THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS, JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, ann E. S. DANA. . ASSOCIATE EDITORS, Prorrssors ASA GRAY anv WOLCOTT GIBBS, OF CAMBRIDGE, Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON, 8S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH anv A. E. VERRILL, OF NEW HAVEN, Prorrssor EDWARD C. PICKERING, or Boston. THIRD SERIES, VOL. IX._[WHOLE NUMBER, CIX.] Nos. 49—54. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1875. WITH SEVEN PLATES. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1875. MissouR! BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX. NUMBER XLIX. Page Arr. L—Results derived from an examination of the United States Weather a a for all and 1873; by E. Loomis. With Flste I... Second Paper... 1022.25.42 325.52 1 IL—On some points in the Gedlogy of the Blue Ridge in Vir- gmis; by WieoM, Ponraite. 8. cca ce oe 4 Ii. Projection of the Frechhoee Lines of Diffraction and Prismatic Spectra on a Screen; by Jo - 22 TV.—Abstract of results a new discussion of the secular change of the Magnetic Declination in the United States, and some adjacent —— in North and Central America ; uy Coames A Sénory; oi io es. A 25 V.—On the ogg of Seated ; by Henry M. Parkuurst, - 37 much extended Nebulz of Sir John geen Senuied ‘atalogue; by Be Metal A BOR oe eae 42 VII.—On Venus as a Luminous Ring; by C. 8. Lyman, ---. 47 VA, —Discovery of a New Planet; by James C. shy soto a. 48 IX.—Ancient pel Ieee of the Rocky Mountain Region by O. ARS SCIENTIFIC Sep bite iot Physics.—Theory of Electricity, E. EDL 53.—Electrostatic Induetion, aa Nery- EUF: Effect of Flame on an Electrio. Spark, 8. J. Mrxter: Law uning Forks, M. Mercaprer, 54—Polarization of Light, WM. SrormswonDe, a eology and Natural History. ee = North Carolina, 55.—Porphyry 0 ni ries, 59.—On the more rapid deposi ek Sodanent t in salt than in fresh eater: sian boring at the St. Louis recone sylum, 61.—Return of Prof. Marsh’s edition : Sores of the 40th Parallel, 62.—Geological Sketch of the State of Missouri, by G.C. SwatLow: Das Elbtha igebinge in Sachsen of Dr. GEInrTz: Pre- liminary An LEN of Chondrodite crystals from the Tilly Foster Iron mine, Brewster, N. Y., by E. S. Dana. 63.—Livingstonite: On eo a new mineral, by Levy, Nature of the Sea-bottom, 0. Wyvitte Tomson, 72.—Index to volumes I to re us ‘art eee on the Genus Unio, by Isaac Lea: Reliquiz Aquitanice, y ana ; . Parasitic Worms, by Dr. Levy, 8.—Jahresberi cht der Commission zur wiss. Unters: der deutschen Meere in Kiel, 479. ~—Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, by TuzopoRE LymMAN: The Elements aa Embryology, by Fosrer and Batrour: Nature and Life, oy FERNALD RAPPILLON, 480. Miscellaneous Scientific Mahissece,Crn Ancient a in ‘Kentucky e F. W. Putnam, 480.—The catastrophe of-the Zen wreaths ——Proteacti otracting § -Mean Height of Kurope: Smithsonian tery tae : oe for =the -Geological and Geographical Survey of the Terre bg 1875, 482,—Nation Academy of Sciences: Mastodon of Otisville, Ora =e Count, N, Y., 488 Statistical Atlas of the United States, by FRANCIS AW Popular seten ce Library: New York Academy of Sciences: Geological Society of London, 484. ERRATUM.—Page 48, 19 1. from foot, for 63’7"1 read 64/1, THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] Art. I.— Results derived Jrom an examination of the United States Weather Maps for 1872 and 1873 ; by Extras Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Srconp PaprER. With Plate I. (Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, Nov. 3, 1874.) Direction and velocity of the wind within areas of maximum pressure. In order to deduce from the weather maps the laws of the Wind's motion within an area of maximum pressure, I pro- ceeded in substantially the same manner as in the case of areas of low barometer, described in my first article, page 6 (see this Journal, July, 1874). I selected all those cases in which an area of maximum pressure, or high barometer, was so situated that which are designated as the north, east, south and west quadrants. Then beginning with the west quadrant, I counted the number of stations at which the wind was reported from the north, also the number of observations from the northeast, the east, south- fast, etc. ; and in like manner for each of the four quadrants. The velocity of the wind for the stations of observation in the different quadrants was also noted. The same was done with each of the weather maps which furnished an example suited to this comparison. The total number of cases derived from the Am. Jour. ee Series, Von. IX, No. 49.—Jan., 1875. 2 EF. Loomis—Results from an examination of the weather maps of two years (1872-3) was 188. All the observa- tions made near the point of maximum pressure were rejected ; generally all the stations included with the first isobar. Also no observations were employed beyond the isobar 80 00, and generally none beyond the isobar 30°10. I then found by ad- dition the aggregate number of observations for each direction of the wind in the several quadrants, and from these numbers computed the wind’s average direction for each quadrant. The average velocity of the wind for each quadrant was also de- termined. ne following table shows the resulting velocities e which the wind’s direction makes with a radius drawn from the point of greatest pressure. For high barometer. West quadrant. | South quadrant, | East quadrant. | North quadrant. Velocity of wind, 5°22 miles. | 6°02 miles. 6°48 miles 613 miles. Direction of wind, 8. 63° 0” E. 29° 55’ EB. | N. 36° 597W.|8. 59° 157 W Angle with radius, 27° 0 29° 65’ has 157 The importance of these results will be more apparent if we contrast them with the results obtained for areas of low barome- ter as given in my former article, pages 6-9. These results are as follows: For low barometer. West quadrant. | South quadrant. | East quadrant. | North quaurant. Velocity of wind,| 10°] miles. 8°8 miles 8°3 miles. 76 miles. Direction of wind, | N. 58° 48’ W. |S. 40° 25” W./S. 32° 6’ E.| N. 42° 337 E. Angle with radius, 8149 40° 25’ me i a 42° 33” fi In order to exhibit these results palpably to the eye, I have constructed the two following figures, in which the arrows.at No. 1. For Low BAROMETER. No. 2. For High BAROMETER. the four cardinal points show the average direction of the wind according to. the preceding tables, and the four intermediate United States Weather Maps. 3 arrows show the direction at the corresponding points as inter- polated from the first four numbers. The lengths of the arrows are proportioned to the velocity of.the different win From these diagrams it will be apparent that in each quad- rant the direction of the wind for high barometer is nearly op- posite to the direction in the same quadrant for low pometie the differences in the several quadrants being as follo West quadrant. South quadrant. East quadrant. North Adie 4 Ses 4° 9! ° For high barometer the average angle which the winds make with radii drawn from the point of greatest pressure is 42° 18'; for low barometer the average angle which the winds make with radii drawn from the point of least pressure is 43° 1’. In each case, therefore, the wind’s direction is almost exactly midway between tangential ae : radial movement, but approaching somewhat nearer to the In order to determine i what height above the level of the sea the law of movement shown in the pee Haig 22 vails, I discussed the observations made on the mit of Washington at an elevation of 6,285 feet above the level of oH Sea, in the same manner as [ had already discussed the observa- tions at the other stations, and obtained the following results: For Ne barometer on Mt. Washington. : est quadrant. | South quadrant. | East quadrant, , North quadrant. Velocity of wind, ae miles. 44 miles 37 miles 32 miles. Direction of wawie N. 55° 77 W.| N. 76° 35’ W.| 8. 53° 44” ‘W.| N. 20° 6” E. Height of baromete reduc, to sea- aoe, 29°54 29°60 29°76 29°76 For high barometer on Mt. Washington. West quadrant. | South quadrant.; East quadrant. em or Oe ——- of wind, 32 miles. 18 miles. 38 miles. 32 Direction of wind, | §. 14° 377 B.|N. 4° 8’ W.|N. 54° 48’ W.| N. 57° 52” W. Height of barometer c. to sea-level, 30°28 30°21 30°03 30°11 These a are graphically represented by the sg aig dia- grams, Nos. 3 and 4, in which, for convenience, the force of the wind is represented upon a scale only one-fourth as ae as in the two previous diagrams. The number of observations from which the results in Nos. 3 and 4 are agen is much less than for Nos. 1 and 2, and this will Signed explain some anomalies which might be ex- pecte a isappear in the average of a greater number of ob- Servatio A ial comparison of these diagrams will show that the Winds represented in Nos. 8 and 4 correspond pretty well va what might be expected from the winds represented in Nos. 1 4 FE. Loomis—Results from an examination of the and 2 struggling against an upper current from some N.W. quarter. The average direction of the wind on the summit of Mt. Washington in 1873 was from N. 76° W. If we regard this No. 3. Low BaroMETER ON Mt. W. No.4. Higu BAROMETER ON Mt. W. as the normal wind, and the winds shown in Nos. 1 and 2 to be disturbing forces tending to interfere with the normal wind, and we attempt to construct a triangle in which two of the sides shall represent these two forces, and the third shall repre- sent the iat actually observed, we shall obtain a satisfactory construction in six out of the eight cases. In two cases the construction fails, viz., for low barometer in the west quadrant and for high barometer in the north quadrant, but a small change in the value of one of the angles would render the con- struction possible. These figures indicate that the average amount of the disturbing force is about equal to the normal force ; in other words, the force of the winds shown in Nos. 1 and 2, at the height of 6,285 feet, is about equal to the force of the normal current which prevails at that elevation. It seems, therefore, reasonable to infer that at the height of 5,000 feet, the winds shown in Nos. 1 and 2 must generally be strong enough entirely to displace the normal current at that height. It will be noticed that “for high barometer on Mt. Washing- ton,” the average height of the barometer was small, particu- larly for the east quadrant. But for the same dates, the aver- age height at Burlington, Vt., was 30°35 inches, which suggests the idea that in those cases the reduction of the Mt. Washing- ton observations to the level of the sea was too great. A comparison of diagrams 1 and 2 cannot fail to suggest the idea that a high barometer must exert an important influence upon a neighboring low barometer. It will be noticed that when the high barometer is on the east side of the low barome- ter, both systems tend to impress nearly the same direction upon the wind at a point intermediate between them, and the United States Weather Maps. 5 same is true upon whichever side of the low barometer the high barometer is situated. It seems natural to conclude that the result must be an increased steadiness and force of the winds in question. How far this conclusion is confirmed by the ob- servations, and what may be its effect upon the direction and velocity of a storm’s progress, I propose to consider hereafter. Consequences of the outward flow of air from an area of high arome We have found that from an area of high barometer there is an outward movement of the air having an average inclination of 42°18’ to a line drawn from the point of greatest pressure. Near the surface of the earth, the average velocity of this move- ment is 5-96 miles per hour, but as we ascend above the surface, this velocity is very much increased. Suppose now that the area of high barometer is a circle 1,500 miles in diameter; that the barometer at the center of this area stands at 30°50 inches, and that the average velocity of the entire column of air is 18 miles an hour, which is the mean between the velocities ob- served near the level of the sea and on the top of Mt. Washing- on. Assuming that the average inclination to the radius is 42° 18’, we find the resolved portion of the wind’s motion in the direction of radius is 18-3 miles per hour. What must be the and even longer. Thus from Dec. 29, 1872, to Jan. 2, the barometer at New Haven was never below 30°30; from Ov. 29 to Dec. 8, 1873, the barometer was never below 30°35 ; te ee Dee. 31, 1878, to Jan. 6, 1874, it was never below These facts appear to me to prove that areas of high barome- ter are maintained by a continued accession of air in the upper regions of the atmosphere, and this accession is probably de- rived from the air which ascends near the center of an area of low barometer, In my former article, page 10, I have shown that near the center of an area of low barometer there is a 6 E. Loomis—Resulis from an examination of the area of high barometer there is a downward movement, not gen- erally violent, but steady and of long continuance. The result of such a downward movement must generally be a consid- erable fall of the thermometer at the suriace of the earth. The atmosphere generally loses heat most rapidly at the top, in con- sequence of radiation into space, and it receives its heat chiefly at the bottom from the effect of the sun’s rays upon the sur- face of the earth, so that at an elevation of a few miles a pound of air usually contains a less amount of heat than a pound of air near the earth’s surface. Hence we conclude that within an area of high barometer the thermometer must generally stand below its mean height. Monthly minima of temperature. In order to test the preceding conclusion, I have taken the monthly minima of temperature as observed at New Haven for the years 1872, 3, and 4, and have compared them with the state ofthe barometer and such other circumstances as could be supposed to influence the result. These observations of temperature were all made with a self-registering thermometer. The precise hour of minimum is therefore unknown, but it occurred some- time during the night preceding the date given in column first. In the following table, column first shows the date of mini- mum temperature for each month; column second shows the lowest temperature recorded ; column third shows the direction of the wise as recorded at the morning observation, which in summer was generally 6 A. M., and in winter about 7 A. M.; column fourth shows the degree of cloudiness at the same hour; column fifth shows the height of the barometer at New Haven; column sixth shows the position of the nearest center of high barometer as indicated by the U.S. weather maps; and col- umn seventh shows the highest isobar represented on the map or the corresponding date. on comparing these observations, we perceive that in all but five cases the sky at the date mentioned was cloudless, and in only two cases did the clouds cover as much as one-half of the sky. It is probable that in each of these cases, during a eae of the preceding night the sky had been entirely cloud- ess. We must conclude, then, that these monthly minima of temperature were in part the result of radiation ; but this cause alone will not account for the very low temperature observed, perature of the same months on cloudless nights. We fin maining cases an,area of high barometer existed at the west and was rapidly approaching New Haven, although the barom- United States Weather Maps. 7 eter at the latter place had not yet risen above 30 inches; and that in the few remaining cases there was at no great dis- tance from New Haven an area of relatively high barometer, althongh the actual height of the barometer did not much exceed 80 inches. Lowest temperature for each month at New Haven, Conn., for the years 1872, 3, and 4. Ps al ooh Wind. pe ag bo I w bo i SS it) neg a ~ o 6 ; eorgia. 30°50 | Cloudy all day. 3 3 0°2 ‘53 |N.N.W.| 0 | N. Carolina. | 30-60 | Pleasant day. 1} 293 | 10:4] 30-:28)NN.E.| 10 Georgia. 30°40 | Snow till4 p.m. Am't, 1873. 3 inches. an. 1} 30°4 8°5| 30°42 N 0 Albany. 30°40 | Fine. 0°6 3°3| 30°45) N. 0 Maine. 30°50 | Cloudy afternoon. 26} 27-2 75 | 30°25) N. 10 | Baltimore. | 30-20 | Slight snowin forenoon. 27; 26:0 | 19°3| 29°99] N.E. | 1o Dacotah 30°40 | Snow all day. Am’t, 6in. 28) 33°0 | 15:0] 30:06] S.W. 0 | Nebraska. | 30°80 | Fine. 29) 12-2 0°0|} 30°35] N.W. 0 Indiana, 30°50 | Fine. 30} 20-4 |—16°8/ 30:25| N.W. | 0 Pennsylvania.| 30-30 | Fine. 31 63} 30°15} N.W. 0 Dacotah. 30°50 | Fine. Feb. 1) 33°8 9°7| 30°10) N.W. 0 | Nebraska. | 30:70/ Fine. 2) 17°5 2°8| 30°30/N.N.W.| 0 Illinois. 30°60 | Fine. [evening. 3} 35°56 6°2| 30°25} S.W. 4 | Charleston. | 30:30|!Snow from 24 P. M. to Column second shows the highest peg cams and column third the lowest temperature observed at Haven at 7 4. M.; column seventh shows the position of the nearest center of high barometer, and column eighth the highest i her map for the correspondin date; column ninth shows some miscellaneous particulars re- corded at New Haven. It appears from the preceding table and from a comparison with the U. S. weather maps, that during the period above named there was an area of high barometer of unusual extent, United States Weather Maps. 9 not only at places where the pressure was above 30 inches, but also at places where the barometer had not yet reached the height of 80 inches. I conclude, therefore, that the severe cold which prevailed at this period throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mountains was mainly the result of cold air descending from the upper regions of the atmosphere under the influence of a high barometer. The only other explanation of this phenomenon which I think can be plausibly urged, is that this cold was the result of a current of air sweeping along the surface of the earth from a very high northern latitude, and bringing with it the low tem- perature of the region from which it came. I admit that dur- ing the period in question northerly winds were unusually cause alone will not account for the suddenness and magnitude of the depression in the present case. From the 21st to the 22d of December, the mean temperature at New Haven fell 15°, and it continued at about this point or even lower for nine sue- cessive days. Was there at this time a steady flow of air from the Arctic regions sufficient to account for this effect? Iam unable to appeal to my weather maps for an answer to this ~ cia for, unfortunately, on these days, the observations tom most of the stations in the extreme northwest are wanting, and if it were otherwise, it might appear that the maps did not extend far enough northward to furnish all the information which was required. If our observations covered the whole area of North America, I have little doubt we should find that the depression of the thermometer below its mean height was greater in the United States than it was in the region north of us, as I have shown was the case in the storm of Dee. 20, 1836, of which the investigation was published in vol. xi of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Storm of Jan. 6-8, 1874. In the absence of adequate observations from British North America, it may be more satisfactory to take an example of a Storm in the southern part of the United States, in which case the weather maps will inform us of the condition of the atmos- here on the northern margin of the storm. For this purpose, have selected the storm of Jan. 6-8, 1874, which came up from the Gulf of Mexico and crossed the United States in a direction about N.30°E. The following table shows the ob- Servations of the thermometer at 7" 35" A. M., from Jan. 4 to 10 £. Loomis— Results from an examination of the Jan. 9, 1874, at all the southern stations of the Signal Service and most of the northern stations. These observations were copied from the weather maps and forwarded to the chief sig- Observations of the thermometer at Th 35m A, M., Jan. 4-9, 1874. ‘Thermom. at 74 35m 4. M.|| Above or below mean temp. dap SSS Pee Sa Oa ei ee 28° =| a a a a =| =| = = a a a 28,2 |8)2)8/2/8] 2/2) 4/)3)8| 4 °o o ° ° ° °o °o ° ° ° °o Indianola, -__... 55 | 49|35 Sg its 41 | 52 || — 6|—20| -21|—17|—14'— 3 Galveston, .....| 55 | 52/39 43 | 48 | 55||— 3|—16|—21/—12/-- 7] 0 Key West,_.._-- 68 | 70|66|68/68|62/57|/+ 2|— 2} Oo} ol— 6\—11 un ga, - 2 | 68 62 63|50/44|/+ 61+ 2! O]4+ 1;/—12/—18 New Orleans, - 55 | 65 38 35 | 38 | 58 || +10)— 5)|—17|/—20|—17,/4+ 3 obile, 2 58/48/43 33/32 50||+ 6/— 4/— 9|-19)/—-20 L es 55 | 59/64/64 45/30) 30/|+ 4+ 9)/+ 9/—10|—25 —25 Jacksonville, -..| 56 | 57|62|65 55/38/35 ||+ 1/+ 6/+ 9|— 1/-18—21 § ---} 47 | 42/30; 39/36 | 40 | 43 ['— 6/—17|— 8)—11/— 7— & ontgomery 48 | 53| 54/48/35 / 32/44] + 5/+ 6 13/16 — 4 Savannah, -__._- 52 | 60|59 | 64/51) 36/37] + 81+ 7/4+12|— 1/—16,—15 Charleston, -_-_- 50 | 58/61 59/55/36 37] + 8/+11]/4+ 9/+ 5|-14—13 Augusta, _.__._. 47 | 60/63 | 64| 43/33/31] +13/+16/+17/— 4/—14 —16 Wilmington, ....| 47 | 58 64/58} 40/39] +11)4+14/417}4+11/— T— 8 Fort Gibson, ..-.| 40 | 15) 11 | 21| 22/31/13 29|—19|—18}|— 9|—10 Memphis, ....-_- 40 | 58| 24/31] 29/35 | 52| +18/—16|— 9|/—11|/— 5|+12 Nashville, ...._. 37 | 61] 28 | 35 | 28/26/42 | +24|— 9|— 2/— 9/—11/+ 6 oxville, 22... 36 | 38| 381 43|33!29/31]; + 3\+ 3/+ 8|— 2a|— 6i— 4 Louisville, ...... 33 | 61} 25 | 32|}29 25) 38| +28|— 8|— 1)— 4/— 8+ 5 Cincinnati, .____- 31 | 60/30/33] 32; 28/38 |i +29|— 1/4 31+ 1/— 3|/+ 7 Ori, Ss? 37 | 57/61/43] 64! 42.) 36] +20/+24/4 6/427/+ 5\— 1 Lynchburg, __..- 33 | 54/56 37/59 37/32) +21/4+23/4+ 4/+26/4 4|/— 1 B. Fouts veces 32 | 33/12} 21] 22 33) 38 1j;—20/—11/—10}+ 1/+ 6 ashington, -..| 34 | 60/53 35/65 43/41] +261/+19/4+ 1/+31/+ 9\+ 7 Cape May, _...- 33 | 46/48 43/50) 43/38| +13) 4+15)4+10,4+17,)4+10)\+ 5 Baltimore, _____- 33 | 47/61 | 38/56) 44/35] +14/4+18)4+ 5/+23)/411/+ 2 ere e 27 | 13] 8;|11/16| 28] 30} —14 16|—11/+ 1/+ 3 ea 20.;— 2). O16 }92 197 | 30 —29i—. 14) — 4 i+ 7} +10 Pittsburgh, _____ 29 | 65/30: 35|41/33/35|| +3 1+ 6412/4 4/+ 6 Philadelphia,....| 32 | 52} 48 36/57|45135| +20/+16/4 4/+25/+13/+ 3 New York, _.._- 30 | 48/47 | 35 | 53/47/33 || +18)4+17/+ 5)/+23/417)+ 3 WMD ks i 26 | 35/15117| 26/27/34] + 9/—11/— 9/— 11+ 1+ 8 Cleveland, .____. 28 | 60| 31) 33/33/30] 37 || +32/+ 3/+ 5/+ 51+ 2+ 9 my stccce 27 | 57| 27/26) 32/34/33]; +30] o|— i+ 5/+ 7+ 6 sUsutes 27 | 47| 49 ' 32 55 | 34 || +20/+22/+ 5/+ 7/+28/4+ 7 MG Pad. coco 14 |- 3] 6.17/12] 21/2 Pi—-8i4+ 3\— 2/4 Hee Breckenridge, _..| 10 |-20! 0 12116'18' 9] —30/—10/+ 2/+ 6/+ 8|— 1 nal officer at Washington, by whose direction they were com- pared with the official records, the errors were corrected and the omissions in the daily weather maps supplied. From Jan. 1st to Jan. 5th a storm traveled eitirely across the continent from west to east, the center of the storm passing over Lake Superior. in the observations of Jan. 4th at Breckenridge, St. Paul, United States Weather Maps. 11 another and entirely distinct storm prevailed in the Gulf of Mexico; on the 6th it passed over Georgia; on the 7th it passed over Virginia, ae on the 8th it passed north of Lake ntario. This storm was followed by an unusual reduction of temperature in the southern States. Its effects were to some a each of the stations in column first; columns show the ob- servations of the thermometer at 75 35™ a. M.; and columns 9-14 on either of the preceding days at Knoxville, Nashville, Cincin- nati, Louisville and Memphis. This fact, together with the form of the isabnormal curves (convex toward the north), indi- cates that the cold did not come from the north or northwest, but must have descended from the upper regions of the atmos- phere over the southern States. here are other considerations of a more general nature a general principle which I have been trying to establish. The P €nomenon in question is not peculiar to the United States ut prevails fur to the north of us, even to the coldest regions Which have ever been visited by man. It was found at Mel- ville Island, lat. 75° N.; it was found at Van Rersselaer Harbor, at. 781° N.; it is found in the coldest parts of Siberia. At Melville Island, on the 26th of December, 1819, during a strong wind, the barometer fell to 29°10 inches; it soon began to rise, and in four days it rose to 80°75, the highest point attained during the year. During the same time the thermometer fell from —5° to — 43°; the lowest temperature observed during the year. At Van Reusselaer Harbor, on the 28th of December, 1853, during a severe gale, the barometer fell to 29°05, and in two days it rose to 3050. The thermometer during the same 12 E. Loomis—Results from an examination of the time fell from +16° to —22°. At Jakutsk, in Siberia, lat. 62°, the mean temperature of January is —44° Fahr. But on the 21st of January, 1838, the thermometer fell to —76? F:, of 32° below the mean temperature of the season. Now accord- ing to Dove's charts, there is no place on the earth’s surface where the mean temperature of the coldest month is much be- low that of Jakutsk. What can cause such an extreme de- pression of the thermometer at the coldest point of the earth’s surface? I think we are shut up to the conclusion that this more remarkable than their magnitude. On the 21st of Decem- ber, 1836, the thermometer at Albany fell 18° in one hour, . from 11 A. M. to noon. Allowing for the usual diurnal change ture of 20° in one hour, being the effect of a severe storm then in progress. In summer, during a thunder shower, it is not unusual for the thermometer to fall 5° or even 10° in a few minutes. Now an examination of the weather maps will show latitude, with, however, a slight inclination northward, that is, rom a warmer to a colder region. These sudden gusts of cold air are believed to descend from the upper regions of the atmos- h phere. Connection between the velocity of the wind and the distance be- ween the isobars in the neighborhood of a storm center. In order to determine the connection between the velocity of the wind and the distance between the isobars, I ruled a large sheet of paper with 40 vertical columns, and placed at the head the columns the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.. to denote velocit of the wind. Each weather map was then examined for ob- servations suited to the present object. In the selection of sta- tions the following rules were adopted: 1, All the observations influence of another storm center that observation was rejected. All the observations made on Mt. ashington .were rejected. For each station which satisfied the above conditions the per- pendicular distance between the two adjacent isobars was United States Weather Maps. 13 measured, and the distance recorded under the corresponding velocity found at the top of one of the vertical columns. the weather maps for 1872 and 3’ were examined in this manner, and the distance between the isobars recorded. The following table shows the average results : Relation between the velocity of the wind and the distance between the isobars. Veloc. | No. of | Mean Ay. | Dist.in || Veloc. | No. of | Mean | Av. | Dist.in miles. | Obs. distance|distance| miles. || miles, Obs, distance distance) miles. 0 69 “79 Subs mee 20 76 *63 61 95 1 55 90 ae wad ZI 9 56 62 97 2 81 "90 ‘86 134 22 23 65 62 97 Z 87 "86 34 23 13 65 62 97 4 176 83 "84 131 24 40 59 62 97 5 111 82 82 128 25 13 65 “61 95 6 168 80 "80 125 26 5 56 *b9 93 7 76 “19 123 pays 5 9 *b8 0 8 230 78 “78 122 28 20 56 54 85 9 17 “16 119 29 4 54 *b4 85 10 129 V7 “45 117 30 15 46 52 81 11 6 Th “14 115 St 4 54 50 78 12 262 72 ay ts 114 32 7 51 ‘48 75 13 74 “69 109 33 0 io “46 2 14 93 70 “68 106 34 a “44 69 15 60 67 104 35 4 39 ox “e 16 122 64 “64 100 36 4 *39 pug ies 17 26 | -65 | :62 37 0 af 3 we 18 66 “60 62 97 38 0 ig wes ae 19 10 60 61 95 39 0 nN Be oa Column first shows the velocity of the wind in miles per hour ; column second shows the number of observations corre- sponding to each velocity; and column third shows for each velocity the average distance between the isobars expressed in decimals of an inch. It will be noticed that the numbers in column second are very unequal ; the number of observations for velocities 4, 8, 12,16, 20, 24 and 28 being much greater than for the intermediate velocities. This shows that the velocities are not reliable within 1 or 2 miles, and this proba- bly explains in part the irregularity of the numbers in column third. In order to smooth down these irregularities, I have column fourth may, therefore, be regarded as exhibiting the re- sults of the observations freed from some of the sources of error rawn at intervals of one-tenth of an inch) sede ae to the velocities given in column first. The average di the stations of observation from the center of low barometer is 14 W. AL Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. distance between the isobars corresponding to the velocities in column first, at an average distance of 350 nuiles from a storm’s Art. II.—On some Points in the Geology of the Blue Ridge in Virginia } by Wa. M. Fonvarne. to the Blue Ridge, and to the ! popes chain running some twenty miles east of it. I also studied, with less mihuteness, portions of the valley between them. W. M. Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. 15 The lower chain ou the east leaves the immediate vicinity of the Blue Ridge in Maryland, diverging more and more as it passes through Virginia, so as to embrace a belt of the country which widens to the south. This chain has a variety of names, according to the locality. In Maryland and Northern Virginia it is called “Catoctin,” but farther southwest in Virginia, “ Bull Run.” It is then broken up into a number of isolated moun- tains for a considerable distance, reappearing as the ‘ South- west,” and “Green Mountains,” in Albemarle County. Near Lynchburg, Va., it is called “ Buffalo Ridge ;” and southwest of this place, it is again dispersed into isolated ridges and peaks. For the sake of convenience, I shall call this entire range by its more northerly name, “Catoctin.” The valley between these ranges presents its simplest topog- taphy to the north. It is there occupied mainly by isolated hills of considerable magnitude and by some connected chains of the same. Farther to the southwest, mountains both isolated and in short ranges appear in the central portions. Neur Char- lottesville, Albemarle County, these attain considerable dimen- Sions and continue with increasing force to beyond Lynchburg, a distance of more than sixty miles. Near Lynchburg the valley obtains its maximum width of about twenty-five miles. The most northerly portion of this belt examined by me was at “Point of Rocks,” Maryland, and at “Harper's Ferry.” In order to give some idea of the portions of the entire belt not ex- amined by myself, I shall quote from Professor Wm. B. Rogers’ Virginia Reports; all the more freely, as they unfortunately never have been published. At Point of Rocks, on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, we have a splendid exposure of the rocks, both in the tunnel through the mountain and in the cuttings for the canal. The rocks com osing the Catoctin Mountains here are, in their least altered condition, well defined argillites. This particular variety orms a very important feature in the geology of the northern part of the Blue Ridge. Its lithological features We so pronounced 16 W. df, Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. miles between Point of Rocks and Harper’s Ferry. It forms also the most of the Blue Ridge at the latter place. Through- out this entire distance this rock shows a high southeast dip (45°), and evidently lies in a series of closed folds. The following is the normal character as presented throughout the district: Texture, fine, amorphous, to sub micaceous; color, dark gray, sometimes greenish, from films of chlorite. Cleavage usually obscured by consolidation, but parallel to the bedding. It occurs in more or less massive layers, often cut by joints, and is usually harder and denser than ordinary roofing slate. At Point of Rocks the following modifications are seen : ommencing at the east entrance of the tunnel, we have the scales. Pyrite is quite on. This central, highly altered portion, has plainly been sufficiently softened to be capable of motion like a fused has been thrust up along the again, these are thrown into abrupt sigmoid flexures, indicating such a motion of the central mass. I have little doubt but that this peculiar effect is due to the erushing of the beds in the center of a synclinal fold. But the existence of a closed synclinal alone will rot account for the and lines of weakness of great extent in the direction of these mountains; for we find in them true igneous rocks also, espe- cially in the Blue Ridge. The rocks occupying a belt of two and a half miles in width, on the west of the Catoctin, exhibit along one or two lines the same features of metamorphism that are to be seen at Point of Rocks, but on a smaller scale. In each case we find this in- crease of local change along certain belts to be marked by ranges of hills commanding the country around. The Catoctin W. M._Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. 17 Mountains, these hills, and the Blue Ridge at Harper's Ferry, are each the result, in part, of such local changes producing elevation, but mainly of unequal erosion. The normal slates have been eroded to a much greater extent than the more highly metamorphosed rocks, and these latter have been left standing up in connected ridges. The entire distance from Point of Rocks to Harper’s Ferry, on the Maryland side, is apparently occupied by the argillites. Professor Wm. B. Rogers states, however, that on the Virginia side a narrow tongue of gneiss is found at the eastern base of “Short Hill,” near the center of the tract. This is the northern termination of a triangular area of gneiss which passes through Virginia along the eastern base of the Blue idge. A narrow belt of steatite and serpentine is also found in Loudon County, enclosed in hydromica or tale slates, and apparently pass into them by insensible gradations. Resuming our detailed investigations at the eastern base of the Blue Ridge on the Maryland side, at Harper's Ferry, we still find the argillites forming the principal rock, and here also name it in the absence of any analysis of the materials. As it eruptive igneous material. e principal component is a steenish-gray, rather waxy-looking amorphous base, having a hardness of two and a half, and a somewhat greasy feel. Im- bedded in this material occur rounded shot-like particles of quartz as large as a garden pea. They have various colors, pink, bluish, and white, the former predominating. The luster of the quartz is waxy. ‘The nodules sometimes almost disap- 18 W. M. Fontaine— Geology of the Blue Ridge. tains enclosed fragments of argillites, sometimes little changed, and sometimes impregnated with chlorite, or with the minera owenite, which is one of the metamorphic associates of this rock, Width about three hundred feet. Traced from the bridge- head eastward, it is seen to pass gradually into unequivocal argillite, the quartz particles diminishing, and the base assuming more and more the Jaminated, slaty structure of the argillites. This portion of the argillites seems to have been involved in the upheaval of the mass, for it is cut up by joints into angular masses, much penetrated by irregular nests and seams of quartz, and is without bedding. A little farther east, just outside of this, we find a curious modification of the metamorphic rock. It here appears in the form of dykes, which thrust off the slates in arches. This rock is almost entirely composed of quartz, with a little of the amorphous matter present, which gives the stone a green color. Both this modification and the normal rock form an exceedingly tough and durable material, which by its indestructible nature has preserved the mountain from erosion. The above described rock, in weathered specimens especially, might be mistaken for a species of conglomerate think has been so described by H. D. Rogers, in his account of the South Mountains of Adams County, Pa. From the resem- blance of its base to a variety of Pinite, and for lack of a better name, I shall call it ‘ pinite porphyry,” although it is nota true igneous rock. Farther east we find argillites in heavy masses, penetrated with quartz, and leaning against the ridge with a dip of about 50° southeas To the west, up stream, for two miles to the east limit of the Silurian, we have normal argillites preserving a predominating southeast dip. Close to the pinite porphyry the slates are thrown into such abrupt flexures that they are rolled into cylindrical masses, which are penetrated by numerous quartz seams. More to the west ial | short rolls oceur, all denoting a thrust to the west on the part of the metamorphic rock. The line of junc- tion of the argillites with the Silurian is sharply marked, and no passage of one into the other occurs, although the southeast diate vicinity of the Blue Ridge. Quartzites of various natures W. M. Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. 19 appear along the eastern border, and form the Catoctin to the southwest. These rocks in the north are the micaceous, slaty quartzites which form the Bull Run Mountains. To the c Ridge near Swift Run Gap. Commencing on the east of the Catoctin range, we have the following rocks: 1st, Limestones, 2d, quartzites, and 384, epidosites. These are usually associated, and the second form the mass of the Catoctin. These mountains in this region are usually composed of quartzites, while the lime- stones occur to the east of them. In the valley we find that from east to west Steatites, hydromica slates, mica* slates, mica schists, and gneiss appear in the order named, so as to usurp the This change may be due partly to the fact that the argil lites, which seem to be the source of the epidotic and chloritic roducts, reason to think that the quartzites and associated rocks overlie the argillites here; hence the disappearance of the latter rocks. Vv Retry the metamorphic pro- ducts are principally quartzose. The case is different to the * T have in this article used the terms mica slate and mica schist to denote dif- e ferent rocks, ormer has slaty cleavages, is thinly laminated and fragile, “ving an amorphous to sub-micaceous texture, with a ion almost wholly — f micaceous matter e mica schists are stronger, heavier-bedded rocks, eerily. ous matter in about equal proportions, and both appearing in visible individual particles, Itis noteworthy that in no case is ei teas ait that of the region adjacent to the Richmond granite, where both quartz and mica large particles and produce a rock much like the mica schist of New York 20 W. M. Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. morphic products is no doubt due to the presence of true igne- ous rocks in this region. Rogers mentions their existence, but does not describe them. say Chesapeake and Ohio a crosses the Catoctin tains (here called “ sabato Ae ut two miles east of Pa doteaville at Shadwell, which is eto on the Rivanna River. The stream has cuta passage through the range, expos- ing the rocks in its bed. The structure here is essentially the same with that seen at Pointof Rocks. A series of closed folds give a succession of southeast dips. The material composing the mountain, however, is no longer argillite, but a more massive argillaceous quartzite, of greenish color, from the great amount of chlorite and epidote developed in it. This mass, when more highly altered, resembles very closely a true — rock, and is the material calle by Rogers ‘epidotic roc n passing out of the region of argillites of the north jabs othe quartzites of the more southern district, we note thus a change in the struc- ture of the Catoctin with respect to the nature of the strata. We still find a metamorphic product like that at Point of Rocks, only here with much more epidote. This, however, does not form any portion of the higher ground, called mountains in this section, but lies a short distance west of it, acting as the dis- turber and metamorphoser of the quartzite, which usually com- poses the mountains. ‘The latter rock general y dips away from the epidosites (as we may call them), or stands vertically, and by its superior hardness has resisted erosion better. The railroad crosses the valley nearly at right angles to the strike. By following it we get a tolerably good exposure of the strata. Just west of Charlottesville the first of a series of ledges of syenite is crossed. This rock, which abounds through- out the central portion of the valley, as far as Lynchburg, dis- tant eee) miles, will be described in the account of the strata at that place. The succession of rocks mentioned above as met with 1 going from east to west, in the district to the northeast of Char- lottesville, occurs here also. We find, however, more abundant quartzites, and these of gneissoid character, extending farther west of the Catoctin range into the central parts of the valley. These quartzites play an important part in the structure of the of mountains, which, commencing to the southwest of Charlottesville, and occupying the center of the valley, ex- tend as - as Lynchburg. They are called near Charlottesville “The Ragged Mountains.” Formed of a capping of quartzite, diacinbad by the syenites, they assume the character of short ranges confusedly arranged. ‘Toward Lynchburg they are less largely composed of stratified rocks. Various coarse granites sat syenites make up most of their mass, especially in the short W. M. Fonta’ne—Geology of the Blue Ridge. 21 ranges called “Tobacco Row” and ‘‘No Business Mountains,” lying above Lynchburg on both sides of the James. The predominant rock along the railroad is a mica slate, and schist of varying character, but is mainly slate with micaceous matter in excess. The dip is usually high to the southeast. This is, however, not rarely reversed by the influence of the syenites. Near the eastern foot of the Blue Ridge, a very coarse gneiss is found. The railroad climbs the mountain to the height of about seven hundred feet, gradually passing inward over the east slope, so that the tunnel is cut through the center and crest of the range. The mountain proper in the vicinity of Rockfish Gap is composed of argillites, highly altered by local meta- morphism. Some very interesting effects are to be seen in passing over the eastern slopes. ‘The metamorphic agent seems to have acted more energetically in certain bands, making an acute angle with the general direction of the mountain. Along these bands the slates have lost their cleavage, and have become much impregnated with epidote, quartz and chlorite. These three minerals often form coneretionary masses, four to five feet im diameter, in which they are confusedly mixed together. Such lines of increased metamorphic action are, I think, deter- mined by crevices or breaks in the strata. The Blue Ridge at this point is a single chain, composed of highly altered argillites, with a central mass of eruptive rocks. /ommencing at the east entrance of the tunnel, which is seven- eighths of a mile long, we find the argillite in heavy beds, lying with a dip of about 50° to the southeast. These slates have a dark greenish-grey color, from the presence of films of chlorite. ey continue in the tunnel for about eight hundred and fifty yards, when we come upon an eruptive igneous rock, which ex- tends about one hundred yards. This is succeeded by argillites, which continue with the same southeast dip to the edge of the Silurian strata, which are found near the west entrance. The Southeast dip continues into the Silurian beds, but its steepness increases, _A belt of argillite on each side of the eruptive rock occurs, highly altered by the influence of the latter. In these belts the Slates lose their bedding and cleavage, resemble a compact mass of angular fragments, and become impregnated with various minerals. When not thus impregnated, the texture is crystalline, the color grey, and the rock becomes harder and enser. The altered belt on the west side is much wider than that on the east, being as much as one hundred and fifty yards. tn these altered belts occur many interesting associations of minerals, which can be well studied in the great mass of materi used in making the two approaches of the tunnel. 22 J. C. Draper—Projection of the Fraunhofer Lines The ‘ci al sion is a species of syenite of moderately fine texture. It contains a ground mass o cya ne granular red feldspar, Pees pepuey tes and magnetic iron. In this occur porphyritically larger crystalline eas of red feldspar and quartz. e slates sometimes form a peculiar rock, indicating a gradual passage from slate to syenite, owing to contact effects. These portions might sometimes be mistaken for conglomerates, since pons nob rounded nodules of red feldspar and Hee which exactly resemble water-worn pebbles. ey he im- bedded in se matter, but perfectly distinct from it. We thus see that the structure ‘bere; is precisely the same with that at Harper’s Ferry. e central mass, however, is true igneous sye- nite. In composition it resembles the coarse syenite occurring farther southwest, but it is much better crystallized. Among the products of metamorphism to be seen in the altered slates we may mention the following: 1. Rocks so highly impregnated with epidote as to appear a mass of acicular — s. 2. The formation of numerous concretions of the size a buckshot, composed “4 a core of epidote, with an envelope of milk- white uartz. 8. Cale spar with the characteristic cleavage. is is oe intimately associated with epidote and ‘ilk fibers of asbestos, the spar being colored green by finely-disseminated hornblendic matter. 5. Masses of car- bonate of lime, having a fine saccharoid texture like alabaster, and much like enclosed and metamorphosed fragments of ordi- nary limestone. They are, however, impregnations. Interesting studies both of the regen eg and paragenesis of metamorphic minerals may be obtain The contact of the Silutias with the argillite is beautifully exposed in the west entrance of the tunnel, and the great con- trast of the two systems thus brought side by side is well shown. [To be continued. ] Art. IIL—Projection of the Fraunhofer Lines of Diffraction ce Prismatic Spectra on a Screen; by Prof. Joun C, DRAPER College of the City of New York: Havine been engaged during the past year in making photo- graphs of absorption spectra of organic bodies, in which a solar spectrum with Fraunhofer lines was formed by a diffraction grating, I have resorted to the following method of forming such solar spectra, a description of which r may prove of interest to those who are experimenting in the same field. and Prismatic Spectra on a Screen. 23 The grating generally used was made by Mr. L. M. Ruther- furd; it is ruled on speculum metal, 6,481 lines to the inch ; it gives spectra by reflection. Other gratings on glass, now in my possession, give spectra by reflection and by transmission. The method answers equally well for both. It may be briefly stated as follows: A beam of light is directed by the silvered plane mirror of a heliostat (A) into a darkened room t is received on an achromatic lens (B) ten centimeters in diameter ; focal distance from posterior surface seventy centi- meters. A slit (C) is then placed within the focus of this lens, the dis- tance being forty-eight centimeters from the lens (B). After passing through the narrow slit, which is about one- tenth of a millimeter wide, the light is received upon a second achromatic lens (D), of the same diameter as the first, but with Rs w | 9 7 E te Cc B A a focal distance of one hundred and fifteen centimeters. The distance of this lens from the slit is one hundred and sixty-four centimeters, and the focussing of the lines of the spectrum on a paper screen or on the ground glass of the camera is accom- plished by moving the lens (D) nearer to or farther from the slit (C), or by moving the camera or screen (F) itself. _The grating (E), mounted on a suitable stand, is placed at a distance of eighty centimeters from the second lens. All parts of the apparatus being carefully adjusted, so that A, B, C, D, E are on the same horizontal axis, the grating is then arranged on its vertical axis, to throw the center of its reflected image on the opening of the slit (C). The lines of the grating being accurately parallel to the sides of the slit, a series of beautiful spectra are produced on each side of the slit, any or all of which may be received on suita- bly adjusted screens, one of which is represented at (F). In all of these spectra, if the slit has been very narrow, the promi- Sa, < raunhofer, with numerous other lines, appear sharply efined. Of the spectra described above, only the first, second and third orders on each side of the image of the slit are available for general use on account of the overlapping of those that fol- low. Of those that are available, I have preferred to use the second order, since in this the dispersion is much greater than 24 J. C Draper—Projection of the Fraunhofer Lines, ete. in the first, and by the apparatus described above a spectrum of a length of more than thirty centimeters is obtained. For the projection of the prismatic spectrum a prism is sub- stituted in place of the grating, when a very fine spectrum is produced, the focus of the violet end of which is very much closer to the prism than that of the red end. In the diffraction spectra, also, it is necessary to vary the an- gle at which the screen is placed to define sharply the lines at the extremities of each spectrum. In the spectra of the first order on each side, the screen is placed very nearly at right an- gles toa line drawn from the grating to (6), in the spectrum. As each order in succession is examined, the divergence from this angle is greater and greater, and at the same time the focal distance of the lines moves nearer to the grating. The lenses I have employed were those of a very fine photo- graphic combination; they give with the rest of the arrange- moe wider, when each spectrum will show the characteristic absorbent bands of the substance employed, the position being indicated (and if required, recorded) by their relation to the ines of the solar spectrum in which they are produced. When the calcium or electric light is to be used for lecture toom demonstration of diffraction spectra, the lens (B) should have as short a focus and as large a diameter as possible. The grating may also be so arranged on its vertical axis as to throw its image at a right angle to the line B, H, to be there received onascreen. ‘Though by this device the spectra on one side of the image of the grating are greatly elongated and those on the other compressed, it presents the advantage of enabling the audience to see all the spectra at once, and also the optical con- trivances by which they are produced. _ November 25, 1874. ss LA Ps Pe ee ee Pe ee ee ee a Peg ey ret Tee a C. A. Schott—Magnetic Declination in the United States. 25 Art. IV.—Abstract of results from a new discussion of the secular change of the Magnetic Declination in the United States, and some adjacent places in North and Central America ; by CHARLES A. ScHort, Assistant U. S. Coast Survey. (Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Nov. 4, 1874.) [Communicated by permission of CaRuILE P. PATTERSON, Superintendent U. S. Coast Survey. |* the magnetic declination (variation of compass) for a certain epoch, or date of publication, and its rate of change. 0 briefly recapitulate the formule employed, let D=6-+r sin (am+e)+r, sin (a,m+e,)+ express the magnetic declination at any time ¢, positive when west, hegative when east of north; also, let m-=number of years (and fraction of a year) from thé adopted epoch ¢, or m=t—1850. a a, . . factors depending on the adopted periods, acs BE Oy EO cae oe ee The quantities 0, a constant representing a mean declination, "7... . parameters, and ec ¢, ... . epochal constants of the periodic terms, are to be determined from the observations at any one place by the application of the method of least squares, in order to satisfy the condition that the sum of the squares of the residuals of the observed and computed declinations shall be a minimum (zA*=a minimum). For this purpose put 0=d,+«, where 6 ,=an assumed approximate value 6, and z a Correction to it; also, recose=y and rsin c=z, then the conditional equations will take the form 0=0,—D+a+sin am.y+tcosam.z+... The paper in full will be published in Coast Survey Report for 1874. It is an of the article which appeared in this Journal, vol. xxix, Art. XXIX, ’ 0. 26 C. A. Schott—Magnetic Declination in the United States, which are to be treated in the usual manner. To determine the value of a a, three (or more, if necessary) assumptions are made, and those stir whieh render =A? a minimum are reference to desirable epochs, special weights were assigned ; generally the observations received the weight unity, a few imperfect observations the weight one-half. Of observations evidently grossly in error, no notice was taken. second periodic term depending on r, a, ¢, could only be established for a few places, owing to insufficiency in the number of sees and their want of the greater accuracy demanded for i The annual ange v in the magnetic declination, positive when increasing west (or ae east), also the epoch 0 minimum west declination (or of maximum east declination), also its amount and the apparent probable error of an observa- tion, are found as follows Differentiating the expression for D, we have dD=ra cos (am+e)dm+r,a, cos (a,m+ce,)dm+... hence for any time ¢, and for minutes of are, v= 60 sin 1°[ra@ cos (am+c)+r,a, cos (aym+c,)+...] Maxima and minima are deduced from the equation 0=ra cos (am+c)+r,a, cos (a,m+e,)+... from which expression we can find m. The apparent probable error e of an observation is deduced from the differences 4 of the n observed and computed values by the formula BE hbo tod "45524" n—n, where n, equals the number of unknown quantities in the ex- pression of D, which had to be found from the observations; when weights, w , are used, substitute wa? for a2. ‘The greater part of this apparent probable error is due to the fact that the observations collected at any one station were not generally made at the same spot; it represents, consequently, local irreg- ularities in _ distribution of magnetisim, as well as pure observing error: The cemented uncertainty in the investigation arises partly from the large observing errors in the older observations, made with ordinary compasses or with rude aaa generally, and partly, since ape introduction of the refined instruments, C. A. Schotti— Magnetic Declination in the United States. 27 the theodolite and magnetometer, from the circumstance that the various observations for the same nominal locality were taken at different spots, oe changes of local deflections of the magnet. From the extended use of iron and the growth of cities, it is difficult to siden’ a preserve in such places a suitable locality for use at future shee a investigations of the secular change can onl made at permanent observatories, or in localities not liable to dating influences. n applying a periodic function to the ath bes of the secular change, it is not implied that the phenomenon is neces- sarily of a periodic character, or must exhibit more ibad a single complete period ; the aim is to represent by such a function the sat in the direction of the magnetic resultant, as far as The blleotich of the material is given first, the ee being arranged in geographical order, beginning in the northeast, me to the south and west, and ending in the mouth woast or each locality the observed declinations are given in chrono- logical order, together with such notes and references, respecting observer, place, publication, ete., as could found. The stations here given are the onl ‘ones at present suitable for a “aaees of the secular change, but their number is constantly increasing by the accumulation of new facts. [The collection referred to is here omitted. The following table contains the empirical expressions for the magnetic declinations derived from the collected observations by ithe process explained above, for various localities, together with their latitudes and longitudes. Total number of stations, 43, and of observations, about 4 TaBLe I. Locality. Latitude |Longitude Expression of Magnetic Declination. Halifax, N. 8. £4 39°6| 63 35-3|D=+15°94+ 4°42 sin (1°0 m+ 49°2) uebec, Can. 46 48-4) 71 14°5|D=+12°67+ 3°84 sin (1°65m+ 43°6) York Factory, Hud. Bay. 57 00° | 92 26° |[D=+ 5°08 +1412 sin (16. m— 79-4) Portland, Me. 43 38°8| 70 16°6|/D=+10°72+ 2°68 sin (1°33m+ 24°1) Burlington, Vt. 44 28-2) 73 12°3/D=+11:16+ 3:76 sin (1°30m— 26° 18 sin (7-2m+ 138) Rutland, Vt, 43 365) 72 55°5|D=+ 976+ 3°64 sin (1°6 m— 19°6) ally N. H. 43 04°8) 70 43-0 patie 29+ 2°56 sin (1°37m+ 5°9) Saetyport Mass. 42 48-4 70 49:0/D—+ 9°63+ 2°63 sin (1-4 m+ 13°2) 42 31-9| 70 52°5|D=+1022+4 4°04 sin (1°55m— " a, Mas 42 21°5| 71 03°8/D=+ 9.46+ 2°83 sin(l'3 m+ 46 Cambridge, iia 42 22°9| 71 07°7|/D= + 958+ 2°69 sin (13 m+ 7-0) ei + 0°18 sin 1 (2°2m + 44) * This approximates to an arrangement proceeding from the anaied western to the greatest eastern declinations. 28 © A. Schoti—Magnetic Declination in the United States. TABLE I—continued. Locality. |Latitude |Longitude Expression of Magnetic Declination. ° 4 ° é ° Nantucket, Mass. 41 17-0] 70 06-0|/D=+ 8-944 2°45 sin (1°35m+ 13° “8) Providence, R. I. 41 49°5) 71 241;/D=+ 910+ 2°99 sin (1°45m— _ 3°4) + 0°19 sin (7'2m +116) Hartford, Conn. 41 46° | 72 40°83, D=+ 8°06+4 2°90 sin (1:°25m— 26:4) New Haven, Conn. 41 18°5| 72 55°7)/D=+ 7°83+ 3°16 sin (1-4 m— 21°6 Albany, N. Y. 42 39°2| 73 45°8|D=+ 8:224+ 3°05 sin(l-44m— 9 ) Oxford, N.Y. 42 26°5| 75 40°5|D=+ 6194 3°24 sin (1°35m— 18°9 Buffalo, N. Y. 42 52°8) 78 53:5|D=+ 3-404 3-41 sin (1°4 m— 23 3) rie, Pa 42 07°8| 80 05°4;D=+ 1:27+ 2°00 sin (1'4 m— 105 Cc land, O. 41 30°3} 81 42°0 D=— 0°34+4 1°89 sin(14 m+ _ 6:0 Detroit, Mich. 42 20°0| 83 03°0!'D=— 0°96+ 2°22 sin (1°5 m— 157 New Yor rk City. 40 42°7| 74 00°4/D—+ 643+ Hl m— 65°5 0-14 = o Hatboro, Pa. 40 12° | 75 OT |D=+ 5°23+ 3°28 sin (1° 13°2 +0°22 sin re 1m +157) Philadelphia, Pa. 39 56:9) 75 09° D=+ 5:42+ 3°35 sin (1°55m— 22°9) Washington, D. C. 38 53:3) 77 00°6};D=+ 1°79+4 1 sin (1°5 m+ 5°9) ry, Va. 36 55°5| 76 00°|D=+ 2°95+4 2°95 sin (1°55m— 35°3 Charleston, 8. C. 32 46°6| 79 55°8|;D—=— 2°75+4 2°38 sin (1°6 m+ 15°2 annah, Ga. 32 04°9) 8 ‘5|/D=— 2°544 2°32 sin (15 m— 286 y West, Fla. 24 33°5| 81 48°5|/D—=— 4°75+ 2°54 sin (1°4 m— a Havana, Cub 23 08 | 82 22° |D=— 4°82+ 1:44 sin (1°3 m— 38:2 Kingston, Jamaica. 17. 65° | 76 50° |! 469+ 1°95 sin (1°2 m+ ee New Orleans, La. 29 57-2) 90 03°99; D=— 5°68+ 2°52 sin (1-4 m— 63°8 Vera Cruz, M 19 12 09 =— 317+ 5°89 sin (1-1 m— 60°5 Mexico, mers 19 25-9] 99 06°0/D=— 4304 4°59 sin (1'1 m-- 765 ‘Acapulco 16 50°5| 99 52°3/D=— 3:97+ 4-96 sin (1°05m— 767 Panama, Wee lieonde 8 5 J=— 628+ 1°57 sin (1°2 m— 13°9 San Blas, Mex 21 32°6/105 15-°7|/D= 0+ 3:37 sin (1°0 m— 877 iego, Cal ‘32 42°1/117 14°3/D=—12°54+ 1-64 sin (1°2 m—1800 M 36 36°2)121 53°6|D=—12°82+ 3°54 sin (1°0 m—142°9) an Francisco, Cal. (37 47°5/122 27-2) D=—13°504 3:10 sin (1-0 m—132") C. Disappointment, W.T. 46 16°7|124 02-0|D=—20-72+ 2°81 sin (1°2 m—188°8) Sitka, Alas 57 02 "9/135 - |D=—29-08— 0-010m + 0°00098m? Unslacka Island, Alaska. 53 52°6'166 31°5| D=—20:05+4 0°024m + 0°00080m? In the second table are exhibited, for each locality discussed, the observed and computed declinations (by a formule), expressed in degrees and fractions of a deg TaBie II. —————— Year. Obsd. Compd.| Year. Obsd. Compd.} Year. Obsd. Compd. Halifax. N. 8. Quebec, Can. York Factory. 1756-5 +12°83 +12°85|1649°5 +16°O +16734/17255 +19°°0 +19°-04 1775°5 12°58 14°05 | 1686°5 15°5 1544117875 +5°0 +493 1798-5 16°50 15°76 | 1810°5 110 11°25/1819°'7 —600 —606 1818-0 17-47 17°25 | 1814°5 11°83 11°67 | 1843°5 9:42 —905 1821-7 17-60 17°52 | 1831°5 13°62 13°54/18576 —762 —T95 ) . . . ¢- 6 1860°5 19°92 18663 +2109 +19°97|}18595 - 16°28 16°97 1860°8 +1647 +1604 C. A. Schott— Magnetic Declination in the United States. 29 TABLE IIl—continued. Year Obsd. Compd.| Year. Obsd. Compd. Year. Obsd. Compd, Portland, Me. Boston, Mass. Providence, R. I. 1763-5 +775 «=4.8°05|1700°5 +1000 +9°95/17175 +960 49°73 1775°5 8°50 8:14 | 17085 9:00 9°45 |1720°5 9°47 9°49 1845-4 9=«-11:47) 11°55 | 1741°5 7-50 7-52 |1725°5 9°23 9°14 1851°6 = =11°69 ~—«-11°91 | 17760 67 6°62 |1730°5 8-90 8:85 1859°5 = 1233) = s:12°33 | 1782-5 7-00 6°64 |1735°5 8°65 8°59 1863-5 =. 12-47 12°52 | 1793-5 6:50 6 82 |1740°5 8-25 3 1864-8 12°73 12:58] 18075 6-08 7-28 | 1745°5 7-98 8-02 18655 1271 12°61] 1839-5 9°10 9-03 |1750°5 167 7-66 1866-1 12°72 12°64] 1846-7 9°52 949 |1755°5 1:35 T27 1873-7 +1289 +412°94/1855°6 1023 10°05 |1760°5 “95 6°88 1872°7 +11:25 +11°01 |1765°5 6-72 6°53 Burlington, Vt. 1769°5 650 6:29 1775 5 6°33 615 17935 +763 +17:63 1780-5 6°27 612 i son T51 1855 6°22 617 . 7-70 7-69 : 1790-5 617 6°25 1826-5 7-60 1:94 Cambridge, Mass. 1795°5 617 6°32 1830°5 817 8:21/17085 +9°0 + 9°30 | 1800-5 6°25 6°37 1831-5 8°25 8°29 | 1742°5 8-0 7-10 | 1805-5 6°32 6°40 1832-5 842 8-37 | 1757°5 7-33 7-28 |1810-5 6-40 6°46 1834°5 8°83 8°52 | 1761°5 7°23 T1T 18155 6°50 6°55 1837 6 8°75 8°75 | 1763°5 7-00 713 11819-5 6°62 675 one eas 9-33 | 1780-5 7-03 6°90 | 1825-5 6°85 7°06 1855-7 9°94 | 1782°5 6°15 6°89 | 1830- TT 7-45 iba. 8 rae 3 +11'32 | 1783-5 6°87 6°90 118355 1-57 7-90 788°5 6°63 6°93 | 1840°5 8:42 8°36 Rutland, Vt. rt he 7-50 7°52 |1841°5 8°52 8°45 : 35°5 8°85 9°02 | 1842-5 8°65 853 178 i : eee ee a ee ee ee ee 1811 i pas 6 840°4 9°30 9°36 118556 +952 +942 ae 6:16 | 1849-2 9°57 9°49 oad 9-49 1844°5 9°65 9 65 Hartford, Conn. 8 +10. 01 + 10-91 | 145-4 9°53 9°72 |17865 +542 +5°28 850°6 950 10-07 /1810°5 ANT 525 Portsmouth, N. H. 18525 1013 10°20/1824°5 5°75 5°60 17715 ; eg | 18545 «10°21 ~=——:10°33 | 1829-0 ~ 5-16 nis 7A +178) 1855-4 10-91-1039 18596 729134 1850-7 : 565 10°47 10°46 1867 +78 +784 18595 atic, 17 ool i8693 10-80 ~—«1063 +1b25 +1112) 1967-5 410-70 +11:09| |New Haven, Conn. N 11615 +578 +6°04 Newburyport, Mass. 1175°5 5°42 527 1775-5 +6°75 7-00 1780°5 5°25 507 ater 7-30 = 7-0 1811°5 517 ATT (850-7 10-09 10-28 1819°8 4°42 5-00 1859-5 410-97 410-81 Nantucket, Mass. 1828°5 5-28 5°35 1775°5 +650 +6°50|1835°3 5°68 oat 8 1834°5 8°45 8°64 | 1836°5 5°92 . i alem, Mass. 1838:9 9°04 8°89 |1837°9 5°83 5-87 ped + 6:90 ag 1842-7 9:15 9°11 |1840°5 617 6°02 805-8 5-95 1843-7 9:17 9°17 |1845°7 6:29 6:37 a 6-09 as 1846°6 9°23 9 33 |1848°6 6°58 6°57 He 96 = 10-24 9°75 | 1855°6 9°97 9°83 |1855°6 1-05 1-08 855°6 +1083 +10-4011867-4 +1033 +1042j18725 +846 +837 80 C. A. Schoti—Magnetic Deciination in the United States. TABLE IIl—continued. Year. Obsd. Compd.| Year. Obsd. Compd.| Year. Obsd. Compd. Albany, N. Y. Detroit, Mich. Philadelphia, Pa. 18178 +573 +65°71/1810% —2°80 —3°10|17015 +850 4863 1818°6 5°75 6°78| 1822-5 —822 —2-82/1710°5 8°50 8°30 1825°3 6:00 6°07 | 18285 —2-83 2°61 |1750°5 5°75 5:25 1828°6 6°27 6-26/1835°5 —217 —23111793°5 1°50 2°27 1830°5 6°30 6°37| 18405 —1-97 —2-07|1802°5 1°50 2°08 1831°6 6°54 6°44| 18595 —0-70 1-01 | 1804-5 2-08 2-07 1831°8 6°67 6°64 18655 —0-67 6°66 |1813°5 2°43 2°12 1836°8 6°78 6-77 | 1872-4 —0-42 —0-28|1837°5 3°87 3°16 1847°9 1-58 757 | 1873-4 —0-29 0°22 |1840°5 3 62 3°37 1855°7 T91 8-16 841-7 3°90 3°46 1856 8-58 8-23 1846-4 3°85 3°82 18584 448928 «44827 855-7 453 4°60 New York City. 1862°6 5-00 5°22 Oxf nae " : : ng [18728 +546 +4614 17940 43:00 +2:96)| 16865 +8°75 +878 1817°5 3-00 3°31 | 1691°5 8-75 8-68 Washin D.C. 1828°5 4°50 3°79 | 1723°5 7°33 7-53 oa ape ~~ ; ; penn |1792°5 0-24 0-08 aeeee Gt | Aes Sas Ee. Geet Clee 1836°8 4°15 4°26 | 1755°5 5-00 5-46 5A 89°5 4°33 4-39 | 1841-0 1°34 1 1837-5 4°50 4°3 ; : 1°59 824°5 467 4-64 |1842°0 1-40 ; . ‘83 5-17 1849-9 5-18 5-14 | 1834°5 4'8 1856°6 2-36 930 : j 5 5 5°67 5°37 1857°3 5°73 5°68 | 1837 1857°2 9-41 9°34 6 5-45 5°61 . 1858°1 5-78 5-74 | 1840 : 0. 2-50 att OO f euap 1859-0 5°83 5°81 * 1862°7 2-66 2°59 ¢ ! 44°6 6-22 5°92 ade eel eee a 61 [28686 270 «= 28 18744 +693 46:97) 1845 6-42 6-01 ‘ : aT : : “on |1866°8 2-74 2 846°3 5°56 6°05 80 Buffalo, N.Y 847°8 5-68 6:16 1867°5 2°80 hy Piers 000 4001 | Webbe B18, wt ee ee ae 18375 = +142 117 | 18607 "13 £08 ores as 2-92 1839°5 1:25 1:30|1873'8 +762 +1763 ; : ; 1871°5 2°95 2°96 1845°5 1°42 171 r* : 1872°5 3-00 300 1859-5 2°94 2°81 ‘ cael : : 1873-5 3-00 3°04 18735 +397 +397 Hatboro, Pa. - Erie, Pa. 16805 +847 + : 49 Cape ae Va. 17955 = —0°72 0-72 | 1690- 8°25 30 |17325 +46 +4°74 18416 +650 +051/1700°5 792 1 1809°5 +000} 0°03 -1862- 4155 41°52} 17105 TAT 749118325 +0-75 0°34 1873-4 +2°0) 42-03| 17205 7-00 6°95 |1856-7 +147 171 730°5 “42 6°30 |1865°8 [+254] +240 Cleveland, O 740°5 5-58 5-56 1796-7 —2:00 —2-10/1750°5 4-92 4°67 Charleston, S. C. 1830°5 1:33. = —1°03 | 1760°5 4-00 3°75 |1742°5 [—65-38] —3°69 18316 = —1:25 —098/1770°5 2°92 2°89 |1775 —3°80 06 18341 —0:83 —0-87| 1780-5 2-08 2°21/17841 —525 —613 1838°1 058 —0-69|1790°5 1:83 1°84/1785°8 —5:75 —513 1841°3 —0-09 —0:54/ 1800-5 1°92 179 |18250 —376 —3%5 18455 —065 —0°35/1810°5 2-00 207118375 —290 —2°95 1859°5 +0°77 +4029! 1820- 2°45 2°56|1841-4 —240 —2°69 1871-8 +054 +4079) 18305 3-00 320118478 —2:25 —227 18725 +075 40°81 | 18405 3°83 3°89 |1849°3 —2:28 —2:17 18735 +085 +0°85|18505 +442 4460118744 —0°97 0°82 C. A. Schott—Magnetic Declination in the United States. 31 TABLE IIl—continued. Year Obsd. Compd.| Year. Obsd. Compd. Year. Obsd. Compd. Savannah, Ga. Vera Cruz, Mex. Monterey, Cal. 18175 —400 —4°68/17270 —2:25 —2:1711791-7 —1093 —1148 18390 = —430 —418/17694 —657 —679/1795°5 —12°37 —11°76 185230 —367 9 =—3°52/17165 —T5 —1-46|18375 —1450 —14:29 18573 —346 —3-24/18155 ~—106 —9~"0/18395 —1422 —14-40 18742 —198 —2-23/16193 —9-3 9°65 |1841-5 —15-00 —1451 18566 —83 —849/18435 —1400 —14-62 18610 —83 8'18|}1851-1 —14:97 01 Key West, Fla. 873°T —15°92 —15-91 1829-1 -—642 —6-57 Mexico, Mex. 843- —€03 <884 San Francisco, Cul. : : 04:0 —&13 —7°94 1792-99 —12°80 —12°97 1860°7 —478 —4-81 . ; 1850°5 59 8-75 |1827°5 —15:45 —14°80 1861-2 —475 —a-78| 1% ; : ; 5. 18569 —8717 —8'58 18295 —15°10 —14°90 1862-7 —4-68 4-69 : ‘nA RE. ge EM 18645 4:56 —4:58| 1860°5 50 Oe So ikes ieee 1865-5 —4°52 4°52 1862°5 8 4 —838 i ies 3 aie ‘ 1866-2 —4:49 —4-47| 18670 —815 —818)/1850°0 —15°68 —15°78 1868°5 —817 —8-1] |1852°3 —15-48 15°86 18665 —1642 —16-28 H 1872°8 —1643 —16-41 arene, Cube, Acapulco, Mex. 1873°6 —1642 —16-43 11265 4-40 4°39] 1 744:5 3°0 3°32|1p74-°0 —16'47 —16'44 mee seh. CESS pas 319 eats pn em —6°25 5 =—867 —8T4 : ‘ 18166 —5-5 6-24 ae ae aeas C. Disappointment, W. T. 18571 —5-25 8=—5-52 1838-0 8-29 g-91 | L792°3 —18:00 —17°98 1858-5 —575 —5-48\189665 —837 —8-23|1839°5 19:18 70 1842°5 —20:00 —19°86 : . 1851: 20°54 “38 Kingston, Jamaica. Panama, New Granada. 18738 —21-61 —21°67 1791-8 678 —6-26 ae a al Sitka, Alaska. fees —55 586 | oo «70 «| 7-42 (18045 26-75 —2658 18225 _4-9 Spor 18375 —703 —703|18245 —2750 —28°18 5°26 5 —7-08 —7-67|18275 —2883 —28-36 1833-5 4-4 a9 |18664 —593 —6-12/18295 —2632 —26:46 eG —4°82 1830° 28°27 —2848 1837-8 —43 —4:56 18385 —28°62 —28-83 1847-3 —3°67 = 4°94 San Blas, Mex 1839°5 —2953 —28°86 1857-2 —3-67 —3-88 1866-5 : 1791-3 —747 =—746/}1842- 28°88 —28-95 —495 = =—3°55| 1 209.9 8°67 8°64 }1851-0 —29°23 —29°09 18375 —857 —892/18676 —28°82 —28-95 New Orleans, La 1839 ee ee ice 5% yag| 18418 —920 —895 | Unalaske Inland, Alaska. 17685 4-93) _5-77 17925 —19°0 —18-79 165 KS i0 | e San Diego, Cal. 18065 —194 —19:58 18065 —805 —-75|17925 —11:00 —11°01|1829°0 —19-9 20°20 1840°5 —8-33 —8-14/ 1839 —12°34 -18|1848'5 —1951 —20-08 1857-0 = —8-00 —%-72| 1851°3 12°48 —12°58|18495 —20-:00 —20-06 1858-3. 7-86 —7-67|1853°8 —12°53 —12°67|1867-7 —1979 —19°38 1870-5 = 7-10 }©=9§— 7-13 | 1886-4 —13°16 —13°09|1870.5 —1y-75 —19°22 1872-1 ~—699 —7-05|1872°9 —13'32 —13-29/1873-4 —19-00 9-05 32 ©. A. Schott—Magnetic Declination in the United States. The third table shows the number of observations at each place; the apparent probable error of one observation (includ- ing errors arising from want of identity of stations and from instrumental defects) expressed in minutes of are; the com- puted epoclis of greatest easterly deflection in the secular mo- tion, together with the amount and direction of the declination at that epoch, and the computed annual changes at the epochs 1870 and 1880, expressed in minutes TABLE III, a ne 8 a alee 4 a ss 83|S2e8 mo ne Bene ses Pra ses Annual change lees ae | 2256|S2e2¢| S86 | wwano..| insem 2 on” | OS n 1870. . se |@882|bsees| S28 7 ° rd Halifax, Ss. 9 +33.) 1711 |+11°5 +16 +0°9 Quebec, Canada. 10 15 | 1769 + 8°8 +17 pes No Factory, Hudson Bay. 5 eS ge ee ee2 ee pepe Portland, M 10 9. |" 1164 + 8-0 +24 +16 batuete ¥t 12 6 | 1810 +774 +5°7 +6°0 Rutland, Vt. 5 15 | 1807 | +61 | +59°| +54 Portsmouth, N. H. 4 5 | 1780 UT +31 +2°5 bight rvport Mass. 4 13 | 1776 +70 +2:9 5 26 | 1796 | +62 | +5°9(?)} +5°0(2) a ak 11 26 | 117% +66 +33 ambridge, Mass. 23 dl: 1) 1783 +69 +2°9 +2°1 Nantucket, Mass. G) 173 +6°5 +2°6 +2°3 ‘ Providence, R. I 30(?) 7 | 1780 +61 +3°8 i Hartford, Con 14 | 179! +5:2 +3°4 +3°0 : New Haven, Conn. 14 9} 1801 +4°7 +46 | +43 Albany, N. Y 12 6 | 1794 +5°2 +4°3 +3°8 5 Oxford, N 13 EVO girs +3°0 +4°5 +43 Buffalo, N. Y 7 8 | 1802 00 | +49 | 447 | irie, Pa. 4 -- | 1793 | —O-7 | +28 | +2°% Cleveland, 0. 11 12 | 1781 —22 +2°3 +1°9 Detroit, Mich 9 aT | Teel 4 +3°4 +3°0 : New York City. 15 Pia +4°0 +2°4 18(2)} 6 | 1797 | +18 | +46 | +450) © Philadelphia, Pa. 14 20| 1807 | +21 | +47 37 Washing D. C. pas) 6 | 1786 —d0°1 +2°4 +19 Va. 5 14} 1815 0-0 | +4-8(2)) +4°7(?) Charleston, 8. C. 9 19 | 1784. | —6°1 27 +1°8 . Ga. 15} 1809 | —49 | +3°6 +3°5 Key West, Fla. 10 4 | 1797 a, +36 | +34 Havana, Cuba. 6 26 | 1810 —63 +19 as Kingston, Jamaica it 25 u 66 +1°9 a New Orleans. La, 9 30 | 1831 | —82 | +30 | +34 Vera Cruz, Mex 7 17 | 1823 —I97 +53 ae Mexico, a 9 5 | 1838 —8°9 +3°8 Acapulco 6 21 | 1837 89 | +31 | +38 Panama, ee Granada. 7 13 | 178% | —79 | +19 | +1°8 ' an Blas, Mex. 5 10 | 1848 | —9°0 +1°3 ve 3 San Diego, 6 6 | 1925 142 | —1°9 17 a went 8 21 | 1903 |—164 | —20 | —1'5 : San Fra 12 9 | 1893 |—16 1:3 | —0°7 4 wane Disapolimens, Wikio h 12 | 1932 |—232-6(2?)) —3:4 | —3'l . Sitk aska. 10 18) 1855 |— +18 +2°9 q U: ka Island, Alaska. 8 17] 18 20-2 +3°4 +44 j C. A. Schott—Magnetic Declination in the United States. 38 for instance, taken by Hudson in 1609, in the vicinity of New York Bay, are fairly chargeable with a probable error of +8° mator) the instrumental means need not leave a greater uncer- tainty than about one minute, but the actual probable error of any determination is limited by the accidental variations in the mean directions of the magnetic force from day to day, mak- ing it desirable to continue the observations for three or more days and to correct them for daily variation. _ It is principally dependent on the magnitude of the horizontal force. cursory examination of the column containing the epochs of greatest easterly excursion, the deflecting force producing the secular change attaining then an easterly maximum, shows that the needle became stationary in direction and then reversed its secular motion in the New England States toward the end of the past century, in the Atlantic Coast States, to the west and South, early in the present, and in Mexico about the close of the first third of the present century. In California, t ton, Savannah, Key West and Havana about 1800; New Western declination) was felt in Lower California — here the eastern declination); in California, Oregon an 7, 34 C. A. Schott—Magnetic Declination in the United States, Washington Territory the eastern declination is at present still increasing, but with a losing rate. By the time the western elongation of the secular change i is reached in Maine we may expect to see the needle in the opposite phase, or at its eastern elongation, in California. We cannot as yet follow this influ- ence directly over the interior of the United States for want of early observations ; the westernmost interior stations for which an epoch could be made out were Buffalo. Erie, Cleveland and Detroit ; tisde give the average turning epoch 1794. It may be quite practicable hereafter to trace out curves uniting all sta- tions where the needle was stationary at a given epoch and a at other sieaktil for regular intervals of time, say of 10 or 25 y - facets to the first table, the constant in each formula would represent the normal direction of the needle, about which the secular change would be performed in an average cycle of about 270 years, and with extreme deflections on either side of it, equal to the co-efficient of the periodic term—all under the con ae ae that the law of the secular movement was truly ex- pees It is no doubt much more complex, and besides, may il Ry any time; yet as far as our present experience rea aches, and within the interval when the first reliable observations were made to the present time, it is found trustworthy. Table of Decennial values of the a apni pigperan computed Srom m preceding equation hese tables have been constructed to ges. the reduc- tion of eledhek declinations from one epoch to another; they will be found specially useful, when old lines run by compass have to be retraced and for the construction of i isogonic charts for a given epoc s occurring in the table indicate either no or doubtful values for the corresponding times ; values given to the nearest tenth of a degree are less reliable than those given to hun- dredths. + sign indicates west, a — sign east declination. €. A. 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Rls e-l3F- bytes Bathe - gi) bil 5 aoe Et 3 & Plel@lilagielf Seueee uaeer ae se eer cere Bhp |} el: & Gea 2 Rive] weal ve & g = £2 oom. [oe |S i P| | F | 4 = ; ne 8 zB 5 A ih , $ = Fa : a “|b 2 < "5 $ 2 ’ o ~ fo) r) : ? : z Tait £ z : A : ! Rei & up E § H. M. Parkhurst—Tails of Comets. 37 Art. V.—On the Tails of Comets; by HENRY M. PARKHURST. [Read before the Amer. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, Aug. 18, 1874] IN predicting the form and position of a comet’s tail, I adopt the theory of Professor Pierce : “Each particle of the matter which composes the tail is sup- posed to move in a hyperbolic orbit, with the sun in the focus of the opposite branch, under the influence of a repulsive force emanating from the sun, and decreasing by the law of the in- verse square of the distance.” (Gould's Astronomical Journal, vol. v, page 186. The application of the formule gives for any is ae time one line only, commencing at the comet and extending indefi- nitely. Professor Pierceadopted, in his computations upon the tail of Donati’s comet (Gould’s Astr. J., vol. vi, page 51), an excess of repulsive force 14 times that of gravitation, mak- ing his comparisons with the front edge of the tail, and arbi- trarily adopting such a repulsive force as best to explain the observations. For the purpose of comparing with the cen- ter of the tail, I adopted in my computations a repulsive force exactly equal to and replacing gravitation as the more probable law. On comparison with the observations, how- ever, I find that the computed line closely agrees in nearly every instance with the observed right hand edge of the tail; and I shall, therefore, adopt that as the standard of comparison. Although the comet apparently moved in the other direction, yet in fact that was the front edge of the tail. (% Most of the earlier observations were furnished to me by W. S. Gilman, Jr., of New York City, and all the later ones by Lewis Swift of Rochester, whose observations continued several anys after the comet had ceased to be visible in New York It y. _ From June 12 to June 30, I have only the record of the direc- tion of the tail, without reference to stars (G), agreeing with com- putation. On July 1, the tail “pointed to and reached 55 of Camelus.” (P.) The computed line passes nearly through that star. On July 7, the front edge was seen a little to the left of 63 Arg. 749. (Bonn Catalogue.) (P.) The computed line passes a small fraction of a degree to the left of the star. On curvature on this evening was commonly noticed. Computa- tion indicates an arc of about 15°. On July 14, “A U. Maj. was in the middle of the tail.” (S.) Allowing for the recorded 38 H. M. Parkhurst—Tails of Comets. width, it should be in the middle of the tail. On July 17, “v was exactly in the center,” and ‘‘its left edge just touched a.” (S). These are each within }°. On July 18, “it passed over a,” (S.) and @ U. Maj. was within the range of the computed tail. “6 and F (g) were not only in the center of the tail but in line with its axis.” (S.) They were within 3° of the computed center, and very nearly in the computed line of its axis at that oint. On July 19, “the tail passed midway between wand f, ut touched neither.” (S.) e computed line passes nearly centrally between them. “Its left edge just touched 6.” (S.) Here is an inaccuracy; for it could not have touched 6 with- out passing over 6. On July 20, it passed “midway between A and y U. Maj., and centrally over 6.” (S.) This agrees til about the 13th, a few days earlier the tail being too short for it to be perceptible, and a few days later the curvature it- self becoming too small to be perceptible. In all these cases the accordance of the right hand edge of the tail with the computed line was as close as the nature of the observation would admit. But among the observations kindly furnished me by Mr. Gilman, the accuracy and faithfulness of which I cannot doubt, are two which I cannot in fairness omit. On July 3, he recorded the place of the tail as wholly to the right of the two stars 65 Arg. 606, 607. The computed line passes to the left of those stars. As he did not use a diagonal prism, and inverted his chart in making the comparison, it seems impossible that he should have put it upon the wrong poe especially as his attention was also directed to the star 65 nearly a degree further east. On this diagram you will see that the observed lines, before and after, are nearly parallel, and that these two widely deviate. You will also see, that in ch case, connecting the observed point in the tail with the position of the head on the previous evening produces a line parallel to the rest ; and although Mr. Gilman himself does not conceive it to be possible that he connected the position of the tail on one day with that of the head upon another, or that he could have even seen the comet on July 5, which was Sunday, I can find no other satisfactory solution of the discrepancy ; and that explanation would substitute two observations accurately H. M. Parkhurst—Tails of Comets. 39 agreeing with the computations, for two which are entirely in- consistent with the remainder of the series. Perhaps I should add that these observations, and indeed all the observations but one, were made without any expectation that they would ever In predicting the width of a comet’s tail, it may be assumed to bear a certain ratio to its length. Up to the time of the dis- appearance of the nucleus, the ratio of one-sixth was sufficiently exact. The tail was then approaching us, and on this account would be expected to appear to grow wider as well as longer. Assuming that it remained unchanged in form, it should have been about six times as wide on July 21 as on July 13. But newt at being 18° wide, it was seen to be only ‘43°, possi- y 5°. I have refrained from alluding to an important point with re- gard to the front edge. When the tail is coming directly toward us, the front edge becomes the medial line. en the tail is 4° wide, assuming the right hand edge to be the front edge would involve an error of 2°; or, if the tail were 18° wide, as computed, it would involve an error of 9°. ere is no such error; therefore, there is no visible portion of the tail to the right hand of the true front edge. If the tail is flat, lying in the plane of its orbit, we may readily understand why it should be so foreshortened when directed toward us. Indeed, this proves too much; for if it were as thin as Saturn’s ring, it should have appeared as a mere line instead of being 5° wide. If the form of the section were elliptical, it would account for the observed width on the 21st of J uly ; but when the tail was first seen, the earth was fully 11° above its plane, as seen from the comet, and the tail would have appeared much narrower in all the observations before July 18. Phe dark line behind the nucleus cannot indicate a hollow conical tail, for a diminution of the central light by ,':th part would hardly be eo but that dark line, and the dark lines separating the different or are perfectly consistent with the theory of a thin flat il. There is another important fact. The front edge was toward the right until July 20; but at noon of July 21 the earth passed through the plane of the orbit. On the evening of J Wy 21, therefore, when the tail was 5° wide, the front edge shoul have been either at the left hand, or at any rate at least 2° from the right hand edge; and yet the latter agreed with the line computed from the same formule with those of all the preceding days; and although the tail was seen for five days in Succession, during which the earth passed through the plane of the orbit, there is no apparent discrepancy between the computed line and the observed position of the right hand edge of the tail. 40 H. M. Parkhurst-—Tails of Comets. A diagram I have constructed illustrates several results necessarily depending upon the hyperbolic theory. The black line represents the orbit of the comet of 1848, so far as included within the radius of the earth’s orbit. The red lines, starting from the orbit, and after passing their perihelion points radiat- ing in nearly straight lines from the sun, represent the hyper- bolic orbits of particles of matter, leaving the head of the comet at the given times. ' In these computations, also, I have adopted 1 as the ratio of repulsion. Had Coggia’s comet possessed sufficient luminosity to be visible on July 24, it would have afforded a test of the true amount of repulsive force; but as its plane was still turned almost directly toward us when the tail was last seen, a | variation in the assumed amount of the repulsive force makes no appreciable difference in its position ; and the streamers seen extending from the convex side of the tail of Donati’s comet suggest the theory that upon every formation of a new envel- ope, a small portion of the matter was endowed with a repul- sion at least ten times that of the rest of the matter forming the tail. The blue lines circling around the sun connect the positions of the particles in their hyperbolic orbits at given times, and therefore represent the visible and the invisible tail of the comet. The particles leaving the head of the comet thirty days before it reaches its perihelion, follow nearly behind it, with continually retarded motion, and when the head of the comet reaches the sun, those particles have only passed over half that distance, and are just about to commence their outward course. ead of the comet exactly at the perihelion, pursue a line al- most directly from the sun, but about 66° from the axis of the comet's orbit. These particles commence their outward course with a velocity sufficient to carry them outside the earth’s orbit in a little over two days; and that velocity remains nearly uniform in consequence of the sudden removal of the matter beyond the sphere of the sun’s forcible action. Consequently, Hi. M. Parkhurst—Tails of Comets. 