THE Vv. 4 AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY Prorressors B. SILLIMAN anv JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH Prorussors ASA GRAY, anv WOLCOTT GIBBS, or CAMBRIDGE, AND Proressors H. A. NEWTON, 8S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH, anp A. E. VERRILL, or NEW HAVEN. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XLIX.—[WHOLE NUMBER, XCIX.] Nos. 145, 146, 147. AT J © een NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1870. ——oeeernr een PRINTED BY TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, 221 STATE ST. ; Soe . CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIX. NUMBER CXLYV. Art. L—Alexander von Humboldt, his early life, his educa- tion, his writings and his books; by Henry SrEvens, . I*.—Livingstone’s African Explorations, ........++-++-++++ I.—On the relation between the Intensity of Light produced from the combustion of Illuminating Gas and the vol- ume of Gas consumed; by B, Smiiman, .....--+----- UL—Principles of — and Cosmical Physics; by W. A. NORTON, 22.8. 50 ce ccc cece cere cece e nee eeeceeees IV.—The Phutondinepers by Henry M. Pinnuvaer, gees V.—On the Crater of Haleakala, Island of Maui, Hawaiian Group; by W. D. ALEXANDER, ..--.+++++-++eeeeeees VI.—On a new method of separating Tin from Arsenic, Anti- and Molybdenum; by Frank WiceLeswortH Crates is cs rank hee i ds Snes SE eS ee VIL—_Notes on the structure of the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea; by E. BmLinGs, .....---++-++++eeeeeeeee VIII.—Upon a new Spectroscope, with Contributions to the Spectral Analysis of the Stars; by J. C. F. ZOLLNER,. - 1X.—Polarity and Polycephalism, an essay on Individuality ; by H. James CLARK, ..-.---- eee enceeceerererreeces X.—On Laurentian Rocks i in Eastern Massachusetts; by T. Greeny HUnT, .....---ee cece eres ett tee ee ees XI-—Contributions to the Chemistry of Common Salt: with particular reference to our home ee by GAS GOESSMANN, «.-cesee-seccerrscrcessensceens astbise > XIL—Account of a fall of Meteoric Stones near Danville, — Le, vt LAWRENCE eee eee reer ere ee ee cee CR ee ¢ oe eS ee Caan : a TEESE by AE. a wc ntereccesess 69 75 lv CONTENTS, PAGE. XV.—On the Early Stages of Brachiopods; by E. 8. Morsz, 103 XVI.—On the existence of a Crocodile in Florida; by Jur Wet SMA oo ok es eed bates serge 305 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics and Chemistry.—On the emission and absorption of heat radiated at low temperatures, Magnus, 106.—On the reflection of heat at the surface of fluor- spar new sulphur salts, SCHNEIDER, 108.—On a new series of crystallized platinum compounds, SCHNEIDER, 109.—Contributions to a knowledge of conjugate bodies in inorganic Chemistry, BLomsTRAND, 110. Mineralogy and Geology.—On the Surface Geology of the Basin of the Great Lakes, of the exploration of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, F. V. Haypry, 118. —Mineralogy Illustrated, J. G. v. Kurr: Tableau Mineralogique, M. Apa, 119. Botany and Zoology.—Botanical Notabilia, 120.—Botanical Necrology for the year 1869: Recent Explorations of the Deep-sea Faunz, A. E. VERRILL, 129.—Cata- logue of the Mammals of Massachusetts; with a Cfitical Revision of the Spe- cies, J. A. ALLEN, 134. ee ae raat the Sun, 134.On the flight of a re- markable meteorite stern portion of Ohio near Forest, J. Law- RENCE SMITH, 139.—Elements ay sania (109), W. A. Rogrrs, 141. Misceli Bibliography.—Exercises in Practical al Chemiatry, A. s Yang grad court and H. G. Mapay, 141.—On , upon the manufacture of Aniline and ‘Asitine eeen etc, M. Remann: A_ short Course in Qualitative Analysis, with the New Notation, J. M. Crarrs: The ‘Fruits and Fruit trees of America, A. J. Downine, 142. —Agricultural Qualita- tive and Quantitative Chemical Analysis, G. C. CaLpweELt, 143.—Lithologie des j ‘Mers de l’ancien monde, par M. DELESSE: Hydraulic Motors, ete. etc., par M. BressE Se a Ee eS ee ee ee a ye a ee te ee Se ae ee eee * Chdinnry‘Thowne’ Graben: Axel Joachim Erdmann: 0, L. Erdmann: Michael Sars, 144. | NUMBER CXLVL | | sg = CONTENTS. ¥ XVIII —Contributions tothe Chemistry of Copper; by T. Srunny Howr..coP ert Fj 2iase. oo rss eee 153 XIX.—Notice of a recent Landslide on Mount Passacona- way; by Gro, H. Perk 158 XX.—On the Silver Mines my Sas eine: State of Chihua- hua, Mexico; by James P. Kiwpaxt, 161 XXI.—Machinery and Processes of the Industrial Arts, and Apparatus of the Exact Sciences; by Freprrick ‘A. P. BARNARD, 175 XXIT.—On Norite or Labradorite Rock; by T. Srerry PUNT ngs 80 XXIIL—On the cause of the color of the Water of Lake Le- man, Geneva: by Ava. A. Hares, occu cate cs 186 XXIV. —Contptbariins to Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School. No, [X.—On the Potas- sio-Cobaltic Nitrite known as Fischer’s Salt, and some analogous and related compounds; by Samuert P. Sapr- 189 LER, XXV.—Notice of some Fossil Birds, from the Cretaceous and Tertiary Formations of the United States; by O. C. XXVI.—Contributions to Zodlogy from the Museum of Yale — College. No. ibe tapr aemaire of Shells from the Gulf of California; by A. E. Verrit 217 XXVII.—Notice of Dr. Gould’s Raat on the Trans-Atlan- tic Longitude, -- XXVIIL—Meteors of November, 1869; compiled by H. A 4 Newton, 244 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics and istry —On Ammonia-cl jum b , CLEVE, 251 ORD Pe sulphur salts, ScuNEIDER, 253.—Synthesis of Hydroxylamin, Lossen : On a new group of double chlorids belonging to the platinum bases, BucKTON, 254.—A sys. tem of instruction in Quantitative Chemical Analysis, by Dr. a from the last English and German editions, edited by Prof. 8. W. Jomnaow: Ef. fects of the Sun’s Heat on a Sand Hill, Gzo. Davipson, 255.—On n the existence of Ammonium in the Ammoniacal Amalgam, and on a new Test for the presence ot Nast Hyogo, y Annu H. Gala, 256—n ‘Existence of an Al _ loy of Ammonium and Bismuth, ler ney P cent en, D, : Mineralogy and : tnd Gaiogy—Prininary ald Repo of te U.S. esa ure of Colorado and New Mexico, conducted, und te ary of Hon J.D ox, Secretary of the Interior, by F. V. HAYDEN, 358.-_The Gold Fields and vi CONTENTS. Districts of Victoria, etc., by R. Brovert Smytu, 263.—On Old Water Courses, by Dr. J. 8S. NewBerry, 267.—The Volcano of Kilauea, and great Harthquake Waves, by Rev. Titus i 269.—A Treatise on Ore Deposits, by Br NRAD: Diamonds in Australia: The Atpyornis of Madagascar, Ap. MinyE-Epwarps and Atr. GRaNpIpDIER, 275.—Preliminary Notice of the Lamellibranchiate Shells of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung Groups, by JAMES Hatt, 276. Zoology.—Mollusean Fauna of New Haven, by Gzo. H. Perxrns, 276. Astronomy.—Elements of Asteroid (109),8by E. H. F. Peters, 277. Intelligence —On Force and Will, by:B. A. Goutp, 277%.—On Auroral appearances and their connection with the phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism, : . ced b Lighting Are ed Buoys. Premium for the year 1871 offered by the Nether- } land Society for the Promotion of Industry: Academy of Sciences, Paris, 284. Obituary.—Rev. att Jones, 284. Miscellaneous Bibliography.—Transactions of the Chicago Academy of Science, Vol. I, Part II, 1869: Guide to the Study of Insects, by Dr. A. S. Packarp ye Jr., 285.—Theory of Existence: A Practical Treatise on Metallurgy adapted ‘fron : the last London Edition of Protiaior Kerl’s a by Witt1am Crookes _ and Ernst Réurie: Lithology of the Seas of the Old World, by M. Detesss, e. > spite senate age Universal Exposition, 1867-—Reports of the United Prosodings of SG eS 288, NUMBER CXLVIL XXIX—On a method of producing, by the Hoses” figures similar to those of ROR Sg by Eur ART. inger f Op ya ; “eal; by C, Frrepex and J. M. Onarns, -. nosh vane w... SOF SS ee ee ee ee CONTENTS. vil XX XTIL.—On the Franklin County Meteoric Iron; and the presence of Cobalt and Lead in Meteoric Irons; by J. LAWRENCE SMITH, 331 XX XIV.—-Remarks on the alkalies contained in the mineral Leucite; by J. LawrencE Smita, 335 XXXV. -«Sezmination of a new and extraordinary Gas Well in the State of New York; by Henry Wurmz, ------- 336 XXXVI.—On Flame Pemiperatites, in their relations to Composition and Luminosity; by B. Smuman and Henry Wortz. First Part, - 339 XXXVIIL—On the Laurentian and Huronian Series in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; by Henry Youre Hiyp,- 347 XXXVIIL—Contributions to Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School: No, X.—On certain Double Sulphates of the Cerium group; by C. H. Wiye, 356 XXXIX.—On a new Aspirator; by Joun C. Draper,----- 364 XL.—On two peculiar products in the Nickel Manufacture ; by JosepH WHaRTON, 365 XLL—On the action of sunlight on Sulphurous Acid; by é O. Lorw, 368 XLIL—On the formation of Ozone by rapid combustion; by O. Lorw. 369 ? XLIII.—Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College. No. 7.—Descriptions of New Corals; by A. E, VErrin 370 XLIV. bee abe to Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School. No. 11; by W. Grsns, 376 V.—On a peculiar form of the Sachasge between the Poles of the Electrical Machine; by A. W. Wricut,-. 381 XLVL—Movement of the Dome of the Capitol at Washing- ton, during the gale of December 10-12, 1869, 384 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Sie aoa Gace, ste bb heehek cee tae oxygen, Troost and HAUTEFEUILLE: te et acids, trum ‘saliaias by Henk : : Mineralogy and as the aan EE Bitehoock, E. 2. oe the Blasmosaurus platyurus of Cope, Dr. J. ‘Lewy, 392.—Ore- : eee vill CONTENTS. thopsis, a gigantic animal of the Pterodactyle kind from the Wealden, H. G. SEELEY: Volcanic Action on Hawaii, Trrus Coan, 393.—Geological MapofCan- | ada and the Northern United States, Sir W. E. Logan, 394.—Labradorite Rocks ‘ at Marblehead, T. Srerry Hunt: Explorations in the Rocky Mountains by J. D. Wuitvey, 398.—California Geological Survey: The Geological Survey of Ohio; its Progress in 1869: Sketches of Creation, etc., ALEXANDER WINCHELL: Iso- morphism of Gadolinite, Datolite and Euclase, RaMMELSBERG, 400.—Mineralogi- | contributions of G. vom Ratu: Reale Comitato Geologico d’ Italia, 401.— Gibbsite and Wavellite, Hermann: Hermann on Samarskite and the compounds tise on Quartz and Opal, etc., Gzorge WILLIAM TRAILL, 403. Botany and Zoology.—How Crops Feed; a Treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil as related to the ac oe of Agtioultuval Plants, with illustrations, SamvEL W. Jounson, 403.—Martius, Flora Brasiliensis, fase. 48; — expos., C. F. Meissner: Development of the Flower of Piagaiou vulgaris, ete., A. Dickson: A Geographical Handbook of all the known . with Tables to : show their distribution, K. M. Lyeri: Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 404.—Notes relating to Vegetable Physiology, etc., 405——Francis Unger: On deep-sea Dredging in the ao OTE of the British Isles in 1869, Dr. W. B. CaRPesTes, 410.—Secretion of Sulphuric acid by certain Gasteropods, Prof. TROSCHEL, 420.—On the discovery of the sensitiveness to light possessed by Unios, 422. —Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts, W. G. eae : . Crustacea, N O- grafia della Famiglia dei Pennatularii, RicHIARDI, 426.—The Batietics of North America, Wau. H. Epwarps, part 1, 427. Astronomy.—Elements of Felicitas (109) from observations of the first opposition, Wu. A. Rogers, 428.—On the Periods of certain Meteoric Rings, Danien Kirk woop, 429.—Abstracts from the Report of the Council “8 ss bran As- / Wenbenkent Boctaty,; Feb., 1870, 431.—Star-Drift, R. A. Procto ce "te the Barometer and the Prevailing Winds over the pon for ie the Mont and for the Year, epee Society of London : Prizes for | Miscellaneous See Book of the Sulphur-Cure as applicable to the _ Vine disease in America, WiuLiaM J. nam GG, 442.—The Chemical Forces, Heat, Light, Electricity, with their applications: The Life of John James Audubon, —A Physician’s Problems, CHaRLEs Bram, 444 Proceedings of Societies, : —National Academy of ees 439.—The | , : AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARS. [SECOND SERIES.] Art. L—Alexander von Humboldt, his early Life, his Education, his Writings, and his Books ; by HENRY STEVENS of Ver- mont, FSA. ete, 4 Trafalgar quare, London. Te higher the sun the shorter the shadow; even so the greater the eminence of a philosopher the briefer need be his eulo- F by the Sphlee Nevertheless so exceptional was in himself, his early training, his psionic ai . may not be deemed out of place here, though perhaps at th expense of wearying the unlearned who need not know a much, or worrying the learned who know it already, to recapit- ulate a few of the well known points in the life, education, and character of this illustrious man. If the indifferent reader will run his quick eye over the titles of the seventeen thousand volumes recorded in the Catalogue of his Library he will, no doubt, see at a glance that in very ey respects, it is the most extraordinary collection of modern " [The above article has has been ¢ —— to the Journal at Mr. of well known t bibliographical attainment who piveliauet the library of Hum- boldt, not long after , and who under the ay of Mr. Stevens. Ow- ing to a change in Mr. Stevens’s plan respecting its publication, some slight terations have been made in it, but not in any way to affect the comments upon Hombolat. —E | Am. Jour. — . Vou. XLIX, No. 145.—Jan., 1870. 3 Alexander von Humboldt. scientific books, especially those pertaining to the physical sci- _ ences, ever brought together. It is true, many of the common every-day standard works of this class such as ‘no library should be without,’ are wanting here, particularly the long sets of scien- tific periodicals, the transactions of learned societies and other ons of specimens an and not by the accumulation of large libraries, - never owned a book, not even a copy of his own works, as I know from his own lips. ‘ mie, ‘to secure a copy of them’; and all the works he receives constantly from his scientific friends are distributed by him to BFR OM Roe aM Re CTE We ne Lor eee Alexander von Humboldt. 3 needy students,” The very historical truth was then and is now that the two best scientific private libraries in Europe be- longed to Cuvier and Humboldt, the one lining the splendid salons in which the baron held those historie reunions; the other described in this catalogue which contains all the books Humboldt ever wrote, many of them thumbed, worn and an- notated. Humboldt was a fortunate child of nature. A lucky star aff; Humboldt, in many respects the most gifted of them all, out- I. Bes With his life ended, and became historic, the first abe of modern science. The times that developed the rench Revolution ripened Humboldt, and made conspicuous others, many of them his friends and fellow laborers, among * Transits of Venus are as rare as they are important. They occur in couples, in June and December, about eight years apart, and then not again for several gener- ations. Kepler was aware of the phenomenon and as early as 1604 announced that one would take place in 1761, but young Horrocks of Liverpool with better tables, tional data, calculated that there would be a transit on the 4th of Vi K godsend to c ry. young folks nol other will occur be 6th - Bes 1882, but we again till nearly five quarters of a century later, on the 7th une, 2004; to be followed eight years after, on the 5th day of June, 2012; to be repeated in Dec., 2117,andsoon, i ee tables, and addi Dec., 1639. He let a friend into his secret, and they two on the day nam for we 4 Alexander von Humboldt. whom may be named LaPlace, Lalande, — ea Kunth Bonpland, Oltmans, Oersted, Bichat, Del ambre, 1 Ber-. zelius, Da Robert Brown, Dalton, Herschel, DeCaneanes Latreille, Pncienan: Audubon, David d’ Angier, Arago, Gauss, Ritter, Miiller, Leopold yon Bu ch, Varnhagen von Ense, mpte, Biot, et al., names themselves suggesting discoveries, inventions and unbounded knowledge. von HuMBoLpr was bornin Berlin on the 14th of Seabee 1769, and died there on the 6th of May, 1859, in the ninetieth year of his age. A rapid sketch of he Sm and early manhood will serve to show how well he prepared him- most of the learned academies of which he was a mem an. certainly not less than any of the great Voyages of Dias ie f and celebrated Exploring Expeditions con apa at the public © e course pursued wi so peculiar, and contrasts so completely with the usual ee Fol training in the colleges of this country, even in the Bet his ac Suitcaaal that d blessed in his eerie aS whose virtues, devotion to her boys, en purpose, and common sense he owed a + oe ae tho alitignl wena which he disliked, an a in oe physical world, which he adored. The earliest tutor choselt by the mother to teach and es with the two boys was Campe e educationist, who among other children’s books, edited in German, Robinson Crusoe, a work which no doubt had its early ided enc: in their boyish games and studies, and how faith- y he labored for and with them in after life, Sak the ‘hiecend bear — testimony. The next year, when Alexander was ‘a ow Me MS ee ee ‘ Mea Alexander von Humboldt. 5 ' eleven, he heard at Tegel private lectures on tere by Heim. _ Two years later Kunth used to take the boys to Berlin to pursue their studies with private masters. They studied together, but law, politics, philosophy, mathematics, and the physical sciences. unth too heard all these lectures, and a little boy of nine, four years younger than Alexander, heard some of them, ‘ aepold von Buch his name. ; ‘Thus they passed two years partly at the capitol and pa at Tegel, satis under the watchful care of Kunth, and the University at Frankfort on the Oder, where they resided two years or more, in the family of their Greek professor Léffler, who had removed thither from Berlin. At Easter, 1788, having exhausted the resources of Frankfort and groun or a igher course, Kunth accompanied the brothers to Gottingen, at that time the most celebrated University of eee" & Here Alexander at the age of eighteen found ample scope for all his aspirations in nature and natural science, and both brothers had more ample opportunities afforded them to follow out the diverse branches of research to which each felt a strong innate ten- ency. The University of Géttingen was then at its zenith, with the best selected library of modern books in Europe. Here they met and cemented lasting friendships with those world-renowned terms of intimacy. Alexander soon became the favorite pupil of the great naturalist Blumenbach, and was proud to call him- self the scholar of Gmelin. But it was to George Forster that Alexander never ceased to acknowledge his indebtedness. Forster was then only thirty- 6 Alexander von Humboldt. he delighted long after to call ‘my celebrated teacher and friend.’ ‘If I might,’ wrote he in Cosmos in the late evenin fixed desire to visit the land of the tropics, I s George Forster’s Delineations of the South Islands,’ ete. The same year, 1788, and while enjoying the society of Fors- ter, there appeared another little book which seems to have still farther aroused his love of nature and strengthened his resolu- which he says in Cosmos ‘ accompanied me to the climes whence joined his friend Forster at Mayence, whither he had removed, and they two set out on a private scientific Exploring Expedi- tion down the Rhine. At that time the great question that de- vided geologists, had reference to the Plutonian and Neptunian rigin of rocks. The Basalt of that noble river was before him, and accoutred as he was he plunged into the controvers with mind impartial and fresh from the university. Th eral of his investigations appeared the same year in his first book, at the age of twenty, entitled, Mineralogische Beobachtungen tiber einige Basalteam Rhein. Braunschweig, 1790, 12° i neat little volume arrranged with taste and judgment, and ina scientific point of view is said to be ereditable to a much older head. The book was published anonymously and is now but as! eae being very scarce. The copy described in the *. @atal and now peasy to General Frémont, hor’s autograph sig. Alexander von Humboldt. 7 nature, at the end of the dedication, and was presented to Pro- fessor Gmelin in 1790, with an affectionate inscription ‘by his scholar, A. von Humboldt.’ More than sixty years after, on his ee birth-day, this precious little ia a was re-presen- ted by Theodor Wagener to the great philosopher, who on the 14th of Sept., 1854, inscribed in it a graceful memento of his youth and of his old age. From the Rhine the travelers passed through Holland and Belgium, and thence to England, where Forster introduced Humboldt to the President of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, his fellow voyager fifteen years before with Capt. Cooke round the world. He was warmly received by many of the scientific men of London. At the Moors of Warren Hastings _ After a struggle of a few months between business and sci- ence, Humboldt’s inordinate love of the latter finally triump ed, i ron ing his friend, and com- merce his foe, and soon after found himself in Werner's house in Freiberg, with that dear boy for his chum whom he had met at lectures eight years before in Berlin, Leopold von Buch, then life. : I should be destined—I, an old man of eighty-three—to an- 8 Alexander von Humboldt. nounce to ss dear ec; Roderick, the saddest news that I could atl i onvey:’. Leopold von Buch was taken from us this aioe him Iam desolate.’ . . . is mind left a a ssi of ight wherever it passed.’ . .. We were to- gether in Italy, in Switzerland, in France —four months in Saltzburg.’ At Breibens Humboldt devoted himself with hum- boldtian energy to the study of mining and metallurgy. His mind was ever open and ready for impressions, which it received as surely as wax, and as speedily as photography. No bee could exhaust the wild darens of the woods quicker than 4 could extract from his masters all they had to impart. Scar ly a year then sufficed to accomplish his aim at W erner’s, sea he left in March, 1792, and returned to his mother at Tegel. Humboldt had now arrived at the end of pas ae a and such a pupilage! unparalled in ee 0 before him was ever so favored by fortune, so mentally gifted, so lovingly led, and so intellectually prepared, = sittin career upon . which he was about to enter? Yet he took no royal road to his acquisitions, but that hard Sais ai open to all, with work, _ ce, energy and love of nature for mile stones, At of machineries burnin with an irresistible desire, as he repeat- ro a tells us in after life, to travel in distant lands unexplored url’ peans. The next five years, from 1792 to 1797, the young aspirant is tracked with some difficulty through a combination of circum- stances well calculated to elevate, strengthen and mature him for the execution of some grand project. Born and educated in central Germany, remote from salt water, with a love of na- ture ingrain and strengthening with his knowledge, he longed for the sea, as he tells us, and the tropics, and had ad already re- solved, as soon as the opportunity presented itself, to go round the world, and gratify his enthusiasm for the savage beauties of tropical countries guarded by mountains and volcanoes, shaded by primeval forests and watered by vast unexplored rivers ; and pong or coming, explore that New World where man and his psa — ancient ae oda rn civilization had not inter- warf the stupen — splay of gigantic nature. All his ara eke to q ite ae Hi corer traveler. As his j to be the cisle of of the globe, so his study Alexander von Humboldt. 9 was the circle of the sciences. He worked hard and observed closely ; and, what in a young observer of nature is of the high- est importance, he reduced to order his observations and wrote them out. During his short year with Werner, the parent of the Neptunian theory, he found time to collect and describe the cryptogamous —— he found growing far down in the mines e made drawings of them, wrote out their nat- gen to his old friend and teacher, Blumenbach, who soon after returned it, edited with his own notes, and backed with the seal of his approbation. The work,* a handsome quarto volume, saw the light the next year, at Berlin, it being his second book, at the age of twenty-three. The second ea of it, Aphorisms on the chemical physiology of vegetables, he found of great use to him in his observations in America. This same year he accepted an official position under govern- ment in order that he might have influence and opportunities and travels to India, America, Africa the Islands, but generally to the want of variety of knowledge in insu- lated branches of na Th tions of istory. e great Ex eurieu in 1768-69, of Bougainville in 1766-69, of Cooke 1768- 1780 were familiar to him as household words, as were also af- terward those of Vancouver, La Pérouse and d’Entrecasteaux ; but all these, though they gave ample accounts of the oceans, their islands and their coasts, yet left him unsatisfied as to the vast interiors of countries and continents. They developed * Flor Fripercensis Specimen Plantas cryptogamicas presertim subterrane- iy Plates, 4° Basalinl 1793. The spo beaten pba year, 1794 were tr into Goose G. Fischer, with additions by J. Hedwig, and a Preface by G. F. Ludwig, and published at Liepzig in 8vo. 10 Alexander von Humboldt. marine geography and nautical astronomy, but left comparative- ly untouched, physical geography, botany, zoology, the relations of the vegetable world, the migrations of the social plants, a the geological structure of mountains and volcanoes. All thes he found set forth more to his liking in M. de Saussure’s scien- tific explorations e the Alps and Vesuvius, which interested him profoundly and caused es to study carefully both the re- sults i the use of the instruments by which they were at- a his same year, 1795, freed from official care, Humboldt ae much t mb Germany and visited Vienna, where he renewed his studies in botany and physical geography, studied and traveled with Freiesleben the celebrated geognost, and with von Haften visited northern Italy, but was for poke! reasons deterred from going to the volcanic regions of Naples and Si- cily. At Vienna he became acquainted with the recent discov- eries of Galvani which interested him deeply, and henceforth galvanism became one of his s a studies, if indeed a mind of such general grasp can attend on specialties. Many months most useful preparatory study he passed there examining the exotic plants, and enjoying the friendship, of M. de Jacquier and of M. Vander Schott. Already familiar with the experi- ments of Franklin and others in electricity, he began there his famous experiments in chemistry, galvanism, mena and other matters pertaining to organic life, which in importance and orig- inality eealete the sk brced but subsequent iscrecdactniccnen of ichat. — About t t th a: stig _— of meee von Zach, he found time ‘to acquire a practic owledge of astronomy, surv oe and mathematics, all so essential to cancion pn ‘came familiar with the use ‘of the various scientific instruments for ascertaining latitudes and longitudes, heights and a etc. Next, in the winter of 1796-97, we find him studying anatomy and physiology under Loder. Here ‘ con- tinued his investigations into animal life in connection with — wi embodied i in his third book* oilshed s in Posen in asa in re volumes i in octavo. oder Galvanismus, ne Muskel- ur Hint subsites : en Proo ae et in der Thier und Pflanzen se Zee * Alexander von Humboldt. 11 Humboldt now began to think seriously of leaving Europe for a long journey, but regretted to do so without first hav ving seen Vesuvius, Stromboli and Etna, to enable him by compari- son to form a ‘proper judgment of a great number of geologi- ter sleep by his presence’ wrote Goethe to Schiller; and wrote Schiller to Goethe ‘Although the whole family of Humboldt lie ill of the ague “ibey speak only of great journies.’ He there- fore determined to return to 8 and with his friend Leopold von Buch set out in N eee 1797. They spent some time in Vienna, four months in the several cantons of Salzbur 2 and Styria, pursuing to great advantage their geological investign tions; but as they were about to pass the Tyrolian Alps the wars of Italy compelled them to turn back, and, to en oldt’s great regret, to abandon _ volcanoes. They then proceeded ugh France home to in. The time had now aot for immediate preparation for his great voyage. But whither go? He was undecided, the im- pediments of wars and politics being so great it was impossible to determine. However, having buried his mother, and settled his 2 fame h affairs for a longs absence, he set out for Paris in 1798. e instruments and all things necessary for a long scientific n. pages in his Personal Narrative is enough to overpower the mind of an unscientific traveller. There were chronometers, tele- , (achromatic and simple), lunettes, sextants, rallonting an “repeating circles, theodolites, artificial horizons, qu ts, compasses, craphometers, dipping and other needles, magnetome- ters, pendulums, barometers, thermometers, hygrometers, electro- meters, cyanometers, eudiometers, phosphoric eudiometers, boil- ing tut meters, thermometrical leads, areometers, compound microscopes, meters, gauges, chains, tubes, vases, evaporators, pace vials, galvanic apparatus, etc., not one of each only, but erkungen 2 vols., viii Plates. 8° Posen, 1797-1799. Bo Tek reget men ote be Sat sur tion harvolines: phi de Pallem. [par Gravel] avec des additions par J. F. N. Jadelot, oe 8° Paris, 1799. __* About this time he must have prepared his fourth and fifth books, which were prin ted at Braunschweig in octavo in 1799, the one ie eens © rep de die peering Ames pe Stitel then Nachthei yah hover rg 12 Alexander von Humboldt. in many instances duplicates and even triplicates. Most of the instruments he had already tested in kind in his various travels and explorations the past two years, and had therefore confi- dence in his own judgment in selecting them. The first o sce HR Bare itself he se gone ide not much to hs taste. Lord Bristol asked him to mpany him to Upper Egypt on an archeological exploring ‘exnaton of eight months. He accepted this proposal and for some time directed his studies in conformity with this new project; and though it was abandoned in consequence of the temporary insecurity to travelers, he found that the archeological informa- tion then acquired proved in Mexico to be of no inconsiderable _ service to him. eanwhile he had made the acquaintance in Paris of two young naturalists, Aimé Bonpland of La Rochelle, and Michaux of Versailles, who had been a appointed to the pro- — din, round the world by Cape Horn, skirting South America the La Plata to Quito and iP aakite, and thins across the Pacific to New Holland, Van Diemen’s Land, Madagascar (the scenes of his friends Paul and Virginia), and so home by the Cape of Good Hope. Though Humboldt had little confidence in Capt. Bau- din, he obtained permission to embark with all his instruments, reserving to himself, however, the liberty to leave the expedition whenever he thought roper. For several months he worked with an eye single to this great enterprise, with his whole heart and soul in it, when, on a sudden, news came that war had bro- ken out in sire! and Italy, and Napolean had determined to postpone the e mo eat in efinitely. e disappointment was cruel, but the knowledge he had gained was not dissipated. His determination now was = t quit Europe at vary by engaging in an rise that might tend to console He | ha no the — of a Swedish Consul, a = ed by his - vernment to carry presents to-the De oe se i Ale um tance in that part of Africa, to facilitate him in visiting the Atlas peg of Morocco. No mineralogist had yet exam- ined this lofty chain of mountains which rose to the limit of _ snow. He jumped at this proposal, and his friend npland jumped with him. The Swedis frigate was to reach Marseilles towards the end of October, 1798, and therefore all three hastened thither. Two long months they waited there, and no frigate came, but finally news reached them that she had met with accidents and could not be expected at Marseilles till spring. Disappointed again, almost disheartened, but not ee ely ad 2 ee i em | a 3 ‘ Alexander von Humboldt. 13 the duplicates at Marseilles to follow. Their object was still to work to the East, to India if possible. They crossed Catalo- nia, Valencia and Old Castile to Madrid, making on their way many astronomical and geographical observations, and ascer- tained the inclination of the needle and the intensity of the magnetic forces, the results of which were never published. Immediately on their arrival in Madrid they had reason to rejoice at the wind that wafted them to Spain. Baron de Forell the Saxon minister, himself a mineralogist, at once interested him- self in their behalf, thought they might obtain through the en- lightened minister Urquijo, permission to visit the interior of Spanish America. The friends hesitated not a moment to adopt rok abe for himself and Bonpland, one from the Secretary of i In ‘ments of all kinds, might make astronomical observations, mea- sure heights and weigh mountains, examine the soil, explore riv- ers, inspect mines, and in short execute all operations deemed useful for the progress of the sciences, throughout the whole of the Spanish dominions. No passport from the Bg sales us itself, that he at last drifted into Spain, all the tougher, the wiser and the better for his many disappointments. The travelers pro- ceeded immediately to Corufia, secured e in the Sloop i ompanion of the monthly packet boat, and in June, 1799, embarked their instru and im: But the n. However, under the protection of a friendly storm which obliged the English to stand out to sea, and the cover of a dark | “tC | . ria which Columbus discovered in April, 1498, and believed to be Paradise, whence our first parents were expelled. Thus three same alien courtesy to go and discover what it contained. [To be continued. ] 14 Livingstone’s African Eaplorations. Art. I*.—Livingstone’s African Kaplorations.* Despatch from Dr. Livingstone to the Earl of Clarendon, dated ‘near Lake Bangweolo, South Central Africa, July 8th, 1868 My Lord—When I had the Jeg! of writing to you in February, ier I had the impression that I was then n the watershed between the Zambes and either the Congo or the Nile. re d 4 me of at essential correctness of th that i impression ; and from what I have seen, ; together with what I have learned from intelligent natives, I think that I may safely ah that the chief sources of the Nile, arise between 10° and 12° south latitude, or nearly in Pi eatiaay pesenes to at y ey ee and la eat of the parts west and northwest of dange ka, because these have et come under my observation ; but if your Lordship will read the fol- lowing short sketch of my ~ Sean sa will perceive that the springs of the sue have hitherto been searched for very much too far to the north. They rise some 400 miles south of the most southerly portion of the Victoria Nyanza, wid, indeed, south of all the lakes except Bangweolo. Leaving the valley of the Loangwa, virgo enters the capes at Zumbo, we climbed up oom seemed to be a great mountain mass, but it turned out to the southern edge of an elevated RS which is from 3000 to feet above the level of the sea. This upland may roughly be said to cover a space — of Lake Tanga: did of some 350 n miles square. Iti is one covered with dense or open ce; rich nits 3; is well watered es numerous rivulets, and, for Africa, 1 is ony It is also an upland, affords pasturage to the immense herds of cattle of the Basango, a remarkably light colored race, very friendly to strangers. sango forms the eastern side of a great but still elevated na The other or west- accidentall which pagel latitude ss 5050 uth, and we were then furl a the upland. day nce evidently perennial Ta ee mero Some went ihe pee fall ene the others went nort =a rig bia the River PES ape Misled by a ; this river in an off-hand manner ‘Zambezi, eastern branch, I branches, flows fro eastern ley mentioned, which is probably the valley of the Nile. It is an interesting river, as helping to form three lakes, and changing its name three times in the h Si i oma south se ieee. Sag ae mg running fe i I mention these animale becanes 2 . Livingstone’s African Exploration. 15 finding not less than 8 feet of water. The pears runs into Lake Bang- weolo, and on coming out of it assumes the name Luapula. The Luapu ula fae down north past the town of Cazembe, 8% 12 miles below it enters Lake Moero. On leaving Moero at its northern end by a rent in the moun- tains of Rua, i elon’ the name Lualaba, and ing on N.N.w., forms Ulenge in the coun pa of Tanganyika. I have seen it only where it leaves quite satisfied that even before it receives the river Sofunso from Marungu, e Soburi from the Baloba country, it is ca ae to form Ulenge, rape a is a Jake with many islands, as some assert, or a sort of Punjaub —a division into several branches, as is maintained by ph deni These branches are all sete up by the Lufira—a large river, which by many confluents drains the western side of the great valley. I have ca seen the Lufira, but pointed out west of 11° south, it is — asserted always to require canoes, This is purely native i ae Hes Some intelligent men cae a that when the Lufira takes up the water of Ulenge, chive N.N.W., ke Chowambe, which I conjecture to be that discovered by Mr. Baker. “Others think that it goes into Lake T y ambe by a river named Loanda. These are the parts near which. J] sus judgment. Vion tel gree a, Lopere, Kabvir e, Marungu, Lun mon & nd ; the people are pevlore by the initial * ‘4 Ba’ tastded of gre nitial ho? or w fox country. The Arabs soften ‘ Ba’i a, in spines with their Suaheli dialect ; the natives never do. On chs northern slope of the upland, and on the 2d of April, 1867, I a ed Lake Liemba; it lies in a hollow, with precipitous sides 2000 feet dow ; it is extremely beautiful, sides, top, and bottom being covered with trees sci other She ioe Elephants, buffa- loes, and antelopes feed on the steep slopes, while hippopotami, crocodiles, and fish swarm in the waters. Guns being mama: 4 5 elep. ess sometimes —- into a — have it all their own way. It is as ] ise as e w into Liemba, and a number of brooks (Scotticé, “ trout wap, from 12 to 15 feet broad, leap down the steep bright red clay s schist rocks, and form splen- did case ades, that made the dullest of my attendants pause and remark with nder. I measured bne of the oie, Lofu, 50 miles from its ates and found it at a ford 204 feet, say a 100 7 broad, thigh and wa and flowing fast ptember—the last ae fallen on ao 12th of beat —— the Lofu requires canoes. The Louzua drives a body of smooth water into Liemba, bearing on its surface duck- eed an “i Aare this body of water was 10 fathoms deep. Another of the four streams the Lofu, but an over-officious man seeing more of it and another lake is nt large fom 18 to 20 miles solar and from 35 to. 40 rote it goes NN.W. in F like y ‘ oe I woul ave set it down as an arm of that lake, but that sarbiataee feet above t of the sea, while Speke makes that 1844 feet lity tried to follow yee river-like portion, — as prevented by a war which had broken out between the Chief of Itawa and a party of ivory traders from Zanzi- bar. I then set off to go 150 miles south, then west, till past the disturbed dis- ~ and explore the west of ing or = on ‘of Zan 80 — I found the Sultan 16 Livingstone’s Afriean Exploration. and was at once supplied with provisions, cloth, and beads; they showed the greatest kindness and anxiety for my safety and success. The heads of the oe readily perceived that a continuance of hostilities meant shutting up the vory market, but the peace-making was a tedious process, requiring 34 months. ans from the Gisela. Soren se from Tette, who were connived at in their murders by ee Governor D’Aline ida. er peace was — I visited Msama, the chief of Itawa; and, having left the Arabs, went on to Lake Moero, which I reached on the 8th ” September, 1867. In the peel part Moero is from 20 to 33 miles samy Further south it is at least 60 miles wide, and it is 50 miles lon anges of ioe. vcnered mountains flank it on both sides, but at the ied part a waar mountains dwindled out of sight. Passing up the eastern side of Moero “s came to I on to Bangweolo, which is larger : bg ‘aber of oe other lakes ; but had set in, and this lake was reported to be very unhealthy. ‘Not eves a i eable symptoms, I ogee that it would be unwise to venture where swelled thyroid gland, known among us as Derbyshire-neck, and elephantiasis (scroti) prevail. I then went north for Ujiji, where I have goods, and, I hope, letters ; for I cir heard vs of from the world for more — two years: but anganyika sceabas ance 0. r in the country in front. fee nat ies party ca see h, and described the country as tae = as often to be thigh pets waist-deep, with dry sleeping places difficult to find. This flood lasts till May or June. At last I became so tired of inactivity that I doubled back on my course to — To give of the —— which, in a small way, enacts the part of the ‘pray ase eh I had to cross two rivulets which flow into the north end of : ‘ reached from the — to the upper part of the chest. The plain was of black Ww _—* - places, the feet of passengers worn into deep ruts. Into these we every now and then ortho and fell, over the ancles in soft mud, while hundreds of bubbles rushed up, and, bursting, emitted a frightful odor. We had four possesses a som ie died. He was the only Portu any sc education, and his latitude of Cazembe’s town on the Chungu being 50 miles wrong, probably reveals i his mind was clouded with fever wh last od and any one a ail i + ees B. Silliman—Relation between the intensity of Light, etc. 17 Art. II.—On the relation between the Intensity of Light pro- duced from the combustion of Illuminating Gas and the volume of Gas consumed; by B. SILLIMAN.* (Reud at the Salem meeting of the Am. Assoc. for Adv. of Science, Aug, 1869.) In photometric observations made to determine the illuminat- ing power or intensity of street gas, it is the practice of obser- vers to compute their observations upon the assumed standard of five cubic feet of gas, consumed for one hour, and in the constantly occurring case, of a variation from this standard, whether in the volume of the gas consumed or in the weight of spermaceti burned, the observed data are computed by the “rule of three,” up or down, to the stated terms. The stand- ard spermaceti candle is assumed to consume 120 grains of sperm in one hour, a rate which is. rarely found exactly in actual expericnce. or example, a given gas, too rich to burn in a standard argand burner at the rate of five cubic feet per hour without smoking, is consumed at the rate of 32 cubic feet to the hour, with an observed effect of 20 candles power. This result, pre- viously corrected by the same rule for the sperm consumed, is then brought to the standard of five cubic feet by the ratio 3°35 : 20=5 : 28°57 The candle power of the gas is therefure stated as 28:57 candles, and this result has been universally accepted as a true expression of the intensity of the gas in question, or the rela- tive value of the two consumptions. | n common with other observers, I have long suspected that this mode of computation was seriously in error, as an expression of the true intensity of illuminating flames, and that there were other conditions besides the volume of gas or weight of sperm consumed which must influence, and greatly modify th results. As most of these conditions are considered somewhat at length in a paper on “ Flame Temperatures,’ prepared The results of many trials, made with the purpose of deter- mining the value of these photometric ratios, indicate clearly ” thee Wha tre i in intensity in illuminating - flames is, within certain limits, expressed by the following * The main points of this r were made the subject of a verbal communica- tion to the an, Academy or Ane and Sciences at their session, June 17th, 1869. Aw. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Sertes, Vou. XLIX, No. 145.—Jan., 1870. 2 18 B. Silliman on the relation between the intensity of The intensity of gas flames, i. e., illuminating power, increases (within the ordinary limits of consumption) as the square of — the volume of the gas consume As the first experimental demonstration of this theorem — was made by Mr. William Farmer, the photometric observer — at the Manhattan Gas Co’s. works in New York, 1 propose — to speak of it as “‘ Farmer’s theorem.” I am also indebted courteous Engineer of the Manhattan Gas Light Company, for . the free use of their experimental data and the permission to — employ them in illustration of Farmer’s theorem amental importance of this new mode of ¢ compu- — tation will at once appear, if, assuming it for the sake of illustration to be true, we apply it to the case already given 4 above, which then becomes—— “5? - 205? ; 40, showing an increase of forty per cent over the old rule of © correction. Let us - how far this theorem is sustained by — the test of yee! meee ent 1st of the phbtiitheter bar, were made to give exactly the same intensity of illumination, This was accomplished of course by placing the Bunsen disc midway between the two burners, and ce ae the combustion until the disc was perfectly + the consumption being noted equal by two wet gas — neutra meters under the same pressure. The screen was then moved upon the bar to a point just four times as far from one flame — as it was from the — i : “ the bar being 100 inches, the — screen stood at 80, i. e., :4. The light from the distant a burner was then ey until the disc again showed an equality of illumination. On re the rate of the gas con-— sumed by the two burners respec tively, one gave 3°66 cubic — feet and the other 7°32 cubic feet, or exactly double, or in other words, the lights were as the squares of the volumes of gas 1:4 consumed, thus: 3°66? _ By the old rule the intensity would have been estimated — ly as the volume of the gas consumed, thus 3°66 : 7 32 = x; 3°30 ae “ ee similar gas flames, one at each end | a A a s en ae Tee ile ss ad Lvght and the volume of Gas consumed. ; 19 In this series the lights increase in considerably higher ratio than is required by Farmer’s theorem, which demands 6°60 cubic feet, corresponding to a four-fold ¢ consumption, while the actual consumption was 1:05 cubic feet less than the quan- tity required by the theorem. Experiment 3d.—The following series was obtained by another argand burner. Index, 062, = 3-72 cub. feet. = 1 light. i ‘OSI4 == -4°68 *: =. si ‘Ivvo = Boo ” — sos 200° Va = In this series the ratio is more nearly in accordance with the demands of the theorem, the intensity being still a little in excess of the squares of consumption (3°72 x 2 = 7:44 in place of 7-219). The gas employed in these comparisons had a candle power of about 14 candles. Experiment 4th.—Results obtained by a comparison of fish- tail burners, ratio as 4 and 9 feet respectively. A, index, 0750 = 46500 cub. feet. = : light, B. “1586 == 9819 —— In this sce medi the ratio falls but little hort i the de- mands of the theore ment 5th. fp oe of fish-tail burners. A. pees ‘O86. <> S16 hae oe . 85 B. 1677 = 10°06 “ In this trial the departure from. the ie ee of the pee 3 is considerably greater than in any of the precedes - nts. But it appears that from some cause the of the squares does not hold with gas of the power ed these trials (14 candles), where the cous Ne rises above 9 or falls much below 3 cubic feet. This is undoubtedly con- nected with the well recognized Rie that ARE is for pal gas a kind of burner and a volume of gas better calculated than — any pies to develop its maximum intensity. ment 6th.—This series was ae by Mr. Farmer to test lb a icect comparison the value of the new as contrasted with the old method of correction. Both trials were made upon the same gas, thesecond observation following Phd ie atter the first and with the same candle, and therefore-should give about the same candle power. 32-7 grains. lst ieee = a = — Mean al Pp © 13°93 cand e 20 B. Silliman on the relation between the intensity of 2d¢ Trial—Consumption of sperm, 32°2 grains. “ ‘gas, 4°58 cubic feet. Mean candle power of 15 observations, 11°8 candles. The above data caleulated by Farmer's Theorem, 5-004 cubic feet, and 32-7 grains give 15°15 candles. 4°58 6c oe 32° “é 66 15°09 “6 Difference, a. eg Calculated by the old rule. 5°004 cubic feet and 32°7 grains give 15°16 candles 4°58 6 os 22°93 Se 46 ac 18°82 ‘ Difference 1°34 sy It is obvious from the study of these results, that within the — limits named the increase of intensity in gas flames, whether naked or argand, is at a ratio certainly as great as the squares _ of the volumes of gas consumed ; and hence it follows that e all the photometric determinations, which have been obtained © by computation from volumes greater or less than the assumed _ standard of five cubic feet per hour, in the simple ratio of the — volumes consumed must be considered as absc lutely worthless, provided the theorem of Farmer here announced is confirmed. It is evident also that this theorem applies with equal force _ io the weight of sperm consumed by the standard candle as to _ the volumes of the gas burned in equal times. following trials exhibit the result obtained by burni re om saeabesaines Heh RE Oa ie urning smaller values obtained by the two patie Laght and the volume of Gas consumed 21 No. 1 “eee burner consuming : a feet per. hour, mixed gas= ar By 9 candles : “a “ : - “ “ its rid by “a Here No, 1 ¢ igchnes very nearly the true illuminating power of the gas, and may be assumed as a fair criterion of the law under consideration. By Farmers Theorem, No. : becomes 3.24? : 18°95 = 5? ; 45°12 candles. 3°487 ; 20°94 = 5? : 43°22 3s By direct ratio (old rule). No. : becomes 8°24; 18°95 = 5: 29°24 candles, 3°48 : 20°94 = 5: 30°09 By this it appears be by the old rule, assuming the true candle power ot the gas to be 42°79 candles, the two observa- tions Nos. 2 and 3 are in error by about 30 per cent, while by Farmer’s theorem the error is reduced to 3 per ‘cent, the former being too small and the latter too large. Albert Gas —The well known Albertite of New Brunswick furnishes a gas of remarkable richness. Its true candle power can be measured only by diluting largely with street gas of known value, and calculating it from the determined intensity of the mixture. In this way the gas from Albertite is shown to have an intensity equal to 70°38 candles, The following rovults were obtained by consuming different volumes in the burners named. No. 1 argand burner consuming z. a feet = = oe 38 ce 39 : * a Scotch tip’ _ e # — = 35 2 By Farmer's Theorem. ie: age No. 2 becomes 2°52 : 16°39 = 52: 65°56 candles 3 . 2 2 25°25 = §* : J014 22" Sis By simple ratio. Set ge No. ; becomes 2°5 : 16°39——5: 32°78 candles. se eo me 3 :25°25=5:4208 “ 4 The ition from the assumed standard of 70°38 candles are as follo By the old ae No. 2 falls short 37°6 candlés or 8: pr. ct. 3 * Farmer’s theorem, 2 ee 7] 4 eas a the old rule, No. 3 E Be he wae “ Farmer’s theorem, It will be observed that No. 2 in this series represents a consumption considerably below the minimum which in most cases experiment has shown to be the limit of the proposed 22 B. Silliman on the relation between the intensity of theorem, namely, 3 cubic feet, while No. 3, which represents — exactly this limit, brings the result within the range of experi- mental error—it being impossible to make two series of 15 photometric observations which will accord more closely than 1 fish-tail burner consuming 5 cubic feet. gave 132-94 candle power. 2 “ “ 1°5 oe “cc 12°89 “ Computing the second observation we have: : By Farmer’s theorem for No, 2 14322 candle power “direct ratio ° eeee * 2 This is an extreme case in which the volume of gas con- sumed in the second observation is far too low, but it is clear 4 that by the old rule the result coming from the consumption of so small a volume of gas is perfectly worthless, while by Farmer’s theorem the difference of 10-28 candles is within 7-7 — _ per cent, while if the true intensity of this remarkable gas is le 1ere is good reason to believe it should be, at 142 — HACE, a8 candles, the agreement in the two observations is absolute. _ Every photometric observer can confirm the results here given by reference to his own records of former observations, or by direct experiment designed to test the accuracy of the theorem here announced, In Sugg’s “Gas Manipulation ” (London, 1867), page 64, is atabular statement of the results of an experiment designed e f=) rm , ( og a form of argand) to develop the highest intensity of perhour, By this statement the burner in question produced _ Yeducod to 4°5 cubic as ee Mes ea Light and the volume of Gas consumed. 28 can only be conjectured, but assuming that the observation made the uncorrected rendering 11:32 candles (a very probable quantity) we find that the law of the squares of consumption then makes the ratio as follows :— 46" 2 1 YS2a05* 14, a result which in view of the facts before given cannot be regarded as accidental. The theorem applied to this case as it stands reported (including the correction) gives for the value of the fourth term of the ratio 14°7 candles. I have endeavored to apply this theorem to some of the re- sults recorded in the well known researches of Messrs. Audouin and Bérard, but I find these results stated in a manner which renders it difficult to fix clearly the terms of compari- son. I venture, however, to append a few comparisons drawn from two of the tabular records of experiments with butterfly or bat’s wing burners of the “fifth series” which so far as they go lend confirmation to the views here presented. Burner of the fifth series—slit J inch wide. ,_|Consumption of the comparative |Intensities by Consumption ofthe} Bengel Argand P Burners under standard intensities. law of ee Pressures. trial. —_|_bumer without | yumner=f00. jeonsumption. | Cubic feet. Cubic feet. 3°1079 3°6024 50 103 *23622 2°4015 3°5318 40 90°9 *19685 2°0131 3°6024 S 96° "11811 Burners of same series—slit 353 inch wide. 3°9555 3°6730 80 92°6 078474 3°1786 3°6730 60 80°7 07480 2°6487 3°6730 50 96°7 "07480 : 2°3309 3°6730 40 97°5 03937 15186 3°6730 20 115°6 01968 ) rd- ant, to be considered as otherwise than pointing clearly to its general truth. A rigorous demonstration cannot be expected, as there are too many variable functions of unknown value in- volved in the best methods at present known for photometric 24 W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. measurements to permit more than an approximate proof of its general accuracy. Every photometric observer must recog- nize its importance and the necessity in his observations of bringing the consumptions of gas and sperm to the agreed stan- Wu, To the consumer of gas the evident inference from the data here presented is that, where it is important to obtain a maxi- mum of economical effect from the consumption of a given vol- ume of illuminating gas, this result is best obtained by the use of burners of ample flow. Where a moderate light of equal diffusion is required over a large space, as in public rooms, it may be expedient to use numerous small jets; but when the maximum intensity ob- tai om a given volume of illuminating gas is desired intensity buruers of large consumption are plainly indicated. In the discussion following this paper, Mr. F. Stimpson, State Inspector of gas for Massachusetts, brought forward - some results of observations he had made upon Farmer’s the- orem (having been in correspondence with Prof. Silliman on the subject), and considered them in comparison with those herewith given. His conclusion was that while in many cases the theorem was closely applicable, in others it was not so. Mr. Stimpson’s discussion of the matter will very likely appear in an early number of this Journal. > Art. Il —Principles of Molecular and Cosmical Physics ; by | Prof. W. A. Norton. . zine, I showed that, by the introduction of a new hypothesis not portion of the propagated force is instan- mparting motion to the molecule, or atom, and is th srefore from this force. ae or aa ee Pet W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 25 nature are propagated forces, that is, do not act instantaneously at all distances, the principle of universal gravitation, as well as the doctrine of the molecular forces and agencies set forth in my paper, may be directly deduced from a single force of repulsion exerted by every primary atom upon every other atom. Admitted Principles.—It is now universally conceded: (1st,) that matter exists in at least two different fundamental forms, or conditions, viz: that of universal or luminiferous ether which pervades all space, and that of ordinary matter directly recog- nizable by our senses. (2d.) That all masses of matter of sensible extent are made up of distinct atoms. _(8d.) That every atom is essentially inert or incapable of itself of altering its own state, whether of rest or motion ; and that in every act of motion, or change of motion of an atom, an amount of force is expended proportionate to the mass of the atom and the velocity, or change of velocity, produced in the direction in which the force acts. It is also the general conception with physicists, that every atom has a definite form, and a definite size dependent upon the quantity of matter which it contains, and it will serve to fix our ideas to adopt this conception; at the same time it should be understood that in order to arrive at our conclusions the only essential supposition to be made, with regard to the state of an atom, is that it occupies a certain space, proportionate to its quantity of matter, in such a manner as to receive and intercept a certain portion of the force propagated along every line, or a number of lines proportional to its mass, traversing this space. Cosmical Force of Repulsion.—The fundamental notion of the propagation of force involves with it the conception that the force acts, or is transmitted in a series of recurring impulses. We may also assume that, like all known propagated actions, the force varies according to the law of inverse squares. . In fact, if the impulses are transmitted along definite lines, and the atom occupies, as a cause of interception, a definite space, 1t Is obvious that this law must of necessity hold good; or, if they are propagated by the intervention of wave pulses in a — more subtile ether, whether the atom be regarded as a mere point or of definite size, so be that it has a definite degree of Inertia, the same law should obtain. Now, let us leave out of | at all distances; and this action pe in a — vs — perpetually renewed, at an immensely more rapid rate, we must Suppose, “fae those of light or radiant heat. Each effec- Ch syd ere 26 W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. tive impulse is but an excessively minute fraction of each individual impulse propagated in the force; and this is expend- in giving motion, or virtual motion to the atom. That is, and this latter force must be vastly greater than the elastic force of the ether called into play in the propagation of a wave of light or heat; since this elastic force results from a slight in- equality in the repulsive actions of the contiguous atoms on different sides, attendant upon a slight relative displacement of the atoms. It is, as I conceive, by the coming into operation under certain circumstances, of a portion of this vast cosmical, ethereal force, received from definite directions, that the known effective forces of nature are brought into play. Immediate consequences of the Interception of the Cosmical Force. —Unwersal Gravitation—Let us next conceive that a single W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 27 ered, until the effective force directed inward is neutralized by the outward repulsion of the ordinary atom and the increased repulsion of the ethereal atoms lying nearer to this. The ultimate result then would be the condensation of an ethereal individual pulses, produced by a and the atmospheric atoms encountered on lines of propagation, it would be the same as if all the repellant matter considered were concentrated at the center of a. Asa matter of fact, in consequence of this inter- ception, the center of repulsion will be displaced toward the exterior atom 6 acted on. Beyond a certain minute distance the direct repulsion thus exerted upon 8, will vary inversely as the square of the distance from a; and it will at the same time be less, at all distances, than the gravitating tendency originating in the manner above explained. ‘ he excess of this tendency toward the atom (a) of ordinary matter above the repulsion exerted by the atom and its atmosphere, constitutes the effective force of gravitation due to the atom. It will vary, at all measurable distances, according to the law of Before inquiring into the dependence of this force upon the = re AE BAB in os atl pie we will remark that nothing precludes us from supposing that the atom of ordinary matter, so called, is actually a mass of con- Y, pon’ this point, the increased interception of the | the collision of bodies sueh’‘m ‘ 28 W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. cosmical force within the space that it would occupy, would de- velop, as above explained, an inward acting force that might be in equilibrio with the augmented mutual repulsion of the atoms of the condensed ether. If this conception be adopted, the in- terception of the cosmical force, effected by an atom of ordinary - matter, will take place at each of the ethereal atoms of which it is composed, and the entire effect will be proportional to the number of such atoms, or the entire mass of the compound atom. If then a second such atom of ordinary matter (B) be considered, at a distance from the first (A), the effective gravita- ting tendency of each of its constituent ethereal atoms toward A will be proportional to the mass of A. ‘The entire gravitat- ing tendency of B toward A, will then be cae to the mass of A multiplied into the mass of B. Also, since the tend- ency of each ethereal atom of B toward any ethe A is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, the same law wi hold for the entire gravitating tendency of B toward A. It is to be borne in mind that the effective force of gravitation here considered, is the excess of the gravitating tendency due to the partial interception of the general cosmi- eal force by the atom A and its ethereo-electric atmosphere, over the repulsion directly exerted by the same. The Newtonian principle of gravitation being thus made out for individual atoms of ordinary matter, it is also made out . The Newtonian laws of the mutual sequences of the ee of gravitation as now deduced from a force called the attraction of cohesion, and one or more forces of mutual Bee pest The force of heat is recognized as one ways augmented in rapidity by waves of radiant heat from atever direction received, it is wholly inconce eivable that in W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 29 the impinging atoms, or molecules, should give rise to a mutual repulsion, whatever might be the relative direction of the motions. In fact, in whatever mode of molecular motion heat may be supposed to CORE i ness be the only force of repul- sion, a certain amount of the living force of heat belonging to each of two impinging bodies would be expended in ishing the velocity of the one body and ae that of the other, and it would be impossible that they should become heated by the impact. Itis here assumed that the impact of two bodies must develop a force of mutual repulsion between the impinging molecules, which determines the equality of the action and reaction. This obvious fact seems now-a-days to be in a good degree ignored, and the exchange of momenta to be supposed to be brought about by some rey pees process, in which nA idea of force is shally lost si e must then conclude that there is a primary force of Sea repulsion, in addition to that of heat. We mi perhaps ascribe this force to the repulsion of the ethereal molec- ar atmospheres when brought into ae but to what can we ascribe the heat-repulsion? It has ome to be generally believed that it must consist in some HEB of motion of the atoms, or molecules of bodies, as a whole; either of vibration, revolution, or rotation. But it might be almost demonstrated, did space permit, that this cannot : the true nature or origin of heat. 1 will only allude here to one or two argum on rt of this statement, which may be briefly given. It is well known that whenever any body i is by collision eh another Y, orin any other way, p is given a Now me ~~ t that a force of pressure, or eto n, pro- a perm + compression, increasing W1 with its intensity, leads to the sisce inevitable inference that in sed act of com- 1s ta and the condensation maintain ed. and that once must be proportionate to the degree of condensation, Dy to the amount of ews evolved. Can such a ce he oe — to the heat evolved, be connected by any admissibl rice ggamcasien with the a anemia Ligsgnets of "ibriton, revolt crease 0 can | ascribed to an i motion “of ordinary atoms, or molecules, whether me are surrounded with ethereal atmos- 30 W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Phystes. pheres or not. We are accordingly constrained to look in some - — ) Bp Qu erg ra) kg 3 © a S. B @ = & co i na a ° iM a>) par) ° cq | Qu beds j= | ee a oO B ey e) ° Bb 9 so) cular Physics. The force of molecular attraction was conceived to consist in a contractile action exerted by the central atom upon its electric envelope, and originating waves propagated outward through the electric ether to contiguousatoms. This contractile ) ion is now seen to consist in the gravitating tendency of the electric envelope toward the central atom; resulting from the partial interception of the cosmical force by this atom. This action also originates waves in the luminifereous ether posited between the central atom and its electric envelope, that are propa- ted outward by this ether, and constitute the primary force 2. Ss : i oC a, ° 5 E = oD : (a) E EB Qu nm & & 4 & 'E. 0g 4 ee propagation; but, by passing around the ethereal atmos- h 0 i ular repulsion originates in the direct repulsion subsisting between the diverse atoms of the electric envelope. This force originates waves that proceed outward through the electric ether from different depths in the envelope. These waves must increase in their intensity at the outset from the lowest depth upward, to a certain height in the envelope, by reason of the increase in the quantity of ether that is effectively repellant. On the other the attractive waves, that issue from various points of the S ase ou | in their intensity at their origin. It thus happens that the resultant waves, which may be — seas ki taken to represent the entire actions of these two systems of be ed to eed from different dept rhich a be taken as the upper and Fy ee eg " ee oe W. A. Norton on Molecuiar and Oosmical Physics. 31 repulsion from the upper limit. In the memoir refe of matter, and the outer force of vapors and gases. e may receive is a distinct force of repulsion, modifying the Origin of Chemical Attraction, and of Electric and Magnetic Forces.—The electric envelopes of atoms, besides being the source of the molecular forces, hckatinng the primary heat-repulsion, invests the molecules of each substance with’ the property o: chemical attraction for the molecules of other substances to which they bear a certain physical relation. This consists in to the origination and maintenance of currents in the adjacent inequalities of elastic force in this moving mass of ether, from which result transverse currents. ‘These transverse currents take effect upon the line of the electric or magnetic current because they are partially intercepted by it. The induction of one elec- tric or magnetic current by another, is effected by the interven- tion of currents directly induced in the adjacent body of luminiferous ether. , a of _ The key to the explanation of the excitation of electricity __ by friction lies in the fact made out in my former paper, that 32 W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. expansion of the compound molecule sets free a certain portion of this condensed ether, and every condensation withdraws a certain portion from adjacent molecules that are undisturbed. If two dissimilar surfaces are rubbed, the one over the other, the consequent disturbance of the compound molecules of the two surfaces, will be either unlike or unequal in amount; and a certain quantity of electricity will in consequence pass from _ the one surface to the other. As soon as the friction ceases the disturbed molecules will recover their original form and’ size, and the positive state of the one surface and the negative state of the other will manifest themselves. For example, if the | molecules of the one surface are compressed by the rubbing, and those of the other expanded, electricity will flow from the latter to the former while the condensation and expansion are _ going on, but as soon as two rubbing molecules are freed from __ each other's influence they recover their former dimensions, and the excess of the electric fluid in one of the molecules and _ The excitation of electricity by heat is conceived to be prin- cipally due to the expansive action of heat on the electric ] f primiti 1 les, and on th 1mol p Pp ; Pp molecul which either sets free a certain portion of electric ether, or establishes a chain of electro-polarized molecules.