surface of the original ground is © already covered by a coat of vegetable mould, that a few trees, — the Black Locust, the Elm, etc., are seen here and there growing — up among the bushes. Prof. Winchell again says: ‘4th, The living germs of the dilu- vial deposits were buried during the glacial epoch ;” and, “5th, Jn proportion as the diluvial surface became exposed, the flora of the pre-glacial epoch was reproduced. . The author supposes that the vegetation which characterized the close of the Tertiary period was probably nearly identical with that existing at the present day under the same climatic conditions.” The climate of the Tertiary period at our latitude was evidently warmer than it is now, and, in the supposition of the author, we must expect of course to find the seeds of northern species, brought with the Diluvium and established with us, tak- ing the place of those destroyed by the influence of the glacial period. Considering only the general character of the flora of the Tertiary at different latitudes, it agrees well enough with this — idea, and we may give here some details which tend to strengthen the hyp a more, perhaps, than any reason advanced by the mself. author hi The Tertiary flora of Iceland, at least what is known of it, is more clesely related to our present flora than that of the Ter- tiary of the Mississippi. Among twenty-seven species of Phe- — nogamous plants,” it has eight Conifers, one of which, the most common, is an Araucaria ; two Pines, one of them related to _ Pinus serotina Michx. of ours; five Firs, one also related to our _ Hazelnut, ene Qak, whose nervation resembles that of our Quer- | cus montana Willd.; ene Buttonwood (Platanus), one Dombey- opsis, a genus of the Linden family, represented only by broken, scarcely determinable leaves; one Maple, apparently the most predominant species in that Tertiary flora of Iceland. and re- mar —_ by its large leaves and large fruits; one Grape, rela- _ to Vitis vulpine L. of ours; one Tulip tree, one Buckthorn, _ * This Journal, Lc, p. $37. ** 0. Heer: Flora Tert. Helvet, iii, 117. es ree ee errr % ee ere lie L. Lesquereux on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. 29 one Sumach, and one Walnut. If we consider the genera only, it is evident that this flora has the greatest analogy with ours; and if we could account for the transportation of seeds, it would perhaps seem reasonable to suppose that the change of ‘character of our vegetation, since the Tertiary period, might be explained by Prof. Winchell’s theory. Before conceding the value of this pootinbs however, we must Jook further to what we know the characters of the vegetation in our recent geological ages, The materials collected till now from the flora of Iceland as well as from our own are not sufficient to form a solid basis for argu- ment, but we must use them as they are In the lower Miocene (may be the Eocene ?) of the State of Mississippi, the most abundant remains of fossil plants ene vm cies of Calamopsis, an extinct genus of Palms. With and in about the same abundance, there are leaves of a Sabet resembling our Palmetto, and of Fig and Cinnamon trees. At a higher stage, in the red shales, which I consider as true Mio- ng we find still some leaves of. Fig, Cinnamon, and Sabal, wi: already those of Oak, Maple, apes Laurel, Olive, Magnolia and even Beech, whose species are related to, but not identical a species of our time. Higher still, in the chalk banks of mbus, Kentucky, we have leaves and fruits, whose relation is “still nearer to our a ets species. Some of them so much SO, that I have considered them as identical with ours.“ Passi higher up in the formations, we have, along the banks of the lower Ohio river, thick st rata of a compound of leaves and fruits mixed with alluvial clay ser formed in terraces. All the species of this formation are of our time and of our latitude. n the difference of forms between the plants of the lower fae and those of our sign we recognize a constant modi- we ascribe the last axa to a peculiar glacial agency, especially oe, to sustain the hypothesis, we should have n ur arborescent vegetation, exactly the same species thease cer 0 x Gp, t that em noted foie its 5 very. io efits are types of which no trace appears, in our. aceite vegeta ~ ete Se ], xxvii, 364. Specimens of these fossil plants ona imajusrae some of them with species of our time, and « 30 L. Lesquereux on the Origin and Formation of Prairies. brought from somewhere far away. For the vegetation of the th s rents, etc., than those of Pentalostemon, Astragalus, Baptisia, other Leguminosz so common on the prairies? The vege- tation of the prairies has the same general character as that of the swamps and marsh lands. In both there js especially an abundance of large, coarse Composit, “plants which continu- ally pump water by their roots from the soil and send it through i ™® These and most * According to Prof. Winchell’s opinion, This Journal, 2], iii, 344, ** De Candolle Physiol. Veget., p. 1210. pete woke F. B. Meek on fossils from Kennedy Channel, 31 escaping destruction by conflagration.” And with these, there are the sedges, and the hard cep like the Andropogons, which seek a siliceous soil, and whose tissue is so hardened by silica that their culms are not even aemen by the autumnal fires. These, and indeed many of the species of the high prairies of the Mis- ane are found in our swamps along the canals of Ohio. e remark on the whole theory will close this examin- ation, ete too long. An hypothesis, or a theory, to be ac- cepta table to the mind, should account for all the appearances of the phenomenon which it proposes to explain; and its explana-— tions should be sustained by what we know of natural laws still in activity, and by action so evident that its effects cannot be denied. Neither of these conditions is fulfilled, I think, by the new theory. It takes into consideration a very ‘small part of the whole system of prairies, explaining neither the low lacustrine nor the fluvial prairies, neither those of the sea nor those of the mountains, etc. And it refuses to acknowledge an evident opera- tion constantly at work under our eyes, the result of a simple law of nature. Art. IV.—Preliminary notice of a small collection of Fossils found by Dr. Hays, on the west shore of Kennedy Channel, at the highest northern localities ever explored ; by F. B. MEEK Some time after Dr. Hays’ return from his Arctic expedition, he sent on to the Smithsonian Institution several boxes of min- eral and rock specimens collected by him while in the north, to be examined by Prof. Thomas Egleston. On gem these, Prof. Egleston noticed, amongst other specim mass of y limestone containing a few fossils, to hiss” he called the attention of the writer. Finding these to be of much interest, considering the distant northern locality from which they were obtained, the other specimens were then carefully examined, and fragments of a few other fossils found amongst them. When Dr. Hays subsequently visited Washington, he stated that the best specimens of fossils collected by him were then in the pos- session of a friend at Philadelphia, and that those we had seen were merely fragments that had been packed up with the Pd specimens. At the request of Dr. Hays, the writer Soho and report upon these fossils, so soon as the other gs] could be sent on from Philadelphia. After the lapse 0 of five ot six months, however, without their arrival, inquiries were " Fire times its ra beyond the prairies and daurort sa Gece of rut the ee whos the oe pose hg apse but of feeble growth. It is aie od engi te ground that the contest of Bee: gression and receding of the forest is in constant activity. ce. 32 FB. Meck on fossils from Kennedy Channel. made in regard to them, when it was ascertained from Dr. Hays — that his friend, with whom he had left the specimens, had sent them on some time previous. Unfortunately, however, up to this time they have not been received, and, as it is quite probable they may never be recovered, it has been thought desirable in — the interests of science, as well as in justice to the intrepid Arec- tic explorer, Dr. Hays, that such conclusions as can be deduced e meager collection of imperfect fossils found amongst the rock specimens collected by him, should be placed on record. Before expressing an opinion, however, in regard to the age — of the rock from which these specimens were obtained, the fol- _ lowing list of them, with brief descriptions of some of those — believed to be new to science, are given :’ 1. Zapnrentis Haystr, Meek. ‘ Corallum obconical, distinctly curved, rapidly expanding from a pointed base ; | do not present this trilobate appearance, it may not be constant. The specific name of this coral is given in honor of Dr. Hays, its : discoverer. Locality, Cape Frazier. Between lat. 80° and 81° N., long. 70° W. 2 penne (sp. undt, A mere fragment. The tubes are crowded so as to be Jess than their own breadth apart, and sometimes nearly in —* Thor 3 are uniformly 0°10 inch in diameter, and apparently nearly straight and : parallel, while the connecting tubes are small. lity, Leidy. Between lat. 80° and 81°, long. 70° W. : 3. Favosrrss, (sp. undt.) : A small flat fragment showing regular hexagonal calices 010 inch in diameter. See, apparently thin and closely arran, ed; mu : 7 consisting (as seen on one wall only) of four o ; i : 2 08 a rep y) r five alternating series. ? It is the intention of the writer, when mor isure, i fuller descriptions of these fossils, as well as ae ite Sie Rete artery S recovered, for publication in a work Dr, Hays has in progress on the sida of bie F. B, Meek on fossils from Kennedy Channel. 33 SrropHoMENA SR Se (=Leptaena depressa of wash Presenting its usual char 5. SrropHoponta Heapieyana, ia 1? The specimen of this shell consists of about the half of a ae ree embedded in the matrix so as to show the inner side with its irreg- ular striate, subcordate visceral cavity, and granulose siddaen o far as can be determined omy this, it agrees well with the New York species. ity, same as last. 7. Srroppopoyta Becxu, Hall?- The tgs co nine with doubt to the above species, is imperfect, but presents the same general outline, and flatness, as well as the charac- teristic small cur faa concentric wrinkles, fine strie, and even traces of the flabelliform eee scar, of the New York shell Locality, same as last. 8. Sag (sp. undet.) A single specimen of a ventral valve partly embedded in the matrix. Breadth, 0°42 inch; length, 0-36 inch. Mesial sinus broad and shallow; surface with only twenty small radiating cost, five of which occupy the mesial sinu ane same as last. LOSPIRA CONCAY Several specimens, ream both sides, agree well with the New York RESO. Locality, same as foregoing. 10. ae (sp. undet.) s, partly embedded, — resemble S. perlamellosus, Hall, of B ew mn Fork Catskill ped limestone 11. Loxonema? Kaner, Meek. An sahara cast, aro ‘which it is not oat to determine, beyond doubt, whether it is a Loronema, or a Murchisonia. Length, about 2-07 inches; breadth, 0°75; apical ‘angle, 20°. Form conoid-subfusiform ; consisting of about six convex whorls, separated by a distinct suture. aa subovate ; last turn comparatively rather large; surface u know N; aa in honor of Dr. Kane, the Arctic explorer. Locality, Cape Frazier; between lat. 80° and 81°, long. 70° W. _ 12, Orrnoceras (undetermined). The s en is too imperfect for ee Aer any known spe- cies, or be characterized as new. It i omplete at both extremities, and partly embedded in a mass of li ledns: Entire pe of the frag- ment, 2 inches; section circular, at the larger end, 0-43 inch in diameter; at smaller end, 0°15 inch. Septate throughout : septa numbering five in the space of 027 inch at larger end. Siphon and surface unknown. — Locality, same as las “# = 13. ILLanus, (sp. undet.) . nerd : wena giabilla, sna a movable cheek, pape: of : a species of this : Am. Jour. set dees Series, VoL. XL, No. 118.—Juxy, 1865. 5 34 C. Friedel and J, M. Crafts north after Dr. Hays’s return, until assured by him that he dis- — in their unquestionably close affinities to the New York forms alluded to, they certainly.present another striking evidence of — the apparent wonderful uniformity of climatic and other physical conditions during these early periods of our earth’s history, over — the whole globe. . Arr. V.—On the Replacement of one Alcoholic Radical by another — 4 compounds of the Ether Class; by C. FRIEDEL and J. M.~ ORAFTS. WHILE engaged in the study of the ethers of silicic acid, we noticed that the normal silicate of ethyl,’ ? The atomic weight this paper are H=1, O=16, C=12, Si=2s8, On the Replacement of Alcoholic Radicals. 35 a salt, and in general the replacement of one element by another, and there was reason to hope that the study of the reactions in which these organic radicals were concerned might throw some light upon those in which their types, the inorganic elements, play a part. tives of others which are analogous, and have endeavored to solve by experiment the following problems. 1. Is the replacement of the alcoholic radicals by each other one that takes place readily in all the combinations into which they enter; or is it peculiar to their combinations with acids? 2. Is one alcoholic radical to be considered as playing the part of a stronger base than another, and as displacing it from its combination by virtue of a stronger affinity for the body with which it was combined? Or, on the contrary, is the change of composition, produced by heating a mixture of compounds of several radicals, due to the tendency of each one to enter into all the combinations possible to it In order to answer the first question, we have examined—tst, the action of alcohols on the ethers of various acids; 2d, the action of these ethers on each other: and 8d, the action on each rate the two, advantage was taken of the property of amylic alcohol to unite readily with an excess of sulphuric acid to form amyl-sulphuric acid soluble in water, while acetate of amyl is dissolved, undecomposed by the acid, and is precipitated by di- luting the solution with water. [If care is taken not to allow _the temperature of a mixture of amylic alcohol, with several sufficient to rey the small amount of water still retained by it. hb excess of sodium employed forms an alcoholate of sodium, which is not decomposed at the 36 C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts and again precipitated by water. This operation was repeated three times, In this way acetate of amyl was obtained, distill- ing 136°-138°, which contained: : Theory. CS ern 8 Saas | ~~ — 000 3 - - 10°77 The quantity of acetate of amyl formed was considerable, but _ still a certain portion of the acetate of ethyl remained unchanged, © although amylic alcohol had been employed in excess. a ction of common alcohol on acetate of amyl.-—Equal parts of 7 each were heated forty hours at 240°C. The liquid which dis- © tilled at 75°-90° C., was washed eight times with a saturated 7 solution of common salt, to free it from alcohol, and dried over ) chlorid of calcium. After being* thus purified, it distilled at | 74°-76° C., and had all the properties of acetate of ethyl. An — analysis gave: : te OBO oe Se Theory. C 53°81 - - 54°54 9:09 . | Thus acetate of ethyl was formed in the same way froma mix- _ ture each, heated sixty hours at 210°-240° C., gave a small quantity : j of an ether, distilling at 251°-253°, which answered in all its ined ; : Theory. Reo cc ee Hiss 9825 - ” 5; BSS . We conclude from this and another experiment, which was _ acetate of amyl, obtained at different times, always distilled at 136°-138° C, The boiling point, given in Gerhardt, about 125°, and that determined by Kopp, 153°, differ so much from that observed by us that we hought it necessary to analyze the : used in these experimen n, prepared by treating one part amylic alcohol with one part crystallized acetic acid and tw con- centrat uric acid, at a temperature below 70° C., thor- oughly washed with water, distilled at 127°-1 88°, co! OS E Theory, C = 6481 - - - 646% Hs 1106 - - - - 10°77 mlm, VW : ae ey bie eae a . 4 Ly preparation distilled a 130°~1319, and contained: ee ee er ctr g H = 186) -. .~...-. ..-. 1864 On the Replacement of Alcoholic Radicals. 37 made at a somewhat lower temperature, and where only traces of benzoate of amyl were produced, that the benzoate of ethyl is decomposed by an alcohol with more difficulty than the acetic ethers. It will be remembered that this body is also less easily decomposed by water and alkaline bases than they; the reac- tion, however, takes place, and the extent of the decomposition effected is without doubt onl y a question of time and temperature. We next studied the action of an alcohol on the ether of a agree acid, a reaction which is capable, evidently, of giving e toa ereater number of products than those which were formed in the preceding cases; for, by the successive replace- another radical, of each equivalent of the alcoholic vercel omhined with the ‘acid, first a mixed ether, and then : an ing. eral fractionated distillations, the part which Bnet below 90° C. an aqueous solution of salt, and distilling to regain the alcohol which was dissolved in the saline solution. The alcohol, ro tilled, was treated again several times in the same wa having been rectified over anhydrous baryta, it boiled at 78°, and presented the characteristic properties of ordinary alcoho! The > portion of the liquid boiling at a temperature higher was separated by fractionated distillation into four pro- dustal amylic alcohol, oxalate of ae —— near 180°, oxalate of ethyl and amyl, distilling at 225°-233°, and oxalate of amyl, mmling at 259°-261°. An nore of the latter ane: Theory. 2 Ore - 7 62°61 Ho. ag - -< 956. C,0 go The mixed ether, C, 2H, O,, boiling at 225°-233°, which was Shoe ae ifsc oe oe obtained in a state of approximate purity, could not be farther — urified by repeated distillations, but on the contrary, when dis- — tilled by itself, the limits of temperature within which it passed — ame wider with each operation. We suppose this circum- _ stance to arise from a decomposition of the body by heat, and our supposition was verified by the result of an experimen where we heated a portion of this product, which had distilled at 230°-242°, during twenty-four hours, at 220°-250° C., in a sealed tube, and found that the decomposition had advanced so far that oxalate of ethyl (boiling at 180°), and oxalate of amyl © (boiling at 260°), could be obtained from it. We shall publish — the details of experiments with the ethers of a quadribasic acid — in a paper on silicic ethers. 4 It appears from the experiment with the mixed oxalate of 38 C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts ethyl and benzoate of amyl formed were isolated and analyzed. i | Acetate of ethyl, boiling point about 74°: - Th ; C. =. 55°84 - - Bab 4 H = 10°09 - - - 909 Benzoate of amyl, boiling point about 250°: Theory. i. 22. 74°06 - - 75:00 H= 814 - . - . $33 Common ether and amylic ether were heated seventy- | 3 at 200°-250° wie’ formation of a mixed ater. — € presence of water in the products employed woul taken away entirely from the value of the. preceding aon On the Replacement of Alcoholic Radicals. 39 —— for the water would have acted upon the ether, setting free n equivalen t of acid, which would have combin ed with aleohol, setting water free again, so that the raineiae of the acid m one alcoholic radical to another might have been wholly independent of the reaction we were studying; each of the tubes, after having been heated, was therefore examined wit very sensitive litmus paper, which was left in the liquid several minutes. In no case was there a trace of acid reaction observed. If we refer to these experiments for an answer to the ques- tions proposed at the beginning of the memoir, we find: 1st. That the reaction si we have considered takes place, at a temperature in the neighborhood of 250° C., between an alcohol and the ether of an acid, or between two ethers of acids, and so, that a similar decomposition takes place when the mixed ether of a polybasic acid is heated by itself. That it does not take place at all, or only with great difficulty, when the ethers (oxyds) of alcoholic radicals are heated with one another. That the reaction takes place most readily with those ethers that are most easily decomposed by water and other reagents. 2d. That the character of the reaction indicates that it is not dependent upon élective affinity, but simply on a tendency of each radical to unite with all the others a and thus to form the great- , 2 pce ap and characteristic property of organic bodies fre- que ntly aids in rendering a separation of this nature easy, namely, the i ee with which they a tab go Papen changes. us, the mixed oxalate of ethyl and amyl can be eAsined, by a single distillation, in a state of approximateey * Gladstone, Journ. Chem. Soc., xv, 302. oe Boe 40 C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts on Etherification, purity, from the products of the reaction of oxalate of amyl on oxalate of ethyl, although, when it is isolated and heated alone for a certain length of time, it is resolved in part into the bodies | from which it was formed. It is this last mentioned property | of compounds of the ether class together with their volatility, 7 which render them peculiarly fitted as material for the study of 7~ reactions like those which we have been considering; and the © results, obtained by such a study, are not without weight in ques- 7 tions concerning inorganic compounds, for the analogies between 4 tificial classification, which, notwithstanding its many advan- | tages, has the demerit of separating too widely phenomena which _ are dependant on the same general laws. Art. VI.—On LEtherijication ; by C. Frrepet and J. M. Crarts. j 3 Wits the purpose of extending our observations on the class 3 4 ; but we soon recognized that, although these bodies — are easily decomposed by an alcohol at a comparatively low ~ Se the reaction is quite different from the one before Two tubes were heated twenty-four hours at 160°-180° G. _ ‘he first contained iodid of amyl with one-half its weight of _ eommon alcohol; the second contained iodid of ethyl with an © equal weight of amylic alcohol. The contents of the tubes be- _ came strongly acid, and a layer of water, containing iodhydric — - “i solution, separated on the surface of the liquid in each | of them. | q - The liquid was washed with water to free it from iodhydrie 4 acid, and, as the lodids are not acted upon by dondentes other products. g at 146° [true boiling point =146°), was obtain S were made of these p i C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts on Etherification. 41 the identity of the bodies. The quantity of these iodids which was obtai was, however, comparatively small; in each of the tubes the principal portion of the reaction was an ether, which was regained from the sulphuric acid employed in purify- ing the iodids, by the addition of water. he ether obtained in this manner was not pure, being mixed with a small quantity of the iodids, and with traces of the alco- hols, but it distilled in greater part at 100°-120°, and after a few fractionated distillations a large quantity of a product whose boiling point was near 110° was obtained. In order to rid this product of the iodids with which it was mixed, it was heated some time with sodium; the iodids were destroyed with forma- tion of iodid of sodium and the radicals ethyl and amyl. From these latter the ether was freed by repeated fractionated distilla- tion as far as possible, but the analyses below show that the body was not perfectly pure; the traces of these hydrocarbons which it contained was not, however, sufficient to leave any doubt as to its identity with the mixed oxyd of ethyl and amyl, On O. It distilled at 110°-118° (true boiling point =112°). ; . “Analysis I is of the product obtained from the tube contain- ing iodid of amyl and common alcohol; analysis 11, of that ob- tained from iodid of ethyl and amylic alcohol. L IL Theory. PS iy ee 72°55 72°41 iW = 1492. - ~. : 13°79 The ether could only have contained a trace of an alcohol, but, as the action of sodium of a mixture of an alcohol with the iodid of the radical of another alcohol gives rise to a mixed ether, we repeated the experiment, taking care to destroy the alcohol more completely by repeated treatments with concentra- ted sulphuric acid before acting upon the iodid with sodium, but we did not observe that the quantity of mixed ether formed was diminished after this precaution had been taken. In the foregoing experiments common ether as well as amylic ether were formed, but in much smaller quantity than the mixed ether. The principal reaction which took place in the tubes is therefore expressed by the equation: nto? + RI = _fO + HL The iodhydric acid in presence of an excess of alcohol would | — ~ co cm) ts rise to the formation of water and of the iodid of the alco- olic radical, | tO + Hl = BI + 4,0, 7 and the iodid would in this manner be continually decomposed — Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Szrres, Vou. XL, No. 118.—Juty, 1865. 6 : al 42 C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts on Etherification. and reformed as long as any alcohol remained. The iodhydrie acid would also decompose a certain portion of the ether formed, — in the same manner as it decomposes an alcohol, but less readily. 7 It is not necessary to suppose that the decomposition and re- composition of the iodid are dependent upon successive reac- tions; it is on the contrary certain, that at any given moment all the above mentioned reactions take place simultaneously, and _ that the mass of eac y entering into them at that moment determines the relative amount of their products, The fact that the principal product of the reaction of the iodid — : yo erty, which the chlorids, bromids and iodids o cals, as well as of metals, possess, of transforming an unlimited 4 j of a simple ss a founded on known ch there is reason to hope that the name catalysis will eventually _ be banished from scientific language by eee stady. Of ‘the sor Wurtz. Paris, March Ist, 1865. * Ann, de Chim. et Phys., 1856, a ee ee T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 43 Art. VII.— Contributions to the Chemistry of Natural Waters ; by T. Sterry Hunt, A.M., F.R.S.: of the Geological Survey of Canada. Tl. Analyses of various Natural Waters. F Srctions.—35, mode of analysis, el if collection; 36, waters of the “first el aad 37, their probable origin, the elimination of sulpha ates; 8, separation of lime-salts from waters; 39, earthy ¢ chloride ‘in in vaste ‘ous formations ; brines of New York, Michigan, and Regiews foot-note on errors in water-analyses ; 40, brines of western Pennsylvania; waters in which chlorid of calcium predomi- nates ; 41, origin of such waters; separation of magnesia as an insoluble silicate ; a and Canada ; 49, changes in composition, action on calcareous strata ; 50, waters of the sixth class, their various sources ; 51, nates’ sulphated waters. § 35. The analyses of the various mineral waters to be given in the second part of the present paper, were made according to the modes laid down in the treatise of Fresenius on Quantitative Analysis. The carbonate of soda in the alkaline waters was i termined by the excess of the alkaline bases over the chlori and sulphuric acid present. This was generally controlled by the amount of the carbonate of baryta thrown down from a so- lution of chlorid of barium by a solution of the soluble salts obtained by the evaporation of the mineral water; and in some cases, to be specified farther on, this latter process was relied on as the only means of determining the amount of carbonate of soda. For remarks on the earthy carbonates of the waters, and their relation to the results of analysis, see Part III of this paper. The date at which the various waters were collected for analy- sis is in each case appended to the notice of the spring. This is of the Deg importance, inasmuch as it will be shown that, in the course of years, some of the springs ee hare d have suffered “sonadereble changes in their compositi § 36. In the niet table are given the aualyae of several waters belonging to the first class as defined in ee fee water is from a well thirty feet in den near the vil- lage of Ancaster, on the western shore of Lake Ontario. It is sunk in the Niagara formation; but like the other waters of this : class, probably has its source in the Lower Silurian limestones. The water rises nearly to the surface, but there is no perceptible discharge. Its temperature was found to be 48° F. when col- lected for analysis in September, 1847. ~seven analyses of waters here given, ten have in ‘én Journal (2) viii, ix, xi; but for the purposes of comparison it is to reproduce in the — — Of the others the 44 T. 8. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. Taste I]—Warters oF THE First Crass. 1. 2, sae, Sco a ee ead 8. So re ar Chlorid of sodium. VeHET 88°7315|17°4 = 94/29°864) 7-227 “ potassium...| -0920) traces. | traces, | undet.| *3555 und’t.\undet.|undet. -|12°8027|17°5315/15°9230) 9°2050/14-8544) 6-49)12-439) 2-102 um..} 5°0737| 9:5437/12 9060} 94843) 3°8977) 1°95 7: 38) 1°763 EG | ipees.e 0008} -0 ee ee aks OT eo Ved wa hak noe nce 2°1923/ 1°77| -954) 2-388 OSI os os cal Sas hice seal ae oo *370| °400 heeaes MERE oo wccsl tenectl ssc eet ieee 2. This water is from a copious spring which issues from the | limestones of the Trenton group at Whitby, on the north shore a of Lake Ontario. It contained small portions of baryta and | strontia, and was collected in October, 1853. + 4. Several wells have been sunk in the Trenton limestone — sought for the manufacture of salt, is now much used for medi- cinal purposes. Its strength seems subject to some variation, since a specimen from the same well in December, 1861, gave mé,4 by a partial analysis, ehlorid of sodium 23°00, chlorid of calcium 9°66, chlorid of magnesium 2-40, sulphate of lime 1-75=8681 parts in 1000. No. 6, examined at the same time, is from a sec- er aor in 1861, not far from the last. 0. nese are analyses of the waters from two borings in the _ Trenton limestone at Morton’s distillery in Kiniaion re the analyses are by Dr. Williamson ueen’s College in that city and were made probably ten or twelve years since. T ey have been recalculated so as to represent the whole of the sulphuric acid as combined with calcium. The first of these waters gave to Dr. Williamson both bromine and iodine, and the second was T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 45 this respect are related to those of the second class, while they still show a large predominance of earthy chlorids. * | $37. The waters of the above table contain, besides chlorid of | sodium and a little chlorid of potassium, large quantities of the | chlorids of calcium and magnesium, amounting together, in sev- | eral cases, to more than one half the solid contents of the water. Sulphates either are absent, or occur only in small quantities, n same is true of earthy carbonates. Salts of baryta and Pp eam Silurian strata from which these saline springs issue; and the presence in many of the dolomitic beds of the Calciferous sand- ted | From the proportions of chlorid of sodium, varying from. about one-third to more than two-thirds of the solid contents of formation m like compositi 46 L. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. the relative amounts of the several chlorids in waters from the a same region, and even from adjacent sources. These differences — are seen on comparing the waters from the different wells of St. _ of potassium in the early seas. It will be observed, by referrin to the analyses above given, that the chlorid of magnesiu ‘magnesium which it held in solution; from these mother-li the mother- of calcium, T. S. Hunt on the Chemisiry of Natural Waters. 47 numerous analyses of rock-salt and of brines from various salif- erous formations, we shall find that chlorid of calcium is very frequently present in both of them; thus supporting the con- clusions already announced in § 24 with regard to the’ composi- tion of the seas of former geological periods. The oldest salif- erous formation which has been hitherto investigated is the chlorids of calcium and magnesium, as shown by the A 2 ses of Beck, and the recent and careful examinations of Goessmann. In the brines of that region the solid matters are equal to from 14°83 to 16:7 per cent, and contain on an average, according to the latter chemist, 154 sulphate of lime, 0°93 chlorid of calci- um, and 0°88 chlorid wt magnesium in 100°00; the remainder being chlorid of so The nearly satebatedh} brines from the Saginaw valley in Mich- igan, which have their source at the base of the Carboniferous series, contain, according to my calculation from an analysis by Prof. Dubois, in 100-00 ‘parts. of solid matters, chlorid of calci- um 9°81; chlorid of magnesium 7-61; sulphate of lime 2°20; pe remainder being chiefly chlorid of sodium. Another well n the same vicinity gave to Chilton an amount of chlorid of i equal to 3°76 per cent.* In a specimen of salt manu- factured in this region Goessmann found 1°09 of chlorid of calci- um; and in two specimens of Ohio salt, 0°61 and 1:43 per cent of the me chlorid. The rock-salt from the Lias of Cheshire, o Nichol, contains small cavities, partly filled with air, and Some with a concentrated soluti tion of chlorid of mag- nesium, with some chlorid of calcium.’ * Goessmann, Report on the brines of Onondaga: Syracuse, 1862 and 1864. Also Report on the waranty = Salt Co. oe 1862. * Winchell : ae Journal, [2], xxxiv aoe ted by Bischof, Lehrbuch 1 ii. 1671. The results of the ae by Mr. North- of the Giince of Droitwich and Stoke in the same region (L. E. & D. Philos, Mag 4], os 32,) as pew ets by aoe ie no earthy chlorids whatever, and no carbonates d sulphates a lime. en oe whole of ‘na lime present in the water as being in the form of sulphate. If, however, we replace, in calculating these analyses, the carbonate the same region, bericht, 1861, of earthy chlorids. $41. We have already shown in § 38 how the action of car. bonate of soda upon sea-water or bittern will destroy the no: hlorid of magnesium. da are given as the constituents of a water oe ne ter f be found in a late number of the Chemical Neus ; a’ 4 ol : S . here remains an excess of soda, oe instead of chlorid or sulphate of sodium. © Lersch, Hydro-Chemie, zweite Auflage : Berlin, 1864; vide p. 207. Thi cellent work, which is a treatise on the chemistry of natural sal ig SE oa 8vo of 700 pages, was unknown to me when I prepared the first part of this essay. — T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters, 49 mal proportion between the chlorids of magnesium and cal- cium by converting the latter into an insoluble carbonate, and leaving at last only salts of sodium and magnesium in solution. A process the reverse of this has evidently intervened for the gioduction of waters like that from Cape Breton and some others noticed by Lersch, in which chlorid of calcium abounds, with little or no sulphate or chlorid of magnesium. This pro- cess is probably one connected with the formation of a silicate of magnesia. Bischof has already insisted upon the sparing solubility of this silicate, and he observed that silicates of alumina, both artificial and natural, when digested with a solu- tion of magnesian chlorid, exchange a portion of their base for magnesia, thus giving rise to solutions of alumina; which, being decomposed by carbonates, may have been the source of man of the aluminous deposits referred to in $9. He also observed a similar decomposition between the solution of an artificial sil- icate of lime and soluble magnesian salts. (Bischof, Chem. Ge- silicate of lime precipitates silicate of magnesia from the sulphate and the chlorid of magnesium; and have found, moreover, that by digestion at ordinar temperatures with an excess of freshly precipitated silicate of lime, chlorid of magnesium is completely ecomposed ; an insoluble ‘silicate of magnesia bein ng formed, while nothing but chlorid of calcium remains in solution. - It i is clear that the greater insolubility of the magnesian silicate, as com with silicate of lime, determines a result the very re- verse of that produced by carbonates with solutions of the two n the one case, the lime is separated as carbon- ate, the magnesia remaining in solution; while in the other, by the action of silicate of soda (or of lime), the magnesia is re- moved and the lime remains. Hence, carbonate of lime and sil- icate of magnesia are everywhere found in nature; while car- bonate of magnesia and silicate of lime are produced only under local and exceptional conditions. The detailed results of some experiments on this subject are reserved for another place. It is evident that the production from the waters of the early seas of sepiolite, tale, serpentine, and other rocks in which a magnesian silicate ‘abou nds, must, in closed basins, have given rise to waters in which chlorid of calcium would predominate. § 42. Of the waters of the second class whose analyses are here given, the first three occur, with many others of similar ter, on the south side of the Ottawa river, below the city of that name. The remaining four are on the north side of the St. Lawrence, between Montreal and Quebec, where also similar waters abound. All of these springs rise from the Lower - Silu- rian limestones of the region. Am. Jour. Sci.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XL, No. 118.—Juny, 1865. 7 * 50 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. Taste I].—Warers oF THE SECOND Crass. | 1. 2. 3. 4. | 5 6. % 8. 2. Chlorid of Rasa .111°6660; 9°4600/12°2500)/11- 140018: 0454) 11-7750 11-4968/17°2671) .| *1040) *1040) °0305) °1460\undet ‘O800|} + °1832) °2409 = tee Be eee ess CREE So) PE ES "OB08) Vaeas liars ¥ 001 eae $4 mionttOey «jfile oes} we oe) eee OEEOty sc ocean Soe POLS eros * calcium.... 1364) °0443} °2870 420) -0466| 0503) -0718 088 “ magnesiu 2459| +4949) 1:0888}] °2790] 0856) +3748) -6636) 2°0523 Bromid of i 0080) -0029| °023 0283) undet.| -034%) -009 587 odid of “ “0052; °0017| -0021| °0052) traces. -0039) +0046) °0133 Sulphate. of, lime:so)-s ssi. «f° 1929) 6 o.. so} vines | eo sine « Hekite a bs busier ete Carbonate of baryta|....../)... Post aes pal OLOGLT cc FEL e eee arms oa ia rey WEROMIN CI ks c Ocal wees OUST ves ou ee eer eee * ime..... 330) °2980) °1264; °4520) -0470) +2160} -°3493} ‘0120 Sid magnesia,, °8904) °38629) ‘8632| 4622) °8354 1:0593) -9388 15 . i ~.-«| ‘0096! traces. | traces. | traces,|.....| ‘O0054| 0145) traces Silica 0700} 6205; *0225] *0552)'..... 0479; -0865} undet. Alumina traces, | undet.| traces. | undet,| .... 0050} °0 s In 1000 parts .....|13° 8'1678/10-9814 146393 12°8830 9-0600 18:°6513/13-8365) 209987 Specific gravity .../100939|1008°78' 1010-911009-421 ..... 101036|1011-23| .....| +++: 1, 2. These two waters are from the township of Plantagenet. The first is known as Larocque’s, and the second as the Georgian Spring: These waters were examined in 1849 and 1851. other gpenps have been observed in the same vicinity, one re- rocque’s spring and containing borates aie proportion of strontia, while the other is an alaline-saline ing water of the third class. 8. Caledonia Intermittent Spring. This spring owes its name to the intermitting discharge takes place was collects 4, La earbur pe oo. carbonates present, from Donctee 1848. 7. Is fro rom the seigni y which, like the last, disengag acid was equal to 1-224 parts, half, is required for the neutral seeneneiey found by analysis. This is of carburetted hydrogen which its waters. It is in the township of Caledonia, not far from Pit escenet, and near three other waters from the same Eee aa to be mentioned in the next class. The water tember, 1847. The water was collected in mae of St. Léon, and isa cep es inflammable e gas. , With a not- s from the seigniory of Lanoraie. pat st both baryta ae strontia, and evolves an abundance of The water was collected 3 in arch, 1851. ‘he water was taken from the spring in a of which ‘651, or “0 esom one Two It T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 51 8, 9. These are from two springs in the parish of Ste-Gene- viéve on the Batiscan River, and are remarkable for the large “pa of iodids which they contain. The first is known as rudel’s spring, and the second is at the ferry opposite to the eburch. ‘The waters were collected in August, 1853. Several other saline springs occur in the same neighborhood. 43. Of the waters of the third class which follow, the first four rise from the Trenton limestone, and occur on the south side of the Ottawa River, in the vicinity of the first three of the og ee section. The others are from the south side of the t. Lawrence below Montreal. Taste Il].—Warers or Tue rurrp Crass. Ay » 3. 4, 5. 6. : 8. Chlorid of sodium. .. .|6°9675|6-4409\3-8430) 65325 | 9-4231 |8-4286/4-8234/5'9662) ri potassi -0309) -0296| -0230) -1160| -1284! -0382| -0610/ undet. Bromid of sodium....| 0150! -0169| -0100} -0217/ °0126) -0046/undet| “ odid of sadium...... “0005! 0014] traces., -0032} *0054) -00; ¥ Sulphate of potash... | -0058] -0048| 0183) ....] 2...) .--.| ..0e] sees Ehoaphate.of soda, ; . «|: sss} ms ob} chained) CME ae ite li cael gs Carbonate of soda.....| *0485| -1762| -4558) -5885/ -1705/ -3260/1:5416) ‘6082 om 4 Sd hee ee traces, | °0226 WOE Sess 0140 ° 0250 480} °1175} -2100) -1500) °8540)| -3490) -2180) +1440 9| -5172| -2940| °7860] 6483) -3559) -42963) -4766 | traces.| traces, traces.;| °0048 traces.) ....| traces. undet.| -0026) -0040) traces. = undet.| undet. ‘0425; 0840) +13380| °0465, -054) -2120) -1140 ae ae | itn co } A 1°3470)\4 9407, 83478 |10°7202 9-5867|7°2823/ 7-3330 if aaee | | sels hh PLVUSSAAUVG LOANUE TT 2 eae exe that required to form neutral carbonates; while Spring, which contained in 1000 parts only 590 52 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. acid, 849 are contained in the neutral carbonates, leaving only ‘141 towards the formation of bi-carbonates. For later analyses of these waters see § 46. . This, which is known as Gillan’s spring, is from the town- se of Fitzroy, not very far from the last. Its waters were collected in July, 1850. 5, 6. These two waters are from Varennes, and are about one hundred rods apart. The first is known as the Saline, and the second is called the Gas spring from the large volumes of car- buretted hydrogen gas which it disengages. The Saline spring contained in 1000 parts ‘920 of carbonic acid, of which -451, or nearly one half, is required to form neutral carbonates present. In the-Gas spring was found -792 of carbonic acid, leaving thus 812 over that required to form neutral carbonates. The waters were collected in October, 1848. 7. This is from Labaie du Febvre, and is known as Cour- chéne’s spring. It evolves small quantities of carburetted hy- drogen gas. The water was collected in September, 1852. Sevy- eral other mineral springs occur in this vicinity, one of them belonging to this class, and others to the second and fourth classes. ar This water, from the seigniory of Belceil, was collected in well was found, in October, 1861, to be 58° F., and in August, 1864, to be nearly 54° F. ate side by side. The first was collected in October, 1851; the second in October, 1852; and the third in August, 1864, dur- _ ing avery dry season. | : T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 53 1851. 1852, 1 Chlorid of poem Lowe pha ica a wie ohn undet. 0324 “0182 . 8689 "8387 “8846 Carbonate of sci eanek vakce 1-0295 10604 “9820 lim “0540 “0580 0253 magnesia wie iain siaie eSoslnaa 0908 0765 0650 « strontia undet. 0045 undet. “ “ 0024 “ ae and Slehiptiole eva PANS * 0068 : La Noecee Sa 1220 0730 0166 oe iodids and bromids ........ undet. undet. undet Tn 1000 parts 21662 21322 19917 A portion of barium is included with the strontium salt. The water contains moreover a portion of an organic acid, which causes it to assume a bright brown color when reduced by evap- oration. Acetic acid gave no precipitate with the concentrated and filtered water; but the subsequent addition of acetate of copper yielded a brown precipitate of what was regarded as apocrenate of copper. The organic matter of this and of many other mineral springs has probably a superficial origin. The carbonic acid was determined-in the third analysis, and was equal in two trials to ‘903 and ‘905. The neutral carbonates in this water require “452 parts of carbonic aci 45. In the following table are given the results of the analy- ses of several other waters, which belong like the last to the fourth class. Taste 1V.—WaATERS OF THE FOURTH CLass. x 2 5, a. 5. Chlorid of sodium...........) °0207 0847.| °3818 “3920 cae potasssium......| -0496 | -0076 | -0067 | 0318 | -0169 Sulphate Of eodacsi ri ee Ss traces. | 0215 traces.| °*0188 potash clas cuiscated | V081 i = .ee | 0122 Carbonate of soda 1340 | +1952 | -2301 | 11853 | -0410 6 sro ts ee ir glares 1740 0710 0620 undet. 2480 OE <2. Mineheme OI SSe. “1287 0278 0257 0690 Tron, slomina, pho = are De incacct re eves “s traces, Silica... | 0161 | ‘0110 | +0245 «“ 2060 In 1000 parts. “5812 | 3478 | “7523 | 15591 ee Tn 10,000 parts scae eeen wees awe Che? 1. This spring was met with some years since in constructing a lock on the Richelieu River at St. Ours, and was enclosed in such a way “0 it is only accessible through a pump; so that it is impossible to determine the amount of water furnished by the elec ee or ko + ser from admixture. The water was obtained aia ape and is remarkable for the large Pie ae potassium 1000 of the water gave of mined as chloride a of sso 0-0565 parts, or 25-11 per cent, were ome of potassium Another trial gave 24-52 per 54 T. 8S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. cent; while a portion of the water taken from the spring three weeks earlier gave a large proportion of alkalies, equal to 03400 of chlorids; of which 0:0596, or 1753 per cent, were chlorid of potassium. 2. This spring occurs on the bank of the Jacques Cartier river, a little above Quebec. It is strongly impregnated with sulphur- etted hydrogen, and appears to contain a considerable proportion of borates. It was collected for analysis in the summer of 1852. 8. This water is from a spring in the township of Joly on the opposite side of the St. Lawrence, a few miles south from the last, and like it is sulphurous, and affords a strong reaction of boric acid. It was collected for analysis in July, 1853. 4. A small area of marshy ground in the seigniory of Nicolet, near the line of St. Gregoire, is, like the similar tract in Chambl so impregnated with mineral water as to be destitute of vegeta- tion. The water collected in a small pit, dug in this locality in the autumn of 1853, was yellowish colored, and alkaline to the taste, and gave by analysis the above results. Several other alkaline springs occur in this vicinity. All of the preceding waters, with the exception of No. 2, which comes out from the Utica slates, rise, like that of Chambly, from the Hudson River formation. . This water, unlike the preceding, is that of a large river, the Ottawa, which drains a region occupied chiefly by ancient ine rocks, covered by extensive forests and marshes. .The the first five waters are for 1000 parts, while those of the Oused ot are for 10,000 parts. § 46. In this connection may be given the analyses of two sim- ] 2 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 55 ilar springs from Vermont, the Highgate and Alburg springs. The waters were sent me in October and November 1861, and the results have already appeared in the Geology of Vermont, vol. ii, p. 926. Both of these waters, when examined, were slightly sulphurous, and yielded the reactions of boric acid. The amount of carbonate of soda was estimated from the carbo- nate of baryta obtained by the process already mentioned in § 35. Highgate. Alburg Chlorid of sodium ey tr 808 ake 14 Sulphate of soda...... "O48 2 Walsh} “024 Carbonate of soda OR aw aes kt 230 si lime ‘OEE doa cu aue “036 . MAGNESIA... ss cece eee e eens OLD a eeeeen Potash and borstes js ccwes A Bee eee os undet. sawiee ss undet. In 1000 parts ........ Pr LO” eiwaeeees -452 dent that a sufficient quantity of the latter water would decom- pose the earthy ohionae and precipitate the salts of baryta and rontia present; while an excess would give rise to alkaline- saline waters containing sulphate and carbonate of soda, such as were the three springs of Caledonia in 1847. A falling-off in 56 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. magnesium and of baryta and strontia in two of the springs, and in a diminished proportion of carbonate of soda in the Sul- phur spring, TasBLE V.—SHOWING THE CHANGES IN THE CALEDONIAN SPRINGS. 1, Gas Spring. lj2 Saline Spring.||3. SulpburSpring. | 1847, | 1865. || 1847. | 1865. || 1846, | 1865, Ohlorid of sodium: ii 660366803 s6 7-014} 6570 || 6488} 6:930]| 3-876] 3-685 7 magnesiuM.......++- steeds OPE san : eo Sulphate of potash............ "006 |. sax 005 18} -021 Carbonate of soda..........0-. ‘O45 oor “118 } 22.2 || . 406 | “OST “« ie Poem rare a 148) -096/| *117) -095|| -210] -077 =: GMa. cs beds | °§26| °455 ‘B17 | -469 "2941. -228 cs Peron. 5. 4p 5s 3 ees peverrr ge Wiges S|) See Ses eT A) See eee Silica 021; 020 042) -015 084} ‘021 In 1000 parts 77621 7174 || 7-345! 7-547 || 49881 4198 bicarbonates with the carbonated bases present: while the analy- ses of the same ee in 1847, showed, as we have seen in § 43, a quantity of carboni . bonates. The questions of this deficiency, and of the variation 1 be . . being acid and the latter being neutral waters. In the fifth class _ Pa eee —Suipha ies, lim ons alumina, and iron. Apart from the springs es this kind whick : e * T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 57 occur in regions where volcanic agencies are evidently active, the only ones hitherto studied are those of New York and west- ern Canada; which issue from unaltered, and almost horizontal Upper Silurian rocks. (§ 31.) The first account of these re- markable waters was given in this Journal in 1829 (vol. xv, p- 238), by the late Prof. Eaton, who described two acid springs in Byron, Genesee Co., N. Y.; one yielding a stream of dis- tinctly acid water sufficient to turn a mill-wheel, and the other affording in smaller quantities a much more acid water. ‘I latter was afterward examined by Dr. Lewis Beck (Mineralogy of New York, p.150). He found it to be colorless, transparent and intensely acid, with a specific gravity of 1-118; which cor- responds to a solution holding seventeen per cent of oil of vitriol. No chlorids, and only traces of lime and iron, were found in this water, which was nearly pure dilute sulphuric acid. Prof. Hall (Geology of New York, 4th District, p. 1384), has noticed in addi- tion to these, several other springs and wells of acid water in the adjacent town of Bergen. Paiste westward, in the town of Al- abama is a similar water, whose analysis by Erni and Craw will be found in this Journal, [2], ix, 450. It contained in 1000 parts about 2°5 of sulphuric acid, and 4°6 parts of sulphates, chiefly of lime, magnesia, iron and alumina. In this, as in the succeeding analyses, hydrated sulphuric acid, SO,HO, is meant. The earliest quantitative analyses of any of these waters were those by Croft and myself of a spring at Tuscarora, in 1845 and 1847, of which the detailed results appear in this Journal, [2], viii, 364. This, at the time of my analysis in September, 1847, contained, in 1000 parts, 4:29 of sulphuric acid, and only 1°87 of sulphates; while the previous analysis by Prof. Croft gave ap- above Niagara Falls, and at Chippewa. All of these springs, along a line of more than 100 miles from east to west, rise from the outcrop of the Onondaga salt-group; but in the township of Niagara, not far from Queenston, are two Similar waters which issue from the Medina sandstone. One of these is in the southwest part of the township, and fills a small basin in yellow clay, which, at a depth of three or four feet, is underlaid by red and green sandstones. The water, which like ose of Tuscarora and Chippewa, is slightly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, is kept in constant agitation from the es- cape of inflammable gas, It contained, in 1000 parts, about two sulphates. This water was collected in October, 1849, and at that time another half dried-up pool in the vicinity contained a still more acid water. Another similar spring occurs near St. Dar vids in the same township. me Am. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Serres, Vou. XL, No, 118.—Juny, 1865. 8 58 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. In connection with the suggestion made in § 31 as to their akan origin at great depths, it would be very desirable to ave careful observations as to the temperature of these acid springs. When, on the 19th October, 1847, I visited the Tusca- rora spring, the water in two of the small pools had a tempera- ture of 56° F.; but on plunging the thermometer in the mu at the bottom of one of these it rose to 60°°5. Y $ 49. It appears from a comparison of the analysis of Croft with my own, that the waters of the Tuscarora spring underwent a considerable change in composition in the space of two years; the proportion of the bases to the acid at the time of the second analysis being little more than one-third of that in the analysis of Cr This change was indeed to be expected, since waters — of this kind must soon remove the soluble constituents from the rocks through which they flow, and eventually become like the water from Byron, little more than a solution of sulphuric acid. © The observations of Eaton at Byron, and my own at Tuscarora, show that half-decayed trees are still standing on the soil which is now so impregnated with acid waters as to be unfit to support vegetation. Reasoning from the changes in composition, it may sup that these waters were at first neutral, the whole of the acid being saturated by the calcareous rocks through which they must rise. It was from this consideration that I was for- merly led to ascribe to the action of these waters, the formation of some of the masses of gypsum which appear along the outcrop of the Onondaga salt-group. (This Journal, [2], vii, 175.) That waters like those just mentioned must give rise to sulphate of lime by their action on calcareous rocks is evident; and some of the deposits of gypsum in this region, as described by g observers, would appear to be thus formed. So far, however, as my personal observations of the gypsums of western Cana have extended, they appear to be in all cases cotemporaneous with the shales and dolomites with which they are interstratified, and to have no connection with the sulphuric-acid springs which are so common throughout that region. (This Journal, [2], xxviii, 365, and Geology of Canada, 352.) § 50. We have included in a sixth class the various neutral waters in which sulphates predominate, sometimes to the exclusion of chlorids. bases of these waters are soda, pot- ash, lime, and magnesia; which are usually found together, though in varying proportions. For the better understanding of the relations of these sulphated waters, it may be well to recapitulate what has been said about their origin; and to con- sider them, from this point of view, under two heads. First, — Te = — of neutral sulphates reviously existing in a solid form in the earth. Strata enclosin cae aad deposits of sulphates of soda and magnesia, steer. T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 59 humerous analyses of these waters, see Beck, Mineralogy of New York. The results of an examination of the Charlotteville Spring, remarkable for the amount of sulphuretted hydrogen which it contains, will be found in this Journal, [2], viii, 369. hes very copious sulphur spring which issues from a mound of cal- 60 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. careous tufa in Brant, C. W., overlying the Corniferous lime- stone, is distinguished by the absence of any trace of chlorids; in which respect it veniihas the acid waters of the fifth class from the adjacent region. A partial analysis of a portion of it collected in 1861, gave, for 1000 parts, sulphate of lime 1:240, sulphate of magnesia ‘207, and carbonate of lime *198. From aslight excess _ in the amount of sulphuric acid, it is probable that a little sul- phate of soda was also present. Of waters of this class, in which sulphate of magnesia predom- inates, but few have yet been observed in this country. A re markable example of this kind from Hamilton, C. W., was ex- amined by Prof. Croft of Toronto, and described by him in the Canadian Journal for 1853 (page 153). It hada specific gravity of 1006-4, and gave for 1000 parts, Chlorid of sodium, - - - Te ite - : 5098 Sulphate of soda, - - = . , . - 1°6985 6 lime, pt Oeiey etal ee ta 6 wT x: magnesia, - mais ist eh TTD 81128 sulphate of magnesia are observed to form in many localities, during the dry season of the year. (Geology of Canada, p. 460.) According to Emmons, the Post-tertiary clays near Crown of one of these, according to Emmons, had a specific gravity of to notice briefly some of the more important points in the chem- istry of the various waters which have been here described, and to inquire into their geological relations. W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics, 61 Art. VIUL—On Molecular Physics; by Prof. W. A. Norton, {Continued from vol. xxxix, p. 254.] Thermo-Electricity.—The key to thermo-electric phenomena should be found in the effect produced by heat on the electric condition of molecules. Now when heat is applied to a surface, the molecules at the surface first receive the ethereal pulses of which the force of heat consists, These pulses passing on to the central atom of each molecule, or the condensed universal ether at the center of the molecule, are there partially expended in expanding its electric atmosphere on the outer side, and are par- tially propagated on. Upon reaching the inner side of the atom they will again be partially consumed in expanding the atmos- phere on that side, while a certain portion will be transmitted to the next atom. It is easy to see that this second expansion should be less than the first. Under these circumstances two important electrical effects will be produced. (1.) By reason of the greater expansion of the atmosphere on the outer than on the inner side, its density will be diminished on the outer side, and hence elec- tric ether will flow around tothatside. The molecular atmosphere will therefore become polarized positively on the outer side. (2.) As a consequence of this polarization the molecular atmosphere will urge away from it a portion of the electric ether posited near ats surface, and tend to develop a negative polarization in the particles of contigu- ous surfaces. The surface receiving the heat will then become positively polarized, and there will be at the same time an elec- tric movement outward from the surface. Cold, or the abstrac- tion of heat, will have precisely the opposite tendency ; that is, a surface in the act of cooling will become negatively polarized, and this change will be attended with a flow of electricity toward the surface. Such movements of the electric ether will be in Waves of translation, or in currents of free electricity, or both combined, according to the conducting power of the medium exterior to the surface (p. 252). Substances may differ in the effects thus roduced, under similar circumstances, from two Causes; a difference in their conducting power for heat, anda difference in the degree of expansion, or in the effect of the ex- pansion produced by the same amount of i heat. oe Now let a plate of bismuth be placed in contact with a plate of antimony, and let the junction be heated and the other ends be brought into good conducting communication. If the above mentioned effects of heat be different for these two metals, a current should set, at the junction, from the one which experi- ences the greatest effect to that which experiences the least, and pass through the circuit. Bismuth is a poorer conductor of heat 62 W. A, Norton on Molecular Physics. than antimony, and in fact than most other metals, and hence its surface molecules should imbibe and retain more heat than those of the antimony. The diamagnetic properties of bismuth also indicate, as will be seen hereafter, that its molecular atmos- pheres are remarkably expansible. If these peculiarities of bis- muth be admitted, we have an explanation of the fact that bis- muth is positive’ to other metals in its thermo-electric relations. The bismuth and antimony in the thermo-electric pair, it will be observed, hold the same relation to each other as the zinc and copper in the galvanic pair, and the heat does the same electri- eal duty in the one, that the oxygen does in the other. If the other ends of the two metals be brought together and led, the current will be reénforced, since the molecular at- mospheres of the bismuth will contract more than those of the antimony. (See effect of cold, p. 61.) It has been ascertained as the result of numerous experiments, that “increasing the temperature of the negative metal gener- ally increases the amount of deflection of the galvanometer needle produced by heating the junetion; while if the higher heat is applied to the metal which is positive at moderate tem- ratures, a current in the opposite direction is established.” To get at the explanation of these curious effects we must observe that the “ higher heat” spoken of is applied at a certain distance from the junction, and hence it is the inner sides of the surface molecules which first receive the heat from this second source, become positively polarized. Accordingly, the current should be strengthened in the first case, above mentioned, and weak- ened in the second. It has also been observed that a current may be excited with two wires of the same metal, by heating the end of one and bringing it in contact with the other; and that the direction of the current at the junction is from the cold to the hot wire.” In this case it is to be remarked that the hot wire is in the act of cooling, and hence there should be an elec- tric movement toward its surface (p. 61), or from the cold to the hot wire, through the junction. yro-electric tals—Tourmaline is the most conspicuous erystal belonging to thisclass. ‘A prism of tourmaline has dif- ferent secon planes at its two extremities, or, as it is ex- = is hemihedrally modified.” This peculiarity of crystal- erystal have different mechanical properties on opposite sides. n this condition of things we may reasonably suppose that the ecular atmospheres would expand unequally on opposite that which imparts, at the heated junction, This is often termed the negative . electrical state is negative (p, 245). W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 63 sides, under the influence of the same amount of heat. If this admitted we have a complete explanation of the electric phe- nomena exhibited by the tourmaline when heated, in accordance with the principles already laid down. Thus, let a tourmaline be heated regularly, that is, so that all points of its surface shall receive equal increments of heat; at all points of the surface the unequal expansive action of the heat upon the two sides of the molecular atmospheres in the axial direction, will determine their polarization, and an attendant electric movement from the positively polarized side of one molecule to the negatively polar- ized side of the next. There should accordingly be opposite electrical states manifested at the ends of the crystal. This state of things should continue so Jong as the temperature is rising. But it is to be observed that the effective polarization determined in each molecule by the heat is weakened by the discharge that takes place from one molecule to the next, and that from this s than they would otherwise be. Now if the heated tourmaline a regularly, the process that attended upon the heating will be reversed, and the electrical states, or effective poles, P ; : , the tension of the universal ether lying between the wires. A similar effect, but less in amount, will be produced upon the 64 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. should therefore be in excess upon the outer sides of the wires; } and hence they should be urged toward each other, or there _ should be an apparent attraction between the wires conveying the currents. The excess of ethereal tension here alluded to is attributable to the fact that the impulses proceeding from the one wire, in being propagated through the other, are materially reduced in intensity. ‘This effect results mainly from the disper- sion produced by the interstitial ether, which is brought into a very disturbed state of density by the swiftly moving atoms of the electric ether in the current. en only one of the wires conveys a current, no attraction or repulsion is observed, be- eause the dispersion just mentioned is wanting. t If the currents be supposed to traverse the wires in opposite —_ directions, then the same operative cause, the external impulsive forces of the currents, will compress the ether between the wires to a greater degree than beyond them, and thus there will be an effective force urging them farther apart. t a, fig. 8, be a point of one of the currents, from which an impulse is propagated, and ab, ac, ad, lines radiating from it and crossing the moving electrical atoms. Each of the {_ ”~ sail - Jines ab, ac, ud, willcross the same num- ~ ber of such lines, and therefore impulses propagated along them will encounter the same number of moving atoms, and experi- ence the same proportional diminution. This diminution should of the propagated impulse, in traversing the wire, simply by of the increased length of the passage, as the line is more oblique, should also be a constant fractional part of the impulse; since fc is the same proportional part of af, or an for each point of the wire. Hence the action of any point a of the first wire, upon any point f of the second, should be inversely proportional to the square of the distance; and the entire force of action of one indefinite wire upon another should be inversely propor- tional to the distance between the two. (See Lamé, Cours de Physique, vol. ili, p. 236.) If the currents cross each other under a certain angle instead of being parallel, it may be seen by attending to the mutual actions of the separate points of the two currents, that there will be attractions or repulsions according to the relative direc: tions of the currents at the points; and that the entire action will tend to bring the two currents into the same direction, in which the attraction will bea maximum. ~ W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 65 External Action of an Electric Current upon bodies in their natural state—In undertaking to deduce from our fundamental wae the varied phenomena of the action of a current upon diamagnetic, If the two tendencies countervail each other, the substance is in a neutral magnetic condition. The neutral mag- netic state may also result from the absence of groups of parti- cles in the substance, within which circular currents can be established. so-called. Experiment has hitherto failed to detect the exist- ence of any current, from one such molecule to another, or an established current. All such induced currents result from either an increase or a decrease in the effective action of the in- but remains constant so long as this action continues the same. This polarization is Faraday’s “Electro-tonic state” of bodies. — Magnetism.—The general nature of the magnetic currents, as Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Sertzs, Vou. XL, No. 118.—Juxy, 1865. _ i 9 66 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. | distinguished from other electric currents, has just been indicated. The existence of such currents in the surface of a compound molecule seems to imply that there is a virtual chain of particles extending circularly around it, which there would be if the num- ber .of particles in each group be large. Ampére’s researches have completely established that the idea‘of ciréular molecular currents is the key to all magnetic phenomena. It suffices, there- fore, for our present purpose, to show, as has been done, that such currents are legitimately deducible from the fundamental conceptions laid down at the outset; and that the mutually attrac- tive and repulsive actions of currents may also be derived from = Mba effect upon the particles in the surface of compound molecules. In respect to magnetic properties, we have specially to distin- guish soft iron and steel. The cause of their difference of prop- _ erty seems to lie simply in a difference in the conducting power | of the groups of particles into which they are ageregated. : in soft iron these groups are good conductors, the electric ether set in motion should pass freely around them, unattended with any material polarization of the particles, and unresisted by the force that results from such polarization, (p. 245). When the exciting cause ceases to operate, there is no force remaining to counteract the resistance of the universal ether to the flow of the electricity, and the retarding operation of contiguous oppos- : ing currents. But if we suppose that, in the case of steel, the 2 It is worthy of consideration, whether certain phenomena of luminosity, a3 ce, heat , may not have a similar origin, viz: in r ring discharges resulting from a previous molecular polarization, established by 20 electric discharge through the mass; or from a dicatlar effect produced in a feebler degree by heat or light. a W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 67 According to this view, permanent magnetization consists in . polarizing the molecules, and it is this induced state which de- of a certain intensity. A certain amount of force (‘coercive force’’), and a certain interval of time, are expended in develop- the compound molecules of the mass, in the opposite direction to the inducing current; and that these currents result from the second mode of operation of the external force of the prim current, (p. 65). Accordingly, the susceptibility to diamag- SPpracie< : A Electro-Magnetism.—The essential theory of the developement of magnetism by electric currents, and of electro-magnetic phe- nomena generally, is embraced in what has already been stated, (pp. 63-4-5). : Magneto-Electricity.—The excitation of electric oe magnetic action is a phenomenon of pure induction, and il be included under the next head. Induction of Electric Currents—The term induction, as ordin- tily used in Dynamical Electricity, has reference only to the development of currents, through wires, or upon the surfaces, or Within the mass of bodies. It will suffice to confine our atten- tion to the origination of currents in wires forming a closed circuit. The general idea of the process, as contemplated from our theoretical point of view, has already been indicated. The 68 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. This determines a flow of a certain portion of the electric ether around to that side; and a consequent positive polarization on that side of the gro up, or compound molecule. While this process of polarization is going on, there must then be a flow o electricity from one compound molecule to the next, in the same irection in which the transfer of ether occurs within the mole- cules Seer = an inevitable attendant upon the increasing polarization (p. 24 When the primary action becomes con- atant, there sap, abides - state of static polarization,—an eurrent may be either electric, or magnetic, so- called. crease of its action upon the ‘adjacent wire may result either from a closing of the circuit in the case of a ee cur- rent, or the magnetization of the iron when a magnet is em- Gira or from the approach of the current to the wire; or from a change i in the position of the wire in the magnetic field, attended with an augmentation in the action of the external im- pulsive force exerted by all the circular currents of the magnet. A decrease in the polarizing effect of the inducing current may result from an interruption ‘of the circuit, or a diminution in the force of the magnet, or a recess of the wire from the current, or a movement of the wire in the magnetic field attended with a diminished action of the entire impulsive force of the magnet. The oppositely directed currents induced by alternately clos- ing and breaking the galvanic circuit, when the two contiguous wires are to a hollow coil, are greatly augmented by inserting rods, or bundles of iron wire within the coil. The explanation of this is, doubtless, that the direct action of the galvanic current is reénforced by the magnetic currents which it develops in the iron. The other cases of induction above referred to need not be dwelt upon, with the exception of that resulting se the movement of a wire to different points of the This e: case has been subjected to a rigorous experimental anal sis by Faraday, who has deduced from his researches the follow: : ing general results. If a wire, forming part of a closed circuit, be held in a direction transverse to a magnet, and moved in the one pear across. es 0 force, a current in a certain direction will arise, and f it Kbe moved across them in the other © The The quantit of electricity set in motion will: de d upon of Lines of eta crossed by the ine aia, a not W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 69 upon the obliquity of the direction of the motion to these lines. id i aced over the middle of the magnet, (mm, fig. 9), and moved in an direction from this position, across the lines of force as running in the same direc- ion as the circular currents on the upper side of the mag- net; and if the wire be mov- ed across these lines toward the middle of the magnet, a current will traverse the wire in the opposite direction. In each case the comparative quantity of electricity set in motion, will depend solely upon the comparative number of magnetic curves crossed, and not upon the line, mr, ms, or mt, along which the movement takes place. ? length. This is strikingly true of the curves that originate from near the center of each end; for at the very center, the force in question vanishes entirely, and therefore the curves for that in be thrown to an infinite distance from the middle of the magnet. In making a comparative estimate of the impulsive force of the magnet in different parts of the field, it should ‘be observed that in receding from the magnet the force that results from any propagated from the o itely directed currents on the nearer oo fot af and that this not only depends _ the distance of the point from the molecule, but also upon > obliquity of the line connecting 70 W. A, Norton on Molecular Physics. the circular current. For the same distance the resultant will nal ee force of the magnet, abed, fig. 10, be a magnet, and let us regard its effective action upon any mole- cule, at f, as the result of the joint action of two sets of opposing currents, the one lying in the upper face ad, and the ese in the lower —— ed. Let nf=y, n i 2 nr’ =z', nb=u, na=v, ac=d, and mssebetiicion? of the impulsive _ force of an indi vidual current, Then for the es of r upon fwe md, mdz have at and for the action of nr, Rhee be “ tang 20 a ae entire action of nb, we have the definite integral 2 u — “tang : In a similar manner we obtain, for the opposing action of "eh i tang —_. The effective impulsive action — | of the portion nodb of the magnet, — then be 1 ca aD mbes thine Sy y+a 7 ya" The effective Bis of the ad portion, bath of the magnet, will be = tang tang : y oe We therefore have, for és entire wntns - the magnet, w ="( tmg - tang“) = ak tang ing 75), or, v5 (us 1) Mwcefa) 2. a ' When y is large as ae with d, we have ce w= "(are afe-+-arcbfd) . ge oN (b.) ~ “To obtain the siti, "Then curve of as vs parabens — let mn =a, se ees: en nr=z=2+ (tang E*-ttang 8, Alou ts Sint la—gz =\=¢ Ae W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 71 C here represents the constant intensity of the impulsive force of the magnet, for one curve. The value of C decreases as the distance of the curve from m, fig. 9, increases. The equation (b) shows that for the larger curves, except near the magnet, afe+ bfd, must vary in nearly the same ratio with the ordinate y, from one point to another of the curve. To the left of the line ak the arc afc becomes negative in equation (b). Equations (a) and (c) fail for y=0. e investigation here made proceeds upon the supposition that the breadth of the magnet is indefinitely small. If wesup- pose it to be indefinitely great, the action of each individual transverse current upon any point, 7, fig. 10, would be inversely proportional to the distance of the current from this point, and it will be readily seen that the amount of force propagated to /, within any angle, as mfr’, will be the same whatever may be the value of fn. . The equation for the value of the effective impulsive force will be approximately of the form i? wk (- +3) ; k being a constant coefficient dependent upon the strength of the magnet,—/ and 1’ the parts of the length, a}, of the magnet, genet. Let us now replace Faraday’s lines of force by the curves of er what should ms, mt, &c., (fig. 9). : ; t is obvious that if the movement be outward, the impulsive force taking effect upon the wire will decrease ; and that if it be inward, the force will increase. Hence, agreeably to the funda- mental principle before alluded to, (p. 67,) in the first case there should be an induced current having the same direction as the currents of the upper face of the magnet; and in the secon case a current pursuing the opposite direction. Again, the amount of change of force which results from the displacement of the wire, and therefore the quantity of electricity whi this charge sets in motion, should depend solely upon the number of curves traversed. We may add that in whatever part of the magnetic field, and in whatever direction the wire be — * The individual molecular currents lying in a transverse section of the magnet, are here supposed to be replaced by two linear currents transverse to the magne one in the upper and the other in the lower surface. ee ik 72 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. supposed to move, the theoretical result is in nig phi accordance with the facts as experimentally established by Farada In the foregoing we have supposed the wire, carmen to the magnet, to be moved parallel to itself to various points of the magnetic field; but Faraday has shown that a current may also be induced in the wire, by bending it into a curve and causing it to revolve around the magnet, after one end has been brought into contact with the equatorial bis of the magnet, and the other with a wire or rod leading from the pole, as shown in fig. TL. “A copper ring was fixed round and in z gecioiges she the equatorial part, e, made to bear by se pees against this ring, a oO against a-ring on the axis.” “The direction of the current changed with the direction of revolution. Corresponding cur- rents were also obtained by rotating the magnet in the opposite directions, the wire remaining fixed. To explain these currents upon the principles now developed, we must first observe that the impulsive force of the magnet will impart a transverse polar- ization to the molecules of the Ste oe let a motion of rev- ieee tHe gs This pclaiastett should be ‘attended with a direction of the length of the wire. There shot: then, be an inequality in this disturbance at the point of contact, e. This inequality should originate a current that would pass around the circuit. Let v denote the velocity answering to the acne impulse, and v’ the velocity of revolution of the molecule at e. bist the effect due to the polarizing force at the end, e, of the may be represented by m (v-+v’)®, and that induced in the contiguous particles of the copper ring by mv?. The difference is mv’(2v-+-v'), which represents the electro-motive ei — the current. If the wire were made to revolve around an unmag- netized bar, the originating force of the current would be mv'?. would exceed this nearly in the ratio of 2v to o “A hile a velocity of revolution of > wire would re be vo a A ei lop a sensible cur- if the bar were ) ve expression poet Shamil ec ake ae tinting: Saat — a ee tea ore, Mins sled velocity, v ea motive fore, vi, mv 0-0), Sd Rost ce wie oe Messrs. Huggins and Miller on Spectra of fixed Stars. 73 of revolution of the wire. The entire force developed in ten revolutions of the wire should then remain the same, if the ve- locity of revolution should be changed, (as determined by Fara- day). If the magnet rotates in the opposite direction its im- ulses against the ether will be correspondingly increased, and the result will be the same. raday, in certain papers originally published in the Philo- sophical Magazine, and the Philosophical Transactions, has in- dulged in ingenious speculations upon the probable physical character of the lines of magnetic force, and distinctly intimates that he inclines to the opinion that they have in reality a physi- cal existence, correspondent to their analogues the electric lines,” instead of being simply “‘representants of magnetic power,” or lines of resultant magnetic action. In speculating upon the question in what this physical existence may consist, he remarks that “it may be a vibration of the hypothetical ether,” (along the lines), or astate or tension of that zther equivalent to either a dynamic or a static condition, or it may be some other state.” The results arrived at, in the present r, are opposed to these speculative ideas of the great English physicist, for our conclu- sions are that the lines upon which the phenomena of induction by a magnet depend are merely lines of equal magnetic action ; but the action is that of a force whose existence has not hereto- fore been recognized, viz, the so-called impulsive force of the magnet, ni (To be concluded.) Art. IX.—On the Spectra of some of the Fixed Stars ; by WILLIAM d Prof. Hueearns, F.R.A.S., and Prof. W. A. Minuer, .V.P.R.S., and On the Spectra of some of the Nebule; by Witu1am Hue- Gins, F.R.A.S. Mr. Huaerns and Prof. MILLER presented to the Royal Soci- ety of London, on the 26th of May, 1864, an important paper on the spectra of some of the fixed stars, and Mr. Huggins presen one on the 8th of September on the spectra of some of the neb- x. By a peculiar adaptation of the spectroscope to a telescope of 10 feet focal length and 8 inches aperture, they were able to make a direct comparison of the spectra of the moon, planets, fixed stars, and nebulz, with the spectra of the several chemica elements. The following are some of the more important points _ of the two papers. : d The result of the analysis of the light of the moon is wholly negative as to the existence of any considerable lunar atmos- Se a oe Deals aig Am, Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XL, No. 118—Juny, 186000 74 Messrs. Huggins and Miller on Specira of Fixed Stars. sphere. The spectra of the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and Venus, agree essentially with the solar spectrum. Differences however exist which cannot be due to the earth’s atmosphere. The evidence afforded by the prism of the existence of atmos- pros around these planets is imperfect. This may be explained Y supposing the light to be reflected from masses of clouds in. the upper strata of thin atmospheres, and not from the surface of the planets, Observations on the Fixed Stars—The number of fixed stars which we have, to a greater or less extent, examined amounts these it may be advantageous to compare the spectra of addi- tional metals when the season is again favorable. « Tauri (Aldebaran).—The light of this star is of a pale red. hen viewed in the spectroscope, numerous strong lines are at once evident, particularly in the orange, the green, and the blue portions. The positions of about seventy of these lines have en measured. ¥ ey : ’ the observations, to believe coincidence was most likely to occur. Nine of these spectra exhibited lines coincident with certain lines in the spectrum of the star. They are as follows :—sodium, mag- nesium, hydrogen, calcium, tron, bismuth, tellurium, antimony, and - Seven other elements were compared with this star, viz. nitro- gen, cobalt, tin, lead, cadmium, lithium, and barium. No coinci- line, with tin five lines, with /ead two strong lines, with cadmium ines, with barium two of the strongest in the green, and with lithium the line in the orange, but were found to be with- out any strong lines in the star-spectrum corresponding with them. e « Orionis.—The light of this star has a decided orange tinge. None of the stars which we have examined exhibits a more complex or remarkable spectrum than this, _ The spectra obtained from sixteen elementary bodies were ob- served simultaneously with it. In five of these, viz. sodium, magnesium, calctum, tron, and bismuth, lines corresponding with certain stellar lines were found to exist. The bright green line so characteristic of thallium appears to coincide with one of the lines seen in the star-spectrum; but this Messrs. Huggins and Miller on Spectra of Fixed Stars. 75 line may be due to calcium, since the small difference between the position of the thallium line and that of one of the calcium lines very close to it, would not be distinguishable with the dis- persive power of the apparatus employed. In the spectra of the other elements which we compared with that of the star, no coincidences occur. There is no line coinci- dent with the red line C of Aydrogen ; but in the star are two strong lines, one on either side of the position of C: there is also no line coincident with F. It is strikingly confirmatory of this methed of analysis, that in all the stars hitherto ex- amined by us in which a line corresponding to C exists, that corresponding to F is also found. When F is absent, C is also wanting. In nitrogen three strong double lines were compared. In tin five lines, and in lead two bright lines were compared, but no coincidence was found. e€ star. : The spectra of iron and manganese were also compared with that of the star, but the state of the atmosphere prevented any certain conclusion. The lines in the spectra of nitrogen, tin, and mercury, were not coincident with any definite Jines in the star- tram. Neither of the hydrogen lines corresponding to C and was present. nae ; The absence in the spectrum of ¢ Orionis, and also in the spec- trum of ¢ Pegasi which so closely resembles it in character, of corresponding to those of hydrogen, is an observation of considerable interest. It is of the more importance since the doubt might be entertained, and it might be suspected that they 76 Messrs. Huggins and Miller on Spectra of Fixed Stars. are in some way due to our own atmosphere, if these lines were present in the spectra of all the stars without exception. i 3 ) absence of the lines corresponding to hydrogen is also the more entitled to consideration, since it is so rare to find them wanting, _ amongst the considerable number of stellar spectra which we | have observed. 7 ) Sirius.—Three if not four elementary bodies have been found to furnish spectra in which lines coincide with those of Sirius. viz. sodium, magnesium, hydrogen, and probably iron. t The whole spectrum of Sirius is crossed by a very large num- ber of faint and fine lines. It is worthy of notice that in the case of Sirius, and a large number of the white stars, at the same time that the hydrogen lines are abnormally strong as compared pe the solar spectrum, all the metallic lines are remarkably aint. « Lyre (Vega).—This is a white star having a spectrum of the same class as Sirius, and as full of fine lines as the solar spectrum. eneral Observations.—Probably in the constitution of the stars as revealed by spectrum analysis, we shall find the origin of the differences in the color of stellar light. Since spectrum analysis shows that certain of the laws of terrestrial physics prevail in the sun and stars, there can be little doubt that the immediate source of solar and stellar light must be solid or liquid matter main- tained in an intensely incandescent state, the result of an exceed- ingly high temperature. For it is from such a source alone that we can produce light even in a feeble degree comparable with that of the sun. ee a, <2] S Sr a Bp g tad me ® oe i8\c) me i n 8 5 =) & © Qu = yaoi > = ® a & er ® © Lean) g. = —F will be diminished by the loss of those — which cerrespond in i the constituents of each ting. In proportion as these dark lines preponderate in particu- lar parts of the spectrum, so will the colors in which they occur be weaker, and consequently the colors of other refran eibilities will predominate. , W. Huggins on the Spectra of some of the Nebule. 7 occurs in the spectrum about midway between d and F of the ar spectru other bright line was compared with the strong line of barium ; vr line is a little more refrangible than that belonging to the es | ee og, ss Metiaet <= 78 W. Huggins on the Spectra of some of the Nebula. Besides these lines, an exceedingly faint spectrum was just perceived for a short distance on both sides of the group of bright lines. I suspect this is not uniform, but is crossed with dark spaces. Subsequent observations on other nebule induce me to regard this faint spectrum as due to the solid or liquid matter of the nucleus, and as quite distinct from the bright lines into which nearly the whole of the light from the nebulz is con- centrated. The color of this nebula is greenish blue. h small; round.] This nebula is less bright than those ’ which: have been described. The two brighter of the lines were well defined, and were directly compared with the induction spark, The third line was seen only by glimpses. I hada suspicion of an exceedingly faint spectram. The color of this nebula is reenish blue. Lord Rosse remarks, ‘‘ Center rather dark. The : — is a little north preceding the middle. i (1H. IV. An exceedingly interesting object in Aquarius. Planetary ; very bright; small; elliptic.] The three bright W. Huggins on the Spectra of some of the Nebula. 79 lines very sharp and distinct. They were compared for posi- tion with the induction spark. Though this object is bright, an indication only of the faint spectrum was suspected. This nebula contains probably a very small quantity of matter con- densed into the liquid or solid state. The color of the light of this nebula is greenish blue. Lord Rosse has not detected any central star, nor any perforation, as seen in some of the other planetary nebule. He represents it with ans, which probably indicate a nebulous ring seen edgeways. 57 An annular nebula in Lyra; bright; pretty large; considerably elongated.|—The apparent brightness of this neb- ula, as seen in the telescope, is probably due to its large extent, for the faintness of its spectrum indicates that it has a smaller intrinsic brightness than the nebulz already examined. The brightest of the three lines was well seen. 1 suspected also the - presence of the next in brightness. No indication whatever of a faint spectrum. The bright line looks remarkable, since it consists of two bright dots corresponding to sections of the ring, and between these there was not darkness, but an excessively faint line joining them. This observation makes it probable that the faint nebulous matter occupying the central portion is similar in constitution to that of the ring. The bright line was 27 M. Very bright; very large; irregularly extended. Dumb-bell. In Vulpecula.J—The light of this nebula, after passing through the prisms, remained concentrated in a bright line corresponding to the brightest of the three lines. This line appeared nebulous at the edges. No trace of the other lines was wet nor was a faint continuous spectrum detected. The bright line was ascertained, by a simultaneous comparison with the spectrum of the induction spark, to agree in position with the brightest of the lines of nitrogen. Minute points of light have been observed in this nebula by Lord Rosse, Otto Struve, and others; the spectra of these bright pan if con- tinuous like those of stars, are doubtless invisible from exces- sive faintness. By suitable movements given to the telescope, different portions of the image of the nebula formed in the tele- 80 W. Huggins on the Spectra of some of the Nebula. scope were caused successively to fall upon the opening of the slit, which was about ;', inch $#, auch, is method of observation showed that the light from different parts of the nebula is identical in refrangibility, and varfes alone in degree of intensity. ‘ | In addition to these objects the following were also observed: [92 M. Very bright globular clusters of stars in Hercules.] The bright central portion was brought upon the slit. A faint spectrum similar to that of astar. The light could be traced — from between C and D to about G. Too faint for the observa- tion of lines of absorption. 50 H. IV. Very bright; large; round. In Hercules] The | spectrum similar to that of a faint star. No indication of bright | Ines, i ) eda was brought upon the slit. The spectrum could be traced from about D to F. The light appeared to cease very abruptly. in the orange; this may be due to the smaller luminosity of this | part of the spectrum. No indication of the bright lines. we | [82 M. Very bright; large; round; pretty suddenly much brighter in the middle.] This small but very bright compan- ion of the great nebula in Andromeda presents a spectrum apparently exactly similar to that of 31 M. The spectrum ap- ars to end abruptly in the orange; and throughout its length is not uniform, but is evidently crossed either by lines of ab- sorption or by bright lines. [55 Androm. Fine nebulous star with strong atmosphere.] The spectrum apparently similar to that of an ordinary star. [26 IV. Very bright cluster in Eridanus] The spectrum could be traced from the orange to about the blue. No indica- tion of the bright lines. Several other nebule were observed, but of these the light was found to be too faint to admit of sat- isfactory examination with the spectrum apparatus, é It is obvious that the nebule 37 H. IV, 6 =, 73 H.IV, 51 H. IV, 1 H.IV,57M, 18 H. IV, and 27 M, can no longer be regarded as srereeatone of suns after the order to which our own sun and the fixed stars. belong. We have in these objects to do no longer with a special modification only of our own type of suns, but ind ourselves in the presence of objects possessing a distinct and peculiar plan of structure. _ In place of an incandescent solid or liquid body transmitting — light of all refrangibilities through an atmosphere which inter- cepts by absorption a certain number of them, such as our sun” appears to be, we must probably regard these objects, or at least their photo-surfaces, as enormous masses of luminous gas or va- por. For it is alone from matter in the gaseous state that light [81 M.] The brightest part of the great nebula in Androm- b Rigrient ae wae ee SUG Er tier Weare etm See reraate eget EO CG SI a aie bitte tee et ieee wate é abs M. C. Lea on Reactions of Gelatine. 81 consisting of certain definite refrangibilities only, as is the case with the light of these nebula, is known to be emi uch gaseous masses would be doubtless, from many causes, unequally dense in different portions; and if matter condensed into the liquid or solid state were also present, it would, from its superior splendor, be visible as a bright point or points within the disk of the nebula. These suggestions are in close accord- ance with the observations of Lord Rosse. Another consideration which opposes the notion that these nebule are clusters of stars is found in the extreme simplicity of constitution which the three bright lines suggest, whether or not we regard these lines as indicating the presence of nitrogen, hydrogen and a substance unknown. with which the line in the nebule coincides, differs from that of origin of this difference of character observable among lines of the same element. May it not indicate a physical difference in the atoms, in connexion with the vibrations of which the lines are probably produced? The speculation presents itself, whether the occurrence of this one line only in the nebula may not in- dicate a form of matter more elementary than nitrogen, and which our analysis has not yet enabled us to detect. Art. X.— Reactions of Gelatine; by M. Carey Lua, Philadelphia. ? stitutes, I believe, the first colored reaction described as pro- between pure gelatine and a perfectly colorless reagent. It is true that the precipitate produced in gelatine solutions by tannic acid is much deeper in color than the precipitant. t the straw-yellow color of gallotannic acid naturally leads to Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XL, No. 118,—JuLy, 1865. Il 82 M. C. Lea on Reactions of Gelatine. the expectation of colored combinations, whereas in the case I am about to mention, the precipitant is colorless, and the pro- duction of a marked color seems to point to a more complete his red coloration seems to require a certain amount of time for its production, which cannot be replaced by heat. If a piece _ of gelatine be immersed in the solution of protonitrate and boil for some minutes it is dissolved but the solution thus obtained is not red, but yellowish. t oyed., weak, as for example, if the gelatine constitutes only one half of — one per cent of the mixed liquids, the limit of the delicacy of the test is reached. Such a solution, by standing twenty-four hours, exhibits a light but distinct pink color. Alough this delicacy is not what may esired, still, colloid organic sub- acid, and then a moderate heat was ea ge for a sufficiently long i id when cold. It was then Philadelphia, May 12, 1865, P. E. Chase on influence of Gravity on Magnetic Declination. 83 Art. XI.—Jnfluence of Gravity on Magnetic Declination ;* by Puiny Earue Cuasz, M.A., S.P.A:S. IN my first communication on the diurnal variation of the barometer, [Proceedings A. P.S., ix, 284], I expressed the belief that a careful investigation would “show a mutual connection through which al! the secondary [disturbing] causes may be referred to a single force.” In my various subsequent papers, and especially in the one to which the Magellanic Premium was awarded, [op. citat. and Trans. A. P.S., vol. xiii, N.S., Art. VI], I pointed out various reasons for supposing that the primal uni- tary force is the same that controls the motions of the several stellar systems; in other words, the force of gravitation, or per- haps of simple undulation, which is manifested as heat in one of its subordinate forms, and as attraction in another. e numerical relations which I demonstrated between the disturb- . ances of weight and of total magnetic force were certainly note- worthy, and to my own mind, extremely satisfactory, and as further investigations have afforded additional confirmation of my views, I desire to put upon record a brief notice of the gen- eral harmony which mutually characterizes the gravitation cur- rents and the variations of magnetic declination. Preliminary investigations showed, as might have been Teasonably anticipated, that the best quantitative results can be obtained from the observations at stations near the equator, and I therefore based my reasoning in great measure upon the t. elena records and Maj. Gen. Sabine’s discussions, confirming it by such incidental references to other observations, as seeme available for the purpose. At the same time allusion was made rans. A. P.§., loc. citat., p. 182,] to researches now in progress, which may probably enable us to discover numerical relations, that will “be equally satisfactory, from an examination of the corroboration of my own views and as a guide to the investiga- tions of others. ” From the Proceedings of the Amer. Philosoph. Soc., April 21, 1865. — 84 P, E. Chase on influence of Gravity on Magnetic Declination. depending on the sun’s declination. The diurnal range 1s greater when the sun has north declination, and smaller when south declination; the phenomenon passing from one state to the other about the time of the equinoxes.” [Part II, p. 10. See also Toronto Obs., 2, xvii; St. Helena Obs., 2, exviii). II. “At the hour of 6 or 7 in the morning, the annual varia- tion is a maximum, disappearing at a quarter before 10 A. a, and reaching a second (secondary) maximum value at 1 P, M. It almost disappears soon after 5 P. M., and a third still smaller maximum is reached after 9 P.M. Half an hour before mid- night, the annual variation again disappears. At (and before the converse is the case.” [Ibid., p.12. Compare St. Helena , 2, cxvili; Toronto Obs., I, xiv, and 2, xvi. III. “According to the same authority,” [Gen. Sabine], “the annual variation is the same in both hemispheres, the north end the law of the annual variation is the same, and that of the diurnal variation the opposite in passing from the northern to the southern magnetic hemisphere.” [Ibid., p- 18. Comp. St. vi IV. “The regular progression of the monthly values is a feature of the annual variation deserving particular notice. P. E. Chase on influence of Gravity on Magnetic Declination, 85 V. “The general character of the diurnal motion ... is nearly the same throughout the year; the most eastern deflec- P.M. and 3 feature which is also shown by the annual type-curve.” [Ibid., p. 20. Comp. Hobarton Obs., 2, vi; St. Hel bs., 2, exi, exi x: Toronto Obs., I, xiv, 2, x alue, is 81 minutes in the former and 28 minutes in the latter.” [Ibid., p. 21.] . The curves of lunar-diurnal variation “show two east h ay be the lunar-magnetic interval for the Philadelphia Station. At Tbid Bee) eee — in the Junar-diurnal variation is a much smaller amplitu inter than insummer. Kreil, indeed, inferred from the ten year series of the Prague observations, that in winter the lunar- urnal va- 86 P. E. Chase on influence of Gravity on Magnetic Declination. Ww fect than that now used. The second characteristic of the ine- quality consists in the earlier occurrence of the maxima and minima in winter than in summer. @ winter curve precedes the summer curve by about one and three-quarter hours.” [Ibid., - 13.] Regarding, therefore, the air and wether over any given mag- netic meridian, during the day hours the intertropical and dur- ing the night the extra-tropical portions will be most drawn toward the sun, and the following deflections will be thus pro- duced in the portions nearest the equator : 6tol2am. I12to6rpm Gtol2p.m. I2to6a.u Northern zones, S.E. .W. .H. S.W. Southern * N.E. N.W. N.E. N.W. The night-disturbances, whether from variations of temperature or from simple fall toward the sun (the distance fallen varying as the square of the time from midnight), will be very slight. "he earth’s rotation, centrifugal force, and the atmospheric iner- ia, tend to throw each of the phases forward and to increase he magnitude of the westerly, while they diminish the easterly eflections. If these modifications were sufficient to override the light easterly tendency at 6 to 12 P. M., and to advance the phases one hour, the disturbances would assume the following forms, the change between 7 p. M. and 1 A. uw, being scarcely, if at all, perceptible: : wm Och ct pd SoS P. E. Chase on influence of Gravity on Magnetic Declination. 87 Tametolre.m lemto7 aM. Northern zones, S.E Southern “ N.E. N.W the northern extremity. RRS Substituting these declination values for the current-deviations to which they correspond, the almost precise accordance of theory and observation in*the prominent features of the normal varia- a of declination, may be seen by a reference to the following table: Daily maximum,’ Easterly. Westerly. | Half-yearly “ April to Sept.? } Easterly. Westerly.