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AMERICAN JOURNAL.

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, anp E. 8. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS,

_ PROFESSORS ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp
E. C. PICKERING, or CamprincE,

Prorsssors H. A. NEWTON, 5S. W. J OHNSON,
GEO. J. BRUSH anv A. E. VERRILL,
. OF NEW HAVEN.
’

THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XIU.—{WHOLE NUMBER, OXIIL.]
Nos. 73—7%8.

JANUARY TO JUNE, 1877.

WITH FOUR PLATES.

NEW HAVEN: EDITORS.
1877.

MissouUR! BOTANICAL
GARDEN LIBRAR

ERRATTA.

On page 156, 17th line from bottom, for loss read top.

On page 156, 5th line from bottom, for Caryatus read Caryatis.

On page 156, 4th line from bottom, for Dosenia read Dosinea..

On page 157, 6th line from top, for Cyclameria road Cyprimeria.
ead Morris.

On page 234, 23d line from bottom, for J. Price Ralston read J. Grier Ralston.
On page 267, 5th line from top, for lobes read lobe.
On page 270, 4th line from top, for general read genal.

PRINTED BY TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, 371 STATE STREET.

COSLENTS OF VOLUME XIIh
++
NUMBER LXXIIL

Arr, I.—Contributions to Meteorology, being — derived
om an examination of the Observations of the United
he hears Service, and from other sources; a Eis

Snievew se leeen awe aoks bee eee Sees ee 1
LE iPr ty come =a in Connection with Vegetation; by J.
ee ee ee re ee 20
Ii. _Obearrations on a geewican of the Retina, first noticed
y Psits by Oanen Nu Rooeoccsos oe 2
IV.—On grains of Metallic en in sees’ ras from New
Hampshire ; by Gzorcx W. Hawss,.---........----. 33
V.—On achat Phenomena of Pinaielad Vision; by Francis
p NUPRBR 2 sobs i ea eee 5
VI. Nea on othe his aide —— oa nee and West
bo ieee by habe = Font 37
VIL—On the produ f Tra eae aol "Metallic Film by
the levtrinal Toskatyois in exhausted tubes; by ARTHUR
49

BIGHT, 625 eo ye
AppENpIx. — Phot tographs ne ae 2s speak of Venus and @
Lyre. Note by Prof. H -3d page of cover.
SCIENTIFIC iWrentiaeath
istry and Physics.—So-called Crystallized Boron, Hamper, 55.—Constitution
ny ;
repara

i
fh

N
tion of Hydroquinone, ponent ¥ and Pree 57.—Gelsemium rviren
SONNENSCHEIN rze allgemeine Hinleitung zu den aromatischen N’ itro-verbin-
dungen yon PETER ToWNEEND AUSTEN: Mariotte’s Law, 58.—Physical Proper-
ties of rip Plasticity of Ice, Prof. B1ancont, 59. velocity of Electricity,
Dr. SABrnE, 60.—Chemistry _ pie oa in America, Prof. Joun W. Draper, 61.
—Prof. ‘Drines’s researches, 6

Geology and Mineralogy.—Explora ms made under the direction of F. V. Hayprn,
in ng 68. Boggs meset survey of Kentucky, 74.—The American Bison, living

ani nct, J. A. Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 75.—
Glacial | Peewee = No F North America, Prof. TORELL, 76.—Note on the
Glacial oe J.D. Dana, 79.—Monograph of American cosa A. W. Voepes,

— good se Geology of CVanada, E. J. Caap: Origin of Forest

ms: Great Ice Age and its relation fe the Antiquity of Man,

Botany and Date of graeme? 2h erg Botany of South Carolina and
E d Hete: or Homogonous and Heterogonous
Flowers, 82.—Geographical Statist oft the European Flora, ve patios Flowers
of America, Isaac SPRAGUE, —Report upon Gaberaphicn d Geol 27g
_ and Surveys, at tof the piehcasa tar Meridian. lane Geo.
85.

oa —The secular change of Magnetic declination in the United States, and
Nort AI CHARLES A. ScHOTT, 5 80 —Investigation of Corree-
tions to Hansen’s Tables of the Moon, 8. perme : Knobel’s Reference Cata-
logue a Astronomical Pa oe and rage . ‘
Misceilane ie ig — No ying and Assay-Schemes,
Punex Di DE PEYSTER fees Aloolich yale of at stralian Wines, 87.—
ary.— ee B. Meck: paid Boston, 88,

iv CONTENTS.