* General Considerations.—The Theory of Cosmical and Mole- cular Physics, of which I have now given a brief outline, rests essentially upon the following principles. (1.) The doctrine of inertia applicable to all matter. (2.) The existence of a single primary force of repulsion exerted by every atom upon every other atom. This force is universally eae to be in operation between the atoms of the luminife- rous ether, and between the atoms of ordinary matter and this ether at the most minute distances. 8.) The existence of but one primary form of elementary matter, viz: the universal or luminiferous ether ;—the atoms, so called, ordinary matter and of the electric ether being but different : condensed luminiferous ether. The theory of the \ W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 383 origin of universal gravitation that has been propounded might be reconciled with the ordinary notion of matter, viz: that its could admit that the resistance of an ordinary atom to a force giving it motion was proportional to its surface instead of its mass. (4). The doctrine of the interception of force, as already set forth. (5). The primary force of repulsion is made up of impulses recurrmng with an immeasurable rapidity. This is no new hy- pothesis. In all treatises on Mechanics, gravity, and all incessant forces, are conceived to consist of an indefinitely great number of impulses taking effect in a finite interval of time. f we conceive the propagation of the primary force of repul- sion to be by the intervention of a medium, this medium must an ether more subtile, and endued with a more intense elastic force than the luminiferous. This elastic force must consist in * mutual repulsion between the atoms. Thus, upon the idea of a material propagation of force, we must ultimately rest upon the conception of a force exerted between two atoms separated by a finite though excessively minute interval of space. There is no tenable position between this and that of a plenum. Let us here devoutly acknowledge that in thus following the chain of cause and ‘effect into the precincts of that most deeply hidden of all mysteries, the origin of force, we have come into the presence of the Infinite Spirit who puts forth unceasingly, from every point in the realms of space, His crea- tive and sustaining power upon the subtile matter that fills all Space, and is the essential substance of all worlds. : : In addition to the principles just stated, we recognize the existence of matter in the three states of the luminiferous ether, the electric ether, and ordinary matter. It hardly need be stated that among the consequences of these fundamental principles is included the doctrine of the Conserva- ergy, actual and potential. It is obvious that at an. point in the boundless sea of ether the same amount 0 cosmica. orce would be received from every direction, but for the exist- ence of the innumerable worlds dispersed through it. It is 34 W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. the forcible compression of the envelopes, resulting from the clash of the atoms; and these movements constitute also the living force of heat developed. The heat produced by extraneous pressure, or by impact, is — the work done by the force of pressure in compressing the — molecular envelopes, in opposition to the resistance of the — * the atom posite movements, i because W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics. 35 luminiferous ether posited below them, transformed into the accumulated work of the ethereal waves set in motion by this compression. The deficiency of elasticity, essential to the development of the heat, consists in this escape of the ether in waves of translation, and the attendant loss of living forte; and the permanent compression of the impinging bodies results from the change in the molecular forces, consequent upon the permanent compression, or forcing inward of the molecular envelopes. The principle of the “Correlation of Physical ors 3 involves (as above implied) with it that of the “Conserva- tion of Force,” maintained by modern physicists, tert that all transformations of one hysical force into another take place without any loss, oF therefore the store of living force in existence in nature is invariable. The idea seems now to be commonly entertained that the entire force in operation in the universe is the result of certain if so it is because the flux of the primary force of repulsion is uniform, and is consumed primarily by interception from all atoms, incidentally in maintaining the motions of revolution of all the cosmical bodies (in the universe), and all the molecu- lhe perpetually neutralizing each other within these From our present point of view we may also diaoern that the physical oe ordinarily so called, have an entirely different origin from that above mentioned. We may perceive that they are all ster ~~ direct or indirect result of the operation of the general force of gravitation, which is itself a consequence of the operation « of the cosmical force of repulsion. Gravitation is the t agent in two general classes of phenomena, viz: the revolution of one cosmical body around another, se the act of condensation of every such body upon its center of gravity. In the former the motion is curvilinear, and all the living force imparted by gravity to either body, while the two are a —= ing each other, is taken out, - the operation of the | ‘hi 2 36 W. A. Norton on Molecular and Cosmical Physics, mulated work equivalent to the work done by the force of gravi- — tation in effecting all the condensations that have hitherto taken lidification, are instances of motion directly due to the general gravitating force operating on the electric ether. All motions — of translation or rotation of bodies at the earth’s surface are e ess of formation, by gradual condensation, of the worlds that peo- i =) s ae i iad ple immensity, has developed the natural forces which have | presided and continue to preside over all the processes of change that diversify and besulify H. M. Parkhurst on the Photo-mapper. 87 Art. IV.—The Photo-mapper ; by Henry M. Parxnurst. to measure the diameter of a sphere by, removing it to such a distance that it should cease to be visiblé and multiplying that preciable weight, and multiplying by a constant ; it would be analogous to determining the b navies of a star by ascertain- ing what proportion of its light is too small to affect the retina. e true mode of measurement is by substraction of certain known quantities. To illustrate the advantage of this, were ing a certain absolute quantity, it would afford usa perfect pho- tometer. Or could we construct a glass which should transmit polarized light, but which would not transmit common light, that would accomplish the same result. But in the mean time we may be allowed to designate estimations assisted by mechan- ical means as measures of the magnitude of a star. ' Pp arranged that a series of six plates over the object L pom moved e bende gradually diminished the aperture until the star ceased to si ! a star at a point intermediate between the object-glass. Its focus, instead of directly reducing the aperture at the object- 38 HI. M. Parkhurst on the Photo-mapper. so determined that photometric accuracy shall not be sacrificed, e deed a plain Bar Photometer ea By a still further modificatio may be produced, by means of i key of my star-mapper; and this constitutes the Photo-mapper, which I will now more particularly describe. being seven-eighths of the distance from the object-glass to its | focus, the length of the supporting bars is seyen-eighths of the radii uae H. M. Parkhurst on the Photo-mapper. 39 placed parallel to the axis of the telescope, pointing toward the object-glass. The further end of this magnitude-bar is con- nected at right angles by a connecting-rod with universal joints, with the upright arm of a lever, the lower arm of which is the lower supporting-bar. The length of this upright arm and of the magnitude-bar must be equal, In photo-mapping I place the prism always in the meridian, to avoid the complicated ad- justments which would be necessary if its position were to be varied, or south being thus equalized with that of a standard artificial star, or extinguished, as the case may be, a magnitude mark is impressed bes mapped in its proper position, and the distance upon the map, of the magnitude mark from A perpendicular plate, with a circular hole through which the connecting-rod passes, furnishes a convenient point from which to measure with dividers when the instrument is used without the mapper. a Thus far I have spoken of the “cone” of rays, as if the aper- ture were circular. If it were so, the scale of magnitudes would not be one of equal parts. It may be made one of equal parts by placing over the object-glass an outer dia m with an aperture of suitable form, and making the aperture of the inner diaphragm of corresponding form. : a Let «=2-5[y] be the equation of a logarithmic curve. Then, the area between any two ordinates of that curve will be 25MAy; M being Modulus. Constructing for the object-glass of 6 inches aperture a diaphragm bounded by four such curves, with values of « ranci i } right and left, and a similar inner diaphragm of one-eighth the Piragm will leave an area corresponding to stars exactly one magnitude smaller. The motion of he star-point will be one- Seventh greater, and of the star-key still greater, according to the seale of the map. ee But while the object-glass is limited, the inner aperture may 40 HI. M. Parkhurst on the Photo-mapper. classes: those above the 65 being approximately measured by the condensed scale, and being so few in number that they may be conveniently, as well as more accurately, measured ,by a different method, to be explained below; those between the ; 65 and the 9™5, which may be equalized in brightness with an artificial star in the field previously brought to an equality with a 95 star; and those fainter than the 9°"5, which may be § extinguished. The outer diaphragm will so diminish the aper- ture that 125 stars will be the smallest which can be seen. - any, more accurate than extinction by reducing the aperture. But comparison of disks, especially for the stars visible to the — naked eye, is the most accurate means of measurement known to me, the error of the comparison being in m experience less : es 8 the latter much of producing the final adjustment by further polarization, the di 7 disks render- Hi. M. Parkhurst on the Photo-mapper. — guishable from the visible portion of the disk of a star, I have found it necessary to use a blue shade. I have extended the telescope by various tubes, sometimes nearly two feet; but with ‘the use of the slides I find that a tube five inches long to hold the eye-piece, usually gives sufficient extension to the telescope and sufficient range of brightness. The amount of the exten- sion I measure with dividers, using a prepared scale which to determine the aggregate brightness of the two stars. It may be used for measuring the brightness of planets, small nebule different process. ; The error of the determination of the magnitude of a star by the method of equalizing disks, may be divided into four arts : The error of the assumed magnitude of comparison stars. In my series of observations, instituted to determine the rela- tive amount of the several errors, this error hardly exceeds ™-01. Il. The error of observation, or inaccuracy of judgment as to the exact point where the disks are equalized. Not only accor- ding to the statements of Arago, Silliman, and Crookes, redu- ced by myself, but aecording to my own results, the error of 42 HH. M. Parkhurst on the Photo-mapper. 3. If the disk is small, the accuracy of comparison is im- paired. Hence points of light cannot be as accurately compared as disks. I have used a disk of an apparent magnitude of at least 1°, and have not investigated the amount of error with a smaller disk. e error from the variation of the artificial disk during observation. I have made many and careful experiments to render this error as small as possible, and to avoid ascribing to the irregularity of the sky diserepancies which might be owing — to variations of the artificial disk. The brightness of the arti- _ ficial disk may vary from four causes: et 1. The illuminating quality of the gas may vary. Hence © observations on different evenings cannot be compared directly. But the change of the gas will be so slow, excepting probably — from the heating of the apparatus when it is first lighted, as not ito appreciably affect the results. : 2. From variation of the pressure the flame may be made larger and brighter. I first partially corrected this by forming upon the screen an image of a circle of the flame ‘05 in. in di- ameter. I afterwards made a gas regulator, admitting the gas into an inverted receiver suspended at one end of a lever, the _ other end of which gradually shut off the gas as the receiver — rose; so that whatever the pressure of gas in the mains there — should be no variation in the flame. and reduced the flame and moved it further back, so as to use the whole flame. 4. The light from the star is a sharp cone, wholly entering the eye even if withdrawn several inches from the me | ; Sy : nl therefore the eye-piece renders the rays parallel, which it will not if the observer is either near-sighted or far-sighted, a differ- ence in the distance of the eye will greatly affect the results. I have therefore turned the plane glass in the eye-piece so as to ly corresponds with that from the star. It is necessa that the eye should be held so that both cones shall completely enter it at once, which can-be easily accomplished but requires care. __ The error from the variation of the artificial dise, without the W. D. Alexander on the Crater of Haleakala. 45 IV. After allowing for the previous errors, amounting in the aggregate to less than ™! ‘05, the remaining discrepancies of ob- servation of invariable stars must arise from variations of the apparent brightness of the stars from atmospheric obscuration. I —— this into two parts: The general and permanent obscuration depending on the i Sola of the star. 1 have ascertained that this follows the law of refraction; but the coefficient varies in amount on dif- ferent evenings, sometimes equalling "50 for an altitude of 20°, and at other times not exceeding one-third that amount. I ap- ply the correction for obscuration to each star, in reducing the observations, so as = eliminate this; and I therefore regard it as no part of the error of observation, The correction may be easily’ applied atena directly determining the altitudes, by a prepar 2. The temporary and local obseuration, from various atmos- pheric causes. By more than 400 observations of 18 stars of the 2nd to the 4th magnitude, « Persei and 7 Arietis = ap 6x: tremes, I found that thea error ofan all causes, amounted to ™ ‘ll: “so that the mean error from the ne porary and local obscuration alone is on the aver. rage™10, There is a great difference between different days; the average mean error of all the stars being sometimes as low as ™-07 for a whole evening, and at other times for an evening ciate equally clear, as high as ™-20, se difference between the stars is no less conspicu ous. The stars « and 7 Persei are near each other, and nearly of the same he ibe Yet the mean error of: an observation of 7 Persei, assuming it to = an invariable star, is nearly three times as great as 0 of ¢ Pers It is evident therefore that if the pestis I have reached are even approximately correct, the errors of Sinsevedion and of | the j instrument, if'ordinary care is re a re of no material con- sequence ; and accurate results can only he obtained by multi- plying observations on different evenings, so as to eliminate as far as possible the errors arising from the variations of the sky. Art. V.—On the Crater of Haleakala, Island of das pea Group; by Prof, W. D, ALEXANDER. (From a letter to one of the Editors.) ‘ ‘ I HAVE just been in ummer vacation on. Mani, and in the anos of it Pagid survey of the great crater of Haleaka During the vacation I went three times to the sum- mit. The first time I rode up from Makawao before sunrise, and mt about seven hours in collecting mineral specimens and 44 W. D. Alexander on the Orater of Haleakala. plants, and forming a plan for the survey of the crater. The flora of this region has been described before. I will only say that the principal plants that survive on the bleak summit are 7 the Argyroxiphium, Raillardia montana, Vittadinia, and some | inted “tena viz: Pieris aquilina and Trichomanes. In the belt between one and four miles from the — chrysophylla, Sandalwood, Coprosma, and a few ohelos ~ (Vaccinium reticulatum). W ater boiled at 198° Fahrenheit when — the atmosphere was at 46° Fahrenheit. At sunrise we enjoyed the grand sight of the vast triangular shadow of the mountain _ ’ projected on the clouds in the western sky. a the morning of August 4th, I ascended the mountain again | from Makawao, with five natives, and furnished with a superior. theodolite, a dozen large bamboos for signal poles, a good tent, and provisions for a week. We spent seven days on the moun- tain, and _— ~sgomsee uninterrupted fine weather. a mmenced operations by setting signals on the abe: | inent points along the i penicoes side of the crater. The ern cliffs are v — though it is SS to descend es conte Sires and are from 2,000 to 2,50 : pitched our tent on ‘the lee side of a hill ene the saoethoiel corner, ca y the natives “ Pakaoao” or the “ fortress of Kaoao.” This hill is composed cae a ae: gray solid clink- stone, which splits into laminz Tt has been much shattered, puobabhy: by the terrible convul- sions that attended the 8 Brea of the Koolau gap, and for a quarter of a mile toward the northwest the ground is strewed with fragments of rock that have been hurled in that direction. These rocks form a striking contrast with the darker and more basaltic rock to the northward. The same formation crops out on the east side of the Koolau gap, at the southern foot of Hanakauhi in the oasis surrounded by recent lava, at which place it projects from the hill side in the form of huge perpen- dicular slabs or ne ar masses, not more than ten feet thick, slope like immense grave stones. es of gravel on the summit contain numerous crystals of ener The hill called the fortress of ‘“ Kaoao” is iall on the lee side, and is covered with hundreds of little inclosures built of stone, three on ope feet high, and paved with thin flat pieces of clink- _ stone. I noticed that a few had been covered over with a kind © Of slate roof. Here, according to tradition, encamped the army eee aes ee who had ‘been driven out of ‘aupo by his -‘Fival, some in the early part of the last century. We | oy Gears if é e grown up; W. D. Alexander on the Crater of Haleakala, 45 flourished and died in the pas where his. army once encamped. I was told that they drew their supplies from Kula, the district on the west side. Other natives relate that the sandalwood cutters used to encamp there forty or fifty years ago, when col- lecting sandal wood for their chiefs. The chief, Kaao, was finally defeated and killed in a battle fought on the west side of the mountain. . t npr The natives have many local names for different parts of the * ~ 46 W. D. Alexander on the Orater of Haleakala. Kaupo gap to the low place in the wall of the crater, called the “Puali” or pass of “ Koanui o Kane.” On the eastern side is a famous rock called Pohaku Palaha, which is the “ hub” of East Maui, from which all the boundaries between lands are believed to radiate. The next day, the 6th, we moved our tent and baggage four | or five miles into the crater, and encamped near a cave called — “ Ke ana ma ka uahi,” i, e, the smoky cave, half a mile from a trickling stream on the southern wall called “the water of Palaoa.” This place we made our head-quarters for three days, — of my triangulation, and found base. An- W. D. Alexander on the Crater of Haleakala. | 47 legends are told. Another was called “Ka twit o Pele,” Pele’s bone, and close by it on the north side is the Pu puaa o Pele, or {P ? e Be to the Argyroxiphium, or silver-sword plant. The natives also report a bottomless hole on the northwest part of the crater, which I did not visit, but which has been seen by my father and others. sides, and measuring the remaining angles, and returned to Makawao late in the evening of the llth. After having worked height by triangulation 2,750 feet above the east end of my ine in the crater. The boiling water experiment gave an € of 10,165 by Regnault’s rule, which is certainly a close Pproximation. oe +he northern or Koolau break is about three miles wide, and Over 2,000 feet deep, where it first leaves Bae crater. The t N. 64° E. e western brink of it bears about N. 64° E bottom of it is © floored with streams of lava of different ages, and is extremely .; 1€ southeast or Kaupo break is about a mile and a quarter Wide, and its direction for the first three or four miles is about S. 58° E. The lava flow then turns to the southward, and Continues in the direction S. 34° E. to the sea, spreading out Mm the form of a delta, and filling up the lower part of several “ty trace of it | 48 F. W. Clarke on a new method action in the crater seems to have been the formation.of the cinder cones in the southwestern part. To conclude, the survey has impressed me with the convic- tion that this is a real terminal crater, and not merely ‘a -_ gorge open at the north and east,” or a caldera. I have inde heard the theory proposed that the mountain is but the wreck of a complete dome with a small terminal crater, the whole top of which has fallen in and been carried away, as is supposed to have been the case with some of the volcanoes of J ava, and the Caldera of Palma. Such questions I leave for geologists to setile, and if I can furnish them any new data on the subject, I shall be quite content. : Oahu College, Oct. 12, 1869. Art. VL—On a new method of separating Tin from Arsenic, + Antimony, and Molybdenum ; by Frank WiIG@LESWORTH CLARKE, S.B. : verted into the insoluble, crystalline stannous oxalate, while the yellow disulphid is completely dissolved. The commercial “mosaic gold,” } he sulphids of arsenic, even upon very long boiling with the acid, are almost unattacked. Ve. minute traces of the € sulphid of antimony behaves in a somewhat different manner. Although upon long boiling with oxalic acid consid- able quantities of the metal are taken into solution, yet every ma eprecipitated by H,S. pears Se be wholly unattacked by tained discordant sem to be wholly 5 "eae 4 beg a et ices Be of separating Tin from Arsenic, &e. 49 4 insoluble in the acid, while at other times they are decomposed t liquid is saturated with the gas, the sulphids of arsenic and m Seg! thrown down. Then, as eal the whole should be al- owed to stand about half an hour in a warm place before fil- tering. Every trace of arsenic and antimony is precipitated, 80 that in the filtrate from the sulphids neither of these metals 50 F. W. Clark on separating Tin from Arsenic. It is best to have present in the solution, while boiling, a little — dilute chlorhydrie acid. f antimony also is contained in the mixture, it is necessary, just before ceasing to boil, to add to the solution an equal vol- ume of strong sulphydric acid water, to reprecipitate any of that metal which may have gone into solution. Upon filtering nary tests, and the molybdic sulphid is absolutely free from tin. al i these cases it is assumed that the tin is in the form of 4 a stannic compound. o the tin. The precipitate which at first varies from white to pale yellow, rapidly darkens in color, and seemi ist i d t rse mony, separation, respectivel the second case was phur solution of the two metals as ammonia-magnesian arsen- rthless, rtions of tin and antimony a xydized a weighed quantity of — , Tegarding the aceole of years ago I made a few experiments upon i fi. Billings on the structure of the Crinoidea, ete, 51 ;: tin as converted into SnO, and the antimony into Sb,O,, cal- culated the proportions of the metals from the increase in weight. This method, although by no means giving me accu- rate results, served very well for rough approximate determina- tions. I cite it here simply as an easy and convenient process for obtaining a close idea of the constitution of any alloy com- posed of the two metals. Possibly the method might’ be so modified as to give accurate determinations, Art. VII.—Notes on the structure of the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea; by E. Bruuines, F.G.S., Paleeontologist of the Geological Survey of Canada. [Continued from this Journal, IT, vol. xlviii, p. 83.] 5. On the homologies of the respiratory organs of the Paleozoic and recent Echinoderms, and on the “ Convoluted Plate” of the mnoidea, logues of each other. Among the Cystideans we find several genera, such as Cryp- 14 _ Weerinites, Malocystites, Trochocystites, and apparently some others, Whose test is totally destitute of respiratory pores, being com- Big: of simple, sold plates like those of the ordinary Crinoidea. 1.4 second group of genera, among which may be enumerated Caryocystites, Eehinospherites, Paleocystites and Protocystites, 52 summit. e@ pa’ hibit the modifications which the hydrospires undergo in passing through:— : tremites with broad ambulacra. 4. Pentremites with single tubes. 5. ‘ ; a convoluted - te to the centre : convoluted plat. 7. Ambulacral canals of a starfish with the doubly convo- or Lt. Billings on the structure of the Crinoidea, ete. SSSR SS SS HII) i N q bad Pay NIs)) PH mt avanpnnnyeney yyy df) iy A, r shed *s Ss comppbiigeal ae. ae ea Ei. Billings on the structure of the Crinoidea, ete. 53 ~ having been discovered in the primordial zone. No other echin- oderms have been found in rocks of so ancient a date. Next in order may be placed those genera whose test is com- posed of a definite number of plates, which have, to some ex- tent, a quinary arrangement. Thus, Glyptocystites, Hehinoen- crinites, Apiocystites and several others, have each four series of calycine plates, of which there are four plates in the basal and five in each of the other three series. The respiratory areas or hydrospires are reduced in number—ten to thirteen in Glypio- Fr : Chazy limestone and seems to have become extinct in the Tren- n. The other genera occur in various horizons between the Chazy and the Devonian. | These fi ups represent the five ambulacral canals of the recent estos es the specimen from which this dia- 54 EE. Billings on the structure of the Crinoidea, ete. it is quite certain that that system was at first, (or in the undevel- oped stage in which it existed in the Cystidea,) destitute of the cesophageal ring. . 4 Tn Codaster a further concentration of the respiratory organs is — exhibited. There are here only five hydrospires and they are all confined to the circle around the apex. ‘T'wo of them are incomplete in order to make room for the large mouth and vent m v, fig. 2.) They are each divided into two halves by an arm, al, a2, &e. ey are only connected with the arms to this ex- tent, that these latter lie back upon them. The arms are pro- that in the former the arms are erect and do not touch the hy- pires, whereas in the latter they are reeumbent and lie back Soke of the two genera are perfectl homologous organs. If we grind off the test of a species of the facta genus, selecting one for the Uaey eet which has broad petaloid ambulacra such as those of P. S i the two in each interradial space, being so connected, at their er angles, that their internal cavities open out to the exterior ough a single orifice or spiracle (s, f s. 8 and 4). This is Shown in fig. 4, intended to represent the structure of P. cus (Sowerby) as deseribed by Mr. Rofe, Geol. Mag., vol E. Billings on the structure of the Crinoidea, ete. dd formed of broad sacks, with a number of folds on one side, con- sist of ten simple cylindrical tubes connected together in five pairs. The only ditference between the structure of fig. 3 and fig. 4 is in the width of the tubes and in the absence of folds in the latter. These two forms are moreover connected by inter- mediate grades. Species with 11, 10, 8, 6, 5, 4 and 2 folds be- ing known, there is thus established a gradual transition from the broad petaloid form to the single cylindrical tube. Between the Cystidea and the Blastoidea the most important changes are, that in the latter the hydrospires become connected in pairs, and, also, are brought into direct communication with the pinnule. In the Paleozoic Crinoidea (or at least in many of them) concentration is carried one step further forward, the five pairs of hydrospires being here all connected together at the centre as in fic. 5. There is as yet no cesophageal ring, (as I understand it) but in its place the convoluted plate described in the excellent papers of Messrs. Meek and Worthen This organ, according to the authors, consists of a convoluted plate, resem- bling in form the shell of a Bulla or Scaphander. It is situated within the body of the Crinoid with its longer axis vertical and the upper end just under the centre of the ventral disc. Its lower extremity approaches but does not quite touch the bottom of the visceral cavity. Its walls are composed of minute poly- gonal plates or of an extremely delicate network of anastomos- ing fibres. The five ambulacral canals are attached to the upper extremity, radiate outward to the walls of the cup and are seen to pass through the ambulacral orifices outward into the grooves of the arms. (Ante, vol. xlviii, p. The ambulacral canals of the Crinoidea are, for the greater the rays: this is the madreporijorm tubercle or nucleus. on i i i is seen a curved calcareous col- . orifice into the circular vessel. Tt is connected by a membrane ae ©, & Me 56 E. Billings on the structure of the Crinoidea, ete. with one side of the animal, and is itself invested with a pretty strong skin, which is cover red with vibratile cilia. Its form 18, that of a plate rolled in at the margins till they meet. It feels gristy as if full of san eh we examine it with the micro- scope we find it to consist of minute calcareous plates, which are united into plates or joints, so that when the invest-— ing membrane is removed it has the appearance of a jointed column. Professor Ehrenberg remarked the former structure, Dr. Sharpey the latter: they are both ght. Both structures may be seen in the column of the common cross-fish.” (Forbes, British. eect . 73.) Pro h. Miller’ s work, “Uber den bau der Echinoder- men, Fee oe of the madreporic appendages of the different groups of the mvent Kchinodermata are described. In gen- one Se. extreit it resembles that of the Holothuri The convoluted plate of the Palzozoic Geneda: id the mad- reporic sacks. and tubes (or sand canals) of the recent Echino- derms, therefore, all agree in = gestae respects :— ave the same gener. ture. 2. They are all appendages of ae Sead system. 38. They are all attached to the same part of the system, that is to say, to the central point from whic the canals radiate. The above seems to me suflicient to make out at least a good prima facie case for the position I have assumed. When among the petrified remains of an extinct animal, we find an organ we has the same general form and structure, as has one that urs ms an existing species of the same zoological group, we ae th much probability of pane correct in our opinion, conclude that the two are homol ologous, even although we may not be able positively to see how that of the fossil is connected with any other part. But when, as in this instance, we can ac- tually see that it is an sg a ndage of sort organ, or system of organs rather, which is known to be th ogue of th 5 part with which that of the ores Pos oo is alvays correlated, hang. sviianee of 5 a very high epics on which to ground a cLUS1O: Mf ee EB Billings on the structure of the Crinoidea, etc. 57 the column of an Actinocrinus is the homologue of that of Pen- tacrinus caput Meduse. n an important paper entitled ‘“ Remarks on the Blastoidea, with descriptions of New Species” which Meek and Worthen have kindly sent me, the authors, in their comments upon my views, state that :-— Curves between the mouth and the anus. It fills only a small part of the cavity of the body, the remainder being occupied mostly by the chylaqueous fluid, which is constantly in motion and undergoing seration, through the agency of various organs, such as the respiratory tree and branchial cirrhi of the Holo- thuridea, the dorsal tubuli of the Asteride and the ambulacral Systems of canals of the class generally. In no division of the animal kingdom do the respiratory organs ies 22 a larger pro-- te wa : Professor W yville Thomson says that inside of the cavity of the stomach of’ the recent Crinoid, Antedon rosaceus, t a : Ses that the convoluted plate may represent this organ. present I think it does not. | I believe that the reason why the convoluted plate attained 58 J. C. F. Zitiner on a new Spectroscope. a greater shcrpeg tage ~ in the Palzozoic Crinoids, than do ~ the sand canals of the recent echinoderms, is that the function of the system of canals ‘(of which they are ‘all appendages,) was at first mostly respiratory, whereas in the greater number o the existing groups, it is more or less prehensive or locomotive, or both. [To be continued. ] Art. VIIL—Upon a new © ghana with aie li e te Spectral Analysis of the Stars; by Dr. J. C. F. Z STELLAR spectrum analysis, in addition to ie. revelations oncerning the physical constitution of the hea ies, has begun most recently to claim attention in an_ increasing degree in another no less interesting direction. With the ai of this method the prospect is presented of proving, and under favorable circumstances also of measuring, what influence is exerted on the lines of the spectrum of a star by the compo- nents of the sounee — of the earth and star along the line uniting the two bodi A single feet Gee fon that effects which two separated bodies exert upon one another by means of a periodical popula of a limited rapidity of propagation must be modified by a continual change of the distance eens them. It is Dop- pler’s merit to have first, in the year 1841, recognized the aes of this influence,+ although the conclusions which he Gerived from it with respect to the “eolor of the stars must be acknowledged as incorrect by reason of a disregard of the invis- ible parts of the sp ith reference to sound this influence was proved to be ¢ _formable to the demands of theory by numerous capes ae of Ballot, Mach and others. On the contrary with reference to light it has not been pos- sible hitherto to establish by observation a trustworthy value (sicher nachweisbare Grésser) of this influence, because even the cosmical sapaapiaan which are the greatest at our disposal for this ¢ object, are very small in comparison with the rapidity of the i sce of light. The great improvement however, which optical instruments for the observ tion of spectra have experienced since the dis- __ * From the Proceedings of mees of Saxony at oe — at Fb Ge toon es N. aan assistant wie ; ; t of double ease some other iety o ces, a Get) * a J. 0. F. Ziliner on a new Spectroscope. 59 covery of spectrum analysis, presents the prospect of demon- strating this influence by the spectra of the stars. According to theory this influence must show itself in a small displace- ment of the lines of the spectrum. For example, for a mean velocity of the earth of four German miles per second, this displacement would amount to the tenth part of the distance separating the two sodium lines. “This value which is obtained in a very simple way from the velocity of light and the undu- lation-time of the rays corresponding to the sodium lines, has only quite lately been derived again by J. C. Maxwell, in agree- ment with earlier computations by F. Hisenlohr* and others. The amount to be observed of the displacement appeared ? ait however, to Maxwell to be so small, that he closed his conside- tion of the lines), with the remark: “It cannot be determined by Spectroscopic observations with our present instruments, and need not be considered in the discussion of our observa- tions.” Huggins nevertheless in his most recent memoir,t of which the above mentioned investigations of Maxwell are an inte- gral part, attempted the solution of the problem in question by the use of a spectroscope with no less than five prisms, of which two are Amici’s, with two flint and three crown-glass prisms, he diminution of the light caused by so great a number of right lines from terrestrial sources of — with the analogous dark lines of stellar spectra. The latter have sometimes a dif- Heidelberg Transactions of the Phys. Med. Soc., vol. iii, p. 190. + Phil. Tyan, 1868, p. 532. t Ibid., p. 535. a r 60 J. C. F. Ziliner on a new Spectroscope. ferent appearance; for example, they are blurred on the edge nd of different breadth, as is precisely the case with the line F in the spectrum of Sirius. e most essential of these difficulties, which have hitherto ARS a definite solution of the problem in question, I believe that I have successfully overcome, by a new construction of the spectroscope, the first example of which I have the honor to exhibit here to the Royal Society. The arrangement is in essentials the following. The line of light produced by a slit, or a cylindrical lens, lies in the focus of a lens which as in all spectroscopes renders parallel the rays to be ‘dispersed. Then the rays pass through two Amici’s direct-vis- _ ion prism-systems of excellent quality, which J obtained from the optical establishment of Merz in Munich. "hese are fastened to one another in such a manner that though each passes one half of the pencil of rays proceeding from the collimator object-glass, and also so that the refracting angles lie on opposite sides. In this way the collected pencil of rays will be dispersed in the two spectra in an opposite di-— rection. The object-glass of the observing telescope, which unites the rays again to an image, is perpendicular to the re- fracting angles of the prisms placed horizontally, and as in the heliometer, is divided; each of the two halves can be moved micrometrically both parallel to the line of section and perpen-. icular to it. By means of this we can bring the lines of one ous into coincidence with those of the other, and also place the s i i J. C. F. Zillner on a new Spectroscope. 61 The s eries of measurements which was earried out both on it quantitatively with such accuracy as appears desirable for an approximate (vorlaiifig) control of theoretical conclusions. e numbers cited denote the parts of the ae ee and refer to the distance between the two sodium li Sodium flame. Sun. 49°5 49°5 50°5 als a3'0 48°] 49°5 48°9 50:6+0°6 49°6+-0°5 In the following series of observations the reversion spectro- vith was furnished, not only with another micrometer-screw with a somewhat coarser thread, but also with two other systems er whose dispersion in the region of the ee line is times greater than that of the systems used for the above Aseeceagl he Likewise the old achromatic object- shuees of the collimator and the observing telescope were replaced xe un- af the i ones, ae which not sieloas nothing was lost in sh Sun. Screw divisions. Deviation from mean. 6771 0°8 69°4 15 6874 +05 67°9 0-0 66°6 a 6671 —1°8 68:2 +0°3 68:0 , 01 69°6 4+1°7 Mean 67°9--0°3 According to this, the interval between the two D lines was accurately a with a probable error of 33, of its value. But in accordance with facts previously presented, a se of the distance se the source of light and the spectrose with a velocity of four German. miles per — nes effect 2 a corresponding displacement of the lines of the tra, to : the amount of } 1 of the interval of the D lines, a quantity which = 62 J. C. F. Zillner on a new Spectroscope. amount of light can be used, it can be definitely determined in = chr I feel that I should here especially point out the fact, that, in lar equator, and, in case of ment of H. Schroeder in Hamburg, ' J. C.F. Zillner on a new Spectroscope. 63 practicability of measurements, the velocity of rotation in vari- ous heliographic latitudes would be determined, which would be of the greatest interest with reference to the opinions pro- nounced most recently on this point. _ But even without regard. to a quantitave determination of the phenomenon in question, by means of a proof of it only quali- tative, even a simple means would be found of separating all the lines which arise from absorption in the earth's atmosphere, from those which owe their origin to the solar atmosphere, since the ‘a gee in question could evidently extend only to the atter. Another subject for the investigation of spectrum analysis ~ ~~ is the protuberances. As is well known, Lockyer and Jansse were the first who succeeded, independently of a total eclipse — i of the sun, in observing the spectra of these forms, which con- sist of three bright lines. At the present time it is the object of most earnest en- : ar to its irection. In this way the protuberance could be observed in igh which the protuberance passes from its base, will how- ever be eountlleduly weakened, eg os. mote to the length of the path passed over by the slit; in the rotating spectroscope especially, the brightness of the protuberance itself would be weakened from the center of rotation out to the edge, and con- sequently the observation of the natural relations of the bright- hess of the image would be frustra Oe ay ee ted, _ For this reason I have in view the introduction of another - 64 J. C.F. Zoliner on a new Spectroscope. very simple method for the attainment of the object in question, of the practicability of which I am already convinced by ex- eriments on terrestrial sources of light, to be described’ more in detail below. The principles on which this method depends are the following: 1, The apparent brightness (glanz, claritas visa)* of a strip of a protuberance is independent of the aperture of the slit un- der the hypothesis that it continues to have a perceptible breadth on the retina. 2. The brightness of the superposed spectrum increases propor- _ tionally to the width of the slit. . With an oscillating or rotating slit, the brightness of the sions of light, diminishes on the other hand in accordance with a law depending on the number and duration of the excita- tions of the point of the retina concerned, which oceur in a unit of time, and also upon the refrangibility of the strip of the protuberance o ed. _ If, for simplicity’s sake, we suppose that the entire surface, over which the slit moves in its rotation or oscillation, is filled we may First, reduce the brightness of the image of the protube- — rance by an oscillation of the slit, and by this leave unchanged the brightness of the superposed spectrum (by 2); or we may Secondly, open the slit wnmoved so far that its aperture id way, if, _ that the intense - of the real body of the sun slit. = ( pened only just so far that the protuberance _ ora part of it may appear in the opening. A suitable weaken- J. C. F. Zillner on a new Spectroscope. 65 protuberance and the superposed spectrum may be permitted to stand out as strongly as-possible to the perception. Led by these conclusions, I have sought, with the aid of ter- restrial sources of light, to realize the conditions under which the protuberances are visible, in order, in this way, to test both methods and to convince myself of their practicability, For atmospheric light, depends essentially upon the cireumstance, that this light is composed of rays of all d € superposition of an unhomogeneous mass of = upon a ti shining with homogeneous light and limited ing way. The wick of an alcohol flame was impregnated with chlorid of sodium and chlorid of lithium. At a distance of 18 feet before this flame, a piece of plate glass was so set, at an angle of 45° to the direction of the observation, that the reflected Image of a petroleum flame at one side covered the faintly shin- ing alcohol flame, and, by reason of its much greater preseer rendered it completely invisible. About one foot before th Teflecting plate of glass, was situated a small lens of six inches’ focus, which directed a small image of the alcohol flame to the slit of the spectroscope. The latter was fastened to the end of & spring ten inches long, by means of which it could be put in tion of sufficient magnitude for about five minutes by * Photometrische Untersuchungen, ete., p. 105, fol., Leipsic, 1865. Am. Jour. Scr:—Szconp Series, Vou. XLIX, No. 145.—Jan., 1870. 5 66 J. C. F. Zillner on a new Spectroscope. first removing it from its place of equilibrium and then releas- ing it. Next then, the aperture of the slit was so far decreased, that, with the slit at rest, the double line D and, peonae faint, the lithium line also appeared sharply defined in the fiel As soon as the slit was put in oscillation, these lines trans- formed themselves into sharp images of the alcohol flame, of which the two sodium images covered about half. The appa- rent brightness of these three images was much less than that of the bright lines, and in consequence of this also their relief from the diffusely illuminated spectrum ground was in the same ries less distinct than that of the lines with the slit in a state or rest. theoretical discussion to be in accordance wi appeared quite strongly to incline our favor to the method last employe upon a very considerable relative Lange | of the protube- ith whi gal especially the mid hi by an actual inspection on the 24th of December of the past J. C. F. Zollner on a new Spectroscope. 67 and h held in the Royal Institution, which ought to appear in print that it is most advantageous in observing to bring the length of the slit tangent to the sun’slimb. By this plan on the one hand a greater segment of the sun’s limb is surveyed at one view, an on the other the advantage is gained of determining with great accuracy the position angle of the protuberance, since the entrance of the sun’s disc makes itself immediately noticeable by a flashing out of a narrow band-forme trum i order to iently before the slit of the spectroscope, two different methods an ; ot ths object-glass of the ped the position of the slit must be varied in a corresponding a revolution of the spectroscope. 7 the other method, which affords the advantage of an unchanged position of the slit, the rays before their union into an image are sent through a reversion-prism, so called. If this 1S rotated about the axis of the instrument, the image of the sun also revolves about its center and permits successively different ee the limb to fall on the slit. The angle of position is ‘etermined by the position of the reversion-prism. 68 J. C.F. Zillner on a new Spectroscope. apparatus of the spectroscope. This can be easily accomplished using a collimator with a relatively short focus to that of the object-glass of the refractor. Suppose, for example, we have ¢ a ten times greater contrast with the spectrum back-ground. Tn order now to obtain again the amplification of the protuber- ance in the field of view, which was lost by the diminution of the sun's image, the focus of the collimator need only be made ten > times shorter than that of the spectroscope. To continue with the example proposed, a ten times better effect would be obtained, giving the same optical amplification of the protuberance with the same prism systems, if there is chosen in place of the ten feet refractor a telescope of only one foot focus, and for the focal distance of the collimator about two inches, and that of the . og eee > —_ = r at OLU DeLa rvation in the future of all the protube- the sun’s limb at the same tim Animals. New York, D. Appleton & Co. 1866. H. J. Clark on Polarity and Polycephalism. 69 Art. IX.—Polarity and Polycephalism, an essay on Individu- ality; by H. James Cuarx, A.B., B.S., Prof Nat. Hist. Kentucky University ; Lexington, Ky.* monocephalhic being; that they have taken as their standard the most highly developed creatures of the animal kingdom, whose oneness and independence place them on an equal footing with man in these respects. In the discussion of late years upon the _ individuality of the lower, compound, colonial denizens of the water, the main points at issue have always been to determine whether a certain form was, on one hand, an individual, either in its highest sense (a monomeric, independent integral) or one of several interdependent individuals which constitute a colony (a polymeric integer), or, on the other hand, was an organ, whie rt * This is an extract from a forthcoming memoir on the anatomy and physiology of Lucernarize, 3 + Mind in Nature, or the Origin of Life and the Mode of Development of * 70 H. J. Clark on Polarity and Polycephalism.. the ecare eS two heads or two tails from one center of offices and co ration into the repetitive, multiplied sameness of the sexless and sexual proles of Salpze, Teenie, Annelide and ay omeduse, or the excessive reiterations of the genitalia of olypi. d type of monomerism, the vertebrate individual par excellence, has then become the modern, more than transcendental duality. The originals of multitudes of figures in St. Hilaire’s ‘ Teratologie,’ of the memoir of Lereboullet, and of the condensed ne sketches of Wyman stand fo rth the real, material Blatorulity of the idea upon which all sentient life is founded. Bilaterality does not express the thought, it embraces too little; _ ace is evi when ——s Relf. yee ity of the animal-egg law ane | Pe Toe of ap germ on opposing sides of a line; wh en fi - alic and caudal al areas grow in op te directions a tof emanation ; scien ths an animal and vegetative eae See remarks of the author on this subject in “Mind in » Notare,” ut Sup., p. 85. SS H. J. Clark on Polarity and Polycephalism. 71 to the former as supply does to demand, as nutrition does to the Antero-posteriority exhibits the same interchangeability as bilaterality, but, although plainly enough, not so conspicuously in a comparative, homological sense as in the physiological interplay of the functions, such as we see in the relations of the allantois to respiration in the embryo, or in the ratio of excretion of the renal organs dependent upon the degree of activity of - ‘és 4 - o ®, 0 Fao ds : laria, or in the singularly stellate disposition of the zooi of Botryllus, with their common cloacal orifice. 72 H. J. Clark on Polarity and Polycephalism. mative,unit, a zodlogical individuum, as the highest expression of unity attainable by the vertebrate zoiin. e duality, nay the plurality of the subdivision of the ver- tebrate axis, as illustrated by the embryo fishes of Lereboullet, is recalled in the diffuseness of the many hydre of the den- dritic Campanularie, or disguises itself under the interminable heteromorphism of the Siphonophors; it is polymerous but imorphous in Salpa, or polymerous but monomorphous in the fresh water Polyzoa; temporarily a polymerous, monomorphic wndirnduum in the fissigemmating Hydra, it eventually resolves itself into disconnected pseudo-individua ; for a time polymer- ous but dimorphic in the annelidan Myrianida of Milne-Ed- organ sais =, HI. J. Clark on Polarity and Polycephalism. 73 the genitalia from a direct relation to the general mass, or even to the hydre in particular, whilst a consentaneous development a — region of its periphery to a tentacular, prehensile office, _ Step by step, however, all the elements of a complete organ- ism are successively absorbed out of the primitive hydra-mass, and remodelled into the fashion of a medusoid; the reproduc- tive character has become a less obtrusive feature; motion at- ts attention above all others; prehension has full sway in the highly developed tentacles; and the latter point, like fin- gers, to the self-sustaining power of the acalephan morph in the complete organization of th itudi ife rous channels, opening into the receptive cavity of a highly flexi- | h, the hydroid cephalism and the medusoid cephalism. Suchisthecon- — dition at which the hydromedusariz of Corymorpha, Hyboco- would seem so, according to the advocates of individualism ; ants cA 74 H. J. Clark on Polarity and Polycephalism. and therefore the Myrianida, with its posterior string of six or seven consecutive sexual buds is a monocephalic individual. &, jo) a] & fae Bp = OQ ot oo B sr [or @ = pate | 2) ar) Lae | oO o> Ce Bp po) Bp Qu | f°) os Eh gy pa] = > aA 4 oO iy sS S fer) 5 3 i@) lar} 4 es mM 2 Ss = = 3 S & p ion) & 3 os =) ls > > > © oJ > = an apparently more individualistic y mong tapeworms the several heads (cephaloids) of the scolex (Coenurus) of ‘Teena anteriorly, and connected with each other posteriorly by 4 common body. The closer connection of the subdivisions of ince’ the sexual and sexless are necessary to make up& | complete organism, i. e., vegetative and reproductive, the one a completement of the other, neither alone can individual unit, or whole cycle of life: and CEPHALISM there We look upon cephalism then, on one hand, as having a con- trolling influence of a low degree of independence when shared _ in common by the multiple heads of a coral polypidom, and, on the other hand, as attaining to the highest independence as 4 controlling power, when the multiple parts of a so-called com sere indivi separate from each other, and are singly ut er the influence of this power. The latter obtains when Hy- T. S. Hunt on Laurention Rocks in Massachusetts. 75 _Under the term cephalism we include two forms, or morphs, viz: (1) the cephalid, or such subdivisions of .a ae as have Saber pe or separating singly from the main stock (as in ydra and Actini), and (2) the cephaloid, or those divisions of a fissigemmating body which do not contain a complete ArT. X.—On Laurentian Rocks in Eastern Massachusetts; by Dr. T. Srerry Hunt, F.R.S. IN a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Washington in April, 1854, and published in this Journal for September in the same year, (vol. Xvi, page 193,) I noticed the crystalline limestones of north- eastern Massachusetts, which weré described by the late Dr. tchcock as enclosed in the great gneissic and hornblendie forn 76 T. S. Hunt on Laurentian Rocks in Massachusetts. these various regions accompany the crystalline limestones. 1, at that time, accepted without examination the view maintaine by Mather and H. D. Rogers, that these limestones in southern New York and New Jersey were altered Silurian strata, al- though mineralogically identical with those farther north of undoubted Laurentian age. Led by this conclusion to attach comparatively little importance to mineralogical and lithologi- cal resemblances, and guided by other considerations given the paper just referred to, I then suggested that the crystalline limestones and their accompanying rocks in northeastern Massa- chusetts might probably be of Devonian age. The subsequent investigations of Hall, Logan and Cooke in the Highlands of New York and New Jersey have however left no doubt that Newburyport, in company with Dr. ‘ ns of that place, had, for the first time, an opportunity of che “4 the gneiss imestones in question. Their aspect confirmed zoon, and I may here remark that I had already, so long ago as 1864, caused slices to be made of a specimen of limestone from that locality, which were then examined by Dr. Dawson with negative results. In November, however, Mr. Bicknell visited a quarry about visited Newburyport and got T. S. Hunton Laurentian Rocks in Massachusetts. 77 panying gneiss closely resemble the Laurentian rocks of other regions, and scapolite, apatite and serpentine occur as associ- ated minerals, though the latter was rare in the quarries then visited. A few days afterward Mr. Burbank kindly sent me Specimens of a mixture of limestone and yellowish-green ser- pentine from another quarry in the vicinity, which I had been unable to visit, and these have proved to be rich in Hozoon anadense, e continuous and complete calcareous skeleton of the fossil does not appear in these specimens, which seem ike some portions of the rock from Grenville, as described b Sir W. E. Logan, to be made up of fragments of the calcareous shell of Eozoon, mingled with grains of serpentine, and cemented by crystalline carbonate of lime. In the specimens from Gren- ville, and from most other localities, the mineral matter replacing the sarcode and filling up the canals and tubuli in the calea- reous Kozoon skeleton, is generally serpentine or some other silicate. Both Dawson and Carpenter however, it will be recol- lected, found that in the fragmentary Eozoon from Madoe, and im some small portions from Grenville, the injected mineral was like the shell itself, pure carbonate of lime, though readily dis- tinguishable by differences in texture and transparenc from the shell. Such is also the case with all the = sel es ese specimens from Chelmsford, it should be said, have been Spina) and satisfactorily identified by Dr. Dawson. The argument from ant mas § and lithological resemblances in favor of the Laurentian age of the limestone in question is therefore now supported by the undoubted presence in them of 78 CA, Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. Lozoon Canadense. In this connection it should be said that the crystalline rocks of Newburyport and Salisbury, though separated in Hitchcock's geological map from the gneisses to the southwest, and united to the syenites of Gloucester and Rock- port, seem to me unlike the latter, and closely related lithologically to the gneiss of Chelmsford, which encloses the crystalline limestone. The crystalline limestones occurring with gneissic rocks near Providence, Rhode Island, merit a careful examination for Hozoon, inasmuch as from their litho- logical characters they may with probability be supposed to be of Laurentian age. Montreal, Dec. 13, 1869. Art. XI.—Contributions to the Chemistry of Common Salt: with particular reference to our home resources ;* by C. A. GOESS- MANN, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry, Massachusetts Agri- cultural College, Amherst. However chemists and geologists may differ in regard to the methods by .which chlorid of sodium has accumulated in the course of time within the waters of the ocean, there is at present but little dissent from the opinion, that the ocean has at all times been charged with salt, and that the saline residues of the oceanic waters of former geological periods, together ‘sh ; quantity of the impurities, so far as the same kind of saline compounds is concerned, are determined not only by the con- dition of the source, but also by the mode of manufacture and y the amount of care bestowed upon the working. The fitness of a salt for domestic and industrial purposes depends quite fre- cial solutions exerts a most decided influence on both, it seems but proper that I should briefly consider the chief foreign saline compounds usually associated with the chlorid of sodium. To dotiia: we must go back to the primitive condition of our planet. \ccepting the theory that our earth has gradually passed 2 * Read before the National Academy of Science at its Northampton meeting’ C. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. 79 from a gaseous to a solid condition, we may assume that the formation of chlorid of sodium took place mainly during the last stages of its consolidation, at a period when the more volatile elements reacted upon each other, in consequence ‘ caused the oxydation of numerous chlorids and sulphids, the acids of sulphur and of chlorine which thence resulted tive rocks, their : redominance in them of silicic acid, in connection with the probable character ig Oe a ee ae as ae i és on ee aC ese es PR oi ae oe ! b i and Series of hydrochloric seid th this p 80 C. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. their saline constituents being very different from that found at present. But on the other hand we must concede, that an entire elimination of one or more of these constituents could only be accomplished by such an alteration in the physical andchemical condition upon our planet, or in the nature of the disintegrating ; agencies, as would create new affinities of sufficient power, to alter the originally existing compounds. The composition of the present ocean, as compared with that of saline deposits of a more ancient date, requires the assumption of such revolutioniz- ing causes; causes, however, which may be looked upon as merely a natural consequence of the lapse of time during the history of ourearth. The same agencies in fact, which are still at work in effecting changes in the character of the saline com- 4 — of the hea ocean, suffice to explain the gradual trans- . formation of the primitive ocean into that of the present day. ) The mineral ape the presence of which we had reason to suspect in the primitive ocean, became neutralized by degrees, and ceased to react upon the newly exposed rock ; and as the a temperature diminished, anew “ zi became active. This acid, then so abundant in the atmosphere life, though a slower is by no means a less powerful agent in effecting the decomposition of exposed rocks; it has enriched is still enriching the ocean with saline compounds. Car- bonates and silicates of alkalies and alkaline earths were in this way introduced into the oceanic waters; and thus a gradual removal of metallic and earthy oxyds, and in some cases of those of the — earths also,: was effected. The sulphuric acid, exchanging t ds of the earths and the metals for lime, formed a less hate sulphate, so that the amount present ependent upon concentration and temperature. The beat exoeeied the sul lines since an pet of any sulphate, except sulphate of oti would have caused t e decompositio - on chlorid of calcium.* An increase of - chlorids of the ine earths, as of calcium and magnesium, and of the _alixalies, particularly of sodium, if we may judge from the present composition of the ocean, was the final result of the = -*The supposition that chlorid Se ae pe ok See peneie constiinenin, _ can onl beatae ae enera Digeast ccalesd universal diffusion B C. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. 81 changes now indicated. The agencies which produced these changes are still at work ; and hence the oceanic waters of the present day are liable to similar alteration in composition. There are reasons to suppose that for some time past one of the main changes has been the decomposition of the sulphate of lime by carbonate of magnesia, forming carbonate of lime, sulphate of and chlorid of magnesium. The latter compounds are characteristic of the salt deposits of recent date, as well as of the present marine waters; they could make their appearance only after the chlorid of calcium had been removed. There are of course various other means, by which this result may have been accomplished ; but I prefer to confine myself to the one now given, as being of particular interest in view of the fact, that chlorid of calcium is a characteristic constituent of the ante-tertiary ocean. These changes in the oceanic waters ex- tend apparently over long periods of time; they are more likely sib We do not hesitate on the strength of these observa- tions, to speak in general terms of a primitive ocean,—of an anie-tertiary or Silurian ocean, and of a Post-tertiary ocean, in- cluding in the latter that of the present day. Whenever during the various geological epochs a larger or a ~chay renders the existence there of chlorid of calcium impos- smaller body of salt water was cut off from the main ocean, either in consequence of a receding of the ocean, | ior ‘al basins, or of changes in the level of the strata, and was nan ‘vaporation and the subsequent preservation either in whole or in part of its saline residue, then.a salt deposit was pro- Am. Jour. Sct. Snconp Serres, Vou. XLIX, No. 145.—Jan., 1870. 6 82 C. A, Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. quired to effect the solidification of the entire saline mass— mother-liquor and all—there remain numerous subsequent influences, by which a part or the whole of the saline residue of the tions are liable in the course of time, it would be strange indeed, if many eating and well preserved marine salt deposits should oun € may assume then with some propriety, in cases where salt deposits are found without their associated foreign eactions or by erosive action on the surface layers. In all probability vite as many deposits have been modified in their physical and chemical characters by the subsequent elevation of their enclosing strata, a circumstance which must have favored the percolation of surface moisture, as have been changed by C. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. 88 part ; in either case the solution may or may not be — 2 ; : t at Stassfurth, The conditions which have now been given may suffice to explain to us the t variations we notice in the chemical composition both of rock salt and of brines; they may also serve as a suitable illustration of the great risk we incur, when we assume to draw conclusions of an absolute character from the geological formation in which the salt deposit been found, as to the chemical composition of the oceanic warers of that geological age. He 8 With these preliminary remarks upon the origin of chlorid of Sodium and its iated salts, I on to consider the main its associa ‘ts, 1 pass “aa Sources of supply of common salt, with parti to those of this doiantee igh | on leading sources of supply for — manufacture of salt already stated, three in number, Rock salt, brines, anc Searwater A. weelre From what has been said it is manifest that rock salt from different localities may differ widely, both in * As the ‘ ‘ isiana, for example, and most likely tid ao on ee es es ‘or 84 OC. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. or blue, rarely green. Its most frequent saline admixtures are 1st, sulphate of lime, the chlorids of calcium, magnesium, and otassium, and the bromid and iodid of magnesium ; or 2d, the sulphates of lime, magnesia, and soda, the chlorid, bromid, ‘and iodid of magnesium, etc. rock salt, which contains more than from 2 to 3 per cent of these impurities is unfit for domestic uses ; and a salt which contains carbonate, nitrate or borate of soda, or similar foreign substances is, especially in its natural ei poquently. unfit even for many manufacturing purposes very great de ee if wo i: at all, are hao dissolved, and their solutions treated like brines. The northern part of this continent contains numerous salt leposits ; some quite recently discovered, like that upon Petit Anse Island, Vermilion Bay, Louisiana, the one in Canada West, at Goderich on the shores of Lake Huron, and also that of na and Nevada. The salt deposit at Goderich is buried in the shales of the upper Silurian vee Hunt), ata depth of from eight to nine hundred feet; it is about forty feet thick, covers so far as eat indications show, dozens of square miles, an is in close proximity to Lake Huron; its solution furnishes the superior brines at Goderich.* The salt deposit of Petit Anse Louisiana, is apparently imbedded in Quaternary formations e W. Hilgard), and is covered merely by a diluyial drift from to 18 feet in thickness ; its extent is unknown, having been ut persally explored. It is accessible by sea and by land, and is _ within 275 miles of the mouth of the Mississippi river. This - Petit Anse rock salt, so far as at present ak oon of the mana aya 28, Sony See: si C. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. 85 purest on record.* At the present time there is but little rock salt, as such, used in the United States. Natural solutions of rock salt furnish us with the brines of Saltville in North Western Virginia, of Goderich, Canada West, and, as I believe, of Onondaga, N. Y. Brines.—Brines are either natural or artificial ; that is, peach e extent and the nature of the saline mass from which they ori- ginate, while in the case of artificial brines, we are familiar at least to some extent, with the nature of the sources from which are exposed in passing to the surface ; an intercepting stratum often modifying materially their original composition.t More- over brines from the same salt deposit frequently differ widely e impurities of brines are those which are found in rock salt, but in many instances they contain also the car es of P* See ‘ of th ican Bureau of Mines, On the rock y statement in a report of the American | salt deposit of Petit Anse, dees New York, 1867; and also Dr. E. W. Hilgard’s Pag per in Proceedings of American A for the Advancement of Science, ug., 1868, ‘Aga my contribution to the Chemistry of Mineral waters, ete. Syracuse, N. Y., Feb., 1866, also this Jour., 1866. ; : : : € my contribution to the Chemistry of Brines, this Jour., July, 1867. Ibid., p. 80. 86 GA. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. cuacien of calcium and magnesium, and sulphate of lime; e second class contain no chlorid of calcium, but cae ehlarid of magnesium, with the sulphates of lime, soda be 8 magnesia ; the first class are su to originate chiefly from fe. saline residue of the oceanic waters of ante-terti date, while the second class represent most probably — tives of the former. All the brines found east of the sippi river belong, so far as my own information mee! t the t class, as they contain chlorid of calcium. The second class of brines is largely represented west of that river ; in instance in Nebraska, Kansas, an kansas. L Ast Class of brines and salt.* 33 3 & FA oe ee ee sh | det ERE es ee ae os VC COCO eer is II. I. Sulphate of lime, 0°5433 05747 0°0755 0°4887 0°0881 01060 traces 0°2978 Chlorid of calcium, 0°0216 0°1533 hem 0°4020 1°1360 0°6140 0-7009 1°1793 Chi’d of magnes’m, 0-0336 0-1440 1-2616 0°3710 04744 0°0409 0°7312 0-957 “ of sodi 24°1433 15-5817 19 nas 12°5315 92°38 95-7 67684 9°8952 : Water, 748 83: 34 91: 8%: IL. 2d Class of brines and salt; it includes all kinds of salt made from oceanic waters.* Nebraska (brine), Nebraska (salt). Kansas (salt). 0-1 02475 11222 Sulphate of lime, 256 Sulphate of soda, 0°5808 0-3912 0°3511 1% “magnesia, ay eae 01794 Chlorid of magnesium, 071542 0-0790 0°2400 Wen of sodium, etc., 0°3156 98°12 93-06 Waiter, 90- 0°8 4°8 “The value of a brine for eames ae 2 es does calcium and ‘magnesium. Saline caine are scattered all over the United States, their | by th i a ; brines of New York, (Onondaga co.), southeastern Ohio, western Virginia, Michigan, Pen nsylvania, and of late Nebraska and Kansas. The brines of New York, Ohio, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Canada West, resem echoed * These analytical statements méans express d the relative purity of te at sy mela eos posse - OPEN ee LSS cy MeN eae C. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. 87 other closely. They all belong to the first class of brines, and all contain chlorid of calcium ; they differ merely in the relative - ortion of the impurities ‘which ven contain. The brines incoln co., Nebraska, and of Smoky Hill river valley, second class of brines. Most of the saline waters o country are, even in their natural state, strong enough to be worked directly by artificial heat. All our home manufactured salt, coarse as well as fine, with the el oa of a small quantity obtained from sea-water, has thus far been made from natural brines ; fully one half of the whole esulanitt for a number of years having been obtained from the brines of Onondaga, New York State. C. Sea-water.—The water of the ocean is a weak brine ; it contains from three and one half to four per cent of saline matter, of: which three fourths is chlorid of sodium and one fourth is im- main source of supply for the manufacture of salt in France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, the West Indies, and Central and South America ; it is used also largely for the Smog of salt in Eng- land, Belgium and Holland, being freque: —— for the solution of rock salt of inferior color. United States it en turned to advantage but to a very limited extent. Three hundred to three hundred and fifty thousand bushels cover, in all sere: our present ere of salt from sea- Pacific coast, more than tes for the falling off elsewhere. a ell to re-state the Pine aaa this paper it jag | - wi = 88 CA. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. resources have been turned to account. A proper exposition of the yarious uses to which salt is co in mical manufacturing industry would be a description of one of the yoo tion ot a few statistics in regard to the quantity annually pro- uced. scarcely one-fifth of its whole production for domestic consump- C. A. Goessmann on the Chemistry of Common Salt. 89 present to from sixteen to eighteen millions of bushels, and the consumption to from thirty-two to thirty-four millions of bushels ; in other words, almost one bushel to every head of its popula- tion. This large consumption of salt is due to our extensive meat packing and dairy business ; the consumption for manu- facturing purposes being scarcely worth mentioning. Almost one-half of the amount of our present consumption, it will be of our older salines are not yet sufficiently explored to warrant the expectation of a cheap supply from them in their present condition, and many of our recently discovered brines are too far from cheap communication or from centers of skill and industry, to be to any extent available for our present emer- gencies, oF In some of the countries in Europe, where the government holds the salt monopoly for revenue purposes, the practice has or obvious reasons , ieee ts ed at cost, being first rendered unfit for Omestic application by the addition of ground charcoal, iron, ete hese additions are selected with relerence to th se for h the salt is Supported by a wise legislation, soon recognize the pro- ps means by which our home production may be best stimu- ted, and thus our chemical industry receive the most important element for its successful and rapid development. tons, while its present production is 200,000 tons; the Cheshire salt works are making one million of tons per year; in both cases the sources of sup- Ply exceed the demand. The Worcestershire works export annually 50.000 tons, While the Cheshire works export 650,000 tons. The Stoke’s works employ 500 Us , consuming 1,500 to 2,000 tons of coal. A fair workman at 2s, per ton will make 28s. per week.—(Chem. News, No. 377, O41, page 88. Amherst, Mass,, cae 1869. 90 «a. L. Smith on Meteorie Stones from Danville, Ala. Art. XII.— Account of a fall of Meteoric Stones near Dan- ville, Ala., with an analysis of the same ; by J. LAWRENCE Smitu, Louisville, Ky. ALTHOUGH the meteorite of Danville, Alabama, fell in Nov., 1868, and an analysis has been made of it during the past summer, it is only recently that I obtained a complete account of the phenomena attending its f n Friday evening, Nov. 27th, 1868, about five o’clock, Mr. — T. F. Freeman, of Danville, (about lat. 34° 30’ and long, 87° W. Greenwich), on stepping from his house, was startled by a loud report, so much like artillery that for the moment its origin was attributed to the firing of a small piece of artillery kept in the village, but on inquiry it was ascertained that no firing had taken place there, but that ‘he sound was heard at the village, and attributed to very heavy artillery at Decatur, Trinity, Hillsboro, or some other point to the northward of Danville. During the war, artillery had been often heard in the valley of the Tennessee, and various speculations were in- dulged in as to what was meant by this cannonade at such a time of day and in such a direction. The following day, Mr. Wm. Brown, living three miles west of Danville, brought to the village a piece of rock which he said fell near him and some laborers, who were picking cotton. He dug it up at a depth of about 14 to 2 feet. It weighed about 4} lbs., and had the characteristic aspects of a meteoric stone; but it was broken by the party obtaining it, and all but about half a pound, now in my possession, has been scattered and probably lost or thrown away. Several other stones fell in the same vicinity. Some negroes working in a cotton field on the plantation of Capt. McDaniel, half a mile from Danville, heard a body fall with a whizzing, : ing sound, and strike the ground near them with tre- mendous force ; but they were alarmed and did not approach the spot that night ; a rain fell during the night and no trace of it could be found the next day. Various other stones were heard to fall in different parts of the adjacent country. brothers, by the name of Wallace, were ploughing in their field, about 1? miles N. W. of Danville ; they distinctly heard two or three fainter reports, after the first loud one, and heard the sound of two falling bodies whizzing down, one to the right and the other to the left of them. With the above data, and the known geography of the country, its direction must have been N. E. and §. W., but it Se ne impossible to say from which of these quarters it came. Be. J. L, Smith on Meteoric Stones from Danville, Ala. 91 The portion of the meteorite that I possess has a large por- tion of it covered with the usual black crust. Its gene aspect is rough and dull; a portion of the outer surface, not covered with the black coating, is nevertheless a surface that it had when it reached the ground, for on this surface are streaks and little patches of a bright, pitchy matter, which was once used, and was derived either from another part of the coating that was thrown off in a melted state from the coated portion, and whipped around, (as it were), on to the unfused surface as the stone fell through the air, or from an incipient fusion that was begun on the denuded surface, and arrested by the termi- nation of the fall. Where the black crust reaches the denuded slate-colored mineral than in the other parts. There are a few patches of white mineral, which I take to be enstatite. The specific gravity of the stone is 3:398. For further examination, a portion of the meteorite was sep- arated mechanically into three parts ; the pyrites, the metallic iron, and the earthy minerals, As in the case of most meteor- ites, the earthy minerals were so intermixed that it was Impossible to separate the different varieties, three of which Were easily traceable by the eye. ; he iron separated with great care from the pulverized me- | teorite constitutes 3°092 per cent of the entire mass, and an analysis furnished | a ee ne 89°513 Witkel ous 4) ctu et 9-050 WOURIh, oo cc sored Gray used this character in dividing the genus into sections 4 The youngest specimens are 2°30 long by 2°10 wide, and are more oval in form and scarcely angular, but have the flatness and form of ambulacral rosette characteristic of the ge spect ee 5B i) bes | 8 R : ey ae (a>) ig -—_ $9 So et. Q = in eI oO C, B [or] Bay ao 2) ioe | ce ome of the th ee cd by Dr. Gray from the Indo-Pa- cific faunse (C. Australasia, C. testudinarius) seem to be more settle the true relations of these species. It may be that inarius is the same and its localit organs its outline being nearly identical, but the upper side is said to be evenly convex, an Sas lower side concave ota the margin. Thi of especial interest as the first of the genus . known front ey Pacific coast of America, although the genus | was known to occur on nearly all other tropical coasts. tame nae Agassiz. there ae as be a sorte to close the anterior pair. The rior interambulacral opening is large and broad-oval with thickened borders in all, but there is a variation of more than 50 per cent in its relative size; the region around it is in more elevated than the central region and cuadorstt swollen. The form of the ambulacral rosette varies considera The three anterior petals are subequal and usually long-oval, obtusely rounded at the end, but in one case they are narrower and more elliptical, especially the odd anterior one, which 1s widest in the middle, tapering to each end, and in another they are broader and more dilated outwardly than usual; the two posterior on ‘ and ¢ somewhat around the posterior o , but they vary consider : a3 in relative width. The followin ng are the proportions ee ae of sa Lens : from the Gulf of California. 97 From oe center to posterior edge, 2°20 2°20 Center to anterior ones 1:98 2°00 Baie agate! edg 2:20 2°10. Length of anterior oa ambulacral petal, from center, .__.. 1°28 1:26 Greatest prendtn of d 50 “68 Breadth of its senionse area, “20 "30 Length of antero-lateral pair, 1°25 115 Breadth of do. 50 65 — of enclosed ar area, 16 27 Length of ‘yaaa, pair, 1°65 1°55 Breadth o: “45 62 Breadth ot enclose area, 12 “20 Pe Californica Verrill, sp. nov. Test broad, thin at the edge, rounded anteriorly, bidet behind the middle, sub-truncate or rounded posteriorly ; usually — about as broad as long, sometimes broader than long. Apex behind the center. In profile the outline descends from the center to the anterior edge, but rises from the center to the ee nior foramen, from which it descends rapidly to the edge. posterior interambulacrum is, therefore, swollen and the test is most elevated near its foramen. Ambulacral rosette with the Petals a8 oval, somewhat obovate, broadly rounded outwardly ; the anterio ; the odd anterior one somewhat: longer and narrower and a little shorter than those of the posterior pair, which are of about the same form and not ¢ Posterior foramen variable in form and size, usually rather small, regularly oval, or rounded, sometimes long oval, or even narrow and elongated, occasionally quite large and broad oval, often ag he beneath, sometimes constricted in the middle. Ambulacral foramina also ‘quite variable in form and size, but commonly small and rather regularly oval, often ata considerable = from the ma specimens, showing the extreme variations, give the Glloning measurem: Len f test, sen AO 4:30 a 4°65 Eo Cente wi hae eh. Bt . to. anterior edge, eee ge Gee 3 anterior foramen, -- . piers +18 Toes pI cic Ginnie "s Prt a ee “ foramen. cy 1°60 bo : “posterior yeaa neeceerte 185 «1-70 = postero-lateral foramen, —-.---- * 115 1-10 “posterior foramen,-..-.. ------- sorties “a Length Am. Jour, Sc1.—Seconp Szrtes, Vou. XLIX, No. 145.—Jax., "1870. 7 98 A. E. Verrill on Echinoderms and Corals Breadth of posterior foramen, -. "22 “26 Length of congas? srobulecral petal, from conter, Sem oes 1-42 1°32 Breadth pans “65 50 Breadth of e “30 18 mate of pong te Setlk 1:28 1:10 Breadth, Se as “67 50 Breadth of enclosed area, 4 9 Length of postero-lateral petals, _..........--. --.----- 1°58 1°36 Breadth, “68 5 Breadth of enclosed area, "25 16 Of this species there are 74 specimens in the collection from La Paz, and I have seen others from Cape St. saga It varies in the form of the sont as shown by the above maedsnreniel the ambulacral grooves beneath also vary in direction. call the ae mens agree in art their greatest elevation behind bo =A ent inte ture, will readily separate this species from occidentalis V., and from £. micropora Ag., whether ape be the same, as Mr. A. Agassiz supposes, or not.* In E. occiden- talis the createst dlavaton is in front of the center, and tha is Re Ge the Bulletin of the —— of Comp. Zodlogy, No. 9, P- mak pees says: “from a careful com comparison of specimens of E. cyclopora, micro- pora, and perspectiva ahi a species) there i as doubt that these are only *sominal species, all identical with Verrill’s E. occidentalis.” The latter is the same as Z. a Ag. (non on Gmelin), but I believe Mr. Agassiz goes too far in umting all these other forms into one species, for if this can be dono there is no reason what- ever for keeping the species from the two two coasts separate, for there is often much i has united. Buts ; p Hy hie the localities of the e types of E. micropora, E. —— Jonge were unknown, the two last having been described from pretees. for such species have been recorded from Africa and other little ‘explored localities. Mr. Agassiz does not state what he pr as the characteristic of the pundies ous species thus ituted, nor in w ore emar- c t differs from E. ginaia of the Atlantic, nor does it appear certain that he has examined and 2 in both and Jrom the Gulf of California. 99 ginata,—a distinction which Mr. A. Agassiz admits as valid in that case, where there is, however, much less difference in the form of the rosette and other characters. The only figure in the monograph by Prof. Agassiz, which approaches this species, is that of H. emarginata (Tab. 10), which as, to some extent, the same posterior elevation. The ei cimen figured was from an unknown locality, and may possibly represent a variety of this species rather than of the #. emargi- nata of Lutken, A. Agassiz, etc., which is common on the Atlantic side of tropical America. Astropyga venusta Verrill, op. cit., p. 296. Two fine large specimens of this rare species are in the col- lection. The largest is 5-80 inches broad and 2-10 high. It was Sida known to me only from Panama Bay and San vador. Tripneustes depressus A. Ag.; Verrill, op. cit., p. 875. Of this large species there were 19 specimens, with their Spines partially preserved. They are quite variable in form, but mostly even more elevated than ordinary specimens of 7! ventri- - Some are conical, others broadly rounded above. The hame, therefore, is a decided misnomer. The largest spines on the upper surface of the largest_ specimen are -45 of an inch 8 in di pidly tape ’ those of the lower surface are often ‘60 of an inch long, ‘04 in lameter, tapering but little, the end blunt. veral specimens give the following proportions : Diameter, (inches) 5:80 5°40 535 525 510 490 475 Height, 300 340 2:90 325 285 265 285 280 ASTROIDEA. Pentaceros occidentalis Verrill. Oreaster occidentalis Verrill, op. cit., p. 278, 1866. © interra: and disk angular. In some most of the upper and part of the lower marginal plates bear small obtuse spmes or tubercles; in others there are few or none of these; the two smallest speci- mens have none, though others scarcely larger, have quite number. The smallest specimen has the longer radius 1 inch; the shorter ‘50. This, however, has nearly the form and all the 100 - A. E&. Verrill on Echinoderms and Corals, ele, essential characters of the adult, though the spines and tuber- cles are less numerous. The name of the genus, Pentaceros Gray, has priority over Oreaster M. & Tr., which was substituted on the ground that the former was in use among fishes,* which I have been able to confirm, although Mr. A. Agassiz adopts it. Among the other starfishes are Gymnasteria spinosa Gray (large); Amphiaster insignis Verrill, Nidorellia armata Gray, Ophidiaster pyrimidatus Gray, Linckia bifascialis Gray, Acan- thaster Ellis Verrill, Mithrodia Bradleyi Verrill, ete. CoRALS. Fungia elegans Verrill, sp. nov. This is a small and very distinct species, remarkable as the first one of the genus described from America. Among the other corals are Pocillipora capitata V., P. capitata, var. porosa V., Cenopsammia tenwilamellosa KE. & H., Porites (two species), Stephanarva stellata V., Callipodium Pacificwm V., Bu gorgia aurantiaca V., E. nobilis, var. excelsa V., orga rigida V., L. Agassiz V., L. media V., Muricea austera V., UV. appressa V., Most of these are represented by numerous large and beautiful specimens. — ¢> Ouylerand Val, vol. iii, p. 30, 1828; Gunther, Catal. Fishes British Museum, Pp : A. E. Verrill on the Synonymy of the Sea-urchin. 101 Art. XIV.—Note on the Generic relations and Synonymy of the Common Sea-urchin of New England (Euryechinus Drobachi- ensis Verrill); by A. E. VERRILL. Tas common sea-urchin, which is found upon the northern coasts of Hurope, and both upon the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of northern America, was referred to the genus Echinus by all as its type. But afterward, in the introduction to Valentin’s Anatomy of the genus Echinus, Dec., 1841, he revised the genus the typical species, several previously placed by Agassiz in Echinus, Stil late art is the description: Le genre par des rangée in Vane sibhes Pose de six a neuf paires de pores. Vers la bouche il y en a moins; mais e “4 sont plus rapprochées, Les tubercules des s¢ries principales cs wigs vee Pouverture inférieure du test offre dix échancrures peu profondes. gE ee Pour type de ce genre I’ Echinus tuberculatus; j’en connais quelques “ t Proc. Boston Society Nat. Hist., x, p. 341, 1866, and Transact. Connecticut Acad., i, p. 394, 1867. 102A. E. Verrill on the Synonymy of the Sea-urchin. 1862 the original Zoxopneustes section, calling it Toxocidaris, cannot affect the matter in the least, since in this instance there can be no doubt as to which group was originally designated by the name, Toxopneusies. Yet Mr. Agassiz in a recent paper™ goes considerably out of his way to bring up this matter again, and inserts the following note under Echinometra Michelini: ‘I cannot see the propriety of the changes- made by Verrill in the limitation of Toxopneustes, by substituting Euryechinus for a group of chini, which are perfectly well known by all writers on Echinoderms totally distinct signification from what it has at the present day.” _ A formal reply to this is perhaps unnecessary, yet I would CS _ Wain thd tlloning recipe: x os : - Bulletin of the Museum of Comp. Zodlogy, No. 9, p. 260, November, 1869. E. &. Morse on the early stages of Brachiopods. 103 1. Iam not aware that any other zodlogist has denied the validity of “type-species” (especially when particularly desig- nated as such) in works even much earlier than 1841. . Even. if the original description of Toxopneustes would include Spherechinus, yet, as I have explained above, Agassiz himself referred the species of the latter to Hchinus in the same article, and he probably knew accurately what group was defined as Toxopneustes at that time. 3. All the “limitations” by Desor, which are said to have priority over mine, I have always admitted and adopted. . I do not base any changes upon “a mistake,” for whether “ Ei. pileolus” or “ EF. tuberculatus” be taken as the type of Toxop- neustes, the claims of Huryechinus remain unaffected, and I have, when making the change, distinctly stated my conviction that the reference to H. pileolus should not be regarded, and have adopted Toaxopneustes in place of Toxocidaris A. Ag. (See Trans. Conn. Acad.). : 5. Whether #. tuberculatus be “‘a nominal species” does not affect the character of the genus to which it belongs. 6. I know of no more fruitful source of confusion than the transferring of a name from the group to which it originally parneed to another totally distinct from it, and re-naming the t group. ‘§ Had Mr. Agassiz, before naming Toxocidaris, looked a lit- tle more closely into the early synonymy of Toaopneustes, all confusion in this case might have been avoided. 8. The fact that there is a future for zodlogical nomenclature, well as a past, should not be forgotten, nor that a just and reasonable application of the universally recognized law of pri- fity. ority is the surest way of securing future sta Art, XV.— On the Early Stages of Brachiopods; by E. 8. MorseE.* THE writer made a visit to Eastport, Maine, early in the ly stages of es ) abundant in those waters. As little has been known sees the early stages of this class of animals the facts here presen more important features will be mentioned here. L individuals the ovaries were found partially filled with eggs. * From the American Naturalist, September, 1869. 104 E. S. Morse on the early stages of Brachiopods. The eggs (fig. 1) were kidney-shaped, and resembled the statoblasts of Fredericella. No intermediate stages were seen between the eggs and the form represented in fig. 2, This stage recalled in general proportions Megerlia or Argiope in ing transversely oval, in having the hinge-margin wide and straight and in the large foramen. Between this stage and the next the shell elongates until we have a form remarkably like Lingula (fig. A berries like Lingula, a peduncle longer than the shell, by which it holds fast to the rock. It suggests also in its movements the nervously acting Pedicellina. _iIn this and the several succeeding stages, the mouth points directly backward (forward of authors), or away from the nded by a few ciliated each side of the stomach ; from this fold the complicated liver of the adult is developed, first, by a few diverticular appen- ges, as seen in fig. 6. en the animal is about one-eighth of an inch in length the lophophore begins to assume the horse-shoe shaped form of Pectinatella and other high Polyzoa. The mouth at this stage (fig. 6) begins to turn ioek the dorsal valve (ventral 0 authors), and as the central lobes of the lophophore begin to develop, the lateral arms are deflected, as in fig. 7. In these stages an epistome is very marked, and it was noticed that the end of the intestine was held to the mantle by attachment, as in the adult, reminding one of the funiculus in the Phylactole- nat ces 0 i J. Wyman on the existence of a Crocodile in Florida. 105 Art. XVI.—On the existence of a Crocodile in Florida ; by JEFFRIES WYMAN, M.D. Ir has been shown by different paleontologists, especially by Dr. Leidy and Prof. Cope, that several species of Crocotiitiaiks existed in North America during the Cretaceous and Miocene eriods, all of which became extinct. At the present time two record of the presence of either of them within the limits of the United States, the Alligator being the only representative of the family to which it belongs. hile a guest of J. M. Forbes, Esq., on board the yacht Azalea, I had an opportunity of visiting Key Biscayne Bay in March, 1869, and while there Mr. William H. Hunt, of Miami, presented me the cranium here described. The animal to which it belonged, as I was told by the person who killed it, was shot near the mouth of the Miami river, which opens into the above mentioned bay. I was also informed that another had been killed in the same neighborhood. The length of the head (from the alveoli of the incisors to the end of the occipital condyle) is 462™™, and the greatest breadth 191™™, The whole number of teeth is 68, viz: 42=12; in the upper jaw the 4th and 10th, and in the lower the 4th and 11th are the longest. The first 12 teeth above and the first 11 below have the enamel fluted, and in both jaws the teeth hi grooves. When compared with a somewhat larger head of the @. acutus from South America (length 462m, breadth 211™™), the Flor- m imen closely agrees with it in the above as well as 1-000, and the measurements are in fractions of the length. pony prditeenge tans op ca oo sor fear rar acai I oom bos th es aw 03800 z Breadth aa ein “tig 2. 0-162 0-169 Tisadih ai se, sapere ere 0-235 en WO ith 0-218 = th at contraction behind 5th tooth dade - 3 123 _ th at ee d 12th Se ee cee 0 190 0 210 106 Physics and Chemistry. portion of the skin of the neck, which is preserved, and in which the nuchal plates are the same as in the species just med, . SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. cipal results of e, in the author’s own words, as follows: 1.) Different substances heated to 150° C. radiate different kinds of heat (2.) There are bodies which radiate only one kind of heat and others which radiate many kind kinds of heat. : It therefore does not, as Melloni and Knoblauch suppose, permit all kinds of heat to pass through with eq facility. not monothermic in an nalogy with its own Physics and Chemistry. 107 (8.) Fluorspar almost completely absorbs pure rock salt heat. We ought therefore to expect that the heat which it radiates 1s more than three times greater than that from rock salt, this phenomenon may be explained, but the subject requires further investigation. at 150° C. rays of but one or but few wave lengths makes it possi- ble to institute experiments on the reflection of non-metallic sur- aces. The results of experiments have distinctly shown that such surfaces reflect different kinds of heat, or heat rays of different Wave lengths, in very different degrees, remarkable illustration is furnished by fluorspar. Of the heat radiated by different sub- Stances and received at an angle of 45°, quantities differing but little in amount are reflected by the following bodies: Silver, from 83 to 90 _ per cent. s, + -tteld- - Rocksalt, “f 5 to 12 e: luorspar, 6 to 10 wg greatest variety of colors without any sensible heating of i, 174 . __ the objects themselves—Pogg. Ann., exxxviti, 174. W. G 108 Scientific Intelligence. On the heat of the stars.—Mr. Hueerns has endeavored to tecaninc whether a measurable amount of heat is radiated from the fixed stars. The incident rays were received upon the object- glass of a telescope of 8 inches aperture, in the focus of which was placed the surface of a thermo-electric pile consisting, for stars, of one or two pairs, for the moon, of 24 pairs. An astatic oalyanom- eter of great delicacy was employ ed. The thermo-electric pile was enclosed in casings of past rtalepardl stuffed with cotton so as to ex- clude all changes « of temperature as much as possible. The author describes the minute precautions taken, for which we must refer to his paper. The telescope could be directed to a star by means of the finder, the needle being at rest, and the image of the star kept by clockwork upon the face of the pile. It was es that the needle almost always began to move as soon as the image fell upon the pile, and that when the telescope was then distneed: to the sky near the star the needle usually began, after a minute or two, to return to its original position. From 12 to 20 observations were made upon the same star, and these observations repeated on other nights. In this manner observations of Sirius 8 gave a cdeviatiel of the needle of 2°; those of Pollux 14°. Castor gave no deviation ; Regulus a deviation of 3° and Arcturus in 15 minutes also 3 bservations of the full moon did not give corresponding or reliable results. e results obtained with the stars are not strictly comparable, as it is uncertain whether the a of the 2 gulvadeuieies ie always the same.—Proceedi — hese mice he BLP No. 109, 1869. new sulphur salts.—ScHNEWER has discovered ad ie become uniformly ae qui uietly , fased, 5: venige diffuses from t cooled mass much potassic sulphite ae Flys, a and leaves tals. The the new compound in ecryst w salt has the formula K,5.Fe,5, or atomistically, S—K s—Fe,=s S—K It forms long flexible needles of brilliant _— ~~ purple brown color. At. ordina oe 8 it is perm Acids even when very dilute decompose this body easi sity: ‘vith evolution . hydric sulphid and —_ of sushi, Heated in a current 0 sci it loses one atom of sulphur on its luster om ystalline Then e new compound has the formula K,5. 2FeS, or, 5S—K Fes Physics and Chemistry. 109 Schneider considers it probable that in fusing ferric oxyd with potassic or sodic carbonate similar compounds, containing oxygen in place of sulphur, are formed. When bismuth is used in the above process in place of iron, delicate light steel gray brilliant crystalline needles are formed which have the formula Bi, K,§,, or, S—K S=Biy"= 5-—K This compound is easily and completely decomposed by chlorhy- dric acid with evolution of hydric sulphid. The author has obtained similar compounds containing copper, iron and copper, and platinum. They are beautifully crystalline and will form the subject of future more extended description.— Pogg. Ann., B. 136, 460. Ww. G. obtained a substance having probably the empirical formula, and unchanged by it. Dilute chlorhydric acid colors them at once i u tash, but without evolution of any gas whatever. i m i tacked by boiling chlorhydric or nitric acid and but slowly by aqua regia. e original red body when heated in a current of gen loses 3 of its sulphur. e residue then gives up potash to chlorhydric acid, and the residue thus obtained loses all the re- maining sulphur, when heated in hydrogen, and leaves a mixture of tin and platinum. From this it appears that the last 4 of the sulphur is retained through the influence of the potash. The direct expression of the results of the analysis of the red compound kK Pt,S,. The simplest atomistic formula appears to be g: : the followin Pei—s Sn! Vieee ¢. Pt! —— S, Peis The action of chlorhydric acid on this salt is then readily explained, sce, without writing the whole formula, we see at once that 110 Scientific Intelligence. K,0+2HCI=H,0+2KCl. The residue must therefore have the formula, Pt'—sS | Et = iy | Sats Ss | Pri ae } The action of tence eee ie new compound may then be expressed by the equation Ptii—s Pt busts, | Pti—_s | kK, 6+sH=4H, S+K, 6 Sn’ 8. Sn § bus Pt Hence the residue consists of metallic platinum mixed with a simple oxy-sulpho salt in which tin and platinum are now diatomic. The action of chlorhydric acid on the oxy-sulpho salt may be represented by the equation: ss Ks 6-4 .HCI=H, 0 +2K Cl ms a ee: Snu—S : The ~~ term when heated in hydrogen then gives hydrie sulphid mixture of tin and platinum. The corresponding sodium . salt nak ears obtained in the same manner and closely anemie the Pi ee. sab aes a —Pogg. Ann., CXxxvi, p. 105. w. ;2 tributions to a know edg é of inhi bodies in inor- ganic Chemist istry.— Under this title Brows’ as communica ted a number of interesting notices fe Bt oy termed atomi¢ is ge aga Platino-cyanid of potassium ane: up two atoms 10 with great facility, forming an iodo platinocyanid, K Cy, Pt+I,=K,Cy,Ptl,, which crystallizes in large brilliant brown crystals. Chlorine and bromine displace the iodine, forming a corresponding chlorid and bromid, the former being the salt de- scribed by Knop. The corresponding salts of other positive metals are easily obtained. Ao dine in pee manner unites tly with Sir romine exist. Double nitrite of platinous oxyd and platinum, K, (N@.,),, also takes up chlorine and bromine readily, forming yel- low “Grune salts | which the Rothok age Du as follows : €. * nitrous series and gives it the formula ge Au =NO—0),Pt This ) unites with chlorine and bro ans Sens: very beetle Mineralogy and Geology. 111 erystals. The bromid has the formula (H,N=NO—86),PtBr, and is the bromid of a true base in which the bromine ma Eee by oxygen acids. “The author terms the base plato-nitros- The paper contains many interesting and instructive illus- Resins of the author’s peculiar views of the qualitative influence produced on compounds by the substitution of electr O-positive or electronegative elements—views which are set forth with much clearness and force in his recently published work “ Die Chemie der Jetztzeit. ee der Deutschen Chemischen rape. — 9, p. 2 Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. “Ist.— in a period probably cp oongen with the co h of Eu —at least pee oy it in the 2 events othe porth ern ha the a of No meri a climate comparable with that of Greenland ; so cold, that wherever there was a copious sey gees of moisture from ois Ww rection of the glacial furrows proves that one of these ice rivers owed from Lake Huron, along a pahaesel now filled with drift, and known to be at least 150 feet deep, into Lake Erie, which was then not a lake, but an excavated va ey into which the streams of orthern Ohio ‘flowed, 100 feet or more the present lake level. Following the line of the major axis of Lake Erie to near its eastern extremity, here turning northeast, = glacier passed through some channel on the Canadian side, n ed np, into e Ontario, and thence found its way to ae? hi either St. Lawrence o by the Mohawk and son. Another glacier occupied the bed of Lake Michigan, having an outlet sout. through a channel—now concealed by e which occupy ~ surface Pe the south end of the lake—pass- , lll. and by some route yet own reac’ bie: Mliicatyle which was then much deeper this period the continent must have been several hundred fi feet higher than now, as is proved by the deeply exca- ated channels of the Columbia, Golden Gate, Mississippi, — ‘in Nag cupy them, unless flowing with greater rapidity and im ; ower level thant they now do.’ urther aplenatains’ he takes up the subject of the Drift Deposits. ” 112 Scientific Intelligence. “The Drift deposits which cover the glacial surface, consisting of fine clays below, sands and gravel above, large transported and polished rock surfaces. These clays are often accurately strat- ified, were apparently deposited in deep and generally quiet water, and mark a period when the glacial ice-masses, melted by a change 1 » P which they rest ; an effect largely due to the sand which gathers under them, acting as emery on a lead wheel. The water flowing ing fragments of ice, or as masses 0 zen gravel, or larger and more numerous boulders near the glacier. In some localities tor rents would pour from the sides and from beneath the glacier, 80 that here coarse material would alone resist the rapid motion of the water, and the stratification of the sediments would be more or less confused.” The author next mentions the evidence of a general subsidence, greater to the north, and an ameliorated climate, as succeeding t0 the Glacial era; and then makes the following observations oD the “ Yellow Sands and Surface Boulders.” I have, however, disproved, as I think, this theory . Mineratogy and Geology. * $18 of their transportation in a paper published some years since Notes on the Surface Geology of the Basin of the Great Lakes. roc. Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc,, 1863), in which it is urged that the etn clus sheet of the Erie clays upon which they rest, and which than that eines sands, gravels, granite and greenstone bouldere— masses of native copper, &c., which compose the superficial Drift deposits—have been Jloated to their resting places, = that the floating agent has been ice, in the form of icebergs ; ort, that these materials have been transported and part be Ge over the bot- tom and along the south shore of our ancient inland sea just as similar materials ate now being scattered over the banks and shores of Newfoundland. “If we restore in tly hl this inland sea, which we have ; ., the northern shore a wall of ice rest- ing on the hills of crystalline and trappean foot, ‘abot Lake Su- perior and Lake Huron. “From this ice-wall masses must from time to time have been detached,—just as they are now detached from the Humboldt y are Glacier -—and floated off southward with the current, b — their grasp sand, gravel and boulders—whatever composed the beach from which they sailed. Five hundred miles south they os upon the southern shore; the highlands of now Western ew York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, or the shallows of the prairie region of India ana, Illinois a3 Iowa; there melting away and depositing their entire loads—as I have gies seen them, a thousan es or more boulders on a few resting on the Erie clays and looking in the distance like fsck ‘of sheep—or dropping here and there a stone and’ sree on east or west, till wholly ig he Drift grave proved all the i sti eozoic rocks of the lake batt, containing their racteristic fossils, viz: the Calciferous Sandrock with Maclu- rea te Reon and Hudson with Ambonychia radiata, Cyrtolites us, Medina with Plewrotomaria litorea, Corniferous with Sato pucpepntes Serres, Vou. XLIX, No 145.—Jan., 1870. 8 . 114 Scientific Intelligence. Conocardium trigonale, Atrypa reticularis, Favosites polymorpha, Hamilton with Spirifer mucronatus, &c. little lakelets or sphagnous marshes so characteristic of the region referred to. These are the beds to which I have alluded as constr glaciers but by icebergs. : “ Possibly some part of this Drift material may have accumulated along the margin of the great glacier, moved by its agency ; se nts 0: the boulders, for the most part come from some remote point at the ; North, and were once spread broadcast along the southern shore of the inland iceberg-bearing sea. highest lake level of former times, 7. ¢., all within a vertical height 4 of more, in turn have been submitted to the action of the shore waves, and rivers, by which if, as is prob- ble, the retrograde movement of the water line was slow, these materials would d, ground, sifted and shifted, e fine materials, clay and sand, would be washed out and carried farther and still farther into the lake basin, and spread over the bottom, to form, in short, the upper sand layers of the Drift.” . Newberry closes with remarks on the origin of the great lakes, in which he states his conclusion that : “1st. Lake Superior lies in a synclinal trough, and its modeof = | formation therefore hardly admits of question, though its sides > are deeply scored with ice-marks, and its form and area may have been somewhat modified by this agent. | “2d. Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontari®, are excavated basins wrought out of once continuous sheets of sedimentary strata, by a mechanical agent, and that ice or wate! os both. ; a igo enh Mineralogy and Geology. 115 2. On the Nature and Cause ie the Glacial Climate; i ; OSEPH Joun Murpuy, Esq., F.G.S. (Q. J. Geol. Soc., xxv, 350, 1 869).— In the present paper I purpose to show how far I agree with, and where I differ from, Mr. Croll as to the views on the cause of the glacial climate se forth in his paper in the ‘ Philosophical Maga- zine’ for August, 1864, Mr. Croll’s conclusions may be stated in the three following propositions :— glacial period occurs when the eccentricity of the earth’s 2 orbit i is at a maximum, and the solstices fall when the earth is in perihelio and in aphelio, Only one hemisphere, the northern or the southern, has a glacial climate at the sa r on glaciated heailieglatngd is that of which the winter occurs in aphe I agree with Mr. Croll as to the first two propositions, but differ as to aha. third. I believe that the glaciated hemisphere i is that of which the swmmer occurs in n aphelio The followin propositions are self-evident when sta Summer in aphelio, the nearness of the sun in winter will cause a — ——e er, and his remoteness in summer will cause a cool \ Bbpose, for ror ale th at Ses. the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is much greater than at present, the midwinter of the Northern emisphere occurs in perihelio; then the Northern hemisphere will have a mild winter and cool summer, the Southern hemisphere will have a sbi winter and hot summer. So far (granting Mr. Croll’s astronomical data, for which he cites tae and which I believe are indimpatalli there is no room for dou I have now to diseuss the question, = effect these diversities of climate will have in produci ihe glaciatio “page — the ree isa of co winter will be the = will be the faces one. On a subject it is needless to attempt to make any deduction cory. We have plenty of observed data; and I think I can show that they all go to prove a cool summer to to be what most pro- rR Eieciataon, while a cold winter has, usually, no effect on it atever, ordes, in his work on Norway and its Glaciers, p. 206, quotes ~ the excellent goneraticsbion of von Buch, that it is the tempera- ‘ure of the summer months which determines the plane of perpetual This indeed is almost an identical pipeline: for per- Snow is snow that lies through the heats of summer; and - 116 Scientific Intelligence. yee eee tin Be, oo to the same authority (Forbes’s ‘ Bow: wag andits § Glaciers,’ p. 206), “another cause affecting exceedingly the level of the snow-line is the amount of snow which falls. These laws are illustrated in detail by the following table. constructing it I have assumed, what is — near the truth, that the temperature of the hottest month of the year decreases in of 1° F. for the first four, Durocher as quoted by Mr. Hopkins in the ‘Proceedings of the Geological Society ’ for Dee. 17, 1851, for the rest, Mrs. Somerville’s ‘ Physical Geography,’ p. 314. The tem- peratures are in degrees of Fahrenheit, The heights are in feet. Temperature of Height of 32° of hottest 1 month F. ih hottest Pestim y at sea level, Pyrenees cas vice ves Cowen ban cee 74°5 12750 9300 GROOMING 6.6 6d ong Keke Kae e iTS 47 13500 10300 — —_ sews Se wevecs 72% 12150 9000 Bernese Alpes. 5s ca backs de ces 72°5 12150 8800 Scandina tat Fjelde, 61° 43’ Ni eakes> 6D 8100 5500 ageroe, Norway, extreme north 45°5 4050 2160 Himalaya, about 31° N., north side 83-75 15525 16620 south side 83°75 15525 12980 Andes, near - Quito «aus ai eae 79°25 14175 15795 ea bieeecss 14850 14772 F oan Yapanin. wd coe esy 2 CO 10800 12780 ; OWL AO Bis siwigannds eens 63°5 9450 7960 —— - Magellan ee eae BO 4050 ie ele of Norra about jovnia and i the Peruvian a n Patagonia and Tierra 4 roba Vs — cited above is below eee et in consequeD' : ied the sanall snow-fall, the Mineralogy and Geology. 117. height of the snow-line (Mrs. Somerville’s ‘Physical Geography,’ p. 61) is about 6000 feet. On the Straits of Magellan, on the con- trary, though the mean temperature is several egrees above freezing, the height of the snow-line (see table) is little more than half as much. It is well known that, other things being equal, the magnitude of glaciers depends on that of the snow-fields in which t ey rise; nd as of course any depression of the snow-line will enlarge the snow-field, it follows that the lower the snow-line the further will the glaciers descend below it. Asa decrease of about 3° F. is due on the climate of Central Europe, but it would have a very great effect in those high latitudes where the glaciers would reach the of fi And again, p. 243 :— “Tt is exceedin ly probable that a diminution of the temperature ths b only would at once place one-fourth a little would plunge a great part of the country under a mantle Trost,” Bem: ita 5S Into the head of every fiord in western Norway. . . . lowering of the snow-line over so large a surface would deteriorate the Snow-line still further. perature. wing data from Mr. Croll’s paper. The recently in the old determinations of the sun’s distance affects both distances alike, and consequently does not affect their ratio, Along with the maximum distances of _the sun at present ind at greatest eccentricity, I state the proportionate quantities of heat the earth will receive under those two different conditions :— Sun’s ee ‘ Ratio of heat At present SESS 6 2.6 8 3 aoe 96,473,205 miles cer 100. - t greatest eccentricity.. 102,256,873 “ ‘cee, 90 118 Scientific Intelligence. So that in = Sun case the earth receives about one-tenth less heat than in the o ; n’s aia um distance occurs at present a _ after nr i midsummer of the northern hemisphere. hen it occurred at : same time of the year during the period of eaater “ecentity, the earth at our midsummer was receiving only nine-tenths quantity of heat which it now receives at that time of the year. I cannot calculate the effect on climate; but it must have been very great, not only directly, by depressing the snow-line, but as Forbes remarks in the place cited above, indirectly by chilling the air—and I will add, by filling the North Sea with the iceber ¢@s which must have broken off from the glaciers that filled the Norwegian fiords, s they do now from the glaciers of Greenland. We have plenty of evidence of iceberg action during the glacial perio I believe I have shown that glaciation ‘depends s chiefly on a cold summer, but part ies on .an abundant snow-fall, I have now : to. show that a sae of cold summers, caused as I have explained, must As also one of age! Ge winters ; so ~~ the two conditions favorable to glaciation will oceur toget ring the mild winter of the a hemisphere, there is a nt hot summer in the opposite one. Increase of temperature promotes increase of evaporation in a much greater ratio than that of the increase of temperature ; and increased evaporation in the summer hemisphere will produce senrenad snow-fall in the winter one. tale + oe ; : now t prese to a great extent precipitated in the other; for, were it not so, the seathern owe ere, by reason of its greater extent of ocean sur- on my ae was in othe winter of the glaciated hemisphere), must be more active than ever it is now; adh when the earth, at ‘either solstice, was nearer th n than is ever the case now, oe © & = ° =| et mu > = fa>) mo) bias 4 ss pee 5 pee oO ° pd Bg = pat co oo” 9 25 os So ® So ° > 9 = Ba i] = Qu nm S 8 e ou ‘§ 8 eres, which would involve the Sepomtion as rain or snow i2 e winter hemisphere of a great part of the moisture evaporated in the oe on r continues with remarks on fiords as results of the yj ec Se a ee SS ee ivers ; by Dr. F. V. Haypern, Assistant under the direction of Captain (now Lieut. Col. and Brevet Brig. Gen. . F. Reynoips, Corps of Engineers, 1859-60, with a colored —Several with much interest. The — Mineralogy and Geology. 119 map is large and very instructive, showing, more accurately than had been done before, the distribution of the Bertiary and Creta- ceous formations, and the girt of Carboniferous and Potsdam rocks around the high metamorphic ridges of the summit. Some far- ther explorations of the mountains are required to make certain all the points in this distribution. The last thirty pages of the volume are occupied by a report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary plants of the region, by Dr. J. S. New- berry, now Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. r. Newberry’s exten- great value to the science, and a notice i ext numbe he H ants—one on mines and mining, the other on agriculture. TI papers are a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the subj which they embrace, and merit careful perusal.” ‘ 4. Mineralogy Illustrated ; by Dr. J. G. vy. Kurr, Prof. Roy. work may be of value in the study of the science. 5. Tableau Mineralogique; by M. Apam Commander de la Légion d’Honneur, ete. 102 pp. 4to. Paris, 1869.—A classified cata- logue. of the minerals in the splendid collection of Mr. Adam, of Paris, with a brief statement of the character and composition of the Species, 120 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. . 1. Botanical Notabilia—Some announcements of recent publica- tions with cursory remarks, and items of intelligence are here the publications here mentioned which can be said to possess much general interest is the first, viz: ddress of George Bentham, Esq., President of the Linnean. - h ? 1 topic is Geographical Biology, considered first for plants and then fe Although distribution is one of the strongest points of derivative doctrine, yet it is wonderful to see, in r mparti changed wi “Centres of creation,” and the like are of the language of the past, here replaced by Bentham’s hap- f “areas o: rvation.” d conclusion, tardily py ter e reached “that the present geographical distribution of plants was in most instances a derivative one, altered from a very different a 0 consider are such, that it. is indispensable to have a term of wider application than “ species hnically means; and Mr. Bentham here appropriates to this use the word Race, to de- te either anent variety (the old meaning of the word anks of Botanists, especially of the younger ones, are due to Mr. Bennett and to the Council of the Ray Society. Botany and Zoology. 121 é a 5 ae =) eh e ® as a @, ee o LBS and Coast Astronomy. 135 N. Y., a lover of astronomy who has given special attention to solar observations, and from Gen, A. J. Myer, chief signal officer of the army, who witnessed the eclipse from the summit of a moun- tain in Southwestern Virginia,—these with the prefatory intro- duction of Commodore Sands composing the work now issued, which is copiously illustrated with cuts and engravings. rof. Newcomb’s point of observation was near the Court-house Washington. ollowing out the ideas previously suggested by him eens of different di- thus fixing their positions for the purpose of mapping the poe, o the visibility of any inferior planet or group capable of accounting for the motion of the perihelion of Mereury being made highly berance in the §.W. quadrant seemed to him strongly pink, not uniform in structure, nor at all resembling a flame, but os a huge with and without the aid of the comet-seeker. e great rotu- equal to the moon’s semidiameter and he saw nolong rays of light, 136 Scientific Intelligence. rays as subjective pheno mo of end of totality was with the naked eye, and the last contact with t comet-seeker, as before. Comparing his rvations with the obse h computed times, he finds the contacts to have occurred later than predicted by 12**5 for the first, 10°-4 for the third, and 7*8 for the ast ; whence he infers ’s )— Hansen’s oO is Som _ by 513 whereas, Hansen’s }— LeVerrier’s © i o great by 2 2-7, rof. Harkness constructed a building for himself Prof. Eastman and Dr. Curtis at another point in the city of Des Moines, and determined his position as latitude 41° 35’ 35”-9, long. 1" 6m 168 05 |W. from Washington, by means of observations which are repro- duced with great fullness of detail. At the beginning and end of the eclipse he was engaged with Dr. Curtis in taking photo- to K. 1497. It must we thin een , which was rec so many other observers and which Lockyer and Young have always found in the chromosphere. The moderate rsive a oa of Prof. hyn spectroscope would, as he c near lines. Prof. Eastman’s report contains the results of meteorological and photometric ai eee (which during the two days preced- ing the eclipse must have been far from encouraging), of observa- tions of the a and of the corona. Of this and the appeat- a Reese 9 to him, he has given two colo ° ide thea the ee Amid’s any avoca ~~ a is sur- prising that Prof. Eastman could have astennpls ished so much, that so well. We cannot avoid the conviction that ais he been master of his own time during the total open! he would not have failed to detect the decided fluctuations of which the corona b “iin ) Like the protuberances strongly red. Astronomy. 187 r. Curtis’s report relates to the photographic operations which are descnbad i th very great minuteness. To those familiar with + Burlington and Ottum arties. For the first, the exposure was 66 seconds ; but —— of the renin are beautifully shown, which would not h ve borne an exposure of one-third that length in a tra nsparent wai osphere. Even the lunar motion seems scarcely to vate interfered with the definiteness of the image. It is to be regretted that a national enterprise carried out at the public expense ‘should ever be made an agency for personal pole- E. ie) wR 4 oad =r ic) og ee B Qu is] te) for) mM ia?) i) B oc © fe] ee i] ae 4 “> = og ° Cia) “es 2 ter) 5 =) "oO i] any private citizen of the same nation, since he is theoretically one of those in whose behalf the investigatio n has been gee ~ steater part of one of the qua ages is secapied & ya in fine print in which Dr. Gould is nathe sharply assailed te his views as given on p. 435 of our last number. This is no place for resem of those views, but vies -panigonijina deserve a word v7 hs Gould adduces, as an additional argument in Psgod ofhis assumption, the Servation that the long coronal beams appeared to to be ‘‘variable,” while This aureole Be sa in, was evidently “ cine: re Py the: time of totality. othe argument howey sug some of its force when it is remembered that to T observers the pean appeared to the eye absolutely en both in and position during the whole period of the total obscura’ We are far from attributing to Dr. Curtis any intention of giv- ae infer his language the discourteous significance which some might otherwise no mnacnnsen could be possible. But we would Inthe ther ange Dr. Curtis says :— a mstance affords but another example . of the necessity that critic pees, attempting to draw sci ntifio inferences from hotographic repre- uld him nee: Seate mer of a photographer. oven Ane se t Dr. , ae ineciden «the art oa, seem aay Bg Tao afforded i in this — published letter by his total mis- tion of another purely photographic effect, viz : the apparent e encroach- 138 Scientific Intelligence. ment of the prominences upon the disk of the moon as seen in the photegraphs. This —— appearance, instead of being due to “ soca reflection ” is wholly a dark-room phenomenon, as will be saptalve | in the te That Dr. Curtis’s explanation is Bagh adequate in most cases we readily concede, But when Ulloa in 1778 saw the brightness of the —- projected so ‘ei ses the lunar disk that he thought the sun was shining through a hole in the moon, there were no phabogeuphe And had circumstances brought to Dr. Curtis’s notice as many dozens of cases as have come to our knowl- . Curtis has Am given the results of some interesting experi- ments made to determine the origin of th glow seen upon the sun, oe the moon’s limb, of the photographs; a glow which has und real and not the result of contr ast, in all the impres- sions bakes last August. This he believes to be a result of diifrac- tion, a view which we fully shared, as those present at the August session of the National Academ my will remember. And b experl- ments involving diffractive action, he has one so he eclipse- he unaware, settled the question some time since by the promoceea of other artificial eclipse-pictures by methods which exclude di tion, yet manifest the crepuscule as clearly as in the original acd ‘ ble nes possession, and Prof. Morton found the explanation of the phenom- — in a local redevelopment of the negat ive. -This explanation a to account for Dr. Curtis’s results as well as for his ried out with his Sissnstees stic ability, se ation is no-sanen” wanting to us a full-description of his paper. Among other things, he measured the dimensions of two of the a t 110"; s protu e = G0) ae where is Gilman had seen a might ‘double Astronomy. 139 ae qu before the firet contact. Examined with a 4-inch tele- appeared of an orange-color, dotted with minute flakes of brifignt crimson, Another highly interesting fact is that four of the party saw an object which they confidently believed to be a star near the limits of the corona, in the neighborhood of the great protuberance, a osition described was that of 2 Cancri [mis- written 7 Leonis, in Astr. Nachr., xxiv, 375] which was seen ea ngto the keenness of the observer’s vision ; for its magnitude is bat 5°8, star visible to the avera ge eye on epee: nights Ir. Bardwell, besides observing the times of cont tact, casbehud for inferior planets, and with the same capil results which oth- ers 0 i rade the sun were still uneclipsed,” he noted a ‘iil rominence of yellowish color upon the moon’s limb. Many of a details of the total phase were distinctly visible to the nake in this clear at uides exclaimed that the sun was breaking to pie e have dwelt so long upon the observations wales the terri- -tory of the United States, ores no of Prot Hall remains to give de- im an hour after it had ended, the sky was cloudless again. The Sun and moon were invisible from a short time papsigee until a short time after totality, but the darkness was greatest between 9 174 and 9 20 a. gtr Dag period there sae fas light than at ~ os S. R. Franklin of the United States : ne Mohican, saw three protuberances upon the moon’s aie ty) A. 2. On the flight of a Bangg are meteorite across ‘oa Western Portion of fig id Forest, lat. 40° 50’ oe. W., 84° 40’; w min by J. Lawrence Sura ile Ky. rae o’clock on the morning of Oct. 27th, the ¢itizens of Forest, and for around, were ddenly aroused by a terrific sound in es Te su the upper regions like the report of a heavy sie vt gun, f followed otf or three reports in oo ge a resem 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. metallic, rambling or roaring sound, dying away in the distance. The interval between the first and successive reports was two or of sleépers were roused in an instant, bewildered at the unusual and appaling noise; and many were the conjectures h ime between the going out of the light and the report is estimated by citizens here at from one-half to one minute. Mr. Pierson of Patterson, a village about one mile, a little west of fire apparently as large as a bucket, exceedingly bright and dazzling and had a luminous tail apparently. thirty feet long and three feet wide; that it vanished or exploded, as he thought, i - explosion somewhere in the upper regions. The night was one of clear moonlight, and exceedingly cold for the season. e night watchmen had witnessed it; and one says the he first saw it in the southeast, in size, seemingly, arge as a beer keg, and of intense brightness; that i descended, leavin but, as he termed it, mo: re like t ae ears, but much louder, and that the light was brighter than that a of the sun. i : “Ga ¢ = 5 5 c.. night, and the ity. In Ken _ few minutes bef: and con Miscellaneous Bibliography. oil this place nearer than twenty miles, and the best Judges give its duration at from two to three minutes from the flash to the ex plo- sion. The sound was of such f “ as to shake the ee and many believed it to be an pair These are all the statements I Pe been able to obtain in rega It was beyond all doubt a meteorite, and La ing all possible st acknowledge the assistance afforded by Mr. Moore and Mr, a ot Ohio letter dated Alfred Ghairier Alfred ’ 1369.) —t her communicate for the Journal the elements of (10 which I have computed from the following observation Date, W. M. dos Place of observation. a t) Oct. 9, 18 26 32, Hamilton Coll. Obs. 14 00 45 ‘949 37 15-0. Oct. 31, 8 44 33, Hamilton Coll. Obs., 9 11 27°8 9 54 47°8. Oct. 31, 8 44 33, Alfred Observato o 3 Nov. 28, 7 15 57, hae Observatory, 8 ’ Epoe h Oct. 9°0, W. M. T log a="4295348 For computing an ephemeris, I find: ' log a=9°9999681 + log sin (v + 145° 19’ 47’4) log y=9°9307966 + log sin (v + 55 45 21-1) log z==9°7181204 + log sin(v + 54 11 42:2) V. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Exercises in Practical Leet by A. G. Vernon Har- cours, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. ©. S., and H. G. Manan, MA, FCS. novitiate is esumed to be ually BS of oonioe symbols and ophy and is led into the laboratory much as an apprentice to A oso wad i is therefo: re first made familiar with his tools, and how to use them in the most simple operations before She teksti od by oc the es of oxygen and other gases. It is ati’ d cuts, mostly new and many of them — effecting s abalaiuee 5 is that of Williamson. Symbols 142 Miscellaneous Bibliography. expressing the more important reactions are given at the foot of the pages where needed. oh look with interest for the second series on quantative chemist : niline and its dectoiiens A Treatise upon the manw facture ‘of Aniline and Analine Colors, by M. Remmann, P.D., L.A.M., to which is added, The report on the coloring matters 8vo, pp. 164. Jobe Wiley and Son. Astor Place, New York, 1868.—Dr. Reimann’s account of aniline and its derivatives is a Dr. H colors shown at the Broce Exhitition of 1867. ciiagh fame by Messrs. Wiley, was eee in London, by Mr. Crookes at the office of the Chemical New 8. ackoe Couieee 3 in Qualitative Analysis, with the New Notation; by J. M. Crarrs, Prof. of General Chemistry in the Cornell Uni- st mum of time. A considerable portion of the first two chapters is devoted to an explanation of the theory of chemical reactions and nomenclature, The student is at once inducted into the no- part of this useful little volume. Only 34 of the 64 radicals known to chemists are treated of in this book. This brevity sometimes — rahmga and renders the work of the 2 ge a almost o fo: The tables TV a and v, intended to record in a soaipank form the facts of analytical chemistry, are ingeniously devised by Mr. Per- kins, to give the student exact ideas and methodical habits. 4, The Fruits and t trees of America, éc.; by A.J. sabe ie Second revision and correction, with large additions, by CuHaRL Downing... pp. 1098, 8vo. New York, 1869. (John Wiley & n).—Those cultivators of fruits who "have been accustomed to handle the small duodecimo volume, which was left us by its lamented author under the above title, will hardly recognize their old acquaintance ae grown to _— portly dimensions, But the same rural flavor an a, nation are found in the work which -. _ Mr. Charles Do en us, chat arsenal the original edi- — tion of f this work ena sailed heen iversal favorite on bot an ance fe Cis Pe Miscellaneous Bibliography. 148 periences which twenty years have given us, relating to vineyard culture and American vines, The title of this book reminds us that its contents do not cor- respond to what it calls for. To one familiar with fruit culture 48 It exists on the Pacific coast of the United States, Mr. Down: LDWELL, Professor of Agricultural Che: the Cornell University. 30 pp. New York; (Orange Judd & Co.).—Th work, prepared from the best so’ in a thoroughly conscientious Prof. Caldwell’s book is intended to serve as a complete manual of chemical analysis for the use of agricultural students. The cultural roducts, Estimation of Water, Organic Matter, Sulphur and Chlorine in Organic Compounds, Separation and Estimation of the Alkalies, Alkali-Earths, Alumina, oxyds of iron and manga- hese, silica and phosphoric acid. V, Analysis of Soils, Rocks and Marls, VI, Analysis and Valuation of Fertilizers. VII, Ash- Analysis, ysis of Fodder and Food. IX, Wool and Bark. X, Beverages. XI, Tables. We trust that this volume will be studied and used by every student in our Agricultural Col- leges, for the knowledge that can be acquired only by following and by a plying its methods is not only of the utmost importance to the indévidtusl farmer, but bears most seriously upon the devel- 144 Mitceiorenes Bibliography. opment and conservation of our greatest national resource, oe eg oY power of our soil. 6. Lithologie des ers de Pancien monde, par M. DELESSE. Wa ae pas par ML Brussr, Professeur de Mécanique a PEcole des Pronts et Chaussées, by AHAN, bene . 8. Corps of Tertiesch Revised weed D. H. Mahan, 65 pp. 8vo, 1869. New Yor Eda Wiley & Son n.)—A co sa and thorough — on ‘the subject of ‘Hydraulic Matorkees 8. Weisbach’s ual of Mechanics, vol. i, part u, 8vo. New York, (D. Van No as d).—The sec cond part of the first volume of Weisbach’s Mechanics, noticed in our last volume (p. 449), has just iene received, . A Practical Treatise on ee ney, adopted from the last Ge F.R.S., an Nst Réurie, Ph.D., M.E. In three a volumes, 8vo, London yea ae & Co. ; ak New York, John Wiley & Son, 2 cuts. 803, pp. 1870. We have no space at this time for a further notice. 10. ‘Reliquiee Aquitanice ; - Messrs. Larter & Cur edited by Prof. Thomas Rupert Jones. “Part ix, of this beautifid work on the Archwology of Southern France, has been published. Lea on the Genus Unio. Index to Vol. xi and Re usage index to Vols. 1t0 - x1 of Observations on the Genus Unio, together with Description of new species s of the Family Unionide and description of new species of Melanidse, Paludine, Heli- cide, etc. Isaac Lea, LL.D., etc. Bulletin of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers. Oct., 1869. Boston. Address delivered on the pag gone Fas Anniversary of the birth of ange von Humboldt under per aes of the Boston Society of Natural History, by Louls Boston, 18 Oe = ie aaa by J. A. Allen. 112 pp. 8vo. Beton ee of the Mu- seum of © maparate Zociey © Sacyaed Sclingn, feanbeisigns: Mast No. 8. 1869. ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, eine wissenchaftliche Biographie, by Dr. Carl Brubns, aided — various ‘Sevans of Gates, is soon to be issued in two large volumes by F. A. Brockhaus of Leipzig. OBITUARY. eons GRawam, author of the excellent “ Elements of Chemistry,” and since 1855 Maste r of the Mint, died Sept. 16th, in his 64th y AxeL Joacuim ErpMANN, Director of the Geological Sfirvay” of Sweden, and in as well as Geology, died at Stockholm on the Ist of Decem- t, and editor of the Journal fur prak- eet oe sd coe Men in co he 22nd o rin ereey ah onary 65 years. ‘The eg noted athe st fotame of hs Journal, (p18 2. Eat : ne EP Oe et ee Te ey See cee ‘ oi : i THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARS. [SECOND SERIES.] a. > Art. XVIL—Photometric Experiments. Part Frrst.—On a simple form of Photometer for determining the amount of Light reflected by Metallic Surfaces at different incidences ; by OGDEN N. Roop, Prof. of Physics in Columbia College. at the next equally certain that it has been It hence fol- lows that no photometer of this form is adapted for investiga- Hons at all aiming at a d. character. B to whom Physics as well as Chemistry is & Superiority of this latter principle is evident from the mere state- ment, raf it only mere to investigate how the p 1 ad- van, can best be realized in actual practice. It 1s, _ believe, Senerally admitted by those who have used Bunsen’s photometer, A. Jour. §ci—Szconp Szrms, Vor. XLIX, No. 146,—Mancu, 1870. 146 O. N. Rood on Photometric Haperiments. it from both sides, in such a way that the ae Should assume the same degree of brightness with its own border or hea and hence become invisible after compensation. Ina ormer number of this journalt I described a form of Pe ae Be es O. N. Rood on Photometric Eaperimenis. 147 Second. All those portions of the ground surrounding and in contact with the “spot,” must be equally illuminated, and the texture of the ground must likewise be uniform. urd. The. transition from the ground to the “spot” must be perfectly sharp and sudden, so that not the faintest border can be seen surrounding it. Fourth. Tf it be required to render the invisibility of the “spot” more than momentary, it is equally essential that the ratio subsisting between the two sources of illumination should be truly constant. ; If either of the first three precautions be neglected, the dis- appearance of the spot becomes entirely impossible, while it is only by a peculiar arrangement of apparatus that the fourth can actually be realized. (See second part of this article.) Screen.—A plate of colorless glass of good quality is coated with photographic collodion and immersed for a few minutes in 2 solution of nitrate of silver, (“ bath,”) as though it was the in- above mentioned dimensions it becomes an annoying object for observation, while if it be larger, it is difficult to illuminate it 1. ee L HE ieee oes B , st woe uniformly. This plate is seen at P, in figure 1, the collodion side bei - suited coated she eye of the observer, and the other except just opposite the spot, covered by a coating of oon 4 ‘Slack mixed with weak shellac varnish, pedis 1 Ron-reflecting surface. At the distance of an inc collodion plate, there is fastened, parallel to it, a plate of color] : te # 148 0. N. Rood on Photometric Experiments. glass, G, finely ground on each side; this is destined to receive the light from L. If only one surface of the glass be ground, the texture becomes plainly visible, particularly when, as in the ex- periments detailed in the second part of this paper, the spot is magnified. Only so much of the ground glass plate is allowed to remain bare as is necessary, the remaining portions on both sides are covered by black non-reflecting paper. Plates P and G are then as it were roofed over, and enclosed on all sides by Source of ‘llumination.