|Morning.|Evening. eee ORS ly. | Mean. | Mean. Westerly. Easterly. an. | Stationary. Theoretical, - - = = - | 7 AM. lem. | 10am. | 4PM. |7P.M.tolam. Observed [I to ¥i;° es 6-8 “ Ea 9} “ 5 « gs“ «3 e Gen. Sabine, in speaking of the opposition of the annual and semi-annual curves (St. Hel. Obs., 2, exix), says, “ these remark- able systematic dissimilarities may be regarded as sufficient m- dications of a difference in the mode of operation of the solar in- fluence in the two cases.” I am not aware that any attempt has * In the northern zones. ? Over the whole earth. aa * The bracketed references are to the numbered quotations from the Girard Col 88 P. E. Chase on influence of Gravity on Magnetic Declination. those critical hours which are nearest to the hours of maximum sun-ward gravitation (V1). @ precise coincidence both in time and direction of the lunar-diurnal declination and tidal curves (VII), the unavoidable inference that the moon has no constant or specific magnetic action (VIII), the “ establishment” of ten minutes at the Philadelphia station (IX), the correspond- ence of the lunar and solar curves in the diminished winter am- ducing internal tides, which may contribute amorphism of stratified rocks which has been referred b geolo- ong! to the Rig of heated fluids and vapors. (See Rogers, a. Report, ii, 700; Lyell, this Journal, [2], XXxix, 22. ‘The inclination presents some anomalies that are difficult to explain, and whether we compare the solar-diurnal or the annual curves at the principal northern and southern Stations, the “in- dications of a difference in the mode of operation of the solar in- fluence in the two cases” seem as striking and perplexing as LLL LE LN OO I OIIEY C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 89 Art. XII.—Researches on the Volatile Hydrocarbons; by C. M. WARREN.’ Introductory Remarks.—While engaged, a few years since, in attempting to separate some of the constituents of coal-tar naph- tha by the common process of fractional distillation, I was forced to the conviction that that process could not be safely relied upon for anything like a complete and accurate re ty of such a complex mixture of liquids; and that, at best, the products thus obtained could not be regarded as anything better than re- mote approximations to pure substances ; leaving reason to fear that there might still be other bodies present, in less quantities perhaps, which had escaped detection. An examination of the results of previous researches on tars, petroleums, ete., served in general to confirm the impressions induced by my own less extended experiments; and to increase, ? From the Memoirs of the American Academy, (N. 8.) ix, 135. Am, Jour. Scl.—Szconp Series, Vou. XL, No. 118,—Juty, 1865. 12 * 80 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. tained in the pursuit of this object are abundantly sufficient to show that I did not undervalue the work of my predecessors, tion from its associates, of being crystallizable at a low tempera- ture, thus affording an additional test of the purity of the product which might be obtained by the process of fractioning. Some- what to my surprise I found that, after only the fifth series of fractionings, I had obtained benzole so nearly pure that the whole of it would distil from a tubulated retort between 80° and 81° C.; and that when congealed, which was effected by placing the containing bottle in pounded ice, not a drop of liquid could be rom the mass of crystals. From this result,—which, at east, indicated a near approximation to Pays taken in con- nection with other favorable indications, I felt confident that I had accomplished my first object, and had found a process that could, in all probability, be successfully applied in the study of the petroleums, which up to that time (1861) had baffled every oils ue 2 ae mh ela O. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 91 memoir of Pelouze and Cahours on the same subject. At that me my work was considerably in advance of theirs, and their results differed widely from mine in some important particulars; « * 92 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. of cannel coal; this substance being so closely analogous to the Albert coal (upon the products of which I uid, at that time been long engaged) as to induce the belief that, under the same cir- cumstances, either would afford the same products. I—Own tHe Votatite Hyprocarsoys rrom Coat-rar Napurna, Om or Cumin, anp CumInic : Part L—Hydrocarbons from Coal-tar Naphtha. t In presenting the results of a re-examination of a series of sub- stances upon which so much labor had already been bestowed, and upon the nature and properties of which so little doubt has seemed to exist, it may confer an interest on the subject to state briefly some of the more important results and conclusions that previous investigators have arrived at in the study of these substances. The discovery by Faraday,’ in 1825, of benzole (“ bicarburet- ted hydrogen”) in the oil compressed from oil-gas, rendered it highly probable, and indeed led this distinguished philosopher to suspect, that this substance might be found in coal-tar naphtha. His search for it, however, proved unsuccessful, it having been ‘first detected by Hofmann in 1845.’ is chemist, however, did not attempt to isolate this body, and the bare fact of its pres- sence appears to be all that was definitely known of the com sition of coal-tar naphtha prior to 1849, in which year Mansfield* published his elaborate and valuable research, being the first effort at a proximate analysis of this mixture which appears to have been attended with any considerable measure of success. Although a fatal accident, while engaged in his experiments, revented Mansfield from completing the investigation which he ad so well begun, yet the work that he had already published: in an unfinished state must always be regarded as having con- tributed much towards a clear and definite knowledge of the nature of the neutral pyrogenous oils contained in. eoal-tar out an expenditure of labor, and a degree of patient endurance which only those who have experienced the celica tates operations can appreciate. Mansfield claimed to show that the light coal-tar naphtha is eemposed of a mixture of four distinct hydrocarbons, boiling * Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1825 * Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1845, Wv.a08: urdtinr * Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, 1849, i, 244, C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 93 within the range of 80° to 175°C.; and probably having the general form ula C, Hy+. The first of these, which he found to boil constant at 80°, was proved to be identical with benzole, q,H,. « The second, boiling at about 113°, was determimed, from certain reactions, to be identical with toluole, Gs The special study of this body was deferred, however, with the re- mark that it had not yet been isolated in a sta te of sufficient pu- rity to claim an analysis. The third body, boiling at about 140° to 145°, was said to present all the characteristics of cumole oH, ; but this view was not fo unded ona careful study and mentioned, Mansfield also detected the presence of a more volatile than benzole, having an alliaceous odor, which he found to boil between 60° and 70°. Ritthausen* made re-examination of the light coal-tar naphtha, in order to obtain the hydrocarbons in a state of greater purity, and to prove the Sioetticce | of Mansfield’s view of the composition of this naph- tha. In regard to the results which he obtained, he says they a confirm those of Mansfield. Of the body which Mansfield robably identical with cymole, and of the oil more aS ie hots benzole, Ritthausen obtained quantities too to admit of investigation. In regard to the latter, how- ever, he remarks,’ that to Mansfield’s account he can t “its, nitro-product uite resembles that of ed and hence that at all events a tlate to the series C, perhaps has the formula C, ,H,.”" It is to be feotettiod ' that. Ritthausen * Journal vate raktische Chemie, 1854, lxi, 74. * “Teh Paral too Mansfield iiber das letztere nur das hinzufiigen, da seine Niroprodite den des Benzols, ete. ganz ahnlich sind, daher es jedenfalls i fe sper 6 angehort mhnod visll eicht die Formel C, H, besitzt. & future oosmtion Tahal! how thot Ritthaneca ie error in placing this body i benzole series, and indeed in considering it as hydrocarbon at all Hew edge wt evidently docatvid cannot eis on 8. inixture c ontning hone Farther- as Mansfield su might be * 94 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. also omitted to analyze and determine the vapor density of any one of these substances, he having added, therefore, nothing more than a confirmation of the results of Mansfield. He gives the boiling-point of benzole at 80°, of toluole at 109°, and of the so-called cumole at 189°-140°, which will be found to agree very nearly with my own determinations. Church,’ in the following year, published a paper on the “Determination of Boiling- ints” in the “ Benzole Series.” I cannot better present his results than by quoting the following table :— Boiling-point. Difference. °. . 0 0. Toluole, ae = C, 4(C, n°) MIME prin pau Xylole, C,.-H; = °C, 5(Cs H3) 126°-2 soidig Cnmole, Cy H1,= C5 6(C,H,) — aerah 2202 Cymole, Ces Hi y= Cet (C, H,) 170°-7 J thus giving room for a middle member between them, and pre- serving a remarkable uniformity of difference—viz. 22° and a That the earlier investigators had found in coal-tar naphtha only the two lower members (C,,H, and C,,H,) and the two ¢ p . The ‘al discovery of this body in coal-naphtha by Church, together with tile than benzole is by no means composed of a single substance, Hayine had @ large quantity of this volatile material at my command, I have esi able | ra obtain the separate apparently in a state of great purity. Of the two bodies one of them boils constant at about 40°, and the other near 0°. Both are compounds containing sulphur, and therefore will more properly form the subject of a separate paper. i * Philosophical Magazine, 1855, [4], ix, 256, C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 95 the beautiful uniformity of the boiling-point difference through- out the series which he presented, and the apparent care with which the whole research had been conducted, led me to regard published, he took occasion to make analyses of his preparations of this substance, which he regards as “perfectly satisfactory ;” and adds that ‘‘the details and numerical results of these analy- ses, and of many others which the present inquiry necessitated, the limits and special object of the present paper do not admit ere,” of my giving here.” As he undertook to correct the work of correct, and those which had been previously publishec In addition to the bodies mentioned in the foregoing | table, spectively at 97° and 112°. Subsequently, in a “ Note on Para- benzole, x new Hydrocarbon from Goal-Naphtha,” * he publishes the details of an investigation of the former of these two bodies, which he finally found to boil “ perfectly constant at 97°°5,” and to be isomeric with benzole. ; I think I shall be able to show in the following pages,— 1. That coal-tar naphtha contains only four hydrocarbons Within the range of 80° to 170°, as taught by Mansfield, and confirmed by Ritthausen. is ° i ir on this subj 10 Phileooph i peri 3 aay 1857, (a) aii, 415. Was 4 96 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 2. That the benzole series within that range of temperature is limited to four members, and therefore does not contain five, as has been generally supposed. 8. That these four members have the boiling-points 80°, 110°, 140°, and 170 respectively ; and consequently that the boiling- 4. That the body obtained from coal-tar naphtha, boiling at 140°, is not identical with cumole from cuminic acid, as assumed by Mansfield, nor even isomeric with it; but that it has the formula which has been assigned to xylole, containing C,H, less than that of cumole. 5. That the body obtained from coal-tar naphtha, boiling at 170°, is quite a different body from eymole obtained from oil of cumin,—with which it has been considered identical, as assumed by Mansfield,—these bodies differing from each other by C,H,. 6. That cumole from cuminic acid, and cymole from oil of cumin, do not even belong to the benzole series. 7. That the Parabenzole of Church was in all probability only a mixture of benzole and toluole. .- Of the Quality of Naphtha employed in this Investigation —As I have taken occasion to question the existence in coal-tar naph- tha of two of the substances which it has been said to contain, —viz. cymole, C, ,H,,, nzole, C,,H,,—it is a mat- ter of some importance that I should clearly state the kind or quality of the naphtha employed. The tar from which this oy Se was obtained was a mixture of the tar furnished by the following companies, viz. the New York and the Manhattan Gas-Light Companies, of New York; Brooklyn Gas-Light Com- pany, of Brooklyn, N. Y.; Albany Gas-Light Company, of Albany, N. Y.; and the Gas-Light Companies of Newark and Jersey City, in New Jersey. It was mostly made from Cannel Newcastle caking coals, which were imported from Liver- 7 r and mixed in the proportions of one-third to five-eighths nnel, to two-thirds to three-eighths Newcastle. In some of the works rh shies of the caking coal was from mines in Penn- sylvania. e tar from these different gas-works, as re of the gas-works referred to are large, the an- ie to up ,000 barrels. It does not appear, therefore, that the ab- sence of the bodies in question from the naphtha which I have employed, can be attributed to any peculiarity of the tar. The C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 97 was to insure the detection of any-constituent which might be present in small proportion, The process of fractioning was continued on this large scale until the separations o far variation of more than one or two degrees of the thermometer. Finally, a sample gallon was taken from each of the barrels com- posing the last series of products, and these samples were set aside for this investigation, which was afterwards conducted in the laboratory. : Of the Results of Fractional Condensation —Such of the sam- ples above mentioned as promised to yield the different constit- uents of the naphtha in the largest proportion were subjecte to repeated series of fractionings by my process of “‘ Fractional Condensation.” Ag full details of this process have already been given in the memoir referred to, it will be needless to re- peat them here. It will suffice to say that the fractioning in this case was conducted in all respects as there described, and continued until the whole of the naphtha taken, boiling between 80° and 170°, had accumulated at the four points already indi- cated, viz: at 80°, 110°, 140°, and 170°; or so nearly the whole that the intermediate quantities had become too small to admit of being further operated upon. Having, therefore, so thor- oughly exhausted the intermediate fractions, I can have no hesi- tation in asserting that no other body than those alluded to was resent in the naphtha,—at least, in appreciable quantity,— nee, that the parabenzole of Church was probably only a mix- ture of benzole and toluole. I may here remark that each of the sample-gallons employed, when subjected to my process of fractioning, was found to contain, in variable proportion, all of =) the constituents of the naphtha. Of some of the Properties of the Bodies obtained by Fractioning.— 1. BenzoLe.—Specific gravity, 0°8957 at 0°, and 0°882 at 15°°5.* "™ Memoirs of the American Academy, 1864, and last volume of this Journal, ah SS Id appear that the specific gravities of liquids are usually determined at the temperature of the air. ‘The result of this is that the determinations made by different observers are not comparable with one another. these specific * 98 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. Determination of Boiling-point.—This experiment was con- ducted in a tubu ee retort, operating on 150-200 c.c. of the benzole, containing some pieces of sodium. The benzole em- ployed had Lakes ytieen repeatedly boiled with sodium, until the latter c to have any action. The thermometer bulb | extended ive “the liquid” nearly to the bottom of the retort. | A second thermometer was attached, by means of flexible bands, | to the side of the one in the retort; the bulb being placed, dur- ing per at a point midway between the center of the cork (— e upper end of the mercurial column, viz: ote 35° A paper sho closely fitting the thermometer spindle as pla- ed across at the top of the cork. With the retort neck alight inclined upward, and cooled to prevent the escape of vapor, ebullition was continued for a considerable time, until the mer- cury in the thermometer ceased to rise. The lamp being removed for the moment, the neck of the retort was then turned down- ward, and quickly inserted in a Liebig’s condenser. On replac- ing the lamp, distillation commenced almost immediately at 79°. Observations.— | ndeed, with a F ccletiia ree that bottle cannot serv Temperature. Time. Temper. by side thermom, 6 : a 79°0 at a ae Pb ie 22°, 79°4 “ 3.C0 12 sa 24°, 19°5 + 3 12} 20 “a 25°. 79°6 “ 8 = is Pr 26°, 79°6 = 50 $6". ter convenience, etc., is A cna paces ear to be pr cope probably : ue to the fact that the more common specific gravity bottle . n nee ted to this _ is iguid, at a epted for taking specific gravities, even of volati it ead Gaecan I an we a in capaye above the ome on the apne ws neck is large enough to allow for the expansion o quent upon the elevation of t temperature rounding air; and that d saya etl so sn ee from eva xy an experimen In ey to furnish 3 tical remarks ‘ion of of placi bulb gia ayes ; and for further en pts ee ee noi C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. ° 99 Distillation therefore occupied one hour and ten minutes, during which time the thermometer rose only 0°-6, being fifty minutes in rising 0°-2 from 79°-4 to 79°6, at which temperature it had distilled nearly to dryness. Height of the barometer during t experiment reduced to 0° =761-9™™, Taking 79°-4, this being the average of the last five observations, and applying the cor- rections for the upper column of mercury, and for atmospheric pressure, according to the directions given by Kopp,“ we find the corrected boiling-point of benzole to be 80°:1. Analysis,—0-2339 gram of benzole gave, by my process” of combustion in a stream of oxygen gas, 0°7903 of carbonic acid, and 0°1683 of water. Calculated. Found, Carbon, Cy 72 92-31 92°15 Hydrogen, 4H, 6 7°69 7-99 %s 10000 ~=—-:100'14 Determination of Vapor Density.— Temperature of balance, 15° Temperature of oil bath, 171° Height of barometer, 764°1™™ at 9° Increment of balloon, 0°2447 Capacity of balloon, 265 ¢. e. Density of vapor found, 2°688 Theory, C,,H,=4 volumes, 2°698 2. ToLUOLE.—Specific gravity, 0°8824 at 0°, and 0'872 at 15°. Determination of Boiling-point.—The preparation employed for this determination had also been repeatedly boiled with sodium until the latter ceased to have any action upon it. Operating am this case also upon a pretty large quantity, the distillation occu- pied about an hour. The experiment was conducted as detailed 0°:6; under the head of benzole. Distillation commenced at 1 rt of the retort becoming h 4 é SB peegeds: toluole. He found that toluole which, by ordinary distillation, eS. i ae mt she ae rena ri lr we 7 261, and this Jour., xxxix, 326. * Philosophical Magazine, 1855, [4], ix, 256. go gant. ¥ 100 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. had come over between 108° and 109°, would distil eight-tenths between 103° and 104°, after repeated purification with sodium. I would therefore state that my preparation of toluole was never subjected to a temperature above its boiling-point; and that I ave never noticed any reduction of the boiling-point of this body by purification with sodium. Analysis.—0°1628 gram of toluole gave, by combustion in a stream of oxygen gas, 0°5447 of carbonic acid, and 0°1815 of water. Calculated. Found. Carbon, Se 84 91:3 91:20 Hydrogen, me 8 87 8:97 92 100°0 100°17 Determination of Vapor Density.— Temperature of balance, 8 he Temperature of oil bath, Height of barometer, 760°1™™ at 15° Increment of balloon, Capacity of balloon, 249°5 cc Density of vapor found, 3°2196 Theory, C,,H,=4 volumes, 3°1822 3. XYLOLE (Cumole of Mansfield and Ritthausen).—Specific gravity, 0°878 at 0°, and 0°866 at 15°'5. Determination of Boiling-point.—This determination was made in all respects like that of benzole, the xylole employed having been also subjected to the same treatment. The quantity ope- ral n was, however, smaller, and the experiment conducted more rapidly. Distillation began at 138°-6, and terminated at 139°, having distilled almost to dryness. The time occupied Ww: venteen minutes. ‘Taking the average of these observa- tions, viz: 138°-4, and applying the customary corrections, we find 139°°8 to be the corrected boiling-point of xylole. Analysis.—0°1333 gram of xylole gave, by combustion in a stream of oxygen gas, 0-441 of carbonic acid, and 0:1185 of water. Calculated. Found. Carbon, C,, 96 90°57 90-29 Hydrogen, H,, 10 9°43 9°87 106 10000 10016 Determination of Vapor Density.— emperature of balance, 16°5 perature of oil bath, Height rometer, 760™™ at 14° Increment of balloon, 0°35 Capacity of balloon, 228 c. ¢. Density of vapor found, 3°7517 Theory, C,,H,,, 36665 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 101 These results show clearly that this body has the formula C,,H,,, and that it is doubtless the third member of the ben- zole series.” Although xylole, first discovered by Cahours in the oil separated from wood-spirit, has had a much lower boil- ing-point assigned to it, I have retained that name for this body, since the results which I have obtained in the study of the light oil from wood-tar indicate that when the corresponding body from this source is in a state of equal purity, its boiling-point will agree with the above determination. I may here mention that in my researches on the light oil from wood-tar I have ob- tained a body at about 140°, but nothing between that and 110° (these temperatures are not corrected), although special pains were taken to work up the intermediate fractions. So that I am in a position to justify the assertion that no other body was a in appreciable quantity between the temperatures men- ione __ That this body from coal-tar naphtha, boiling at 140°, is not identical with cumole from cuminic acid, will be made apparent on comparison of the results above stated, with those which will be given when treating of cumole. 4. IsocumoLE (Cymole of Mansfield).—Specific gravity, 0°8643 at 0°, and 0:8538 at 15°. Determination of Boiling-point—This was conducted with the usual precautions, and under conditions similar to those detailed above. The distillation, as in the foregoing determinations, was continued nearly to dryness, and occupie twenty-five minutes. Before distillation was commenced, the temperature of the boil- ing liquid was found to be 166°5, and at the close of distilla- tion 167°. Applying the customary corrections to the average of these observations, viz: 166°-75, we obtain for the corrected boiling-point 169°'8. _ Analysis—0-1944 gram of the substance gave, by combustion In stream of oxygen, 0.6366 of carbonic acid, and 0°1896 of water, Calculated. Found. o~e-— Carbon, Cis 108 90°00 89°31 Hydrogen, H,, 12 10°00 10°84 120 10000 100-15 “ As this memoir is ing through the press, the receipt of my journals for ber dischtien 40 late wietions of Miiller, and Naquet concerning this hydrocarbon. Miiller concludes that it is xylole, a result ich agrees with my own. nnalen der Chemie und Ph: ie, 1864, cxxxi, wh armaci 321.) Béchamp, on the contrary, erroneously regards it as being a mew hydrocar- is t Bigate (Bulletin de la Société Chimique, Paris, a new hydrocarbon, and gives it the formula 104 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. Determinution of Vapor Density.— Temperature of balance, 16° Temperature of oil bath, 231° Height of barometer, 758°°4™™ at 14° Increment of balloon 0°4939 Capacity of balloon, 221 ¢.¢. Density of vapor fo 281 Excess found, 0253 H,,, the calculation on the formula C, ,H,, does not show a reater variation from the density found, than we have observed to be quite frequent with hydrocarbons of so high boiling-point; so that it may be questionable which of these formule is the true one. I cannot regard the determination of a vapor density as reliable for fixing the formula nearer than to within two equiva- nts of hydrogen. In the absence of opposing evidence, it will the formula C,,H,,, which is also better supported by the re- Cahours,” by the dry distillation of a mixture of six parts crystallized cuminic acid, and twenty-four parts of caustic b Abel* obtained the same result by substituting caustic lime for the His product, however, was found to boil 4° above that of Gerhardt and Cahours. My preparation was also made by the use of lime. Although the results of my experiments confirm the conclusions arrived at by Gerhardt and Cahours as to the pee of this body, yet the numerical results differ considerab y from theirs, I have also observed some new facts regarding the formation of this body. They have described the * Annales de Chimie et de Ph ue, 1845, [3], iv, 87. * ‘Annalen der Chemie und Pharocie, 1847: lgiv bis 2. CuMOLE.—This body was first obtained by Gerhardt and | C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 105 reaction between the baryta and cuminicacid as being much more simple than my experiments seem to indicate. On this point they remark: “The formation of cumene is easily explain- ed. In effect, the cuminic acid being represented by C, , pe it appears that C,O,, that is to say, 2 equivalents of carbonic acid, are retained by the baryta, while C,,H,, are set free,’™ ©, Hy.0, = 0,0, +0,.H.,.. : In another place (p. 88) they remark, that “ by suitably man- aging the heat, and employing no more than 6 gr. of cuminic acid at a time, no other products are ever obtained than those which we mention.”** My experiments show that this reaction is by no means so simple as thus described. The crude product obtained from the mixture of lime and cuminic acid, when sub- jected to a simgle distillation from a tubulated retort, was found to distil between 155° and 250°, leaving a residue at the latter temperature which became semi-fluid on cooling. The distillate thus obtained gave, by my process of fractional condensation, an the probability of deciding the question. ‘There is evidence, 1 ours was not simply pure cumole, as they described it, but a mixture being so considerable, may be more reasonably accounted for on the supposition that they operated, in the first instance, upon a mixture of different bodies; and yet I cannot see how they could have obtained the product boiling below 150°. Additional evidence on this point will be found in the discrepancy which appears between their determination of the vapor density, and that calculated upon theory. * «Ta formation du cuméne s'explique aisément. En effet, acide cuminique etant représenté par C,,H.,,0, on voit que C,0,, cest-adire 2 equivalents Wacide carbonique sont retenus par la baryte, tandis que C3,H,, sont dégagés. —Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1841, [3], i, 89. : * “ En dirigeant la chaleur convenablement et en n’employant, pas plus de 6sr- acide cuminique a la fois, on n’obtient jamais d’autres produits que ceux que enons de nommer,” : : * Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1845, [3], xiv, 107. Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Series, Vou. XL, No. 118.—Juxy, 1865. __ 14 106 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. The specific gravity of my —* of cumole was found to be 0.8792 at 0°, and 0°8675 a Determination of Boiling-point. mee quantity of material being quite small, this determination was made in a large test tube, with the usual precautions. It had not a perfectly Sone boiling-point, the distillation ranging from 148°-4 to 151°°6. plying the proper corrections to the mean of ties, observations, gives, for the boiling-point of cumole, 151°-1, which is do ubt- less a little too high from the impracticability of aaltae a com: plete separation with the small quantity of material employed. If the boiling-point ae Sided between cumole and cymole, for the difference of GC. n their elementary formule, is 30°, as there is every reason to ichiacs then the boiling-point ‘of cumole should be 150°, as I have found the mine: -point of cymole to e but a fraction under 1 Analysis.—0'1700 gram of cumole gave, by combustion with oxyd of copper, 0°563 of carbonic acid, and 0°1557 of water. Calculated. Found. Carbon, 4, 108 90:00 90°35 Hydrogen, H,, 12 10°00 10°18 120 100-00 100°53 Determination of Vapor Density.— Temperature of balance, 17° Temperature of oil bath Height of barometer, 460°T?™ at 15° Increment of balloon, Capacity of balloon, 232 cc. Density of vapor found, 42003 Theory, C,,H,,=4 volumes, 4151 This determination, as well as the results of analysis, confirms, therefore, the formula which Gerhardt and Cahours had assigned to this body. I had anticipated a different result from this, inas- much as the hydrocarbon from coal-tar n naphtha, which I have called iso-cumole, boiling at 170°, or nearly 20° higher — cu- mole from cuminic acid,— ad been ound, as ave wn above, to have the formula CisHi2. Iam forced to the concl “sion therefore, that these two bodies are isomeric, and belong to differ- ies. reliminary examination of their behavior with reagents indicates that their chemical properties are also differ- ent. These will be treated of on a future occasion, in Part _8. Cymote.—Notwithstanding that this body is so much more volatile than the cuminole with which it is associated in the oil of cumin,—there being a difference of 40° between their re points, ts,—Gerhardt and C Cahours found it necessary to C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 107 Specific gravity.— At 0°, before treatment with HOSO,, = 0°8697 At "; after +“ “ “ 0°8724 At 14°, before - “ s ee 0°8592 Determination of Boiling-point before Treatment with Sulphuric cid.—The preparation was found to distil to dryness between 175°'8 and 177°. The temperature remained absolutely constant at 176° during the lapse of ten minutes, and occupied fifteen minutes in rising from 176° to 176°5. Taking the mean of the former numbers, viz: 176°-4, and applying the proper correc- tions for pressure, ete., we obtain 179°'5 for the boiling-point of cymole, _ After Treatment with Sulphuric Acid—The preparation dis- tilled to dryness between 176° and 177°, the temperature remain- ing thirteen minutes constant at 176°-8, indicating that no essen- tial change in the boiling-point had been produced by the acid treatment. It was nevertheless evident that some impurity was being removed by the acid, as the first portions of the latter be- came dark-colored and thickened on being agitated with the oil. uccessive portions of acid were therefore employed, until it ceased to produce any marked effect. Analysis before Treatment with Sulphuric Acid.—01589 gram of cymole gave, by combustion in a stream of oxygen gas, 0'5200 of carbonic acid, and 0°1532 of water. Calculated. Found. Carbon, Ca, 120 89°55 89°25 Hydrogen, H,, 14 10°45 10°71 134 100-00 99:96 After Treatment with Sulphuric Acid, and Distillation in Vacuo. —0°1623 gram of cymole, by combustion in a stream of oxygen gas gave 0°5324 of carbonic acid, and 0°1561 of water. ; Calculated. Found. Carbon, C,, 120 89°55 89°46 Hydrogen, H,, 14 10°45 10°68 134 100-00 100°14 108 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. The removal of impurity by treatment with opi poh _ had therefore hardly a sensible effect on the results of an Determination of Vapor Density before Treatment ih suki Acid.— Temperature of balauce, - 3 hy Temperature of oil bath, 259° Height of barometer, 740°6™™ at 5° Increment of balloon, 0°4446 Capacity of balloon, 239 e.c. Density of vapor found, 4-742 Theory, C,,H,,—=4 volumes, 46351 After Treatment with Sulphuric Acid.— Temperature of balance, 25°°5 Temperature of oil bath, 255° Height of —— 760™™ at 26° Increment of balloon, 0°4647 Capacity of balloon, 232 cc Density of vapor r found, 4°7536 Ditto before treatment with HOSO,, 4°742 Difference, "0116 The results of the two determinations are therefore almost identic A com rison of the above results with those obtained in the study of isocumole, the body from coal-tar naphtha boiling at M10", will show that the two bodies are far from being the same tance, as Mansfield assumed, and that they havea constitu- Fis difference of C ,H,, and therefore doubtless init to dif: ferent series. of these bodies with reagents is pat as to s trengthen the conclusions already expressed in regard to them [To be constodei) M. C, Lea on the Invisible Photographic Image. 109 Art. XIIL—On the nature of the Invisible Photographic Image ; by M. Carry Lexa, Philadelphia. In a letter to the Editors. that iodid of silver “is never sensitive unless there is a body present capable of taking iodine from it under the influence of light. And Russel believes that the developed image is chiefly produced at the expense of the silver haloid in the film. : The following experiments seem to me to decisively close this controversy in favor of the physical theory. Experiment 1.—If the iodid or bromid of silver in the film undergoes decomposition in the camera, and still more, if the developed image is formed at its expense, the film of iodo-bro- mid must necessarily be greatly consumed in the development under the dense portions of the negative, which it has contrib- uted to form. To settle this point, I exposed and developed an iodo-bro- mized plate in the ordinary manner. Then, instead of remov- ing the unchanged iodid and bromid by fixing in the ordinary manner, I took measures to remove the developed image without affecting the iodid and bromid. This I succeeded in doing with the aid of a very weak solution of acid per-nitrate of mercury. Now, if the iodid, or bromid, or both, had been in any way de- composed, to form, or aid in forming, the developed negative image, when this came to be removed, there should have been left a more or less distinct positive image, depending upon varyin thicknesses of iodid and bromid in the film, much like a fix negative that has been completely iodized. Nothing of this sort was visible, the film was perfectly uniform, just as dense where an intense sky had been, as in those parts which had scarcely received any actinic impression, and looking exactly as it did when it first left the camera, and before any developer had b applied. : = ; is experiment seems sufficiently decisive. But the follow- ing is far stronger, 3 110 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. Experiment 2.—A plate was treated in all respects as in No. 1, except that the application of the nitrate of mercury for remov- ing the developed image was made by yellow light. The plate, now showing nothing but a uniform yellow film, was carefully washed, and an iron developer, to which nitrate of silver and citric acid had been added, was applied. Jn this way the original image was reproduced, and came out quite elearly with all] its details. Now as every trace of a picture and all reduced silver had been removed by the nitrate of mercury, it is by this experi- ment absolutely demonstrated that the image is a purely physi- eal one, and that after having served to produce one picture, that picture may be dissolved off, and the same physical impres- sion may be made to produce a second picture by a simple ap- plication of a developing agent. ‘ Philadelphia, June 14, 1865. P. &.—Since the above was written, I have repeated the ex- periment with a pyrogallic development with similar results. Both the first and second developments may be made with an iron developer, or both with a pyrogallic. The experiment suc- ceeds without the least difficulty in either way. Art, XIV.—WMineralogical Notices ; by Prof. C. U. Soeparp. 1. Syhedrite-—I have thus named, from its locality, a very retty green mineral sent me in small quantity by Dr. Thomas Idham, Geological Surveyor General of India. It has the fol- lowing properties: Hardness =3°5. Gravity =2:321. Massive; irregularly foliated in much-contorted individuals, resembling common varieties of massive highly crystalline dolomite. Color leek-green,—that of the purest Indian heliotrope. Translucent on the edges only. Luster vitreous. Cleavage in one direction very distinct. Brittle. Liable to alteration by exposure to the weather, when it loses its luster and cleavage, and assumes a pale greenish color, at the same time emitting an earthy odor if mois- tened. Before the blowpipe it swells up slightly and undergoes éasy wished to as muc for an analysis by Mr. Tyler, I had but six grains to submit to a qualitative examination. Nevertheless, I kept as accurate an ac- t i | . ' C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 111 count as I was able of the results obtained. They were, Silica 55°00, alumina 12-00, lime 6:00, protoxyd of iron 4°50, magnesia 2°20, water 13°33=94°15. he mineral occurs in trap at Thore-Ghat, in the Syhedree Mountains, Bombay. which I have arrived. Though not so satisfactory as could be desired, some conclusions as to the constitution of the mineral may nevertheless be drawn from them. I devoted.most of the material, of course, to a search for the alkalies, but found none present. Of the rest, the larger part was used for the determina- tion of the water and silica, and of the bases as well as possible. The determination of the silica failed, through an accident; and the precipitate of alumina and oxyd of iron was melted with nitrate of potassa to see if a trace of chrome were present. ol the water. No. 1 (0°8239 grs.) was decomposed with hydrofluoric acid, and gave 0°1241 gr. Al?03, 0-025 gr. Fe*O%, 0.0595 gr. CaO. No. 2 (0°3695 gr.), decomposed in the usual way, with carbon- ate of soda and potassa, after ignition to determine the water, gave 0:0209 gr. CaO, 0-009 gr. MgO. No. 8 (0:095 gr.) gave 0:0156 gr. HO. Analyses. 1 2 3. Average. Oxygen Ratio. Al, 16-06 seme oe 703 "08 2 Fe, Hi (som 271 -60 Ca, 7-28 567 645 1s4 3421 Mg, iia ; i, eon. 368R 1G4R. 1880-34 Rt Si, (by the loss) = 5692 3036 3036 9 100-00 have the following composition: 112 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. Oxygen. Ratio. Al, 15-06 7-08 : Be, 3-08 90 ; — Ja, 645 184 ) 89 ee reat a. at: Me, oa8 hits 2821 R: 8: Si: H=1:3:11:6 Hy, 1640 1460 1460 5 Si, 5660 38015 3015 12 question. 2. Octahedral Garnet at Middletown, Conn.—Ever since the china-stone quarry of feldspar has been wrought at Middle: town, I have known of the occasional finding there of precious rnet in small drusy masses, either loose in cavities of feld- of columbite, which shows distinct octahedral faces, thus evine- ing fee relationship of the substance with the octahedral garnet of Elba. : margarite. Jlmenite, in thin curved lamina, is likewise asso- ciated with the margarite. 4. American Sienna.—A valuable repository of this precious pigment exists in the town of Whately, which will soon be re- - ported upon, and is destined to be brought into extensive use. 5. Diaspore in the Emery-rock of Chester, Mass.—I found this mineral on the surfaces of cross-joints of the emery-rock about a month since. It was associated with rose-colored amphode- lite. On visiting the locality yesterday, I again discovered it imilarly ginal but associated with radiated epidote; and in ! This is the mineral which Dr. Jackson, in his account of lodsltiy, pen felon if : of the emery locality, Chemistry and Physics. 113 @ second instance, in very distinct crystals occupying little clefts, the crystals being implanted on massive or simply foliated dias- the other at Trumbull with topaz and fluor. 6. Dinyre at Canaan, Conn.—Mr. F. E. Seymour of New York gave me for examination an unknown mineral which I find to be dipyre. It occurs in small crystals disseminated through a edges deeply truncated, so as to possess very nearly equal breadth with the primary planes, to which they incline under angles of 135° (reflec, goniom.). Hardness =6. Gravity =2°6. Semi- SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the chemical constitution of the brain—Liesretcn has discov- ered in the fresh brain of man and animals a crystalline substance to which he has given the name of protagon (from zgqutayov), The brain. of an animal is most conveniently obtained free from blood by oubting the s from 114 Scientific Intelligence. the veins is colorless, After removal from the skull and adhering mem- branes, the brain is to be rubbed in a mortar to a fine paste and the mass shaken in a flask with water and ether. Cholesterin and substances solu- ble in water are thus removed; after filtering, the mass on the filter is treated with alcohol of 85 per cent at 45° C. in a water-bath and then filtered through a water-bath filter. The filtrate is to be cooled to 0° C., when an abundant flocky precipitate settles, which is to be collected upon a filter and washed with cold ether until the filtrate is free from choles- terin. The mass is then to be dried under the air-pump over sulphuric acid, moistened with a little water and dissolved in alcohol at 45° C The solution, after filtration, is to be allowed to cool gradually upon a water-bath to the mean temperature of the atmosphere, when the liquid will be found filled with microscopic crystals. These differ somewhat in appearance according to the quantity of alcohol employed; they may be purified by repeated crystallization. The pure protagon as obtained from the brains of various animals was found to have the formula CoseHo4,N,PO,,. Dried under the air-pump over sulphuric acid, protagon is a light flocky powder soluble in hot alcohol and ether, but with difficulty soluble in 3 w a 8 4 > ni f9°) foe) ° = er e na oO od 5 = ° @ > S oO & a oe = B a=) 3 cr Ea i= ee ° » coming at the same time brown, and finally leaves a carbonaceous mass which is difficult to burn and which has an acid reaction when moistened. mY. phosphoric acid is formed, which unites with the baryta, while a new &c., of certain writers, are all secondary products of the decomposition of protagon. It is to be hoped that the author will pursue the investi- gation, which promises results of extraordinary importance and interest. n. te rm., CXxxiv, 29. -e _2. On an advantageous method of preparing orygen—Firrrmann has given a method of preparing oxygen from bleaching powder, which pos- ; much interest theoretically, and which appears also to offer some decided advantages over the ordin rocesses, @ method in question depends upon the fact that a concentrated solution of hypochlorite of lime, when warmed with a trace of freshly prepared moist xyd of Chemistry and Physics. 115 cobalt, is completely decomposed into oxygen and a solution of chlorid of caleium. No chlor oxyd constantly takes oxygen from the hypochlorite of lime and passes into a higher oxyd, which is dee i and the process is then repeated. The same quantity of hyperoxyd will the small scale, flasks may be employed with advantage, and these may be filled with the liquid to { of their volume. Upon the large scale ‘a : rmi 3. On propyl-phycit——Canivs has given the name of propyl-phycit to a new alcohol, which affords the first instance of a tetratomic organic oxyd in combination with water, and the formula of which, in the ordinary equivalent notation, is C,H,0,, 4HO or Colts O,. The new alcohol is an amorphous, solid, tough and colorless substance. It does not crys- tallize, is soluble in water and a , and has a very sweet taste. In its chemical relations, propyl-phycit resembles the group of sugars in a very remarkable manner. The solution, acidulated with a little chlorhydric, sulphuric, or even acetic acid, and evaporated in a water-bath becomes brown, while a body resembling humus separates, and the greater part of the alcohol is converted into a car us mass. Humus-like substances are also formed by boiling the alcohol with alkalies. Propyl-phycit pre- Vents the precipitation of oxyd of copper by caustic potash and reduces silver from the ammonia nitrate. Dilute nitric acid oxydizes the alcohol and forms a new acid, “e202 1 Os; by a further oxydation, oxalic acid Hy 116 Scientific Intelligence. is formed. All the four equivalents of hydrogen in the molecule of pro- pyl-phycit may be replaced by other radicals, simple or compound; thus the lead salt has the formula = we Og. The author describes various ethers derived from the new alcolick; the formule of which are as follows: Mono-nitrate, HNO, 1 O.. : C,H Droste oes RS a ocyt Os Tetracetate, (oit.6, Je ' Ov Triethy] ether, nic “a ) t O, 40° 5/3 Tetrethyl-ether, Pat ) L O.. a" 5/4 C,H, Diaceto-diethyl ether, (C,H,)., OF (C,H,0.). These compounds are of special interest as illustrating the tetratomic character of the new radical C,H,, and as establishing the existence of o suga higher order, A tetracid alcohol will form four chlorids by the successive replacement of HO, by Cl. Thus we should have ap 0,, Cole Og cl? : 3 “attos CoH} ef , CoH,.Cly. Of these two chlorids, the second in order, namely, Coie tof , was obtained by the author from glycerine and formed the starting point of the present investigation Ann. der Chemie und Pharm., exxxiv, p. 71. Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY, g a & > - at i) Leased z. : = ¥ bond LS] a) — nN oO i R 5 oO @ o a 2 ot St. 5 @ > @Q 2 =] co = ° S e re-issues the whole, consisting of ninety-seven large octavo pages of text, with intercalated wood-cuts, and nine well executed plates containing about one hundred and sixty figures. The fact that these figures were proportion of theft par, (Oct 850) whieh en ion oO part, - 1859), which was for some after; while we did not receive the last part, nor antil about the middle.of February, 1861. Mineralogy and Geology. 117 drawn on stone by Mr. Salter of London, the well known English paleon- tologist, is alone a sufficient guaranty for their accuracy; but we can ; rom a personal knowledge of many of these forms, our own testimony that they are faithfully represented. By reference to our former notice of this memoir, alluded to above, as originally published without figures, it wi seen we were then im- pressed with the remarkable coincidence of the characters of several forms described, with those of old and well known species. But as no author has now, however, added good figures of many of these fossils, described by others, and here offer some critical notes embodying our conclusions. in his N, Am. Geol., p. 51, as Terebratula Mormonii. Figure 2, Tere- bratula geniculosa McC. represents a well known species described man years back in this Journal, by Dr. Morton, from Ohio, as 7. bovidens, and more recently by Prof. Hall under the name 7, millepunctata, in vol. iil, n, after careful examination of authentic specimens from the Illinois localities, consider it the common Spirifer Urei Fleming. If future comparisons, however, should show it to be distinct, Prof. McChesney not stand, since D y noconvexus, in 1858; see Missouri Geol. Report, page 202. Figure 4, quently referred by them to the genus Streptorhynchus, to which it prop- erly belon Fig. 6, Orthis Lasallensis McC. is almost certainly only a variety of the last. Upon such trivial differences, species may be multi- plied indefinitely in a genus like this. Fig 7, Productus asper McC., fig. 8, P. Wilberantis M d fig. 9, P. symmetricus McC., ee —— ly suspect, only varieties of one species, apparently very closely allied to the European >. scabriculus ; if distinet from that shell, however, Norwood y 118 Scientific Intelligence. and Pratten’s name, P. Rogersii, (Jour. Phil. a eect Aug. 1854) founded upon a variety, or more properly, conditio the same, will have to be adopted. Figures 11 and 12, Productus Sahahdune ¢ McC, seems scarcely distinct from the European species, P. punctatus ; but if different, our author’s name cannot be retained for it, since it was figured by Prof. Shephard in this — vol. xxxiv, p. 153, under the name P. semipunctatus, as long back In regard to Plate II, we Soeld merely remark that figure 5, Bellero- hon Blaneyanus McC. seems to be only a variety of his B. vitiatus, ev Fleming, though here, again, he was too late in proposing a new name, since Mr. Cox named this shell B. carbonarius in 1857 (see Keneddleh Geol. Report, vol. iii, p. 562). His figures 9, 10 and 13, of this plate, resenting forms he calls Leda Knozensis, i. Owenii, and LD. Rushensis, have more the eg of the genus Yoldia. If they are true aaa mh ever, their names must be written Nuculana Knoxensis, N. Rus and WV. Owenit not the form of shells of that genus as restricted by modern conchologists. Figures 14 and 15, Watica Altonensis McC. and WV. Shumardi McC. are not Naticas at all, as will be seen at a glance, but belong to McCoy’s genus Naticopsis, and hence, if new, must be called teed Altonen- sis and Naticopsis Shumardi. The genus Vatica, as now restricted, is wholly siakeiiiede in the Paleozoic rocks, as all well “intr i palsontel must be aware. Figures 19 and 20, Discina trigonalis McC., and iformis McC, are doubtless pies’ 5 varieties of D. nitida Phillips, ing to i , repres is On n Bate Vv, ‘aid sae Grincids, he gives (fig. han an :ekeellont rep- a noble species under the name Forbesiocrinus Pratteni, trate his Allorisma sinuata and A, clavata. In the explanations of the plate he writes their names Allorisma (Sangui inaria) sinuata, and Allo- risma (Sanguinaria) clavata. As Sanguinaria is a genus of plants, the Sieh etel douhtiens intended to write it Saagesanlitees since the first of these two species seems to be congeneric with some of the forms included in the ed ae by M eCoy, On Plate VU, he gives (fig. 4) Nuculites Vase w is un- inves a true Lede, or ss sth Nuculana and shuld be seer ‘ Nuculana Vaseyane. ridge he mentions, descending from Mineralogy and Geology. 119 beaks, on the inner side of the valves, is a common feature in such Car. boniferous species as Wuculana bellistriata (=Leda bellistriata of Ste- ns), His Nucula rectangula, of the same plate, is more probably a Nuculites. On Plate IX, fig. 1 represents his Pentamerus bisinuatus, which is ap- perenuly only a variety of the well known P. oblongus. On the same plate, e figures a shell at first described by him under the name Ambonychia neglecta, but placed by him now in the genus Pierinea. It has not the strung anterior muscular scar, nor apparently the posterior hinge teeth of Pterin nea, however, and until the characters of its hinge can be clearly de- termined, it would. have been better to leave it in the genus Ambonychia, are generally sufficiently clear to enable the paleontologist, by the aid of the figures, to identify the forms described. The author also deserves ‘eredit for having published accurate figures of most of the species pro- posed by him, an nd it is to be ho oped that he will publish figures of the others, so that all may form their own conclusions as to which of them should be adopted, and which arranged in the lists of synonyms. must confess, however, that a careful study of his memoir has not left. a very favorable impression in regard to the author's powers of discrimina- tion, nor of his knowledge of the literature of the subject upon which he has essayed to write. F a Mont Alto Lignite and Appalachian Erosion ; by J. P. Lester. 0 pp., ao with 4 plates. (From the Proc. Amer. Acad, Sci., 1864, a 463—482.)