NUMBER LXXIV.

Page
Art. VII.—Astronomical Observations on the Atmosphere
of the Rocky Mountains, made at elevations of from 4,500
to 11,000 feet, in ee h and Wyoming Territories and
Colorado 3 by Henry Drare Bes on. Sees eee ae 89
EX, —Photographs of the Spectra of Venus and a ‘Lyre ; by
Hummy DRAPER 2) co. 222 95
X.—On Dinitr oparadibrombenzols and their ‘Derivatives ; by
ETER TownsEND A 95
L—On — oo in ratios with Vegetation ; by J.
ee ea eee ea ee Oe ee ee 99

XII. Orbit of “the planet Urda (167); by C. H. F. Perers, 112
XII. Hees a0 of Compensation in Chronometers; by J.

oe ee eh ee ee ae 13
XIV. Note on the Vespertine Seria - Virginia and West
Virginia; by Wimuiam M. Fon oe 15
XV.—On the Chemical coacetion of the ‘flesh of Hippoglos-
sus Americanus; b POPETENDIN, 20) su .. 198

XVI—Notice of jst Ss on the Effects of Cross- and Self-
Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom; by Asa Gray, 125
XVII—Note on Microdiscus speciosus; by 8. W. Forp,.__ 141

XVIII.—On Water Courses upon Long ‘Island; by Extas
14

—Purification of Hydrogen gas, 1 Sa ae Oxide
site its Componnts Crow: Plato- an sd lace Nitson, 147.—Behavior
cohol flame, W6uI. new Dichlomaphthalense-
Emodin on the f Rhamnus frangula Lampasas a STEIN, -
Phthale Tertiary aromatic — Fiscuer: Standard Meter, M. G.
49.— 8 er, TaYu ae g-Signals, Henry, 151. —'The Siphon

Geology and Mineralogy.—Report on the ae route along the Nope
and Fox Rivers, be ieccee - K. WarREN, 152.—Ice work now go ing oO}
Newfoundland, S. : Glaciation of the Shetland sts, Joun Horne, 155. _—
Note on the wannad of Balan - Estrella anus of California Miocene, T. ‘A, Con-
RAD, 156.- tromatopora: Geological Survey o Tite R. Brouga SMYTH:
Fossil a in Washington Territory, Wu. O. Matz@ER: Mesozoic Fossils,

AVES: Miocene papier New Guinea, C. S. Winkinson,
1st —Re cers sur ne Fossiles “Paléozoiques ap Pe a Nonvelle gets du sad
cytoeae: DE KONINCK, Sy M RATH

mstones” of Waters Cornwall, dy As Pee 159. iy 2 Saeee ns

Studion an den Melaphyrgesteinen Bohmens, E. ape ge See rals of New

South Wales, A. Liversipge: Mineralogical Magazin and J of the ie

alogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland: Prucecios oft oe “ patente fiir

Krystallographie und Mineralogie,” 162.
autre = coteey .—Ulothrix zonata, ARNOLD Doven, 163.—De Copulatione

rarum En a compresse. 1G: Wyvi om-
a quien eons f the Echinoderms of the ‘“ eee Mi Pan “ Challenger ” Expe-
ditions, 164.—Zool of ~ Piper ne xpeditio oe eager 165,—Rate of
Growth of Corals: Bulletin of the ots Ornithological Club, 1

.—Meteor of Dee ‘1st, 1876, 1
Mi Scientij Intelligence. Abate Pian, of the Turin Academy of Sciences.

167. -—Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for
1875; Theory of Sound i Bs ‘ts relation to Music, P IETRO BLASERNA, 168.

*

CONTENTS. Vv

NUMBER LXXV.

P

Arr. XIX.—In Memoriam.—Fielding Bradford Meek,_____. 169
XX.—Notes on ~ Aare of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado;

y es en 172

XXL—On some : Peais in connection with Vegetation; by

ae L— Apparatus 1 for oepbeupaes Fat-extraction; Compo
nof theS oe ; Composition of Maize Fodder;
io age eee oe 196
xi ee Stone ‘of Rochester, Fulton Co. , Indiana;
P PA 207
XXI eeanination of the Waconda Meteoric Stone, Bates
County Meteoric neue and haga ngham County Meteoric
Iron; by J. LAWRENCE SMITH: <0 2. 5-25 o 211
XXV.—Cerfain Fontes of the Tallon or ee oe
Southern Long Island; by Et1as Lewis,_---__-----..-
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE

hemistry and Physics—On Rock-erystal Balance Sossishe: Thermo} ad and
graduated Ci Hickey “Srey, 216.—Evolution of iar at both Electrodes in
Bectolyssy oom Relation of the Molecular weights of Chemical sub-
stane: of Peat dasting power, AYMONNET the Existence of Soli
in Lu 8. es, HEUMANN, 217.—Alco from

leaves of the Sugar-beet, E the Detection of ordinary Alcohol in
t, BERTHELOT: Synthesis of Allantoin, GrimAUx. 218.—Rhodein, a

new test for Ani , JACQUEMIN itive Fla ; R , 219,—
Theory of Luminous Flames, Kart HINMANN: — of Pressure on Com-
sens . WARTHA, 220.—Large Induction Coi il, W - SPOTTISWOODE, 221.—

Geolog and’
e the Geological Baney of Kentucky, N.S. SHALER, 226. port of a ec.
qT

minerals, and two new Columbates , J. LAWRENCE : Bulletin of the Bus-
sey Institution, 234.—Heights on ten Island. 235.
Botany and Zoology.—Dextrorse and Sinistrorse, 236.—Botanical Necrology of
: Rhizo;

er
y.—A New Planet, C. H. F. Perers: Instruments al Pablications of
the U. S. Naval Observatory, 242.—Note of the recent fall of three Meteoric
Stones, J. Aig hee cet
ence.—To: opographical Survey of the State of New
York: ‘Tour of the Grit Lakes: Elements of Physics, Nein ARNoTT: Metric
System, 244.—Tlinois Museum of erase History : Huroni ian rocks of the Lake
Superior region: Third Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture of oe
State of Georgia: The Applications of Physical Forces,
Obituary.—Rear Admiral Charles Paes Davis: Rear Admiral Charles Wilkes;
Alfred Smee: J. C, Poggendorff, 2

vi CONTENTS.

NUMBER LXXVI.

Arr. XXVI.—On the Sensation of Color; by C. 8. Perron, _- 247
XXVII.—Note on the Binocular _ Phenomena observed by
Professor Nipher; by J. LeC 252
XXVUI.—Revision of the genus Beemnocrinis; : “by. Cuas.
Wacusmutu and Frank Sprinerr, ...-.......-----.- 253
X XIX. —Thorpe’s and Bunsen’s methoas for the Estimation
of Nitrogen in Nitrates; by S. W. Jounson, ---__..... 260
XXX. RAE ecg during the ‘Champlain Period; by Za

DULLER, a a 262
XXXbis eae ee Forms of Trilobites; by S. W.

Forp. With a piste, 222.0. 0122 265
XXXI.—The Winds of the see or the Laws of Atmos-

pheric cage over the e of the Earth,.. -.._. 273
XXXII—On s ease asives: of a momesecres by

des poe ms ee pee a 279
XXXUI.—Note on Mineral Analysis; Note gt some Flu-

orides; Note on Molecular Volumes ; b . Cia es 290
XXXIV.—On the identity of the so-called Pee of Arka

sas with the Variscite of Breithaupt and Callainite of

Wamour, by A. H. Camstrr, .._-.. .__.. 295
XXXV.—On a Pe doa variety of ‘Sepiolite from Utah ; by

a 296.

XXXVI on. te Begs N oe on the Age af the Rocky

Mountains in Colorado; by J. J. SrevEnson,-.__..--_. 297

SCIENTIFIC IN’ eyed eas
Chemistry and Physics.—V elocity of Chemical Reactions, Boguski and KaJANDER.
299 —Equivalence of Seep oo Lacueenee and StRuvE: Action of fuming Ni-
trie aS on © RIDES: Oxidized platinic raps E. Vv. MEYER,
3 reparation of ‘alpen ¢ acid by pene of oxalic acid, CRomMypIs: De-
Saceae of the Oil urpentine at high Temperatures, Scuunrz: Coneti titu-
ents of Beech. Mea:

A IN
sorption of Light, M. Lippicu: Lippmann’s Electro: —En ntwickelung
der theoretischen Ansichten iiber die ss i Gh welalvartinioaa a. von G.
05.

Geology and Mineralogy. —Age of the Crystalline Rocks of Wisconsin, R. Invi
307.—Microscopical Petrography, F. ZiRKEL, 309 pee Valley Helier
berg, C. H. HITcHcocK, 313.—On Geological Time, . ReaD

3)
Mistletoe, E. S. Crozier, 322.—Median and Paired Fin: us, a contribution to the
history of Vertebrate Limbs, J. K. Taacuer, 323.