—At E is the eye of the observer, the face being protected from light by the blackened screen, 8. the center of the “spot,” and the center of the mirror expert mented on, all lie in the same line, which is of course at the same time the axis of the instrument. At H are two small gas flames issuing from circular apertures, and destined to illuminate the collodion plate on the side next to the observer; both are fed from the same source. The gas-burner at H consists of two thin brass tubes, half an inch in diameter and one inch long; connected together by a glass tube; the circular apertures for the flames are placed at equal distances on either side of the ~ t, an from it as is found most advantageous im aly particular set of experiments; their distance from eac other 18 seven inches. et lig m the two flames is pre i pe re, by small blackened screens, the same means being ee ep 4 it in i yo om gas flame is employed at H, the ground around the spot will > un ly illuminated, and exact observations become imposs ble. Of course the direct light from these two burners which penetrates through the “spot,” must not be allowed to hat portion of the ground glass opposite it; the distance of the flames apart must be so chosen that this becomes impossible. The light from the movable burner on the other side of the e screen at L will be used direct and reflected. The small single movable ole which supplies it, is similar to those al or to it is attached a flexible india-rubber tube, which is supplied from the same source that feeds H; it is com column, (for the sake of insulating the heat) ei Dict emi, 1 ; | O. N. Rood on Photometric Eaperiments. 149 w to the joint support of the arm, A, and of the mirror to he experimented on. = consists of a block of brass, Ld | Ht i C/U ZY £3 WALI MU gS , _— YY y UG mm Yi YU re eRe B, four inches square (see figure 2, which is one-third of the size); its under surface is cut in such a way as to fit the two parallel iron bars and to slide on them easily but steadily, and this foundation block is farther provided with a vernier, to read off the distances on the millimeter scale. C isa eradu- ated circle six inches in diameter, and is provided with a clam atd. The hollow massive cylinder, ¢, supports the arm A, an¢ also carries the axis of the support of the mirror. The screws, 1, 2, 8, serve to bring the mirror into its correct position ; it is ressed against them Sy a band of india-rubber attached to the edges of the mirror. It will be seen that owing to this arrange- ment, all the different parts have motions quite oe and yet by the clamping screws can at any moment be connected. Finally, attached to this stand is a long light rod of sot iB reaching to the observer, and enabling him, by varying the _ tance between this movable piece and the fixed screen, to effect Compensation. Flexible Gas tubes.—It occurred to me that by splitting Stream of gas and sending one portion t to L, fig. 1, the other A two illuminations, as it would seem that any cause which in- creased the seamrlearye in one of the branches of the tube ought to be equally operative in the other, so that after a compensation had been effected it should be permanent. In practice 1 this was 150 0. N. Rood on Photometric Experiments. two branches of the supply abe in point of fact, on giving them equal lengths on c tions slowly, so that the tien Seren, to L was not me shaken or set in oscillation, this source of error a cam so. greatly reduced as in no way to interfere with the obeorvea Mode. of measuring the amount of light reflected from a mir- ror.—To adjust the apparatus, it is first necessary that that = ameter of the circle joming the 0° and 180° points, should made parallel to the axis of the instrument, which is effected RY the use of the vernier at X, fig. 2, the circle is then clamped. ext, the vernier attached to the mirror is placed at 90°, and the mirror itself is made to assume a position at right angles to the axis of the instrument, by the aid of its three screws, and a small gas flame placed on a support which rests on the parallel bars at a distance of two or three feet from the mirror, it being so contrived that the center of this small flame shall just lie in the axis of the instrument. The mirror is adjuae till it reflects the light of this small flame back to the e through a flame itself, securing thus the collimation with the desired ac aes The arm A is then set at ei? desired angle ing n aed behind the flame so as to be out of the way ad to provid light from reaching the mirror. Mode of registering the observations.—These were always reg: istered with a sharp point on a angel fillet of paper, attached to — long wooden rod_R T, fig. 9, used for moving the mirror. int was one end of a small lever placed at N, fig. 1 In consequence of this, at the end of a set of experiments tw° groups of dots were found on the paper, admitting of the most exact measurement on the following day. Before removing the pa p aper from the rod two dots were always made on it in the borhood of these groups, the corresponding positions i mill detached fle kee and the observations recorded in the k. In determinations given below, the observa tions on the direct and reflected light w were made alternate, 50 = ng of the compensation point O. N. Rood on Photometric Experiments. ae Observations on the amount of light reflected by a glass plate silvered by Liebig’s process, the silver side being used. ‘The light was reflected at an angle of 45°. Distance whet Distance with Distance when Distance with mirror was used. free flame. mirror was used. free flame. 946 1297 936 1286 949 1301 940 1287 950 1302 941 1288 951 1302 942 1288 952 1304 943 1290 955 1305 944 1292 956 1306 946 1292 957 1308 946 1293 958 1309 947 1295 961 1309 948 1296 961 1310 949 1297 962 1312 950 1298 965 1312 952 1298 966 1315 953 1391 967 1318 954 1303 967 — 955 1303 ——— 15)19610 956 1304 16)15323 958 1305 1307°3 959 1307 957-68 105° 960 1307 Correction 19]- salience 961 1307 Se ae 1202°3 962 1308 1148-68 965 1312 —— 1312 Result 91-26 per cent reflected. 23)21867 1312 1315 950°7 re Correction 191° 26)33796 11417 1299°8. Correction 105° 1194°8 Result 91°3 per cent reflected. : ese figures are taken of course directly from ra — 152 O. N. Rood on Photometric Experiments. When the same mirror was used at 5°, i. e., the light being reflected from it nearly perpendicularly, the results given below were obtained. 2. 2. eres ces thi = ee maror cen aks Reema 955 ' 1297 5 1298 958 1304 955 1301 958 1304 956 1302 958 1305 957 1303 960 1305 957 1303 962 1307 958 1304 962 1308 958 1305 963 1310 961 1306 963 1310 961 1307 965 1313 962 1308 965 1313 962 1308 969 1313 963 1309 970 1314 963 1310 971 1314 964 1312 972 1315 965 1312 973 1318 967 1313 977 1318 968 1315 977 1328 969 1316 980 sprees 972 —— 983 18)23596 Sone 18)23532 983 19) 18272 —— _—_—— 1310°8 1307°4 21)20324 105 961°6 105 enna 91- pont 967°8 1205°8 eames 3202°4 191 1152°6 ; 1158°8 Result, 91°88 per cent reflected. Result, 92°35 per cent reflected. due to the shifting of the compensation point during the experi ments, and not to any defect _ the screen. experiments were made on another mirTo a bie’s an at the same angle 4458 per cent. en’ ror rocess, the glass side being used, with the — andred rays 78°01 were reflected, the angle © 2. Tf. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Copper. 153 Art. XVIIL — Contributions to the Chemistry of Copper; b T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D. F.RS. Parr e ” [Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Salem, August 25, 1869.] * ats P property is shared by other soluble chlorids. The strong finity of cuprosum for chlorine enables cuprous oxyd to decom- and formation of cuprous chlorid. In the case of zinc and manganese, insoluble oxychlorids of these metals are formed at the same time. These reactions require further study, and the same may be said of the cupric and cobaltic chlorids with Cuprous oxyd. I have, however, partially investiga e be- havior of cuprous oxyd with magnesic and ferrous chlorids, and obtained the resulis about to be described. _, $8. The cuprous oxyd for these experiments was prepared __ by gently heating a solution of sulphate of ra mixed with » Cane and an excess of caustic soda, until the whole of the _ C0pper was thrown down as a bright dense cinnabar-red powder in, T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Copper. in solution by the excess of magnesic chlorid. By filte the liquid while hot, and washing with a strong solution of betaine cuprous oxyd and magnesic chlorid being formed. [he double chlorid of cuprosum and magnesium is however r in solution at 12° Centigrade, about 7:10 per cent of cuprous chlorid. A solution of magnesian sulphate with chlorid of n with metallic seid while cuprous chlorid remains in solutio?- e with an excess of ferrous chlorid show that T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Copper. 155 converted into ferric oxyd, with precipitation of metallic cop- per. The first stage in the action of ferrous chlorid on cuprous oxyd may be represented as similar to that of magnesic chlorid: Cu,O+ FeCl= Cu,Cl+ FeO. In the second stage Cu,Cl+ 38FeO=Cu,+FeCl+Fe,0,. It follows from this that one-third of the cuprous chlorid formed in the first stage is reduced to the metallic state, and the final result may be represented as follows: 8Cu,0+2FeCl=2Cu, Cl4+2Cu+Fe,0,. A similar result is obtained if ferrous chlorid is added to an cu ch Cu,Cl+FeCl+Fe,O,. The further action of ferrous oxyd will, as we have seen, reduce the cuprous chlorid to the metallic state: in fact, 2CuCl+6FeO=2Cu+2FeCl+2Fe,0,. - ae precipitated hydrated ferrous oxyd or ferrous carbonate a prous ores which is dissolved, leaving behind only hydrated Lge oxyd. Wh i c ammonium and excess of ammonia is added to a solution th y _ §7. It was long since shown by Levol that hydrated ferrous _ oxyd will reduce cupric to cuprous oxyd, and this, as we have ready seen, can separate from its combinations ferrous oxyd, 156 T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Copper. whose reducing power may be still further exerted upon the cuprous combination thus formed. These facts serve to explain the results obtained by E. Braun (Zeitschr. Chem., 1867, p. 568, cited in Jahresbericht for 1867), which were not known to me at the time of making these experiments. He found that b digesting cupric hydrate or cupric carbonate with ferrous sul- hate in solution there was obtained a reddish mixture of basi¢ erric sulphate with cuprous oxyd, formed apparently in accord- ance with the equation. 2FeO, SO,+2Cu0=Cu,0+Fe,0,, 250,. This, when boiled with a further portion of ferrous sulphate, chlorid in the cold, but the insolubility of the resulting euprous chlo sthe action. If however the ferrous Biota be greenish solution thus obtained readily dissolves recipitated me- tallie copper, in virtue of the cupric chlorid which it contains, and, unless a large excess of chlorid of sodium be present, de- sits white crystalline cuprous chlorid by cooling a ate of lime, the greenish sblution deposits one-third of its COP pale green insoluble cupric hydro-carbonate, while the colorless filtrate retains the remaining two-thirds in the form © _ euprous chlorid. If a solution of ferrous chlorid with chlorid of sodium is digested with a sufficient excess of cupric OXY the | ‘ cupric chlorid formed unites with the latter to form an insoluble | cupric oxychlorid, and only cuprous chlorid remains in solt- * Metall. Huttenkunde, xi, 588, = ee eee DA tin lanai = T. S. Hunt on the Chemistry of Copper. 157 in the above conditions is apparently due to a secondary reaction 2 2vit i Ww slightly acted upon by such a solution, which, however, slowly takes up a sumac of stat forming ferrous chlorid with a corres- 158 G.H. Perkins on a recent Land-slide in New Hampshire. Art. XIX.- -Notice of a recent Land-slide on Mount Passacona- way; by Guo. H. Perxrns, Ph.D., Prof. Zoology and Geol- ogy, University of Vermont. to whose knowledge of the region and general kindness, much of our success was due. From Campton a ride of ten miles in 4 These logs were mainly spruce, and some were fifty to sixty in diameter. They were piled i so favorable for ne banks of the stream G. H. Perkins on a recent Land-slide in New Hampshire. 159 The slide commences forty rods from its summit, and a little to one side of the highest point. At the outset it is very nar- om this point the sides begin slowly to —— each other, d fitiy-si wn against this ridge; indeed there 18 every reason why they should have been. Yet the space between it and the slide is singularly free from such material. arses tan down the mountain before the slide, and probably did ese streams, which form part of the Source of Mad river, must have been very pense : e been e ; it was y small. Con to our expectations the mountain over cerang slide passed, was not bare rock 160 G. H. Perkins on a recent Land-slide in New Hampshire. stripped of surface material. Only in two places, both small in extent, was the rock foundation of the mountain exposed. One of these was at the top where the slide seemed to have started from a ledge, the other was a little less than half-way down, and reached entirely across the track of the slide. With these exceptions the whole surface was covered with a loose, coarse sand or gravel, consisting entirely of comminuted rock, increasing in depth from top to bottom and very loosely compacted. The thickness of this loose material was shown along the sides of several small streams that were running down the slide, which, at the time of our visit, the 20th of October, had cut entirely through it, and ran over the solid rock beneath. Near the top the ground was moist but there Were no streams; these down. At the top of the slide, the surface sand was only a slide, ee ground by it from larger rocks ; and how much and in one place the syenite was ¢: by trap dikes, fr an inch to a foot in thickness. Some of these dikes forked times, others crossed each other in the form of a letter X, and some varied greatly in thickness along their course. A few broken crystals of rose-purple quartz, an inch or more it diameter, were found among the débris. But the only rock ia place along the course of the slide was the syenite. Sea surface of this loose, sandy J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Eulalia, Mexico. 161 masses broken by the slide. Besides these, there were a few well worn boulders of syenite, quartz, and hornblende rock, some of which were near the top. All the trees that had stood on the ground now occupied by the débris of the slide, were carried away or buried up, only a very few bare logs remaining in sight. Along the sides of the slide the forest was full of uprooted, bruised, and broken trees. rougher but not as much so as above. The appearance of the surface was the same in all parts. Its color was a light yellowish brown, and at a little distance it closely resembled a field lately ploughed and harrowed. It is the contrast of light color with the dark green of the spruce forest around it that causes the slide to be so distinctly visible at long distances. As is stated above, the upper portion of the slide is very steep, but after the first fifty rods the angle of inclination is less, and just above the widest part it is not more than twenty-five degrees. Below it is not more than degrees, Art. XX.—On the Silver Mines of Santa Eulalia, State of Chi- huahua, Mexico; by JAMES P. Kimpaut, Ph.D. Don Jesus Inocente Irigoyen of Cusihuiriachic, a good anti- uarian authority, states th € only available official register : , DON ever, goes back no further than 1705, but mentions their dis- covery in 1703—twelve years after the city of Chihuahua was foun according to the date given by Dr. Wislizenus. From 6 ? . ollars of silver per annum. Up to 1791, during a period of eighty-six years, their acknowledged production of = ; king’s fifth, was paid to the royal d supported sixty-tht : undred and eighty-cight smelting furnaces of 1 an. 2 . h elting fur —SEcoND , Vou. XLIX, No. 146.—Mancs, 1870. : 3 Peedi PN quite recently have always seriously interfered with industrial pursuits in Northern Mexico, became so grievous during the The fresh ore from the mines as peo to the furnace, is The village of Santa Eulalia is fifteen miles east of the city of Chihuahua, across the expansive champaign valley Tabalopa. This city, the capital and social center of the state 1 by the tax of one real per mare of silver _;* Manuscripts and certificates in N Wats Meee teri a he tat | No. 129, (2d edit, i, p. 454). J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Eulalia, Mexico. 163 and which, continued for sixty-two years, ending in 1789, - amounted to 800,000 dollars.* The Sta. Eulalia mountains are a portion of a long range trending N.E.—S.W., one of a system of parallel ranges, which, separated by champaign valleys or valley-plains, ae in which, at distances of two to five miles, the mines are Situated, and which are crossed only by Sriclenpaths _The mining ground is embraced within the area of an uplift of the Cretaceous fossiliferous limestone, imparting toward the di This i i to the Rio Grande in an axis parallel to the Conchos river, an own in Mexico as caniera, caps the s under similar conditions of superposition of the latter, the ._* State archives. Ward erroneously states this bah — sa ree dur- nine i bonanza, ii, p. 581. ( it., p. 30 Th etintoatied pops, Pegi aga, ns the far higher sees of not larger i w it aes the availableness of mechanical appliances, that our great production of iver is more to be ascribed than to the ber or superiority of r scovel What account of the Comstock lode by this time should we have were its mines, f those i of their activity, 164 J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Eulalia, Mexico. Cretaceous fossiliferous limestone, with local lithological differ- ences, is the prevailing formation of the Rio Grande and Oon- chos basins, where, as seems likewise to be the case in Texas, within the development of the cantera it sustains throughout a metalliferous character. The mineral deposits of Sierra Rica, Cuchillo Parado, the Chupaderos, and the Chorreras in Chi- huahua are all contained in it. In the Santa Eulalia moun- tains is its most westerly development in any great prominence ane the valley plains, ee = seventy-five miles still furt est, a limestone is said to form the low base of the Sierra de Magistral, where it is feces metalliferous, and where, going as in other < Pagina el named, the cantera caps the higher eleva- tio ame is is applied in Northern aio to the bleached portion ore an Feoseritial alumino-siliceous rock, generally more or less econ | a oi variety of colors.* As elsewhere sieiation it is to the d precipi re, as elsewhere tous the sa Sra of the fossil iferous eee vom — npc have cu t bold, almost per within a couple of miles, omes the main formation, and rms the body of the range. No limestone ap in the de Dolores, seven miles to the north, where the San nh ae aa Toad crosses the Sta. Eulalia range; | mri the Sia, Wolalia it has already declined below the overlying cantera presents a greater developmen’ Pee he : " 4 ae ? J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Eulalia, Mexico. 165 in the surrounding hills, which rise to the height of some 800 feet above the plain. - © A curious Uthological phenomenon, though in a less con- spicuous way not uncommon in other localities which I visited in Chihuahua, is a formation of conglomerate which is found on all the slopes of the district, and which incases the lower and middle portions of the hills ‘like a shell.* Thi dently been formed by carbonated caleareo-magnesian infil tions, springing from the summit cantera; and, penetrating the fine and coarse detritus of the surface alike, have cemented it, and thus produced all the gradations from a fine friable sand- stone to a coarse breccia. The village rests upon it. age the main street it is distinctly bedded, and cleaved by joints. No- where is it found entering into the interior structure of the hills, and no traces of it are found in steep places, Yet cursory region is in the S anto heegein mine. All the rest of the deposits ae more or less irregular, and in a varie 5 fancies of occurrence, are contained in the nearly horizontal fossiliferous strata Wroteesaisy All the strata apts water level = exceedingly cavernous. In nearly all of the workings, ca entirely shut off from the surface eran encountered. sacs of these are of enormous size. The t cave of the Parcionera and San José mines, is said to be large enough to hold the Wage of Chihuahua. Though una ne es or. its height, to illumine its roof, I am lieve this. Drusy cavities or vugs of all sizes, es the © ie exhibitions of € same prevailing cavernous character. These latter yield rena pockets of ore. Rich bonanzas have been ot from i ; the chloro-bromid (embolite) and to 1odid (iodyrite) of i eae ee Very ferruginous, to which circumstance they owe their oer = also, to a considerable » degre’, the which a have ‘been dep ae are always and 1. f beddi pi spain! son) es oe sometimes iene oh all ‘cons modes of pad rence, without order or defined limits. A bed, or a n ber of bet: of the limestone, in places ma be thoroughly Webbed with such segregations of so decided a character as to * This Jour., xiviii, p. 382. Fi co sa 166 J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Eulalia, Mexico, , impart a concretionary appearance, or, as if limestone breccia were cemented by ferruginous ore. In such places the beds, are not brecciated, but thus strikingly indicate the energy of disin- tegrating and segregating action under the decomposition or oxydation of iron salts (probably proto-carbonate) origin ural caverns, together forming underground spaces scarcely less imposing than the most noted caves that excite the wonder of tourists. _ The mines of Santa Eulalia are scattered all over the great limestone uplift, and along the deep ravines which have scored between the Dolores Cafion on the northwest, and on the south- — bs oa waters of the arroyo in which is the village of Santa ualia. the formation is seen rapidly declining in the ravine tow mouth, and the i cantera is thus brought down so as to form » e hills) The limestone altogether dis- appears from above the bed of the rayine within a few hundred of this formation, though the surface is immediately overspread by the cemented ru 6 eek edhe J The bills on either do some 700 feet above it, are both topogsentieally and strati- graphically the highest elevations in the di The present mine is some 500 yards further up the ravine, and, at an elevation above its bottom of some 120 feet, goes down in a bed of fossiliferous limestone some 80 feet from the top of the formation, the division being plainly indicated by a ledge of cantera above the entrance of the mine. Its depth is about thoroughfare, in which passage is laboriously effected partly b ere ~ the rock. This ae and gypsum. € narrower portions have generally yiel . Gring rise to lateral excavations opening into the main-way. P deed it is chiefly for galena and other plunbierams ores (plomosos), that this mine is at present wrought; and fares eel that its ores of all grades (ayudas) have always been d less for their argentiferous qualities, than for the property of facili- ae the smelting of the more refactory ores (resecos) of the rict. mine; an ught i Ea ocins We ae ime; and though the deepest mine at present w in ‘ es others, i oe ‘aschuasjent appliances of any sort. The ore is spalled under- ground and brought 'e surface on the backs of men and boys whose burdens Vary from 100 to 125 Ibs, and who make during the day five trips to the bottom. The mine i > a ost : it 168 J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Eulalia, Mexico. The other workings of this.group are on the east side, and further toward the head of the ravine, occupying different beds in the limestone and pursuing productive courses of ore. The principal are Chiguihwite, Rosario, Gertrudis and S. Lazaro. __ Dotores Grovup.—The cafion of Dolores is a deep gorge cut- ting almost perpendicularly the axis of the limestone uplift or boss e clifis thus formed, expose on either side a perfect section of bare limestone strata. Its course is very nearly west- ward, and its head opposite and very near that of the Santo omingo arroyo. Together the two water-courses describe a his regular sinking of about the same age and depth as the latter, and communicates with it by deep workings. Its mouth is near the top of the limestone formation. _ The Dolores, present working, is a sinki iz of the same deserip- tion as the A ome with the lower ante of which, and thereby with those of dwel — built strong for defense, indicate a former establis P no percolation being sensible even in the dee he world have a more task. The cost of raising the o J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Hulalia, Mexico. 169 head of the arroyo, the dip of the limestone beds to the south- east is near 45°. The vertical axis of the boss is in the eroded neighborhood of the Vieja, at the confluence of another arroyo from the southwest. From this point in every other direction the dips (quaquaversal) are gentle, coming down gradually to not more than five degrees. But the steeper dips toward the outside of the limestone boss have brought up a great thickness of this formation (400 ft.) above the arroyo, and thus west of the Vieja the same strata are above its bed, as could only be entered by shafts east of this point. This is an explanation of the fact that below the Vieja all the workings are above the bed of the ravine, their openings being in the bluffs. These work- ings are all approximately horizontal: that is, they follow the stratification which on either side being slightly inclined from e ravine, gives them all something of a descent into the body of the hills. The San José enters the south bluff a quarter of a mile below It may be described as a series of caverns, natural an artificial, the largest in the district. It is here that is to be Seen the immense one already mentioned. ings extend n Eman- uel Escobar. The ores then coming out were plumbiferous. 80 as to connect by — passages with the workings of the a a quarter of a mile o J & Jo. Its ores are excessively ferruginous ( - Color being that of red hematite. According to the owner they Lateseh 48 Ge : are now yielding 12 ounces to the carga ($103 to the ton.) 170 J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Eulalia, Mexico. Several openings in the north bluff have been made at higher levels. One, the Cuartillera, is at the height of some 3800 feet above the bottom of the cafion. It furnishes a non-ferruginous ore of a drab color. this mine and the Guadalu steadily yield plumbiferous ores, carrying, mostly in an invisible form, chlorid, bromid and sulphids of silver. _ The other mines of this group are all on the left flank of the limestone ridge. They are the Santa Rita, San Francisco, Purisima, Negrita Grande, Negrita Chi uita, and the Carmen _ The Santa Rita, one of the oldest and more reputable mines, 1s a shelving excavation, starting in fossiliferous limestone, some 850 ft. above the bed of the Dolores arroyo. large burrow of ferruginous material indicates the extent of former workings. The main opening is said to be asphyxiated, and is now closed, though containing, according to all accounts, ores running as high as four mares to the carga ($250 to the ton). ‘The Purisima, occupies nearly the same level as the Santa Se ims San eee ee J. P. Kimball on the Silver Mines of Sta. Hulalia, Mexico. 171 of the arroyo immediately below the mouth of the mine, an from which it would be practicable to reach its workings. The hors The Negrita Chiquita is a newer open working, now operated by Don Jesus Mateos, and occupying strata but a little lower than the mouth of the shaft of the Negrita Grande. The Carmen occupies beds somewhat higher, and is a similar cavernous exca- vatio tion. _ It will be understood that notwithstanding wide differences in topographical level, all the workings above mentioned are embraced within the same ‘set of beds whose combined thick- < acy gS ao o @ . : ound of E and the large returns which | these have afforded, its future prospects seem scarcely impaired ‘s A Notwithstanding the rates of labor in Nevada are more than treble Santa Bulalia, the ores of the Comstock lode are extracted for a half to and reduced for less than a half cheaper—their average yield ranging in diff mines from $: to ; the wide « eu" economical conditions of the industry taken as a whole in the two localit’ * Barnard’s Report on the Machinery, etc. 175 large scale. This will be practicable by having recourse to the facilities afforded by one or both of the two plains on either side of the Sta. Eulalia mountains. , j West of the mountains, superior facilities for the dressing of ores, and for patios, are to be had at Tabalopa on the Sacra- mento river, at the distance of some eight miles from the mouth of the Arroyo Dolores. Ores could be delivered at this point by wagon at near the same rate that they are now freighted on mules over the mountains to Santa Hulalia. This way out to the plain would be by the ravine, and thence the whole way to Tabalopa by a down grade. Having extended my observations but a little way east of this gorge, I am not prepared to determine the question of an exit on that side of the Sta. Eulalia range. Should it be found practicable to cheaply deliver ores in the Conchos valley, this side would, on the whol present superior conditions for reduc- tion works, provided a good water supply can be had, which is robable, as the plain is already thoroughly irrigated. Fuel mesquite) is far more abundant here than on the Chihuahua side, and the position is nearer by two days to all supplies drawn xas. New York, Jan. 1, 1870. ART. XX1.— Machinery and Processes of the Industrial Arts, and Apparatus of ‘the Sciences; by Frepmrick A. P. Barnarp, LL.D., United States Commissioner to the Paris Universal Exposition. nd different and all ae were me forty | an entire civilization of the globe. Taken together they formed a representation of the art, the industry and ‘the inventions of mankind, and of every ideal yet realize apr aRE Ye the ele- eee operative power, d the progress of the TAT. EROR, _ tom the material to the structure or the machine; from the staple to the “mas 176 Barnard’s Report on the Machinery spread out, an accumulation of series upon series, and every series showing an almost complete and continuous gradation. The field of the Exposition was the parade ground, or: Champ de Mars, easy of access, and supplemented by annex- ing the island of Billancourt in the Seine, together comprehend- ing an area in excess, by a few acres, of one-fourth of a square mile. Spacious grounds outside the building, or palace as it was called, but without much very palatial in its aspect or con- struction, were allotted to ‘structures that ranged from the en te of groups within the building. By such means therefore, the best practicable facilities were supplied to each nationality to exhibit its own products to ad at them, the ten ‘juries of groups,’ for revising these awards under th : aan un 5 the most ready and a observation of the objects composing Were it a possibility to continue in permanence such a2 t—a single area into which all the national arts were ae re ares a eens to visit ev aint se wires, > of the Universal Exposition. 1i7 to say, a well appointed and sufficiently numerous commission to witness, examine and report upon the Exposition and the groups and classes of objects therein represented; and_ the Reports to be printed by the Government for general distri- bution. Besides the primary ‘General Survey of the Exposi- tion, from the pen of Charles B. Seymour, chairman of the Committee, instructed for that purpose by the Department of State, and its preface M. Beckwith, U. S. Commissioner employed above as an introductory heading to these remarks. It is an octavo of 650 pages, filled with descriptions, illustra- execution of this and of all the volumes or reports is obviously ue, in no small measure, to the taste, | judgment and one view through the medium of luminous, graphic and illus- trated descriptions. The author not He himself to mere delineation, as he passes from object to object, takes | to | us in their subsisting mutual connections ano depen- dencies, and to explain in each : the distinctive uses of ts, the modes of gene ti — the — vad | ae ele &: = gi ae $ conce’ an eC mind, often ArT n those two : Ax. Jour. Sci.—Srcoxp Serres, Vou. XLIX, No. 146,—Maxcg, 1870. 12 178 Barnard’s Report on the Machinery wedded and indissoluble partners, Theory and Practice. An ll the ? dependence of art upon other art, and of art upon its own time but with intensified vividness, how d eply ‘art and inven- tion project their influences into economic an a : rae The dependencies of industrial art may be spoken of in Various senses,—massively, for instance, as restin upon force, its ity, as used for the purpose of ction, ugh all the range and Metmeies of heat, cold, ex- nD, pressure and motion,—sometimes the production of red material, and sometimes the production of impro of the Universal Exposition. 179 effects, or of articles and implements for ornament and use, in their variety, their finish, and their aptitudes, as well as the rapidity and multitude of their manufacture. The conelud- ing four chapters are occupied with the ‘exact sciences’ consid- ered in their mechanical and practical relations. Weread with wonder of the success with which measurements are carried to an exactness well nigh rivalling, to all intents, the mathe- matical itself—of rods ascertained to a millionth of an inch in length, and of balances that perform to a twenty-millionth part of their burden. We are delighted to trace anew the progress by which the human eye has become enabled, through the per- fection of object-glasses enormous in dimension, on the one hand, or of minute sizes on the other, to penetrate into the universe out- into the surprising secret by which mechanism is made to onal s of legendary lore. Taken together it forms a resort where the i e prin as a public narily obtainable abariise than by and through members of the United States Senate, each of whom, as we are informed, had e distribution of some fifteen entire series, each corresponding to the one of which this report is a constituent. : The United States was not poe represented, as res numbers, in its own section of the ifr | The country was to much oceupied with new an _extraordinary dom questions. Industry was unsettled in many respects. = subject had not attracted the earliest attention; and the fie Was very distant, Yet our national exhibit, although not extended in scale, was excelled in quality only by France 180 T. S. Hunt on Norite Rock. itself—and that in no very considerable degree—while the per- centage of awards relative to the number of exhibitors was double the corresponding percentage for England and her col- onies. No extracts which our space would allow could do justice to the report, especially if not accompanied by the cuts or engrav- ings; and if we were to instance and enlarge upon passages and descriptions that appear specially important, it would con- vey no conceptions to the reader comparable with what he will obtain by a reference to the work itself. We only add, in justice to the distinguished author, that, while he is thoroughly American in a due anxiety to set forward the claims of his countrymen, it is with an obvious impartiality toward all the competitors, and with a diligence whose regulating principle is truth and an endeavor for the benefit of mankind in general. Art. XXIT—On Norite or Labradorite Rock; by T. STERRY Hont, LL.D., F.R.S. [Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Salem, August, 1869.] THE various rocks composed essentially of a triclinic or anor thic feldspar, with an admixture of hornblende, pyroxene, hypersthene or diallage, have by lithologists been designated by to norite. The name of hypersthene rock or h rsthenite (sometimes contracted into hyperite), was given b MaeCulloch® to a i rock feldspar, and glare found by him in the Western Islands of Scotland, and su this rock in place showed that though hypersthene, generally in very small proportion, is a frequent element, it is often __ ® MacCullloch, Geology of the Western Islands, i, 385-390. T. S. Hunt on Norite Rock. 181 rarely dichroite and quartz, are all Metre found sparingly disseminated in these anorthosites of New York and a, North America, where it sometimes forms $s or masses considerable size. Details as to the chemical and mineralogical characters of these rocks will be found in the . & D. Philos. Magazine for May, 1855, and also in the Geology of Canada, 1863, pages 588-590. The subsequent investigations of Sir William Logan have ' shown that these anorthosites in Canada belong to a great series son has lately observed it at the mouth of Pentecost ake | Ys ide f Labrador, where its character- idely spread on the coast 0 pai py a 182 T. S. Hunt on Norite Rock. Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., has given us valuable mformation with regard to the occurrence of labradorite rocks at some rere: on the Labrador coast.* One of its localities is at Square land, just north of Cape St. Michel, where the rock consists with a e vitreous quartz and with coarsely crystalline hy es which appears in relief on the weathered surfaces. o rounded by and probably rests upon Laurentian gneiss. At Domino Harbor he found domes or bosses of a similar labrador- ite resting upon strata which consist in great part of a slightly schistose quartzite, having for its base a granular vitreous quartz, ing, but in some parts these quartzites become gneissic, and was inclined to regard, in this = are prone nothing more than outlying portions of e newer Labrador i ia ks composed chiefly of labradorite or a related feldspar greatly predominate in the Labrador series, but these, at least in the area near Montreal, which is the one best known, are interstratified with beds of a kind of diabase in which dark green pyroxene prevails, with crystalline limestone similar 12 mineralogical characters to that of the Laurentian system, and more rarely with quartzites and thin beds of orthoclase gneiss. I have more than once insisted upon the rarity of free quart and the general basic character of the rocks in this series, 22 observation with which I am credited in Dana’s Manual of Geol- * On the Glacial phenomena of faine Acad. Nat ak, eh t pe eee. Labrador and Maine, ane Bost, e T. S. Hunt on Norite Rock. 183 which abound in the St. Lawrence valley, consist of pure or nearly pure feldspar rocks, in which the proportion of foreign - minerals will not exceed five hundredths. Hence we have come to designate them by the name of labradorite rock. The colors of this rock are very generally some shade of blue, from bluish- black or violet to bluish-gray, smoky gray or lavender, more rarely purplish passing into Aesh red, greenish-blue, and occa- i ee bluish-white. The weathered surfaces of se labradorite rocks are opaque white. e anorthosites which occupy a considerable area in the Adirondack region, as described by Emmons in his report on the Geology of the Northern district of New York, and as seen by me in hand mens, closely resemble the rocks of the Labrador series in anada. stones and as erupted masses, a so far tes it the peculiar character jus id type of rock seems in North America to characterize the Labrador series. t may here be remarked as an interesting fact ing on the distribution of the Labrador series, that two large boulders. of labradorite rock, one of the beautiful dark blue variety, are found on Marblehead Neck on the coast of Massachusetts. It oe 184 T. &. Hunt on Norite Rock. does not seem probable that these masses could have been derived from any of the far off localities already mentioned, was recently pointed out to me by Mr. G. F. Matthew of St. John, to whom we are indebted for a great part of our knowledge of . e sas, are cited in Dana’s Mineralogy as localities of labradorite, but as I have never examined specimens from these laces, am unable to say whether they resemble the characteristic anor- ibed. orway, was given by Esmark to a rock composed chiefly of labradorite, which 1s found in several localities in that country.* ha noticed the close resemblance between two specimens of norite SSSR ae et ce eee a 7 Cy T. S& Hunt on Norite Rock. 185 By referring to the geological map just mentioned, it will be seen that these so-called gabbros occupy considerable areas in of Norway. the maps, Messrs. Kjerulf and Dahl, these gabbros are regarded tonic origin. The specimens of these norites exhibited in Paris were in blocks polished on one side, and as was observed in the note aid of a black diamond, has been in the Museum of the Geo- logical Survey of Canada since 1856. Of the collection of norites from Norway the specimens from Sogndal and Egersund presented fine varieties of grayish or brownish violet tints, while a dark violet norite came from ‘eroé and also from the islands of Langoé and Gomoé, and a white granular variety from the gulf of Laerdal-in the diocese OF Bergen. It is oy in rare cases that the cleavable 2a of these ibits the peculiar opalescence which distinguishes the finer labradorite found in some parts of the coast of Labra- dor. Opalescent varieties of this feldspar are however occa- sionally met with in the area near to Montreal, and in northern New York. In the Paris Exhibition of 1867 there were d, comes from a mountain mass in the Government of Kiew, but of its geognos- tcal relations I am ignorant. a Le _ these peculiar labradorite rocks, presenting a great similarity Mm mineralogical and lithological character, have now been observed in Essex county, New York, and through Canada at Fragile from the shore of Lake Huron to the coast of Labra- ee | in the Isle of Skye, in Norway, and in southwestern Russia, and in nearly all of these localities are known — in oe With and apparently reposing like a newer formation upo the ancient Lagrentiin, panes " Giekie in his memoir on the Seology of a part of Skye,* appears to include the norites or ; * Quar. Jour. Geol. Soe., xiv., p. 1. that vicinity, are however Sdentiont with the North American norites, whose stratified character is undoubted. _I called atten- has since described and bh (00 the nes “of that locality, which oe Ae labradorite, often coarse grained, with pyrox- ene and menaceanite, and is evidently, according to him, a bedd thew hic = (Dublin Quar. Jour., 1865, p. 94). He, it may ro ed, designates it as a syenite, a term which most litho- oe apply to rocks whose feldspar is orthoclase. ] desire to call the attention of both American and European ier ie to this remarkable class of rocks, of which the norites may be regarded as the normal and typical form, in the toe that they may be induced to examine still farther into the question of the age ary | geognostical relations of these rocks in various regions , an to determine whether the mineralogical and a pep which I have pointed out are geological constan Art. XXTIL—On the cause of the color of the Water of Lake an, Geneva; by Aua. A. Hayss, M.D., Assayer to State of Massachusetts. THE traveler, who enters Switzerland at Geneva, always has his attention arrested by the beautiful azure color which the water of Lake Leman presents, especially when, as one looks into its depths, the color is in contrast with the white reflection of clothing below the surface, at points where the laundresses pursue their avocations. * T, at the same time, called attention to the Laurentian aspect of crystalline limestones of Iona, which I found in MacCulloch’s collection. Himestocen ea ‘not unlike logis wil at onc al thy inn tl Tasreatian tesestinne Sow Ya Soo je sieiwen-ptatanaa of tne-o» ‘pp ahimammes - s) A. A. Hayes on the Color of the Water of Lake Leman. 187 Many will remember the expression of Sir H. Davy, that “this color is doubtless due to so iodine,” “White waters,” when clear, always present this hue, and when turbid, a green hue, due to reflection from particles chemists, such as Will, Dafour, and Blanche, whose results only show the presence of more salts in number in the solid matter, hese analyses, I learned, were made in the usual way of “s water for the solid products, and driving off and collecti gases, a method which enables us to answer many questions, but does not permit the nicer determinations of or- % , if present, in a natural or an altered state. Anal- € mnatter, is ignored ayy when we proceed in to determine the quantity and ‘ 188 A. A. Hayes on the Color of the Water of Lake Leman. Nearly all waters contain living organisms, and their germs, these matters, in a decomposing state, organic acids, either with or without bases, in the form of salts, most easily changed by heat or even by concentration. These substances are very im- portant constituents, in connection with the uses of the water, and I could offer many illustrations of damage in manufactur- ing and unfitness for consumption, traceable directly to the pres- ence of such bodies in waters otherwise desirable, and proper for extended consumption. The mode adopted in my examination of the water of Lake Leman is that which I have usefully applied in a large number of cases, and with modifications, it is applicable to all waters, in Rep, eenatiaes eae ” subsequently chemicall and their state o ation found, and engaged compounds st arated and wei he Pe ae Be Chemical analysis, thus conducted, having thrown no light on the cause of color in this water, has proved the absence of col- oring substances, and placed it in the list of those waters, which do not exhibit the color seen in this lake; we are, therefore, led to ascribe the origin of its peculiar tint to natural influences, namely, the reflection and refraction of an azure sky in a color The sky coloration of this part of Switzerland early engaged the observation of Saussure, who even experimented on its depth. of color, while retaining its blue tint, All the conditions favor- me most constant blueness of sky, are present in this, and : ther parts of Switzerland in a marked degree, and I t that extended observation will always connect th _ White water with the azure hue of the clear S. P. Sadiler on Fischer's Salt. 189 the azure tint was replaced by a grayish hue, or a light color was the closing hue of a series of shades of color. If the responded in unequal coloration, as if the water mirrored the sky, under this condition of beaut do not exhibit the oloration, commonly seen in Lake Leman =f with clear blue skies through atmospheric constitution, and bluish greenness of tint Is the nearest approach to azure hue, which the sky permits, € negative results of chemical analysis, and the agen of the effect of reflected and refracted light of the sky, whic 18 over the water of Lake Leman, led me to the conclusion that the cause of color is found in the peculiar hue of the sky, so transmitted to the eye by a colorless water. Boston, Mass., December 10th, 1869. — Arr. XXIV.—Coniributions to Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School. No. 1X.—On the Potassio- Cobaltic Nitrite known as Fischer’s Salt, and some analogous and related compounds ; by SAMUEL P. SapTLer. THE composition of the double nitrite of cobalt and potash, known by the different names of “ Fischer's Salt” and “ Cobalt-yellow,’ has long been an open question. The follow- 18 peculiaz N.6 i he formula and results farther on. ely Pg aaet ae a distinction between the salt formed in neutral eee a, “We f s, Which latter he considers as a normal salt. He gives both 2€0®, 3N,0,+3(K,ON,0,)+3N,0, and €0,0,3N,0.+ K,0N,03)+3H26 * Pogs. A + iv, 12. Ann. Ch. u. Ph., xevi, 218. Sir gees pe -oiy ss Aoge Ch., lxxiii, 598. 190 S. P. Sadtler on Fischer's Salt. or as we shall write it €0,6N90,.+6(KN9,)+3H,0. Braun* the last writer on the subject, passes most of the preceding work in review. e takes up Spa be results, and rejecting his views as to the composition of the salt analysed by him, figures for it a number of ingenious but somewhat complicated form- ul e considers that neither the “neutral salt” nor the “acid salt” of Erdmann can be regarded as anything but mix- tures or ‘‘ poly combinations,” and for the first of them con- sidered as such he gives a still more ingenious and com- plicated formula. e quote it as reduced to its empirical form by Blomstrand :+ CogKs9N 12H O.,.t ~Braun’s own results are exp first by a formula containing both €0,03 and €09, then by one containing €0,9;, €00, N,@, and N,@, and finally by the following : . 3(€0,85, 3N,0;+4K,9, 4N,9;,4+2H,0)+2(€0,0s, H,98, 2N,03+ K,0, N.O,+3H,9). The experiments made to settle its composition and the results i ited the salt in a stream 0: nitrogen. Nitric oxyd was given off and the residue was @ €o,9, which dissolves in €,H,®, with a brown, €,H20, with a green color. This observation is of undoubted NaH®0,BaH,9,, €: , ack hydrated €0,03 This is confirmatory of Stromeyers : : t ( ‘* Zeitsch. Anal. Ch., vii, 313. _ Chemie der Jetztzeit, p. 414. $ Should be 0 608.” es oe | } : S. P. Sadtler on Fischer's Salt. 191 and then deposited steadily though slowly. After a number of hours not the slightest’ bubble of air was to be seen. The absence of all chance of oxydation here, either from air or tion of gas exceedingly rapid. Before drawing any conclusions from this, howetei t e ne of acetic acid on KN ®,, out of access of air, was to be studied. Gmelin* states that, when treated with acid out of access of air, nitric oxyd is evolved while the liquid takes up N®, and N,0; This evolution was found to take place readily over the mercury and the gas answered to the test of ferrous sulphate and was colored red on admission of air, like the gas evolved in the formation of the salt. The question now is whether the liberated © is taken Up in the formation of the salt to oxydize the €o®, to convert the excess of nitrite into nitrate. “The question cannot be €finitely settled, until we have some delicate test for a small quantity of nitrate in the presence of a large quantity of nitrite. But there is one thing which I as sign cant. rdmann made one of his preparations of the “acid salt,” b filtering the mixture of neutral solutions into pure acetic Now the greater the excess of acid, the quicker would be the Conversion of nitrite into nitrate, and we should look for a very Small amount of the double nitrite salt. Yet it formed as readily, and analysis proved it to possess the same constitution 4s the other preparations. The inference from this is, that the * Cay. Soc. ed. vol. ii, p. 382. 192 S. P. Sadtler on Fischer's Salt. sesquioxyd-forming ack of the €o is sufficient to enable it to take liberated ox water-bath and then in a water-oven exactly at 100°. I saw no evidence of a decomposition at this temperature alluded to by E mann. The results of full analyses of these six preparations warrant me I think in presenting the following conclusions :— 1st. That Fischer's salt is a Tri-potassic-Cobaltic-Nitrite, its es- sential formula being €0,0,,38N,0,+3(K,6, N 0.) + Aq or €o0,6N9 _+6(KNO, )+Aq. 2nd. That it can be formed with 4H, ©, 3H, ©, 2H, ?, H,®; or anhydrous, according to the degree of sonceniestion Of the solutions hee passing in color from a light yellow to a dark oe ellow. heel nd, a when the €o is thrown down as ©08, ie is roasted and, after treatment Sete ua regia and sul ee pki was throws dowa from t e solution of the ie sulphates as ed ree acetate of soda are chlorine, and then uced b e metalic sta The potash is aes determined i difference. S. P. Sadtler on Fischer's Salt. 193 The nitrogen was determined, either together with the H,¢?0 by Gibbs’s modification of Bunsen’s method, which will be again alluded to, or directly by volume with the Sprengel- ump. The H, ® either as above, or by combustion with €u ina stream of =o. The analytical data and results are appended. Preparation No. 1. "2011 gr. salt — 1732 gr. €o,K,550,—44'75 p.c. Co8-+K, 8 gave 0656 gr. €CoSO,—15°78 p.c. CoO=17°47 p.c. 109 1626 gr. salt gave 1403 gr. €o,K.550,—44'83 p.c. CoO +K,0 0529 gr. CoSO,=15°74 p.c. CoO=17°42 p.e. Oe 3° 5147 er ae fr 1ig7 & nitrogen at 15°25° and 483°2 mm. pres. ce. N=44 9410 or. salt ae 167°6 ce. et at “15 ‘25 and 601°6 mm. pres. =16°76 p.c. N==45°48 p. ¢. ae en salt gave —_— er. H, o=7 00 P.c H, 20. "34 937 ¢ 6°9 Preparation No. 2. 1082 gr. vo = 0955 gr. ©o,K,550,—45'86 p.c. Co8-+K,90 also 0408 gr. 080, —16'16 p-c. €oO8=17°88 p.c. Sey “1222°gr, salt gave ‘1974 gr. €o,K, et eeghay p.c. Sot Bae also 0455 gr. €oSO,—=15°96 p.c. CoO—17°66 p.c. “4192. gr. salt ‘gave 102°83 ce. nitrogen at 18°25° and 462°6 mm. pres.=17°57 p.c. N.=47-70 p. c. N, bh gr. salt gave 0846 gr. H, O=5°46 p. c. “4 3104 “ «© 9996 gr. H,O=5'39 p.c. HO: myptben No. 3. 5889 gr ealt gave ‘5940 gr. 60,K,680,= ‘ 0740 aes = c. sp pivicens "83 2 €o0 < gr.=17'80 p.c. i.e ae 8,0. Au. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Series, Vo. XLIX, No. 146. —Maxcz, 1870. 13 194 S. P. Sadtler on Fischer’s Salt. Preparation No. 4. 6677 gr. ~ gave 6073 gr. Co, K.550,—47-26 p.c. Co8-+K,6 gav also ‘2258 gr. CoSO,—16'36 p.c. CoO=18'1l p.c. "3590 gr. sk gave 3264 gr. €0,K,580,=47-24 p.c. CoO+K,0 gay Iso “1226 gr. €oSO, =16'52 p-c. €CoO=18'29 p.c. 3 With 1- uifs gr. salt, combustion-tube lost -2461 gr., of which a€l, tube took up °0439=3°94 p.c. H 2@ leaving "2022 gr =18'15 p.c. N.=49-27 p.c. N, 6. " With 1-2494 or. eal Sg” leans “lost “2674 gr., of which : ee rake took up °0407=3°26 p.c. H, 8, leaving "2267 gr. 3 4 p.c, N.=49°25 p.c ih. With 1- 1587 gr. salt, combustion-tube ‘lost. -2533 gr., of which €a€l, tube took up °0432—3-7 As ce. H 2 leaving "2101 gr. =18'13 p.c. N.=49-20 p.c. Sawa No. 5. With 1/2557 gr. salt, ee lost “2758 or., of which €a€l, tube took up Raa c. H,8 leaving 2299 gr. : oe a Nyt With 11464 gr. salt, stadia lost +2556 gr., of which ae Ae took u up ce 8 p.c. HO leaving "2077 gt. 8 p.c. N8,. 2 p.c. N.=49°1 Preparation No. 6 "8154 gr. salt — — gr. €o,K, 580 ,- =48°71 p.c. €00+K,9 “age e also - gr. €oSO,—16-75 5 pc. (06 = —=18°54 p.¢ "5453 gr. cl t gave 5110 gr. Co, K 550, —48-69 p.c. oO +K,9 also *1885 gr. €oSO,—16- 73 p.c. CoO8=—18'51 p.% 6805 gr. anit gave 6373 gr. €o,K 580, —48°66 p. ¢. €00+K,0 gav sy 2358 gr. ©oSO,—16°77 pc. CoO=1855 P-o 3712 gr. scl poeerreneo gr. €0,K,550,—48-71 p.c. 00 4+K,0 ve also “1297 gr. €oSO, =16°90 p.c. €o8=18°71 p-& With 15460 gr. salt, combustion-tube lost -3033 gr., of which took up *0116—0°75 p.¢c. H,© leaving 2917 gT- =18-87 pe N=51-21 ae eNO. S. P. Sadtler on Fischer's Salt 195 Prep. No. 1. Prep. No. 2. €0,6N0,+6(KN6,)4+4H,0. €0,6N0,+6(KN6,)+3H, 0. Theor. p. cts. Found p. cts. Theor. p. cts. Found p. cts. €0,0, —17-00 17°45 LY gi 17°77 K,0—28-94 29°00 29°48 29°70 N08 ,—46°69 45°21 47°57 47°22 O— 7°37 6°99 5°63 5°43 Prep. No. 8. Prep. No. 4 and 5. €0,6N0,+4+6(KNO,)+2H,0. €0,6N0,+6(KNO,)+3H, 6. Theor. p. cts. Found p. cts. Theor. p, cts. Found p. cts. 17°96 €0,0,—17°65 17°99 18°20 18°55 K,0—30-04 31°41* 30°63 30°81 30°61 N,0,—48-48 47°87 49°43 49°24 49°43 H,6— 3°83 4°15 1°95 3°64 3°92t Prep. No. 6. ; €o,6N0,+6(KN9O,). Theor. p. cts. Found p. cts. Co,0,— 18°35 18°58 K,6—31-24 31°90 N,0,—50°41 51°21 — o— 0°75 It will be seen that, while the general coincidence is well sus- tained, there are several decided deviations. We can only call be obtained on account of their solubility. By using a strong NaN, solution, | I succeeded in obtaining the new soda com- * Acetate of potash probably not all washed out by alcohol. Unnaccountably high. “ee 5 h. sechste auflage, Zweiter Band, p. 128. r. pr. Ixxxvii, 303 Part of nitre and 2 parts of lead were fused together after Stromeyer ) well-k 196 S. P. Sadtler on Fischer's Salt. pounds, which I am about to describe. Toa solution of €oCl,, which had been boiled and then acidified with acetic acid I added an excess of NaN®, solution. The mixture instantly tinct for analysis. This I found to be difficult. The brown salt I readily got almost pure, but succeeded only partially in obtaining the yellow one distinct. The brown salt continues to ‘form, to a greater or less extent, even after the formation of the tion with the €o,6N®,. The brown salt I would call a di-sodio- €0,6N0, +4(NaN©,)+H,0. And €0,6N6, +6(NaN@,)+H,9 The following are the analytical results : Brown Salt. 1st Preparation. 5400 gr. salt gave -4676 gr. €0,Na,480,=39°94 p. c. ©o8 +Na,9 also gave -2374 gr. CoO ,=21°27 p.c. CoO=23'54 p.c. 029,. 5866 gr. salt gave “5041 gr. €o,Na,4S0,=39°64 p. c. CoO +Na,O 0 gave ‘2615 gr. €oSO,=—21°57 p.c. Fo0—23°87 p-¢ 0,0,. Brown Salt. 2nd Preparation. ‘5602 gr. salt gave -4805 gr. €Co,Na,450,=39°57 p.c. FCoO+ Na, also gave *2425 gr. €CoSO,—20°95 p.c. CoO=23'18 p.c to, 0.. ‘4671 gr. salt gave ‘4027 gr. Co,Na, 450 ,=39°77 p.c. €o8 + Na,O also gave “2026 gr. CoSO,—20-99 p.c. CoO—23'23 p.¢- ‘ 0,03. : : With 1-7054 gr. salt, combustion-tube lost “4476 gr., of which, €a€l, tube took up 1156 gr.=6-78 p.c. H, © leaving ‘2920 gr.=17'12 p.c. N.==46°47 p.c. N28,. had gone into solution. It is now filtered and the filtrate evaporated to an oily con- on ie o it will ize out. Me Sine Wwe wish i * we Can give it the treatment with alcohol descri Hampe (Ann. Ch. a Ph. 125, 335). This frees it completely from saltpetre and ¥ S. P. Sadiler on Fischer's Salt. 197 With 1°8558 gr. salt, combustion-tube lost 4476 gr., of which €a€l, tube took up 1216=6°55 p. c. H, © leaving °3260 gr. =17°56 p.c. N.== 47°67 p.a..N, Oy. Yellow Salt. 1st Preparation. : "6342 gr. salt gave 5448 gr. Co, Na,550,,=39°22 p. c. CoO +Na,O the €o determination was lost. . 5805 gr. salt gave 4994 gr. Oo, Na,550,, =39°28 p. c. CoO +Na,O also gave ‘2431 gr. CoSO,—18°55 p.c. CoO=—20°53 p.c. €0,0,. Yellow Salt. 2nd Preparation. “4197 gr, salt gave ‘3700 gr. Co, Na,550,=40'25 p. c. CoO +Na,O0 so gave ‘1723 gr. CoSO,—19°86 p.c. CoO=21°98 p.c. 0.04. “4873 gr. salt gave -4291 gr. €Co,Na,550,=40°20 p.c. CoO +Na,9 also gave ‘2012 gr. €oSO,—19°98 p.c. CoO=22°11 p.c 2°~ 3° Yellow Salt. 38rd Preparation. ‘8554 gr. salt gave -7354 gr. €o,Na, 550, =39°25 B c. €o8+Na,0 also gave ‘3543 gr. €oS0,=20°04 CoO=—22'18 p.c. Og 3° ; €0,6N6,+4(NaN6,)+H, 9. €0,6N0,+6(NaN®,)+H, 9. Theor. p. cts. Found p. cts. Theor. p. cts. Found p. €0,0,—24:13 23°71. 23°21 += 20°10 20°53 22°04 2218 Na,O—18-02 18°37 18°70 22°52 20°70 20°31 19-21 N,0,—55-23 47-07 (2)* 55°20 [20°54 H,O~ 2-62 6°66 (?)* 2-18 ually under the in bracket showing the are fortu- after the formation and filtering off of some of the brown salt, chlo- nid of luteocobalt was added to the wine-colored filtrate, which * The found per centages of N+H,0 in the brown salt is the average of two tions. determina: 198 S. P. Sadiler on Fischer's Salt. €o,, 6NOG,+€0,12NH,, 6NO,+H; 0. The following are the analytical results: 5627 gr. salt gave 3471 gr. CoSO,—29°85 p.c. CoG—33-03 p.c- a. .; °2867 gr. salt gave 1770 gr. CoSO,—29°87 p.c. CoO—33'06 p.c. €o,6,. 5834 gr. salt gave 176°88 ce. nitrogen at 3° and 661-29 mm. = “19 p.c. N.=19°91 p.c. NH, and 44:50 p.c. N, 95. _ 10866 gr. salt gave with €u+€u0+Ppbcro ,-3 745 gr. 34°46 p. ¢. H,0=32-09 p. c. from NH,+-2°37 p.¢c. H, 6. €o2, 6NO,+€o,12NH,, 6NO, +H 42: F or, p. p. ¢ €0,0, 32°87 33°04 NH, —20-20 19°91 N,0,—45°15 44°50 H,O0— 1°78 2°37 I now tried chlorid of purpureo-cobalt upon some of the same solution and got a roseo-cobalt compound, exactly analogous to that of luteocobalt, its formula being— €0,6N0,+€0,10NH, 6NO,--H, 0. The following were the analytical results : 3186 gr. salt gave 1974 gr. €oSO,—29-98 p.c. €oO—33°18 p. @ €o,9,. : €o,, 6NO,+€0,10NH,, 6NO,+H,9. Theor. p. ct, Found p. ct. €0,0,—34-02 33°18 This salt is not nearly as insoluble, however, as the Iuteocobalt salt and but a little of it could be obtained. At first I got it as a yellow and very crystalline salt on the sides of the beaker, after _ ng some little time. The crystals examined under the microscope were beautifully defined monoclinic prisms pit terminal planes. The portion I analyzed had more of the co. Es ae Ape Seo See ee i Ee tae BON et NES ES SR NE ey, yt ey eee ea ee a Mig eae ey S. P. Sadiler on Fischer's Sait. 199 of the salts of roseo-cobalt and showed under the microscope a star-shaped aggregation of small crystals. I also formed in the soda-salt solution a yellowish xantho- cobalt compound having probably an analogous constitution but did not get enough of it to analyze. Examined under the microscope, the crystals were seen to be of a peculiar cup-shaped appearance and quite large and pointed. he ammonium salts were next examined. That one at least existed had been found by Gibbs and Genth,* although it had not been analyzed by them. Erdmannt had, however, formed an ammonium salt exactly corresponding to Fischer’s salt. I sue- ceeded in forming this and another, the two exactly correspond- Ing in constitution to the two soda salts. The circumstances un- der which the different salts form I am not able, however, to state at all positively, except that in forming the 3-atom salt I had more concentrated €oCl, and NH,N®, solutions. They are both bright yellow and could not be distinguished by their color. e may term them the di-ammonio-cobaltic nitrite and the tri- ammonio-cobaltic nitrite, their formulas being respectively €0,6N0,4+4(NH,N®,)+2H 0 and €0,6N0,+6(NH,N9,)+2H,29. The following were the analytical results : Two-atom Salt. ‘4495 gr. salt gave -2022 gr. €CoSO,=—21°77 p.c. CoO=—24°09 p.c. Co,0.,.. T hree-atom Salt. 2992 or. salt gave ‘1145 gr. CoSO,—=1853 p.c. CoO—20°51 p.c. * 50,6... : "4169 gi. salt gave -1602 gr. CoSO,=18'59 p.c. CoO=2058 p.c. S.0.. ©0,6N6, +4(NH,NO,)+2H, 0. €0,6N6,+6(NH,NO,)+2H20. Theor. pr. ct. Found pr. ct. Theor. pr. ct. Found pr. ct. €o,6,—24-20 24-09 20°39 20°55 Lang is more nearly right in the case of these ammonia com- Brads than in regard to the soda salts, they being much more solu * Researches on Ammonia cobalt bases, p. 48. ‘Ammonia cobalt bases, pp. 40, and 18. KNO®,, however, to a warm conce t pears to be the Faas as that which 200 S. P. Sadiler on Fischer's Salt. gives us a very strong argument in favor of the exact analogy of the 8-atom soda salt and with it of Fischer's salt, to the cobalticyanid of potassium, from which the salts of Gibbs and Genth were formed. With this view of these salts, we are able to discern yet other analogies. Iridium forms a number of ses- quioxyd salts very similar to those of cobalt. We have, indeed, two double chlorids of iridium, exactly analogous to the 2-atom and 3-atom soda or ammonia salts. i Ir, Cl,+-4KCl and Ir,Cl,4-6KCl in which we should expect monatomic Cl to be exactly replace- able by monatomic N®, and so we find that it is. Dr. Gibbs has discovered an iridium salt, having the formula Ir,6NO,+6(KNO,)-+2H,9, an exact analogue of Fischer's salt. Lang* also has discovered, a rhodium salt, whose formula Rh,6N0,+6(KN®,) is precisely analogous. If we = together for a moment the three salts in question, their identity of constitution becomes apparent. Ir,0,, 3N,0,+3(K,0, N,@,) or Ir,6NO6,+6(KNO,)—Gibbs. Rh, O,,3N,6,+3(K,0, N,©,) or Rh,6N6, +6(KNO,)—Lang. ©0283, 3N:0;+3(K,0, N @;) or €o0.6N0,+6(KNO2)—Sadtler. Tf, therefore, we are to place any dependence at all upon analogy; the universal occurrence of the hexatomic €o, atom in all our compounds, is what we should expect, a priori. The analyses of the series of salts I think fully confirms this expectation. I have now to discuss some related compounds—those formed in neutral solutions. Erdmann first pointed out the distinction tween these and the normal Fischer’s salt. He obtained and : z ntra: : nothing is formed but a flocculent yellow precipitate, which ap- I formed over mereury in the The formulas of these salts appear to be as _* Royal Swedish Acad. Trans., 1864. S. P. Sadtler on Fischer's Salt. 201 follows. For the black or ios salt arg 8,)+2(KN6,)+H,90 and for the yellow salt €o2N6,+2(KN6,)-+-H, 6, and the first may be termed a potassio-dicobaltous nitrite and the second a oa mono- tere nitrite. Appended are the analytical ts. Prep. No. 1.—Black Salt, very crystalline. 5421 or. salt mre Sry gr. €o,K shine, Sage 43 p.c. CoO+K,9 also gav r, £080, =30°57 p 08. "7341 gr. salt gave re oe €o0,K e350, — 50: 57 p.c. CoO-+K, 0 also gave -4662 gr. €CoSO,=30°73 p. c. €o0. Prep. No. 2. Sh ib Salt (had not been washed for analysis. *3003 er. f Peirce, from emersions of Pleiades, 1839, Sept. 26, 11°45 Peirce, “ - - 1856-1861, 13°13 2. From Moon Culminations :— h. m. 8. Walker, from Cambridge obs’tions,,1843-45 5 8 10°01 oomis, “ Hudson 4 1838-44 9°3 Gilliss, «Capito Bab ..* 1838-42 10°04 Walker, “ Washington “ 1845 9°60 Newcomb, “ < ed 1846-60 11% +0°4— Neweomb, “ = sy 1862-3 9°8 Walker considered 9°:96 as the most probable value from moon-culminations, and Newcomb assigned 11*-1 as that indi- ign : cated by the Washington observations from 1846 to 1863, inclu- sive. 3. From chronometers transported between Boston and Liverpool. Mean from 373 previous to 1 5 8 12°46 849, Bond’s discussion of 175, expedition of 1849, 11°14 Walker’s “ “és 6c bed 12°0 Bond’s “ ‘“ “ «“ 12°20+1°20 Bond’s “ of 52, 6 trips, expedition of 1855, 13°43--0°19 This great uncertainty of the trans-Atlantic longitude—from 80 to 60 times greater th Goodfellow to Heart’s Content, Newfoundland, and Messrs. Da ideo a Chee es Calais’ Maine; for, the complete solu- 2 the 232 Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. tion of the problem in hand, required the determination of three separate longitudes: 1, between Greenwich and Valencia; 2, between Valencia and Heart’s Content, and 8, between Heart's Content and Calais, the easternmost station of the series con- nected by the telegraphic determinations of the Coast Survey. he first was accomplished by the ready co-operation of the Astronomer Royal. The second and third involved the princi- pal labor, and presented the chief difficulties. And these difficulties were by no means trifling. Wretched climate, defective land lines, unprecedented distance, with other untoward conditions, all conspired to render success by no Tt was not until the 14th that any instrumental adjustments were furnished for those stations by Mr. Davidson. But. even with these provided, and with the most laborious precautions taken in other respects, all efforts at direct communication ibe unavailing, day after day, and week after week. Davidson's health becoming impaired, his place at Calais was taken by Mr. Boutelle, one of the most experienced officers of survey. Singularly enough, it was only a couple of hours re his arrival, on the 11th December, ‘that, suddenly, the ed communication was found to be established. “A mmunication Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. 233 sharp frost had thrown the otherwise defective line into a con- sufficiently numerous to ensure a trustworthy result; still this third link in the chain of longitudes is undoubtedly its weakest part. A further difficulty was presented by the unprecedented interval between the meridians; necessitating the use of simple clock-comparisons instead of star-signals, and preventing the interchange of observers for eliminating the effects of person equation. Star-signals—i. e., signals transmitted at the instant a given star passes the several wires of the transit instrument, * first at one station and then at the other, and registered at both —have these advantages over mere clock-signals—beats sent om each station and similarly registered—that they give results inrlepentens of the star’s right ascension, which, can- . the star's passage between the two meridians. Where this inter- val is large, as in the case before us, the special advantage o Star-signals mainly disappears; and even if it did not, they would require too protracted an oecupation of the cable, and in the climate encountered, or indeed, in any climate, the chances would be great, with an interval o ours, against the Same star being observed at both stations. - With the superior catalogue of time-stars, however, which had been prepared, and with the careful experiments for per- sonal equation which were made both before and after the expe- any, also, arising from uneliminated personal at this was true; in both cases, the discussion of these points in , the ‘eport seems conclusively to show : matic registration of the signals received ; inasmuch as the loss of time i: ine the si in the method employed, not athe Magee senels eee The most sensitive ission of signals with circuit during an ei deflection only was 234 Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. ) far from 700 myriameters (4,320 statute miles) in length, formed of the two cables joined at the ends, using a battery composed of a percussion gun-cap, a morsel of zinc, and a drop of acidu- lated water.” : It is obvious that, with this instrument, there must be an appreciable loss of time in noting si due to inertia of The other instruments used were the regular apparatus of the telegraphic party of the Coast Survey ; at each station, a 46-inch a line upon a revolving cylinder, records the signals, both the clock and of the observer, by offsets from this normal line. At Valencia, observations were obtained on fifteen nights, on no one of which was the sky unclouded. “On only two of the five nights on which longitude signals were exchangt with New oundland, was it possible too tain observations : times by both. The clock corrections, however, whenever sed sible, were deduced from Mr. Mosman’s observations; when charge, and which are described in the C. S Report for 1856. The transit observations are given in full, with their reduc- Hons for the groups immediately preceding and following the longitude-signals, and with the normal equations and resultant values for each group. A glance at these observations reveals at once, in the small residuals, both the accuracy of the star-places and the skill of es, yet, Si accordance. Fortunately, at the former place nt series of latter place however, the clock gave serious trouble as well as 236 Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. Foilhommerum and Heart’s Content on but five dates; October by pressure upon either button, so that eve nal transmitted through the cable was recorded upon the ie ap at the station whence it was sent. It is thus manifest that the times of sending the signals were accurately recorded, while the times of receiving signals were recorded after an interval of time dependent on the perso! error of noting, and inseparable from the time of transmisstot through the cable, except by some independent means of meas- urement. If this interval were the same for both observer; a would be elim entirely from the longitude and merged Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantie Longitude. 