—Mr. Lesley here describes a bed of lignite found recently in Southern Central Pennsylvania. He regards it as of the same age with the lignite of Brandon, Vermont, described by Prof. Hitchcock, but not connected in any way | with the iron ore (limonite) beds with which the latter associates them Mr, Lesley enters at some length in into the nature and origin of the ore-bed formation of the Atlantic border, and the position of the lignite, from which we cite the followin ng: “Tt consists every where of two parts, more or less easily distinguished ; the one stratified in the same sense as the Silurian limestones themselves ; the other a surface-wash over the basset edges of the first. The i of the formation of this local surface-wash may be Tertiary, and Post-tertiary. The stratified portions must be, as to their ratetion, of Lower Silurian age; while the metamorphism which sg have undergone, in situ, productive of stratified clays and ores, may date from any time subsequent to the formation of a surface-topogra Bed pater iden- Silurian calcoferriferous sandstones and slates, in situ, at their outcrops, into limonite clay beds, in ipso situ, stratified as before, but charged with * These limonite beds were long since shown fe te Pesca to contrary to the views of Pro f. Hitchcock, altered beds of p: ‘erous, micaceous ‘ schist in poponn See his Report (1842), p. 139, and ale tis Jour nals [3 268 ii, 268, 1846.) ; 120 Scientific Intelligence. an additional percentage of the oxyds from a former higher surface now eroded, and with this extra charge of iron and manganese carried by per- colation down to and crystallized against their foot tock,—this change may have required an immense time to erfect, and no doubt was going r with the disintegration and recrystallization be un, to the perfect ball’ and pot ore of radiated, acicular, crystallized brown-hematite. The great variety in the composition of the original rocks has been the cause of a great diversity in the ores taken from the different openings. But two \ principal distinctions may be particularly noticed; viz: that the ores = i Ww to hold a small percentage of sulphur; or perhaps we should say, are less likely to permit the abundant drainage needful for carrying off the sul- phur in the form of a salt. Sometimes in the same deposit there is a mixture of the two varieties, producing a neutral ore, ut it is often that such large exposures of both varieties occur in the same neighborhood, as is the case here. * Taking into view all that we know of these deposits along the southeast side of the Great Valley from the Hudson river to Tennessee and Alabama, and adding what we know of similar deposits, produced in a similar way, Mr. Lesley also describes the positions of the lignite beds, and refers them to the Tertiary age, as done by Lesquereux (though without men- is point atforded b ont sion over these regions to the New Red Sandstone Triassico-Jurassic of the Atlantic slope, as follows -— pie Mineralogy and Geology. 121 “The New Red is seen in the section dipping northward against or toward a country, the surface of which is three hundred feet lower than its own. ere is no evidence of a wide extension of New Red over that lower surface in the New Red age. On the contrary, not a hillock or gravel patch of New Red is to be found throughout the whole Paleozoic country to the north or west of this, its present absurdly constructed over- anging and outdipping margin. How is this to be accounted for ? “There must have been some barrier to the New Red waters between the Schuylkill and the Susquehanna, to correspond with the barrier which we see everywhere else between the Hudson and the James i synclinal structure to determine the face of the surface at any given stage of the process,—and we have the required barrier to the estuary of the New Red; the explanation of its top Conglomerate; a good reason why there are no New Red traces back of the South mountains; and a closer date for the Lignite of Mont Alto.” pease? ferring to a plate illustrating the paper, he says, it “is noticeable, 1. How vast an amount of Paleozoic rock-substance has been swept away ; zolc formations ; sup upon these at a still older date, eight others, Including the Coal-measures, must have formed their surfaces ; ing no cataclysm eac as given for collecting toward the New Red sandstone, formations. As for the lignite, therefore, it must have been subsequent to the ero- Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XL, No. 118.—Juxy, 1865. aa 16 : ee ; 122 Scientific Intelligence. Tertiary age, and, therefore, this last must be the age of the lignite— apart from all consideration of fossils. 3. Eruption of Hina.—A letter by Mr. Fouqué in “Les Mondes” of the 6th of April, contains the following: At half past 10, on the evening of the 21st of January, there was a severe earthquake, and immediately after, the eruption commenced. It broke out on the northeast side of the mountain at a point about 1700 meters above the sea-level and 500 our lower craters detonated differently from the three others. The be read with interest, we insert the following received fr oa “The submerging and uprising of the island in the boiling cauldron of the crater, is a rare and grand spectacle. The henomenon occur- 4 sam red in June last, with this difference, that the island disappeared entirely for several days, but was gradually restored by the spouting liquid lava. “I was at Kilauea on the 9th and 10th inst. There was much action lands, some fifteen miles from Kilauea, I passed many large pit and cone craters, most of them ancient and densely wooded, from 300 to 800 feet in height and depth. Ispent a night near a beautiful pit-crater called Napau, nearly circular, about 300 feet deep, a mile, perhaps, in diame- ter, and with a bottom of sand, so smooth and hard that a regiment of cavalry might be reviewed there, One-eighth of a mile from this crater, fissures are opened in the earth, out of which scalding steam and smoke have issued from time immemorial, and affording heat enough to cook for an army.”—Honolulu Commercial Advertiser, Dec. 10, 1864. Mineralogy and Geology. 123 5. Addition to Prof. Shepard’s Notes on the minerals of the Emery mine at Chester, Mass., (see p. 112); by the Author.—I have just found the diaspore at Chester, in broad, nearly transparent white lamine, with a structure like that of kyanite, also of a most delicate violet color, deeper than that of Chemnitz. : : White massive corundum, in veins half an inch thick, occurs travers- ing the massive emery. The latter mineral at Chester is exceedingly uniform in composition, and may be regarded as an aluminate of protoxyd of iron, Fe Al. : A vein of Indianite, many inches thick, is found near the tunnel . South mountain, running for many rods through the chloritie beep the east side of the emery-vein (exterior to its gneissoid wall). This chloritic seam is called by the workmen “the fringe-rock.” — Small particles of erystalline corundum are diffused through the Indianite. Masonite (the variety near to ottrelite) is also abundant at many p — in the emery-vein on the North mountain. Brookite rarely attends the diaspore and corundophilite. emery on its eastern side. Indeed I regard this as the parent shies - - emery, out of which it was deposited when the strata were horizon . ) just as the emery of the Grecian archipelago and Turkey was segregate in fine limestone. er Ce i ‘ ¢, Eocene; d, Cretaceous; @, Jarauat and Triassic ; 4; ee — stone and Devonian; g, Metamorphic schists ; h, Granite 9 ans ogi ; t, Eruptive rocks, not volcanic; &, Volcanic rocks ; N, naphtha a A e solfataras, mud volcanoes. The map is accompanied by a pamphiet de- 7. On the Changes rendered necessary in the Geological Map of South Africa, by recent Di. erie Fossi , . aie Geol. Soc.}—_Dr. Rubidge first called attention to a former paper, in which he pointed out the occurrence of horizontal beds of sandstone resting 7 hike upturn ges of gneiss, and continuous with inclined sandstone 0! 124 Scientific Intelligence. kind, interstratified with gneiss. He therefore ta aise that the bee slate and Bokkeveldt schist, which Bain considered d istinet, belonged t it would, the horizontal quart na be much newer, and probably an outlying mass of the Dicynodon rocks. He explained these phenom- ena by supposing that rocks of widely different ages had been metamor- phosed into masses having the same mineralogical characters. The dis- covery of certain fossils has lately verified the co ec aig respecting the Devonian age of the or and Bokkeveldt rocks ; . Rubid therefore infers that the rest of the old rocks are of she same age, Fi- nally, the ie of a “Caininite in the sandstone, not unlike some specimens belonging to the same genus found in the Dicynodon rocks, renders the probsbility of the truth of the second conjecture | very great.— Reader, May 20. 8. Anthraker erpeton, a new Carboniferous Reptile —Prof. Owen — described a fossil reptile from the Coal-beds of Llantrissent in Glam ganshire, Wales. It comes from the lower part of the “ Middle” if sh the upper part of the “ Lower” Coal-measures. The species is interme- ; ‘bs indicate that the animal belonged to “ that low air-breathing type which, with developmental condition of the bones like those in some fishes, and very common in Devonian, showed forms of the skeleton more like those fa ae fn reptiles, than in the modern air-breathing Batrachians.”— Jan. 7. in the district of — Me A deposit of bitumen and of two beds of are under exploration i in the district of Iturbide, be- sides a source of x aaa near seme. and a vein of cinnabar at Sultepec, Two Frenchmen, MM. Favre and Gabrie ], are about to under- take the working of the iron ore of i district of Chalco, aie rail- roads are being Sort geet built.—Les Mondes, March 2 10. Geiss the cg gee of an Equisetu pi ie tn seum at Turin Slater a oa of gneiss in an erratic block, d ecwead appar- the Vakatine, wk the mass of crystalline rocks of that re- gion which underlie the "Infraliassic group of Sismonda. Mr. Sismonda regards the fossil as proof of the m perineal on eset a of the funda- mental gneiss of the Alps, and as affording a fact bearing on the age of the ita impressions ee the oo beds of the Western Alps.—LZes Mondes, March 2 HH, Kelicine H Sr. Crarre Saas thee: names bicarbonate of pot- ash, of th me composition with that of the arts, found native at Chypis in Valais. An analysis afforded carbonic acid 42-2, potash 46°6, carbonate of lime 2-5, carbonate of magnesia 1:34, sand and organic matters 3°60, water 7-76, corresponding to the P eho er KO, CO?2+HO0. Botany and Zoology. 125 12. Geological Excursion—Mr. Frank H. Bravtzy, a member of the Zoological and Paleontological Department of the Sheffield Scientific School, proposes to take charge of a few students, for the purpose of iving a practical introduction to geology, during a trip of about four weeks through the State of New York. He will meet his class at Burlington, Vt., on Monday, July 31st, and commence work on the following morning at Port Kent on the opposite side of the lake. The trip will include visits to some of the fine scenery for which New York is famous, as well as to characteristic and productive localities of nearly all the formations from the Potsdam sandstone to the Chemung group, for whose examination, within a small extent of country, the State affords the best opportunity in America, if not in the world. For some years past Mr. Bradley has been engaged in the study of the New York rocks and fossils, and has made quite extensive collections therefrom. We recommend him for the charge which he undertakes. Mr. B. informs us that the expenses while with him need not exceed one hundred dollars besides his fee of thirty dollars. Communications addressed to him at New Haven will be received as late as July 25th. Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. id Ay “ ia 7 oh =] = ou =. B ® oo ° e 5 = @ “= - a acee to Campanulacee inclusive, was issued early in the present yest 126 Scientific Intelligence. this volume, are devoted to the order Composite, which is elaborated by Prof. Harvey. Aster is here pretty largely represented, the genus being, as T'ripolium, (There ought now, therefore, to be no question about the admissibility of the Polynesian Agdtea of the Violet Family, which has been thought to be in pronunciation too like Agathe/a.) The price of the volume has been raised from twelve to eighteen shillings, which is still very reasonable. A. G. hesaurus Capensis, by Prof. Harvey, the excellent companion of the above Flora, has reached the two-hundredt plate, completing the second volume. The most interesting plant figured in the last fasciculus is Hydnora triceps, illustrated upon a double plate. A. G. 4. Ammobroma Sonore (literally, the Sand-food of Sonora) is the name of an extraordinary root-parasitic plant, of the region at the head of the Gulf of California, which Dr. Torrey has just described and figured as a new genus, allied to the rare Mexican Corallophyllum of Kun (or Lennoa, Lexarza), and still more to the Californian and hardly better- known Pholisma of Nuttal. It hardly throws any new light upon the affinity of these strange plants, which, though justly thought to be rather Monotropaceous than Orobanchaceous, are still obscure. This plant, growing in a forlorn sandy desert, almost covered by the sand in which it lives, was found by its discoverer, the late Col. A. B. Gray. to form a trict, and is said to be very luscious when first gather re- sembling in taste the sweet potato, only far more delicate, 5. Annales Botanices Systematice, tom. VI.—With the fourth volume, . ; hands of Dr. Carl Miiller of Berlin; and fascicle 7 of the sixth volume, just issued, concludes the enumeration of the Phanerogamous species published from 1851 to 1855 inclusive, and carries down to the letter © the alphabetical index of these three volumes. The remainder of the index will occupy fasc. 8 of this bulky volume, which began to be issued in 18 The accumulation of species published within the last 10 years (since 1855) is perhaps equally large; and, if treated in the same way, eir enumeration may be completed in the year 1875. It is to be re gretted that the compacter plan, adopted in the earlier volumes of the series, was not red to. ‘ A. 6. The Production of Organisms in closed vessels—As appears from an abstract in the Reader of May 20, a paper by Gzoree Camp, M.D. in continuation of a former communication, was read before the Royal “M. Pasteur, in his memoir, speaks of examining his substances with & power of 350 diameters, Now my experience throughout has been, that it is impossible to recognize these minute objects, with any degree of cer- Botany and Zoology. 127 tainty, even with double that enlne power. When once their ex- istence on a slide is shown with a a power of 1500 to 1700 diameters, it is quite possible aharvAars age recognize the same object with a power of 750,’ ’ ke. Hes u _can now have no doubt of ane fact. hee though the infusion itself be thoroughly boile “Tt seems clear pat either (1) the germs of Bacterium are capa able of resisting the boiling mperature in a fluid, or (2) that they are spontaneously generated, or (3) that they are not ‘ organisms’ atall. I was myself somewhat inclined to the latter rect concerning them at one time; but some researches in which I am now engaged have gone far to convince me that they are really minute focal: forms. The choice, Nests ps seems to remain between the other two conclusions. Upon these I will not venture a Positive opinion, but remark only, aor if it be true that ‘germs’ can re- sist the boiling temperature in fluid, then both parties in the controversy are working upon a false principle, ae neither M. Pouchet nor M. P. teur is likely at present to solve the problem of spontaneous gene’ n The decided conclusion as to the rganic chernctet of these B mga was reached through an examination of t ety the = object- ae cently iiatodet by Messrs. Powell and Tesla ; @ On the absorption and assimilation of sevice acid by pipe Mr. ‘Bovestreavct. has recently made some experiments on the absorp- tion and assimilation of carbonic acid by leaves exposed to sunlight. His results are thus summed up: 1. Leaves rahe to the sun in pure carbonic acid do not decompose this gas, or if they do, it is with exces- sive slowness, 2. Leaves exposed in a mixture of carbonic acid and atmospheric air rapidly ke Beet re former gas. Oxygen does not seem to interfere in the phenomenon. 3. Carbonic acid is rapidly de- composed by ~ when that gas is — with either hydrogen or Thus phosphorus placed in pure oxppeit do oes not i me luminous, and does not burn, or if it does, burns with excessive slowne Inam mixture of oxygen and atmospheric air, ee al ieee bas 1 rapidly ; it onic acid cabins the gas and e pies oxygen.— Reader. 8. Classification of Polyps; by ‘A. E. Verrttt.—The following sabe divisions of the class of Polyps have been proposed by Prof. Verrill, in the Proceedings of the Essex Fstitute, vol. iv, p. 145. Orver I. Maprerorarta.—Polyps simple or compound with embry- onic or rudimentary basal or abactinal ion: which has no special func- tion unless for vegetative attachment while young. Actinal area well eared, form broadly expanded, having a tendency in | groups to become narrowed Toward the mouth. Tentacles simple con 128 Scientific Intelligence. the connective tissues extending’ across the a ed chambers and filling them from below. Interambulacral spaces distinct. order I. Stauracea (Madreporaria rugosa *).—Coral s oes or compound by bidding ; chie: pe ra - and endothecal ; septa igpurendy 3 in multiples of four, sometimes wan embryonic, like a young Astrea or Fungia. oy ili Sai Gyathophy lide, ee Cystiphy lide. I. Fungacea.—Polyps eee simple mpound by marginal or disk balding oa by fissiparity. Ten d-uciaeaneiia in multiples of six, inpea developed, scattered on ae actinal sesh usuall — ‘gas i of wali va scarcely exsert. Coral broad and low, gro centrifugal, theo me — walls nok developed, often Sibaplety at teh. , usually forming the basal attachm Panties 105 tolissla, Lophowride, Fungide, ae Suborder lI. Astreacea—Poly yps se compound, either by fissiparity or va- rious modes of budding. Tentacles usually well dev veloped long, subcylindrical, limited in number, in multiples of six PN je the Coral mural, septal and Spots | growth vertical and centrifugal, pr aeons turbinated forms which are often elon a am ea Lithophyllide, Meandrinide, Eusmilide, Caryophyllide, Stylinids, - Astreine, Oculinide, Stylophoride agree IV. Mad (Mad tacles in definite num- welve or more, well developed, cxteeiing the narrow disk, therefore nearer _ the cincab: Polyps with the upper portion much exsert, flexile ; nates wth chiefly ver- tical ; coral m and septal, porous. Polyps proctibes by budding, sometimes simple. a. ee oe Madreporide. spaces pr one open, destitute of connecting tissues and solid deposits. Suborder I, Zoanthacea.—Poly ae at, budding from mural ex- pansions; tentacles es simple, Fate at edge o Families—Zoanthi ide, Bergide. Suborder IT. Antipathacea— sePelepe ti nnected by a ccenenchyma, secreting @ solid sclerobase or ate axis, Tentacles fas six to twenty-four, Aah conical. Families— sie etn a Gerardide. * This group is placed here with considerable —— oe principally on ac- count of the close resemblance in structur young of the succeeding and higher seit when they first begin to poe pio’ which then consists of a ring of epit or epidermal deposit with a few, i ect, rugose septa radiating from the ce If the number fo e a constant feature of or arrangement of their se tis | possible that they may be entitled to of Polyps. To this piso Prof. J. D. Dana inclines, Prof. Agassiz rs the gious with Hy- droid Acalephs, on account of their resemblance, in some feat he Tabulata. I wever, that the nee nsverse plates in Cyathazonida and Cy, ide the perfection of the vertical septa in Stauride. and some of Shc Cyathophyllide, together with their owes structure, shows them to be more c allied to the Fungacea and —— reacea, of which they may be considered embryonic types, — at the same time the group is a cae, having. siaicgies oe ll the higher grou of Po and vi some er sei th Hyeivoide ee hig ps sate also, a Botany and Zoology. 129 p ete lobes or folds. Most of the species are simple, a few are compound by fissiparity, many abnormally bud from the wall near the base, a few secrete from the base a of Antipathes. amilies—Actinide, Thalassianthide, Minyide, Ilyanthide, Cerianthide. Orver III. Axtcyonanta.—Polyps with well developed actinal, mu- ral, and abactinal regions, compound by budding. Tentacles eight, pin- nately lobed, long, encircling a narrow disk. No interambulacral spaces. Ambulacral ones open and wide. der I. Aleyonacea.—Polyps turbinate at base, budding in various ways, en- a. bor crusting, adherent to foreign bodies by the cenenchym Families— Alcyonide, Xenide, Cornularide, Tubiporide. Suborder IT. Gorgonacea.—Polyps cylindrical, short, connected by a ccenenchy- ma, secreting a central supporting axis. Fe nuiee—Gorgonides, Plexauride, Primnoide, Gorginellide, Iside, Corallide, Briari fe, Pennatulacea.—Polyps forming free, moving colonies, the co _ Suborder ITT. mpo- oes ta portion with locomotive functions and special cavities, with or without a soli i axis, Families—Pennatulide, Pavonaride, Veretillide, Renillide. 9. Embryology of the Star Fish; by AvexanperR Acassiz. 70 pp. 4to, with 8 lithographic plates, from vol. v, of Prof. Agassiz’s Contribu- tions to the Natural History of the United States.—The microscopic re- searches here descri I ce in the classes, in their primary stages of growth ? They are all built made up of Echino- structural plan of these animals belonging to different Series, Vou. XL, No. 118.—Juxy, 1865. gemen derm Pluteus, in the relations of the intestine to the stomach * For a closer comparison of young Ctenophore and Echinoderm Larvae, see the _ elu zm geen ttt te Astronomy. 131 tean forms certainly show that the plan, upon which the Echinoderms are built, does not differ from that upon which the Acalephs are built, and that we have between the Echinoderms and Acalephs the same con- shown, by Prof. Agassiz, to exist in the adult of many Echinoderms, while the facts above stated prove that it also exists in the early stages the embryonic development, when, in fact, the water-system is ormed appears the inclinations I of the planetary orbits toward the invariable plane “ . Ments seem n Let ¢ be the inclination of the orbit, and 7’ the inclination of the inva- riable plane toward the ecliptic. As the values of z themselves are subject to quite considerable changes, we deemed it unnecessary to cal- culate the exact values of I, and made use of the equation ee I a a’ - +; i.e. subtracting the smaller from the greater angle. + Th the editor has induced us to calculate the exact values of I in order to see how great an e i mitted in neglecting the erical excess A of the spherical triangle. From the fifth edition of — ‘commana Astronomie Populaire (Berlin, 1861) we take the following ” elements : = Q i Mercury, 46° 23’ 55” v" ia Venus, 75 1k 29°8 3 23 31 °4 Mars, 48 16 18-0 1 61 67 Jupiter, 98 48 37-8 1 18 42 4 Saturn, ee oe ey ae 2 29 29 9 Uranus, 43 8 47:8 46 29 -2 Neptun 129 5 Tuvariable plane, 106 © 49 ‘0 132 Scientific Intelligence. These values give the following results (stated to the nearest minute) :* eae ‘« Mercury, 6° 18’ 5° 25’ 53” Venus, 2 11 1 49 2 1 40 16 1° 24 Jupiter, 18 16 2 Saturn, 55 64 : ranus, See 49 13 45 iz eptune, 33 We have also given the values according to the formula made use of in our article, page 188—and the difference of the two first values will give ho te pectin excess A neglected in that | eee Il be seen tha : the deviation only in the case of Mars exceeds one totes and in the case of Mercury is nearly Sa f Eiea : but these be- Tong to the smaller faneti Of the large planets there is only Neptune near coincidence between the orbit of Neptune and the invariable plane, a out by Mr. Trowbridge (vol. XXXVill, p. 355) does not now exist. eptune is not in its maximum of ine ination, then this circumstance . = would make it highly probable that there must be another planet be- a yond Neptune (§ 5, hus it Hors fs our numbers for I Pee on page 139, t ie utes from the invariable plane, and thus Ee ot to be the ultima — hale of the planetary world, wa City, April, 1865. __ 2. New Comet.—A large comet was visible in aa, southern hemisphere ah as onths of January a February. It was seen at Rio Janeiro on the 24th ‘of January. On the 26th, its tail was 26° jn length. The fol- ee elements were computed by Mr. Moesta from observations on _ Feb. 21st, 25th, and 29th. On the 20th, he observ. 9 second very — faint tail branching out to the north of the principal tail, Apogee: Bes 1865, 7 oe Cj eg mane 92°) 17"16 Qo = des: lh lee = 84511 _ * Obtained from the formule A+B oS oped 2 cs See ak Serer ae ee o : a7 : . - where ia 6 o/ gin A cin Ww tan A+B sin A.sin B, cos ——- ¢ cos — sing = 2: aed . = ‘ 7} « Astronomy. 133 1. Huggins on the F Rpectrim of the Nebula in Orion.—At the meeting of the Royal Ast. Soc., March 10th, 1865, Mr. Huggins remarked that “* the recent examination of the Great Nebula i in Orion shows that this large and wonderful object belongs to the class of gaseous bodies, The light from this nebula resolves itself. under the refractive power of the prism into the same three —— lines. With a narrow atten they ye Radics than as an cole vaporous mass. ' Since the pera apenas bi lataa of the enormous distances of the nebula has no longer any ation to rest upon, in respect of the nebule which give pe pa trum, it is much to be desired that motion should be sought fer in such of them as are suitable for this purpose. '€ gaseous matter of these objects represented the ‘ nebulous fluid” out Ms which, according to the hypothesis of Sir Wm. Herschel, stars. to be elabo rated, we should expect a spectrum in which groups of bright lines were as numerous as the dark lines due to absorp- tion found in the spectra of the stars. the three bright lines be sup 0 indicate matter in its most Sia gress ve Fiber of some kind is, apap rugs by the afer of which in- — fies our Sun and the 134 Miscellaneous Intelligence. . On the Meteorite of Mamboum, Bengal ; Mr. Haip1ncEr.— ms meteorite fell 130 miles acithead of pach on the 22d of De- a nut, near : base of the stone is ash-gray and is distinctly brecciform in structure, without rounded granules. Monosulphuret of iron is abundant in it, theugh only in minute particles; grains of metallic iron are less numer- ous. The spi gravity is 3-424.—Ber. Wien. Ak kad., Sept. 21, 1864. ew Asteroid.—Another small planet was discovered April 26th by d e Ganjaes at Naples. It was equal in brightness to a star of the 10th magnitude. VY. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. - Hzperiments on the production of cylinders of ice by pressure through orifices ; by Mr. Fresca, (Proc. Acad. Sci., Paris, for Feb. 21).— by pressure at the outer extremity. The wena Sci soda the author daoate furrows or fractures of a similar kind, and in ases the material was divided into small separate lamell. The evenly bean structure of the cylinder of ice shows that the origin of these fractures is subsequent to the first formation of the cylinder. For a block of the dimensions employed i in the experiments the pres- sure required for the flow of the ice is 10,000 ep reign while for lead it is 50,000 kilograms, These pressures correspond, for the square centi- if the orifice were smaller in proportion to va diameter of the mass un- der pressure, the force requisite would be not __Mr. Fresca observes that the viveubedtsilela attending the formation ues- tures at the moment ef. eseape from the pressure, are so many ene : of resemblance to the oe There is not the mass of Miscellaneous Intelligence. 135 material constituting moraines, but the traces of coloring matter which are deposited in parallel threads, and which are reunited toward the axis, complete to a degree the analogy. Tyndall had before shown that ice could be moulded to any shape by essure in a mould. Mr. Fresea observes that his trials prove, in addi- tion, that it may by pushed into a thread, in accordance with the geomet- rical law of this kind of flow. The facts help to bring the explanations of Tyndall and Forbes into accord, since they indicate that the viscosity, more or less great, of the material does not necessarily play any import- ant part in the phenomenon. ‘They exhibit the material conditions of the flow: and the transparency of the jet, after its escape from the orifice, shows, besides, that, under a comparatively feeble pressure, ice may changed in form without ceasing to be glassy in texture or aspect.—Les Mondes, Feb. 23. 2. Observations on Sepulture in the Age of Stone, between Castries Mr. Gervais concludes from his observations, that, in the remote period = referred to, the country of Castries and much of southern France were inhabited by the race here indicated.—Les Mondes, Feb. 23. : . 3. Lake-habitations—Mr. Messixomer, of Zurich, has again suc- . i i highly interesting discoveries and observations by his continued excavations in the large turf-bed near Robenhausen. It is true that these latest discoveries do not give the key to the chronolog- ical enignia of the Pale buildings and their inhabitants ; but they spread a clearer light on the manner of living in that remote period, as well as its condition of civilization. Hitherto it was believed that only two of these old settlements existed on tbis curious spot, one above the other; these recent observations make it plain that there are three, one on the __, top of the other. . The two oldest settlements have been jou Split oak, had not been destroyed by fire, but had been abandoned in t course of time; it is poor in remnants of inte Which must have existed for a great numbe 136 Miscellaneous Intelligence. oriron, The distinct separation and length of duration of the pre-his- torical periods of the so-called Stone period and Bronze period have no- whe in tl i mark and Mecklenberg. No settlements of the oldest men, among those known till now, can, in fact, be compared in size and preservation with the large lake-villages of the Stone period at Robenhausen, Wauwy! and Wangen, on Lake Constance,— Atheneum, May 27. 4. On the Human Remains of the Trou du Frontal ; by P. J. Van Benepen and Dr, E. Duronr.—Remains of fourteen individuals have de Frontal. Of the two best crania, one is orthognathous, the other -cegmtgraabet and still the prognathous one has the largest cavity. he various other bones include fragments of crania and of nearly every” with them are bones of various mammals of kinds now living, besides different species of Helix, Cyclostoma and Unio, flint implements, orna- ments, amulets, coarse pottery, a crystal of fluor spar, a bone needle, ete. 5. Instrument for measuring distances—Dr. Emsmayy, in a paper in Poggendorff’s Annalen, describes a new instrument for measuring dis- by Dr. Em eye-piece of 1” focal length, a screen of ground glass, upon which the me | image is receiy it will be seen, resembles in principle a ph ‘aphic camera; the len however, is about 5} feet. In order to keep the indications within cer- tain limits, the screen is placed behind the eye-piece, and the distance between the lenses is so arranged t iation i i him } aed Sg the committee. men and animals. General Mosquera, Minister of the United States of Columbia to Great Britain, at the invitation of the President, addressed a few remarks to . . the meeting in English, in which he described the efforts which the to survey various parts of New Granada, confirmed the statements of Mr. Oliphant with regard to the geography of the Isthmus. As to the cautions. Mr. Gerstenberg reviewed the capabilities of the various routes which had been proposed for a ship canal, and gave his reasons for preferrin complete the examination of this region.—/teader, : _ 1. Walker Prizes, Boston Society © Natural History.—tThe follow- ing prizes were founded by the late Dr. William J. Walker, for the best Memoirs, in the English peta ty subjects proposed by a committee » appointed by the Council of the Boston Society of Natural History. - first and second are to be awarded annually; the third, once in five years, . _ beginning with 1870. First—For the best memoir presented, a prize of sixty dollars may be awarded. If, however, the memoir be one of marked merit, the amount awarded may be increased to one hundred dollars, at the discretion of Miscellaneous Intelligence. Thitd-—Grand Honorary Prize. The Council of the Society may award the sum of five hundred dollars for such scientific investigation or dd " oe The following subjects for prizes under the Walker fund have been : i announced by the Soci Subject of the Annual Prize for 1865-6. “Adduce and discuss the by the manuscrip Boston, May, 1865. 8. Tunnel of Mount Cenis—Of the total length of the Mt. C tunnel, 12,220 meters, 7,977 remain to be made. Having been be finished on the first of April, 1865; of which, 1646 meters were accom- plished by the old methods of tunnelling and 2777-4 by the new m chanical methods since the commencement of 1863—802 meters in 1863, 1088 in 1864, and 337-4 in the first three months of 1865. The rate of i i eight months to complete the tunnel.—Les Mondes, May 18, 9. Centennial Celebration of the Royal Saxon Mining Acad Freiberg.—Baron von Beust and Professors Reich, Breithaupt, a ; in and it is especially requested tha _ should do as much as possible 6. . Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 Secretary of the Treasury of Brazil gave orders to have the baggage and instruments of the party pig: unopened at the Custom House, and every courtesy was extended to the members of the expedition by the pt, dune 9, 11. geeport on the netgear 4 in Paris ; by M. Devittr.—As far as we the commencement of the last century was 1 in 28; 50 years later, lin 30; in 1836, 1 in 36. The year 1840 was exceptional, and the ratio was 4 in 333; in 1841 it was again 1 in 36, In 1846, 5 years later, the ratio as 1 in 37 ; in 1851, 1 in 38; in 1856,1in 39. ‘These numbers apply to “old aris. n 1860, the time of the annexation, the population was increased by the accession of an area less favorable for health than the interior of Paris, Still, on Rai of deaths in 1861, out of 1,696,141 inhabitants, was 1 in 39. In 1862 and 1863 the diminution in the ratio of deaths Ooty it nee in both years to 1 in 40, the number of deaths being, in 1862, e Commission see the improvement of the public health to the great works carried forward in the capital—that is, the opening o avenues, and the improvements in the supply of water, in drainage, in the roe: rhombi has been determined to place a aaa bust Salcnars in one of the London scientific Societies, and to establish a Masser Scholarship, or Fellowship, in Natural Science in the Univer sity of Edinburgh. Upwards of £1000 have already been subscribed.— ackie’s Repert., ‘ay 1st. 13. Ink.—The Pave Société d’Encouragement pour V'Industrie Na- tionale has offered a prize of three thousand dollars for an ink that will not corrode steel eis n. 14, Production of the Sexes.—The views of Mr. Thury, published ip volume xxxix of this Bees (p. 84) have recently been controverted by Mr. © Coste, in a memoir read on May 8th before te Academy of Sciences at Paris. The author Lee his conclusions on an extensive series of ex- Periments and observatio 15. British Aeaisatien The thirty-fifth meeting of the British As- bideshierea the 6th of September, 1865, at President for a a year, Gea neral fairy: ‘16. Academy of Sciences, Paris —In May last, ae Struve was elected _ 8 corresponding member of the Astronomical Section of the Academy, in the place of Carlini, and Plantamour of Geneva in the place of William the Botanical section, Alexander Braun was a ara.—The second ova oy volume apd the ublished by th is 140 Miscellaneous Bibliography. OBITUARY. V ALENCIENNES.—Mr. Me omar the distinguished zoologist, died at Paris on the 12th of April last. He was born in that city on the 9th of April, 1794. Mr. Decaisne aubouuaed his dea th to the Academy Science in the following words: Mr. Valenciennes was the friend ‘and fellow-worker of the most illustrious naturalist of the age, George Cuvier. He was for half a century the friend and confidant of Alexander von Humboldt. Such friendships he ever honor the memory of our regret- ted confrére.—Les Mondes, May Pierre GRatrouet, the Sequel ‘professor of zoology of the Faculty of — Sciences, Paris, distingu a he also as a spiritualist writer, died suddenly on the 21st of February las EON Duroour, one of fhe most sepa of French zoologists, and especially bee in entomology, long an associ ~~ . Cuvier, Latreille, ete., died on the 18th of April, in his eighty-sixth pee. DMIRAL haaoe: the able and Jearned conta of the a Expedition of the Beagle, (that of which Darwin was the natur rali hydrographical surveyor in various regions, and author of extent me- teorological researches, died eee in May last, in his 60th year, having en born on the 5th of July, 1 ESSLY, a prominent Swiss ‘geologist, died recently at Soleure, in Switzerland R J. RicHarpson, es ee naturalist and Arctic be died on the 5th of Jun VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. A Treatise on Astronomy ; by Exras Loomis, LL.D., Professor Nat Phil and ‘Ailton. in Yale College. Harper & Brothers, New ae ce tat ae, Rid 338.—This treatise is especially designed as a college : is primary object has directed the selection of the topics, ical comets and haat isd » the ane ; stars, dc. on Practical Astronomy a been deservedly classes affords xperience ase the peculiar wants of college. reatise = worthy of favor. Miscellaneous Bibliography. 141 2. Entomological Society of Philadelphia. fio Entomological So- ciety of Philadelphia iy! the three years past has issued three vol- Page 1, sii of sgn E.T. Cresson. —p. 201, On certain Diurnal Lepi idop- tera of N, Am ; Wm. Edwards (with a p va p. 204, Variation of sexes in 48 : A 16 ierine ; 7. Reakirt.—p. 222, On new species of Citheronia, and on Ari- . Gr. 3 ¢. ins New North A Along with the last number of the Proceedings we have received a copy of a Circular, signed by the Publication ay e, E. T. Cresson, and A. R. J. Cassin rote, annnouncing tha Society had been Hemi indebted for its means of publishing to the generosity of _ _ thomas ‘ilson, who had given $5,000 as a fund for this purpose, , means, which has as well as to the goer interests “of science. : othe The Society, as it states, cannot offer any 5 ania advan- tages for dovations to the oe They pose, however, to make those and give at least $100, Honorary or more will be entitled also to The public may aid the So- © orga are furnished at thesmall — completed, and they are now ready to og shpat in yee 8vo, and are crowded with 142 Miscellaneous Bibliography. fossils, from the Carboniferous, Triassic, J ares Cretaceous, and to d fi M ek a formations. They are = patents rom dra ings y Mr. Mee Mr. able, saa that has yet been published on an S cioartndas of Ameri- Youre ae M.A., FRG. = < 294 PP. 8vo. F rederict on, NS w Bru uns- 3 it ies ocks; the Carboniferous series; the Devonian; the U and Middle sfhuriaa the Quebec Grou up; and the noe Pictracek Beaches and Valley-erosion. ” ‘The Albertite question is discussed, and with the conclusion that it is an “inspissated or altered eh Bi ” injected from hs (from the Devonian) into fissures situated along anticlinal axes. Comparative Geography, by Cart Rirrer, late Professor of Geog- ae in the University of Berlin. Translated for the use of Schools and Colleges, by Wa. L. Gace. 220 pp. 12mo. Paleseee 1865. J. B. Lippincott & Co.—This work is a translation of one of the series of lec- tures by the great geographer Ritter, whose acinus it is almost super- fluous to commend. It is a condensed and philosophical review of th apricn! features of our — presented without sone se. ee 6. paem Report of the on Institute of the City of New York, for the years 1863, 64. Albany, 1864.—Discussions, opinions and infor- agriculture and the useful arts, are presented in this volume, together with the address of Gen. Wm. H. Anthon and the anniversary address of C. P. y, LL.D. 7 ’ Baird's Review of American Birds irae 10 to 20, covering — to 320 yao of Baird’s “ Review of American Birds,” have They treat of the Motacillida, ‘Syloicolide, (the latter un- der ae four cubis Sylvicolinee, Geothlypine, Icteriane and Setopha- gine), = the +8 rundinide. =A . Cha: e seventh volume of this excellent Baercopli has been Seed, ace the work nearly through with the letter e Commissioner ——— oe the year 1862. ; plates—Among the m resti Miscellaneous Bibliography. 11. Report on the Formation of the Canterbury Plains (New Zealand,) with a Geological Sketch-map and five Geological sections, by Juiius Haast, Ph.S., F.GS., etc., periice. Geologist, 64 pp. small fol., with a colored m map and secti ions.—Canterbury Province adjoins Banks’s Pe- ninsula, on the west side of the. middle island of New Zealand. The Saher, Gabb, Conrad, Tryon, Newcomb and Whitfield. The Paledes by PW are three on Eocene shells, two of them by T. A. Conrad, and « one Chemical Teehnology, or Chemin in a se to the Arts and Manu- factures; by Taomas RicHarpson, : Le. This, a soles —- ‘of soewdey: “tilled by Atrrep Newton, M.A., 1865. The Fibre Plants ofl Laie, = rica, and 8 Colonies: A Treatise on Rheea, Plan- tain. Pine Apple, Jute, oat on China Grass, and New Zealand Flax (Phormium tenax). 1865. London acinto: - Animaux Fossiles et Geologie cs PAttique. The 11th part of this work, by AL- ‘Bert Gaupry, has appe Atlas Céleste, contenant "plus de 100,000 étoiles et nébuleuses, par Cx. Dien This very comple ete Atlas consists of 26 m maps. The proje oe pemperes paca to the development of a sphere of 65 centimeters in dia On the SB aac a the Philadelphia an and California "Petroleum pag ney d Los :. a; by B. Situian. SS on Ma S Note sur les Tremblem 3 par M. ALExis spatod, 12 . SvO; from the Memoirs of the Dijon Aen = 1863, 3, and 1864. ‘These ese Reports icesilen fiuterndem Tex’ mn ‘Dr. agen 4 Scuencs, Prof. z Wiirzburg : ildungen. fae 6 Thir. 20 Ngr. Subscriptions to this work are ublisher, C. W. Kreidel, Weisbaden. i Soc., Pai LADELPHIA, Vol, XIII, New oo : : ) . < z i Osses in the goed States, east of the Mississippi, with descriptions of two 8) ‘ames,—p. 117, On the numerical relations of gravity and mag- 144 Miscellaneous Bibliography. petient. a spe cies 8 of marine and freshwater Algwe, which had ts i i T tributed o Lesquer the Central sant Fair. Rosert Batpces was elected in rose President for the ee M, Vice Presidents, T. Srewarpsoy, | expen Secretar , B. H. Rano, M.D, Recordiag Secretary, D. Serceanr, “ibrar n.—1865. I, January, Febroay and March.—Page 2, es otes on some new and rapacious binds J. Cas a new Cormorant from the Paralione. fe "California : J. G. Coo rp %, Pod ex- — and exceptional ap iets of Diatoms, in some White Mountain locate, 9, Synonymy of the species of Streptomatide, a family of fluviatile Malieséa,: inhabiting N orth America, part 4; @. W. Tryon, Jr.—p. 37, Descriptions of new species of Birds of the Families Paride, Vireonide, Tyrannides and Trochilide, with a note on Myiarchus Panamensis; G'. V. Lawrence.—p. 40, naa on the death of Dr. T. B. Wilson.—p. 41, Notice of some New Teo of Organic Remains, from the Coal measures of pues FP. B, Meek and A. H. Wort . ACAD. oF i Hydroca arbons =p. Bate Revioon of ih "Doctrine of Conditional Sentences in ous a “atin: “Good: ROCEEDINGS oF THE Bost otk ¥ Nar. Hist, vol. ix.—Page 319, Diatoms from Randolph, Mass.; 0. Stodder. ha 321, On Selandria Cerasi; .A. Winchell.— . 328, Fertilization of Cypripe ae spectabile and Platanthera psychodes ; 8. J. 329, Ont ith—p. 329, On two Albino girls; B. J. Jeffries.—p. 332 — Mode of birth in the Opossum ; J. G. Shute—p. 333, Aretic plants on Mt. Wates ock, C. pie On Amphioxus; re.—p. 334, Development of Scat J. P. 85, Notice of Record Book of the Linnean lety ; ould ——p. 349, On ubularia (see this Journal [2], xxxvii, 61).— 2, A supposed new mia; 8. —p. 345, Two Ichneumons apoarers on S: O- so f N ; A, Gra 103, 'ishes = ce No. Il with No. II; A. Garrett ae Hono) —p. de —_ California ishes—No, with cuts; J. G. Coo naan 115, st ge e@ species Helix of Cali om 120, Y New Virgularia of Califo W. M. Jn Cal : =f a : —P- es; H. Behr.—p- 1 orse and d Elephant i = a a r San Francisco; W.P.B —p. 167, Ammonites or Ce vegeeed = ioe a Bar, "Middle fork =! the American iver; W. —Brushi - Moore.—p. 17 estate S region, Sa : .—P- 174, Crystallization of Brushite ; J.D. Dana.—p. 175, New California ‘marine shells ; ae . ee: (of = Englan go AE _PRoceepines or rae Essex Instrrure. 145. sarod of Pol : = Verrill.—p. | 153, > Hints nd distribution ot te the Duck Hawk Ang Breer _ and description of the eggs; J..4. Allen, Kaiserlichen en A AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Art. XV.—Friedrich Georg Withelm Struve.* ial Spectable yeomen in the Duchy of Holstein. Thus our old and honored associate was descended from the original stock of the Anglo-Saxon race; a descent which many of us remember 1808, to send young Wilhelm to Russia, at that time probably the quietest country in the world, and where his elder brother Carl occupied the post of Classical Lecturer in the University of -Dorpat. his university, so soon to be illuminated by the ex- _* From Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Feb. 10, 1865. Aw Jour. Scr.—Szconp Szrtes, VoL. XL, No. 119.—Serr., - 19 146 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. ample and fame of Wilhelm Struve, had been eee founded by Alexander I, immediately after his a accession to the throne, and was intende rope, where Struve's native ine the German, was at that time fe Wet little understood. These early literary pursuits also apg toate in no slight ‘degree, to secure that balance ane breadth of m or which our lamented associate was ward so Reiareabin Tn 1811 Struve took his first university degree in Philology, and it was only after having thus fulfilled his father’s desire that he passed to that branch of science which henceforth became the principal object of his life. No doubt, while he was a stu- dent at Dorpat, the able scientific lectures ‘of the elder Pacrdh excited a warm interest in his mind; but it was rather an inner _ call than any external circumstance ‘which led Struve at length to devote himself to astronom "By thi th is arrangement the young stad | regular attendance on the bc tures of the me Se soy lee untoward necessity served, as natural with one of Struve’s aoe only still further to ‘nicked his zeal to make the best of advantages as remained to him, — and to animate his s seleliance, Freidrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. “147 In 1811, while thus engaged, partly in attendance on the fam- ily of the De Bergs, and partly in the prosecution of his own studies at Dorpat, Struve passed on to the class of Astronomy. fectionate and respectful memory. Huth’s health was too infirm to permit him to assist his pupil to any great extent, and hence young Struve was, by a happy fatality, or in truer words b the discipline of Providence, once more thrown upon self-reli- ance and the resources of his own efforts. The Professor him- self was scarcely ever able to visit the Observatory, but he per- mitted his pupil to make what use of it he could. This Servatory was at that time but scantily supplied with instru- ments, and even those for the most part were not in a condition for actual use. Among these instruments was a Transit by our countryman Dolland, and the excellence of the object-glass attracted the special notice of the embryo astronomer. The pil- there was no provision existing for the attachment of the Y’s and the other subsidiary apparatus, while the body of the in- strument itself had never been removed from the case in which it had been packed. or the mounting of this instrument Owever, the two offices were happily separated, and Struve was henceforth enabled to devote his zeal and his abilities exclusively € proper work of an Observatory. Z 148 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. Having thus arrived at that point in our venerated associ- a6 s career when he was appointed the chief of an a on to be rendered by his labors famous to all time, we m for a few moments not improperly revert to the cireunktaitll which years before, indicated the bent of his mind, and, in a “a time - was sort ea es the extent of shiny degrees. This first success had a decided influence in directing Struve’s mind to the abundant harvest which he foresaw might be reaped from a zealous devotion to Sidereal Astronomy. Nearly at the same time, ue Bae in the summer at Sagnitz, in the house of his fri e Berg, Struve’s attention was drawn to Geodesy ; iro Pio nee; this work he eect stecta ge with Moog had no instrumental means at his ot Ae sty _beyo: Friedrich Georg Withelm Struve. 149 From 1813 to 1839 Struve continued at his post at the Ob- seryatory of Dorpat. As we have already seen, the means at his disposal were wholly inadequate to the most modest require- ments of an astronomer. It was not long, however, before the success of his labors attracted the attention of the Russian gov- ernment, and through the benevolent intercession of Prince Lie- ven, then Chancellor of the University, and as an acknowledg- ment of the services of the professor; the Observatory was fur- nished with such instruments and pecuniary means as soon raised it to the rank of a first-rate establishment. Thus, in 1821, the Meridian Circle was obtained from Reichenbach and Ertel, and in 1824, Fraunhofer’s famous 9-inch Refractor was added at once the masterpiece of that great artist, and the commence- ment of a new era in the history and employment of the tele- e some degree, to the state of sidereal astronomy before he com- menced his work. In 1803, Sir William Herschel had announced € two component stars happened to be o Parallel. We have already adverted to the then young Struve's _ Measurement of the same remarkable star, and to the effect which it had on the direction of his energies: this, however, was but a Single and isolated result, and it was not until some years ater Ramely, in 1819, that the record of measured angles of 150 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. and distance began to be at all consecutive at Dorpat, though differences of right ascension and declination had been pretty copiously observed. In 1820 appeared Struve’s first Catalogue of 727 double stars, arranged in the order of their right ascen-_ sion, together with their corresponding declinations. This Cata- logue was expressly intended to facilitate the observation of these Foes — with meridian or with equatorially-mounted in- truments, and Riese revived the subject as one of gene samen interest. Nevertheless, be cow ouch: and valuable as were these n attempts, it was not until the erection of the great Fraunhofer Refractor in 1824, at Dorpat, that Mr. Struve became posses of an instrument worthy of the subject, and competent, not only to afford facility and precision in respect of aia te but to add largely to the list of known double sta e result of the first two years of his plies nae with this famous telescope was that most remarkable work, Catalogus novus generalis Stellarum duplicium et muitiplicium, which appeared in 1827, and will for ever be consi Son as forming a memorable epoch i in Sidereal Astronomy. Nor is this great work remarka- ble alone for its copious and valpasle lists of 3112 double or multiple stars duly arranged in their order of right ascension, situation as seen ? eneral rule of isolation, nor as mere curiosities of the si heavens, but as entering: Fe oy into the general plan and con- itution of the universe observations, carried on both r. Struve himself and by eS with even larger instru- Ean the great Dorpat refractor, have confirmed this most It, and have shown ae it is but an ordinary circum- : stars previous ly regarded as single, to be in reality close el uivala a will enhance our ur lamented associate, and enable labor and devotion required for the to emark that in the preface to y have been the result of 1! Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. 151 examination of 120,000 stars, and that it was one individual who executed this examination with his own eyes and hands. Tefer to the fact. The great work which contains the result of his labors, is entitled Htudes d’Astronomie Stellaire, published in the year 1847. By a series of calculations, founded on the num- Confirmation. In the same year that Struve published his re- Searches on this great problem, Sir John Herschel gave also the results of his own investigations of the southern hemisphere, and Year the observato mperor Nicholas resolved to erect a great central - ry for the empire of Russia; it is honorable to the — 152 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. Czar’s memory to record that the suggestion was wholly spon- taneous, and we feel no surprise that our associate was a most influential member of the commission entrusted with the execu- i ’g noble design. e prosecution of this The creation of an od pees to be, from its commencement, established for well-defined an forth in a formal description of Pulkowa, there were no less than 103 persons, in- eluding the children, domiciled within the precincts of the ak atory. This numerous family comprised seven astron0o- mers, several savans connected with the geodesy of the empire, ‘asecretary, an engineer-in-chief, a cabinet-maker, with ten artl- ‘sans for the repair of the instruments and Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. 153 ace. Assuredly it was no ordinary man who could secure, as Struve secured, order and good-will in so considerable and mul- tifarious an establishment. For the endowment of this noble institution the Emperor of Russia, with truly imperial generosity, assigned no less a sum than ten thousand pounds per annum. The servant was worthy of the master. heeted with the measurement of the Russian and Scandinavian working with his own hands and eyes, and on more than one own Indian are, from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas, the execu- tion of which alone, and with no other work, has been sufficient ) ? ? finished the revision of the survey of the heav nished the Catalogus novus Stellarum duplicium, published in 1827; and besides this I had to give an annual course of lectures on segnony to the University, and of Geodesy to the Imperial Stail. 154 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. advanced, and for whieh alone the world accords imperishable ame to her sons. : Struve visited England on four different occasions. The first time was in 1830, when it so happened, that a committee was sitting for the improvement of the Nautical Almanac ; he was invited to assist in its deliberations, and by his ability and excel- lent temper contributed toward bringing its labors to a success- fal conclusion. In 1844 he came to England for the purpose of Pulkowa and Altona. In those days,—it may seem strange indeed, that we naturally fall into such expressions while speak- 5 = @ e 5 g “ ct 4 rs) QO a 6 5 5 & Oo a oat H oO oO = eo ai 5 oO mn 3 Ls 4 - Some Praprmigy pene are here omitted —Enps. J. Scr. Astronomer Royal determined the longitude of Valentia, in the west of Ireland, to be 41m. 967 W., by means of ten transits of thirty p ie by galvanic signals given bythe clock tala the Hal elt as fe, i Ivanic signals given by the clock itself, and the final result was 41m. 988 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. 155 dence attached to the jirst meridian of longitude be assigned to Pulkowa or to Greenwich? There could be no doubt that like a true astronomer, remembered the long line of illustrious men who had toiled at Greenwich, the old traditions of Flam- * Struve remarks that. along the are between the mouths of the Danube and the - Arctic Sea, there is go bill. weed feet high. Over a great portion of it the country — is so level and wooded that it was often necessary to erect lofty scaffolds in order to see the necessary . ae 156 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. are from north to south completed, than Struve set to work to organize and arrange the measurement of an arc of ag from east to west, of still more gigantic dimensions. It is sometimes neooreee by a divine tie eae wiser than our- commence so Hct a plan, but it is not granted that he may com- ete it. So Struve labored, but it is for other men to enter into Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. 157 , and deduced a parallax of about 1” for that remarkable star. Struve at Dorpat, from micrometrical measurement made with Fraun- hofer’s instrument in the years 1835-8, obtained a parallax for « Struve vindicated the general truth of his father’s deductions. Such, then, is the share which must be assigned to cur associate I the determination of this most interesting, but difficult cosmi- cal iestion. or must we s VObservatoire Central de Poulkova given to the world i It would be but an obvious and inadequate remark simply to its arrangements: and a monument to the enlightened 8enerosity of the Russian government, who defrayed the cost of US publication. A perusal of it can scarcely fail to kindle the admiration of every one who is endued with a taste for practical astronomy. What is of far more importance, almost every page Indicates the perfect mastery of the author over the instruments which he thus admirably describes, and attests the scrupulous tare with which he attended to the minutest circumstances which Could in any way contribute to the accuracy of their construe- portant work has on several occasions served as a guide for Suilding and organizing other observatories on the continent of : 158 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve. Europe. But while we are bound, in the interests of scientific | truth, to speak thus respectfully of this truly admirable work, : and of the Saunier Ves which it describes, it is impossible forus 2 not to turn our thoughts for a moment to our own National . Observatory and to its present able Director; not indeed in the spirit of contrast or comparison, but solely in the spirit of duty. ulkowa, as might be expected from the difference of genius 3 with which the two nations are inspired; but if the descriptions of these admirable instruments were collected from the seve monographs in which they are en aaene they would form a volu ume sun! way worthy of being a companion vo to assisted him, we have felt it our duty to say a word of what 18 due to the genius of their fellow-laborers in England. In so ee we are here claiming no preéminence nor asserting any te invidious, comparisons, if at all and anywhere out of p d be preéminently so in a memorial notice of a man like Sian for it was one of the characteristic features of that great man’s life that, although often provoked, he was never known ae anes a scientific priority; such contests, he said, were not only destructive of the peace of a philosopher’s mind but highly rel poms to the interests of science. uve was, as might be suggested by his labors, a man f ages sticsical strength, greatly corroborated, as he believed, by gymnastic exercises in ona: = until the first attacks of painful malady in 1858, of which we have already spoken, and which poeee brought him to the grave: J he used to say that he had ney er known what illness was.’ — advice of his cea [ elect of the cre aera of the great re ee masses placed at an enor- mous distance,—an idea which reappeared in in Prussia, and in 1847 in While admitting the inti intimate relationship of magnetism and gravity, I must dis-_ sent from the: lasrnes. Fre Professor's inference. For the evidence mea ears “ irre 's magnetism is directly depend es tion 9: thermally disturbed aerial . that it is only slightly ork eth y the per- turbations of solar lunar ~epe so that — as & causal one, han ion, should we magretism, sh be considered as Sremo at oe Theory of Terrestial Magnetism,” § 30,40; Taylor’s ‘Scientific By the kindness of Prof. Henry, T ha been permitted to : | is of the Fi Soe: ve perm refer to the ont P. E. Chase on Magnetic Inclination. 167 : 2. At (magnetically) inter-tropical stations, the dip is dimin- ished, but at extra-tropical stations it is increased in the middle of the day. 8. Increasing temperature and increasing solar altitude, aug- ment the inclination disturbance. This is shown both by the diurnal and the semi-annual curves. 4. As a corollary of propositions 2 and 3, at St. Helena and ay of Good Hope, the inclination-disturbance is opposed to, and subtracted from the normal dip; but at Philadelphia, Toronto, and Hobarton, the disturbance is added to the dip. Thus the inclination is a@ minimum at St. Helena, at 22-23h, eae “ Cape of Good Hope, “ O- 14, “maximum ‘‘ Philadelphia, 22- 0h, es “ Toronto, © 99-23b, « « —— & ~=Hobarton, “© 93- Th. Action of the sun, in increasing the equatorial ellipticity of the air, may also increase the tendency to equatorial and polar de- eae and the magnetic parallelism may, therefore, be mani- a in the solar-diurnal inclination-disturbance precisely as i ts at St. Helena and Cape of Good Hope, by a diminu- of dip between the parallels of 85°, and an. increase in ler latitudes. a a ti ea nges, coast lines, land and water radiation, winds, and ocean ents modify the theoretical phenomena of dip and declination. The motions of fui solids relative to the earth’s surface.” See Ni Journal of Medicina 4 oe Oeeey for 1856, and Mathematical Monthly for 1! 168 P. E. Chase on Magnetic Inclination. By projecting on isoclinal and isogonic charts* the magnetic currents as indicated by the position of the needle in different portions of the globe, I have obtained the following results, which serve to show the character of some of these modifications: I. Deelination. 1. The currents manifest a tendency to follow the lines of most direct ocean communication between the warmest and the cold- est portions of the globe, the general declination being westerly in the Atlantic, and easterly in the Pacific Ocean. 2. The lines of no variation are apparently determined in part by the land contours that divide the waters of the globe into two great bodies. 3. The currents are deflected by the southern pointed extremi- — ties of the several continents toward the east on the eastern shores, and toward the west on the western shores, of New Hol- the “ Lines of equal hich was from Evans's EB States Coast Survey Report of 1859, and No. z ascertaining and applying the deviations of P. E. Chase on Magnetic Inclination. 169 . Il. Dip. . 8. The lines of equal dip are arranged in approximate paral- Tels, around the two (principal) magnetic poles. 9. In consequence of this parallelism, they are convex toward - the north in the Pacific Ocean, and toward the south in the a Atlantic Ocean. . 10. The magnetic parallels also approximate to the isothermal : parallels, both in direction and in position, but with some im- portant departures. . In South America, the magnetic equator is depressed nearly 30° south of the isothermal equator ; it is, however, nearly equi-distant from the (principal) north and south magnetic poles. 12. The magnetic parallels near the magnetic poles are more convex than the isothermal lines, but they present some inter- esting instances of parallelism to the ocean currents, which are indisputably gravitation currents. : 13. This parallelism is specially observable in the regions of the equatorial currents, the Gulf Stream, and the North Pacific and Japan currents. . a bat Pras netism was to us an occult power, affecting only a few all bodies, and to the most intimate , light, erystallization, and through may, i a . in the present state of bors, e! y the hope of bringing it with gravity itself.” —Faraday: Exp. Ree., 2614. Sci.—Szconp Senres, Vou. XL, No. 119.—Szrr. 18 ek ae 170 P. E. Chase on Magnetic Inclination. magnetism, but I fear the attempt to reproduce, in any appreci able mechanical form, the magnificent and daily repeated oped tions in the laboratory of nature which I have feebly endeavored to interpret, must always be futile. In order to obtain even - earth’s center than the other. If the differences of vapor, tem- perature, barometric pressure, force and direction of wind, at- mospheric beapalegh &e., did not so complicate the problem as to discourage even the most sanguine experimenter from an attempt at olaien, any result that could be obtained under suc circumstances would give little ete satisfaction. It is possible, however, that the end, which we should vainly strive to reach directly, may be indirectly attained. Indeed, the various stages of an indirect road hay g been known, but we have not been able to compare them sey ae common measure. The motion of gravity, by percussion or the obstruction of sim- pe fall, has been repeatedly converted into the motion of heat; the motion of heat, by the thermo-electric pile, has been fou vertea into the motion of magnetism. The experiments of Barlow, Coulomb, Kupffer, and Christie,” on the influence of heat upon the magnet, furnish data that may lend some aid to any investigator who seeks to ascertain the precise ioe: and modification of each force, in these successive convers But I look most hopefully to researches that are aned differences of specific gravity. Even the experiments of Berlow and oth which J have just referred, as well as the electro- magnetic currents which are generated by chemical solution, involve such differences; the thermal aerial arene which har- monize with and increase the effects of simple gravitation ward the sun, are caused ie whic by the 2 tye centripetal » RXx(/D? a cal 00134 —1)=2°655. At os: the dail ‘bance of total force eat as it tur should be eee I se that the igh ee is pets fides to the mo sates poser disturbances of the dking which a shift the other of force by a kind of conden _ polarit: rain. ere — vicki In ot important respects there is 4 Btactory cor respondence between ne pore and St. Helena. * te Mean Mean Tide. (Theoretical X 3 xa. | . e Fall. on mee Theoretical, 8h. 29’ | —-00081 | San Sis a et oss Fee as .| 8h. 93! | —-00031 — 000180 { P. E. Chase on Magnetic Inclination. 171 e that may possibly become valuable in the course of future re- pie . oth ee ? . . . . . . If we suppose their specific magnetisms to be inversely pro- portioned to the disturbance of their specific gravities, we have, assuming the specific magnetism of iron as the unit, t * 4318 > 307 2 a value which is intermediate between those given by MM. _ Becquerel (giz) and Pliicker (s$7)!” This result would be I know of no physicist who has given so lucid a theoretical explanation of the various magnetic perturbations, as the illus- trious Fullerian Professor, and as his hypotheses appear to me still more satisfactory when viewed in connection with the gravi- ced. . dences of the identity of helices and magnets (2239); the exist- 2578); the dence of the magnetic motions of £919); the probable dependenc | fluids upon their mass and density (2768, 2769, 2781, 2863) ; the gee.) Ts on : * enn : 2 -o bh iar vasay Fave pis se to the Te of benno for iron, in ®“ Artizan,” to. t on the dil sabe ary - 981). According to these data, the of oxygen would be between 3}, and cg eee 172 P. E. Chase on Magnetic Inclination. heat and cold upon air and the diamagnetic upon iron, nickel, and cobalt (2861, and III, pp. 446, 460, 464, sion, is at every instant subjected to four principal and important impulses, two toward the centers of the sun and earth res tions, w gravitation currents, may be thus accounted for. % Humboldt speaks of the accumulation of electricity in the lower equinoctial regions, ** ne maximum of heat, and when the barometric tides are near thelt — . minimum.”— Taylor's Scient. Mem., iii, 398. by J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 173 Arr. XVUI.— Waterglass; by Joun M. Onpway. Part V. [Continued from vol. xxxv, p. 196.] dts Reaction with Slannates. Ing notice. The conditions, character, and results of the Stannate of Soda.—Time alters the crystallized salt, and dis- solved stannate of soda having just one equivalent of alkali to one of acid, soon begins to change and deposit an insoluble metastannate, leaving an excess of soda in the liquid. ence, _ whenever the really normal combination is wanted, it is best to make use of the freshly prepared crystals. ee he commercial “ preparing salt,” when it 1s free from arsenic, may be advantageously used to produce the pure stannate. ibe. . . = 174 J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. chlorid of sodium, but made a slightly opaline solution with water, thus showing the presence of a trace of metastannate. Crystals lag from the press give a clear and complete solu- tion ; and as a trifling amount of adhering alcohol is seldom of any sae it is best to expose the pressed cake to the air as little as When the product ‘i is freed from mother liquor by absorption and careful drying it appears to have the composition NaQ, Sn0,, 3HO. To ‘get pure and clean crystals for an exact determination of the water a strong solution of the preparing salt was with icmp of baryta, and as much alcohol was added to the fil- rate as it would bear without turning milky. In two days there gathered around the sides and bottom of the bottle a thin, hard coating of transparent crystals, which were detached and ressed in absorbent paper till they appeared dry, but not at all 1 efilo- * Storer, in his Dictionary of Solubilities, under the heads “ Stannate of Potash” and “Stannate of Soda,” has collected - ny all that is known ronperting. 3 these salts. We are there told that, according to Fremy, stannate of soda is much more soluble i ino cold than in warm Beige To tase this ma non hess to reduce wn iomatee b e made the following e: L - oe solution was as prepared by ge mene cuatae. water with an ex- of the et a ed with snow. It was ° filtered in a pen also aig a 0° The yond ab warmed to 155° C. had the sp- gr. 1472. It contained 3271 es c. 0 TI. A saturated solution made in a room kept = 10°C, had the sp. gr. 17448, and contained 81 p. c. of the dry ey or 39 p.c. of Na Sn H;. Ill. A saturated solution sagem made in a flask ony in ery 4 at 20° C. oe at 15°5° C. it had the sp. gr. 1-438. It contained 30- of NaSn. So 100 parts water dissolve 67°4 ot of the crystals, Na gn at at re C.; and at 20° C., only 61°8 parts, or nine-tenths as much. Stannate of potash shows no such anomaly, but its solubility is somewhat in- IV. At 10°C. a saturated solution was made with crystals of K SnH, formed by spontaneous evaporation in vacuo, that fa a 1618 and contained 42°3 p. ¢ ot Ko a? A saturated solution made at 20° C. had the 1-627 and contained 43 ani wes ae es great rapidity, the whole round of operations may be carried out in a few hours, But while stannate of soda can be readily E procured coarse grained, white, and of normal composition, th } precipitated potash salt is very fine, artd besides obstinately re- taining much of whatever organic coloring matter may have been present in the original solution, it is hable to come out at last with sounewhat too much or too little oe ay 2. A crude stannate prepared by heating strongly a mixture of tin, caustic potash, and nitrate of potash, was dissolved in twice its weight of were thoroughly agi- tated with 400 c. c. of alcohol of sp. gr. 0°840, and gave a dense liquid deposit measuring 275 c.c. This being in turn treated with 400 c. c, of alcohol, yielded 175 c. c. of still denser liquor, A third precipitation with 400 c.¢. of alcohol gave a deposit with some solid matter beginning pc ree Hees aeer, ok Ai i (9 rig i o Oo Ss i) on . ° =r om ie oO c. 9°) no ee a fa] Q ~ A ao Qo. = 2 ij i=) = _ So far a weaker spirit had been used so as to allow the impuri- ties to remain in solution while the stannate was thrown down. i . one ‘ ape cos tS hei tigger ial {1 ee oe, eae round of treatment with alcohol. The hard pressed final product con- tained 73 p.c. of dry stannate. Being spread out and exposed _ a air for some hours, it lost all smell of spirit, and was then pure and al- most exactly normal. “ sce eal When greater nicety is required, such a product shou dissolved in a little ees than its weight of water and recrystal- lized by spontaneous evaporation i vacuo. A pole analysis was made of some pure, = on transparent, oblique rhombic crystals produced 7 t - asi method and dried by pressure in absorbent paper. It show Ibslotion etusndon Vabgpeprgrengencnn oe eee 2 A solution of K Sno.9 saturated at 0° C. bad the sp. gr. 1-64 and contained - ol shah icin of K Sn,.. saturated at 0° C. had the sp. gr. 1°74 anid coutalott | E Gr meakeg 28 eB f ference’ to the oxyd of tin, we may say that its ola: ; bility increases as the amount of alkali present is diminished. = 176 J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 49-430 p. c. of stannic acid, and 80-704 p. c. of potash. If we call the equivalent weight of tin 59, these proportions would make KSnH 33. he true formula must therefore be KO.Sn O, .8HO. The specific gravity of these crystals was found to be 3°197. Metastannate of Potash—When a dilute acid is slowly, and with constant stirring, dropped into a cold solution of normal stannate of potash, there is no permanent precipitation till more than three-fourths of the alkali is abstracted. The stannate thus robbed of its base, remains perfectly dissolved, but has acquired different properties. cohol now gives with it not a liquid or paper till it became a transparent, exceedingly shrunken mass containing - 79 p.c. of KSn,.,. This easily dissolved in twice its weight of water. : : nate containing 59 p. c. of KSn,.,- This dissolved in four times its own weight of water to a faintly opaline liquid. : 5. Some of the solution of 3 was diluted and cautiously treated with sufficient nitric acid to neutralize one-third of the remaining potash. a despoiled metastannate was then precipitated with alcohol. The final = product consisted of KSn,,., H, and was readily soluble in water. ery gradually indeed; otherwise the pulp itself will pass at the pores of the cloth. phate of solution J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 177 of potash sulphate. The waterglass was such as had been well purified by precipitation with alcohol. While treating this part of our subject we will take the form- ula adopted in planning the experiments, and consider silicic 6. 80g. of a solution containing 14 p. c. of NaO SnO., were mixed with 32 9. of a 29 p.c. solution of NaO.2SiO,, so as to have in the united liquors Nag Sn Big, : There was no apparent change at first, but, in the course of two days, it became an opaque, consistent jelly from which no liquor could be de- canted. 178 J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. course of two days it formed a thin jelly. drained, squeezed, and hard pressed, and ae product contained 21 p, c. of mother liquor and 36 p. c. of Na, Sa, Siro. These three trials show something of the influence of dilution, though in the case of c longer standing had also modified the composition of the coagulum by increasing the amount of stat- nic oxyd rendered insoluble. 2Si, There was no change at first, but in the course of two days it became a thin opaline jelly. After seven days being hard pressed It yielded a translucent cake weighing 8°6 g. and containing 37 p. ¢. net of Nag Sn; Si, 3. 9, 6. A similar mixture was made by adding a saturated solution of stannate to fused crystals of silicate and evaporating till it contained 40 p-¢. of solid matter. It remained clear, and when exposed to severe cold showed no sign of crystallization. 10, A mixture was made containing somewhat over 16 p. % of Na, Sn Sig, There was no change for six weeks. -_ 11,a. A mixture was made so as to contain about 16 p. ¢ ae Ks; SnGi. ‘There was to chiange,for some days, but in the course Of * # SO. saan J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 179 11, 8. A saturated — of stannate was put with as much melted Na Si H, as would make Na, Sn Si, and the mixture was evaporated at a gentle heat till it cdased 405 . c. of solid matter. It cite clear veral of the coldest days of winter. The strong liquor bore boiling without apparent change, but when much diluted was coagulated by heat. Stannate of Potash with Silicate of Potash. 2); 12. A mixture ao so as to contain 21 p.c. of K, Sn Si, underwent ' no viable change in am Fr: f A mixture Smicins 19 p. ce. of K, SnSi, also remained unchanged or a month. ee x i ~, Bem ae =. 8S eS — PNA 2 T as no elite siraien for a day, but in three days it became a thin transparent jelly. After standing a week it was squeezed gradually and then hard pressed. The ee oy product raighed 28 g. and contained 39 p. c. net of K, Sn, 13, 8 ¢. of a 2°5 p.c, KSn solution i Werbanized ‘with’ 240 g. of 8 ‘p-¢. KSis, It remained puteren: unchanged for a week. In se course me second week it me gelatinous, but no a cou a uv Pp. €. “of mother liquor and 40 of Barts ; ee 77 Eee of a solati ion peor ae 15 p.c. of K 8a, were mixed with 38 g. of a 20 p. c. solution of K Sig, so as to make in all K, Sn, ae It ‘underwent no noticeable modification for some time, but in two days it formed a — slightly opaline jelly. After standing a week, it was hard Pressed and a a mass weighing 28 g. and containing 38 p. c. net orale / Metastannate of Potash with Potash Waterglass. 15. 20 g. of a10 p.c. K Si, liquor sg mixed with 20 g. of a solu- tion pe rmning 10 p. ec. KSny.4. There no change for some time, but ne oa of 17 days it dnickonad: The hard ‘pressed solid part neigh 5 g. @. 10, of a 30 p.c. solution of KSis were stirred into 10 g. of a » C. Picedtation of K Sn sa. It soongot a little thicker but did not gel- ata eaker solutions of the same metastannate and silicate, were mixed : similar res ults. - 10g. of a 10 p, c. KSig solution were put with 10g. of a 10 Be the course of 10 days it gelatine = oop of all the ex eriments from which this - been » brings to ein nothing definite or 180 J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. predicable of the reactions is that mixtures containing as many equivalents of alkali as the sum of the equivalents of SnO, and iO,, are likely to undergo little or no change at the common temperature of the air; but when the mixture contains less alkali, gelatinization will occur in a few hours or days ; and the curd will be greater in amount according as the strength of the liquors put together is greater, and as the total proportion of The segregated matter retains the alkali with no little force, for when the air-dried precipitate is washed with water 4 part indeed of the alkali is removed, but the greater portion remains obstinately in combination. 19. Some of the cake of 13 a, was reduced to powder and kept over lumps of caustic soda eighteen days. The dry powder was well washed It is difficult to ascertain whether the fresh undried cake may go dissociation in any greater degree; for if we attempt to wash it, though a part settles, the supernatant liquor remains milky a very long time, and the suspended matter cannot be separated by filtration, as it readily goes through the pores of the paper. : After seeing how a deficiency of alkali facilitates the coagula- tion of a mixture-of stannate and silicate, we should hardly ex pect to find metastannates so slow in yeaa any effect on waterglass. But metastannates are evidently not mere poly acid stannates, and a higher degree of compatibility is the less sur prising when we consider the many points of resemblance be- tween metastannate of potash and waterglass itself. Both are uncrystallizable and dry to tran ent gum-like masses, indefi- | J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 181 nitely soluble in water. Both are precipitated by alcohol sti partial decomposition, and indeed in both the acid and base se to be in astate of association rather than of strict chemical Kenic eae The following experiments, illustrating this point, may be compared with the similar trials of silicates mentioned in Part III: 20. 350 g. of a solution gree 6 p. c. of KSn,.,, were mixed with 850 c. c. of aleohol of sp. gr. 0°840. After we washings with alcohol, the floceulent precipitate v was voollestia in a cloth and hard pr The thin translucent, brittle cake, after twelve hours exposure to the a ghed 24 g. ad contained 82 p. ¢. of nz4. It was dissolved in parts of water and treated with alcohol re before. The second ce when ered and aired contained & 1 p. e. of KSn,.,. The third cipitation showed 81 p. c. of KBn The fifth precipitate contained 82 P. ¢. 0 ee a And ES sate ‘product was readily soluble in water and showed 72 p. ¢. of - 50 g. of pressed erytle ‘of stannate of potash were dissolved in water, so as to make 600 ¢.c. 200 cc. of 5-4 p.c. nitric acid were stirred j in, and, when the liquor “had recovered its transparency, 1700 ¢. c. of alcohol were added. After one washing with alcohol the pultaceous precipitate was very gradually squeezed and then ha essed. r some 9 urs exposure — the air, the cake weighed 27 g. and contained 79 p.c. of KSn,.,. It was dissolved in 9 times its weight of water and treated with alcohol. “The second flocculent deposit hard pressed and ed in the air, contained 80 p.c. of KSn,s- The precipitation was re- many times, and finally the tenth pre weighing 5:5 g» was the small insoluble residue had nearly roy same composition Metastannate of potash is also. thrown down as sack by many potas h salts; and here too, as with waterglass, the acetate and the chlorid prove most efficient. 22. 25 g. of a solution ang 21 p.¢. of KBn,., were mixed with 25 g. of a 20 p- c. KCI solution. “The very bulky deposit after being Squeezed and subjected to oa pressure, weighed 674 g. It contained 28 < é vt mother liquor and 64 p. ¢. of KSn,.;, and was readily soluble in ; os 40 g. of a 9 p.c. solution of KSn,.7 mixed with 40 g. of a 10 _ P+ ¢. solution of acetate of potash gave & precipitate that compressed we 2. aie ee contained 68 p.c. of KSn,.,. This was wholly soluble in _ Carbonate pape peeing B or nitrate of potash gine — Precipi time a In whatever quantity, has no effect upon a metastan =. - . account of the insolubility of metastannate of soda, soda. ae t$ soon disturb a solution of metastannate of potash. ‘Thus: 182 J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. _ liquid containing 10 p. c. of KSn,.,, became opaque with its own weight of a2 p.c. solution of Nad. A much less quantity of sulphate of soda sufficed to produce the same effect. A soda salt therefore affords a test of the presence of metastannate in a stannate of potash solution, but the liquors must not be too con- centrated. Fremy says that stannate of potash is precipitated from its solution by almost all soluble salts, and even by salts of potash, a, and ammonia. He must have operated with liquors that had been kept too long and had thereby become contaminated with metastannate; for my own experiments afford no confirm- melange on peut-étre une combinaison de stannate, et de meta- stannate, ete,’’ PF EHO | ° . ° , si eae , z est ainsi que j’avais été conduit 4 représenter l’acide meta- stanni j re actuellement d The precipitate was ari But it can hardly be pos 0. 10Sn0 mn hat soluble salts _ iated reneral rule that solu salts: having as ee ee ee asic, or other on es orff’s xxv, 15. oe es righ ue de Chinls, ye 1864, p. 184. 184 J, M. Ordway on Waterglass. vated or by ieales, It is also soon deposited from a solu- taken up by a stronger acid. These precipitates are, by no means, of the same com osition, thoug they often aie 24, Some purified stannate of soda that had been dried | in ite air and then kept in : well stopped bottle for two years, on being treated Me ten times its weight of cold water, left undissolved one twenty- -third the tin, combined with soda enough to make NaO. 3 ‘7S8n0,. The clear liquor, by standing several weeks, let fall one-seventeenth ofA 4°78n0,. its tin as NaO. 4 __ 25, A ten per cent solution of normal stannate being kept 34 days, deposited one-twelfth = the oxyd of tin in combination with enou ough alkali to make NaOQ. 26. A ten per cent ee of NaO.SnO,, was boiled a few moments and let fall one-sixteenth of its tin with some eer forming NaO. 5Sn0g- 27. A solution containing five per cent of pure stannate, by boiling nth o ‘7Sn ited one-seve { the tin as NaO.5 28. Boiling a two per cent solution of Wad, Sn0, caused the precipi- tation of over Fobeihied of the tin and enough soda te make NaO. 78009 .. 29 A one et cent solution of pure stannate of soda required long boi ing to make a decided SA sh and the clear liquor filtered out ‘of the bulky product. very slowly. The well drained gelatinous residue was hire, aa Golited of NaO.7:5Sn0,. It contained over one 0 30. A solution containing 1-1 p.c. of NaO.SnO, and 3 p.c. of NaCl, being boiled five m minutes, gave a dense, opaque precipitate very easy 10 i = and press. It contained one-fourth of the tin and Ye al * The addition of chlorid of sodium and been, boiling causes precipitation in a pation: containing no more than 0-1 p.c. of normal, stannate of ee So far as is known at present, there is nothing to show that any one of thes metastannates more than another is entitled of J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 185 which a formula may be based, it seems hardly right to take any one chance product, and, rejecting the odd of equiva- lents, to set down that product with its analysis so amended, as out apparent alteration in the character of the compound. h which this great principle does not hold good. Wenzel says:’ : He roceeded to determine the equivalents by neutralizing the 8cids with different bases, and worked correctly so long as those Were protoxyds. But such a method is as little applicable to alumina and similar peroxyds as it is to bone eart “* Hifen beinerde,”—which he J after attempting to saturate nitric acid with alumina, he con- cluded that* “Das Verhaltniss der Alaunerde zum stirksten _ Salpetersauern, ist also beynahe . . . . wie 3849: 240.” ae the solub e le —Szconp Series, Vou. XL, No. 119.—Szpr., : 186 J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. the phenomenon of fusion too, though almost all bodies liquefy at a temperature which is invariable and exa and as the several observers have examined crystals obtained by unlike: Yorke” fused 23 parts of sand with 54 parts of dry carbon- 4 ate of soda, dissolved the resulting mass in water, and exposed the solution to slow evaporation in vacuo, over sulphuric acid. —— ound these crystals to part with all their water, except @ traction of one per cent, by exposure to a heat of 149°C. usmann "says that in the purification of rough a mother liquor has often yielded him, in large quantity (manch- i\mmon aoe crystals, by dissolving silica in soda lye. They fused at ® Pogg. Ann, xliii, 1 ss ; ms = po3 alee jou e Phil, Trans., 1857, p. 533. Se space over tightly stopped bottle. But as in cold weather both the forma- tion of the r izati be carried _ can just as well be rapidly concentrated by heat. _ Ammon attempted in vain to crystallize the potash salt and to form a double silicate of potash and i os All my own efforts to produce crystals of potash silicate have 4 thus far proved unavailing, though I have exposed very con- Centrated solutions, for many days, to the extreme cold of winter. Berzelius fixed on SiO, as the constitution of silicic acid, Principally on account of an assumed analogy between feldspar d son for such ak lous. Why should w t the plain guidance of the simple — _Silicates and selecting feldspar,—a complex, anhydrous combina- _ion,—presume on its resemblance to a double sulphate which -_* See Part IIL, this J xxxiii, p. 34. In the 18th line from the bottom of that page, it pate apegeme to. y filtrate two of alcohol,” the it PP pn I Fat a We 4g Yep) a eg a ae oF BY y Soles re tle gl | gee bees Hoe oh see ie : erystallizes only as a hydrate? Why should we pay so little J, M. Ordway on Waterglass. regard to analogy as to write Na,Si,H,, and Ga,Si, for sub- stances as definite as crystallization can make them, when sod and lime are not known to form any other unquestionable basic ts? If we attribute to silica a composition similar to that of carbonic acid, the monosilicates GaSi, MgSi, MnSi, Gui, and the basic silicates Sig,Si, Zn, Si, Mn,Si, and ‘Gu,Si, will be no longer unparalleled; and though some minerals will show a composi tion unlike that of artificial salts, most of the double silicates will have far less strange looking formulas. ; the gum-like compounds of acid and base, crystallization can take place only when the colloid constituent is reduced to sf nates only while there is no Jack of alkali. Now if we a caustic soda to waterglass, the mixture becomes capable of af fording crystals just so soon as the quantity of soda very slightly exceeds that of silicic acid, and no sooner. Fair analogical rea soning would lead to the belief that then, and not till then, had alkali causes the evolution of somewhat less heat than before. A far . must be an acid salt, and that cannot be its true constitution. rials of mixture were made with two thermometers g to fifths of a degree Fahrenheit, 31. 110 g. of a solution containing 47 p. ¢. of NaO.2:37Si0, at 64°4°_ F., were mixed with 212 g. of a 10 p. ¢. caustic soda liquor at 64°2°, 80 as to make NaO.SiO,. The thermometer was raised to 71°4°, making a rise of 7:3° F, 82a. 110 g. of 47 p. ¢. NaO.2-48i0, at 61:5° F. were mixed with 90 g. of 10 p.c. NaO at 61-7° to form NaO.1-5Si0, or NaO.Si0. The thermometer rose to 71-4°, making an increase of 98° F. : 4. The 200 g. of a at 65-2° F. were mixed with 129 g. of 109. & J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. . ree ° NaO at 64°9°, so as to pe ae Si,. The thermometer then stood at 67:3°, making a rise 0 c. Some of the Hear ai of b at 64°6° F. was mixed with half its weight of a 10 p. c. soda solution at 64°9°. It rose to 65°4°, making an elevation of 0°7° F. eckoning the i bee =e hie case as Sprig only the Ss Shave 110g. of silicate, the rise in ould be 21°37° F. In 82a, ould be 17-82°, and in 8 it sae amount to 3 5 or in both ‘igen 21 "36°. In 82 ¢ it would be only 1: This heating by no means arises from simple vipseong: for dilution of the same waterglass with mere water, causes eve e more contraction. Thus: 33 a narrow necked 100 ¢. ¢. bottle containing 50°616 g. of 47 p- c. NaO.2-48i0, of sp. gr. 1°558, was cautiously filled u up. with water. It was then closed and well agitated and there was a striking decrease a of volume. Water was added once or twice with farther agitation till it i stood at the right level at the gfe temperature. 68°88 g. of water . had been put in, and the sp. gr. w 1-474. Calculation shows that instead of 100 c. ¢., it should have hinian 101°36 ¢. ¢. So the con- traction amounted to 1°34 p.c. 6. 110 g. of the 47 p.c. waterglass were mixed with 90 g. of caustic soda liquor of sp. gr. 1164. The sp. gr. was now 1°363, and therefore ed to ¢. The liquor of 6 being aedier | sieve with 125:2 g. of caustic soda cs the whole bulk was diminished 0°5 p. ¢ e total contraction in both sot amounted to 0°95 p- ¢. of what the Se irarate volume should have bee ‘Though condensation results be the dilution of waterglass with water, it is a remarkable fact, and, as far as I can learn, one that. has hitherto remained unnoticed, that there is at the same time a positive reduction of temperature. 34. 110g. of 47 p.c. of NaO.2°4Si0, at 63°6° F., were mixed with eer of water at 63:4°. The temperature fell to 61° 9°, making a fall of 6° F. 0 g. of b at 61°3° were coal with 50 g. of water at 61 “4°, It fall om ‘6 a making a fall of 0°45° F. Bringing all to the same standard by reckoning the reduction of tem- ns as concentrated in 100 g., the ay in a would be 1°5°; in 8, 174°; in c, 112°; and in 34 it would be 2°9° F. It n sais @ more extensive icon than has yet been Ss made, to show wade this unaccountable behavior is pee to waterglass. Me tastannate of potash is neither ted cooled by dilution. Nor is the treatment of the metastanmate, With caustic potash liquor attended with any more elevation of — tan 4 hic er ola ae be due to the Page pee W) eT OE a a ee eer eee Be gee Oe ate ae NE a ae |. tate SO é as AEE Ong oe shes, ie oe : 18 the refraction of’ his two rays, and his conclusion thence 190 J. Wharton on determining the distance . nate in caustic potash, shows that metastannate of potash is very” this point will be given when we come to treat of the silicates of lime. The so-called metastannate is therefore rightly named, and is not an acid salt nor an unsaturated stannate. And, by contrast, the great avidity with which waterglass unites wi more base, goes to prove that the silica in it is not a metacid, but is of the same kind as that in the normal, crystallized sili- cate of soda. Manchester, N. H., April 29. RT. XIX.—Speculations upon a possible method of determining the distance of certain variably colored Stars; by JosEPH WHARTON. from another star which the Earth was moving away from. — Supposing the ray to strike the Earth from the first of these velocities differing by about ~,'-;. Arago found no difference t however, rather surprising that any great weight should be attached an apparent disproval, by a single test, o one merely Inary function of corpuscular light, especially Eee: Svan f as the test itself is utterly fallacious; for who shall say tt retardation by attraction is the onl possible means by which emitted light could be refracted? and how can we know that the two stars selected by Arago had either no proper motion of theif own, or none of a sort to affect his result? eee Perhaps the only eases in which we can be sure of receiving — starlight of absolutely different velocities are those of such binary stars the plane of whose orbit is not at right angles with the line from thenee to the Earth, When that line lies in the of certain variably colored Stars. 191 a system is moving through space; but the difficulties in the way, of gaining any accurate comparison of those velocities are very at. In reflecting upon the undulatory theory of light I have been quite unable to conceive how the luminiferous ether could “tremble laterally’’ as the phrase is, causing vibrations transverse to the line of propagation, without a direct relation existing between those lateral vibrations and the forward impulses b er of impulses per second, and its impression of color therefore must be correspondingly modified. the retina and the source of light rapidly separate from each other, the number of impulses striking the retina must on the other hand be diminished, producing the corresponding change lor in the perceived color. : k, _, Now, if we imagine a star emitting white light to approach us in an orbital movement at a sufficient rate of ‘speed, its light should appear to us reddish, changing at the perigee into white, anging again into blueish as the star departs, and again into white at the apogee. There are, however, variable stars whose — passing from one Color to its complimentary, and back again, with periods of white : Tight intervening. The bin uently complimentary to each other, should, under the proper circum- 192 J. Wharton on determining the distance, ete. pared to say that they do so in any case: it is in fact asserted that the larger star is usually red and the smaller one blue. Supposing this train of thought to be sound, and that by ex- tremely careful observation a difference could be detected in the position of a variably colored star when it appears red, from its been found, which has a measurable change of position in one ine of vision, and let us assume that its extreme colors indicate a difference in the rate of arrival of light impulses (or in other words a difference in the velocity of the light arriving from that — star at the two periods), equal to 2uv, then the actual speed of the star in its orbit =v and as the orbital period of the star has been found =z, it follows that Pig is the real length of that diame- ter which is the measured angular distance between the two extreme positions of the star. Knowing the angle, and the oat of the base which subtends it, we have the distance of e star. nts. variable i pul ou less frequently. T I low roar in this case are facts whi light T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 193 Art. XX.— Contributions to the Chemistry of Natural Waters ; b T. Srerry Hunt: of the Geological Survey of Canada. Il. Chemical and Geological Considerations. Coyrents or Sxcrioys.—52, salts of alkaline metals, proportion and sources of pot- 58, potash in a borax lake, in the primitive sea; 54, salts of lime and nesia, relations of chlorids and carbonates; 55, solubility of earthy carbon- ; 56, super-s es of lime ia ; ates aturated solutions of carbonates of ] nd magnesia; 57, salts f barium strontium, solution of their sulphates; 58, iron, manganese, alu mina and phosphates ; 59, bromids and iodids; the small portion of bromine and the excess of iodine i ine springs as compared wi ; 60, probable relation of iodids to sediments; 61, sulphates, their elimination from waters ; 62, olding a soluble sulphuret; 63, es, detection and determination ; 64, analysi: rax water from California; 65, carbonates, : r f v: 69, silica, its source and its proportion ; 70, its condition; formation of silicates ; i waters here described: 7 l relations of successive formations urces of various classes i} ; 77, association of unlike waters, ¢ n consti- tution; 78, te rature of springs ters; 79, ological interest of the above analyses ; ble results of the evaporation of these springs ; 80, re- lations of mineral springs to folding and to met morphism 81, on the 2 of strata; origin of the p an and sediments; 82, on the deposi! and t chlorid of potassium in modern reads : four hundredths of the alkaline chlorids, while in the brines from old ro i i ’ppear, and even predominate, the proportion of potassium = y ea Ss ‘ ; econ wever appear to be an alkaline A ga and hak of potassium, since the salts the waters first named are more alkaline than those of St. Ours Ww ue those of the alkaline water of Joly contain less than one Per cent of potassic chlorid. 2 JOUR. Scr.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XL, No. 119.—Szpr., 1865. 194 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. r cent of the alkaline chlorids, while in the waters of the a allen it amounts to 16.0 per cent. A large proportion or the proportion of the pot is large er Saline, so that the real amount of potassium is in no case gre ave, from Cali ag with no sul Ay : is water is of St. Ours, 2 15 page 565. = zB : x of For a notice, with anal the author, of a en hydrated silicat ada alumina, iron and potash, i beg "oP from the Paleozoie rocks of © here and of the Mississippi valley, see the Geology of Canada, pages 487, gad Bae also will “an analysis by the author of the glauconite from the Cre _ formation of New Jersey. See also this Journal, [2], xxxiii, 277. T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 195 sought for in a few instances, and was detected in the waters of Varennes. Most of these analyses were made before the discov- ery of the new metals cesium and rubidium. § 54. Salts of Caleium and Magnesium.—We have to consider under this head the relations both of the chlorids and the car- bonates of these bases. The bitter saline waters of the first class, although containing large quantities of chlorids of calcium and magnesium, are, as we have seen, generally destitute of earthy B and magnesia which the waters of the fourth class hold in solu- ‘ tion, the carbonate of soda which they contain gives rise, by its - reaction with the chlorids of calcium and magnesium, to addi- : tional quantities of the carbonates of these bases. In the waters nate of lime and bicarbonate of magnesia co-exist. such a solution is submitted to evaporation at ordinary tempera- tures, provided there is present a sufficient amount of chlorid o: calcium, carbonate of lime alone is deposited, and chlorid of Magnesium remains in solution. n oy , Tepresents the carbo th - Of the Gicacipiinie at an earlier stage of the ebullition _ have farnished, ; ; oe Asan example of this may be cited the analysis of the water Of Ste. Genevieve (§ 42, No. 8), where the precipitate after few minutes’ boiling contained carbonates of lime and magne 196 TS. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. in the proportion 12: 750. When however another portion was boiled down to one-sixth, the precipitate was found to be pure after a time Spontaneously decomposed even in closed vessels, with deposition of a portion of ervstalline hydrated carbonate of magnesia; another portion remains in solution, together with chlorid of magnesium, but is precipitated by ebullition, (This Journal [2], xxvii, 173.) 55. Bicarbonate of magnesia and chlorid of calcium, when brought together in solution, undergo mutual decomposition with separation of carbonate of lime if the solutions are not too dilute. At the ordinary temperature and pressure, water saturated with | carbonic acid will not hold in more than about one gram of car- bonate of lime to the liter (1: 1000); equal to only 0°88 grams of hale water is well known to be much less, and is, according to ineau, equal to 1: 30,000 or 1: 50,000.) Weshould not there- e explain No. 7), hold ist In the presence of sulphates and c1um magnesium. Reserving for another : deseription of the details of these investigations, I we > the results obtaine tained. f memoir on the salts of lime and magnesia pe : $ in 1859 (in this Journal [2], xxviii, 171), it was shown tha by the - addition of bicarbonate i asd oda to a solution holding chlorids of T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 197 sodium, calcium and magnesium, with or without sulphate of : soda, and saturated with carbonic acid, it was possible to obtain transparent solutions holding from 3°40 to 4:16 grams of carbon- ate of lime to the liter; of which however the greater part was deposited after twenty-four hours; when the solutions were found to contain somewhat less than 1:0 gram in the form of bicarbonate. Boutren and Boudet had previously shown that by saturating ime-water with carbonic acid, solutions were obtained holding in a liter 2:3 grams of carbonate of lime; of which one half was soon deposited, even when the solution was kept under a press- ure of several atmospheres. It would thus seem that saline Carbonate of magnesia. (This Journal [2], xxvii, 173.) $57. Salts of Barium and Strontium.—As will be seen from 198 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. ally solu- found to ‘is, which is parti ess, and will be T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 199 sen to 1°04 parts of bromid of magnesium. The waters of hitby and Hallowell, on the contrary, which are the richest in bromids of those described in this paper, contain only 0°54 and 0°69 parts of bromid of sodium in 100 parts of solid mat- ters; while few of the saline springs of the second class contain more than one-half of this proportion, and some of them very much less. Vieve, of the second class also give a strong reaction for iodine ; and when acidulated with hydrochloric acid, without »previous €vaporation, yield with a salt of palladium an insoluble precipi- tate of iodid of palladium after a few hours. The salts from two springs of Ste. Genevieve, though poorer in bromids, - are much richer in’ iodids than the waters of Hallowell; the spring No. 8, containing in 100 parts of salt no less than 0-1 of Si so that there appears to be no constant proportion between the chlorids, bromids, and iodids of these saline waters. 200 TT. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. from the sea-waters, and its fixation in the earth’s The observations of numerous chemists unite to show the frequent occurence of small portions of iodi some unkn sea, either directly or through the intervention of organic bodies (as in the case of potash, which is separated and fixed by means of alge, § 5). Experiments after the manner of those of Way and Voelcker may throw light upon this interesting question, We are aware that insoluble combinations of soluble chlorids with silicates of alumina are found under certain conditions, as appears in the generation of sodalite, eudialyte, and the chlorif- erous micas, and it is not improbable that the soluble iodids may give rise to similar compounds, By such a process might be explained the rarity of this element in modern seas, while the occasional re-solution of the iodine from these insoluble com- Pr The elimination of sulphate in the form of gypsum from evap- orating waters conta already been discussed in § 37; but the bitterns resulting from such a process still retain small portions of sulphates, while it 18 to be remarked that the saline waters under consideration Ccon- tain no traces of s1 rti rets. These in their turn may be converted into carbon- __ ates, the sulphur being separated either as sulphuretted hydro- gen (giving rise by o: ydation to free sulphur), or as insoluble T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 201 62. I am indebted to Prof. Croft of Toronto, for some notes of a recent examination by himself of a saline of the first class, which contains at the same time a soluble sulphuret. This water, ma boring sunk to a depth of several hundred feet ——— a sulphur. A q § 63. Borates.—Th 202 3 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. * was obtained a mixture of soda and potash, combined only with carbonic, sulphuric and boric acids. By directly determining e other ingredients the boric acid was estimated from t aiid was found equal to 0-028 parts in chee of water, whi con- tained 0-752 of solid matters. The conversion into carbonate of the sulphates in the mixed salts, ‘5 "the aid of bicarbonate of baryta, would simplify this process. In § 35 it has been ex- plained that the amount of carbonate of soda in the waters of the third ot fourth classes was generally calculated from the excess 0 alkaline bases, and controlled by the amount of carbonate of theta precipitated from chlorid of barium by the 3 alkaline salt. It was found, however, that this last meth . eave presented a certain deficit, dus to the borate of soda, — ? —— sete in many of the waters, is too large to be disre- wal ated as chlorids by the aid of chlorid of i num, we the 2 ta thus obtained the following ~— ients were found by calculation for 1,000 Seated of 5 water Carbonate of soda, - - 94 borate of soda, - a - = = £306 lorid of sodium, - 6 Se a ee Oe Carbonate of potash, - - - - = - 1818 Bilitays” eo : 17520 The potasium as above determined, equals 11°46 per cent of the bases weighed as chlorids; another trial gave 11°41. Al ao ais in $48 the ain ia it has been shown that these contained 9 ic ay insufficient to form bicarbonates with present. It was partly with this fact more than. seventeen years I un- kaline character, the other two had become waters of the second 5; while, on the contrary, the augmentation in the amount of carbonic acid in second is accompanied with a corresponding inerease in the amount of fixed matters present. Carbonic acid in one liter of the Caledonian waters. 1847 Gas spring, <« +5 6 * Saline spring, - + - Sulphur spring, - “ - am the reaction indicated in § 13,) With an earthy saline water holding a constant amount of free Carbonic acid; which, in some cases, is more than is required to _ acer bicarbonates, but in others, as we have seen above, shows - deficiency. _ : If we admit, as I have already assumed, that the waters f the second and third classes have been generated by the Mingling of solutions of carbonate of soda with waters of the st By mistake this is printed 249 in $48.0 204 TT. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. part of which the vig See Bischof, Chem. Geology, i, 5; who remarks that Lowig each oS Pfiffers. For further examples of this kind see Lersch, Hy in hemie, page 338. The carbonic acid in the water of be per ee according to him, not sufficient to form biearbonates unless t 7 silica present posed to be combined with a portion of yore while in the alkaline thermal spring of Bertrich, according to : analysis of Mohr, a similar deficiency of earbonie acid exists; leading to the conclusion tha ‘ magnesia, as described in $56, i a interest in this conzection ; since it at once affords an explana: tion of the nature and origin of all such alkaline waters, ee | Geficient in carbonic acid, as contain earthy sulphates and — § 68. Tt was found that the waters of Chambly in 1864, and of the Sulphur spring of Caledonia in 1865, gave with lime- _ Water a precipitate which was soluble in an excess of these min eral waters, but to a much less extent than in the acidulous ne water from the High-Rock springs of Saratoga. __ latter, which contains bicarbonate of soda, and is highly charge oo with carbonic acid, turns to a wine-red the blue color of litmus T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 205 water. The Saratoga water, after some time, gives a feeble al- n two cases, however, considerable tities of silica are found dissolved in natural waters. The first is met with where the rapid solvent and sing action of heated waters 1s po . ; exerted upon alkaliferous siliceous minerals (§ 14), as seen in springs like the Geysers.! The second case is that of those rivers and streams which drain surfaces covered with decaying vegeta- tion and decomposing silicates, from both of which they derive dissolved silica. Such waters contain but small amounts of solid as we (which contains in 10,000 parts, 0°6116 of solid matters), to 90-2060, or thirty-two per cent; while in the St. Lawrence, (which contains for the same amount of water, 1-6056,) the silica equals 3700, or twenty-four per cent of the solid ingredients. The S analysis by H. Deville of the river-waters of France show, in : like manner, large amounts of silica, which seem to have been hitherto overlooked in the analyses of most chemists. (Ann. de ee. et de Phys., [3] xxiii, 32. appears to increase with that of the carbonate of soda. Intl following table the proportions of carbonate of soda and silica _ for 100-0 parts of solid matters are given for certain springs, _ whose analyses will be found in tables 111 and IV: 11. | 10. | WT. | TW. | IL. | IIT. e761) 4.4 8.) & ; III, | II. I. | 5. 9-4| 3-4| 7-0| 8-0| 9°2 (21-0 /25°0 "6| -6| 16| 15/17 | 29] 30 ae a ee ne Giek of sada. |... 6 | 16 Silica “4. 4 ee 206 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. The amount of silica which these waters contain does not in any case exceed one or two ten-thousandths, and it is well known that water at the ordinary temperature may dissolve very much more than this amount of silica, even in the presence of alkaline chlorids and of bicarbonates. of lime and magnesia, when they are in solution, it might be sup- posed that the silica in the above waters exists either in a free . paper, and which form a part of the series already mentioned ner described in § 56, whether separating immediately or by a siower process of gelatinization, always carries down with it, in combination, a few hundredths of magnesia. ‘ n these experiments, besides the carbonate of magnesia, sul- phate or ehlorid of magnesium was present; but the silicated natural waters now under discussion are alkaline from the pres- ence of carbonate of soda, and whatever partition of bases baden. But the silicates thus formed are but partially saer ee : : : Bogs the Journal [2], xii, 377) ‘5 4 in accordance with the above were observed in the T. 8. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 207 In the case of the Chambly water of 1852, which contained in 1000 parts ‘073 of silica, (042 parts still remained in solution in the water evaporated to one twentieth; and in that of the Ottawa ___ River when reduced to one fortieth there still remained in solu- .. tion from 10-000 parts of water, ‘075 of silica and 028 of lime. 2 Similar results were observed with the alkaline saline waters of Varennes and Fitzroy, and all of these yielded, by further evap- oration, precipitates containing silica and lime, and in one in- stance magnesia. It is not however from alkaline waters like these, but from Matters as to evolve an odor like burning horn when exposed to heat. (Geology of Canada, 462.) he Ottawa water (§ 45) when boiled to one-tenth co a a precipitate in small bright brown iridescent scales. This was _ 42 organic substance*which was dissolved in a dilute oo a i ; y: ‘isting Partly of organic matter. 208 =I. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. No chemical examination was made of this matter held in so- lution by the concentrated water. From the late researches of Peligot, however, it appears that the organic matter precipitated by nitrate of lead from the water of the Seine has nearly the composition of the apocrenic acid of Berzelius. It gave on analy- sis carbon 53°1, hydrogen 2:7, nitrogen 2°4, oxygen 41°8, an is evidently related to the soluble form of vegetable humus. Comptes Rendus, April 25th, 1864). When exposed to heat this substance evolved ammonia, with the odor of burning wool, while the organic matter from the Ottawa water, on the contrary, gave an odor like burning turf, GEOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE PRECEDING WATERS, 72. The great Paleozoic area of the St. Lawrence basin is § divided into two basins by an axis extending from Descham- * rtance. It is in this disturbed region that by far the greater ta, on account of the alluvial de posits which generally cover the Paleozoic strata of the region, It is apparent that in a great number of cases the mineral springs occur along the lines of disturbance, and it is probable that a constant relation of this kind exists. the eastern limit of the western basin is approached, the mineral springs become more numerous, but this boundary passed, a region is soon” where the rocks become profoundly altered, and furnish The great western portion of the occl- isturbed than its eastern better unders: Paleozoic form | 8. Mepina,—sandstone. 6. Hupson River,—shales. —shal T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 209 78. Of the above series the Trenton group includes the Birds- eye and Black River limestone, as well as the Trenton limestone of the New York geologists, and is non-magnesian, enclosing beds of chert, silicified fossils and petroleum; in all of which characters it resembles the Corniferous limestone above. In like manner, the Potsdam is represented by the Hudson River and Medina formations, while the gypsiferous dolomite of the so-called Calciferous sandrock corresponds to the great mass of dolomite which’constitutes Nos. 10, 11, and 12, and includes the ypsum and the salt-bearing strata of the Onondaga formation. hese repetitions of similar strata, marking successive recurren- ces of similar geological and geographical conditions, which form : great cycles in the history of the continent, have been already considered in a paper by me on Bitumens, etc., in this Journal, [2], XXXV, 166. § 74. In the eastern basin, which includes not only south- eastern Canada, but the whole of New England, the strata are m an altered and crystalline condition, if we except a narrow TS 0 he western basin, which alone bee stated, donia rise from the Trenton group, and that of Fitzroy from the Chazy or Calciferous, while two others at Ste. Martine and Raw- a i the Potsdam. All the other Waters of these two classes issue from the Hudson-River shales, With the exception of those of Varennes and Jacques C Which seem to rise from the Utica formation. _ Aw. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XL, N9. 119.—SePt., 1865. — 210 TT. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. Of the waters of the second class, of which about thirty have been examined from the western basin, some five or six issue from the shale formations Nos. 5 and 6, but all the others are from the underlying limestones. The bitter salines of the first class flow from the limestones of the Trenton group, with the exception of that of Ancaster, which is from a well sunk in the iagara formation, and that of St. Catherines, from a boring carried through the Medina down into the Hudson River shales. an resale while the others have their source in the underlying limestones, and are more or less modified in their ascent. Agail, at Sabrevois, within e seconG class, of which on and the T. 8S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. 211 all sulphated, and differing in the proportions of carbonate of soda present. In 1865 here described exceeds 53°, which has been observed for two springs at Chambly, about twelve miles from Montreal. Inas- uch as the mean temperature of this city, as deduced ie the is 44°-67, t ee out the importance of further observations, (§ 48). The ing was found to be 46°, and that of Caxton, 49° F. | period with those which issue from, and in many cases owe their saline impregnation to, strata of comparatively modern n. ee” Hi rines 0 212 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Natural Waters. continental uplifting of the altered, plicated, and more or less fissure eir i i ave in a previous section ($ 57) alluded to the condi- n this connection it may Zé a proportion in many rocks, would decompose the ¢ar- bonates and sulphates, and, aided by the presence of water, the ehlorids both of the roc form o , mixed with water or, nitrogen, and @ probable excess of oxygen ld form an exceedingly dense Hers) soe upon the heated surface of the earth, decomps the silicates : : 1. bonic aeid fi d its way sea, whe - heated waters various ¢ bases aad 9 tyae be en J. L.. Smith on a new Meteorite from Arkansas. 213 compose the chlorid of calcium, giving rise to chlorid of sodium on the one hand, and to carbonate of lime on the other. In this Montreal, July 4, 1865. é a eh See ee eee eae Art. XXI.—A new Meteorite from Newton county, Arkansas, «containing on its surface Carbonate of Lime ; by J. LAWRENCE ame Saar, Prof. Chem. Med. Dep. University of Louisville. _ THE first notice of the meteorite of Newton county was made n 1860 by Prof. Cox, who was engaged in the geological sur- Vey of Arkansas. The original has not been obtained; the only Tragment of it, being in the hands of Judge Green, was given twenty-two and a half ounces, and was evi- m one corner of the mass, as it presents ssed arse ture. es When broken under the hammer, and the iron se * Canadian Journal, May, 1859, 201, and this Journal, [2] xxv, 102, » Sune 9th, 1862, and Can. Naturalist, vii, 202.0 arse 214 J. L. Smith on a new Meteorite from Arkansas. pecifie gravity taken on different pieces varies from 4 5 to 61. By mechanical means and the aid of the magnet the following minerals were separated. Nickeliferous iron, Hornblende, Chrome iron, ivine, Sulphuret of iron, Carbonate of Lime. ickeliferous Iron.—I may as well mention the manner 1n times. The iron is then introduced into an iron, or, better still, a silver capsule or crucible, and a strong solution of potash added, heat is applied until all the water is driven off, and the residue is heated to redness; on cooling, water is applied and the excess of potash washed out, as well as some silicate of potash that is formed. After thoroughly washing the particles of iron, they are moistened with a little alcohol and dried on blotting paper with a gentle heat; and by holding a magnet a little distance from m, the particles of iron will adhere to the magnet almost per- fectly free from earthy matter. : The iron, if of a coarse reticulated structure, as the one In question, may require to be crushed in the steel mortar after treatment by potash, to detach particles of silicate, remaining in lees, and in this variety I sometimes repeat the treat- ment by potash. In this wa , the foreign matter associated with the iron can be reduced to one-half percent. Of course this pro- cess sacrifices more or less of the iron, especially if the iron be in very sinall particles; but this sacrifice is of secondary import- ance compared wit the necessity of having the metallic matter ina oe state. Thus purified the iron was found to be com- toned of Wg Phosphorus, { t° small to be estimated. ae eon tr ne 99515 In the analysis, after separating the iron by the acetate of —_ nickel and cobalt were separated by nitrite of potash, Liebi ey eee used seny. and with the best results. + Ses yO es Ses rat are ee Seti a) aR es FEL a2 g the same end has been much | J. L. Smith on a new Meteorite from Arkansas. 215 improved by the modification lately devised by Prof. Gibbs, of dissolving the oxyd of mercury in the cyanid of mercury, (this ournal, Jan., 1865); but having every arrangement necessary h ; Se not yet tried Prof. Gibbs’s modification, but shall do so shortly. Chrome Iron.—This is found in small quantity in minute par- ing distinet faces of crystals, but I _ whose fo Beamee 106 eral: for this forinula: ih Which eonclasion 1 believe that I am sustaine mmelsberg and others. My results 'nds of pyrites are correctly made out, then the meteoric va- nety has no terrestrial representative. : Hornblende-—This mineral is easi Y separated, and is of a _ Breenish gray color more or less soiled by iron ; with some care ican be detached unmixed with other constituents; it has a ver distinct cleavage in one direction and an imperfect one in an- t=) other; on analysis it gave : Bille st i See BETO Alumina, - - a = = - - 41:02 Protoxyd of iron, ere oo - 16°49 Protoxyd of manganese, ite qe os) 125 toxyd of mang 3 Magiivin. «3. ni 8 Ge ce. 20°81 Alkalies—(potash, soda, lithia), - - -_ 24 100¥1 ‘ The ox ygen relations of the silica and protoxyds furnish the formula # &.,—the formula of ee dents. In structure and be. Sufficient of it was wihel in a pure state for and was found to be composed as follows: e : ee Mine 6 eee € was a minute quantity of manganese 1 216 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. This is accounted for in part by the quantity used for analysis : not being more than 07160 grams. ‘The oxygen ratio of the _| silica and protoxyds show the composition R, $i, which is that of otivine. Curbonate of Lime.—The observation of this constituent in a meteorite is something entirely new, yet it is found on the ex- terior surface of the meteorite in question, in various places. here is no doubt in my mind, however, that this ingredient was not a part of the mass when it fell, but that it has been ex- a to certain conditions since its fall by which carbonate of ime has been incrusted on its surface. Messrs. D x, Pisani, Daubrée and Cloez discovered minute rhombohedral crystals of double carbonates of magnesia not separate them in’a manner to poorines as to whether they escribed or not. _ Arr. XXII— Researches on the Volatile Hydrocarbons; by ©. M: | W ARREN,* T—Ow tue Isrivesce oF C,H, tron THe Borne ports 1x Ho- ‘Desdien Sertes or Hyprocarsons, AND IN some SERIES OF THEIR geese? ; WITH CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON Mernops OF TAKING Bultine-pornts. as shown by numerous examples, that, as a general rie in eon series which are characterized bya poeician elementary aheins of C, H, between the members, in the order of the . * * Ann. C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 217 series, the corresponding difference of boiling-point is about 19° C.; hence, that the difference between the boiling-points of any two members of such a series is x .19° for a difference of C,H, in the elementary formule. In the earlier observations on this subject, this relation between the boiling-points and formule was found so nearly constant in the different series examined, that any deviations from this apparent general law were referred, not unreasonably, to assumed inaccuracies in the determination of the boiling-points of the bodies compared. But the more recent - : ence is greater, and others in which it is less, than ) elementary difference of C, H,. That there are such exceptional this subject, different theories have from time to time been advanced b Schréder, Léwig, Gerhardt, and others, and sup- Peculiar nature of the C,H, in each case. He regards organic Compounds for the most part made up of radicals, which he calls “ components,” of which he makes seven. Three of these earth compo (H,)-—* (H,)”—which was supposed to lower the boi * Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1855, xcvi, 2. a, * Poggendorff ’s Annalen, 1844, Ixii, 184,387. R. SCL—Seconp Serres, Vou. XL, No. 119.—Serr., 1865. 218 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. point 3°; but this also was afterwards changed to 10° (Pogg. Ann., xiv, 372). (The other three components, having no direct bearing on the hydrocarbons, are omitted.) By means of these components Schréder (Pogg. Ann., xii, 188) proposed to calculate the boiling-points of different substances in the following manner. Having estimated the sum of the influence of the different com- ; age grees exactly with the latest deter mination at the date of Schréder’s memoir. Lowig® estimates the influence of the elementary atoms on the : i hy oo nearly three times as great, as those of Schroder. erhardi carbons ¢ ha to obey a very simple law, according to which 1 or depressed a certain number of degrees, correspond- ing to the n ‘ Ae analone 1845, Ixiv, 367; 1846, Ixvii, 45. © Idem, 1845, Ixiv, 250- 07. ° ue, 1845, [3], xiv, 1 ition des hy: nes epee Seek C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 219 taken at 160°C. Example: cumole (from cuminiec acid) has the formula CisH,2; hence it contains C2 less than oil of turpentine; therefore 35°°5 must be deducted from 160° (the boiling-point of oil of turpentine,) which leaves 124°°5; but as the cumole con- tains 2H, less than oil of turpentine, 15°x2=380° is to be added to the above remainder; thus 124°-5+30°=154°%, the calcula- ted boiling-point of cumole. Gerhardt’s direct determination was 153°, which very nearly coincides with his theory. : It would be foreign from my purpose on the present occasion to consider these different hypotheses, or even the empirical law of Kopp, beyond their special relation to the boiling-points of the hydrocarbons, and such other series, derivatives from the hydrocarbons, as have been made the subjects of my own experi- ments. Anything more than this would be merely speculative. The want of more accurate determinations of boiling: points as essential to safe and reliable deductions and generalizations on The need of this this question in its different bearings, which, from its importance, It clearly meri roceed with these researches, arbons, viz: that it remains; efficie Ex cep ce of ie boiling- ~ ih - aE to b hea 37:0 C,H, 29°0 0-4 C,.H,, 68°5 C,H, 31°5 06 LAL 98°1 CHa 29°6 12 Ryall, 127-6 C,H, 29°5 15 119°6—4 = 29°-9 prvere increment of boiling-point for the addition of C,H,—=29°'9. 3p sERirs. (Not completed.) ; Difference Range ol temperature | ee , El Formula. Boiling-point. y ppmnan curd botling-pont Iti ny arbre eg iti. ° ° Rents 174-9 eT C,H, 195°8 Cire 20°9 15 C,H, 216-2 Ca; 20°3 2-2 : 41-22 20°6. Average increment of boiling-point for the addition of C,H,=20°6. this is np pete in ee with the fact, so far as Ags experience goes, that equal to those in the eee. er, he de those just cited, might be I Sapa and Albert coal ; which z point difference fore deferred tok C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. ee 2. Of the Hydrocarbons obtained from Albert coal. 2 Ist sertes. (Not completed.) Difference of | Runge of temperature a1: A Elementar ie A eh : Formula. Boiling-point. y. boiling-point | within which the sub- oes ee Gumi stance would.all distil. ° ° ° C, yy 2 a a 59°9 C,H, 15 : C8 90°6 0,8; 30°7 05 ee : 0 Hig 1197 C2H, aor 4 0°5 ae The average — ot in this series, for the addition of | 2H,, is, therefore, 2p series. (Not completed.)*” oie SS RO Se aT : Formula. (2) Boiling-point. oo y bolling-point | : within whet ¥ : : Re ee | ee i , ? | C,oH,, : : : Cush 68-0 C,H, , 10 : oe Cals. 98°5 Cs i, 30°5 0°6 he Cicely, 12571 CH, bi }+2—28°6 Average boiling-point ict icons = 28°'6. et difference == 206. ae 3. Of Hydrocarbons obtained Jrom Coal-tar Naphtha. PRES SN Rath - . |Elementary | Difference of | Range of temperature Ni uostance.| Formula. |Boiling-point. ddlicdace: sca winter irda, oO Benzole, (C calle 80-0 z 0'8 Toluole, C,H, | 1103 C,H, | 30:8 07 Xylole, CieH,o) 139°8 | C,H, | 295 0-4 Isocumole, |C,,H, 5! 169-9 C,H, ! 30-1 10 ge ji i 8y°9 cae of boiling-point for the addition of C,H,=89°9 ee 4. Of SS Cuminic Acid, and Cymole vist Oil of Cumin. Ditte Range of te mperature - pelle yoat ie boiling noon within which the sub- Pole itterence mac bo "ep stance would all distil. | : °o 15-1 ‘ | 36 1796 | C,H, | 285 12 ‘With dalps: the at ies wie single ot the results presented in ion GE btn icine the Sean increment for ela tert series of hydrocarbons. C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons, 229 Indeed, leaving out of the calculation the third series from petro- = leum (having the general formula C,Hn),—which must remain > anomalous,—and also the products from oil of cumin, the aver- es : age of all the other boiling-point differences is 29°-75. The few e a individual variations from the number 80°, rarely exceeding a ___ Single degree, may reasonably be attributed to errors of the ___ thermometer (especially in case of temperatures above 100°), ____ OF in some instances to a want of purity of one of the compared ___ substances; which latter cause I doubt not is the case with the y from petroleum boiling at 87°, as upon this body I had bestowed less labor in fractioning than upon most of the others, on account of the extreme volatility and consequent loss of the Substance, by which the quantity had become so muc uc that I could ill afford further loss. In the case, also, of cymole from oil of cumin, and cumole from cuminie acid, in which the = boiling-poi - ence of 30 = mn of mereury. I do not doubt that the true boiling-point of this body will be found to be 150°, which would establish the difference of 30° between it and cymole. : I would here remark that this difference of 80° for the addi- oH, was first observed while engaged in fractioning ia petroleum, and the oil from Albert coal,—substan- fach of two parallel series of constituents, whose boiling-points lie so near together. : nee ae As no one had preceded me in the investigation of these sub- ing-points of the constituents of these mixtures. are of the beautiful relation between ele 230 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 2° f there was any one thing ing-point difference among homologous hydrocarbons to be about 22°. I tended to bias me, it was the recent work of Church” on the boiling-points in the benzole series, in which he made the boiling- i 2° an 1 d a fraction, a number varyin other members, above and below it, were found to be present,— an anomaly not easily reconciled with any plausible theory 12 bodi . regard to the formation of these bo a he €xist in this class of su dies. In view of these cir- bstances ally established beyond question the common dif prove to be the true di series. My confidence to EYE and finally, I ‘undertook sis of coal-tar naphtha, the results of to make a thorough analy- which are given in table 3. » Philosophical Magazine, 1855, [4], ix, 256. - Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1855, xcvi, 29. C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 231 As there shown, the boiling-point difference in the benzole series is also 80°, and the number of its members is reduced to four, in place of five, as alleged by Church. 'y This difference of 30°, thus shown to be so common with the : hydrocarbons, is so much larger than the difference of 19° which . Kopp had found so frequent in other classes of substances, that e the discrepancy cannot be regarded otherwise than as conclusive a evidence, if such were wanting, that all liquid bodies do not obey j the same law in this regard, but that there are unquestionably those series in: which the boiling-point difference for the element- ary difference of C,H, may be greater than 19°, of which Kopp 2 has already furnished some examples. : s That the difference may also be less than 19° in some series ag confirmation from the facts presented in the following 6. Of the Nitro-compounds derived from the Hydrocarbons of the Benzole Serves. | Name of substance. Formula. Boiling-point. gre wana | een °o Rite SANG ° Nitro-benzole, (C,,H, NO,| 2121 13°8 : atts 4 C,H Nitro-toluole, ae , NO, 25°95 on: 13°4 Nitro-xylole, |C14H7 NO,| 2393§ | Cale Nitro-isocumole, |C,,H, ,NO, C,H, 7. Of the Alkaloids derived from the Hydrocarbons of the Benzole Series. Name of substance. Formula. Boiling-point. a nosatonlsg a: prance | Anil N | 1846) _" Aniline. C8 “Oo? C.H 1771 Toluidine, C..H, N | 201-75 ay Xylidine, Ci 76 + “« 04835 me 40 4 = 1:069975 4 The eurve which defines the outlines of the chamber 1s 80 slight a departure from a right line (0:004433 in the limits of the available part of the cavity = line in the calb solid of revolution without e cubic space as an equa nd it must therefore have the same x = base of cone, d = truncated top _ di , the wa w?-+-de+d? 4 ( ameters), the value of a may be found from es eae z= 1071618. This value occurs between the diameters 1069975 s oe 1092992, and its location is determined by the proportion — length of the original tube, a mean sectional area - make of its difference from the first of these two stated diameters, to their own difference. The length of the cone by this process is 4035700 inches, a very small fraction too short (when the cury- ature is considered) for perfect compensation; but the resulting errors are inappreciable. In the proposed compensated syphon, the interior capacity and mercurial contents are intended to be the same as if the tube chamber will accomplish this object by imparting the required elevation at the expense of diameter. But this modification of € upper end of the long arm changes its relation to the pre- viously cylindrical short arm of the syphon, and A apes that he short arm should be an inverted fac simile of the conical am dergo any change of vertical dimensions. In effect, the full cubic contents of the conical vacuum chamber will occupy the being equalled by the space occupied by mercury in the short arm of the syphon. he tendency of the surface of the mercury to assume a spherical form with increased elevation may require a trifling adjustment. Another adjustment may also be necessary on ac- As ; conical space which least diminishes its sphericity. At the temperature 32° F. the lower limit of utility of the Inches, the upper limit being 32 inches. he point at which the tube Sant be self-compensating, if cylindrical, corresponds to the pressure 27-483489 inches at 32°. Above that point the error has the same sign as in the ordinary barometer; below - The point of self-compensation for a cylindrical tube corres- ponds to the section of mean diameter, or rather, diameter of mean sectional area of the conical cha J. Lewis on the Barometer. 237 238 0-H. L. Smith on a new Illuminator for Opaque objects. Art. XXIV.— On a new Illuminator for Opaque objects under high powers of the Microscope; by H. L. Smiru, of Kenyon College. In attempting to study the structure of the diatomaceous frus- tule, I found it impossible to view it with high powers as an Opaque object, by any means hitherto devised. In a valuable paper on the scales of the Podura, (Mic. Jour., N.S. vol. ii, p. 86), Mr. Richard Beck has stated that there is no difficulty in viewing them as an opaque object with the 4th in. objective and condensers rightly placed. Any illumination of Diatoms thus obtained is almost useless, from the great obliquity of the light, and with powers higher than the 4th in. is quite impossible. Mr. Ross's ingenious arrangement, suggested by Mr. Brooke, of a plain reflector, flush with the front surface of the objective, screw” at the top, to attach it to any — . bottom, to receive any objective; —and.so constructed that it can be placed in any position with re- to the light. A brass 2 rew and mil brass draw, moved by screw and led ahs 240 H. L. Smith on a new Illuminator for Opaque objects. stated. It would be strange if the idea of a reflector behind the objective had not oceurred to this ingenious and veteran mi- croscopist; but if so he seems never to have carried it out in practice. In the annual address of the President of the Micro- scopical Society of London, Feb. 11, 1857, four years after he proposed the annular ring, we find the following: ‘This is a problem,” the illumination of opaque objects under the highest powers of the microscope, ‘the solution of which has been at- tempted by numerous adepts in manipulation with only very pe success,” m’ diaphragm, nearly as far as it will go. Turn the reflector on the axis of the light, will quickly accomplish Ps ad for focus; if the field 8 H. L. Smith on a new Growing Slide for the Microscope. 241 not clearly illuminated, say with } in. objective, a little fingering of the reflector, or r diaphragm, will suffice to effect this. The _ Screw which moves the draw and reflector may now be with- ____ drawn, uncovering all but about a quarter or one half of one . side of the posterior lens of the objective; and, if care has ___ been taken to prope rly ae the diaphragm os reflector, a fie fre ae ete Sp ae A. : The Risciine are especially beautiful, and no one can view, without a sense of Bi as: reverence and unspeakable emotion, the elegant aang of Arachnoidiscus and Heliopelta; of Sur- irella or Pinnulari In thus accomplishing the illumination of ope objects un- der the highest powers of the microscope, a powerful aid to in- oe is furnished, which, I doubt not, twill be rightly ap- Teclate An ba eeeriended microscopist may find some difficulty at first, but a few trials will ensure success, and when property et is no wank of light with the ath or ;';th even wit the B or C eye-piece — Arr. XXV.—On a new Growing Slide for the ee: by H. L. Surry, Kenyon College Iv studyin h and conjugation of the Diatomacezx, I have felt “Se llaag gee meat 3 keeping them alive for a time under the microscope; and have devised for this pur- Pose, the slide to be describe which appears fully to meet all Tequisi “treateat iheitek - in can be readily made by any tolerably “tap ist, it will, I am certain, be considered a valu- addition t es srpsler ical a : “te whole slide, as I aed oie it, is a trifle more than 7h of an inch in thickness. It consists of two ryesg glass P. X2in., and about 5) in. thick, separated by thin strips glass of the ; same thickness, cemented to the sitatiest opposed -#,28 Shown in the figure. nods cl closed te I lkimately destined to be filled hem es is hot of such th ss as to prevent the os of the condenser, a i nips requisite. The glass I ny apap hen no Sentas, Vou. XL, No. 119.—Supr,, 1865, 31 242 H. L. Smith on a new Growing Slide for the Microscope. as is employed for the small cheap looking glasses, and easily obtained. The upper plate has a small hole, a, drilled through it. This is ef- fected by means of the ordinary writing diamond, and the sharp edge of a broken steel brooch or small rat-tail file. A hole can be drilled through glass of this thick- ess in a few minutes. One cor- ner of the upper glass is removed, as at 6, and a small strip of glass cemented at c serves to prevent the thin glass cover placed over the object from sliding. Another strip of glass is cemented om the lower side of the cell at d, but not extending as far as the removed part at b. The object of this is to prevent the water in the cell from being removed by capillary attraction, In case the slide in the neighborhood of 6 should be a little wetted. This strip is not, however, absolutely necessary. of thin glass, e, at the same time covering the hole 4. ide can now be placed upright, or in any position no water ean escape. It is, in fact, only a new application of the old principle of the bird-fountain. As the water evaporates from under the cover more is supplied through the hole a, and from time to time an air bubble enters at }; thus, a constant circula- tion is maintained. A cell of the size named will need replen- ishing only about once in three days, and this is readily effect without disturbing the object. I have been enabled to make observations by means of this slide, which it would have been abe 6 Rar hs if not impossible, to have made without it. ar ange some other microscopic a) n : vestigations upon the growth of the Diatoms, in order to pa lish ode ¢ ry ; re 2 between Mr. _--* The address is W. Wales & Co, Fort Lee, Bergen Co, New Jersey. 244 J. P. Cooke on the projection of Spectra. bat- ———_ J. P. Cooke on the projection of Spectra. 245 rest of the apparatus. I now use, however, a regulator better adapted to the purpose, made by J. Duboscq, of Paris. The negative pole, which is the lowest, is formed of asmall cylinder ing asmall cavity at the top to receive the fastened to the rim of a circular brass disk, which also hs hago four other similar cylinders. So that, by turning the disk, one after the other may be brought under the positive pole, and dif- ferent metals volatilized in the voltaic arc without further ad- justment. grooved wooden bars, and may be moved by the screw E. the frame may be raised or lowered, and the slit kept constantly ing 2 a distance of 50 or 60 feet from a curtain or white wall, the i prism “ : 1e electric | - point of contact of the carbon poles is in the axis of the lenses and about two inches behind the slit, and the galvanic circuit having been closed so. ‘yi focal distance of the lenses is so adjusted as to form a distinct image of the slit on the screen. We then turn the lantern on the re- " The stands used by photographers are well adapted for the purpose. J. P. Cooke on the projection of Spectra, 247 half an inch of the slit. Having now placed a small aoe of e coke- ie carbon is wholly intercepted by the edges of the slit and shelf in the in diameter and four inches long—by eee! to the open ends and drilling a hole throu which a glass stopper may be fitted. Finally the apparatus may be with a little additional expense so coustructed that it can also be used for projecting photographic transparencies after the principle of the magic lantern. Small photographs on glass may thus be used in place of diagrams and the great geological features of our globe, the glaciers for exam- ple, may in this way be brought before the eyes of an audience with almost all the vividness of the reality. The same meth og 3 cie dark lines of the solar spectrum is to take a photograph of the i ge on the wall. Such photographic transparencies are easily made; but as few ? teachers have the means or time for such work, it would be well ig J. Duboseq of Paris, after the plan of Foucault, and we find that it works very well. : Most of the apparatus here described is so simple that it cau be made by any good mechanic and for this reason we have en- tered into more detail than would otherwise be necessary. The lenses and other accessories must of course be purchased. The apparatus can also be ordered from E. S. Ritchie & Co. of Boston. Cambridge, August 8th, 1865. Ant. XXVII—On the use of the Bisulphate of Soda as a substilule jor the Bisulphate of Potash in the decomposition of minera’s, ily the Aluminous minerals ; J. LAWRENCE SMITH, pi Site sas by Professor of Chem., University of Louisville. will facilitate this operation. fi he J. L. Smith on the use of Bisulphate of Soda in analysis. 249 agent to fuse with aluminous minerals, as corundum, em- searches I had a large number of corundums and emeries to an- alyze. The powdered minerals were fused with the bisulphate of WwW capsule, is then broken up and put into a glass stop- pered bottle. So far as my experience has yet gone, in almost every instance where we have been in the habit of using bisul- phate of potash, the bisulphate of soda can be substitu 2 See this Journal, vol. x, 1850, and vol. xi, 1851. Am, Jour. Sct.—Szconp Sertms, Vou. XL, No. 119.—Szpr., 1865. 32 a 250 H. A. Newton on Altitudes of Shooting Stars. Art. XXVII.—Altitudes of Shooting Stars observed on the night : of Nov. 13-14th, 1863, at Washington, Haverford College, Ger- mantown, Philadelphia, and other places. Computed by H. A. NEWwTon. A BRIEF notice of observations made upon shooting stars on : the night of Nov. 18-14th, 1863, was given in this Journal, [2] xxxvii, 141-145. = 3 12°7 4 £2-7 5 12°8 6 12-9 q 12°9 8 3°0 9 3-0 20 3-0 + 21 [3-0 33 3" 23 31 24 3-2 26 34 26 35 27 155 28 13°5 29 36 30 36 81 3°6 32 37 33 13-8 34 13-8 35 1 3- 36 13°38 37 3-9 38 13° 39. 140 d, &c., on the night of Nov. 13-14th, 1868. Int alt. | 2d alt. |Weight No. Hour, | Ist alt. | 2d alt. |Weight. 57 49 8 40 14-0 61 43 3 65 30 5 41 14°2 91 60 8 86 36 2 42 14:3 64 5 93 46 5 43 14-4 3 20 2 79 63 3 44 14-4 203 | 126 2 8 73 7 45 145 114 80 — 7 121 97 5 46 145 98 45 6 86 78 3 47 145 113 67 9 104 62 9 48 146 20 130 1 3 49 148 5 28 7 145 | 110 a 50 14:8 156 90 6 3 20 6 51 149 1 52 149 49 37 3 53 14-9 184 | 115 2 109 82 ve 54 15°0 141 93 a 151 113 a 55 151 112 72 10 102 70 5 56 1571 90 48 3 83 58 8 57 15-1 50 23 3 3 58 151 6 51 40 7 59 15-2 105 49 6 113 83 4 60 15-2 71 47 10 98 60 4 61 15:2 2 142 | 110 vi 62 15°3 19 41 5 121 53 ! 63 15:3 188 ; 110 3 96 58 2 64 15°3 82 55 4 90 52 9 65 153 | 112 82 6 94 66 vi 66 15" 94 39 7 102 62 6 67 154 99 69 10 186 80 5 68 15°5 | 101 50 10 3 69 15°5 90 66 8 / 9 50 15°5 "9 51 7 ie S 9 41 15-7 92 52 8 83 47 9 73 158 | 174 68 S 90 62 4 73 15°8 | 106 61 + 104 64 4 14 16:0; |.1 66 + 68 52 3 15 16-0 106 50 9 J 76 1671 120 "2 8 10 TT 16°2 79 66 7 2 a 2 78 16-4 80 42 8 If the several altitudes i in pe third column of the table be din for the middle points and 79-2 m tial di iles, These poh , and the sum of the pro- The altitudes given in the table are represented to the eye in corresponding shooting star at its appearance and disappear ance, The length of the line represents therefore the amount of descent, not the length of the path. he dotted lines stand for . those meteors of which the heights of only the middle points are computed. At the end of this division of the diagram is a heavy line that represents the mean of all the paths as computed above In the second division of the diagram is given in like manner a representation of the paths of 39 meteors observed at New The large majority of the paths from which these results are obtained belong to August meteors, It appears, then, that the region in which the November re teors appear and disappear, is 15 or 20 miles higher than t corresponding region for the August meteors. If the decrease of density of the atmosphere at this elevation follows the same law as near the earth’s surface, the air in the latter region 18 forty or fifty times as dense as in the former. : __ The most plausible explanation of this remarkable fact is, that __ the two groups of bodies differ in their chemical and mechanical _ constitution; the November group being more inflammable than that of August, as +. Itis altogether unlikely that any of the meteors became Vist __ ble at a greater altitude than 125 or 150 miles, The faeility for error in observing is very considerable. It seems impossible however to explain in this way the large difference between the _ Means of the computed altitudes of the two groups. "Altitudes of shooting atare, J 254° H. F. Walling on Gravitation. Art. XXIX.—Remarks on Gravitation, and its relation to a sup- posed Universal Force ; by Henry F. WALLING. ing through its center of gravity. : ose a single atom of matter to exist in space. We shall readily perceive, that there will be no resultant foree Since the atom is acted upon in every direction alike, each im- pinging ray being counteracted by its opposite ray, producing an equilibrium, in which we may suppose the force of each imping- ing ray to be decombined or developed from the atom by its oe ray so that the general store of force remains un- ¢ But let. there be two atoms at a given distance from each other, as A and B in the figure, which we will suppose to be ot A definitely small, so that only one line 0 will be seen that each atom intercepts the ray which pass through it before reaching the other, and thas a portion of the counte: . o th lent resul nt force acts upon each atom in the direction of the other. ‘This action continues during each successive instant pro- 4 uniformly accelerated motions of both atoms toward each = Let uss of inertia, B each toward : | : H. F. Walling on Gravitation. 255 tance that A does in the same time, each having a uniformly accelerated motion toward the other. ~~ The proportion of the inverse squares of the distances readily i o each of body, CD the given section of B, and EF the parallel plane, ata fixed distance from A. figure ny ewton, W a eee may be seen in the following quotation made by Fa _ 256 Hi. F. Walling on Gravitation. mining the resultant force which ese vibrations are equal in duration and intensity to those. by ee which they are generated, though perhaps opposite in direction, Scientific Intelligence. 257 and result in an augmentation of the centrifugal or expansive motions of the atoms, which is communicable from atom to atom and convertible into “modes of motion.” ‘The differences in the constituent parts of rays of light and veer developed by decomposition, polarization, &c., and due to differences in the std Ey a ia F 4 4 * duration, direction, &e., of the generating vibrations, are thus transmitted and reproduce ed with rigorous integrity, being equal in duration, direction and intensity to the generating vibrations, and in quantity or aggregate effect, inversely proportional to the squares of the distances. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. a new and very powerful thermo-electric battery.—In a commu- Restion. to the Vienna Academy dated the 16th of March of the ar, S. Marcus has described a new thermo-electric battery which pos- Sesses sewage interest both in a aay rai practical point of view. The pro of the new battery are as (1.) The letromotive force of one of the new dake is equal to z's of that of a Bunsen’s element of zinc and carbon, and its internal re- sistance is equal to 0: 4 otk meter of normal wire. ts 3 Six such elements are sufficient to decompose acidulated water. cireuit melted. ok biety elements develop in an electro-magnet a lifting power of 0 poun .) The a. is generated by warming only one of the gers Sides of the semen. and cooling the other by means of water of ordinary temperatur positive metal ti in these batteries, Marcus employs an alloy of 10 parts of copper, 6 of zine and 6 of nickel. The addition of one part of cobalt alloys a partion kind of Germ be used with the same negative metal ; of 65 parts of copper and $1 of zine, pee as as negative m pa | nical ae that only the positive metal is directly se the negative metal being _ Warmed by conduction ; the former melts at about 1200° C., the byes at about 600° C. 2 se Scr.—Seconp Series, Vou. XL, No. 119—Serr., 1865. 33 a 258 Scientific Intelligence. eat. These conditions are, that the metals employed should be as far as possible from each other in the thermo-electric series; that they should permit great differences of temperature so as to avoid the necessity of using ice; that they should not be expensive, and that the insulating material should resist a high temperature and possess sufficient solidity with a breadth of six inches and a height of six inches. Marcus has 240 lbs. of coal per day. The Vienna Academy, recognizin ance of the discovery, has voted to the inventor the sum of 2500 gulden —the invention to be public property.—Pogg. Ann., exxiv, 629, April, 1865. WwW It must be remembered that the step taken by Marcus is, after all, @ first step in the right direction. Bunsen, E. Becquerel, and Stefan, have. vn that there are thermo-electric combinations of much higher electro- motive force than those employed by Marcus, although the internal re- aL °¢ is too great to permit of their use in constructing large batteries. thea a : we Suggest that the thermo-electric relations of the highly crystalline nD, anese and carbon, known as “ spiegeleisen,” (that from the Franklinite of New Jersey for example,) deserve a careful study. The ossession of a galvanic battery in which coal is consumed in place of zinc and acids, can hardly fail to revive an interest in electro-magnetic — «ey? se that of Page, even if only for cases in which com- ‘Paratively little power in required, since our. best steam engines do not {itd 10 per cent of the work which the consumption of the coal is capa ble of doing. CH eee ee : a —w. Chemistry and Physics. 259 2. On some thermo-electric elements of great electro-motive power.— Sreran has examined a variety of mineral substances with relation to i i ratu mi a galvanometer of great rea and the co by a spirit-lamp. In examining the mutual relations of the minerals & copper strip was placed pre them, wires attached to the free ends of the fragments of mineral and the whole pressed together by a wooden press. The free end of the copper strip was then heated ind the heat conducted to Ne panes In the following enumeration of the cil i employed the positive element is always placed first, and the number appended signifies how many of the elements give an electro-motive ove equal to that of Daniell’s cell. C .) ee Ps hiesiie 58 26. ) Pee Compact copper syria Sh copper pyrites; 14. ts Copper—crystallized cobalt pitseng: 26. (6.) —— cobalt pyrites— ; 78. (7.) at —iron pyrites ; 157 (8. Ae copper pyrites—iron pyrites; 6. (9.) Flin copper pyri 2s. (10.) C —erubescite ; TK: (11.) Fine b ie eif—copper 9°8. (12.) Coar “ ae a ) tiie in large erystale—coppers 9°8. 14.) Bleisch weif—erubescite ; The great influence of structure upon the t seen in Nos. 1, 2 and 4, and still more in 5 and 6. crystals of galena was at some poin nts 2 at others elec tro-motive force yet os -apapabpd relations is of enbical Per, brass, silver, cadmium, iron, antimony, co Pegg. Ann., exxiv, 632. 8. On the wave length of the blue iridium line.-—J. Miitter has Jae ‘ine characteristic. of, the new o determinations A= 0-000455™. —— see? * 260 Scientific Intelligence. 4. On the absorption spectrum of Didymium, Erbium and Terbium. —Dezarontainz, who maintains the existence of erbium and terbium as distinct elements, has compared the absorption spectra of these two by Gladstone. The absorption bands in the spectra of erbium and ter- bium were first observed by Bahr. The didymium spectrum has been also studied by Rood and by Erdmann, both of whom detected several ark bands not noticed by Gladstone. Erbium gives usually five lines or bands, and eight when in the form ofa thick syrup. Er® remains after all the other lines have vanished. Terbium is chara isti thi three bands of metal, of which only two are very distinct. The , or Tr°, is difficult to recognize, and perhaps does not belong to the metal at all. Upon a scale on which Na=27, Lit=10 and Ti=43, the author found Dit= 9 Tr® =30-32 Erf= 9 FTG —=48-50 aig a=28-32 c= 85-89 p16 b=48-50 h—42 54-55 e=44 e=66-67 a==48-50 rene b=65 f=73-75 c==85-90 c=85-91 5. Cristalli ed il loro ingrandimento 3 par Arcanceto Scaccui. 120, 28 Mineralogy and Geology. 261 them trimetric and the other triclinic. Orthoclase and albite constitute, as he observes, another example. Yet it is one which brings dimorphism and Scacchi’s polys are into close relation. Professor Seacchi _ Sents a large number of facts illustrating his views, and discusses also the origin of the phenomena observed. In his ro memoir, Professor Scacchi gives an account of some important observations bearing on the = of twin crystals. emoire sur | Emploi du Microscope polarisant, et sur Pétude des letpridtis optiques een propres & déterminer le systeme cristallin dans les Cristaux naturels ou artificiels; par M. Ds Cioizzaux. 60 PP. 8vo, with two plates. 