CONTENTS. vil

Astronomy.—Elements of tnt Comet, A. N. SKINNE Sy ee a
Spectra of Sta: “sisr W. Hueers, 324. Preerep'y of suite, 1 D. oe Topp,
ee, ohh —Geological Society of wane a the
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, 325. 25.—-California State Ge ecological Society:
Meteorology of Golden, Colorado: American peste ag Society: Structure of
Precious Opal: Shoal in the Atlantic, 326.— Obituary.—Wolfgang Sartorius von
altershausen, 326

NUMBER LXXVIL.
Arr. XXXVII—On Vortex Rings in Liquids; by J. Trow-

DGE,
ee ——An account of the Discoveries in Vermont Geol-
ogy of the Rev. Aveusrus Wine; by James D. Dana,_ 332
XXXIX. sates s on the History of Helianthus tuberosu sus, the
a Jerus alem Artichoke; by J. Hammonp TRuM-
BULL

XLI. at eee of aeiaaN Columbic Acid Minerals;
by J. Lawrence

XLIL. Labs the Sensitiveness to ‘Light of various Salts of Sil-
ver; by M. Carry Lxa,

rai sega INTELLIGENCE

Physics mical Actions of the Silent Electric Discharge, BERTHE-
LOT, 371.—Is ean sare" by Ozone in the presence of Alkalies? BERTHE-
LOT, 372.—Equivalence of Nitrogen, — EYER: A new metallic element,

Oh

Neptunium, HERMANN, — phi iquids, RaDzISZEW-
I: Melezitose, VILL 374.—Tri-substitution derivatives of Benzol, E. F.
Smita, 375.— Kinetic Theory of Gases, M. B “Clang,” M.
UERBACH, 378.—Ultra Red Spectrum, M. E. BECQUEREL, 379.—Fluorescence,
M. Lo Equili

MMEL: Equilibrium of heterogeneous substances, J. WILLARD Grss, 380.
i logy.—The Loess of the i

ALE, 388.—American Palzozoic i : Palzontographica Pera
of Japanese Porcelain-rocks, H. Sedat 9.—Hermannolite of Shepard, a

age
Botany and Zoology. —Right- handed cat Left-handed lations in Week
LE, 3 —Date

rin Cygnus, 395.—Planets rece disco 397.—

ce ue Leg otte
Caeciy azione di G. Jones: Comate i eres rhe mets ist78,
and 1877c. at the Observatory of the Sheela ‘inti School, 400.

Miscella: gg? Intelligence.—Appearance and Migration of the Locust in

Manitoba and the Northwest Territories, iui of 1875, G. M. Dawson, 401.

¢c iti i ion from

termi Dime! f
to the latest In nvestigations, 403.—The Chemist’s Manual: Astronomical M:
based on Flammarion’s History of the Heavens, 404.

vill CONTENTS.

NUMBER LXXVIII.

Arr, XLIJL—An account of the Discoveries in Vermont Geol-
ogy of the Rev. Avueustus Wine; by James D, Dana,_ 405

XLIV.—On Barite orvatuls from if Last Chance Mine,
ee County, Missouri; and on Gothite from Adair

County, Missouri; by G. ROADHBAD, < 2222500 25k 419
sey Shag ayaa e Chromium and Aluminium in Steel and
be Awoeew As tain, Go 421
XLVI. On the Chemical Gateaitiod of Triphylite, from
oo New Hampshire; by Samvrn L. PENFrELD,..- 425
XLVII.—On a new Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide ;
by-J ostan Py Cook, JR. 5 22252. 2 ee 427

ee axkepoet on ‘this Physical eg te carried on
y P. Herbert Carpenter, B.A., in H.M.S. “ Valorous,”
airing her — Voyage from Disas Island in August,
1875; by Wituiam B. CarrEntE
XLIX. On the witheabe of Geological Changes on the Earth’s

-
1
J
i
'
’
‘
’
1
'
1
‘
'
‘
‘
1
Chic
>
oo
~T

Axis of Rotation; by Grorer H. Darwin, 444
L.—On a Base derived from a Wasteproduct i in the Aniline
Manufacture; by C. Lorine Jackson, -..-...--.-----. 449

LE—On an mn association of Gold with Schealite in Idaho; by
WA IM AN gS We 451

Increase of ie of Dey Temperature downward in vari-

ous — of Dry Land, pee under Water; by Prof.