237 with the time of transmission. Otherwise it would effect the to be very nearly the same for Mr. Dean and myself, and also iP . 64: The relations of the several quantities derived from the obser- eee) for Valencia and Newfoundland signals respectively. Incl nal in x the personal error of noting signals, the signals given an two stations gives 7',— 7, parison of the records of Newfoundland signals gives T,—T,'=At,'—At, +4--ate, and consequently 2h=(T,-T,!)4+-(T,-T- 1) + (ate —Ate’) + (At, At’) + @ 12) +e, =(T, —1,'/)= (= T,/)+(2ta—Ate')—(4t, —44,') If we assume the personal error of noting to be the same for the two observers, and the signals to travel with equal velocity in the two directions, the term «,—«, will disappear from the first equation, while the second will give a measure of the sum of the transmission-times and the personal errors of noting. — The several quantities above indicated are given in detail in the Report for the different series of signals, and exhibit excel- lent accordance in the results. There appears no difference of clock rates to affect the deduced value of x, nor of velocity for eastern and western signals to require @ correction of + depending on the clocks. ; ° e resultant values for the longitude, subject, however, mdi ean for personal equation in determining time, are as to™ WS 7 ] 866. ber 25, 2° 51" 56°477 fovember 5 56°455 November ps caaet > 9; 56°460 238 Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. The mean interval between the moments of giving the sig- nals and of their record upon the chronograph sheet is similarly found to have been October 25, 0°62 + 0°-008 26, 9 , 0°64 “010 November 5, 0°59 004 6, 0°55 007 9, 054 “005 in which the quantities appended are the probable errors of the respective determinations as deduced from the total results of the several sets, there being six sets for each determination except that of November 6t Between Heart’s Content and Calais the clock signals were much less satisfactory ; being obtained only on four nights, on only two of which the clock errors could be determined either immediately before, or soon after, the exchange, and on one exhibit, however, better pected, and are as follows (subject to a correction for perso equation) 1866. A. Me December 11, 0° 56™ 37°89 0°24 12, 87°53 0°31 14, 87°84 0°27 16, 87°78 0°28 From t g_ signals, hooey on page 236, it will be seen that there is introduced, in ; e deflection of the light-spot from the galvanometer, sends a second telegraphic si own chronograph. The whole interval, «, therefore, which . een the giving of a signal at one station and its oneenog _ record at the iin, Ws ted up of several parts. e. : Gould’s Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. 239 These parts, as given in the Report, consist of the time requi- site,— 1. For the signal to arrive at the other station. 2. For the galvanometer needle to move through a percepti- € are. _ 8. For the observer to notice the motion and tap his break- circuit key. 4. For this observation-signal to be recorded upon the chrono- h ph. Of these the second and third constitute the “error of not- ing,” which is, therefore, partly instrumental and partly per- sonal ; the one due to the inertia of the galyanometer-magnet, the other being the “ transmission-time ” along the nerves from eye to brain, through brain, and thence to finger-tips; consist- ing, therefore, of three distinct intervals, viz.: 1, between phe- 3, between volition and ng signal. m of these three tervals, according to the experiments made by Dr. Gould, co xceed, for good observers, 083; which woul _ With respect to Fis tout intervals which make up the quan- uty x, itis remarked that, if equal at the two stations, they ome wholly eliminated in the resultant longitude; if un- i ee the longitude must be increased by one half the excess of their sums for westward signals. In either case, the opera- tions for longitude give only their total sum at the two stations. The chronographs at both stations being similar, it might be in making the recor The method employed for determining the “ error of noting” 1 ce was alike j d It was by carefull ob serving a series of sign a to thooe exchanged for Io : tude, and so that both the ori and o Same chro: te im respect to observation of the co uent deflection were recorded on the nograph. similarity e 240 Gould’s Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. measurements just deseri This curious effect seems to show that eye and ear do not _ mes to the brain with the same promptness, and that, when dressed simultaneously, the mind cannot recognize which lakes the report, but takes that of one or the other, or both together, indiscriminately, the range of uncertainty being equal to th re sibly however, should give a more constant space com ing chapter on a. ee Oe pass the in : “Personal “4 nti ti Ba ho withisinj gly the rental as parege: © 3 oat re Gould’s Report on Trans-Atlantie Longitude. 241 comparisons were made between the observers for this Se i the values Gould—Mosman ‘=o ean— Mosman =+ 0°11 Goodfellow—Dean =+ 0°14 Boutelle—Goodfellow =— 0°14 Boutelle—Chandler =— 0°04 ela consequence. ts for longitu oy Heart's s Content we have for the several dates, after corrections applied :— 1866, Oct. 25, 2" 51™ 56°-457 sae 468 Nov. 5, 455 6, 481 9, 460 The final longitude deduced, after correction for personal equation in determining time Dean—Mosman=: +0* 11, and in hoting signals, Dean ould=s +0°-08, becomes A—2" 51™ 56554 Between Heart’s Content ae Calais, the results, similarly cor- rected, are for the several _ Dee. 11, ote 55™ 37°93 12, 53] 14, 87°84 16, 37°82 d the final result, corrected by —0*14 for personal equation mee Boutelle a Goodfellow, and omitting Dec. 12, is— A=0" 55™ 37°°72 Between Greenwich and Foilhommerum, the longitude was obtained b: by oS signals on two nights, and compared With two previous determinations by Mr. Airy for other points at slcds, by short geodetic connections. The two nights es gave Am, Jour, Sor—Szconp — Vou. XLIX, No. 146.—Manrcg, 1870. 242 Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantic Longitude. A. a. 1866, Noy. 5, 0" 41™ 335-305 08115 13, 33°280 0°110 Mean, , 0 41 33°29 This differs by —0*10 from that adopted by Mr. Airy as deduced from the great chronometric expedition. of 1844, and the telegraphic determination of 1862. he combination of the three longitudes thus determined, gives— ; Greenwich—F oilhommerum, Q* 41" 83°29 Foilhommerum—Heart’s Content, 2 51 56°54 Heart’s Content—Calais, 0 55 87°72 Greenwich—Calais, 4 29 17°55 oceanic arc being diminished and the land arc increased, each by about 0-14.” The only probable influence of personal equation in the thr entire longitude-measurement, com rising, as it does, three-Six- the observations of Messrs. Dunkin and Boutelle. The longitude of Calais, as heretofore telegraphically deter- mined, is as follows :— Calais—W ashington, 0 39 4°84 whence we have Greenwich—Washington, 5" 8" 125-39 The Seaton Station being 12°44, and the dome of the ee tol 10°17, east of the Naval Observatory, to the center of the dome of which the preceding value refers, we have as their lon- gitudes: Greenwich— Seaton Station, 5” 7™ 59-05 Capitol, ee 229 ES Sia % Gould's Report on Trans-Atlantie Longitude, 243 two from occultations of Pleiades, without regard to weight, is 5® 8™ 125-99, We regret that we have not room for even a brief abstract of the valuable closing chapter on the transmission-time of signals, but are compelled to dismiss it with barely stating the gene- ral result and some conclusions with respect to a few points, as derived from the experiments. € transmission-time by cable, after correction for personal ~~ in noting signals (0*303), was found to be for the several 1866, October 25, 0°:314 Cable of 1865, with earth and condenser. . 4 oe “ “co oe iT4 oe ? November 5, -280 Both cables, no earth. 6 2 48 “ “ “ “ 9, 02 40 “ “ce “ 29 The battery-strength on these nights was as follows :— October 25, 10 cells at Valencia, 10 cells at Newfoundland. 1 oO oe 66 “ 10 cee oc “ce 28 November 5. 3 « & “ 3 (73 “ e.g. = “ 10 “« «& “ 9. 4 %& «& “ 10 « “ rT es From these results the inferences seem warrantable, 1st, that the velocity of transmission is greater when the circuit is di and consists of a good metallic conductor exclusively, than when the signals are given by induction, although the earth may be at the other electrode; and 2d, that an increase of intensity io the electromotive force is ra a by an increase in the ve- ocity of propagation of the sign: . fe te sare for longitude, and from other experi- ments made with special reference to particular points, the fol- but simply an electrical disturbance, is requis t- ung a signal; that an inductive impulse, sufficient to deflect the galvanometers employed, was transmitted through one cable, . 244 H. A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. having at each end a condenser with 10 cells, in somewhat less than the third of a second, five seconds after the transmission of an impulse of the opposite sort; that with a circuit formed by the two cables, a smaller electromotive force sufficed to trans- L1SSic ompleting an interrupted circuit and those given by interrupting a closed circuit, ma teors, at the time of their return in L869, by nearly all those who were watching for them. The observers, in the few stations t b meteors, four of them conformable. During the rest of the morning the sky was overcast, and even in this interval it was at no time more than one third clear. 2. A similar failure, nearly or quite complete, is reported by Prof. Eastman, at the U. §. nthe Observatory, Washington, by Mr. Marsh and Mr. Taylor, at Philadel hia, by Mr. Fuertes at rd, Conn., by Mr. Boerner, at evay, Ind, by Prof Rockwood at Brunswick, Me. and by various others who were a. to make “ge Commodore ee ae ola, Florida.—To the courtesy of Comm ‘Sands, Sup’t. of the U. S. Naval Oheasadory- we are indebted _ for a letter of Commande: Wn. Gibson, from Pensacola. He Says that the night of the 18th—14th was exceedingly bright and * HT A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. 245 clear, and that the shooting stars were observed in extraordinary numbers, from 12 15™, a. M., until dawn, most numerously be- tween 3" — 4", a.M. It was difficult br give the average per ing agg to the northw the Pacifie Ocean. —To the courtesy of the Secretary ae the Smithsonian Institution, we are indebted for a letter of Mr, Alexander Kvans of Elkton, On the morning of Nov. 14th, he was upon the Pacific Ocean, lat. 8° 30’ N., and long. 84° 30’ W. He watched from two till four o ‘clock, when the sky became overcast. Between these hours the sky was partly covered. The aoe was, he says, quite equal to that of 1868 which he observed thr ughout. He thought chat the radiant point was not as last Si in the center of the sickle in Leo, but a little more to the eastward between the stars , and 7. There were several nonconformable meteors whose radiant seemed to be the zenith. 5. ~ Santa Barbara, California.—To the courtesy of Prof. Peirce, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, we. are in- Centr for the observations of Mr. Geo. Davidson, Assistant, seen by the two observers per minute. The ey are oo akan from the diagram forwarded by Prof. Peirce. 1) 23m 9-2 me h 16m 5-0 meteors.|24 46™ 3-0 meteors.|3® 15™ 5-0 meteors. teors./2h 1 35 36.4 91 62 * 51 4 os 91 25 * 47 4:8 i 25 50 “ 55 «6° ied 25 2-0 = 8:59 ..% 1.36% et oe. S137 59 3°8 ub 35 2-2 ts 5 3:0 ty 35 3-2 “ 2 9 48 “ 41 66 * 11 20 “ ae 463 * Mr. Davidson says, “the night was beautifully clear, the moon being ten da: ‘4 old, and pes I was ne t1> _ A. M., up to sehisle Gans 22 meteors had been see Bb 43m, 4. M., — - kept for any unusual aialay, but the se Some of the meteors were About half a dozen Persistent d disappeared at a point about 9 or above Polaris, inal ° to orem The train was 5° in mee 246 H. A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. Steepeets it took a wavy form; then curved until it formed moved in a line toward the radiant point in Leo, over a space ore” The small number of meteors reported above as_seen between 25 30™ and 2h 40m was due to Mr. Davidson’s being engaged in watching the train of this meteor. At 1" 15™ Mr. S. R. Thockmorton, Jr., saw a meteor appear and disappear without apparent motion. It was about two degrees above and to the left of the bright star in the blade of the sickle. 6. At Fredericton, N. B., (lat. 46° 3’, lon. 66’ 45’).—A watch was kept up by relays of students of the University of New Brunswick, throughout the night of Nov. 18th, 14th. They report the times and general directions of the individual meteors, with duration of flight, brillianey, &. The following table of the numbers seen in each 10 minutes of the night is compiled from their report. Number of meteors seen at Fredericton, N. B. on the night of Nov. 13th, 14th. Hour. | 010m | 19m_29m | 29m_39m|39m49m|49m50m'59m com Total. t. 9 1 1 1 3 ome 1 1 3 1 0 1 7 9—10 0 0 1 | 1 2 5 10—11 4 0 4 3 9 5 18 11—12 8 12 4 6 6 3 39 it 2 10 6 4 5 8 26 59 to. 5 6 18 6 8 12 17 67 7 8 ll 10 26 32 37 20 | 136 4 24 se BS 21 14! 181 4— 5 22 30 28 35 34 18 | 167 5— 6 25 31 20 16 22 20 34 oe 7 7 30 4 14 bi Total in 11 hours, 830 for two successive hours. Messrs. B . nell and Williston watched from 74" ‘to 9" and from 1" to 8". A second party, consisting of Messrs. Vanwarts, Cliff, W man, Belyea, and Lawrence, watched from 9" to 11" and from 3" to 5°, and a third pene consisting of Messrs. Willbur, Seo wil, Chandler and Walker watched from 11" to 1" and from 5" to 64". Only four persons: were, however, observing at any In Englanc -sEhe@oude ented observations for most ime in Great Britain. At Glasgow, Mr. A. S. Herschel ee ee H. A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. 247 and Mr. Robert McClure had a tolerably clear sky from half past 4 till half past 5. “Meteors of the brightest class of the November shower, hav- ing luminous streaks, were crossing the sky at the rate of about 40 in an hour, for one observer, corresponding to a rate of fre- quency of at least one hundred per hour, in all the sky. The apparent paths of thirty of these meteors were recorded upon a ae y their course among the stars, and the direction of thei fig t was from the usual radiant point in the constellation e0. * * * * nd were not successful on the morning of the 14th. At Culloden, Mr. A. Forbes counted upwards of 200 between the hours of 3" and 7", a.M., the maximum of the shower appearing to be about 5 o'clock. : 8. In France, the “ Association Scientifique” o: nized a sys- tem of observations, at various stations near the Mediterranean, embracing even one or two in Italy. The results were to be re- the month of November, at Marseilles and Bordeaux. e have not learned what success rewarded the zeal of the French ob- se and corrected for the influence of the moon, for the night of Nov. 12th, 6-8 meteors; for the night of Nov. 18th, 248 meteors,” H the preceding nights gave € says that the observations for the mean for that period : ules or constants for such reductio might perhaps have some value, if we kne 248 H. A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. the observations of Mr. Coulvier-Gravier and Mr. Chapelas are inextricably mixed up with their deductions. The manifest lishes his reports, and we respectfully call its attention to the matter. 10. At Vienna.—Prof. Weiss of the Observatory of Vienna, with three aids, determined 36 paths with the meteoroscope between 2" and 6%, a.m, of the 13th (Prof. Schmidt in Heis Wochenschrift, Dec. 8th). Some of them were from the Leo radiant. The total number visible was verv moderate. The next night was stormy, and for an interval of 10 minutes only at 4", A. M., could anything be seen. A few stars of Leo, Gemini and Auriga were then visible through openings in the clouds, and along with them, though principally seen through aze, were some meteor tracks, having trains and radiating from Leo. Prof. Schmidt estimated that the hourly number for one observer was about 50 reckoning only the brighter appears to have been overcast. ll. At Rome—The cloudy skies which covered northern Europe on the night of the 13th, 14th, also impaired the Italian observations. Padre Secchi reports a few, though incomplete, from Rome. ; At 2" 30" 4. m. the clouds broke away in the west and in five minutes 18 meteors were seen. At 2h 35m the sky was nearly clear except low in the northeast, and a regular count was to state the number of observers. Padre Secchi concludes: Ist. That there was a real recurrence of the display. 2d. That it was but little different from the display last year, there having been then seen in the same interval about 200 meterors. The hour moreover was not that of the maximum. _ 3d. That the radiant pot was within the bend of the. sickle | ith the stars « and « an equilateral triangle. > But this determination was not very precise owing to the want of tr radiant, h. That the greater part of the meteors passed to the north H. A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. 249 It was further remarked that the trains were visible only a few ela nd that there were none of the beautiful scrolls of smoke sa were seen last year. Madame Scarpellini gives in her Corrispondenza Scientifica accounts of observations at Rome by herself, Ne sn a <= and the following from Perugia and Civita : 2. At Civita Vecchia.—Prof. Pinelli reports to Madinte Scar- pellini the following observations from Civita Vecchia. Noy. 12th-13th. Between 10° 30", p.m, and 1*, am, 4 meteors seen of 1st magn., 6 of 2d magn., and 8 of the, third. Only a few clouds. ov. 13th-14th. Between 11 30™ and 2" 35", 54 meteors seen. Very cloudy and finally overcast. ov. 14th—-15th. hits to.d* 20, A. M., only 16 meteors seen. 18. At Perugia.—On the morning of the 13th from 12" to 6, A. M., Prof. Bellucci cea the following numbers in the sev eral hours ; viz., 26, 22, 26, 28, 24, and 17. In all 138 in six hours. was overcas 14, At Vellets —Prof. D. Ignazio Galli, of the Municipal Ob- servatory at Velletri, watched during the tw o nights of the 12th and 14th of November. (Bull. Met. Bem) On the first night, two observers, bot a clear ky in five hours, from 12" 45™ sa meteo e distribu- tion through the five hours was as bia: From 12" 45™ to 1°45", = 2. conf, 9 unconf i“ {> 45m - “ 7 tc A “ OD 45™, On the ery — they were = to see only through Openings in ouds, ere were t ers, enough to fully ed the whole of the visible portions of the sky. The results were as follows: Total computed oa Tactat Peg for clear ky. 1" om 1>15™ 50 1 0-2 255 146.1 86 48 1 02 945 2 0 2 36 41 6 0.4 - 218: #86 31 7 03 12 2 80 2 45 48 4 0-4 117 2 45 8 62 8 05 ne . 8) 3 6 17 4 0-2 105 250 H. A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. The meteors of this second morning were much finer than those of the preceding morning. The sporadic meteors of each night appeared to radiate from Auriga. 15. on Moncalieri.—Director F. Denza reports in Les Mondes, for four observers : Night of the 12th of Nov. from 14) to 17h 145 meteors. tS a“ 17 0“ ath “ 14h 19m 17h10m = gg These numbers need to be increased, as their principal object was to determine the position of the tracks and the instant of appearance of the meteors. On the night of the 18th, 14th, there were seen : - At Alexandria by 4 observers from 9h 45m to 16h 45m, 168 meteors, : 1 «“ 14h 30m gh 169 «5 At Varallo, 1 “ 13h 25m 16h 25m, 121 * Prof. Denza adds that “the meteoric shower of Nov. 1869, differs little from that of August, and in some places was even inferior to it.” 16. At Port Said, Egypt.—tn the Monthly Notices for Dec. are some observations of G. L. Tupman, Esq., at that place. On € mornings previous to that of the 18th, he detected some tendency to radiation from Leo. On that morning, of thirteen meteors, four were conformable. the morning of the 14th from 12" 80™ to 18" 15™ only two meteors were seen, neither conformable. There was & time. The duration of the meteors or their ‘time of flight was considered to be less than half a second—too short a time to estimate even toughly. “The following are the observations. Being unassisted, I entries 16° 24 the numbers were nearly uniform, and slightly decreas- ing. The maximum, , Was either before or about 14" 30”; but the center of the dense part must have been d about 16 hours, as there was no sign of the shower at 18" 15". ESS UE ee age Pe an es Eee: Os Hf, A. Newton on the Meteors of November, 1869. 251 Meteors observed at Port Said, Nov. 13th, Alexandria mean time. : No. of — Elevation of From : To Meteors. the Radiant. \ h m h m 10 40°0 13 15°0 0 15 14 30°0 14 40°0 16 35 14. 52°0 15 2°5 16 40 15 8°0 15--19°7 16 43 15 24:0 15 383°6 16 46 15 38°5 15 -562°5 16 50 15 59°0 16 7°4 16 54 16 12°0 16 24°0 16 57 16 26°0 16 38°0 6* 60 16 40°0 16 52°0 7 63 16 54:0 17 T#0 4 67 e conclusions of Mr, Tupman respecting the closing of the shower are of course set aside by the observations in Italy and England by those of Fredericton and Santa Barbara. 17. The duration of the whole shower was at least twelve hours,and it appears to have been somewhat fitful in its ten- sity. Perhaps the apparent fitfulness may be due to the clouds, though we think that that is not the only reason. Thus after the time named by Mr. Tupman we have an in- creasing display shown by Prof. Bellucci’s numbers. At Cul- loden the report seems to carry this pay on two hours longer. € numbers seen at Fredericton and Santa Barbara show a tolerably uniform continuance for several hours longer. There was little trace of the display on the next morning. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 1. On Ammonia-chromium bases.—CLEVE : to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences a memoir on the me nia-chro b his he gives the formula, Cr. 4NH,, min chrom-chlorid. It will te ‘sufficient for our purpose to give * During this observation it was more cloudy than before, but during the two following ones it was much clearer. 252 Scientific Intelligence. the formulas of the various compounds with a general account of The their properties. formulas of the salts ar oer by Cléve belonging to the tetramin series are as follow Chlorid, Gr, Oh, .NH,, 2HO, Chlorplatinate, Cr,Cl,, 4NH,, 2HO+2PtCl,. Chlorhydrargyrate, Cr,Cl,, 4NH,, 2HO+6HgCl. Chlorobromid, Cr, ClBr,, 4NH,, 2HO Bromid, Cr,Br,, 4NH,, 2HO. Bromochlorid, Cr, BrCl,, 4NH,, 2HO. Chloro-iodid, Cr,Cll,, 4NH,, 2HO. Todid, Cr,I,, 4NH,, 2HO. Chlorosulphate, Cr,ClO,, 4NH,2S0,, 2HO. Bromosulphate, Cr, BrO,, 4NH, 280,, ; 2HO, Chlorochromate, Cr,Cl0,, 4NH,2Cr0,, «HO. Chloronitrate, Cr,ClO,, 4NH,, 2N05, 2HO. All these salts are crystalline and easily soluble in water. They ve a carmine or garnet red color and their solutions are ea ecomposed on heating, with separation of chromic oxyd and evolution of ammonia e author calls attention to the very ~onbehetwe fact that they all contain 2 atoms of water (in the old notati the svoond series of compounds described are the salts of hepta- min-dichro : pes formulas of the only observed members of this series are a8 0. Double nitrate, 2(Cr,0,, 3NO,), 7NH,-+NH,0, NO,-+-9HO. Oxalo-nitrate, 2(Cr,©,, NO,, (C,0,),), 7NH _-+6HO. The salts of the ey series are as ge Oxalate, Cr,0;, 30,0,, 3NH,, 3H Double oxalate, 2(Cr,0,, 3C 49,; ee O, 20,03, HO+3HO. The salts of the heptamin and ‘triamin series resemble those of ——- ae min series so closely as not to require special descrip- Cr,0,, NO,, a dle Cr,0,, C,0,, NH, +8HO. 2(C,0,), SO,, oN 3 +2410. a5 me however, very doubtful whether these three substances were Physics and Chemistry. 253 obtained in a state of purity, as they were all amorphous and could not be obtained crystallized.— yet, 1 places we could look into red-hot ovens and ing, and surging, lashing the sides of the deep cavern, and sending up volumes of white sulphur vapors. But now this principal foc -on Force and Nature—a work whieh gives the completest explanation that yet appeared of volcanic phenomena in Hawaii. I spent = days at Kil, ea, making careful observations of the crater; and, when these were completed, went to the seashore at Ke la-ko-mo a village in the volcanic district of Puna, situated about twenty 270 Scientific Intelligence. miles from Kilauea. In this district the subsidence of the land was distinctly marked. Throughout-a coast li any miles in feet inland, and carrying with it huge boulders and angular masses of rock of from a ton to three tons in weight. e sea rose nearly thirty feet in perpendicular height, or ten feet higher than the great earthquake wave, already described in your Journal, of the 2nd April, 1868. Several houses which were not reached by that wave miles. This makes 368 miles per hour, or 540 feet per second, about half the nominal velocity of a cannon-ball. On the 23d of ber, 1854, a similar wave was transmitted across the entire entirely distinct from the tidal swing of the ocean, and are propeT Mineralogy and Geology. 271 still continue at intervals; but we are inclined to expect a season the way of natural phenomena, in definite prospect earlier than the transit of Venus in 1874. e are already promised visits by scientific observers upon that occasion. eatise on epost ERNHARD von Corra, ning Engineer. 594 pp. ; trand).—Mr. Prime has done a good thing for all interested in the study of ore deposits, in giving us a translation of Van Cotta’s “ Erzlagerstiittenlehre.” This book has long been the standard ? mission of the author, to translate the work, bu f. v. Cotta also has made alterations and ished additions to it, so that it is In reality a new edition. e work commences wit. eneral served facts. We trust that the publication of this excellent work will inspire our mining engineers and geologists with a sense of the importance of carefully observing and recording the facts con- nected with the occurrence of ore deposits in this country. The ports, might form the basis of — on — can “ore deposits,” that would very appropriately supp ement Mr. Prime’s translation of von Cotta’s book, and give a still further aa Scientific work, they being scarcely noticed in the geological sur- urf: or petrified whiel ___ strong resemblance. The most noted of those localities, is on the land _ Of Mr. Samuel Newell in Pelham. Recent excavations to obtain fe mical purposes reveal its presence here in great : S a7 272 Scientific Intelligence. quantity. Much of it is soft, of a grayish-white _— composed of delicate parallel fibers, often one foot in length, with a marked cross cleavage oblique to the fibers, as in hornble nag Intimately associated with the asbestus, is an alte is appe alli separated by a decomposed asbestiform mineral, an 0 foliated scales and small angular aggregations, occasionally several inches in size. Hardness, about 1°5. Luster pearly, sometimes Se Color light brass-yellow to yellowish brown, scarcely sparent, even in very t olia. Flexible, inelastic. Before the. b owpipe exfoliates remarkably, and at last. fuses slightly on the edges. is property however is variable. Of five specimens “en only two ne in a marked degree. The lamine after ty. Iiibdines% veins of altered mica are free from admixture with soil or other minerals; and the substance is often so loose as to - readily displaced by the hand without the aid of a pick. ‘Farm use it as an absorbent for bedding cattle. Might it not be en, Not the least interesting circumstance, however, is the presence at sg spot of corundum. Flattened masses of brownish-black ica, superior in hardness to the surrounding mineral, contain nodules ~ F corandophilite which inclose a white corundum. It other locality being at Chester. It rarely occurs in and in small quantity; but doubtless farther excavations will develop more valuable specimens. The locality promises considerable interest to the mineralogist ; and it is belioved that the asbestus may prove of sufficient value to warrant mining, Amherst College, Nov. 13, 1869. 7. Note on the Remains of Fossil Birds; C.M Just after the article on 205 to 217 ie es ye to press, ‘ received . sor F, V. Hayden a unique specimen, which ie Specimen was dissoveeeds in a fresh-water Tertia deposit - the Green River group, in Wyoming Territory, and will be figured. and described in full with the osseous remains noticed in the above article. gp a a la pee pe pe for sanding paper, in place of blotters Hays ; _ We recent species are C, be eotoma d Fe syloatious ; Cariacus (Cervus) Virginianus ; Procyon Mineralogy and Geology. 273 former connection of Australia and New Zealand, and makes the following additional observations on the subject. “Returning, i covered by the same friend, Mr. Hood, show that there was ay similar geological fa in times as far back at least, as the geological fauna k east, though now the flora is dissimilar, yet there is evidence that in even earlier geological times, such as our Carboniferous epoch, for instance, there was a similar flora. . views I have adopted lead me to maintain, that we in Aus- tralia inhabit only a fragment of a vast continent, of which in New Zealand there was probably, as there still is, the culminating ridge fie d . *. Synopsis of the Extinct Mammalia of the Cave Formations 1 the United States, with observations on some Myriapoda found of Anguilla, W.L, and of other localities , by Epwarp D. Cops. (Prom the Proceedings re American Philosophical Society, Uadelphia, vol. xi, p. 171, 1869.)—This includes an account of remains of mammals discovered ina cave breccia in Wythe county, Virginia, by the author, among which several extinct forms occur- ted associated with existing species. The new species are > & tortus (gen. et sp, nov.) allied to Aretomys 5 Tamsas. loos ius 5 hag lated extinct species are Megalonyx > Di 12. On the Mixture of Cretaceous and Eocene Fossils; by T. A. RAD, (communicated for this Journal).—We frequently hear of vidence i ON passage beds between the Chalk and Eocene, but the evidence is sils which are easily traced to disturbances in the bed of the ocean. Lamon franc € region especially abundant in diamonds is the frontier of the Orange River country, at Sikatlory— Les Mondes, Jan. 13. it pyornis of Madagasear.—MM. » Mitne-Ep- WaRbs and Atr, Granpiprer describe in Comptes Rendus, 11th Oct. 1 rtain curious anatomical peculiarities of the bones of “pyorni he shortwinged birds, but constitutes amongst them a type ¢ its massive forms, and by f Searcely exceeded two metres, which is the height of a trich, while the Dinorags giganteus varied from two and a half e “ree metres. But if the Aipyornis is not, as was supposed, the 276 Scientific Intelligence. biggest of all these birds, it is the esate the most neat » mo tap Serine if we may so express it —Student, Nov. 1 Upper Helderbe Hamilton cant eine Groups; [ Preparatory Studies for Ges Paiacontotony of New York]; part 2; by Jamzs Hatt. 80 pp. 8 State Col. Nat. Hist. 1869.—This paper by Prof. Hall acekeinn descriptions of several new genera and. species, and revised references of other old species. e new genera are PALMANEILO for Nuculites constricta oa alg etc. ; LimopreRa for Lima macroptera Conrad ; Myritarca for Megambonia ovata Hall, ete.; Paotapeiua for Vuculites nee Conrad ; Crm1Tar for Cypricardites corrugata Conrad, etc.; ParHonia "for Aes cardices sectifrons Conrad ; Migipeess for Cypr. oblonga Von and Modiola concentrica Hall, ete. Ill. ZOOLOGY. 1. Molluscan Fauna of New Haven. A critical review of all the Marine, Fresh Water, and Land Mollusca of’ the cats with descriptions of many o the living animals and of two new species; by Gro ae Perkins, Ph.D. From ere ‘the Boston Of the 91 marine species 50 are api to occur north ape Col 13 in Labrador; 8 in Greenland ; 8 in Europe; 51 esited to South Carolina and some of them farther ; _ 37 occur in the Post Plinoatt; given at the end. The t cies described and figured are — Sretensis ss N. vibes) and Astarte lutea (allied to A. sul- ata). Anew generic name, rrata Tottenia (by error T ne sae) is propose shad ‘for Yous Air Totten, and Crassiven inst en of Mercenaria for Venus mercenaria Linn., the name, pes poner , being ig oma because properly a nie 1 name an an adja cctive. Mytilus hamatus Say is referred to Br gor pees ma brunnec is proposed for P. plicata Adams could hardly be expected in : catalogue of this kind, yet it seems desirable to give, if any, such references as are necessary {? explain the nomenclature asbepled and the principal synon all cases. But besides want of completeness there are many a tive errors that are scarcely excusable even in a local list. — it of ego Fe the eT errors were ‘nutieed: - Miscellaneous Intelligence. 277 The “ Cytherea Sayii Conrad,” p. 147, should be Cytherea Say- ana Conrad, Jour. Phil. Academy, pe Vii, p. 124, 1834; the refer- ence to Gould, “p. 34,” should be « Callista convexa should be Cytherea convexa Say ; iia ‘finally the correct reference for “ Callista convexa” is Adams’ Gen., ii 25. is species is teally a Callista, sila * we adopt Rém mer’ "5 eubgentis, Caryatis, to which * also belon nae But Conrad’s grounds for rejecting Say’s name, convexa, seem to be insufficient,—at least I am unable to find dinithar species we Callista with the same name. “ Mercenaria violacea Stimpson,” should be AZ. violacea Schumacher, “ Modiola modiolus Linn,” should tedd ©. ergiaee lus Turton, (Mytilus 8 modi- olus Linn.), and MM. barbatus is no doubt a distinct Mediterranean Species. “ Seapharca transversa Say,” should be S. transversa H. A. Adams, (Area transversa The following names, quoted a ag eee Stimpson epi? nee Tryon, Conrad, ete., as ‘crkeditlins are found in Genera of Rebons Mollusca, and some of them, pe as, in are works :— Amycla Gouldiana, . dissimilis, Tritia trivitt a, Ce- rithiopsis Emersonii, Lunatia eros, L. ‘tris ihe Turb wns a, An ng ulus tenera, A, polita, Peruse tenta, Macoma seat. Bhichipdonee pe oats Seapharea transversa v. IV. ASTRONOMY. Elements of Asteroid (109); by E. H. F. Prrers, of the ua “entlesee of wee Uiince. Communication dated Clinton, Oneida Co., N. Y., November 25, 1869.*—The followin e ements of asteroid (109) are computed from my observations of Oct. 9, 20 and 31. E ph lake Oct. 0°0 piety mean time. [on — Lonsivede ¢ of rihelio is 58 48 Longitude of pei = 4 51 jai Mean Equ. 1870°0 Inclination of ecliptic, 7 56 56°55. gle of praia 17 25 14°13 Mean daily moti 809'"*580. Logarithm of sage semi-axis, 074278314. V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. l On Foresand We u; by B. A. Goutp. —(We copy below. ing WON ac abla address ‘of Dr. Gould, at a meen a Sa Am Can Association last August, at Salem, Mass., as retiring ie of the Association. )— ists are now of accor nor destroy ed,” and that “the quantity o as eternal and unalterable as the quantity of matter.” January announcement was issued on a loose slip in connection with the ournal. rd that “force can neither be created f force in nature 1s just Its various * This wemiber of this J 278 Miscellaneous Intelligence. forms are eminently convertible, yet utterly indestructible. And to avoid that fruitful source of disagreement among the ablest men, which has arisen from the ambiguous signification of the word, we must adopt the meaning which is finding general ac- ceptance, and define force as “ tha i cing or resisting motion ;” thus clearly discriminating between force and its cause. . honored ex-president Dr. Barnard presented an argument, § vigorous and clear that I see no room for an adequate rejoiner, in : oe Organic changes are cal effects, and may be received without hesitation as the representative equivalents of physical forces expended. But sensation, will, emotion, passion, thought, are in no conceivable sense physical.”—[Proc. Amer. ., Chicago, p. 89. = philoso makes thought a form of force, makes thought a mode | i inking being into a mechanical automaton, whose Sen- a , and whose conscious existence must forever cease when the exhausted organism shall at length fail to respond to these exter ulses.”—-[Jbid, p. 91.] : ught cannot be physical force, because it admits of no measure. * * A thing unsusceptible of measure cannot be a quantity, and a thing that is not even 4 quantity cannot be a force.”—[Ibid. pp. 93, 4.] exalted topics, and shrinking from the rebuke of presumption. | ere Is an elegant experiment, in which the tension of a spring - . ; « successively appearing in all these various manifestations until it x fally con Miscellaneous Intelligence. 279 verted into other form or forms without diminution. Could such an apparatus be constructed with theoretical perfection, it would represent an eternal circuit of force; and, like the frictionless i ion, after 4 chain of modifications. In this inert apparatus no force whatever would have been em- that it shall change its form in exerting itself, the case is in no- r uism. Our design ha es us it would appear that the metamorphosis of force, though n i i is the result of some definite mode of causation. at this causation is, and whether It is susceptible of measurement, are the next questions. In the 8a are mutually ends and means.” If in 8 force ig consumed, disorganization withou Even if it be also, to some extent, supplied by the disorganization of food not nverted, the argument is not thereby affected. * 280 Miscellaneous Intelligence. have again n made available—an energy too which is not “force,” as this term has just now been defined. mparison can be drawn between vitality and those molec- tal i e a readily indulge the conviction to which e would lead, that their freedom is unfette by any restrictions within our knowledge,—each injoying an indefinite, though possi- ses, so dissimilar forces, and the equally recondite mu- tual action of the eye, the brain and the nerve, alike demand , yet implicitly obeying 228 f these agencies is In WI") Thus the dictum of faith, that f the continued will of 18 suse dif Miscellaneous Intelligence. 281 2. On Auroral appearances and their connection with the phe- nomena of Terrestial Magnetism; by Batrour Stewart, F.R.S. F.R.A.S, years since, I ventured to suggest that au- roral displays might be secondary currents due to small but rapid changes, caused by some unknown influence, in the magnetism of the earth. In developing this idea, the earth was compared to the core of a Ruhmkorff machine, and the moist upper strata of the s g f wer to this, let us reflect what takes place at uator. When once the anti-trades have ? . . esides the anti-trades there are pot no miter pee agar rents, © rogress of the sun, taking | othe Piet rs ‘a ay not also be , would not be felt by the earth and I think Mr. Airy has noticed wave represents a motion 0 t face, with dnc patios in one lunar day. This motion cannot pro- 282 Miscellaneous Intelligence. duce a very great secondary current; but may it not be sufficient to account for the lunar-diurnal magnetic variation, which is also very small ? Such a current taking place in a conductor electrically connected with the earth’s upper surface ought to be felt by the Greenwich wires ; and, if I am not mistaken, Dr, Airy has detected a current of this nature. a constant core? And might not an aurora of the latter kind in- dicate the approach of a change of weather ? These remarks are thrown out in order to invite comment and criticism, and they will have served their purpose if they direct attention to the part that may be played by moving conductors In the phenomena of terestrial magnetism. It will be noticed that these remarks do not touch upon the mysterious connection be- lieved to exist between magnetic disturbances and the frequency of solar spots. P. 8.—Si may play a part in the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism.— Monthly Notice of the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec. 10th, 1869.— Phil. Mag., IV, xxxix, 159 property occurring annually on our Great Lakes, and suggesting the possibility of doing something to prevent at least a in of d on. this loss in futur ill was at once introduced by H albert E. Paine, of Wisconsin, providing that the Secretary of War be at ' ize quired to provide for taking the necessary meteoro tic coast, by means of the electric telegraph, of the approach and force of storms. Letters were subsequentl presented to the ives, Feb. 2, and in the Senate Feb. 4, 1870. The of the bill as adopted :— ete., That the Secretary of War be and he d required to provide for taki and for giving notice on the northern lakes Miscellaneous Intelligence. 288 the sea coast, by magnetic telegraph and marine signals, of the ap- proach and force of storms.” he system authorized by this act should be prosecuted earn- violent storms have their origin on the land, and moving eastward may be telegraphed in advance to the principal commercial cities of the Atlantic coast. vite Sars Fund.*—We are glad to find that the appeal made in our pages by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, on behalf of the family of the late Professor Sars of Christiania, is being warmly seconded in Paris by M. Alglave, the editor of the Revue des Cours Scien- notice before b ginning his good work ; he has already collected s ; the sum of 2,026 franes (81/.), and publishes with the notice a first REE: left is not due to neglect or extravagance on the p and ed the enthusiastic welcome so readily given to th Zodlogists are deeply indebted to Sars oe nti in mo s, in the unrivall Town upon — the acta 7 : feel it a duty to solicit aid for his family. sum, however small, which may be sent them will eeetcauk aikmnwtaiged and forwarded to his fam- ily through the Norwegian Minister. _* The death of this eminent zoologist of Norway, Mr. Sars, is mentioned in our January number, on page 144. 284 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 6. Lighting Power for Buoys. Premium Jor the year 1871 of- Jered by the Netherland Society for the Promotion of Industry.— One of the greatest impediments to navigation is darkness in buoy- ed waters. it were possible to develop a lighting power in the buoys, this difficulty would be greatly diminished, to the advan- tage of navigation. : The Society offers, therefore, her gold medal (representing a value of hundred fifty florins, Neth. Cy.) and an award of three hundred florins for the most practical means of investing buoys . The ate address, in case of eventual correspondence. __ 8. The answers and any other accompanying writing must not be in the competitor’s own hand. : 4. The successful answer becomes the property of the Society, which reserves to itself the right of publication. 5. The Society takes no responsibility for eventual damage to models or instruments, illustrative of the answers, and reserves to itself the right of not returning them to the competitors. nswers are requested post paid before the 30th of Septem- ber, 1871, to the address of the General Secretary and Treasurer of the Society, F. W. Van Expen, Haarlem, the Netherlands. : 7. Academy of Sciences, Paris.—Mr. A. DesCLomzEavx, the dis- searches in connection with crystals have done so much to ad- Rey. Grorex Jonzs, U. 8. N.—On the 22d of J anuary, 1870, at the Naval Asylum, in Philadelphia, died Rev. George J ones, long i United States Navy as a Professor and a Chap- ‘pos to the hlieoes 97 his researches upoR menon. A summary, by himself, of his goss 1 Ecuador was publi l, with three plates, in vol. aa ral, 1857, p- 374; but the great mass of data then Co Miscellaneous Bibliography. 285 lected remain still unpublished. Mr Jones was a patient and most conscientious observer, and his contributions in this department of astronomy must ever form an important feature in any discussion of the phenomenon, notwithstanding Prof. Piazzi Smyth’s most ex- traordinary and flippant assertion that Mr. Jones had never seen the VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Transactions of the Chicago Academy of Science, Vol. I, Part II, 1869. Large i Ties tten during his well-known arctic explorations The article on the Antiquity of Man in North America, 4 Foster, is of interest at this time, and contains a summa biographical notes,’ by Wm. H. Dall and H. M. Bannister, and Prof, Spencer F. Baird’s descriptive list of the “ Additions butterflies collected by J. ‘A. Allen in Iowa, several of which are deseri d as ne’ ¥. pilation, which is too seldom the case text books, The work is well illustrated, and followed by a 286 Miscellaneous Bibliography. tena and full index. The structure and classification of insects re fully discussed, as far as the families and the prominent genera and species in eac ch family are oe cribed. se in aed beg full genera in some of the orders. It embraces the Arachnida and yriapoda as well as the pees insects, which is quite unusual in treatises on entomolo : of Eeistence: Part I. Devoted to the enunciation of the laws which determine the motions that result from the collision of ponderable bodies; by Ex1as Dexter. 156 ie 8v0, with 5 plates. 1869. Ne w York. (Edward Dexter, 564 Ses! ich Newton’s Laws of Motion , the author finds it easy to show hed reference to the earlier part of his own book, that the views of efforts by the “advance men” of the times. 4. A Practical Treatise on Metallurgy adapted or the last London edition of Professor Kerl’s Metallurg gy. Vol. iii; Steel, Fuel, Supplement ; eat with 145 wood engravings by Wiri1am Croox : RNST elias * 820 pp. 8vo. New Yo rk, 1870. * (obi Wiley & Son. )—This volume is a most valuable addition to our previous literature upon the im- portant subjects of which it treats, and it is not too much to say a comprehensive s Ray progress in this department of kno e. n t of the materials is excellent an the subjects are discussed with all desirable fulness ; thus the Bess- emer steel process covers ges; while proper r notice is taken 0 pa of all other methods, even 6 the Ellershausen process, Bessemer’ $ new system of high pressure, hot blast furnaces, and Siemen’s process of producing steel direct from the ores, The table of Or ents covers 21 pages, and exhibits clearly the great range © interesting topics which a the volume. Full references to origi- nal in all languages bearing on steel and fuel add value ta the work, This is altogether the most important SaLputibe of the three volumes, of which it is the last as well as best. 5. Lithology of the Seas of the Old World ; by M. DELESSE.— elesse we have seen ne the chart. In the physical geograph y. The map is an pases 2 of engraving and coloring. coe ah. Miscellaneous Bibliography. ‘287 Co., London,* the first number of whic no volume (p. 451) sustains well the promises made in its prospectus, It is popular in the character of many of its articles, and well fur- nished with the scientific news of the day, besides reviews of new works. It is not in any proper sense a special organ of Darwin- ism, which the first number seemed to suggest. — are um 6. “ Nature.”—This scientific weekly, published by MacMillan & h was noticed in our last pp. 66 : : The Progress and Condition of Industrial Chemistry; by J. Lawrence Smitu. pp. 146. ates. _ General Survey of the Exhibition, with a Report on the Char- acter and Condition of the United States Section. i ee _ The Manufacture of Beet Sugar and Alcohol, and the Cultiva- tion of Sugar Beet ; by Henry F. Q. D’Auieny. pp. 90. Plates. port on Corals; by Samuet B, Rueeies and G. 8. Hazarp. 26 p report upon Cotton; by E. R. Mupex, with a Supplemental ort by B. F. Nourss. 115. : B fo upon Buildings, FBuilding Materials and Methods of uilding ; by James H. Bowen. pp. 96. : rt yin Wool and Manufacturers ‘of Wool ; by E. R, s. pp. 143. eparation of Food. Pressed or Agglomerated food. Culture * The subscripti ice for “‘ Nature ” is fourpence ; or for America, as announ~ ced by the house of Macmillan & Co., 63 Bleeker st., New York, 12 cents a num- ber, and $5.00 a year. 288 Miscellaneous Bibliography. Report on Silk and Silk Manufacturers; by Error C. Cownr. Pp: Report on Husicurments and Apparatus of Medical Surgery and Hygiene; by Tuomas W. Evans, M.D. . 70. I as 48. ort on Béton-Coignet : its fabrication and uses. Report on asphalt and bitumen, and their application to streets, roads, build- ings, &c.; b Anrnon Brckwirn. pp. 21, and 31 plat es. eport upon Ste me perneeens. as illustrated by the a Universal oa. 1867; by Wittiam 8, Aucurncioss. pp. Report on the Shines ‘of War; ; by Cuas. B. Wate N and W. J. VALE In addition to ke pxOA lee reports, there are yet to come 5 others on the following ae: ining ; Pgertetd ; Engineer- ing Works ; Education he history of the Organization and Progress of the ehibiinn - including titles, list of reports, authors, tables of weights and measures, ete. The whole series will be bound in six volumes of some 600-7 00 pages each. G8 AMERICAN PHILosoPHicat Soc., Vol, XL—p. 119, Prodromus of a Water Algee of Eastern North America ; tt c. ern AES 2 PROCEEDINGS Boston Soo. Nat. os Vol. XIII.—p. 139, lacy ine! Fauna of New Haven, part II, Acephala and Bryozoa ; G. H. Perkins. —p.1 ccurrence of the Remains of Turandus rangifer Gray, at 0. Bone Lick, Koatecky: N.S. Shaler—p. 169, American Lepidoptera, II, Phalenide: C. S. Minot—p. 172. Ne tive Carbonate of Magnesia from California; C. T Ja Sakae 4k 172, Remarks on the Relations of the Rocks in the vicinity of Boston; N.S. Shaler.—p. 178, Notes the Iowa; J. A, Allen, m. OF New York. Vol. IX, No. 8—p. 237, Catalogue of rulf of Guayaquil, in the Museum of the Smithsonian Insti : : : — @. N. Lawrence. (Continued.)—p. 238, ‘Additional ? l the West I Pig? fi am : 8 Article on “Leskia mirabilis, Gray;” A. Agassiz. Dollection of Chalchibnitls reste caw en er ey 6, On of Corbienladse ; T. Prime. on "List of the Spe in a aa We cat Sew, dampens: © es THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARS. [SECOND SERIES.] Arr. XXIX.—On a hid of spoiling , by the Electric spark, spark, Jigures similar to disse of Licubnbers. by Ext W. Buaxg, Jr. LicHTENBERG’s figures, discovered in 1777, are a result of the attraction of an electrified surface for light ‘particles of elec- film eee plate, and the latent image is Gralipe e gore € method I have to describe consists in dasene the dis- the ¢ ee the re of a fusible non-conducting ig 5 € near its fusing point the figure appears at if Ogg a latent AR exists which may be “ aevelaped m by “The non-conducting surface is prepared by coating a plate of Metal with an even film of tak Pieces of sheet-tin, 3 inches “quare, coated with films of pitch of a thickness varying tween 0-01 and 0-02 in., were used in most of my experiments. the pitch was the ordin commercial article, freed from sand, Aus Shellac, rosin, Burgundy-pitch, bees-wax and vit balsam we - subst but With tory res ¢ . n L pright B ae the ug ahey pumaee ae ge: eer be turned in its ut is aria ga So from mo longitudinally. The am C holds the wire wire slides up Sas down with Serena Sey ee ee ae 290 E. W. Blake, Jr., on a method of producing are disposed four insulating posts, upon which the prepared. plate 1s aid. D is then made vertical, and is adjusted to the desired eke. | distance. An insulated connection being made between D an contact with the plate, and E depressed to the proper striking distance. The discharge having taken place, D is again made horizontal, and the plate fay be is process consists in gradually warming the plate over A ent. ; be overheated the figure is destroyed. It may be instantly 0; literated by exposure for a second to the naked flame, 20 the plate may then be used again. The proper temperature oe scape al is some degrees below the real fusing poimt ° e us e figur and elevations of the excited surface. The depressions W d appear to be the true figures, as they correspond exactly m ie to those obtained by Lichtenberg. The plate may be duste before development ; the form thus revealed will be reproduced 12 e : ‘is very difficult to measure, 0 to the elevations produc’ In films of 0-015 in. thickness, the deepest ines are about 0°005 par. . Sse OO ee 2 ar a Positive spark from } inch a aa eet 4 Figures by the Electrie Spark. 291 i verge al | center, but generally the ; central portion is broken up into a confusion of balls. Striking dis- tance, } inch, Negative spark from + inch halls. iat Striking distaz similar figures were obtaine by — si saguam eans of the electricity developed by the Holz machine, the’ electophorus and that accumulated ma Leyden jar.* : harge from Points—When a single, instantaneous dis- the &” from a fine point, falls upon the film, fi similar to © foregoing, but not so regular, are obtained. If, however, Tn experimenting with d Leyden jar, if the electrodes D and E (fg. 1) are ctininscted with the Secine dae te jar, det discharge is so violent as to Sein the film of pitch. Surrounding the minute perforation is a circular crack. the brigh : : ’ a ; fer ei eget exposed, a minute dot is seen. pe eager mgsee Glare *lectrie action of the tin, and iron, is proved by the fact that the fusion takes place 292 E. W. Blake, Jr., on a method of producing the discharge be of negative electricity, and be continued for a short time, (e. g. during a quarter-revolution of a 20-inch plate of the ordinary frictional machine,) the first effect of de- veloping is to bring out a star, which might readily be mistaken for the positive figure. Inspection shows however that the rays are not depressed, but elevated. e rays are generally more or less curved, and resemble the projection on a plane of the meridians of a hemisphere. The plane of projection 1s different in almost every figure. Precisely such a star occurs in the figure, given below, of the negative spark from the in- duction coil. If the discharge from the point be continued for some seconds, the plate, on developing, abe an infinity of minute circular Figures produced by the Induction Coil. The coil used in these experiments was made at Ruhmkorft’s establishment in Paris. It is capable of giving an 8-inch spark, but, by reducing the primary current, the striking dis was brought down to $ inch. A single Bunsen’s cell was fer carbon being withdrawn so as barely to touch the nitric aci Ne press spark from term- inal irene the induc tion coil. Positive spark from terminal wires of the | induction coil. __ The positive figure obtained is represented in the accompany” ing cut (6). Except its larger size, as compared with frictional hicia x. e striking distance, there is nothing notice ini a Ee aes ; ae e Figures by the Electric Spark. 293 The corresponding negative figure is seen in (7). The cen- tral star with wnrred Aves referred to above, is Beaded by a deeply depressed circle, which is bounded by a slightly ele- vated ring. The terminal wires evidently acted here as points, for the star was not obtained when the discharge took place m balls. The electrodes D and E (fig. 1) are adjusted at equal distances from the upper and lower surface of the plate. Upon connect- ing D with the prime-conductor the positive spark falls upon face of the platé. Development by the lamp, without oblitera- tion of one of the figures, being impossible, the plate may be 65° C. i heated in an air-bath to about 60°- It is more conven- lent, however, to throw the discharge upon the plate when warm, the figures then appear at once ng plates of glass, or ® point, the following experiment was made. One end of spark having been made to fall on the spot marked out by the nd the latent image and very oe it. After 12 hours, this ©, on developing, gave a good figure. : From the St — which the figures are produced, it meen appear that they are due to the attractions and repulsions of the * Riess ro. An xix), that the areas of the surfaces occu = by + —— ee coal " ce Seedoped taster the same conditions, as 7:1, 294 J. J. Woodward on the Magnesium and excited surface.* This seems proved beyond doubt by the iden- tity of the Lichtenberg figures, with the depression figures pro- duced on developing. No chemical change of the pitch could enable it to attract dust. : As the point of temperature at which developement begins is considerably below the true fusing point of the pitch, the erformed by the electricity is no inconsiderable quantity. Does the electricity disappear in performing this work? The fact that the depression of the surface stops at a certain pomt, while the attraction for the opposite E on the metal plate should be constantly growing stronger, seems to point to an affirmative answer. As pitch, however, is said to become a conductor when fused, it may be that the two electricities are gradually trans- mitted and neutralize each other. Experiments have been un- dertaken in the hope of obtaining a decisive answer to this question, but as yet with no result worthy of publication. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N, Y., Feb. 6th, 1870, Army, dated Army Medical Museum, Microscopical Section, January 4, 1870.+ es of the treasures of the Museum. In these experiments used the sun as a source of illumination, and, following the which I have described in ful ; f ulty in arranging a method, by the aid of which this class © objects could be photographed quite as successfully and readily as the diatoms and other test objects which had previously we so satisfactorily reproduced in this section of the Museum. shall take occasion in the course of a few days to lay before yo" _* The laws of attraction and repulsio itive and negative is ___ ity being the same, itis mot clear wo whit cares the iference of the figures # _ {Communicated for this Journal by Lieut. Col. J. J. Woodward. _ | fCireular No. 6, War Dep: ent, Surgeon General’s Office, Nov. 1, 1865, pase et. seg. 5 this Jo i, vol. xlii, Sept., 1866. 1 elsewhere,t I had no dif- ‘i * ie a 7 Electric Lights for Photo-micrography. 295 "prints of some of the tissue-preparations thus reproduced. At present it is my desire to call your attention to certain impor- tant observations which I had the good fortune to make, while my experiments were in progress, and which it appears to me cannot fail to be of interest and service to all microscopists. During the last week of October and the first two weeks of November, I relied wholly on the sun as the source of illumina- tion for producing negatives. In this period, during which I had but two perfectly cloudless working days, and several frac- : tional days on whieh my work was continually interrupted b passing clouds, I had ample opportunity to convince myself that the uncertainty of the weather was a most serious hin- drance to the preparation of successful photographs of micro- Scopic objects, and I ceased to wonder that Huropean micro- Scopists, who are exposed to a climate even more variable than ur own, have not yet succeeded in placing the art of Photo- Micrography upon such a basis, as to make a convenient and habitual auxiliary in all microscopical investigations. This desirable end I believe I have attained; but it has been by resorting to artificial lights and thus making the success of the Process wholly independent of the weather. On the 12ih of November I commenced a series of experi- . or the production of the electric light I used a Duboscq's a8 a source of illumination in the preparation of photographs of ified objects, and that the pi were hence clearer and better defined than any ph coreg of similar objects I had hi seen bcindbanede by sunlight. I f 80 it to produce negatives with much shorter exposures than are indispensable with the sun. = ' ‘he magnesium light shared these qualities to a high degree, but I found that its best work was done when the object was Rot to be ified more than a thousand diameters, and that there were certain limitations to its use on test objects which _ Will be referred to in the sequel. 296 J. J. Woodward on the Magnesium and these artificial lights. oy 1. The electric light is by far the best of all artificial ligh for the production of photo-micrographs, and, when used as I am now about to describe, it is both convenient and economical. | 7 | Electric Lnghts for Photo-micrography. 297 trays of ten elements, at five pounds sterling per tray, and I find that a battery of five trays is sufficient for most a Seven pounds and a half of strong commercial nitric acid, and three of sulphuric, diluted with ten times the quantity of water, is suffi- cient to charge this battery, which will then produce the light continuously for from three to four hours. The cost of running the battery for this time, including in the estimate the amount of zinc consumed, and the cost of amalgamating every third or fourth time of using, is very moderate. I make it a practice to have the battery washed out, the acids thrown away and the porous cups put to soak immediately after I have done the day’s work, and all this is so simple that I have no difficulty in in- structing an orderly to do it, so that the management of the bat- tery does not occupy any part of my time. The Duboscq’s lamp, the microscope and the plate holder are arranged in a dark room which enables me to dispense with the use of a camera. The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in the cut. The electric lamp of Dubosegq (a) is placed on a stool against the wall at one ma of the room, and its light concentrated by a pair of condensing lenses (2) on the lower lens of the achromatic condenser of the microscope. The microscope (c) (a large Powell and Lealand’s stand) is placed on a small table (e) which is so arranged that it can be lowered or elevated at pleasure and can be levelled by means of three levelling screws at its base. The plate holder (g), also arranged so that it can be raised or lowered at pleasure, is supported by a small table (7) which Stands on three levelling screws. _The floor of the apartment is quite level. The lenses employed for the microscope are 1 of Mr. William Wales of Fort Lee, New Jersey,. specially lowered and moved from nde to side till the center of the achro- fixed just below the achromatic condenser, and not only Vents the admission of non-actinic rays, but excludes the td ieee: ghee 8teat heat which accompanies the electric light, an 298 J. J. Woodward on the Magnesium and pr emnid | Pi eae } os | also the advantage that all the colors of the object oxaniont eS a ee ) ietetpente: bincks an -aharies _ Which resembles the sky on a ear day, so that the observer Electric Lights for Photo-micrography. 299 sees at a glance how the object will appear in the photograph (in which the same black lines or tints will be faithfully repro- uced on a white field) and is thus enabled to arrange his achromatic condenser and other adjustments so as to produce the most satisfactory effect. Every thing having been arranged at the microscope to the satisfaction of the observer, the eyepiece is taken out, and the image allowed to fall on the ground glass of the plate holder, which has previously been placed at the distance necess give the magnifying power desired with the objective employed. The operator adjusts the plate holder to the right height and sees that it is perpendicular to the optical axis of the microscope, which he readily does by observing that all parts of the field are equally in focus. He then takes out the ground glass and inishes the fine adjustment with a sheet of plate glass and a focussing glass, after which the sensitive em is inserted, the at a distance from it at the sensitive —_ the following con- trivance is employed. On the table w! joint of an ordinary fishing rod, to w like a watch key, has been rivetted, enables the operator to e not differ in any r t from those used in ordinary pho graphic work, te I ae found that by employing a practical lowi the dark room 300 J. J. Woodward on the Magnesium and bert’s plate, &,) for which it is not necessary to employ a stonked three minutes for one thousand diameters. Other powers require poportional times. serves admirably for the production of photographs of the soft tissues with any power under a thinapasiel being composed of a mixe pencil, with rays passing in directions, there are no interference phenomena € process employed by me in the production of negatives with the magnesium light, i i : 1e cope, (c) which stands on a table (e) supported 9 a. ee le vellin — The image received on the siete ve ___ @ which is supported on a table, (/) is photographed precisely Electric Lights for Photo-micrography. 301 as in the case of the electric light as above described. The same focussing apparatus (d) is "employed and the ammonio- sulphate cell should invariably be inserted, but the ground is never necessary. I find that it requires € about three minutes to produce negatives of tissue-preparations 302 J. J. Woodward on the Magnesium and with five hundred diameters. Other powers require propor- tionate exposures, € magnesium lamp used by me for this purpose was the of the mus he chimney and bag are furnished by the com- pany for $2.50. commenting on the above processes it may be remarked also the most difficult test objects can be satisfactorily reproduced. Where economy 0 apparatus is the object, the magnesium lamp will be pe i one, the gsougie Hers who may be employed for work of this ¢ d the following remarks on the chemical process em- ployed in the production of the negatives from which the appended prints were made ammonium and potassium . . aa portrait collodion, rich in alcohol, a half, from the 6th square of a Méller’s diatom type-plate, spe cially prepared for the Army Medical Museum bv that skillful croscop! Th microscopist. e first from Negative 79 (new series), was t@- ken By. sunlight, with 40 diameters; in the second, from Nega- tive 123 (new series), the magnesium light was used, and every _ Ming else ‘remaining ne same, the distance was inc so as e 48 diameters; in the third, Negative 158 (new series), ectric lamp was employed, and every thing else still re Electric Lights for Photo-micrography. 8038 maining unaltered, the distance was increased so as to give 66 diameters, It will be understood at once, that on account of the increase of distance, the second picture would have been slightly less sharp than the first, and the third than the second, had precisely the same source of light been employed; never- theless, in spite of this disadvantage, to which they were pur posely exposed, the magnesium and electric pictures are far superior to that taken by sunlight, and of the two the electric is much the best. It is especially to be observed, that in the electric picture the contrast obtained is so great that the objects appear clearly defined on an almost perfectly white ground, which is never the case with photo-micrographs taken with the sun as a source of illumination. As a further illustration of the capabilities of the magnesium and electric lights, I add a few photographs taken by each. By THe Maenesium Lieut. Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergit. Magnified 400 diameters, by Wales’ 1th. Negative 114 (new series.) Small vein and capillaries, from the muscular coat of the uri- nary bladder of the frog. Magnified 400 diameters, by Wales’ rth. Negative 103 (new series). ‘This negative is taken from yi perekion No. 3378, Microscopical Series, in which the blad- t was injected with a half per cent solution of nitrate of silver, and subsequently stained with carmine dissolved in borax. The pean was then brushed off with a camel’s hair pencil, and the preparation transferred through absolute alcohol to ss balsam; the photograph reproduces every thing but the color. By THe Execrric LicHt. Pleurostaurum acutum. Magnified 340 diameters, by Wales’ ith. Negative 109 (new aes) : Triceratium favus. Magnified 340 diameters, by Wales’ ;th. Negative 110 (new series). Navicula spima. Magnified 840 diameters, by P owell and Lealand’s immersion ;;th. Negative 112 (new series). Human red blood corpuscles. Magnified 1,000 Powell and Lealand’s immersion th. Negative 145 (new series). tion of an epithelial cancer of the larynx. mified 400 i es). This hegative is taken from preparation No. 2277, Microscopical — eon. i print shows the th great distinctness. : ammatophora marina. Magnified 2,500 diameters, by Powell and Lealand’s immersion ;;th. Negative 161 (new series). 