41 when we undertake, for the 30th day after the perihelion pas- sage, to trace the entire tail which has left the head during t preceding 60 days, we must pursue a curve commencing at the position of the head of the comet, passing to the right and ownward, crossing the perihelion line at a distance from the sun one-third greater than that of the planet Neptune, and re- entering the earth’s orbit above. ow much of this will be visible? ‘As we follow the tail from the head it becomes fainter, first, because it is more dis- tant from the sun, and therefore less illuminated. Another occupies less than one-fourth the space traveled over by the comet while it was issuing. While the dark line in the center of a comet’s tail seems to disprove the theory naturally suggested by the fact of the front edge being the line of computation, that the resistance of the ether is the cause of the expansion of the tail, the ether may have a perceptible effect upon its form and position. Had the sun an ether of its own, carried with it through that still more rare ether which brings to us the pulsations of light, the effect of the ether upon the tail would be only that resulting from the motion of the comet itself; but leaving the ether behind it m its course toward the constellation Hercules, it will tend to Sweep the tail back from that point: and here we may find a possible explanation of the apparent wafting of the tail out of the plane of its orbit, leaving the front edge still on the right, and causing a thin, flat tail to have a visible width tenfold —" than it would have had if strictly in the plane of the rbit. Note-—Observations in England on July 9, 14, 17, 18, 19 and 21, confirm the Positions above given, but are not sufficiently definite for exact comparison. The theory of Prof. Norton (Am. Jour. Sci., 1861), that the width of the tail arises ftom the variation of the repulsive force exercised upon different particles of the etary matter, and its thickness from the repulsion of the nucleus itself at the time of emission, I had not seen when the above was written. I have com i nes re with the former compute pat eater : 8® of the tail, apparently indicating that the tail was, fro ’ chiefly South of the lane of the orbit. The theory of Prof. Norton affords a Plausible explanation of that cause. New York, Oct., 1874. ~ 42 C. Abbe—Nebule of Herschel’s Catulogue. Art. VI.—The very much extended Nebule of Sir John Herschel's General Catalogue; by CLEVELAND ABBE. [Read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, June 4, 1874.] In 1865 and 1867, I considered carefully the question of the apparent distribution of the nebule in space, basing my studies upon the General Catalogue of Sir John Herschel. Among other points that occupied my attention, I attempted, by separating their satellites ; among the nebule we may expect to find analo- gous planes, whose relations to each other and to those already known cannot but be highly instructive. As yet we have but (. Abbe—Nebule of Herschel’s Catalogue. 43 very few double nebule, nor can we for a long time hope to determine the planes of the orbits of any binary nebula, if such exist; on the other hand, in regard to the axes of rotation of nebulze or the planes of their equators, there is more room for study. Itisa plausible hypothesis that some nebule are in rotation about their respective axes, and only in the case of an irregular nebula do we find presumptive evidence of numerous centers of aggregation and rotation ; this latter class will not now further claim our attention. Those nebule whose whole regard to them it may be remarked that if these nebule are gaseous and without rotation, we can only explain their apparent shape by supposing them to be endowed with a motion of trans- lation, to be in fact wisps, like comet’s tails; if, on the other hand, they be in a state of rotation, they must be flat rings or dises or extended flattened ellipsoids, and we are authorized to consider that the planes of their equators do sensibly pass through the position of the observer; similarly, if the nebulous appearance be due to the presence of lenticular or ring-shaped Cloud of asteroids, or of meteoric dust, we shall be able to make a determination of the plane of the orbits of these bodies. _ the trigonometrical formule by which we may compute the night ascension and declination of the poles of a very much extended nebula are given in the following note ¥ ascertained by means of the differential formule. 44 C. Abbe—Nebule of Herschel’s Catalogue. Having computed the right ascensions and declinations of the south poles of the fifty-nine nebule in question, as given in columns six and seven of the accompanying table, I have also tila them upon equal surface charts similar to those used by essrs. Proctor and Waters, on which also have been drawn the limits of the Milky Way as given by those same gentlemen, according to Heis and Herschel. Owing to the fact that the unresolved nebule are, as a rule, far more numerous near the poles of the Milky Way than elsewhere, it follows at once that the greater number of the nebule now under consideration are near these poles, and therefore our poles of rotation, if we may presume to use that term, lie near the Milky Way itself: buta careful enumeration shows us that in the northern hemisphere these poles lie to the southward of the central portion of the Milky Way, while in the southern hemisphere the reverse holds good; in fact, there exists a media] plane about which the poles of these nebule cluster, and which is itself inclined to the plane of the Milky Way at an angle of about 80°, so that if the north pole of the Milky Way be in right ascension 12 h. 45 m. — and declination 30°, the pole of the plane near which the rota _ tion axes of the nebule lie will have about the same right ascension, but a declination of about 60°. Numerically expressed, — this latter plane is so situated that of fifty nine nebule twenty- _ nine have their axes inclined to it by less than 10°, and forty- two have their axes inclined by less than 20°. . It is, I conceive, quite desirable that we should, on the one hand, have more accurate determinations of the position angles of these extended and ray-like nebule, and that, on the other hand, the reversion spectroscope of Zéilner should be — applied to determine whether or no they be really in a state of © rotation. By adopting some average value for the oblateness of the — spheroids, that appear to us as elliptical or oval nebule, it will be possible to obtain a certain approximate estimate of the — probability that the plane here determined has some bearing — upon the general question of the arrangement of the three or four — thousand known nebule (the clusters being included); butsuch — a computation involves too much of hypothesis to be of interest — at present. ; It may then in general be stated, that so far as we are able — to determine the positions of planes of rotation among the nebulz, they do not show any such tendency to agree with each — other as is shown in the orbits and equators of the major plan- ets of the solar system; that, on the contrary, they are inclined at — all possible angles to each other, but have this remarkable — feature, that their mutual nodes cluster about a point in right — ascension 12 h. 45 m. and north declination 60°. C. Abbe—Nebule of Herschel’s Catalogue. 45 The Positions of the Poles of the “very much” and “exceedingly” Passos nebulz” of Sir John Herschel’s “ General vers referred to the Equinox of 1860. The Nebula. Description. Its South Pole. No |B A. N.P.D. 132) 138 191 361) 12 et 0 23-5|124 1°8 0.40°1/111 ss din 48 16 3 39°1 3 39°9 4 06 6 31°5 6 49-4 8 27°2 8 8 55-5 135 53 135 ty: 15 112 29°8 ped 2938 10 ros : 8/11 3 2378/11 12-9 2413/11 18-4 2595/11 45-3 2715)11 59 2749/12 2-9 2761 > 00 o> i bs 2831/12 19. 5 2877/12 14.6 9 12°3] 38 55 56-2 87 56 i dea 29°4 2°5 97 52 38°5 33 34°7 15 38°5 45 38°5 116 4 6/8 “7/100 39 38°8 42 46°3 38 43-9 19 TT o 4 51247 74 36-9 9 8-9 50-2 27 36-8 5T 3:8 4 43 2 ' 28.5 vB: af pers gory ro vB; ows vial sbM. vF; vmE; sbM. B; vmE; Neom=#11. pB phi w vak , pslbM. ob) Ls ane My ome: Y emia: cB; L; vimE. an vL; vm cP; yL; vm ; IbM vB; L; ig "6, rsmbMEN pB; pL; vmE; cB ;vL; vmE; pbM; r. pB; vL; vmE. vB; cL; vmE; vsmbMN. vF; cL; vmE. pB; vL; vmE; vgvlbM. PF; ch; vmE; vgbM. pB: we! eE; glen L; vm; fof 2. ; oe in oon Bi; 1; vmis; 1; pB; L; vm - sp of 2. cB; pL; vmE; sbMN. 02 OO BS OS tO %*~— = ie a] eee Nnwes 7 at we = —_* — — ~ R.A. N.P.D. ° 46 C. Abbe-—Nebule of Herschel's Cataiogue. The Nebula. Description. Its South Pole. No. | R. A. |N. P. D. T R.A. IN PD ae Oe eetbae he | 327812 45°9) 78 06 34 |pB; vmE; 3 Bats; fof2. + 18 14| 123°2 3321/12 rey 67 33°3) 120+ |!; vB; vL; vmE; bMBRN=# ? 10+ 3} 143°3 3340/12 52°4) 54 23 30+ |vF, pL; vmE; bet 2 st. 5+] 17. 88) dI4 3386 12 57° : 138321; 38.7 |B; vL; vmE. 1 21. 1) 1145 3437/13 4:5) 52 11:2 25 j|vB, vL; vmE; vsbMN. 4 18 0| 109°5 3525/13 17°3)132 17-2} 122°5 i!1; vB; vL; vmE; bifid. 4+ 11} 128°6 369613 47°9| 8358°5| 15 |F; pL; vmK;r. 7 19 40} 104-9 37611357°5| 40 9°3| 90+ |pB; cL; vmE; smbMN. _ [2 13° 67| 130-2 382214 9-7) 53 7-6} 110°3 jcF; pL; vmE; vgvmbM. (2 11 58} 138°5 40041447 | 855371} 148-4 |[F; pS; vmE; gvlbM. 4 57| 121°5 4086)1512—| 3210-| 155 |A ray; vmE, par. to 4087. (0 10 38 4087/15 12°2| 331071] 155 (cB; vL; vmE; vg, psbMN. |3+ | 10 38] 1034 4614/20 49°5 146 6-4 0 jeeF; vS; vmE; #13 att,n. |2 rg t49 90 3/21 19-2143 23°3| 90°38 eF; pL; vmE. 1 9 23| 1267 106 21 26°6/145 10-8; 1271 [pB; pL; vmE: g,pslbM. [1 12 19} 1173 4830|22 36°5|120 47°1 0 \F; pL; vmE; vgvlbM. 1 at 36| 90 4860/22 47 |130 24°6 43°3 [cB; L: vmE; mbM. 2 6 53] 1215 4885/22 54°9)131 34:9 5+ |cF: ps; vmE. 2 5 TF 893 naeeesid when given to the tenth of a degree; have been care- fully estimated when given with an appended +; have been roughly estimated when given to the nearest 10°. Nortr.—A nebula ary seems a mere ray or line being situated at S’, proay this ray into a great circle, $’S”, Seca bait tas is p, and join 9’ and p wi the north pole of the hacten s, P, We now hav where the Sign of m8 is is positi eae ge is the same as the sign of cos (0). COS T. n=P9s" or the ponies angle of the ray measured n. /. s. p. a=right ascension of south pole of nebula. (d@)=north pie distance of nat a list of explanations of the meanings of the abbreviations used in the 5th 6th ae ghd of the asad fhe sa tables, see pp. 11-13 of the original memoif by Herschel, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1874. Washington, August Ist, 1874. C. 8. Lyman— Venus as a Luminous Ring. 47 Art. VII.—On Venus as a Luminous Ring; by Prof. ©. §. LYMAN. In this Journal,* eight years ago, a brief notice was pub- lished of some observations made by the writer on Venus when near her inferior conjunction in 1866. The planet was then (for the first time, so far as appears) seen as a very delicate luminous ring. e cusps of the crescent, as the planet ap- proached the sun, had extended gradually beyond a seinicircle, until they at length coalesced, and formed a perfect ring of light. No opportunity has since occurred of repeating these observa- tions until the day of the recent transit. On Tuesday, Dee. 8th, Venus was again in close proximity to the sun, and the writer had the satisfaction of watching the delicate, silvery ring enclosing her disc, even when the planet was only the sun’s semi-diameter from his limb. This was at 4 P. M., or less than These observations were made with a five-foot Clark telescope of 42 inches aperture, by so placing the instrument as to have could not be used, as there were no means of excluding the direct sunlight. he morning after the transit the sky was slightly hazy and the planet could not be found, though probably it might have n if the small telescope had been mounted equatorially. On the day following (the 10th), the crescent, extending to more than three-fourths of a circle, was seen with beautiful dis- tinetness in the equatorial, and on this and two subsequent days, measurements were taken with the filar micrometer for the pur- pose of determining the extent of the cusps, and consequently the horizontal refraction of the atmosphere of the planet, on the ‘ssumption that the extension of the crescent and formation of the ring are due to this refraction. The results of these observations are given below, each re- sult being the mean of the number o separate measurements indicated in the last column. On the 10th, the chord of the are between the cusps was measured ; on the other days the * Vol. xliii, p. 129. 48 J. C. Watson—Discovery of a new Planet. distance between lines tangent to the cusps and to the oppo- site limb. Mean dates. Dist. of centers Extent of Hor. refr. of | Num. of Dec. of © and ¢. Crescent. ¢® atmos. job. of cusps. 8 g* 0" Pp. Oo. 6 | Ses 360° 00’ TO> Ti -S6. AL 2 ht et 279. 28 46'°6 4 10716 soe 4 es) 233 15 43 °0 6 11 2 40 P.M 4 20°4 231 46 45°5 15 12 2 45 PM 5 58°38 215. 21 42°9 a2 Mean 44°5 These observations give a mean of 445 as the horizontal re- fraction of Venus’s atmosphere, or about one-quarter greater r : : _ ¢—18 sin y= sind sin < 3 a: 22=y — Yr. p in which d = distance of centers of O and 9. ¢ = arc of crescent. r = sun’s semi-diameter. p = radius vector of Venus. « = horizontal refraction of Venus’s atmosphere. Six measurements of the diameter of the planet on the 10th give 63’"1. Twenty-four, on the 11th, give 63’-75. The Hng- lish and American Almanacs give 62’4 and 64’5 respectively. _ Art. VII.—Discovery of a New Planet; by Professor JAMES C. Warson. From a letter to one of the editors, dated Peking, China, October 17, 1874. have the pleasure to send you the following places of a new planet which I discovered at 8! 30™ on the evening of Oct. 10th. Peking M. T. a 1674, Oct. 10," 18" 30™ 0° O08 58™ 1°68" -+-10° 42’ 52°0 cote 9 58” 15 0 57 15°48 10 40 33°9 WR ps 48 46 0 37: 1° 10 40° 227 Ordky - ai oF 0 0-67: 116 10 40 24°8 eis, 8 33 39 0 55 29°90 10 34 56°9 7 oes 9 43 44 0 56 27°67 10 34 38° m 18, 9 56 45 0 55 27°22 10 33 478 * Bey o 26 Hi 0 54 33°71 10° 31 67S eet 7 49 29 0 53 43°70 10 29 10° Oy, By 8 52 46°46 10 26 15°0 58 3 0 The planet resembles a star of bright 11th magnitude. O. C. Marsh—Lake-basins of the Rocky Mountains. 49 Art. [X.—Ancient Lake basins of the Rocky Mountain Region ; by Prof. O. C. MarsH. THE existence of several large fresh water lakes in the Rocky Mountain region, during Tertiary time, is now well established, mainly through the researches of explorers whom the striking scenery of the ‘“ Bad Lands,” or the extinct animals entombed in them, have attracted thither. The geological age of some of these lakes, however, seems to be still in doubt, at least widely different opinions on this point are freely expressed. The ex- tent of these various lake-basins, and their relations to each other, are likewise a subject on which information is especially desirable, and hence the results of some recent observations are here presented. The deposits left in these old lakes show them to be of Eocene, Miocene, or Pliocene age, the fauna of each formation being entirely distinct, as well as quite different from existing species. I. Hocene Lake-basiis. The oldest of the great Tertiary lake basins of the West are of Eocene age. The one first discovered and best known, which has been called the Green River basin, lies between the ky Mountains and the Wasatch range, in the depression now drained by the Green River. It has the Uintah Mountains for its southern border, and extends north at least as far as the ind River range. This basin was visited by the writer in 1868, but first explored in 1870, when he traced its deposits for several hundred miles, and from the rich vertebrate fauna fully determined its Eocene age.* These same beds have since been pronounced Miocene by Prof. Hayden and others, but the 150 Species of extinct vertebrates now known from them prove been determined in this country. A comparison of almost any group of these fossils with the corresponding one from the Paris basin will afford sufficient evidence on this point. Some of the extinct mammals, indeed, indicate a still lower horizon, The latter are in part brackish water beds, containing, with Some characteristic Cretaceous fossils, many remains of plants, Which have led Hayden, Lesquereux, and others to regard them as Tertiary. The evidence from the fossil plants is far from * This Journal, vol. i, p. 191, March, 1871. Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vou. IX, No. 49.—Jan., 1875. 50 0. C. Marsh—Lake-basins of the Rocky Mountains. beds has been clearly made out at several different localities. At one of these, in 1870, the writer found above a seam of coal Ostrea congesta Conrad, a typical Cretaceous fossil, and a crinoid allied to Marsupites of the English Chalk. Below the coal, but in the same series, were remains of fishes and _ turtles, both of Cretaceous types, and teeth of a Dinosaur.* Near! conclusive evidence has since been found at other localities. In considering a question of this kind, where the evidence from fossils appears conflicting, it should especially be borne in mind that vertebrates afford a much more accurate guide to — climatic and other geological changes than invertebrates, and — vastly more so than plants. This Eocene lake basin remained dry land during all of Mio- cene time, and perhaps much longer. It was then again sub- — merged for a short period, and its eroded surface covered with water-worn debris from the surrounding mountains. The evi — dence of this is seen in the coarse conglomerate crowning the — highest buttes, which have thus escaped in part the enormous — denudation most of the deposits in this basin have suffered. South of the Uintah Mountains, a second and larger lake ex- — isted in the Eocene. It was 2,000 feet or more lower than the — northern lake, and received part of its waters from that source. — It had the Rocky Mountains for its eastern border, the — New Mexico. This basin was first explored, and its Eocene — age established, in 1870, by the writer, who finding it distinct The fauna entombed in both these Eocene lakes is essen- tially the same, and indicates a tropical climate. is 18 gon west of the Blue Mountains, but as only a few plants have itherto been found in its deposits, its relations in time to the great central Eocene lakes cannot as yet be determined. * This Journal, vol. i, p. 195, March, 1871. + Loc. cit., p. 196. 0. C. Marsh—Lake-basins of the Rocky Mountains. 51 Il. Miocene Lake-basins. lakes. The best exposures of these Miocene beds are seen near the White River, and this name has very appropriately been used by Prof. Hayden to distinguish the lake basin in which they were deposited. In Northeast Colorado the same formation is well developed. The “Bad Lands” there were discovered and first explored by the writer in 1870.* These Miocene strata rest, with more or less unconformity, on an ex- tensive series of lignite-bearing beds, which in many respects resemble those beneath the Eocene basins. The age of these beds, also, is in dispute, but the remains of Dinosaurs and some other typical Mesozoic vertebrates, which have now been found sand were deposited over the same area. s both series of the dividing line in many places can be made out only by means of the vertebrate fossils they contain. In this way, the writer has recently ascertained, by personal observation, that most of the upper beds (D and E), 500 feet at least in thick- hess, which were called Miocene by Prof. Hayden,t are deposits of the more recent Pliocene lake. This would leave for the true Miocene beds a thickness of about 300 feet. The upper strata will be again referred to in considering the Pliocene lake. The fauna of the White River lake-basin is now well known to naturalists. It indicates a climate much less tropical than that of the Eocene lakes, as is seen in the absence of monkeys and scarcity of reptilian life. The Brontotheride, the largest known Miocene mammals, are peculiar to the lower strata of this basin. They fully equalled the Eocene Dinocerata in size. *This J .1, p. 292, Sept., 1870. { trencoctoa American Phil Soe vol. xii, p. 105, 1862. 52 O. C. Marsh—Lake-basins of the Rocky Mountains. A still more ancient Miocene lake existed, in about the’same latitude, on the Pacific slope, near the central part of the present — State of Oregon. The Blue Mountains formed the eastern and southern shores of this lake, but its other limits are difficult to ascertain, as this whole country has since been deeply buried by successive outflows of volcanic rocks. It is only where the latter have been washed away that the lake deposits can be ex- amined, The discovery and first explorations in this basin were made by Rev. Thomas Condon, the present State gcolous of Oregon. The typical localities of this Miocene basin along the John Day River, and this name may very propel be used to designate the lake-basin. The strata in tie basin | are more or iene inclined, and of great thickness. One section, _ near the Jo ay River, examined by the writer in 1871, and — again in 187! 3, seems to indicate a thickness of not less ‘than 5,000 feet. The upper beds alone of this series correspond to — the deposits in the White River basin. The lower portion also is clearly Miocene, as shown by its vertebrate fauna, which differs — in many respects from that above. Beneath these strata are ; seen, at a few localities, the Eocene beds containing fossil plan . mentioned above. They are more highly inclined than the — Miocene beds, and some of them show that they have been pe : jected to heat. The inferior strata elsewhere are Mesozoic, : apparently Cretaceous. Above the Miocene strata, Pliocene ‘bed : are seen in a few places, but baat covers nearly all. : IL. ae Lake- aster: the Rocky Mountains. A great Pl iocene lake was thus forme 4 (=) cal strata for r more than 200 miles of its course. q The beds in this basin lie nearly horizontal. They are hate ‘ in color, and much more arenaceous than the Miocene below. — e€ upper strata consist of hard sandstones or calcareous | grits, which weather but slowly, and hence still form the great | table-lands over much of the area of the basin. The writer — has traced these high plateaux and the intervening isolated buttes from near the Black Hills south to the Arkansas River, — and found them all of Pliocene age. South of the Smoky Hill | River these strata rest directly on 1 the Cretaceous, a e fauna of this lake-basin indicates a warm temperate | climate. The more common mammals are a mastodon, rhinoce — roses, camels and horses, the latter being nagiectally abundant. — [To be continued. ] Chemistry and Physics. 53 SCIENTIFIC: INTELLIGEN CE. I. Puysics. 1. Theory of Electricity—Mr. E. Eptunp has published in full his theory that electricity is identical with the luminiferous ether, e first shows that the velocity A, with which the ether particles move, differs from v, the velocity with which this motion is propa- gated ; A depends on the current and increases with it, while v depends on the ratio of the electricity to the density, but is inde- pendent of the current. It is the velocity v which Wheatstone, izeau and others have attempted to measure. The objection to this theory raised by MM. Roiti and Herwig are due to their over- looking the differences in these velocities. The memoir deduces theoretically Ampére’s general formula and the law of the division of the current between several condue- tors, when these contain electro-motive forces. Kirchhoff’s laws are therefore an immediate consequence of the proposed theory. . r . The heating produced by a galvanic current and by an electric established by Wiedemann for the transport of liquid in the direc- tion of the galvanic current and for currents through a diaphragm, discovered by M. Quincke. S to the rotation of the plane of polarization of light by a Current, M. C. Neumann has shown that it can be explained sat- isfactorily if we admit that the molecular currents of Ampére act %pon the molecules of ether in vibration precisely as if these last were electric molecules. The demonstration is based on the form- tla given by Weber for the action of an element of a current upon hypothesis is confirmed, since according to the views of the author the molecular currents of Ampére are merely currents of ether. d are proportional to their chemical equivalents, requires for its the- “retical proof a much more exact knowledge of chemical forces than we at present possess. It is not then in the nature of things that such a law can be deduced exclusively from a theory of elec- real phenomena.— Mem. Swedish Acad. of Sci., XII, No. 8; Bib. Univ., ecii, 174, B. . P. 54 Scientific Intelligence. the one to charge, the other to dischar condenser. Those produced in the second spiral illuminate the Geissler tube very brilliantly. are formed, but presenting before the last inversion all the charac- ters produced by a Ruhmkorff coil. The same effects are pro- duced by altering the distance of the spirals or of the plates of the condenser. These condensers show that the phenomenon in question bears no relation to the lateral discharge, characterized especially by the constancy of the direction of the current it pro- uces.— Comptes Rendus, \xxix, 1071. Bi 0.8 3. Effect of Flame on an Electric Spark.—Mr. 8. J. MixtER eighth of an inch. Inserting this between the two terminals of the balls could be separated. The same increase was not obtained simply inserting a conductor between the two terminals, a ball an inch in diameter only lengthening the spark about an inch. E. C. P. 4. Laws of Tuning Forks.—M. Mercapimr has determined ex- perimentally the effect of a change in the dimensions of a tuning on its number of vibrations, A style is attached to the en of the prong and draws a sinuous line on a revolving cylinder covered with lampblack. Another style attached to an electro- magnet registers the beats of a clock giving seconds, The vibra- tion of the fork is maintained electrically. By the thickness of prong is meant its dimension parallel to the vibrations, by 1ts readth, the perpendicular direction. A fork having a breadth of 35°3 mms, gave 144-7 vibrations. Reducing its breadth to 30°9 and 24°8 it still gave 144-7 and 144-9 vibrations. Hence the num- ber of vibrations is independent of the breadth. A similar meas- Geology and Natural History. 55 urement was made we different thicknesses from 20°25 mms. to 4°37 mins, and showe at the number of vibrations was nearly proportional to the pa A fork three decimeters long was then shortened 20 mms. at a time and the vibrations measnred in each case. The length ‘of the prong being altered from 295 to 57 mms., the number of vibrations increased from 40 to 9 974. Hence the vibrations are inv ersely proportional to the square of the serra. calling the latter the projection of the line bisecting the prot 1B) 0 the axis plus a small quantity y, which in this case equalled 3 mms. These laws may be written in the form of the a al € . . é eee . 5 iby)? in which n is the number of vibrations, e the thick- ness, 2 the length, y a small constant, and A a constant depending on the material. For steel, =818270. To co mpare this con- stant with theory, A was computed from the formula for the number of vibrations of an elastic bar in terms of v, the velocity of sound in it; ee v=4985 m., according to the’ Lah PDE os Werthatne’ : ’ Kin this case became 820131, a result differi that aedettire obtained by only a fifth ‘of one per sai "The number of vibrations of three fink were found by measurement to be 144 ‘7, 77°7, 29°7, and by the formula 146-4, 79°0, 29-0. Hence forks may be made by calculation to give any desired number of agenda within one or two per cent.—- Comptes Rendus, ae 01 i 5. “Polarization of Light ; by Witita Srorniswoone, pra e: LL.D., F.R.S. 130 pp. 12mo. London: 1874. Nature "Series. (Macmillan & Co.)—This small treatise ‘on ae Polarization of Light, as the Preface states, contains the substance of lectures de- livere d by the author at various times to his work-people, and t ple manner, and are well illustrated by means of two seetchicns colored plates, besides a number of Rak eng II. GroLtoagy anp NatTuRAL History. 1. Evrthquakes of North Carolina.—An excellent article on earthquakes in the mountain region of North Carolina has been published by Hon. T. L. Clingman i in the Western Expositor of Ashe- Ville ,N He states that more than thirty years since his at- tention was called to statements that a mountain in the northern oo aywood Coun nty was shaken at intervals of two or three years; and in 1848 he visited the region rat published a paper on it. The principal facts stated were the Between the Blue Ridge, which in N aoe Cuchi separates the waters falling into the Atlantic from those discharged into the Mis- rane er ‘the great chain on the Tennessee border designated in se y such names as Iron, Unaka, and Smoky, there is an elevated plateau of over two hundred miles in length, with an average breadth of fifty miles. The beds of the larger streams 56 Seventific Intelligence. are two thousand feet above the sea, and the general level of the country, exclusive of the mountain ranges, may be estimated at twenty-five hundred feet above tide-water. Haywood County and Haywood. From the west side of this extends a ridge, which terminates near the head of Fines Creek. A rter of a mile rom its western end, as one moves it toward the east, is the locality referred to. The effect of the disturbance is visible near the crest of the ea extends in a direction nearly south, down the side of the little mountain, four or five h ed yards, to the level ground, and across it for some distance and along the elevations beyond. The whole extent ma a mile in length, poin is perhaps three or four hundred feet higher than the ground be- low. i appears to be composed, but the chief evidences of violence were b een a narrow crevice. On their sides the saplings grew perpen- dicularly to the surface of the ground, but obliquely to the horizon, € oS width to split the tree, and that then the sides of the chasm had returned to their original position without having slipped, so as to prevent the contact of the broken roots. : hen I was there I was told that three years had elapsed since the last previous shock. They were first noticed about the year Geology and Natural History. 57 thrown up and had only partially settled back, owing to the clos- ing of the opening under it, so that the former earth marks were seen several feet above the ground on its sides. In the year 1867 I saw the locality again. A number of shocks had in the meantime occurred, and the appearances were very different from what they had been. From the top of the ridge to the base it seemed a mass of rocks, most of the earth having been carried away. The depression at the top was greater, while the successive jars had, under the action of the force of gravity, moved the mass downward, and had forced the stream still further away year 1829, or thereabouts, the Valley River Mountain was cle Open for a considerable istance, during a violent shaking of the earth in that vicinity. The chasm, though partially filled up, is represented as still visible. XN r. Silas McDowell, of Macon County, a highly respectable and intelligent gentleman, accustomed to observe and write on those of the Sugar Fork River. He states that the opening is still changed the outlines of the ground and surface rocks. This spot 18 about fifteen miles east of the Haywood Mountain, and about 4s far from the Warm Spring to the northwest of it. 58 Scientific Intelligence. Lastly, we have to notice the disturbance of the Bald and Stone Mountains. They are situated six or eight miles to the east of the Blue Ridge. Between the headwaters of the Catawba and those of Broad River, there extends many miles eastward a range of mountains attaining the height in places of four sebacited ee The Bald and Stone Mountains, from their appearance, are pro bly the highest Sis of this ridge, a nearly equidistant from the Catawba and Broad Rivers. My information in reference to them is derived ne ely from sonia with a number of gentlemen, and from the accounts eae in the newspapers. The first shocks were perceived on the 10th of February last, and they were for the first month or two more frequent than they have since been. During the last two months they have occurred at intervals of a week or two, but have been rather more violent than the average. Within the last five months —— a hundred shocks, accom- panied with noises, have occ The distance from this sist or the Valley River Mountain, in heart seed due west, is more than one hundred miles ina direct line. He tie mountain in Haywood, to reach the arallel of Saceuae maonire through the mountain near Ellejay, in Macon, one must travel more than thirty miles south. It is thus m ani- fested that there is a belt of country more than a hundred sail in extent from east to west by thirty in breadth in which such disturbances have been observed. In the present state of scientific knowledge, it may not be an easy task to offer an explanation of the causes which will be generally accepted as satisfactor When we take into account these indications at different points in the North Carolina mountains, it seems evident that there 18 beneath the surface a condition of things that pends over a con- Suewbere: to so great an extent, it is server difficult to decida until further Shacvaiione have been made. Is it not of sufficient interest to justify the managers of the Coast Survey, or some other competent agency, to make such careful measurements of the - of certain points, as to ascertain, within the next twenty- five or fifty years, whether any, and to what extent, changes may be i bebiiening in this region ? 2. Porphyry of the Island adi Lambay, a : miles a of Dublin Bay.—Professor Epwarp Hv ut finds this gree n por- phyry (Geol, Mag. for Oct. 1874) to consist of a felsitic base, which is picasa throughout with oot of a chloritic min- Geology and Natural History. 59 chlorite is regarded by the author as of secondary origin, and as “introduced by the agency of water, which has permeated the the thin coating of Old Red Sandstone beneath, would become thoroughly impregnated with carbonate of lime, which it would deposit amongst the fissures and cells of the older rocks beneath.” to the surface ;* that the same is true for other ? minerals formed, the chlorite excepted. ese cavities have nea Sometimes received mineral material from infiltrations of ter date, but not so the body of the roe J. D. D Taterior makes the following Report to te age The first division of the survey under Mr. Hayden completed the unfinished work of the preceding season in the central portion i Colorado Territory, and extended its operations westward over Pe The Conclusion, as far as it regards the trap of the Connecticut Valley, is sus- here _ by the microscopic researches of Mr. E. 8. Dana, an abstract of whose T 18 given on page 390 of the last volume of this Journal. 60 Scientific Intelligence. eighth and one hundred and tenth meridians of west longitude. About eighteen thousand square miles were surveyed, covering a section of country probably more generally elevated above the sea-level than any other within the borders of the United States. As an illustration of the uniform great elevation of extensive sec- tions of this region, it may be mentioned that one of the subdi- visions of the survey, in exploring an area of nearly three thou- day. e quantity and interest those of any previous year. ; he field of operations during the past season of the second di- however, that material has been collected for the mapping of an extensive region of country heretofore but little known; that the E vered and traced, interesting and valuable specimens of fossils, Indian relics and articles, illustrating the arts existing among the Indians inhabiting that region. Mr. Powell had, in former sur veys, discovered many ruins of towns and hamlets once occupied by the ancient inhabitants of the valley of the Colorado River; and during the past season many other such ruins have been found, some of their ancient picture-writings and many of their Geology and Natural History. 61 stone implements collected. The positions of many scores of saat ruined towns will be accurately indicated on the “ general” hese surveys . so far as they have been prosecuted, re- sulted in affording much information of great value to our people, orld. as well as to the scientific w e hehe Oe of a physical atlas of the Territories, which will pon all the results of the sur- veys as rapidly as they can be red for publication, is de- obtained; and if a continuation of the surveys should be author- ized, such an atlas would become, in time, of intrinsic value, not only to the people at large, but to other nations. In view of these and other considerations, I regard the mod- erate cost of these surveys as more than compensate ed by the value of the information thereby obtained, and therefore cordially recommend a ee of the United States geological sur- vey of “ou Territorie ere is not as ane ee as in some Roek ce Mountain views, but there is wonderful beauty of landscape, which is heightened by the pe a. a geben alper the ie and the well- — ridges. andl distant snowy ranges, are the different ele- ments in the views. They are from the Middle Park, the Grand Mancos, and near by M aime aan ruins of walls and other structures of stone in the vicinity of the same—the c dwelling and fortified places of a semi-civilized race now extin nthe more rapid deposition of Sediment in Salt “ in Sresh water.—Prof, T. Srerry Hunv, in nt article in the Proceedings of the Boston Natural History ae, calls sedan to the fact that the effe ct of salt in water on the rate 0 deposi sition "6. a boring at the St. Louis Insane Asylum.—Mr. G. C. Broapuxap, State Geologist of Missouri, gives the details re- Specting this boring, i in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences, vol, iii, 216. The whole depth is 3,843°5 feet; of this the last 40 ¢ oH were through Archean granite; above, the beds 62 Scientific Intelligence. were of the Lower Silurian and Carboniferous formations. The Carboniferous at the well had a thickness of 873 feet—s0 of it Coal-measures, 670 feet Subcarboniferous, 93 feet Choutean group (referred by most authors to the Subcarboniferous, and cailed in Towa and Illinois the Kinderhook group). The Lower Silurian, beginning above, consists of Trenton 421 feet; first magnesian limestone 148 feet ; sandstone (called saccharoidal — used in glass-making) 153 feet; second limestone 517 feet; second sandstone 82 feet; third limestone 838 feet ; third soniel 98 feet; fourth limestone 384 feet ; eae sandstone, called Potsdam, 299°5 feet. Salt water was obtain d (in p e of fresh) at 1,220 feet, and a sulphur water at 2,140 feet. es 2,956 6 the water in the sand. -pump —— 3 per cent of salt; at 2 957 feet, 44 per cent; at 3,293 feet, 2 per cent; at 3,367 feet, less than 2 per cent; at 3, 384 feet, = ‘per cent ; and below 3 BAD feet, 7 to 8 per cent. With a Fahrenheit self. ne thermometer, the temperature obtained at depths from 3,127 to 3,837 varied from 107° to 104$°, being 105° at the lowest point reached. In an artesian well at Belcher’s sugar refinery, St. Louis, salt water was obtained at 610 and 849 feet below the surface at the place, or 790 and 1,029 feet below the level of the surface at the asylum well. 6. Return of Professor Mursh’s Expedition.—Professor i returned to New Haven, Dec. 12th, after an absence of t months in the West. The object of the “. esent expedition was af ations were very senniectak ie pa cr cold weather and the continued hostility of the Sioux Indians. The latter refused to allow the expedition to cross White River, but 4 reluctant consent was at last obtained. They afterward stopped the pa rty on the way to the Bad Lands, attempted a night attack eir camp, and otherwise molested ‘them, ut the accompany-_ ing escort of United States troops proved sufficient for protection. although quite limited in extent, proved to be rich beyond expect® tion. Nearly two tons of fossil bones were collected, most of them — rare sp d many unknown to science. ng the most interesting remains found were several species of gigantic Bronto- heride, nearly as large as Elephan At one point these bones were heaped together in such numbers as to indicate that the am — mals lived in herds, and had been washed into this ancient lake by — afreshet. Successful explorations were made, also, in the Pliocene — strata of the same region. All the gS secured go to Yale — " year. Prof. Zirkex, of Leipsic, was in the country during “the : month of September, at Mr. King’s sie et to examine roe Geology and Natural History. 68 specimens, and to take for study the thin sections of the rocks which had been made—more than a thousand in number—and will prepare a report upon them for publication in the 40th Parallel serie 8. Geological Sketch of the State of Missouri, illustrated by - by Gro. C. Swatiow, A.M., M.D., late Sta eologist, and Prof. Agric., Geol. and Bot. in the Univ. of the State of Mis- souri, 10 pp. large 4to. St. Louis, 1873. (R. A. Campbell.) This sketch by Professor Swallow presents a brief review of the Geology of the State of Missouri and is accompanied by a colored section and a colored geological map. The section makes the third and fourth magnesian limestones, with the intervening sand- stone, equivalents of the Primordial. 9. Das Elbthalgebirge in Sachsen of Dr. Gerxitz.—The fifth number of Part II has been issued by the publisher, T. Fischer, of Cassel. It contains the Gasteropods and Cephalopods, with plates 29 to 36 inclusive. 10. Preliminary Notice of Chondrodite Crystals from the Tilly- Foster Iron Mine, Brewster, N. Y.; by Epwarv 8. Dana.—The occurrence of chondrodite in large quantities at the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine has already been described by Professor Dana in an article upon “ Serpentine Pseudomorphs,” published in the two pre- ceding numbers of this Journal. In addition to the common mas- Sive variety of the species, and that occurring in large coarse crys- tals, there have been found also, though very rarely, some small bu tting of the most accurate measure- a These crystals are of a rich garnet-red color, with abso- ut planes. The special interest of chondrodite arises from its relation to, or more properly identity with, the Vesuvian humite, whose re- Most part, to the second type, : 2 ber of crystals I have identified also representatives of the third type. A few angles will show how close is the resemblance to a (The letters for the planes are those used by vom th, Il Type. III Type. : Humite (v. Rath). Chondrodite (E.§. Dana). Humite. Chondrodite. 1 sre ya ieee A:tr = 135° 18” 135° 19’ ‘Acie = 111° 5) 111° 44’ A:}tr 125° 49% =125° 50° A: ¢ = 109° 28’ Lb mre. 300" te" 100" A:}4= 125° 16’ 125’ 13 Mit 999° 99/5: 128° 98 The planes, which occur constantly, are the same that are found on humite, and the kind of hemihedrism is the same. This is true 64 Scientific Intelligence. for both types; thus in spe II the eae identified on chondro- dite are A, B, C, +r, -+ir, —}r, —47, n, yn, —m, t, e, Ze, etc. Type _~ chondrodite, +r, +4, +41, -—ir, — Fr, —7r, 2, An, Hn, 7, H . addition to these prominent planes, I have measured, more or less surely determined, upwards of a hundred other nlanel very minute, and yet flat and giving in many cases perfectly relia- ble angles. As would naturally be expected, the indices of these planes are in general anything but simple. e. discussion of these, and the description of other —_ pp interest which have been observed, including several twins, t be deferred till the final completion of the memoir, which, sie is eee will not be long delayed. 11. Livingstonite—This nents recently described by Sefior M. Barcena (see this Journal, last vol. p. as been analyzed — by its describer with the fo ae results : Sulphur 29°08, anti- mony 53°12, mercury 14°00, iron 3°50 = 99°70; whence a atomie ratio for the oe reas: antimony, mercury and iron 18°17 : 1-2. =-(nearly) 1 The livi auton: occurs : Huitzuco, in the State of Guerrero, in a matrix of carbonate and sulphate of lime, along with native sulphur, cinnabar, valentinite and stibnite. The rs pis mentions phous. 2, On Dawsonite, a new mineral; by B. J. Hanae Chemist and Mineralogist to the Geological Survey 0 Can. (Canadian Naturalist, vii, August, 1874.)—Dawsonite is from whitish felsitie dike near the western end of McGill College, — Montreal. Hunt obtained for the rock (which he calls trachyte), contained: Silica 1:43, alumina 2°43, peroxide of iron 2°40, oxide of manganese 1°31, lime 0°60, potash 0°40, soda 0° 98—9: 55. In the joints of this rock occurs a white-bladed mineral, which i8 — the Dawsonite. : The following are its characters. Hardness 3; G=2°405 — luster vitreous ; “transparent to translucent. The blades are some : what fibrous in structure, and the orpstalinasion: Sieh 2 bly monoclinic, with the on eres of the vert bout 75 It shows bands of colors in polarized li ht. “a B. becomes — ohegne and often exfoliates or swells into cauliflower-like forms. : In the closed tube yields water and carbonic seid. Dissolves — maples in cold dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid. Iwo analyses, made at different times, the last from portions of several — specimens, afford Mr. Harrington— : Si 6 Al Mg Ca Na K H 2 0°40 29°88 32°84 tr. 5-95 20°20 0°38 11°91=101°56. — 30°72 32°68 0°45 5°65 20°17 [10°32 ]=100. we Geology and Natural History. 65 Mr. Harrington inclines to the conclusion that the mineral is a hydrous carbonate of alumina, lime and soda; and that it is related therefore to hovite, which the Messrs. Gladstone made a carbonate of alumina and lime. Its crystalline character and its uniformity in optical and chemical characters show that it is not a mechanical mixture. 13, Tables for the Determination of Minerals, by their Physical properties, ascertainable by the aid of such simple instruments as every student in the field should have with him. Translated from the German of Weissacu. Enlarged, and furnished with chemi- tions of three New Species, and a Jew Supplemental Remarks on y wn Scorr, Curator of Society, was read in Feb., 1870. It is illustrated by 18 plates, eleven of which relate to the structure of the stem, ete., a sub- Ject which is here treated with freshness and ability, as well as tersely, and to which interest is added by some ingenious specula- origi ing summary, ¢ terior to the periphery, not a few of the tree-ferns have very simi- lar characteristics. “In both, diametrically and longitudinally, Stowth is strictly apical; in both the stems are limited in their diametrica] growth, and from the first traces of their formation the axial and peripheral developments are simultaneous; and as Seon as the normal thickness has been attained, all further peri- heral mcrease ceases, and the axis grows upward iv a cylindrical rm. In Palms the growing point is conical, and in tree-ferns terminally flattened ; so that in the one case the nascent vascular bundles are almost horizontally arranged at the apex, in the other they are from the beginning vertical; but in both all cellular in- “rease of the body of the axis has ceased ere the fronds have AM. Jour. Scr.—Tairp = Vou. IX, No. 49 —Jan., 1875. 66 Scientific Intelligence. the fronds and downward into the axis. In other respects they present many important points of difference, as in the free anasto moses of the fibro-vascular bundles, and the formation of a woody circle surrounding the central cellular axis, which, however, is partially represented in certain Palms (vide plate xi), as Huterpe tinctly separates the central, in which the cellular tissue predom Palms the entire bundle enters the frond. “I need scarcely remark that there are also important differences in the minute structure of — oody bundles of Ferns and Palms, the former being much now.” (p. 28-29.) | The analogies between the monocotyledonous stem and that of Nymphea is next referred to, and also of Cacti with Cycas. — More practical is the author’s correction of the current statement that Cycas has a circinate vernation, whereas C. circinalis and all the rest have a perfectly straight vernation, with only the leaflets — involute. A. Ge o@ 15. Flora Brasiliensis.—Fasciculus 53, issued in April last, contains the Polygalew, by A. W. Bennett of London, 82 pages of : letter press and 30 plates, a liberal allowance. Polygala 8 more important than they seem to subsequent authors; also, the floral structure of Polygalee most resembles Sapindacee. But, ; in fact the order is very peculiar. Geology and Natural History. 67 Fasciculus 64, of the same work, issued in May, comprises the concluding half of J. Muller’s elaboration of the Brazilian /u- phorbiacee is and fase. 61 together comprise vol. xi, pars ii, avery substantial volume indeed, filled by this one order; 752 pages of letter press, 104 plates—a great undertaking, well and happily brought to a conclusion by the excellent botanist to whom this task was assigned. A Expedition of H. M. 8. Challenger. They relate mainly to Ma- A. G. 17. Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical Society. Edinburgh. Vol. xi, part iii, 1873.—This part completes the , aper was noticed in this Journal; but it may not be amiss to recapitulate, in the author’s own words, that, after feeding us _ pot “infelix,” ‘are not “acrid,” are not “unwholesome,” are not .. Jurious,” do not cause “ delirium,” do not produce “ stupefac- Dr. Robert Brown (may he prove himself worthy of the name !) R 25 < i] e = 2) = 77) = © 5 i] = Re) zz i) D © og a is") cr a = ® ep 5 J Ll > crevices of o S SLane: bis ‘that in rains or wet weather the little iaabare puts forth its living net, which becomes so many avenues along which food is conveyed to the body. As the neigh- borhood becomes dr y, the net is withdrawn to await another rain. The animal with its extended net can cover an area of nearly h half a line in diameter. The threads of the net are less than the sudnoth of an inch in diameter.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1874, 3 pe 23. Nature of the Sea-bottom.—Prof, ©. Wrviiie Tuo has presented to the Royal Society a paper entitled Pretiainar | Notes on the nature of the Sea-bottom procured by the sounding of H. M. 8S. Challenger during her cruise in the Southern Sea 10 the early part of the sr 1874, which are published in “ Nature” for December and January. e following are oe from € the was breagbed up which was found to consist of casts of foramini- fers in a glauconite-like anlesal The genera saetnded Miliola, Geology and Natural History. 73 Biloculina, Uvigerina, Planorbulina, Rotalia, Textularia, Bulimina ina, and, of much less abundance, Globigerina, Orbu- lina and Pulvinulina. b. Globigerina, gray and red ooze. From Cape Agulhas to lat. 46° 16’, the greatest depth was 1,900 fathoms; and the bottom was Globigerina ooze, it consisting mostly of the shells of Globigerina, more or less broken, with a few of Pulvinulina and ina, soundings in 2,050, 1900 and 1950 fathoms on the “ Dolphin Rise bringing up the Globigerina ooze. But passing from the middle and 1869, giving what was omitted in the others, references to anatomical and structural details, habits, ete. 5. Reliquie Aquitaniew, being Contributions to the Archx- ology and Paleontology of Périgord and the adjoining Provinces of Southern France, by E. Larter and H. Curisty, edited by Tuomas Rurerr Jonxs, F.R.S., &c.—Part xv of this valuable work, for September, 1874, contains pages 205-224, 173 to 182, and Plate A xx1, 74 ‘ Miscellaneous Intelligence. III. Astronomy. other a are sy to be heard from. The probabilities are that aoe success has been attained, on the whole, than could reason- ably have been expected, and that the successes have, in the main, been at the more amportant stations for determining the parallax. IV. MisceLLANEous ScrentiFic INTELLIGENCE. 1, Exploration in South America.—Prof. ALEXANDER AGAssiZ America, ee anes to Chili and Bolivia. At Lake —— he expects to dredge, ee making temperature observatio arman, 0 ithe useum of Comparative Zoology, accom apa him, and will go directly t to Lake Titicaca a collect. Mr. Agassiz’s — health has been poor, since the great afflictions which befel him im the death of his father and, almost immediately after, that of his gifted wife. It is now somewhat im mproved, and it is believed that the journey will make the restoration complete. bservatory at Cordoba, Argentine Republic-—Dr. Gov p, the astronomer, after a brief visit to his home and friends at Boston, has left again for Cordoba, to resume his great work there with regard to the southern constellations, which is now far advanced toward completion. | fions of the Colorado.—Major J. W. Po OWELL, the eX plorer of the Cafions of the Coloeklas has a valuable article on the Colorado Basin and its Cafions in the January nu mber of — Scribner’s Monthly. With the usual liberality of this. eer : n be brought out for use only through laborious a : er tical study on the part of one who understands ~~ the philo- sophical bearing of the facts. Such a study has been made of the ‘returns of the recent United States Census b Mr. Wa Iker, His Statistical Atlas, Parts I. and IIL. of which have recently beet — published, presents to the eye the chief results arrived at, and at — tests, in oT part, to the learning, judgment, and thoroughness of the author. By means of maps and diagrams the great facts — in political and social science are made readily and oer 3 Miscelianeous Intelligence. To omnis in all their relations. Part Il. embraces the ops fer? of Social and Industrial Statistics. The charts show, by ieee the growth of the United States in population fey rf 790, when the first census was taken, through eight decades to 1870; also the center of population for the different periods; the con- stituents of the population of each State at the present time; the distribution, absolute and relative, of the colored population ; of foreigners and persons of foreign birth ; as to illiteracy; also the distribution of wealth over the country ; ; of public indebtedness ; of taxation; of the most important crops; the relative aden of church and. school accommodation; and so on. Part HI. covers d for year; relative birth rate; relative death rate for different diseases ; relative number of blind, deaf, insane and idiotic persons, with the . Cave pa baie Researches on the evidence of Caves respect- ing the Ree inhabitants of Fu ; by W. Boyp Dawkins, M. A, ., Curator of a Musetim a — in Geol- ¢ follows ei on the historic caves of Pidiais and tee ee ; Caves used in the ages of Iron and Bronze; caves of the neo- lithic age ; ange of xolithic dolicho-cephalie and brachy-ce- phalie men ; Pleistocene caves of Germany and Great Britain ; evidence trom the cave inhabitants as to the Atlantic and Mediter- Europ coast line in the Pleistocene, illustrated by a map ; the wropean climate in the Pleistocene ; ; and on the instruments and ethods o cave-hunting. Prof, Daakins recognizes the exist- ence of two Glacial eras in Great Britain; the older, or that com- only so called, one of greater elevation than now, was tollowed by an era of subsidence s 3 . and this by another era of elevation The glaciers, but of less extent of ice than in the first glacial era, ‘The Mustrations are numerous and excellent, and the work, while e and thorough i in its — is popular in style and full of ieee to all classes of readers og sl of the Oosiditaalblise of Agriculture for 1873; 496 pp. 8vo. Washing- “Shing change of level on the Coast of Maine; by N.S. SHater. 20 PP. Ato. tom the Memoirs of the Poston N. H. Socie iety. Volume I, Part 3, No. 76 Miscellaneous Intelligence. OBITUARY. Francts WaLker.—An exception to the precedent of speakin well of the dead is offered by the Entomologist’s Monthly Maga- zine in its obituary notice of the late Francis Walker as an ento- mologist. And we who have written o alker’s work, after having examined his material in the British Museum Collection, in the ialsemlteists Monthly Magazine says, and as we had pre- viously pointed out, with the authorities in — British Museum wh se ace gives their authority, their toca is ais to Mr. John Edward Gray, to whom science is so widely indebted that this from further obloq the ends of science furthered and the author Monaa atone amply for their mistake. Private collectors, who have Mr. Walker’s types, would heartily join, do ubtless, in a work which would be to their advantage, and a mis we have ever eid’ n be cee as re ecting personally up gentleman, whose cour hay and the extent of whose erie labors , ion. GROTE w Lanxester.—Dr. La ae well known ras his zoolog ical publications, died October 30th, at the age of sixty. elected a fellow of the Royal Society i in 1 TSS. For eighteen year he has edited, in conjunction with Mr. Busk, the Quar terly Journ of Microscopic Science. r. Taomas ANpDERSON, late Professor of Chemistry in the Unt arises of Glasgow, died at Chiswick on the 2d of November. e was born in 1819 Srrk WitriamM Jarp the zoologist, and especially ope ished for his Inboeiis in Onuiulons: died oe Sandown, in the le of Wight, on the 21st of November, aged o authorized the publication of these list As their pref ne SN (= NT RES ~ ~ >> ES \S \ by, vai \ MW ‘ Y *NnoL' ye); Thee, S. eee 0 WYOLS AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] Art. X.—Jeffries Wyman. Address of Professor A. GRAY at the Memorial Meeting of the Boston Society of Natural His- tory, Oct. 7, 1874.* : WHEN we think of the associate and friend whose death this Society now deplores, and remember how modest and retiring ue was, how averse to laudation and reticent of words, we feel it becoming to speak of him, now that he is gone, with much of the reserve which would be imposed upon us if he were liv- ing. Yet his own perfect truthfulness and nice sense of jus- lice, and the benefit to be derived from the contemplation of such a character by way of example, may be our warrant for i = 70 roceedings” of the Society. - JOUR. Scr..—Turp Serres, Von. IX, No. 50 —Frs., 1875. 6 82 : Jeffries Wyman. example of a character modest, tranquil, dignified and inde- pendent, and of a life simple, contented and honored.” What more can be or need be said? It is left for me, in compliance with your invitation, Mr. President, to say some: thing of what he was to us, and has done for us, and to put upon record, for the use of those who come after us, some ac- count of his uneventful life, some notice, however imperfect, of his work and his writings. I could not do this without the help of friends who knew him well in early life, and of some of you who are much more conversant than I am with most of his researches. Such aid, promptly rendered, has been thank- fully accepted and freely use ur associate’s father, Dr. Rufus Wyman,—born in Woburm, graduated at Harvard College in 1799, and in the latter part of in that of our associate’s elder brother. JEFFRIES WYMAN, the third son, derived his baptismal name from the distinguished Dr. John Jeffries, of Boston, under whom his father studied medicine. He was born on the 11th of August, 1814, at Chelmsford, a township of a few hund inhabitants in Middlesex County, Mass., not far from the pres ent city of Lowell. As his father took up his residence at the McLean Asylum in 1818, when Jeffries was only four years old, he received the rudiments of his education at Charlestown, 1 a private school; but afterward went to the Academy ® Chelmsford, and, in 1826, to Phillips Exeter Academy, where, under the instruction of Dr. Abbot, he was prepared for college — He entered Harvard College in 1829, the year in which Josiah — Quincy took the presidency, and was graduated in 1833, 1 3 class of fifty-six, six of whom became professors in the univer’ sity. He was not remarkable for general scholarship, but was fond of chemistry, and his preference for anatomical studies was already developed. Some of his class-mates remember the interest which was excited among them by a skeleton which he made of a mammoth bull-frog from Fresh Pond, probably 0° which is still preserved in his museum of comparative anatomy: — His skill and taste in drawing, which he turned to such excel lent account in his investigations and in the lecture room, ® well as his habit of close observation of natural objects met with in his strolls, were manifested even in boyhood. Jeffries Wyman. 83 An attack of pneumonia during his Senior year in college caused much anxiety, and perhaps laid the foundation of the pa menary affection which burdened and finally shortened his ife. To recover from the effects of the attack, and to guard against its return, he made, in the winter of 1883-84, the first of those pilgrimages to the coast of the Southern States, which in later years were so often repeated. Returning with strength renewed in the course of the following spring, he began the study of medicine under Dr. John ©. Dalton, who had suc- ceeded to his father’s practice at Chelmsford, but who soon removed to the adjacent and thriving town of Lowell. Here, and with his father at the McLean Asylum, and at the Medical College in Boston, he passed two years of profitable study. At the commencement of the third year he was elected house- student in the Medical Department, at the Massachusetts Gen- eral Hospital,—then under the charge of Doctors James Jack- son, John Ware and Walter Channing,—a responsible position, not only most advantageous for the study of ees but well adapted to sharpen a young man’s power of observation. In 1887, atter receiving the degree of Doctor of Medicine, he cast about among the larger country towns for a field in which ‘0 practice his profession. Fortunately for science, he found no pening to his mind; so he took an office in Boston, on Wash- ington street, and accepted the honorable, but far from lucrative post of Demonstrator of Anatomy under Dr. John C. Warren, the ersey Professor. His means were very slender, and Paris in May, 1841. and gave his time at once to Human Anat- omy at the School of Medicine, and Comparative Anatomy 84 Jeffries Wyman. and Natural History at the Garden of Plants, attending the lectures of Flourens, Majendie and Longet on Physiology, and of de Blainville, Isidore St. Hilaire, Valenciennes, Dumeril and Milne-Edwards on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy. In the summer, when the lectures were over, he made a pedes- trian journey along the banks of the Loire, and another along the Rhine, returning through Belgium, and by steamer to Lon- on. ere, while engaged in the study of the Hunterian col- lections at the Royal College of Surgeons, he received informa- tion of the alarming illness of his father; he immediately turned his face homeward, but on reaching Halifax he learned that his father was no more. He resumed his residence in Boston, and devoted himself mainly to scientific work, wnder circumstances of no small dis- couragement. But in 1843 the means of a modest professional livelihood came to him in the offer of the chair o natomy and Physiology in the medical department of Hampden-Sidney College, established at Richmond, Virginia. One advantage of this position was that it did not interrupt his residence in Bos- ton, except for the winter and spring; and during these months the milder climate of Richmond was even then desirable. He discharged the duties of the chair most acceptably for five ses sions, until, in 1847, he was appointed to succeed Dr. Warren as Hersey Professor of Anatomy in Harvard College, the Park- man professorship in the Medical School in Boston being fill by the present incumbent, Dr. Holmes. Thus commenced Prof. Wyman’s most useful and honorable connection as 4 teacher with the university, of which the President and Fel- lows speak in the terms I have already recited. He began his work in Holden Chapel, the upper floor being the lecture-room, lections and preparations, which from that time forward m~ creased rapidly in number and value under his industrious and skillful hands. At length Boylston Hall was built for the an@ — tomical and the chemical departments, and the museum, !¢C — ture and working-rooms were established commodiously in thet! present quarters; and Prof. Wyman’s department assumed the — rank and the importance which it deserved. Both human and comparative es were taught to special pupils, some 0 — emselves worthy of their honored mastet; — while the annual courses of lectures and lessons on Anatomy; — Physiology, and for a time the principles of SnOny imparted whom have proved t highly valued instruction to undergraduates and others. In the formation and perfecting of his museum—the first of the kind in the country, arranged upon a plan both physiolog® . cal and morphological—no pains and labors were spared, an¢ : the lower containing the dissecting-room and the anatomical | museum of the college, with which he combined his own col — 85 Jeffries Wyman. Ww i ast and the hence he came home by way of the Peruvian co. B j is ae diti any of the choice materials of hi Vv such expeditions many : thusiasm, ne : h nificence, called forth by anaes sxathplo . ple of w sooo “ Dr Wyman’s we ats Wh abl fectilor eee daca do unaided, with scree without eclat, means, by persistent and sonatengene borg we duly honor those and almost without observation. Whi into the treasury of sci- Who of their abundance cast their gifts i ained by our praise— fee, let us not—now that he cannot pie enury cast in more forget to honor one who in silence and p than they all. - for although f enury in a literal sense we may not speak ; Prof, W i f his father pected and honorable aid from two old | in nee who appreciated the son, and wished him to g 86 Jeffries Wyman. entific work without distraction. One of them, the late Dr. William J. Walker, sent him ten thousand dollars outright; the other, the late Thomas Lee, who had helped in his early education, supplemented the endowment of the Hersey profes- sorship with an equal sum, stipulating that the income thereof should be paid to Prof. Wyman during life, whether he held the chair or not. Seldom, if ever, has a moderate sum pro- duced a greater benefit. Throughout the later years of Prof. Wyman’s life a new mu- seum has claimed his interest and care, and is indebted to him for much of its value and promise. In 1866, when failing strength demanded a respite from oral teaching, and required him to pass most of the season for it in a milder climate, he was named by the late George Peabody one of the seven trus- tees of the Museum and Professorship of American Archeol- ogy and Ethnology, which this philanthropist proceeded to found in Harvard University; and his associates called upon him to take charge of the establishment. r this he was peculiarly fitted by all his previous studies, and by his predilee- tion for ethnological inquiries. These had already engaged his attention, and to this class of subjects he was thereafter mainly evoted,—with what sagacity, consummate skill, untiring dili- gence and success, his seven annual Reports—the last published just before he died,—his elaborate memoir on shell-heaps, now printing, and especially the Archeological Museum in Boyls- ton Hall, abundantly testify. If this museum be a worthy memorial of the founder's liberality and foresight, it is no less a monument of Wyman’s rare ability and devotion. When- ever the enduring building which is to receive it shall be erected, surely the name of its first curator and organizer should be inscribed, along with that of the founder, over its portal. Of Prof. Wyman’s domestic life, let it here suffice to record, that in Dec., 1850, he married Adeline Wheelwright, who died in June, 1855, leaving two daughters; that in August, 1861, married Anna Williams Whitney, who died in February, 1864, shortly after the birth of an only and a surviving son. Of his later days, of the slow, yet all too rapid progrcss fatal pulmonary disease, it is needless to protract the story. Winter after winter, as he exchanged our bleak climate for that — of Florida, we could only hope that he might return. Spring after spring he came back to us invigorated, thanks to the bland i d the open life in boat and tent, which acted like a charm; —thanks, too, to the watchful care of his attached friend, Mr Peabody, his constant companion in Florida life. One winter was passed in Europe, a in reference to the Archeological Museum, partly in ies of better health; but no benefit was received. The past winter in Florida produced the usual ame of = Jeffries Wyman. 87 lioration, and the amount of work which Dr. Wyman under- took and accomplished last summer might have tasked a robust man. There were important accessions to the archeological collections, upon which much labor, very trying to ordinary patience, had to be expended. And in the last interview I had with him, he told me that he had gone through his own mu- seum of comparative anatomy, which had somewhat suffered in consequence of the alterations in Boylston Hall, and had put the whole into perfect order. It was late in August when he left Cambridge for his usual visit to the White Mountain region, y which he avoided the autumnal catarrh; and there, at Bethlehem, New Hampshire, on the 4th of September, a severe hemorrhage from the lungs suddenly closed his valuable life. — _ Let us turn to his relations with this society. He entered it in October, 1887, just thirty-seven years ago, and shortly after e had taken his degree of Doctor in Medicine. He was Re-- cording Secretary from 1839 to 1841; Curator of Ichthyology and Herpetology from 184i to 1847, of Herpetology from 1847 to 1858, of Comparative Anatomy from 1855 to 1874. While in these later years his duties may have been almost nominal, tt should be remembered that in the earlier days a curator not only took charge of his portion of the Museum, but in a great degree created it. Then for fourteen years, from 1856 to 1870, € was the president of this society, as assiduous in all its duties as he was wise in council; and he resigned the chair which he so long adorned and dignified only when the increas- ing delicacy of his health, to which night-exposure was preju- teal, made it unsafe for him any longer to undertake its duties. The record shows that he has made here one hundred and five scientific communications,* several of them very 1m- a how that P & made a good number of communications; among them one of the longest and ablest of his memoirs. M hen he was from the first a member of the Faculty of the useum of Comparative Zoology, where his services and his 1 scilety i t be—of such Portion ary a and cursory though it mus . rn a Published papers, should form a part of this account of his life * The Ro : . . i of b yal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers enumerates sixty-four by Prof. Wyman alone, and four in conjunction with others. 88 Jeffries Wyman. His earliest publication, so faras we know, was an article in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, in 1837, signed only with the initials of his name. It is upon “The indistinctness of images formed from oblique rays of light,” and the cause of it. The handling of the subject is as characteristic as that of any later paper. In January, 1841, we find his first recorded com- munication to this society, ‘On the Cranium of a Seal.” The first to the American Academy is the account of his dissection of the electrical organs of a new species of Torpedo, in 1848, part of a paper by his friend Dr. Storer, published in the American Journal of Science. In the course of that year, eleven communications were.made to our society, besides the Annual Address, which he delivered on the 17th of May. The most important of these was the memoir, by Dr. Savage and himself, on the Black Orang or Chimpanzee of Africa, Troglo- dytes niger, published in full in the Journal of this society, the anatomical part by Professor Wyman. ‘T'wo other papers of that early year, on the Anatomy of two Mollusca, Tehennophorus Carolinensis and Glandina truncata, published in the fourth volume of the society's Journal, each with a copper plate, are noteworthy, as showing that he possessed from the first that happy faculty of clear, terse, and closely relevant exposition, and that skill and neatness of illustration with his pene! which characterize all his work, both of research and instruc- tion. Another paper of that year, ‘On the microscopic structure of the teeth of the Lepidostei, and their analogies with those of the — Labyrinthodonts,” read to this society in August, and published — in this Journal in October, 1848, was important and timely. In it he demonstrated that the labyrinthine structure of the teeth, considered at the time to be peculiar to certain sauroid reptiles, equally belonged to the gar-fishes, and consequently that many fossil teeth which had been referred by the evidence — of this character alone to a group of reptiles founded upon this — peculiarity, might as well belong to ancient sauroid fishes. | Although not of any importance now to remember, I may _ here mention his report to this society on the Hydrarchos Silly mant of Koch, a factitious Saurian of huge length, successfully exhibited in New York and elsewhere under high auspices, a! I think also in Germany, but which Dr. Wyman expose at sight, showing that it was made up of an indefinite numbet of various cetacean vertebrae, belonging to many individu 1 which (as was afterward ascertained) were collected from several — localities. : But the memoir by which Professor Wyman assured bis position among the higher comparative anatomists was that communicated to and published by this society in the samme? Jeffries Wyman. 89 skeleton, that there was, as the great English anatomist of the same and the introductory history are by Dr. man. Indeed, nearly all since made known of the Gorilla’s structure, = ™ first to last insists, in repeated and emphatic terms, that w SClentific name shall be given by Dr. Wyman as the scien- tha tteristically adds: “In view of this last fact, Dr. Savage hq ) as will be seen in letter, that the species should stand y name; but this I declined.” 90 Jeffries Wyman. This Memoir was read before this society on the 18th of August, 1847, and was published before the close of the year. But it had not, as it appears, come to Professor Owen’s knowl- edge when the latter presented to the London Zoological So- ciety, on the of February, 1848, a memoir founded on three skulls of the same species, just received from Africa through Captain Wagstaff. When Professor Owen received the earlier Memoir, he wrote to compliment Professor Wyman upon it, substituted in a supplementary note the specific name imposed by Savage and Wyman, and reprinted in an appendix the osteological characters set forth by the latter. ‘‘ It does not appear, however (adds Dr. Wyman), either in the Proceedings or the Transactions of the (Zoological) Society at what time our Memoir was published, nor that we had anticipated him in out description.” It is safe to assert that in this and the subsidiary papers of Dr. Wyman may be found the substance of all that has since been brought forward, bearing upon the osteological resem- blances and differences between men andapes. After summing up the evidence, he concludes :— ; “The organization of the anthropoid Quadrumana justifies the naturalist in placing them at the head of the brute creation, and placing them in a position in which they, of all the animal series, shall be nearest to man. Any anatomist. however, wh will take the trouble to compare the skeletons of the Negro and Orang, cannot fail to be struck at sight with the wide gap whic separates them. The difference between the cranium, the pelvis, and the conformation of the upper extremities in the Negro and Caucasian, sinks into comparative insignificance when com pared with the vast difference which exists between the con- formation of the same parts in the Negro and the Orang. Yet it cannot be denied, however wide the separation, that the Negro and Orang do afford the points where man and the brute, when the totality of their organization is considered, most nearly ea oe each other.” lecting now for further comment only some of the more noticeable contributions to science, we should not ee. by his investigations of the anatomy of the Blind Fish o moth Cave. The series began, in that prolific year, 1848, with a paper published in this Journal, and closed with an article 10 the same Journal in 1854. Although Dr. Tellkamph had pre- ceded him in ascertaining the existence of rudimentary eyes and the special development of the fifth pair of nerves, yet for whole details of the subject, and the minute anatomy, we 9% indebted to Professor Wyman. Many of the details, howevel; as well as the admirable drawings illustrating them, remaine” unpublished until 1872, when he placed them at Mr. Putnam’ Jeffries Wyman. 91 disposal, and they were brought out in his elaborate article in the “ American Naturalist.” Here the extraordinary develop- ment of tactile sense, taking the place of vision, and perfectly adapting the animal to its subterranean life, is completely de- monstrated. If Professor Wyman’s first piece of anatomical work was the preparation of a skeleton of a bull-frog, in his undergraduate days, his most elaborate memoir is that on the anatomy of the nervous system of the same animal (Rana pipiens), published in by similar appeal, an extract from which I beg leave to appen In a note.* So, in describing the structure of the optic nerves in the frog, and the development of the eye and optic lobes, he proceeds to remark, that— ‘ The instances of Proteus and Amblyopsis naturally suggest hie questions, whether one and the same part may not combine Uctions wholly different in different animals, and whether the * “If by force is meant the muscular energy and peepee the limbs, this 8 nt ins other jut does not appear to be sustained in the prese ce, nor in many instances brought to notice by comparative anatomy. In man the rose i>) F FA 3 SG largest. ho”, 1e8ree. In birds the posterior bu : boida} ‘s, -US" this condition is in part dependent upon the presence of the rhom- se In these animals, whi e muscular energy of the wings is the eloped, the sensibility of the feet is the more acute.” 92 Jeffries Wyman. same may not hold true with regard to the cerebral organs which is known to obtain with regard to the skeleton, the teeth, the tongue, and the nose, that identical or homologous parts in different animals may perform functions wholly distinct. If the doctrine here suggested can be admitted (and if this were the place, facts could be cited in support of it), may we not find in it an explanation of many inconsistences which now exist between the results of comparative anatomy and of physiology?” Then, in his chapter on the philosophical anatomy of the cranial nerves and skull, after showing that there are but three pairs of cranio-spinal nerves, he takes up the controverted ee tion as to the number of vertebres which compose the skull, out making some real contribution to their elucidation. For * “The conclusions which have been drawn from the statements made above — are as follows: that in frogs the vagus comprises the glosso-pharyngeal and acces : sory nerves; inus comprises the facial, the abducens, and in the the patheticus and portions of the motor unis; that other evr dence sustai that the whole of the motor comm ence trigeminus; if to these we add the Aypoglossus (which in frogs 18 bi ceptionally a spinal nerve), we shall have three pairs of cranial m each re in te a common spinal nerve, namely, motor and sensitive f special sense nerves are considered; if these are admitted as indications, then ye: : must presuppose either two pairs of nerves to each vertebra, or the existe y i un we have taken as affording sufficient grounds for considering them as of 2 peck — liar order, and not to be classed with common spinal nerves.” 4 W. M. Fontaine— Geology of the Blue Ridge. 93 the integument. After confirming the contrary observations of Reichert, on the embryo pig, he concludes that “the first of the seven branchial fissures of the embryo skate is converted into the spiracle, which is the homologue of the Eustachian tube and the outer ear-canal.” After a full discussion of the homology of the upper jaw in sharks and skates, under the light afforded by his investigation of the embryo skate, he sug- gests that the cartilage which extends from the olfactory fosse toward the pectoral fin is the probable homologue of a maxil- lary bone, and that in the lobe the homologue of an intermax- illary; that if so, the skates and proteiform reptiles agree in having the nostrils open in front of the dental arch ; that while in ail Batrachians the nasal groove becomes closed, in the skate it remains permanently open; and finally that this view, i confirmed, “will add another feature which justifies Owen, Agassiz and others, in dissenting trom Cuvier so far as to give the Selachians a place in the zoological series higher than that of the bony fishes. But at the same time, it will give corrobo- tative proof of the correctness of Cuvier’s view, that ‘the rudi- ments of the maxillaries, and intermaxillaries,. ... are evi- dent in the skeleton.’ ” [To be continued. ] Art. XL—On some Points in the Geology of the Blue Ridge of Virginia ; by Wm. M. Fonrarne. [Concluded from page 22.] MY next examination was made in the vicinity of Lynch- burg, sixty miles southwest of this point. There the James ri fo 94 W. M. Fontaine— Geology of the Blue Ridge. dotic granite, and a beautiful dark-gray syenite. The latter two are hard and permanent. In this space occur two bands of slaty rocks, one on the west side of the summit, and the other on the east side. That on the west side is one mile below the top, is 200 yards wide and contains gray and reddish slates, with associated greenstone-slate, sometimes amygdaloidal. Dip, moderate, southeast. The other band is half a mile below the summit on the east side. It presents repeated alternatious of red and gray slates, white sandstones, and conglomerates, with a high dip, to the southeast, and a width of half a mile. Entire distance four miles. Down the east slope we find gray granitic rocks, with some bands of argillaceous slate, and toward the east have two or three dykes of greenstone (pinite porphyry ?). Extent four miles. III. From the last point, on the junction of the north and south forks of Tye River, the country up to two miles beyond Lovingston is mainly gneissi¢, with frequent beds of true granite near Lovingston. Dip, high, southeast. Hxtent fourteen miles. IV. Greenish chloritic granite ; gneiss; and bluish mica slate. Dip, vertical. Inter val occupied, three miles. This last is the position of Buffalo Ridge. V. Findlay’s Mountain, one mile wide, composed of coarse quartzite. Dip vertical. After this the dip changes to northwest, and then to southeast, which it retains for a long distance as we pass east. It will be noticed that in this section the quartzites conte ing the Ragged Mountains in the central portions of the valley are not found. In No. III the granite mentioned forms the most western ledges of the eruptive rocks to be described near Lynchburg. The chloritic granite is the representative, most probably, of the epidosites of the northeast. If so, this rock, which is protogine, is a metamorphic product from argillaceous slates. In the Catoctin Mountains, to the northeast of Lynch: burg, various useful minerals occur; among which, copper ores, galena and magnetic iron may be mentioned. ese may, — however, be of Triassic age, as great masses of Triassic trap — occur in them near these deposits. oo Coming now to the vicinity of Lynchburg, and commencing — with the examination of Buffalo Ridge, three miles southeast — of the town, we find massive mica slates and schists compa some quartzites, mica and talcose slates, containing sepa of magnetic and specular iron. Here occurs the curious roe called “catawbarite,” by Lieber. This is an intimate mixture W. M. Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. 