WVEREEE 2-6
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

hemistry and Physics.—lodine Trichloride, CHRISTOMANOS, 4 —The Atomic
Weight of Secntane PETTERSON and HHMAN ih; eerslaniieda acid and
Antimony! chloride, DauBrawa: The Constitution of Cyanamide, Finert and

in, ANN ERZFE:
Decomposition of Glyoxalyl-urea, MEpicus, 463.—Two are Alkaloids, Siroph
tine and Ineine, Harpy anc 18: Occurrence of Copper normally in th

J. 5.—The
MMEL, 466. Balatiialey. ae the Electric Telegtan. mage
. ia
Geology and Natural History.—Annual Report on the Geograj a oi west

of the ppg Meridian, G. M. WuretER: Geological and Geographical Survey
of the Territories, F. V. Haypen: Contributions from t Tabackiaey of the
iversi i i etum

Gnemon, O. Brco — Paleontological Origin of those trees and

ibs indigenous to the ance, C. M. 8: ALE ’
471.—Notice of ks on Vi egetable cen che . LEsQ , 472.
— Preliminary — on the rebicet opment of Organisms in Organic Infusions,
JOHN TYNDALL, 47 Be Heat as a Germicide when Sinconbiunoudiy applied,
Joun TYNDALL,

meous Scie —— Minos oe Academy of Sciences, 481.—Excre-
mentitious deposits in the Rocky M untain region, H. W. HensHaw: Fourth
- Annual ogo of the ie Jersey “State te Board of Agriculture: Primer of
Chemistry, including analysis, ACHER, 482.

sialic

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

_.[THIRD SERIES]

Art. I— ieee to Meteorology, being results derived from
an examination of the Observations o, vA United States Signal
Service, and from ve sources ; by Eutas Loomis, Professor
of Natural ey in Yale College. “Sixth paper. With
plates 1, 11 and 11
[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, Oct. 18, 1876.]

Period of unusual heat in June, 1873.
1873, an unusually high te — fone

throughout a | rge portion of ie United States of
the Signal Service stations the thermometer rose bore 6 =
during some part month, and at several of the stations
there were more than ten days on which the thermometer
i In the following table, column Ist shows the
Temperature of 90° in June, 1873.
El
Stations. Latitude. ‘tone Cases. Stations, Latitude. tion. Cases.
Fort Sully__..- 44° 39’| 1687 | 17 194 | 5
Indianola -_--- 28 32 25.1 13 77 3
San mio...| 29 25 | 600 | 13 45
Mobile 80 49 | 4b 79 657] 5
penver _.... 5. 39 44 | 6135 | 11 165
Reokok 202 40 23 | 684 | 11 9
Montgomery .-.| 32 22 | 250 | 11 682
Washington ...| 38 ~53 | 105.| 10 654
LaCrosse -..._. 43 48 686 8 107
AITO «ce gi. 01. B62 291
Louisville ._... 38° 18 496 7 1083
Cincinnati -..-. a 614; 6 187
Leavenworth ..| 39 19 | 813 | 6 991 |
=f 460 16 966 5 584 )
Cheyenne ..--.|.41 12} 6058 | 5
ies 4i 1614 5
,u. Jour. 8cr.—T: 5 Vou. XII, No. 73.—Jan., 1877.

2 FE. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

s of the stations at which observations were made with
salt. pet cgeag epee column 2d shows the latitude of
the

stations; column 8d shows their elevation above the sea,
expressed in ees and column 4th shows the number of days
on which the thermometer rose as high as 90°.

he observations at ah and Cheyenne indicate that on
an elevated plateau the extreme heat of summer is at least as
great as it is at the level of ee sea in the same latitude; w nas
the observations at Lexington and Morgantown show t
elevation of a few hundred feet above the surrounding Soaks
has a sensible effect in moderating the extremes o eat. The
observations in the vicinity of the Great Lakes as well as those
near the Ocean show that large bodies of water have a decided

The stations at which the ee hetenes rose above “ in more

rose to 108°; on seven days it rose above 100°; and on twelve
days it rose as high as 95°. At Denver the thermometer rose