4 es of the hs here referred to, sent us by Dr. A Sarai Hage a and beauty any specimens of photo-micrography we have seen.—Ebs. ] 304 J. H. B. L. on a Mechanical Finger for the Microscope. ArT. XXXI.—On a Mechanical Finger for the Microscope; by JOH Bei In the Journal of May, 1866, there is a description and wood- cut of a mechanical finger, by Mr. H. L. Smith. There are few naked eyes, or ordinary hands, that can select, from a mass, one of the smaller diatoms; and the engraving in the Journal was seized upon, at once , by the writer, as afford- a promise of relief in the patient labor that had so often tes ta both his eye and hand. It was his “gh fortune to be with- reach of one of the instruments. It was a great help, no dante, and, fier acquiring “the knack,” Hes was possible to use it. But it wanted solidity, and the writer ventured to think that it might be made firmer, if constructed with fewer parts and joints. It was a capital idea, however, usefully poe but not beyond improvement: so an improvement, a thought, was put on paper, and sent en Mr. Joseph ven tisitege the well known optican of Philadel Putting aside Be Hoth the improvement and the original, Mr. duced what seems to be very near perfecti The microscope, in the writer’s possession, is one of Mr. Zent- mayer’s large first class ones, though the finger can be adapted to any other. There pleces : ‘or an independent stage, that ve her call the diatom stage, supported, above the prin stage, upon a tube that sa into : slee attached to a ovate (fig. 2), that fits seg e sub-sta, tube of the diatom stage is passed t opening a the Really: stage into the sleeve, as fot in the ing, S, with an ivory button, B, is attached to the diatoha stage, as at in fig. 4, which steadies the oe as it is moved by hand diffe ig 3 shows the third piece of et apparatus, or, gic! , the only piece, so far as the finger is concerned; the other three ep being necessary to hold the slide containing the ‘aiatoms ut having, otherwise, nothing to do with the finger proper The drawing is of full size A is a clamp secured to the pria- cipal ae by the jaws M and the movable plate L, which is tightened by the set screw D. The cylinder g ' the clamp resting on the shoulder It turns horizontally : when not fixed by the set screw F, whose point presses in the _ groove drawing. The steel B, surrounded by a «: spring, which is nt seam but which can be readily __ Ax. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serms, VoL. XLIX, No. 147,—Mar, 1870. 20 Re ie Nee ees — os)” see ar BS gt Tae s am Efe 4 ie 5 vee ne . i es ae = a Sg aie Ta up when not pr . n this rod is the steel spring, G, bent as shown, carrying at its upper and longer extremity, at N, a cork-holder, through which is thrust the needle that bring the sides together. Having gummed a er well, la the needle on the crease, keeping its point within the paper, a0 place the hair along side of it. Then closing the sides of the _V, the needle and the hair will be compressed together at the bottom of the crease ; and when the paper is perfectly dry the sig the projecting end of the cork at an angle inclining somewhat 7 de re e diatom is to be transferred Friedel and Crafts on the Combinations, ete. 307 is put in its place; the diatom stage raised until the hair, with the diatom on it, is in contact, when the diatom is taken off by the moisture that has been previously breathed upon the slide. The superiority of the contrivance here described is its sim- plicity and absolute steadiness. n the drawing, the position of the spring G with the cork- holder N is reversed. They turn, as already described, in any direction, horizontally. The facility with which a diatom may “be handled,” to use the term in this connection, is one of the great advantages of - Zentmayer’s contrivance. The point of the hair may be brought into focus along side of the diatom, which may then, y using the screws of the mechanical stage, be pushed in any direction by the finger, and separated from the mass, or, when transferred to a clean slide, may be placed wherever required thereon. With such an instrument may be understood the modus operandi by which the 892 diatoms of “ Moller’s Diato- maceen platte” were arranged. Nothing more has been attempted here, than to describe the particular instrument. But no one can understand the whole subject, without reading the most admirable article of Mr. H. L. Smith already referred to, and which set the writer to work to improve, if possible, the mechanism there described. _L. Agr. XXXIL—The Combinations of Silicon with Alcoholic Radi- cals; by C. FRIEDEL and J. M. Crarts.* IN a previous research+ we studied the ethers of silicic acid, and discovered a number of new bodies, whose structure leads e conclusion that the atomic weight of silicon is 28, and that the formula of silicic acid is SiO,. Gaudin, and afterwards Odling, first gave silicon its true atomic weight, and silicic acid bas emical gr on Wanting to establish completely the correctness of their A d a large number 0 the ee authorities in chemistry have F that the chemical properties of silicates can only be expla ‘ adopting the ce to *The chemical symbols used have the values which belong to them in the new +t This Journal, I, xliii, pp. 153 and 331; Ann. de Chim. et Phys., IV, ix, p. 5. Bi gM aes : eis Oy es OS Eh ee 308 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of ing bodies, whose existence and mode of formation it is impos- sible to account for by any other theory. Such are the chlor- hydrids and acetins derived from ssoranen 4 silicic ether, Si(C,H,0), and at first we only studied the compounds which belong to the same type as the normal silicic ether, but the research led us further than we anticipated, and resulted in the discovery of . alcoholic radicals, ethyl, C,H,, and methyl, CH,, are combined directly with the silicon, and not, as in the ethers, through the medium of oxygen. The present paper is devoted to the de- — of these latter bodies. i he study of the compounds of silicon with alcoholic se rine and bromine for hydrogen, and of acting as radicals in aleo- hols and ethers ; consequently silicon may take the place of car n in a hydrocarbon, and in the series of bodies which can be derived from a hydrocarbon, without modifying essentially its properties. to build up groups of atoms, which have been compared to apa sag ne ae Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals. 309 and the fact enhances the value of a classification of the ele- ments, which is founded upon the consideration of their atom- 1clties, Siuicic Eruyp. zinc accounts for the production of gaseous hydrocarb The liquid can be separated by distillation into several prod- Operation. The portion thus obtained in both operations, dis- hot attacked by caustic potash nor by ordinary nitric acid. It Is also not attacked by sulphuric acid, and is insoluble in it; concentrated sulphuric acid, however, separates from it a small ich will be : Pp. finally by washing with water and by drying over melted c 310 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of operating in this way on considerable quantities of materi boiled at 152°. The method of purification with sulphuric acid was not at first adopted, and the analyses made of the substance boiling at about 152°, after it had been simply treated with water and with caustic potash, in order to remove traces of chlorid of silicon, gave a slight excess of carbon for the first portions which dis- tilled ; see analysis I This was undoubtedly due to a minute phe of a hydrocarbon, probably ethylene, dissolved in the beat rid of calcium. The product, which was finally obtained a Analysis of the liquids, which had not been treated with sulphuric acid. L Boiling point=151°-1514°, ubstance taken=0'1863 grammes; CO,=0°4520 grammes; H, O=0°2280 grms, | Il. Boiling point=1511°-153°. Substance taken=0-1743 grms. ; CO, =0°4127 grms. ; H, O= 0:2170 grms. IIL. Same product redistilled. Boiling point=1511°-152}°. Substance taken=01948 grms.; CO,=0-4685 grms.; H,0= 0-2390 grms. £ I. Ir. Calculated for Si(C:Hs)s C6718 65°93 65°77 66°67 H=13°60 13°83 . 13°67 13°89 Analyses of silicic ethyd purified by a treatment with sul- phuric acid. Boiling point=152°-153°. IL igen taken=0-2192 grms. ; CO,=0°5358 grms. ; H, O= : ts, HL Substance taken=0-3015 grms, ; SiO, =0°1250 grms. IV. Substance taken=0-3430 gris. ; SiO, =0-1395 grms. a ” ’ “ Fade Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals, 311 The first determination of silicon was made by heating the substance in a sealed tube with nitric acid for several hours, at 180°-190°, dissolving the contents of the tube in caustic potash, and estimating the silicic acid in the solution in the ordin In the second determination, dilute chlorhydric acid and chiorate of potassium were substituted for the nitric acid, and the operation was carried on in a sealed tube as before. It is somewhat difficult to dissolve all the silicie acid which adheres to the tube by caustic potash. - The vapor-density of silicic ethyd was deduced from the fol- data : lowing Difference of weights of thebulb - - =05248 grms. Temperature of the balance,. - - 14° Temperature of the oil-bath, Seok. 214°2 rometer, - - - bee 761-4 mm. Capacity of the bulb,- - - - 2110ce. Air remaining in the bulb, - - 1°3 ce. Vapor-density=5-141. Calculated’ yapor-density, 4-986. The results thus obtained show that silicic ethyd corresponds to the chlorid of silicon, and that the reaction by which it is ormed may be expressed by the equation : SiC], +2Zn(C,H,),= Si(C,H,),+ 2ZnCl,. them, xcept that instead of burning with a carbon-smoke, it gives a as secondary products of the reaction. oo i of zine-ethyd were pporaet at once, and an excess of chlorid of silicon was always The first portions, which distilled below 140°, were a mixture of chlorid of silicon with silicic ethyd, and they were always treated over again with a fresh quantity of zinc-ethyd in the next ope- Tation, We usuall . digester in an oil-bath, at 180°-200°, sing a pr fee rib begs construction to Bunsen’s, and kept each charge at that temperature for about ten hours. After Opening thedigester and distilling up to 140°, water was added and the distillation continued as ong as any silicic ethyd con- 312 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of tinued to over with the vapor; the apparatus was then cleaned me gaye operation commen need. As an example of a number of such operations, we may cite one series in which 769 s. of zinc-ethyd and 480 grms. of chlorid of silicon were Sanlayed. We obtained 225 grms. of perfectly pure silicic- ethyd—about half the theoretical quantity. In order to understand the phase of the reaction, Wa results in ee formation of gaseous products, and of metallic ¢, we examined the gases, which were given off on cones the digester, by. ences them through bromine, freeing the gas, ich was not absorbed, from the excess of bromine, and col- letting it over mercu The quantity evolved in an operation is very large, and there was no difficulty in using the first por- tions of the gas to remove the air from et apparatus containing bromine, and in collecting at the end a perfectly pure sample for analysis. The e analysis of the gas, which was not absorbed by bromine, gave Volume of the yas_ - - - ~ = OFF Oxygen added - - . 27°72 Contraction - - - . 2 9840 Carbonic acid 10°26 Remaining pe determined Ba deto- : Peg 9°50 Consequently two ila of the gas contained 6:12 volumes of H, and 1-98 volumes fa carbon vapor. second analysis | Volume of gas - sere - = 666 oO] igen ad ee ae 26°61 : Contraction - ae : 17°30 Carbonic acid - - - - 13°02 Remaining oxygen - - - - 2°04 Two volumes of the gas contained 6:36 volumes of H, and 1:96 volumes of carbon vapor. The gas was the hydrid of ethyl C,H,, two volumes of vie contain six volumes of hydrogen and two volumes of va The bromid which was obtained by the absorption of a part = ——- by bromine, after having been washed with a solution caustic potash, dried and distilled at 132°-184°, was analyzed —. the following result : 5 Substance =0°3695 grms. ; AgBr=0-7315 grms. IL Substane =02712 grins. ; CO, =0'1330 grms. ; H, 0=0-0608 13259 grms. ; CO, =01600 grms.; H, 0=0-0690 Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals. 313° i, IL. III. Calculated for C,H Br, C pies 13°35 13°42 12°76 H He 247 2°35 2°12 Br 84°43 chs awe 85°11 The body is consequently the bromid of ethylene, and the gases, aed are formed during the preparation of silicie ethyd, are simply those which are known to arise from the decomposi- tion by means of heat of zinc-ethyd. The question suggests itself: are intermediate products, aris- ing from an incomplete replacement of chlorine by ethyl in the chlorid of silicon, also formed? Such products should have the composition: Si(C,H;),Cl; Si(C,H;)Cl,; Si(C2H,)Cl, and boi i iate betw °, the boilin should boil at points intermedia no more of a compound containing’ oxygen than was ordinarily ined i Z aration of silicic ethyd, and whose mode pam with which silicon retains its hold upon oxygen ren- ers this surprising. ; ieee p aso ef the reaction between amped and chlorid of silicon, is the one which gives = = eg re . 4d ds frees the crude silicic ethyd from ll foreign body, which is soluble in the acid. This body separates from the solution when the sulphuric acid is diluted with water, * Annales de Chimie et Pharmacie, cxv, 319. 314 Friedel and Orafis on the combinations of and floats upon the surface of the solution. It burns with a siliceous smoke, has a disagreeable odor until it has been purified by repeated distillations, and boils at about 285°.. The product, which was purified as far as possible by a number of distilla- tions, was analyzed. I. Substance=0-1861 grms. ; CO,=0°4090 grms. ; H,O=0-2068 TMS. grms. IL The product of another operation, whose boiling point was 229°- ae Substance=0'2585 grms.; CO,=0°5863 grms. ; H,O= 0 : . 0. _ Caleulated for O i Serie a 5771 Fis Only a small quantity of this body is produced in the prepa- ration of considerable quantities of silicic ethyd, and we have not succeeded in isolating it in a perfectly pure state during that preparation; its composition is, however, not doubtful, and we were able to recognize its identity with the same oxyd, which can be easily obtained and purified by a method described below. ‘This oxyd must be derived from the oxyd of zinc, which is formed by the action of the air upon zinc-ethyd while charging the digester. Friedel and Ladenburg* have found that free and combined oxygen can be substituted for a part of the chlorine in chlorid of silicon, with formation of the oxy- chlorid, O {Sick This oxychlorid is probably formed in the form the oxyd O {Sica whose analysis is given above. considered as the ether of the radical silicic- triethyd O } Stn , and as analogous with the: simplest ether of succeed the chlorid of acetyl ; but the study of the products of the reac- tion is not yet completed. ies _ Action or Bromine on Sinictc Ernyp. ing distineui hes silicic ethyd more completely from the obtained by the action of the chlorids of DA ~ eae .F oo. * Compt es, Ixvi, 539. as Siltcon with Alcoholic Radicals. 315 the elements on zinc-ethyd, than the manner in which it acts with bromine and chlorine; thus far the only reaction known for such bodies is that in which the union between the alcoholic radical and the other element is severed, and the bromine or chlorine takes the place of the alcoholic radi The researches for instance, which have been made by several chemists* on stannic-ethyd, show that the action of bromine on that body is represented by the equation; Sn(C,H,),+Br.= Sn(CaH) Br+C,H,Br. We expect te ages similar reac- tion with silicic ethyd, and were surprised to find that the ethyl was held so strongly by the silicon, that it could not be re- moved by bromine or by chlorine, and that the only action was 4 substitution of the bromine or chlorine for hydrogen in the organic radical. temperature; but when two atoms of bromine are heated in a bromi contents of the tube distil at 160°—260°, leaving a small quan- ba Fe carbonized matter as a residue. I. Boiling-point =230°-240°. Substance =0-2990 grms > €0,= 04810 grms ; H,O0=0-2400 grms. IL. Boilling-point==290°-230°. Substance=0'8245 grms. ; CO,=: 04920 grms ; H,O=0-2400 grms. Il. Same substance=0°6250 grms. ; AgBr=0%5051 grms. EE TEL: Calculated for SiCsHicBr.. 65 = 43'8 41:30 iis 48°65 8 ja | Be sccxs a 38 35°87 We suspected that the portion of the liquid having the highest boiling =. might contain a dibromated product, and, after 8 distillation in vacuo, analyzed a body which distilled at °140°. : + Frankland, es 329; cxi, p. 44. Buckton, ce d, Annalen der Chem. und Pharm., lxxxv, p. 329; : pid cit, p. 218; exii, p. 220; Cahours, Annales de Chim. et Phys, TI, lxi, 316 Friedel and Orafts on the combinations of L Boiling-point=120°-140° in vacuo. Substance=0°4600 grms. Ag Br=0%53860 grms. z Calculated for SiCgHigBre. Br=48-70 52°98 Not succeeding in obtaining a pure monobromated silicic ethyd, we heated the first product analyzed with acetate of silver with the intention of obtaining an acetate, and finally of obtaining from the acetate by saponification with caustic an alcohol. The formulas of the bodies thus sought are, SiC,H C,H,O, and‘SiC,H HO. Neither of them, how- ever, were produced, and we obtained no better result by heat- ing the bromated product to 200° with an alcoholic solution of acetate of potassium. treatment with caustic potash of the product which had been heated with salts of acetic acid failed to extract the slightest trace of acetic acid, showing that no acetate had been formed and the principal body which was obtained was the oxyd, O | SCH whose formation we had 5/3 ready noticed in the preparation of silicic ethyd. This pro- duct boiling at 228°-231° was analyzed. L Boiling-point=228°-231°. Substance= 0-2222 grms. ; C= 0°4743 grms. ; H,O=0-2417 grms. We found that the same oxyd was produced, whether the bromine were removed from the bromated silicic ethyd by treatment with acetate of silver, acetate of potassium or caustic potash. An analysis was made of a product which was ob- tained by heating the bromated silicic ethyd repeatedly with solid caustic potash, and which boiled at 230—235°. IL. Boiling-point=280°-235°. Substance=0'3305 grms.; H,0 =0°3660. to. Il. Calculated for 0 | “ OH C=5821 58°75 5854 H=12°09 12°30 12°19 The last product was not entirely pure but contained a trace of bromine, and it is very difficult to remove the bromine com- pletely from the bromated product, even by a prolonged action of solid caustic potash. Several analyses which were made of the liquid, Te Swe not been treated so long a time with caustic potash, showed that it still contained a considerable quantity of bromine. : _ It appears from these data that the bromated silicic ethyd, when treated with substances containing oxygen combined intel hanes A 4 strong affinity for bromine, loses the atom Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals. 817 of ethyl in which the bromine was contained and takes u oxygen in its place. The reaction is probably represented by the equation : 2Si(0,H,),C,H,Br+2KHO=0 | SUCH +2KBr+H,0+- GH, 5 When a small quantity of iodine is added to the bromine, bromid of ethyl is formed by their joint action upon silicic ethyd at 140°. he bromid of ethyl thus obtained, distilling at about 40°, was analyzed. I. Substance=0°6755 grms. ; CO,=0°5565 grms. ; H,0=0°2855 grms. Calculated for C.HsBr. C=22°42 22°01 H= 4-70 Iodine is almost entirely without action upon silicic ethyd: 2 equivalents of iodine were heated with one equivalent of silicic ethyd at 180° for 12 hours, very little iodhydric acid and hot a trace of iodid of ethyl were formed. It is well known that all the other ethyds, obtained by a reaction similar to that Which gives rise to silicic ethyd, are easily decomposed by lodine with the formation of iodid of ethyl. Tur Oxyp or Srticic TRI-ETHYD. I. Boiling-point =228°-230°. Substance=0-1970 grms. ; CO,= 0-1495 .; H,0=0-2160 grms. Te IL. Same substance=0-2860 grins. ; SiO,=071345 grms. _ The determination of silicic acid was made by heating the liquid in a sealed tube with strong nitric acid. 318 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of I. II. Caleulated for 0 | S071 8 C=58:07 pans 58°54 H=12:18 Proce 12°19 Poke 21°93 22°76 Temperature of the balance, Temperature of the oil-bath, 285° arome 600mm Capacity of the bulb, 284°0 c. ¢ ur remaining, 1l3ce Vapor fometio 8698 Si 2H; 1 Calculated for O 1 StH 851 ACTION OF CHLORINE ON Sinicic Eruyp. ? Not even a trace of chlorid of ethyl is produced. In order to avoid the formation of products containing too large a propor- tion of chlorine, the operation is interrupted from time to time and all of the liquid, which boils at a temperature lower than 160°, is distilled off, and the distillate is treated as before with chlorine. Finally the residues thus obtained are subjected to @ fractional distillation. ae Although we operated on a considerable quantity of silicic ethyd, and made a large number of fractional distillations of the chlorated product, we were unable to isolate bodies having constant boiling points and corresponding in composition to the mono- and bi-chlorated silicic ethyd. Analyses were made of the products which distilled at different temperatures after 4 number of fractional distillations. z Boiling-point =180°-190°. Substance=0°2120 grms. ; CO= 0°4210 ; H,O=0-2085 grms. t. Same substance=0°3370 grms. ; AgCl=02670 grms. Repeated distillation decomposes partially the chlorated com- ound, and products having the same boiling-point contain 2 “amount of carbon and hydrogen after they have beep da number of times 2 e 4 1 Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals. 819 III. This analysis was made from a liquid whose boiling-point was 180°—185°, but which had been distilled a larger number of tumes than the last. Substance=0°2540 grms. CO,=0°4750 grms.; H,O=0°2482 grms. The following analyses were made of products belonging to the same series of distillations as the first. IV. Boiling-point=190°-200°. Substance=0°2585 grms.; CO, ‘4785 grms. ; H,O=0°2280 grms. V. Same substance=0°3135 grms. ; Ag Cl=0°3238 grms. VIL. Another product boiling at 190°-200°. Substance=0°2345 grms. CO,=0°4400 grms. ; H,O=0°2145. The composition of all these products approaches that of monochlorated silicic ethyd. L iL. If. IV. Vv. VI. Calculated for SiCgHi9Cl. C=5415 _... 51:00 5048 .--. 51:17 53°72 ~ons +1088. 90 22...: 10:08 10°64 ---- 19 ssa. ine eee nw ces 19-00 Corresponding results were obtained in the analysis of several other products distilling at about the same temperature. Two products boiling at a higher temperature had nearly the Composition of the dichlorated silicic ethyd. L Boiling-point =200°-210°. Substance =0°2245 grms. ; CO;= 0°3875 grms. ; H,O=0-1817. IL Botling-point=205°-210°. Substance=02435 grms. ; CO;= : gris, 0°4155 grms. ; H,O=02015 ok IL. Calculated for Si C8HisCle. C=47:11 46°53 45°07 H= 8-99 9-19 8-45 The decomposition during distillation is so rapid in the : neighborhood of 230°, that it was pushed no further. Accord- ____ ing to the above analysis the boiling point of monochhlorated ___ Suicic ethyd is about 180°, and the bo point of dichlorated L Boiling-point 190°-195°. Substance=02740 grms.; U0,= O-4 380 grms. 4930 grms. ; H,O=02 L SiCgHy9Cl. Mean. SiCsHysCle. C=49-07 58°72 49°39 45°07 H= 9°65 10-64 9-54 8-45 320 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of It appears that, in a mixture of equal equivalents, the two chlo- rated products have a tendency to distil together at a constant temperature. Bauer* has noticed an analogous fact in regard to the bromids of ethylene and propylene. Distillation having been found ineffectual to separate the chlo- rated silicic ethyds, we sought to obtain a separation of these products, or better still, of their derivatives, by chemical means, and in this, after a number of experiments, we succeede We noted that the chlorated products are not attacked by an alcoholic solution of acetate of potassium, except at a high tem- perature, and also that the one containing two atoms of chlo- rine is more easily attacked than the other. In fact, the pro- duct containing most chlorine is destroyed at a temperature o 130° to 140°, while the monochlorated product is not acted up- at that he scare and it can be separated from the other y taking advantage of this pro , The chlorated ols distilling at 180° to 200°, were heated fe) - > ; Sage He siderable’ quantity of water to the contents of the tubes, the salts are desolven id j after having been washed wi sium, and h at 180°, for several hours. Tae Acetic ETHER AND THE ALCOHOL oF Sriicic ETHYD. higher chlorated products. ~ After adding water to the con- tents of the tube, a liquid separates out, which is mostly soluble -oncentrated sulphuric acid. The treatment with sulphuric __ * Bulletin de la Société Chimique, i, p. 203. Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals. 321 acid was resorted to in order to purify the p incipal product i lorated product, and of silicic ethyd, which remain insoluble. The solution in h This liquid proved to be the acetate derived from silicic ethyd by the reaction which is represented of 5 following equation : Si0;H,Cl+ KC,H,0,=SiCsH,C,H,0,+KCL. It may be considered as an acetic ether, in which the residue SiC.H,, plays the part of monoatomic radical hits 0. At first the method of purification with sulphuric acid was not employed and the range of temperature at which the ether dis- tilled was larger. The following analyses were made of such products : I Boiling-point=200°-210°—Substance=0°2225 grms.; CO = 4845 grms.; H,O=0-2278 grms. IL Boiling-point=209°-215°—Substance=02748 grms.; OCO.= — _ 05900 i =0°2755 grms. Ii. Boiling-point=215°-225°—Substance=0°2940 grms.; CO.= 0°6385 grms.; H,O=0-3100 grms. AV. Boiting-point=219°-224°-—Substance=0'2018 grms.; CO.= 0°4335 grms.; H,O=02115 grms. 1. IL. Ii. IV. Calculated for SiCsHi9C2H,02. C=59°38 58-66 5923 58°78 59-40 H=1187. 1145 = «1171 ~~ «11-67 10°89 After the treatment with sulphuric acid a perfectly pure prod- Uct was obtained. : ong point =208°-214°—Substance=0°2190 grms.; CO,= 4790 grms.; H,O=0-2210 grms. IL Boiling-point = 909°-210°—Substance=0'2540 grms.; COj= 975560 grms.; H,0=0-2580 grms. zi IL. Calculated for SiCsHisC2H30s. 59°65 59-69 59°40 11°21 11-28 10°89 _ The results of an elementary analysis are not very decisive of the urity of a compound of this nature, and the best means of _ Obtaini true composition of the ether of an acid is afforded as by its saponification with caustic potash. _ at. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serres, Vo. XLIX, No. 147.—May, 1870. a1 322 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of saponification, in obtaining such a compound. The alcohol of I. Substance incompletely purified distilled 185°-190°. Substance =0°1477 grms. ; CO.=0°3200 grms. ; H,O=0°1667 grms. IL Purified substance boiling 185° — 195° — Substance=0°2100 OF hd CO,.=0°4600 grms. ; H,0=0-2355 grms. Same substance=0'1970 grms. ; CO;=0°4320 grms. ; H,0= 0-2210 grms. Boa: 5 Il. C=59°08 59°74 59°80 H=12'54 12°46 ‘ 12-46 12°50 Calculated for SiC, HOH 60°00 824 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of e, and here the presence of silicon reveals itself in the ioiaoben, determining a point of weaker cohesion, which results in the rupture of the union between itself and the carbon of the atom of ethyl containing the chlorine. In these last men- tioned reactions, therefore, an analogy is apparent between silicic ethyd, and the other known compounds of organic radi- cals with metals. The chlorated silicic ethyd, whose boiling point was 210°- 220°, was experimented upon, and the body was heated with an omg a acetate of potassium in alcoholic solution. open- tubes we found that the same gas was m off in aie abundance, whose production we have lve oa from the higher chlorated compounds which approach the mono- chlorated compound more nearly in their composition. In one operation we observed that the gas, which was first evolved, contained chlorine, and could be absorbed by bromine; this was not the case with the gas given off afterw ode In another operation, in order to obtain a clue to the reaction, we passed the gas into a solution of center wie of copper in ammonia, and th then into bromine. A small quantity of the cupric compound of olen and of the bromid of ethylene, or of chlorated ethylene, was formed. The principal product of the reaction was the same oxyd of silicic tniethyd, which was produced by the action of acetate of potassium on the bromated silicic ethyd. product was treated as before, with sulphuric acid to purify it, and the following analysis was made of it: i one cage gris. ; COy=0°4745 grms. ; H,O=02460 1 Caloulatea for 0 { SUCHE C=58°55 58°58 H=12°36 12°19 It is possible that the formation of this compound may be represented by the equation 2Si(GsH,),C,H,Cl, +.2K0,H,0, =2KCl1+0(0,H,0),+ 20,H,C1+0 4 Stor The formation of acetylene red be due to the action of chlo- rated ethylene upon the acetate of potassium, according to the equation : _ GHCl+K C,H,0,=HCH,0,+KC1+ C,H, Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals. 325 separates from the silicic ethyd to give rise to the oxyd, and consequently the continued substitution of chlorine for hydro- gen takes place in an atom of ethyl already containing chlorine, and not as might have been expected in an atom of ethyl, which to by preference in the atoms of ethyl which are fr chlorine. € observation which we have made is not without analogy, for Lieben* has shown that, in the action of i n takes Cre | O, while the other atom of ethyl remains unacted u It is remarkable that this analogy should exist between ether and silicic ethyd, a body resembling a hydrocarbon so much more clearly than ether does. OxyDaTION oF Sinicic ErHyp. We have already stated that silicic ethyd is a very stable compound, and that in order to oxydize it completely with sttong nitric acid or with a mixture of chlorhydric acid and chlorate of potassium, it is nec to operate at a tempera- L Substance=0-2275 grms.; CO;=0'3880 grms.; H,0=0-2010 grms, = Substance=0°3205 grms. ; SiOz=0°1960 grms. L Il. Calculated for Si0(CoHs)s C=4651 ao 47-05 : aie 2853 Q7-45 * Bulletin de la Société Chimique, IL, viii, p. 429, and Amnalen der Chem. und 326 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of These numbers accord very nearly with those required b the composition of an oxyd SiO(C,H;), in which two atoms of of ethyl are replaced by one atom of oxygen, and the bod would be the next more advanced product of oxydation to the oxyd of silicic triethyd, but, as we have not made sufficient experiments to determine the chemical properties of this sub- stance, we are unable to form a decided opinion as to its true nat Sinicic Meruyp. We first attempted to prepare silicic methyd oe of e mercuric se ig Seth transformed into zinc methyd b 1 solution of caustic potash, had the same properties as the silicic methyd obutned with mercuric methyd. rtion (Annalen der Chem. und dari poisonous, one of us has repea sok tis advisable to set them eet le that the difference between our po may impurities in the zine oF NT Lagu die ow kill ara Se ee SN CU oo el _— Silicic methyd was heated with it for two se Silicon with Alcoholic Radicals. 327 ge the zinc methyd which is formed from it. Indeed chlorid of silicon is not decomposed even by sodium except at a high temperature. _ In order to allow the zine to act upon the small quantity of iodid of methyl contained in the zine methyd, the digester was first heated for 12 hours at 120°, and then for 10 hours at 200° to effect the reaction between the chlorid of silicon and the zine methyd. The digester was cooled with ice before it was opened. After the escape of the gas the product was dis- tilled into recipients cooled with ice, and then treated at 0° with a solution of caustic potash in order to destroy any excess of chlorid of silicon which might be present. It is important employ nearly equivalent quantities of zinc methyd and of silicic chlorid, because the heat which is developed by the action of the caustic potash upon the excess of either occasions a loss of the silicic methyd. _Silicic methyd obtained by this process is a clear transparent liquid, lighter than water and boiling at 380°-31°. It burns With a luminous flame and a smoke of silicic acid. The follow- ig analyses were made of this substance: é Substance 0°1855 grms. ; C0,=0°3660 grms. ; H,O=0°2275 KS OPN, The substance was burnt too quickly in the first analysis and a loss of carbonic acid was occasioned. IL Substance=0-1940 grms. ; CO,=0°3875 grms. ; H,O=02850 grms. L 0. Calculated for Si(CH3), C=53°81 54°47 54: H=18-63 13°46 13°63 nitein acid:-wae.-the oxydizing agent used and tely decomposed _ found on opening the tube not to be comple oe Tit‘mscoond : determination ‘we used a very large excess of fum- 328 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations of = nitric acid and heated for forty hours at 250°-300° and obtained the following result : Substance=0°2330 grms. ; SiO,=01405 grms. i= 29°85 p.c. calculated =81°81. result is complciely in accordance with the vapor density deter- mination made by Gay Lussac’s method. Substance employed=0°1813 grms. Temperature of the bath 100°. Height of the barometer 751-7 m.m. at 8°. Volume occupied by the vapor 85 c.c. : Height of the mercury in the measuring tube 194 m.m. Vapor density by experiment =3°'058 Vapor density by calculation =3°045 If the silicic ethyd represents the hydrid of silico-nonyl, the silicic methyd is the hydrid of silicopentyl, SiC,Hy, or the silicated substitution product of the hydrocarbon of the amylic alcohol series. The want of material has prevented us from carrying the study of this body farther; we will only call attention to the great difference in the boiling points of theses homologous silicated hydrocarbons. Silicic ethyd boils at (152° _—_ centigrade. Silicic methyd “ 30°- . Difference =. 122°5 » This difference corresponds to 30° for each increment of CH, and is quite at variance with Kopp’s law. This fact is the oc Stuicic Ernyp anp Meruyp. It is obvious that considerable interest attaches to the com- ction of the series of the silicated hydrocarbons, of pir | escribed the members corresponding to the pentyl y* group, and it appears probable that all the inter 329 of a product, whose boiling-point was lower than that of zinc - ethyd. To this product 8 grms. of zinc methyd were added distilled, washed with a solution of caustic potash, and n uric to a fractional distillation. The greater part passed at 63°-67°. ‘his portion was analyzed. L Substance=0°1776 grms. ; CO,=0'4240 grms. ; H,O=0-2284 grms. Si(CHs) (C2Hs)3 Si(CH3)2 (CgHs)a . 64°61 61-20 C=65:11 H=14-28 13°84 13°79 It would a pear from the analysis that this body is silicic meth -d-tri-ethyd nearly pure, but its low boiling-point renders this high] improbable, and it is possible that the high per- centage of late product. : The bodies studied in this research belong to the same type as chlorid of silicon. Chlorid of silic SiCl, Silicic ethyd, _ = BUCH). Chlorated silicic ethyd or chlorid of silico-nonyl Si(C,H;)(C:H,C)). Acetate of silico-nonyl, Si(CyH,)s(CeHsCeH,0,). Silico-nonylic alcohol, Si(C,H,)4(CgH,O Dichlorated silicic ethyd, Si(C,H,),(C,H,Cl Ex yd which has a strong tendency to form in so cept the ox é Many reactions, and which belongs to a different type: namely, _ 880 Friedel and Crafts on the combinations, ete. to one in which two groups of molecules are linked together _ through the medium of ox gen. It may be referred to the _ same type as the disilicic ethe is wal og Si(C\H0) Disilicic hexethylic ether, O 1 Si(C;H;0)s Oxyd of silicic tri-ethyd, O SHY ree The oxychlorid of silicon, O | Sor being also to the same type. e of these compounds the chlorine is a as as. containing chlorine combined dlirectl with sili- con are readily decomposed by water with peng of chlorh y- = the same inertness, which characterizes ‘t in hydro- ns, and is not acted upon by water, and only at a very ctl bination with the silicon, and the same radical contained in the Daly of silico-nonyl, where it is in combination with carbon. one pole remains in which the cat aera between ailanow he analogy and sbi the bod Jap Sat to the same as gee FS ti D 2 a £ pe eh egy Poe. ces, Lxviii, p. 920, 1869. _ @fitical examination J. L. Smith on the Franklin county Meteoric Iron. 331. nd 1 : a the original notes were displaced ; the notes have been recently yz form is somewhat globular, with a highly crystalline ae grav. 7°692. : ts composition when perfectly freed from rust and earth is Iron, 90°58 Nickel, EE. 8°53 Cobalt, _ : 0°36 OSD DOR oligo saan « Ciena nd wes minute quantity Phosphorus, ---- -. 0°05 99°52 Having, as it will be seen, the usual composition of meteoric irons. While on the subject of this iron, I will add some remarks. 2. On the presence of Cobalt in Meteoric Irons. Irons, whose analyses are given without mention of the presence of cobalt, and in some instances, with the distinct statement that it 1s absent, as in the recent examination of a meteoric 1ron from Auburn, Macon county, Alabama, by Professor Shepard, who States that “neither cobalt, tin nor copper was detected 1m spo iron.” I cannot but suggest the importance of making a most of teas irons before pronouncing this fact; . ? for in every analysis that I have made of meteoric irons, ove 332 J. L. Smith on the analysis of Meteorie Irons. A great many of the analyses made were of irons that had been previously examined without a recognition of the cobalt. iia : lain capsule, or glass flask, with a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, consisting of four parts of the former to v . e without filtering ; if the soluti lor ving the same. i It is FOR erT? stream of sulphuretted h J. L. Smith on the analysis of Meteorie Irons. 333 only recognized by the most delicate tests after the sulphur of the collected precipitate is burnt away) ; the solution, thrown on afilter, leaves the precipitated sulphur, the little trace of copper, and all the excess of the baryta that had been added, if the ex- cess had been slight. The filter is then ignited in a porcelain crucible—the residue treated with a few drops of nitric and sul- phuric acids, which suffices to dissolve the copper, and when precipitated by acetate of with all the well known pre- Cautions. [ eli this precipitate only ames and detac it from the filter by washing it into a beaker, and re-dissolving it tion; and after considerable experience, I must say that it is the Only method of separating, with any degree of accuracy, iron ickel, 384 . Jo. L. Smith on Lead in Meteorie Irons. washed with hot water, with all the usual precautions when nickel is precipitated by an alkali. The precipitate is dried, ignited and weighed; after which it is dissolved in nitric acid The mixture of oxyd of iron and phosphate is now to be heated in a platinum crucible to the soint of fusion of the car- «8, Lead in Meteoric Irons. a instance of the finding of lead in meteoric irons is paca iron, found in 1840, in Chili, which was J. L. Smith on rubidium and cesium in Leucite. 835 examined by Mr. Greg ; the preter lead was detected by him in small masses of varied dimens I have examined several sei cut from the original mass of iron, two of which are in my possession, and my con- Viction is, that the metallic lead was altogether foreign to the iron when it originally fell, and has been doubtless derived m lead with which the mass was probably treated by the original discoverers for the purpose of extracting some precious metal, they being ignorant of its true nature. My reasons for coming to this conclusion are, that the lead is found in cavities near the surface of the iron, these cavities aving channels of more or less size leading to the exterior of the mass ; the iron is honey-combed in its character in many places, which is evident to the eye, and is also indicated by its specific gravity 65. In Pieces of the i iron, detached from the interior of the mass and ex- amined with the utmost care by a magnifying glass to see that there i is no possible fissure in it, no lead has been found. These pieces are exceedingly difficult to obtain, and can only be had in ve ; € crust of the i = having the most cavities furnishes lead, and is in some parts covered by a fused yellow sitet of oxyd of lead ; this 1 last fact has no significance, however, in the present consideration of the matter. Without venturing to in- mend this view of the subject to those having larger specimens of the iron than myse Arr. XXXIV.— Remarks on the alkalies contained in the min- eral Leucite; by J. LAWRENCE SMITH. In examining recently many of the silicates containing alka- lies, m aiseiiteon has a i Leucite, and it is on a 336 H. Wurtz on a Gas Well in New York. The specimen from Andernach was analyzed for the silica, &e., and found to contain silica 54°75, alumina 23°08, and 1°55 of oxyd of iron; this last seemed to be mechanically disseminated = 0g = ou ha" fan) ec) wa Ee P Z 4 bind =) oo 3 a. io) fr g ° i E. =) @ fom 2) ar) = far) g is") ez} qe} B Q fae) g, F —_ eee gists. i I have also detected rubidium in half a gram of margarodite and Warwick mica, and have failed to detect it in apophyllite, thomsonite, pectolite, eleolite, chesterlite, cancrinite and other silicates. Art. XXXV.— Examination of a new and extraordinary Gas Well in the State of New York ; by Professor Henry W URTZ [Read to the New York Lyceum of Natural History, March 14, 1870.]_ A New and copious outburst of gas has recently been ob- served in the township of West Bloomfield, county of Ontario, and State of New York, about twenty miles south of Rochester, and sixteen miles west of Canandaigua. | Tt is now about four years since the owner of the ground, — Mr. Beebe, while boring with the hope of getting petroleum, struck the cavity from which the gas flows, at a depth, as he state 4 of 500 feet. The bore-hole is tubed down to, and into, the soli : rock, and the tube stands about ten feet above the sur This ; feet in heigl he flow has been stated in ties, who have measured it with large ball ed to the outlet, to be from four HT, Wurtz on a Gas Well in New York, 337. here an important residual projectile force, in addition to This flow has now gone on for more than four years, and accord- ing to the testimony of residents of the vicinity, without any per- ceptible diminution of energy; indicating, in the aggregate, an escape of some 600,000,000 of feet, about half the yearly make of our largest gas manufacturing company, the Manhattan. The Most remarkable feature is the absence of diminution of flow for 80 long a time,in connection with the low pressure indicated. I hence infer the probability of an indefinite continuance; as the as nust originate not from a reservoir in a state of compression, but from huge masses or surfaces of rock, from which it oozes out near the ground, filled with quicksilver, and the ther- inserted. It was found, however, that the temperature —Szconp Serres, Vou. XLIX, No. 147.—Mar, 1870. 338 H. Wurtz on a Gas Well in New York. was not constant, showing a heating of eb iron by radiation and conduction from the flame above. At one time, however, the temperature sunk to 59° F., so that the newt temperature is be- low this, it may be as low as 50°; very low for a depth of 500 feet. Doubtless the gas is cooled by expansion from a state of compression. (A curious suggestion occurs here regarding cau- ses of irregularity in increase of temperature in descent in some fossiliferous rocks. The candle power was sed oe with a standard candle by contriving a small dark room with a large blanket shawl, usin of course the hr or i shdoW test. The gas was burn from a es steatite-tip bats-wing burner, being first passed through a glass tube so stuffed with cotton as to reduce the pressure mit 6 that which gave the maximum of light. The result was about sz candles. I had not with me an Argan burner, which, renee e ~ = a very contracted throat, would doubtless afford wi a éonsiderably higher candle power. It is well I known t i the effect of carbonic acid in iminishing cee power is very far less in the Argan thats in flat flame burn e con tion lost wid made by immersing in snow and salt, in a common water bucket, some sixty feet of small india rubber ee that I had with me. The thermometer stood at o change of the candle power pa during half an ho atid wens the light-giving hydrocarbons + gases, or at least a coally i in- condensable. Lime-water shave carbonic acid to be largely ese Manhattan Gas Light Co., in v this i ty, and some a analyses made; 3 manipulations being used which were devised by myself, in SSajrinetion with Professor Silliman, and which we have not yet publis Results of the analyses. _ Marsh gas a ee SE TY Dear ere tie acne aes Cee goes 10°11 Nitrogen : omit _ Oxygen -.. 2 eS Tluminatin i oe : 100-00 ee it a i gis re eee ee ES aoe Lae : = ae Seth : Tee a : is ee Fo) = ay as yet be rega _ ™ consequence of the imperfection of actual experimental dem , a Vue Ce Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. 839 Another density determination gave a considerably higher figure; but, wishing not to exhaust all my material, Thee not repeated it, but have adopted 0-7. Calculation gives 0°7048, assuming the three volumes of unknown illuminants to have a density of 1°5. With regard to these three volumes per cent of illuminant hydrocarbons; as they are absorbed by Nordhausen acid they according to Fouque and Gorceix in the gases of the Appe- nines; in most cases in traces only, but in one case to the ex- me confident of this; but as important chemical and geological Conclusions are here involved I shall make further and repeated of this point. SS acer ee TS Arr. XXXVI—On Flame Temperatures, in their relations to Composition and Luminosity; by B. SrzLIMAN and HENRY Worrz. Firsr Parr. Read to the American Association at Salem, August, 1869. 1. Calorific powers or effects of gases.—The calorific powers or effects of ‘ies foe: in ae belief, at the very basis the true - tical bearings that can scarcely be overrated. In fi studies of the subject have led us in the direction of ue Brae tal conclusion that, all other conditions being eq in a given — the m 340 Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. sur . a Se views have been rife, even among chemists, with Seed to the temperatures of luminiferous flames. Some have been satisfied with believing crude hypotheses; such as that the heat-power of a flame is always baton to the density od y applied Bunsen’s methods in practice. We con- aloe it quite time that these methods should be introduced to the knowledge of gas engineers, in forms available to em. Bunsen’s formulz for these computations are based upon n the a ental determinations of the total amounts of heat developed by the combustion of different t pure combustible pure oxygen, made by Favre and Silbermann; and tipon Pitnaie a eterminations of the specific heats of gaseous ucts of combustion. It is not to be maintained that Favre and Silbermann’s num- bers are strictly correct, but they are doubtless approximate, a at er proportionally correct among themselves. At any oe iy are the best data we have. ince! employed here are inclu in the ise table, They are y given in the ; | calyage for m Saoal weighs of the gases, but we have redu an , care volumes also, as more re suitable to ‘ae ction is made simply by mult- "thee uivalents Peg Aiemate by the densities as given 2 Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. 341 TABLE IL Total calorific equivalents. Densities ; Of equal weights. Of equal volumes. Hydrogen ==1. Carbonic oxyd ___._. 34,462° C, 34,462° C, 1 merarogen ..- 2... 2,403° 33,642° 14 Pee a Se en 13,063° 104,504° Olefiant gas __...... 11,858° 166,012° 14 The meaning of this table is ges that equal weights of water would be heated by the several gases to temperatures pro- portional to the numbers in the first column, when equal weights of the gases are burned; and proportional to those in the second column, when equal volumes are burned. A cursory glance at the figures in the second column of this Hydrogen pee .~ 2°22 Ibs. water. Carbonic on yd. 55454 s.20s45-48e0 16. %).5 arsh gas = Mal =. = Olefiant he ee ee er eee 1s. FS = of pure hydrogen and pure olefiant gas, even when used greatest raters teat water below its boiling point, are almost or quite identical. | 342 Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. In this discussion we have occasion to use the numbers repre- senting the specific heats of but three gases, the three, namely, which remain after complete combustion, steam, carbonic acid and nitrogen ; as we must assume that in the hottest and most lumi nous zone or shell of the flame, there is no oxygen in excess to be heated. These three numbers are, according to Regnault’s latest determinations, for equal weights o Steam 0°4805 Carbonic acid _--- . 0°2163 itrogen 0°2438 (Liquid water being 1:0000) This means that the amounts of heat which would raise one pound of water and steam to the same degree are in the ratio of 0°4805 for the pound of steam, and 1 for the pound of water. simple proportion : 9X (sp. heat of steam=0-4805) : 34462° :: (sp. heat of water=1):# : 34462° sag oe | Taos = 7960" C.* = 14876" F. a number which, we may add, represents the maximum of heat capable of being imparted theoretically to liquid water by the flame of Hare’s oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. Still, we have by no means here the actual temperature of the free or oF flame of Hare’s blow-pipe, which is generally lower than this { ; as we have not yet taken into account the latent heat, or heat of vaporization, of the 9 Ibs. of steam formed. The Centigrade temperature necessary to convert 1 1b. . At “ 2). gives this number Tee menpdig mquyogen ge opie Steam, namely, 0-475, apparently an earlier determination of I ine aks catee. wanes Or; == rection necessary in this case for the latent heat of steam of comous: ined in the text above. This oversight has doubtless been corrected cited ed author, but we have been unable to ascertain where the CoF .- Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. 348 of water into steam being 537°; to get the actual temperature of a oxyhydrogen flame, we must modify the above equation, so that po 4462'—(9 x 587") _ 951° GC. = 12364° F.; £3945 ; which is the temperature actually possible in the flame of the compound blow-pipe, were the combustion instantaneous and complete. When hydrogen gas burns zn air, however, as has been before stated, another deduction of enormous amount must be made from the above figures, due to the heat required to expand the nitrogen. This is obtained simply by adding to the divisor, as above, the weight of the nitrogen of the air employed, mul- tiplied by its specific heat. The weight of the nitrogen in air= 3318 times the oxygen; so that the latter of the above equa- tions becomes i 34462° —(9 x 537°) pelle ae are PE 5 ding = 2744°5° C.=4972° F. 43245 +(8x38-318 x 0:2438) ee We have here a full explanation of the extraordinary loss of wer in illuminating gas by admixture of air, which we ave discussed elsewhere.* The nitrogen of such air is not merely a diluent, or even a mere deductive quantity ; its specific heat is an actual divisory fanction in diminishing the flame-tem- ors ; expression is changed by simply omitting the subtrahend in the numerator: =3192° C. = 5778° F. mE 43245464714 8. Calculation of the calorific effect of carbonic oayd burning in air.— As the product of combustion is here solely carbonic acid, no latent heat of steam enters, and the calor 18 the same, under all circumstances, 1m alr. In the numerator We substitute of course the calorific equivalent of one volume of carbonic oxyd from Table I; and in the denominator, for the specific heat of 9 Ibs. of water, that of 22 Ibs. of carbonic acid, being the weight of the latter formed ay the combustion and combination of 14 Ibs. of carbonic oxyd, with 8 Ibs. of * This Journal, II, xlviii, 40. 344 Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. oxygen. The number for the 2 get heat of nitrogen is the same as before; and the equation is no 33642° ey pass *= @2X02163) Nabi ee C. = 5425° F. not only the latent heat of steam entering as a subtrahend into the numerator; but also into the denominator, as divisors, ca aa of the specific heats of steam, carbonic acid, and nitro- » heh; as 8 lbs. of marsh gas consume 22 Ibs. of oxygen, and produce 22 lbs. of carbonic acid, and 18 Ibs. steam; and as 14 Ibs. of olefiant gas consume 48 Ibs. of ox gen, producing 44 lbs. of carbonic acid, and 18 lbs. of steam, the equations for the ee oT of their flames in air become— For mar sl A °C.=4386° F. ie (18°X Bieces X 2163) +(32°K3°318x: ais 4 Fe And for olefiant gas : 66012°—(18x 537°) =9743° C4970" F. ~ (8x iia) tak X 2163); (48° 3-318 -2438) —=2748"C. : When the deduction for the latent heat of the steam of com- bustion is not made, the results in these two gases are consider- ably ae, as will be obvious from mere inspection of the We shall now give, in tabular form, all the results of our calculations of the calorific ¢ powers when burning in the air, of the four gases we have to deal with. TABLE IL For equal volumes of the _Calorific effects in heat- Calorific effects, above gases burning in air. ing liquid water. 100° C. Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade § Fahrenheit = (sp. heat HO=-4805) 3192° 5778° 27449) =. 4971" Hydrogen } (sp. heat HO=4750) 3204° 5799° 2755°} = -4591° NR as oe eget 5788° | 5749° 4980" don ate Se 2996° 5425° 2996° bone Marsh gas, (sp. heat n0= 4805. asso 4820° 2414 7 Olefant gas, : ‘ 2916° 5481° 2743° 497u° utation of calorific effects of mixed gases.—The above S$ simple the calculation of the —— ich - mixture, w centesim wie eet y to obtain the sum of the multiples SEIS a eigen Nate a Si ei a yo A : = . i Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. 845 : the percentage of each component gas 2M its calorific capa- , as aig in this table, and oo fo) e as examples of these modes ae computation we here ot in tabular forms, de results of some analyses of a number of gaseous mixtures, made by us during the winter of 1868-9. [These analytical results, it may be remarked, pos- sess points of novelty and importance, both scientifie and prac- tical, which will bring them up again hereafter, in other connee- tions, They are here placed on record. Table ILI, gives the results of two analyses of gaseous mix- tures obtained by passing steam superheated to incandescence up- ward through a mass of anthracite coal heated to a high degree ina clay retort of a novel ct according to what is how known as the “‘ Gwynne-Harris,” or American n Hydrocarbon System. In this table the veneiie are calculated without carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, which, with traces of nitrogen and sometimes of oxygen, are found in the unpurified anthracite gas. TABLE IIL No. 1. No. 2. Mean. eateten oc ccscg ai dee 60°43 59°32 59°87 Carbonic oxyd 35°44 37°14 36°29 Mare pee 4°13 3°54 3°84 100°00 100°00 100°00 In aca IV, column 1 gives the results of the analysis of the street gas served out sie period by the New Haven Gas Light C Cay - made from Westmoreland coal enriched with ut six per cent of Albertite. Column 2, the mean of four Haven during the same time, Westmoreland coal (with 10 ae cons mt of Albert) stom about its volume of the Anthracite gas. mns 3 and 4 a ed from 1 and 2 by centesimal en & ance deduction of the Senin ingredients, being what we propose to hate as the non-illuminating substrata of illummating gases. * Prof. masterly discussion of the su ect presented in his Gas- ometry, ee Ga the pide obj % has used a train of reason- Our abi Sinise cy smear mg eet ee ae : this most effectually, so far as illuminating gases are concerned. 346 Silliman and Wurtz on Flame Temperatures. TABLE IV. (1.) (2.) (3. New Haven Fair Haven Substratum Substratum City Gas. Hydrocar- of New of Fair bon Gas. Haven Gas, Haven Gas. aut} Saas 43°58 46°77 46°79 Carbonic oxyd... 2°14 9°56 2°3 10°27 Matsh cag. oa. 34 47°42 36°71 50°90 39°46 ] nante.ocus 6°86 Of ea ae ee ee re 100-00 100°00 100°00 100°00 data as to their real nature, and saarormalegh because, if we ac- tually knew, or should assume, the nature vapors present, still we have no ekverisaeetal calorific equiva- lents, as we have for olefiant gas, from which to start in such a computation. We have reason to believe nevertheless that the errors thus introduced are not important in amoun TABLE V. column ener ‘equally heated Maced to Ne dn need = New equal af volumes e equal volum ds tng oo ai00." Anthracite gas _........_.. 3100 2823 104:2 109°2 coer oy the New Haven 2917 2581 98°1 99°6 Substrata of of te Fair Haven a iwieetne 2962 =: 2640 99°6 102°0 ine Sores 4 gas; with the il- luminants assumed=olefiant 2974 2592 100-0 100-0 Fair Haven gas; with the il- a 2959 2647 99°5 abe we are is i the results of age sees in nvestigationls are “ceiv ain . From ae IT it is apparent of all known gases, the highest calorific effects, under r satiboapharis conditions, are obtainable from carbonic whose calorific value, above 100° C., is about 3000° ©. _ absolute calorifi ee value, below 100° C., in the at. ) . surpasses its volume of any other nga temperature of about t 8,200 200° ©. H. Y. Hind on the Laurentian, ete. 347 is, for producing 3. That for all modes of application—that is, | maximum calorific both high and low temperatures—the tota mpound condensed submultiple volumes of hydrogen, like that in marsh gas, have much less total calorific value in air than their volume of free hydrogen. 5. Condensed compound submultiple volumes of gaseous car- bon, like that in olefiant gas, have no greater total calorific value, in air below 100° C., than their own volume of carbon gas in € torm of carbonic oxyd; while above 100° C. their value is even considerably less. Art. XXX VIL—On the Laurentian and Huronian Series in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; by HENRY YouLe Hyp, M.A. Contents:—1. Introduction; 2. General Sketch of the Distribution of the Huronian and Laurentian Series in Nova Scotia; 3. Sequence of Formations—The Upper Silurian; 4. The Lower Silurian; 5. The Gold-bearing Rocks; 6. The Cambrian or Huronian Series; 7. The Laurentian Series The Eozoén Canadense ; 9. Cape Breton Island. ? 1. ntroduction. = = of course, reach their development only under the most favorable conditi eo 5 , case respective 3 : : ¢Teliminary F Dy dcaiony of New Brunswick: Fredericton, 1865. 4In southern New Brunswick Prof. Bailey an Geol cS urentian an aron. : 2 ns i ble paper _ eology of Southern New Brunswick:” Fredericton, 1865. Also see an abl _ by Mr. Mathew in the Journal of the Geological Society of London for 1865. 348 HT. Y. Hind on the Laurentian and bay of Chaleurs to the boundary line between New Brunswick and Maine are supposed to represent the Laurentian and are described in my Report on New Brunswick, published in 1865 (pp. 42-52 ena Dawson to be foreshadowed with some degree of accuracy ; and it is proper to repeat here Dr. Dawson's first paragraph o i Map” :— edition, though greatly improved, is still to be regarded as merely a rude approximation to the truth, and the colorimg ™ many places, more especially in the interior, remote from the coast lines, is little more than conjectural.” ; In various parts of “ Acadian Geology” reference is made to rocks which were suspected by Dr. Dawson to be older than the Lower Silurian slates and quartzites. (See particularly page 620, granitoid gneiss on which they rest, with the Laurentian. Dr. Sterry Hunt visited Nova Scotia in November, 1867 ie the purpose of making some observations on the gold-bearmg o* i Pasiaces ott ths Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia: by Abraham Gesnet; -_ $ Acadian Geology, Ist edition. ree sae stroenee Peposesie ge = Co., penn ae _F Geological Maps of Canada ‘and the adjacout regions, 1869; London, Baward eee eae Huronian Series in Nova Scotia. 849 Allusion is made in the Atlas of Maps and Sections of the Geological Survey of Canada to the st erat expressed in m pce 50.” (Atlas of Maps and Sections, Geological Survey of aleozoic strata resting on these gneisses in bot vinces (on the Nipisiquit in N. B.), satisfies me that they are of the same age. 2. General Sketch of the Distribution of the Huronian and Lauren- tian Series in Nova Scotia. In this general sketch of the old gneissic rocks of Nova Scotia, phey are grouped together. In succeeding rarseaane it ere the Huronian or Cambrian gneiss and schist rest on the old Laurentian gneiss as far as known. Fundy) to the Atlantic coast at spe Sambro, a distance of forty-eight miles in an air line, and si I tion hereafter noticed I believe continues with variable breadth = of Dr. T. on of Nova Scotia ; he govi . Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., on the Gold Region of Nova Scott Ste 850 H.. Y. Hind on the Laurentian and to the Tusket Islands, near Yarmouth, a distance of about one hundred and thirty-five miles in an air line. Prince Edward Island series, resting on Lower Carboniferous rocks. The entire series from the Lower Carboniferous downward, with the exception of the Devonian, is passed over in a journey by rail from Windsor to Halifax, in a distance of fourteen miles. The Devonian occurs at Nictau, and rest there on Aad Silurian slatest which probably sweep round the Falmouth mountains and connect with the Upper Silurian near Windsor. 8. Sequence of Formations—The Upper Silurian. On the St. Croix river, eight miles from Windsor, the Lower Carboniferous grits are seen to rest on Upper Silurian argillit _ *In Cape Breton, at Jum on the Gulf coast, and at Tr ‘Sa d Huronian Series in Nova Scotia. 851 uartzites, and have a breadth near the railway of 170 chains; their dip being tolerably uniform, and no repetitions visible; calcareous beds, holding Favosites Gothlandica. These are ck.* lack slates are exposed to a great extent on the Ardoise hi range, N. S. 5 4. The Lower Silurian. A good exposure of the blue-black Upper Silurian slates is visible at the 18th telegraph post south of llerhouse station on the Halifax and Windsor Railway: dipping S. 20° E.; and at the 88th telegraph post brilliant micaceous schists, interstratified with black corrugated slates, dip N. 40° E., the intermediate Space being covered with boulder drift. The brilliant micaceous schists, as well as the corrugated slates, are much contorted, and overlie conformably the gold-bearing quartzite series. he micaceous schists and the corrugated black slates cannot be distinguished from similar schists and slates described in m near Dumbarton station on the New Brunswick and Canada 2 Railroad (pp. 147 and 154) where they are gssociated with the 7 ted slates supposed to be the uppermost member of the Quebec } =: Soup of Sir W.E. Logan. The black corrugated slates contain _ ©onformable auriferous beds of quartz, but no mining is at __ Present carried on in these deposits. They are about 3,000 feet _-:M thickness, 5. The Gold-bearing Rocks. The known gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia consist of aa Fe < . with +7 e0 slates, and thin conformable and intercalated beds of auriferous - * Page 131. 852 HI. Y. Hind on the Laurentian and they are intersted and it is from these quartz beds that the greater part of the gold of Nova Scotia is obtained.* The total thickness of the gold-bearing series, in cluding the corrugated me slates and the brilliant micaceous schists, is about 12,000 6. The Cambrian or Huronian Series. In some parts of Nova Scotia the known gold-bearing rocks rest unconformably on a gneissoid series, which are well ex to view on the Halifax and Windsor Railway, between Stillwater and Mount Uniacke Station, near the village of Sherpas in Guysborough county. This ore i is R COmpOr ae of gneiss, interstratified with micaceo schists, oat con- glomerate, beds of true quartzite, wk foe The gneiss is sometimes xen yritic, and the upper beds are almost always olding pebbles and masses of schist, erie, an conglomerates, which are found in this series, f the pase strata are garnetiferous, as are also the micaceous pe etween Stillwater and Mount Uniacke stations, the ee strike of the Lower Silurian is N. 80° E., di N.Z the prevailing strike of the Huronian is §, 50° E. ee Nad track running for two or three miles on the strike of these rocks Near to their junction with the Huronian, fhe. Silurian schists are more altered than when remote, and h old numerous cry of andalusite. This series has been very nee denuded ; and in some places Silurian, Huronian and Laurentian are seen ia et juxtaposition. The thickness at Sherbrooke is about _s : supposed older strata and the gold-bearing series; also between the older strata and the Laurentian; and I have succeeded in ering in various S$: Ist. The unconformable contact of the Lower Silurian gold- several points of contact ais sisi at both both extremities ; Huronian strata about four miles broad, overlying Huronian Series in Nova Scotia. 3538 the Laurentian on the Windsor and Halifax railway, com mencing one mile or thereabouts southeast of New Stillwater station, and terminating at Uniacke’s second lake, and more alf a mile west of Mount Uniacke station. 7. The laa Series. the rocks last described are visible, as oe stated, in rests on the old gneiss, and ilurian on the Huronian ; pe north of Stillwater and south of Mount Uniacke the Silurian ure Series appearing to cover comparatively small areas in the great Laurention valley between Halifax ahd Windsor; but in the more western counties es is exposed, I have reason to believe, to a very pean exte county of Gasihonoogs the gold-bearing rocks at Sherbrooke rest on the Huronian, which again is seen close at in contact with the old Laurentian gneiss. In the middle ang eastern part of Nova Scotia the thickness of the Huronian does not appear to be very considerable, but no complete section has yet been crossed except at Sherbrooke. Between Halifax ap indsor the Lower Silurian ater Pioasiaccoe a great valley _ % synclinal fold in the old Laurentian gneiss) The average breadth of the valley is niné miles, see its depth must exceed two miles. Its ts general course is northwest (true); and the _ j are : wn, Montague, Wavere and Renfrew on the eastern boundary at the valley, po upying opens of anticlinals, which have a Pe northeast- yi the gold districts - Cochrane's ns Hl, § Sherbrooke, oo r, Isaac’s Harbor and County Harbo Also on the crowns hee anil which Suk a entea oops: - 854 H. Y. Hind on the Laurentian and Laurentian gneiss forms the axis around which the Huronian and Silurian series are arranged; but with respect to the precise limits of their formations little is known to the west or to the east. the Lower Silurian, are probably representations in man the district where they occur. 8. The Hozoin Canadense. Tn the autumn of 1868, Dr. Honeyman, then e ngared aged on the geological survey of Canada, ¢ discovered on the Gulf coast of Nova Scotia, in the enande ong and near the base of the d cation of my Preliminary Report on the Nova Scotia Laurentian Specimens were sent to Montreal for aerrpentiet and pened | tions were given by Dr. Hunt, who also shared Dr. . Honeyma® indeed forgotten, until quite recently, as Dr. Hunt informs™ under date Feb. 3d, 1870. When submitted to the microscopic test, the Hozotin Cuncedonee wan distinctly seen, and Dr. Dawson has confirmed the observations. ay This fortunate occurrence has a two-fold bearing. It not Zt ~ ea most satisfactory testimony to the existence in Nor of the Laurentian Reusenaen bu but it enables geologists znize the truth of Dr. Honeyman’s opinions, al known or Huronian Seriegin.. Nowa Stotiti a. Porphyritic varieties, which often form mountain masses, some- times have, at first sight, but little the aspect of stratified rocks, and might be mistaken for intrusive granites,” * _ Serpentines in the Arisaig district of Nova Scotia is of 4 nce, an which will ultimately establish the correctness of my supposition ee t } 1 Cape Breton Island I saw in 1866 the black corrugated slates forming the summit of the gold-bearing series in Nova ®oast; and on the Mackenzie river, near Red Cape, I crossed Or a great gneissoid series. ‘eg ; Th other parts of Cape Breton I have seen similar gneisses as, for Instance, near the mouth of North river, St. Ann’s Bay, and 90 the peninsula opposite Baddeck. Pee OO “RS > eae Se those of Nova Scotia. Hence it becomes more than probable that a rg portion of the area colored by Dr. Dawson to pper Silurian i | * Page 587, Geology of Canada, 1863. _t Page 11, Preliminary Report on a Gneissoid Series in Nova Scotia, by the author. 356 C. H. Wing on certain Double Sulphates. . Art. XXX VIII.— Contributions to Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School. No. 10.