1864. Paris. (Dunod, éditeur; Quai des Augus- tins, 49),—No one has labored more effectually in optical mineralogy than Mr. Des Gloisennx. The s cience bears” evidence rubengbeit of progress me of his mineralogy yep: in 1862) that this memoir should ap- ae as an Appendix to the second ; but the uncertainty w with regard to _ the eater of the latter has led to his i issuing it RI 1, Zire —Zirconium has been the subject of researches by Mr. Troost, hicks were recently presented to the Academy of erie at Paris, si results go to show that zirconium acts the same part in the C es of elements that antimony does in the Nitrogen ; Sil that this element c — the passage between silicium and aluminium, thus ron gpictettars zirconium a and alumini C are monoclinic rhombic prisms of 93°, inclined 108 to the basal plane. —Les Mondes, July 20. II. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. aha On the Sand hills of Cape Henry in Virginia; by B. Henry La- EB, Esq a rumeies Au. Ph Ph. Society, vol. iv, p. 439, and Price MinerslogiZal Journal, No. iv, 1814).'— —From the falls of the great riv- ers of Virginia a over the out-runnings of the granite strata, the general level of the land gradually approaches the level of the ocean. Ree the falls it is elevated from 150 to 200 feet above the tide; on the sea-shore at Cape areas the original coast rises not more than 15 “feet at high- ge ark, 2 | nd _ which with many hundred more, were dug out of a well at eo from the depth 4 71 feet, prove that the deposition of the super-strata — Wi ally published fifty years since, because of its ERIE ca? the A Atlantic coast. We leam fro Mr. J. jE. Hilgard, of peadicinetiard posi 262 share. The shore, and the bed of the Atlantic near the shore, consist of a oot e. a a @ | a. ~ > ° <4 fae) =, (=) = 4 oS) oO = 5 tse] had am ae E. c = as c te o TQ e Me oe = o oe @ Ss 5 bt) = 2 =. = is carried further inland by the winds. The most violent winds on this — coast blow from the points between the northwest and the east; and ‘4 besides, a gentle easterly breeze prevails the whole summer, during some “a part of almost every day. This easterly wind, which is in fact a trade 4 wind, is felt as high as Williamsburg. "It is said to be felt, at this day,’ health and coolness over a portion of lower Virginia, which is now con- 4 sidered as extremely unhealthy. . a ese easterly winds blowing during the driest and hottest season of 4 the year, carry forward the greatest quantity of sand, and have amassed D hills, whi xtend about a mile from the beach. The natural level a of the land, elevated little more than 10 feet above high-water mark, 4 has a very gentle declivity to the east. Iti 8 * of about five it discharge to the ocean, it would probably be perfectly dry; this, how- i the eand hills prevent, and the water is discharged into the sea to 1€ $0 i _ Swamp. Lynnhaven creek is the most considerable of these drains. The swamp, or as the neighboring inhabitants call it, the Desert, 1s Overgrown with aquatic trees and shrubs; the gum, (JZ. styraciflua) the cypress (Cup. disticha) the maple (Acer rubrum) the tree improperly alled the sycamore (Platanus ocidentalis) the Magnolia glauca, the wax - an eddy; c wn the bank into the swamp. J ie p. Its slop siete gle of 45°. By gradual accumulation, the hill climbs up their trunks, ee speak only of the coast aoe , : wie of Virginia at Cape Henry; for although I have the a 3 the same natural process has produced all the sand banks, pone git from the Delaware to Florida : I have only examined that ee Be past Which is the subject of the present memoir. : ‘aye ively mean a piece of ground, the surface of whi which has a sound bottom. In this it differs from Mineralogy and Geology. , 268 they wither slowly, and before they are entirely buried, they die. Most of them lose all their branches, and nothing but the trunk remains to be covered with sand, but some of the cypress retain life to the last.* The Desert abounds in deer, bears, racoons, and opossums, Its skirts are more thickly peopled than the sterility of the soil would give reason to suppose; but the inexhaustible abundance of fish and oysters in the oth are surrounded by a platform of plank; and, without any such de- sign in the architect, this platform has preserved both these buildings from being buried in the sand, _When the lighthouse was built, it was placed upon the highest sand hill at the Cape. Its distance from the beach may be six or seven hundred yards, and the elevation of its base above high water not less than 90 feet. At that time there was from the foot of the building, the most d Should this event take place, digging of a well in the high sandy country, his curiosity would be excited by fossil wood, ; the sea coast, perhaps within a cen- — between the summit of the sand hills _ 100 feet below the surface. h trees st pea e hills, they half buried. e of the tr 264 Scientific Intelligence. He would there discover a bed of vegetable and animal exuvie, and going home, he might erect upon very plausible ground, a ver ood- looking hypothesis of a deluge, sweeping the whole upper country of its sand, and depositing it along the line of its conflict with the waves of the ocean. : 2. Volcanic Eruptions in Northern California and Oregon.— Within the last few years there have been frequent reports of volcanic activity in or near the extinct volcanoes of Northern California, Oregon, and north- ward from that chain of high peaks. us, Mt. St. Helens in 1851, Lassen’s Peak in 1856, Mt. Hood in 1864, are most familiar, the ac tivity being shown by vast quantities of steam emitted. Various similar re occur at times in the newspapers of the Pacific coast. The Ore- gonian of last April contains the following: “Mt. Baker, it is said, is rapidly sinking in. It is asserted that the mountain has fallen 1000 or 1500 feet, and that its summit, which was formerly a sharp point, is now much flattened. This peak has been for some time in a state of active eruption. Dense clouds of smoke have of late issued from it.” Corres- pondents of the California papers speak of the same phenomenon, oue of whom asserts that the emission of steam is immense, and that 1,200 feet Ww. H, B. of the summit has fallen in. We have no other data. Granville, N. eU. S§ Co. has j ened a new quarry late quarries abound in the neighborhood, some of which have been wor years; but in this new quarry seven pot-holes have already quarry. The largest complete hole is elliptical in shape, its longest di- ameter being 11 ft. 6 in., its shortest 10 ft.; its depth i and the bounding hills rise from it rather abruptly to the height of 50 to 100 ft. The Rutland rry side of a bluff. The tops of the pot-holes are respectively 30, 25 and oie above the bed of the brook and about 800 ft. from it. There are ist eager the bed of the stream in which the pot-holes were pties into Lake Champlain. The quarry is WO nearest point of Poultney river. The side of 4 ‘Preserved fragment of a vast formation once deposited over the Appa- re more than 2000 feet Mineralogy and Geology. 265 the largest pot-hole has, in some places, a coating of carbonate of lime one-tenth of an inch thick, laid very evenly over the slate, and large lumps of limestone of the nature of stalactites have been found in ‘ka same hole, I went over the ground in company with Mr. A. E. Knapp, one of the principal owners of the quarry, who furnished most of the measurements mentioned above, Poultney, Vt. July, 1865. Observations on the Eocene Lignite Formation of the United States; by T. A. Conrap. Older Eocene or London Clay. Lignite Lpoch.—Some years ago I visited a marl deposit near Long Branch, Mon- mouth Co,, N.J., in which casts of a few shells presented an Eocene char- acter. Observing in Vanuxem’s cabinet a specimen what is now es Bracklesham. Professor Cook has lately sent me a box specimens ti the deposit to the Brandon and Mississippi Lignite strata. In- deed it seems clear that this Shark River marl was the of the oldest nh n, and that the flora of the Brandon and Southern Tertia h flourished at the same time. ocal, circumscribed character of Alto, near Chambersburg, described by Prof. Lesley, is doubtless a locally lachian slope to the very base of the mountain range, and oceu} a large space in South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, and i Act, extending to the Pacific as far north’as Vancouver's Island. Dana’s of the Cretaceous epcech gives a general view of the United States at this time, supposing what was then ocean had become land and fresh Water, It is probable that the estuary deposits of Upper Missouri are the base of the tte ene “eit ie Fadi Waitt shells are the earliest tertiary Ppes of this continent. The species of Vivipara resemble the me rms of the Paris basin. According to Meek and Hayden these Am. Jour. Sct.—Secoxp Serres, Vot. XL, No. 119.—Sepr., 1865. 266 | Scientific Intelligence. tained in No. 2 is copied, with emendations, from his Report: Ostrea Carolinensis Con., Venericardia planicosta, Protocardia Virginiana? Con., Volutilithes Tuomeyi Con. This bed represents the dark-colored oose sand of Piscataway, over which, and next in succession, lies the Marlborough rock, which corresponds to the “great Carolinian bed” of Ruffin, and the “calcareous strata of the Charleston basin” of Tnomey. The sand bed and condition of its fossils, as well as the similarity of some of its species, reminds us of the Bracklesham Bay locality in England, and the superimposed rock of the Bognor beds. Although the Aturia ziczac is the only fossit of Oregon known to be identical with the New Jersey Eocene, the vast distance between the Jo- ealities will account for the variation; for the Continent was then as wide as from the Appalachian to the Rocky mountains, and seems to have ake geet ae eat aes observed b j marl is an indurated clay, with disseminated grains of green sand, which are often smooth and shining, and the shells are all-in the form of casts, of } which is found as far west as Cape St. Lucas in Lower California. _ The lignite bed underlies the bluff at Vicksburg, where we a Conrad; 3.St.Stephen’s _ i 2. ferrugi * Mineralogy and Geology. 267 limestone, or Orbitolite limestone, eighty feet; 4. Vicksburg group, with a new species of Orbitolite— d This formation appears at Cape Sable, near Annapolis, where, at about the water level, “under a stratum of sand, and resting upon an imper- meable crust of ferruginous sandstone, lies imbedded in a layer of almost pure alumine, a forest of pine trees, thrown down by same ancient con- vulsion. The crust which forms the base of this aluminous layer is a de dness. tea mixed it much more extensive at the base of the Eocene. The bed of the At- recent and : be distinguished from the recent forms, except by one conversant with all > o a B S ce o ves conclusively that this was the case in North Carolina. gene cal Cretaceous feast are there mingled in a _ breccia. When I first saw this rock in 1832, no fracture or excavation revealed its true character; but the.external resemblance to the Timber _ Creek limestone of New Jersey, with its corallines, was striking. ihe _ ‘Mixture of Secondary and Tertiary species in this breccia, shows t wr disturbance occurred in the bed of the Eocene ocean, w oviden 7 ? Durand, Journ. Philad. College of Pharmacy, v, 12, 1834. * 268 Scientific Intelligence. from Tuomey’s account, extended into South Carolina. No one, I sup- pose, will tell us that the Venericardia planicosta existed in the Cretaceous period, yet countless thousands may be observed at the base of t ene. It is true that in Europe a series of strata, termed Upper and Lower “ Landenien” and “Heersien,” are said to intervene between the chalk and Eocene; but one of the characteristic fossils of the Upper Lan- denien occurs in the Shark river beds,—the Cyprina Morrisii of Sowerby. It is therefore probable that the former system is merely an extension of the London clay. Certainly, in the United States, there is no such sys- tem as the “Heersien,” whilst Lyell found, in the Belgium Lower “Lan- denien” grey marl, a perfect specimen of the Terebratulina gracilis, a well known chalk fossi],—together with Ostrea (Hxogyra) lateralis Nyst. Lyell remarks, that the Lower “ Landenien,” at Folx les Caves, rests on the Maestricht chalk. es ere is an extensive bed of lignite in Europe of Eocene age, which Deshayes says forms a well determined horizon with the long series of “sables inférieures.” “Above the lignite appears a bed of fresh-water and marine shells, the horizon of which I believe to be the same as that of the lignite formation of the United States. They reveal a singular state of the globe at the commencement of the Tertiary period, presenting a vast level region covered by a dense forest, in which palms and oaks grew side by side, interspersed with lakes and rivers, and long shallow bays of salt water penetrating to the interior of the continents. This state of the globe was exhibited in Europe and America at the same time, and the land was little elevated above the sea level, except that in America the Appalachian and Rocky mountain ranges stood out from the vast n. maining. A few of the bivalves have connected valves. About twenty- species of shells and plants have been collected, of which I think six shells are identical with species of the London Clay and one of the P. tie Clay, Cyprina Morrisii—Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci., 1865,70. 5. On the Fossil Insects from Illinois, the Miamia and Hemerisiia, described in vol, xxxvii, of this Journal, at page 34; by SamusL H. Scupper. {From a letter to Professor Dawa.)—In my study of the specl- mens of fossil insects from Illinois, allowed me through your kindness, I have observed new facts of interest, and arrived at some conclusions i Mineralogy and Geology. 269 the femora, and do not know how far they may be removed from their natural connection with the body; and since the tarsi are wanting we cations of antennz taking their rise at the usual point g: : il -n full in a paper read before the Boston dh Nebel i seamen ore soon pa paidahed in their Memoirs. ed, I am enabled to determine with to the Neuroptera. is question fully, and I will am satisfied that the i inci i isfactory occupied by the principal, nervures of the wings form most sati banat for sr deaenetias of families in this group of Neuroptera, ener upon which no systematist appears hitherto to have relied, and to whi none have invited any attention, — it : e: bee areca nein yea aor i value of unimportant characters to the exclusion of those of more weighty significance. Heer, however, i his work on the fossil insects of Ciningen é&e., has distinguished the Ter Mitina by characters of this sort in a proper e308 ~~ is ee re- gretted have extended his studies to other lies 270 Scientific Intelligence. of wing-structure found existing by themselves only in Neuropterous groups widely separated. We are strongly fortified in this view by se other portions of the insect in the Miamia. In the a omen, mesotho- rax and metathorax, we are strongly reminded of Corydalis, one of the ialina, a Neuropterous family; while in the head and prothorax, to- 4 . from those drawn from the structure of the wing we shall find, as i types. x For these two synthetic families, I would propose the names of PaL# OPTERINA and Hemeristin the Palaopterina we have a body rather broad and depressed, th head horizontal, ng a i anterior half of the wing; te fourth nervure; the sixth occupies about as much space as the fifth and is made up of a number of branches which fork near the base and fill the _ Space with approximate nervules running parallel to the lower branch ‘ A ‘fifth. The wings are feeble and the nervures delicate, as in Ephem- erina. | In the Hemeristina the first, second and third nervures run nearly pat- allel to one another throughout their course ; the third sends outa branch at the extremity of the basal third of the wing at a considerable ang! cupy the anterior half of the wi '; the fourth, after running in contigu- ity with the third, diverges widely from it and forks below the branching: of the third; the fifth, running parallel to the previous, forks very nal Mineralogy and Geology. 271 rowly near the base, the upper fork again forking in a similar manner, and the lower emitting branches from its under side; the sixth is proba- bly nearly as in the Palzopterina, though but little remains of it. The wings overlap one another very completely, are twice as broad in the middle as at the base, strong, the nervures prominent, and connected throughout by frequent and strong, generally straight, cross-veins. The egs are broad and compressed. ily Ephemerina ; while the most interesting of all isa wing which appears Be to blend the peculiar structure of the stridulating apparatus of the male a in some Orthoptera, with the general mode of neuration of the wings holding in the Neuroptera, carrying the synthesis one step farther back. 4 Boston Society of Natural History, Jan. 30, 1866. a 6, Paleontology of the Upper Missouri. A Report upon eg pod jeut. G. A. co = @ [ae] be oe fav] oe o dl s @ ° 2 co oO cS S, Bea <4 ° fae fo or = 3S n cS 9r igneous origin, like those of Tahiti, and similar to the latter hills, above one or two thousand feet in elevation, are largely = forest-covered ; for these, owing to their np, Sa and coolness, 2a _ Condense some of the moisture remaining in the sea-winds, and with the age below, a moist soil, and the ther east, beyond the Caseade Rang ins, ; eae : of the gigas is more extreme, and the forests fail altogether __* Exploring Expedition Geological Report by the Author. (sto. 1849), p- 514 -* For details ce same Heport, and also this Journal, [2], vik 387-908, 1840. 296 J. D. Dana on the Origin of Prairies. except on the high mountains; and at a point on the Columbia 3 river, about 250 miles from its mouth, there is the “last tree” — a star system of facts was, later, observed. ‘The dry- of the climate, as is well known, increases southward; the arenes weal amount of rain along the coast of Oregon is 50 to 60 inches; at San Francisco, California, according to Gibbons, but 22 inches: and farther sout st, at the beginning of — the California pefiinsula, but 10 inches. So the forest region of — the sea-border narrows southward, failing on tbe lower ee moisture from the passing winds; — in the peninsula of Lower — California, the mountains even In the latitude of San Peantinees oy farther south, the Sierra Nevada is generally bare below a line three to four thousand — feet above the sea, except in the valleys; above this line there are nearly unbroken forests; and itis stated that 50 to 75 per cent more of rain falls ont thess mountains than on the Sacra: mento sa plains at their — foot. The eastern slope of oe ee orests, oe has been said, reach far down many of the valleys; for the stratification of the rocks leads often. to an reason a" ulte mMOISl, — ass of the — green, although over of = plain it was then (in Novem to J. D. Dana on the Origin of Prairies. 297 * _-verse, in parallelism with the variations in moisture. In the . . United States forests originally prevailed with almost unbroken continuity over the parts. which receive the greatest amount of ain with the least amount of evaporation, and prairies or semi- deserts where the amount is small. Over the eastern portion of the continent, from the Gulf states to Labrador, including the most of New England and New York, the Atlantic states, and o all of Tennessee and Kentucky, the annual fall of rain is 40 to 45 oO Vge as ? tay Ps 7 pe? x natural prairies have some kind of relation to dryness of climate, and that moisture has as much to do with the prevalence of forests, fe ‘Taces and on over the high hills. The writer was through the Valley the past summer, and observed forest patches on the lower flats (or, where the forests are gone, the old stumps,) at several places between Utica and Herkimer, over the Her flats. between Herkimer and Little Falls, between Little Falls ; sville. These forest More draining than tbe value of the land seemed to warrant. — . _ West of Utica, near Oriskany, there are large bogs 1 eae So wet the year around that they are hardly penetrable : es: 298 J. D. Dana on the Origin of Prairies. when frozen over in winter; and still they are covered with orests The soil of these lower flats is often the finest of silt, such as © naturally belongs to bogs and lakes; and varies from this on one side to peat, and on the other to sandy loam; and that of the upper terraces and hills varies from sandy loam to gravel and the coarsest and hardest of drift-material. Yet all these different kinds of soil are covered alike with forests. There are runs out on the bog almost as far as the larch, is not here counted, it being regarded as a shrub. The “Cedar” (Arbor- vite) swamps, which are the remnants of the very exteusive ones of Parishhill and Sangerfield, and from which the cedar as been cut out, and which are gradually drying, are already becoming filled with black ash, with a sprinkling of red maple, and especially of elm. : The great lake regions of Maine afford facts of similar import. I cite the following from observations made the last summer, at the suggestion of the writer, by Prof. A. E. Verrill, of one ¥ in Maine, (now of Yale College), and communicated b (from Westport, N. Y., on Lake Champlain,) for this article: “The points which I had in view in my observations were the following Ist, the succession of vegetation as a lake changes to a swamp, and t to dry land; 2nd, when swamps become permanently flooded what changes occur in the vegetation; 3d, when lakes or swamps are drained be) : There are in Maine abundant opportunities for studying almost every ~~ dams at the outlets of lakes. In these cases, those trees, even J. D. Dana on the Origin of Prairies. 299 change which can occur independent of climate in the vegetation of the lake margins, swamps, and meadows, both recent and ancient. Near Norway I founda lake, one part of which has been gradually changing to a bog, and presenting all gradations from the open lake to a comparatively dry swamp. Approaching the bog, the water becomes shoal and the bottom is composed of black, soft vegetable mud of great depth, the surface of the mud supporting a variety of aquati¢ plants in ~ A a E » oe, > S > Q e we 99 S oO =. 4 a ob Fo) e - ia ra) Qu S B oo oo pall i] nm oo boc | o & fo) ~~ ee @ extend downward into the soft mud and water, Both these trees will grow wheré their roots, and even the bases of their trunks, are continually bathed in water. Farther back in the swamp these two trees becom casional white-pine and hemlock; the latter, however, only eter of three feet, and the Ash to 15 or 18 inches, in the wettest parts The final condition of this kind of swamp may be seen in another i istant, where an extensive meadow has been formed by erly covered by a forest similar to that described, and some portions still remain in the original condition. Other parts that have been neglected ick ad ina in some parts. On some patches id 1s doubtless deeper in so re dense thickets of In the same region there is another extensive meadow surrounded by high, well defined banks of drift material, often terraced, and forming described, while other parts, composed of sandy soil and = es : There is no evidence that grass ever grew upon any part of it until 3 man, : we a eee lands have been flowed by means of I have observed some cases where # 2 300 J. D, Dana on the Origin of Prairies. ash and arbor-vite, which have their trunks enue to the depth of two or three feet are invariably killed after some t 1 have met with but two cases of lakes ean drained. In one of ‘ these, a heavy crop of grass was produced the first year, chietiy 6 fe Ses blue: Ce In the other case, coarse grass, sedges and other herbaceous plants pre- vailed for a year or two but very soon gave place to a rank growth of ‘ maple, &c.—the alder and willow growing most rapidly. I have no reason for supposing that the trees did not vegetate the first year; they became conspicuous as they grew higher than the grass and other herba- geous plan e) to] ct a @ a wo ot a ge pS] af fe . -o [om fay] ae EB. a be oo por 7 > Co 2¢ fe) ° wm mes = < 3 5 <4 oO al ia cas) S GP lawl , Res o, = 3a Proto 320 J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. 18.—11 g. of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1:25 being cooled in snow, 10g, of the fine wire were gradually added. 8 g. of the iron were dissolved and the loss was only 1-23 g. Were the metal in this case oxydized by the gi he solution did indeed contain some ammonia, but its amount was too trifling to account for any considerable part of the oxy- dation. , 14.—7 g. of fine wire were gradually dropped into 97 g. of nitric acid f sp. gr. 1-20. The iron was all taken up leaving only some black skel- etons of the fibers. There was no loss, but a gain of 0:26 g. The pro- As the iron in this experiment was all used up, it is plain that _ the production of ammonia and a protosalt was not owing to _ the after reaction of the partly made pernitrate on an excess of oles of oxygen from the air were going on simultaneously, and during the whole time. It is not certainly known whether, in the direct action of nitric acid on iron, the generation of ammonia and the forma- tion of protonitrate have any necessary connection. I have _ hever detected protonitrate in the product unless ammonia was : also Present; but ammonia is sometimes found when the iron is — _ times in the course of a few days, deposit a considerable quan- tity of rust and give off some nitric oxyd et - solution the indeed, found a ood reaso such thing as a sesquinit When w. togethe L'3 the phenomena of passivity someti the induction of such a state depends f the acid, | ~ J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. 321 In speculations respecting the cause of passivity, it has not unfrequently been taken y for granted that this singular preparato con il commune metodo AzO, +2HO,, cessa di esserlo posto a contatto con l’acido azotico fumante AzO,+ O, cioéa dire con questo acido privato de un equivalente di acqua,” brightens and undergoes no further change. Initial tempera- will go on to the end, while a thorough and constant stirring ae would so distribute the small amount of heat evolved on first in. The action continued till the metal was all gone. Tn another experiment with the acid at 33° C., the action quickly * 26. Nigus acid of sp. gr. 1°38 warmed to 31° C., soon rendered iron wire passive. pee Some of the same acid at 32° C., kept on acting till the iron was used up. _ 17, a—A nearly pure and colorless acid of sp. gr. 1-39 warmed to 30 but when such acid was heated to 31° C., before adding the iron, the action kept on. wag (sonia cetaa Yon wil of sp. gr. 189 warmed to 41°5°C. exercised J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. “ acid heated to 42° C. rapidly dissolved iron wire. 8, «.—A pale commercial acid of sp. gr. 1-40, warmed to 83° C., re- fused to dissolve iron wire, ith such acid at 34° C., the action kept o 6.—Some pure acid redistilled with pedocaate of potash, having the sp. gr. 1°40, and being warmed to 36°C., quickly induced passivity in iron wire. With some bes ve same acid at 37° C., the action did not cease till the ‘iron was all c.—Pure rok ‘acid of sp. gr. 1:40 warmed to 58°C., rendered wire ssive. Such — at 59° C. continued to ac me commercial red acid of st gr. 1:40 warmed to 65° C., had but a Ebgmianeaae se effect on iron wire, i he same acid at 66° C., kept on acting. Ber 9.—A pale acid of sp. gr. 1-41 hea ted to 41°C, , rapidly dissolved en this same ei ~ risky shaken at the time of contact, 49° C. was the limit of pas 20, a.—Pale acid of ie oe 1:42, at 55° C., rendered iron wire passive ; at 56° C. the action kept on on. b.—Common red nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-42, even when warmed to 82° C., at ey in iron; but with the same acid at 83°, the action eeu . 1:30, heated to 50° a wh 1° there was a continued gen - Other acid - sp. gr. 1°30 with other sorts of steel, gave the ait of passivi 22. ja Pte nitric acid of sp. gr. 1:34 heated to 71° C., soon ceased to act on steel wire; when such acid was first heated to 72° it did not in- duce passi vity. 6.—The same acid even at 100° C.. = no action on the same steel ‘Wire freshly annealed and scoured brigh s ten steel, two very long turnings were broken up, and furnished bits Lee = a large number r of experi- - seis uts wit ay al of one and the same qua 23.—On tl 1s steel nitric acid of sp. gr. : ‘38 acted Tapidly and contin- en it had been ape cooled to 0° C, ie rr. 1°27 and at 40°C. soon ce Sas to act on a bit. vs risk ‘etaton: with the acid first heated to 40° ds fap. gr. 1-28, 1-29, 1-32, 1:33 and 1-34, the limit of e and 40°C, | 345 ae at 52°8° C., the steel became passive; ted to 53°3°, the pearte went mae en at 76-7° C. rendered the steel passive; when to 795° the action waite not stop. re also tried with c common red titre aide “se J. M, Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. Such acid of sp. gr. 1°34, at 65° C., rendered the steel passive; with € initial temperature 65°6° it continu o act, the initial temp 65°6° it ed to act cid of sp. gr. 1:335, at 58°3° C., soon ceased to act; with such acid of sp. gr. 1°33, at 49° 4° a the action was momentary ; with this ‘acid first heated to 50° there stoppage. id acid of sp. gr. 1°327 the limit of passivity lay between 47°2° and AG. Acid of sp. gr. 1-32 at 32-2° induced passivity; with the same acid at 32°8° the action continued. With cast iron the limit of passivity cannot be so precisely defined. Acid of moderate strength often continues to dissolve the iron y ery slowly me tate after the first momentary, vio- | lent pre is over. fe ving been found by many trials that may occur i ape iron even with acid of as low sp. gr. aw 20, the ollowinis “definite experiments were made: —Took in each case a tared lump of iron weighing between 2-8 aa 3: 3 grams, and some acid at 25°5° C. At the end of aces hours the bits of iron were cleaved of the loosened carbon, washed, tay and weighed. ith acid of sp. gr. 1 sir the i iron had lost 0218 g. “ 19 0 290 &s 6 : ‘18 é “ 0:386 “ “ 117 “ “ 1497 © “ & 1:16 * KA 1529 “ “ 115 “ad « 1512 114 4 With the ies ria the apparent pa ae but five minutes, and in the next two cases we evolution 0 Eats anes or what longer. In Ms were tried, each with 20 ¢ gta hours the product s were elaine basic pernitrates, turbid fookias but qu te soluble in water. With acid of sp. gr. : 18 thei iron had lost “ . te. 175 “ “6 - ~ a ~ “ “ © 2°246 “ 15 “ “ts a 1 at -—Another ee of cast nen ie in pieces weighing between 2°7 and n each instance 20 c¢.c. of acid at 23°C. At end of nine sae the iron in acid a of sp. gr. ee had. lost 0 = g “ “ ee “ re ee * oe 324 J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. In the first instance the action was apparently over in six minutes. In the next five cases all was quiet at the end of a, | wal fo g R = x) rm (a) cr eps o) 5 ° gm 3 oO rs — bo] = n, oo a oO be] mM Rm tq?) bar Lg ° 5 oe o oo or cr bo oO 5 oO ms ae L oeiad =) Pa mediately becomes covered with a layer of nitrate insoluble in nitric acid. Thus Heldt says:'—“Die Haut von saltpetersauren I sate hindurch schimmert, ist unter einer guten Lupe deutlich zu erkennen.” film acid with the aid of a moderate heat. When iron has become passive while cold, the acid ought not to require heating beyond 50 a oats the action recommence. But we have seen that even douing sometimes fails to remove passivit : When the ; tac oF Telations of iron is no more wonderful than the modification of the mechanical properties of steel by tempering, or the in- ‘ a permanent magnetism in steel. - ae 22 follo "ing summary shows the results to be obtained by a. together iron and nitric acid under various conditions. ~~ ~nere may be either no perceptible action or only amo mentary one, the we quickly becomin One, the y bec & passive. S a yy Supervenes most readily with ared acid and with yy 4 iron. And steel has its liability to become inert eD- chaft der Kérper, 5 108 woth: teed xe, tat , 3. mostly nitric oxyd,—and the formation of an acid, normal, basi or rusty pernitrate, or of a mixture of protonitrate and per- nitrate. _4.—Hydrogen may be given off continuously, while a proto- nitrate is formed. .—Hydrogen may be evolved rapidly at first and then more and more slowly till there comes a pause; after which the re- action changes and nitric oxyd is liberated abundantly, a per- | nitrate being the final product. : .—A very small portion of the acid may be decomposed so | as to generate nitrate of ammonia; and this can take place while nitric oxyd, or hydrogen, or no gas at all is given off. -—During a moderate action there may be an absorption of oxygen from the air, and consequently a greater amount of oxy- dation will ensue than can be accounted for by the gases extri- cated and the nitrate of ammonia formed. Pernitrate solutions made with weak acid and excess of iron € proneness of ails acid to dissolve an excess of iron, _ Tenders it hardly possible to make directly a solution that shall contain an exact normal nitrate; for even if we try to use the Precise quantities of material which theory would indicate, the _ Teaction is not simple enough to allow us to predict just how EY - much acid will be consumed in effecting the oxydation. Yet the a » Ann., xxxix, 141. 1 Annalen der Ch. and Ph., Lxxxix, 10 Serres, Vou. XL, No. 120.—Nov., 1865. : : 326 J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. —and, as will be shown presently, is produced only under cir- — cumstances of peculiar constraint. The more commonly occur- ring salt, which forms when there is no deficiency of water, is the obliqu e rhombic sexhydrate,—Fe,O, 3NO, 1c scribed in this Journal in 1850." At that time I was not aw that any previous analysis had been recorded; but in 1 little work published in 1834, entitled “Manuel du Fabricant d’Indi- ennes, par L. J. 8. Thillaye,” is to be found the following pass- ave :-—"Si Ton veut obtenir des cristaux de ernitrate, on. fait dissoudre lentement le fer dans l’acide nitrique 4 34°, en plagent le vase dans un lieu frais. Lorsque la dissolution est a a pew prés complete, il se forme des cristaux qui affectent la forme de prismes droites a 8 quatre pane et d bases carrées, quelquefois ils ont six pans. Le pernitrate cristallise est formé with, or have used V lin’s eyes agg of their own. observation which Citizen Vauquelin has communicated ” us given in Fourcroy’s Chemistry :—“Concentrated nitric acid, ashes on an oxide of iron arising from the decom arig of t, had been left in contact with it several months. eS As Vauque lin used concentrated aci _had the cubic crystals; but the cubic shiaie ts hot offen = : - fied, and the last clause, respecting termination “by a bevel, — 8U & query whether the dimetric form was not ; predicated ee a hasty glance rather than from measurement or from care- fal foun first Baie | se Pee and I may, ‘per rhaps to have eis: the first to determine its true ¢ : , editor of the Chemical Gazette,—xii, 211,—speaking of Hausmann’s nie es sia ine Ty gave the formula Fes Oy 3N0, ieee for it.” He should Stl te adan of the still undiseo vered eubie salt, but de- the inclination of ehag? es differed 11° from J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. 327 acter and composition, and its close correspondence to the ni- trates of alumina and chromi : tion, at a very moderate heat, to the consistency of syrup, and then adding to it half its volume of nitric acid, By analysis, ____ the crystals pressed in absorbent paper, gave him per-centages E corresponding to Fe, O,,83NO,+13HO, equal to Fe, 0,; 8NO, , 12HO+2(NO, 4HO). oh Wildenstein” found several pounds of cubic crystals aay os at ha appear to have come from a somewhat basic liquor deficient in crystallized, that the attraction of the tetrahydrat - for water, shall be rather more than counteracted by the at- _ traction of an excess of nitric acid for water ;—that is, so that 4] ~ . _ Water than will make up Fe, O,, ved 12HO+n(NO,, 3HO) may afford afew of the rhombic sexhydrate crystals mixed with the cubic; and one containing less water will hardly give any solid nitrate at all. When there is water enough present to @ make up Fe, O,,3NO, 18HO+n(NO,, 4H0), the crystals will - When a solution is not basic and contains between six and twelve equivalents of water to one of perchlorid of iron, = it first deposits the deutohydrate, Fe, Cl, 6HO, in transparent - crystals, and then goes on to form the light yellow, opaque, in distinct tetrahydrate, Fe, Cl,12HO. Unless the liquid lacks Water, no transparent crystals can make their appearance. ae _ For making cubic nitrate, the oblique crystals afford a defini ae Material that admits of appreciable treatment. We = tal ee . weighed quantity of these crystals in a tared dish, and sig jen by a senithy heat about fourteen per cent of their weight, SL - _ ® Erdmann’s J. fiir Pr. Ch, lexxiv, 243.00 328 J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. equivalents of water; then add trihydrated nitric acid enough 28.—100 g. of Fe, O,,3NO,,18HO, were gently heated till 27 p. ¢. < were evaporated, one-half of the water and one-eighth of the acid being expelled. 42g. of monohydrated nitric acid were added and the dish suitably covered was set out in an open shed for several days in the coldest weather of winter. No erystals formed except a slight fringe around the edge, where a little moisture had probably been absor - from the air. | ML. Sch roneous] in this Journal, vol. xxvii, p. 197, such a salt as Fe, O,,3N0,, SHO. He probably meant to refer to p. 17 of that volume, where I have taken the liberty of showing the generic agree- ment of the sesquinitrates with the sexhydrated gr betpas Be e 3 had not met with Hansmann’s account of the cubic salt, an therefore was not aware of the peculiarity of nitrate of iron in ranking among the tetrahydrates as well as in the more exten- - Sive class of sexhydrates, Other salts of the tetrahydrate class Way exist _as anhydrous nitrates, and it is a question whether seneurer-Kestner’s more recently discovered salt, eX, Hz, 18 not * Bulletin Soe. Chimique de Paris, March, 1862, p. 36. in reality the anhydrous pernitrate of iron with a slight admix- ture of the cubic nitrate. For he did not obtain it in well de- 35° C.; but his product contained a little free acid and it is prob- an that the pure tetrahydrate melts at a point between 35° and 40° If six equivalents of water are added to the melted cubic ni- deta heat is evolved, and, after a while, the whole becomes solic the two chlorids is slow! y heated, the transparent crystals liquefy ‘ first. The addition of six equivalents of water to the melte The plan of using fuming nitric acid to contend with a hy- . rated nitrate for the possession of water, of course admits of | which appeared to the eye dimetric, being indeed Tt remains then still uncertain iron is a salt hever expect to get it in the solid state except as a sexhydrate. Protonitrate of Iron—The most convenient way of procuring PY sn is a salt of such a nature that we can _ a J, M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. 329 ele 330 J. M. Ordway on Nitrates of Iron. ferrous nitrate, is to dissolve the protosulphid of iron in nitric acid of less sp. gr. than 1:12, no considerable elevation of tem- perature being allowed. Though protonitrate crystals are very unstable, a moderatel y strong solution may be evaporated with- out mneh risk by a heat not exceeding 60°C, As the strength increases, however, the temperature must be lowered, especially if there is an excess of acid. thus Fs arti with gre eater oot Nee ance o 29, eee séliition made directly with sulphid of iron and nitric acid of sp. gr. 1:08, contained 29'p.c. of FeO, NO,, 6HO, and 0°6 p.c. of free acid. Some of it heated slowly remained clear and agva 2 while o 83° > oO o 3% @ = oa | ad =] - o uF ef > er =) 2 = S i=] Q @ " = @ i=] o ES) = ~ Si [=e ee i] F = 7. Se ee b.—Some of the sokilton mixed with about its own weight of water, continued unaltered till it was heated to 100°C. It required “ five minutes boiling to effect a complete rearrangement of its elem 4 ¢.—Some of the solution on being merely mixed with one- Daas of its weight of pure nitric acid of sp. gr. 1°42, at once gave off gas and made a clear, ay red li .—Some of the solution was mixed with nearly its own weight of nitrie acid as sp. gr. 1:10 and heated slowly. At 66°C., it started and eel changed to pernitrate. mixture of 28¢. of the solution with 11g. of pure nitric acid — . 116, began to alter at 77°C. if _____ 30.—A solution of the crystals, saturated at 15°C. and containing 7 p-¢. of FeO, NO,,6HO, was heated in a water-bath. It began to give ? off gas at 85°C. At 88° the rearrangement went on violently an soon finished. ~The etystals themselves while still wet, see be kept in the cold without alteration; but when they are quite free ar _ mother iquor, they are apt to start suddenly. even at the mperature of the air, and undergo a rapid iene a a dark Hse Aone basic pernitrate being produced. The compo" sition the past y mass, in one instance, was found to be aboub ‘ nano rit was ¥eN,.,.. These products are apparea ny | i potubie in w ; bat the liquor i is slightly opaline when look “ sci ie i a when seen by transmitted light, The erys ives therefore change to a substance almost perfectly water, while solutions of the crystals, by spontaneous — me rusty, a portion of the peroxyd assuming ee state, : a i ar show that neutral solutions, ee : - n very ng, _ bear a pretty high temperature. Wea® — tolations be brought for a moment to the boiling point without i iate it Bat ee A, Winchell on Drift in Michigan. 331 much more readily, and the greater the quantity of acid the less stable are the Crystals of protonitrate of iron, well drained and dried at s very low temperature, were found to yield by ignition 27-565 of ferricoxyd. The formula must therefore be FeO, NO,, 6 0, which would correspond to 27-778 p.c. of peroxyd. A solution saturated at 0° C., yielded a quantity of peroxyd equivalent to 66:3 p. c. of te erystals. So at 0° the salt is pat le in half its weight of wa A ihe saturated at 15 °C, contained 71 p.c. of crystals. Its sp. gr. was 1° A pardtiea saturated at 25° C., contained 75 p.c. of crystals. Its sp. gr. was 150. At 25°C., then the crystals are soluble in one-third their weight of water. The slight difference in strength between cold and warm solu- tions, as ell as the instability of the solid salt, shows the inex- pediciency of attempting to do anything with it except in the coldest weather. ArT. XXXIV.— Some sbi sig puted a Northward Transportation of Drift Materials in the Lower vider of Michigan; by Professor ALEXANDER WINCHEL THROUGHOUT the northern part of Lenawee and Hillsdale “fonnties, the southern and eastern parts of Jackson, and the southern and western parts of Washtenaw county, are found | Poesious aber, detached masses of limestone, sometimes crop- ‘ping out on a hill side, like a ledge in place, and sometimes im- Med two or three feet in the sand and atten at the summit. The position of these masses is generally nearly horizontal, though for the greater part slightly gine in = direction or an- other. They sometimes present an extent of six, eight, or 7 : 332 A, Winchell on Drift in Michigan. have imparted a highly calcareous element to the soil, even along the arenaceous belts. The percolation of meteoric waters, in turn, has given rise, in great eet to calcareous springs, and deposits of marl, tufa and trave In the southwestern Se of the eanitionia:$ in the counties of Berrien, Van Bure Ottawa, similar phenomena are again observed. The eanarcoss element of the soil is even more Some saan of these eee may be more Sei cit On the S.W. + S.E. 4 sec. 13, Woodstock, County, (221),' in the side of Ppowpets Hill,” Festa pes in tabular masses six by twenty feet, and seven feet thick. An old lime-kiln stands near. Similar limestone occurs on the S.E. S.W.4¢ sec. 12, Woodstock (228) and S.W.4S.E.} see. 1. from the latter reste several hundred bushels of lime have been burned. sec. 8 of the same township, the Marshall ona is beached at the depth of 4 to 12 feet from the sur — fa sec. £ the sandstone is known to be over 76 feet thick} penetrated 44 feet. On sec. 30 it has been penetrated 60 On the N.W. 1 N.W. 3 sec. 26, Liberty, Fackeott piace tt 8), masses of limestone are so abundant that a kiln has structed and several hundred bushels of lime manufactured. rie the time of my visit, about 35 cords of wood were piled by the iln, a Reet considerable confidence in the resources of the — ents of Marshall sandstone, with its fossils, are tm oo. with the fragments of limestone. Sim ilar of li may be n again on N.W.% .E. } se0. 36, 26, Hanover, (290 (239), and on the S.W. 1 N.E. 1 same aie (240). eral wagon of fragments have been removed from the iat: over the Principal mass at the latter place. On the SE. Ma me section, a common well reached the Mar este =~ tthe dep of 85 feet, and was excavated 40 feet in on N.E.! NE. } sec. 33, same township, — : Fa ee * A, Winchell on Drift Materials in Michigan. 333 (243), are filled with fragments of limestone, while the Marshall sandstone is struck at the depth of 50 feet on sec. 35, and at 30 (208). a place one mile northeast of poner hs (209), 20,000 faaoe of lime have been manufactured in ten o twelve years. In the adjoining parts of Washtenaw county, several kilns proclaim the presence of extensive nests of limestone. en within the corporate limits of the city of Ann Arbor an exten- Sive eee has been quarried; and just beyond the limits, on the east, are the ruins of a dimeki In hich, many years ago, ex- Ct still another depos imilar masses of limestone occur in ae comnty one half mile scone a Jonesville Magis S.W.23N.W. } sec. 21, Allen, oe EL; N.W.} u e. 21, eas, (289); SE i Square rods. One hundred rods north of here te ae are ee from 40 to 100 feet deep, without reaching any na k “2 though thick beds of cemented sand and gravel are eecueae encoun tered. n the SW. 1 sec. 17, T. 7 N.R. 13 W, ouers county, (488) is ‘the last occurrence that will be cited. Severa l slabs 8 or 4 feet long have been removed, and others remain, over an area of at st a square ro Pit is S quite evident that such masses of stratified limestone have not been rolled to the same extent as the quartzose and ae boulders which ipa te the most striking pape of “ northern drift” of the sam rays 38 as some gency by the fragments which =e oe ight be al as. anone we outermost limits of @ mee continuous formation of Carbo abundant fossil remains contained i in ee fragments, however, 1865. 3, Vou. XL, No. pele atl 334 A. Winchell on Drift Materials in Michigan. not to speak of their lithological characters, convince us that the rock belongs to a much earlier epoch. In short, no doubt could be entertained by one who has ex- amined the subject, that these fragments appertain to the age of the Corniferous limestone. The rock, in structure, is irregular, often brecciated, with streaks and nests of bituminous an gillaceous matter. At other times it is compact and massive. Not unfrequently it presents the peculiar structure known as “‘Jignilites.” All these characters belong to the Corniferous limestone as exposed along the western shore of Lake Erie, and , at numerous points throughout the county of Monroe. # Turning to the more reliable evidence of the fossil remains, it may be stated that the following are examples of the more frequent identifications : i At 92, Heliophyllum Canadense Billings, Clisiophyllum Onei- daénse Bill., Acervularia Davidsoni E. & H., Conocardium tragona all, Proetus crassimarginatus Hall, Amplecus and Favosites. : At 182, Lucina proavia Goldf., Conocardium trigonale, Den- talium and Fenestella. t 208, Lucina proavia and three species of Bryozoa. At 230, Slrophomena rhomboidalis Wahl, Chonetes glabra Hall, Spirifera gregaria Clapp, Atrypa reticularis Dal. : At 238, Chonetes hemispherica Hall, Atrypa reticularis, Cyrto- donia (Vanuxemia) Tompkinsi Bill, Pleurolomaria rotunda, Hall. : ; 0, Chonetes lineata Hall, Atrypa reticularis. : : At 289, Chonetes lineata, C. glabra Hall, Atrypa reticularis, Leiorhynchus multicosta Hall, Rhynchonella Thalia Bill., Lueina _ proavia, Proetus crassimarginatas Hall, Platyceras and Proetus is Vanux é Spirifera varicosa Hall, 8. gregaria, Atrypa reticularis, Charionella scitula Bill., Rhynchonella Thalia, Lucina proavia, Conocardium trigonale, Proetus crassimarginatus, Fenestella, Producta (two spe cies), Streplorhynchus, Athyris, Platyceras. At 292, is Vanuxemi, O. propingua Hall. t 296, Chonetes glabra, C. arcuata Hall, Stricklandia elongata Bill. A 38, Stroph: hemi: heri i | The chee emispherica. A, Winchell on Drift Materials in Michigan. 335 Heliophylium Eriense Bill., H. exiguum Bill., Cystiphylium Amert- canum E. & H., Blothrophyllum decor ens ‘Bill, Diphyph yllum Archiact* Bill. » Phillipsastreea Verneuili EK. . P. gigas Owen, Cin Acervularia Davidsone* Ki. & H., Toeuti sealari Schlot., Orthis een iL, 0. pe: ‘ Takes celia umbonata Con. sp., Spirifera gregaria Clap} SS st H., S. acu umainata Con. sp., rhynch slbcacttula Hall, sp., P yaa Sicat Dal, i impressa H., A. aspera? Hall, Meristeila unisulcata Con . sp., Jf nasuta Con., s Leptocelia concava enlamerus arains Con., sp., Siricklantia elongaia Vanux., sp, Centronella yay fs Hall, sp., Rhynchonella Thalia Bill., Lucina proavia Goldf., Conocardium trigonale Hall, Sp., Platyceras Thetis H., P.crassum ie . dumosum Con., Platyos- toma strophius H., Murchisona Leda Hi, Proetus crassimarginalus H., and more than two dozen species ‘which seem to be unde- scribed wf no reasonable doubt exists that these detached masses be- long to the Corniferous limestone, the next question which pre- sents itself relates to the region whence they have been derived. In view of the facts cited, it is evidently absurd to assume that no transportation has taken place; for these masses of Cornifer- _ ous limestone are found resting © over the Hamilton cee the am that they have been BA with the great mass 0 materials from the northern outcrops of the rocks of this age at Mackinac and the surrounding region. irst, the transporting agency has not moved masses of other kinds of rocks which at- tain to anything like the same dimensions. Secondly, That I judge from the condition of the siliceous, buss the Hamilton are here included, because ech, in _ the same — oh h admitted cos a {and Schoharie grit) species. Lower Helderberg celia concava is included for the same reason, In af ge o eaglaegs just referr to, othe do we experience aay ay difficulty in a t constant peculiarities in the Corniferous us species. ichness of the exotic _ . Dan fauna of this doeslily, | in ; the number and state of Pilaaheingc of Weis far exceeds any that has been signalized by the geologists ts of the Old W: 336 A. Winchell on Drift Materials in Michigan. transported. The same may be said of the Trenton limestone. We find, however, that fragments of these limestones are of rare occurrence; and the fossils of Silurian age scarcely sus- tain to those tempo The — belt ly- probat isiveiis sade A. Winchell on Drift Materials in Michigan. 337 ensis Hall, Spirifera Marcyi Hall, Spirigera concentrica Brown, sp., Platyceras attenuatum Hall, Dalmania Boothi Green, sp., and ; state, a great thickness of argillaceous and bituminous shales, oe destitute of fossils, but freighted with Kidney iron ore. Nod- , by some geologists, they might preferably be referred to the indigenous strata Still again, the well marked fossiliferous beds of the Marshall sandstone, lying next above the Huron shales, and outcropping along a belt still farther north, is represented by a series of enormous fragments resting over the non-fossiliferous upper por- tions and the Carboniferous limestone. The lower, or fossilifer- ous portions of this formation do not outcrop farther north than Moscow, in Hillsdale county, fossiliferous fragments led me for some time to suppose the actual outcrop must be in the immediate vicinity ; although I had found the non-fossiliferous Napoleon sandstone givbonie p o , rous other species. The fossiliferous layers Of the Marshall sandstone are decidedly fria safes ch that facies, due to local, if not to climatic causes, itself; but ey the contrary, we find the fauna of 238 C. M. Wetherill on crystallization of Sulphur. the fragments strictly identical with that of the nearest indigen- ous rocks of the same age : The facts above cited recall some observations made several made especially upon the neighborhood of the junction of the “Rotten Limestone” of the Upper Cretaceous, with the argilla- ceous and arenaceous strata of the Lower Cretaceous. ‘The Pr. ? pees nection with others, to some ancient, glacial or hydrographical area, University of Michigan, August 4, 1865. Art. XXXV.