Observations of the th veter at 4” 35™ p.M., June 15-26, 1873.
ABOVE OR BELOW THE MEAN TEMPERATURE.
a cane
cee SE Se eS re eS ee tS RS
aS
ier) o oO Oo Oo oO eo oa oO o Oo £9) oa
g Soe tee ae aiS4a) 38
SS SE Ee ele) 2) si 2)2 18
Portland, Or, .-; 62°'+ 1/+ 5i|— 2i— 1/4 6l+ 2|— N— 3i+ 14 H+ 64 8
San Francisco--| 59 + 3+ Tit T+ T+ G+ I+ 2+ 8+ si—_l 0,415
San Diego - -.-- 5 O+ 4+ 5+ 2+ 24 54 3/4 24 214+ 2/4 3]4 5
— See +19) +20 +14) +18, +18]420+13)— 8)— 5)+ 8/4+14/+16
irginia City --| 56 |+28)/+24)+12)+ 5|4+13/4+18'+ 3/—18/— 1/+ 9/+ 4/+ 6
ort Be 3 | +30) +15 +18 + 4/4 9/4+13)4+ 6/— 4/4 5)+10)/— 8)+ 1
anta Fe _____- 69 (+ 6+ 3/4 8 413/411) 0/412)411/4+10/4+ 4/4+12)4+15
jenver 4225. 69 | +12)/+19 +21) +26; +13] +23) +21) + 23) + 15) +23] +18] +24
heyenne -__.- 65 | +14) +22) +421) + 21/+10)+ 25 +20/4+11)— 4) +23) +24) +23
‘ort Sully -_... 70 |4+22)+24/+27| 0) 4+12/424)/425/420/+ 8) +19)+31/+%
rankton --_-.- 7 12}414'4+14 +10 +14 4+15}411)/+ 5)/4+14/+18) +20
embina ...---} 63 | +14) +10/4+13)+11/+12/410 + 6+ 4)+ 8}4+17)/4+16)4+19
ort Garry --..) 63 |+12)+204+17)+ 2|+10/+14 +11)4 4} +10|+10)+19) +19
ndianola .___- b|+ G— G— 2+ 1+ 5+ 34 5+ 3+ B+ B+ 3+ 6
|Breckenridge --| 65 |+16|+19 +26) +25) +12/+12/417/+13|+ 19) + 25) +2:
a 3 | +13\4+14)4+13)+16)+ 9/4124 + 2)+ 8)+15)+16) +18
Leavenworth -. +10) +11) +10) +12) 414) +10, 412)+ 7) + 7) +10) +15) +16
lveston W— Bi— i+ 6 a+ 61+ 6|+ 7 6) + + 8
ee ~ ae Be oy 9— 3+ 6+ T+ T+1li+ 9
k Pant. 3, +17) +14) +21) +22] 412/416422/+ 8/+17|+17|+ 5/+22
ruluth +28)+-2i\— 2499149 +20 to Boe fe j=
ort Gibson _..| 79 6+ 6+ 64+ 6+ 6+ T+ 9)+10/+11)+14
pookkuk _-..-_. ) (+16) 411 +12) 413) 41 410/416 +12)+13 +1 +18/+16
LaCrosse -- _--. ) | +18) +11) +19 + 20) +10) +13) +16) +13) +1 +17) +21
----| 81 i+ 2i— H+ B+ 9'4+10)+ 941 ee 9) +12)