95 of taleose matter with specular and magnetic iron, containing sometimes enough of the latter to be worked as an ore along James River Returning to the latter place, we find, as we proceed up stream, numerous ledges of this rock succeeding each other at short intervals, being overlaid unconformably by mica slate, Which passes oceasionally into mica schist. These ledges oc- cupy a belt extending to the west some five or six miles, but diminish in frequency westward until mica slates again oc- ® rock sometimes breaks through the slates, and one ledge tyverses the dip developed by its neighbor, crumpling back the ss contorting and crushing them. The width varies greatly. “Aw one ledge 600 feet wide near the town, but many are no more than 100 feet wide. a "he principal component is hornblende, in pretty large crys- line particles, imbedded in a rather scanty cement of fine granular, white feldspar. This is too fine to show crystalline = es, and hence the species could not be determined. Taking the features all together, it most resembles a syenite, formed by ose, none of the omponents are perfectly crystallized, or ‘ - . cone ether, and hence perhaps the ease with which it de- 96 W. M. Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. The following accessory minerals occur occasionally : garnet, rutile, rubellan, pyrite. For much of the distance above Lynchburg mica slate pre- dominates. It shows mostly a dip south-southeast, but several altered. This is succeeded by a narrow band of mica slate, dipping southeast, toward the gneiss. The slate is succeeded the highest foot hills of the ridge here. This rock extends for a half mile, and is overlaid unconformably by mica slates and schists, through which it has evidently been protrud : It is a massive coarse-grained rock, composed principally red feldspar (orthoclase), quartz, and a smaller amount of horn- blende. None of the constituents are well crystallized, or dis- tinctly segregated. The feldspar forms large particles and the hornblende shows a tendency to arrange itself in irregular patches and lines) Some greenish feldspar occurs. ee tion with the slates on the west side well shows the relation ‘ the two systems. The slates lean upon the syenite with a IP of 45° to the northwest, showing a sharply distinct line of cot W. M. Fontaine— Geology of the Blue Ridge. 97 tact. This mass is plainly an outlier of a larger body of sim- . ie = it and the syenite are much altered, being cut by joints, nd having lost their slaty cleavage. They are also impreg- hated with siliceous and ferruginous matters, causing them to — a red color on weathering. Their edges, viewed across € chasm cut by the stream, show this change very strikingly. ey are seen to arch over the east slope of the crystalline West bas hain from the west, we see that its entire face, for more 98 W. M. Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. unstratified crystalline rocks, while a band of reddish rocks, eighty or one hundred feet thick, show their edges skirting the summit. ‘This band is the west edge of the slates which were seen resting on the mountain along the east side. The Blue Ridge in this part of the State is, as stated before, composed of several parallel ranges of nearly equal height. The one just mentioned is composed of a species of coarse syenite, while the other ranges more to the west are made up of the durable quartzites which here form the Lower Silurian trata. seen. some distance next to the slates, on the east, the rock has the fine, well-crystallized texture of a diorite. We have here with- out doubt an eruption of true igneous rock along the line of junction of the two systems, an occurrence not uncommon. On the west side we see at the base of the main mass a ledge W. M. Fontaine—Geology of the Blue Ridge. 99 The Catoctin Mountains, as cut by the extension of this line, do not form a continuous range. In its stead, we have isolated elevations, composed of ribs of quartzite standing nearly verti- ca e west of Liberty, for four or five miles, we have mica schists and hornblende schists, much decayed and eroded. Succeeding these come hornblende schists, presenting the same character, and all with moderate southeast dip. On reaching “Big Otter Creek,” about two and a half miles from the Blue idge, we see a ledge of protogine, showing a width of 600 cally to the southeast. This rock, which from its position is the equivalent of the pinite porphyry, is composed of quartz, dull white feldspar, and talc, arranged with granitoid texture. eta or hornblende rock. The exposures here are bad, and the passage from one rock to another cannot be traced, for the surface of all these rocks is much decayed and conceale clay. Dip of both southeast. This syenite is composed of apparent protrusion. The latter contains white orthoclase, much homblende and a little quartz. This extensive belt reaches to within half a mile of the main mountain. It is here suc- seeded by a very coarse syenite, which exactly resembles that described at Balcony Falls, in the preceding section, with the oreced om the valley is composed of the same coarse syenite, showing, wWever a considerable proportion of white triclinic feldspar. featan Pr oet@phy of the locality presents some noteworthy es, 100 W. M. Fontaine— Geology of the Blue Ridge. The Blue Ridge is here again a single chain, composed en- tirely of crystalline rock. There are no considerable hills lying to the east of the main ridge. This latter rises imme- diately from the valley mentioned, with a rounded, gently swelling slope, bare of surface-earth, but covered profusely with immense boulders derived from the mass composing the Peaks proper. After attaining the summit of the slope, we find ourselves on a level with a valley lying to the west. This lies along the foot of a chain of mountains situated farther west, which rivals the Blue Ridge in height, and is composed of Silurian strata. The summit of the slope is about 1500 feet above the valley on the east. On each side of this point rises abruptly a mountain 1600 feet above the pass. That on the right, composed of the same rock with the one on the left, is not an isolated peak, but it is the end of a great mass of mountains which extend northeast as far as the eye can reach, and even surpass in height this ak. The elevation on the left, which, with the one just men- tioned, forms the Peaks of Otter, is an isolated eminence. It stands up abruptly from the coarse syenitic mass forming its base, like a huge chimney, showing by its bare, abrupt faces, that it is composed of different material from the softly rounded, well-worn base on which it stands. In ascending 1t nd the coarse syenite accompanying us to within 600 feet of the top of the crag, which forms the highest point. This would seem to indicate that in the pass at least 1000 feet of the older coarse rock has been scooped out, for the two peaks facing each other present similar features. To the southwest, the great elevation seen at the Peaks is soon lost. There the erystalline mass rapidly sinks down into several low finger-like spurs, and farther on no elevation which can be called a moun- tain occurs. e Virginia and Tennessee railroad passes the Blue Ridge at Buford’s Gap without tunnelling, and by mode- rate grades. In this region, as Rogers has stated, the Silurian range to the west is called the Blue Ridge. The following then is the structure of the mountain at the Peaks. The main mountain rises in the form of a broad, soft] 4h: rounded ridge, composed of coarse syenites, like those descri at the east base, and like the a on James River west of Lynchburg. From this, as a base, rises abruptly on the west side near the east limit of the Silurian strata, a broad ledge of a totally different rock, which will be presently described. To this latter mass, which is about 900 feet wide, the mountains owe their additional height of 1600 feet. any peculiar features of erosion and the transport of mat- ter occur, to adequately describe which too much space would : | W. M. Fontaine~—Geology of the Blue Ridge. 10) be required. These can best be explained by assuming the action of ice through this gap. In passing over the coarse de- composing syenites, which form the lower part of the mountain, ting them. This, which has all the characters of a true igneous substance, has made its exit principally on the west side, in the It is composed principally of a peculiar orthoclase of a sea- green color, its pl i i 23 aie bearing on this question. : n this article I have devoted most space to the geological structure of the two mountain chains and to the massive crys- ay rocks, since my object in making the examination was ; discover whether any igneous rocks existed in them, and, if °, to determine the part they played in their structure. Morgantown, West Virginia, Oct. 16th. 102 J. D. Dana—Notice of Hunt's Essays. Art. XII.—Notice of the Chemical and Geological Essays of T. 8. Hunt ;* by James D. Dana. Mr. Hunt has brought together, in this volume of Essays, various memoirs which have been published by him in this Journal and elsewhere. The chemical papers are important contributions to science, and show that the author was among the first to appreciate the principles which lie at the basis of what is called modern chemistry. He further applied the prin- ciples to the department of mineralogy; and in the view which he presented in 1859 with regard to the molecular rela- tions of the feldspars, he appears to have anticipated Tschermak y ten years. e chapters on chemical geology contain much that is valuable, though not all original, on the origin of igne- ous and metamorphic rocks, of dolomite and gypsum, of vol- canoes, of mountains, and on other topics, yet coupled with opinions, of fundamental importance, especially with reference to the making of mountains, metamorphism and the origin of some kinds of rocks, which science, we think, will never sus- tain. There is an important chapter on “Bitumen and Pyro- schists,” + pointing out the relations in chemical constitution between mineral oil and certain vegetable and animal tissues, ar as the fauna and stratification go, there is the closest relation ing beds The reader of the volume will observe that in the Third® Chapter the White Mountain series and Green Mountain series of rocks are made (as had been done by other geologists) Lower Silurian, and Upper Silurian and Devonian, in age, while in the Thirteenth Chapter (as also mentioned in the preface to Chap- view, as I believe I have proved, is the one sustained by the facts. The new view is wholly speculative, being based on no careful stratigraphical study of the regions, but mainly upon the assumption that certain kinds of crystalline rocks are a test of geological age the world over. Since the first announcement of this doctrine by Mr. Hunt, I have spent many months in the * Chemical and Geological Essays, By Thomas Sterry Hunt, LL.D. 490 pp. 8vo. Boston. 1875. (James R. Osgood & Co.) + Mr. Hunt’s convenient term “ pyroschists,” applied to shales containing car- bonaceous material, is objectionable in that the rocks are shales and not schists; and on this account I have not adopted it in my Geology. J. D. Dana— Notice of Hunt's Essays. 108 author’s opinions, and difficult to find excuse for. e mis- statements have already been the occasion of various correc: tons by the writer in this Journal. But hey are now re- necessary. The controversy between us, which Mr. Hunt here details so far as his side is concerned, relates chiefly to the misrepresen- tations of my views, as well as those of others, which are con- tained in his Address before the American Association in 1871, making Chapter xu of his volume of Essays. letters. Obtaining no satisfaction in this, I published my review of his Address in this Journal Ay 1872,+ and in it denied m to my Geology for evidence. Mr. Hunt, notwithstanding that calcite is sometimes found pse morphous after quartz; and, 4 another e, the fact that calcite is found pseudomorpho alter feldspar. Hence the conclusion, granite or gneiss to lime- * . Essays, p. 287. + This Journ., III, iii, 86,1872. Ib., iv, 41,1872. § Ib., iv, 97. 104 J. D. Dana—Notice of Hunt's Essays. Now, if the facts respecting the pseudomorphs were facts, it would still require great constructive powers to make out from the and also 5th edit., p. 361). Now, by this substitution process, the above mentioned metamorphosis would consist (swpposing fact No. be may be si materials of the granite by a process of solution, and the cotem- raneous or subsequent substitution of calcite! ll will admit that the use of facts and not-facts exhibited in the above charge is most extraordinary; and can judge from it, and from other like cases stated, of Mr. Hunt’s ability to apprect- ate, or do justice to, the views of others.” During the past year he has repeated anew his assertions, in a note before the Boston Natural History Society ;* and to this I gave a brief denial in the last volume of this Journal on pages 221, 222. Among the various other persons persistently misrepresented by him, no one has been more grossly so than the late Dr. Naumann. Mr. Hunt claimed in his Address that Naumann agreed with him in his doctrine that pseudomorphism in the case of certain silicates was simply “envelopment.” I showed, which the following is a translation: Dresden, November 17, 1872. * Proceedings for 1874, p. 334. J. D. Dana—Notice of Hunt's Essays. 105 regular envelopment, (enveloppemens avee orientation) from the eudomorphs with which, although having nothing in common with them, they had been associated. In connection, I took oc- i mark that it seemed to me an analogous error, when all gneisses, amphibolites, and so on, are regarded as metamorphic and not originally-formed rocks; and that the confounding of the two ideas of pseudomorphism and metamorphism has had many ere are cases of envelopment which may be regarded as pseudo- ok provided the form of the enveloped crystal is still recog- nizable, as well as results of a simultaneous and original crystallization, or that this view of mine is identical with that proposed by himself in the year 1853.* othing but an incomprehensible misunderstanding can explain such an opinion, which, moreover, has been already sufficiently disposed of by Dana in the American Journal of Science for Feb- mary and August of 1872. Cart NauMANN. In Mr. Hunt's new book that letter to Delesse is again ap- Pealed to, to show that Naumann holds what he rejects, and what every one who is acquainted with his Mineralogy knows that he has never held ; for the work does not contain a word envelopment” in the chapter on Pseudomorphism, and both in that chapter and elsewhere he presents the ordinarily accepted view. Naumann’s note to the Jahrbuch was not called out by anything I had written him; I never addressed 4 letter on the subject to anyone in Europe. a Hunt endeavors to make out that Naumann knew the con- ar: . his Address only through my ‘misleading criticisms, Dyed at therefore his letter is not to be taken as meaning what ri a ut Naumann, after giving his view of his own letter, ea ly precise in his statement of Mr. Hunt's doctrine. ore- fore hi ann shows that he did have Mr. Hunt's writings be- en 1m; for he refers to Mr. Hunt's views in “ 1853,” as quoted follow, ottence of Mr. Hunt's, published in 1853, which is here referred to, is as inated ;; © generally admitted notions of pseudomorphism seem to have orig- to find it in — re led to seek for some more simple a corpse ~ us and room — in the association and crystallizing together of homol- Tphous species.”—Am. J. Sci., I, xvi, 218.—Ebs. 106 J. D. Dana—Notice of Hunt's Essays. that criticism of Mr. Hunt without having read carefully Mr Hunt’s writings on the subject. “There is a confusion, not to say contradiction, in these expressed views of the venerable teacher not easy to explain,’* if we take Mr. Hunt as our expositor. But all is clear enough in the words and the works of Naumann. Mr. Hunt, in his new volume, instead of offering an apology for his misrepresentations, gives the following excuse for his course : ” * Hunt’s Essays, p. 323. FD. DenaNotice of Hunt's Essays. 107 that I had regarded serpentine and some other hydrous mag- nesian rocks as examples of pseudomorphism on a broad scale, but I have not since 1858 made the principle a general one, or applied it to any other rocks. That statement occurs only. in a book-notice in 1858.* _ With regard to magnesian rocks, I have stated my views im my first notice of his Address. Again, in my rejoinder to his reply, in August, 1872 (this Journ., III, iv, 108) I observe as follows, after a mention of various facts: “In view of such facts, the writer still holds, as in 1845, that— al, * “The same causes that have originated the steatitic scapolites, occasionally picked out of the rocks, have given magnesia to whole rock-forma- tions, and altered throughout their physical and chemical characters. i true that the crystals of serpentine are pseu rphous crystals, altered from chrysolite, it is also true, as Breithaupt has suggested, that the beds of serpentine bo them ar red; though often covering sq) leagues in extent, and common in m formations. The beds of steatite, the s more extensive talcose formations, contain everywhere evidence of the same agents." —This Jowrn., xlviii, 92, 1845. “ Besides this paragraph, expressive of my views, Mr. Hunt cites also another of the same purport from my Mineralogy of 1854, and in this, also, I see little to modify. It is as follows: that— _ The various examples of pseudomorphism should be understood as cases not Simply of alteration of crystals, but in many instances of changes in beds o ck. [Delesse admits this; see p. 99.] Thus all serpentine, whether in moun- ro b rphism, as it bears on all crystalline rocks, and of pseudomorphism are Tanches of one system of phenomena.”—Min., 4th edit., i, 226, 1854. ? rs. I ret with regard to the origin of these rocks, all that I ught to be warranted in the existing state of the science. ve nowhere attempted an explanation of the precise chemical . *sses In the production of magnesian rocks, while Mr. Hunt } oe year ; and the observations which I have made at Brewster, ® Nork, and which ere published in the last volume of this * part ner Journ, Sci., II, xxv, 445. That the expression was a hasty one on my Was w: evident from the entire rejection of the opinion from my Geology, which Hunt's A im 1859 and 1862, and the additional fact that when I read it in Mr. A ddress I could not at first believe that I was its author, and again and rock.” hydromica slate, and also chloritic slate, which is an ordinary metamorphic 108 J. D. Dana—Notice of Hunt's Essays. Journal (see pages 371 and 477) enable us to move a step for- ward, and, at the same time, leave little room for doubt with regard to the small value of Mr. Hunt’s speculations.* I had no occasion to speak of the origin of chrysolite rocks, nor do I now see that it was necessary. Such rocks are known to be very common among the oldest terranes of the globe, s0 that this material for making serpentine was then_abundantly t. _ Mr. Hunt keeps up his misrepresentations even when he is saying that “nothing is further from my intention than t0 misrepresent the views either of Naumann or of Dana.” His referred especially to one question—the chemical Ota in te aumann, t In order that the absurdity of the claim of “ difficulty ” may ; be still better appreciated, and to prevent, if possible, its rep® tition, I here state that— I have never held, and my writings no where sustain, the follow ing opinions which Mr. Hunt has attributed to me and others :— 1. The “possibility of converting almost any silicate inl any other.” 2. The possibility of converting granite into limestone. 3. The possibility of converting gneiss into limestone. 4. The possibility of converting diorite into limestone. * Mr. Hunt, in his hypothesis, attributes the origin of beds of se ine steatite to the alteration of chemically-deposited beds of different hydrous rp Sian silicates re to meerschaum. Serpentine occurs of various ages, @ if. set found in Cretaceous rocks in California, as shown by Whitney. Certainly A. Gray—Do varieties wear out, or tend to wear out? 109 The possibility of converting granite into serpentine. The possibility of converting granulite into serpentine. The possibility of converting gneiss into serpentine. The possibility of converting diorite into serpentine. The possibility of converting limestone into granite. 10. The possibility of converting limestone into gneiss. Again, with the exception of the year 1858, I have never held nor taught that metamorphism is pseudomorphism ona broad scale. My Geology gives a very different definition of metamorphism. Oo SS ST I regret that I have been compelled to return to this un- pleasant subject. Charged with holding views which I did not entertain, it became a duty to the cause of scientific truth to ut in a disclaimer. And now that Mr. Hunt’s misstatements ave been given new currency by a republication of them, with additions, in his volume of Essays, and since his repeated asser- tions have led to my being quoted for the views attributed to me, a new explanation and denial seemed to be demanded. The case is a strange one in the annals of science. Four years have not sufficed to secure a recognition of the facts. Any other person, with hardly an exception, if he had had my denial, and had been referred to publications of mine that gave my views and fully sustained the denial, would have accepted the statement, and made a public correction. The misrepre- Sentations are a blot on the volume of Essays, and one which might have easily been avoided. ee KUL Dy Variekes wear out, or tend to wear out? By Professor ASA GRAY. are following article was published in the N. Y. Tribune, (the D the author, Although cast in a popular form, for general readers, Wwe deem it well worthy of reproduction in this Journal.—Epbs. Tuts question has been argued from time to time for more than half a century, and is far from being settled yet. Indeed, 4 'S not to be settled either way so easily as is sometimes Hought. The result of a prolonged and rather lively discus- 110 }; natural size Figure 10. Marginal mG of a sucker from one er the séoails arms}; enlarged two diamete Figure 11. a, A hes. Peta pe By _ ee 8 small marginal sucker from the mtacular a a; nat ural Figure 12. Srey jackie’ from porhafer arm of No. 4; natural size. Figure 13. Part of the marginal ring of the same; e' enlarged. [To be continued. ] Art. XVIL—On the Mechanical Work done by a Muscle before Exhaustion by. F. E. Nipwer, Assistant Professor of Physics in Was ington University. Tue work done by a muscle may be classed under two heads: 1st. The exerting of any force (F) through any distance (D). To distinguish this kind of work from the other, we may call it dynamical work. It is measured by the product FD. 2d. Suppose an experimenter to hold a weight on his out pause arm, and suppose furthermore that the experiment is one of the weights of a large Atwood’s machine, and 18 Guved vertically with an accelerated motion. The dy ‘namical work done by the arm before exhaustion is easily ‘obtain from the equations of dynamics. If now the acceleration be F. E. Nipher— Work done by a Muscle before exhaustion. 131 comes zero, and the weight be simply held on the arm at a con- stant level, the arm very soon tires, showing that work is still done. This kind of work, which Prof. Haughton has called “statical” work, is purely molecular, and we hope to be able to show that it may be referred to and easily measured by the ey unit of mechanical work—the kilogram-meter. In the supposed case,* if the acceleration becomes negative, the time of fatigue increases, until for an acceleration of minus (g), the time required to wholly fatigue the arm is infinite. ese considerations show, not only the reality of ‘“statical” work, but also that it is an important element in all kinds of muscular work. s the unit of statical work, we shall adopt the work done by the horizontally outstretched arm in sustaining a weight of one kilogram for one second upon a lever-arm of one meter. his work is evidently equivalent to the lifting of this same weight through a certain height. _ As the unit of dynamical work, we shall take the dynam- teal work done by the horizontally outstretched arm, in lifting 4 weight of one kilogram, through a height of one meter, with an acceleration of one meter per second, on a lever-arm of one meter. The solution of the problem evidently consists in find- Ing the relation between these two units. 4 order to eliminate the fatigue caused by the downward- Punging weight, the apparatus shown in figs. 1 and 2 was de- vised. Bis a shelf armed with a plate of car-spring caoutch- th ¢, for the support of the weight. This shelf is fastened by © Iron bands I and a vertical back-piece V, to the slide U, bl Ing further supported by a cross-piece P. By usin suitable stare the dite may be raised to any desired height, which Deve 18 read off on a scale marked on the upright pieces A eg used as a support for the arm during the interval of rest, h . it can be adjusted to any desired height. S (fig. 2) is a rizontal string attached to the wire K, and to the wall of the cated, nPe Soon to be able to commence the veld of experiments here indi- . «Pparatus for which has been already devi t Hinrichs’ “School Laboratory.” 1871. p. 108. 1382 F. E. Nipher— Work done by a Muscle before exhaustion. room. R is an iron rod for holding the apparatus in position. The weight is a bucket of shot, provided with a stiff bail and wooden handle, so that during the lifting ous na of the weight the line passing through "a the center of the hand and the center of gravity of the weight is a vertical. The experimenter stands to the right of the apparatus (as in fig. 2) and lifts the weight from the shelf B until his knuck- les touch the cord S. (Back of hand turned upward.) The beginning and close of this interval of work is marked by the sharp click of a metronome, the § time of whose beat is ¢ Atthe instant J when the weight has reached the high- est point, it is grasped by an assistant and lowered to the shelf, the arm of the experimenter being wholly relaxed, and resting upon the stiff bail of the bucket and the support D. day of experiment with a 5-0 kgrs. weight, and reduced all of the experiments to the mean strength, as shown by the constant experiment. In this series, a weight, w, was lifted through 4 height, h=0°70 meters, in a time, 4, of 125 sec. The interval 0 rest was also 1:25 sec. The experiments were so arranged as to make the constant experiment come, alternately, at 11 4. ™ and 4 p. M., the other experiments alternating in like manner The weight, w, was changed each day of experiment, so that in the table below the numbers on the horizontal lines ate arranged as observed, the order of time being indicated by the indices in the first vertical column. The columns headed c are the number of lifts n’ for the coD stant experiment w=5-00, he mean value of ¢ for é weights 3-0, 35, etc., 75, in all 100 experiments, is 35°79. er determinations of n for w=7% and 8-0 were consciously ba¢; FE, Nipher— Work done by a Muscle before exhaustion. 183 as the arm was unable to manage such weights at such velocity, so that I was obliged to stop before the arm was exhausted.* Rigut ARM. w yariable. A = 0-70 meters. ¢ = 1°25 sec. 2°00) c 92°50 ¢ fp | ¢ Jo a je ¢ fro © fom [5-0] « 00] fos 6°50 “00 i 2398 140/331 24/31] 69/279 53/349 36/251 32/2791 26/329 191314 16/3 a uu 37 479/354186/305144/329 62/324) 57/28132\251 26 289 25/288 19/309 16/2 112 7126 445 35$239/331138/429 79/37] 61/349 38/281 33132 26/3 19/319 17 30} 1 Ti 3 10/33 T07|39J271/331158/38f 79341 66/35145'308 38/378 27/308 24/388 19 391 16.40 10/32 8 a 208/339128/379 97/351 80/35147|399 44/459 25/338 25/378 20 40} 14 33] 12|37 Re OR a + 337 89/319 55/33944/379 28 288 28/36§ 23/32) 36} 14.3 fe 31 7 ae 3 ie | | 19/39}. 15/357 10/35) 7 poe 520 afta 9 117/42 18/43] 15/418.11/379 6 340/341216/42]129 39] 87 mai of 25/38) 23/38] 18/47] 16/43} 8/4 eae ae Aiis'sahoo 34] 43 16136113418 9/378 7 The values of n’ for w< 3-00, were also rejected in the calcu- lation of the constants, as with such light weights the work varies greatly with a slight variation of strength. [This will be fully dlabinsed hereafter.] Taking the constant c as the eats of the strength, and assuming that the work done with (hich we at different times is proportional to the strength, = Sig show to be true for the weights not rejected), om n'= observed number of lifts before exhaustion and n=the same, reduced to the basis the mean strength 35°79 35°79 dt from which formula we have the following values of n. The mean values of n are given in the eleventh line, and the prob- 2°00) 2°50] 3-00| 360| 4-00] 4-50 5:00] 6:50) 6-00] 6°50| 7-00) 1°50] 8:00 251) 152) 143| 91/ 56) 51-5) 42-4) 29°1| 21-9] 19°1| 14-9] Lo-7) 8-9 489] 2992) 161] 69] '73| 45°8| 33°2| 32°0| 22°7| 23-9 15-8, 9°6| 8-2 48°5| 36-9! 28°2| 21-9] 20-3) 16-9 10°8) 8-9 53°7| 36°8| 32°2| 22°6| 17°4/ 14°3/ 11-2) 11-0 225) 124) 99] 82) 43-1! 35-0) 27°1| 24-2! 17-9] 15-2) 11-6) 8-7 255} 132) 103} 60 42°6| 35°8| 27°8| 25-7) 19°9| 14°7| 13-9) 8°7 64:8 145| 105 : 56-4| 35°0| 26 0 92-9| 15°9| 11°3| 8°7| 7°6 Mean|____|____| 159:5| 95-8| 67-2 61°2| 36-9| 28° 6 99°7| 18°1| 145| 10-4) 7°8 nada eee 571 3-51 201 1: 7] 0-91 0-6! 0-3! 0-2) O- | 45°5| 36 . st ie 28°3, 22-2 15:0 13°1/106| 58 3 6 * This 8 point is important. Try to lift 20 kgrs. in a second through 0°70 meters. Rows Will fail to aa once, pi Ao yet not be exhausted, The question of maximum attainable with different weights is wholly different from the one under ses mn. I think Mr. Haughton has pas Aer} this influence on his own ents, 134. EF. E. Nipher— Work done by a Muscle before exhaustion. able error (e) of this mean is given in the twelfth line, and is calculated from the formula e=ta/ ia: a, where v = the ry ee number of observations and d= difference from the m Assuming the arm to be a uniform cylinder, and donot by @ one-half the weight of the arm, and we have for any weight w the total dynamical work done before Pambes Total work =(w+a)h.n.. i (1) The value of a can be determined by direct weighing, as fol- lows: Exhaust the arm thoroughly, then holding it in the same position as when lifting, extend the arm horizontally, resting the hand in the scale-pan of a spring-balance, the dial of f which is turned from the experimenter. The reading off of the weight is done by an assistant. After a few minutes the muscles tire so that a practical experimenter can then gradually relax them fully. Untrained muscles, when thus tried, act involuntarily, and precise results can not be obtained. The value of a was thus determined twenty times, the values being here given. a (obs.) 1-46 1°42 1°63 1°42 1-46 1°42 1°58 1°42 1°48 1°40 1°42 1°52 1°48 158 1°50 1°50 1°49 1°62 1°58 1°57 a=1'50 The mean is 1°50 kgr. with a pe ee error of 0°01 kgr. Hence (calling the total work=W), (1) becomes W=(w+1°'50) 0°70. Coérdinating the values of W and w and the relation appears plainly hyperbolic. Hence the two most probable cases are ha= Sie eg AR: lest es 2) and (w+a) hd (wa)? ( ) (w+ a)hn= < - es wae |e tep where c and v are constants. From these we readily have log (w+-a)+log n=k'— vlog (w+-a) -.------ (4) log (w+-a)+log n=hk—vlogw _..----------(5) These equations are of the form y= k-+-ve. where y and « can be determined from the observations. They are given in the table below : These values of x and y for eq. (4) and (5) are codrdinated oD the chart and a straight line, drawn as nearly as possible through the points, shows the functions to be linear in each case. ¥ 3 F. E. Nipher— Work done by a Muscle before exhaustion. 185 the change in y, for each unit of change in 2, and is for eq. (4), 2°58. For eq. (5) it is 1:99, which is essentially 2°0. w = (w+a) n log w log (w +a) logn (log w+a)+logn 3°0 4°5 152°5 0°4771 0°6532 2°1833 2°8365 3°5 5°0 95°8 0°5441 0°6990 1°9814 2°6804 4°0 5°5 67°2 0°6021 0°7404 1°8274 2°5678 4°5 6°0 51-2 0°6532 0°7782 1°7093 2°4875 5°0 6°5 36°9 0°6990 0°8129 1°5670 2°3799 5°5 70 28°6 0°7404 0°8451 174564 2°3015 60 75 22°7 0°7782 0°8751. 1°3560 2°2331 6°5 80 18°1 0°8129 0°9031 1°2577 2°1608 70 85 14°5 0°8451 0°9294 171614 2°0908 As will be hereafter shown, the observations are most nearly represented by eq. (8). It is, however, impossible to decide be- tween equations (2) and (8) with absolute certainty, until the experiments are repeated with other values of h andt For the present we assume the equation (wa)in=,- a a (6) from which we readily have w%hn=ce—aw?hn, which is of the form of =c+au. By the method of least squares, the values of the constants are more accurately determined, and are found to be aa—1°52 c= 42°61. Solving (6) for n, and substituting the proper values, and we have the following comparison of the observed and calculated values of n. dn is n (cale.) —n (obs.). e is the probable error of n(obs.), also in per cent. w n (obs.) n (cale.) dn (%) e (#) 2°50 283 242 —14°4 75 3°00 152°5 150°3 — 14 3°7 3°50) 95°8 99-4 + 36 3°6 4:00 67:2 69°2 + 2°9 2°9 4°50 51°2 50°1 — 21 3°3 5°00 36°9 37°4 + 1:3 2°4 5°50 28°6 28°7 + 0°3 2°9 6-00 22°7 22°5 — 09 1°3 6°50 18°] 18-0 — 05 1*] 7-00 14°5 146 + 07 07 7°50 1 11°9 414-4 0°9 186 F. EB. Nipher— Work done by a Muscle before exhaustion. 8'o Ww °"4 o'5 0°6 o°7 o'8 o9 { Sor (va) The comparison of the calculated and observed values of n 18 very satisfactory. This is shown graphically on the chart, the small circles representing the observations. The values of 0”, € proper sign, are also there represented by the broken dotted line, the zero line being the horizontal line, which it repeatedly crosses. The observed value of a is 1°50. The calculated value is 152. The difference, 0-02 ker., being 13 per cent of a observed. Instead of eq. (6), Prof. Haughton has found the relation for the case here discussed, to be represented by the equation.* (rear)? nam Ao a os cs (7) where for my right arm he finds the values of the constants 1 be A=1000 and a=1-0. The experiments from which this formula was obtained are, as before said, unreliable, and the calculated value of @ is 83 per cent less than the observed value. This relation would also demand that v’, in equatio2 (2), should equal unity. It was found to be 2°58. In order to test the matter, experimentally, I performed tw? experiments as follows: 1, arm alone (w=0) was lifted through 90° (from vert cal to horizontal) in the time 1:25 seconds, the experiments be- ing conducted exactly as described in my later experiments. According to (7) for complete exhaustion n=1000 oe (6) 46 “ 77 Remand * Principles of Animal Mechanics. London, 1873. p. 463. F. E. Nipher— Work done by a Muscle before exhaustion. 187 The arm was lifted 2000 times without feeling any appreciable exhaustion. 2. A weight w=050 ker. was lifted, as before, except that the weight was allowed to drop during the interval of rest, as in my earlier experiments. It was lifted 1500 times with very little of fatigue. According to (7) for complete exhaustion n= 440 “ (6) « «“ n= 12000 feet in one position, etc.). It would, however, be a dangerous pe iit xperiment 2 was also performed with a time t=1-164 (the time taken in my earlier experiments, reduced by Prof. Haugh- ton with the same result. This experiment also shows that eq. (2) does not represent this kind of work, for we deduce, from the chart, for the values of the constants 21240 (wah .n (wa)? 58 making w=05, and we have (since a=1% and h=0°7) n= 2500. The arm would be exhausted for 2500 lifts, which is hardly possible. pies nyone who will take the trouble to codrdinate the corre- sponding values of c and n’ as given in the first table, will see clearly that we were justified in retaining those values of 7, and only those, which we there reduced. Each curve, however, gives evidence of the fact, that for any weight, n varics as Some power of the strength. ee have made several series of experiments to investigate this point, determining the strength (s) of the muscle, by means ¥ @ dynamometer. Calling 7, the time of exhaustion I have ound that he v tT=a(s—f)", Where » is a function of the weight, a and being also con- stant for the same weight. If the dynamometer really gave the absolute strength of the muscle, / would be equal to w. reclse values of these constants have not yet been obtained, ahd therefore decline to discuss this equation any farther at n St. Louis, Oct. 31, 1874, 138 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. Strecker, H.SO,.OH, or has the more usual formula HO.SO. Since, if the former formula be correct, the two hydrogen atoms have different positions in the molecule, it is obvious that ration be C.H,.SO,.0C,H,. Since the two bodies are not identical, it follows that the only possible formula for the former 18 : H,, corresponding to an acid of the formula OC,H,, was obtained; and th chloride, treated with alcohol, yields ethyl —. This result and sulphurous acids, being in the latter a tetrad.— Ber. Chem. Ges., vii, 1073, Sept., 1874, G. F. B 2. On the Organic acids of crude Petroleum.—HEtt and MepIncER have examined an acid liquid, obtained by agitating the second running (specific gravity 0°875) in the distillation of heavy Wallachian petroleum with caustic soda, and treating the flocculent precipitate thus formed, after solution in water, wit sulphuric acid. This oily acid liquid, which collects on the sur face, called mineral-oil acid by the workmen, is a mixture of rob- ably homologous acids, whose separation was exceedingly dif cult, fractional precipitation yielding semi-fluid products, and distillx tion producing decomposition. inally, an ethyl-ether boilin constantly at 236°-240°, was obtained as a colorless oily liqui¢, highly refractive, and having an agreeable fruity odor and burr ing taste. on saponification, and subsequent ecomposition 7 t sition. It is a weak acid, its ammonium salt being decom osed Chemistry and Physics. | 139 of the three series of fatty acids at present known, and the authors believe it to be a member of a new series characterized by a pecu- liar mode of union of the carbon atoms.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 1216, Sept., 1874. G. F. B. 3. On the Direct Synthesis of Methyl aldehyde.—Brovte has hoy obtained was marsh gas; and this equally whether car- nous oxide or carbon dioxide was used. By a modification of ide, h 8 *,e y + the conditions of the experiment with carbon dioxide, he ha effected the expected synthesis after marsh gas and 5-2 of methyl aldehyde. This latter amount be- fol equivalent to 276 percent. The reaction appears to be as ollows: . CO,+(H,),=COH,+H,0 : Brodie believes that methyl aldehyde was formed in his former °xperiments, but was subsequently decomposed thus: (COH,),—=CO,+-CH, Ann. Ch. Pharm., elxxiv, 284, Nov., 1874. ‘G. F, B. nthesis of an Isomer of Cane-sugar.—The relation of the as Vaporated, treated with ether to remove a bitter substance, tain ap dried in vacuo at 100% A colorless body is thus ob- ea analogous to gu nd dextrin in appearance and taste, oe Soluble in water, and very hygroscopic. Upon analysis, its to Se | It has no sweet taste, 18 not ae se" 84 13° h ? per Precipitated by ammoniacal lead acetate, reduces the cop ‘est only with difficulty and is dextrogyrate. ~ It is not fer- 140 Scientific Intelligence. copper test but not being fermentable. The author Pride that the acetylic derivative of dextrose obtained by Sc on Crate H,0),0,,, is the octacetylic aatrauve of this n ompound, — Bull, Soc Ch., Il, xxii, 145, Se ept., 1874. altose.—Scuvize has reinvestigated and confirmed the statement of O’Sullivan that the action of malt ei upon a temperature ‘of 60°, was rapidly saccharified. ‘After. concent tion and pr ecipitation “ the dextrin by alcohol, the solution was evaporated to a syrup treated up alcohol, the clear solution poured off and peeparaten over sulphuric acid. Crystals - d to acrystalline mass. Reerys tallized from water or alcohol, 6. Synthesis oy Leucie acid by means of its Nitrile.— » BauEse MEYER and SieeL, by acting on amyl aldehyde—obtained from the alcohol aredinted by fermentation—with OT cones aci being decomposed into the bodies from whiok® it was form sodi Potassium and ium hydrates also peor it similarly. Analysis cede it the formula C, hydroe Jori¢ acid decomposes it, producing ammonium chlo Hide and leucic acid. n the addition of water the latter prcitidt separates as an oi ’ sinking to the bottom. It is fees y means of ether, whieh leaves it on pains tion as a from which after a time large transparent crystal plates of the acid separate, having the cour position C,H,,0,. There can be no doubt therefore that leucie acid is thus constituted :— i. ; a he 3 Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 1109, ig hee ed in large colorless ates which was soluble and crystallized ‘therefrom i in brilliant plates. WeiTH SCHEDLER examined it and pro oved it to be phthalic acid, by co* version into the anhydride and into calcium and barium phthala ates, Chemistry and Physics. 141 as well as into phthalimide. Further investigation showed that anthraquinone carefully purified from phthalic acid, heated with ic acid for six four parts of fuming sulphuri id f ours to 270°, gave Sa OH_., q {COOH S0,0H OH} Go CoH. +280, Jou=CsH. | COOH TCs} 8020H Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 1106, Sept., 1874. 8. Simple Sryer has identified the coloring matter which he had produced urine, is only a reduction derivative of the coloring matter of the lood, and that the biliary coloring matters bilirubin and biliver- tion of the blood-corpuscles under pathological conditions. — Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 1065, Sept., 1874. G. F. B. .». Aspuraginic acid as a product of Pancreatic digestion — Since asparaginie acid has been proved to be a product of the natural ferments such as that of the pancreatic juice, produced a acid in their action upon blood-fibrin. Fresh blood- ret Was detected ; its identity being established by conversion Ch the copper salt and by elementary analysis. The la at, NO, requires 36 09, of carbon and 5°26 hydrogen. Analy- - Asimilar effect is produced, but in a less marked manner nd mass of air or membrane, has a higher pitch than the ‘ 142 Scientific Intelligence: further, this thickness depends on the ratio which exists between the sound proper to the membrane and the given sound, and also on the a and dimensions of the membrane. is the pipe, and within certain limits nearly Teearbeae | to the breadth of the solid rim surrounding the pipe; it is, on the con- trary, panier starting from a certain breadth, and then propor tional to the diameter of the pipe.— Ann. Chem. et ee iy Bac 11. Electrical Resistance.—M. Brnorr has measured with | reat goat the oe resistance of various metals at temperature 860° mployed both the method of the diferential Cave and of the Wheatstone’s ee, and for each metal has measured several specimens. The mean of these is given in the following table, the open column ee the resistance of 4 wire one meter long an aving a cross section of one mm. in Ohms, and column three the same quantity in eens units. Column four gives the resistance compared with silve Metal. Ohms. Siemens. putide Big Sind bss Geet 0154 161 100 Cop A ac ere ee 0179 90° Silver, A (lyicisc. eee 0198 0201 80 Ue ne es 0217 "0227 71 Sateen Ae ee ee 0324 49°7 Magnesium, : Ho. oot cds 0423 0443 36°4 fino, Ay, at 860%. Ce 0565 0591 27° WiMb Sd 2 Ge i "0594 0621 25°9 Cadmium, Hoo eee 0685 0716 22°5 Dress, A (2)o.2 22652 se -*0691 0723 22°3 Rica Al. ais olGe Se 1099 "1149 14°0 Wie oe ae 1 "1214 13°3 Aluminum Bronze, A (3)-.----- 1189 1243 13°0 Pe ue een cues ek 1216 1272 12°7 Palladian, Ao. oes ecco: 1384 1447 111 Platinam, 2A 0.222525 1 7s ‘1575 1647 9°77 Minm. i 20. oA 1831 1914 8°41 feed ‘1985 ‘2075 7°76 bem Silver, A (4) 2.21.5 2654 ‘2775 580 Mawery. 255.0502 oo ea 9564 1-0000 1°61 A, annealed; H, hardened; (1) silver “75; (2) copper 64:2, ot 33°1, lead 04 tin 0-4; (3) copper "90, aluminum 10; (4) copper 50, nickel 25, zine 25. These results, which are kay taken at 0°, agree closely with thos obtained by other observers. M. Benoit has extended his observ® tions to a range of igeabienehatos much greater than those prev’ Chemistry and Physics. 148 ously employed for this purpose. He wound the wire around a clay pipe enclosed in a muffle and immersed the whole in a bath of water, mercury, sulphur or cadmium, which was kept at the boiling point by a Perret furnace. Constant temperatures of 100°, 60°, 440° and 860° were thus obtained. Various temperatures h. The meas- e results graphically. They show that the resistance increases regu- larly for all metals like tin, lead and zinc up to their point of fusion, This increase, however, differs for different metals. hotice that tin, thallium, cadmium, zinc, lead, are found together m the upper part of the plate; at 200° to 230° their resistance has doubled. Below them are iron and steel; for the last the re- sistance doubles at 180°, quadruples at 430°, and at 860° is about old, copper and silver form an intermediate group. In general B.C. P. ne Reflection by Glass.—Dr. P. Guan has measured the amount of light reflected by a plate of glass and compared the results h enee table the first column gives the angle of inci- the ge, ‘ Second the mean of twelve observations of the amount 144 Scientific Intelligence. reflected by a prism of crown glass, the third the amount reflected according to Fresnel’s formula, and the fourth and fifth the ob- served and computed reflections for a similar prism of flint glass. The incident beam is in all cases taken as 100. Crown glass. Flint glass. Obs. Calc. Obs. Calc. 30° 5°5 59 7°0 : 40 7°2 73 8°4 9°3 50 10°4 11°4 12°0 13°3 55 13°3 14°1 16°1 16°2 60 17°4 17°9 20°3 20°3 65 23°1 22°9 25°4 25°7 70 29°3 30°2 32°7 33°0 The indices of refraction were found from the angle of total polar zation, since eck has shown that the density and, therefore, fer in some cases as much as four per cent from one another.— Monats. Acad., Berlin, 1874, p. 511; Phil. Mag., x\viii, 475. E. € 18. Electrical Polarization.—M. G. QuincxE describes in detail a great number of experiments on the electrical currents accom panying the non-simultaneous immersion of two mercury elec- trodes in various liquids, and has arrived at the following col clusions : tween the electrodes is increased. e electromotive force var with the nature of the liquid and increases as the concentratio? diminishes, in some cases amounting to 0°6 of a Volt. The le however, reaches a maximum, especially in the e aus iy near the surface of contact after the wetting. Similar effects a7 obtained with solid metals, as with mercury. Thecu with acids are due chiefly to chemical action, and are, t! secondary phenomena. The surface tension may be either 1 creased or diminished and may change its sign with the directio? and duration of the current. The disturbances in capillarity : not be accounted for by electrolysis.—Pogg. Annal., cliii, 161-203; Phil. Mag., xlviii, 479. Ez. Geology and Natural History. 145 IL GroLtogy AND NATURAL HISTORY. 1. On the Cosmical dust which falls to the earth with atmos- pheric precipitation ; by A. E. NorpensKx1éLtp.—In the early part of December, 1871, the region about Stockholm was visited by a snow fall of unprecedented magnitude. Nordenskidld availed himself of this opportunity to investigate whether the apparently pure snow did not contain particles of foreign matter. A cubic meter of the snow was collected and melted with all possible pre- cautions: it was taken, storm (which lasted several days), when the atmosphere must have en purified from all accidental dust. Notwithstanding this, a cobalt or nickel ti Which covered the drift ice, which itself had come from much higher latitudes, was found to be thickly dusted with minute black Particles ; they rested in part on the surface, and were in part en- nthe icy snow mass some inches below. The dust was k when collected, but became gray on drying. It proved to fontain metallic particles which, with sulphate of copper, gave a Precipitate of metallic copper. The experiment was repeated later, material being obtained from a layer consisting of a granular *rystalline mass of altered snow, covered by eight millimeters of old harden : i "as ose and had recently fallen. At this place it was estimated that about 0-1 to 1° milligram of the magnetic particles were contained ion insoluble in acids consisted of a firm, angu- Am. Jour, Sc1.—Turrp Serres, Vou. IX, No. 50.—Fes., 1875. 10 146 Scientific Intelligence. lar, colorless powder, in which some fragments of diatoms were This material has much resemblance to the remarkable dust found by Nordenskidld scattered on the surface of the ice in the interior of Greenland, as also at a distance of : 30 miles from the coast, and to which he gave hs name eryoconite. This conse for the most part of minute angular crystalline grains, which wer colorless and transparent, with fragments possibly of feldspar a augite crystals, and some black magnetic particles. In an analysis the eryoconite was proved to consist of silica, alumina, oxide of alumina, silica and water, 2:3:14:1. Its specific gravity is 2°63, and the bios recs we form is monoclinic ordenskiéld shows that the eryoconite must have had either a sauieal § origin, or have come from Jan Mayen, or else some ut known voleanic region in A interior of Greenland, while the presence of cobalt, and probably nickel, would seem to prove that a part of the dust at least had a cosmical origin. He finally comes to this conclusion—that small quantities of a cosmical dust, con- senins metallic iron, cobalt, nickel, and phosphoric acid and also arbonaceous organic matter, falls upon the earth along with aehens precipitation. —Pogg. Ann., cli, 154, 1874. The dust, or bagi ea has nearly the composition of an oligo ae nay —E. On Middle ee ‘Mineral Coal ; by E. J. Matrerr. (From Mh Rocky Mountain News, ast olomaaes he Nov. 19, and dated Territorial School of Mines, Nov. 17, 1874.)—I have ex amined specimens of coal from Middle Park, A herewith com- arent to pie When ~ pale it loses its Cee color, a dak vandyke-brown Although it might be classed as caking- bituminous coal, it differs in the following respects from coals of that class : n the nature of the residue left eee distillation—a trae coke, something similar to that which would be deriv m dis: tilling sugar, but too porous and crumbling to support burden ina furnace. Second. In the large amount of ma and tarry oil produced. Third. In the brown color of its pow ene with the Middle Park coal, in order to compare ghly the relative amounts of gas. ga oe y the domesti¢ is boiled with concentrated solution of pots it does not affect the color of the solution. Lignitic or brown ¢0 colors potash solution brown CORSA ty SIEEEY- 71D ee Eee a eae Re ae Geology and Natural History. 147 Considering all of its properties, I may say that it possesses uch in mon with the recently discovered mineral called albertite, a species of solidified petroleum, and also with what is known as torbanite. These two varieties are highly valued by gas o tw pe these Analysis shows it to contain in one hundred parts 6°02 per cent of water and moisture, 39°95 per cent of volatile matter (gas and tarry oil), 54-03 per cent of fixed residue, consisting of coke and ash. 8 much confusion exists in the nomenclature of the mineral fuel of Colorado, I would propose, as I recently did to Professor Hayden, to give up entirely the term lignite as a special class hame. If we call our mineral fuel lignite, we must conclude that anthracite, or possess an organic structure. The term lignite oe be dropped, as being inapplicable when applied to our min- lass — Northeastern Ireland ; by Prof. Epwarp Hutt. ‘ oe Assoc, Aug., 1874.)—The Antrim igneous rocks, which in- clude those of the Giant’s Causeway, are referred to the closing part of the Eocene period and the whole of the Miocene. The reed eruptions in vast sheets, covering in some places beds of Shite and others of pisolitic limonite. The whole thickness of the ie to be 3,000 to 4,000 feet. In both regions the thickness has “ reduced by denudation. Mr. Hall states that the thousands Several ; : the strata, thousand feet—were made without any crumpling of 148 Scientific Intelligence. The augitic rock consists of crystalline grains of augite and labradorite with grains of titano-ferrite [a titaniferous magnetite ?], and often also of chrysolite. Owing to the amount of iron in the rock, its decomposition has produced beds of pisolitie limonite, No distinct remains of voleanic cones can now be distinguished in the region. 4, Report of the Geological Survey of Missouri, including jlauct of 1873-4, with 91 Visietrstions and an At tlas ; by Gar- LAND - BRoApHEAD, State Geologist. 734 pp. 8vo. Jefferson only on a small scale for many years. In 1823 the annual yiel was reported at 3,000,000 pounds; in 1878 it reached 27,676,320 pounds. The first iron was made in 1816; the first zine, in 1367. The Lower Drift includes large boulders of granite, red quartzyte, greenstone, etc., which increase in quantity and size as we go north, In Sullivan County, a granite boulder measures 20 by 24 mostly rounded, as if by stream action. It is very probable that, anterior to the deposit of this rounded drift, but subsequent to the age of deposit on the highest land, an immense lake covered the is and a portion of the border counties, while all Central and South- ern Missouri formed an extensive area of dry land. We have evr dence in North Missouri of great erosion previous to the existence of this immense lake. The se is area of the Missouri coal-field is estimated at 23,100 cause needless confusion. The « reater Soares and better de- soils, economic minerals and rocks, and topographical features of the southwest coal field, there follow over three yrs pages of county reports. The fo ollowing chapters, on lead, z ¢ and iron ores, by Schmidt and Leonhard, give many jatdnoitoe ; details pe cerning the occurrence and relations of these ores. At Jo ope Oronogo, the galenite is pins ponage associated with bitumen, whic sometimes entirely impregnates the ore. is bituminous galenite has a darker appearance than the common ore, being often dee black in color. Bitumen is of quite common occurrence in the Geology and Natural History. 149 Joplin mines. Analyses of oe from nine different localities, show an average of a little over an ounce of silver to the ton part of the lead as carbonate on the inside of the coating, but carrying most of it out of the shell, either to deposit it fined ately or to car sal it away. When this process has been continued for some tim find a round or oval shell of compact and gen- eel pibense 2 cerussite, of the size of a walnut, or sometimes heavy beds. The greatest observed thickness is 105 feet. This is here one of the principal ore-bearing rocks, containing galenite in humerous sheets or seams. It is evident, in all places, that the galenite was formed after the chert hac been formed and hardened and in many places broken up. The limestone has undergone, in many places, a process of dolomization. Solutions ate? it have dissolved the carbonate of lime and partly — ao it with carbonate of magnesia. ith this shade a contra con nected ; cracks are opened in the mass, and filled with prnauiel dolomite. The change was always begun either in fissures or on the surfaces of layers or of broken off blocks, and gradually pro- ceeded toward the interior of the rock. It seems to have preceded irregular outline gen ae from two to six feet high, above whial the solid beds e undisturbed. In the Joplin districts, the ore- rian Tend reso though ariy. she in the Bees pliopiteras as are all those of the southwest portion of the State. None of the posits as yet ca = have proved to be paying to a greater depth than about 80 feet below the surface. his fact is independent of 150 Scientific Intelligence. the geological position of the deposits. It is a remarkable fact, also, that while barite is entirely missing in the southwestern region, this mineral is, in this central region, a nearly constant asso- ciate of the galenite in the Carboniferous as well as in the Silu- rian rocks. These facts suggest the idea, as Mr. Schmidt ob- serves, that the occurrence of lead ore, with its associates, is not e under similar conditions at the time of deposition. If this sug- gestion is correct, it would throw the origin of all the galenite of fi even, than the Coal-measures. e Atlas accompanying the Report contains geological maps of Cedar, Barton, Vernon, Bates, Howard, Madison, Jasper and New- ton Counties, with uncolored maps of the lead districts, and three sheets of parallelized sections of the Coal-measures. These last seem to us objectionable, in that they give but little information, while involving great expense. The field-notes thus published Victoria have recently been issued: one, a Report of Progress, by R. Broves Smyru, Secretary for Mines for the Colony, with additional reports on the mineral resources of Ballarat, by R. B Murray, and on certain Coal-fields; and the other, Decade I, op the Paleontology of Victoria, by Frepericx McCoy. The plants Victoria Coal-fields. Professor MeCoy makes all these wee measures Mesozoic. While no Lepidodendrids occur 1n th “4 Coal-measures, a species is reported from a sandstone of Gipp® gs in the Ss of 3 18 that — ge : Geology and Natural History. 151 pristis, var. B., Hall), D. bicornis Hall, Graptolites fruticosus Hall, G. quadribrachiatus Hall, G. bryonoides Hall, G. octobrachiatus ll, G. Logani Hall. e last four are very common species both in Canada and Victoria, though rare in Europe. 6. Report upon Vertebrate Fossils discovered in New Mexico with descriptions of new species ; by Prof. EK. D. Corr, Paleontol- ogist. 18 pp. 8vo. Geogr. Expl. and Surveys west of the 100th Meridian, First Lieut. G. M. Wurrrer, Corps of Engineers, U.S . : n the New York State Mice which has now reached its 26th notes on the larves or transformations of various insects, and de- Scriptions of some new species ; and also a report of the Botanist, unreported from the State, with various notes. ; Wind-drift erosion: Note by G. K. Girpert. (Communt- rrows. These phe- mena were briefly noted by Dr. J. 5. Newberr * Accordin ; is identi ith hi linodon described +S, °° Professor Marsh, this genus 1s identical with his Styli , bed in this Journal in vol. vii, p. 532, May, 1874, where its resemblances to todon were mentioned.—Eps. 152 Scientific Intelligence. Association at Hartford; and to him belongs the credit of having first discovered and truly explained the facts. _ 10. Lext-book of Geology, designed Jor Schools and Acade- mies ; by James D. Dana. 2d edition, 358 pp. 8vo. Illustrated by 400 woodcuts. New York and Chica 0, 1874. (Ivison, Blake- man, Taylor & Co.)—This Geological Text-book of Professor Dana has been thoroughly revised, and thereby adapted to the arrange- ment of the new edition of the Manual and to the present state of geological science. The work is somewhat enlarged by the addi- tion of new facts and illustrations, but, without adding to the well printed on good paper. 11, New American Geological Reports.—The following Reports have been received, and will be noticed in another number of this Journal, The Geology of New Hampshire, C. H. Hrroncoor, State Geolo- gist, and J. H. Huntrneton, Principal Assistant. Part I, Physical eography. 668 pp. royal 8vo, with many plates and wood-cuts. Contributions to the Fossil Flora of the Western Territories: art I, The Cretaceous Flora y by Leo Lesqurerevx. 186 pp. 4t0, with thirty lithographic plates, constituting volume VI of the quarto Reports of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hayden, U. S. Geologist in charge. Depart- ment of the Interior. Hirst Annual Report of the Geological and Agricultural Sur- vey of Texas; by S. B. Buckiey, A.M., Ph.D., State Geologist. 142 pp. 8vo. Houston, Texas, 1874. Geological Survey of’ California, J. D. Wurrney, State Geolo- gist. Contributions to Barometric Hypsometiy, with tables for use in California, 88 pp.roy. 8vo. 1874, Also map of California and Nevada, . f The Surface Geology of Ohio: from vol. li, of the Reports the Geological Survey of Ohio; by J. S. Newzerry. 12. Memoirs of the K. K. geologische Reichsanstalt.—The fol- lowing very fully illustrated memoirs in 4to, have been recently published by the K. K. geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna. Geology and Natural History. 153 Die Fauna der Schichten mit Aspidoceras acanthicum ; by Dr. M. Neumayr. 1873. Ueber einen neuen fossilen Saurier aus Lesina; by Dr. A. Korn- huber. 1873, The species is named the Hydrosaurus Lesinensis. eber die triadischen Pelecypoden-Gattungen Daonella & Halobia ; by Dr. E. M. v. Mojsvar. 1874. Ueber die palzozoischen Gebilde Podoliens und deren Verstein- . A. v. Alth. 1874. t 1873. 13. Manual of Determinative Mineralogy, with an Introdue- 7 ; Professor of thfully uses it, to the '4. Pharmacographia: a History of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable origin met with in Great Britain and British India ; y P. A. Fivcxiexr, Ph.D., Professor in the University of Strass- . London: Macmillan otanical knowledge is turned to the best account ; an the ave sement follows the natural orders of the plants yielding the nan It is the dru os themselves that are identified and described, Swill than the plants that produce them. Their botanical origin n lite, and freshness, condensing the results of much research and Pca emical composition is noted, but with no super- tical and trade information is given; medical and eco- tions Uses are indicated ; the nature of the principal adultera- nal] hoted, and the means of detecting them pointed out; and, Shentn? occasional substitutes, not of the nature of adulteration, are Pecified. Tn describing a root, bark, or the like, the microsopic 154 Scientific Intelligence. structure plays an important part, and is duly attended to. It has well been said that this can be made clear and explicit only by means of figures ; but figures in sufficient number to be of much account would greatly increase the size and enhance the pi of an work. A hand-book like this must do without them .G Hymenomycetes Europei, sive Epicriseos Systematis Myos logiet: editio altera; scripsit Er1as Fries (Sumptibus auctoris). powers pce e judgment appear to be pea unabated The full index fills nai 50 pages. Eubea, by Count Saporta, a paper contributed to the Ann. Set. de ? Keole Normale Pisses ser. 2, t. 2. wo main interest lies Cussonia, Myrie Pachiele acne: &c., of the e types, and Encephalartos, the first fossil Oycadea clearly nade out as of an existing genus 20 1s, moreover, Glyptostrobus Huro, of Heer ch passes insensibly into the existing representative, G. heterophyllus and a Sequoia (Fournalii), which so closely approaches S. sempervirens of California, “ que ne saura it marquer aucune divergence sensible entre ces per espéce an ‘ita cé.—The mace of nutmeg, once taken as the type oF ae arillus, was, a g00 ile ago, distinguished as a aréllode, or false whi aril, by Pl anchon, on finding that it developed from the arya pyle, while a true aril is a growth from the hilum or summit © the funiculus. Hooker and Thomson’s statement, that the mace develops from both the micropyle and the hilum, has been ¢o% firmed by Baillon (Comptes Rendus, 78, p. 779, shots in Rev. Bibliogr. of Bull. Bot. Soe. France, Le: Pah The consequence 4 that the distinctions ater arillus and arillode, caruncle av strophiole become not exactly superfluous, but ae wa Pir te un- papers in the Fab Rendus, t. 78, 1874, of which a ful clear abstract is given in the Revue Bibliographique, iad ¢ occupying six pages. ( rt at ee Moeeriper’s name was petprisies Mag? gridge in the January number, p. 69. He was we ral i grandson of Dillwyn of Swansea ; and so his taste for snaps tory came by inheritance. ited, Geology and Natural History. 155 on this subject with the following paragraph: Among the most interesting results of the experiments was the observation that certain poisons which act with extreme violence eble i da following Tuesday. A specimen of Lunatia heros, into which a quantity of woorara had been injected, was found the next day to show no sign of any inj Indeed, both of these poisons seemed When | ept for a number of hours in sea water. Cyan f potassium is similar in its effects, though not quite so instantane- ously fatal. The effects of quinine are similar, though less meh remarked that he had supposed that Amceba swallows food = and below, between which the cba was examined : Soiree prevented the Urocentrum from escaping. e condi- to ot mprisonment of the latter was so peculiar that he was led ® Watch it, tase, of the Ameeba, above and below, and gradually extended aay So as to convert the circle of the pseudopods into a plete sac, inclosing the Urocentrum. Another of these crea- 156 Scientific Intelligence. quartz san ains about. Noticing the latter, he made some comparative measurements, and found that the Navicule would ove grai ch as twenty-five times their own : J; GrorGE Mivarr. Nature series. Macmillan & Co., 1874.—This little treatise contains not only a large amount of information concerning the comparative anatomy of frogs, but also numerous illustrations of the anatomy of other animals, and of man, introduced for the sake of compat son with the corresponding parts of the frog. It is illustrated by eighty-eight cuts, most of them excellent. bdo 24. Animal Mechanism: a Treatise on Terrestrial and Aerial Locomotion ; by E. J. Marry. With one hundred and seventeen of the numerous mechanical contrivances by which the wing® _legs, and bodies were made to record their own motions. M of the tracings are reproduced in the cuts. Several machine so constructed as to imitate faithfully the essential motions 40° effects of the wings of insects, are described and figured. The tire subject is so well explained and illustrated that the book pees not fail to be interesting and instructive, even to non-scient readers, v. Astronomy. 157 Ill. Astronomy. made ceived. The ations s are arranged in the order of latitude : In the sheeotes Hemisphere. 1. Tschita. Lat. 52° 0’ N., long. Th. 3 Russian station. Contacts observed and four ah = measures ‘vith 3 sdiouate ter. 2. Nerichinsk. Lat. 51° 18’N., long. Th. 58m. E. Russian stati Three con tacts arihaee| mad two diameters and twenty distances of the planet meas- ured with heli 3. Kiachta. Lat. 50° 20’, long. Th. 6m. E. Russian station. Eight photographs n. 4. Habarovka. Lat. 48° 16’, long. 8h. 58m. E. Russian station. First two con- tacts and some chords observed. 5. ~~. ae . 47° 3’, long. lh. 50m. E. German station. Last external contact 6, oath Lat. 43° 7’, long. 8h. 47m. E. American and Russian ae First and second contacts observed, 13 sil geatig as taken, and numer peace of the two Paes were meas 1. Port Possiet. Lat, 42° eget 8h. 4 om Russian a Two interior contacts observed and 38 pho sak ogh taken 8. Orianda, (North of the Crimea ”) Russian station. Satisfactory observation of last two —_ 9. Pekin. Lat. 39° 54’, long. Th. 46m. E. ens ae a French station. First 10 and second richtecta observed gas pheee graphs tak » Tschifu. Lat. 37° 30’, lon rman st statics on. The observation of ng. 8h. 5m. EH didi the heliometer measurement, oa the photographs succeeded splen- 1 I. Teheran, Lat. 35° 37’, long. 3h. 25m. E. Russian station. Observations suc- * Yokohama, Lat. 35° 36’, long. 9h. 19m. E. Russian station. “Observation i. Kole. “Tat 34° 40’, long. 9h. 1m. E. French station. Successful observa- 14. Nagasaki. Lat. 32° 45’, long. 8h. 39m. E. American and French station. Second contact observed well, first and ntacts observed throu: Mi nd co clouds. * good photographs. 150 mierometric measurement of cusps, 15. 7, tration of limbs and diameter of Ven lata. Tat. 32° 40’, long. 3h, 27m. E. German station. 19 photographs 16, git lat 30° 6’, long. 2h.5m.E. English station. Last two contacts well 1. Suez,” Lat, 29° 58’, long. 2h. 10m. EB. English station. Last two contacts torily. 18 res satisfac 19. Th Kee. —, long. —. East India Go. station. 100 pero goog _ : es Sy 25° 43’, long. 2h. 10m. E. i sh station rola Lat, 21° 18” rae 10h. 31m. W. English station. First two tacts well observed. poecdeeke aneatiabaaee ry. The complete disc 5 of Venus was seen twelve minutes before the internal contact. ag rst con- tact sho observed at 3h. 7m. 1s.; the time computed in the Eng. Naut. 5 8 3h. 5m. 18s; O—C = +1m. gir gu d contact F obe 3h. 35m. ee comp. 3h. 33. 0s; O—O= +2m. 5 158 Miscellaneous Intelligence. In the Southern Hemisphere. 1. Sydney. Lat. 33° 31’8., long. 10h. 5m. E. English Observatory. Observa- tions satisfacto ory. 2. Adelaide. Lat. 34° 40’, long. 9h. lim. E. English Observato pik Last tw = —I1n. va Fourth contact obs. 3h. 34m. 75s. ; - comp. 3h. 35m. 398. ; o—C= 32s. 3. Melbourne. lat, 37° 49’, long. 9h. 40m. E. English Observatory. Observa- tions successful. 4. Queenstown, New Zealand. Lat. —, long.-—. American station. Observa- tions —— Ingress observed and 237 photographs taken 5. Hobart Tow t. 43° 0’, long. 9h. 49m. E. American station. “118 photo- graphs gs ty 6. Christ Church, New a Lat. 43° 20’, long. 11h. 31m. E. English station. Failure from clou 2. Aurora Pein at Melbourne, Victoria.—Traces of the IV. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Royal Society.—The Cople medal of the Royal Society has been awarded to Prof. Louis Pasrzur, “for his researches on Fermentation and Pebrine;” and the Rumford medal to J. Nor MAN Lockyrr, “for his Spectroscopic researches on che Sun and on the Charice elements. list. of if Me published by American authors, plas on ayes try, physics, and the chemical cop beeen _ minerals, and inclu opic ay of ‘the Commissioners of “ities for 1873. 496 pp. 8vo. Wash ington, 1 alt-hou Recreations in Popular Science. No. The Transmission of Sound by the Adooaphare, by John Tyndall. Gigantic lotion, by W. 8. Kent. pp. 8vo. n. (Estes & Laureat. 8. Half-hours with Insects. Part 5. ‘Insects of the ore - Stream, by A- Packard, a pp. 129-160, 12mo. Boston. (Es a & La Tidal Researches, by William Ferre’ rrel, A.M., Assistant U.S S Gos ¢ Surve, mn pendix to the LS S. Coast Survey Report for 1874. A peotounld a the re of — years labor. Topographical Survey of the —— os ve a York for the ert 1873; by Vebwinck Golyin. Transmi he New York Legislature, Al 21, 1874. 306 pp. 8vo, with many ree eae. Aieay; 3 1874. i Plate Il. i AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. IX. 1875. - : oan EID oi ORION ) = Co LE ‘ Ere * ge —_ en aa = ne ZA : vg natural size. Plate Ill. - AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol, IX. 1875. Plate IV. AM, JOUR. SCI., Vol. IX. 1875. 2 é See ae Re idea meee at Sao oo g Uae ate ror Gt a gle | tet Te Se ge Se ne a Dees ee oc ee pee oad THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] Art. XVIIL—On some Phenomena of Binocular Vision ; by JosePH LEContx, Professor of Geol. and Nat. Hist., Uni- versity of California.* VIL. Position of the eyes in sleepiness. * For preceding articles on this subject, see this Jour., Ser. II, vol. xlvii, pp. 68 and 153 ; and Ser. III, vol. i, p. 33, vol. ii, p. 1, vol. ii, pp. 315 and 417. iiller’s Physiology, Baly’s Translation, Am. ed., p. 810. Jour. Scr.—Tutrp Series, Vou. IX, No. 51 —Marcu, 1875. ll 160 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. There are few persons, I suppose, who have not — an unconquerable drowsiness while listening to a dull spea on a warm summer afternoon. Every one at such times a have observed that as the control over the ocular muscles is lost, the head of the speaker, whom he is vainly attempting to regard with attention, becomes double; the two heads ced ex eriments related below n accordance with the usual doctrine, I had long supposed that this don bine of images in sleepiness was due to optic con- vergence. On te nae it, however, I found I was mistaken. I tested es as follow easy, even in the state of drowsiness already mentioned, to per- form an experiment to test the position of the optic axes, As eleronymous images in this case prove optic divergence. Hor even with the point of sight a t infinite distance, i. e., the optic axes parallel, the doubling of an object at the distance of 30 or 40 feet would be ‘almost imperceptible (the distance between the sonia. of the two images being only equal to the saps lar distance, or 24 inches), while in the experiments the images were widely separated, in some cases 10 to 16 feet, indicating therefore an optic divergence of 15° to 20°. am sure, in the course of 15 or 20 years I have performed this experiment many hundred times, and always with the leagues i pe University of cgass Carolina, who troubled a es milar drowsiness, to make the same experi ments. He did so, and his results were identical with my own. In every case, of course, the experiment rouses the mind an quickly re-unites the images, but not so quickly but that the Position of the eyes in sleepiness. 161 h result. But this result is impossible except by optic divergence, for by convergence the images would approach each other, unite and then cross over and become homonymous. Thus, then, it is certain, that 7 the act of falling to sleep the eyes diverge. Whether this position is retained in profoun sleep, I have tried in vain to determine. The attempt to make observations on the eyes of sleepers, for this purpose, invariably introduces disturbing influences which vitiate the result. I have also attempted observations on sick infants, who often, in a weak condition, drowse with the eyes half open; but I have always found, under these circumstances, the action of the ocular muscles irregular and the position of the optic axes, therefore, unsteady. Nevertheless it seems highly probable that in profound sleep, also, the position of the optic axes is divergent. of absolutely perfect relaxation, the optic axes coincide with the axes of the i contraction to bring the optic axes to a condition of parallelism and still more to a condition of convergence, as in every volun- 162 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. tary act of sight. In the human eye, therefore, and also in that of the highest animals, there are three conditions of the = axes: Ist, convergence, when we look at a near object; n in sleep, in drunkenness and probably in death. The Ist requires a distinct voluntary effort—a eae voluntary con- traction of the ocular muscles; in the 2d there is no voluntary contraction, but only that tonic contraction chen aie of the waking state; in the 3d the relaxation is complete. The Ist is the active state of the eye; the 2d the waking passive state ; the 3d the absolutely passive state. 3. In most normal eyes, in the waking passive state, the optic axes are eae parallel, and it is impossible to carry the relaxation so far as to produce divergence. Hence it is at a more distant point—either by too great or too small con- vergence; but it is impossible to donb a an infinitely distant object, like a star, except in one way, viz: by convergence—by crossing the eyes. For the same reason it is impossible for most normal eyes, without the use of instruments, to combine stereoscopically two similar objects or two similar pictures, ond the plane of the object or the pictures, unless the distance between identical points of the objects or pictures be, at most, not . see the interocular sees Yet I have known, at least, one man, a gentleman of rare intelligence and muc ‘bicuiinich in :aiteiaiie experiments, and whose eyes were to all appearance Siegen e normal, in whom the waking passive state, as in gazing on vacancy, was one of slight optic divergence —in whom therefore the relaxation was more complete than in most eyes. This gentleman could double a star by gazing vacantly, and as it were beyond it. I thought at first that the doubling was the result of optic convergence, but by placing & sereen alternately before the one and the other eye and a which image disappeared, I completely satisfied myself that his eyes, while gazing on vacancy, were really slightly ‘divergent instead of parallel. I proved this, however, still more satisfactorily in another way. I have stated that it is impossible for most persons of normal eyes to combine two similar pictures with the naked eyes, so as to form a stereoscopic image beyond the plane of the pictures, unless the distance between identical points in the pictures be, at most, not greater than the interocular distance. vik this when the distance between identica ee nts was greater than the distance between the centers of his pupils. His ocular Position of the eyes in sleepiness. 168 divergence was very small, and therefore, as might have been expected, in proportion as the distance —— iGeeoicnl points of the pictures was greater, the distance from the eyes at which the pictures must be e placed must also be cael For in- stance: when the distance betw een identical points was three inches the pictures were held at arm’s length; when the aarp was six inches the pictures were p laced on the other side of the room. It would be curious to enquire, at what distance sud of what szze, siindacinns to the laws of vision, the stereoscopic image ought to seem in this case. For while one condition of single vision, the absolutely necessary one, viz: that the retinal im- ages shall occupy corresponding points on the two retine, is satisfied ; another condition. which if not —— ities is present in every act of single vision except this condition which determines the apparent place te size of the object or stereoscopic image—viz: the meeting of the two visual lines, ts uot satisfied. In all cases of single vision, whether of natural objects or by stereoscopic combinations, the object or stereoscopic image is seen at the intersection of the visual lines, which is therefore called the point of sight. But in this case there is no point of sight at all—the visual lines do not meet at all noua bokaed the head. In one of my papers on binocular vision* I gave a new method of representing the position of double images ; a method which, however, represents equally well the position of images seen single by stereoscopic combination. The facts which I have just presented may be perfectly a ee by ry method, but cannot by any other. Let Rand L fig. 1) rep sent the position of the eyes in sleepiness, and . the Pee ect * This Jour., Ser. ITI, vol. i, p. 33. 164 * J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. contemplated ; then the lines A N, Lv Rv, will represent the position of the median line and the two visual lines and R A, L A of the ee ‘Bie from the object A totheeyes. The visual result, if al e lines were visible, is ee by fig. 2. The object A fig. 1, is seen double at a and a’, fig. 2. If, instead of one ‘object at A, there be two similar siete @ g., stereoscopic pictures at v and v, fig. 1, then these will combine and be seen single at V somewhere along the combined visual lines E . 2. Of course there will be seen also, unless cut off by a septam, two other images, v and v’, to the extreme right and left, as already explained in my previou us paper. cannot even conceive how these phenomena can be represented by the usual metliod. VIL In binocular vision the law of corresponding points may be opposed to the ve of direction. In such cases the law of corres- aga points There are two fa known fundamental laws of vision, visi the law of visible direction and the law of corresponding points.* The one is the fundamental law of monocular, as the other is of binocular vision. The one gives the true position of all objects ra images. e former is cote regarded as the more funda- * The law of visible direction may be thus expressed: Every impression on the retina reaching it by a he line oe through the optic center, is referred back the same ray line true place in space. Thus for every radiant point in the object Bees oot ding focal point in the retinal image, and every focal point is referred back along its ray line 0 ies corresponding radiant, and the ote ge (object its proper position. Or it may be otherwise expressed th us: Space in front z us is, under all circumstances, an outward projection of retinal states With the eyes open, is the an outward projection of the passive state of the retina retinal concave with all its states is projected. outward and becomes the external spatial concave, and the two meeseajent point for point. Now the lines connect- ing the corresponding points internal and external intersect each other at the tic | ae ak i riefly expressed : Tmagine | ye-balls p together in such wise that they erengicue g coincide treughode then the coincident points of a two retinz are t are called corresponding points. Now the law of corresponding points declares gor images or impressions of any kind falling upon corresponding points of the two retin® are referred back to the same place in space and the arn seen single, while i e determina nding po ble. tion of the a as a geometric problem, is Pyacvaimnent of the surface oF line, the ray lines from every point of which would impress corresponding points of the re J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. * 165 vision both monocular and binocular. The law of visible direction does indeed explain all the ordinary phenomena of single vision with two eyes; for in all ordinary cases of single vision—in all ordinary voluntary acts of binocular sight—in all cases of vision of objects ccc in = horopter —- this be a line or a pease since ray rom an object or radiant single. Thus single visio assoanee is ches cases a necessary result of the law of direction, and the law of corresponding points becomes only a particular case of the more general law of direction ut in all cases of double images, the apparent position of these to the binocular observer is always different, and in some cases very different from the true position of the object which they represent. The difference may amount even to 45°. For example: The binocular field of view in my own case is about 100° in a horizontal direction. By strong convergence I can almost wholly obliterate this common field. In such case the images of objects lying near the extreme margins of the com- mon field, and therefore at least 90° apart, are brought together front; while objects really in front are doubled and _ their images are separated 90° from each other, and each 45° from the hag position of the object which they represent. . 3 represents the actual position of parts in this experi- eos ‘Band L being the right and left eye respectively, N the 3. 