—On the Crystallization of Sulphur and upon the Reaction between Sulphid of Hydrogen, Ammonia and Alcohol; by Cuaries M. WETHERILL, Ph.D. M.D. SULPHUR, in three of its four allotropic conditions, has been well studied, notwithstanding the difficulties which the rapid pas sage of (7S) through (®S) to (#8) presents to experiments upon the first two modifications. a _ The most reliable specific gravities which have been assigned to the different forms of sulphur are the following: : ; Marchand & Scbeerer. Deville. Rhombic octohedral (« S) 2-045 2-07 Oblique prismatic (2S) 1982 1:96 _ The red, amorphous (y $) 1-957 1-91 __ * Quar. Jour. Geol. Soe, vii, 56, Reprinted, Am. Jour. Sci and Arts, [2], *¥)72 C. M. Wetherill on crystallization of Sulphur. 339 _ Regnault found the specific heat of (« S) = 0-20259, and Marchand and Scheerer that of (¢S) = 0:20684. During the passage of (7 S) to (« S), a considerable amount of heat is evolved. - Hence in the red amorphous variety, the molecules are more widely separated, and are in acondition of unstable equilibrium. In satisfying their tendency to approach each other, they assume (by the fusion method) the beta form of prisms of the monoclinie system ; but they soon pass into the condition of rest as rhombic octohedra (« S), of the trimetric system. This transformation takes place, as is well known in the solid prism, which is, without change of form, converted into numerous smaller crystals of (a 8). According to Frankenheim, “gamma” sulphur, like other so- called amorphous bodies, possesses the property of crystalliza- ion; but the manifestation of the phenomenon is prevented by the admixture of alpha and beta sulphur. Heat is the agent by Which the («) form is converted into the (?) and (y) modifications, and has always been supposed to play an important part in the erystallization of this element. The ordinary or alpha sulphur, when crystallized from its solvents, sulphid o carbon, or oil o turpentine, reappears as octohedral alpha sulphur. _Frankenheim, however, observed that when the body is pre- Cipitated from its solutions atat t g its point Gigi : re of fusion, it assumes the prismatic form of beta sulphur solution, either in @ or 6 crystals, acc the molecules of sulphur are separated, and Positions required for (@S); while, during th : oe : dral form, in which they are in stable equilibrium. _ Each of the allotropic conditions has pr voy Nageed density and its own chemical _ Ihe only known vapor densi having been determined from their transformati 340 C. M. Wetherill on the crystallization of Sulphur. weap double that of (« S). If this assumption be correct we ve in sulphur an allotropism like the the polymerism of com- pound bodies. : From these considerations, the question of the crystal form of sulphur in the act of separation from any of its compounds be- comes one of great interest. 2 of these instances, the subject of this article, has been presented accidentally to my notice. a a erinent Was instituted to ascertain whether the pres te the co ontained a quantity of ae of which some exceeded an inch in length. When spread upon | a ere ee they became opaque, and broke up y _ To ascertain whether the products of_ decomposition of se C. M. Wetherill on the crystallization of Sulphur. ~ 241 glucose effected the crystallization, a liter of 94 p.c. aleohol was, on July 4, 1864, saturated first. with ammonia, then with sulphid of hydrogen, and was placed in a loosely stoppered bottle upon. - a shelf in the laboratory of the Smithsonian Institution, where it remained undisturbed until May 26, 1865. At this time the sides of the bottle were coated with white, ammonia. Ra Ngee 3(NH,0, S,0,,)+HO. tifal crystallization of sulphur in d its advance was watched for several ique conD Series, Vou. XL, 342 CC. M. Wetherill on the crystallization of Sulphur. ited upon them. The prisms canary color; the octahedrons C. M. Wetherill on the crystallization of Sulphur. 343 sulphur exists in combination with hydrogen, (or perhaps with ammonium), in the B allotropic condition. We may readily ~ imagine that it should leave its alpha form to assume the more unstable deta condition. We have also here an example of the crystallization of (2S) without heat. Since the original prisms o sul eanary colored, and not of brownish tinge, it would seem that ined by slow crystallization, I am unable at present to say whether ia has been formed. e odor of free 1, and the liquid contains sulphite of d in the air upon a glass slide exhibits taneously in a watch glass. hite of ammonia in solution, * 344 Art, XXXVI.—On the History of Eozoin Canadense. WITH A PLATE. states that in these organic remains the calcareous skeleton re- mains unchanged, while the sarcode is replaced by certain sili- February, 1865. scribes the general geological relations of the and is accompanied by two sections which we reproduce below, ee : a He also relates the history of the first discovery of the fossil, — cimens of which were exhibited by him to the American ation, at Springfield in August, 1859—and were then r U On Eozoin Canadense. 345 garded by him and by Prof. James Hall as organic, although the microscope had as yet failed to detect the beautiful structure since found in such perfection in the specimens from other localities. 346 On Eozoén Canadense. “The oldest known rocks of North America are those which Geological Survey of Canada, the e been shown to bea great series of strata, which, though profoundly altered, consist intervening mass of clay slates. This old gneiss, which is esti- ia we united thickness of these three great series may possl- bly far surpass that of all the succeeding rocks from the base the P 1 series to the present time. We are thus carried * 1¢ same chemical and mechanic 347 On Eozcin Cunadense. MM Boecting the earth’s crust were in operation now. In the conglomerates of the Hu- . . 4 “wo0zoxyr PANY aor “WN AWOg its ga. crystalline condition before the deposit of the newer formatio on; while in- state PR with the Laurentian “Timeatones dd “9 "UBLIN[IG AOALOTT “D> of an older laminated sand-rock, and the formation < these beds leads us still further into the pas “Tn both he Upper and Lower Lauren- tian series there are several zones of lime- a each of sufficient volume to constitute an independent formation. ese careous masses it has been ascertained that three, at least, belong to the Lower Lauren- tian. But as we do not.as yet ean with certainty either the base or the summit of this series, these three may be conformably followed by many more. thoug Lower and’ Upper Laurentian rocks spread Over more than 200,000 square miles in Canada, only about 1500 square miles have --yet been fully and connectedly examined in any one district; and it is still impossible to “URI}UAaINe'T lo a) = oe Es fe i be] a | © co 9 "® 5 o] © = < o a Lee | o — © a =e) 2 2 3 a5 ® aa = cr tf euojsout] UvtUadney saddQ +9 . * ‘aSnoy "Y “Ugozogy PAINT, (P qyanoy ‘9 fi Si UONDNy ayo wos uorjoag9—*] “Bi d ‘ss}0ud pag, “p ‘OUOPOUL] O[]IAUAIP) 10 ‘sstaud haorubra underlie them all.” n this connection are given the two 8 lowing sections, which serve to show Structure of the Lower Laurentian ae and their relation to the overlying Labrador and Lower Silurian series. Eozodn Canadense occurs at Gren- ville, and in the Petite Nation seigniory at cme two points indicated in the first section, and in both places in the third or upper- Most band of the Lower Laurentian lime- ne. The same fossil has ite ~ ob- tained 2 the south of the Ottawa, in Bur- og and farther west at the aad pw tated 9n the Ottawa, in both instances in a limestone band whose pre: d 2 ‘(sajim 9g) armwouasr ‘7g 07 optunipg ‘A ‘gmmoia yp 49 ‘op { ‘aatsnajar £ £adydao ‘@UOJSOWI] OYL] Uaa1p Jo puodag +, 348 On Eozoin Canadense. cise place in the series has not been determined, nor is it known whether the fossil extends to the two lower conformable lime- stone bands, or to ee calcareous zones in the unconformable Upper Laurentian serie “The Grenville zone hon limestone is in some places about 1500 feet thick, and it appears to be divided for considerable dis- tances into two or = parts by very thick bands of gneiss. One of these bands occu- pies a position petite he lower part of the limestone, Fig. 2.— Section across Trembling Mountain e miles ~ Mountain = Bas oe Fo LS = of the zone is largely com- f f par ef! f as r Laurentian. , e’. Second limestone. irregular masses of white ec. Fourtl h gneiss. l¢ s iss. crystalline 2 cee some ares Ener f First limestone. of them tw aris hird gne jf. First gneiss. aks Ses length by four or five ae They a appear to be confusedly placed one above another, with many ragged interstices, and smoothly-worn, rounded, large and small pits and sub-cyl lindri- cal cavities, some of them prett deep. The pyroxene, though it posers: compact, presents a multitude of small spaces filled with carbonate of lime, and many of these show minute struc- ture similar to that of the fossil. These,masses of pyroxene Spaces among them are filled with a mixture of serpentine and carbonate of lime. In general a sheet of pure dark green ser pentine invests each mass of pyroxene; the thickness of the serpentine, varying from the sixteenth of an inch to seve inches, rarely exceeding half a foot. This is followed in differ- ent spots by parallel waving, irregularly alternating plates 0 page of lime and serpentine, w which become gradually finer = te from the pyroxene, and occasionally occupy @ te: tal thickness of five or six x inches. These portions constitute 2 thu ne of gereeR appear o be the ruins of oe into a more or less granular mixture of cale- tine, the former still ress eo a “similar mix owing ewes eee : ee a ee ee ee ea ee Te ATION Se EON yt ee Ge es , SNe 1 a alla ino Zee i ae On Eozoin Canadense. 349 The structure and appearance of the unbroken fossil will be understood from the following nature-printed section, the prepa- ration of which is thus described by Dr. Hunt. ished the electrotype Ssyssc=. f which the sy = g's erpentine, which is distinguishable from a “goatee thin stra- So Pale — um of the same min- 3. Nature-printed sett Nation Seigniory. eral, that seems to form . eben oe : Au, Jour. Sct.—Szconp Szrres, Vor. XL, No. 120.—Nov., 1865. 45 350 On Eozoin Canadense. the base of the Eozodn. The gradual passage from the wile chambers and thick septa to the narrower and thinner ones, aid finally to the irregularly aggregated mode of growth, designated by Dr. Carpenter as acervuline, is well seen. The white patclies in the upper portion of the figure do not arise from any impcr- fection in the electrotype, but represent the irregular growth of this part of the calcareous skeleton.” ; Slices of the fossils having been prepared for microscopic ex- amination, and submitted to Dr. Dawson, were at once recog- nized by him as presenting the characters of Foraminiferal shells. After a careful examination of a large number of specimens he named and described the fossil as follows. ““K0ZOGN CANADENSE; gen, et. spec. nov. : General form.—Massive, in large sessile patches or irregular cylinders, growing at the surface by the addition of successive mine. ble thickness, which are penetrated by septal orifices irregularly disposed. Thicker parts of the walls sth bitldles of fine branch- ing tubuli.” The grounds on which he inferred its foraminiferal character are thus stated by Dr. Dawson: eee “1. The serpentine and pyroxene which fill the cavities of the calcareous matter have no appearance of concretionary struc- ur . have filled spaces or chambers in a hard calcareous mass. This conclusion is further confirmed by the fact, to be refered to in moulded on the forms of the serpentine and augite, but his i Though the calcareous lamine have in places a erystal- line cleavage, their forms and structures have no relation to this. Their cells and canals are rounded, and have smooth walls, which are Oceasionally lined with films ety of carbonace- ous matter. Above all the minute tubuli are different 21408. 648-162 | PO sc: 1086 AEF 439:12 100° 155°75 100° In this case the salt has probably been formed by the union of an equivalent of the neutral phosphate of lime of the original crystals of metabrushite with two of the bone phosphate of lime of the pseudomorphous solution, and the old theory of its com- position is thus confirmed, (rejecting the water: 2CaO, PO,+-2(3Ca0, PO,)=8CaO, 3PO,. To express, therefore, the junction in this mineral of meta- brushite and ornithite, (soon to be described,) it may be called . the case of brushite and meta- variety of these pseudomorphs has been found in which the In the t a, tryoidal crusts. These are probably pseudomorphous crystals: ® Berzelius, Traité de Chem., iv, 386. __ earbonate of lime, 3-95 376 A. A, Julien on Minerals of the Key of Sombrero. C. Sp. gr. =2:988-3-030. Color straw yellow, buff, and shades of brown. Opaque. Brittle. Narrow blades, sometimes an or quite solid. Occurs in limestone cavities. The following are a complete and a partial analysis of different specimens, the lat- ter having been spoiled by an accident: L II. Water and organic matter, - - - $98 -3°88 Sulphuric acid, - - - - - 18 —- Carbonic acid, - - - - - 1-74 alittle Phosphoric acid, . - - - 43°24 mee Magnesia, - - - - - - 56 — Lime, - - . - - . 48°87 47:15 Alumina and sesquioxyd of iron, - = 2202 oa Fluorine, - - - - - - trace. trace. Chiorid of sodium, - - . - 2 ae 99°59 lime in this case, and arrange the analysis, for example, as fol- lows: Water and organic matter, 3°90; sulphate of lime, 89; of d of A. A. Julien on Minerals of the Key of Sombrero. 377 probable that in both B and C the material aay consists of zeugite, with bone sie cay of lime (as well as the of magnesia, etc.,) as mpurity, in proportions increasing until perhaps the seni bof 8CaO, 3PO, becomes too small to be distinguished. 5. Ornithite—In the empty casts of Madrepores and other cavities of the coral limestone, in two Herre of the southern part of the Key, another new mineral o ystem monoclinic. Small crystals, whe over a fourth of an inch in length, usually very narrow, with the planes even and not polished, and —1-: very slightly convex, resembling some- h common form of gypsum. Clinodiagonal cleavage sb perfect; so that this, unlike the other minerals, is easi ly sec- . tile into very thin scales ; two other planes, as in gypsu : The broader crystals are arranged in radiating groups, while most of the narrower are isolated and strewn irregularly over the surfaces of the Seales No massive specimens of the min- eral have yet been fou Hardness =2°5; ( jut ‘scratches mica when rubbed upon - Lustre pearly on clino- ri greed Color white. Streak powder white. ‘Trans luce lexible. _When heated before the ipa pie in a closed tube, it darkens with sulphuric acid, the ereenish tinge of phosphoric acid is im- parted to the flame. ith solves readily, and apparently with greater effervescence than in es white and opaque by flaming: with a still ere excess, the bead is transparent and yellowish while hot, and Readily soluble in_nitrie Sesion under the jaro microscope. “The amount of this mineral in my possession being very small, only about one-tenth of a gram of pure crystals could be be used for analysis, and it was first ey dried at 100°C., with but 7 Onaccount of the small size of the fragments _ their a the Wisiecios Cama flame, I was unable to datermine the effect of a long continued ignition; but at the end of a minute's ignition no trace of pet nape ey in 4 | 378 A. A. Julien on Minerals of the Key of Sombrero. trifling loss. With this two water determinations were first made, from -048 and .058 grame respectively of unbroken crystals, as follows: Temperature of expulsion. L I. Mean. Water, 50°C, | 3-918 wigs Water and trace of org. matter, strong ign.) 5°154 | 9827 | ....) Total, 9072 | 9°827 | 9°449 A tendency is thus shown to the expulsion of one equivalent (in the formula obtained below) below 250°C., and the reteation of the other until ignition. The ignited residues were combined and analyzed in the usual manner, with the following results: _ Oxygen ratios, . se? \ 2 Water and trace of sii matter, 9°449 8 Phosphoric ac i 40-139 22:5... 207...4 gr _ ™ = trace. Line, - - - - e-) £000 4 18's Eee Alumina and sesquioxyd of iron, 4623 99: alee ae matter, _ Alumina, oxyd of i iron, ond thote phosphates, é 01 pppephate. of pagonsia, trac — 8CaO 45-768. PO. - - - 38-701 ee : oe 9-762 94-231 aoe . 100-292 ma oa not think that I can do better than to dedeels this SP; to my old comrades, the sea-birds of Sombr » (Ogres, & ind) to wien we are mainly indebted for the soni bat of it to Ame ori e, and for the formation m tabrushite; the eryted differ vestally i in ae f the ena A. A. Julien on Sponge-Spicules. 379 ; b, Si aypegastae > stellated groups. Color white. Opaque. ri No analysis has been made of the material but I suppose it to be identical with that of the original crystals, minus the water. ey occur intermixed with the original crystals; and also as solitary white groups, dotting over in ) marked contrast the dark brown phosphatic lining of cavities in the limestone. In conclusion it may be observed that specimens o o these phosphatic minerals are exceedingly ra ew having been found since my departure from pia sabe Gn the spring of 1864). Good specimens of the pseudomor are also uncommon, though imperfect or drusy crystals have oecanicnale been found in tolerable abundance on the opening of some new vein. It is a universal rule, when the original or the pseudomorphous crys- tals oceur in cavities of the limestone, that they are never in direct contact with the matrix, a film or thin layer of a common brownish material, rich in bone- phenpaate of lime, always inter- vening. As to my theory in regard to the origin and history of these minerals and of their pseudomorphs, I must refer to the coming publication of my general observations on Sombrero lt is sufficient here to state that they have undoubtedly been . pecsied from the salts of the superficial guano-deposit brought down in solution by carbonated rain-waters into the joints of the limestone. : School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. June, 1865. a Art. XXXIX.—On Two Varieties of Sponge-Spicules ;* by ALExis A, JULIEN. In clearing the white coral-sand out of a crevice of the rock near the east cliff of the Key of Sombrero, W. I., a loose mass of i snow-white acicular fibres was found, associated with fragments Of coral, shells, etc., at the height of thirty- six feet above the sea, and imbedded in the sand at a depth of about three feet from the surface. Among these fibers the two following varieties aS hat distinguished, ‘the former composing the bulk of. re “Acicular, tubular, and gently-eurving spicules (fig. 1, a), tapering from the middle toward each end, at first very gradu- ally, and then rather suddenly at a short distance from: ¢ _ toa rounded point. My grateful acknowledgements are due to Prof. O. N. Rood of the School of “Mic Columbia C, for the use of his microscope and for general aad galvicn, toto eb OF Chandler of the School of Mines, for the facilities of laboratory.—a. A : 380 _ A. A, Julien on Sponge-Spicules. tose Of an inch, and whose curvature amount to that of a semi- circle. These I take to be rudimentary spicules and suppose that they may lose their curvature in their enlargement. le 1b a E 2b Wi 7 ee SN HW Kd (fo) \\ \ \ CS \\ Fig. 1, magnified 14 diameters; fig. 2, 250 diameters; fig. 3, 727 diameters. under a high power, a series of very fine parallel lines can be distinguished on either side of the central tube (fig. 2,2). In _ the transverse sections also (fig. 3), a series of very numerous ' but usually very faint concentric rings is often revealed, of which ce whe nl enters the capillary tube A. A, Julien on Sponge-Spicules.. . 8st Variation. Mean. oe. Pe 3 ee s$o — + inch 4 inch 40 Diameter at middle, - - - | ggsg—zdyinch| 74 inch 58 “ “end, - = = = bodgo-gabg inch|go'sa inch 15 Ratio of middle diam. to length, =: - +25 1o5 Ratio of middle to end diameter, 3. - 4 13 Diameter of central tube,- - | .gdgq—-rolg inch g7eq inch 45 Ratio of bore to diameter, - zo -# $ 45 with acidulated and with pure water, from the intermixed impu- rities, particles of sand, etc., and on analysis yielded the follow- lng results: Water, - - - - - 7-902 Silica, . : é ; . 89°84 Alumina, oe - - . 29 Protoxyd of iron, - - - - "09 Lime, 4 © se e - ze Magnesia, - - - - - 2 Potassa, - - - - - 63 99°63 2 ter pearly. Powder white. ‘Transparent. Elastic. Easily tubes. In a closed tube the spicules whiten, curl, and yield water. Unaffected by the acids, hot or cold, but readily soluble ina solution of caustic pote : sa be shy . Acicular, tubular, and gently-curving spicu “Only. vat gradually from the middle toward either extremity, Am. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XL, No. 120.—Nov., 1865. 382 A. A. Julien on Sponge-Spicules, a dozen specimens have been observed, all of which were frag- ments like that sketched in fig.4. These fragmentary spicules differ from those of A in their minute size and in being marked ogy (stated below) in regard to the number of the spines upon the nodes, I have ventured in fig. 4 to reproduce in lighter lines the lost portion of the spicule. Sy LCT ee a SO aes pe = Magnified 436 diameters, The surfaces between the nodes are more or less concave, and the intervals, though nearly equal in the same spicule, vary from the gz's5 to the 5,55 of an inch, averaging the 5,3: ut this variation seems to be partly occasioned by the contraction of the intervals between a few of the central nodes, and in the larger specimens the length of the intervals (as well as the dis- tance of the extreme node from the end of the spicule,) is quite regularly ihe s255 of an inch. In the smaller spicules the nodes are crowded nearer together are apparenily composed of minute rounded projections, an ble rings or raised fillets; but in the larger the spines are distinct. n a progression which varies in different specimens. In the largest spicule found oe extremity of the perfect spicule to the other, supply Ne a 6 3 eet LS “ “ a =: 46 4 iene 3 fcs% A, A. Julien on Sponge-Spicules. 383 Specimens, no 8-spined nodes seem to be present, but my o bser vations have been too few to determine the extent of the variation. The central tube appears to pass uninterruptedly through th e nodes, to diminish in breadth towards the extremity of the spic- ‘ule, and to present an open orifice there, into which the water enters when the spicule is immersed. The dimensions of these spicules are as follows: No. of Variation. Mean. Measure . ments, Length, - ee eed es a ee ck inch | g$z inch 9 Diameter at middle, - - - lrztou-ssrx inch iss's5 inch 9 = “end, - + + = ¢ —gglgg ine ? 1 2: or cen Lt eng ed sudou-zsb00 inch yosuT inch 3 Ratio of bore to diam. of spicula, 4-+ é 3 1 The chemical and physical characteristics of this variety are Indies. They may come from species of Hy) \ orgonioid corals having _ an axis of parallel siliceous fibers; but Mr. Verrill states that mass of parallel fibers. Although the mass of spicules is so light as almost to float, nevertheless it rapidly falls to pieces when placed in water. It is probable therefore that it has not been thrown up by the sea in its present form but is the residue from the decomposition of a sponge in the sand. Many sponges have been frequently thrown up by heavy ground swells at the locality in which the mass was found. The negroes state that similar white masses have been observed on the beach of the island of St. Martin, School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. June, 1865. 384 C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. Art. XXXIX.— Researches on the Volatile Hydrocarbons ; by C. M. WARREN.* os 9 Or rae Caucutatep Bomine-Pornts oF Hyprocarsons BY SCHRODERS Turory. : THE subjoined tables exhibit the theoretical boiling-points of the above mentioned hydrocarbons,’ as calculated according to Schréder’s last theory, in comparison with the boiling-points 1. Hydrocarbons from Pennsylvania Petroleum. ERIES. F Difference between Formula. Determined int by Sclro- {Calculated and Deter- s pene pom BES Poon mane boiling point. ’ 5 5 C,H 0-0 (2) 0 Ciytis 30-2 20 10:2 Ci.Hi, 61:3 40 21.3 Pia His 90-4 60 30.4 Aisa sy 1195 80 39.5 __©,,H2, 150-8 100 50.8 : 2p Senims? ae eee ‘ : Calenlated boiling, Difference between Formula @) Fa deg eine ints By Schro~ [Calculated and Deter- ie aes der’s theory, _ | mined boiling-point. ° ° ° Oates 8-9 9) 8-9 CioHy2 37-0 20 17-0 ‘CH, 68° 40 285 C,H, 98-1 60 381 Loe eH. 1276 80 47°6 3p Serres. (Not completed.) Set ae ; _ (Calculated Boiling-| Difference between | Formula, F tnabingear point by si sothig Calculated and Deter-| 3 fo ees wed der’s theory. tained boiling-point. : SS A a a ay C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 385 2. Hydrocarbons from Coal-tar Naphtha. . Caleulated boiling-| Difference between aaae of substance.| Formula. Ry ae poise point b ee ey eae —— . 0 ° oe eee | Benzole, CioH, 80-0 80 0-0 | Toluole, Oo,He 110°3 100 10°3 | Xylole, Oreuis 139°8 120 19°8 - Isoeumole, Ciehis 169-9 140 29'8 3. The Homologous Hydrocarbons from Oil of Cumin and Cuminic Acid. Calculated boiling- | Difference between Determined |. Ig le : = Name of substance. Formula. boiling-point. point <| Pe seaed 8 ween for Boers ” : oo. ° ° Cumole, B23 F8: Pe "151-1 140 lil Cymole, On, As 179°6 160 19°6 1st Series from petroleum. It is obvious, however, that these are merely accidental circumstances, to which no importance can attach. = 7 Or r&z Catcutatep Bomtse-rorxts or Hyprocarsoys By Lowie's Tueory, viz. raar One Atom or Carson 0) RAISES THE Bornes Point 38°-4, anp Onze Arom or HyproGEN (H) Lowers rr 29°°2, Hydrocarbons from Pennsylvania Petroleum. Ist SeRtes. « se trepiarmataiel | Calculated boiling- | Difference between a a o H, 0:0 (2) 15°2 Tee 30 ( 33°6 34 16. 12 : - H 61°3 52°0 9°3 oH: a 70rd 200 : He 8:8 1 ae 119°5 8 Heo + 5808 107-2 43-6 WER eT Lio PSO 5 wee ar C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. 2p Sertss.? F ; Determined Calculated boiling- Difference between ormula. (2) boiling-point. sees 1 rig Ss eran bees ° ° rs) C, H,, 8-9 15°2 6-7 C,oH,2 37-0 33:6 3-4 C,2H,, 68°5 520 165 C,4H,, 98-1 10-4 207 CicHi, 127-6 88°8 38°8 3p Serres. (Not yet completed.) 3 Calculated boiling- | Difference between Det d inj ; Formula. boiling pou mae ied s mearsragen pelt °o ° °o 20420 174°9 - 184-0 109° * C,.H,. 195°8 2024 66 Co,Ho4 216-2 220°8 46 a Hy in fact. bons of the formula who found that it would place the boiling-point of benzole at 285°'6, 1. e. 205° above its actual boiling-point. vA Ci es A cursory examination of the last three tables will suffice to show that, so far as regards the hydrocarbons of the formu and Cy Ha,,, the theory of Léwig also has no foundation That his theory did not hold good with the hydrocar- was observed by L6 Lowig himself, : 7, Or tHe CaucuLatep Boittne-potnts or HyprocarBons BY GERHARDTS HEORY. . We come finally to test the law of Gerhardt, above mentioned. t to find this more in accordance with facts of more ypothesis of Schréder or that of Lo eneral a pecially with reference to a presented in the following tables will show, however, that this 18 other pplication, an es of substances. wig, Inasmuch as this law was especially designed to apply exclu- than either the both of which claimed d were framed more €S- The facts 1. Hydrocarbons from Pennsylvania Petroleum. Se te Ist en Determined | Ualculated boiling- ) Ditference betw S| Pelngepoine | Pom by Sertardi anteater aint o Cy He 00 (?) - 8-0 Cros 30°2 1236. 175 CoH, 613 33-0 28'3 Cag 90-4 53°5 36-9 CieHis 119% 74-0 45°5 C,H. —150°8 94°5 : ‘See foot-note on page 227. lee C. M. Warren on the Volatile Hydrocarbons. far from being the case; and that the theory of Gerhardt, as well as those of Schroder and Léwig, so far as these relate to the 387 hydrocarbons, y no means legitimately drawn from nature, but is Sidicathax aeebeat 2p Sertes.* ¥ Calculated boiling- | Difference betwee n d 3 Formula. (1) Belling soit point a i s os pete deter o °o ° CoH, 8-9 8 16°5 Oy 5843 37-0 12°5 24:5 : es oe 68°5 33-0 35°5 es its 98-1 53°5 44°6 2 ic Cig ys 127-6 74-0 53°6 e : ; 3p Series. pe D P Calculated boiling- | Difference between PS Formula. termined point re cactartey calculated and deter- boiling-point. wined boiling-point. C2 oH a5 174.9 134-0 44-9 : Cr 2Hos 195°8 150°5 45°3 Py 216-2 171-0 45°2 2. Hydrocarbons from Coal-tar Naphiha. a es Hiernined Calculated boiling- ee rip —— nee Formula. boiling: point. point = desig s ated boiling pol foot r oO o °o | Benzole, By 80-0 93-0 13-0 e Toluole, CaHs 110°3 1135 3°5 oo Xylole, C2H,, 139°8 134-0 6:0 | Tsocumole, GC, Hay | 1668 155°5 15°5 8. Hydrocarbons from Oil of Cumin and Cuminic Acid. jcnlated boil- |Difference between hes pen by Ger- observed and calcu hardt’s theory. | lated boiling: ing-point. Determined Name of Substance. Formula. boiling-point. °o ° Cumole, C, gHye| 15! *E 154°5 | 43:4 ymole, CoaHyi| TFO6 1750 | —46 Cumo-oil of turpentine, Cp9H,,5) 155°4 160-0 +46 The chief conclusions deduced from the foregoing facts and considerations may be briefly summed u 1. That the boiling: pert difference for the addition of C,H hydrocarbons is gees 30° C., — been series was found eee to the rale just sated ae is pe _ Sented the boiling-point difference of about 20°, vv is but * See foot-note on page 224. 388 Scientific Intelligence. little larger than the number 19°, which Kopp found so common with other classes of substances. . Lhat certain series of derivatives from the benzole series of hydrocarbons present boiling-point differences correspondin the elementary: difference of C,H,, considerably smaller than the number 19° of Kopp. 4. That the formule of Schréder, Léwig, and Gerhardt, for the calculation of boiling-points, so far as these may be supposed to relate to the hydrocarbons, are incorrect and purely artificial. 5. That the custom of taking boiling-points with the bulb of the thermometer in the vapor is more liable to lead to an erro- neous determination, at least in certain cases, than if the bulb be placed in the liquid, SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Iron regions of Arizona ; by W. P. Buaxe (from a letter to J. D. ; om Dana, dated San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 31, 1865).—Your note in the Williams fork of the Colorado, observed by me in 1863. The ore is at a high angle. The whole forms a belt of peculiar appearance, which may be traced by the eye for miles across the country in a direc- ti ion a few degrees south of west, so pass over the Colorado, and into the limits of California. It is interstratified with chloritic and. tale f Slates, gneis anite, and the series has yielded both copper ores and Pe : 8} ferruginous formation extends over a considerable area north and south, and it may possibly be connected with the Mexican series, and silurian. The antiquity of the Aztec and the Aquarius ranges and the psa ee region about them, as compared with the Sierra Nevada i‘ : > OCKY mountains, was commented On by me in vol. iii, p. 4 the Pacific R.R. Reports. At Williams fork a heavy white sand- . a conglomerate, of ancient appearance, overlie the granitic and meta-— ' bl f the above iron-bearing roeks he first example Ses a eeelindiy, PME OND n> SER aie Spe eT we alee Scientific Intelligence. 389 = this Journal. )—I have recently bored a well at Chicago 711 feet in epth. The surface rock is the Upper Silurian ; for the first forty feet it signs of vil Next he: for 200 feet, — are bands of ed limestone At a t depth 2 711 em we penetrated a stream of water which stopped further progress. This water is perfectly limpid, and is free from all traces of sulphur or other disagreeable minerals, and flows 500,000 gal- lons of water per day through a 34 inch orifice. Its head is 120 feet above Lake Michigan. n the Drift in Brazil, and on decomposed rocks under the Drift foun recent observations by Prof. Acassiz. Communicated for this Jour- al by Atexanper Acassiz.—At Tijuca, a — of hills about 1,800 eek high, and about seven or eight miles from Rio, there is a drift hill with innumerable erratic boulders as eis as any ever seen in New England. Prof. A. had before seen unmistakable traces of drift in the Province of Rio and in Minas Geraes; but ewe was everywhere con- nected with the drift itself such an amount of decomposed rocks of vari- ous kinds, that it would have been difficult to satisfy any one not familiar with drift that there is here an equivalent of the northern drift. There is found at Tijuca the most palpable superposition of drift and tn decom- posed rocks, with a distinct line of demareation betwee n the This locality afforded an opportunity of contrasting Oke ees omposed -Tocks, which form a characteristic feature of the whole country, with the n- te, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, in fact all A age various kinds of rocks Hein found in old ee formations are si uced to a condition ks a of rocks. The wh @ passes u mis Here to rocks of the same kind in whieb the hatte or disintegration is only partial, or no trace of it is visible, and the whole mass exhibits then the appearance of a set of or Au, Jour. Sct.—Seconp Serres, Vou. Xk, No. 120.—Nov., 1865. 50 390 Scientific Intelligence. country should entertain the idea that the surface rocks are everywhere decomposed, and that there is no erratic formation or drift here. But upon close examination it is easy to see that, while the decomposed rocks consist of the small particles of the primitive rocks, which they repre- sent, with their veins and all other characteristic features, there is not a ; while the superincumbent indistinct stratification characteristic of the decomposed metamorphic rocks below it, nor any of the decomposed veins, but is full of variou kinds of boulders of different dimensions. The boulders have not yet os on the Parahyba, where iron mines are worked in a rock characteristics to northern drift, but no trace has been found of g acial action, properly speaking, such as polished surfaces, scratches and furrows. e decomposition of the surface rocks to the extent to which it takes there are any rocks left in their primitive condition. 4, Mining Statistics of Great Britain for 1864.— Produce of mines. Coal, ~ . « - 92,787,873 tons. Tron ore, < - - - 10,064,890 “ Pig iron, - . - “ - 4,767,951 Copper ore, - « = “ 214,604 “ Metallic copper, —- - - - 13,302. “ Lead ore, —- “ “ i 94,433 “ Metallic lead, ——- - - - 91,283 “ Silver (from lead ore), - - 641,088 ounces. Zine ores (nearly all sulphuret), — - - 15,407 tons. lic zine, - - - - - 4,040 “ _ Iron pyrites (for sulphuric acid and soda works), 94,458 “ Tin ore, - obs y mo ASCE Metallic tin, es : “ - 10,108 “ Gold (from Merionethshire), - e - 2,887 ounces. ___ The gross value of the above mineral products was 39,979.837/. There were 2,351,342 tons of coal taken to London in 1864 and 1,786,713 tons in 1863. Eight and a half millions of tons of coal were exported 12 1864, and nearly half a million of tons of iron.—Athen., Aug. 19. ery N.E. of Santa Fe, a thin b of coal wi Sls (Productus Cora, P. semireticulatus, &e.) Scientific Intelligence. 391 = abe ve reat beauty and perfection, the Saurian remains of the pa . retaceous. The species included are the following Zhoraco- ston . : 7 Tomodon horrificus, Pliogonodon priscus, Chelonia, Chelone sopita, one ornata, Emys firmus, Emys beatus, Hmys pravus, Plaiemys sul- m i |-like) Protophytes W ing i ith other Alge as probably commencing in the Azoic, and as the first comprehensive types, it i ded: may have been the associated spe- he Protozoans (Rhizopods, etc.) mark The two are alike in ext r as ked on page 147. ithe reme simplicity of organization. Al ant, is not brought out; and in ate. M 1 types appears,—the Radi- te, Molluscan, Articulate, or Vertebrate. If, therefore, these simple spe- Cles existed in the Azoic era, they were systemless life, and ouly fore- afterwards displayed ” taceous age in the Raton Mountain close to the stage : ed ith coal-plants and other fos- of the Carboniferous forma- art of the territory, the Car-_ d into crystalline marble; and at the rtly fossiliferous, and partly so crystal: granite rock. In the same region there forming a belt 75 to 100 feet wid i Rear the junction with the stratified rocks there is an iron breccia. carboniferous limestone, with P- Cora, was found in the Jemez valley a Diego. Near the Placer Mtn., a bed of true anthra- — 392 Scientific Intelligence. cite, nearly 5 feet thick, exists, due to a etamet dike intersecting the Carboniferous formation which is much t he authors state that this metamorphism and disturbance must oe ‘taken ast after the Car- oniferous age. 8. Defense des Colonies: III, Etude Générale sur nos Etages G-H, avec eae spéciale aux environs de Hlubocep, pres Prague; by Joacuim Barrande. 3868 pp. 8vo., with a chart and a sheet of profiles. 1865. es and Paris.—Barrande has discussed in this work the sub- ject of “ Colonies” as connected with the distribution of Paleozoic —_ ina way to command attention and excite an interest in his views. 1e volume is also very valuable for the review it gives of the pie of emia. No justice to the work can be done in a brief notice—which is all that our space in this number will allow; and we iemaed the vol- = entire to all interested in geological scien nee 9. Supplement to the Ichnology - New England. —A Report to the Government of Massachusetts in 1863. By Enwarp ———— dD. D., late Professor of Geology in Amherst College. 96 pp. with 20 latee. Boston, 1865 soThis Report, the last work of rae 2 Profes- sor Hitchcock, contains descriptions and illustrations of ne t foi The bones of the right foot of the Saurian remains found near the ar of the Armory at —— and partly described and commented upon by Professor J, Wyman at p. 187 of the Ichnol- ogy, are hated on one of the plates of this he Oe The opinion P ‘row, it would indicate a relation to Pterodactyles or Birds. The species is named Megadactylus polyzelus. 10. New Dinosaurian from the Wealden Formation, Isle of Wight— A new Dinosaurian, for which Prof. Owen has proposed the name Poly- acanthus (trom mov; many and axavrGos spine), has been found by Rev. shut foot. Tt had a bony armor end of plates from 4 in. a broad, in. thick, excepting along the back, over which there was a saat bony shield; and along the sides of the body and tail there were spine-like bones, s which are 15 in. long and weigh 7 pounds.— Atheneum, — We say roan because it takes up but a single branch— ae to the species of Massachu- de ae Ing the size of the work. The Manual is well calculated to Scientific Intelligence. 393 setts Bay. The work is exact in its science as well as popular in style, and is in fact a contribution to science which the most learned may rea with profit. The text is mainly from the graceful pen of Mrs. Agassiz, and the work is dedicated to her husband, Prof. L. Agassiz. The illus- trations are numerous and excellent, and the printing and paper all that d Success in an undertaking which is a labor of public benefit, without -Moneyed recomp pense. ae ; 13. A elassificati Ilusca based on the Principle of Cephaliza- classification of Mollusca he Proceedings of the m researches in ifieation, e may cite from t 14, Natural History: A Ma Venient and useful work. It goes , “ing with the highest class, that of Mammals, and illustrates the variou subdivisions with descriptions and figures, meutioning and figuring pat= ticularly North American species. Each of the prominent groups 1s fl” Presented to the eye by means of excellent wood-cuts of animals sai nel ble to the American student, and with a large number of them = ‘ oo: Ss zoology popular and easy. 1t fails of any introductory chapters 4€ structure of animals. Ogee 394 Scientific Intelligence. 15. Ona solar halo, seen at Crawfordsville, Ind., (lat. 40° 03'); by Prof. .L.Campsext. (In a letter to the Editors, dated Wabash College, Crawfordsville, May 27, 1865.)—Herewith I submit a pe de of the re- markable appearances in the atmosphere on May 26th, 1865. he morning was hazy and cool—the thermometer at 5 ranging about 48° to 50°. About nine o'clock a series of ble at six correct re nomenon o’cl o’clock in the afternoon. nying diagram is a presentation of the phe- as it appeared at twelve scribed about the sun as a center with an angular radius (SE) of SQ e accompa M I 27 ¢ ph \ KR ock, noon. Z The most brilliant ring was de- \ 3 twenty- eit degrees by careful measurem un), Primary center; A, Sec Ss The ar were white, yellow, meee B and C, Tertiary Si pari =220 SM= D. d and carpe il brilliant. The yellow yo and re en, =AD, SM=44° Grand axis re The white was ce ecu ek. 1 Paranal F. ere also very bright. The "he th of this series of bands forming the primary ring was about one and a half de The a are 7-four MLG described el the sun as a center with a radius of degrees presented less brilliant, but well defined colors in the reversed order,—the white band being on the outer circumference, and the green within, —with another inner band of violet. At A on the circumference of the primary circle, the center of the ee was located. The radius of this circle was the — as that mary-—its circumference passing directly through the su ring was chiefly white light, of less brilliancy we as primary, yet very sharply marked throsghont its entire cireumfere From D the arcs DF and DG branched off crcteaiaeriealle with refer- ence to the axis MSD, indicating the centers of curvature at B and C, the intersections of the secondary circle with the primary. These arcs were of white, well defined, mellow light. The long continued and well defined manifestation of the phenomenon enabled us to take all our observations very carefully, and to repeat them for further accuracy, 1 I relations of the centers of these curves are cur jous metrical oa interesting, and the record of these positions may be es some value with future observations of the same char. tion of these ‘appearances there are some difficulties not iter eee in discussing halos. For the present the nicer of uly is made. — Scientific Intelligence.—Obituary. 395 16. British Association at Birmingham.—Th 1e British As- sociation opened at Birmingham on the 6th of Seneatee ote Phil- lips being the Poitier The number of members at the meeting during the week following was about 1,400, and besides these there were present se ladies and 23 foreigners. The finds received amounted to 222771. ; The iatichad 0 on s read was two hundred and six ae 3c @ no space in this number for a soles of the Proceedings. The so meeting Ms be held at Nottingham. ma Nature of Linneus.—By letter from Prof. A. E. Nor- denskiold a Stockholm we igere me the i of Sciences of Sweden and its declination N. sae 20! 47-1", It has been named Clio. 19. Ltalian Society of Natural Sciences.—An ex traordinary meeting of = Society was held at nh seope on the 17th of Sapee nber. . Prof. Berthelot—A chair of Organic Chemistry has been founded at the College of France, and Prof Berthelot Soe aie to fill the place.— fteader, Sept. 2 21. Statue of Arago.—An inauguration of the statue of Arago, erected at his birthplace, Estagel, in the Basses Pyrenees, took place on the sien of August. His son, dissatisfied that he had not received as special in tation, and because there was no commemora 9 of his father’s political services, declined to be present.—Reader, 21. Chambers’s Encyclopedia.—Parts 94, a ‘96, 97 of this valuable Eneyclopedia, extending to RID., have been issued by the American pub- lishers, J. P. Lippincott & Co. OBITUARY. Admiral Wituram Henry Smira.—Admiral Smith died at his resi- dence near Aylesbury, Sept. 9th, at the © Se of 77. He had acted as nomical observations in his Observatory at Bedford. He also se pebinie many works or pence on Geographical and other subjects——From a notice in Reader, Sep Hees Cummine, Tied in a London, on the 10th of August last, at the age of 74. He commenced his journeyings in behalf of natural his- * If persons a sO vis he he ee will e the result to the Swedish Academy. | 396 Obituary. tory, especially conchology, in 1826, when he built a yacht for the pur- pose, and undertook a cruise of more than a year’s length among the islands of. the South Pacific. Returning to Valparaiso, he prepared for exploraticns along the western coast of southern South America, where he continued. for two years collecting in all departments of zoolo In 1835 he started on a new expedition of four years to the Philippine Islands, and made there vast collections in botany and zoology. During the twenty-five years since his return from the East Indies, he was occu- pied mainly with the arrangement and extension of his collections. He had long been subject to chronic apace ine and an asthmatic affection, and these were finally the occasion of his death From a notice in Athen. : Aug. 19. Jowann Franz Encxe.—Encxe, the Director of the Berlin Observa- tory, died at Spandau, on the 26th of August, 1865. He was born on the 23d of September, 1791, at Hamburg, where his father was a clergyman. Wiutam Rowan Hamrirox.—Sir Wm. Rowan Hamilton, Astrono- mer Royal for Ireland, died on the 2nd of September, at the age of sixty. He became known as a mathematician of extraordinary genius when he was about twenty years old. His papers on systems of rays, on the methods of dynamics, on alge- bra looked at as the science of pure time, on discontinuous functions, on equations of the fifth degree, and his new algebra, the Quaternions, can- popularized. But there is one little result of which an idea can on 1 being faked for under the proper ie cians by Prof. Cee — ce a pg “eh exist. eee such a non had e' er been even _— eae was a man of very Wide Sait and vy varied talents ; “he was a scholar, a metaphysician, and a a poet. He was beloved for the kindness of his heart, and is 2 for the integrity ae his character.— From a notice in Athen., Joun T. Piumuer, M. D. carte _ Plummer died on the 10th of April, at his 8 residence in Richmond, Indiana, aged 58 years. He was a graduate ies. ; A Behoo ey "College in 1828. While sie making “onal sedans: his special study, he made collec ons in different departments, and formerly coast short papers to the | pages of this Journal, and to those of the Journal of Phar- macy. He was a member of the e Society of Friends (Quakers), and onieek best of men. He wa = to an extreme, He has i ee manuscripts, the la naar me 2 f which relate to . the Said of Friends, of which he was one of the Amost influential members, Te Se ae ig LIST OF PLATES TO VOLS. XXXI—XL. 435 PLATES. I—Stereoscopic drawing by hand, Roop, p. 74.—Discussion of Declinometer Observations = Girard Catlexe, 1840 sts, BaAcHE, 11 diagrams on : — —— Map of "Appalachian a ser Guyot, 180.— Marsu, 2 plates, p. 311. Il. a a pC. ection “of ULS. Coal Measures, LEsQuEREUX, p. 119, IV.—Vertebre of Eosaurus Aca us, Marsu, 7 figures on 2 plates, p. 16.—Dis- cussion of iantiaaesives” sopsetvations, Girard Coll, 1840-45, Bacwe, 11 diagrams on 4 sheets, pp. 2 5, 383. V.—Iso-magnetic lines of hasta ‘for 1842, BACHE, p. 359, VHi.—Configuration of Planetary and Lunar spétems in Times, Hoyricas, p, 44. XL.—Eozoén Canadense, p. 361. APPENDIX. New Planet-—Prof. Warsoy, of Ann Arbor, Mich., announces the dis- covery by him of another planet, on the 9th of October. In a second letter to the editors, dated Oct. 16th, he adds: “I have just received a letter from Prof. Ferguson, from which it appears that the planet discov- ered by me on the 9th inst, was discovered by Dr. Peters at Hamilton College on the 20th of September. I did not know of this prior discov- ery until to-day. It seems that Dr. Peters communicated his dise to the ence 9 : Washington, but so far as I know no further an- nouncement was e. “From a little Siasdabans which I have made I feel —. sure that this planet is identical with Sapzho ©, discovered by Pogso adras n May 2d, 1864, but sibeequetl lost. The circumstances ts the mo- tion of the new planet, as far as 1 have observed it, agree precisely with the hypothesis of identity with Sapp speedo. to Poa’ observa- tions from May 3d to May 12th, 1 On are made by i. Engelmann, in volume xxxvi of thie a , in comme neing on P: 384, Meteo ee pamphlet on Meteorites (Aérolites) by R. P. Gree of Manchester Repeal the author presents the following System of Arrangem Crass I. AEROLITES. : Orpen A. Sp. gr. mostly antes 1°7—3-2, containing little or no talli : ae ? ~ i= i¢ iron. Group 4. Carbonaceous ; Y blasktah, and containing ee Group 6. Howarditic ; ash-gray, fin e-grained matr resembling trachyte, and containing imbedded efyaiate of olivine rthite, or augite; outside crust highly resinous and pite Groupe. elds spathic ; containing, or consi isting of, a presen of anorthite and angite; crust pitch-black and highly resinous, Somer of Rose. Grou Crystalline ; peridotic, shalkitic, chladnitie ; (magnesia- Ss 436 APPENDIX. Orver B, Sp. gr. mostly between 3°25 and 3°9. Group a. Variolitic ; after the manner of the mineral alle Variolite. roup 6. Somm mitic ; consisting of finely mixed crystalline minerals ; something after the nature of the ejected masses of Mt. Somma, Vesuvius. oupc¢. Tufaceous ; mixed ; spherules numerous, } * Porphyritic” ete of Shepard. Group d. Psammitic; arenaceous, “y ks sands tone, granular; color yellowish or brownish white; particles chiefly olivinoid; metallic parti- cles freely and visibly interspersed, occasionally with the aadanon of mag- netite and graphite, or veined and stained with rust; Bachmut may taken as the type. Polished surfaces show more S less of sphertie d,; ditto, very fine-grained texture. d, ; ditto, grayish; texture more compact or tough; New Concord and Lixna may be taken as types. Group e. Chondritic ; structure coarse-grained, grayish. ar : colt or pisiform, taining snvall angular if bag oe fragments. up f. Blanakitic after the manner of the nsko meteorite; ae eayiab blue, occasionally running into ¢ or d, Bae ly contains more Labradorite or augite than - ord. Texture rather uniform. : xroup h. Hralebenetic ; texture fine-grained, tough, and gritty; highly peridotic and ieee Uaroee ai a slight bronze-like luster; this represents quite a peculiar group, ‘of which the Erxleben meteorite may — type. et taken as the Crass IT. SIDEROLITES. Orper C. Sp. gr. nee meteoric iron, oeeneene or mixed with, matter and silic Group a. Pallas; ae coarsely ey itto, finely it acrd talline. Group 6. Partially or irregularly m xed aes Group c. Contai iid aérolithic Fucmenk imbedded in iron showing Widdmannstattian _ Ctass II. METEORIC IRONS, or AEROSIDERITES:? Orver D. Sp. gr. between 7-0 and 8-0. Group a. Agrammic ; ; without line-markings, not lettered when etched with acid. a a } Bacreous, ere lustered. as 4,5; spotted, or b. = wrogrammic ; Siinaisly arked. ha aoameaee Suey < mmic ; distinct] ae lines le’ * FP a Se mi, Bhar ic; distinctly mar ines para Group d, Spora-grammic ; scattered lines, finely marked. ; ditto, coarsely marked Group e. Nephetie t¢ > convoluted, or clouded markings. | Group f. Undetermined; markings doubtful vot altered by artificial heat. - Rega ening nt portions of pyrites, magnetite, graphite, and ‘Piensa Ps this ve 1 hI. 5 from foot, for 10”” rend 10". American Jéurnal of Science, 2™! Series Vol. XI die J i Ae EQZO0N CANADENSE, Dawson. | a -