on
‘game | TOO ee ae
thee ea oo fol RE engl NEE Sd. COMa*TAME amen
-lagoup | on nena ae if cen. aay SoM mMt nade ae Nee
: ta Be eat Fae La On belie ts Base Viet hee eee s Cee ts +e
- Cw Mog se ue we te he he a ake had i oe qanonas s
8 7 eunf fe 87 = © 68 00 a fae a nied ere
S : ReSdEtH1 SSS F444 51444 {esa geeeacerseavagnss= +e +E4444
K 4 SOMONE S + crgiiy ew = AHASHAOHS es
3 E see, ke ok eR Opn soe Geseeieeees Veet ree eee
mio tons Poti ee erent Ce = on ay ES Be a 1 pies
3 ‘ aos ae 4 Me + oe RE WHS © Hr as
= ip eae d = he Seok Best FBR hE cia. Uae t+ te+eee el te etl eet Mdm isd
> 5 wpere Gerd GON ork: Genet Re ye) SURI er I ELH Ltt ttt e#
: a ph nN . wot oe oa
2 mace ets eee J+++4he +1 +t tie leases . a
~ - tet+e tat i tot4e4e4H+ mt SHSotaegrarnon bee ok oh ed be ee
gs 3 ’ a Paria es se | - ri HoaRtaonaaeS
FE 06 ont | +++ oO fae ea eee |S) Pe eee te eee eet ag 3S
k:| z + PEPE EEE Ee eed mt CONRAN HAS OH pela: | eet apa
. BRoOCr sn “i os Co ERR ee eergede bats Saeraqgnnssnswe AeA Neen
3 I 6r oune | FY Shae me eee oe 4 hed t+ $e Le et oH on
3 Ree Te ec ee Pe eae = ee |
= 7. oo ++4+4+ rm mt ed C7) aes
S Bi crome | ea taeda as Sok A tat ye am SREP Ae
+4] + [ot eee a4 BHRGRAATARSHHBIMSKs ie a peed
2 aie was tee tee et e+ aoe A me Si i ets Or
ds “ET oung | PVD PAS NSD AG SO He +++++t+++4+ oS i ee ee a ae
ea g % + | (ttt 1 DO H red rs re ye tee teeeeteee tee tt a |
‘> 9 ereow I deel seeebe | sdeeede eases the bes Petes + [ttt
‘9, oun | 7 bao Hag tae Nonnes | fan aeeoaxs
: iy Seles \ieeepiegeseese tetas fost ee
$ ‘romp |". ee Behe hot th
oe det sega yea ncn ig ih a *
: = ce Boos LEASED Megs 8 Ty aye
S a Sd SLARESSSSSSSSRELSRSSESS
$ Re Oe CER eo se le oe eee Se me
nea SE a eee
pee a: ie , a | ce ieee
eae it , ; ' oe. 8
ee ee ea a ee ee
ABR |, 240829 ; eH ' tag 4 bt
cost i dsg0S tata || izag¥e3 33
EX BE Sse aati at
SOO Rom AES eS sa eage Be 23 8
A ia AOA DS 2 A EEE EERE
ae Be a

oe

4 £. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the

to 99°, and on five days it rose as high as 95°. At Indianola
the highest temperature was 97°°5, and only twice did the ther-

°

5°. At Mobile the highest temperature was 95°, and these
are the highest temperatures reported at any of the southern
stations. We thus see that at Fort Sully and Denver the ther-

the mean temperature of the month, we find that by far the
most remarkable cases occurred at stations north of latitude 40°.
The preceding table exhibits the observed changes of tempera-
ture from June 15 to June 26. Column second shows the mean
temperature of June at the stations named in column first, and
the succeeding columns show the difference between the mean

rose above the mean; column fourth shows the state of the ba-
rometer at the given station, and column fifth shows the lowest
barometer observed on the given day at any of the stations.

Temperatures most above the mean.

Date. Stations. a Barom. Loves
June 12 | Fort Benton......... +19° 29°97 29°64
13: | Fort Sully... 2..... +21 29°68 9°68
14 | Breckenridge _.__.... +19 29°59 29°46
15: | Wort Benton 2 cy. ... +30 29°80 29°63
16 | Virginia City ........ +24 29°67 29°64
Ht) Moatisalivs col eles: +24 29°64
bi? | Hort Bally cccosus +27 29°52 38
S| Alpené 65 2 + 28 29°54 9°26
19 | Becanaba .... 2.2.52. +25 29°52 B49
| Matqtiettes 3.2. cus oy +26 29°53 9°49
20: | Cheyenne 2202.50 224. +26 29°90 41
21 | Fort Sally. 5.050250. +25 | 29-46 1-46
2 OP lec +23 29°61 30
2. Wie sick. se +27 29°77 9°57
24 |Saugeen. 2.26.22... +25 0-06 9°62
= Pages a +23 29°87
25 | Fort Sully... melas +34 29°52 29°52
26 a nO 28

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 5

We see from this table that the stations at which the ther-

pentane was above the mean for the month. In order to de-

compared the observations of maxima and minima tempera-
tures at all the Si tien Service stations as far as they bave been
published in the annual Reports. I Pay e taken the mean of
the maxima of teniperuiaie for the ath of June at each
station, and also the mean of the mihi The difference be-
tween these two months I call the mean diurnal oscillation of
the thermometer. I have made this comparison for each of the

hic

oan all those stations at which the eeencgae is less
than 15°. Oo jae n second shows the mean diurnal oscillation
for the month of es at the atone named a column first;
column third shows the number of years of observation ; coll
umn fourth shows the height of the station above t e
column fifth shows the annual rain-fall at each station; mea
ba a shows the rain-fall in 1873, from June 12th-26th
inclus'

Siam we have a series of hourly some of the ther-

mometer at Philadelphia and Toronto we can compute the cor-
rection to be applied on account of the hour ap observation at
¢ e preceding stations, if we assume that the correction

6 £. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the

Diurnal oscillation of temperature in June.