4. root of the nose, a a’ objects in the | gees line 45° to the right and left, MN the median line and M a object in front; and gure 4 is the visual result represented by my method. It will be seen by comparing the two figures that the two eyes and L are combined and rectified to form the single binocular eye K, the visual lines Ra and La’ become the common visual 166 * J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. line A E, the objects a and a’ combine at A, while the median line and the object M are doubled and the images of the * latter are seen at m and m’. shutting one eye, but the two eyes do not. Each eye sees its own object in the true direction, but the binocular observer sees their combination in a wrong direction. e law of direction is true in all cases in monocular vision, but is not always true in binocular vision. In the case of the double images m and m’ of the object M, it is still more difficult to explain their apparent position by the law of direction. ose, however, that in all cases of ocular convergence it may be possible by an ingenious device to save the law of direction; but in the case of ocular divergence it is impossible by any device to explain the position of double images by that law. ‘The position of images in this case is in direct violation of that law ; the laws of direction and of corresponding points are in contradiction to each other and the law of corresponding points prevails, is we now proceed to show. We have seen, p. 160 and figs. 1 and 2, that in drowsiness the optic axes may diverge 20°, and that in such cases the double images of an object in /ront are seen right and left 10° from the real position of the object which they represent; and oD the iter ha ual in making the double images of an object directly in front separate 50°, and those of objects 50° ee combine directly in front. There can be no doubt that 1! we could turn our eyes directly outward, or if our eyes, retaining * By comparing these figures with those of my previous paper, it will be see? that I have g the the face itself in the rotation, as well as in the shifting, of the field of view of each eye. In convergence this bri the two images of the nose nearer together 1» front and thus narrows the common field, which is exactly what actually happens. In divergence, on the contrary, the double images of the nose separate and the common field is widened. a aE a ae RS aie sey tna eee Be BE ae LA | oe Ee ae ee ee ee ee pe eee Sen ee nN Rec y | I a lt eta gare a Ae Pp ae Ss = 36435 de ae eet a ee J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. * 167 their present organization, were transferred to the sides of our heads, with their axes directed straight right and left, and therefore making an angle of 180° with each other, «mages of objects in the direction of these axes, and —_—- dir ectly roght and t, would be moved round 90° each and combined and seen directly tn front. This seems an peivlier neti ne but is a necessary consequence of the law of corresponding points. The retinal images of the two objects are on corresponding points; by the law of corresponding points, therefore, they must a seen as one. sear else can this ta e place but in fron previous papers, raat that “On the mode a representing of illusion.”* Those who have read eos papers will remem- ber that I have there shown that there are two sea move- ments of the field of view accomplished by the eyes in binocular vision. The first is a bodily shifting of the field of the right eye one-half interocular distance to the left, and of the field of the left eye the same distance to the right ; so that the two eyes are brought together in the middle and com- bined to form a single binocular eye, — the two visual lines combined to form a common visual his movement is habitual and involuntary, but it produces nit change in the apparent position | . objects unless they be very near. The second is a rotation of the whole field of view of both eyes about the afin pen whenever the two eyes move in opposite directions, as in convergence or divergence. This rotation is always in a direction opposite to the motion of the eyes, and us in the eee of the p enomena relat r Stationary, and the visual ieee seem to move across them But in binocular vision, when the two eyes move in opposite directions, the visual line seems to remain station (i. @., we seem to lo ge in ome — — while external rts or S fy. _9 “go al is) Ea to ® @ A et ra?) Ler j = = _. Be Ee) Bt 7) we ES ° = a. =) cc) D g = = This Jour, sit. ¢ vol. i, p. 33, and vol. ii, pp. 314 and 417. 168 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. take their places successively in front of the observer. And this is true whatever the degree of convergence or divergence. In all cases, whatever be the position of the eyes, objects in the visual lines, and whose retinal itaages therefore fall on the central spots of the retin, are seen in front. If therefore the — directed straight right and left, objects directly right and left would be seen in front, and therefore 90° from their true position. IX. Comparative Physiology of Binocular Vision. For many years past I have reflected much, and attempted to make some observations, on the phenomena of vision of lower animals, for the purpose of testing the existence or non- existence of binocular vision in them. I must frankly confess I have accomplished but little. The phenomena of binocular vision are so essentially subjective, that it seems almost impos- sible to reach any satisfactory results by observations or ex- more success. In man the axes of the conical eye-sockets diverge about 25°, or each makes an angle with the median line of about 12°. In these slightly diverging conical sockets, the eye-balls are so placed, and the muscles so adjusted, that in the waking passive state their axes are parallel; and from this passive parallel objects. In man, then, though the eye-sockets still diverge considerably, the eyes are set in front with axes naturally arallel. This is evidently the position most suitable for inocular vision. : In monkeys the position of the eyes is much the same as 1m man. They are placed well in front, near together, their axes apparently parallel, and therefore well adapted to binocular convergence. ut as we go down the vertebrate scale, the eyes are placed no longer in front, but on the sides of the head, with their optic axes inclined nearly or quite 180° to ea other. It seems quite evident that animals with eyes so placed cannot converge the optic axes on a single point, especially 4 near point. In fact, it is well known that most birds, when viewing an object very attentively, turn the head on one side 2 Comparative Physiology of Binocular Vision. 169 and look with one eye. It seems —— that the law of corresponding points can exist for these animals ; for if it did, as we have already seen (p. 167), it woula only lead to constant stereoscopic effects, and the complex but accurate visual ro ments founded on these effects. They see indeed with two owever much their tee may be multiplied, each organ pinay peculiar to the eye. Nothing coors exists in the other senses. Binocular vision in its perfection, as it exists in man, is the last result of the gradual improvement of that most refined and wonderful instrument, the eye; specially adapt- ing it to meet the wants of the higher faculties of the mind. elow the vertebrates, of course, binocular vision does not and cannot par ee called the central spot. It is the most highly organized and most sensitive spot of theretina. It differs from other portions, Ist, in the fact that here the layer of rods and cones, the true than elsewhere. Now it is a familiar fact that while gazing steadily at a cer- tain point we see very clearly only a very small area about the point of sight. This small area corresponds, point for point, to the central spot of the retina. If now, while gazing steadily, we observe the relative distinctness of vision in other portions of the field of view, we shall find that it becomes less and less distinct in proportion as the point observed is more distant from the line of sight. In other words, there is a perfect graduation of distinctness from the point of sight, where it is greatest, to the 170 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. margins of the visible field, where it is least. Now as the retina corresponds with the visible field point for point, it follows that there is a corresponding graduation, certainly in sensitive- ness, probably in fineness of organization of the receptive layer of the retina, from the central spot even to the extreme anterior margin. Except in the central spot this increasing fineness of organization has not been demonstrated, but it doubtless exists, for the increasing distinctness of vision toward the point of sight is its effect and its representative in the field of view As we go down the vertebrate scale, the central spot is found only insome monkeys. After a total absence in other mammals and in all birds, it is said to reappear in some lizzards; but whether it there has the same structure, and therefore the same significance, as in the human eye is not certain. It seems fair to conclude, therefore, that the graduation of distinctness toward the point of sight and the limitation of the greatest distinctness to that point, do not exist in most of the lower animals. e importance of the central spot in the highest animals, and especially in man, is verv evident. The limitation of the greatest distinctness to the point of sight is absolutely necessary to the concentration and limitation of the most thoughtful attention to that point. If all portions of the retina were similarly or- ganized, and therefore all points in the field of view equally dis- tinct, it would be impossible to fix the attention steadily and thoughtfully on any one point to the exclusion of others. We might see equally well and over a wider field, but we could not look attentively. Wecould not observe thoughtfully. But in the lower animals, especially those which are preyed upon by others, it is far more important to see well in every direction than to fix the attention too exclusively on one point; the advantages of exquisite shat distinctness of the center of the field 1s sacrificed for the much greater advantages of moderate distinct ness over a very wide field. The most important thing for them is a very wide field, and the equal distribution of attention over every part. Hence their eyes are prominent, set wide apa! on the margins of the front or on the sides of the head, and desti- tute of central 2 so that they sweep the whole horizon and ith nearly equal distinctness. : The connection of the central spot with binocular vision : difficulty in the way of oo determination of the horopter, as already explained in one of my early papers.* * This Jour., IT, vol. xlvii, p. 153. Jeffries Wyman. 171 The following, then, are the general changes in the verte- brate eye, as we go'up the scale: 1. A gradual change of the position of the eyes from the s/des to the front of the head, and a consequent change of the angle of inclination of the optic axes rom 180° to parallelism. 2. A gradually — gradua- tion of the fineness of oe Ae 8 and therefore the sensi- tiveness of the retina, from the anterior margins toward the cen- tral parts, so as finally to form in monkeys and in man a cen- tral spot. 3. A ses increasing power of converging the optic axes upon a single near point, so that the images of that point may fall upon the central spots of both eyes. 4. The gradual evolution of the properties of corresponding points, and ——- of all the distinctive phenomena of binocular visio Thos se changes seem all intimately connected with each other and with the development of the higher faculties of the mind. Oakland, Cal., Oct. 26, 1874. Art. XIX.—Jeffries Wyman. Address of Professor A. GRAY at the Memorial Meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, Oct. 7, 1874. [Concluded from page 93.] In ccm ote. these analyses, I am drifting into a ay which Prof. Wyman never committed, that of being too I must leave uke of his papers unmentioned, and eat refer to two or three others which cannot be passed over. The most noteworthy of the shorter papers, however, are upon less tech- nical or more oe Se topics, so that we have need only to be reminded of them. Among them are his ‘‘ Observa- tions on the Dewslopaens of the Surinam Toad,” and the same of “ Anableps — and the paper “On some unusual Modes of Gesta The importance of these bi hes * From the “ Proceedings” of the se 172 Jeffries Wyman. that, whatever view be taken of their homology, they are something superadded to it, and not evolved from it; he notes how the whole yelk-mass is moulded into a spiral intestine; and that the embryo at the end of incubation forms a larger and heavier mass than existed in the egg when it commenced, —showing that there was an absorption of material furnished the dermal sac of the mother,—‘‘a solitary instance among Batrachians, if not among Reptiles generally, in which the embryo is nourished at the expense of materials derived from the parent.” From this he is led (in the later paper above mentioned) to infer the probability that the developed larve of Hylodes lineatus,—carried about inland upon the back of their mother, and destitute of limbs adapted to terrestrial loco- motion,—may depend upon a secretion from the body for need- ful sustenance—an interesting and rudimentary foreshadowing of mammalian life, of which he discerned the bearings. His “Description of a Double Foetus” (in the Boston Med- ical and Surgical Journal, March, 1866) gives him the oppor- tunity of briefly recording some of the results of his studies of the development of double monsters, and to bring out his view, that “the force, whatever it be, which regulates the symmet- rical distribution of matter in a normal or abnormal embryo, has its analogy, if anywhere, in those known as polar forces;” that “studying the subject in the most general manner, there are striking resemblances between the distribution of matter capable of assuming a polar condition and free to move around a magnet, and the distribution of matter around the nervous axis of an embryo.” 1at this is not one of those vague con- ceptions by which many speculators set about to explain that of which they know little by means of that of which they ow less, but that he had striking parallelisms to adduce, the close of this striking paper shows. : The subject of fore and hind Barges 8 thus brought di- r. speculative morpholo n’ = Jeffries Wyman. 1738 them in his paper. I need not recall to you how neatly he made this investigation, and represented some of the results, filling the comb with plaster-of-paris and then cutting it across midway, so that the observations might be made and the cells measured just where they are most aie perfect ; and then printing impressions of the comb upon the wood-block, he re- produces on the pages of his article the exact outlines of the cells, with all their irregularities and imperfections. But I cannot refrain from citing a portion of his remarks at the close : zi Hen ere, as is so often the case elsewhere in nature, the type- form is an ideal one; and with this real forms seldom or never coincide; sai e< An assertion, like that of Lord Brougham, that there is in the cell of the bee ‘ perfect agreement’ between theory and observation, in view of the analogies of nature is more likely to be wrong than right; and his assertion in the case before us is certainly wron Much error would have been avoided if those who have discussed the structure of the bee’s cell had adopted the plan followed by Mr. Darwin, and studied the habits of the cell-making insects compara- tively, ee with the cells of the humble-bee, following with those of wasps and hornets, then with those of the ne X1- nec me add to this important aphorism its fellow, which I have from him, but know not if he ever 228s it. ‘ No single experiment in physiology é is worth anythin As Dr. Wyman arks in a note to the second series, “ the recent experiments of “Dr. Child of Oxford, and those reported in this communication, are sufficient answer to the eriticisms 174 Jeffries Wyman. life;” but all would not have concluded that, after all, they “Tf, on the one hand, it is urged that all organisms, in so far as the early history of them is known, are derived from ova, and therefore from analogy we must ascribe a similar origin to these minute beings the early history of which we do not know, it may be urged with equal force, on the other hand, that all ova and spores, in so far as we know anything about them, are destroyed by prolonged boiling; therefore from analogy we are equally bound to infer that Vibrios, Bacterians, ete., could not have been derived from ova, since these would all have been destroyed by the conditions to which they have been subjected. he argument from analogy is as strong im the one case as in the other.” Ay Returning to the subject again a few years later, with a critl- eal series of twenty experiments, each of three, five, ten, fifteen, or even twenty flasks, used by way of checks and comparisons, —a rigorous experimenter would have been satisfied when he had proved that sealed solutions, subjected to a heat of at least 212° for from one to four hours, became the seat of infusorial life, at least of such as Vibrios, Bacterians and Monads, while all infusoria having the faculty of locomotion were shown by & special series of experiments to lose this at a temperature of 120°, or at most 134° Fahr. But Prof. Wyman carried the boiling up to five hours, and in these flasks no infusoria of any ind appeared. The question of abiogenesis stands to-day very much where Prof. Wyman left it seven years ago upon the Florida shell-mounds, was sent to the printer just be: fore he died. Jeffries Wyman. 175 The thought that fills our minds upon a survey even so incom- plete as this is: How much he did, how well he did it all, and how simply and quietly ! “We knew that our associate, though never hurried, was never idle, and that his great repose of man- ner covered a sustained energy; but I suspect that none of us, without searching out and collecting his ee papers, had adequately estimated their number and their value. There is nothing forth-putting about them, nothing adventitious, never even a phrase to herald a matter which he deemed important. work as a teacher was of the same quality. of a bas lecturers I ever heard, although, and partly because, he was the most unpretending. You never thought of the speaker, nor of the gifts and his ee which such clear exposition were calling forth,—onl what he was simply telling and showing you. “Then‘ to those ens like his pupils and friends, were in personal contact with him, there was the added charm of a most serene and sweet temper. He was truthful and conscientious to the core. His perfect freedom, in lectures as well as in writing, and no less so in daily conversation, from all exagger- ation, “false perspective, and fictitious adornment, was the natural expression of his innate modesty and refined taste, and also of his reverénce for the exact truth. It has been a pleasure to pies from former college students, who hardly ever saw him cept in the lecture-room, that he gave to them much the same impression of his gifts and graces, and sterling worth, that he gave us who knew him intimately —so transparent was he, and abana, With all his quick sense of justice, and no lack of occasion for controversy, it seemed to cost him no effort to avoid it alto- gether. He made no enemies, and was surrounded by troops of life-long nies 5 When he first went abroad, in 1841, was told by some near friends, who prtponinsg his d specs fiat a chair of Natural History in n his alma mater soon have sider if he would be a candidate, en first heard of Wyman’s name and of his friends’ expectations or hopes; whereupon he dismissed the cpg from his mind. Probably he felt 1 more surprise than did Dr. Wyman, when notified, a few months afterward, of the pet of the Corporation. The exigencies of the Botanic Garden probably overbore other considerations, I doubt if Dr. Wyman ever had an envious feeling. Certain it “ pai no one ts pate the new professor with truer cordiality, roved himself a more constant friend. n these days it is sure to be asked how an anatomist, physi- oeiets and morphologist like Prof. Wyman regarded the most M. Jour. 8cr.—Turrp — Vou. IX, No. 51.—Maron, 1875, 176 Jeffries Wyman. remarkable scientific movement of his time, the revival and apparant prevalence of doctrines of evolution. As might be expected, he was neither an advocate nor an opponent. He was not one of those persons who quickly make up their minds, and announce their opinions, with a confidence inversely pro- ortionate to their knowledge. e could consider long, and old his judgment in suspense. How well he could do this appears from an early, and so faras I know, his only published presentation of the topic, in a short review of Owen's ‘‘Mono- graph of the Aye-Aye” (in Am. Journ. Science, Sept., 1863)— the paper in which Prof. Owen's acceptance of evolution, but not of natural selection, was promulgated. Dr. Wyman com- pares Owen’s view with that of Darwin (to whom he had already communicated interesting and novel illustrations of the play of natural selection); and he adds some acute remarks upon a rather earlier speculation of Mr. Agassiz, in which the latter suggests that the species of animals might have been created as eggs rather than as adults. He states the case between the two general views with perfect impartiality, and the bent of his own mind is barely discerni In due time he satisfied himself as sare 8 to repeat the substance of a conversation which I had with him some time after the death of the lamented Agassiz, and not long before his own. report the substance only, not the words. assiz repeated to me, he said, a remark made to him by Humboldt, to the effect that Cuvier made a great mistake, and missed a great opportunity, when he took the side he did in the famous controversy with Geoffroy St. Hilaire; he should have accepted the doctrines of morphology, and brought his vast knowledge of comparative anatomy and zoology, and his un- 6 yer powers, to their illustration. Had he done so, instead of gaining by his superior knowledge some temporary an doubtful victories in a lost cause, his preéminence for all our time would have been assured and complete. I thought, con- tinued Wyman, that there was a parallel case before me,—that if Agassiz had brought his vast stores of knowledge in zoology, embryology, and paizontology, his genius for morphology, a2 _Upon one point Wyman was clear from the beginning. He did not wait until evolutionary doctrines were about to prevail, A. E. Verrilli— Cephalopods of the North Atlantic. 117 before he judged them to be essentially philosophical and healthful, ‘in accordance with the order of Nature, as com- monly manifested in her works,” and that they need not disturb the foundations of natural theology. Perhaps none of us can be trusted to judge of such a ques- tion impartially, upon the bare merits of the case; but Wyman’s judgment was as free from bias as that of any one I ever knew. Not at all, however, in this case from indifference or uncon- cern. He was not on y, philosophically, a convinced theist, in all hours, and under all “variations of mood and tense,” but ie a devout man, an habitual and reverent attendant on Christian worship and ministrations. Those of us who attended his funeral must have felt the ap- propriateness for the occasion of the words which were there read from the Psalmist :— he Heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament ties his handy-work. .... O Lord, how manifold are th works! In wisdom hast thou made them all; the earth is fall of thy riches; so is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both great and small beasts. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created, and thou renewest the face of the earth.” These are the works which our associate loved to investigate, and this the spirit in which he contemplated them. Not less pe were the Beatitudes that followed :— ssed are the meek; blessed are the a -makers ; blessed are the merciful ; blessed are the pure in heart. ose who knew him best, best knew how well he exem- plified them. XX.— Brief Contributions to Zoology Ka the Museum of va College. No. XXXI.—The Gigantic Cephalopods of the North Atlantic; by A. E. VERRILL. (Continued from page 130.) gigantic cephalopod, in Conception Bay, Oct. 27, 1873, have been i in this Journal, as well as in the newspapers. In mi encounter the monster preserved by Rev. M. Barret s and Mr. Pilexandee Murray for the museum at St. John’s, Newfoundland. It has been photo- graphed, and cuts copied from the photograph have been pub- 1. 74; and American N; i; Ni 1 BF fe apa agromo a aeelniate 178 A. # Verrill—Cephalopods of the North Atlantic. lished in some of the English magazines.* Before it was secured for preservation it had been considerably i ah jured, many of the larger suckers having been torn off or mutilat win to this fact they were originally described by Mr. Torey as destitute of marginal denticulations, but he has recently re- examined the specimen, at my request, and now informs me that he is satistied that they were all originally denticulated. Of this specimen I have seen only the photograph and some of the smaller suckers. It is stated that six feet of this arm had been destroyed before it was preserved, and the captors estimated that they left from six to ten feet attached to the creature, which would make the total —— between 31 and 35 feet. ’ According to me a full series of measurements of this arm, as now pre- served. It has contracted excessively in the alcohol, and is now only 18 feet and one inch in len oe (instead of 19 feet, its ments, when compared with those made while fresh and from the photograph, that the shrinkage has been chiefly in length, the thickness remaining about the same, but the suckers are considerably smaller than the dimensions previously given. ~ ng all these dimensions with those of the Logie Bay men, and calculating the proportions as nearly as possible, it isitewe that this specimen was very nearly one-third larger than the latter, but the large suckers appear to have been rela- tively smaller, for they were hardly one-twelfth larger than in * See Annals and Magazine of and “ The Field,” Dec. 13, 1873. The central line of this photograph i te veiond tour ook quarter times, while four A. E. Verrill—Cephalopods of the North Atlantic. 179 the Logie Bay specimen. As the relative size of the large suckers is a good sexual character among squids, it is probable the above ance tes be en as I believe, then the body could not e been more than about 10 feet long, and 2°%5 in diameter, aad the “Asses arms should have been about 32 feet in length. Allowing two feet for the head, the total length would, therefore, be about 44 feet Another specimen (No. 8), probably xs the same Baca and similar in size to the last, was captured at Coombs’ , New foundland. The following account has been taken face a news- paper article of which I do not know the precise date, forwarded to me by Professor Baird, together with a letter, dated June 15, 1873, from T. R. Bennett, Esq., of English Harbor, NK, who states that he w rote the article, and that the measurements were made by him, and are perfectly reliable. “Three days ago, there was quite a large squid run almost ashore at Coombs’ Cove, and some of the inhabitants secured it. The body measured 10 feet in length and was nearly as large round as a hogshead. One arm was about the size of a man’s wrist, and measured 42 feet. in length ; the other arms were only 6 feet in length, but about 9 inches in diameter, very stout and strong. The skin and flesh were 2°25 inches thick, and reddish inside as well as out. The suction cups were all clus- tered together, near the extremity of the long arm, and each cup was surrounded by a serrated edge, almost like the teeth of a hand-saw. I presume it made use of this arm for a cable, and the cups for anchors, when it wanted to come to, as well as to Secure its prey, for this ee finding a heavy sea was tiving it ashore, tail first, seized hold of a rock and moored it- self quite safely until the men pulled it on shore.” It would appear from this description that one of the long arms had been lost before the capture. The large diameter of the short arms, compared ~ t - eng and with the size of the long arms, is the only poin n which this specimen apparently differed gratis 5 Pe cues described above. ossibly the cirewmference was intended,* which would make the Proportions agree well with those of the other specimens. a letter from Mr. Harvey, dated Dec. 10, 1878, he says thas. ie Speaker of the House of Assembly stated to him that pis ee actually occurred in the description of the long arms, in letter from Mr. Murray, published in the American Naturalist for February, wird p. 122, clas ake but in that instance pecptenncesarmasnd obvious. 180 A. & Verrili—Cephalopods of the North Atlantic. he had measured a specimen cast ashore in Fortune Bay, which was between 42 and 48 feet in length, the body and head to- gether being between 12 and 13 feet, and the two long arms each 30 feet. This we may designate as No. 6. r. Honeyman, geologist of Nova Scotia, has published, in a Halifax paper, a statement made to him by a gentleman who claims to have been present at the capture of another specimen (No. 7) in the Straits of Belle Isle, at West St. Modent, on the Labrador side. ‘It was lying peacefully in the water when it was provoked by the push of an oar. It looked fierce and ejected much waiter from its funnel ; it did not seem to consider it necessary to discharge its sepia, as mollusca of this kind gen- erally do, in order to cover their escape.” * * * * “The length of its longest arm was 37 feet; the length of the body 15 feet; whole length 52 feet. The bill was very large. The suckers of its arms or feet, by which it lays hold, about 2 inches in diameter. The monster was cut up, salted, and barrelled for dog’s meat.” In this-account the length given for the “body” evidently includes the head also. This creature was probably disabled, and perhaps nearly dead, when discovered at the sur- face, and this seems to have been the case with most of the specimens hitherto seen living. Animals of this sort probably never float or lie quietly at the surface when in good health. , also refers to a statement made to him by @ clergyman, Rey. M. Gabriel, that two specimens (Nos. 8 and 9), measuring respectively 40 and 45 feet in total length, were cast ashore at Lamaline, on the southern coast of Newfoundland, in the winter of 1870-71. These may also have been of the same species as those described above, all of which I now refer to Architeuthis monachus of Steenstrup. Mr. Harvey also mentions, in a recent letter, that a specimen was cast ashore at Bonavista Bay, December, 1872, and his informant says that the long arms measured 32 feet in length, and the short arms about ten feet in length, and were “thicker than a man’s thigh.” The body was not measured, but he thinks it was about fourteen feet long, and very stout, and that the largest suckers were 2°5 inches in diameter. The size of the suckers is probably exaggerated, and most likely the length of the body also. It is even possible that this was the same specimen from which the beak and suckers described in my last article, as No. 4, from Bonavista Bay, were derived, for pa i e ments, and it will, therefore, be desirable to give a special num- ber (11) to the former. Another specimen, which we may designate as No. 12, was cast ashore this winter, near Harbor Grace, but was destroyed before its value became known, and no measurements are give?. A. E. Verrili—Cephalopods of the North Atlantic. 181 Architeuthis princeps Verrill. Plate v, figures 14, 15, 16.— This species is based on the lower jaw mentioned as No. 1 in my former papers, and on the ee and lower jaws designated as No. 10, in the first part of this article; besides these jaws we only have the rough measurements of the body of No. 1, and an estimate of the diameter of the sessile arms. The jaws of No. 10 were obtained from the stomach of a sperm whale taken in the N. Atlantic, and were presented to the Essex Institute by Capt. N. E. Atwood, of Provincetown, Mass., but the date and precise locality of the capture are unknown. "The form of these jaws is well shown in figures 14 and 15. The total length of the pies jaw (fig. 14) is 5 inches; greatest breadth, 1:45; front to back, 3% inches; width of palatine lamina, 232. The inte portion is considerably broken, but the dorsal portion appears to extend nearly to the posterior ‘end, — ee from the point of the beak to the posterior edge 34 inches. The a is firmer and the lamina are selattpely thicker than in A. monachus. The rostrum and most of the frontal regions are Back and polished, gradually coming orange-brown and translucent toward the posterior border, and marked with faint strie radiating from the tip of ret osterior margin; a slight but sharp ridge extends back- from the notch at the base of the cutting edge, and nigel les marked ones from the anterior border of the ale. rfi ker tigs aicaser strie and ridges, some of which, especially near the dorsal part, are quite prominent and irregular ; the posterior border has a broad emargination in the middle, but the two sides do not exactly correspond. The lower, jaw (plate v, fig. 15) was badly se and many of the pieces, especially of the ale, are lost, but all that remain have been 182 A. E. Verriil—Cephalopods of the North Atlantic. the notch at its base is rounded and deep and strongly ex- cavated at bottom ; the tooth is broad, stout, obtusely rounded at summit, sloping abruptly on the side of the notch, and ¥ it makes, with the cutting edge, an angle of about 1 inner surfaces of the two sides of the internal plate of the rostrum form an angle of about 46°. The lower jaw of No. 1 (plate v, fig. 16) is represented only by its anterior part, the ale and gular lamine having been cut away by the person who removed it. It agrees very well in form and color with the corresponding parts of the one just de- scribed, but is somewhat smaller. the lateral ridges of the rostrum are rather more prominent, and the area within it 18 narrower and more deeply excavated, especially at the base of the notch, where the excavation goes considerably lower than the inner margin. The notch is narrower and not so much rounded at its bottom. The tooth is about the same in size as that of No. 10, and appears to be even more prominent, be cause the edge of the als is more concave at its outer base; it is also more compressed and less regularly rounded at sut- it This jaw measures 1:30 inches from the tip to the pos- terior dorsal border of mentum ; -65 from tip to the bottom of the notch ; 16 from bottom of notch to tip of the tooth. — Both these lower jaws agree in having a very prominent tooth on the alar edge, with a large and deeply excavated notch between it and the cutting edge, and in this respect differ from the two lower jaws of A. monachus in my possession, for ond the tooth, is rounded and strongly obliquely i 10°. € A. EF. Verrili—Cephalopods of the North Atlantic. 188 in the latter the tooth or lobe is low and broad, and scarcely prominent, while the notch is narrow and shallow. This seems to be the best character for distinguishing the jaws of the two species. But they also differ in the angle between the alar edge and the cutting edge of the rostrum, especially of the lower jaw, for while in A. monachus this is hardly more than a right angle, in A. princeps it is about 110°. oreover, the darker color and firmer texture of the jaws of the latter seem to be characteristic. The proportions of the body seem to be quite different, if we can judge by the measurements given of the specimen (No. 1) which was found dead and floating at the surface of the water, at the Banks of Newfoundland, by Capt. Campbell, of the schooner B. D. Haskins, from Gloucester, Mass., in October, ference. The arms were badly mutilated, but the portions re- maining were estimated to be 9 or 10 feet long and about 22 men of A. monachus, obtained at Jutland in 1853. same memoir, of which I have seen only the first part, there are references to a description and figures of A. Titan, obtaine in 1855, by Capt. Hygom, in N. lat. 31°, W. long. 76°. The latter specimen appears to be the same that Harting + men tioned, under the name of “ Architeuthis dux Steenstrup,” as collected at the same time and place, and of which he pub- * See the American Naturalist, vol. vii, p. 91, Feb., 1873. + In a paper of which I have only seen some proof-sheets, given by him to Dr. Packard, entitled “ Spolia Atlantica.” Whether this memoir has been published I do not know. The plate (1) that I have seen is marked “ Vid. Selsk. Skrifter, V. kke, naturv. og mathem. Afd. iv Bind;” and there are references to other plates illustrating A. Titan, etc. _ + Description de quelques fragments de deux Céphalopodes gigantesques. Pub- ae par Académie Royale des Sciences 4 Amsterdam. 1860. 4to, with three plates. 184 . 2 Gg 38 "39 Phosphoric noid <2. 14 14 “14 Ignition .-...... "63 "64 63 99°86 99°91 99°89 Mean Bien cig 52°70 52°65 52°68 Alumina .___-_.. 14°11 14°17 14°14 Ferrous oxide... 9°78 9°80 9°79 Ferric oxide _... 1°87 2°03 1°95 Manganous oxide 45 “44 “44 Sime efi 9°36 9°39 9°38 Magnesia __.._-. 6°42 6°35 6°38 Bi eek 2°54 2°57 2°56 Sees "89 87 ‘87 igwition. o. +, 1°61 1°58 1°60 Shien Bie aes : 5 See Ae a ne ree I Oe ee OS ge oe Foye eee Heh Pree one te G. W. Hawes—Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley. 187 These analyses show it to be dolerite, differing from the trap of West Rock in the proportion of its ingre - specimen from the Mesozoic sandstone region of New Jer- taken from a deep railroad cut in Jersey City, afforded the following results : JERSEY City. Sp. gr. = 2°96. 1. i Mean. Silies ol fo ture 53°16 53°09 53°13 Adumings ¢. 5. ic 13°87 13°62 13°74 Ferrous oxide _.. 9°09 9°10 9°10 Ferric oxide .__.. 1°01 1°14 1°08 insane oxide °44 43 43 LARS: cea ak 9°44 9°50 9°47 Monee cease 8°56 8°59 8°58 Coe Seo aed 2-28 2°32 2°30 POUR aac cee 1°08 1°04 1°03 jJgmtion...../.- = 80 91 Pie 99°77 99°74 99°76 Another specimen taken from a trap hill lying to the east- ward of New Haven, called East Rock, was also analyzed. But enough ie been given to show the uniform character of the unaltered rocks of this era; no two analyses differing from one another more than would those of samples which could be se- lected from the same dike. The principal mineral ingredients are pyroxene and labra- dorite, with a small amount of magnetite, and often, as Mr. Dana has detected by his ileneaetis examinations, a little chrysolite and apatite. The pyroxene can be recognized by its Cleavage. Spots are sometimes found in the rock ahers the crystals of pyroxene have considerable size, and often the pris- matic angle as well as the basal cleavage can be distinctly seen. From one piece it was possible to extract a sufficient number of crystalline fragments of apparent purity for an analysis. PYROXENE FROM WEST ROCK. SUCK. pi ad onbeae vis ayer ah « 50°71 PTR i a 3°55 FOrnQUS. OF500 5 oid Ga ces ons deen x 15°30 nee ORMIG 0g. ees Sw cee 81 wed eee: 13°35 Mag aE sine agen 13°63 Ign gue BEY re See ares pie ho ENB A et 1°17 Alkalies and loss (by difference) .-.. 1°48 100-00 On comparing this analysis with those of the dolerites, it leaves little doubt but that the feldspar is labradorite, as the 188 G. W. Hawes—Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley. low percentage of silica and the presence of so much lime roves. The presence in one case of a feldspar with even a lower percentage of silica (see beyond) renders it improbable that the chief feldspar constituent has a higher percentage than labradorite. Moreover, in the analyses, making llowance for the magnetite, the oxygen ratio of the bases and silica is even less than one to two, which would not be the case if the feldspar were oligoclase. The magnetite, which is always present, is quite variable in amount. There is much more in the trap of West Rock than earthy debris reaches to the top of the ridge. A determination of the iron in this rock gave . I. ce ee be Bee 8°55 Ce ae 5°30 5°35 13°82 13°90 A few feet distant, however, the rock becomes as firm and undecomposed as usual, showing that the gathering of the mag- netite was of no great extent. Often octahedral crystals of magnetite can be seen in the rock with the unaided eye. The analysis of the pyroxene shows it to be ordinary augite a nesia does not enter into the composition of the feldspar, the rier apd Re 2 ie a G. W. Hawes—Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley. 189 zontal, while the columns of the main ridge are nearly vertical, which shows that the main ridge must have cooled sufficiently to determine the position of the columns of the buttress, since the columns are always at right angles to the cooling surfaces. This dike is characterized by large grains (} to 4 inch across) of a clear whitish cleavable mineral, which render it sparsely por- phyritic. Even at the extremity, where the dike becomes very small, and where in consequence the rock is very fine in texture owing to the more rapid cooling, this porphyritic character is retained. A sufficient quantity of the pure material was ex- tracted for an analysis; its composition was ANORTHITE. = fe eS Sate 4 45°95 24°50 Miiibe ook as 34°70 : Ferrous oxide "64 16°31 te eS eee 15°82 Magnesia trace Potash? 4.05 45 O06 OUR: So ta cee 1°80 ignition 1 iu. ues 96 100°32 It is therefore a lime feldspar; and the oxygen ratio for RO, R,O, and SiO, is 1:3-2:4:8, which shows the feldspar to be anorthite. Mr. Dana informs me that under the microscope it has a different appearance from the other feldspar, and although triclinic it shows less tendency toward twinning. An analysis of a sample of the trap of the dike in which the anorthite occurs shows it to be a dolerite of the same composition as the others ; which is proof of the uniformity of the ejections at different times in this period. DOLERITE FROM WINTERGREEN LAKE. Sp. gr. = 3:00. L Sifies CM ee 52°38 §2°45 52°42 Alumina 22.502 j4°59 14°50 14°54 Ferrous oxide... 9°89 9°7 9°84 Ferric oxide __- 327 1°22 1°25 Manganous oxide ‘50 53 ‘51 We 3 a 10°63 10°54 10°59 Magnesia_-__.--- 7°36 7°31 7°33 OULD oie oe 2°20 2°37 2°23 task = oc ey i | "48 49 Ignition -.. . 0: "BB “BB 55 99°88 99°64 99°75 The rock is therefore a mixture of pyroxene and labradorite, from which the anorthite crystallized out on account of its dif. 190 G. W. Hawes—Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley. ferent composition ; for a very slight change in the composition of the whole mass would account for the formation of the small amount of anorthite which the rock contains, and the differ- ence in its fusibility, that of labradorite being 3, and that of anorthite 5, would favor the separation of the anorthite. 2. Diasasz, on Cutortric Do.erire. In the examination of the various dikes we find the rocks in any amygdaloidal cavities, that the sample was selected. LaKE SALTONSTALL. Sp. gr. = 2°86. L It. Mean. Sieh ie ST 49°29 49 28 Alumina soos 15°87 15°97 15°92 Ferrous oxide... 10°17 10°23 10°20 Ferric oxide __.. 1°93 1°88 1°91 Manganous oxide °35 40 ‘87 AR ee was, 7-46 7°42 7°44 Magnesia.-..... 5°90 6°07 5°99 ik Se ome oe ee 3°36 3°40 A ag: = Tage i Se "74 69 72 Water’: i222. 3°92 3°88 3°90 Carbonic acid _. 1°12 1°17 114 100718 100°36 100°27 A specimen from the southern dike of a high ridge called the Durham Mountains exhibits still greater alteration, for the amount of water shows that the larger part of the pyroxene has been changed to chlorite. It will be seen that the alteration of these rocks has not beet attended by further oxidation of the iron, and therefore it could not have been accomplished by any surface action, since the oxidation of protoxide of iron is one of the chief causes of sur face alteration; while in this case one mineral containing pr toxide has been changed into another protoxide mineral. It would, therefore, seem certain that the alteration took place a G. W. Hawes—Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley. 191 South DurHaM Mountain. Sp. gr. = 2°83. Mean Siliea.scuxdaieien 46°56 46°51 46°54 Alumina 2...:; 59 60 60 Water oo 4°50 4°54 4°52 Carbonic acid... 4°38 4°32 4°35 99°87 99°82 99°85 the time of ejection, as has been urged by Prof. Dana.* If the trap-rocks of this eastern region, when comin elt through the red sandstone strata, encountered jataieranees waters, and if it would be impossible for the vapors produced by the heat to be pressed back, owing to the hydrostatic pres- sure above, then these vapors, ‘together with other vaporizable material, as carbonic acid, set free from its combinations in the strata by the heat, would pass into the mass of molten matter. In this way we have a sufficient explanation of the change that made this diabase out of the material that formed the dolerite. e pyroxene was the mineral that was most attacked, the result of the alteration being chlorite. As chlorite is a magne- sian mineral, lime was set free by this change. Part or all of are common in the cavities. The exact sremie reactions that took place will be considered at another time, when more of the products of decomposition have been sini: That there was such a passage of he ug saat the molten mass is evi- dent; for the r ork at contains long pipe-stem-like cavities, which were i byt he ascending vapors, and which are generally filled with calcite * See this Jour., IIT, vi, 104. “J. D. Dana on Igneous Ejections and Volcanoes.” Am. Jour. Scr.—Tairp oe Vou. IX, No. 51.—Manrcu, 187, 192 S. P. Langley—Comparison of certain Theories of On excluding the water and carbonic acid from the two pre- ceding analyses, (columns 8 and 4 below,) it will be seen how nea rly the original unaltered material resembles that of the dolerites (columns 1 sida 2) in tee ar a As usual, there is a small difference in the amount of en and in the pro- portion between the pyroxene me feldspar. 1. West Rock. 2. Mt.Holyoke. 3. L. Saltonstall. 4, Durham Mt, BieG. sce y BRE 53°54 51°90 51°06 Alumina ........ 14°29 14°37 16°77 16°35 Ferrous oxide_.._ 8°30 9°95 10°74 10°79 Ferric oxide... _- 3°61 1°98 2°00 3°88 Manganous oxide 44 "45 "39 39 pet eis S li 9°53 7°83 8°72 Magnesia -.--- «.j.9tak 6°49 6°31 5°33 MOGS 204, 250. 2°15 2°60 3°59 2°66 Picea or *39 *88 75 66 99°73 99°79 100°28 99°84 seated one; for so pra uniformity would be well nigh pie sible if the source were nearer the surface among the m morphic rocks of the crust, as has sometimes been Metin: Art. XXIL--On the ge dee vo Certain Theories of Solar Structure with Observation ; by S. P. LANGLEY. With a plate. In memoirs already published,* allusion has been made to the a which would attend studies of the almost unknown the umbra of sun-spots, and of forms there Sandi owing to the relative darkness, are Aiba nearly unde- seribed, and reference has also been made to certain so-call eg eepueallliie” shapes seen at times, and which are especially oe with large s ae and periods of great disturbance. : ulty of seeing cud nenpoe so del- its: these “ crystalline ” types have never been m nutely delis eline- * American Journal of Science, ‘ioe 1874, Royal pe MGNE: Society’ Notices, March, 1874. + Comptes Begun, “May 18, 1874, Solar Structure with Observation. 1938 referred to these forms, and to my description of them. The are indeed so remarkable, and at first sight so apparently con- firmatory of the views alluded to, that only after long study have been led to think them not so much assimilable to the products of cooling upon a liquid surface as to certain cloud forms of our own atmosphere. To furnish material fora public examination of these details, whose study is so eminently instructive, it is necessary, as has been already remarked, (since photography cannot yet seize them,) to make drawings in which the single aim of the de- signer is to set down with a minute fidelity specific forms ; aiming, in short, much more to produce a piece of accurate topography than a picture; but while it is on studies made of this minute exactness that discussion will be most profitable, their reproduction for the press is a work of so much labor that this kind of illustration will probably remain unusual. The steel engraving, plate v1, from studies made at the Alle- gheny Observatory chiefly with the full aperture (13 English inches) of its equatorial, has been prepared by the kind further- ance of Prof. George F. Barker, of Philadelphia, its execution being secured at the hands of an engraver who has done his work with peculiar fidelity and skill. I trust it will be ac- cepted as a means of putting the reader in a certain sense in the place of the observer, and enabling him himself to directly compare theory with the facts of observation. This plate is made from sketches taken on the 28d, 24th and 25th of De- cember, 1873, of the eastern extremity of the great spot then nearing the center of the sun, and about 12° south of the solar equator. It is called a “ typical spot” because (since the details could not be completed at a sitting) it is less an accurate out- line of what could be seen at any one moment, than an assem- blage of the different types presented, in their proper connec: tion. The whole, then, is taken from observation; but while the details of the adjacent photosphere have been supplemented from other studies, everything in the main body of the spot is the most literal transcript I could make of specific penumbral and umbral forms. The sun had been hidden here for some days before the 23d of December, when the sky cleared, disclosing a spot of more than usual size. Although a daily record of the solar surface 1S maintained at the Allegheny Observatory, the weather for some weeks before had interrupted it so capriciously that | am unable to say with certainty what the age of the spot was when it suddenly presented itself, but unquestionably it had at this time already passed through the initiatory stage of its forma- tion, and had entered upon that in which the forms seen earlier have commenced to become segmented or distorted, while still 194 S..P. Langley— Comparison of certain Theories of retaining characteristics which show the type from which they have sprung. Attention was first directed to that dark interior, in which Dawes discerned still darker shades, which he called nuclei, as the unusual size of the spot and the irregularity of shade in the umbra seemed to favor their investigation. Aided by special optical devices, there became visible to close attention, forms which appeared to be affiliated to the better known ones of the penumbra, which were studied also, and a description of a part of whose characteristics, interesting perhaps in their bearing upon solar theories, follows a variety as to make classification difficult, the spiral type ue is an even of distinctly marked opposite flexures in the same fila- ments, show the complexity of the action which had been at work, (2.) An appearance which deserves remark is this. It has long since been observed that the interior border of the penum- (3.) In this connection we may best study the umbral forms Solar Structure with Observation. : 195 extent, or farther at least below the surface than is commonly seen. s armed, we find that the reddish-brown masses within the umbra are resolved into filaments, analogous to the penumbral ones; like them disposed in curves, and like them apparently in planes, whose direction is usually approximately rizontal. Here also we see that these umbral filaments grow ealled the “crystalline” type. The impression that agencies like those which mould the delicate crystallizations of water have been here engaged, is a natural one, and has been expressed before, the term “photospheric crystal” having apparently been used by M. Chacornac as long ago as 1853. This part of the spot, if any, would seem to justify the remark of M. Gau- tier, that the modifications of certain spot forms recall rather the effects of mineral or saline deposits than that of the action of whirlwinds. They may certainly be said to remind us of deposits, but is it by a true analogy or by a superficial resem- blance? If we look closer; if we increase our telescopic power, we find that filaments which elsewhere possess a scarcely sensible magnitude become here of immeasurable fineness, and lie, not so much at the sharp angles of a crystalline deposit, (as they with lower powers seem to do,) as like finely carded wool. We may be in doubt whether to treat these “ plumes” of the penumbral or umbral structures, their brightness seem- ing to affiliate them to the former, while, on minute examina- 5 around a central axis was almost tas ina sculptured ornament, and here again the regularity of certain crystalline forms is suger he “plume,” however, whatever it may union of heterogeneous elements, and it was found on measure- ment to be approximately 20” in length and 10” to 12” in * Seen in the lower portion of the drawing. se ~ 196 S. P. Langley—Comparison of certain Theories of of the solar dise. If I do not misinterpret the indications given by the brightening ends, they can hardly be spread upon the surface of a liquid, or upon any single surface whatever,—they bend down and up. All through the umbra are to be not similar appearances; we seem to look down through increasing depths, but as far as vision extends, without coming to an liquid or solid floor,—always down through volumes of whirl- ing vapor, (whirling, if we judge from their forms, which are dis- posed as if by vortical action,) and growing fainter till lost to sight at an unknown depth below the surface. Speaking, then, without reference to any hypothesis, it seems to me that the re- semblance to crystalline structure (though I agree that it is strik- ing) does not appear to be more than superficial. We have at certain rare intervals remarkable cirrous clouds in our own at- mosphere, whose resemblance to these forms is equally close, and in which, I think, we may see not only a resemblance but an analogy. Some of these rarer cirrous types of our own sky, which I have studied in connection with solar forms, might, s0 far as external appearance went, certainly be fancied to display crystalline action as clearly as any frost-figure on a window, yet we have no difficulty in seeing that in this case the eddies of our own atmosphere have been in some way a principal cause. While recognizing the danger of pushing too far, cou- clusions drawn from terrestrial analogy, I should then (pending amore complete study of these appearances), regard them 4S ~~ nearly typified by certain cloud-forms of our own atmos ere Solar Structure with Observation. 197 observed not in an isolated instance, but as a general charac- teristic of the solar surface, whose features are thus again assimilated to atmospheric ones in some degree like our own. rom the preceding facts of observation, it appears that the a must, if it exist, be at a distance, below the surface of the pho- tosphere, considerable even with reference to the dimensions we here deal with. (2.) It seems difficult to reconcile the bright, sharply-defined inner penumbral edge, and the regular structure discerned in the umbra, with another view, in which this umbra is a sort of stagnant pool, formed by cold vapors, or clouds, which have than with the views peculiar to Father Seech (8.) Finally, it seems to be little more than a summary of the facts of observation already rehearsed, to say that traces of a vortical action are found throughout the spot, and especially in the umbra. e theory which regards cyclonic or vortical action as @ prominent agent in determining the forms we have studied, appears then to be in closer accordance with observa- tion than the former. As the substance of the present article was written before Father Secchi’s remarks appeared in the August Memorie, it was originally prepared without reference to the questions raised there, and without any special reference to the cyclonic theory; and it is in no sense meant as a complete expression of opinion on those several points, in connection with which Father Secchi has done me the honor to cite my name. As one of the few who have used an instrument of adequate power in the particular field of research in which a large part of his labors have lain, I am more able than most, perhaps, to appre- ciate his eminent qualities as an observer. When, however, he states that longer study of the sun than I have yet given, will * . . . “Tl solo errore dell ‘illustre osservatore (i. e., Herschel) fu di estendere la massa oscura su tutto il globo sotto la fotosfera, mentre in non forma che pezze 0 chiazze assai limitate—P. Secchi, Memorie, Agosto, 1874. 198 W. M. Gabb—WNotes on Costa Rica Geology. change my views upon the theory of M. Faye, I may remark that those views were not emitted so hastily, or on such light grounds, as to be readily altered; for they were the result of several years of observation, with an instrument of greater power than that Father Secchi employs. Doubtless, before adopting conclusions in any way differing from those reached protectio Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Pennsylvania, December 29, 1874. mon experience shows that even eminent ability is not a certain nD. Art. XXIII.—Notes on Costa Rica Geology; by W. M. GABB. and either treated with insolence, or at best left severely alone. was at first engaged by a company of the leading persons in Costa Rica, natives and foreigners, but afterward the Gov- ernment took charge and assumed the responsibility of the work. The prime object of the exploration was the re-discovery of some mines, reported by tradition to exist in the region, and of which the most fabulous stories were told. Suffice it here t W. M. Gabb—Notes on Costa Rica Geology. 199 say that such mines do not, and for sufficient geological reasons cannot, exist there. This, however, is not surprising to one who has been in California or in the West Indies, where such traditions exist everywhere. Having now completed the field- work of this little isolated region, I consider it advisable to put on permanent record a bare resumé of the leading facts and ob- servations, leaving all theories and deductions for a future oc- casion. It is difficult, and perhaps unadvisable, to attempt to generalize where one’s observations have been so entirely cir- cumscribed as mine have been in this district. I have not been able to carry my observations to the Pacific; and the con- glomerate rocks, of which I shall speak, point to older sedi- mentary formations which I have not seen, and which ma have played an important part in the history of Isthmian America. The central Cordillera of the lower part of Costa Rica is not much less than 6,000 feet high at its lowest point. Along this crest rise several prominent peaks, that of U-jum, at the head of the Coen River, and Mt. Lyon, at the head of the Lari, being probably over 8,000 feet each, while Pico Blanco, or Kamuk, the culminating point, is 9,652 feet, by careful baromet- _ rical measurement. Farther down the isthmus the reputed vol- canoes of Chiriqui and Robalo are said to be of corresponding eights; but to the northwest a decided depression of the range occurs, before we reach the high region of Central Costa Rica. The direct distance from the summits of the range to the forests and impassable swamps, and so rly supplied even with Indian trails, that the distance travelled is fully three times as n open country, with good routes of travel, of the hardest la the coast is bordered by a flat region of swamp, broken by only a few low spurs. . . 200 W. M. Gabb—Notes on Cosia Rica Geology. Two large rivers drain the region. These are the Tiliri is likely to remain so, until some traveller more adventurous than any yet found dares to penetrate the region. The Indians reported the country to be almost impassable, and say it never seen a granitic dike. The material seems to have beet forced up from below in a plastic state, sufficiently heated to have changed the character of the overlying rock wherever It came in contact with it, but never sufficiently fluid to penetrate any possible fissures that may have existed. True granite rarely occurs, while syenites are much more comm he = on. rock is almost always rather fine-grained, and while hornblende abounds, mica is rather the exception than the rule. The roe is lighter in color, and of a slightly coarser grain at the more eastern exposures than farther west. I saw nowhere the slight- est approach to a gneissoid structure, or any other sign that ic origi would indicate a metamorphic facts point to its having been quite recently in a heated co W. M. Gabb—Notes on Costa Rica Geology. 201 tion. On the upper part of the Coen River, on one of its largest western branches, 1 found a single small boulder of mica slate, but I could not trace it to its source. only over the greater part of Talamanca, but also farther north and northwest, in the adjoining parts of Costa Rica. These prove, beyond a reasonable doubt, that the rocks are an exten- sion of the great Miocene deposit found not only on the isthmus proper, but over so many of the West Indian islands. I re- cognized at sight many familiar species, and have no doubt that others only await comparison to identify them with known ecies. These Miocene rocks are made up principally of conglomer- ates and fine shales, with occasional beds of sandstone, and a very little limestone. The limestone occurs most abundantly in the central regions of Costa Rica, in the Candelaria Moun- tains, and on the Reventazon River near Sapote, and are almost entirely wanting in Talamanca. The conglomerates and shales are also found as far as the latter locality; while the last men- tioned rock is the most important constituent of the Candelaria range. Wherever the shales are found unaltered, they carry small beds of very inferior coal. It is to this member that the coal mines of Chiriqui belong: and, half a dozen miles south of San José, the capital of Costa Rica, there is a small mine of coal now being worked experimentally, with results far from n . encourag . 202 W. M. Gabb—Notes on Costa Rica Geology. rial, to say nothing of the shales probably derived from the same source. The absence of granite pebbles proves conclu- sively that this rock was not exposed at the time of the depo- sition of the Miocene. Another peculiarity of the conglomerate is that, while from the region of the Tiliri west and north, as far as the line of the railroad now being constructed, the peb- bles are hard and well rounded by attrition, and cemented by ori : bedded in a matrix formed from their own material, disinte- grated, and the whole, after deposition, to have undergone metamorphism together for the first time. . The trend of the granitic intrusion is not coincident nor co- extensive with the mountain range. It bears more to the east, Pico Blanco being its culminating point; beyond this to the east it extends almost to the Tilorio River, ending in a narrow tongue. I was unable to ascend the Tilorio, back to the granite belt; but although there are large streams penetrating west- ao 4 ct we o Q & o 5 6; (=) 4 ap ° pom pe) 6 Qu Q 4°) =} rar] for 9 pag ° = 4 ° ~~ + io @ wa o = ° o o Se =, 0g ailed discussion of this question here. I was three hours on the summit of the moun tain. It isa simple, straight ridge, of which the western end rises in a sharp cone, perhaps fifty feet higher than the rest There is no sign whatever of a crater, and 300 feet below the summit there is no volcanic rock. It must, therefore, be struck from the list of volcanoes. ; The two neighboring peaks, Mt. Lyon, between the Lar! and its branch, the Dipari, and U-jum, at the head of the Coen, are said by the Indians to be voleanoes. But after my experience with Blanco, I feel great hesitation in accepting the statement, although it is fortified by many very plausible stories of fires tip of what is otherwise an ordinar nite mountain. Space ‘a det e and smoke seen on theirsummits. The latter, especially, ie a its sharp, regular cone, certainly- looks volcanic, and I hoped to reach it; but after my excursion to Pico Blanco, all hands of my party, white as well as Indians, decided that for the time, at least, it was impracticable. It would have cost 4 See ate ee Sa SN GES ee EN OLE Oy Ur a eee ane ee AiG te ) ee 5S eae W. M. Gabb—Notes on Costa Rica Geology. 203 month of hard work, and I had not so much time at my disposal. Before closing my account of the mountain region, there is one other item deserving mention. My instructions required me to look for mines, and I examined carefully for traces of their colors quite bright. On the beach, at some points, are rge deposits of iron sand of great purity, which might be © utilized. To my great regret, I have not been able to carry my section completely across Terraba to the Pacific. On the summit of Pico Blanco, after robbing Irazu of its boast that it was the only point whence both oceans can be seen at the same time. we could only look over Terraba and wish. The granite was esse up after the deposition of the Miocene. This I have emonstrated by the absence of granitic pebbles in the con- glomerate. It therefore seems probable to me, @ priori (I admit a not perfectly safe argument), that the same formation ex- tended across; and standing on the k, and looking at the hills and plains on both sides, I could not but feel convinced that on the south base of the mountain I must find the same rock as on the north. Add to this, that but a few miles far- ther east the rock does actually run around the end of the granite, there seems good reason for expecting to find the plains of Terraba to be Tertiary. Further, as far north and northwest as I have traced sedimentary rocks, they are of the same age, ve Moen are broad, flat plains, which sweep around to the bases of the volcanic peaks of Turrialba and Irazu, and the 204. S. W. Ford—New locality of Primordial farther north I followed the Miocene the less disturbed I found it. Kast of the volcano of Turrialba I found Miocene, with line of voleanoes, Turrialba, Irazu, Barba, and Poos covers all the other rocks; but on the west face of the Aguacate Moun- tains, where the coating of ash is in places absent, we find highly altered claystones. These are rich in mineral veins, and have been thoroughly explored for mines of gold and silver. Whether the rock is the ancient clay slate from which the conglomerates were formed, or whether it is highly metamorphosed Tertiary, we have, as yet, no means of knowing, and the problem wi require careful study for its solution. Costa Rica, Nov. 29, 1874. Art. XXIV.—WNote on the Discovery of a new locality of Primor- dial Fossils in Rensselaer County, N. Y.; by S. W. Forp thickness of the above enumerated beds cannot here be givel with exactness; but that of the thin saudstones is not far from thirty feet, and that of the superposed slates and shales about twenty. The heavy-bedded sandstones are of much greater extent. At one point they form a sharp, bold elevation, — locally known as “Diamond Rock.” All of these beds are arranged in a series of close synclinal and anticlinal folds Sab; «we Mere ORS GE, OT Oe RIE SE ae Se Ee eee ae a ee SE Ae SARA ee oe gO See ee ee SRE ee ee ee. ee ee Se ee oe Fossils in Rensselaer County, N. Y. 205 leaning to the northwest; and, as a result of this arrangement, the rocks of this region have a nearly uniform southeasterly dip. I was unable to obtain any fossils in these rocks, but at a locality about half a mile eastward of the first exposures examined I was more successful. At this point an apparently higher series of slates is met with, and these are, in turn, suc- ceeded by a considerable deposit of conglomerate limestone. This latter rock is a most singular formation, g tania as if composed of innumerable blocks and wedges of limestone con- fusedly thrown down and iitenwatd firmly Stren together. It appears almost incredible, at first sight, that fossils should occur in such a looking mass. But in a detached block of main mass an “aheqatvoel specimen of Hyolithes sneenen Billings; and on ex amining, on my return home, a e also uve from the rock in situ b y Mr. Bell, I found a spectdiaks of the ce nhc ed by me under the name of Oboleila nitida. All these species likewise occur in the Lower Potsdam fimestones at ‘Troy. No perfect oo of the around.* The surface of the ats is finely granular. On page 405 of his “ Paleozoic Fossils,” vol. i, Mr. Billings has figured] the pygidium of a trilobite from the Quebec group, ¢ i i i sam which has the ate rim notched in precisely the e manner as that of C. trilin Mr. Billings does not refer it positively to an nus. On comparing the characters fur- gen tes. able that it is a tail piece ‘of Conoe phat alites Zenkeri, describ on page 898 of Mr. at work cited. * In the configuration of the border above noticed, this species differs widely from any species of the genus hitherto described. Barrande, in his beautiful Work on the Trilobites, places the genus Coniemhalbten in his group of genera in which the border of the igen is unbroken or entire (Systéme Silurian de la héme, vol. i, p. 220). e species known as Conocephalites Iowensis, from the Wisconsin Primordial et Gerakbes another exception to the rule. In that species (leh her oh a pygidium i is prolonged backward into two long diverging spines. 206 R. Mallet—Origin of the columnar structure of Basalt. I regard the Lansingburgh limerock as the stratigraphical equivalent of my limestone band No. 1, at Troy. (See this Jour- nal for August, 1878.) They are lithologically similar; and, moreover, have furnished two species in common, namely, C. trilineatus and Hyolithes Americanus. At Troy this deposit is similarly underlaid by a heavy slate formation, while appar- ently below this, and in the same line of outcrop, there are exposed at one point a few layers of thick-bedded sandstone similar to that constituting “ Diamond Rock.” The inferior tion of the distance, there are almost no expo ‘ regular paper relating to the rocks of this district (this Journal, is quite possible that these lower sandstones may yet be foun to contain a still more ancient fauna. I hope in the coming spring, if my opportunities permit, to give this field a more careful and extended study. Troy, N. ¥., Dec. 26th, 1874. Art. XXV.—Abstract of a Memoir on the Origin, and Mechan- ism of Production, of the Prismatic or Columnar Structure of Basalt; by Ropert Mauer, F.R.S. (Read before the Royal Society, January 21st, 1875.)* * We are indebted to the author for this abstract.—Eps. . 4 4 SS a a ag NR a a i ga la te ae pct Sg a ere og SU) R&R. Mallet— Origin of the columnar structure of Basalt. 207 coacting with enormous external pressures, the origin of which is left perfectly vague, or to some play of successive and joint actions of all these various forces. Professor James Thomson, in a paper read some years ago, concretionary spheroids pressed together. Professor Thom- son’s views, however, are still far from complete, and the mode the salient phenomena of the prismatic and jointed structure of basalt, as observable in nature, can be accounted for upon the admitted laws of cooling, and contraction thereby, of melted rock possessing the known properties of basalt, the essential conditions being a very general homogeneity in the mass cool- ing, and that the cooling shall take place slowly, principally om one or more of its surfaces. Thus, taking the simple case of a tabular mass of molten basalt, whose top surface is level, the depth being great, and the two other dimensions indefinitely greater than that, and assuming the material at one temperature initially, and homo- geneous and isotropic, and that cooling takes place from the top surface only, he, on these data, proceeds to consider the phenomena that will successively result by contraction in cooling. While the mass remains at its upper part still plastic by heat, contraction will be met by internal movements and subsidence ol the top surface, and no cracking or splitting can take place until the material there has become rigid enough to break under tensile strain. He points out that this degree of rigidity, or “splitting temperature,” is not reached until the top surface has fallen to between 900° and 600° Fahr. At this temperature the cooling surface begins to separate by fracture, penetrating perpendicularly to it into smaller sur- faces. These must be similar and equal in area, and such that their edges in contact can make up a continuous superfi- cies. ‘T'o relieve the orthogonal strains in the cooling surface, and to meet the above conditions, only three geometric figures or the separating surfaces are possible, namely, the equilateral triangle, the square, and the regular hexagon. Am, Jour Ser. Turrp sues Goes IX, No. 51.—Manrcu, 1875. 208 BR. Mallet—Origin.of the columnar structure of Basalt. The author then inquires why the last of these is normally the force found in nature. He traces this to the law of least action which governs the play of all natural forces whose final result is produced by the least possible expenditure of force. He shows that, in a contracting surface splitting up into equal areas, the expenditure of work will, for the equilateral trian- gle, the square, and the regular hexagon, be approximately as the numbers 1-000, 0°680, and 0519. This economy of force a but from the sides, and the more important conditions influencing the latter in nature are pointed out. Any one prism is coldest at its extremity, and its tempera ture increases along its length to the other end, where the splitting is still proceeding. The prism is hotter, also, for any transverse section, as we approach its axis, than about the ex- terior; differential strains in the longitudinal direction thus take place, by cooling and contraction, between the successive imaginary couches, taken from the exterior to the axis 0 prism, which tend to cause the outer poriions of the prisms 1 tear asunder at intervals in length dependent, like the diame ter of the prisms themselves, upon the relation subsisting be tween the coefficient of contraction and of extensibility at rup ture of the material. The prism contracts not only in its length, but in its diame ter; transverse fracture at its surface i is R. Mallet— Origin of the columnar structure of Basalt. 209 so the fracture Rowe a transverse joint takes place oblique to the sides of the prism; the obliquity beta less as the fracture advances toward the axis of the prism, so that when of at ie of these joints, and the modifications of their curvature produced by varied conditions in the coo It is further shown that the partial or complete deiadlianeed of certain fragments, frequently observed to be partially or wholly detached from the cusps of the concave side of these joints at and near the solid angles of the hexagon, is a conse- ort necessarily resulting from the mode of production of e joints themselves. The author then points out that in the case of very slender prisms other (and mechanical) conditions besides those of differential cooling enter into the production of the cross joints, which are at more considerable and irre- gular distances apart, and in planes of fracture often nearly transverse to the axis of the prism. He also discusses modifications produced in the prisms themselves, and in their cross joints, by ee, in the mass of basalt itself— er for example, by a more or less Late ously developed cleavage in the basalt in planes transverse to minimum tcc: Hs of pet The conditions producing greater or less interspaces between the prisms, which may vary from point to point of the same are pointed out, as also those which cause the spaces be- tween successive joints in adjacent prisms to esi g in succes- sive planes, transverse to their axes, or the contrary. The author then proceeds to discuss the various positions in ways normal to successive isothermal couches or planes at ache splitting temperature, taken in succession within the mass. 210 R. Mallet—Origin of the columnar structure of Basalt. If the mass be tabular, as already assumed, and cooling take place only from the top surface, the prisms will be straight and vertical, extending from top to bottom nearly of the tabu- lar mass, and being separated from the bottom on which it rests wm I z sje} S F 4 Ed mn — pa co 4: = es) Low 3 joe) pa] Dp Qu o. ° 4 =] 4 zs — © Bp o. = oO oO res a — fre bo) =) ot diameter partially or wholly then commencing. The converg- rature. : The author then proceeds to develo and illustrate by dia- . . . : < are sive isothermal couches, taken in descending order, are not pat allel to the original cooling surface, as they are in all cases 0 straight and parallel prisms, but divergent gradually from the cooling surface and from each other, then the lines of opt of the prisms, always normal to these couches, must be cw'v Chemistry and Physics. 211 in one direction. This will be true whether the isothermal couches be plane surfaces sibel os from a thinner to a thicker part of the mass, or whether they be curved surfaces arising from the mass reposing on a Uoeved bottom, and diverging in like manner. This explanation of the production of curve prisms, without the necessary ropereearen of external mechan- ical forces, having bent into s prisms originally formed straight, is, the author believes, pe ht the first time presented. e shows that great difficulties exist to the supposition that of ed prisms are ever the result of the bending of prisms qneinaly i by extraneous mechanical effort. The au- thor thus shown that all the salient phenomena pre- porate in ae by the forms, jointings, positions of the prisms, c., of columnar basalt are accounted for as consequences of contraction in cooling, submits that this solution given by him must be the true one. He, however, proceeds to examine at some length the different views of those who have imagined that prismatic and jointed basalt has resulted from the squeez- ing together by some wholly imaginary external force of sphe- roidal masses, more or less resembling those known as “ onion or concretionary spheroids, such as those imagined by Hee Gregory Watt. io author submits all points of the sub- t to a searching exami nation, and points out that, upon e as to the Bre pression could produce sa hiee at a ut must squeeze the spheroids instead into rhombic HAE i os cl SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. L CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. On Atmospheric Hydrogen Peroxide.—Between the first of dat and the first of December, 1874, ScHdNE examined one hun- dred and thirty specimens of rain, and twenty-nine specimens of snow, for hydrogen peroxide. These experiments were made in the ¥ vicinity of oscow. Of the whole number of specimens of established the fact, the author continued his oe wit reference to the pep arte 4 Form of occurrence of hy- in the fluid, or solid othe or ag ; (2) Relation to other meteoric a air; (5) Part played by it geologically and botanically; (6) tion upon the animal economy when breathed; and (7) iy cistlo 212 Seventisic Intelligence. importance. For this purpose, all the rain, hail, snow, dew, and frost wes collected and ed for hydrogen ‘peroxide, the analysis being quantitative when possible. Further, at various times, especially in clear weather, artificial dew and frost were prepared and examin Careful meteorological records were kept during the entire interval at the adjoining observatory. The o was determine onbein’s ozonometer. ‘The results show that the quantity of rogen peroxide in rain varies fro 4 to 1:00 milligram per liter; that the larger the drops, the greater the amount; that first rain after weather is poorer 1 peroxide than that which falls later; that the peroxide is greatest when the wind is south and southwe st, that in the rain brought by the equatorial current being greater than that which falls in the rain produced by the conflict of this with the polar current, or brought by the latter current itself; that the relative quantity of peroxide in rain increases from the summer solstice to t autumnal equinox, and then diminishes ; that the quantity is not greater in rain which falls during a thunder-shower; and that during the four LEE, the absolute quantity of hydrogen peroxide aidiaed in the iters of rain which fell upon each square San less than one twenty-five millionth of this substance. In rtificial dew and frost, the amount of peroxide varied from 0°04 to 0°05 mgr. per liter, Teaching on a bright moonlight night in summer 0°09 mgr. e amount increased with the altitude of the sun. The daily easetbin was reached between 12 and 4 o'clock Pp. M., and the annual in the month of August. The amount is greater the lighter the temperature, the clearer the sky, the ao the absolute and the lower the relative humidity of the air. The author concludes that the peroside.s is co — in the air both free and in solution, to the extent, a i 0°000000268 «ec. in a liter. He also believes hak ‘contiei a an important part in its production. The experiments are itil in progress.— Ber. Berl. Chem. as, vii, 1693, Dec., ce se G. the oes b the vapors of potassium aad sodium bes fill a was in the red; the second, on was on the one et and the third, y, on the other of the D lines. These bands shaded off toward the red and resembled in general the bands of iodine. The position of the bands was approximately measured. Group s Chemistry and Physics. 213 a consisted of nineteen bands, varying in wave-length from 6844 to 6275 ten-millionths of a meter ; group #6 of eight lines, from 6059 to 5901; group y of thirteen lines, from 5860 to 5667. The ordinary spectrum lines of the metal were not seen reversed owing to the too feeble intensity of the calcium light. Similar experiments with sodium led to yatta results. The blue vapor gave an absorption spectrum show in the blue a group of bands (jy) eleven in number, follow a soon after by a group in the red and yellow (a) consisting of twelve bands, and then by group (f) in the orange made up of seven bands. Sodium vapor in an iron tube heated to redness shows an absorption spec- trum in See the red, the green and a part of the blue are re- moved. absorption lines widen se tose! and a strong absorption ‘sia appears in the green. Hence only a part of the orange, the green and the ultra-blue are transmit — Proc. Roy. Soe., xxii, 362; J. Phys., iii, 344, Nov., 1874. G. F. B. ” Preparation of Glacial Formic ashes the ordinary gas over lead formate, gently heated over a fre , the product is always contaminated with sulphur products which communicate an fr eoeaanae odor to the acid, and which — be removed. and y fractio cases Placed in a fi ixture and soliadied, it may ie te trated. The pure acid solidifies a temperature of eee ee oeered Ls er than that ae a water to sith ot icant acid, so phosphenglow may be considered either as P(OH),C, Which of these formulas is correct, may be determined by the action of pinaphhets chloride. In the first case the reaction is: POH),C,H,+(PCI,)-=PCI,0,H, +(POCI,), +(HCl),, 214 Scientific Intelligence. the products being phosphenylous chloride and phosphoryl! chlo- ride. In the second case C,H;,PO(OH) H-++(PCI,),.=C, H,POCI,+ POCI,+ PCl,+ (HCl) the products now being phosphenylous oey an onde, phosphoryl ide. Ex I chloride, and pbosphorous chlor xperiment entirely con- firmed the latter view. In the case now of p ‘ep hotte acid itself, the products given when it is acted on by phospheny] tetra- q cease: P(OH),+(C,H SPI) =P Cl, +(C,H ;POCI,), +(HCl),. In the second case, the reacti OPH(OH),.+(C,H PCl),=POCI,+( (POCI,C,H;).+ C,H;PCl,+(HCl);. The rose: tea acid was prepared by acting on the chloride with water, and was treated with the tetrachloride in a flask. Phosphoryl chloride, ee no phosphorous chloride, was formed. The fraction of the distillate boiling above 220° ave, when treated see water, phosphenylous and phosphenylic acids, thus proving the presence of the corresponding chlorides POCI, C,H, and PCl,C,H,;. The authors believe, therefore, that the formula OPH(OH), represents the true constitution ee ee ~~ — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 1688, Dec 5. On the Production “of Gabndticcsts “Acid yi Parncatettiod - Maty some time ago showed that, under the influence of the lactic acid. The fe in this case is a product of the dead tissue, since the living mucous me ne P effect this conversion. Since that time, the author has observed that acid remain free in the d. wo rous maiz plants, ‘i or 5 decimeters high, grown in his well-known solution and we rooted, were immersed in c.c. of this solution, to whic ® Chemistry and Physies. 215 larly treated, using tartaric, citric, and lactic acids respectively in place of sa alicylic. In the salicylic solution, the roots were killed. c not even by planting in earth. Fifteen grains of corn were soaked in water containing rg4qq Of pret tans em and then placed in a F. B, 7. Outlines of Prowimate Organie Analysis; by Ausert B, Prescorr, Professor of Organic and Applied Prcclaiey in the Univer ‘sity of Michigan, 192 pp. 12mo. New York, 1875 (Van Nostrand).