—On certain Double Sulphates of the Cerium Group ; by CHARLES H. Wine. SOME tion of crude ceroso-ceric sulphate, containing also lanthanum idymium, solutions of luteocobaltic or roseocobaltic sul- ystine tint, and was reserved for the preparation of lanthanum and didy- us precipitated was washed by a : is amount of soluble substance a had been reduced, (after Bunsen) Cae OC. Hl. Wing on certain Double Sulphates. B57 solved, again precipitated, and this process repeated till six successive precipitations as a basic salt had been effected. The final precipitate was dissolved in sulphuric acid, reduced by sulphurous acid, the solution evaporated and the excess of acid expelled by heating in, what I shall, for brevity, term a “radi- ator.” This is a crucible of sheet iron in form like the ordin porcelain crucible, midway in which is fixed a triangle of plati- num wire by which a smaller crucible may be supported so as to leave a space of about 2 c. m. intervening between the walls of the two crucibles. The substance being placed in the inner crucible and the heat of a Bunsen gas lamp re to the outer one, a very uniform heat may be maintained, variable at will, to a temperature considerably above the boiling point of sul- phurie acid. The neutral cerous sulphate thus obtained was dissolved in cold water, filtered, and crystallized by slow evaporation on the r bath. A saturated solution of this salt was placed in a 12-inch sac- charometer tube before a powerful spectroscope, and light, con- densed by a ‘ bulls eye” lens and transmitted through this tube, howed no traces of didymium. is The cerium also from the mother liquor from the last precipi- tation as basic salt, subjected to the same rigid test proved free m didymium. 2 The first precipitation of basic sulphate was of a dirty buff, every 2 ieee | one lighter in color, the last three being al- white. The cerous oxalate from both precipitate and mother liquor of the last precipitation was of a snowy whiteness, with no trace of amethystine tint by reflected light, and gave on ignition a white ceroso-ceric ox : : The cerous sulphate, the preparation of which has just been deserit was, after repeated ¢ lizations, subjected to analy- 2 z & 5 Fs | $ : F $9 & ou : EB. FE ay iti corresponding of cerous oxyd, the experiments of J egel* and Wolft made in : ’s laboratory, give the following factors. Jegel, -9504 9507 _... .--- ---- mean 95055 Wolf, -9507 -9518 -9494 -9509 °9518 mean 95089 * Annalen d. Chem. u. Pharm., ev, 1858. } This Journal, vol. xlvi, May, 1868, 358 C. H. Wing on certain Double Sulphates. As the mode of preparation was that employed by Wolf, I have used the factor deduced from the mean of his analyses. I, 12885 grms of substance gave 1707 H, © and ‘6732 €e,0,= : 6400 €eO. II. 1:4090 grms. “ “ “ 1857 H,6 and °7372€e,0,= "7009 €eO. These results give the following percentages, to which I have, for the sake of comparison, appended those obtained by Wolf from his purest cerous sulphate. = IL Wolf. €ed 57°28 57°31 57°294 57°310 3 42°72 42°69 42°706 42°690 equivalent corresponding 45°64 45°69 45°66 45°69 Taking the mean of these 45°67 as the true equivalent of ce- rium or 91°34 as the atomic weight and the formula 3(€e,$O,)-+-5H, 0 we have : i. é Wolf. Calculated. €e ae ee 42°08 so TS Seige gee sable ipsa 44-17 HO 13°24 1818 13318 12803 13°80 the results obtained we can assume the cerium used in 2 in the crucible by means of aqua-regia and a few drops of st d hurie acid, was heated in the “radiator” until sulphune e* fumes ceased to be evolved, afterwards over the naked flame, 1° : peed moments, to low redness. e crucible was then allow f C. H. Wing on certain Double Sulphates 359 one easily obtained in a state of purity. This salt, dried over sulphuric acid, was weighed in a porcelain crucible, sulphuric acid added and the cobalt converted into anhydrous sulphate by eating as above. L = Vv. Substance taken 9005 «4041 «= «12340-10478 =: 10418 oSO, obtained 5573 «= 2498 "7625 6497 6443 Percentage €oSO , 81°90 61°81 61°80 62°01 61°89 _ Gibbs and Genth obtained as a mean of four analyses of this Salt 61-90 per cent of CoS6,. _ Taking the atomic weight of cobalt as 59° which number is indicated by these analyses, we have as the percentage of cobalt found— . IL. Il. VL Ve Mean Calculated. 2356 86-23-53 23°58) 23°80 )=— «2856 = 28556 28-56 From the above it appears that this method for determination esired. cobalt is all that could be d ee determining the sulphuric acid in the substance a portion of | 4 boiling heat, i allowed to stand for twelve hours or more | before filterine. : ; _ The total amount of hydrogen was determined by combus- ion of the substance mixed with chromate of lead, placing in the anterior portion of the tube, first oxyd of copper, then me- e Seemed to indicate the compound formed to be a ceric salt. The filtrate from this tet precipitate showed powerful ate 360 O. H. Wing on certain Double Sulphates. The precipitates, being found to contain So Geb oa were con- verted into sulphate, oxydized by boiling wit peroxyd of lead and again precipitated by luteo-cobaltic sulphate. This last pre- cipitate was also found to contain traces of didymium. eighed quantities of crude ceroso-ceric oxyd were con- verted into sulphate, luteo-cobaltic sulphate and potassic perman- ganate added, and the yellow precipitates collected on weighed filters and, after weighing, converted into ceroso-ceric oxyd. I. ‘5638 grms. substance gave 20395 grms. of yellow salt, yield- ing ‘4780 grms. ceroso-ceric oxyd. IL. *6960 grms. substance gave 2°3670 germs. of yellow salt, yield- i d ing 5940 grms. ceroso-ceric oxyd. The filtrates were free from cerium. In original substance. In yellow salt. : I. ; . Per cent of €e,0, 84°78 85°35 23°44 25°09 It appears from this, that the yellow salt, formed in this man- ner, cannot be relied upon, as possessing a uniform constitution. \ quantity of pure ceroso-ceric sulphate was precipitated by adding a slightly acid solution of luteo-cobaltic sulphate; the recipitate was washed with hot water. The washings were slightly colored to the end, indicating partial decomposition of of the salt. The precipitate on drying adhered to the filter and was of a rather pale yellow color. III. 2°1175 grms substance gave 5640 €e,0, and 4405 €oSO, 12725 « « “ 1-4035 Bas, Ratio. so, 45°43 9466 €e 21 55 4717 €o 7°92 2685 This analysis leads to no rational formula. A new preparation of this salt was made from a somewhat acid solution of pure ceroso-ceric sulphate and washed with hot water containing acetic acid. The precipitate was of a deeper — than the preceding and did not adhere so strongly to the ter. IV. 1:8615 grms. substance gave 4060 €e,@, and 5050 €oS5O, Ratio. €e. 17°65 -- 3862 €o 10°33 3501 : ___ Another preparation made from nearly neutral rhino! _ sulphate was of much paler color, and adhered more strongl the filter, than any previously made: this was not analyzed. Hs 3 The above pi led to the belief that the salt was contam! re = i ig a ee Se C. H. Wing on certain Double Sulphates. 361 A highly acid solution of pure ceroso-ceric sulphate was then heated and precipitated by a hot saturated acid solution of Iuteo-cobaltic sulphate. A bright yellow highly crystalline precipitate was formed, which was slightly washed with cold water, and which did not adhere to the filter on drying. - This precipitate when viewed under the microscope appeared as cleanly crystallized hexagonal prisms, of uniform size, and Without admixture of other forms. Three preparations were, in this manner, madé, which resembled one another in color and general character and which were separately analyze VV. -1°0345 grms, substance gave ‘2160 €e, 0, and ‘2935 050, * 0 Md “ ee 1°287 4 17650 “« 5670 H,G VL 10075 «“ “ “« +9150 €e,0, “ 2840 €oSO, 11665 “ i “ 1-4680 Ba SO, 11645 “ i “« -3690 H,90 VIL. 1-1330 « a“ « +9455 6e,0, “ +3108 OvSO, FOOIT «“ “ 1/2695 Ba 13358 a“ “« -4148 HO These results lead to the simple formula 12 NH, €0,350,+€e, 350,+H,0 This compound is of interest as being a purely ceric salt. It endures a temperature of 150°C. without decomposition. Vv VIL VIL. Calculated. $9, 51°80 51°83 52°2 52:42 €e 16°90 1727 17°54 16°63 €o 10°80 10°74 10°44 10°74 NH, 18°66 18°56 18°05 18°57 H,@ 2°47 2°21 2°39 1°64 100°63 10061 100°64 100°00 wing to all appearances the same crystalline form. I regret much that I ave, as yet, been unable to obtain crystals of such ensions as wo al morphism by actual measurement. I can at present only say, that the two substances cannot be distinguished from one another under the microscope. VIII. 1-0240 grms, substance gave °3050 ce, 6, and -2505€050, “8500 “ “a oe "9858 Base 9588 “ «“ « 9650 H,0 4 362 C. H. Wing on certain Double Sulphates, The formula indicated is 12NH, €0,350,+3(€eS56,)-+-H, 8. VI cula’ se, 47°77 8°40 €e 24°10 23°04 €o 9°31 9°91 NH, 16°10 17°14 H,¢@ 2°07 151 99°35 100°00 I succeeded also in forming the analogous salt of lanthanum. Toa concentrated solution* of the sulphate, luteo-cobaltic sul- — was added, and the solution heated. The precipitate of a uff yellow color showed under the microscope crystals appa- rently of the hexagonal system with the edges so rounded as almost to conceal the hexagonal form. IX. 1:0648 grms. substance gave ‘3085 a@ and ‘2495 €oSO, a _ “ -9072 BaSO ‘8918 “ «“ “ -9452H,O Assuming the atomic weight of this lanthanum to be 94, the probable formula is 12NH, €0,350,+-3(faS6,)+H, 0. Ix. culated. sé, 47°58 48°08 Ea 24°76 23°54 €o 8°92 9°85 NH, 15°42 17°03 H,0 3°01 1°50 99°69 100-00 Unsuccessful attempts were made to form double phosphates and chromates of cerium and luteo-cobalt. ee analogous to those formed with luteo-cobaltic sulphate. ey are, however, easily decomposed by water, sO much 80, | suce _ X was formed by adding, to an excess of hot strongly acid solution of roseo-cobaltic sulphate, a solution of ceroso-ceric Sw) phate; this yielded a crystalline orange-browr precipitate which * This solution contained also didymium and was obtained from the mother ulphate before described, by ‘‘ Watt's ic s d with chlorid of ammonium. is % 8 . : 2 " . ; C. H. Wing on certain Double Sulphates. 363 was slightly washed with cold water. The configuration of the crystals could not be well made out, but was apparently one of the complex forms of the regular system. as formed by adding the roseo-cobalt solution to an ex- cess of the cerium solution. The crystals formed were similar to X but larger. X. 1-0661 grms, substance gave ‘2395 gr.€e, 0, and 2908 €oS6, 3270 6s oc “ 1° 6025 BaS@, 12715 “ & “ -3910H,@ XT. 19660 “ 52 “ -4702 €e,0, and -4960 €oSO, E3038 © . “ 9-2970 BaSO 20620 = iz SS G0S7 HO These results lead to the formula: 10 NH, €o0, 350,+€e,350, +5H,9. X. XI. Calculated. SO, 4978 4997 — 50°66 €e 18°18 19°36 16°08 €o 10°39 9°60 10°39 NH, 14°96 13°83 14°96 H,98 7°00 7°31 7°91 100°26 100°07 * 100°00 ith cerous sulphate a homogeneous crystallization of the precipitate could be obtained only by a the cerium solu- tion to a large excess of roseo-cobaltic sulphate. e crys- two luteo salts apply also to the roseo salt though with less force, insomuch as the appeara characteristic. ae The analyses show the ceric and cerous salts to contain the same number of atoms of water which is in accordance with the supposition of isomorphism. oe ! ave 4700 €e,0, and °4713 _ ae jesse Mer tee Laat Base, 16596“ «“ « -4880 H,@ Which seems to indicate the formula: 10NH, €0, 350, + 3 (€eSO,)+5H, 0. A Se . 47°23 46°90 €e 20°99 22°31 €o 9°90 9°6r NA, 14:27 13°85 H,¢? 6°75 7°33 99°14 100°00 I did not succeed in forming an analogous salt of lanthanum. 364 J. C. Draper on a new Aspirator. It appears that the proportional amount of cerium, in all the compounds discussed, varies, within certain limits according to the mode of preparation: which is well shown by a comparison of the results X, XI, XIL This is as we might expect in com- pounds, the nature of which precludes the possibility of purifi- cation, either by recrystallization or by thorough washing. The roseo-ceric¢ salt appears to contain some admixture of the cerous salt. The sulphuric acid found is no doubt a little low, as the filtrate, after standing a week or more, deposited a slight addi- tonal precipitate of baric sulphate to the amount of -05 per cent. The variations are, it seems to me, not so great as to cast doubt upon the correctness of the formulas deduced. In conclusion, my best thanks are due to my kind teacher and friend, Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, to whom I am indebted for many and valuable suggestions, and also for the material use in this investigation. Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, Jan. 15, 1870. Art. XXXIX.—On a new Aspirator ; by Joun 0. DRAPER. I sEND herewith a description of an apparatus that answers irably as an aspirator when it is desired to submit a large amount of atmospheric air to examination. t consists of a F tin boiler (a) for h one inch in diame- ter also drawn : | ee hs jet as at _ (@) im the figure. : _ The two tubes form an ent somewhat like an ordi- Hy oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe ‘Through the cork (@) a thin oe aa J. Wharton on two products in the Nickel manufacture. 865 in diameter, freely opened at both ends, is then passed through the cork (/) to give the air access to the bottom of the flask when the apparatus is in operation. The method of action is as follows: heat being applied to the oo i> a strong jet of steam issues chvonght , when if the ms : College of the City of New York, Jan. 14th, 1870. Art. XL.—On two peculiar products in the Nickel manufacture ; by JosEPH WHARTON. I. SEVEN years ago, when I was about to commence operations ng the fgments ce in the matte, I gave directions a that, when it should next be observed, a close examination e the bottom of the furnace.* This solid mass consists in part of lumps of ore, flux, and fuel of the first charge, which reached the hearth imperfectly melted or consumed and so remained, and in part of accretions from the thoroughly fused matte which, as the furnace worked, formed a pool over and enclosing those lumps. * It should be explained that the furnaces in question are small upright blast furnaces, in whi Mine (Nicolliferous Pyrrhotite with 2 per cent 8, in which the ores of Gap ne (N feat tee. the juieciant bakig’ & Ni and Co), previously roasted, are smelted for the Matte containing abost 12 per cent Ni and Co, with about 4 per cent 366 J. Wharton on two products in the Nickel manufacture, The cavities of such a mass seemed to me favorable for the production of crystals when a tendency to crystallize existed. Last midsummer very interesting groups of crystals were in fact found upon breaking up one of these masses to fit it for remelting; they were so small, however, that, except for search eing made in consequence of the matte of that furnace having exhibited the plates above named, the crystals would probably not have attracted attention. Some of these crystals are cubical, with a bright metallic luster, the groups aa ling miniat lena; others are minute octahedrons, arranged in spicula, and ese crystals are very tough, and are highly magnetic. A spicula of the octahedrons can be bent many times without attached, were submitted for analysis to the chemist of my al Crystals. Granular. Cu 1°85 0-466 1°74 0-438 Ni and Co 25-22 6-837 28°20 7640 Fe 64°10 386-622 62°50 85°861 NS] 8:90 43-925 7-60 43°939 10007 1:4-93 10004 1:5°78 The subordinate column in each case shows the uantity of S which would be requisite to form, with the metals found, the Res Cu,S, Ni, and Co,S, FeS ; the ratio, below it, is that of the S found to that thus calculated, _If we conceive the copper to exist as Cu,S, we then at figures R 82-00 56, indicating, though Very closely to the form RS. ld the copper be included in the average, we the $5 indicating, a : od J. Wharton on two products in the Nickel manufacture. 367 IL Desiring last year to make, in a granulated form, an alloy consisting of # nickel, 4 copper, I caused a mixture of the oxyds of those metals in the due proportions to be heated in closed crucibles with charcoal in a blast furnace; by this means reduction and fusion resulted, and the fused alloy was poured into water at a high white heat. Among the granulated metal were found large numbers of hollow spheroids varying in size from peas to large chestnuts, many of them imperfect and torn, but many of them tolerably regular in shape, one side being usually bright and smooth, while the other was rough and pimpled. As, upon crushing these with a hammer, the anvil was moist- ened, I examined a considerable number of them and found that they were nearly full of water, so that the water distinctly rattled within them when shaken, and showed itself in quanti when the larger spheroids were carefully broken. Fluid metal, poured white hot into water, had formed metallic bulbs filled with water. this refractory alloy at a welding heat d are formed in a pfs 2 somewhat similar to that, but these bulbs Were not so form The true solution is doubtless this: The metal when poured was in a state of ebullition, was giving off gas; not probably shell to escape upward, wh : . J Ward in Ain li of the under side would reach the interior fin Course any which were rent must necessarily be filled by the water in which they were plunged. Those however in whi 368 0. Loew on the action of sunlight on Sulphurous Acid. vacuum. That such pores existed was shown y the fact of cating atmosphere. Not all the pots of metal produced when poured, such globules, for not all were in the fit state of ebullition. e nature of the disengaged gas might perhaps have been determined, if a sufficient quantity had been collected by break- ing the globules under a receiver, but this was not done. I send specimens of the globules with this paper. Philadelphia, March, 1870. Art. XLL—On the action of sunlight on Sulphurous Acid; by O. Loxzw, Assistant in the College of the City of New York. (Read before the “ Lyceum of Natural Science,” New York.) WE know that Phy under the influence of the sunlight re- phuric acid, solutions of sulphates and sulphites and aqueous sulphurous acid under various conditions, in sealed tubes to the a ioe oxydized by it to eg meee acid. It seems very sin- O. Loew on the formation of Ozone. 369 Art. XLIL—On the formation of Ozone by rapid combustion ; by O. Loew, Assistant in the Chemical Department of the College of the City of New york. (Read before the “ Lyceum of Natural Science,” New York). y €, common oxygen not being able to combine directly with the elements. In 1858 ot Supported this notion, and Clausius has modified his hypothesis accordingly, now believing that ozone is a combination between an atom and a molecule of oxygen. This combination is but a loose one, and the power of oxydation resides in the third atom of oxygen, which combines directly with other substances, leay- img common oxygen behind. This constitution of ozone may be represented a the following formula: 8([00]}=2([00]0) The oxydation of a metal by ozone is shown by the equation ([00]0)+M=M9+([00)). . 3 e if the high temperature would not destroy it again as quickly as it is form is observation shows that not spe in slow oxydation but also in rapid combustion, an intermediate formation of ozone takes place,* and that it can be separated in the proper way. New York, ber, 1869. * __* Compare the observation of Pincus in the article on Nitrification, this Journal, T vol. ii, p. 238s. Am. Jour. Sot.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XLIX, No. 147.—May, 1870. 370 A. E. Verrill on New Corals. ART. — Contributions to Zotlogy from the Museum A Y. ale Glee No. 7.—Deseriptions of New Corals; by A. VERR MADREPORARIA. Heteropsammia geminata, sp. nov. ‘Figure 1. Corallum ny encrusting and enclosing a small, dead, valve shell, which ‘Spm been oceupied ~ Bae simple, slightly raised; it very becomes elongated and finally di- similar cor- ates, which are aa et well — and divergent, but € co se narrow, much thickened and spongy outwardly ty ae tle projecting the septa of the fourth ¢ are na’ , outwardly Joining those of the first hh second, opps ba pore n becoming broader before joining the colu- een his be calioritely developed and fine spongy. The coral has an open vermicular be quite porous texture, more compact Sahieat In all the specimens there are seve holes, like pin-holes, near the base of the corallites, often form- ack a Pee complete circle around the base, which are, perhaps, e The base of ‘the largest specimen is ‘65 long; ‘50 broad; “45 high ; corallites “12 high; ‘35 broad; - of cell 12 of an Aig Te a D all. Teal erro form in this species H, Michelin appears to differ not only in di ita emaller cup and a different : eae | i eae aes A. E. Verrill on New Corals, 371 the septa, those of the three first cycles being described as about equal, while in H. geminata those of the third cycle are very small. The columella in the latter appears to be much less de- d.* Desmophyllum simplex, sp. nov. Figure 2. Corallum elongated, slender, turbinate above, rapidly | ing to the edge of the cup; lower half of column . 3 smooth and round, upper part, toward the cup, } =‘ Somewhat angular with twelve thin, sharp, crest- like costze, which become much elevated near the enlarg- 2. ‘10 of an inch. : St. Thomas, West Indies,—Mrs. E. H. Bishop. HETEROZOANTHUS, gen. nov. Polyps creeping on the surface of sponges, etc., by thin, é | stolon-hke accpanitone of the base, from which the polyps arise | ‘miinear series. The polyps are short, —_ of contracting t 2 cup 388; primary septa 14 broad; height above edge of cup 7 Rearly to a level with e basal membrane. Tentacles few, 12 24. a, ete. : Besides the following, this genus appears to aD. a. M.) Bl ce ie Heterozoanthus scandens, sp. nov. Polyps small and low, connected by a narrow basal mem- ne, which is a little wider than their bases and creeps over and is partially imbedded in the surface of a branching spon sing to the tips of all the branches, some of which are eight _Mches long, and forming i r reticulations over the surface, tough at times ascending for two inches or more with a linear _ Series of polyps; rarely with double series. The polyps are near 4g * HE. eupsammides sp.) from China, may be nearer this if distinct from the former, to which Sdwards ond Haime refer it 22g B72 A. E Verrill on New Corals. together, seldom more than their own diameter apart, and often in contact; in contraction they rise but little above the basal membrane in the form of low, flattened warts, with a depression at summit from which radiate 12 to 15 sulcations. Internal lamellae 12. Integument firm, filled throughout with small, glistening, white spicula, probably derived from the sponge. Diameter of contracted polyps 08 to 10; height 02 or 03; breadth of basal membrane about ‘10 of an inch. Sherbro Island, West Africa,—Prof. A. Hurd. ALCYONARIA. Telesto Africana, sp. nov. Figure 3. various forms (fig. 8, a), which are closely interlaced, as in the other species of the genus. Other forms of long, very slender, more distantly spinulose, often bent spicula are aise abundant (fig. 3, b ’ 036, 408 by 048, 366 by 048. Sherbro I., on the base of Muricea granulosa,—Prof. A. Hurd. This species is closely allied to T. b a fruticulosa Dana, of the Carolina coasts, and, like that species, 15 ¢ crusted by a parasitic sponge. But it is a more slender specie and the itecla are longer and more attenuated. : T. Riisei V., of St. Thomas (Clavularia Riise’ D. and M.), Ss ae aan aaa ete tas A. E. Verrill on New Corals. 373 also nearly allied. 7. trichostemma V. (Dana sp.) and 7: auran- taca Lamx. have stouter and more warty spicula. Muricea granulosa, sp. nov. Figure 4. Corallum rather slender, somewhat fan-shaped, branching in a plane; branches and branchlets irregularly sub-pinnate ; branchlets slender, 5 to 1% inches long. errucse sma. crowded, prominent, somewhat nariform, opening upward, the lower lip rounded, not prolonged. cenenchyma granulous with small, stout spicula. Color, when dried, dull yellowish or grayish brown. Height 6 inches; breadth 4; diameter of trunk ay of branchlets ‘06 to 08; of verruce 03; height of verrucz of an and roughly warted, stout spindles, 4, 190 Short, stout, rough, bay ae forms, which are often as broad as long, with warted spindles. The larger rough spindles measure *648™™ by ; y 108 ; the oblong spicula 408 by -144, 396 by “168, 312 by a More slender than in most species. __ : Muricea vatricosa Kélliker (Gorgonia vatricosa Val.) from the i African species recorded pre- iginal specimen. ay a t e corresponding forms are about twice as large ; some of the larger spindles measure * by -180™™, -780 by 240, 744 by 204; oblong spicula 696 by 40, -456 by 192; clubs -660 by “156, -456 by “180; the slender Spindles -720 by *108. The lower lip is also said to be pro- Onged in the form of a small horn. 374 A. E. Verrill on New Corals. Leptogorgia robusta sp. nov. posi sides, and 5 to 1 inches apart. The branchlets are curved at base, then ascend at an aig of about 45°; they are rarely coa- lescent, stout, rigid, obtuse, 1 to 3 inches long, a little com- pressed, with a broad band of polyp-cells on each side, with narrow, depressed, sterile median bands, often with a distinct groove. The polyp-cells are numerous, close, rather large, oblong or oval, usually at the summit of large, low, round verrucs, sometimes scarcely raised; they form about 4 to 6 irregular alternating vertical rows on each side of the branch- lets, and 8 to 12 on the main branches, and are usually separa- ted by distances about equal to their own diameter. Ccenen- chyma moderately thick, finely granulous. Axis stout, round or a little compressed, nearly smooth and brownish black in the larger branches, the axils flattened; in the branchlets firm and rigid, tapering, dark reddish brown, slightly translucent; base thick, spreading, yellowish wood-brown. ; Color of ecenenchyma dull dark yellow, tinged with purplish brown on the verruce. Height 12 inches; breadth 5; diame- ter of main branches ‘22 to ‘25; of axis ‘12 to 15; diameter of terminal branchlets 18 to 16; of their axis at base ‘04 to ‘05; diameter of verruce ‘04 to 05; height ‘01 to 03; diameter of cells 02 to ‘03 of an inch. come double-spindles, regularly tapering to each end, with three or four well separated whorls of warts on each half; some shorter and oe es and double-spindles. Small, rounded, closely warted ouble-heads occur sparingly. pe Ssebib soingin measure ‘216™™ by ‘072™, 04 by “060, “180 by -072, -168 by 060, “168 by 066, “156 by 048; the purple spicula 216 by 086, 204 by “018, ‘192 by 180 by 024, 156 by 030, 144 by 036. | ro Island,—Prof. A. Hurd. Two specimens attached to y ta ches. The spicula and verruce are color of Z. rigida is almost always uniform - 4 3 a < ms oe OE yh ae 1 seiniiaaigiaiiiialab Kno asf A. E. Verrill on New Corals. 875 Leptogorgia dichotoma, sp. nov. Corallum tall, slender, sparingly dichotomously branched. The trunk divides at about three inches from the base into two main branches; these fork at about 1 and at 2°5 inches, and of the secondary branches divide again at about three inches from their origin, but others remain undivided for 6 or 8 inches. The branches and branchlets are long, rather slender, slightly larg moderately thick. Axis round, dark brown in the larger double-spindles measure ‘264™™ by ‘060, ‘252 by 072, 252 by 060, 240 by 066, 228 by 084, 228 by 060, 228 Sherbro Island,—Prof A. Hurd. € new oe herein described from the west coast of Africa are o: as ig additional evidence of the richness of that little explored region n Gorgo- tacea, and as showing peculiar relations to the fauns of the West Indies and Pacific coasts of America. They were col- lected by Mr. D. W. Burton, missionary, for the museum o} nay College, and sent to me for examination by Professor 376 W. Gibbs : Contributions to Chemistry. Art. XLIV.—Oontributions to Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School. No. 11; by Wotcorr Grsss, M.D., Rumford Professor in Harvard University. 1. Ona simple method of avoiding observations of temperature and pressure in gas analyses.* from its volume at the temperature ¢ and pressure p by the famil- lar expression : 1 h-h'-h’ reas. 1+4-0°00367¢° 760 (1) in which h is the observed height of the barometer (reduced to 0° C.), h’ the tension of the vapor of water at ¢° when the gas is moist and h” the height of the column of mercury in the col- lecting tube above the level of the mercury in the cistern. For any other gas under precisely the same circumstances of tempe!- ature and pressure we have the equation: , ; 1 h-h'-h" Vo=Vs Teen ye Whence dividing the first equation by the second we have: Oo— "1 vi, v7, (8) or as a proportion eae tie ee (4) from which it appears that the reduced volume (vol. at 0° and 7 of the second gas may be found without observations of emperature and pr , provided tht the unreduced volume be Shecrved under the same ci stances of temperature and _ _Inlike manner we shall have for the weight of the gas et _ Measured w,V%,, and since the weights do not change with | e and have finally : em peTrahin wV,:w0,V'::0V,:0,V',. W we suppose that the gas in the first tube, or standard Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Sept., 1869. Method of avoiding observations of temperature. 377 gas is, for example, nitrogen, the volume remaining the same, and that the gas to be measured is also nitrogen, we have w, Vii eV 8, Vie eS or simply Viol Wet te Ve (5) , 5 er a ; S =) er o & g ta a ® 5 iF < e & &, - ® A jo nal ra gd @ the reduction of any gaseous mixture " I pressure and temperature. In absolute nitrogen determina- tions, however, proportion (5) gives the weight of the nitrogen measured at once, since the term w Vp is found by es the weight of 1 c.c of nitrogen at 0° and 760™™ by the reduc volume of air in the companion tube, and is a constant which for a ve long time. Even when filled with water I have 1 last for some weeks. illiamson and Russell, in their for gas analysis, have employed a companion tube for ringing a gas to be measured to a constant pressure, but the application made above is, I believe, wholly new. 378 W. Gibbs: Contributions to Chemistry. 2. On the application of Sprengel’s mercurial pump in analysis. form of the apparatus, together with a method of determining with it small quan- tities of nitrogen. Frankland’s paper came into my hands after I had myself made a similar application of the pump, and had executed several organic analyses by its aid. As the instrument has now been nearly two years in use in my Laboratory, I will here give the results of my exper- | ence. The pump I use differs in several par- ticulars from that of Frankland. Repeat- J prints On the application of Sprengel’s Mercurial Pump. 879 sists of thick vulcanized rubber covered on the outside with a g taken to keep the column of metallic copper at a full red heat, and to proceed slowly. When the combustion 1s finished, the pump is again set in operation until a perfect vacuum is ob tamed. The receiver wih I employ for collecting — gas, is i erwa 0°1380 er. crystallized asparagin gave 21°98 c.c. nitrogen (moist) at 13°-75 Bee z ps alae ors per cent. The formula requires 18°66 per cent. J ve 0°2910 or. sodic stryphnate gave 125°86 c.c, nitrogen at 18°C. and 559™™— 36-98 per cent. nitrogen. The formula Na(€,H 2H,02) +H, © requires 36-26 per cent. : oo ; 0°8593 “or. pease sh an gave 115c¢.c, nitrogen at 6°25 C, and 762-7™™ —16°50 per cent. The formula K€,H,N,0, requires 16°47 per cent. 0°6730 gr. allantoin gave 189 c.c. nitrogen at —1°C. ant oe 5°40 per cent. The formula €,H,N,0; requires 35°40 per cent. jum oat atl 380 W. Gibbs: Contributions to Chemistry. oxyd. sgn sha burns slowly and without explosion in vacuo—an observation which, however, is by no means new— used cupric oxalate to furnish the required carbonic acid, but Mr. Sharples has been more successful in determining nitro- veto by a single analysis. By placing a weighed of calcium tube in front of the combustion — ie A. W. Wright on the cganit of the Electrical Machine. 381 oral requires 18°66 per cent nitrogen and 6°66 per cent - seams cham Tt can hardly be doubted that further improvements in the process will render it possible to determine in a single analysis, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen with greater facility and accu- racy than nitrogen alone can be determined by the older methods. In conclusion I may state that the Sprengel pump may be ap- plied with great advantage to the determination of the amount gas given off from various substances by the simple applica- tion of heat. Art. XLV.—On a peculiar form of the discharge between the sr rs the Electrical Machine ; ; by ArtHuR W. WRIGHT, Prof. of Physics and Chemistry in Williams College. WHEN the Holtz electrical machine is —re at a high ten- a but without the — if _ istance between the high tension may attain a length of several at aC it If now the finger or some other gene be interposed between ~~ poles, the a is interru and a silhouette of the object the dthelike. € of nin andthe may be called an el-ctrical shadow, to a real a that I had many times noticed it casually, a ‘using the machine in a dimly ighted room, without suspecting Oo though usually for much smaller polar intervals than with poor conductors. . oe of the texture was faithfully represented, the irregu- arities of the wires, breaks in the gauze, and the like, being ac- More interesting and varied results were obtained with a yo ting made of common writing paper by cutting out square @ i d the same distance apart. some a when nearer the latter. igteerginarae: ve jet and the center of the grating were in the line joining t Ww a 3 Sieiaiatiendliat ig teensttiselis about the ver- A. W. Wright on the discharge of the Electrical Machine. 383 tex of the positive pole. The corner apertures in this case be- ing more distant from the axis, had their images somewhat dis- torted, so that the sides of the square were represented by lines curved in such a way as to make the angles at the corners acute, just as it would happen if the square should be stretched in the direction of its diagonals. Very frequently, in fact usually, the jet does not issue from the vertex of the negative, but is displaced to the one side or ~ the other. In such eases the glow is also displaced in a similar manner, that is, so that its axis is inclined at an equal angle to the line between the poles with that of the negative jet. If the grating is placed before the latter, and perpendicular to it, the shadows are still formed as eens though not in general quite if place ecient semee,, -_ edi. J ~ appears at b, On moving it away from the pole to a posi- tion the Ae i age still appears at 6, but is point of one of the poles, a line in a curve to the homol- ogous point on the other pole, where also it meets the surface normally. When the jet is not far from perpendicular to the line of the poles, the curve may have an amplitude of nearly or quite half the distance between the latter, even when these are eight inches, or more, apart. 384 Movement of the dome of the Capitol at Washington. — the air, as when this is too moist, the discharge is not sufli- ciently energetic, or the resistance is not sufficiently great, to bring out the glow, or to form the images with distinctness. Williamstown, Mass., April 5, 1870. Art. XLVI.— Movement of the Dome of the Capitol at Wash- ington, during the gale of December 10-12, 1869. From a let- ter to the editors. WE all know, by having seen the thing itself, or representa- tions of it, the form of the dome of the capitol at Washington. It is of cast and wrought iron throughout. Its architectural beauty is only equaled by the truly wonderful combinations of its multitudinous Had it been erected at any other time than during the late war, when men’s views were absorbed m t of the Movement of the dome of the Capitol at Washington. 385 The distinguished architect, Mr. Thomas M. Walter, sup- posed naturally enough, that this enormous amount of iron would be more or less affected by the action of the sun’s rays— causing an expansion, to meet which he had been making, throughout his protracted labors, all possible provision. To ascertain what this effect would be, he suspended a wire from the center of the ceiling of the Tholus, or crowning cupola, under the feet of the statue. At the extremity of this wire nearest the ground, or pavement of the rotunda, he arranged a delicate mechanism, that carried a pencil, whose point rested on a sheet __ Of paper, on which it was expected that expansion and contrac- _ tion would record their effects. It was Mr. Walter's expectation, probably, that, as the sun moved from the east to the west, some- thing of a uniform curve would be traced by the pencil’s poms upon the paper, furnishing, in that way, data that might be as useful as they would be origi ginal. iu ‘ eee a this on Zaps ees > § : \ ¥ LA f—~ DECI TPM mn 2 DEC. 12. 1864°-7.P.M the wind, and not the sun made : tions, and recorded its h the agency of the vast mass of the dome. One would win eg a hat a day was capa- e diagram above shows wh ey eee: i red; and when, too, reered round the points of the com That chim- 386 Scientific Intelligence. : I. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 1. On the heat of combination of boron with chlorine and omy- gen.—Troost and HauTEFrevit_e have communicated to the Acad- emy of Sciences a memoir on t which the rapidly increasing importance of thermo-chemistry rimeter. The heat measured was thus the sum of the heat of com- bustion proper and of the heat evolved in the combination or double decomposition of the chlorid with water. The heat due to the last mentioned reaction was then determined by a special experiment. Paha eke 1 of boric acid in an equal weight’ of chlorhydric acid of the same . degree of dilution, as determined by direct experiment. In t ; manner the heat of combustion of boron in oxygen was found to be 158600 units for one equivalent (old style) of boron. 2 ‘ boron employed was in the amorphous modification; the authors : promise similar determinations for the other forms of this element. G. “ : 2. On the heat of combination of silicon with chlorine and oxy- gen.—The same authors in a second communication have given 4 tracted. The mode of experimenting and the corrections ted the same as in the case of boron described above. It was foun that one equivalent of chlorid of silicon acting upon 140 times its i h Physics and Chemistry. 887 ing the difference in the sages 0g of heat ee by their oxydation. In aa manner it was found that amorphous silicon in ecoming crystalline evolves 290 units of heat per gram, or 4060 a equivalent ( Veit Yah Comptes Rendus, \xx, 252. Ww. @ 3. ome remarkable spectra of compounds of z and the sepa’ of uraninm.—Mr. Sorsy has found that the remarkable absorption bands exhibited by rns ne png of zircon and which he had attributed to the presence of a new metal—Jargo- nium—are in reality due se uranium, W. hich, mie certain cireum- while the zircons exhibit pried Siow ack fae fourteen of which are quite distinct, together with other taster lines and a broad black band extending from the red end, so that nearly all oecur in that part of the spectrum which is entirely free from bands in the other uranic ina a Mr. Sorby has detected in some “ircons erbium, di¢ idymi ttrium and another substance which exists in such small iytaation that the author has not been able to decide whether it is a new earth or not. In fact the spectral anal- ) as that — by the presence of a trace of uranium. There is therefore at present no evidence that secs contain any new metallic se ae Chemical News, Feb. 18, se ‘ selpane of zinc and cadmium thus formed iteellpciad tem te to the formulas 4nSO,+10NH, and €d50,+6NH,. In like ner calcic and strontic chlorids unite wit th ammonia to form ©aCl _+8NH, and SrCl, +6NH, ; hot boric chlorid does not unite ith ammonia. By heating the ‘compoun rmed in vacuo, the oon of the ammonia may be measured. Cadmic sulphate gave 1¢ following results, care being taken after each experiment to expel the gas which fills the apparatus: Temperatures. Tensions. 48°°5 36am 51° 439™™ 51° 100° (mean of 6) _=—‘1366°3"™ The salt remaining in the tube consisted of €450,+2NH, and _ 88ve off no more ammonia at 100°. The author afore that the cadmic salt should be regarded as Leek 2NH,)4NH, and finally that the pulverulent compounds formed always “absorb a little am- 388 Scientific Intelligence. monia mechanically, so that the tensions do not become constant until only the combined gas remains. e general results of this i d previousl obtained with the ammonia-chlorids. Lamy has based the construc- ion of a new thermometer upon the tension of the ammonia evolved in heating the ammonia-chlorids and especially that of cal- cium. Between 0° and 46° the tension increases from 120 to 1431 millimeters, and will therefore give an extremely delicate measure of increments of temperature.— Comptes Rendus, Ixx, p. 45 ts nd 393 . 5. Ones ew method for the synthesis of organic acids. Base THELOT bas, drand that the hydrocarbons of the acetylene series are capable in the presence of alkalies of u uniting directly with water, oxygen and the alkaline base to form aguas acid and its homolo ogues. Thus in the case of acetic acid we hav OES 2+0-+H, e=€, H, 05. means of pure chromic acid. t thelot, is different from that of a mixture of potassic chro d sulphuric acid, and much more moderate. Thus chromic acid Propylene, €,H,, yields propionic acid, acetic acid and acetone, € propionic acid being pr obably derived from propionic aldehyd, meric with acetone. Ghromic acid even attacks carbon in the cold. By operating with pure carbon Berthelot succeeded in obtaining a small quantity of oxalic aci 2€+30-+H,0=€ oy, Fe dation of allylene by means of Sistine acid appears first to gen bs aldehyd €,H,6, which then by taking up the elements of ilows: becomes propionic ‘acid. The author sums up his results as follows A first Ge ae gives oxygen by simple addition, with for- Bertha of an aldehyd or acetone: thus €,H,+0=€,H,6 (aldehyd) ©,H,+0=€,H,6 (acetone and propionic acid. 2, A further action—always on the free hydrocarbon—generates senna cids; €,H,+0+H,9=€,H,0, €,H,+0+H, ee. HH, 6. ily, as already shown, the same h “drocarbons by the action of the alkaline hypermanganates yield bibasio acids : CH, 420= 6, o. €,H,+2' pce Hy, 0. Fa ae ie i Physics and Chemistry. 389 Thus the direct and regular oxydation of the hydrocarbons yield successively aldehyds, monobasic acids and bibasic acids.— Comptes : G. 6. On the Ethyl compounds of Thallium.— Hansen has suc- ceeded in replacing two atoms of chlorine in thallic terchlorid by hot water, ether and alcohol aud crystallizes in silky scales. It have TI(C,H,),Cl=TICI+C,H,+C,H,. By double decomposition with argentic sulphate and nitrate the author obtained the sulphate, [TI(C,H,).].5O,, and the nitrate Tl(C,H,),NOQ, which crystallize in leaves and are soluble in water, alcohol and ether. The author promises a further investi- however, for the scientific reader, by the ad ‘ eee elaborate appendices including in many cases entire memoirs. < Sides the diagrams and fi : hoff’s chart from x to of Angstrém’s d n’s chart from G to H, and with chromo-lithographs of the spectra of several fixed results of the analy up to the date of the Gablionticn of the lectures are also given. * Om Spektral analys. Upsala Universitets Arsckrift, 1866. 390 Scientific Intelligence. Finally there is an excellent bibliography of works and memoirs on the spectroscope and spectral analysis. That the work should not in every respect deserve unqualified praise will seem natural enough, yet we are not disposed to find fault with so rich a store of information offered to us in so acceptable a form. xs Go Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. radiu greater part of left fibula, tarsus and hind foot, including a tarsal in question of a typical form of the suborder or order Symph bd we ompsognatha Huxley), and one nearer the birds than any other hitherto found in America. Its pertinence to this order is shown ably quite | peculiarit — Mineralogy and Geology. 391 That animals of this genus made some of the tracks similar to those of birds in the red sandstones of the Valley of the Connecti- cut there can be no doubt. It furthermore explains some prob- lematical impressions which are occasionally found with them. acks of an animal resting in a plantigrade position, as indicated by the moulds of two long parallel metatarsi, each terminated b three toes, are accompanied by a peculiar, bilobate, transversely oval mark on the middle line, some distance behind the heels, Prof. Hitchcock states that it appears to be the impression of a short stiff tail, The present specimen shows clearly that it was made by the obtuse extremities of the ischia, The saurian of. O. C. Marsh informs me that in the museum of Yale College, aslab exhibiting impressions similar to the above shows the im- pressions of the anterior feet also, which were put to the ground in orous Mammalia. The tracks of many of the animals discovered by Hitchcock are re pheumatic structure of the bones, there is abundant reason to su ; pose that they progressed by leaps, and assumed the REE position when at res : No portion of the cranium or dentition of this genus has been The existence of Symphypoda in the strata here indicated, with e The remains here described were alluded to by Prof. R. Owen, Pterodactyles or Birds, pro- viding the cavities of the bones were filled by marrow, and not by i a : e a8 those of the Pterodactyle, I do not find that they are those of this animal; there is no positive pro : * Hitchcock, in his Technology (1858), holds that the beds containing the tracks _ are lower Jurassic, either rede ias; and Dana, in his Geology, (pp. 414, 443), Says ae agnens, a ge * 1 in p rt Jurassic.—EDs. Am. J. So : eae 392 Scientific Intelligence. the broad sternum which these reptiles possessed. The existence of the large toe in company with the small one is in favor of a jumping animal.” —From the Memoir of Prof. Cope on Extinct Rep- tilia and Aves, Amer. Phil. Soc., unpublished oh Elasmosaurus platyurus of Cope by Dr. J. Lumwy. (Communicated by the Author) —At a sleatinas of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Mar s 8th, “Prof, Leidy stated that after an examination of the remains of the great marine sau- of. Cape has fi sites 3 into ous an me deseribing seen skeleton in a reversed position to the true one, and in that resented it in a restored condition in his recent “ Syoopel sis of the Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia, and Aves,” pubuahaid in the Transac- tions of the American Philosophical Society. To explain the appa- rently anomalous and reversed condition of the articular processes, (zygapophyses) of the vertebra, he considers that those ordinarily existing in animals are substituted by the —_ set (zygosphene and eee) of serpents and iguanian discovery of a portion of the slealls' as reported by Dr. Tur- ner, in the Heese of what Prof. Cope "regards a as the anterior Elasmosaurus as. identical with im Such also appears originally to have ea the view of Prof. Cope, in relation to a part of the same skeleton which he referred. to a species with the name Diseosaurus carinatus. The restored Discosaurus or Elasm osuurus, would repeat the form usually given of Plesiosaurus, but the neck was of more eeatiable length than in the latter, It Hie geet the almost : Mesidible: rest of shy: ve rtebral pobanni ees not permit any- Sc e rome to be made of the ret ex- fails to ese its ‘ground. Mineralogy and Geology. 393 3. Ornithopsis, a gigantic animal of the Pterodactyle kind from the Wealden ; by H. G. Seevey (Ann. Mag. N.H., IV, v, 279),.— part of the neck, and the other from the back; and when perfect the former, from the back to the front of the centrum, could “scarcely have meastired less than ten inches.” “Seven such ver- tebre would have made the neck 4 to 5 feet long, and the animal two or three times as ig e vertebre are constructed after “the lightest and airiest plan” peculiar to Pterodactyls and birds; they have pneum foramina as 1 and these foot-prints of the Wealden, described by Mr. Beccles and Mr. Tyler, may have been its tracks. The author closes his paper with naming the species Ornithopsis Hulkei, after Dr. Hulke. 4. Voleanie action on it; Trrus Coan to Prof. Chester S. Lyman, dated Jan. 24, 1870,— “Our voleanie craters have not made great demonstrations of late, and yet are not quiet. Slight shocks of earthqua or in a ring the first two weeks of the present month a good deal of steam and smoke arose from Mokuaweoweo, the summit crater of Mauna Loa. In Kilauea the action is fitful. Occasionally the fires rage Savan, have made two visits there within the They Iso rode on mules, in company with Judge Hitchcock of Hilo, to the terminal crater of Mauna Loa, and looked into Mokuaweoweo, ere was no fire seen, but much steam. These gentlemen took a own. A cattle ranch has been established at Kapapala, and a milk and butter station is situa mile higher up the f the mountain. From this upper station the cattle have found their way nearly to the summit, and the herdsmen in search of them have found that mules could reach Wilkes’s camp without ificulty. Starting from Kapapala as a ‘base of supplies, Las ean go nearly to the summit the first day. On the second day you 394 Scientific Intelligence. can ascend to the top, spend several hours, and return to camp to sleep. On the third day you can reach Kapapala ranch before night. It is also now probable that the same could be done from Kilauea as a base.’ weeks, as been able to procure a small number of colored copies for dis- tribution, one of which is now before us. The legend of the map informs us that the geological details for Canada, comprising the former provinees of Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) are furnished by the Gealogioal Survey under the direction of Sir William E. Logan. He has himself compiled the geology of the various states of the Union under the supervision of Prof. Hall from various sources which are mentioned in detail in the preface to the Atlas of the Geology of Canada; (published in 1865) where he tells us that this portion of the w as done “with the approval of Prof. James Hall,who has freely pone all sie materials at the disposal of the compiler, and aided by his intimate perso ens - - geology of a greater part of the region repre- e geology o of the province of New Brunswick, avs Beotia : = Newfoundland, also, the most authentic printed and manuscript maps were consulted, as described in the Atlas just referred to. An indispensable preliminary to a work of this kind was a cor- rect topographical map, and such a one for Canada had to be slow- ly and laboriously constructed. The sources of se maar for this purpose are given at length in ake preface elready sage A se- ime the beantifal aoe: accurate a Mineralogy and Geology. 395 our own Coast Survey has ever been reproduced in a pomeiey’ form for our shores from the St. Croix to the Chesapea e construction of the map was intrusted to Mr. Robert Base. formerly of the British Ordnance Survey, and now chief topog- rapher to the Survey of Canada. It has been engraved on steel by Ramboz and Jacobs of Paris, under the su ensiondens of Mr. Gustave agora and is remarkable - the beauty of its execu- 125 miles to the inch, which is a reduction of that now before us, and bears the date of 1864. Changes = acpi to the geolo- y have, however, been made in the lar map, on which it has been possible also to give the s sbdiyisiard of the Quebec group a Eastern Canada, which the small scale of the first map did no low. The present map is on the scale of twenty-five miles to the inch, and measures eight feet from east to west by three and a half feet from north to south; extending southward to latitude 37°, and westward to longitude 100°. Its northern limits include Pe lakes Manitoba and Winnipeg, James’s Bay, N ewfoundland, and the ad- jacent Labrador coast, while to the south it takes in "Kensas and northern Virginia. The geological subdivisions adopted on this map are—l1. Lauren- tian, 2. Labradorian (or Upper Laurentian), 3. Huronian; while for New ¥ York sur- inion, 15. Gu ae 16. pe ars or Salina, 17. Lower Helder- berg, 18, Corniferous and Oriskany, 19. Hamilton, 20. Chemung — and Portage, 21. Old pein sandstone, 22. Lower pipeaaae® in, limestone, 23. Bonavent 70 SOL eet 24. Coal patio os 25. Upper Carboniferous Soeees , 26. Permian, 27. Trias Cre- taceous, 29, Tertiary. In 1 e eas astern basin, as is well knowns the geological survey of C which is regarded as nee of the Caleierous — Chazy for scen: ating. ¢ order, viz: mations ane sijyidied into three parts pel inet re represente: sap vis being colored like the Caleifer- while ee Lanzon (6), is distin- dd to this two colors for intrusive ae one for granites and th do we have not less t 396 Scientific Intelligence. the great Set eae divisions without offending the eye by crude and harsh con With the Seseptioh of the reduction of this in the Atlas, it is believed that no geological map has appeared which presents to the student a connected view of so great an area of the continent. It extends from the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks of New Jersey, to those of Nebraska and Dakota, and shows = a glance by far the greater part of the wide paleozoic basin of North America. It may at first seem Tite that a map designed primarily to vs Yn farther westward than this map, while the southern point of the vince of Ontario stretches as far as northern Pennsylvania, or lel t of the upper St. Lawrence basin, was, moreover, not possible without a delineation of the great coal fields adjacent, whose rela- tion to Canada, it should be added, is not less important com- mercially than els peg These seed fields now furnish large supplies of es to the mi and western portions of the Domin- ion, which, in return, is wehainng to ner coal et ei rich ores from its inestbatiotible mines of iron,—the ¢ mmencement of a commerce must grow in importance, and bind more elbtely these prov- inces to our great republic. On the other hand, we cannot fail to be struck with the extent of the Acadian coal basin, including large portions of Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and part of Newfoundland, Out of it, in fact, the Gulf of St. Lawrence has been excavated; and this wide maritime area, with its thick seams of superior ituminous coal, con- tiguous to safe harbors, and not far removed from the great manu- c reat commercial questions raised by the inspection of this geological map, which the geogra- pher, the merchant, and the statesman may consult with equal advantage ; but we must confine ourselves to its geologic al uebec, ge which stretches slong the sire: side of the St. Lawrence basin, oe wrought out with an accurac rarel su aed. an ue bent hetidte e amie region harweut n that nin’ the frontier of the United States. e of four miles to the inch, and geologi- Mineralogy and Geology. 397 cally colored to exhibit in detail the complicated structure of the Canadian extension of the Appalachians, the so-called Notre Dame range. Its publication is delayed by the want of topographical details for some portions, but the map will soon appear, and it is Beoppeec ip follow it by the publication oe ee of other sections, n the same scale. (See the Atlas, page oe the three years which have oft since the engraving of the present map, considerable progress has been made in inves- tigating. the rie the maritime British provinces. The pub- of urray upon ph ele Op show that the western portions, extensive ae “of Laurentian, Huroni- nand Primordial Silurian occur tow anda i Lapa. higher aeoke. including an area a of c oal measu the inter me- orti muna, and also of a remarkable evonian flora. A belt near the Brunswick, and the recent detection by Dr. Hunt of a belt of Laurentian in eastern Massachusetts, leads us to raat that we are proaching to a comprehension of the geological structure of = ad En gland. We look for much in this connection from the new cock, and confidently expect that in a second edition of the map before us, which will soon be required, the geology of the New England states will no longer be a partia rtial blank. To the geolog- ical student who is familiar with the region, this state of 1 things conveys no reproach. The wide differences in original con ition Boa vol Bivins beta the sediments of the contiguous western and ns, the comparative rarity © leareous deposits trates the paleozoic series in the latter, and its highly 398 Scientific Intelligence. altered and crystalline condition, have hitherto pr resented insuper- able difficulties in the way of unravelling the geological structure of this eastern region It is to be hoped. that the government of the New Dominion will make liberal eaten for the distribution of this valuable map. Meanwhile, a geo logical map, on the same scale and plan, of the southeastern United States is ’ ereatly needed to supplement this admirable publication of the Geological Survey of Canada, and we vaya tei a hand to prepare and means to publish it will not be Ayia ie add rite Rocks at Marblehead ; by T. Sterry Hunt.— The following note, appended to my paper on ee Rocks in the last number of this Journal, was accidentally omitted. In speak- ing of the boulders of labradorite rocks at Marblehead Neck, I said “specimens of this rock, correctly determined and labelled, are found in the collection of the Essex Institute at Salem. To . Loring, Prof. Packard and Prof. Kerr, I visited the locality at Marblehead Neck and collected further specimens of e characteristic cone rock.” age March 18, 1870. 6. Expl pees in the Rocky Mountains by J. D. Whitney.— Professor J. D. Wurrnzy has given the California Academy of Sciences some of the results of sfolarheidas under his direction in the Booky Schick during the summer vacation of 1869 versity, an 0 Yale Scientifie School, and Mr. C. F. San adipyewte A careful triangulation was made of the dominating range of the - Rocky Mountains between Gray’s Peak and the south edge of the South Park, and a map dra cae Punk Hoffmann, on a scale of two mates to an inch, embracing an area of about 3 ,500 square re miles. ece le : is hoped that it will be possible to extend the topographical work to the north and west, so that a detailed map nan Al se Ms of the whole of the highest ortion of the Rocky Mow a ong the results obtained by this pete wae the de- aS _temination of the elevation of some high points not prions _ The highes ge gh ere ge ye oe est of the vhich dt 14,145 feet in elevation; Mount 14128 fects ‘and Mount Yale, 14,078 feet. Many other ey # Mineralogy and Geology. 399 points were measured, but these were the only ones that were found to be over 14,000 feet high. Dr. Parry is the only other explorer who has pote any measurements of the peaks of this region. Having, however, no station barometers nearer than St. Louis, his results are liable to considerable uncertainty, as is shown by the fact that his elevation ow ble—as, for instance, Georgetown or Wane oes the ob- servations continued for at least one year synchronously at the two station In the meantime, it will be convenient to have the approximate heights of all the points in the Rocky Mountains bp measured, and which exceed 14,000 feet in elevation. They are as follows: Drount Warvard coco 2 shes os: - ve 270 ray’s Peak cise 2.05: _--14,245 ie! Pike's Pesk wns. 2 pte ee = 8 14,216 (Parry Mount Lincoln- - -- ---14,128 Mount Yale----- Soe: Biba 14,078 Long’s Peak --:-- ~...14,050 (2) The result here given for Gray’s Peak is 100 feet greater than that obtatied by the Harvard party. That for Long’s Peak is an estimate based on a barometrical observation by Messrs. Powell and Byers, without any corresponding base Sbaceratnn: the barometer stood at 18°100 inches. From the Pg i it will be seen that no point has yet been found in the Roe nie wet - en as several in the eee Nevada. It will re potas Sauter markable coincidence how little the points ‘itter rent gets other in elevation. coke Cachet atin et t unt Harv a8 operhin 3 pars the Arkansas and the was spree to carry its work so far rhachis as weald have been necessary in order to The other results of this expedition will be worked out and published | in due time. point. 400 Scientific Intelligence. California Geological Survey.—All geologists, and all inter- sass & in the development of the resources of our country, wil rejoice to learn that the resumption of the Geological Survey of California, under Prof. J. D. Whitney, has been ordered by the Legislature of the State. An a. ig stg. of 2,000 dollars per month for two years has been made, “to mple ete the field work, and publications.” Besides this a deficiens spproprvamans of f the Senate, that the Surve “pill was ae ‘throm both branches of the Legislature by a large ag important objects to be secured b e investigations in progts ess. Some of the results arrived at during the past year have already been mentioned in the last volume of this Journal, at page 417. ence semicetiog > the rimordial condition and the ultimate Bptse: of the earth and the solar system; i! ALEXANDER WINCHELL, L.D., Prof. of Geology, Zoo ogy, and Botany, in the University of Michigan, and Director of the State Geological Survey. 460 pp. 12mo, with many illustrations. New York, 1870. (Harper & student, they may attract others to the ro and aid many in = eee eos ght ht ur and ss of the = oe which have. gical nh (vol. xxi, p. 807, 1560) ia S bomorphing 6 adoli- nite with datolite. He cites the fact that DesCloizeaux has ascer- tained through optical examination the crystallization of Gadoli- nite to be monoclinic (Ann. Ch. Ph., IV, xviii); and shows by chem- ical analyses that the ratio of the oxygen of the silica to that of the bases is 2:3 as in the other ies above named. The obliquity (or angle C)=89° 28/ and I: 1=116°. Rammelsbe: erg also shows, by a comparison of angles, the iso- : 1 of D: polite and Euc Tase. Mh mkead e does not mention the » add that Her ootn : gets gs as 8 since in this Journal, xvii, 215, 1854), by L als sn is Jourual Uh evi ed., 1854, p. 204, where Mineralogy and Geology. 401 0. Mineralogical BES, te of G. vie Ratu, of Bonn.— In a. dorf’s Annalen, vol. exxxvi, p. 405, vo m Rath has pub- van one of his Meakin ‘mineralogical pa pa pets containing the fol- g articles: on the crystallization of Vivi the chemical fords of Eulytite (alae of bismuth), witb. chee eee on its crystallization and other characters; on the crystalline form of Atelestite, which he eae Saatere with ¢ yon Gekabia oh: a (vert. = 0°869:1:1°822; and @ on ¢=110° 30’; on the La im the Baty 6 of Setanenary he found Si 16°52, bp 82:23, B, Bo Ll 99°90; again, Si 15-93, Bi 80-61, B 0-28, Be 0-52=97-34; whence the for- : mula Bi2S is places the species among the Unis cates, Zine and Calcium, corresponding to the formula Zn“Ca= 95°13, Calcium 4°87=100. He found 95°11 and 4°90. Its crystals are small square octahedrons, having the angle of the terminal te 134$°, and of the basal 66° 18’, “whence the vertical axis— i. Rate Comitato Geologico @ Italia. ete Italian Govern _ Ment has appointed a Geological corps, for the publication hs a large geological chart of Italy, » with ih deseription of 1 of 3 i yw udes Prof, J. Cocchi, ic “Aspirant” The Ist and 2d numbers of the Bulletin ees ___ Were issued in January and February of the present year; an | the Ist volume of the Memo aoe tem rane Goh Oa 5-6, roe Fl0'8, H35=100-2, It has -G.=3°15, and H.=2°5. The — or rock material contain- mica was found to consist 0 Sides, Ri 1, Sage a 14-0, S tos £1-1=100, H=45, G=2°789. Am. Jour. Sct.—Sconp Serres, Vou. XLIX, No. 147.—Mar, 1870. 402 Scientific Intelligence. 12. Gibbsite and Wavellite—Hermann (Bull. Soc. Impér. Nat. Moscow, No. 4, 1868, 496), has analyzed a grayish pearly mine- ral, occurring on limonite, i in Chester Co., Pa., in thin crusts, delt- aaaeky concretionary under a lens. It has a hardness of 3°0 2°35, and is subtranslucent. He obtained Ray Hi 33-45, Si 1-50, B 0-91, Mg, #e trace=99-70. Hermann has obtained for the composition of the Wavellite of the danke region (ib.): 32°70, Al 35°83, A 28:39, #e 3-08, Fl #.=100, digi ge with the analysis by Genth. He found G.=2°30 The Gibbsite Dyveergye of Villa ae afforded Hermann (ib.): 0, Pe ‘2-00, H 3440= | ula metal including the Columbium and related metals; for Samars- kite and Alschynite, & R; for Tantalite Re R. Hemakes the oxyds R, #, 14, Minerals of EHiba—Mr. Antonio p’Acutarpt of Pisa, has described the crystals of several of the minerals of Elba, in an article He in the Nuovo Cimento, II, iii, Feb., 18% 0. Si 55-15, x 27°72, faa Oa 5-10, K 115, H -20= 99°32. It is soa ine Bg in aspect and feel; milk-white, with small black and -red spots; opaque, but becoming translucent in water; 15. Mineralogische Notizen, of F. cerreeiaeer —The ninth number of Hessenberg’s admirable erystall memoirs oD minerals has recently — published by the a es a Nat. “Gesellschaft in Frankfort on the Maine (vol. vii, p. 257, 1870). It contains and acuueniets, with various observations, 02 the species: Calcite from Lake Superior, Reissite of v. Fritsch, 3 rhombic ps @ new mineral) from Santorin, Wollas ae Pe : +o Botany and Zoology. 403 aper commencing at page 106 of the same volume, Ram- iikes, treats of the composition of Stlicates. 18, An Elem gine Treatise on Quartz a nd Opal, ipomiing their ties in which they occur ; 2 by, aces WituiaM Tram. ‘N ew edi- tion, greatly enlarged. 74 pp. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1870.—This beautifully printed little mineralogical volume contains descrip- tions of the many varieties of quartz and opal, with observations c Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 1. How Crops Feed; a Treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil as ee to the nutrition of Agricultural Plants, with pes ons; by | SamMusEL W. SORE, M.A., Prof. Analytical and y phy, &e, core at Sra whom “ numerous additions have been 2 ed tion are orale h seems unj the present sala. in considering “how crops feed,” Prof. Johnson is in fullest force, upon ground that he has complete mas- tery of; and consequently he has produced a compendium of what is known of the ¢ hemistry and physics of vegetation which is emi- nentl ger and satisfactory, and which supplies a long felt want. The first division of the book is devoted to the atmosphere, the Second to the soil as aa to vegetation ; Pe the action of the various elements of each upon plants, especially the staple plants of agriculture, — of ee ger upon them, i is in turn consi side: yagi with unusual a gis th dow of ae we and therefore roduce or nemnpere carbonic acid, and, on more de fini bet is great operation which produces the ‘materials a get ag and eet: itself, which is the conversion of 404 Scientific Intelligence. these into tissue or structure, and which of course goes on indiffer- ently to light, which is all-essential to the former. The scientific reader will notice one of the author’s strong and peculiar points, the conservator of its own fertility, by protecting its own et from waste and too rapid us 2. en oo Brasiliensis, fase. 48: Convotoudace “expo . Metss Aug. 1869.—Prof, Meissner, who was obliged for a time re ey aside serious botanical work, here icungliaa is return to it by a a elaboration of the Brazilian Con- volvulacee. The great genus /pomeea is preserved in the extended sense, including Calonyction, Quamoclit, Exogonium, Pharbitis, &c., but with Operculina of Manso maintained as a ge gece The work is extensively illustrated by 53 folio plates. 3. Development of the Flower of Ping neo ies re - by Prof. A. Dickson of the mergers & ig = asgow. quarto memoir, 0 ari. 4, A asprupiaans Teagan re mg the known Fwns, wi with Tables to show their Distribution; by K. M. Lyx. London, Murray, 1870, pp. 225, 8vo.—Fern-amateurs are not very uncomr mon in this country ; ; in England they abound; and to know ferns, if not to collect or cultivate them, is among educated Saas genio espe cially ladies, rather the rule than the exception; an Fert-books there is no small choice. Amon ng them all we shall hardly meet with so sold and faithful a volume as this by Mrs. toe Lyell. It is not a descriptive work, but, as its title denotes, Il catalogue of the Ferns known in every particular Sak with the ranges in each ; followed by a series of compact ble tables, in which the genera and mes es are systematically arranged, and the distribution through all the onceape or regions, and their main divisions, ~— indicated. Of course the main ona of information — —_ of Sir William Hooker, and particularly the ‘Syncipiibe icum, brought out by Mr. Baker, to which may be added the shes elaborate memoir on the distri- bution _~ of Ferns, in the Transactions of the Linnzan Society. ; ch mae must have cost long labor, and ie opm is well Botany and Zoology. 405 of the botany of the region immediately aroun ew York, Some of its brief articles are of more than local interest. For instance, Dr. Allen, in the first number, shows that the dwarf GZno- thera of Montauk Point, Long Island, is not @&. linearis, as has reyan Herbarium at Columbia College, and has special oversight Y k o: radicle, and thus has the longer turnto make, Cukile Amer Nutt., resembles Lepidiwm Virginicum in these particulars, exce that the ‘ _ WVasturtium, Cardamine, Arabis, Ba N Phanus, so far as represented in our local Flora; but in all those Statement as respects Lepidium Virginicum, and only wonder how this conformation has been overlooked. No. 3, for sass _ en received. - 6. Notes relating to Vegetable Physiology, &e.