—This work is a useful and much n eeded laboratory manual, for the Sientficaton. separation, and qua alitative deter- by a manual of es “ Chemical ese ate ‘of Alcobolic Liquors,” by the same autho . Passage of eat through Liquid Films. Br gs F. Exy has determined spit peptaagte the penetration of various Shae through the film of a soap bubble, an effect shown casas — 1:95. Illuminating gas = 2:27, H=3°77, CO*=47:1, H,S=651, NH, =46,000. ithin these extraordinarily wide limits, ‘between 0°86 and 46 ,000, the observations are in perfect accord with the formula Ts Experiments were also made for the purpose of ascertaining the absolute velocity of diffusion, These gave for the diffusion of H in air through a soap film, that in one minute 1°88 216 Scientific Intelligence. cubie centimeters H and ‘50 cub. centim. of air simultaneously pass soe one gee a of the _— —Roy y- Acad, mies 1872 one machine was made for producing the light, two for plat- ing, nn bitin weed eying he latter poli redden 10 cms. of pla wire ‘3 mms. in diameter. Those now made redden 60 ems. OF the same wire, though there is no increase in the cost or weight. This large increase is principally due to the employ- w magnets in sheets of Jamin. In 1872 and 1873 it deposits 600 grs. per hour, but requires only 50 kgmtrs. to run it. It therefore occupies “put one-half the space of the old now constructed otis a band of thin erste ‘of part ee pa pact half the length of the bars of the magnet, so that four large 1 bons are used for each machine. The plan of putting the electro-magnet into the main — gives rise sometimes to a curious change in polarity. When But if suddenly stopped, the current induced by the electro-mag- net reverses the polarity of the latter, so that if the machine 18 again started the current passes in theo opposite direction and re- moves the silver it ie _— ee sey fo av oid this trouble, he e first machine for gendiating ae light weighed 1,000 kgs-, the nr of the magnets weighing 250 kgs., that of f the ring 75 he space occupied was 80 coms. on a se and 125 cms. high. This was used a a long time in the tower of Westminster, and for two years has not given Sah troatle. es h it heated @ little and gave saath around the commutator. The new new form weighs 183 kgs. and contains only 47 kgs. of copper. Its Tength Chemistry and Physics. 217 and breadth are 55 cms., and its height 60 cms. The a is however much less, being only 290 Carcel — instead of 1,000. A greater light may nevertheless be obtained by an in- creased speed, as is shown by the following ae of. ten series of experiments: 650 turns gave a light of 77 puannng 850 gave 125; 880, 150; and 900, 200 without heating or spar 935 gav e 250 with slight heating, and 1,025 gave 290, but produced heating and sparks. Comparing with the machine of the co pany of the pies a space of 170135150 ¢ Its a is therefore twelve times as great, the siirtace | cote a seventeen times as great, and the volume eighteen times as great. These machines having neither cranks, connecting shafts or dead-points, are well adapted to the transformation of electricity into work. One of the small machines gave the results shown in the accompanying table, when run with Bunsen cells of 0:20. The first column gives the number of cells, the second the number Cell. Turns. Power. Cell. Turns. Power. 2 760 (: 1100 4- $ 810 1°02 8 1100 5°00 4 1000 1:02 8 900 4°81 4 900 1°80 9 1500 Tog a} 5 1100 2°50 10 1700 5°52 6 1000 3°36 10 1300 6°16 kgmtrs., determined by a friction brake. The current me a sec- than ha ower was first t changed tate giesuicite and then the electricity into sade: the sphere of efficiency of eac = t have been over 70 per one idee the other fine. Ba current from two Bunsen cells is then passed rg Ceagns the first, running the machine, and producing a current of high tension in ie fine coil. A telegraph may thus é run ies two Bunsen cells.— Compt. Rend., |xxix, 1178. —— fully illustrated on the same subject may also be found in Engi — Nov. 27th, 1874, and in the Annales Industrielles, B. ©. P. nsion of Phos sphorus.—Mus. Prisati and DrFRancuis are measured the expansion of both solid and liquid phosphorus at temperatures from 0° to 270° C. They employed a cylindrical dilatometer with a graduated neck. This was imme a ba of oil kept stirred continuously, and the greatest errors were esti- mated at atenth of a degree. The readings were all reduced to egrees of the air-thermometer by a direct comparison, From a 218 Scientific Intelligence. large number of experiments they deduced the following results, The specific volume of solid phosphorus is given by the equation: Wj=W 4g +2000 K 10774 +1150 K 1071974? and of liquid phosphorus by : W j=, - +2969 X 1077 (£—50) +2115 & 1071 9(— 50)? The mean co-efficient of dilatation per degree for solid phos- phorus from 0° to v° is given by the formula R=3674 X 1077-211 K 107 %¢, and for liquid phosphorus: =5167X 10-7 +4370 X 10-9(t—50). — Gazz. Chim. TItal., iv, 1874. ” oF 11. Velocity of Light.—M. Cornu gives the results of some measurements he has made on the velocity of light under the direction of the Council of the Observatory, at the suggestion of LeVerrier and Fizeau. The method employed was that of the toothed-wheel, first employed by Fizeau in 1849. The result then obtained was 298,500 meters from measurements between the Polytechnic School and Mt. Valérian. The stations now selected M a chronograph and electric register the time measured to thou- sandths of a second. e method of measurement is well known, ber of times the observation was made, and the column V gives the corresponding velocity. The mean of the whole, giving n ™m Vv n m Vv 4 15 300,130 13 4 300,340 5 33 300,530 14 9 300,350 6 20 300,750 15 65 300,290 7 10 300,820 16 4 300,620 8 7 299,940 17 22 300,000 9 94 300,550 18 35 300,150 10 69 300,640 19 6 299,550 11 72 300,350 200 — —— 12 3 300,500 21 36 300,060 proper weights to each, is 300,330 in air, or 300,400 meters 1 vacuo, with a probable error of only one-tenth of one per cent. Chemistry and Physics. 219 The methods of measuring the parallax of the sun may be di- value of the herrea of oo bora et Bs the epg here ob- t tions with théorental laws based on the theory of oriviiation They give the value 8°86. 38d. The purely geometrical methods by the parallax of the planets near the earth. The opposition of Mars in 1862 gave 8°84. But the greatest segs is attained y the observations of the transit of Venus.— Comp sh iat lxxix, 1361, Be 12. On a new way 4 illustrating the Vibrations ef the dir in Organ Pipes ; by Prof. Josern Lovurtne, of Cambridge, Mass. (From the Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, vol. xxiii. ate shall begin with a brief description of the methods adopted by W. B. Rogers and Kenig for making visible the vibrations of the invisible air in organ pipes. By the first method two gas burners were fed from a common pe aptiaes a glass tube was placed over one burner and the length the flame altered until it was brought into unison with the spaces as soon as the sound was heard. The method has the ad- vantage of giving an object which be seen in all directions, with the disadvantage, however, on account of the small circle in which the flame travels, of crowding upon each other the alternate dark and bright spaces ‘of the fluted surface. The description just given has reference to the a con- structed de Mt cenig under the name of the Appareil d flammes The second ethiod ‘for ee the same object is a device cS Keenig, and is known the name of the Manometric lames. ing i i * Amer. Journ. ca xxvi, 1858. + Ann. Chem. und Phys., cxxii. 220 Screntifie Intelligence. Gas is introduced into this box by one tube and then conducted fro b burn ‘ i i vi in the pipe plays upon the membrane, and communicates vibration to the flame. The individual vibrations of the flame are revealed self a faint and virtual image, not easily seen in daylight or in all directions. It has the advantage of admitting of a large orbit of revolution and thus separating widely the individual vibrations of ven high note ; one foot in length, arranged as the spokes of a horizo tal wheel upon a hollow hub, which is lengthened out below to the extent of six inches, is closed at the upper end by st V lighted, the rotation produces a large cylindrical sheet of light. umber of arms t is the velocity Te ed to produce persistency of impression in the eye, ets . ibra- Geology and Natural History. 221 poses of research, Keenig’s apparatus may be all that is desired. But for illustration in class roo ms, and especially to large num- bers, the new arrangement just described will be found to possess great advantages. IL GroLtocy AND NATURAL HIsTory. New Order of Eocene Mammals.—At the last meeting of the Shiites Academy, Feb. 17th, Nebo’ O. C. Mars made a communication on a new order 0 ne Mammals, for which he proposed the name Tillodontia. These animals are among the Ungulates, and Rodents. In Tillotherium Marsh, the type of the order, the skull has the same general form as in the ears, but in its structure resembles ae of Vinegaltets The molar teeth are of the ungulate type, the canines are small, and in each jaw Shete is is a pair of large scalpiform in ncisors fae with enamel, and grow ing from persistent pulps, as in Rodents. The adult dentition is as follows :—Incisors cy canines —; premolars —; molars aS The ned ea of the lower jaw with the skull corresponds to that in Ungulates, The posterior nares open behind the last upper molars. — brain was small, and somewhat convoluted. The at i h genera of this order are less oo but all fat arentl y had the Same general characters. There are two distinct families, Zidlo- theride,* in which the large ine g rrr rer pulps, the teeth are rootless. Some of the animals of this group were as large asa Tapir. With Hyrax et zt Toxodontia the present order appears to have no near aftini 2. On the alleged parallelism oF ‘Coal beds ; by J. J. Sreven- son. (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xiv, 283. )—Mr. Stevenson in this paper gives examples, from this country and England, of the sub- division of coal be ~ and of variations in the thickness of the intervening rock strata. The interval between the oe oh Free- rt and te coal beds along Yellow Creek in Ohio varies — “i 160 a in ese miles. e same interval on Wells ries in one mile from 8 feet to 28, and from this it en- rene heyond [distance na not stated] to 110 feet. In = sections given by P his Pennsylvania Report the intervals are 184, 143, 142, hr, 109, 103. The total interval ‘rane se Pittsburgh coal bed and the Upper Freeport varies in Ohio * This family may possibly prove to be identical with Anchippodontide. 222 Scientific Intelligence. 420 feet at the west to 505 at Steubenville; in Pennsylvania it is 200 feet at Ligonier, 220 at Elk Lick, and 450 to nearly 600 feet on the Monongahela River; in West Wivinia, along the Mononga- hela and Tygart’s Valley River, it varies not much from 420 feet, Mr, Stevenson, after stating many other facts, observes, in con ante that the variation in thickness arises mainly fr from the fact t the beds were deposited in a great trough having the Cincin- hati uplift on one side and the Alleghany region on the other; that the diminution in thickness is quite regular east and sv from the middle of the trough; that the subsidence as a whole was regu- lar, rete eH uniformity, but that there were “ balgtags or other irregularities such as could not fail to accompany any opera- tions so exten” He further concludes that “ all the coals of mber o kind ogee = Sor February, jon the Actes de? nou eater - Feb., ast Sodons nacre Corr has announced his ob- taining Elephas primigenius var. Columbi from Quarternar beds e Mas from correspondin ng beds near Taos, and from the valley of the South Platte in Northwestern Color aio: The Pliocene of Santa Fé affords the remains of a Mastodon, ified by Leidy to his obscurus, of which Cope makes a ne w species, M. productus. Hrrcncock, State Geologist; J. H. Huntineron, Principal Assist- ant. Part I, Physical Geography. 668 pp. roy. 8vo, with many illustrations. : dha rd, 1874,—This First Part of the Re- port on the Geology of New Hampshire commences with a his- tory of the Geological Surveys in New Hampshire by Pro Hitchcock. The chapters on this suhjent are followed by a his- ran of explorations among the White Mountains by W. Upham; chapter on the climatology of New Hampshire by J. H. Hunt hapten another excellent one on the use of he magnetic — in surveying by E. T. Quimby, illustrated by maps; others the topography of the State by C. H. Hitchcoe including a og 292); 3 on che dis istetpdsion of of Plaats s by W. F. Flint; on the Natu- ral History of the Diatomacew by A. Mead Edwards, with a plates and een mere on the Scenery of the State by C. H. Hitchcock and J. H. Huntington. The illustrations are numerous and a number of them pe photographic. eee ee ee Geology and Natural History. 223 the geology of New Hampshire. The occurrence in Allin it New England of Upper Silurian fossils within a few miles of the White Mountains, which it has made known, is a fact of the high- coveries are enough of themselves to prove the survey a success as far as geological science is concerned ; for r they are destined to give great aid toward dubateolliiiy the ms points in New Eng- land geolo poly the facts chia pias xe? me a shi ter on “the "pha lan eine an Eastern Vermont during Hi several ages, four of which are made pagar one Gd an or Primordial, and one Helderberg. We only remark that the author does not seem to have sufticiently appreciated the fact that in a region which is metamorphic throughout, the immense amount of denudation that has taken place in past time throws great doubt over all attempts to mark out over it outlines of the dry land of successive pre- Silurian ages by the bpd ig Shane distribution and positions of the different kinds of r Some other opinions in reso Hitchcock’s part of the vol- ume appear to us to need re After sete of the “ exeouniels abundant Laurentian sg tion” (p. 508), he observes, with regard to the origin of beds iron pyrites and copper fees be his “ eae rocks,” that “ For the fortastion en require Se a sul soe case of im 7 could in all cases be fgets from one of n= Azo very lo: ~ time which elapsed during the sold m 2,000° C, to 200° M. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Seriss, Vor. IX, No. 51.—Maron, 1875, 15 224 Scientific Intelligence. 850,000,000 of years; and many more millions should be added for the continuation of the cooling down to 100° C.; all of which is surely very unsafe to conclude from the existence of those iron ore beds that the vegetation was extremely abundant, or that any then existed. Neither does the phosphate of lime (apatite), which is so gene- rally disseminated through the iron ores, afford good evidence of life. The amount of this mineral in Archean rocks exceeds that in all the later rocks of the globe, and would certainly indicate the existence of an extraordinary amount of life over the Archean marshes and lands if of any at all. Some of the earliest shells of the Silurian (Zingule and a few related kinds) consist largely of phosphate of lime, as shown by Hunt, and this appears to prove, as this author has observed, that the waters of the ocean then held in solution more phosphates than they now do. And the Geology and Natural History. 225 rocks, But these show much ignorance of the subject. In a pili: headed in capitals DEvontran, we find the author say- ing that “in 1860, when engaged with Dr. Shumard in the sur- vey of San Saba County, some of the limestones ine! shales in see oe part of that county eb referred by him to the De- The Trenton limestone was the formation hte its "chicf fossils found were of the Slows genera: Belerophon, Maclurea, Orthis, Murchisonia, Pleurotomaria, and some other genera of that period.” A “State eologist * who refers the Trenton limestone to the Devonian is evidently not a geologist, whatever a State appointment. Such a mistake Dr. Shumard could not e made. Another enoetnoan of the Report may do its author better jus- tice. In the chapter, a little over a page long, on the Jurassic of the State, three lines are used in stating that half a mile west and northwest of Phantom Hill, reper Co., there are ne delight to roll and wallow in the soft dirt. I have bee them rol and kick up their heels, over and over, and then get up and shake themselves apparently with gr ona antisfuation, It will not be will b urassic e Report contains charges against the late Dr. Shvinard and hie content r. A. R. Roessler, which should have been stricken Progress for 1874; by Pzrzr Lestxy, Director of the Survey.— The appointments "for this new survey were not made until the meuath: of June had far advanced, and consequently the parties were not in the oe until July a and Au igust. The aesintants 9 ik ointed are: Mr. A. S, McCreath, chemical assistant 5 ri gist; H. E. Wri ley, on abe petroleum ules a rag Peas et ee ; E. B. Harden, draughtsman. Two more assistants are o be appointed, one for Greene and Washington Counties, and 226 Scientific Intelligence. the other for the northern tier of counties, Tioga, Branford, Susque- hanna and Wayne. Besides these there are a number of volunteers. Although the parties were late in the field, valuable results have been obtained, which will soon be published i in the Report for — year. Dr. Ge enth’s ee. Report is nearly printed ; will extend to abou 0 pages. The geological reports of Posh sor Frazer, Pr fbi Pies Mr. Platt and Mr. pitas site printer’s hand or will s Besides these, the eoilaas for 1874 will include a special report on Lares by Mr. H. E. Wrigley, which will ste a large map of the oil regions of West Pennsylvania and West Virginia, a small map of the oil regions of the Middle States pee) Canada, sections and other illus- trations. Mr. Lesley’s extensive knowledge of geology, theoretical and practical, and of the range of subjects that will come under Giyekiaation in the survey, together with his thoroughness an energy, ensures for the State of Pennsylvania, and for the science of the land, results of the highest value. 8. Geographical. ane and Surveys west of the 100th Meridian; First Lieut. G. M. Wuerxter, Corps of Engineers, U.BA,, in char arge. (1.) Preliminary Report upon sn Fossils collected in 1871- nde with descriptions of new species; by C. A. White, vada and Utah; the aa of Arizona, New Mexico ol Nevada; the Jurassic riod of Utah and Arizona ; the Creta- ceous of New Mexico, Arizona and Utah. (2.) Report upon Ornithological Specimens collected in 1871- 1873. 148 pp. 8vo. 1874.—Contains a Report on the birds pe lected in 1872, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow and H. W. Henshaw it 1873, bss H. W. Henshaw; annotated list of the birds a 5 | i=) ~~ Fs ray oO pow o a3 et =a fa) a= of s 5 <8 = +o a } 9) oO = ° 3 ‘ot ° ao 2 a © 2 collected by the Stanle Expedit on. 10. Geological and 9 . V. Haypen, 5 a x in charge, even of the Interior. to page 83 533, in the December number of this Journal. A co mplete un copy reached us on the 11th of February. The closing Geology and Natural History. 227 part includes Reports on Insects by W. L. ee C. R. Osten Sacken, H. A. Hagen; on Crustacea by S. L Smith and A. 8. Packard ; on the methods of Topographical Baers as James T. Gardner; Topographical Report on the Middle Park Division by S. B. Ladd, and on the Gold Hill Mining Region, by A. R. Mar- vine. A further notice is reserved to another number. (2.) Bulletin, Second Series, No. 1, 48 pp. 8vo, 1875.—Con- tains memoirs ee e Fishes of the Tertiary shale of the South Park, b Cae On the Cranial and Dental Characters of Mephitine, with description of M. 4A pesnrci a new species from the bone-caves of Pennsylvania; Ancient ruins in Southwestern Col- orado, by W. H. Jackson, with four lasena” on fossils from near the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, west of Greeley and Evans, Colorado, and others from about 200 miles farther east, with descriptions of a few new spec (3.) Contributions to the Fossil Flora of the Western Territories. Part 1, The Cretaceous Flora ; by Lo LesquerEux. 136 pp. 8vo, with 30 lithographic plates., "Vol. vi. of the Reports. rts.—Mr. Les- quereux has here brought out the results of his long and careful study of the Cretaceous flora of the Rocky Mountain region. The plants pe are from the Dakota group, the lowest of The fi the Cretaceous beds in that region. acts show that the leaves lie near rile ere they were dropped. ee ae are be- tween the parallels of 39° and 47°; and the leaves indicate a general uniformity of climate over thbbe stl with perhaps a slightly warmer temperature in Kansas, where alone occur the dne Domb genera Credneria, Pterospermites and Dombeyopsis ; where the species of Liclidassibon, and of some other eager ave mae leaves, while those of the Nebraska species are sma c ing been identified by him from beds in latitude 0 ; while from the Lower babi he has made out a very different ran is Jy of Species, including 9 Cycads, 3 uisetacee, 17 Coni, ee od, 5 Monoe Besides the genera apr enumerated, Lesquereux hast the fol- —— Ficus, Nyssa, Laurus, Laurophyllum, Persea, Cinnamo- mum, Oreodaphne, Proteoides, Embothrium, Aristolochites, An- 228 Scientific Intelligence. dromeda, Diospyros, Sapotacites, Bumelia, Hedera, Cissites, Protophyllum, Acerites, Negundoides, Greviopsis, Anisophylium, Celastrophyllum, Rhamnus, Juglans, Pyrus, Prunus. ‘The whole number of species enumerated is 130: of these, eight are of the sens Quercus, five, of Populus, six of Plutanus, six of Sassa- existing gover’ as they embrace characters of two or more. The leaves are mostly entire, coarsely veined and coriaceous. No beds in the Rocky Mountain region older than Seances contain any related species, or a single Angiosperm. The author remarks that the facts “seem to prove a collateral development of different primitive types, and therefore, the appearance at certain epochs of those original forms which, at each geological period, have changed the character of the vegetable world, and which have not any connection with antecedent t pes (4.) Lists of Elevations principally t in that portion se the United States west of the Mississippi River. Collected and arranged by Gannett, M.E. 72 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1875. —"This oe artme phy. (5.) Meteorologicai Observations made in 1873 and 1874 in Colorado and Montana, prepared by G. B. Dineeae. 58 pp- 8vo. cated.)—I onaeres 4 regs our + last partes that state, on the — of yma oe that this genus is identical with “ Stylino f Marsh, a lready descri in your May number 0 the care ae a. 26 Pistieans Marsh’s diagnosis be accurate, the gopers are distinct, as the description cited ascribes six molars t? ylinodon, while five only exist in Calamodon. This I st ated in Geology and Natural History. 229 my desoripsicn. on p. 6 of my report on the Vertebrata of the Eocene of New Mexico 13. Shepherd's Pipe of the feindeer era.—An instrument made of the bones of birds placed yo Sac as in the shepherd’s Pipe, which it is supposed was used as a musical instrument, is goumned by M. Piette as having ate found B, a deposit of the eae 2 era (Stone Age). —Les Mo ndes, Jan, Lead vein in Ne wburyport, Mass. "The « vein of lead ore de discovered intersecting the gneiss of Newburyport has, according to Professor R. H. Richards, a lead-bearing ba nd against its north wall, which averages a foot in width but widens in one shaft 22 feet deep to six feet. ith the galena there is a little chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite. The rest of the vein is a rusty crystalline rock free from mica, whose precise nature is not yet determined. The lead-bearing band is from one-third to one- half galena, A ton (2240 Ibs.) of the crude ingot lead obtained from the ore yielded 74 ounces of silver and 341 grains of gold.— Proe. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xvii, 2 15. Record fe prong te Literate —An Annual of fe title is to be commenced the coming s y W. Wuiraker of the Geological ate Office | (Je nye st., London, SW). “The vol- ume will contain short abstracts or notices of Pa ers, Books, Maps, ete., published during the year 1874, in the departments of eology, Paleontology and oepeia h It will include 200 to 300 pages and be sold for 10s. 6d. isrin an Annual Record is greatly needed. Sihscripaune are solici 16. Composition of the native alloy oe Gold and Silver in the Comstock Lode, Nev a MELVILLE gickeeon , of San Fran- cisco, in a communication to the Microscopic al Society in April, 1874, describes the pale alee alloy from the Comstock lode as 9Securring in similar form and composition throughout the whole length of the lode and ries the croppings down to the bottom of the deepest workin oe It is found occasionally in coarse pieces, but in general is finely disseminated and intimately mixed with the silver ore. It exhibits imperfect octahedral crystals and is found also in aborescent filiform masses. ar ‘ied 3; cific gravity 12°5; after melting, 13°5 to 13° 7 Color white, with a rmin 17, ‘Minerale pioal Note ; ; by Atserr R. Leeps, Prof. of ‘Chem- istry, Stevens Institute. -A magnesia-iron Tremolite, not asbesti- fineralogy, 5th edition. ssl county in a dark-colored serpentine rock, i bie aded masses sometimes exceeding 1 mm. in thickness and 1 em. in breadth in their vies part, and then thinning into fine fibers which lose themselves in the rock. These blades, with 230 Scientific Intelligence. their various alterations in size and direction, are frequently many centimeters long. ey are fibrous, of vitreous luster, trans- lucent and of slight yellow, greenish or reddish tints, derived from the serpentine and oxide of iron accompanying them, H.=2%. Fusibility =5°5. 5. LL Mean. O. ratio. SiO, 59°27 59°228 59°25 31°40 31°40 2°1 Al,O, 2°45 2°452 2°45 1°15 FeO 6°50 6°494 6°49 M 1:09 1°006 1°05 0°23 $1493 1 CaO 1-72 1°403 1°57 Mg 28°30 28°105 28°16 11°26 H,O undet. undet, iichate 99°33 98°69 98°97 This variety of tremolite [bronzite?], it will be seen from the analysis, is distinguished by its large percentage of ferrous oxide and magnesia; and the cause of this interesting peculiarity is to be sought for in the chemical history of the maguetite-bearing serpentine in which the tremolite is imbedded. 18. Action of light on the development of the young of Frogs. —M. Thury took the eggs of Rana temporaria and placed them e hind legs. By the 10th of June, the former had their fore legs d som still black, had no trace of legs, and breathed almost exclusively by means of their u those of the latter still had no legs, and by the 2d of August they were all dead without a trace of legs having appeared. Some of on the 15th of July finished their metamorphosis. At the same time some of the former transferred to the vessel containing the 19. Dimorphie Development and Alternation of Generation in . O. Sars has discovered a remarkable di- orhandlinger Vidensk.-Selsk., Christiania, for 1873, p. 15, and plate.) The rg ay BN from the ordinary summer-eggs, 48 al- oety described by E. P i e tha Geology and Natural History. 231 wy other Cladocera, and Moe 2 through a marked post-embryonal amorphosis. In the earliest observed stage of the young of this form, the body is obovate. wholly without segmentation, the compound eye wanting, while there is a simple eye between the bases of the genres: the swimming arms (antennze) well devel- oped, and the airs of legs represented only by minute pro- on id ceans, although these append ee ae always been supposed to be wanting in the species of Clado Two subsequent stages, Belge approaching the adult fofoh are described. e adults m the winter-eggs have no vestige of the mandibular palpi left, subje ect of a very elaborate ir by Prof. Weismann of Frei- burg (Uber Bau und Lebensomsheliongen von Leptodora hyalina, Zeitschrift fir wissensch. Zool., xxiv, Sept., 1874, fattay devel 8. Be 0. Development of the European Lobster.—Dr. Sars has also Brot published, in the Proceedings of the same Society for 1874, a paper of 27 pages, illustrated by two autographic plates, fs on the t-embryonal development of >the European lobster Homarus vulgaris He des ures in detail the three larval stages corresponding precisely with the first three stages which I ha bed in ric obs agreement in the nln at Sart we ha each arrived, and to the Saran opportunity afforded for a careful comparison of the early stages of eh a closely iy aang Althou ne the the differences appear greater in the larval stages than in the ea Dr. Sars was not able to trace the development beyond last pee of the larva, but after comparison with the later stage of the American lobster he regards it as quite probably ¢ be = true larval stage, Journal, vol. iii, pp. 401-406, plate tx, June, 1872, and Transactions Cbaanicieek Academy, vol. ii, pp. 351-381, plates XIV-XVI, August, 1873. 232 Scientific Intelligence. 21. Cumacea from the West Indies and the South Atlantic ; by G. O. Sars. 30 pp. 4to, with 6 plates. (From the Svenska Veten- skaps-Akademiens Handlingar, Bandet xi; Stockholm, 1873.)— memoir, in the same form as the one on the Cumacea of the Josephine Expedition previously noticed, contains minute descrip- tions and elaborate figures of seven species from the West Indies and Gein off the mouth of the La Plata. Among them there is a remarkable new genus, Stephanomma, in which there is a large central eye upon the front surrounded by a circle of posve i a L 22. Distribution of Insects in New Hampshire ; by Saived i. Scupper. 50 large 8vo, with 2 maps and a plate. (from vol. i of the Final Ais Se upon the Geology of New Hampshire; Concord, 1874.)—M Scudder first ——. ne creer 2 between —about half the area a ‘the State— being serial as the “ com- mon meeting ground” of the two faun These divisions and the alpine and sub-alpine aaniog ts upon a mountains are indicated by colored areas on the two maps. This introductory pe is followed by lists of the ication and Orthoptera of the State with many valuable notes on the distribution of the species, and a full account of two haan Mountain butterflies, Gneis mer and Brenthis Montine 23. On the Cotton ‘Worm of the Southern — ‘dia ‘angi lacea Wiibner, a moth of the Lael, y Noctuide; by A. R. GRoTE. (Proce. Am. Ass ssoc., 1874.)—After a discussion of the synonymy of the cotton worm family, Mr. Grote discusses as follows the ques tion of the origin of the moth: “The ee to which I have come with regard to the cot- n worm is, that tt dies out oy year (with its food plant), that . tt occurs in A the cotton belt of the Southern States, and that its next appearance is the result of immigration. Testimony is at hand g long and extended flight is readily pro rofessor Pack- ant observed the moth off the coast of the Buiter stage as also Mr. Burgess. I secs fuer the moth in October n Buffalo, N. ¥.. as also Dr, vey. According to Mr. Riley, the moth has been Serial i in EP Chearo, I presume in the fall. It seems that the moth follows the coast-line northward, as also the water courses that empty into the Gulf of Mexico. It is noteworthy here that the ha doagiag of the Ohio and Mississippi onan to within fifty m f Buffalo. As an example of the prolonger flight of ie 1 will state that I have observed in Gul Geology and Natural History. 233 Stream, off the Carolinas and out of sight of land, in the month of August, large numbers of a moth, the Agrotis annexa of Treit- schke, Again, I have been struck by the absence of parasitic checks to the cotton worm in the south. I could never discover any, although such may exist. Spreading, as I believe it to do, as a moth, the absence of peculiar parasites to the worm ma be rea- ; alr that in order to make the first brood of the cotton worm t e prog. - eny of the so-called “ hibernating ” individuals (as Professor Riley would suppose), a period of several months has to be accounted for, since these “ hibernating ” moths could not wait till midsum- not normal but accidental, and the worm is not “ gregarious” like the “tent caterpillar.” Its “hibernation” with us must also be regarded as accidental, or at least as barren of results. For when has vani spring comes the Aletia illa ished, an to be found with the hibernating species of Lepidoptera, renewedly active. And if it were se Feb n ould find no cotton plants upon which to deposit its eggs. If oviposi- tion ever takes place in ibak months in a cotton belt, the young cotton, free from worms, disproves its efficacy. It is dese, that im the southern portion ns of Texas, or the Floridian peninsula, the Aletia may sustain itself during the entire year; I have no means of oppor on this point. obser- vations are made on its occurrence over the central and principal portions of the cotton belt, and ita which I believe it to be importe — every season that it occurs and from more southern re nous to the Southern States (vhs it becomes an annu an the cot- ton-worm mot May be con nsidered not a denizen, but a visitant, brought by various causes to breed in a stra nge region, and that it naturally dies out with us in the cotton belt, unable to suit itself as yet to the altered economy of its food plant and to con- tend with the changes of the seasons ’hen this fact is comprehended, it will simplify the process of artificial extermination by limiting the gp cers od durin successfully attack the cotton worm, and by doing away with a certain class of proposed remedies. 234 Scientific Intelligence. From the foregoing it will be evident that, 1, The artificial agent ual, a concerted action in the a rant of the remedial agent in any given locality will be found necessary. also recommend the inteoduction ‘of the English sparrow into the Southern a and — legal protection to insectiv- bir orous birds. nce e the war there has been pe much ignorant use of gun on the rt of the negroes. Adi the birds should be protected as much as possible, for many specien i not usually con- pia catia are yet found, during certain seasons of the year, to live on insects. III. Astronomy. 1. The Transit of Venus, Dec. 8, 1874.—The ssreohat ee tional information respecting t the late transit has been since the publication of the last No. of the Journal. The stations are arranged in the order of latitude In the Northern hemisphere. 1. Viadivostok. Lat. nod 1, ong. 8h. gon Prof. Asaph Hall, of the U. > Nav .. Lbeecy rat had ¢ ares. of the American a at Viadivo' The first contact was Sty well bbbarved: but the haze was so thick as ‘o renter te “tapoaaltll to take plistbuieiain at that moment. The time of second contact was noted with accuracy, and some p or were taken that were tolerably satisfactory. The duration of the tra . during which period the haze dispersed three times, allowing the photo- tty accurately urth co of entirely invisible. Thirteen photographs were taken and a the exact time each was noted. Some of these are well defined, but others are faint t and f uncertai ; 2. Pekin. Lat. 29° 54’, long. 7h. 46m. E. At the ly ae Kg four contacts were observed as follows: first 21h. 32m. 42s. ; ; third 1h. 50m. vu: h. i bree transit o e ‘ of Venus over eight threads, the second limb of Venus over eight per and the second limb of the sun over six threads. The difference of ee ation of the upper limb of the sun and both limbs of venus was pores i i first and d con : — Label about lm. 45s. later than the American Almanac computations and @ 3m. 30s, later than the English eo nierethag The third co tact occurred near the time of the American comp bo Cw Or Astronomy. Calcutta. Lat. 22° 35’, long. 5h. 54m. E. Observations excellent. . Maddapore. Lat. 12° 49’ @, long. oh. 6m. E. Italian station. The four con- tacts were all obs 8. Colombo. Lat. 7° 0’, long. rs 20m. E. All the contacts observed except the first. IS In the Southern hemisphere. 1. Rodrigues. Lat. 19° 4’, long. 4h. 14m. E. Ingress and egress were well ob- rved. tographs taken. 2, Mauritius. _ a 20’, long. 3h. 51m.E. Station of Lord Lindsay. All the contacts wi observed, except the first, and 110 good photographs were Reunion. Lat. 20° 51’, long. 3h. 42m. - Dutch station. Third contact fob- Second contact an Fw = Q o Be Ke el ee al g Ps o 5 a 12) S = ° 5 nearly two nar yp The distance of Venus from the sun’s limb was repeat- edly measure also the apparent diameter of Venus. star tapb the latter part of the sary floating clouds interfered, but 23 grap en, BON was almost a / oleamtt moment. The sun broke forth with one gleam. I was almost startled to my feet with the shout of “ com- mence” given by my husband, as a warning to the photographers that the instant was about to arrive. In a few seconds he gave an Ergin of delight, and the first contact was accomplished and duly recorded. Observations were kept up until the next critical ae the secon ntact—the sun growing less bright but still bright enough for observations. sae nd con- tact was seen and, further observations made as the body ‘aie ing over the sun. Clouds grew thicker, leavin scarcely h for the third contact and also for the fourth, whi ede not 1 visib e, and then the whole thing was over. * * — on mi sun’s limb where the stant should bie athe meet * We are indebted for this letter to Mr. Daniel B. Smith of Germantown, Pa. 236 Miscellaneous Intelligence. IV. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Canadian Scientific Research in 1874.—Mr. James Richard- son (of the Geological Survey) spent the months of May, June and July in a topographical and geological examination of the im- lets on the coast of British Columbia, between the 52d and 55th * of poplars in the valleys, has been chosen by the half-breeds as 4 base for their hunting and trading a eR South of W . . ] 3 which, though perhaps not so rugged as those of Southern Dakota, are characterized by barre i them, and almost always produce a more or less well marked dark Cretaceous clays. The Cretaceous rocks in some places -yielded numerous well-preserved fossils enclosed in ferruginous oF calcareous nodules, the play of color due to the original pearly matter of the shell being in many cases still apparent. The hort zon indicated by most of these is that of the Fort Pierre Group x Cretaceous No. 4 of Meek and Hayden. ; field work of the Boundary Commission is now Over, - line having been run and properly marked from the Lake of th 1 4 , . _ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 237 Woods to the Watershed of the Mountains, where it joins that pre- viously surveyed from the Pacific coast. The plored was the high grounds extending along the western sides of akes Manitoba and Wiunipegosis and comprising the Riding, nta . also those of some of their tributaries. Mr. Bell and his assist- ants likewise visited portions of the shore of all the lakes of the Winnipeg basin.—s. r. w. Montreal Gazette, Jan. 15. 2. British Arctic Eapedition.—The scientitic part of the forth- : rae : d the Arctic zone are peculiar, on geolo nd botany, on natural history, particularly that part of it which includes the minor forms of marine li d last, though not least, ethnology is to be cooking and concentrating wabherey of the best kind into the enum, Jan. 30. Pp. 12mo. Nashville, 1874.—The State of Tennessee has an un- usually wide range of climates, elevations, geological formations . i he now before us is there- ey graduates upward into Virginia and downward into Georgia ; the coal and iron-ore resources of the slopes of the Cumberland 238 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Mountains and the mild equable climate of the summit plateau are continuous with those of West Virginia, Kentucky and Alabama; its central basin has the same rich “ blue-grass” soil as that of Ken- tucky ; and its western border includes a large area of the Missis- sippi bottoms. The work opens with a brief de cee of the Topographical Features and Natural Divisions, Climate and Geo- ogical Formations, followed by chapters upon Facelli the State, and will probably many times repay the cost of its publication, through the population and capital which it will be the means of attracting thither. To make this Report quite complete it should be ophea by fall. ager as to the geological structure of each county, such would be obtained in a careful geological survey. "Iti is much he Microscope and = Revelalions: 7 Wm. B. CarpEn- 1875. hastens & isictecae: )—This is an enlarged and revised n ture of the | and plants, Se ass ga the Foraminifera, Bathybins, * Coccoliths, Bacteria, Diatoms, etc., including many of the recent discove ries aoa in ogatseklon with the deep-sea dredgings. ¥ t. Katahdin.—Through a ae sro barometrical deter- iinsians in August, 1874, Prof. N. C nald has ascertained the height of Mount Katahdin above mean riya at Bangor, — 0 be 5,215°5 feet, with the probable error not exceeding 4'2 OBITUARY. D’Omatius p’Hattoy.—This eminent Belgian geologist, an active member of the Giaalogioa! Society of France, di po t Brus- sels, on the 15th of oe aged nearly ninety-two yea Sir CHaries —Sir — Lyell died on the 3and of February, aged favonty aes: yea: Annual Report upon the Borer of the Northern and Northeastern ~ in charge of ©. B. Comstock, Major of Engineers, Bvt. Brig. General, U. 8. A. being Appendix CC to the’ gaye Report of the Chief of Engineers for Sed 78 ae tips ‘ian 3 arg 187 of Progress of 2 Geol ogical cage Pt of Canada, for 1873-74, Alfred C. oa F.R.S. 270 pp. “ge Montreal, 18 ’ : 4 q 4 q . APPENDIX. Art. XX VI.—WNotice of New Tertiary Mammals, IV; by O. C. Marsu. Lemuravus distans, gen. et sp. nov. The first announcement of the order Primates from the Tertia- ry of this country was published by the writer, Oct. 8th, 1872, and subsequently appeared in this Journal, (vol. v, p. 405, Nov., 1872). In this paper, three genera of the Limnotheride, viz: Limnotherium, Thinolestes and Telmatolestes, previously described by the writer, were shown to belong to the lower Quadrumana, the principal parts of the skeleton being very similar to those of Lemurs, while the jaws were somewhat like those of Marmo- sets. The number of teeth was stated to be greater than in any known forms of the order. Subsequent researches have fully confirmed this determination, and many new facts ma now be added in regard to the characters and affinities of this Mesacodon, Bathrodon, and Antiacodon, described by the writer.* e genus Lemuravus, here described, is nearly related to Hyopsodus Leidy. The latter proves on investigation to belong to the Primates, and not to the Ungulates. This is shown by * Antiacodon nanus Marsh was redescribed by Cope, several months later, under the name Anaptomorphus amulus. Limmnotherium affine Marsh was likewise re- described by the same author as Zomitherium rostratum Cope. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp ae Vou. IX, No. 51 —Marcg, 1875, 240 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. the close correspondence of the skeleton with that of the Le- murs, and by the general structure of the skull. Hyopsodus and the present genus represent a distinct family, which may be called Lemuravide. The type genus, Lemuravus, has 44 teeth, indicating the most generalized form of the order. Hyopsodus as apparently but 42. In the former, the teeth form a contin- uous series above and below. The canines are small, and the up- sg incisors are not separated on the median line, asin Lemurs. he molar teeth appear to be essentially the same as those of Hyopsodus, but as the latter are only known with certainty from the lower jaw first described there may be important dif- ferences. The symphysis of the lower jaw is completely cods- sified. The brain was nearly smooth, and of moderate size. The skeleton most resembles that of the Lemurs. The humerus has at its distal end a supracondylar foramen, and a supra trochlear perforation. e radius and ulna are distinct. The femur has a small pit in the head for the round ligament. Its distal end is more flattened antero-posteriorly than in the Lemurs. The tibia and fibula are separate. The astragalus 1s very similar to that of Lemur. Measurements. Space occupied by entire upper dental series, ---- ----- SO eebuy Ge WODGE NIOIST SOTIOI Sn in od = 21°5 Extent of three upper true molars,...........-.------ 11° Extent of three upper incisors, .....-..........-.---- 5°5 Extent of lower molar s pee pee orca 23° Extent of three lower true molars,__...._._...------- 12°5 Suameter Gf Rekd of femitr, 2: oc i es te 5° Transverse diameter of distal end of femur,._..-.----- 10 Transverse diameter of proximal end of tibia, -. ..----- 9° Transverse diameter of distal end, sss ont ee laength of astrapalus,..o.oo- 2 nsec ic skpcs Gee 75 The present species was about the size of the largest squirrels. The type specimen was found in 1871, in the Lower Hocene of Wyoming, by Mr. T. G. Peck of the Yale party. Laopithecus robustus, gen. et sp. nov. Secs ee tet eee 0. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 241 the series, much larger than the penultimate. The last lower see is smaller than the others. In the first and second true m , the external cusps are slightly in advance of the corre- apondtig inner ones. The nie pair are higher and nearer together than those behind. A low ridge extends os from the base of the anterior inner cone to the summit of the outer posterior cusp. The inner posterior cusp is satiate than the others, and separated from them. e crowns are bounded by a distinct basal ridge, ts on the inner side. The enamel of the molars is rugos Measurements. Space occupied by three lower true molars, .--..-------- = Antero- pomeae siapoeics of first lower molar, Guero see ‘ie Transverse diameter, - - - - - 6° Height of Grown. nc .nc5. 4 ee ee ee 5°5 Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate Tica. te 5°5 Transverse a ic cuva cue Uewae colt sme sere gree 5° eight’ of crowi. 602 226 Sei re Sera 4°2 Depth of j sath haloes fivet lower molar, 0.5.5.5 77250 12°6 This specimen was found in the Oreodon horizon of the Mio- cene ‘“‘ Bad Lands,” about thirty miles south of the Black Hills. Tillotherium fodiens, sp. nov. Since this genus was proposed by the writer (this Journal, v, p. 485, June, 1873), much light has been thrown upon its affinities by additional remains. It proves to be quite distinct from Ancheppodus(Trogosus) Leidy, although nearly related. The latter genus, unfortunately, is known only from portions of the lower jaw, but this shows marked differences from Tillotherium, which lacks the inner pair of small lower incisors, and has an incisor and a canine between the large sealpriform tooth and the first lower premolar. Tillotherium has 34 teeth in its per- manent dentition (p. 221), and the molar teeth most resemble those in Ungulates. The upper true molars are similar to the premolars of some Eocene Perissodactyls, but are somewhat like the tubercular molars of the Canide. The lower molar series is of the Paleotherium type and the last lower molar has a well developed posterior n the present species, the canines were small, and the su rior ones placed somewhat behind the Coad suture. he ve digits on each foot were all well developed, and of mode- = length. loo metapodial bones are similar to those in us, but the ungual phalanges preserved are more oblique; and less agciciith at the extremity. 242 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals, Length of skull, from front ae incisors "a end of ree condyles, - --- - eee p SSE a ae iat 2 ar eee ee Extent of entire upper ‘dental series, . peas eae: ee mncent of upper molar series,: 2. 255-5... 255-1... OF peacent ot three trae molars, ....: 2. 6... 2 Sse ee ee 59° Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate upper molar,.. 20°5 Transverse diameter (greatest),......-.--.----------. 35° Antero-posterior osc of last upper premolar, --- -- 12° PMG OI eo ns Se eee ws 4 4° Antero-posterior ctyegnya of base of gliriform upperincisor, 22° PN VOTAO COINOLOR Gute... tao cess 108 Distance between bases of upper canines,......-----.- 35° wxtent of lower dental series... i... b.-. ce. eae oo 168" Extent of last three lower molars Poca. 5 os pesados 70° Extent of entire lower molar series,_..-.._.--.------ 93° ge ahaa ae diameter of hin gliriform i incisor,.... 21° eee ee ate ewekcs 15° Transverse ianieter "of condyle of lower jaw, ---- ----- 52° Re PR ie feeds wn. i edb 170° Transverse diameter of humerus at distal ee 76° Transverse diameter of tibia at proximal end, ---- - ---- 59° pepe ee ene i lc. ea te i= Rite Or Os MUCCROEIDAL 6 ooo ck ae 40° Length of second metatarsal,.... ..2....2...-....... 46° Length of ungual phalanx,...... ..........--------- 35° idth of aittodiae 7 Sai aaiskig ra tip Ragtime sae kenge see 12°5 Vertical diameter, ---. _- 14° The remains here described indicate an animal about two- be a as large asa Tapir. They are from the Dinoceras beds cene of Wyoming. Anchippodus minor Mars Sina castoridens Leidy) is from a lower horizon of the same formation. Both belong to the order 7t/lodontia. Diceratherium armatum, gen. et sp. nov. The present genus is of special interest, as it includes the first extinct rhinoceroses with horns foueds in America. It is indicated by large osseous protuberances on the anterior pol 9 of the nasal bones. The latter are massive and firm! dssified, evidently to s rt well developed horns. The vc fating Po of the skull, peer he teeth, as well as the skeleton, so far as known, resemble the corresponding parts in Acera rium. The den al formula appears to b “a 8 4 1 3 cisors = canines >, premolars 3: molars <- O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 243 In the present species the skull is of moderate length. The horn-cores are oval in outline, and placed ane opposite each other on the free portion of the nasals, a short distance back from the extremity. They are directed upward and out- ward, and their surface is rugose. e orbit is small, and ont T bones of the s erat indicate that ie were four digits in the a and three in the pes. Measurements. bai from front of first eer to end of Se yies, 456° ™m- sad ee ee ee Extent of upper oer NMR A ances gts 121 Antero-posterior een of last upper molary.2.cc. + cus 41 Transverse diamebinsscc os 4.oeva baie ness 5 ntero pom 3 diameter of penultimate upper molar, .. 49° Tenneverse.. diametet 552 soc abl ow phe ee en on 55 ria epg a Aca: of last upper premolar, -. ---- 35° Transverse diameter, ---- ---- 50° Anteré-posterior diameter of first upper premolar, ---- .. 25° Transverse diameter, -. << 2.2...) In other respects the teeth most resemble those of the Bron- O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 247 eride. From this family, tga differs widely in its jenkoae and the absence of The cervical vertebrae are on and opisthoccelous. The radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula, are distinct, and the feet In the present species, the incisors are all well developed, and those in the lower jaw are directed forward. The canines are s con nate. The upper true molars are surprisingly like thads of Brontotherium. Measurements. Extent of upper mone ROMO ccs kk 2420 Extent of npper trae’ molars, ...-.- /.. 4.4.0-- 2 -- + ohn 152° Antero-posterior diameter of first upper premolar, ---- .-- 14° ial i bt: rood of second upper premolar, - --- - - 21° "Transverse .dinmpetets so. occ 35 Gos pa gs Se ce Antero-posterior ances of fourth upper premolar, .._. -- 28° Tpaneveree Crates a nh es ace 34° Antero-posterior diameter of first upper true molar, .. -- -- - 42° ‘Transverse dismutase 57° Antero-posterior peliane of second SPP molar,........ 52° Transverse di 57° Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar, Cinna cuyee 60- Transverse diam GAR yg gue sags Sa ew ee ee Width of palate eewses posterior GaN ce 92° Distance between bases of canines of lower jaw 2dspecimen) 46° Antero-posterior wpa Rigg eter of canine, at bas 32° Transverse di ici ees iwec een case ees 28 Height of cro 27 Antero-posterior diameter of first lower PreMOlMar, .... 5... Lz Transverse diameter, ------ 10° Aateropomacies diameter of second protagiar, 2500. 26° Transverse diameter, in front,_--- 15° Antec pekindon diameter of third premolar, (5 i055 28° Transverse diameter, in front, _--- artis Whe sank ery diameter, pretenionly, iors ae Length of median cervical yorlebra,. oo = <5 o6 2444 --b ee 45° Transverse diameter of anterior articular face, Gwe aes e 60° Venton! dinmeter:. o0 5. ois eas 63° The remains here described belonged to an animal weet Es mh as a rhinoceros. They are from the Upper Eocene of Utah. Orohippus Uintensis, sp. nov. The present species is the largest of the genus, and in some popes indicates a transition between the lower Eocene species and the allied forms in the Miocene. It agrees with the known 248 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. species of the genus in the number and general structure of the teeth, and in the absence of the posterior intermediate lobe of the upper molars, and especially in the presence of the fifth digit in the manus. It differs in the much deeper transverse ir wi rowns. The Measurements. Antero-posterior at of penultimate upper molar,..- 9°™ Greatest transverse diameter, .----.-...---.--+------. 12 Extent of lower molar "setien, ee ee curw cscs 48° Extent of lower premolar series, - Sh ee ebiety Losier or Sense of last lower premolar, - easyer 8°5 ener Gin 6° Depth of jaw ioe ‘third lower Se a gga E eeie 14 This species occurs in the upper Eocene deposits of Utah. Mesohippus, gen. nov. This genus presents characters intermediate between Oro- hippus* Marsh, and Anchitherium von Meyer. The skull and teeth are very Nesine to those of the latter genus, and the den- tal formula is the same. In the feet, however, the lateral digits are larger; the fifth metacarpal is represented by an elongated splint bone; and the second and third cuneiform bones of the pes are not coossified. The type of the genus is Mesohippus Bairdi, = Anchitherium Bairdi Leidy. Mesohippus celer, = Ancht- therium celer Marsh, is a smaller species. Both are from the Miocene. Thinohyus lentus, gen. et sp. nov. This genus is nearly related to Dicotyles, and apparently rep- resents an earlier form of the same type. is is shown in the similar structure of the skull, and form of the teeth. The most boas of the same bulk—and cnek convoluted. There is 4 Bong. bony tentorial ridge. The molar teeth have the prinei- pel ee: more isolated than in Dicotyles, and the intermediate obes larg In ae sient species the temporal fosse are separated above only by a narrow ridge. The auditory bulle are large, and oval in outline. The nasal bones are broad posteriorly. The *Tn several recent oe Prof. Cope has referred the — Orohippus to Hipposyus Leidy. e two, rte as shown by a compariso: f the type to the praak specimens, have no Beet the latte tter belonging Qua < aa ¢ Bs ‘5 i + Ny 4 i O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammals. 249 postorbital process on the frontal is longer than in Dicotyles, and more pointed. ere is a strong cingulum on the upper molars, excepting on the base of the inner cones. Measurements. Distance from fronto-nasal suture to ae on median line, 97:™™- Distance hese OFDIGS, OVER TONERS, 2 5c. Expan gomatic arches, Ee ee pee eer et 95 Extent o of ae three upper m SAPs ee Seat ‘vs Pee aes ae molar, - ee? ie oe 14: ‘Transverse diameter, (22. 722.5. 2. ee ones eae 14° Antero-poaterior diancier of second molar, ...-....-.-- 16° ‘Transverse diameber,..02 22. es Gs a 14° Width between andiioe ry UM i oan woe ee 9° Antero-posterior a of auditory OL ee eee ee 24° Transverse diamete : seine 18° Length of sviapevie of lower j jaw (second specimen), . eer. Distance between lower canines, ESS esa Space between lower canines per first hanes wo ate EE Space between first and second lower premolars, ... --- 10° The present scat was somewhat larger than the Dicotyles torquatus. e remains here described are from the Miocene, of the John Day River, in Oregon. eee socialis, i nov. cellent preservation. In the present ks the last upper enamel of the upper molars is somewhat rugose, and there is a distinct basal vidoe except on the inner side. Measurements. Antero-posterior diameter of last upper molar, ..-.---.- 12°™™ Transverse diameter through anterior cones, ----- ----- 10° Transverse diameter through posterior cones, ---- -- ---- 8° Antero-poste terior diameter of second upper molar, - - .- - . - 12° Transverse —— id Pont, 555 12° Height of crown, 2. 0c be ace 6°5 The type specimen of this species was cd in dete 1871, in aes specimen beds of Oregon, by Mr. F. Mead, Jr., the Yale p arty. Eporeodon, gen. nov. Among the species now placed in the genus Oreodon of Leidy heck a: are ine well marked genera which may readily be pete guished by the base of the skull, and apparently by other char- 250 O. C. Marsh—New Tertiary Mammais. They are, moreover, of larger size, and to this the proposed name refers. : Agriocherus pumilus, sp. nov. A number of specimens of a selenodont Artiodactyl, from the upper Eocene, agree so nearly with the known remains 0 Agriocherus Leidy, that the species they represent may pro- visionally be placed in that genus. They indicate an animal less than one-half the size of the species already described. The teeth preserved agree in structure essentially with those of A. latifrons Leidy. The temporal fossee were separated only by a sharp crest. Nothing has been known hitherto of the skele- ton of this genus, but fortunately some of the more important bones were found with the teeth of the present species. Th show that the feet are of the true Artiodactyl type, and some what resemble those of Oreodon. The tibia and fibula are dis tinct. The navicular and cuboid are separate. The metapodial bones are not united, and the second and fifth were present. Measur : Extent of last three lower molars, en ge een > mm Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate lower molar,.. 10° Transverse diameter, .__. ___- SS eraee Sg at 8: Transverse diameter of humerus at distal end, -- - - -- -- 24° Transverse diameter of articular face, .__.._.--------- 17 Sient version! Gismiebet yoda hh acs a 115 Transverse diameter at distal end, _...........------- 16° Antero-posterior diameter,. .<....... .2-2+.-2----+++- 15° Extent of three upper true molars (second specimen),-- 32” Antero-posterior diameter of first upper molar, -- -- -- -- 9°5 rs OR a cw kene e iV Antero-posterior diameter of second upper molar, - - -- - - Ib eeeraee inte ee oe ec. et 13° The present species was about three-fourths the size ae Collared Peccary (Dicotyles torquatus). The specimens descr! are from the upper Eocene of Utah. Yale College, New Haven, Feb. 20, 1875. Piate V. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. IX. 1875. * eS NOS IVOIdAL V AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] ArT. XX VIL—The History of Young's Discovery of his Theory of Colors; by ALFRED M. MAYER. THE object of this communication is twofold: I desire first to give complete abstracts from the writings of Newton, Young and Wollaston, in order to put the student of science in sion of all of the early literature of Young’s celebrated theory of colors. In the second place, I propose to trace the curious history of the steps by which Young was led to the final adop- tion of what is now known as Young’s theory of color-sensation. In accomplishing the first of these objects, I shall, at the same time, attempt to show, Ist, that Young first formed an hypothe- sis similar to that known as Brewster’s; that is, he selected red, yellow and blue as the three simple color-sensations ; 2d, that he subsequently modified his hypothesis and ado green and violet as the three elementary color-sensations, show- Ing that up to the date of this change of opinion all of his ideas on the subject were hypothetical, and not based on any observations or experiments of his own or of others; 3d, that this change of opinion as to the three elementary colors was made on the basis of a misconception by Wollaston of the nature of his celebrated observation of the dark lines in the solar spectrum, and also on the basis of an erroneous observa- tion made by Young in repeating Wollaston’s experiment; 4th, that Young subsequently tested his hypothesis of color-sensa- tion and found that it was in accord with facts reached by Am. Jour. Scr.—Tutrp Sertzs, Vou. IX, No. 52.—Aprit, 1875. 7 | 252 A. M. Mayer—History of Young's experiment; and that these experiments then vindicated his hypothesis and raised it to the dignity of a theory.* Before discussing the subject proper of this article, it may be well to give the reader a clear conception of Young’s theory of color, and to show in what high estimation it is at present held y men of science. This can best be done by the reading of the following short extracts from Helmholtz’s “ Physiological Optics” and from his ‘t Popular Scientific Lectures.” “To speak of three fundamental colors in an objective sense found in the physiological study of colors. Young states that: “J, There exist in the eye three kinds of nerve fibers whose excitation respectively gives the sensation of red, of green, and ‘““*2. Homogeneous light excites the three kinds of nerve fibers with an intensity which varies with its wave-length.’ That which possesses the greatest length of wave excites most powerfully the fibers sensitive to red, that which has an average wave-length excites the nerves sensitive to green, while that light formed of the shortest waves acts on the fibers which give the violet sensation. Nevertheless we cannot deny, but rather should admit for the explanation of numerous phenomena, that each color of the spectrum excites all three kinds of nerve fibers, but with different intensities. Imagine the colors of the spectrum arranged horizontally in going from the red, R, to the violet, V, as shown at the base of figure 1. The three curves will then represent more or less exactly the degrees of irrita- bility of the three kinds of nerve fibers (1, the red; 2, the green; 3, the violet) for the various colors of the spectrum. * These two terms, hypothesis and theory, are so generally misunderstood and thoughtlessly used that it may be well here to give two concise definitions; the first is by Flourens; the second is by Prof. J. Henry. “ An hypothesis is the explanation of facts by possible causes ; a theory is the ex- “A supposition or guess thus made from analogy as to the nature of the law of bility. When an hypothesis of this kind has been extended and verified, or, im other words, when it has become an exact expression of the law of a class of facts, it called a theory.” Discovery of his Theory of Colors. 253 “Pure red excites strongly the fibers sensitive to red, and feebly the two other kinds of fibers ; sensation, red. 1. i tee sorts faateseo 2 i toa Po sees | __ are R e) 18 + Vv “Pure yellow excites moderately the fibers sensitive to red and to green, feebly those fibers sah oa to violet ; sensation, yellow. ure green excites strongly t ers sensitive to green, feebly those sensitive to red and to violet sensation, green. ue excites in a moderate degree those fibers sensitive to green and to violet, feebly those sensitive to red ; sensation, ue. ‘Pure violet excites strongly those fibers specially destined to receive this sensation, and the other fibers are feebly affected by this light ; sensation, violet. “The nearly equal excitation of all of the fibers will give the sensation of white, or of whitish col “The choice of the three fundamental colors is to some extent arbitrary. We can choose at will any three colors whose mixture produces white. Young no doubt was guided by the consideration that the extreme colors of the spectrum occupied the privileged positions.* If we do not choose these colors, we must take for one of the colors a purple tint, and the curve which responds to it in the figure will have two maxima: one in the red, the other in the viglet. The het sa Poles ee out being an impossible one, will be more comp. as I know of, there exists no means of deertajing diretly te fundamental colors but He examination of persons affected w color blindness. We will subsequently see how far that peiire red is cone eae the bicubic of Young, at least so far as the red is red.” 3 is n general, then, light which ere of undula- on - different wave-len gths pr roduces diffe mpressions n our eye, namely, Te of farce bition es the num- an of hues which we can recognize is much smaller than that of the various possible Sceabinateus of rays with different wave- lengths which external objects can convey to our eyes. *The writer has italicized the above for the purpose of a future reference to it. 254 A. M. Mayer—History of Young's retina cannot distinguish between the white which is pro- duced by the union of scarlet and bluish-green light, and that which is composed of yellowish-green and violet, or of yellow and ultramarine blue, or of red, green and violet, or of all the colors of the spectrum united. All these combinations appear identically as white; and yet from «a physical point of view they are very different. In fact, the only resemblance be- tween the several combinations just mentioned is, that they are indistinguishable to the human eye. For instance, a surface illuminated with red and bluish-green light would come out black in a photograph; while another lighted with yellowish- green and violet would appear very bright, although both sur- faces alike seem to the eye to be simply white. * * * “Other colors, also, especially when they are not strongly pronounced, may, like pure white light, be composed of very different mixtures, and yet appear indistinguishable to the eye, while in every other property, physical or chemical, they are entirely distinct. * * * The theory of colors, with all these marvelous and complicated relations, was a riddle which Goethe in vain attempted to solve; nor were we physicists and physiologists more successful. I include myself in the number; for I long toiled at the task, without getting any nearer my object, until I at last discovered that a wonderfully simple solution had been discovered at the beginning of this century, and had been in print ever since for any one to read who chose. This solution was found and published by the same Thomas Young who first showed the right method of arriving at the interpretation of Egyptian hieroglyphics. He was one of the most acute men who ever lived, but had the misfortune to be too far in advance of his contemporaries. They looked on him with astonishment, Discovery of his Theory of Colors. 255 in a similar form in his own works; and this by no less a mathematician than Leonard Euler, whose system of light, as far as it is worthy of notice, either was, or might have been, wholly borrowed from Newton, Hooke, Huyghens and Male- branche. ‘Those who are attached, as they may be with the great- est justice, to every doctrine which is stamped with the New- tonian approbation, will probably be disposed to bestow on these considerations so much the more of their attention as they shall appear to coincide more nearly with Newton’s opinion. For this reason, after having briefly stated each particular posi- tion of my theory, I shall collect, from Newton's various writ- ings, such passages as seem to be the most favorable to its admis- sion; and although I shall quote some papers which may be thought to have been partly retracted at the publication of the optics, yet I shall borrow nothing from them that can be sup- posed to militate against his maturer ju The fact that Young, the founder of the undulatory theory of hight, in this Bakerian Lecture, in which it has been said that he laid the foundations of that doctrine, should set forth his views in a series of postulates followed by citations from the writings of Newton, to give them weight and proof, may justly surprise those who have trusted to the second-hand information derived from carelessly-complied text books and from. hastily- propane popular lectures. But then, where would be the pugi- istic charm of the popular lecturer on the undulatory theory of light, if Newton, his champion, the violent defender of the ema- nation cause, should decline to enter as a contestant Under the heading of Hypothesis III, of this paper, we first meet Young’s theory of color-sensation. “ Hypothesis IIL Zhe Sensation of different Colours depends on the different frequency of Vibrations, excited by Light in the Retina. Passages from Newton. _ “The objector’s hypothesis, as to the fundamental part of it, is not against me. That fundamental supposition is, that the parts of bodies, when briskly agitated, do excite vibrations in the ether, which are propagated every way from those bodies in straight lines, and cause a sensation of light, by beating and dashing against the bottom of the eye, something after the manner that vibrations in the air cause a sensation of sound, by beating against the organs of hearing. Now, the most free and natural application of this hypothesis to the solution of phenomena I take to be this : that the agitated parts of bodies, ac- cording to their several sizes, figures i a do excite vibra- tions in the ether of various depths or bignesses, which being pro- miscuously propagated through that medium to our eyes, etfect 256 A. M. Mayer—History of Young’s in us a sensation of light of a white color; but if by any means those of unequal bigness be separated from one another, the largest beget a sensation of a red color, the least or shortest of a deep violet, and the intermediate ones of intermediate colors; much after the manner that bodies, according to their several sizes, shapes, and motions, excite vibrations in the air, of var- many fragments of such plates. These seem to be most plain, genuine, and necessary conditions of this hypothesis. And they agree so justly with my theory, that if the animadversor think fit to apply them, he need not, on that account, apprehend a divorce from it. But yet, how he will defend it from other dif ficulties, I know not.” (Phil. Trans., vii, 5088; Abr. I, 145, Nov., 1672 ness, strength, or power; and therefore the ends of the capil- lamenta of the optic nerve, which pave or face the retina, being _ such refracting superficies, when the rays impinge upon them, they must there excite these vibrations, which vibrations (like those of sound in a trunk or nrg Bh will run along the Discovery of his Theory of Colors. 257 green; and a confusion of all with white, much after the manner that, in the sense of hearing, nature makes use of aerial vibra- tions of several bignesses, to generate sounds of divers tones ; for the analogy of nature is to be observed.” (Birch, iii, 262, Dec., 1675. “ Considering the lastingness of the motions excited in the pet in motion, less or more forcibly, by undulations differing ess or more from a perfect unison ; for instance, the undulations more forcibly, by undulations differing less or more from a per- fect unison.” This would suppose such a triple molecular con- Stitution of each nerve fibril as to cause the three species of its constituent molecules (or the atoms forming the molecules) to be 2n tune with the three rates of vibration corresponding oe to the undulations of the ether causing red, yellow and blue. “He afterward says: “and each sensitive filament of the nerve may consist of three portions, one for each principal 258 A. M. Mayer—History of Young's color.” We have here a conception of the mode of action of an setherial vibration on the retinal nerve fibrils which has not Young, as fol ; “For, has modern histology given us any facts concerning the structure of the human retina which point to the establish- as showing the link existing between the transmitting and sen- sory functions of the eye. Do not the facts of the known per- sistence of chemical action, after it has been once initiated, and the time which would be required for the retinal molecules to recombine, or rearrange themselves, after the etherial vibrations had ceased, comport with the known durations of the residual visual sensations, and with the main facts of physiological op- tics, better than the hypothesis that masses of the retinal ele- ments are set in vibration, rather than their molecules ?” It requires no argument, it is evident, that the statements made by Young in the foregoing paper, concerning his color hypothesis, were entirely hypothetical, not having been b: on any observation or experiment either of his own or of others. € next publication by Young on his theory of color takes place in the following year, and is contained in the following short paragraph, incidentally written toward the conclusion of a paper read by him before the Royal Society, on July 1, 1802, and entitled ‘An account of some cases of the production of colours, not hitherto described.” “Tn consequence of Dr. Wollaston’s correction of the de- scription of the prismatic spectrum, compared with these obser- vations, it becomes necessary to modify the supposition that I advanced in the last Bakerian lecture, respecting the propor Discovery of his Theory of Colors. 259 tions of the sympathetic fibers of the retina; substituting red, green, and violet, for red, yellow, and blue, and the numbers 7, 6, and 5, for 8, 7, and 6.” It thus appears that Young changed his three elementary color-sensations from red, yellow, and blue, to red, green, an violet, “‘in consequence of Dr. Wollaston nificance. ‘“‘T cannot conclude these observations on dispersion with- out remarking that the colours into which a beam of white light is separable by refraction, appear to me to be neither 7, as they usually are seen in the rainbow, nor reducible by any means (that I can find) to 8, as some persons have conceived ; but that, by employing a very narrow pencil of light, four primary divi- sions of the prismatic spectrum may be seen, with a degree of distinctness that, I believe, has not been described nor observed efore. ‘Tf a beam of daylight be admitted into a dark room by a crevice ,'; of an inch broad, and received by the eye at the dis- tance of 10 to 12 feet through a prism of flint glass, free from veins, held near the eye, the beam is seen to be separated into. the four following colours only, red, yellowish green, blue and violet ; in the proportions represented in fig. 2. “The line A that bounds the red side of the spectrum is somewhat confused, which seems in part owing to want of power mM the eye to converge red light. The line B, between red nd green, in a certain position of the prism, is perfectly dis- tinct; so also are D and H, the two limits of violet. But ©, 260 » A, M. Mayer—History of Young’s the limit of green and blue, is not so clearly marked as the rest ; and there are also, on each side of this limit, other distinct dark lines, f and g, either of which, in an imperfect experiment, might be mistaken for the boundary of these colours. : osition of the prism in which the colours are most clearly divided is when the incident light makes about equal angles with two of its sides. I then found that the spaces AB, BC, CD, D £, occupied by them, were nearly as the numbers wae 2 2 when Wollaston’s sharp eye caught the glimpse of the divided spectrum, he naturally thought he saw in those divisions unt- form colors. It was a natural mistake, and only too readily the orange and yellow, and well know to be caused by the re- versal of the bright yellow light of sodium vapor. No one, however, could now say, after an examination of the spectrum as observed by Wollaston, that the line D divides the red from the green. Wollaston also calls his D and E lines (the @ an H lines of Fraunhofer) as “the two limits of the violet;” we now know that G is really on the indigo and that H is within the limits of the violet. or a more satisfactory comparison of the colors of the solar spectrum as observed by Wollaston and Fraunhofer, I give be- low the following table. Fraunhofer’s results are taken from his colored figure of the spectrum. Both spectra are from flint glass, and their lengths are supposed divided into 360 equal parts. - Discovery of his Theory of Colors. 261 Fraunhofer. Wollaston. i 576 Red. Orange, 27 Yellow, 24. Green, 46 82°8 Yellowish green. Blue, 48 129°6 Blue. Indigo, 47 Violet, 109 90 Violet. 360 360 and telescope, he observed spectra more as those given by mod- raunbofer discerns orange might suspect from his having bounded its upper limits by the line H. Fraunhofer saw 109 parts of violet, Wollaston y dark lines into four simple colors, and that he also erred in oa: gave tothem. Also, I have posed complete analysis of the sun’s lig *“ We have heard it remarked,” says Dean Peacock in his Life of Young, “that no writer, on any branch of science which the lectures treat of, can safely neglect to consult so rich is the mine of knowl which they contain; and it isa well-known t many i i or less clearly indicated in them, which have only been recognized or pointed — other philosophers discovered them independently, or announced them as ir own. 262 A. M. Mayer—History of Young's say, he omits from this account of his theory all mention of the Aaa explanation of it which he gave in the Bakerian ecture of 1801. The following extracts from the Natural Philosophy give all that it contains on the theory of colors, he italics are our own. “Tt has generally been supposed, since the time of Newton, that when the rays of light are separated as completely as pos- sible by means of refraction, they exhibit seven varieties of colour, related to each other with respect to the extent that they occupy, in ratios nearly analagous to those of the ascending scale of the minor mode in music. The observations were, however, imperfect, and the analogy was wholly imaginary. Dr. Wollaston has determined the division of the colored image light, he produces a more effectual separation of the colors than of four colors only, red, green, blue and violet, which occupy spaces in the proportion of 16, 23, 86 and 25, respectively, making to- gether 100 for the whole length ; the red being nearly one-sixth, the green and the violet each about one-fourth, and the blue more than one-third of the length. The colors differ scarcely at all in quality within their respective limits, but they vary in bright- ness ; the greatest intensity of light being in that part of the green which is nearest the red. A narrow line of yellow is gen- erally visible at the limit of the red and green, but its breadth scarcely exceeds that of the aperture by which the light is ad- mitted, and Dr. Wollaston attributes it to the mixture of the red with the green light. There are also several dark lines crossing the spectrum within the blue portion and in its neighborb zy of the deviation of the red rays; by a prism of flint glass 5. Fig. 3.* To: Oo. : Fig. 8. “The spectrum produced by looking through a prism at a narrow line of light. * These figures, 3 and 4, are copied of the exact size of those given by Young in the plates appended to his Natural Philosophy. The descriptions under the $ are those given by Young. The colors in Young’s figures we have inline : ee a ae ee ee ay ee ee ee Discovery of his Theory of Colors. 263 3. “Tn light produced by the combustion of terrestrial substances, the spectrum VIOLET is still more interrupted ; thus, the bluish light of the lower part of the flame of a candle is separated by refraction into five parcels of various colours; the light of burning spirits, which appears per- fectly blue, is chiefly composed of green and violet rays; and the light of a can- GREEN dle into which salt is thrown abounds A narrow With a pure yellow, inclining to green, but line of Yel. not separable by refraction. The electric : spark furnishes alsoa light which is differ- ently divided in different circumstances. “Tf the breadth of the aperture viewed through a prism is somewhat increased, the space occupied by each variety of light in the spectrum is augmented in the same proportion, and eac portion encroaches on the neighboring colours, and is mixed with them; so that the red is succeeded by orange, yellow, and yel- lowish green, and the blue is mixed on the one side with the green, and on the other with the violet; and it is in this state that the prismatic spectrum is commonly exhibited. Fig. 4. “The appearance of a circular aperture, 4. gla" pp ss - (~\ moderately large, viewed through a prism. fs aan. RED A ieee notwithstanding the omission of some of the rays naturally belonging to white light. Thus, if we intercept one-half of each of the a por- ’ wo H Y the appearance of whiteness; so that it is probable about two parts red, four green, and one violet, with respect to the quantity or intensity of the sensations produ 264 A. M. Mayer— History of Young’s “Tf we mix together, in proper proportions, any substances exhibiting these colours in their greatest purity, and place the mixture in a light sufficiently strong, we obtain the appearance of perfect whiteness; but in a fainter light the mixture is grey, or of that hue which arises from a combination of white and to revolve with such rapidity, that the whole may assume the appearance of a single tint, or a combination of tints resulting rom the mixture of the colour : not the blue of the Segre for four parts of green and one o violet make a blue differing very little from green; while the Discovery of his Theory of Colors. 265 Young then replaces Wollaston’s “ yellowish green” by ‘‘green,” and farther on he adds, ‘The colours differ scarcely at all in quality within their respective limits, but they vary in bright- that both Young and Wollaston were of the opinion that when a narrow bright crevice is observed through a prism, that the spectrum so viewed consists of only four colors, red, green, blue and violet, “differing scarcely at all in quality within their respective limits ;’ which limits they supposed nat- urally existed in the dark spaces which, as they imagined, bounded these elementary colors. Young, however, somewhat modifies this opinion in the next sentence, when he says: “A narrow line of yellow is generally visible at the limit of the red and green, but its breadth scarcely exceeds that of the aperture by which the light is admitted, and Dr. Wollaston attributes it to the mixture of the red with the green light.” It would, in- deed, appear from the last portion of this sentence that Young obtained directly from Wollaston one of the main facts on which his theory was founded, namely, that yellow can be re- produced by the mixture of red.and yellow lights. But Wol- laston, in his paper of 1802, from which we have cited, makes no such statement as to the composition of yellow light, and it is therefore probable that Wollaston communicated orally this view of the subject to Young. Every student of optics now knows that the description, already given, of Fraunhofer’s observation on the color composition of the spectrum is the correct one; yet the errors of observation of Wollaston and of oung were errors which led toa t discovery, as we shall see on the further examination of the history of this beautiful and comprehensive theory of color. Farther on in the Natural Philosophy we read that, “ The sen- sations of various kinds of light may also be combined in a still more satisfactory manner by painting the surface of a circle with different colours, in any way that may be desired, and causing it to revolve with such rapidity, that the whole may assume the appearance of a single tint, or of a combination of tints, result- ing from the mixture of the colours.” These experiments were him, were destined to remain unnoticed, “until a later genera- tion, by slow degrees, arrived at the discovery of his discovery.” 266 A. M. Mayer— History of Young’s Discovery, ete. must now recur to the reader to inquire, when were made these experiments which first confirmed Young’s hypothesis and placed it among the best established truths of optical science ; and why it was that Young should for so long a time have been satisfied with a hypothetical statement of his views on the color-sensations, and should have deferred to bring those views to the test of experiment. For reasons already stated, Young, in July, 1802, changed his three elementary color-sensations, red, yellow and blue, to red, green and violet. e experi- ments with the rotating colored discs were first published in 1807. Young printed the syllabus of his first course o tures on January 19th, 1802, in a volume of 250 pages. I have not been able to procure a copy of this syllabus, but evi- dently it does not contain even the corrected statement of his theory of color, for that was based on Wollaston’s observation, which appeared subsequently to the syllabus, on June 24th, 1802. lt is therefore evident that unless Young made the ex- periments with the rotating colored discs during the latter part of his course of lectures, he must have made them during the that we may fix the date of these remarkable experiments as somewhere between 1808 and 1807, and it is highly probable that the theory was never given to the public in a lecture be- fore the Royal Institution, but first appeared in the publication of his Lectures on Natural Philosophy. That Young should have delayed to bring to the test of ex- paige a plausible hypothesis, when other men would at once ave appealed to the instruments in their laboratories, 1s exX- plained by the fact that Young “at no period of his life was fond of repeating experiments or even of originating new ones. He considered that, however necessary to the advancement of scl- ence, they demanded a great sacrifice of time; and that, when a fact was once established, that time was better employed in principles which it might tend to elucidate.” Indeed, this peculiarity receives abundant confirmation from his own words ; experiments there is already an ample store ;” and ina letter written in November, 1827, to his sister-in-law, Mrs. Earle, on the respective honors given by Herschel, in his Optics, to Young A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 267 and Fresnel, he says: “And acute suggestion was then, aud in- deed a always, more in the line of my ambition than experimental illustration.” Young carried his opinion of the secondary im- portance of experiment so far as even to object to the increase of the fund left by Wollaston to the Royal Society to aid ex- perimental inquiries, in these words: “For my part, it is my pride and pleasure, as far as I am able, to supersede the neces- sity of onpemENe and more especially of expensive ones.’ Art. XX VIIL—A redetermination of the Constants of the Law connecting the Pitch of a Sound with the Duration of its Resid- ual Sensation ; by ALFRED M. MAYER. In my “ Researches in ab Paper No. 6,” published in this Journal in October, 1874, I gave the result of many exper- iments on the durations of the Hcidval sonorous sensations, and embodied those determinations in this law: 53248 D alan oes a 24) 0001, in which D = the duration of the residual sonorous sensation corresponding to N number of vibrations per s The precise determination of the durations of the residual sonorous serine ous are difficult by reason of the complex char- acter of the sound perceived when the vibrations of a tuning fork are ery iatecmittartdy into a resonator by means of a revolving perforated disc; and the difficulty of the determina- tion is increased by the fatigue and deadening of the sensitive- ness of the ear produced by the beats which enter it from the resonator. The important applications that have been made of this law in the physiology of audition, and in the elucidation of the fundamental laws of musical harmony, have made me desire to have my determinations reviewed by ears more highly cultivated than mine in the appreciation of pitch and of musical intervals, and more skilled in the direct analysis of composite sounds into their simple component tones. Since my publication in October ast, I have had the good fortune to have elicited in Madame Bnmna Seiler and in her son, Dr. Carl Seiler, a profound interest in my researches. They have ican considerable time in the re- determination of soit dlrations of the residual sonorous sensa- pape sah eas on physiological acoustics, and unites to educated R. Sct.—Tuirp Serres, Vou. IX, No. 52.— 1875. 18 268 A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acaustics. musical perceptions a thorough knowledge and appreciation of all recent advances in physiological acoustics. I have, therefore, great confidence in the following results, which I desire my 8 N D L UT, 64 ss = *0395 sec.) 2°5 UT? 118 ge = 0222 “| 28 5 256 vs = 0142 “| 36 SOL, 384 tts — 0098 “ 3°7 Tr 512 | qty = 0076 “| 3-9 MI 640 | zt, = ‘0065 “ | 4:1 SOL, 768 = 0060 “ | 46 UT, 1024 5 = 0055 “ | 56 readers to substitute for those contained in the table given on page 244 of vol. viii of this Journal. rom the above data the law given on page 146 becomes 3:2 : : DSNaait 002°. The adoption of the law with these new constants requires the following corrections to be applied to my paper: Page 246, dele “ The ordinate of MI,” &c., to end of paragraph. ‘“* 249, line 19 from bottom, for ;; read ;'. “ ‘ Eh é “ce ee “ st0 “ x r “ce oot a | . ac 250, itd cc 1 a4 top, rt ce c ‘ 1 3 it) “c if4 as a“ ‘ 6 bottom, “ si, * 5 73 oe “ tol tol v9 - ol wi SI ce “cc “ 8 “ce 6c “ce siz “6 Tit The corrections under “5. Quantitative applications of the Laws to the fundamental facts of Musical Harmony,” can be readily applied from the law as given above. Suffice it here to say that on the table on page 252 the nearest consonant interval in the octave of C, is a Fourth+2 of a semitone; while in the octave of C, the nearest consonant interval of two simple sounds has contracted to only one tone. tions by reason of the complex character of the sounds perceived when the vibrations of a tuning fork are sent Pema a into i ill now of its openings opposite the mouth of the resonator, it is evident that the ear will experience a simple sonorous sensation when M. C. Lea—Action of the less refrangible rays of Light, ete. 269 a tuning fork is brought near the mouth of the resonator; on revolving the perforated disc, two additional, or secondary, sounds appear; one slightly above, the other slightly below the pitch of the fork. An increased velocity of rotation causes the two secondary sounds to diverge yet farther from the note of the beating fork, until the velocity reached is so great that the two secondary sounds become separated from each other by a major sixth, while, at the same moment, a resultant sound appears, formed by the union of the sound of the fork with the upper and the lower of the secondary sounds. This resultant is the second octave below the note given by the fork. On further increasing the velocity of the disc, the two secondary sounds and the resultant disappear, and the ear has alone the sensation of the simple sound produced by the beats of the fork ; which, at this stage of the experiment, blend into a smooth continuous sensation. These successive and gradual changes, as they happen with a UT, fork, we have indicated in steps of semi-tones in the appended musical notation. The In conclusion, 1 request my readers to transfer the comma from after Déssonanz to after continuirliche, in the quotation from Helmholtz at the beginning of my paper (vol. viil, p. 241). Art. XXIX.—On the Action of the Less Refrangible Rays of Light on Silver Iodide und Bromide; by M. Carsy Lua, Philadelphia. Ir will be the object of the present investigation to show: Ist. That silver iodide and bromide are sensitive to all the colored rays of the spectrum. 2d. That silver iodide is to all the less refrangible rays more Sensitive than silver bromide. 3d. That the theory of M. E. Becquerel as to existence of “exciting rays” and “continuing rays” is not supported by a careful examination of the phenomena in question. The first of these positions differs from those generally ac- cepted in extending eae to the less refrangible end of the 270 M. C. Lea—Action of the less refrangible rays of Light spectrum the sensitiveness of both the compounds in question, especially of silver iodide. The second of these positions, that in reference to the com- parative sensitiveness of AgI and AyBr, differs essentially from the views hitherto accepted, according to which AgBr has been held to be by far the more sensitive to the less refrangible rays. [ shall endeavor to show that the contrary is the case. In these investigations I have confined myself to studying the effects obtained upon the silver compounds as formed in the body of pure paper, applying in all cases the silver solution after that of the alkaline haloid, and immediately washing out the excess of silver nitrate. ously managed with the solar spectrum than with colored glass. Still another advantage in the use of colored glass is that the pieces used can be of any desired size, so that one cap operate over a large space and can simultaneously expose sev: per, the effects of the exposure are rendered much more marked: on Silver Iodide and Bromide. 74 tive serves in each case as a measure of the degree of sensitive- ness. This has a particular importance when a development process is used, because even with the utmost care, there will sometimes be a discoloration arising from the action of the sion, exactly where it is most able to induce error. The em- ployment of a negative avoids this difficulty, and if its image has a great variety of tones, the observer is able to measure very closely the relative extent to which it is reproduced on the sensitive surface, development by means of gallic acid and silver nitrate, con- trolled by acetic acid. 8 confirmed the first conclusions as to the absolute purity of the Specimen used. 272 M. C Lea—Action of the less refrangible rays of Light apers were next blotted off in clean filtering paper (because if hung up to dry, the lower end becomes more richly running water and dried. In a few cases specially mentioned, the silver solution was allowed to dry on the paper for compar- ative experiment. Rep Rays. Examination of the Glass.—The ruby glass of commerce dif- fers very much in different specimens; some pieces, though appearing to the eye to be of a strong, pure red, nevertheless transmit a good deal of green light, and show in the spectro- tion spectrum traces of the more refrangible rays. The band which represents the proper color extends from very near the extreme red end to a point a little beyond the double sodium line D. ? desire to make these investigations, as far as possible, absolutely i a these two was very striking. With tvo stronger red plates, having a limit of A600, and of course a diminished illumination, no trace of an image by devel- on Silver Iodide and Bromide. 273 opment could be obtained on the silver bromide paper, after exposures of various lengths up to an hour and a half of bril- - lant sunshine (from 12.15 to 1.45 p. M., Jan. 30, 1875, bright sunshine on snow). n the contrary, silver iodide gave, after 20’ exposure, a de- veloped image showing some detail, and with 40° exposure, a faint, direct image, visible without development. With three red plates, having a ining wave-length A 605, there was necessarily a further eet e age ae of illumination. Nevertheless, silver iodide gav ) minutes’ exposure (middle of the day, bright Aaaies on ara sie a; iste b> faint, and with four hours’ exposure, a full image. Feb. three hours’ exposure gave an image insets: ‘ieudetiele Fi tail. Feb. 5th, same result. These were of course all devel- oped images. The corresponding bromide papers, receiving identical ex- posures under the same glasses, side by side with the iodide, absolutely failed to develop anything. These developments were prolonged for several hours, in order that the faintest traces, if present, might render themselves visible. But in no case did silver brom nide, when exposed under the three red glasses, show the faintest trace of any image, even with a four hours’ bes want That silver bromide is not ot destitute pears, therefore, pb that both silver iodide and silver 5 eH ° prepared on r, with excess of silver nitrate removed, are distinctly senaitet to red light, and that silver iodide is, under these conditions, at least ten times as sensitive as silver bromide. Yetitow Rays. It is by far more difficult to isolate yellow rays than either red or green, because almost all media that transmit yellow rays also transmit red, and many also transmit green. The yellow Agee that is found in commerce _ through the whole Spectrum, except the extreme violet end, and for a time I thought that the isolation of the — et by colored glass would be impracticable. I finally succeeded very well by combining a deep brown glass with a dark green. The brown glass Pic AR the sero e and red, absorbing the rest, and 274 M. C Lea—Action of the less refrangible rays of Lrght the dark green admitted principally green and yellow, cutting off the orange and red. A spectroscopic analysis gave the following results: Extreme limit of wave-length at less refrangible end of the nn adh LURE pas Race eae Bae rad iy Spiers oar as eer en) A 638 Pet Wate aetrani wre Olid 5 8 eo ee WRT Point of maximum illumination, ..-..-.....--22.-..-.-- A570 The limits here given are extreme limits at which the absorp- tion spectrum ended, It was estimated that at least nineteen- twentieths of the illumination was pure yellow, with perhaps a very faint admixture of orange, and of the less refrangible green rays, bordering on the yellow (any close observation of the spectrum will show how little pure yellow light it contains). Result.—Silver iodide showed itself also more sensitive to variable. Feb. 4, 1875, with exposure to bright sunlight from 12 M. to 3 P. M., distinct images were got by development on to an equal strength in one-third the time. I conclude, therefore, that silver iodide and bromide are both sensitive to yellow light, and the iodide more so than the bromide. GreEeN Rays. Much of the green glass found in commerce admits nearly the whole spectrum except the red rays. There exists, however, a very dark shade of green, which narrows the transmitted band very much. When two such pieces of dark green were super- posed, their absorption spectrum was as follows: Extreme limit toward red end, A601 Extreme limit toward blue end, ___.-_..-.--.--- A 488 three plates were superposed. This involved such a reduction of illumination that the sun could be viewed through the glass without inconvenience. This combination gave the following measurement : Extreme limit toward red end, . ws. AGSI Extreme limit toward blue end, ..-.. ----..---- 4497 on Silver Iodide and Bromide. 275 Near these limits the light was extremely faint. To ascertain the rays of really effective strength transmitted by this com- bination of plates, another measurement was taken, resulting as follows Effective limit-toward Yed end,. ---- 2.22 4... A SBD Effective limit toward blue end, -.....-.--..._-- A517 The portions of the band which lay between A 569 and A581 on the one side, and A497 and 1517 on the other, were so ex- tremely faint as to have no ihn agency in affecting the result. It will be observed that even the limit of the faintest rays does not extend as far as the solar line F; the blue is therefore absolutely excluded. Toward the yellow side, even the faint- est rays do not extend so far as the sodium double line D and the effective aye terminated at A569. The yellow is therefore virtually exc Result. With two dark - ‘green glasses (A 488-601). A pow- erful image was developed on silver iodide after three minutes’ exposure. On silver bromide the same exposure gave faint traces of an image only. The exposure of an hour and a half failed to produce on silver bromide as strong an impression as did the three minutés on the iodide. An exposure of forty minutes gave on silver iodide a plain, direct image. With ninety minutes, no direct. image was pro- duced on silver bromide. “Other exposures and degrees of ex- With three dark green glasses (extreme limit 2497-581, eee 4517-569). Silver iodide gave the following results : a half minutes, faint image developed. Six minutes, Setiaot: fifteen minutes, strong; thirty, very full exposure ; three hours and a gre com — plsaace Silver bromide aa and six "minutes, nothing ; fifteen, faint trace ; shee, a little stronger; three and a half hours, moderatei st rong. Comparing the above: AgBr with fifteen minutes about the. same as Agl with two anda half: AgBr with thirty minutes not sal so aba: as AgI with six: Se whee with three and a Agland Aoi together. —Although the scope of this investiga- tion was directed to the action of pure AgI and pure AgBr, a few 276 M. C. Lea—Aetion of the less refrangible rays of Light experiments were made on the two used together. They were used in equivalent proportions and in such quantity that the paper containing the two salts together should take up exactly as much silver as the papers prepared with AgBr and AgI sep- arately. The result demonstrated a materially greater sensitive- ness to both red and green light than with either used sepa- rately. The experiment was not extended to the yellow, but it would doubtless have given similar results, as also the more refrangible rays of the spectrum. t may be worth mentioning, in passing, that the result of this part of the investigation led to the making of a series of experiments on the introduction of silver iodide into the “emulsion process” for preparing photographic dry plates. The result was that when either equal or equivalent quantities of AgBr and AgI were employed, nothing material was gained, Agland AgBr. There was found a moderate superiority of sen- sitiveness in AgI, though much less marked than in the case of the red and green rays. Exposure under a negative for three seconds to a weak diffused light sufficed to produce a strong latent image on both the AgI and AgBr papers, but most strong upon AglI. As respects silver iodide, my opinions have always differed from those which have prevailed among photo - chemists. Many years ago I proved the opinion that silver iodide, abso- lutely isolated, was insensitive to light, to be erroneous. 1! cov- ered glass plates (preferably ground glass, for better adhesion) with thin specular films of silver, and then iodized these throug and through by means of a solution of iodine, and succeeded on Silver Iodide and Bromide. 277 without difficulty in developing images received on such S The opinion also that silver iodide, in the absence of free silver nitrate, is comparatively insensitive, receives its disproof from the foregoing investigation, which decisively shows that washed films of silver iodide possess a high degree of sensitive- ness to white light, and some sensitiveness to the less refrangi- ble rays: in either case a higher degree than silver bromide. Excitina AND ConTINUING Rays. of their preparation, some chance effect of light sufficient to i this was after- ward continued only, not originated, by the colored light to * La Lumiére, vol. ii p 76. 278 M. C. Lea—Action of the less refrangible rays of Light, ete. been due to a continuing power of the colored light upon an original impression caused by light accidentally admitted dur- ing the preparation, then the papers must have darkened all over by the agency of gallic acid, instead of developing an image. So that the system of experiment adopted was in itself incidentally a precaution against any such source of error. Nevertheless, wishing to obtain a result that would be en- romide In the foregoing pages, I have briefly given the result of one hundred and sixty experiments The results, with such slight and altogether unimportant variations as necessarily arise from slight differences of preparation and differences in the charac- ter of the sun’s light, were remarkably concordant, and may be summed up as follows: gBrand AglI are sensitive to all the visible rays of the spectrum. Aglis more sensitive than AgBr to all the less refran- 2. gible rays and also to white li gl or AgBr separately. ie 5. There do not exist any rays with a special exciting or & special continuing power, but all the colored rays are capable mencing and continuing the impression on silver iodide and bromide. Philadelphia, March 6, 1875. F. H. Bradley—Silurian age of the Southern Appalachians. 279 ART. XXX.—On the Silurian age of the sah pity Appalachians ; by Frank H. BRApL 1. Introduction. Emmons, in his American Geology, refers most of the rocks along the western te of North Carolina * to his Taconic sys- tem, “and says (vol. i, pt. 2, p. 24) that “the locality at the Warm Springs ‘i sdieou County, N.C.] is a good exhibition of the development of the Lower Taconic rocks in the Southern States ;” but he also states (p. 25) that, in Cherokee County [near Murphy], the system is separated [divided] a few miles, by the interposition of a ridge of primary schists with staurolite. Safford, in his Geology of Pape eat 1869 (pp. 177-8), says, of the metamorphic rocks of the rn border of that State: ‘A portion of the beds are certainly sete bie to the Sota PE the Fomnainigen, although conformable, may be older, and most likely are. * The sien of the greater age ‘of ee other parts is not so easily settled, and must remain open the present. I know of no sufficient reason for adie | any of these rocks to the Huronian or Laurentian series of Canada. Again (p. 193): After the Duoes, the Chilhowee sendarotion re- pepeet and continue up the [French Broad] river to the State lin In North Carolina, a short distance beyond the he the ous roup sets in again, and is the formation to within a mile of the Warm Springs. Then follows a Knox belt. e Springs are located on the Knox emer z= e- Pare the western fie g of the State, see oh covering the whole area there assigned by Emmons to the Tac prings region. , ¥. * “Tt would seem that at this advanced stage of our progress the guide-posts of the principal paths had become so firm established, the principles upon which plants should be scien- tifically classed so clearly laid down, and so far carried into practice, that little remained to be done toward completing the survey of the territory—toward a general distribution of species according to their natural affinities—beyond the more accurate delineation of details and the interpolation of newly-discovered Species; and that the systematic fi could already look toward that summit upon reaching which his labors in aid of the general advance of the science might come to a close. _ “But there was a rock ahead which had long been looming in the distance, and which on a nearer approach opposed a for- midable obstacle. What is a species? and what is the mean- ing of those natural affinities according to which species are to be classed? were questions which in 1859 it was generally thought vain to discuss, or the answers to which, given to us by doctrinal teachers, unsupported by or independent of facts, 290 Recent Progress and present State of Systematic Botany it was considered as sacrilegious to doubt. We were taught, and some may still believe, that every species, such as we now see it, was an original creation, perpetuated through every gen- eration within fixed limits which never have been and never will be transgressed. We were less authoritatively told that resemblances of different species were owing to their having been formed upon one plan variously modified. To the ques- tion why they were so modified, the ready answer was, such was the will of the Creator; and in order not to suppose that that will was influenced by mere caprice, it was suggested that e modifications were either to suit the plant to the circum- stances it was placed in, or to remedy defects in the original plan, or we were simply told that the subject was beyond our powers of comprehension.* “ One consequence of this apparent impossibility of proceed- ing further in the investigation of the causes of affinities and of this necessity of taking species as separate creations in enor- mous numbers, with resemblances and differences in endless variety according to the inscrutable will of the Creator, was the encouragement it gave to arbitrary classifications and in- was, indeed, generally admitted that plants should be arranged in genera, orders, &., in groups of h tinguished the species from the variety. tanist who affirmed that Rubus fruticosus, Draba verna, or Sphagnum palus- tre wer one very variable species, and he who main * “In my frequent intercourse during the above period with foreign botanists, I heard more than one German Professor affirm that a type-form was created for each natural order (the common clover, for instance, being that for Papilionace®), that Na set to work to modify thi orm i ing species of a e, till, tired of the exertion, she next produced new speci been created without a simultaneous creation of plants for him to cultivate for food, quite independent of the wild vegetation which existed before him for the food of animals. eS Fs oor So of the ice of the Glacial period; or, as he has it, s miliergete ie A the Glacial period, he holding red the aie Laie by was a riod of lower level of the land than eeds on the supposition, ge argued for by him, that the aol of ‘the Glacial iod was due to the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, = that it ected ih sovthded and southern hemispheres alternate The oval of two miles of ice from the Antarctic Continett ii displace the center of gravity 190 feet, and the formation of a mass of ice of one-half this thickness in the Arctic regions would te Further, the area of the Antarctic ice-cap being z34¢, of that of the Ocean, therefore, allowing 0°92 for the density of ic ice, the melting of 254 feet of ice from the cap weg: raise the general level of the * Manual of Geology, 2d edit., p. 43 A Base agency of ice oS the Rica of the Trias of Eastern North Am has been s suggested by T. A. Conrad, and also by H. Watts, sek iy beh a ek” Am. Jour, Sct.—THIrD Senzzs, Vou, IX, No. 52,—ApriL, 1875. 316 Scientific Intelligence. ocean one foot; and a mile of ice, 200 feet. The other mile of ice melted is balanced by the abstraction of water to add a mile of ice to the Arctic. These numbers added, says Mr. Croll, give 485 feet for the amount of submergence that would be thus occasioned at the North Pole, and 434 feet for that in the latitude of Edin- burgh; or if the ice had twice the supposed thickness, the amount of s submergence would have been twice this amount. The facts from Eastern eed cpg do not appear to favor . Mr. Croll’s conclusion. The amount of subsidence indicated by raised shell-beds on the St. taterencé ‘ Monty eal, near latitude 45°, was about 500 feet; on the coast of Maine, near latitude 44°, only 200 feet, when it ought by the theory to have been but a few feet less than at Montreal; and along the southern shore of New England, near latitude 41° , only 50 to 100 age the larger of which numbers is much less than 'a fourth of what the t theory ayer It seems hence to follow that the curve of submergence did n ocean’s surface by a change of the center of gravity. The Coral Island subsidence over the Pacific, which affected a change of water level during the Quaternary age, as well as in earlier time, resides in the crust itself. The facts {a the shell beds of the St. Taviehoe and the coasts of New England appear to be equally evidence of a bona fide subsidence, which no Oe ss a ocean as a whole will account for. J. ; t Changes of Level on the oa of Maine, with refer ence tae Hbchase al relation to other similar changes ; ; by N.5. SHALER. (20 pp., 4to, 1874, from the Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., ii, 322. )-—The Geibtes of the chan nges of level here discussed was gathered from the Quaternary deposits of Maine and of the coast south, Professor Shaler concludes eee the evidence sustains the ward, after “the first division ‘of the Glacial period res snd i at subsequently there was “a return of the ice in the shape of a set — of local glaciers which covered the shore at Mt. tn _ along most of the territory at least as far as New Brun and per- sisting until the final re-elevation of the land to viene 24 vrevet vel.” "Phe cause of the depression is discussed in the closing pages. He remarks that the only hypothesis as yet advanced to account ur. Sci., ae xxii, 346. The same iy is involved in his earlier paper in 1846, 1847, Geology and Natural History. 817 nary movements of the crust,—the upward for the Glacial period, the downward for the Champlain or Fluvial period, and then a suc- ceeding wpward rise—like the other great movements, to the lateral pressure in the earth’s crust due to contraction from cooling. Adhémar’s hypothesis, as Shakya by Mr. Shaler, supposes a dis- placement of the center of gravity in consequence ‘of the unequal accumulation of ice at the poles, much like that recently proposed bea rg = ° lar) op a 20 Oe ey 4 & oO O er mM aio a a mM fa) ai "S — i) j=} i) cy 2} . ° =» o i=") te oes not increase with regularity over the whole northe eml- sphere; and then presents his own hypothesis, which attributes the depression to the weight of the ice-mass over the land. er speaking of the continents as having their positions determined by “constant tensions” (meaning, aie to include lateral pres- sure, which far ramet tensions in importance) and the bin the mass, he says, “it seems seidiait enough that we may m reasonably look to ie weight of the ice accumulated on the Soues nents during the Glacial period for the depression of the land-areas it A than to any ee cause.” his theory assumes that of ice “a mile or more thick,” equivale sat as the author states to half this thickness in “ ordinary rock, = depressed the eek, erust 500 feet an oe ward over the by Mallet t to be orn ous, it seems to be ed from proba ble that mere weight can account for s great a movement. Lateral pres- sure Se been the chie agent it in Cauneeouk: of level and mountain- ng over the earth; since Archean time, making (1) the Green Modsiaine: (2) ridges in ee see Scotia and New Brunswick, and (3) the Alleghanies, on the eastern border of the North American Continent, at lo servis : at subsequently, after pes te in- tervals i i a Ne- nd ( on the western side of the Continent ; bondch (4) elevating, during the 5 ates d the great Rocky Moun tain mass 8,000 to 10,000 a ally ahothice consequence of the uneasiness of the crust owing to lateral pressure 318 Scientific Intelligence. are vast results — elevations and snbsidences — accom- plished by lateral pressure. Now, that elevation of the land over the higher latitudes which brought on the Glacial era, is a natural result of the same agency, and a natural, and a most a neces been then in progress. The accumulating, folding, solidification and Sut geapee cage of rocks attending all the Sapa grad and mountain-making through the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, had greatly stiffened the crust in these parts, pa hence, in after time, the continental pyc resulting from the lateral r the the continent, where the nt Oi pa and other changes had been relatively small. ‘lo the subsidence which followed the ele- and oceanic areas then going forward must have had a grea preponderating cause in the oscillating agency of all ise inter pressure within the crust. 7. Age of the Lignitie Coal Formation of A ancouver bc A Letter to the editors, from Alfred R. ©. Selwyn, F.R.S., Director of the ee oleien Survey of Canada, dated March 3d.—I wish to recor is : logical and Geographical Survey of Colorado, 1873, to the effect that the coal of Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, is referable to the lower American Eocene. oe surveys have now been made by the Canadian Geological Surve the Nanaimo coal basin, and it is proved beyond the porsibility of a doubt that the coal beds there are overlaid by a others. Maps aap ‘Rections showing the relative position of these beds and of the coal seams are given in the Report of the Geological 8. Note on the genus Op istho yptera eae. ya and Anomalo- donta Gnen, 1874, (Communicated )—Mr. A.M seta in a reply to my note on the above mentioned ge ae published in the Sitanber Seater (1874) of the Caemnat Journal of Sadan: endeavors to defend his substitution of the name Anomalodonia for Meek’s earlier name. bs he does on the ground (1) that Megaptera, having been previously used for a genus of whales, could not stand; (2) that sidinagh Mr. Meek had P oceiasite *The facts are briefly mentioned from the Canada Geological Report for 1972-1813 in vol. vil of f this een pp. 517, 518, 1874.—Ebs. + See this Journal, viii, 218, Geology and Natural History. 319 (but previous to the publication of Mr. Miller’s pag proposed to substitute for it the name Opisthoptera, he did it only provision- ally, and bad not himself adopted it in the subsequently published Ohio report ; and (3) that neither Meek and Worthen jointly, nor Mr. Meek alone, had fully defined the generic characters o their type. No further notice ide be taken of the oe were . not that silence might be construed into acquiescence in views a practices that it is the sritaned t of all working net alists 3 dis- genera in different sub-kingdoms, or even in different classes of the same Pee: dom. This is the practice of some of the best and most renowned naturalists. Zroglodytes is constantly used for a genus of apes, and also for a genus of birds, an ca many other i b i i er, Wi that he did at first, namely, in case it should be found generically distinct from Amboryohéa and the name Meyaptera should be objected to. But it would not have altered the case if he had there said nothing about it, or even if he had gid eee to retract both Megaptera and Opis thoptera Se the nam Was published it became the rty vis science, pity he had no hot published, is no and cannot be, sus by 1 usag ven in recent zoology, where it is possible to ascertain clearly all the characters, no such rule is generally follow u rule would be utterly inadmissible in the department of fossil mainly or entirely upon external characters. The rales would en- danger the name Anomalodonta, because nothing is yet known of the pallial line said pedal mus seular scars of that shell, to say po’ ing about the extraordinary oe tion of 0 adductor impressi in Mr. Miller’s figure. Hundreds of cases might be mentioned of genera established upon piscine sicabterl nlike some other genera, Opisthoptera has its more conspicu- ous characters external, namely, its form and surface ornamenta- tion, which when taken together are quite sufficient to distinguish 320 Scientific Intelligence. it from related types, even from the broad types of Myalina, from which the hinge characters shown by Mr. Miller would not sepa- rate it. As Meek and Worthen, and still later, Mr. Meek alone, have fully described and illustrated these external characters of their type, they have given sufficient means for its ss ar ages: which even Mr. Miller found no difficulty in doing. To Mr ler’s other remarks it is hardly necessary to reply. As to the affinities of Ambonychia with the Aviculide, which Mr. Miller refuses to admit, on account of the equa ity 0 of the e in another, the genus Znoceramus being an example. The — Sennen typical) Monotis, Halobia, and others are included e highest authorities among the Av iculide, and yet the are Kee valve. He refers to McCoy as the first to refer Ambonychia to the Avinlis. as evidently unaware of the fact that in 1833 Goldfuss in his great work, Petrif. Germ., did the same. nra Woodward, Brown, Dr. Car enter, and "Dr. Stoliezska all have done the same, the latter even placing it near Avicula in the sec- tion Avicu Re ee re Opisthoptera, I will state its synonymy th Genus gy aks 10PTERA Meek. Meyaptera Meek an ni Worthen, 1800 egaptera Gay 18—. Opisthoptera Meek, - aie Miller, 18 9. Costa Rica LT —Mr. W. M. Gabb, in a sited Gated San José, Costa Rica, February Ist, corrects his former calculation of the height of Piso Blanco, stated on page 199 of this volume, oa ee it — ,877°8 feet. ‘The error came from a slip in the use of a form height 11,356°5 feet. The volcano is extinct, Sane a little smell of sulphur in the crater. He further remarks that the peak of ee nine or ten vee from Irazu, is so sige eqns to 10. The Gulp of Mexico in si Miocene.—Prof. Hilgard has suggested, in view of the absence of marine Miocene beds over the Eocene of Lo yitie bape Mississippi ba Alabama, and the bog beds, that “ in the Miocene period, Cuba, like Jamaica and Santo Domingo, was much smaller than at present, and may even have * This Journal, I, ii, 397. Geology and Natural History. 321 been only a string of small islands; ere Yucatan, the Bahamas, Bermudas and much of Florida did n t yet exist, "and their sur- face — eee not bi been deposit ted.” He r dese additional facts I have acquired in Costa Rica pence go stony to sustain the opinion I have already advanced, that no sedimentary rock older than the Miocene is found here, The Carboniferous formation is Miocene; an herever it is unaltered it contains coal-beds, some of which are two yards thick. ow I have seen this coal, as the green streaks show, all the way around from near San José to the end of Tala- manca, and we know that heavy beds occur in Chiriqui on the Atlantic side, And all along the coast, as at Boca Brava, Punta Uvita, Pirris, Tarcoles, etc., coal is ound. The existence of rer Miocene beds on the Atlantic side proves that the oe lf w occupied by marine waters as now. 11. _ be —— of Southern Italy ; by Rowans Aowa pp., 4to, with three plates. Vienna, 1874. (From vol. xxxiv, De pobr riften der Kaianiohes Akademie es Wissenschaften. pia Professor Suess first describes with some detail the geological structure of Sicily, and of the neighboring districts of ere to the knowledge of which he has contributed so much by his personal labors. It is shown that in this region cain is, in the 8 pnp re refal dunonaiie follows of the Enportant earthquake phe- einena: which have been observed in Southern Italy. conclusion reached is, that the crthquakeaoel of Sicily and Calabri: ria may be se arated into three clas are afforded by the many ake which have come to Southern os from yee Beh abe Islands. oe shocks, those which have not a voleano as their c ace ring volcanoes. The lin t ocks ma traced from Cosenza southwest through Oppido and Reggio, and is robably continued throu t. Etna th the Lipar ermo, thus form forward or backed a abi line, so that they may visit the same place within a short time from different directions. 322 Scientific Intelligence. Another line of shocks is shown to have the direction from Mt. Vultur southwest through Potenza to Papasidero. rom the facts presented, Professor Suess shows that there is a close connection between the volcanoes and the earthquakes. He clu phenomena mete from fractures that have been ig nine ed through other ae ie Distinctive optical properties of the Feldspars. pl FOS Ux has recently inv sted Sata ane optical properties of the tri- An feldspars (C. xxx, Feb, 8, 1875). The principal results obtained by him are contained in the following table, in which Bz stands for bisectrix. ALBITE. {OLIGOCLASE.|LABRADORITE|/ ANORTHITE Acute bisectrix always + ‘generally —| always + ways — sometimes + Position of Angle made by the + Bx. witha e Bx. normal to i-% (g) 15° 18° 10” 30° 40’ has no Same, with a normal to O(p) 18° 35’ 68° 56° simple rela- Angle e by the line in which Line parallel i the plane of the optic-axes cuts ge planes ob 4-7, with ae i-% | O(g’| p) 20° 0 |e-%. 27°-28° | served on Same, with edge 7-%|J(g’|m) 96° 28(front)) “ “ |37°25/-36°25' ithe cryst’ls. Ordinary dispersion v(+ Bx.) | pv(+ Bx). Dispersion parallel or perpendic-| Inclined; | Crossed; also| Crossed; also, Incl ular to plane of polarization probably also’ slight in- | slight in- slight clined. 1 a8 nt reais angle (in air)| or red ra 80° 397 89° 357 88° 15’ | 84° 58’ er blue sll 81° 59’ 88° 31 87° 48’ | 85° 59” (Roe tourné) ——_ (Labrador) | (Somma) edestrand) e axial ete Sn is quite constant for albite, labradorite and eis but varies for oligoclase even in different sections taken from the same sapere: DesCloizeaux concludes from his hit contrary to the views presented by Tschermak. Andesite he con- elu ae si, be altered oligoclase, while tschermakite is bsp wit - 8. Geology and Natural History. 323 Annularia, Asterophyllites, Sphenopteris, ? Hymenophyillites, Odontopteris, Neuropteris, Dictyopteris, Cyatheiies, Alethopteris, coors "Walchia, besides some others.—Jairb. f. Min., 1875. . Batrachians in bituminous shales of the Permian at Millery, A. Gaudr lab of shale Petrolei, because of the affinities to the Salamanders, and their occurrence in oil- bpiarae: shales, They are high eam the largest 35 mm. ; and yet they were probably adult traces of scales were found. The fore and hind limbs are four-toed and near y of the mise size.— Ann. Mag. N. H., IV, xv, 233. 15. log, in peo —On the Peninsula of Brunswick, in the u : Serres an aggregate —- of about 2€ feet. The age of the Teones Muscorum, or Figures Pins ig aan of most of those Mosses peculiar to North on ae which have not yet been figured; by the late Wiitram 5. Su LLivant, LL, Posthumous Supplement ; with 81 copper rps Imp. 8vo. Cam- “ idge: Charles W. Sever. London er & Co. December, 1874.—To give an idea of the nature this volume, and of the circumstances under which it has been produced an nd published, we append the brief reface, written by the author of this notice. Sa the bes pac of the Icones Muscorum, in the year 1864, the lamented author made careful studies and sketches of the Copious new materials as they came to his hands, with a view to a 324 Scientific Intelligence. continuation. A portion of these was selected for the first Supple- ment, and the drawings and engravings of these eighty-three plates were ‘completed before his death, in * April, 1873. The drawings were made under his immediate wae ae ase by meritorious draughtsman who executed those of the original 1 to be in readiness for the printer. Its anne and com- Lesquereux, to whom this has been a labor of love and the paying of a tribute of affection to an endeared memor y. Inasmuch as he had to draw up a large proportion of the following descriptions from mere notes and remarks appended to the specimens in the herbarium, it would have been only just, no less to Mr. Sullivant than to Mr. Lesquereux, that the name of the latter should be siihosd upon the title-page as the editor of this posthumous work. But he has strenuously objected to this, and his decided wishes have been deferred to. Regar — the incomparable “Icones ” and this Su neoetyy as a fitting memorial of one who will rightly be remembere the father of mies bryology, he declines to have his own name inscribed upon the monument, however sub- ordinately. Accordingly, it only remains for the writer of this aoa to express—on the part of the botanists who are to be nefited, and of the Sullivant family, at whose expense this memorial is published—most grateful ati tg pon Le » reux for his valuable ats essential @ services.’ been ee ae to be the Damask Rose. Mr. Haabury, having re- ceived a packet of specimens in the rose fields of the Balkan, submitted them to Mr. Baker of Kew, he being the most accom- plished rosarian; and Mr. Baker has determined them to be for the most part Rosa damascena. Thiss species is quite unknown In a wild state; and Mr. Baker re — it “as most likely a culti- vated race of R. Gullica, spores spreads in a wild state from France to ot ” (See Jo Tbk for Jan., 1875.) A. @. 18. British Wild Flowers ie te in relation to Insects ; by Sir Joun Lussocx, Bart, F.R.S., M.P., with numerous illustra- tions. London: Macmil llan & Co. 1875. pp. Wes 12mo,—Al- * Except a cea bt ie Hs Mr. Bennett, entitled ‘‘ How Flowers are Fertilized,” which we have peer ee Geology and Natural History. 325 excite and _— on cane which these are sure se pr a te There hav e be een some excellent ae in the magazines ; ally, eves: as it ought to be; for this, an —e matters of rier variety. Nothing can be better Slipted * enone the powers of observation in “the young. Sir John Lubbock’s lecture before the British Association last of articles in Natur phage ; and now these articles are collected to form this handy volume,—one of the ture Series, to which the author had Sea contrib uted his more elaborate and thor- ough essay on “The Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects.” As the author remarks, he “had made no serious study of Botany,” at which we do not wonder. As it is. few indeed can be expected to give their powers, with the success he has commanded, to so many engrossing subjects, financial, ethnological, zoological and other. But as an n entomologis ist, “the intimate relations which exist brought to from which I myself gona derived so = we happiness” a we may add science no little pn al urally suggested that a wider use might be made of them; and ‘this attr, active, — rather hastily prepared volume is the rest It. Not much in way of n sau are the most important and satisfact ctory. ‘They give an most flowers are adapted to Ube seous foritlbed ee the visits of in- sects, and through which these visits are secured, while others are in their way as well served by the winds. And there is an espe- cially Sntadatabh account of the modifications of the mouth-parts and legs of bees and butterflies, for their profit in their visits to flowers, while diy profit them. This is condensed from Herman ares and the illustrations are his the remaining chapters the: net of the principal British Saris are taken up seri im, and the fertilization of a good num- ber of them explained and illustrated, —sufficiently so in many cases, . mers in the earlier orders; but, the whole, if 80 wide a systematic meckinass were okadee taken, it were bet- ter “a cake it out more fu ee The little sath from Bentham’s Handbook, not havin pared in view of this subject, are here of small use. eyes are lsogpuaiiontad by larger and clear 326 Scientific Intelligence. id not perceive ‘the real significance of the facts which he had discovered,” it was not because he, like his contemporaries, “ Sprengel failed to understand the full meaning of the structure of the tlowers which he has so well described, from not always 00 20. Large Cephalopod.—A cephalopod “ of great bulk,” 12 feet 9 length, has been captured on the coast of Japan.—Japan Mail, an. 23. 21. The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism; by Ose Scumipr, Prof. Univ. Strasburg. The International Scientific Series. 324 pp., 12mo, with 26 wood-cuts. New York, 1875. (D. Appleton & Co.)—This volume contains, in a brief dogmatic form, the views of Darwin on descent, combined with those of the more imaginative Heckel. The author has nothing but matter In his philosophy, and is intolerant toward those who do not think with him. Astronomy. 327 Ill. Astronomy. Venus.—The Italian observers at Maddapore in Bengal, which party the eminent spectroscopist Tacchini belonged, asides observing all four contacts, ascertained an important fact respect- Ven Venus both on and off the sun, tudisaten in the spectroscope that the vps eee: contains aqueous vapor.—Vaiure, Jan. 21. 2. A Society for gy sronehie observations on the Sun has been ip in Caleutta.— Nature, Phi ey ‘al and Mataivodapivat Observations made during the. year 1872 at the U. 8. Naval Observatory. Rear-Admiral 6. F. Sanps, U.S. . , Superintendent. Published by authority of the Hon. rte etary of the Nav y. CVI, 4p 58 and 22 pp., 4to. ash- ington, 1874.—This new Beni of the U. 8. Naval Observatory opens with an account of the Observdts eee Transit on — (160 pp.); with the Peete Circle (161-204 pp.); with the quatorial (207-232 pp.) ; n declination of stars, from individ- ual observations with the Muted Circle (235-246 pp. };m mean agen of miscellancous stars, from individual observations with t Transit Circle (249-268 pp.); Catalogue of stars observed with Pa Transit Circle (271-278 pp.); Right ascensions, N. Polar distances and semi-diameters of the Sun; Small Planets ; "Declinations of the loon. It concludes with meteorological tables , and a report on the difference of es Payee between fons — and Detroit, Mich- igan, — Nevada, and Austin PRoFEssor praenapearsctcs ay a nriede igh Wilhelm August Ar- gelander, pw at Memel in East Prussia on the 22d of March, assistant = pe observatory at Koénigsberg, under Bessel, after- ward, in 1823, Director of the Finland Observatory at bo and Helitiietiia” ca in 1834, Director of ian Observatory at Bonn, where he a his assiduous labors until within a short time of his dea Professor ‘Augededier astronomical labors were principally in the field bel fixed-star Bieese re he pe they nan f be described wl he mad nideterutention of the motion of the solar ixiten in space, with paaie nearly the same as those of Sir Wil- lam | el. His ul and comprehensive estimation, too, of the comparative magnitudes of all the “re visible to the naked eye should be mentioned (Uranometria Noy 828 - Miscellaneous Intelligence. The Royal Astronomical Society of London’marked their sense of the value of Professor Argelandev’s sidereal labors by the award of their gold medal in roe ruary, 1863. His last observations, so far as we are aware, were of the bright comet2of Coggia, in the summer of last year. ae a Feb. 27. ITV. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Engineer Department U. 8S. Army. Progress-Report upon cieeaiied) and Geological Explorations and Surveys west vy the 100th Meridian in i ge under the direction of Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U. 8. A.; by First Lieut. Greorce M. WHEELER, Corps of vor: in charge. 56 pp., 4to. Washington. 1874.—According to this report, the work per- ieut. V and natural history departments. For the determination of la tude and longitude three parties were engaged, and for topo- graphical observations, five parties. The area covered topo- graphically during the year exceeded 50,000 square miles, and included part of Western and Southwestern Utah, Eastern Nevada, and Northwestern Arizona. This “ Progress-Report” rare : “a sctelatiecalh examined, observations on irrigation for the country, and on its agricultural re abpeiori: ssp r lands, routes for communication, and other points of i logist, Mr. G. K. Gi Ibert, states that “abot White's feet above the sea-level ; on Wheeler’s Peak, of the Snake Range, Nevada, latitude 39° north, several moraines and an alpine lake ; and on Old Baldy Peak, near Beaver, Utah, in latitude 38° 18’ north, two terminal morain The pide extent of the great Salt Lake,—when it stood “900 feet above its present level as proved by its seretad: bie lines,—is made 18,000 square Se ai which is a little less than the area of Lake Huron. Mr. Gilb oar ad hcg in sea paca region of the Upper Colorado, the rock-sy m the ‘Tertiary t o the Devonian, is com- sean ndys dustrbed pane denudation has left the harder beds i. fier inas ssi cross these st ate there is a geology; volume v the paleontology, which is to be illustrated by numerous plates of vertebrate and nono emt fossils; and volume vi, the soc hes history of the expedition Numerous excellent photographs have been ef ken, which will be used for illustrating the geological and other volumes. They Miscellaneous Intelligence. — 829 repr mie grandly _ indie of the Colorado and of other parts of the region under survey. 2. Smithsonian Conte ibutions to Knowledge, 1874, 4to. Miscel- laneous Collections, Vols. xi, xii, 8vo, 1874,—The : very valuable by t of three volumes a lint the year ; Tie yolaine of Contribu- tions contains Problems of Rotary motion presented by the Gy- roscope, t e Precession. of the Equinoxes and the Pendulum, b Brevet Maj. Gen. J. G. Barnard; a contribution to the History of the Fresh-water gee a N. America, by H. C. Wood, Jr., M.D., with 21 plates, many of them color red ; an investigation of the Orbit of Uranus, with general lle ‘of its motion, by Sim Newcomb. Vol. xi, of the Miscellaneous Collections, contains memoirs on the Arrangements of Mammals and Fishes , by Dr. T. Gill (200 PP-)5 sae apbsmee of N. A. me ige by H. Lew w (376 pp.); on col- lecting and preserving Insects, by A. 8. Packard, Jr. (60 pp.); New cae 4 Pe and plum anno of the Coleoptera, by J. L. fies (146 pp.).—Vol. xii contains a Review of American Birds in the eat ti a Museum, by 8. F. Baird (484 pp.) ; the Constants of Nature, Part 1: Specific gravities, Boiling and Melt- ing Points and Chemical Formule, by F. W. Clarke (272 on Telegraphic Announcements of ‘Astronomical discov eries, by J oaeghs Henry (4 emical amination of Alcoholie Liquors; by Pro- oe ' A. B. Pruscorr. 108 pp., 12mo. New York. 1875. (Van which now slumber in the statute books of this country, have been framed with so little skill or with such bigotry or partizan- ship as to be practically inoperative. The importance to society that all articles used as foods, medicines, or goon wet should be held subject to strict scientific examination by authority of law. and that the frauds now practiced should be systemateall ex- posed and jolous 10 | is such as to admit of no deb he : h : meeting them, not only i in this Manual of Dr. Prescott, but also thro ough the use of the Outlines of Pewumats Organic ‘Analysis, bo the same author, already noticed. 4. Appleton’s U clopedia, -- The American Cyclopedia: a ae ca Dictionary of General Knowledge. Edited by Grorer lttpLey Cuartes A, Dana. Vols, I—X, 1873-1875. Royal 8vo., raat York.—It is now twelve years since the first edition of Apple- ton’s American Cyclopedia was finished. It was followed in the eleven succeeding years by as many “ Annual Cyclopedias,” uni- form tea the original work, in sixteen same product as that met with in com merce. In a paper published subsequently, BaryxEr states that eosin was first oo ——— at the Baden Aniline bpetices by Caro, and by him introduced to the trade under that name. He suggests the following experiment to show the selasouk ‘of eosin : A portion of the coloring matter is agitated with water and sodium amalgam at a gentle heat. The solution is soon peer nee the ow tion, the gaowemn changes to fluorescéin and the liquid becomes bright een and almost opake, in es d light.—Ber awe hem. Ges., viii, 62, 146, Jan., Feb., 1875. 6. On the Structural Formula of Hydroxylamine.- —The poly NH,O, discovered originally by Lossren, and to which he gave the name hydroxylamine, possesses great theoretic ‘wok It may be regarded as a nia in which hydroxyl replaces an atom of hydrogen; as a direct compound of the radicals amidogen an hydr r in which an atom of nitrogen has or as a compound two of its units of attraction saturated by two hydrogen atoms while the third is united to one of the bonds of an oxygen atom, ie the other being saturated by hydrogen; thus fo NOSE It would seem as if there could he little eat upon the rational constitution of so simple a ody. T above ston Shee) tks er ieee Adal to NH,. Hanes from NO;. OH comes very readily NH,. gain, “the ammonia-like structure of hydr Ricca Si is shown by the fact ror it unites with acids to form salts without the formation of water. The structure above by anisyl. Callin ing the hydrogen atoms one, two, three, in this order N H i OH, we have, when both radicals replace hydrogen, benzanishydroxamic acid N(C, H sO)(C, iu 70,)OH and anisbenz- Ohemistry and Physics, — 395 1 2 8 hydroxamic acid N(C,H,O,)(C,H,O)OH, with two replacements; 1 2 3 and dibenzanishydroxylamine N(C,H,O)(0,H,0)0(C,H,0,), 1 3 benzanisbenzhydroxylamine N(C, H,C)(C, Hy O 2)O(C, H,0O), and anisdibenzhydroxylamine N(C, ti sO)(E. i ,2)O(C, i ,;0), when three atoms are thus exchanged. Nowi ydrogen atoms 1 and in hydroxylamine are precise equivalents, the first two of the above named five compounds are identical; if not, they are only isomeric. If hydrogen atoms 2 and 3 are equivalents. then the third and fourth of the above a are identical; but they are only isomers, if they are n Lastly, if hydrogen ‘atoms 1 and 3 are equiv alent to each fers the third and fifth of these compounds must be the same ; but if these atoms are not precisely identical in function, the compounds must be isomers. The author has roved the most important point, that benzanishydroxamic _ ng es Segre mic acids are not identical, but are isomeri such atoms in hydroxylamine. ‘Lossen assigns therefore to dbens- H hydroxamic acid the formula C,H,O— N-0-C ,H,O and to H dianishydroxamic acid that of C,H,O,— My author promises further researches to fix the position of the replac- ing radica 2 oe the monohydroxamic acids.—Liebig’s Ann., clxxv, 271, Jan., . In fluen nce of Pressure on Combustion.—M. 1.. Cat ETET has studied the — of a pressure of 30 to 35 atmospheres on the e air was éouiienied by pumps in which the ‘pistons were fixed r > and the cylinders movable, a layer of wat glycerine at the same time cooling the gases so as to protect the packing from the heat, and preventing leakage. The reservoir consisted of a hol- low cylinder with four apertures; the first admitted the gas, the second allowed it to escape, the third admitted the manometer- tube, and the fourth was closed by . thick glass plate to allow of observation of the interior, The iatter had a di ameter of 10 cms. and a capacity of Hi 4 liters. Placin a lamp in this space, the brightness increased with the pressure of the air. The base of the ame, which under the ordinary pressure is blue and transparent, became white and ver bright; but soon the appearance change and thick clouds of smoke circulated geen e me a ng ae and escaped by the stopcock closing the ou The flame seen through this smoke is reddish and the x: is soul to a charred and much soot deposited, doubtless owing to the dissociation of Am. Jour Scr. THTRD ~~ IX, No. 58.—May, 1875. 396 Scientific Intelligence. the gases containing carbon. The heat increases but not enough to burn an iron wire heated to redness i in the common flame. The brightness of the flame of burning shouts s does n seem to increase, but that of sulphur is brighter and ¥dlow a on the border Potassium fies with a very bright violet flame. The com- bustion in a charcoal furnace did not seem more rapid under 25 ie ge than at the usual pressure. An alcohol lamp with a wick formed of a single thread, and giving in the open air a . scarcely visible flame, rapid y increased in brightness with the pressure. At 20 atmospher es, the flame is white and bright as more e} than at ordinary pressures; the ray D is alone visible, appar- ently enlarged. Bisulphide of carbon also burns more brightly than usual. either it nor sulphur gives a perceptible quantity of sulphurie acid. The chemical oi as well as aa of light and heat, seem to have an increased activity. A number of flattened tubes contain- ing phosphorescent substances were exposed to the rays of these flames and shone with a much oe light with the — pressure.— Comptes Rendus, |xxx, 487. 8. Magnetism.—M. Bou or bee ‘studied the laws of magnetic ac- tion by means of a new ng simple device for measuring magnetic moments. A small magnet attached to a mirror is fastened to 2 mms. and their dinmeure ‘2 mms. ‘With this apparatus the mag- oa of a bar was measured when it was inserted a number times into a helix, and was found to be well represented by the B eke formula Y=A— ye in which Y is the moment and X the number of insertio e eff : peak cae a needle was next studied. The rc was heated to redness and plunged instantly into ast and t middle portion, about 150 mms. in length, alone employed Gredn has deduced a formula for co magnetic m oment of ‘suinrated bars Chemistry and Physies. 397 gee until the length beoynee small compar ed with the diame- he law for changes in the diameter and the effect of a be parallel to the axis were also stadied. Finally, on the ground of the peculiar facts ex xamined in this memoir, as well as e whole of the known facts, he concludes that the present steel, hat in regard to the magnetic properties of its elements this substance ae be considered a heterogeneous mass.— Phil. Mag., xlix, 81, EB. 6. P. : Frictional Electricity.—M. Rossrrri has made a careful study of the current developed by a Holtz machine and shown that it follows the laws of a galvanic battery. The machine was turned by a weight, and the work done measured when charged and dis- charged. The current was determine by a galvanometer and the resistance by four long fine tubes filled with distilled water. he current is nearly proportional to the speed, but increases a little more rapidly than the latter. The ratio of the two alters ith the a current the machine must be driven faster in wet weather, although the work required is less than when the rie is dry. ec onomy, therefore, is greater on wet than on dry days. A Holtz machine resembles a galvanic battery, having an electromotive force and interior resistance which are constant as long as the velocity and moisture are constant. The electromotive force is n de oistu reases, The interior resistance on the other hand is independent of the the pipe ea force equalled 41 000 volts, while with the moisture °35 it equaled 57,000 volts. The resistance with a velocity of eight turns per second was 540, ries, 000 at and with a velocity of two turns 2,680,000,000 ohm The current pe the law of Ohm, consequently if very large axtortor resistance are employed, the strength - the current gives the mecha iba Bi See of heat. The mean of seventeen experiments gave asa esult the umber 428, which —— es closely with up com- tad gel sf ue.—Ann. de Chi et Phys., iv, 214. 10. Che at Subse in the ' Adnaeen A desiaeton "for the Advanasinent - Science.—This sub-section of the American Asso- Ciation was organized a Sota pegs iin eps in August last. It is called the “ Sub-scti f Chem , Ch hemical Physies, b we come at Detroit, gt the next sein ie ra be held, in August of this year. We make ee statement ver willingl y at the 398 Scientific Intelligence. II. GroLtocy ANp Natura History. 1. Supplement to the Article on Dr. Koch’s evidence with re- gard to the cotemporaneity of Man and the Mastodon ; by the Author.—Since the article on pages 335 to 346 was printed, I have come across another of Dr. Koch’s pamphlets. It is a “ sec- ond edition” of the New York pamphlet of 1845. In the main it is the same with the nish one of that year. The most important Paath ag is in the first half of the title page, which reads as follo # ‘Description of the Hyprarcuos Hartani (Koch). (The name ILLIMANII is changed to Harwant, by the particular desire of Professor Silliman. a A gigantic Fossm Reptiie, fat discovered by the author, in the State of Alabama, March, 1 A second difference is in the appended widtese of nearly 10 pages, which extends the pamphlet to 24 pages. This matter consists of (1) an extravagant article from “The New York Dis- sector ;” (2) the article from the “ New York Evangelist ” about the ydrarchos and Leviathan, alluded to on page 344, as occupy- ing the inside pages of the e pamphlet of 1853; and (3 ya puff from the “ New York Morning News. A third novelty is a large wood-cut of the “ Hydrarchos Har- lant,” covering the last page of the cover. The body of the pam- phlet ip pan only some verbal change The w York pamphlets of 1845 stati one significa ant dis- covery of Dr. Koch’s, made during his “ geological tour,” which is worth citing. He says: When at Golconda, Illinois, “ i discov- wonderful forms, the Moi eeinte of m many 0 f them "bearing nee inhabitants of the country pits d screws.” The Doctor’s “ gh columns” of “ * fossil fish” are the common elsewhere, only in Subcarboniferous rocks. of the Glacial and other Psa cat epochs.—The idea that a high-latitude elevation making a partial barrier across the shaliower part of the Atlantic Ocean from Scandinavia to Greenland, would Pua a change of temperature in the North Atlantic, aed Acad tn ee by Mr. Prestwitch in his Presidential dd ore ings, xX, "535-644, J; D. D. 3. Gisabogie al Survey of Wisconsin.—The present geological survey of Wisconsin was organized in the spring of 1873, with Dr, I. A. Lapuam as chief geologist, and Professor R. D. Irvine, Geology and Natural History. 899 of the State Beery. Professor T. C. CoampBertin of Beloit Col- lege, and Mr. Mosxs Srrone, Mining Engineer, as assistant geol- gists ; and Professor W. W. DaniEts, of the State University, as chemist. The appropriation was $13, 000 annually for four years. The name of the Chief Geologist was a guarantee that the work would be faithful and e wie nian bit toe with Major T. B. Brooks, of “the Michigen pat the work being really but an extension across the State line of his pre- vious labors in Michigan. By the close of the last season one-third of the State had been examined in detail, and very many interest- ing facts developed. Reports have been made sufficient to fill a large quarto volume, accompanied by hundreds of illustrations and over a hundred detailed maps. ‘hese maps embrace all the ni possible to act upon them; it having been the aim of the corps to put as much of the work ‘as possible in this permanent form. They are oomplels for all portions of the State examined, and include geological, topographical, agricultural and other maps, accompanied by large general sections, all drawn on a scale of two inches to the mile. The entire lead region has been epee erin surveyed and mapped with coutour lines at a dista ifty fee he as recommended by Whitney in “is report on the same region. inv estigation of the eesia rocks and ores of the Penokie Iron Range of Ashland County. The range is thirty miles in length in Vina and about a mile in width at base. Several streams break through it from the southward, affording magnificent sec- tions of its rocks, and on its flanks the siliceous ores “that form its mass everywhere outcrop in. precipitous exposures. These out- crops have been measured and the ore sampled and analyzed. The report on this range alone would form a volume of consider- so able yeas with e scores of illustrations. rn Wisconsin has been nearly or entirely hace he by P of. Chamberlin’ s party. He has been able to e the Nia ara limestone into several subordinate "eemnations. s also sia pid new and interesting facts bearing on the drift phe- nomena of a region most remarkable for - ore surfaces, giant kettles, boulder clays and moraine heaps. He has also prepared a series of soil and timber maps of tine region, vin has collected no Jess than 14,000 fossils, many of them new form 400 Scientific Intelligence. Central Wisconsin has been examined in detail by Professor Irving, where he has made observations on the Lower Silurian of the Four Lake country ; the Archean quae range of Sauk and Columbia Counties; the extensive Potsdam sandstone region of the center of the State, with its remarkable castellated outliers of sandstone, and numerous Archzan islands; the boundary between rchean and Potsdam; the rocks of the main Ar saree body along the valleys of the Wisconsin, Yellow, and Rivers ; and on the drift phenomena of the entire region, wink are espe- cially interesting because the area is just on the edge of the drift- less region of the western half of the ‘gies While the members of the cor e just now expecting authority Hitt the legislature for Bie pendtg of these reports, they were greeted, we learn, by the announcement that the gov- ernor had appointed a new chief eologist, and one whose sole re- commendation for the position was political services, no one having ver heard of him before as acquainted with geology or any other science. It appeared that Dr. Lapham had been appointed under the law subject to the confirmation of the senate at its next ses- sion. At that time a new administration had come in and Dr. pham’s name was never sent in, though he continued to perform his duties, and to be recognized by the State officials. This fact Good honest. scientifie work. Ag at wrong has been done to Dr. Lapham, _ a greater to the Sta But we cannot believe that the State of Wisconsin will be satis to thus stultify itself before the ne by sustain- ing the appointment to a scientific position of one who confess- edly knows nothing of its duties, 4. Geological Survey of Alabama. Report of Progress for 1874; by Eveene A. Surra, Ph.D., State Geologist. 140 pp. one also = gros or noryte, which occurs near Cotas wen Geology and Natural History. 401 are included marbles; soapstone at many localities in Clay, Talla- poosa, Chambers and other counties; white porcelain clay; asbestus; mica; corundum, in Talla apoosa County graphite ; gold ; copper, in Wood’s Mine in Cleburne Count y; iron ores, which are associated usually with the hornblendic rocks. e Report closes with chemical analyses of various iron ores, coals and ene i nes, gical Survey sae New oie Sight eas sags of the State Geology fleas GEORGE H. Cook, for the year 1874. 116 pp- a Bids 1874.—Prof. Cock gives, in et Report for 1874, new gncenrsn on the remarkable series of Archwan annually from New Jersey ores, 850 tons from Pennsylvania ores, and more than 3000 tons from Western ores. With regard to the white clays of New Jerse , he remarks that 265,000 tons of fire dug at South Amboy, youd averags $4 per ton, and is shipped to all parts of the United Sta rof. Cook states oe * the geological position of the clay | deposits is in the Cretaceous Sormation, and that the stratum constitutes ite lowest member. They occur in a belt of country [ae ONDON. 22 pp. 8yvo, Sa em, Oregon. i874— ry, Interesting review of the oat of the State, with important coaly trunks of trees, to the overlying igneous rocks in the line of the Cascade Range. He speaks of the latter rocks as rll a 4 ar O. Heer’s Arctic Flora.—The first two volumes of Prof. Heer’s Arctic Flora are as widely known as the name of the celebrated author. A third volume has been published recently* * By Wurtzer & Co., of Zurich. 402 Scientific Intelligence. from materials collected by the Swedish Polar wer seorstaed under the direction of Prof. Nordenskidla. This volume admirably completes the work, by the superior character of its execution and b eal floras of the Arctic and Polar regions. It contains, Ist, a paper on the Carboniferous flora of the Arctic zone 80 en pages and six plates); 2d, the Cretaceous flora of the Arctic zone (on and 4th, arctic zone (twenty: slice pages he most important part of this publication is that on the Cretaceous floras, not merely for the reason that the vegetation of the Cretaceous land was till now sca reely known, but beca ause its Upper a of Greenland, in which a ere abe of fossil a few monocotyledonous re a single dicot ledonous species, sie th ae ivision has in its flora rer a large proportion of Fern Conifers, two species of Cycas only, id skireyslows naidotytedonbiin species out of sixty-two which compose the whole flora, Among these there are species of the Genera Myriea, Ficus, Sassafras — of a from formations where synchronism is + pabbk able. ss va North American flora, this preponderance of American types eads us ~ refer the origin of our present flora to the Acseritan Cretaceo An ‘tceenadbice division, that of the Middle Cretaceous, is represented in the volume of Heer by a small number of plants Geology and Natural History. 403 from Spitzbergen, in all sixteen species of Ferns and Conifers with only one isetum., 8. On Serpentine Pseudomorphs after Monticellite, a Lime- magnesia Chrysolite ; by G. vom Ratu. sia war k. Akad. d. Viss., Berlin, Nov. 19, 1874.)—The pseudomorphs described by om Rath are from the Pesmeda ea on Mt. Monzoni in the Tyrol. the Monzoni peak, come up ann ren of the Triassic rocks, viz., fassaite, vesuvianite, gehlenite, garnet, spinel, e In a high ridge adjoining the Pesmeda Alp, at a height of pause 2500 yards, the limestone, near its contact with “augitic greenstone,” —— ma mi ect eae Vom Rath’ gives See excellent the west of Besmeda sie to the dee of Mt. Monzoni, near the junction of the limestone baat: syenyte. This massive kind is externally altere om Rath also states that the locality of spe morphs affords others of agesiaagae= pei a to fassaite. Thee tals are an inch and less in size. They have sometimes a patient of serpentine or calcite. The Sonia s acidiencr phe sm in all cases preceded the serpentine. 9. On the conver. ae of an argillaceous rock to Serpentine; by A. p’Acniarpr. (Bolletino R. Com. Geol. d’Italia, 1874, p. 336.) —In Montajone, Italy, south of San i N.W. A A, clayey deposit containing nodules or wien th nts of indurated cl i B, the part of same de- St ei a o Upper Low ok dpape hay in which eae nodules consist o en surrounded by r Tertiary; s. 8, steatitic 3 a, d, dolomitic v and nentitie 5 8) veins, ‘and contains besides suclatiod nodules of ‘< tac * a northwest loses its steatitic and dolomitic veins, and graduates into 404 Scientific Intelligence. a rough, dark clay bed (A), containing nodules that are like the serpentine nodules in form, size and position, but which consist of indurated clay, reddish gray or grayish yellow in color. From the unaltered clayey nodules there is a gradual passage, through others partly altered, to those consisting wholly of serpentine. ~D’Achi- ardi concludes that the serpentine nodules were produced through the alterations of the clay nodules. e refers their formation to the sine of hot magnesian waters ona hy ated aluminous silicate, and the replacement thereby of the alumina by magnesia. The halhoyaibe like material he regards as cakaoine the alumina ich was removed from the nodules in the process of alteration. 10. On the formation of Mountains and the hypothesis of a liquid substratum beneath the Earth’s crust ; by Rev. O. Fisuer, (Proce. Cambridge Phil. Soc., Feb. 22.)— This paper was a sequel to one read in Dec, ~ 3, in which it had been compe that, upon oe formed by cual’ of its volume through faling; they are to0 oli great to be so accounted for if the earth h oled a solid bo In the present communication it was therefore assumed that there is a iguid layer beneath the cooled crust; an a d proximate calculation was made of the form which the corrugations of a flexible crust would take if so supported. It was shown that their lower surface would consist of a series of equal circular ares arranged in a festoon-like manner, and having a radius 2H, where p, & are the — of the crust and liquid Ader eras “awd e the thickness of the crust. It was argued that the cor oC of this form of comigation agree fairly well with som th e- nomena of mountain elevation, but that it does not ‘stiffice to ex- oie lau bastie nd the continental plateaux.— Nature, arch 18 . Botany of the Island of Amsterdam.—It is a curious fact that the little island of Amsterdam, in the South Indian Ocean, is known to be covered with trees, whilst the island of St. Paul’s, only fifty miles to the south, is destitute of even a shrub, Botanists have long been anxious to ‘determine the character of the Amster- dam forest; but the difficulty of effecting a landing on the — has generally prevented the collection of specimens. In the last part of the Jowrnal of the Linnean Society, Dr. Hooker announces that at length he vd received the de sired 5 specimens, these having been collected b mmodore _— be who states that they represent the or ae as cies of tree gro on the island. Dr. Hooker identities this with the Phytica psorss of Thouars, a tree Amphioxus lanceolatus.—Prof. i Hux sley has bown, - a paper ae before the Royal Society (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist , 1V, xv, 225), Geology and Natural History. 405 that the anomalous Amphioxus, which Heckel refused to admit those which answer to the enki dura, and the optic nerve are Vertebra th pee ae by those segments of the bo saat of Amphiowus which in front of the fifteenth, counting from before backwar d thet cranial nerves by the corr esponding anterior pairs of nerves. No auditory apparatus was tien name, but ‘in all msec Tespects nae conforms to the Vertebrat e type;” and, considering its resemblance + the early stages of Petromyzon os tie by Sabelse: there is no reason for removing it from class Pisces. On account of its peimntnbathy segmented skull and its many other peculiarities, Prof. Huxley regards it as the type ofa rimary bo ri which he names Fibouvernth, other sch being Holocrania. Zoological Station at Naples.—Dr. Anton Dohrn has issued a Criatowue of the Library of the Jang 08 station at Naples. . As a | and anatomical work marine e animals, it forms an admirable nucleus for the building up of a great zoological library. It e working naturalists to supply the station with everything pub- lishe y on investigations in every department of zoology. Dr. Dohrn is anxious to secure the co-operation of American naturalists ee hopes that they will remember the coe station in the distribution of their papers A. A. ds of the Northwest: a hand-book of the Ornithology of the Senin drained by the rorhiietee River Dae its tributaries ; by Ettiorr Cours. 8v0, 791 pages.—This volume forms part of t e miscellaneous publications of the United Bae Geological survey of the Territories, under Dr. Hayden. It includes quite full syno- nyms of all the species and varieties belonging to the region, many valuable descriptions of the habits, geographical roe sate and variations of the species. The ilies oon with elaborate maps, and woo oodeuts of gy ae — e pu lished by Messrs. Macmillan. — Atheneum, Feb. * Die Bibliothek der zoologischen Station zu Neapel, Verzeichniss der daselbst bis zum Ende des Jahres 1873 vorhandenen Biicher. Leipzig. 8vo., pp. re 791. 1874. Wilhelm “acc 406 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. Astronomy. 1. On the Total Eclipse of the Sun of April 16th, as observed by Mn. pines at antes apie in ee aa South Africa, 55 miles from the sea and 2 es from the central line of shadow.— he general results ak Mr. Stone ss he has obtained from the observations are summarized as follow: “1. A confir- mation of Young’s observations of the general, or nearly Sonene reversion of Fraunhofer’s lines in the spectrum of the corona near the photosphere. 2. A spectroscopic examination of the outer orona, in contra-distinction to the mner jest carried to the ex- of rather proved that the spectrum of the outer corona heacele of a linear corona is approached, and not - od ge et as if the extreme limit of the corona had been reached. 3. hep Wea ex- amination of the outer corona, combined with the unchanged character of its principal fe atures as seen at Namaqua aland, Griqu land, and Basutoland, at intervals of absolute time extending to Lo”; ‘and at distances of more than 500 miles, proves, I venture to think, the solar origin and cosmical character of the outer corona. The want of coincidence in the positions of the general extensions of the inner corona with the main branches of the outer corona is . st tion of the outer coronain the same direction, as seen in the eclipse of 1874, may not improbably ultimately lead to a s'milar inference in the case of the outer corona also.”— Monthly Notices, February, eA tions, and then discusses them under ¥ vari es heads. The apparent aaa He of the oa increased fi mag. on July 24, to 1°7 . on August 31, and the stsiasie agli, calculated by the , also increased from 0°210 to 1-017 within the nied formula, 7 Astronomy. 407 same period, but not uniformly ; increasing for ten days, then re- maining stationary for a like period, after which there was again an increase for ten days, followed by a second stationary period ; these changes being unaccompanied by any marked variation in i d orr n nucleus, which could not, Signor Schiaparelli considers, have ex- ceeded 350 miles in diameter when nearest to us, from which he rete oe its density must then have been considerable, as it alone ned the materials for the coma and tail in all succeed- ing dpparitions of this comet. The appearance of the luminous jets is then discussed, and is connected with a general want of symmetry in the head of the comet, the left side of which (suppos- ing the tail to be below the head) was more developed, so that the comet resembled a stick with a knob on one a The Hees re- the xyes of the orbit on August 10. The lateral deviation of the tail, which was very considerable, Prof. Schiaparelli refers to an explosive force from the left of the nucleus, from the effect of which the particles projected from the head would, under the ac- tion of a repulsive force from the sun, describe parabolas, having the head as vertex and the radius vector as axis, the tail being curved back va: near its extremity, it became parallel to the radius t vector. This uld — the nucleus (which was apparently sineyraitnétriodl) ans rve a nearly constant — in space, which the author candies stir ab result either fr ) prolongation of shé- ra ada: ecko the axis of the parabolas which would be described by the particles of the tail if only under the mie repulsive practises Notices, February, 1875. cil’ have awarded chs old — to Prof. D’Arrest, for his wae entitled * Siderum Nebulosorum Observationes Havnienses insti- tute in Specula Punivenketeies per T aestsca besiapate m Mer- zianum ab Anno 1861 ad Annum 1867,” and his other ae works. The President will explain to the meeting the grounds of ei award after the Annual Report.— Monthly Notices, February, 4. Fall of a meteor in Iowa.—A meteor fell in Iowa on the night of Feb. 12th with loud detonations. The principal portion of the fragments from the stone have been secured for the lowa State University by Prof. Leonard. 408 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ITV. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. . Anderson School of Natural History.—The experience of ie past two years has shown that it will be impossible to carry on the School of Natural aed at Penikese on the same terms . formerly. At the close of the last session the Trustees had exhausted their resources. They propose to charge a fee of fifty “ollars for the season of 1875, and to carry on the school during the coming summer if a sufficient number of se are received in time to make the necessary arrangem Eve with the full tp agen of students, there will be a cndicat * deficit (as was the case last year) to be met by the friends of the school ; me pooaiois ye Penikese necessitating many expenses which need not be incurred in a more favored locality. Applica- tions should be sent at once to the aporienl - Cambridge, Mass. ; preference will given to teachers and to those who intend be- coming teachers. ALEXANDER sere z, Director. 2. Vote on a supposed change in the Climate of Sootlands ~ A. Buenan.—Mr. Buchan concludes a paper in Nature or shorter periods, are so distributed over these long intervals as to give no indication that there ae been any tendency toward a steady increase or decrease in the temperature, or that any per- i ’ Scotland n he idea o occurred in the climate of Scotland either as regards summer heat or winter cold. It may be added that during the past seven years the Sees CeEE. of J "ye has been above its average res ively: 2°83," 105° 2:0,°.03,° PIS. 105:andl 1°8,° and that of Decsk ber, as gieiscs with its avera e +15 2" 4-9, —5°6,° —1°1,° —0" 8,° +3.4,° and —74;° results quite in the opposite direction of the popular pier oy belie f that the summers are colder and the winters milder than formerly.” . On the Periodicity of Thunder-storms (Ueber gesetamissige Schwankungen in der Hiufigkeit der Gewitter wdhrend langjah- riger Zeitrdume) ; by W. v. Byzoup. i es ezold, in his study of the periodicity of thunder. -storms, made use of a series of obser- vations that extended over a period of 105 3 pears (1764-1869) at one locality (Kremsmiinster, Bavaria) almost without a break, and of others less complete at other places. is conclusions he expresses as follows. In years when the temperature is high and the sun’s surface relatively free from spots, thunder-storms are abundant. Since, moreover, t e maxima of the sun-spots coincide with the greatest intensity of auroral displays, it follows that both groups of phenomena, thunder-storms Miscellaneous Intelligence. 