—A part of the following memoranda are drawn from the last numbers of the Bullesin of the Botanical Society of France, especially its Revue Biographique, which is very faithfally edited. an 406 Scientific Intelligence. The effect of Barberry-bushes in rusting Wheat, after having long been accounted a steers gt popular superstition, is at length understood and admitted the Cryptogamists. The botanists used to rebut the charges oh the farmers by the statement that the rust in the grain fields and the prevalent fungus of the Barberry belonged to very different genera, and that therefore the one could not give origin to the other. But DeBary in Germany and (Ersted in Denmark, following up similar enquiries by Tulasne in France, as concluded that Ur edo, Puceinia, and Cteidium are to be regarded, not as so many genera, but as three successive forms of fructification of the same fungus, or in some sort an alter- nation of generations. DeBary sacsentatinedt that the spores of the Puccinia graminis do not germinate when sprinkled on the leaves and stalks of the cereal grains, which this rust infests, while they germinate on the leaves of the Barberry, and there give rise to the “eidiwm Berberidis: and the spores of this are equally inert upon the Barberry, but will grow in their turn upon Wheat, an summer, in France. ‘wae ete of Barberry, planted along the i eC na complained of ee the Adjacent cultivators, and were cut aw The turning green of’ et etiolated plants, or in other words the ction of chlorophyll upon exposure to light, was found by sir te to take place rere more promp tly under diffuse dn Shiba: sities of t the same Teht m which the calorific rays had ‘heen out, and pio b y pacing them in a cone 0 t at “different distances from ti e focus of the co pdenaise lens; the brightest light rem ‘aed 4 apparently unchan: in exposure which had sufficed to develop a decided ler i ‘illie ‘s the erence ; 1 Ilis formed promptly ne proper r intensity, and not bey ond ; _that Botany and Zoology. 407 the current series, co mes to the conclusion that, cscs leaves des- titute of chlorophyll a not decompose any carbonic ea et that they begin to do so as soon as any chlorophyll is pr 9 8 igi absolutely repeats to the decomposition “of carbonic acid in green foliage, and how much is necessary ?—These ques- tions are yustisthgtonlye shania by Boussingault, through a series of experiments in which a leaves were introduced into a mix- ture of carbonic acid and hydrogen, over mercury, and the evolu- tion of oxygen tested by the introduction of phosphorus, and its Beer oreecence in the dark, or by the white cloud in light. He Ss us found, 1, that leaves do no ose any carbonic acid in the dark, nor in twilight after sunset; but they do so very well peer oe sip oe light of a north sure, and under ordina decomposition owing ?—Prilli using light t of different colors but of equal ony teow ale colored sak thought he had ascertai irrespective of the nature of the rays; that the pang and yellow rays and those of that part of ws sah ia are most efficient merely because Ao they a Epon lumin But Dehérain, repeating these concludes that ge (tte and violet rays are not so effective as the yellow and red, when both are brought to the same intensity. ‘Also that the same holds true of the evaporation of water from er vod denser uppers been ex The mo t of Protoplasm an citi with it, in the cells of begs on the other stat wh cae 0 hag fined ne i of r 4 This is shown by Borodine (Acad. a ern who has seen remarkable movements of the chlorophyll-grains in terrestrial sal pease, especially in the leaves of nium, a Moss, Co confirming an 4 covery of Famintzin, In diffused light the of chlorophyll are applied to the surfaces of the cells pa el to the arinon 0 the leaf or other organ: under inn light they Rent is y move away to the side walls, to return again when the dimin- 408 Scientific Intelligence. shed. This should be considered in connection with the observa- tions, recorded above, that blanched plants do not turn green so readily under direct as under diffused light. Rose, more recently, concludes, as did Mohl long ago, that these movements do not ori- ginate in ‘the grains of chlorophyll, but belong to the protoplasm in which they are imbedded. - Leaves Bec rissciete by artificial light also decompose meg 0 acid, as illieux shows, Hacer by electrical, the Dru mond, sd even —_- Joe any considerably seta but only becomes available as it rises into the air and reaches e foliage. So unlikely a conclusion needs more decisive med ae the favorable action of car- bonie acid in respect to the solution of the mineral matters needed by the plant and ahaa md it, may be in some sort independent of its own absorptio Tater, Schultz-Schultzenstem, with e of the vessels’ of the latex an, _ nourishing fluid. ‘Treviranus led off in the o — opinion, which, drawing its strongest ab rutents from the tau are found in a Sieg erin small number of plants, an ‘that wu largely con con ee a me! and the like, pronounces this to bea senetion and this view was “maintained ioe ee Mohl.. Trécul, “who has in these ozen year done 80 much excellent work in vegetable mrpre m late vessels,—and who discovered th Botany and — 409 which, having done its work in the cells, is conveyed into the ducts and thenes to the leaves for a new elaboration. ry oo are Hanstein and Sachs, considering that latex is rich in milated matters, especially proteine, fit for nourishment, conclude elaborated sa ate: the caoutchoue, &e., in it may mentitious. 34 France, Faivre, who has etensit investigated the latex of Ficus elastic, has late ely and for five years studied that of the White Mulber He confirms the last mentioned view; and shows that the wie of this tree contains a large proportion of assimilable nourishing matter, both ternary and qu aternary, that this matter is ae mda by the plant in growth, in the ney of an elaborated sa isect-aid to Fertilization in plants, and the arrangements there- for, have been much studied of late by Hildebrand in German and Delpino in Italy. "The former a few years ago wrote a syste- matic treatise on the = which gate: be translated into iing- Hymenoptera, Diptera, and the wind. Delpino, in analyzing the Ph:enogamous flora of Nova Zembla , concludes that of its 124 flow- 24 are fertilized by the wind. e 91 species in Spitzbergen, 2 are saga 8 een 63 by "Hyweoptecs and Diptera, and 26 by th Fertilization in. in pie ous Cryptogamous plants. A valuable contribution has been made, by Strasburger, Professor in the Uni- versity of Warsaw. His papers on the fertilization of Ferns, &e., are published in the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of St. Pe- — and the Bot. Zeitung for 1868, and are reproduced in _ French in the Ann. Sci. Naturelles. The inte eresting point is, that a nisin secreted in the canal of the archegonium or pistillidium and dise harged from its orifice es to tne ing spermatozoids and to direct senna course down to sey cell to be fertilized,—into which one or more of the spermatoz their way by their pointed end, while the other and peak td glob- extremity often breaks off es is left behind. The influence of stock up on and the converse, which has of late been much under reogeidration, appears to be well made out in one kind of ease, viz., in the propagation from the one to of variegation. The older facts of the sort are co ae at E. 9 prceeene the of the channe 410 Scientific Intelligence. by some recent cases which Dr. Masters has exhibited to the Sci- entific Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society ;—in which the foliage of the grafts of one species Abutilon took on variega- tion from the variegated stock es a different ii ae and vice versa, a variegated graft, inserted upon a green stoc k, and after a time pinched back, caused buds of ‘the stock to dev elop with varie- gated foliage. Moreover, in a case recorded by Prof. Morren, the variegation ceased after 'the accidental sean of the varie- gated graft; and it is said that “the mere insertion of a detached 7. Prof. Francis Uneer, of Vouk distinguished in Fossi Bota any, &c., in former years the associate of Endlicher, ‘tied in his native town of Gratz, February 12th, in the 69th year of his age. It was at first repo orted that he had died sang 6 — that he was found “ murdered in his bed.” On Deep Sea Dredging in the neighborhood of the British Tales in 1869:—The Temperature, Currents, Life, Waters, and ases present in the dae in the depths of the Oceans ; by Dr. W. B. Carpenter.—The following are extracts from a * Lecture by Dr. Carpenter before the Royal Institution of Great Britain on the 11th of February last. We omit the most of what relates to the life of the sea bottom, as this part of the subject was toa oe by Prof Verrill i ip our Janua uary number, at page 129. cruise commenced from Galway, and was directed first to the southwest, then to the west, and finally to the northwest as far as the Roc Bank; the greatest depth of dredging done by it was 1476 ing was carried to a depth of 2345 fethorns the seat over the a between the north of Scotland and the Faroe Islan pe * The oe summary of the results rth re regard to temperature brings into marked contrast the rages”: ot = _ Warm and po areas, Saitek ively the W.S a Phetween ‘the north of Fhe ure may be s ‘Gd. toe everywhere nearly ; the variations above or below this being at le oe atmospheric differences (as oy aay Sarpy &e.) ren: atitude. Alike in the warm and the cold areas there was a fall of from 8° to 4° in the first 50 fathoms, ener Botany and Zoology. 411 fathoms; the temperature in the warm area at the depth of 200 fathoms being 47°, whilst in the cold it was 45°7°. It is below this depth that the marked difference shows itself. For whilst in e warm area there is a slow and pretty uniform descent in the a next 400 fathoms, amounting to less than fowr degrees in the whole, 4 there is in the cold area a descent of fifteen degrees in the next bringing down the temperature at 300 fathoms to - to its so 2 e sand covering the A iel of voleanic minerals, probably brought down from Jan Mayen or Spitzberg (3) The fauna of the cold area has a decidedly Bo- vi n. . Although the temperatures —— a afford the same striki i he derivation of it afford the same striking evidence oe ter at 400 fathoms in lat. 594° was only 2°4° colder than water at “ws 412 Scientific Intelligence. the same depth at the northern border of the Bay of Biscay, in a latitude more than 10° to the south, where the surface-temperature fluen f the Arctic stream but for a continual suppl t a warmer region, the inference seems inevitable that the bulk ment of Equatorial water toward the Polar area ; of which movement the Gulf Stream constitutes a peculiar case modified by local con- itions. In li i i i ng the first and second cruises of the ‘Porcupine,’ the tem- perature of the eastern border of the great North Atlantic basin and in widely different localities, ranging from lat. 47° to lat. 55. The om-temperature was ascertai number of observations eighty-four. Amongst all these the coin- idence of temperature at corresponding depths is extraordinarily Sega by th L "Between 100 ae Botany and Zoology. 413 only about 3° in the whole, or three-fourths of a degree for every 100 fathoms; and this body of water has a temperature so much above sie isotherm of the northern stations, at which the observa- the reduction being 5°-4, or above 2° ag 100 fathoms ; while be- tween 750 and 1000 fathoms it amounts to 3°°1 , bringing down the temperature at the latter depth to an etae of 38°°6. Beneath this there is still a slow progressive reduction with increase of depth, the temperature falling a little more than 2° between 1000 and 2435 fathoms ; so that at the last-named depth, the greatest at its temperat as been reduced by the diffusion through it of frigid water from a Polar source. e — supposition best ac- cords with the gradual épranonra of rature The saison es ert recently taki by Commander : d Lieutenant Johnson, R. N., at various points the Europ cae eae and American continents, that its only com- munication with the North Atlantic basin—besides the circuitous passages leading into Hudson’s and Baffin’s Bays—is the space which intervenes between the eastern coast of Greenland and the ninsula, t — flow 8 tt the iiss pantions “of tk is ae at the or xpanse. tween Greenland arr Iceland, the wept is such as to mona st ee a free a , t a ; ecti | - . b: . ment of frigid water at a “rat xcsotiog + A similar barrier 1s not merely lateau on aren the British Islands rt, ut alo by the ed of i the North sea; the shallowness of 414 Scientific Intelligence. . than would be afforded by an actual coast-line uniting the Shetland No oe : currents, and unite with them in diffusi rl waters through its deeper portion. thus spreading itself, however, the gid water will necessarily mingle with the mas ter It may be questioned, however, whether the whole body of Are- tic water that finds its way through the channels just indicated, could scarcely have been derived from any other source than the tarctic area.* The unrestricted communication which exists between the Ant- arctic area and the great Southern Ocean-basins would involve, if the doctrine of a general Oceanic circulation be admitted, a muc. more considerable interchange of waters between the Antarctic . and Equatorial areas, than is possible in the Northern hemisphere. And of such a free interchange there seems adequate evi ian Ocean, as to be com b Capt. Maury to the 3 - Stream of the North Atlantic.t C “ ly, it would appear from rved at ae depths would Se 24 dings of the ‘Porcupine’ prove to > a we ws “ Botany and Zoology. 415 Ocean should be found to exhibit a depression at all corresponding to that of the North Atlantic, it must be attributed yeep to the extension of this Antarctic flow; since the dept hring’s Strait, as well as its breadth, is so small as to ‘permit n no body of Arctic water to issue through "that channel.t The Foraminifera collected in the ‘Porcupine’ expedition pre- sent features “= no less interest, though their scale is so much aller. The orth ape as also that of Xanthidia, wien preserv: ot many absolute novelties presented pacer among e racic that form true calcareous shells ; chief point of interest being the occurrence of certain types of bach organi- zation at great depths, and their: attainment of a size that is only Formations, This in much warmer latitudes, or in the Sempre or yet older is esp toline, of which specimens of unprecedented size presented them- selves. The most interesting novelty was a beautiful comeoeay : which, when —— must have had the diameter of a | nee of collection.— Of pares aceous Foraminife ra, howev: ver, which con- ‘types ricer . the Chalk, the os sof a had not heen re 2 yes “ them throw an important light on the re 0} gigan arenaceous t from i) “ = 14>) ° animals which are constantly dying and decaying; and the water of the Gulf Stream, especially, courses around coasts where the supply of organic i us. Iti telligible that a world of animals should live in these dark abysses : but it is a necessary condition that they should chiefly belong to a class capable of being supported by absorption t each cruise of the ‘ Porcupine,’ samples of sea-water ob- from the surface, at stations Dr. Angus Smith for the purpose of distinguishing the organic Matter in @ wigs of decomposition from ge which is only decom- ! fee = appreciable quantity of matter of the latter kind, whi ch, not hav. mg passed into a state of decomposition, may be assimilable as Depths of the ” » Tectire deli e Rg Ce ae 8 Roy In. lin Society, April 10, ae am cas Serres, Vou. XLIX, No. 147.—Mar, 1870. 26 Am. Jour. Scr.~—Szconp 418 Scientific Intelligence. food by animals,—being, in fact, protoplasm in a state of extreme dilution. And the careful analyse s of larger quantities collected during the third cruise, which have been since made by Dr. Frank- land, mays full confirmed these results, pe! Sk cee the d. Cut, therefore, any other a probable hie taiees shall have een proposed, the sustenance of animal life on the ocean-bottom nourished b 7 the direct ‘absorption from the dilute protoplasm dif- ai This diffused wnidion tity yr ananey must be pens undergoing decomposition, and must be as continually renewed; and the source of that renewal must lie on the sz weed ol of plants and animals, by which (as tet out by Pr bg Thomson) fresh supplies of organic matter must be contin y imparted to e oceanic waters, being c Saeed down n to their greatest 2 OY that liquid diffusion which was so 4s adilirably in investi- gated by the late Professor Graha penter. pais average > thirty erat. of ae gives the following as the percentage proportions :—25"1 oxygen, 54-2 nitrogen, 20-7 carbonic acid. is Born, to oe however, was eral rule to en piatical, as will prese gt that of cd ee to increase, with the depth: the results of _ analyses of lesinediaks waters giving a percentage of 22°0 oxy Botany and Zoology. 419 collected at every 50 fathoms, from 400 fathoms ae o the bottom at 862 fathoms, the percentage results being as follow 750 tath. 800 fath, Sey 862 fath. Oxygen w\gla 18°8 178 17°2 - = 493 43-5 34.5 Carbonic acid - 319 33°7 48-3 The extraordinarily augmented percentage of carbonic acid in the stratum of water kane Saceidaiate overlying the sea-bed was accompanied by a great abundance of ani On the other d, the mavene Sip it of carbonic acid found in bottom-water —Vviz as accompanied by a “very bad haul.” I ral prediction iy in every instance correct. It would pe therefore, that the increase in the propertses the And it is further obvious that the continued co no oxy- gen and liberation of carbonic acid would soon paar the stratum of water immediately ‘above the bottom completely irrespirable in the absence of any antagonistic process of vegetation—were it not for the upward diffusion of the carbonic acid through the in- ae ee waters to the su surface, an and the downward diffusion of e se sete of carbonic acid and oxygen in the swr- pas raring a icttion’ o be accounted for in part by the differ- ences in the amount nate chasittne of the animal life existing calm weather, showed so decided a reduction in the eerie of carbonic acid, with an increase in that of ie date — the oa should not be thrown out as erroneous; 420 Scientific Intelligence. until it was recollected that, while the samples of surface water had been generally taken up from the bow of the vessel, they had i i ad perpetual calm would be as fatal to their continued existence, as the forcible stoppage of all respiratory movement would be to our own. And thus universal stagnation would become universal Mee 3 Macs® that other maritime powers are strongly interested in the survey, physical and biological, of the North ‘Atlantic should divided between the two countries; so that British and American explorers, prosecuting in a spirit of generous rivalry labors most important to the science of the future, might meet and shake hands on the mid-ocean. succeeded in coll in . to be a secretion of the salivary gland. A few months later, this saliva was analyzed by hig. 6 ors free su uric acid. es _, Shortly after, MM. Quoy and Gaimard, having discovered in the genus Cassis, a gland er gee ested that possibly these is also a similar ful means of defense, but also to aid them in a Botany and Zoology. 421 perforating bivalve shells. The Doliwm saliva was subsequently analyzed b by W. Preyer, and Keferstein published a description of the gla This was the state of the question when Professor Panceri— whose paper has a) been published in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Naples—undertook its investigation. He associat Professor de Luca with him in the work, and to him we are indebt- ed for new eo of this ee secretion, These analyses a salehoniteg ogenous organic substan ital iy als aleohol. Its density was 1-025 in (D and 1 “030 ir in wi be analysis gave: 11, Free sulphuric acid, 3° “42 3°30 Combined sulphuric acid, 0°20 O15 | 0°58 0°60 Combined ec chlorhydric acid, ‘ Potassa, soda, magnesia, dete of i a phos. hates, be duper? ‘matter and loss 1°80 2°35 Water, 94°00 93°60 100°00 100-00 The mollusks, their shells, and their glands were separately weighed, with results as follows :— 1 Il, Molluske. ss 908 grams 520 grams. MR a ee ee a 255... ™ Glands, . s i 4 oo a _80 sid 2005“ 855 “* os ee the gee constitute from 7 to 9 per cent of the total ht eo the al. ; oreov — “Pasoel found that on laying open the secretory gland af a 5 Halkan there was evolved, within a few moments, a considerable quantit of gas, which, on examination, proved to be pure carbonic ‘ado e gland, wolghing approximately 45 grams, yielded 206 ps ‘Gas of t. as, As to the secre- = of so acid a fluid from the sane tig: ne of pole’ _ it is entirely an: ous to the secre ag ei a ; eikalieg blood i cannot surprise of an acid gastric juice from a similarly in the — animals, i . ee weap a e following lis list those species lusks ch, like the Dolium galea, secrete an acid saliva:— _ OPISTHOBRANCHS. Pleurobranchidium a Leue. Meck. & — testitudinarius emg “ brevifrons Phil. 422 Scientific Intelligence. No trace of such a secretion has been detected in the genera Cari- naria, Firola, poe or in any of the numerous perforating Aceph- © ala, such as the Pholas. Oni Journal for 1869, p. 280, Prof. C. A. White has published an arti- re believe “that no doubt is entertained that the posterior portion of this mollusk is keenly sensitive to light vi of his “Observations on the Genus Unio.” N e that Mr. Lea was anticipated, by fourteen or fifteen years, in a few lines, by Prof. 8. S. Haldeman, in his “ Fresh-water Univalve Mol- lusea,” Phy us (Gmelin) to be suddenly withdrawn, when subjected le experiment.” The the same author, publi in the Iconographic Ency- ology, p. 69. (New York, 1850). “The extremity [of ge Re ee ay een Paes ear aaa Botany and Zoology. 423 the siphons in ik prcorage extends beyond the shell; it is ed illate, and provi with eyes which have the pow er of disti guishing light ae darkness, as the siphons are suddenly with- drawn, when a shadow is cast. upon them.” Philadelphia, 24th and Sharswood Sts., March 9, 1870. 11. Report on the Invertebrata of Saye Sees ae mf gin agree- ably to an order of the Legislature. Secon , comprising the Mollusea; by Aveusrus A. Goutp, M Ds have even been much greater than ems " this instance, o The t Sake and ‘aatvetions of the book are excellent and do credit both to the State and the editor, as well as to the artists, The wood-cuts, of which there are pita have nearly all been drawn from nature by Mr. E. orse, whose rare artistic talent and cen piel 8 of the atte} have enabled him to produce that are unequaled in accuracy. The drawings have been most ‘faithfully jente rodused by the engraver, Mr. Henry Marsh, whose skill contributed so largely to the value of Harris’ Report on Insects. The accuracy and beauty of the cuts makes us regret that a portion . the labor had not been expended upon the hinges and interior parts of the bivalves, lingual dentition and opercula of the Gasteropods, Sih other parts, which are of far greater impor- tance Fevers mere external views, no matter how accurate, welve plates are, with one exception, printed in colors ae illustrate well the Nudibranchs, Ascidians, Cephalopods and so e Pteropods. The Bryozoa and all the I alinaes and grit tains are omitted from this edition, which was undoubtedly the wisest course, for these groups, which were Aggy ted pa tac: represented in the first edition, have now been so numerously co poted and become so well known eigs at least another a the tions, which pan been awed o various scraps The Be ures are, however, mostly very ¢ Some cea ie drawn from life by Mr, Burkhardt, have been soneributed by Prof. Agas- 424 Scientific Intelligence. living. Inco ence mpiling both bad pees and good ones, several species of oad appear under two different names. Thus ynthia placenta Packard is the same as Ascidia earnea Ag., and i 4 a true Cynthia; C. gate Stimpson is, perhaps, the young of the same species, which is abundant and of larger size in the Bay of Fundy. Mo olgula pore Stimpson is the tthe ans bottoms near New Haven, aa isatrue Molgula. Ascidia ooetldee Agassiz appears to be the same as 7 tenella Stimpson. The fig- ure of the latter agrees exactly with numerous specimens, whic we obtained living abundantly from low-water to 50 fathoms at Eastport, Me., which are no doubt Stimpson’s species. Boltenia microcosmus Agassiz is pony, only a Jonoen ony of B. cla- very constant ie its ‘characters, as described by Dr. Stimpson. Although the pend given by Agassiz to en of the species above mentioned are earlier than Stimpson’s, no descriptions were given by which the species Ser possibly be reas ate. except oh ting in the case he species n which the ocellz are so prominent & feature. Therefore the the eames A eb b Stimp son, and Soccniniee . ra has much improved sand enlarged, and many additional o be reg t 1 was not bestowed upon the distribution of die species in depth and geographically, fo “pe a very large amount of information of this kind has accumulated since first edition, but often only the old localities are mentioned, though Dr. Stimpson had given a far Aphaton of this kind, as long ago as 1851, New England,” which has not even “been incor- to the p: wor ck ologists and naturalists generally will be surprised it to which oe ideas of classification are retain the Brachio ods introduced between the Cone hifers: Botany and Zoology. 425 cen eerepats! The Scalaride between Littorinide and Ver- ide! In fact the arrangement of the families is very often un- soma We find, also, many singular inconsistencies in the gen- era adopted, for in some families the modern views and modern ames are introduced to a considerable extent, while in others, where such changes were even more desirable, the old ideas and the old genera are retained from the first edition, almost without } change. But by way of apology we find the following in the edi- = __tor’s ‘preface : “Should any disappointment be felt that Dr. Gould } __ has not adopted in his work all the improvements in classification, &e., which more recent investigations have suggested, it must be remembered that this is not a new work, It i is rather a reprint of oul i considered” absolutely necessary to its present usefulness,’ go “upon assuming the charge of the publication and receiving the of Dr. Gould, I end manuscripts, drawings, notes, &e. ‘s . eavored to learn thoroughly what plan he had made hh: revising the first edi- tio: I was directed to complete the work as nearly as in I have been able to arrive at a clear idea of his intentions, | which, according to my orders, I have most scrupulously endeavored to carry ont, irrespective of my own opinions. ee is only in ‘hatin the “Pulmonifera that I have exercised my own judgment, an here only to the extent that I believe Dr. “Gould would have proved.” We do not exactly understand how it is that the editor did not also exercis ise nie own Mem reg i regamp J: the Ascidi introducing important and essential aq bee which he himself would undoubtedly have adopted, had he ke a geome vise the work, Thus there seems to be no re i Voter era, now well established, ould not have eo saeed ~ exc ample, ‘nw established for “ .Buccinum ¢é ple, Huros as nothing to do with Buccinum ; Phychatractes Stimpson ee * Fasciolaria ligata,” ete. Even among the Pulmonifera, where in itor’s own judgment. Thus we find the “ y still depres under r Say’ s name, eH h Mr. Morse has well elu- it to be viviparous a and to have Sues other sharaeens entitling it at least to distinct generic ra ites for it, which coriainly has stronger claims than some other genera of the same family, which are adopted in this wack neither do we see sufficient reasons for retaining 3 = os iat a ES in z: . labyrinthica, H. asteriscus, H. pulchella, etc. in the genus He e lize, when a. arborea, H. eleetrina, EI. chersina, H. lineata, ete. | as Hyalina. would have appeared to us to to have ret setaingd all the ee in the old “genus” Helix, than to 426 Scientific Intelligence. have produced such an Se mixture of old and new ideas as we find in this case and other inally we may remark that although this work will prove of but little or no use for conveying correct ideas of classification, or even of the character of genera, it will nevertheless be indispensa- ble and of the utmost value in the determination of the species. v. 12. Not otes on ae pening No. 1, Ocypodoidea ; by Stpney I. Smira. 8vo, 64 page with 4 lithographic plates. From the Transactions of the Pe cieninad Academy, Vol. Il, April, 1870,—This memoir includes a nearly complete monograph of the Ameviean speci of Gelasimus or “ fiddler-crabs,” of which 21 species are now known from both coasts of America. Of these they do not ee any that have ever been published for this class. Nearly all the ser dab are copied oes photographs made by the author. The following are new speci Gelasimus ideneubeddioun: G. het one, G. princeps, G. rags atus, G. ornatus, G. pugnax, G. rapax, G. mordax, G. gibbo- . Cardivsoma erassum, Pseudothelphusa plana, Opisthocera, ae nov., 0. Gilmanii, Epilobocera armata, Glyptograpsus, gen. noy., G. im SUS, arma sow . occidentalis, S. angusta, Prionoplaz ciliatus, Euryplax pol tus, Glyptoplas, gen. nov., G. pugnax, Pinnotheres Lithodomi, cara heres politus, Di tylus, fam. et gen. nov., D. niti tidus. Those that are redescribed are as follows Gelasimus minax LeConte, G. ivosions Stimp., . pugilator Lae we eepenanons Stimp., @. Panamensis Stimp., Cardioso- Stimp., gi wa pictus Edw., Sesarma reticulata Say, Eury- plax nitidus Stimp., Pinnotheres margarita Smith, Pinnagodes Chilensis Smith. v. 13. Monografia della Famiglia dei Pennatularii ; per al Dott. Sesastrano Ricutarpr. From Archivio per la Zoologia PAnato- mia e la Fisiologia, Ser. II, vol. i, Turin, 1869, 8vo, with 14 fold en plates.—In this memoir the author has iven descriptions of \ tose ee Botany and Zoology. 427 ew, P. Targionii, locality unknown; 0 oides, 27 species, i Grayt locality unknown, P. Vogtii, P. Cornali#, P. Clausii, Mediterra- nean, P. Pancerii, locality unknown; of Sarcoptilus one, S. gran- dis Gray; of Ptilosarcus two, P. Gurneyi and P. sinwosus Gray ; of Halisceptrum one; of Scytalium one; of Stylatula 5 species; In the genus Renilla the author is certainly at fault, owing no doubt to lack of specimens of some of our American species, 10 R. reniformis he unites R. peltata V., R. Dane V., and R. ame- cea than . reniformi. ibt three species are all distinct, one from another; it 1s ible R. Dane may be identical wi violacea, th it does not R. violacea, no reduction seems sib] ; seems quite probable, however, that the number of species of Pteroide: night be considerably reduced by a of all > ae specimens. é ‘ EL) 14. The Butterflies of North America, with colored drawings y Wm. H. Epwarps. Part 5. Philadelphia, ecem., 1869.—Number five o . siderabl deh 7 ie account of the plates, and was not actually published until April. The plates are excellent, and well sustain the character of the work. The following species are illustrated . rgynnis it; Colias dice ; Limenitis ; pta Faunus ; Cena olus 5 ne Nd of North gone Butterflies includes the s : Nathalis, Anthocaris, Callidryas, Gonepteryz. v. 428 Scientific Intelligence. IV. ASTRONOMY. 1. Elements of Felicitas (109), Jrom observations of the first opposition ; by Wu. A. Rogers. (Communicated for this Jour- nal, io dated Alfred Obadrratoey: Alfred Center, N. Y., April 12, 1870).—From my last Elements, published in the Astronom- oe Nechstohvois the following normal places were obtained, the nosh Be from the Ephemeris being found in the columns marked da O O). The ob. cited nee of Hamilton College, Mec: Sin? and Chi- cago, were y communicated in advance of publication. @....d Aa(C-O) Ad(C-O) Observations. W. M. T. 9° é 4d ad Mi Oct.9°0 14 960 —19 +02 ee yes (9). Alfred (3). 936 4°52 Heri: Oct.29°0 935 516 ~-17 —2°8 ©. (4), Waitaaid (3). 2 178 “ie Oe (7). Nov.10°0 8 0 262 +0°9 ~2:8 Wash. (5), Hamburg (1). +10 9 51:3 Bilk. ese (6). Nov. 280 8 06 08:3 +26 —3-0 Lund H. C. (2). 08 14:9 Madad (5). Alfred (8). Wash. (5). Hamburg (3). Dec. 28 - 27 49°11 +40 —3-6 Alfred (5). H.C. (1). Wash. (4). 21 37°8 1870. Jan. 22 24 06 03-4 +60 —5°0 Alfred (15). H. C. (2). +18 06 49°6 Wash. (4). Feb. 22 39 36 26-9 45-0 —5-4 H.C. (1). Wash. (1). +23 01 39°71 Alfred (5). From the first, fourth and sixth places, the following elements were computed :— Oct. 9-0 1869, W. M. T. M 339 0°5 45-21 Mean Eq. m 55 56 03°25 1869°0. N 4 56 04°35 a 8 02 56°10 p 17 27 62°67 log. : 4304068 8024102 _ These elements a the normals thus :— ( Aé (0-0) —or1” +-0°6" —0°4 —0°6 +1°0 -+0°2 ‘4 +11 —10 412 OL: +09 +0°0 +16 Astronomy. 429 the —_ passed . the latter at the eruan of the ree ka show relation between the meteors and the comet, similar to that feoonely detected between the November meteors and the comet of 1866, was thus suggested as probatbe Is this hypothesis in harmony with facts? and if not, are our present data sufficient for determining with any reasonable probability, the true period Dates of the April Shower.—Professor Newton selects the fol- lowing from Quetelet’s Catalogue as belonging to this period :* C2 4, A.D,1093, 4 5, and ’6 2. AG, 5. = 1122, 8 aa 3. A. D. -_ 6. ‘<1 608, 0 ia very near . saat to 6 poibar of Be years the slightest nrg nation will show that this period doe t harmonize with any o ce oo etapa dates, This fact, en, "when further didvuaeiok, . 1 to the hypothesis that the period of the meteors is me cores otal to that of the comet. 3 What is the probable period of the ring ?——The showers of 1093 —6 and 1122-3 at once suggest a period of from 26 to 30 years, epoch may be placed any where between 1093 and 1096, and that of the latter, in either 1 122 a 1123. The entire interval from B. 887 to A. D, 1803 is 2490 rs, or 88 periods of 28°295 y. each; and the known dates are all [satiated by the following scheme: /™ BC catwBo 15....672 ‘000 years = 24 periods of 28-000. each. r . to A. D. -597°0 =21 * 28-429 _D. 2to 1093" ire 511-714 *§ =18 & 28-429 * 1093- oh to “1122°143_.__. 984299 * = 1 & 28-4299 “ 1122143 to “ 1803....680°357 “ =24 % 28-369 * These sedation indicate a period of about 283+ years, corres- _ Pending to an ellipse whose major axis is 18°59. Hence the dis- tance of the See is very nearly equal to the mean aiteaee of Uranus. It will also be observed that the time of revolution, which — to have been somewhat ee — the Christian era, ng undoubtedly to this period. eras made in land =e Sie a “a than beens number of meteors at the Decem mber epoch in that year. . * This J July, 1863. + Herrick assigned a value of 27 years See this Journal, April, 1841, p. 365. 430 Scientific Intelligence. the Relsien) fom midnight ‘till morning, to t reat surprise of e beholders, in Egypt.”— Modern part of the Uni i . 8vo, vol. ii, p. 281, Lond. 1780. The date of this phenomenon Ca eS to the December epoch, 901. 2. 930. “ Averse remarquable etoiles filantes en Chine.” 3. he “On vit & Zurich ‘ du feu tomber du ciel’ 4. 1830, 1833, and 1836. The maximum seems be have in 1833 ‘s when as many as ten meteors were seen simultane “Dans la nuit du 11 au 12 décembre, on vit 4 Parme une grande quantité Pétoe filantes de différentes grandeurs, qui se dirige- ~ aient presque toutes avec une grande vitesse vers le SSE. A 10 ’ heures et 1 cae les seules Shap aes du Bélier et du Taureau, Pi on en compta environ une dizain J = (Doubtful.) 1861, 1862, a 1863. a see in # 1862, The meteors at this return were far fro ing comparable : in soshen with the ancient displays. The er, Lewes er, Was distinctly piece R. P. Greg, Esq., of eruiseeeds England, raid the period for December 10th-12th was, in 1862, “ exceed- ingly well define ese dates Cicais a ssiniese of about 294 years. Thus: i 901 to 930.... 1 period of 29:000 years. 930 to 1571....22 periods of 29°136 years. ; 1571 to 1833.... 9 periods of 29°111 years. 1833 to 1862.... 1 period of 29-000 years. (3). The Meteors of October 15th-21st. The showers of the following years (see Guetaleee € eee belong to this epoch : 88. * ‘Apparition en Chine 2. 1436 aoe tie In each year a remarkable apparition was segs we 1743, Tenpeed from Herrick, in this Journal tess eee bs 841). “A clear night, great shooting of stars between clock, all shot from S.W. to N.E. [Qu. N.E. to 8. W. ?] A tg a Sadik in the meridian very large, and like fire, with a lon broad train after it, Pedi lasted several minutes; ‘after that was a train like Tow ae f thick small stars for twenty minutes together, which P 4. 1798. “Brandés marque, 4 Goettingue, un gra and nombre ange filantes dans les observations simultanées qu’ il fait avec zenber; s.” These dates indicate a period of about 274 years : 288 to 1439....42 periods of’ 27- _ years. each, (1439 to 1743....11 #7 : 1748 to 1798.... 2 - arene ca se periods are correct, it is a remarkable. svincidenne 5 elion distances of the mapteorie rings of Apes sh ee Bah Bosember 1 14th, and Decem 1th-- A : those of tl e comete-1860,(),and 1807 (), are all nearly ce of U ‘the mean di : ‘© This Journal, May, 1863, p. 461. Astronomy. 431 3. Abstracts from the Report of the Council of the Royal Astronomical Society, at the fifteenth Annual meeting, Feb. 1870. tions, have been published in the last volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society. Nearly 150 separate ee of the paper, printed partly at the private expense of Mr. Warren De La Rue, were distributed chiefly to foreign observatories, scientific institu- tions, pa distinguished astronomers and physi sicists. The second instalme nt, containing the heliographic positions of the Bui-opote observed from the beginning of 1864 to the end of 1866, is nearly ready, and will be presented to the Royal Society at an early date during the present session. Some investigations were also made last year on the influence which a refracting m medium of considerable density would have on af a : Me e. . 2 throw much light on several . ant questions connect with solar physics. The matter will be exhaustively investigated in the gen — discussion of the Kew results. ‘ present year it is intended to bring, if possible, the work of she claieeians s up to date, The scarcity of spots agra oe dc aie ats years may be devote d to as careful a discussion of the whole work as is required by the halen ce of the astronomical and physical problems involved in it. Messrs. De La Rue. , Stewart, an and Loewy, state that the reduc- tions of Hofrath Schwabe’s observations are now finished. By g with the. 1832, they have measured the yagi area of all his pictures up to the tins whe C arrington’s series commenced. From the results obtained they have first of all, dedused ced fortnightly views, and in i i re transitory fluctua- 432 Scientific Intelligence. ordinary method of equalization, they have deduced ve pee re eurve exhibiting the decimal period of solar disturban ‘They find ronrgaa bee the following epochs of maximum and minimum spotted area :— Minimum Nov. ma 1833 Minimum April21 1856 Maximum Dec. 21 1836 Maximum Oct. 7 1859 Minimum Sept. 21 1843 Minimum Feb. 14 1867 Maxim Nov. 14 1847 : From these dates it will be perceived that (as has hem already observed) the time between the minimum and maximum is always ess than that between the aia um and next mini Tt will also be noticed that the whole period is not always of uniform length; nevertheless, judging from what has gone before, they believe that ey are perhaps entitled to conclude that the approaching mini will not be delayed much beyond the end of this year. It iin also a be remarked that, in ee the three series, the progression from maximum to minimum is not a simple progression, but exhibits in each case traces of a pcaontiey max- final y they have examined these results for traces of the action of the p — Evece Sun-spots, and pursuing the method indicated in their preliminary researches, they derived the following table, as exhibiting the evidence deduced’ from all the observations be- tween 1832 and 1868:— Relative Planetary Excess or Pescieney of Spotted Area. Separation. Jupiter and Venus—Mars and Mercury. Between 0° and 30° + 881 +1675 30 — 60 — 60 — 13 66 a — 452 — 166d v0 = -196 — 579 —2355 130°? 160 — 705 —2318 160 | ™ S80 — 759 —1604 130° * 310 — 893 — 481 210 “ 240 — 752 + 547 240 “ 270 — 263 + 431 ere "e00 + 70 + 228 300 ~™ S30 + 480 +1318 330 0 +1134 + 2283 From this table there a to be an excess of solar activity when either Jupiter and Pass or Mars and Mereury a together, and a deficiency when they are 180° see also that the progression is regular i met ace and i in the one case to what it is in the other. spectroscopic researches Sun. “Binoa the last Report he hae’ found t several other es besides hydrogen are occasionally to be detected apne of | right lines of these substances rising above nere, and associated with the bright lines of hydrogen, Astronomy. 433 mets to the bottom of the photosphere.” In these observations nL hich we may hope to base a more complete theory of the constitution of the galvanometer. The one conclusion at which he arrived was, the full Moon, at Paris and in the summer months, gave as much heat to his pile as a radiating surface 6°5 centimeters square, main- tained at boiling-water Semmgereiure and placed at a distance of = : We are not informed. He confirms Lor ion of solar to lunar radiation is about as 80000 to 1, and 27 434 Scientific Intelligence. likewise concludes that the Moon imparts to us no heat from an internal or cosmical source. Further, he infers that the diffusive power of the lunar surface is considerable, at least equal to that of the least colored of terrestrial rocks; and he finds that the lunar heat by reason of its large percentage of obscure rays is far more impressionable by atmospheric humidity than that from 4.) Power ars.—The experiments upon this subject, commenced by Mr. Stone with the great Equatorial of the Greenwic rvatory, in the year 1868, and mentioned i faces must be exposed to precisely similar atmospheric influences. Mr. Stone therefore resorted to what in effect may be descri as a horse-shoe pile, the two faces of which being similarly presented : i } process the galvanometer indications were converted into Fahrenheit-scale equivalents. It was found that the heating effect of Arcturus, after allowing for absorption by the object-glass, was 0-00000137 of a Fahrenheit degree; that of « Lyra bei out two-thi of this a ri re: Astronomy. 485 _ off by the slightest cloud or haze. The details of the investiga- tion are f Saget in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for Jan- eo ht 5.) Trane it of Venus, 1874.—The potest arrangements, for the ree Rs Ee of the transit of Venus, 1874 are sufficiently ition imuths are in actual progress in the manufactory of Messrs. Troughton and Simms. The second telescope at each station will at nah iter Island, Oahu, Auckland in New Zealand, Alex- andria, an Rodriguez. A Commission, consisting a Admiral Paris, MM. Faye, Laugier, illarceau, and Pui uiseux, has rted to the Bureau des Longitudes that it would be partenatly desirable for the French came ? St. Paul and Amsterdam, Yokoha- The North German astronomers have referred the consideration of the action wtek: «levee should urge upon their Government, toa Committee, of whom the illustrious astronomer of Gotha was ee sheceesployareis r to la at stress upon the employmen of heliometers for Saag the re sive position of eng on the Sun at the — stations. photography a ctroscopic observasiods: was discu chief saphy and to the Se of photography on esti to be in the question of expense, although Professor lander was not —- with the ote - of accuracy which mnghe be expected ee. Spe pie eT proposed only to sddivate the approach of the planet for the obser- vation of external contacts. Committee recommended that the Government be urged to fit out four ex o to the North and two to the South. The stations een referred to as ae were mperriamey Bakes ergue. = dwards’ sei the Russian astronomers. “The Aorta = Tmperial 1 Ob- servatory at Pulkova has already secured a Committee for the con- 436 Scientific Intelligence. sideration of a proposition to establish a chain of observers across the country from Kamtschatka to the Black Sea, at intervals of about 100 miles. This appears desirable on account of uncertain- ties connected with the atmospheric conditions in the month o cember. very unequal power, and attempt to make the same class of obser- e wa far apart to exert any nee on e deed, whatever theory we may hold respecting stellar distribution, regard rally, we must be prepared to e stars seen towa a yr ane the magnitude of these motions. It is only when one has adopted the theory that the stars are grouped acco ding to special laws of aggregation, that one would be led to anticipate that here and there, almost as by accident, so to speak, some indi- Astronomy. AST the whole of the northern hemisphere, and that it was the excep- tional community of proper motion in Taurus which had led him to form his well-known theory respecting a central sun. It was only when I was reminded that he had in fact examined the = proper motions in the neighborhood of Taurus alone, having led by independent considerations = Piagee that neighborhood i that within which a central s be looked for, that I was encouraged to map Pre all the biped proper motions. To _ my surprise I found that in Gemini, Cancer, and Leo, a community Ree : : was to be recognized ; and further, that though in other — as I had os aa atta motions belongin g to different depths in ce intermixed, it was yet possible to trace out laws of Seisiiesina dione the existence of drifting star-groups in these directions I lay very little stress on the indications which have led me to name the great double cluster in Perseus as more likely to be an important center of motion than the Pleiades. But it is worthy of mention that Midler required a star on the Milky Way as the center of the galaxy, and Alecyone does not Jie on the Milky Wa he required his center to lie ninety degrees from the apex of t e solar motion, and Alcyone does mot lie ninety degrees from the mean of the last determinations of that point. The great cluster in Perseus fulfills pore conditions in the most ee manner. n bate It is videad of notice that Midler, having been led by for trac of a community of ore eae founded on the drift he sens found in Taurus (the lucida of the egeee c is the common center around whic But i ess Be the community of b ted out, of a ree hears which may be : es ie heave ns. In Ge mini and Cancer mo drift in Taurus being towards ya Patty Leo, there is also a a ll-marked adrift, in this case pes rd Cancer. icular instances of star-drift are not the less remark- =. that the stars are oatpt almost ss in the direetion due to the proper motion which has been assigned to the sun, because 438 Scientific Intelligence. the recent researches of the Astronomer Royal have abundantly proved that the apparent proper motions of the stars are not to be recognized as principally due to the sun’s motion. Mr. Stone has shown even that we must assign to the stars a larger proper mo- tion, on the average, than that which the sun possesses. Looking, therefore, on So stars as severally in motion, with velocities ex- eeding t the sun’s on the e average, it cannot put be looked upon as highly saguiGionaet that in any large region of the heavens there should be a communit y of motion such as I have described. e motion as forming a distinct system, the members of which are associated indeed with the galactic system, but are much more intimately related to each other. In other parts of the heavens, however, there are instances of a star-drift opposed to the direction due to the solar motion. remarkable instance may be recognized among the seven bright stars "of Ursa Major. these, sun’s translation in space should be directed. If these five “ree: indeed, form a system torr I can see no other reasonable explan tion of so singular a community of motion), the mind is lost in contemplating t the Sioulenne of the periods which the revolutions of the components of the system mu ant oce ne 2 Midler had , an ietis appear to form a single system, wong the mo- on of « is not absolutely colnet either in ‘magni tude or direc- tion with that of # and 7, w are moving on absolutely parallel proper motions in both hem Ere ran are an at on the stereo- oa prajestion In — same eg also the oer due to the ao 08 aro Stars sais ha form part of ) Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 While mapping the proper motions of the stars, Mr. Proctor has been led to notice that the rich cluster around z Persei falls almost exactly on the intersection of the Milky Way with the great circle which may be termed the equator of the solar motion; that is, the great circle having the apex of the sun’s motion as a "po e. is circumstance points to that remarkable cluster, rather than to the Pleiades, as the center of the sidereal system, ‘if indeed that sys- tem has a center cognizable by us. en we remember that for every fixed star in the Pleiades there are hundreds in the great cluster in Perseus, the latter will seem the worthier region to be the center of motion. The author is disposed, however, to regard the cluster in Perseus as the center of a portion of the sidereal system, rather than as the common center of the Galaxy. —Nature, No. 8, March 3. _ V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. National Academy of Sciences: List of Papers read at the Moin, in April, 1870, at Washington, D. C.— On the measurement of wave-lengths by means of indices of re- fraction; by Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, On the ¢ ming Transits of Venus, and the mode of observing them; by Prof. Simon Newco Meridional ares measured in a eate with the U. S. Coast Survey; by Prof. J. E. Hilgard. The Relations of the four Archetypes of structure of the Animal Kingdom, as parts of one Life System; by Prof. A. Guyot. bservations on the Measurement and Iconography of Crania ; by Dr. Geo, A. Otis, The northmen in Greenland ; by Dr. L I. Hayes. vee on the apparent inequalities of long period in the moon’s mean motion, and on the possible variability ‘of the sidereal day; by Prof. Simon Newcomb. On the isan of Compasses in iron-clad ships ; by Prof. Wm. Harkness, U. 8. N On Artificial deformation of Skulls; by Dr. Geo. A. Otis, U.S. A. On the proposed rae observatory in the Argentine Re- public; by Dr. B. Scientific operations now | in pro tution; by Prof. Jose enry. On the Jo ti Re of Barometers; by Dr. B. F. Craig. On the influence of the interior structure of r% arti on pre- cession and nutation ; by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. 8. A. Reduction of photographic observations of Priesepe ; ; by Dr. B. A. Gould. On the Lignites of Western America; by Dr. J. S. Newberry. On the use ae certain Artificial Lights 3 in eee soeraphires objects as seen with the microscope ; yee On the classification of Clow ae e New breeds of Hard; Be Woena gece’ feed on the “ Ailan- thus and Oaks,” and the enttdlrt of their introduction into the country as a future industry; by J. Q. A. Warren. gress by the Smithsonian Insti- 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. On s of the phenomena attending the great tornado thun- dorstorm. of Iowa and Illinois, of June 3rd, 1860; by Wm. ichol oe Photography ; by Lewis M. Rutherfurd. Classifica of Mammals; by Theodore Gill aietemption periods of life-annuities oe reversions ; by E. B. sree F aise of a new binocular for the Microscope to be used with high powers; by F. A. P. Barn ce Report on Metric Standards; by J. E. Hilgard. The Basalts of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho; by R. W. Raymond. n the polarization of the atmosphere; by Prof. Poey. A new form of Quarternions ; by Benjamin Peirce. 2. ) Mean Pressure of the Ba rometer and the Prevailing Winds over the Globe for the Months and ne the ee eet A., FR, =I e om ey 2 8 3. oe $5: & g = = ® S o ng *O aH ? or . results as regards the months of J anuary and July are given by the author on maps in his Handy Book on Meteorology published two yearssince. The paper here issued contains the maps for eac of the twelve months, and also another for the means of the year. We cite a few paragraphs giving some of the conclusions tmospheric 8 igh barometer (30 inches and u ward) oo ee nearly all Asia ; al Sgr: south of the North and Baltic Seas ; e No ee Atlan- 8° and 24° lat. There are also two regions of high pressure of comparatively small Se one in the South Atlantic, and the other in 2% [Pgs Pac on f low pr se the northern portions of the North Atlantic aa of the North Pacific, ee = of the ntinents pila wit ; the belt of low in the pater ich ttle sariation hedaghowt the e year. vn March, pressure diminishes over Asia, the middle and south of Europe, and the United States of America. Everywhere Het xcept in the tropics, it i Srising. This rise of pressure is most a ren temperate regions of the southern hemisphere. In the north: of Sow Atlantic it is rapidly rising, the : average pre | 29°609 inches, thus showin. anuary. ressure wing an increase of = Miscellaneous Intelligence. 441 In April, the heavy lines showing a pressure above the average have now all but left Asia, Europe, and the United States, and t isobars of 30 inches bound a belt of high pressure which completely encircles the globe in the south temperate zone. Pressure con- tinues to rise in the north of the Atlantic, and to the north of of — atmospheric pressure attains the m um of the ear. Pressure continues to increase over the s te ate zone, and the isobar of 30°1 inches now nearl pee round the globe. At this time the highest pressure in age emis- In June, July and August, ptessure falis in the oo regions of Asia to about 29°5 inches. In this season this great diminution of pressure, which may be regarded as absolutely eiseubune the summer climates of Asia, reaches its lowest point. Pressure falls also in the interior of North America, where at Utah, Great nas Lake, it is only about 29°7 inches. The annual maximum ctive. this period, pressures increase over the continents of the northern hemisphere, an diminish over the south temperate zone, ed, which has panes ape sown to prevail during the winter months. In and ga. cwanns & which ¢ ‘trades on eac 449 Miscellaneous Intelligence. contrary, there is a continuous diminution of pressure northward, from Australia and Mauritius to the interior of Asia. It wil be one gen eral movement of t ~ronasooare ich in of its mani- festations has been long sepia to meteorologists sale the name of the great November wave, but of which no very satisfactory account has yet been given. In addition to these changes in the monthly — of the pressure, it is pemandae that a system of low pressures traverses the continent of A , following the sun’s course; but since the grounds of this supposition have been recently laid before the So- ciety, in a paper on “ The Determination of Heights, chiefly in the ss Interior of Siuticiente, by Observations of Atmospheric Pres- ure,”* it is not necessary to reproduce them here. ey probable pene for the months is shown on the separate c 3. Loyal Society of London.—Fifty-three oqndidatas have offered themselves for the ee of the Royal Society during the present session, and in June next fifteen out of the number -~ a elected.—. Athenceum, Mar Prizes for Com —The as adem my of Sciences - Vienna bays offered eight iors medals for the spree? of as many com- ets duri nits Boge pe ee years.—Athen., ibi pituaRY.—Maanvs, of Berlin, the physkciit, ‘died in that city, on the ath of April. VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. b PW itatae J. Pace antlin of « stoi Seasons in Shr 100 pp. 12mo. New York, 1870. (Harper & & ss and in aise Those he have read his lively “Three Seasons need not he told that he erent es theme wit point and tide? ity, as well as with a discrimina udgment. Mr. Flagg no claim 2 a scientific knowledge “: arp apnea bey but he clearly another genus, is certainly fig ae by the a "and ana’ ication of flour reads the ion of Book, must Hon a the author’s closing words, and _ It is probably a misprint which states the « gramme” -* Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. vi, p. 465. Miscellaneous Bibliography. 443 on p. 50 to be about 23 grains, in place of 15°43 grains. As it clearly appears that sulphur, in a very fine state of subdivision, is ttery: lectro-plating: the Electrical illumination of Light- Houses: the Fire Alarm of Cities: the Atlantic Telegraph: an In- troduction to Chemical Physics, designed for the use of Acade- mies, Colleges, and Medical Schools. Illustrated with numerous engravings, and containing copious lists of experiments, with di- rections for preparing them. By'Taomas Rueeies Pyncuon, M.A,, Scovill Professor of Chemistry and the Natural Sciences, Trin- ity College. 534 pp.12mo. Hartford, 1870. (O.D ) chon’s book is designed chiefly for a class of readers who would be unable to follow him with aid of mathematics. “ All matters of which a knowledge could equally well be obtain- ed from any good treatise on Natural Philosophy, have been omit- ted,” the author tells us in his Preface :—a statement which appears hardly sustained by the rather copious list of “ subjects which have been most carefully elaborated,’ commencing with ‘heat,’ and embracing pretty much the usual range of physical topics. The work is very neatly printed, and while it is not well adapte to the accurate drill of the recitation room, it is a good vade me- cum for a course of lectures on chemical physics, and for the use of the general reader, containing a large amount of useful and in- teresting information on various cognate physical subjects. 3. The Life of John James Audubon, the Naturalist. Edited by his Winow, with an introduction by James Grant Wizson. 443 pp. 12mo. New York, 1870. (G. P. Putnam & Son.)—This Mrs. Audubon, and sent obert the original manuscript. erica : additions, and suppresses several objectionable passages inserted ! : on was a wonderful combination of ist, ni; i i into an intense individuality ans and devotees, among whom the names Wil s ‘ Audubon must always stand preéminent; and this loving tribute of a devoted wife, who was always the sympathizing companion ot her husband, will revive in the present generation something ot 444 Proceedings of Societies, etc. the admiration for the genius of Audubon, which his gentle voice and child-like simplicity ever kindled in his contem poraries.. Audubon kept a copious — of his daily life, from which much of the present volume is drawn, and its perusal excites the hope that in due time we tha see the entire work, of which — 1s in all respects wort e good taste of the publishers 4, Physician’s she ; by Cnartes Exam, M.D. e 400, 12mo. 1869, Beton 0 (Fields, Osgood & Co. )—This is carefully written and philosophical discussion of some of the . Natura an ; m Moral and Criminal Epidemics; IV. Body; V. Mind; VL Illusions and Hallucinations; the demon of Socrates; the amulet of Pascal; VIL On Somnambulism ; VIII. Revery and Abstrac- ti ook ad that to which it is specially addressed, and while the ee views may not be universally accepted, his discussion of them i scholarly and always interesting. 8. oe of the Geological Survey of New York, by James Hall. Vol. IV, Part p. 4to, with 69 plates. Albany. oe N.Y. 1870. Havok a Zoology, with ex amples from Cesatian species, recent and fossil, By J. W. Dawson. Part I.—Invertebrata, with 275 illustrations. 224 pp., 12mo. 1870. PROCEEDINGS AND Communications Essex Ixstrruts, Vol. VI, Part 1.—p. 1, Description of Mexican A ; Fig Norton.— p. 10, ney Be of the beset ea States; A. Wood.—p. , Insects inhabiting pettrg: ene, fiw Your. Vol. IX, No. 9.—p. 281, Notes thalatgual I “starr of Mollusca, No.1; W. G. Binney, T. Bland.—p. 298, Notes on species of the family Corbiculade, 2. Prime. ——e 301, Review Fish of Cuba belonging to the genus Trisotropis, with a: uctory Note by J. C. Bre- voort; F. Poey.—p. 309, Note on the Hlmaphroditin ie, Fish; F. Poey.—p. 310, idopterolo ical Miscellanies, No. 2; Robinson. PROCEEDINGS Acap. Nat. Sct, Pde Hon Nos. 2 — —p. nt —— cies of American Birds; R. Ridgway.—p. 137, Descriptions of ne Fossils from the Western States—p. 173, Auroral aia of Apel 15, 1869; ps Ennis—p. 176, On the production of Bractea in Larix; 7 Mechan.—p. 180, On gen : _ On a Parallel Glacial Period, Stee gt a INDEX TO VOLUME XLIX. a Laubach, Braun, Miquel, Pritzel, Mar- pos a Bel. tius, Meissner, es say 120. i Botany, Developme’ aS flower of Pin- 4 tN Natio list oboe papers Se EO fe pri guise vulgaris, 404 | Paris’ fate members, 284. Flora Brasiliensis, 404. Bs andbook hed bree ghee! (a soma Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, proceedings, nang ology, it Adam, Tableau mineralo gique, 1 eluding effets of Wiebe aoa of fertili rainorals ot he ‘a7i. || zation, Bresse’s Hy dvanlic Motors, noticed, 144. pena distribution of barometric pres- : poe aha double ‘chlorids, ete, 254, Buoy s, lighting power for, 284. Ammonia-Uhromium Pees x Obes, 251. ‘seoetld (i 100) y elments of, Rogers, 141, 428; Caldwell’s Agricultural Analysis, 1 Astronon cone "bociety, abstracts of report) |California Geological Survey, 400. ’ Cay ingto’ pitol at Washington, movement of Astron me by the winds, 384. Awiubon, 1 tife 0 phi noticed, 44 Carpenter, W. B.. deep-sea dredging, 410. Auroral appearances, meinen? with phe-|\Cave mammals, Cope, 273. nomena of terrestrial magnetism, Stew-\\Cerium group, double sulphates of, 356. Chemical analysis, Sprengel’s pump in, Australia, diamonds i in, 275. 378. Dinornis Chemistry, conjugate bodies in inorganic, Smyth’s pes fields of Victoria, 263. / B Barnard, F. A. P., machinery of indus-|| Chris trial arts, hi 175. Barometric pressure, distribution Berthelot, method hhod for synthesis of Billi 7 ‘on Crinoidea, 51. Clarke, W. Bianoy's Gould’s Invertebrata of Mass.|| mains of Australia, 273. Cart dehy an polycephalism, | clarke. F. W. gamer anes from ar- noticed, 423. Cleve, nium bases, 251. Blake, E, W., on produced by||Coan, 7., volcanic on Hawaii, electric spark, 289. of Kilauea, etc., 269. Blomstrand, conj bodies in Conrad, enmmcapio rt pecan se Chemistry, 110. 6. 288,||\Comets, prizes for discovery of, 442. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proceedings, 288, 7 : ibar, i Botanical Club, bulletin of the Torrey, 404,||Cope, E. D., Extinct cave mammals of necrology for 1869, 129. U. S., noticed, 273. Botanical Notabilia (i i 390. ox ‘ 7k - og sears ical Works; Masters’ Vegetable||© new. Verrill, 370. Teratology; Life of W. ; Deposits noticed, 272. eis of Africa; gh bea agama ne enaieag se | @ : Fi Soe. ; Munro on Bambusaceee; | Crajis’s Qualitative Analysis, 1 . ete; sted on Oaks rocodile, in Florida, Wyman, 105. other papers by Lange, E s’s Metallurgy, noticed, 144, 286. D Dana, J. D., Geology of the New Haven i n, ete., noticed, 275. dson, G., ‘effects of Sun’s heat on a sand-h lane Lithologie des mers, 144, 286. Diamonds in Australia, Distociation of ammoniacal compounds, wf cea 4 387. Downing, A. J., Fruits, etc., of America, noticed, 142. ng, Ocean, 129, 410. E pont a ema waves, etc., Coan, 269. Eclipse, se tei Batteries of N. America, part ticed, 42 Ban's Physicians’ Problem ectrical machine, form of discharge be- ween iad of, Wright, 3 : figures ‘pedaced by, 289. Essex Institute, proceedings o Exposition, U. 8. Reports of Pica 287, INDEX. ; Geological survey of California, 400. | Ohio, noticed, 400. Geology of the Bain of the Great Lakes, etc., Newberry. of the New Haven region, ete., no- usin rata Gi, W, iethod asf avoiding observa- of ‘tem erature and rehire in as ialye 3 “iy physical abstracts, 106, 251, 386. Sprengel’s pump in analysis 378. Glacial + erlieme Pelt ae chemistry ‘of salt, 78. Gold, of of Victoria, ’Smy Sa. weno A itis gies rr and will, 277. oma 8 sInvertcbraia of so rye noticed, 423. Graham, T., obitu: Grape vine, Suphur-Cure for disease of, “ay Flagg Gray 5 otania | notabili, 120. Mnatiélogy; 1 notices, ae F Sadiler, 1 H Hail, oe _ of the Upper Helderberg, etc., 276. Psconsar Exercises in Chemistry, 141. Hawaii, volcanic action on, Coan, 393. er’s Salt, Flagg Handbook ori Sulphur Core for Hayden, re report on ibe Yellowstone and the vine disease, etc., ni 442. Voruatnifers in depths of ocean, 415. eae is, 2 275. birds of Cretaceous, etc., 205, 273. 51. Crinoids, inys, Dinornis, &c., = rie Elasm ) Hydroxylamin, synth Missouri, noticed, 1 geol. survey of Colorado, etc., 258. _ =; A., color of water of Lake Heat, of Sranbiagion of =< and silicon th chlorine and oxygen, 386. F saaalen and absorption of, Magnus, reflection of, from fluor spar, Sa Magnus, pte ects on a sand-hill, 25 Hessenberg’s Mineralogische Notizen, 402. Hind, H. Y., Laurentian in N. Scotia, 347 Huggins, , heat of , 108. emistry or 8 copper, 153. on norite, 180. Labradorite _rocks at Marblehead, 398. nego tests for, 256, 257. esis of, Lossen, 254. Johnson's edition of Fresenius, 255. How Crops feed, noticed, 403. K Kimoalt ‘J. P., Silver mines of Chihuahua, 161. Kirkevood, D., periods of meteoric rings, 429, M Kurr, J. G., mineralogy of, noticed, 119. L Labradorite or norite ag Hunt, 180,398. Land-slide, Perkins, 1 ” . Larte, Reliquis pcre noticed, 144 “ Nature,” a weekly, noticed, 287. rocks in Mass., 75. N. rir Observatory Report ou the Eclipse, pir ala J. &., Geology of Bastia Se Great Lakes, 'ete., sf te : geo mammalian fauna of Dakota, ae ee core ete., noticed, 274. Light; 3 action on hg Fi acid, 368, e GAS. se further P HOTOMETRIC. Lighting tae: for buoys, 284. Livingstone eo mes 14. Lockyer, sath analysis, 432. Loew, O., action of sunlight on sulphurous WA, sera phys 0 OBITUARY— A. J. Erdmann, 144; O. L. Erdmann, T. Graham 144; ot at Jones, 498 ay aw por ‘Mi Sars, 1 F. Ung Ocean, life | in “a of, 129, 415. mpera 10. i oe ae tare of at deptha, 4: the currents of, 413. yells Handbook of gin ‘noticed, pote on 4 r Lyceum Nat. Hist, N. Y., Annals, 2 8, Ozone d bustion, Loew, 369. M on heat, 106, 107; obituary, 442. Aprende? ae to the Study of Insects, M f Massachusetts, Allen, 134. ames nye setts, A aie Paris ¥ sto, Barna’ rpor 175. Marsh, 0. C., shag Par. é pper, 37 ne tetas Ree pion: 986||Perkins, @. H, ona ‘landslide 158. Meteoric irons, analysis of, Smith, 332 pegging Ber ae nklin Co., 331. (109), 277. . , 7 ee otoheliograph, work Gone with, at Meteorite, flight of, in Ohio, Smith, 139. ||, Kew observatory, 431. Meteors, see Shooting Stars. taprstece rei experiments, Rood, 145. i mechanical finger for, 304. hy, magnesium and elec- Milne-Edwards, Eipyornis, 215 Y tote lights ta Weacae a8 Mineralogy, Adam’s Tableau, 119 ie Pe ’ Problems E lam, noticed, 444. Kurr's, noticed, 1 Regge M ae Physics, ar, ete., Norton, Plants, see ‘X- é ~~ e = 211; pe enya Platinum compounds, Schneider, 109. ; Coh 2; . nimals, and polycephalism, ORES S mi Proctor, R. A., star-drift, 4 | Pynchon’ ¢ chemical physig, ‘hotood 443. tT ‘ge specs of flame, ‘Thallium, ethyl se pciida we 299, Theo r of existence, noticed, 2 be sie dated from arsenic, ote, “48. RB. Rath, G. ft Mineralogical Conitebations notice lr raill’s Treatise on Quartz and Opal, 403, Reale Conattets geologien d'Ttalia,’ 401. Troost, heat ‘of cuit tttatiom of boron and Reimann on silicon with chlorine and oxygen, 386. Rogers, W. A., ee teroid (109), "142, 428. Rocky. Mts., explorations, bs W hitney, 398. Vv ) 0. N., photometric experiments, ses La Vegetable, see og ; pectrum — eager 389.||Venu tones of, 435 Royal Society of gas Verrill, A Echinoderms, and Corals © from ay of Californ: S sea-urchin of N. England, wee Sadiler, S. P, Fischer’s salt, 189, —— faunze from recent dredg- Salt, chemistry of, Gessmann, 78. - ings, Sars aie 983. “shells of Gulf of California, 217. Sars, Michael, obitua new Cora. melaie woe perverts salts — 253. inal: nition ye ah 276, 423,, platinum compounds, 1 Volcanic crater of Maui Sea, Ocean. ' ||/Voleano of Kilauea, ete., a 269. ° ' Seeley, H. G., Ornithopsis, 39: Sharswood, We on the tae that) os are sensitive to ight, 422. Water of lake fetes color of, Hayes, 186. Shooting stars of. er; 186 9, S44ts ; Weisbach’ Mechanics, no oticed. 144, Silicon, combinations of, wich oe Wharton, J., products of nickel manu- oture, 365. Silliman, B., relation “ light from gas whitney, J. D., explorations in Rocky yolume consumed, 398. out flame Temperatures, 339. Winches 8 Sketches of Creation, 400. _ Silver mines of Chihuahua, 161. rai eg m of dome at Washington Smith, J, L., Alabama meteorite, 90. gma meteorite in Ohio, 139. | Wing, C. a. He, on double sulphates, 356. Franklin Co. meteoric iron; and anal-|| Woodward. J. magnesium and elec- ysis me ic irons, etc., ea. trie lig’ oto-micrography, 294,” ine on alkalies in leucite, 335. right, A. W., form Smith, S. I. on Amer. Crustacea, No. 1,)| poles machine, 381. noticed, 426. Wurtz, H., gas well in New York, 336. = eB; mig Sokscan! ete., of Victo- on flare temperatures, 339. oticed, 2 'yman, J., on a crocodile in Florida, 108. - oe Spectral analysis of the Stars, 58. Z pe, a new, Zoliner, 58. Lis cei Spectrum analysis, Lockyer, 432. ZOOLOGY— — 389. : Brachiopods, early stages of, Morse, 103. ag aah Bure ofS No.1, Smith, a . Stars, Saar power of, 434. Bu ies Stars, heat of, Huggins, "108. ‘|| Eehinoderms and — ea alt of