409 and auroras, to a certain extent supplement each other so that years of frequent storms correspond to those auroras, and vice versa. sic pen es that such a ioaiechon between suh- -spots te storms does not by any means sanction the supposition of a direct electrical pubbanion between the earth and sun, but may be sim- ply a consequence of a degree of insolation dependent upon the — ese changes i in the insolation, oan to Képpen, our themselves in different latitudes not cot emporaneously but suc- cessively. The phenomena of thunder-storms, on the other hand, do not depend alone upon the condition at the place in question with respect to temperature, but also on the condition of the at- mosphere at points far distant and belonging to another zone. ~ This appears ae distinctly in the storms which accompany elec- trical displa The peculiar intermediate position which the weather curve awkes between the curves of sun-spots and tem- perature may possibly find its explanation in this fact Von Bezold closes with showing that observations recently . iblished in Saxony confirm in a striking manner the apse cee eno —Ber. Ak. Miinchen, Nov. 7, 1874. E. 8. Blind Fish and some of t the associated species of. the denies Cave, Kentucky, probably of Marine ovigin.—Mr. W. Puram, in an _ ri published in the Bulletin of the Essex Institute, vol. vi, No. 12, 1874, remarks as follows on the origin of some of the present inhabitants, hat many, or, with two or three og 8 nearly all of the thirty or forty species of nent rates, articulates, m rae and oe lower ae including a few plants, now discovered in the es of cky, are of comparativ ely late sntsoduanibts is probable fois ee fact that they are so closely allied to forms living in the vicinity of the caves. mare that the blind fishes, the Chologaster and a few of the lower forms of articulates, as the Lernzan, parasitic on the blind fish, may have been inhabitants of the subterranean streams for a much longer period, is worthy o consideration on the following grounds: irst, the blind fish family has no immediate allies existing in the interior wate ,* the only x teen s of the family, in addition on wiki others I have considered the Heteropyet va belonging to the iis ‘onda with the Cy printabn cg Bat but I now writs! from f t information of their structure, doubts as to their close associati sor will be pre resented on another occasion. ¥ 410 Miscellaneous Intelligence. modification of the early formed chambers by later action should be carefully considered before it can be denied that the caves were not, in some slight part, for a time, supplied with marine life. Until a specimen of Chologaster, or some other member of the family, has been obtained in the external waters of the Ohio Val- ley, it is hardly logical to regard the family to which the blind fishes belong as one originally distributed in the rivers of the Ohio Valley, and afterward becoming exterminated in the rivers and only existing in two such widely different anaes as the coast of South Carolina and the subterranean streams of the southwestern States. That marine forms of life are found in our fresh water lakes and rivers is known to be the case. The speci- men of a shrimp exhibited was secured in the Green River, near one of the outlets of the Mammoth Cave. The fact that in some of the waters of Florida fishes once marine are now confined to take plac a recent annonncement of the Gobiosoma found in oon hio River* is another instance of a marine fish living in fresh waters. 5. PILE eed of the Cleveland Academy of Hanae are 1845 to 1859. 296 pp. 8vo. Cleveland, Ohio. Publis gentleman of Cleveland.—The valosbhs papers which were he from time to time before the Chaectanal Academy, previous to . 8. Ne : mto a volume by the Society. The pang — among its articles descriptions of species of fossil coal plants by Dr. New- berry, and of recent fishes by Dr. Kirtland, with important notes 3 6. seen ‘Record of Science and Industry for 1874. Edited by Spencer F. Barrp, with the assistance of eminent men of sci- ence. 666 pp. 12mo. New York, i875. (Harper & Bros.).—The Annual Record for 1874 by — Baird comes well laden with the scientific news of the year ong paromingng chapter contains a brief review of the weds sac of ous sciences, theoretical and industrial; and then en fallow abstracts of principles, accounts of scientific expeditions and institutions recently established, an obituary chapter, and a list of new works. abe book has facts of interest for all classes of readers. Putnam, notice of Gobiosoma molestum from the Ohio. Amer. Nat., viii, Feb, 1874. Hs. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] ART. eae eae Contributions to Seer sa from the Museum of Yale College o. XXXII.— Results of mite ah Expedi- tions off the Naa ingland Coast in 1874; by A. E. VERRILL. DurinG the summer of 1874 Prof. S. F. Baird, U. S. Com missioner of Fish and Fisheries, established the headquarters the Corinto at Noank, Conn., a village situated a Fisher's Island Sound, a few miles east.of New London. party of naturalists, who were invited to take part in the 1 liven tigations of the commission, availed themselves of the unusual facilities there offered for the study of marine life. The in- vestigations of the invertebrate animals, in general, were placed in charge of the writer, hut several Baie especially Mr. S. I. Smith, Prof. A. Hyatt, and Mr. S. F. Clark, took a prominent part in this work. Extensive dredging o rations were carried on from this station, by means of the b. 8. eee * Blue- light,” under Commander L. ©. Beardslee, U. S. N. These dredgings extended from 80 to 40 miles from Noank, in dif- ferent directions; westward to the mouth of the Connecticut he River ; southward to, Gardiner’s and Peconic Bays and the waters south of Montauk Point; and eastward to the banks several miles south and east of Block Island, so as to connect with the dredgings of 1871. Temperatures of the surface and bottom waters were taken at more than ey or ee and dredgings were made in a still larger number of loc A very large and interesting collection of piles ake ani- mals was secured. Among these are over 100 species new to the fauna of southern New England. Most of these are —— species, but many are undescri A large collec- UR. So1.—THIRD wet a Vor, IX, No. Siemtiie 1875. 412 A. EH. Verrill— Results of recent Dredging Expeditions tion of algee was made by Prof. D. C. Eaton and others. Prof. Baird, with several assistants, took direct charge of the fishes and fisheries, and made many cca discoveries. He also obtained a valuable collection. A more detailed account of these investigations will be Bi in a future article. During part of the month of September the Superintendent of the U. 8. Coast Survey offered Prof. Baird the use of the steamer Bache, Capt. Platt commanding, to continue the dredging opera- tions off the coast of Maine. This work was putin ae ce of Dr. . 8. Packard, as in 1878, and he was assisted by ooke and Mr. Robert Rathburn. They made dredgings at tia forty : a in the Gulf of Maine, off the coasts of Maine and New shire, at various de ths down to 125 fathoms. These Sieaittias may be conveniently grouped in five series. a. Several dredgings on hard bottoms, near the Isles of Shoals and on Jefirey’s Ledge, in 25-51 fathoms (see Nos. 44, 46, 48, 77, 78). b. An interesting series of dredgings on oe Ledge, about 90 s off Mt. Desert L, in 27 to 39* fathoms, hard and rocky bottoms. c. One dredging on a new bank, discovered by Capt. Platt, in 32 fathoms, sandy Meise (No. 69 d. Several dredgings in 86-48 fathoms, muddy bottoms, be- tween Cape Ann and the Isles of Shoals (Nos. 88-41, and 78 in part). e. Numerous localities in 50 to 125 fathoms, muddy bottoms, including most of the localities not already mentioned, over a Wide area, both east and west of Jeffrey’s Ledge, and extending from No. 62 , off “Petaat uid, Me., to the deeper parts of the Gulf of Maine, south ‘ot Cashe’s Ledge. Hard bottoms.—The collections from the hard bottoms (in- cluded under a, },c) are much like those from similar an adjacent localities explored in 1878, of which nearly complete lists were publis in this Journal (vol. vii, p. 502, May, 1874). Cashe’s Ledge, as before, proved to be a rich dredging ground, remarkable for large anseaters of rare northern species. Locality 78, in 35 fathoms, near Jeffrey’s Ledge, was, properly speaking, a ‘mixed bottom, mud predominating ; but the dredge brought up some stones and large quantities of masses of firmly consolidated ferruginous mud id sand, most of which were irregularly broken and curved pieces, but some had the form of large, slightly conical tubes, 8 to 6 inches in diameter, and 12 to 15 inches ee the walls often being an inch or more thick. These are probably old uninhabited t he es of Cer/anthus borealis, which have — firmly consolidated by some chemical ee Upon these fragments of tubes numerous species of ozoa, Ascidians and Sponges had established themselves, on the Coast of New England. 413 causing the oolleeeon from this place to resemble that of cer- tain rocky bo Table of Stations in the Gulf of Sager where dredgings and temperature determina- ere made, in 1874. ~~ fa = * E 3 oy Hour. Locality. ¥ ature of ae bnesonnitiriel & sept | ae | Ate, | eel poe, 38 | 2} 12m. — - “i about 10) miles Soft bluemud.| 41 |70° F.)66° |45° 39 | 1.38 P.M. Do., about. : ies south..{Mud, -...... 48 (70 (69 (45°5 40) 2.23 “ |Do., 16 miles south _.....- Blue mud,_..| 43 |70 (69 |47 41 | 3.00 “ (Do., 18% miles pr hs ats Mud—rocks, -|36-27|/70°5 [69 /45°5 42 3 |11.354.%,'Boon I Lt., 6m. N.W. by eg gi esd deta eg ‘!Brown mud, .| 68 |69°5 (67 |52-5 43 2.32 P.u.|Boon L., N. Hi Ea hotel on \ shoal S.W by W. + “ee 43 |75 44 5.00 p.m. Star I., 8.W. ; ; Duck L, W. 25 |75 = |67-5 |61 45 4/ 0.50 “ |BoonL, i miles W.N.W.. Huet ee ee 1 6y 46 | 2.28 “ |Agamenticus Mt., N.W. by Hard, got | Bee Ceo seit mud, ae 51 69°5 |42 47 4.00 P.M. Jeffrey’ s Led ge, near last, Sand & gravel,| 25 |64 (58°65 /45°5 48 4.30 “ Near inet: A gushenitioia 5. W. Gravel, ..... 36 |64 56°5 |47°5 ’ n L, W.N.W. 27 miles,.| -...---- 113 (64 | 65 ) 7.00 P.M. a 43° 017 20", jon. e yo aR ies 100 |60 56 ) : 5 | 2.15 a.m.|Lat. 42° 56’, lon. 69° 0 fud & —— a ) «165 a 5.10 he’s 3 Ledge a eee tocks & gray.| 2 ) 55 ; 3 7.00 Me LeOR0s wicteueeeeu oft mud, ...| 73 63 |55 ) L 8.24 lo. 3§ miles N.W....-.... Saetaisenerege 110 |61 61 ) 2.00 P.m.|Do. 24 miles 8. .......-.- ravel, ..... 40 (60°56 [65 } 2.50 “ ty — Cy ae i ravel 22 2. 30 59 ; 3.15 ky, Moc. Tics Ee 57a) 4.00 ky. Cea ea ao J 7.00 oe yr Oe lon. 69° 057, ud & gravel,} 65 (/60°5 {57 /40 59 13.00 -“. [Lak @3° 22 -lon. 69" 37%: | Mad: . oc. 92 |61 (65 141 60 | 6 | 4.00 a.m.\Lat. 43° 17’, lon. 69° 24”,._|Mudandsand,| 65 57 |41 é 7.30 GY, MA TODO, 8 6 ot ns an 5 (64 [58 {51 62 Pemaquid a Orniies N.-jMud, ....2.: 48 |62 62°5 147 63 0.40 P.M. N.E. .._|Brown mud, -| 42 (68 (65 (48. 64 2.45 seslingid 3 OO ee oo ROE, cans 58 |61‘5 [57 |42°5 € 4.28 ee ane ‘tailoe by N.|Soft mud, 47 64-5 (59 [44 66 {| 8 | 1.20 14 miles N.E. 4 E.- Brown mud & : vel,_...| 65/66 |64 ) 67 3.30 “ |Seguin Lt., 19 miles N. by W.|Brown mud, -| 86 |68 (64 /|40 68 6.00 “ iD née Waste. | MOG ecco 91 (645 (59 ) 69 8.30 “ |Lat. 43° 11’, lon. 69° 35%,._/Sand, 32 164 60 |46 70 11.00 “ |Lat. 43° 03’, lon. 69° 36’,__/Mud, ....... 91 \615 [58 |40 71 | 9 | 1.00 4.1. Lat. 42° 55’, lon. 69° 36’,../Brown mud, _| 96 58 40 72 4.03 “ 2° 57’, lon. 69° 507, ‘ “ 26 57 139°6 73 6.30 “ |Lat. 42° 58730’, lon. 70°00%,, “ “ 102 (62 (59 |40 74 8.00 “ |Lat. 43° 01’, lon. 70° 09%,._| © sf 88 |62 (60 (39 75 30 sat. 43° 02’, lon. 70° 157,.. 92 |64 |64 |40 76 11.10 “ |Lat, 43° 03’, lon. 70° 25,_- Mud & gravel 51 64 (63 |42 17 i bafecmdacroe 34 miles --.-} 33-/69 /65 |44 78 ‘12 |12.00 w, |A cus Mt., N.W. by Blueclay, mud and sand,..' 35 '61°6 {60 {43 reltabte, for thes es ion! sa packer of wa ter in which the bulb of Nas Oecmemene or meter was not (numbered aTsED) whieh was left down’ bres erate wit, Mille Cavela a. Our expe. rience shows that these ts should be down 10 to 20 minutes to insure perfect ae 414 A. E. Verrill—Results of recent Dredging Expeditions The following list includes the species additional to those ar pease last year. Those from Cashe’s Ledge are marked ; those from Jeffrey's Ledge, J; those from Capt. Platt’s new feat (loc. 69), P; those from locality 78 are marked loc. 78. Additions to the list of hard-bottom species. Crustacea. Hippolyte Phippsii. c. loc. 78. | Epimera cornigera. loc, 78. Diastylis quadrispinosa. z, noculodes, sp. 0. Pardalisca cuspidata. loc. 78. | Melphidippa, sp. 0. tegocephalus ampulla. Ji Melita, two sp. 0. Annelida. Lagisca rarispina. a Sabella neglecta? J. peers circinata V. 2 Spirorbis valida V. loc. 78. Grymea spiralis V. a Gastropoda, ge cancellata. J. girs noachina, var. violacea. ceps. C. eee occidentalis. a: Onchidoris ris pallida. 0. J. J. Trichotropis borealis. 0.3; Dendronotus robustus V. Menestho albula. CG. Philine quadrata 6.3. Adeorbis costulata. J. loe. 41. Lamellibranchiata. Nevera arctica. P. loc. 69, | Cardium Islandicum. J. Thracia truncata, a. | Nucula tenuis. 0. J. Bryozoa. Cociaers eave manocnaye c. J. loc. 78. | E. elegantula. Car Tubulipora J. loc. 78. | E. levis (=Porellal Sm.) o. J. 7, vag sth a poet St.) J. loc. 78. | Hippothoa oe c. T. incrassa J. loc. 78. | H. divari J. Diastopo ger c. loc. 78. | Escharella ryan 0. J. loc. 78 D. hyalina, var. simplex. loc. 78. | E. pola elt C. J. Discoporella verrucaria. J. loc. 78. | E. Lands o. J. loc. 78. Cellularia P. loc. 78. | E. esiide | ‘s ay C. J. P ii c. loc. 54. | E. solida. 0. J. Bugula avicularia. J. =Flustra solida St., 1853. papyracea. J. = Eschara palmata ‘Sars, 1862. vo sam pe unicornis. 0. J penny nas v. aoe o. loc, 78 cornis, var. Americana. J. D. sea loc. 78 ae a loc 78. | D. park Aig 0. J. Eschara v © i D. coccinea, var. ovalis. 0. J. loc. 78 E. Sacdietie, v. aeiiaiea: 0. J. D. Jacontini (= rrucosa, var. patens. ©. J. Sm.). Echinodermata Crossaster papposus. 0 Hydroida. serge ith dog ae loc. bon Lafoéa gracillima. 0. . loc. Halecium tenellum. 0. Colycelle plioatilis (Sars, oi : loc. hes H. sessile. loc. 69. on the Coast of New England. 415 f Asterina, with dark dorsal spots, occurred at loca iy 54. The following list includes m dditional species, not enumerated in hoa lists published last year in this Journal (vol vii, p. 411), though quite a number found on some of the uddy ‘potto oms, but alninee properly on hard ones, are here omitted. List of additions to the fauna of the muddy bottoms, Crustacea. Hippolyte poet loc. 54. | Cidiceros lynceus. loc. 41. = an loc. 54. | Syrrhoé crenulata. loe.'41. loc. 41. | Metopa, sp. loc. 54. eat peltata. loc. 54. | Byblis Gaimardii. loc. 38-40. Tritropis aculeata. loc. 58. |! Ampelisca macrocephala. Annelida, Eunoa nodosa. Amphitrite Grayi. loc. 72. Euphrosyne borealis. A. intermedia. Ancistria capillaris pasa and Lamellibranchiata. Astyris rosa 63. | Glycimeris siliqua. loc. 72. Diodora saaiiieihs var. princeps. oe 51. Gaies Diastopora hyalina. loc. le | Bugula flexilis V., MPa nov.* loc. 54. Membranipora unicornis. 0. | Eschara elegan loc. 62-65, * Bugula flexilis, sp. nov te vu, figures Several rather long, Sole “flexible, Roker divided branches radiate from close to the point of boven? ent, a stellate cluster. Zocecia in erna r smoo , slightly swollen in the middle, with a short tooth or spine on the pools po apertu: rminal, oblique, rounded or oval. pe a, on the front of th ia, re bly large, nearly as broad as th more eir length, compressed, grin tapering gradually and uall: to th ine pore of attachment. East of St. George’s Bank, 430 fathoms, 1872; off Casco tae doy fathoms, prt = of ogy 110 ggg." mae 1874, nitida, sp. Plate vu, figure 3. m Vineyard Sound and Long Is Island Sound. re tects. cep the very small apertures with elongated processes pro- jctng ft nwa rd from the diden: = = the acute — avicularia. ia Americana, sp. nov. te vil, figures 4, 5. L. Pallasia na? V., in Pics papers. Long Island ey to Beverly, Mass., igor to 30 fathoms. 416 W. M. Fontaine— Primordial Strata of Virginia. Art. XLIV.—On the Primordial Strata of Virginia; by Wm. M. Fonraine. [Concluded from page 369.] Rockfish Gap. TuE railroad cuts at this place afford some good exposures of the lowest Primordial strata. In the deep cut made for the west entrance to the tunnel, the junction of these rocks with the massive chloritic argillites, which here form the mass of the Blue Ridge, is well shown. The strata are here all inverted, equivalents of the highly metamorphosed apnlatiins, No. (1 of the Balcony Falls section, while (8) is the representative of the feldspathic conglomerates and their included shales seen there. The conglomerate here presents some very interesting points of difference. W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. 417 This rock is well exposed in a quarry near the railroad, from which a large amount of stone has been removed. Its structure and composition is thus fully exposed. It lies in massive plates five to six feet thick, with thin seams of shaly matter between several of the plates. These thin seams are the diminished representatives of the shales which separate the beds of conglomerate at Balcony Falls. Some small veins of quartz, the result of metamorphic action, fill cracks in the mass. The coarser materials are rounded grains of quarta of the size of a garden-pea and under. Rarely is a particle of fresh feldspar numerous grains and lumps of this feldspar, in a condition of almost complete decomposition, areseen. These larger particles are imbedded in a slaty cement of highly ferruginous, decom- posed, felsitie matter, which when scratched with a knife gives a decided cherry-red streak. Besides, distinct particles of hematite appear. Enclosures of angular fragments of the slates of the Blue Ridge are not rare. The more decomposed condition of this material in this y currents from the southwest, and or a considerable time subjected to agencies tending to disintegrate it. At Rockfish Gap the shores of th dial sea were probably sediment must have been rapidly formed and poured into the sea. I have already given some account of an eruptive syenite which, in the vicinity of the Peaks of Otter, has penetrated the older metamorphic syenites, and have stated also that the lowest Primordial rock at Balcony Falls has been highly altered by contact action of a similar rock. It is probable that this rock is the product of deep-seated metamorphic action, pro- duced by the sinking, in its earliest stages, of the bottom of the Primordial sea.. This would cause great pressure against the resisting syenitic border, and might fuse a portion of it and squeeze this out, shattering the Te and firmer mass. An igneous rock capable of delivering feldspathic and quartzose material exists also at Rockfish Gap, as is discl in the but if it was formed at this period, it probably caused a fractur- ing of the slates, which was the source of the fragments found in the conglomerate. The thickness of the conglomerate rock is 60 feet, and like the two preceding, it has a dip of 70° to the 418 W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. southeast. The strata so far form the western base of the Blue idge. The succeeding rocks form a series of low hills, which for a space of 24 miles at this point lie between the mountain and the valley of South River, a branch of the Shenandoah. 4.) W seen, kaolin shales and kaolin sandstone, principally the r (6.) The above beds, which are mostly sandy shales, and are rather thickly-bedded in layers of from one to several feet, are succeeded by a band of very thinly-laminated, firm, olive W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. 419 slates or shales, in which the dip rises to 75° to the southeast. These slates, which in fact are highly compressed eri are in places much crushed, and show on their faces fine wrinkles. They are 300 feet thick. We then have 80 feet of iocureiel brown sandstone, with some chlorite, and a good deal of partly decomposed feldspar interspersed i in it. Then an interval of concealed rock occurs for 100 feet. We then have for 150 with greenish shaly beds, in which the dip comes down to 50° southeast. Then very finely Seale pink-colored slaty shales, which weather purplish red. Thickness 200 About 50 feet (on the east side) of these shales differ from the rest in color alone, being greenish when fresh, and taking a yellow tint on weathering. “Then for 100 Leo a ‘bluish shale i is found. The two last series of beds, (5) and (6), appear to be the equivalent of No. (9) at Balcony Falls, Their combined thickness is about 1450 feet, that i is, provided no reduplication from folding occurs. This is possible, though not probable, I think. It will be seen that these rocks are characterized by the large amount of ferruginous matter which they contain, by which they are i distinguished from those which precede and follow t (7.) The ri: in se mio series gradually declines until it attains on the west side 40° S.E., which is still more de- creased in No. (7), ie it varies from 30° to 40° S. The strata now to be described are the equivalent of the Potsdam sandstone, and resemble No. (10) at Baleony Falls in their almost total freedom from iron and other coloring matters, also in the great amount of siliceous matter and kaolin present in them. But while at Balcony Falls we find many layers of very considerable thickness to be pure cde all the strata here have some kaolin, and — substance forms by far = greater part of the rock. The system here consists of a number of thin —— in oh i we may cep a ‘three lin sandstone, th cute: grains being now eon to the naked eye. The kaolin still peelbaccios but this rock occurs in slabs four to eight inches thick, and with a, forms layers or beds interstratified with c, which is a banlin sandstone of moderately fine grain, and has often a thickness of several feet in the individual layers. The quartz grains are mixed with an equal amount of kaolin, which here serves as a cement for them, and forms a peculiar, eae looking rock, which can be easily crushed and crumbl a loose grit. All of these varieties assumed a drab or fa yellow color on weathering, 420 W. MM. Fontaine— Primordial Strata of Virginia. from the oxidation of the minute amount of iron present. c¢ 1s almost always present in some portion of the Potsdam strata, and may be considered in this part of Virginia to be character- istic of this formation. So clearly marked are the features of this material that a fragment of it may be recognized at a glance wherever found. 6 and c are, when fresh, very light of water and lime. The rock, ¢, contains also a trace of iron, and a little mica in fine scales. The conglomerate near the ase of the system does not contain crystalline feldspar, because of the greater metamorphic action to which it has been subjected. The finding of feldspar in all stages of decay shows that this mineral is undergoing a process just the reverse of regeneration, and that strata composed of the fresh particles of degraded crystalline rocks have been mistaken for rocks partialiy crystallized by metamorphic action. The beds last described have a i aces of 300 feet, and are succeeded by a partially-concealed interval, in which 50 feet of a similar rock are shown. From this point, for the space of half a mile no cuttings exist.* The space outside of the valley in which the road runs is occupied by low rounded bills, cov- ered to a great depth by fragments of the rock last described. So great is this mass of matter that in some places where it 18 removed to be used as ballast for the railroad, excavations to the depth of thirty feet do not penetrate through it. This inter- val up to the valley of the South Branch of the Shenandoah, so far as can be judged from the partial exposures, is occupied by No. (7). Much of the loose matter on the surface seems to have * No reliable estimate of the thickness of (7) can be given. It is perhaps 800-1000 feet. W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. 421 it is mixed with more or less clayey matters. Its sharp angu- lar condition shows that it has not been moved far. Large boulders of the metamorphosed quartzite occurring in No. (4) are found in it. South Branch, about 500 yards wide. Here the strata are not exposed. This space was occupied entirely, or in great part, by the shales overlying the Potsdam strata. No very reliable the Calciferous strata, which are found immediately on the west side of the stream. Here, at the town of Waynesboro, we have the following succession of strata, in which the dip is again high, viz: 60° to the southeast: first, purplish slaty shales, 50 feet; then dark gray, argillaceous limestone of earthy texture, 5 feet; next, greenish slaty shales, 15 feet; then dull purple, calcareous shales, feet; next, very fissile, yellowish, calcareous shales, 40 feet. poch. ane of the Valley, the Auroral, or No. II, of the Messrs. gers. _It will be seen by a comparison of this section with that given at Balcony Falls, that the thickness of Nos. (5) and (6) in the section here is much greater than that estimated for their equivalent, No. (9), in that section. A disparity, no doubt, exists, though probably not to such an extent as it thus appears to do, since I have under-estimated rather than over- estimated the thickness of (9). Still there remains the fact that the proportion of shaly matter in the entire group at Rockfish p has greatly increased. This may be due to the nature of the shores of the Primordial sea, which, as we have seen, were probably composed of the fine chloritic argillites of the ue Ridge. What could have been the source of the immense paneled of kaolin found here and everywhere in the Primor- ial strata, and what caused the almost total freedom of such kaolin rocks from iron, forms an interesting problem. The following section represents the junction of No. (1) of the series with the argillites of the Blue Ridge, as seen in the 422 W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. west approach to the tunnel at Rockfish Gap. At a are the heavily-bedded slates of the mountain, while at 0 the thinly- laminated slaty shales, the lowest of the Primordial strata, are represented. In the two detailed sections given above at Balcony Falls and Rock- fish Gap I have been thus minute in my descriptions, in order that the reader may determine for himself how far the one confirms the other. e same time, the strata at the two places may be taken as types which best represent the normal and inverted positions, and also the changes which result from the different development of certain members of the series. Harper's Ferry. The exposures at this place are not sufficient to admit ofa detailed section. Enough, however, may be seen to show con- siderable changes. he argillites, described in a former paper, extend to the west about a mile and a half from the railroad bridge. e are then succeeded by the lower Primordial strata, the change being quite abrupt. The line of junction is well shown on the Virginia side of the Potomac, on the railroad. The massive dark gray beds of argillite are seen here, with a dip of about 40° to the southeast, to abut against the highly imefined, more fragile lower Primordial strata. The change in the character of the rock is at once seen in the altered topography. The hills no longer present abrupt faces of firm rock close to the road, but recede with rounded slopes, which are so covered with earth and fragments of stone that it is difficult to find the strata in situ. The interval between the limestones of the Calciferous and the argillites is about 1,100 feet. These W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. 428 ciferous. These rocks, in their upper or more westerly portion, are succeeded by a highly-altered sandstone of brownish color and rather coarse grain. About forty feet of this are shown. It lies in rather thin lamine, and has the same dip with the pose No other strata were seen until the Calciferous imestone, distant one or two hundred feet, was reached. This latter series also shows important modifications. The entire thickness of the strata lying below the Calciferous at Harper's erry cannot be much over 1,000 feet. So far as seen, only two varieties of rock occupy this space, viz: the slaty rocks above mentioned, which form by far the largest portion, and the sand- stone, which much resembles some of the quartzites of the lower strata at Rockfish Gap. It will thus be seen that, along with the greatly diminished thickness of the formation, the disappear- ance of most of the coarser material seen to the southwest is to be noted here. It is not impossible that some of the beds have been engulfed in their upheaval, since on the Virginia side the manner in which the argillites abut against the Primordial in- dicates that the former were crowded in a solid mass over against the latter. he Calciferous rocks at this place are almost entirely lime- stones. Instead of the numerous alternations of shale and im- ure limestone, which elsewhere form the lower beds, we have stratified. The lamin stand at an angle o able deposits of iron ore. The excavations made on the Maryland side of the Potomac for the procuring of the ore have well exposed its character. It lies immediately to the west of the rock last described. From the examination made in the open cuts in the iron mine about two miles above the bridge, its character seems to be as follows: color dark gray, fracture rough and glistening, from its sub-crystalline texture. e hardness and weight are much above those of ordinary pure limestone. It lies in masses of the thickness of thirty feet and more, without bedding. Without close examination, it would be mistaken for a variety of igneous rock. The ore is an argillaceous limonite, occupying a seam varying in width 424 W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. from six to ten feet. This seam is the decayed outcrop of an argillaceous layer highly charged with pyrites, for at the depth of forty feet the ore is cut off by pyrites. This, and the other features of the rock, indicate that the entire mass of limestone has been metamorphosed by the action of water holding min- eral matters in solution. To the west of this limestone the usual formation of varie- gated shales occurs. The thickness of the limestone seen was about ninety feet. e section at Harper’s Ferry thus indicates an increase in the proportion of fine material over that shown to the south- est development in Tennessee. I have given the above sections in greater detail than I would have otherwise done, from the fact that Prof. Wm. B. Rogers, in his Virginia reports, does not (with the exception of the strata at Balcony Falls) give detailed descriptions of the individual members, and the order of succession of the lowest Primordial strata, the nature of his report forbidding such de- tails. With the single exception of the Scolithus, there are no fossils to be seen in these lower rocks which can indicate their age. It will be seen from the above notes that in Virginia we have below the Calciferous limestones a great development of sandstones, shales and conglomerates, which attain in the mid- dle portion of the State a thickness of over 2,000 feet, and increase in the proportion of coarse materials to the southwest. They probably attain greater thickness in that quarter, while to the northeast the amount of sediment diminishes, and the pro- portion of fine matter increases. This change is plainly due to the increasing development to the southwest of the syenitic rocks which formed the shores of the ancient seas, and to the greater violence in that direction of disturbing forces. The Potsdam sandstone forms one of the upper members of this group. Much further study of these strata is required to settle the question whether the entire series is a great expansion of the otsdam, or whether divisions may be made corresponding to other epochs. The fact that at Rockfish oe and to the south- west, a great body of ferruginous slaty shales separates the lower, highly siliceous and altered, sandstones from the upper kaolin sandstones of probable Potsdam age, seems to indicate a change in the conditions of sedimentation sufficient to justify such a division, in which the Acadian strata may be found. W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. 425 General Remarks and Conclusions. Having given the above brief indication of the possible rela- tions of the lower Primordial strata to each other, I will devote asmall] space to pointing out the apparent relations of these strata to the metamorphic eh rocks of the Blue Ridge. am aware of the fact that not enough has been Jes to justify in alt cases positive conclusions. my paper on the Blue Ridge of Virginia, published in the January and February Nos. of this Journal, I gave a deserip- tion of certain coarse syenites and granites, which, in the vi- cinity of Balcony Falls and the Peaks of Otter, compose a large portion of the Blue Ridge, and which appear farther to the east in the short ranges of Tobacco Row and No Business Moun- tains. From Ae? ee sha? aces = and wos Neto of country, belong to this system or to the slates, remains to be determined. These Laurentian rocks evide ently increase in their development ree the northeast portion of the State to the southwest. ying along and upon the eastern slopes of the syenites of the Blue Ridge, in the region of Balcony Falls, a formation of argillites occurs, which, in the of Wositke pera the entire Space up to the Primordial strata. Thes rocks are covered to the east by a series of mica slates, ectinta, gneisses, etc., dis- posed in a great synclinorium which has its axis in the vicinity _ of the Catoctin Montana This axis is oceupied by talcose limestones, quartzites, mica slates, hydromica esas ete., stand- ing nearly vertical. These latter strata in every respect bear a most striking resemblance to the rocks described by Prof: Dana as found in Berkshire Co., Mass. This entire belt of slaty, — metamorphic strata, is bounded on the east by a line drawn fro: northeast to southwest, and passing through a point feat aa or five miles west of Alexandria, the eastern m part of Louisa Co., and by Columbia, on James "River. It will be readily seen that these rocks have all the characteristics of the Green Moun- tain series. I think that.in this broad belt at least two systems waa one older than the Primordial strata, and the other com- of metamorphosed Silurian. The argillites of the Blue ai belong to sian: former. Whether these are of Laurentian uronian age, I cannot undertake, in the present lack of detailed raps to de mide Their unconformability with the coarse syenites apparently shows them to be of later forma- tion. How mu ach of the mica slates and sepa ies ear is of the same age with the argillites remains to be I need not 426 W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. belt. Stated briefly, they consist of two ledges of limestone, 80 to 100 feet thick, enclosed in a vast mass of mica slate, and separated from each other by an interval of from two to three miles, principally occupied by the mica slates, in which occur two ledges of quartzite, each about 100 feet thick. This mode of occurrence indicates reduplication by folding. The dip is nearly vertical, while on each side the strata dip toward them. 8. Prof. Rogers states that in certain parts of the quartzites of this series he saw enclosed fragments of mica slate. 4. Ata slate quarry in the rocks of this series, occurring in Bucking- ham Co., on the east of the Catoctin Mountains, Credner states that he found undoubted specimens of a cyathophylloid coral. He does not give a more particular description. He also states that they were badly preserved. I have not visited this quarry, but propor to doso. Should Credner not have been mistaken, his discovery would of course indicate the Silurian age of the slates of the quarry. Before closing this paper, I will add a few remarks on meta- morphism, suggested by ray studies of the Virginia rocks. Some writers on the subject attribute regional metamorphism mainly to three agencies, viz: 1. Increased heat and pressure, caused by thick deposits. 2. The saturation of the strata with moisture. 3. The change of motion into heat, which involves a considerable disturbance of the metamorphosed region. I have not observed that close connection between the first and third of the above-mentioned agents, and the degree of metamorphism in a given region, which should exist if these bear to each other the relation of cause and effect. In order to show this, I must compare the condition of the strata in certain parts of the State, which, in the amount of metamorphism poss y them, stand in strong contrast. For the purpose of this com- parison I shall call the belt of country lying between the western edge of the great valley of Virginia and the Blue Ridge Mountains, a portion of which is described in this paper, the Primordial belt. The region extending from the Blue Ridge eastward, and bounded by the northeast and southwest line given above, may be styled the Middle belt. On the east of this belt, and between it and the Tertiary strata which extend some dis- tance inland from the Atlantic, is a third belt, occupied by W. M. Fontaine— Primordial Strata of Virginia. 427 resembles that of the rocks of the “ White Mountain system.’ The structure of this belt, stated briefly, seems to be as lows ae lowest strata are certain heavily- bedded granitoid gneiss omposed of a little quartz, black mica, and the fe ape, albite and orthoclase. These show ee abundantly near Richmond and Petersburg. Passing to the west, these strata seem to be disposed in broad undulations, which sometimes bring them up through the overs schistose strata, especially along certain lines where true igneous eruptive ro ocks penetrate them. These massive beds are covered by a comparatively thin formation of typical gneisses and mica schists, abounding im quartz and mica. The overlying rocks are gneisses in the eastern portion of the belt and mica schists in the center, which become hornblendic toward the western edge. These schistose turbances. This entire ener is remarkable for the a motamorphign of the rocks, all the constituents being well seg- regated in large particles. Now if we compare the amount of metamorphism existing in the strata of the several belts, we shall find it increasing in a remarkable manner as we proceed from the Primordial, through the Middle, to the Eastern belt. I have already in this paper pointed out the difference in the amount of alteration shown in associated argillaceous and siliceous Primordial beds, and sented that I have seen nowhere in the Primordial belt the production over extensive areas of anything more than the first stages of metamorphism. It is true that certain strata exhibit a higher degree of ieee le but this is always due to intensified local action. If we pass from the lowest Primordial strata into those of the Middle belt, we note an abrupt change. The metamorphism of this belt is universal, but still not complete. The rocks are all crystalline, ut the ase epic De ticles are small, and the masses which they form show m or less want of cohesion. In the t in quartzites of the ack F ube of the Blue Ridge the texture is common, Am. Jour. Scr.—Tutrp — Vou. IX, No. 54—June, 1875. 428 W. M. Fontaine—Primordial Strata of Virginia. The disturbance of the strata in this area is much less than that which i is found in the Primordial belt. The strata over absence of measurements, no positive conclusions can be drawn as to the comparative thickness of these semi- patna ye strata, but the indications are that it does not surpass, if 1 e uals, the united thickness of be more highly ae rocks which lie to the west of ther In the Eastern belt the strata are Me th@hoauhly altered, and in the coarseness of the crystallization, and firm, unyielding charac- ter of the rock, contrast strongly with those of the Middle belt. The massively bedded, underlying granitoid rocks are appar- ~ ently of different age from the overlying schistose strata, being robably Laurentian. Still, in the amount of metamorphism exhibited, they do not surpass the latter. These schistose strata, which, as previously stated, have the general character of the “White Mountain series,” ‘do not exhibit that increased amount of disterbancs and of thickness that should exist if have been covered with the water of the ancient seas certainly to as late a period as either of the other belts In examining the geological structure of the State from east to west, I have not aay any such connection between the flexures as would justify the conclusion of Pro ogers, that the Appetiolen eyelet of folds extends to the Atlantic, and that they are more compressed next to the ocean, while they open out in proceeding west. Indeed, I do not see how he himself could have come to any such conclusion, after an inspection of his ‘‘ Susquehanna Section” alone uch a connection between the flexures of ei Silurian, De- vonian, and Carboniferous areas does exist, but the Blue Ridge is the initial point on the east, and it may be accounted for by the fact that their flexures were mainly produced by a com- mon cause acting in one peri On the contrary, the folds of the eastern belt are seh! ined than those found in the other belts, and independent of J. N. Lockyer—Existence of Elements in the Sun. 429 Art, XLV.—Preliminary Inquiry into the Existence of Elements _ tn the Sun not previously traced ;* by J. NoRMAN LOCKYER. strongest lines of the metal in question in the average solar presence or absence of the longest lines of the metal: this long- est line being that which remains longest in the spectrum when the pressure of the vapor is reduce Of the test in question I have said in the paper already men- tioned, “It is one, doubtless, which will shortly enable us to determine the presence of new materials in the solar atmos- phere, and it is seen at once that to the last published table of solar elements—that of Thalén—must be added zine, aluminium, and possibly strontium, as a result of the new metho In order to pursue the inquiry under the best conditions, are necessary. It is, however, not absolutely necessary for the purposes of a preliminary inquiry to wait for such a complete set of maps, for the lists of lines given by the various observers may be made to serve as a means of differentiating between the longest. and shortest lines, because I have also shown that the lines given at a low temperature, by a feeble Being com- position, or by a chemical combination of t observed, are sskcinaly those lines which appear longest when the complete spectrum of the pure dense vapor is s with regard to the various lists and maps published by various “observers, it is known (1) that very different tempera- tures were employed to produce the spectra, some investigators using the electric are with great battery ht others the induc- tion “spark with and without the jar; (2) tha some observers employed in certain cases the chlorides of dis feetals the spectra of which they Maley investigating,—others used specimens of the metals themselv t is obvious, hei, that these differences of method could not fail to produce differences of result ; and nocording’y: in re- ferring to various maps and tables of spectra, we find that s ee inclu large numbers of lines omitted by Sthen A refere to these tables in connection with the methods employed awe at once that the large lists are those of observers using great xtract from a-memoir presented to the Royal Society in November, shies which has just ae bees printed in the “Philosophical Transactions ;” here cited from Nature of Feb. 25, 1875. 430 J. N. Lockyer— Existence of Hlements in the Sun. battery power or metallic electrodes, the small ones those of observers using small battery power, or the chlorides. If the lists of the latter class of observers be taken, we shall have only the longest lines, while those omitted by them and given by the former class will be the shortest lines. In cases therefore in which I had not mapped the spectrum by the new method of observation referred to in my paper, I have taken the longest lines as thus approximately determined ; for it seemed desirable, in view of the very large number of unnamed lines, to search at once for the longest elemental lines in the solar spectrum without waiting for a complete set of maps. A preliminary search having been determined on, I endeav- oured to get some guidance by seeing if there was any quality which differentiated the elements already traced in the sun from those not traced; and to this end I requested my assistant, Mr. R. J. Friswell, to prepare two lists showing broadly the chief chemical characteristics of the elements traced and not traced. This was done by taking a number of the best known com- pounds of each element (such, for instance, as those formed with oxygen, sulphur, chlorine, bromine, or hydrogen), stating after each whether the compounds in question were unstable or stable. ere any compound was known not to exist, that fact was indicated. Two tables were thus prepared, one containing the solar, the other the more important non-solar elements (according to our knowledge at the time). These tables gave me, as the differentiation sought, the fact that in the main the known solar elements formed stable oxygen- probability to exist in the solar reversing layer. Should the presence of ceriwm and uranium be subsequently confirmed, most of the iron group of metals will thus have been found in the sun. As another test, certain of those elements which form un- stable compounds with oxygen were also sought for, gold, silver, mercury being examples. ene of these were found. — he same result occurred when the lines due to the jar-spark taken in chlorine, bromine, iodine, and those of some 0 the other non-metals were sought, these being distinguishable as a group by formation of compounds with hydrogen. * Potassium has since been added. J. N. Lockyer— Existence of Elements in the Sun. = 481 Now other researches, not yet ti mg ready for publica- tion, have led me to the ‘following conclus The absorption of some elementary eee compound gases is limited to the most refrangible part of the spectrum when the gases are rare, and creeps gradually into the visible violet part, and finally to the red end of the spectrum, as the pressure is increased. II. Both the general and selective absorption of the photo- spheric light are greater (and therefore the temperature of the photosphere of the sun is higher) than has been supposed. I. The lines of compounds of a metal and iodine, bromine, &c., are observed generally in the red end of the spectrum, and this holds good for absorption in the case of aqueous vapor. Such spectra, like those of the metalloids, are separated spec- troscopically from those of the metallic elements by their col- anded structure. IV. There are in all probability no compounds ordinarily present in the sun’s reversing layer. V. When a metallic compound vapor, such as is referred to in ITI, is dissociated by the spark, the band spectrum dies out, and the elemental lines come in, according to the degree of tem- perature employe Again, ee ae our knowledge of the spectra of stars is lamentably incomplete, I gather the following facts from the work already accomplished with marvelous skill and industry by Secchi of Rome. VI. The sun, so far as the spectrum goes, may be regarded as a representative of class (/) oie i between stars (@) with much simpler spectra of the sa ae 1 stars (v) with much more complex spectra of a didtere tk Sirius, as a type of a, is (1) the acne (and therefore fetheyy 2 star in our northern sky: (2) the blue end of its spec- trum en; it is only certainly known to contain hydrogen, hee ottier metallic lines being exceedingly — thus indicating a small proportion of metallic e vapors; while (3) the lines in this star are enormously distended, Set that the chro- mosphere is largely composed of that e There are other bright stars of this sine: VIII. As types of y the red stars may be quoted, the of which are composed of channelled spaces and bands. Hence the reversing layers of these stars peobably contain metalloids, or compounds, or both, in great quantity ; “ey rh in their spectra not only is hydrogen absent, but the metallic ced in thickness and intensity, which in the light of Vy ne may indicate that the metallic vapors are being associa is fair i assume that these stars are of a lower temperature ite our un. 4382 J. N. Lockyer—Kzuistence of Elements in the Sun. I have asked myself eed all the above facts cannot be grouped together in a working hypothesis which assumes that in the reversing layers | of the sun and stars various degrees of “celestial dissociation” are at work, which dissociation prevents the coming together of the atoms which, at the temperature of the earth and all artificial temperatures yet attained here, com- pose the metals, the metalloids, and compounds. n this working hypothesis, the so-called elements not a ent in the reversing layer of a star will be in course of form tion in the coronal atmosphere and in course of destruction i their vapor-densities carry them down; and their absorption will not only be small in consequence of the reduced pressure of that region, but what absorption there is will probably be limited wholly or in great part to the invisible violet end of the spectrum in the ease of such bodies as the pure gases and their SS and chlorine. (See I, ante.) The spectroscopic evidence as to what may be called the plasticity of the molecules of the metalloids, including of course oxygen and nitrogen, but excluding h ydrogen , is so overwhelm- ing, that even the absorption of iodine, although generally it is neo seagre to violet light, may (as I have found ina repetition ndrews experiments on the dichroism of iodine, in which I observed the spectrum) in part be driven into the violet end of the spectrum, for iodine in a solution in water or alcohol at once gives up its ordinary absorption properties, and stops violet light.* A preliminary comparison of the ordinary absorption spec- - trum of a stratum of 6 ft. of chlorine renders it not improbable that chlorine at a low temperature is the cause of some of the Fraunhofer lines in the violet, although, as said before, I have not yet obtained certain evidence as + ‘the reversal of the bright lines of chlorine seen in the jar-s There is also an Acarent ediinidehen between some of the faint Fraunhofer lines and some “ the lines of the low tem- perature absorption-spectrum of i Should subsequent researches oneetnes the probability of cr working hypothesis, it seems ible that iron meteorites be associated with the metallic stars and stony meteorites with metalloidal and compound stars. Of the iron group of metals in the sun, iron and nickel are those which exist in ings —— as I have determined from the number of ines rev Other striking facts, such as the presence of hydrogen ' in ages might also be referred to. An interesting physical speculation connected with this work- ing hypothesis is the effect on the period of duration of a star’s _ *T have since obtained the same result by observing the absorption of I. vapor in a white-hot tube. F. Prime, Jr.— Limonite Deposits of the Great Valley. 483 heat which would be brought about by assuming that the origi- nal atoms of which a star is composed are possessed with the increased potential energy of combination which this hypothesis endows them with. From the earliest phase of a star’s life the tions formed with chlorine, oxygen, eer &c., in the case of tetrad or hexad metals. May we not from these ideas be justified in defining a metal, rovisionally, as a substance, the absorption-spectrum of which is Senerally H the same as the radiation-spectrum, while the metal- ids a the absorption-spectrum of which, generally, is not ne ame? In other words, in passing from a cold toa souraeto ae hot state, the plasticity of these latter comes into play, and we get a new molecular arrangement. Hence are we not justified in i whether the ¢ change from oxygen to ene - but a type of what takes place in all metalloids est shanks are due to Mr. R. J. Friswell for the valuable aid | he _ afforded me in oe investigations. Art. XLVI.—On the occurrence of the Brown Hematite Depos- ats of the Great Valley; by FREDERICK PRIME, Jr.* THE Great or Cumberland Valley, which (under a variety of names) extends from Ca nada, throu P Vermo nt, Massachusetts, naces situated on their + outcrops. nes on wh ich the ores are obtained are (properly sae elt pois pits or quarries, * A paper read before the Amer. Inst. of Mining Engineers at New Haven, Feb. 25th, 1875. 434 F. Prime, Jr.—Limonite Deposits of the Great Valley. from which the ore is extracted by means of picks or shovels, powder never being employed. he ore does not occur casually at any point in the lime- stone, but forms regular lines, following apparently the out- crops of certain beds. In Lehigh County, Penn., where I have been engaged on the geological survey of the State during the past season, there are three or four of these lines. During the progress of the survey I was much struck by the fact that the two most important and promising lines of outcrop were—one, at the base of the crystalline schists (forming the South or Lehigh Mountain), and overlying the Potsdam sandstone con- formably; the other, near the line of junction of the Calciferous limestone with the Hudson River slates. The mines along these two lines—following the topography of the country— were in place, richer and more permanent than those of the belts between, which had been more decomposed in situ and were generally leaner. peculiarity of these two lines of outcrop, and one to which I particularly desire to draw attention, is the occurrence of what I at first mistook for a highly altered slaty limestone, but which on subsequent analysis proved to consist in great part of damourite (hydrated potash-mica). The following are analy- ses of this damourite-slate : I. From Fogelsville, Lehigh County, within a few hundred feet of the contact of limestone and slate, by Dr. F. A. Genth. . From Hensingerville, Lehigh County, within 300 feet of gneiss, by Mr. Sydney Castle of the University of Pennsylvania. From Allentown, Lehigh County, within 150 feet of contact of the limestone with Potsdam sandstone: by Mr. Pedro G. Salom of University of Pennsylvania. IV. From another quarry close to III; also by Mr. Salom. L ia Ii. IV SiO, 49°92 45°40 59°30 39°80 Co, Clas Ree Aarne 14.40 Fe,0O, 0-91 506 2 2-40 Al,O, 34°06 24°69 } 30:80 23-95 tiga papi trace M. a i 4 13°56 trace 1°94 CaO O11 trace truce 9°85 Na,O 0°74 0:27 151 0°52 K,0 6°94 5°85 6°24 3°34 H,O 6°52 4°80 4°70 6°00 sentra ie rice 100°97 99°63 102°05 102°20 As typical damourite contains 11-77 p. ¢. of potash, it is evi- dent from the above analyses that I. contains 55-40 p.c. of ourite; II, 49-70 p. c. ; III, 58:02 p. c.; and IV, 28°30 p.c. F. Prime, Jr.—Limonite Deposits of the Great Valley. 485 The remainder of the slate consists of ferruginous clay, quartz, and carbonates of lime and magnesia I have noticed that asa rule the fresh ieestinber oe slate can only be observed where a mine is being worked; when fresh it is white to straw-yellow in color, has a man feel and very slaty texture, being composed of minute crystalline plates. As soon as work is stopped in a mine the slate commences to decompose and becomes rapidly converted to a white or etl clay, the latter color being due to oxide of iron. Indeed, in many mines no slate can be observed at all, the whole of it being changed to clay ibe to the opening of the pits ave made a qualitative examination of both white and yel- low clays from the same mine as I, and close to the spot where the slate was obtained. I found them to contain the same ingredients as at the damourite-slate. belongs to the Calciferous and not to the Laurentian or Huronian periods, i is evident from the fact that it is found forming a bed in the limestone immediately overlying the Potsdam ‘sandstone and conformably to the latter. The ore is always found above the clay or stricted slate, or at least in the upper portions of it, never below it ; and shiny! in streaks or masses precisely in n the manner noticed by Prof. W. P. Blake* at Ocoya Creek, California; and from the manner in which the ore occurs it appears to have been de- a osited by the percolation of waters containing iron in solution. he ore also occurs as so-called * bombshell ore,” and this ore when hollow either contains water or the clay resulting from the decomposition of the damourite-slate. The interior sur- soe of this bombshell ore is oe nently tae apparently by thin coating of manganese oxides, a ud often contains small never seen the pipe ore in large quantities at any one point or associated with the slate or clay If this occurrence of the iaucsien slate or clay and ore was merely local, it would be scarcely w age noticing; but in fact we find that the — or Bolte almost universally asso- ciated with the iron ores of the Calciferéus epoch. They are therefore of the grentan importance. Professor Dana, in a private letter to me, mentions the phe of slates with the brown hematite deposit of Rich- j Ree County, Massachusetts Professor Shepard,t 7 See Pacific R. R. Reports, vol. v, p. 1 +A ace an the Geol. Survey of Suatiad by C. U. Shepard, p. 20. 436 F. Prime, Jr.—Limonite Deposits of the Great Valley. in writing of the ore bed at Kent, Connecticut, speaks of de- composed micaceous gneiss (?) called by the workmen “ gre fuller’s earth,” and also of “decomposing quartzy mica-slate.” We meet with this association of slate or clay and ore in Lehigh County, Penn. Professor Lesley also speaks of this occurrence in his “ Report on the Brown Hematite Deposits of the Nittany Valley, Penn.” Here there are apparently three lines of mines, to judge from the map accompanying the report. Professor Persifor Frazer, Jr., informs me that he found the same association of white clay with ore in York County, Penn. Professor Lesley + gives a sketch of what he calls “ ore- bearing slates” lying between the Potsdam and Calciferous of the Cumberland Valley. These are evidently damourite-slates, for he proceeds in the article to speak of white clays formed by their decomposition. The same association is found in Mary- land and Virginia in the valleys forming the Great Valley. Professor Lesley* speaks of the occurrence of white clay with ore in the same formation at Embreeville, East ‘l'ennessee. It also oceurs at Shelbyville. Alabama quently what is geologically true of the ore beds at Salisbury Amenia, east of the Hudson, is true all the way to Ala- ama.” rom this constant occurrence of the slate with the ore it is evident that the former has exerted an important influence on the deposition of the ores; and I think that the presence of the slate was necessary to such deposition, in that it formed an impervious bed through which the chalybeate waters could not per- colate. Whatever may have been the manner in which the ore originally existed, it was deposited in and above the slates from an aqueous solution. Tater these circumstances, it will be * Lesley, “ The Iron Ores of South Mountain in Cumberland Co., Penn.,” in Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Jan., 1873. + Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe., May, 1872. EF. Prime, Jr.—TLimonite Deposits of the Great Valley. 487 highly improbable that we shall find continuous deposits of the brown hematite ores when the slate or clay does not occur with them With respect to the quantity of ore, Professor Lesley, in his paper on the Cumberland Valley, says it will depend: ‘ First, on the original charge of iron in the strata; second, on the dip of these strata; and third, on the depth beneath water-level to which the mouldering decomposition of the strata and the per- oxidation and concentration of the iron has exten here is much difference of opinion as to how these deposits of brown hematite ores can have been forme r. Hunt, in a peas read before the National Academy of Sciences in Novem- 1874, gives it as his opinion that they were sen beds of pyrites in Huronian schists, now decayed. I have shown in the commencement of this paper that they are ” Caleifero slates or he and were the ores formed b ee alteration beds in 1838 or 1839. urse, only the carbouslon of lime and magnesia would be dissolved; the clay, iron ase silica would remain behind. Were this, " however, the cas hould we find fresh, undecomposed damourite-slate os aie aa in ae tion with limestones above and below it, as can be seen at the Lehigh Iron Company’s limestone quarry ‘at Allentown, ar : From what I have seen in Lehigh, Northampton and Berk Counties, Penn., I have been led to the following conclusions which I advance with considerable reluctance, as I consider it extremely dangerous to argue from observations sere a lim- — area to general conclusions. Lesley, Report on the ematite deposits of the Nittany V: ' Prof. C. U. Shepard, in his ble on the Geological Survey of Chavabtio published in 1837, says origin of limonite in these rocks [‘ slate, mi- gneiss or qu rock’] may be attributed to the decomposition of the sulphuret of iron and other fetta rruginous minerals with which they are known abound. It t is obvious also that, in a majority of instances, this change took place in the original repositories of these minerals; since no perceptible derangement Dana to accord fully with the various facts in the limonite region of Connecticut and Massachusetts. — 488 F. Prime, Jr.—Limonite Deposits of the Great Valley. The damourite-slates, being the products of the decomposi- tion of primary rocks containing orthoclase and probably oli- goclase, or albite, were deposited in the Silurian sea during the Calciferous epoch and near its commencement. At Allen- town and Bethlehem, Penn., the slates are but 50 to 100 feet above the Potsdam sandstone, with a blue massive limestone, generally crystalline, between the two. Limestone was again deposited above the slate. I am not yet prepared to say whether more than one bed of damourite-slate was formed, and reserve an opinion on this point until I have made further explorations. he brown hematites were probably formed by the oxidation of iron pyrites, but the former are not in the same place that the latter were. My reasons for this assertion are twofold. In the first place, the animal carbon of the organisms, whose shells formed the enormous quantity of dolomite or limestone, exists in such quantities throughout the limestone as to color the rock, the zinc -blende (of Friedensville) and the carbonate of iron a bluish-grey. This same carbon would readily reduce the sul- phate of iron carried into the ocean to iron pyrites. As a proof of this reduction I need only mention that iron pyrites have been found in the mud* of a pond. Secondly, the great major- ity of the brown hematites which I have had analysed, and they are many, contain a trace of sulphur, usually not more than a few hundredths of a per cent. have also found minute (almost microscopic) crystals of iron pyrites in much of the limestone, where it is opened in quarries; and I have also seen in much 0 this same limestone, where weathered, minute cavities, which I have ascribed (perhaps erroneously), from their general appear- ance, to the decomposition of the pyrites. t is at present impossible to say whether the pyrites from which the brown hematite ores were and are forming were thus minutely disseminated through the limestone, or whether there was a bed of the limestone—now decomposed,—especially rich in the pyrites. In either case it would seem that the pyrites above water- level—and we must bear in mind the great erosion which the surface of the country has undergone since it was formed— would oxidize from the action of the water and the air carried in by it, forming protosulphate of iron. This being readily soluble in water, was carried down through the limestone, form- ing sulphate of lime (gypsum) and carbonate of iron wherever the solution came in contact with the fresh limestone. This reaction was, however, probably slight, owing to the rapid descent of the solution in seeking the water-level. It experi- enced no difficulty in its descent until it came in contact with * Gmelin—Kraut’s Handbuch der Chemie, 6th ed., vol. iii, p. 333. F. Prime, Jr.—I*monite Deposits of the Great Valley. 439 the damourite-slate, when, meeting with an impervious bed, it could not descend any farther and was then obliged to follow the slates. This considerably retarded the rapidity of its flow, Deka? the reaction between the limestone (and the carbon- ates of lime and magnesia in the damourite-slate) and proto- sulphate of iron ws take here more completely. By this means carbonate of iron was deposited, being but slightly soluble ; while the siphate of ce ayaa formed, being very soluble, was carried off in solutio No doubt many of the ‘limestone caves—so common in the Calciferous limestones—were formed by the gwete. action of the water containing protosulphate of iron. The subsequent formation of the limonite is easily explained, being pte the oxidized and hydrated product of the carbonate of iron. n fact, a bed of blue carbonate of iron, identical in appear- ance with the ordinary limestone and Friedensville zine- -blende, seeks with the brown hematite ores at Balliet’s mine near Allentown and at one of the Hellertown mines near Bethlehem. t jee: not occur at many of the mines in the Lehigh Valley ; those being the only mines where I know of its occurrence. The very fact of this occurrence would tend to show that the above- mentioned reaction has taken place and was the one by which the ore was formed. This reaction would also explain why the brown hematites which occur in limestone are almost always . free from sulphur, merely containing a trace; and yet almost always containing this trace. As a proof of this, I EVs the anal- ysis of a brow n hematite fl gird at Katah n Furnace, Feng Sonlee Mai The analysis was tek by Pro- r'T. M. Drown of pees Collese. It afforded | ee H,O and of ae matter SiO, H,S0, P06, 76°87 19°25 0° 3°10 0°10=100°03 Professor Drown informs me that the rock underlying the ore was siliceous in character, thus giving the sulphuric acid no opportunity to combine with lime and be carried away. The objection may be raised to this view of the case, that we do not anywhere find any deposits of gypsum. It must be borne in mind that gypsum is readily soluble, and would be carried a i disemne’s in solution before being ae I can also point to one very considerable deposit o ator in this formation § that of Saltville in Russell County, Virginia. It may be urged—and I confess with oo show of reason— brown hematite mines at Richmond, Berkshire County, Massa- chusetts, there was exposed, about fifteen months ago, a great ass of massive carbonate of iron, which was once a part of the 440 &. Irving—Primordial and Canadian Rocks of Wisconsin. limestone of the region. It appeared to have resisted decom- position in consequence of its compactness and . There is limonite of great thickness all about it, which ee been made y the decomposition of the limestone and i = included carbon- ate of iron, or its carbonate of iron an ; for an extensive ledge of limestone rises above the great ‘pit ‘or excavation on its north side, whose layers are conformable to that of the mas- sive carbonate of iron in the bottom of the mine. The material between the two must have originally been calcareous: it is now gone and there is limonite in its stead.” The fact here mentioned tends to prove that the limonite was ieebable originally present as carbonate of iron and that the outer and possibly less compact portion of the deposit became changed. It seems to me that in this instance, as in those at myo mine and Hellertown, we have a case of alteration of the li stone to carbonate of iron Leanne by particle, or, so to term i ‘a pseudomorph by replacement. y objection to the original deposition of the carbonate of iron, as such, in the Calciferous epoch is threefold. In the first place, it should be uniformly distributed through the limestone and magnesia. or these were secreted by the marine animals to form their ee &e., which would not be the case with car- bonate of iro n orien oth I would once more point to the fact that what- ever the origin ‘of brown hematites may have been, the cause of their pon eee where they are now found, must have been the damourite-slat Lafayette College, hate Pa., Feb. 22, 1875. Art. XLVIL—Note on some New Points in the Hlementary Stratification of the Primordial and Canadian Rocks of South niral Wisconsin; by RoLAND IRVING. THE order always hitherto accepted for the Lower Silurian strata of Wisconsin has been as follows, beginning below: I. The Potsdam Sandstone—500-700 feet in thickness; in its upper portions somewhat dolomitic; gta in localities near the a nein! ds and St. Croix Rivers. estan Limestone 200-250 feet in thick- ness; oily a pure ety and almost without fossils. R. Irving—Primordial and Canadian Rocks of Wisconsin. 441 Ill. The St. Peter's Sandstone—80-100 feet in thickness; for the most part a coarse quartzose sandstone; at times with ferra- ginous cement, at others loose and incoherent. IV. and Buff Limestones. During the past season I have been able to make some modifications in this scheme, as far as the*Potsdam, Lower Magnesian, and St. Peter’s are concerned, for the ire of south central Wisconsin, especially in Dane and Columbia Counties. The succession now made out is as follows, beginning below: I, The Lower or Rips Sandstone___..-_.. ....800 feet. IL: The Mendota Limestone... 2 a a 30 Ill. The Madison Sandciae Se ee back se ce ee 36. « IV. The Main Body of Ties. AR ee 80-120 “ V. The St. Peter’s Sandstone._.._........... 80-100 * VI. The Buff and Blue Limestones. I. The Potsdam Sandstone.-—In the region of the “Four Lake Country,” about Madison, in Dane County, only the upper layers of this great formation are to be seen. Farther north, in southern Columbia County, the northerly rise of the rocks brings lower layers to view. In all this region the upper 50-100 fee of the formation are decidedly dolomitic, but nevertheless “to very different and distinguished from the overlying which is entered by two th at Madison. The lowest lay- ers seem, however, to be a coarse quartzose, non-dolomitic mate- rial. The dolomitic admixture in the upper layers amounts to 15 or 20 per cent. In the Janesville well there was some indi- cation of the existence of a distinct layer of limestone at a very considerable depth in the Potsdam. Scolithi are the only indications of life II. The Mendota Limestone.—This limestone has every where in the region around Madison, and in fact wherever recognized, very ma rked characters. It has always a peculiar yellowish, dirty appearance, and is frequent stained by reddish patches and seams of non-hydrated oxide of iron. Layers of green sand occur, especially about the junction with the ican a sand- stone. This limestone is usually heavy-bedded below and thin- bedded to shaly above. It is always a some extent arenaceous. In localities it is fossiliferous, carrying trilobites especially, and most common among them the Dzkellocephalus Minnesotensis, or some very similar “form. The fossil locality at Mazomanie, on the west side of Dane County, which is alluded to by Hall 442 RB. Irving—-Primordial and Canadian Rocks of Wisconsin. in his monograph on the Fauna of the Potsdam Sandstone,* is doubtless at the horizon of the Mendota limestone. The name Mendoia is given from the exposures on Lake Mendota in Dane ounty, where the rock was first recognized as a separate stra- inches in thickness. This oolite consists of rounded granules z's’ to z'7”’ in diameter, closely packed in a pulverulent siliceous matrix, the whole having a milky white color. The smaller granules are seen under the microscope to be single grains of limpid quartz, the larger ones being aggregations of quartz grains. This layer is astonishingly persistent, having been seen everywhere where the base of this limestone is exposed, and at points many miles apart The whole thickness of this portion of the formation is about 20 feet. (2) Very heavily and indistinctly bedded light buff limestones, breaking with a conchoidal fracture and earrying considerable chert in nod- ules, in thickness about 20 feet; (8) the upper 8 ew of the * 16th Annual Report, Regents of the University of the State of New York, on the condition of the State Cabinet of Natural History, Appendix D, 1863. R. Irving—Primordial and Canadian Rocks of Wisconsin. 448 and brecciated layers. In none of these subdivisions have any fossils been seen. V. St. Peter's Sandstone—This formation appears with its usual characters, except that east of Madison it presents a very marked deviation from its usual very uniform thickness of 100 feet, being reduced as low as 40 feet. On the Mississippi River bluffs, in the vicinity of Winona and La Crosse, and again farther south, there exists, so far as now wn, between the Potsdam and St. Peter’s sandstone, 200- 250 feet of dolomite without sandstone layers. Farther north- west, there occurs in the valley of the Minnesota River—accord- ing to Professor N. H. Winchell, State geologist of Minnesota— the following succession of strata, beginning below: I. The Lower or Potsdam Sandstone. IL The St. Lawrence Limestone. UL The Jordan panastone .-- < 2665.0 os eka. coe 50 feet. IV. ‘The Shakopee Limestone . -...----2....1: 1.8% V. The St. Peter’s Sandstone. Sandstone, and Mendota Limestone. Future investigations may show that the Jordan and Madison ‘sandstones are somewhere nown, however, the two regions in which these similar alterna- tions occur are separated by an area where all merge into a mass of limestone whose thickness is much greater than their com- bined thickness. The following schedule serves to show the probable equiva- lence of the strata in these different regions: South Central Wisconsin.| Mississippi Bluffs. Minnesota River. | St. Peter’s Sandstone. | St. Peter’s Sandstone. | St. Peter’s Sandstone. i) 2 Main Body of Limestone, Shakopee Sandstone. = 1 Lower Magnesian 70 feet. |Madison Sandstone, 35 ft. Limestone, Mendota Limestone. 200 to 250 feet. ist. La 30 feet. Jordan Sandstone, 50 ft. St. Lawrence Limestone. Lower or Potsdam Sandstone. Lower or Potsdam Lower or Potsdam Sandstone. Sandstone. Terpsourtsg | University of Wisconsin, February 13, 1875. Am. Jour Sct. Tatrp Series A IX, No. 54.—Junz, 1875. 444 O. N. Rood—Application of the Horizontal Pendulum to the Art. XLVIIL — On the application of the Horizontal Pendulum to the measurement ee minute changes in the dimensions of Solid Bodies ; by O. N. Roop, Professor of Physics in Columbia ollege. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Nov. 4th, 1874.] In figure 1, let RR represent an inflexible rod of steel placed horizontally, ‘and supported at its extremities by pivots on which it turns freely, and let W be a weight inflextbly attached to the rod as indicated. It is evident that Wit when left to it- 1, A now an attractive or repulsive force be tend to be deflected from its vertical position, and if the force is sufficiently powerful a sensible deflection will be ob- poeta Tn an arrangement of this kind, e from friction, “the opposing foree to be overcome will of. course be the attraction of oravita- tion n; if, however, we gradually elevate the rod RR, the gravity component will diminish, and become zero when RR i is vertical, and consequently AW horizontal. In his articles on the Hori- zontal Péadatan, Zollner* has shown experimentally how this may be accomplished to an almost incredible extent, so that an apparatus of this general nature in his hands became capable of obeying even the feeble attractive force of the moon! I give here a diagram of Zéllner’s horizontal pendulum ; at W is the weight, the inflexible rod being re- placed by fine steel wire or watch-spring, stretched as shown on the vertical column CO, ror for reflecting the divisions of a scale toa telescope. The height of this apparatus was — 30 inches; it was mounted on a pier like astronomical instrument, and enclosed ina mes building by itself, the observations being made from without n the tetirkabis papers above referred to, Zésllner also pointed out the extreme sensitive- — of this apparatus to changes in level, and it at once oc- urred to me that by suitable modifications and additions, it pa be converted into an instrument of unprecedented delicacy for studying minute changes in the dimensions of solid bodies. * Pogg. Ann. for 1873, cl, 131, 134. Measurement of changes in the dimensions of Solid Bodies. 445 Arrangement of a Horizontal Pendulum for measuring minute distances. The apparatus constructed by me was almost gales! of brass; the dimensions were as follows: the height of the nearly. The whole was supported on a well braced md firmly constructed wooden stand, which was hung by its upper end on the brick aig! of the college: building, and again at- tached to them below, so as to prevent vibrations independent of the walls of the bulldog itself. An inspection of Zdllner’s apparatus shows that its form was such as to render the column CO, fi g. 1, quite liable to vibrations of its 0 at this I guarded against by the addition of three long an nd the same number short cross-braces, as shown in fig. 3: they were found to make a most marked change for the better, and gave the in- strument a stability which it previously did not possess. Again, the German astronomer pro- — no means for bringing his instru- ment to rest, and in his published ob- hoyatione “this actually never was the case, the extremes of the oscillations cna to the Totals and nature of the 9 al wholly out of the question, it with olive-oil. By removing with the pliers successive por- tions of the wire, it was found that matters could be arranged so that the instrument came to rest after a couple of oscil- lations. The oil-box rested on a little table provided with rack-work to adjust its height ie remove it when necessary ; it is shown at T in fig. 3; ig cone aie were as follows : length 70 mm., breadth 30 cic: F depth 32mm. The wire was placed of course as near the center of the box as possible, 446 0. N. Rood—Application of the Horizontal Pendulum to the the pendulum, after a had once come to rest, to obey impulses from without more tardily than was quite right. To obviate this possible difficulty I afterward provided the pendulum with a paddle instead of a wire, and caused the former to move loosely like a piston in the interior of a suitable box, which was entirely submerged in kerosene oil; the results were very promising, but I have not had time to use this method in an extended set of experiments. At SS, figs. 8 and 4, are stops which confine the motion of the pendulum within narrow limits; K they consist of spiral springs, which = are fastened in the prolongation of Seana adjusting screws. Thesprings form an essential part of this indispensa- ble arrangement, and without their aid it was often found impossible to complete the leveling, so as to give the instrument even a moderate de- gree of sensitiveness. At I, figs. 3 and 4, is shown an index or pointer, intended to facili- tate the adjustment of the pendu- lum with regard to the scale, and readily bring it into the zero of po- sition. It makes a very convenient addition, and is observed by a lens placed outside of the glass case enclosing the whole apparatus. may here remark, that the above-mentioned additions ought hereafter to be made to the horizontal pendulum, even when constructed solely for astronomical purposes, the oil-box being replaced by an air-box, contrived so as to reduce the tendency to oscillate. mpare Tépler, “Ueber einige An- wendungen der Luftreibung bei Messinstrumenten,” Pogg. Ann., 1878, xlix, 416. l of suspension.—In the first experiments fine iron wire was employed, but it was soon found that its presence rendered accurate magnetic observations impossible; and besides, al- though it was as fine as was consistent with safety, its torsion was noticeable. I afterward replaced it with narrow strips of elastic copper-foil, such as is used by jewelers, the ends being soldered to small thin plates of brass to prevent tearing, and these again connected with fine, hard-drawn brass wire. The copper-foil was adopted merely as a temporary expedient, but as it was found to answer well, and to be free from sensible torsion, it was retained. Experiments were made beforehand on its strength, and it was loaded up to within about two-thirds of its breaking strain. Measurement of changes in the dimensions of Solid Bodies. 447 At M, fig. 3, is a milled head for winding up the brass wire attached to the lower copper strip and thus bringing the pendu- um into a horizontal position, i.e., its real object being to ad- just the mirror of the pendulum with regard to the scale and telescope a lead-penci Micrometer.—The left-hand rear screw, I, fig. 4, was used as a micrometer ; it rested on a small leveled plate of glass and was provided with an arm 140 mm. in length, which was capa- ble of moving over $ or } of a degree of arc between two of the lever-arm was measured with a compound microscope placed over its extremity ; the length of this arm being known, and the number of threads of the screw, the actual upward motion could be calculated. At B, fig. 3, is a counterpoise, its object being to remove most of the pressure from the micrometer screw. Scale and Telescope-—A glass scale divided into agg tinuously during most of the day and the greater part of the night. Hence, in spite of the oil-box, the pendulum was never completely at rest, except for three or four hours after mid- night: during the day-time the vibrations were often so rapid 448 0. N. Rood—Application of the Horizontal Pendulum to the as to render the _ 7 eben invisible. Still, in spite of ficient number of observations. To illustrate the cae of the apparatus, 1 may remark that children playing on an iron bridge, 360 distant, caused temporary deflections of one or two ae and that similar deviations were caused by the lower notes of an organ in a neighboring church, the —— to produce permanent effects; this evil, however, practically only cpa bates the observer to temporary interruption. Changes of temperature produce two different kinds of effect on the Sibattibad: in the first class we may place those which would compensated by turning the leveling screw Q, fig. 4; in the second, those that would be neutralized by turning either of the other leveling screws. It is evident that changes of the first class alter the sensitiveness of the apparatus or the value of a scale-division, but on account of the compara- tively large distance between IK and Q, these effects are small, and may be rendered almost insensible by attention to con- sate of bone? rir thus far they have not proved a source of annoyance e case is different with the second class; the leveling screws I and K being separated only by a distance of 50 mm., it is necessary, on their account mainly, to preserve the temper- ature of the apparatus as constant as possi le. The means of changes of the kind now under pouanioration will communi- cate to the pendulum a continuous motion toward the right or left, and will finally drive it to the stops, and that all the read- ings will be affected with a constant or changing error. If the motion is so slow that the operation of reaching the stops con- sumes an hour or even less, it is not a source of serious inconven- ience, and the errors thus introduced can easily be eliminated. eneral mode of experimenting.—In all cases the micrometer screw rests directly or indirectly on the body the change in whose dimensions is the subject ‘of study, and the first pro- ceeding will naturally be to ascertain whether the different por- tions of the apparatus are at rest relatively to each other, or approximately so. Afterward the value of a scale-division can Measwrement of changes in the dimensions of Solid Bodies. 449 be obtained by repeatedly moving the arm attached to the mi- crometer screw, by the aid of the threads fears reach to the observer seated at the telescope. When this has been satis- factorily accomplished, the body to be Ssorinentd on is sub- jected to the desired influence, and the change in its dimen- sions aad for example, the change in the longitudinal di- mensions of a bar of iron when magnetized produces with this instrument a large sudden deviation, cate it is also possible to note the gradual i increase in its dimensions, owing to the heat develciped by the act of demagnetization, and I am at present engaged in studying with it the effect of m magnetization on the lateral dimensions of iron bars: in short, the instrument as now arranged is applicable to the solution of a great number of delicate problems. Mode of making and calculating the observations.—The best onnected series of readings, so that the second reading is saualty related to the first and third, the third equally to . second and fourth, ete. When this proceeding is used it possible to obtain correct results, even though the jenditans ave an independent motion of its own, To take a simple ex- ample, let us suppose that the object required is to determine the value of a scale-division, and that by the aid of the mi- crometer-screw a series of continuous ses aia have been ob- et is employed in working up the results; i.e., whether the read- ings are treated in independent pairs or as a ‘continuous series. 2nd, The pendulum has a uniform motion of its own.—Call the actual readings a B, AY, BA”, B’, cto. ; let_< = the true quantity, and let the motion be sien or tend to in- crease the readings; d = the distance passed over during the interval from one readin ng to the next following; let d be posi- tive, and B, B’, B”, represent the larger readings. We then have for the readings: =A+az+d A’=A_ 442d B’ =A+a24+3d ASA, Then as the readings are continuous, subtracting the first from the second, the third from the second, the third from the fourth, the fifth from the fourth, ete., we obtain a set of dif ferences alternately too large and too ‘small, t thus 450 O.N, Rood—Application of the Horizontal Pendulum to the Differences. M’. B-—A =a+d B—A’ =a—d ages B/—A’ =2+4+d é B’—A”=a—d x The average of each pair of differences will give the true quantity, a, free from errors introduced by motion. In the case now under consideration the average of the column M’ will be equal to the average of the column differences, so that the final result will be identical whether we employ the = of one or the other, but by employing the column M’ we ha before us the identical observations free from pa eb He a due to the independent motion of the pendulum, thus enabling the observer more readily to judge of the reliability of the ob- servations, and to calculate their probable error. 2. The distance passed over independently by the pendulum in- creases during each obs-rvation by a constant quantity.—Retaining the same notation, etc., as before, we have: Readings. AeA ae A. B =A+a4+d =A+ax+d A’ =A+d+4+2d =A +3d B’ =A+a+d+2d+3d =A+a+6éd A” =A+d+2d+3d+4d =A +10d BY =A+a+d+2d+3d+4d+id =A+x+15d Taking, then, the differences according to the method above indicated, we have: Diernces M’. M”. M. a ; i d d a— 2d L— - are a x+3d a a t 2 2 e+5d The column marked M’ is obtained by taking the average of irs of differences as indicated by the vinculums on their left- and side; the column M” by using those on the right; the final column M. by sorabinihi’ in pairs the quantities under M’ and M”. It is evident that the final column of means, M, will it this case give the correct value, or a, and that the average of the column of differences will be incorrect by a if an even number of at a ae we and if an odd number be em- ployed, by +d, 3d, 3d, Measurement of changes in the dimensions of Solid Bodies. 451 3. The distance passed over independently by the pendulum dur- ing each observation increases by an increasing quantity.—This case may perhaps be most quickly illustrated by a numerical example arranged algebraically, the changes introduced being far larger than ever would be met with in practice. Let the true number, «, equal 30; the first reading equal 25; we then have: Resatigs a 25 ras 30 param A 2 + (i1+2)= 29 25+30+ 4+ (343)= 65 5 10+ (6+4)= 45 25-+ 304+ 20+ (10+5) = 90 2 + 35+ (154+ 6)= 81 25 + 30-+4 56+ (21 +7) = 139 Differences. M’. M”. M. al . . . 5 27 29 31°5 30°2 36 j . ede . | 20 28 32°5 80°25 ; es o7- 33°5 80°25 58 f It is evident in this case, that even the final mean will be affected with a small constant error; still for practical purposes this difference from the correct quantity will. be far below the unavoidable errors of observation. : As the method with three columns applies to an increasing rate, it is evident that it will apply equally well to one which diminishes, and it hence follows that if the motion decreases till it is zero, and then begins to increase, being affected with the opposite sign, its effects will still be eliminated by the pro- ceeding above HE I proceed now to give some examples to show the character of the results that can be expected from the horizontal pendu- lum under very unfavorable conditions, i. e., when exposed vibration and changes of temperature. All the observations given below were made in the day-time, the quietest portions being selected when comparatively few locomotives and trains of cars were passing; no extraordinary precautions with regard to temperature were employed, the pendulum not being en- closed except in its glass case. All the observations are in the form of determinations of the value of a scale-division, a pro- ceeding well calculated to illustrate the capabilities of the in- strument. The first four constitute a coherent series, the same adjustment of apparatus being used in them all; the others are independent sets made with different adjustments, and intended to illustrate the effects of change of temperature, ete. 452 O. N. Rood—Application of the Horizontal Pendulum to the Determinations of the value of a scale division. In No. 1, after using the micrometer-screw, five readings were taken consecutively, the interval between them being only that required for making the record; in Nos. 2 an single readings only were taken, but each reading is to be regarded as a mental average of at least two or three readings; in No. 4 twenty- ae consecutive readings were taken on each occasion. The mode, on the whole, seems to be to take in each case not ‘ae than five or more than ten rapid readings, and then again to use the micrometer-screw. No. 1. Actual readings. Average. Difference. 54°2 53°2 53° 53°4 27°8 81°5 80°9 81°6 80°8 81°2 27°8 53°5 55° 53°4 53° 52 53°4 29°2 83° 82°3 83° 83° 82 82°6 29°0 56°3 54°2 54° 51°6 52 6 28°1 S2 -8I°° 83" < 83 81°5 81°7 29°6 53°2 52°7 51° 53°5 50°2 52°1 29°4 80°3 81°3 82°8 82° 81:2 81°5 28°2 Although in these observations the temperature seems to have been constant, yet for the sake of uniformity I have pre- ferred to treat them ‘according to the method above described. M’ MM”, 27°8 28°5 28°15 29°1 28°5 28°80 28°8 29°5 29°15 Final average, 28°7 The probable error is 0198 of one scale division; which, with the adjustment then employed, corresponds to TT,300,000 of an English inch. No, 2 Actual readings: ': — Ditt Mw’. Mw”. M. a -, 28 28°25 28°12 mee ie 29°5 30°25 29°87 ra: ee 31°75 30°25 31° ite ae 26°75 26° 26°37 ace are 27° 27°9 27°45 BE anes tes 24°3 29°9 Final average, 28°48 Measurement of changes in the dimensions of Solid Bodies. 458 The probable error is 0°461 of a scale division, which corres- ponds to xz¢d,000 Of an English inch. No. 3. Actual readings. Diff. M’. MM”. M. ve re 29° 30°25 29°62 set a 29:25 30°1 29°67 ee: ry : 32°2 32°1 32°15 pi alt 29°55 29°70 29°62 ie: es 29°15 26°9 28-02 oe stat 28°8 30°9 29°85 iy 27°5 Final average, 29°77 The probable error is 0°31 of a a Neteg ii corresponding to 11,30,000 Of an English inch. It is to be remarked that while these last readings were being sakes thie heavy trains passed. No. 4. Av. of 25 read. _Diff. M’. M”, M. 75°04 29°54 : ‘ ‘ 45°50 29°37 29°45 29°27 29°36 74°87 2971 oes : : 72°40 32°80 Final average, 29°10 39°60 The probable error is 0°16 of a scale division, corresponding to 21,985,000 Of an English inch. Combination of results, 1, 2, 3 and 4. It is evident that the weights of these results are quite dif- ferent; accordingly after taking all things into consideration, I assigned to Nos. 2 and 8 single weights respectively, to No. 1 a double weight, and to No. 4 a three- fold weight. Under these conditions the average of He four sets of observations is 28-99, with a sits ean of re - a scale division, corre- sponding to se,a0 7,008 n English inch In Nos. 1, 2, and in ibe first fear readings of No. 4, there is no decided evidence that the pendulum had any independent motion of its own; in No. 3, its independent srt seems to have been nearly uniform. 454. G. W. Hawes on Diabantite in amygdalordal Trap. I give now a case where the pendulum was affected with a rapid uniform motion: each reading given below is the average of ten rapid readings. No. 5 Readings. Diff. M’. sae M. 101°5 23°1 , i pee 33°4 32°3 32°8 1221 21 : : 1011 41°4 us hee, SAS 142°5 22°12 Final average, 32°14 120°38 The probable error is 0°44 of a scale division, corresponding 0 s,¢s¢,050 Of an English inch. No. 6. Here each reading is the average of twenty-five rapid read- ings: the sign of the motion changed during the observations. Readings. Diff. M’. M”. M. 92°5 53°36 ; 83°40 51°38 : : : 32:02 48°07 49°72 46°13 47°92 80°09 44°19 : 35°90 52°10 48°14 45°35 46°74 38°60 Final average, 47°65 49°40 The probable error is 0-31 of a scale division, corresponding » ¥2,30'3,000 Of an English inch. When it is recollected, that with the best optical and me-- chanical means, it has hitherto been hardly possible to measure quantities smaller than ;55';)3 of an English inch, the field which the use of the horizontal pendulum, even under very unfavorable circumstances, opens, will be easily appreciated. Art. XLIX.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College No. XXXIIL—On Diabantite, a chlorite occurring m the trap of the Connecticut Valley; by GEoRGE W. Hawes. * See this Journal, III, ix, 185, March, 1875. G. W. Hawes on Diabantite in amygdaloidal Trap. 455 various minerals, among which the most common are carbonate of lime, silica and chlorite; the two former substances being naturally produced in the change of the bisilicate, pyroxene, to the unisilicate, chlorite. At one point in the Farmington hills these amygdaloidal cavities are of very large size, often larger than an egg, and in them, with the quartz and calcite, there are large hones masses of siderite possessing a foliated and radiated structure and a dark green color. This association of minerals, which has often been gate senystior te seemed to indicate that this was the chlorite which s distributed through the diabase, and an pay was théréfors made to determine to which member of the chlorite group it belonged. A thin section of one of the masses under the microscope appeared to be perfectly homogeneous, and exhibited a very marked and beautiful dichroism. From a cavity in which the chlorite had thus been shown to be pure, the material was care- fully selected for analysis. Its specific gravity was found to be 2°79; its hardness, 1; and its fusibility 8. The composition obtained was as follows i ii. Mean. Oxygen Silica. ic cio ees 83°25 33°24 17°73 17°73 Alumifisys: sca 11°13 Hee Ae 5°16 5°83 Ferric oxide, -_-. - Fee 215 2°26 67 ‘ Ferrous oxide, . ---25°09 25°12 25°11 5°58 Manganous oxide,. ‘40 “42 “41 LAR) ein! Sseueetews 1:07 1°15 111 32 12°66 MRPUOM His a 16°48 16°54 16°51 6 ni ith tM SO Sa ieee et 25 “25 25 07 Water, minarets hae 9°89 9°93 9°91 8°81 8°81 99°91 99°83 99°87 This analysis gives for the oxygen ratio of the inbigpoigi sesquioxides, silica and water, 4.3: : 8, showing that it 2 proaches very closely to a unisilicate in its composition. In order to ascertain whether this composition remains constant, the analysis was repeated upon another sample selected with ie care from another ee a the following were the results: 5; IL. Mean. Oxygen. Silica, wun 89O6.. < 89770 $868 17°96 17°96 lumina, 10°98 10°75 10°84 5°05 t 590 ‘erric oxide, ._..-- 2°95 Ha 2°86 Ferrous oxide, _.-.24°24 24°43 24°33 5°40 nganous oxide,. °38 38 38 09 Eee cis "712 “73 : “21 12°39 Magnesia... 2. 325. 16°56 16°48 16°52 6°61 Sos ia ee 33 33 08 Water, See ae 10°04 10°01 10°02 8°89 8°89 456 G. W. Hawes on Diabantite in amygdaloidal Trap. This sneivein does not differ essentially from the preceding, and gives an oxygen ratio still nearer to 4:2:6:3. This ratio may therefore be taken as the correct one, “sina it a uni- silicate of the pyrosclerite group with the formula : + 4H1)‘Si? + 3H. Although agreeing with pyrosclerite in oxygen ratio, the much greater proportion of iron appears to authorize its recognition as a distinct species. Dr. K. L. Th. Liebe, in his article on the diabase of the Voigt- land and Frankenwald,* gives analyses of a chlorite of like occurrence which lie carefully selected from specimens panes at several different points, and which he name anta- chronnyn. Although his analyses differ somewhat sea — ere given, it is evident that the material he worked upon very similar to the above, and like it in mode of occurrence and probably the same species. But since his long name, “‘diabantachronnyn,” which was intended, as he says, to ex- press the idea that the mineral is the coloring ingredient of the diabase, does not convey that meaning, the Greek of the latter part of the word not signifying color, and since the name is not in accordance with the principles of mineralogical nomenclature, I have taken the liberty of shortening it to diabantite, which though not expressing all pe Liebe intended to convey, still indicates its relation to dia Chlorites approaching ig species in composition have been often analyzed with varying results oe have received various names ; but the great ease with w decomposition takes place upon such material under artes action makes it easy to derive from ita great number of intermediate products. The seams and cracks of both the diabase and dolerite of this region are often filled with a soft ferruginous chlorite, but which contains varying amounts of sesquioxide of iron, and is not homogeneous. A chlorite of the kind analyzed could hardly be expected to withstand the influence of percolating waters. The amygdaloidal cavities afford additional evidence to that already given, proving that the hydration of these rocks was produced by vapors that gained access to the molten mass dur- ing its ascent to the surface. these cavities often contain bitumen, which in all probability’ was derived from the bitumi- nous shales of the region, and was carried up along with the other products received from the strata and the subterranean streams encountered, aud deposited in the cavities. This bitumen is widely distributed in the amygdaloidal trap, as was * Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1870, p. 1. t+ Kenngott has endeavored to prove that Liebe’s mineral was common ripido- lite; but these analyses show that it has a very di ratio. S. W. Burnham—Re-discovery of the double Sar H I. 41. 457 ica was removed, while the mail amount of alumina re aired, and which was not furnished by the pyroxene, was erived through the slight decomposition of the feldspar, which under the microscope appears to have lost its transparency. ArT. L.—The Re-discovery of the Double Star, HI4i; by S. W. BurRNHAM. HE double star entered as No. 41 of Sir William Herschel’s ag any observer since Herschel’s discovery nearly one hundred years ago, Sir John Herschel, in the catalogue of his father’s double stars (Memoirs of the R. A. &., XXXV), { gives the approx- imate place for 1880 as follows : H. Asse 17 407 me Decl. =+ 73° 0°6' Nothing is said by Sir William Herschel of the magnitudes of the stars, or of the distance, further than that the pair belongs to his Class I. He made two measures of the position angle: Aug. 29th, 1782, P = 350°0° Mch. 7th, 1783, 354°3 A few weeks since this pair was searched io and readily found with a 6-inch refractor very near the place given above. It was identified as Lalande 32725, and its place from that catalogue, reduced to 1880, is: Ri Asm 17°49" 16°0" Decl. =-+ 72° 59’ 10” t I made three sets of measures of the angle, a mean of the result giving, P=840-2°. The components are of the 8th and 9th magnitudes, and separated about 1:2”, so that now it is not a difficult object even with a small aperture. A considerable diminution in the wigs would seem to be beyond doubt, but further observations are necessary to determine positively whether or not this fine sgl isa binary. It is about 46’ north of the well known double star, Y’ Draconis, and easily found without an equatorial mounting. Chicago, May, 1875. * This volume, March, p. 187. 458 Od. Belli—Hlectrical Discharges from circular Disks. Art. LIL.—Brief Contributions ‘as the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College. No. 17.—On the eer as Electrical Discharges from Circular Dike by C. J. BEL THE peculiar figures produced by the electrification of solid dielectrics have been studied by Lichtenberg; b: ezold (Untersuchungen iiber elektrische Staubfiguren, Pogg. Ann., exl, 145, 1870); by Prof. Kundt, Poge. Ann., exxxvi, 612; by Theodore Karrass, Pogg. Ann., exl, 160, 1870; and ne H. Schneebeli, Archives des “Sciences Phys. et Naturelles, xlvi, 269 If a small circular disk is connected with the i inner coating of a charged Leyden jar, and is suspended vertically over a glass plate coated with lycopodium, which rests upon a metallic e Q. , Plate connected with the outside coating of Sse the jar, a number of points of disturbance “will be seen on the glass beneath the rim of \ the oe disk, as in the accompanying td ] The following investigation was under- \ : taken to discover the law which regulates Oe” the number of points hy greatest electrical om 5 * disturbance shown by the small circles in the figure. The apparatus used was arranged as follows: the telescope of a cathetometer was removed, and an insulated arm substituted for it. To this arm was clamped i in a vertical posi- tion a copper wire, at the lower end of which were attached the various circular disks used in the experiments. These disks Ruhmkorf coil. The dielectrics, consisting of glass plates, 17 cm. square and 1 em. thick, rested u upon the plate of metal. Six circular disks of different diameters were used, whic were placed above the glass acd at a constant distance from it. Six experiments were made with each plate. The results are contained in the following table: i Calculated cen : | * | : . ° 8 | ‘number. 41 mm.; 14 14; 13 | 14| 14] 14 sansa 34 ii eis io et 11°6 29 oe i. O+ 10) 40 9; 10 10° 20°5 7 8 Y f 7 8 7 sh 15°5 6 5 | 5 6 6 5 5° 11°25 4 5| 4 5 3 4 4° A. W. Wright—Gases from the Meteorite of Feb. 12,1875. 459 The number of discharges was closely proportional to the diameter of the circular disks, or to their circumferences. The Art. LIL— Preliminary Note on an Examination of Gases from the Meteorite of February 12, 1875; by AntHuR W. WRIGHT. By the courtesy of President Thacher, of the State Univer- sity of Iowa, the writer has received some fragments of this ng. numerous small grains of metallic iron, and not greatly differing in appearance from others of its class. quantity of the iron, having been separated, was found to contain several times its volume of gaseous substances, much of which it yielded on a very moderate elevation of tempera- ture. The spectroscope plainly indicated the predominance of carbon compounds, and an analysis showed that very nearly one half the gas was made up of the two oxides of that ele- ment, the approximate a being ; CO,, 35; CO, 14; the two together, 49 per cent. The residue consisted largely of hydrogen, but the exact proportion was not determined. These relations show a are difference between the iron and Am. Jour. Sor. THIRD a TX, No. 54.—Jung, 1875. 460 J. W. Mallet-—Inmonite with the color of Gothite. the stony meteorites as to their gaseous contents, as in the for- mer the hydrogen is most abundant, while in ‘the latter the oxides of carbon are the characteristic constituents. e spectrum of the gases, at a few millimeters AeereleBé. meteoric character of these bodies. A more extended and par- ticular account of the investigation will be given in the next number of this Journal. Yale College, May 22, 1875. Art. LIII.— On Limonite with the Color and Translucency of Gothite ; by Prof. J. W. MAuuet, Univ. of Virginia. THE specimen which is the subject of this notice was received with other minerals from Capt. F. M. Imboden, of Richmond, Va., having come from the land of Dr. F. H. Griffin, near Big Lick, Roanoke Co., Va. Passing through ordinary compact limonite there were veins of a quarter to half an inch in thickness, distinctly translucent on the edges of splinters, and having a deep lor by transmitted light—by reflected light nearly black, with a luster between adamantine and resinous. Streak yellowish brown. Massive, with no traces of crystalline or oe struc- H° C. ture. Hardness a little over 5. Sp. gr =38-76 at 1 Analysis gave BO ee OA ee oe ares Be ee Se a ee BEG A ir che ees in oo) 26 ee ee Cas Bere oat 2°38 Bc cde eligi 51 Laure) Any Sesto wee iege) 14-95 =99°73 The inca was lost at the following rate with increasing tempera At 100° C. (for: three hours), - Cer ES 70 Pp. ©. BO ON ee ee “ 200° a ee Ce sae “ « 950° “ce “ erring sat 5-01 “ waved Nest 9 Gk ee 3°74 = 14°95 p.c. If 2°68 p.c. of Fe,O, be deducted as combined with the 2°38 of P,O, to form ferric ortho-phosphate (FePO,), and the Chemistry and Physics. 461 water lost at 100° (supposed eeope) and the other minor constituents be neglected, we have | Cale. for Fe,H,O, yea Fe gQdininsas es Wet. | ABO) tees 85°5 5 eee ae 196.4 Ate 14-44 100° 100° The assumption of the P,O, ane as a hydrated phos- phate, with even as much w ater in cacoxene or the basic salts ‘Acccned by Ramevenls fe) not suffice to bring the remaining ferric hydrate into accordance with the formula of gothite. The mineral is obviously limonite in pices Pie oben while: the blood-red color has not, so far as Ia e, before een noticed in connection with ea Beis , but He been looked upon as characteristic of gét ow far the large amount of phosphorus present may te any relation to the peculiar appearance of the mineral may be questioned. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcs. seems to have arise m a statement of Hiller, that the hydrate is formed when bvabdehibns acid gas is into a solution of hypochlorous acid co 0 0°, But since HCl HOCI react itat aa mercurous chloride; and were the formula HOCI+HC1 + (Hl Vis the right one, that product must be mercuryl chloride, me, finally, in presence of s Experim a mercuric oxide, the matter ys Cl, +HOH=HC1+HOCL. Cl, ot sichieme gels a: To this view Hueo Scurrr, in a subsequent paper, decidedly objects, pier the scat entirely insufficient. He gives quite : 462 Scientific Intelligence. number of facts to prove the contrary.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 287, 419, March, April, 1875. 2. On the Constitution of Ammonium Compounds. —The ques- tion of fixed or a saaiesietion is yet a vexed one in Chemis- try. V.Muyur and Lecco have made an investigation to ascer- tain whether nitrogen has in the ammonium compounds an equivalence of three or five. On the aed Hodgson the con- stitution of ammonium chloride would be : H---Cl; the latter it would be H,=!=N—.—CL "The ‘method by which the authors purposed to test the question was to submit to minute comparison the two di-methyl di-ethyl derivatives of ammonium, which may be thus formulated: N CH, +C,H,Cl, and H gtts C,H, N Daan If ge be a . these two bodies found to be tAsatient, The h ppothéais that ammonium chloride id seem, therefore, to be negatived, and the quinquivalence of nitrogen in all the ammonium eriva- tives established.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 233, repent he 3. On Methyl aldehyde and Methyl formate.—Methyl ‘aidan yae was prepared by Hofmann, the discoverer, by passing a mixture of receiver, one or two wash bottles, and an ohare The current of air is "regulated so that the coil does not appear red in da “light, w yet it is sufficiently hot to prevent condensation in the adapter. If the aspiration be continuous, it is only necessary to keep the lamp filled in order to have the process continuous. "Phe author collected in his experiments 90 to 100 grams of liqui = receiver in twenty-four hours, By the warmth of the hand it reduced in a few minutes a solution of ammonio-silver nitrate and Chemistry and Physics. 463 gave a brilliant mirror. Saturated with hydrogen sulphide, it became a magma of crystals of methyl sulph-aldehyde. Estimated by its reducing power, however, the liquid a magi but a little more than ‘5 of one per cent. of aldehyde. The author subse- quently prepared methyl formate, by distilling methyl alcohol recently saturated with hydrochloric gas, from calcium formate, r ale ote: ‘carbonic ‘eee jarhauke acid, ‘and marsh gas, the two latter in small proportion. —Liebig’s Annalen, elxxvi, 128, Feb., 1875. . Be 4, Composition of oe mh Pte —Gmavp hasmadea minute oe of the chemical characters of gum cee e on the water bath for tw enty-four hours, with fifty times its sep water, much of it is transformed into a soluble e gum, which no ayia swells after drying; this new substance is pectin; (3) that under the action of water containing one per cent of acid, the production of pectin takes place in two or three hours. It be- comes entirely soluble, and abe pr dolrlitates pectin, not arabin, from the oa Alkalie s change it into Ash and meta- ectates. Hence gum tragacanth consists for the most part of a pec- tic principle tipi ble in water, apparently identical ‘with Fremy’s pectose, From it, by precipitating the pectin solution by barium emitinipiale ater’ Sotastatbiee te sat. April 875 4 , has sought to throw some light upon it by carefully examining malted barley for both these Ayes ces. Five kilograms of d barley grams ninety-five per cent alcohol, ne e wid oth liquid mixed nana pe than one-fourth its weight of water. “The ower aqueous layer, treated with a little barium hydrate, was ened filtered, and polarized. It rotated to the right, but contained two sugars, one reducing the ~~ er test, the other not. Upon evaporation to ? dryness and extraction with alcohol, the two sugars were sepa- rated by fra oak phonies: In this way 0°6 of one - of hphiveert ir wa ined from the ma 464 Scientific Intelligence. defined forms, and does not reduce the copper test. In its optical behavior, therefore , as well as in its physical and chemical proper- ties, it appears to be identical with cane sugar. e malt-residue extracted with water, yielded a solution from which alcohol pre- cipitated a substance in white flocks, which is ay | to, but is chemically not identical with, dextrin.— Ber. Ber ape em. Ges., viii, 202, March, 1875. a ae 6. Carbo nyles, a new Class of Organic Bodies.—M. Nace 8 has recently instituted a new class of organic bodies, to which he has given the name of carbony/les, and to which he assigns three bakes hitherto pathos ambiguous in chemical behavior. These are: allylene oxide (dimethylene carbonyle), CO 1 ny ) diphe- 2 nylene-acetone (diphenylene carbonyle, co } oon] and ordinary s Se arbonv! cof Gs ih }- Suberone, C aH 529; d eel, "polongy: here also, The distinguishing feature of car- bonyles is their double function. In the firs t place, they act like aldehydes, being able to fix hydrogen directly and to produce alcohols; while, like aldehydes, they are re-produced by the dehydrogenization of these alcohols. Again, like aldehydes, they may be sane the direct or indirect oxidation of hydrocar- bons; as ethylene we and oxygen, C,H,(H,)-++0, pro- duces atin spiced My C,H ,(O), so camphene hydride and oxygen, 16 2) +0, roduces eamphor, C,,H,,(O), by indirect oxidation ; and as ethylene by direct oxidation esr ethyl alde- hyde, C, H ene .(O), so camphene, C ,, lH, ,+0, gives cam- phor, C, ae: : “But, secondly, tt is to be observed that while aldehydes are Noo ed by the de Maan oxidation of saturated hydrocarbons, carbonyles result from the indirect oxidation of unsaturated hydrocarbons, is is a very material difference, since, beside its aldehydic function, Fea carbonyle molecule is unsaturated, and can unite directly with other unsaturated mole- cules. He ence, like carbonyl itself, sons which these bodies take their name , they ¢ an fix directly the oy eg of water and orm monobasic acids; as CO+HOH=CHO , formic acid, so C0}G oe +HOH=C, H,O., propionic acid. So also, by reason of this unsaturation, they can unite directly with three atoms of oxygen to form dibasic acids; camphor, C,,H, ,O, for et forming with 0, AT diy Oe , camphorie acid. So, conversely, t removal of water and carbon dioxide from a single molecule of'a a ibado acid, yields a carbonyle, differing from the analogous pro- duction of acetones by the fact that the removal in the latter case is from two molecules of a — acid. Regarding all hydro- carbons as derivatives of mars or formene, the formation of the three classes of at Pliny "them by indirect oxidation med be represented as follows Chemistry and Physics. 465 Hydrocarbons, Aldehydes, Hydrocarbons. OH, me) CH,.C CH,.CH ; CH,.CH,O 2 C,H,CH, «Lia C,H, .CH,O cH OH Got, tit C.H,CH, C,H, .CH,O 6 Hydrocarbons. Carbonyles. aldehydes or acetones. CH, | — Core CH, .CO.CH, 0,1, CH, [= Car; Col C,H, -CO.C,H, © C,H, . CH, yield { C,H, . COf= 6-H, 0O.C H.C A= On Te C,H 2: Copa ©; HCH, C1 ,H,.CO author gives in conclusion the evidence that camphor itself alongs to this class of poses and says that had he not peetaied to found a new class of bodies on a single compound, he would ong ago aa roposed to ciate camphor as a aut g e.— Bull. Soc hh xxiii, 146, Feb., 1875 aan of Hydroaylamine by the reduction of ° Dinitro- compounds.— Whenever a nitro-organic derivative, in which but a Ow g o) mented to picatiaga kee would be the result on reduction if tw such groups were so united. For this purpose they selected the divitropropane CH,---C(NO,),—--CH, recently discovered by them, and introduced it into difute hydrochloric acid containing metallic tin. In a short time the Mavs Ste had disappeared, and the solution, after removal of the tin by hydrogen sulphide, afforded on evaporation pure aa ea at hydrochloride. The organic reduction-product was acetone, so that the reaction is as follows: CH,—--~C(NO,),—--CH »+H,=CH, -.-CO-.-CH, (NH,O), +H, O. EthyLnitrolic acid reacts similarly, yielding nearly the theoretic quantity. Nitroform, however, combines both reactions, yielding beside hydroxylamine, hydrogen SyanIe, and ammonia.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 215, March, hy “ = 8. Viscosity of Gases.—Capt. A, von Gonteucen es com- pared the previous determinations of this quantity, and states that of the two hypotheses from which the dynamical theory of gases start, the older gives the co-efficient of fricti , 7 tional to the square root, the newer (Maxwell’s) gives it prnece: tional to the first power of the absolute temper: F found experimentally the power 1, O. E. Mayer the mney “| experiments on capillary tubes O. E. Mayer found the power i, Puluj the power $ of the absolute temperature or the more certain determination of this ratio, experiments on currents see four capillaries of glass and one of brass were undertaken; and together with the temperature of the room Gan of boiling siee congealing paraffin, and a mixture of salt and 466 Scientific Intelligence, snow were employed. A first series of experiments, less oir: were carried out, with the difference of pressure varia a sec- ond, consi erably more exact, with the difference prea og The results of the two series agree very well, and confirm those of Mayer’s experiments in a shai: satisfactory manner. For the co-efficient of friction jc at the temperature ¢ there were found : According to the first series, s¢ = -0001706 (1+4-002735 ¢). According to the second series, 44 = ‘00016477 (1-+-"002723 ¢). —Roy. Acad. of Vienna, Feb. 4th, 1875; Phil. Mag., ae $32, P. 9. Specific Heat of Carbon, Boron and Silicon. he TL F. WeEsER presented a paper on ‘this subject at the fift ‘sixth anni- versary of the Royal Witirtemberg Land and Forest Management Academy at Hohenheim. ‘The law of Dulong and Petit, that the product of the specific heat by ahi § atomic weight i is constant, holds true for most of the solid elements. Carbon, boron and silicon, however, seem to deviate considerably from this law, and give dif- ferent ae ph in their various allotropic Spit, comparison the ts of different observers shows that while they differ very pies ey from one another, the larger the interval of tempera- ture e co se hte the greater the result. Dr. ber has accordingly made a series of Sr ae at temperatures from — 80° to 1,000°. The amount of heat was determined by Bunsen’s ice cal orimeter, vig the seiiparattiss when below 300° by a thermometer ; f er temperatures the ~The firs ¢ erpetiinened were on the specific heat of the diamond. The collections of the Universities of Berlin and Vienna were graphite, and leads to the following cman sions :—That from a red heat upward, the specific heat of carbon does not vary more than the specific. heats of those element which fulfil the law of that of the diamond modification of carbon. malies, therefore, disappear above 600° C.,and carbon then obeys the abo parison of the specific heats of graphite, of PA oon dense amorphous carbon and of porous carbon showed that they were identical within the temperature interval 0° to 225°. A unit weight of porous carbon, as far as possible free from water, evolves 4°16 heat-units when wetted with water In the case of boron two hundred small crystals were used, hav- ing a total weight of 67 grams. The observations were extended from —40° to + 230° A showed a similar increase to that of carbon. It is, therefore, very probable that at higher Sl a tures the specific heat attains a constant value of ‘about “50, and consequently the number 11, which is generally sisitat ‘a the re and Physics. 467 atomic weight of boron, is really the atomic weight; further - the atomic heat of boron is about 5°5, and t at therefore at a heat boron obeys the law of. Dulong ‘and Small brilliant steel gray crystals of siliau niclahing 1°123 grams, were next employed. From’ these it was shown that silicon does not form an xeanthions —— on the ‘law of Dulong and Petit; so soon as the peo passes 200° it comes within the sphere of this law. The smallest anor plier of silicon (28) hitherto found in aba salable of any of the gaseous compoun of this en is in reality the atomic weight of — —Prhil. Mag., xlix, 16 6. OR Action a Electrie Currents on Alloys.—M. E. preniare at the cee of M. hac agryl has tested the ee of Gerar- din on the electrolytic d ical of alloys. A series of ex- hetipscte were made ie which he sctkalnies that the passage of action of the current sale be mitt the har von mers me mallea- bility of the ead pe tin alloys, nor the fluidity of he potassium sodium alloys. It introduces in the nei ighborhood of ihe electrodes no change exceeding d the limits of at error in the ana cg — Univ cevil, 2 ‘ 768 that on :iserting ina a beers a sn i pace two elee- ee é of alumi t obt ikea: according to the direction of the current. When boar aluminum receives the negative electricity the water is dec posed and the current traverses the circuit freely. But on eal ing the current the igs om geiaeee ceases and sy any elec- and not even heated in the 4 second. " galvanometer gave in one case a deflection of 22° and in the other of only 2°. e effect is produced instantly; it is constant and durable whatever the ego Bs of inversions of the current. If other metals are used instead of pins they are deposited on the aluminum and interfere with the experiment This stoppage of the current is not produced by a plate of gold, silver, pepERny copper, zinc, magnesium, tin, lead, ete., replacing the a ‘ i effect is produced with iron, but the surface is soon ‘altered, with the iivenape aims of a bad odor. As to the aluminum, its su appears to be preserved by a slight layer of alumina which is f peed immediately, and remains, in spite of the inversion of the current. Many practical si gga god * this property suggest themselves. wo messages may be sent over a telegraph line at the same time in opposite ‘directions fs using fom voltameters with the aluminum on opposite sides. All trouble from variable resistance is thus avoided.—Journ. de Phys., iv, 84. 468 Scientific Intelligence. Il GroLocy anp Naturat History. . The Surface Geology of Ohio; by J. 8. Newserry. 80 pp. From the Report of the e Geological $ Survey of Ohio, vol. 11. — and the adjoining States, and the conclusions to which his arious observations have led him. The successive events of the Quaternary, which he gives in the opening part of the chapter, are briefly as follows: (1.) The period of cold and the great glacier over New England and the region west, — of the Ohio, during which the land stood se its present lev (2.) A ame of lower seach milder climate, retreating glaciers, great freshwater lakes; and also of the depos osit of the bowlder clay, — - usually thinly laminated in Ohio and contains no bowlders ; also of extended forests _ i of the region le bare by ra sence of the glacier from Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, and of the formation of peat beds, in whieh ‘occur the remains of the Mastodon, Elephant, Castoroides, et age A furth er subsidence, ranonse the “Mississippi an arm of the about them by the waves; when certain drai nage lines were determined, as those along the valleys. of the Wabash, Scioto, Muskingum and the Beaver. (4.) A very gradual “ retirement of the sea,” with “intervals of deposition of the materials they transported in the dead water which partially filled these valleys;” the gradual draining of the lake-region, leaving old shore lines around the lakes with terraces or lake ridges in some parts of their circuit The eras of elevation, subsidence, sind subsequent — indicated in § 1, 2 and 3, and 4, are those which the writer has detined as the Glacial, Champlain or Fluvial, and Recent or : Tank ae periods. marine relics of the era of submergence (§ 3) are stated to oni _ the region that is supposed to have been then under the o the deposits then made; that is, in the less along the Micceunes River, or the beds of Southern Ohio. In fact, the ils found are those of the land or of fresh water, and have led others to regard the deposits as simply of river origin. Indeed, Geology and Natural History. 469 this seems to be the opinion which Dr. Newberry presents in his chapter on the less, pages 36-3 Dr. N euler 3 follows the announcement of his conclusions by an account of his observations on Drift deposits of Ohio, the old deserted and buried river eas of the State and elsewhere, the heights and asp nine of the lake ridges, and on other topics of interest. The more ieee lake ridges south of Lake Teri as shown on oan the “ North ridge,” nearest the lake, 99 to 105 feet in hedght above the lake; the “ Center ridge,” 148 to 162 feet ; and the uth ridge,” 200 to 205 feet. Others also are named: the “Coe “i ” which may be identical with the last, 180 to 200 feet; the “ Sugar ridge,” 165 to 167 feet; the “ Chest- nut ridge,” 189 to 191 feet. How far the different levels of these lake-ridges are due to differences, existing before the elevation, in the level of the high-water flats along the lake-borders, and to the existence of other mud or sand flats under water at a and after an elevation, they would exist as terrace plains and be of different heights because retaining their former differences of level. fi the remarks on the origin of the cold of the Glacial period, Dr. Newberry gives his objections to the theory of Lyell, and States, in the course of hisremarks, that this theory is sthat advoe ated ag pS] Ss be] me “2 & m Ss 5° er Cy SS ie mF “dS, a ct [se] ea co or oe i ie i] lad ps] af = a mR me | ~s* ewberry has labored long and zealously among the Quaternary deposits of Ohio and the adjoining States, and his — on the subject is one ahins may be studied with = oe get of Dr. Dawson, a sone related to the Taine —Dr. Dawson’s view that the Prototavites Logani of the Dev ian of Gaspé, — be regarded as a sea-weed, a surge ruthers, appears to be sufficiently ciara of the ical Journal ” for yon seh 1873) that “ the mo oce el sufficient” to convince any practical calnknkobonin = an lait _— - ~ a sea-weed. Its large dimensions, one specimen found at Gaspé Bay being three feet in diameter ; its cindeaes forth pov lateral branches, — gnarled roots; its occurrence with land "plants in beds where there are no and which must have been a posited in water too shallow to render marine organisms, an sh * For a figure, see Dana’s Manual of Geology, 1874, page 258. 470 Scientific Inielligence. possible the existence of the large oceanic Algz to which Mr. Carruthers likens the plant—these are all ioetisielin requiring us to suppose that the plant grew on the lan urther, the — are preserved in sandstone, retaining their rotundity of for n when prostrate; and are thoroughly iemecers with bllicn exoept the thin coa aly bark. Not only are Alge incapable of occurring in this way, but even the less dense and durable Ase. as Sigillarize and Lepidodendra are never found thus pre- ved. Only very beds in which these occur, ses acoso tree ferns and Psilophyton, are flattened into mere coaly films. This absolutely proves to any one having experience in the mode of occurrence of fossil plants, that here we have to deal with a strong and dura- ble woody plant The paper Saeciok _ the microscopic structure of the fossil, = its probable affinitie . Fossil Vertebrates of Cretaceous and Tertiary affinities in ae: same beds on the Saskatchewan.—Prot. Cope has examined fossils collected by G. M. Dawson in beds of the “ Fort Union Group,” from a horizon 100 to 200 feet above the beds of Creta- ceous No. 5. They include among Dinosaurs, Cionidon stenopsis age! {about the size of C. uretatus Cope) and a species related to Hudrosaurus. ut with these species of Cretaceous pores! there are two tortoises of' the genus Plastomenus Cope (P. es- cens aud P. eostatus Cope), a genus of the eevee and sls of gars, closely resembling those of the genus Clastes of the Lower ° Eocene of the Rocky Mountains. “The list of eobelen* says ea “short as it is, indicates the future se i of a complete transi- tion from retaceous to Eocene life clearly than mw oe obtained in the a vs See Rocky Moestale: region).—Proe. A Nat. Sci. Philad., yh 4. Systemutic Sisley of Ver tebrata of the Eocene of New Mexico, collected in 1874, EK. D. Corr, A.M., Paleontologist. 38 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1875. Ge eographical explorations and sur- veys under asset Wheeler, - the Engineer De ph matinee, ia for it appears to since evidence as to the chicos through which the gangue rock of the platinum had p: Geology and Natural History. 471 6. The Geological Story briefly told, an Introduction to Geol- ogy for the General Reader and it beginners in the Science ; by James D. Da 264 pages, 12mo, with numerous illustrations. aylor ges nd structur ocks, it takes up, in past IL the se seen of Causes in Geology and their Effects, Under this head it ex plains, first, the making of rocks (including the preparing of the material) through - agency of plants and animals, through the quiet work of air and moisture, through heat,—the last topic including the effects of contraction and expansion, the formation of volcanic and vat — rocks, and the subjects of solidification, metamorphism mineral veins. Then, siren i» treats of the making of ew oma all depres- sions on the h’s surface ; and, thirdly, of the making and shap- ing of hills sr ‘mountains, (1) by igneous ejections, (2) by the erosion of elevated lands, and (3) - seg upturving and flexures of rocks, and bending of the earth’s eru art II, neeneete: sed spat mea up Historical Geology, de- scribing the rocks tha orming, the most pro puree kinds of plants and animals i a oi living, ihe mountains that were making, and other events, during each of the successive ages in the course of geological time; and ends with a brief review ‘of the progress of life. This volume is handsomely printed, and contains several cuts not in the Manual of Geo 7. Catalogue of Lower Siturian Fossils of the Cincinnati Gone Sound within He or 50 miles of Cine —— vith descrip- Te orals and io, Cincinnati. see edition, songs enlarged, i pp- weer Bv0. Cincinnati, rye — si ba new species describe James are Chete yt. Dincetine, C. Censinnoene sis, C. (? O Nealli, Ateolites 2) gra spss Ceram mopora Nichol- soni, Ptilodictya acuminata and Alecto igin of the Lower Silurian (paca of York and Adams emeatiak a a ania ; bail Prrsiror F Razer, in hil. nean Soci jety, fills over 300 q uarto pages of sci 472 Sctentific Intelligence. in the legumes of Mimoseew. The group, which now numbers 1200 species, under 29 genera, was first put into good order by sre Ben —e about 30 years ago; and he has now taken occa- to e it completely, while studying the South American wate Phd ihe Flora Brasiliensis, after having re-examined the Australian ones for his /lora Austr ‘alien. The generic characters, founded mainly on the stamens, of which he made happy use in the former monograph, have stood the test, as being the best as well as the readiest ; and his facile arrangement has approved it- self to other botanists as one sha ca as well as to his own enlarged experience. He ha w brought in a new subsidiary shniadier; that of the presence or pabotinis of albumen in the seeds, his, for instance, is prese n Mimosee but vi in the Acaciee nd In ngew, i. e., the tribes with i ndefinite stamens. As to genera, the adage “ by their fruits ye shall know them,” Showed true it may be elsewhere, has little application here. "This is illustrated y the figures of "the pods of various ose and Acaciew sub- joined to ‘the memoir, and is shown in the letterpress by a general discussion of the facts. As to geographical distribution, it is in- teresting to note that Mr. Bentham reduces the number of species really common to the New and to the Old World, without any evi- lence or r r not rarely wafted across the Atlantic by the Gulf Stream, is one ; if of African origin, the trade-wind current may have given it to the West Indies. Veptunia oleracea is a tropical aquatic, con- jecturally of South American origin, the seeds of which may have orgs the Atlantic ; Mimosa asperata, probably also American, e so readily accounted for in Africa; and the fourth, mane Farnesiana, is still more puzzling ; but it would seem somehow to have found its way from Western South America to Australia and the oem ‘Arohipelago before the days of Colum- us; yet in all four cases, the want of ocr is thonght to indicate a ooniparatively modern dispersi Of distinct but closely representative ns in oat two sete haben Mr. Bentham enumerates nine pai He t have added the case of two in sular species, Acacia hecropgta of Mauritius, and A. Koa of the Sandwich Islands, only that he doubts if ‘the two are sufli- ciently distinct. Seventeen of the 29 genera are restricted to one of the two bac ee! ame but nine of these have only from one to derivation, we cann ot sav settee The s sje is treated after the manner adopted in the m r on Cassia and that on Com- posite. Remarking the great pontorlin predominance of the order in all its tribes, the author acu vi remarks that “this high degree of recent luxuriance and prosperity of American = however, can by no means be relied upon as evidence as to local origin, or even as to comparative remoteness of antiquity; for rei may rather Geology and Natural History. 473 fri Islands, and sec analy in the Malayan perce terion ” But t search for original ere ei as he intimates, leads only througlt hazardous conjectures into t obscurity. Our notice is con- fined to the few prefatory ‘adie: on account of their general in- terest. As to the monograph itself, it is a model, in —— and substance. The nominative specific characters make vag orable presentation of that mode. Still, where cent important, the single sentence and the ‘prevalent ablative case A. G 10. Flora of British Satie, ‘by J. D. Hooker, C.B., etc., assisted by various botanists, Vol. I, pp. 740, 8vo. Reeve & Co., London. 1872-1875.—The third part, issued at the close of the past winter, brings this important work up to the close of the own hands, is otherwise mainly the work of three or four English della bees chia who have been enlisted in it, Messrs. Bennett, Hiern, and Lawson, and also Dr. Masters, the latter a botanist of no little experience. ‘The a botanists at all capable of this kind of work are few; accessions _ the number are heartily to be welcomed. By their ides under Dr. Hooker’s efficient — Vision, we may hope that this st undertaking will - fe uly carried through. Migrs, On the Lecythidacee.—A splendid memoir, ey 64 pages and 33 plates, large quarto, forming the second part of the 30th volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Societ ety, ote a wonderful piece wed work for a man of Mr. Miers’ great a: He r he Lecythide pendent order. The plates illustrate the floral structure ‘of the twelve genera which the author recognizes, and the fruits of most of them. It is a remarkably interesting group, consisting of huge trees, all tropical American, with singular flowers and large woody ke seeds, 0: which Brazil-nuts (from Bertholletia excelsa) and Sapucaia-nuts from a species of Lecythis) are well-known examples. Few botan- ists have had the opportunity of properly studying these noble plants, and no one has devoted to them so much nssmeaibe as fe veteran Miers. “12. 474 Scetentific Intelligence. mere notes and indications by his ——- and from his own _ studies of the rich materials which were ready to his hand. spraneranee Sdre any particular reference to "the contents, after p. 48, Mr. Baker’s name would be used. The peg edition was issued, in successive aes Shyam 1865 and 1868. new one has lon ng been wanted, and still is so, in a certain sense. For, although the editor has “endeavored in this edition to briefly characterize and fit into their places the new discoveries and the plants found upon fuller information to have been inadequately dealt with in the first,” he has not been able to deal with them quite freely. The pages are in stereotype, so that the body of the old work has been reprinted—no doubt with corrections as far as might be—and the additions are collected in an appendix of 75 pages, followed by a good new index to the whole. This must serve for the present, and Penta will be very thankful for the new help. But we hope that Mr. Baker, in due time, will re- Semen the ict completely. . Grisesacn, Plante Lorentziane.—An elaborate paper, “of 13. pages and two plates, 4to, separately issued from the 19th volume of Transactions of the Royal Society of Sciences of Gottin- gen, 1874. It describes a good collection of plants of the Argen- tine Republic made by Prof. Lorentz of cue It is prefaced by a brief account of the region, followed by some remarks upon the more interesting plants of the collection, under their natural orders. Many new species are proposed and a few new genera. a scribed; also a new “ genus, valde anomalum,” Sterrhymenia, which is appended to the order, — with Cardiopteris! ada ig $s ecb is not appare ical ributions seen in the Pvonietinns oy ne American Academy oe Arts and Science colon x, 1875.—Thi Plants, with a ee of the Western Species of Silene ; by Sereno Watson. pp. 333-350. Thespecies of Ceanothus, mainly Californian, had i difficult of determination. They ar which ~~ Geology and Natural History. 475 nia, the determination of which led to a study of all our western Silenes. The results are ce esipeions in a foot-note oe the diagnoses of 21 speci At this rate we may rival Europe. List of the Marine pie of the United States, with notes sof New and Imperfectly Known Species; by W. G. Fartow. 1- 280. The a aig papers bear the date of —, (April, 1875) as well as that of presentation, which it is well to know. It is omitted in gpl 3 ie. Farlow’s neat and useful paper; but copies had. reached us before the 1st of May. _ species of the to 430, of which 54 are a se Dr. Harv sete Ws Nereis (1857), and three or sass are new. es are numerous and critical. We understand that Picken? feclow intends to follow = this paper with other publications _ our Alge. . Danizn aa y.—Not long ago we called sews ‘ a most valuable book; the Pharmacographia or History of Drugs, by Prof. Flickiger of ‘St asburg and Daniel es of London, of rags extended similar works by t c English author. We now sadly to record the decease of Mr. Hanbury, of enteric typhoid, on the 24th of March, at his ia on Clapham Com- mon, in the 50th year of his age. The obitu aa sie biographical notices which have appeared in the London scientific journals, in the Proceedings of the learned Societies, as eer as oe pape tributes to an endeared memory, have given expre sio oss which has been sustained, and delineated the outlines i a most worthy and winning c aracter, The loss is his line o dept in ee e, a keen botanist, and a most assiduous and conscien- : ify he might devote his powers and acquisitions without distraction to the natural History of drugs and — vegetable — He had already done much: more than sixty articles on- tributed by him to a ese journal, the editor of wiioie, rie cles that : the quality of what he did was almost faultless,” that “h apers. His first — ished paper, “On Turnsole,” appeared in 1850; his latest, on the “ Countess Chinchon and the Cinchona genus,” appeare red, we Bo his death, in “The Academy” of the third of Apri ‘An ardent botanist and lover of sige he — much in the south of Europe, accompanied explorations of Lebanon, and took an active uber pola = M. Jour, Scr.—TuHtrp ee Vor. IX, No. 54 —Junn, 1875. 476 Scientific Intelligence. in the introduction of officinal plants and in n orngmenie: cultiva- ‘tion. ith one villa- garden on the shores of the Mediterra- nean—that of his brother at Moxtnle—tle is memory to us is indel- ibly associated. Although remarkably self-reliant, Mr. Hanbury was the opposite of self-asserting or ambitious ; but his sterling ch him to all who knew him. ith the sense of personal fons ‘his ipa and promise is ge short, and that in a line in which, it o be feared, he lea no successor. Hanburia Mexicana, a potiens adanétapcona. genus, commemorates his services to Botany. : 16. The Crustaceans of the Caves of 7 gies. y and Indiana ; by 8. I. Sarru.—Through the courtesy of Dr. Packard of Salem, wells at iddletown, Conn. Since this note was first n, I have examined several specimens of this last species, pie nasal b x i ae Thacher, under stones in a small brook, near New Hav m this it seems not at all improbable that the — ea "Kentucky and Indiana—and very likely e eyeless, cave species of other age telanad still be found in the surtace streams of the same re gio colorless in life, and are probably only imperfect organs of vision, although the structure of the facets can be distinctly made out. Geology and Natural History. 477 The other differences are all very slight, scarcely suflicient to dis- tinguish the subterranean form as a species, and certainly so slight that they would almost surely be overlooked if the two forms As the crustaceans have recently been several times referred to as wren re the partially marine origin of the cave fauna of th rn States, a word in regard to their affinities may not be out e Crangonyx vitreus Smith, Mammoth Cave; C. Packardii Smith, wells, Ind.; Cacidotea stygia Packard caves and w ells, Ind., Asellus, a Se cae fresh water genus. The Z icwsa was found also o put side the caves sa is allied to other terrestrial genera e Cauloxenus, a Lernean parasite of the blind fish, 18 80 poorty Jeunes and Sneey nasal the genera of the whole ich it belongs are so difficult and a ee i that it is useless to speculate on its exact affinities. In o Western and Southern States, species of perch, eg mes the siscowet, lake white-fish, species of Catostomus and s, and other fresh water fish » are — with different gus Lerneans, and there is no mo ason for regardin 8 arine form” than any of te As might we call a Cambarus or a Crangonyx a marine form because the great majority of the ao of the orders to which they belong are marine. Considering the crustaceans alone, I can sec no reason for supposing that the taal of the caves of Kentucky and Indiana has been derived from any other source than the recent 17. United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. _ Part together with extended accounts of what has been aceomplis in the way of artificial ee of the fishes, and their intro- i i fe n all parts of the United States, lowing summary of contents :—Inquiry into the decrease of the food 4 shes; Action in regard to propagation of food-fishes (shad, * 478 Screntifie Intelligence. Maine salmon, Rhine salmon, geen salmon, white-fish) ; Mul- ripped of fish in general, including a history of fish-culture the species of Seuss or whit aa sh, by J. w. Miner; De- scriptions of the North American species of salmon and trout, by George Suckley; The Salmon of the Danube, or the hucho ‘and its mtroduction into American waters, b B. H el; Report of McCloud River, and on the ae Salmonide generally, by Livingston Stone; several interesting pa on the salmon and trout of other parts of the United States and Canada, by Mr. Stone, Chas. Lanman \tkins C Ss 8, arrow, and others; several valuable papers giving ac- counts of the shad and the shad fisheries in all the principal rivers, both southern and no orthern, together with accounts of the vari- s experiments made in the artificial increase of sh: d; and detailed account by Mr. Milner of the mode of propagation oe canes introduction of young shad into the various rivers and lakes, by the U. 8. Commissioner; also a detailed history of fish culture, Thoth in ee and this cage sal “ See epee of kins, ©. Edmunds, M. McKennie, J. F. Ingalls, and J. W. Milner. Appendix F is devoted to invertebrate Zoology, and includes a descriptive paper on the her fresh-water Crustacea of the northern United States, and one on crustacean parasites of fishes, with agian and figures of a number of new species, by S. I. Smith ; a synopsis of the fresh-water leeches, by A. E. Leta Sketch of the invertebrate fauna of Lake Superior, by S. 1 Sm Food of fresh-water fishes, by 8. I. Smith; Natural History of. se gourami, by Theodore Gill; Notes on the grayling (Thymalus of North America, fe J. W. Milner. Also several miscellane- ous papers relating to temperatures of the Gulf of Mexico; Fish- culture; Bibliography of reports relating to the fisheries, ete. The plates illustrate a great variety of traps, pounds, weirs and other devices for capturing Sshea; fish-ways ;_ hatchin ng saci : fog ia oe insect larvae; the gourami, etc. some Parasitic Worka: by Dr. Lery.—Dr. Leidy hags saentified the “Asoaris mystax as an intestinal worm of a Bengal tiger. The species has been found “in many other feline species, including the domestic cat and lion.’ A long thread-worm from an apple, submitted to Dr. Leidy, was found by him to be the Mermis acuminata, a species that is para- sitic in the larve of many insects, including the codling-moth, or fruit-moth, of f the fo gens He states that “ twenty-five years ago he described a rm (Proc. 1850, 117) belonging to the collec- Geology and Natural History. 479 tions of the Academy, and labelled it as having been obtained child’s mouth, which was evidently the same species. It having been in a child’s mouth, is probably to be explained by il? ae that the child had eaten an infected apple.’ Two specimens of a tape worm, Tenia, were obtained by Dr. Leidy from the stomach of an Australian Wombat. He names a 1. bipapillosa, An Australian Whallabee afforded, from its toneal cavity, a Fil ney, . ich he has named F. spelaa,— ole cad. Nat. Sei., 1875, 1 19. Jahresbericht der Dheeentodon zur wissenschaftlichen Unter- suchung der deutschen Meere in Kiel, fiir die Jahre 1872, 1873, IT und TIT fale Tone: Large 4to, with 12 plates and a chart. Berlin, 1875.—This report is a valuable contribution to the physi- cal and _ biological history of the European seas. It cones of ve parts. The firs t, upon the Physics of the Seas, is by A. Meyer. It discusses very fully the physical features of ‘the waters of the North Sea, observed during the cruise of the “ Pomme- North Sea gives the track of the expedition are the oe of e various stations. e waters near the coasts of England, composition of the sea-waters. The third part consists of a report the marine botany, by Dr. P. Magnus. He gives a catalogue of the alge, with their distribution, etc., and two plates. fourth part is a report on the Diatom macen, by Adolf Schmidt; it is ee by three beaut a The fifth part is devoted t ogy. inclu epee on the Rhizopods, by F. E. phates . on Bikitioentt: wih a derms, by Karl Mobins and Butebli; on Worms, with a plate, by Karl Mobins. Quite a ane ah new forms are described in several of the groups. Am youd: w Rhizopods there is a fe naceus, which appea e very closely related to a aan ar sats # dfn sa: of t Po same genus, which occurs very abundantly on —y bottoms off the New ae th coast, in fifteen to a fathom We have Sists ot a flat, sani-covered poe body, with a variable num- ber (usually five to nine) o F prose a radiating the periphery, and emtting gece ife, irregu aa branching pseudopodia. Our species grows to nearly a fourt an inch in diameter, and scarcely differs from the figures - 4 arena except in being usually covered by coarser grains of sand, and in having the projections a little more irregular, and often branched. * See also the writer’s Report on hoje tt in First Report of U. 8. Commis- missioner of Fish and Fisheries, p. 503, 480 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 20. Illustrated Catalogue of the enh of Comparative Zool- ogy. No. VIII. Zoological Results of the Hassler Expedition. Il, Ophiuride and Astrophytide, Takia sa dredged by the late Dr. Wm. Stimpson ; by TuEoporr Lym 34 pp., with cuts and five plates. Jan., 1875.—This work contains a list of 76 species collected by the Hassler expedition, and by Dr. Stimpson, in the Gulf of Mexico, Of these, 19 species were undescribed. Our knowledge of the distribution of the known species, both geo- graphically and in depth, is much extended by this catalogue, while several genera are added to the West Indian fauna, among which is the northern genus Ophioscolex, of which a new species (four new species, with notes on he A eit : ‘Op iocnida, Ophioplax (gen. nov.), Astrotoma (gen. nov.), Astroschema, As- trophyton (two species), An analytical “tbe of the six recog- nized genera of ninapte armed Astrophytons is given on page 26, es also of the five species of Astroschema. v. . The Elements of Embryology ; by M. Fosrrr and Fr LFOUR. 8vo0, 272 pp., with 71° cuts. Macmillan & Co,, stitution of Mc Gtr new Dynamics, and the Philosophy of Nature; » toned ere Papition; translated from the second French edition by A. R. Macdonou ugh. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1875.—This book consists of a series of essays, which, in addition to the general subjects indicated in the title, discuss the constitution of Living Beings; the relations of Life to Light, Heat, Electricity, Odors , Medic aments, heibecrcim ete. ere are also essays on Animal Grates a nd Regenerations; Great Epidemics; the hae of Death ; Heredity in Physiology. i in Medicine, and in Psychology. These essays are written in a popular style and can- not fail to interest and instruct a large alse of intelligent naire If. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. On Ancient Cavedieliings in peves vy, Dy. W. Brest AM. —That some of the caves were used as places of, at least, t rary residence, was ouaatiaerals hewn by my exploration 2 "Salt Cave, which proves se pote In revealin ew phase in Ameri- Fal eg : can archrolo ogy. This cave approaches the Mammoth Cave in he size of its avenues ‘and chambers. Throughout one of the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 481 principal avenues, iar several ea were to be traced the ancient ithe the ae Short, and aaa ma ae were also very abun The me important discovery in this cave, however, was made in a small chamber, about three miles from the entrance, first noticed by my guides, Messrs. Cutlip and Lee. On the dry soil of the floor were to be seen the imprints of the sandaled feet of the former race who had jahabited the cave, while a large num- ber of cast-off sandals were found, neatly made of finely-braided and twisted leaves of rushes.—Zi ighth Annual Rep. Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, 1875. 2. The catastrophe of the Zenith—On the morning of the 16th of April last, under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, the Zenith, containing the three experienced aeronauts, Captain Sivel, Croeé-Spine iand Gaston Tissandier, and well equipped for sci- entific work, started on its ascent from the gas works of La Villette, Paris By 1 o’clock, at noon, they had bee an alti- tude exceeding 5,000 meters, the barometer marking a pressure of 400 millimeters, and the thermometer 5°C. They had “Ee in bags for breathing in the upper rarefied air, and found it very beneficial, At 1" 20’ the HO tastes marked 320 mm., Somhec ice an last of 25 §ilog rams each that were hanging outside. The three e consciousness was leaving him, read from the barometer 280 mm.. but was already too much paralyzed to speak out his wie 9 ca 8,000 meters, Tissandier and his friends partially revived, as the all Tecan asphyxiated. The oe ig hit oe nage ¥ ballast w ries ent. rapidly, gn "Tissandier —— conscious; and at 4 oelbek it struck the earth at Ciron near Le Blanche with a spl shock, Sivel and Crové were dead, their faces black and their mouths a f : registering barometer, was 8,540 to 8,600 meters, e lessons taught to science are: that man cannot safely make a rapid bal- loon ascent to an altitude of 8,000 a | that the only chance for reaching alive that altitude in a balloon is by making the rate of ascent above 7,000 meters very slow, pity 12 hours at least 482 Miscellaneous Intelligence. to the next 1,000 meters, and a rate half as fast for 00 meters beyond; that better arrangements for carrying up air or oxygen to supply the breathers may be of service; that man thes soon described a new instrument invented by him which pany prove of the highest oles in surveying, especially in hydrographic sur- veying. It is based upon the principles of the common waa but by it to adjacent angles can be at once measured observer. Immediately after the oe 3 Spey moreover, the in- strument without change can be laid as a protractor upon the chart, and the place of the observer sat ook down, the principle involved a — of the “ —_ point problem . Mea ght of Hurope—Dr. Gust av Ler , in a re- A published work on she “ Mean Height of nen 3 after an elaborate calculation founded on a broad basis of measurement, — that it is 296-338 meters, — meters oe than the cal- culation of A. von Humboldt, who indeed made out the average altitude of all the land on the “earth to be about 308 meters. The - ©. Datron on the origin and propagation of diseas ; HerM- HOLTZ on mathematical theories; CrerK Maxwe wt on aeuin at a distance; B. A, Goutp on the Calobe Observatory; E. Maitry, estimate of the population of the world; A. Morin on warming and ventilating occupied buildings; E. L. pe Fo REST, additions to a memoir on methods of interpolation applicable to the > gradu- AK erica; H. Senxans on a grammar and dictionary of the Cavil language ; H. Girman - the scm tei and platy- enemism in Michigan ; T. M. Perrine on the. antiquities of Union Co., Mlinois; W. H. but on exploration on the western coast of N, America W. M. Pierson on the discovery of a large meteorite in Mexi . R. Brunor on the habits of the Beaver; S. JEVons on a pe em iheerys and a list of Prize Questions issued by Scientific Societies. 6. Expedition Jr = Geological und Geographical Survey of the Territories, for —The amount appropriated by the last Congress for the U. s. "Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories under the directio on of F. V. Hayden was $75,000 1 ss Six parties will take the field in various portions of Colorado about the first of June. Mr J. T. Gardner will carry the primary triangulation of the area between lat. 36° 45’ and 39° 15’; long. Miscellaneous Intelligence. a 104° 30’ and 109° 30’. Mr. A. D. Wilson, chief of field party No. 1, will survey an area in the southern part of Colorado, _—s a portion of norther rm ee = ‘xico lyin g between lat. 36° and 37° long. 105° and 108°. Mr. Henry Gannet, in thoes of field party No. 2, will ooeupy the area between lat. 38° and 39° 15‘ and long. 108° and 109° 3 Field party No. 3 will pb ve the area in the southwestern Colorado eee lat. 36° 45’ and 38° and long. 108° and 109° 30’. Fie arty No. 4 will complete unfinished areas in central and eastern Golacades The photographie party under Mr. Jack- n will n study of the ancie ‘ivers in s§ ath m and other two, The maps will be jesuied as geological as well as topo- graphical — in the final atla 7. National Acade emy of iene —The following is a list of the paper > oe at the session of the ° a ras demy of Sci- ences, held on the 20th to the 22nd of April, 1 Results derived from an examination of the U. S. Weather en for 1872-3-4 ; Loomis. Notes on observations of the transit of Venus; G. Davi n improvement of the present civil or ronorias clea: J. P. Bradley. Results of experiments on the set of er ten as ular of wood, iron and steel, g = eS og Ei B 2 =; £3) me nm i oe 3) » & Report of the Committee on Weights, Measures a ie ‘oin Tae F. A. P. Barnard. On the observations of contacts in transits of Venus and Mercury; 8. Newcom ib. New formula for the deflections of rectangular bars or beams, resting on sup- ports and subjected to a transverse stress: W. a ‘ ron Size of the pes in extil ¢- OO, Account of researches in Solar eg na $s the Allegheny Observatory during Se past fot Bach 2 op Use of the Stereoscope in the sendy. of. Solid Geometry; James D. W On is jaberpolatlon: oi of a or ge of sign by passage throo gh i se ofa. a mathe a compounds upon Vegetation; Wm. MceM Treiies shad Fea saat of results of a Maynetic Survey, made at the as of the Bache Fund; J. E. Hilgar rd. ag thoy of some of our sneer vita Fishes to living Forms; J. S. Newberry. On a of Cold; by A. Woe and in cla Beouath a deep bed of muck, ie are in an exce lent state of preservation. This Otisville mastodon is the sixth that has been found in the swamps of Orange County. 484 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 9. Statistical Atlas of the United States, based on the results of the Ninth a 8, 1870, with contributions from many eminent men of scienc ae from sect departments of the Government. Compiled, onder authority of Congress, by Francis A. WALKER, M.A., Superintendent of the Ninth Census, Professor of Political Economy adh History in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College. In large folio. (Julius Bien, Lith.)}—The publication of deco 2 and 3 of this Atlas has been already announced on prepared Schott of the U. 8. Coast Survey; others illustrating the meteorological char acteristics of the co untry; one giving the dis- distribution of the Coal see compiled by Prof. C. H. Fitohooek ne which is an excellent geological chart of the United States, 19 by 28 inches in size, by Profs. C. H. Hitchcock and W. ake, This geological chart has been i ge with care and is beantifal in its ‘lithography and coloring. In fact, the whole work is highly credi —_ to the photolithographic ccbiabonent of Mr. Bien. § are accompanied by many pages of text giving explana- tory, Ieaesintive and statistical faforauieins, We defer to another number a more extended notice of the tlas Popular Science Library.—Under this title D. Appleton & Co, are publishing a valuable series of small works in Science. The following have been issued: Health, by hale a Situ, F.R.S.; The Natural History of Man, by Prof, A. pp QuaTREF GES ; The Science of Music, s SyoRen! Wheres: Outline of the “Boolution Philosophy, by Dr. E. Cazeiie, with am A pendix b OU- MANS, M.D., on Herbert Spencer and t. octrine of Evolution, giving a brief exposition of the views ne claims of eagle neer. 11. New York Academy of Sciences.—The Lyceum of Natural History of New York has recently changed its name to New York Academy of Sciences 12. Geological Society of London.—Dr. F. V. Haypen has been recently elected Foreign Correspondent of the Geological sna! of London, of thai by Archibald Geikie. 2vols. London, 1875. (Murray.) Alexander, Pee A n. Coll. of — Jersey. 96 pp. 4to. 1875. Smithson Contributions to Knowl ledge, No. alf-hour Recreations in N sal “History of Estes and Laureat. Boston. 72 to 80 pages each.—Half-hours with Insects, Parts 6 and 7, a" a 8 pays Jt.— The Glacial Epoch of ee Globe, by Alexander Braun. —The § the Earth, by Prof. Balfour Stewart, gg" Force electrically explained, ty ae W. Phelps.— The first volume of these H alf-hour = euniberthg 478 pages, has the publishers in a han : Catalogue of the Fishes of the Rast “dbast tat North America, by Theodore Gill. Washington, 1875, - pp. 8vo.—Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Astronomy by J. N. Lockyer, being io. VII of Science Primers, edited by Pro- fessors Huxley, Rosco and Balfour Stewart. 120 pp. 16mo, with many fine illustrations. 1875. (D. Appleton & 4 ) INDEX TO VOLUME IxX.* Botanical Society, publications, noticed, Abbe, C., Nebulz of Herschel’s Catalogue, || Botany progress and present state of Academy, epee ye session, 483. ow dy ne areas seas, iti, 289; AAR. New ecw: 484, roti an Pe ae Achiantt, psi si0 of argillaceous rock Ams to serpentine, tahoe d, 303. ear srnopsi, notion, mii Agassiz, A, explo oration in South Amer- na ay suhition to insects, 324. ica wig School of Natural His- Mindsen, notin bd Dedittian wa a ttar of, 3 Alum w property of, 467. Ally! ‘aloobol, 306. Varieties, do they ‘wear out?, Gray, mmonium compounds, 462. Amy] alcohol, new isomer of, ae se further rama et ? 1 Pheeloae School of Nat. Hist., Bradley, F. H., Silurian age of Southern raquinone, onl ee thalic a “40. Appalachians 279, 3 Apples, gases from, ; Appleton’ 8 Cyclopedia, noticed, 329. — 61 eh Gs, artesian poe : ctic Expedition, British, 237, geol ogical re report, noticed, 1 ronhiem, allyl alcohol, 306. paraginic acid from, ‘pancreatic diges- mab synthesis of methyl aldehyde, m, 141. ati Kabob Society, m coe — om ee Attwood, M., gold ae rae toy. 229. , climate of Scotland, a Aurora australis, 1 Buchner, ‘tiphonyl t in coal tar, 3 B , S&S. B, geological inde no- Baird, S. F., parker Ay Science and In- nes a os apis of the prin- dustry, noticed, 4 cipal star of 2 1097 Balloons ton iter, 9 ew aie th Te ties very of ‘Sethe star, HI. 41, Rarker, G. F, shoraical abstracts, 138,|| 257: Cc ar distribution of electrical di: pore and rubidium, reaction of, 304. charges from circular disks, 458. Caiilletet, influence of pressure on com Belt, T., on climate of Glacial period, no-/|_ bustion ticed, 313. 13 adian research in 1874, 236. , gases from apples, 306. nai gar 464 mnett, A. W., Flora Brasiliensis, 66 bon, specific heat of, 466 mts electrical resis , 142. secon W. ‘Ben ork on the micro- m, Pi present state of one tating 238. rogress systematic pags A 288, yrs Berthelot, sincind louis we 213, carbonyles, 464. Cedriret, 3 Bezold, W. v., on periodicity of thunder-} Chatin, Gasca of andreecium, no- storms, noticed, 408. tice pure ee — malt, 392.||Chemical | sub-section, Amer. Assoc. Adv. m, specific heat of, Sci., 39 rte Necrology, aa * The Index contains the general heads Bot , Geology, Mineralogy, Zoology, and under | each the titles of Articles referring thereto are co! ected. 486 Chlorine, hydrate of, 461. Cleveland Academy, Proceedings, no- ticed, 4 limate, change i in Scotland, 408, rulignone, 39 Colors, Young’s very, Mayer, 2 Combustion, indiaenons of _— on, 366. omets, tails of, Parkhurst, 3°. Comet III, 1862, Schiaparelli's observa- tions on, Condon, qT. seo report, 401. Cook, G. H., geological report, 401. . | Cope, E. D, ~. sil vertebrates, no- d, 151, 228, 470. Cornu, velocity —— 218. refle ever, vista ride, n Birds of N sport aoe 405. “paren rgence during Glacial pe- D Dana, £. &., ence gs crystals from Brewster, N. b gis JD, netics “y Hull on porphyry of Lamb: bay, 5 — of Hunt’s Essays ange of Glacial period Me 398. roll’s theory for change of mater_evel, 315. tice of Shaler on Champlain change of level, 316. Koch’s evidence on cotemporaneity of man and mastodon, 335, 398. on iron ores en fr tite as evidence of Archzean life, Te ieaphnts of ‘bec logy, noticed, 152. he Geological Story, noticed, 471. a on platiniferous rocks, of Urals, Dav eine ansit of BH hseca 235. Dawkins, W. B., cav 322. xtrin, Ar from malt, 392. ttachme Diethy: inol, poi Diphenyl i in coal tar, 2 we J Bos, vo colori oe Ezener, ean nt to lantern, Gase' INDEX. |Electric currents, action on alloys, 467. ae Electrical Aechiazines froin disk, Bel, 458. earnest 144. resis Electricity, “frictional, 397. theory o Electrostatic induction, 54. Elevati ee he cig t. ring matte er and Sigel, meray a leucic pabyl Phosphate, 3 nate, nists of potassium on, pets hia mean ee of, 482 pas of gases through Tad 8 films, 215. Farlow, W. e list of Algee, 47 pris ae m formation of epnitlbie riccilede "and Hanbury, Pharmaco- phia, noticed, 153. Ponti, W. M., geology of Blue Ridge in Vira, 14, rdial of Virginia, 361, 416. Ford, Pe wv Pri fossils, 204. eas acid, glacial, 213 Foster and Balfour, Taanevleley: no- ticed, 480. Frazer, P., Jr., mineralogical work, noticed, 65. on limo nite, noticed, 4 Fries, E., work on fungi, sollest 154. G Gabb, W.M., Costa Rica green, 198, 320. co in Miocene, 320. : Gulf of Mexi | Galvanometer, amare ; Gannett, H., list of elevations, noticed, to ie 2] w Fe J. T, elevation of datum- pies 3 s, passage peer liquid films, 215. of, 4 ara ss C., srematik of F Bola on and prismatic etet, i i, new property of alumi- E Earthquake in ore Carolina, 55. uakes, t, Rockwood, 331, 459. Age cane-sugar, 139 Geinitz, E, Permian fossils, 322. Geinitz Das _Elbthalgebirge in Sachsen, eae iced, cg ''Geographical Gectiuucn, act in, Geological Report, noticed, 400. Californi Canada, 310 in sana ra aly, 321. Edlund, theory of electricity, 53. Ohio, 152, 408, Oregon, 40 INDEX. 487 Geological tips Pennsylvania, 225. Gilbert, G. K., wind-drift erosion, 151. as, 152, 224, 330. Gir we co! mposition of tragacanth, 463. Territories, (Hayden’ s), 59, 152, Girard, explosiveness of methyl nitrate, 226, 482. Wheeler’s, 226, 328. es —— - glass, 14 Victoria, ; Goda and pretzel of Geological Survey, 40th Parallel, 62. Pon rub dion Wisconsin, 39%. GEOLOGY— Posen hydrate — chlorine, “461. Gould, B sae ee i Silurian age of, Bradley, Gramme, Eoalionn electric machines, 216. 9, 310 Gray, A. pomiea | notices, 65, 153, 323, the eh pee ng at St. sey? 61. Basalt, structure of, Mallett, 206. Jeffries Wyman, age Blue Ridge in Virginia Fontaine, 14, 93. Do varieties wear iad Calamodon, 228. Bentham on progress ps ‘present Carboniferous, diatoms in, 222. state of botany, , 346 Coal beds, parallelism of, 221. on ophylacize, n Coal, from Middle sae , 146 Gripon, ., Symp es ee M. in Patagonia, 3 Griseback Plante Lorenziane, notice |, rae ritish rica, age of, 236, Orie A. dt, kenge ore 76. Cold of pone 2 ge Be 314, 398. Cotton worm, Costa Rica, Gabb, 1 cece flor: edi 227. H in British ‘Aeeidibas: 236, Ste 318.||Hall, J., on State Museum, egrs: 151. | ‘Harrin gton, B. J., dawsoni ite, 6 Diabase, Erosion, wind-drift, Gilbert, 151. Glacial period | 4 ; climate of, 313, 39 | diabantite, a chlorite in ce 454. submergence during, 315, 316 Hayden, F. V., geologi 0 a es near L. Winnipeg, 3 ce 59, 152, 226, 482. ke 312. 2 arge “ Lake Winnipeg into | ay ape acids of petroleum, 138. , Mississipph 3 1: ‘Heer sc shel Sap 401. jocene flora of, 154. ‘Height rot d m-points, 3 Gulf of Mexico in Miocene : gp of I Europe, 133 Hematite ing Prim zor one hy geological re- Insects, etc., from Soran eo Saxony, te noticed, 152, Rea. procs of nace and Lake -basins, a neient, Marsh, 49. cedri Lignitic of Vancouver I., age of, 318. eosin, new coloring matter, 393. Mammeebe no test of age, ’310. Hooker ge oo Synopsis Filicum, w order of Eocene, Marsh,|| noticed, 4 Hooker, J. D. Flora of India, noticed, : new Tertiary, Marsh, 239. - Seyler, urematin from hematin, 7 i=] ’ fs Mastodon, Koch on contemporaneity, 141. of Man and, Dana, 335, 398. Hull, E., porphyry of Lambay, 58 new, on voleanic phenome "7 innesota, valley of, 313 Hunt, T. S., deposition of sediment, 61. Miocene, Na of ies . bad ice of essays of, Dana, 102. n of, 4 ‘Huxley, on Sica. ie eas noticed, 404. Spiscsoptors: and nomalpaneni 318.||Hydrocyanic — , detection of, a Un. Porphyry of Lambay, 58. Hyd xide, atm gm ae Canadian of Wisconsin, Hydroxylamin e, 465. Be cai ai forint of, 394. Primordial foal Ford, 204. Virginia, 361, 416. I Pinca, 469. Irving, R., Bicnigies and Canadian rocks Sediment, , deposition of, 61. of Wisconsin. ertiary tish America, 236, 311. Trap Sask "Timoes 185, 454. Urals, a ee rocks of, 470. James, U. P., jetecs of fossils, no- Zircon-syenyte of the Canaries, 152. ticed, 471. é 483 K + ara —— of, 238 Killebre d Saffo ond resources of Ten-), nessee, motion Knop, antiseptic ake of salicylic acid, 214, amass on nursing of man and todon, Dana, 335 est influence ot ‘ight on cane- sugar r, 306, Kuhnemann, sugar in malted grain, 463. | Langley, S. P., solar structure Lartet, Reliquie x con png ra 13. Lea, ‘& work o age a Lea, 4 C., etemaatiac action “ — on s a ‘odide and, bromide, 2 INDEX. let, J. W., on limonrte, 4 la Mallett, £. mh Middle Park nat 146, (Mallett, R., structure of basalt, 256. se, 140, ‘Maly, sarcolacic acid, 214 ‘Man and n, Koch on contempo- raneity of, Dana 335, 398. Ma , Animal Mechanics, no- fice am arsh, 0. Oe hg ae basins of the ay Mt. n regio — ertiary m: | new order of as mammals, 221. | ammals, 239. tn of an oh 62. Nui of Otisville, ‘Mayer, A. M., oung's iy Pea of his pitch of a oer and its residual . theory of colors, 2 sensation, 2 infuence of color upon reduction of | Meteorie laws of tuning forks, 54. light, 3 Le Conte, = binocular ——- erage 229, 70. how Amceba eds, 1 its food, 155. motive power of diatoms, 156. Pp s, 478 — G.,m n height of E Europe, 482. Lesley, P., cAciat te port, noticed, 225. Lesquereux, L., Cretaceous flora, noticed, 402. Leucic acid, synthesis of, 140. Light, action of, on silver ide, Lea, a. of color upon reduction by, on of, 53 Sey of, 218. Linnzean Society, Journal, coreg 67. Lockyer, J. N., maps of solar spectrum, noticed, 30 elements i see =~ sun, 429. Loomis, #., results from examination of weather ionimg Lossen, structural formula of hydroxyla- _mine, 394, g, J., vibration of air in organ pipes, 219, Lubbock, J., Flowers in relation to In- sects, noticed, 3 24, Lyceum of me gs Hist. of N. Y., change inn ame of, 484. » Venus as a luminous ring, Lyman, T. ) Ophiuridae and Astrophytide, || noticed, 48 x ic declination, secular changes of, "Schott, 25. Magnetism, 396. jodide and) Michaelis a patie iron gases, Wright, 294, 459. n Tow: pone aldehyde and formate, 462. | f, 1 Methyl nitrate aapherin of, 391. AA, report on the orth Sea, ‘acticed, 479 Meyer , and Lecco, constitution of ammo- nium compounds, 5 462. Meyer and Locher, hydroxylamine, 46 wo and