Stations. Oscillation] Years, | Pleygtion.| Anna | aeinfall
Colorado Springs - - - -- ont 2 5935 13°6
Wer Dy Jwost ea 32°2 3 5135 13°99 0°02
Cheyentie = soc 2c 2 31°6 3 6058 8°60 0°22
Santa Pe 220... a2. 30°7 2 6862 13°36 0°02
Dodge City _._-. ooo | 382 1 2482 6-4
Wort Sully 2 ee 26°T 3 1687 12°16 0°34
Virginia City _..__--- 25° 3 5510 | 1643 | 0:28
Salt Lake City -..---- 25°4 2 4350 17°93 0-05
Kort Garry 2-5 25°3 3 54 14°48 1:09
PAWE ola oes Ces 24°7 2 50 29°33
North Platte__-..---- 24°6 1 2846 13°64
Corsicatia <0 -:.2.- 24°3 1 447 25°42
Pitabergh: si sao 23°5 1 955 37°53 0°80
PROP coe oS 23°5 a 14 28-26
METER Gas ok ees 23°3 1 1677 21°09
Wytheville --.-..._.. 23°3 2 2294 44°15
Bnreveport 5.222 2°9 2 228 49°60 3°89
POM Die’ oo cues Coca 22°8 2 790 12°99 1°37
Island of St. Paul ---- 70 2 55°85
Cape Hatteras ______- 8°8 1 7 | 64:38
Cape Rozier ..-...-.-. if 1 39 33°81
Rey Wostosc.2i5 2. 10°6 3 17 37°60
(ape: May... 2. ck 110 1 46°87
Mt. Washington, --_-- 11-4 3 6285 66°47
New Orleans --.__--- 119 2 56 61°46
Diego... 44): 12-0 2 62 91
Wood’s Hole ..._---- 121 2 25 39°36
Galveston 12°9 2 A 46°66
Charleston 42) 5S 13°0 2 61 44°]
San Francisco 1 2 60 20°20
Indianola... 22662228 13°6 3 25 41°98
Atlantic City --.._--- 13-8 2 23 36°16
Punta ee 13°8 2 17 53°42
O corona eieees: 14°8 2 662 34°36
Kitty Hawk .2-... 14:9 1 22 45°02

time, the temperature exceeds the mean of the month by the

following quantities:

Correction for hour of observation.

| Stations. Correc. Stations. Corre. | Stations. Corre,
Dewyer 2s...62 13° || Virginia City -.; 10° ||Saugeen.....__ 8°

ie 13 || Breckenridge -- 9 ||Esecanaba...-..| 7
ort Sully. ....| 10 “ea i 8 || Marquette -_.__ 7
Fort Benton .--| 10 || Milwaukee ___-

Applying these corrections to the numbers given on page 4
we find that on June 15th the thermometer at Fort Benton rose
20° above the mean temperature of that station at the hour of
observation ; on the 18th at Alpena it also rose 20°, and on the
25th at Fort Sully it rose 21° above the mean temperature at
the hour of observation. We are then required to explain how

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 7

the — seat rise 20° above the mean temperature
of the hour and

The eccinpente ia Chart, Plate II, shows the isobaric curves
for the same date as the bin cr curves me Plate I. poe

throu.
out the valley of re Mississipi The actua diate of the
winds observed is shown by arrows on Chart e following
table shows the perio ot stations at which the wind blew
from each of the eight principal points of the compass.

Direction of the winds, June 18th, 4" 45™ P.M.

wind. | stations Wind. | gtatious.
North 3 South 20
Northeast 2 Southwest 27
4 _. West 7
Southeast 7 Northwest 7

We see that at 54 stations the wind blew from some southern
quarter, and at only 12 stations did it blow from a northern

uarter e following are the stations in question:

Mowh wind at Cleveland, Mobile ae eae ta Fe.

Northeast wind at Duluth and Yankt

Northwest wind at Eastport, Fort Gan Fort Sully, Mt.
igen hete Norfolk, Oswego and Pembina.

At three of these stations, viz: Cleveland, Duluth and Os-
wego, the northerly wind was probably the result of the cooler
air of the Lakes moving toward the warmer land. Three of
the stations, viz: Fort Sully, Fort Garry and Pembina, were
situated on the north side of the area which was most heated ;
nd tw i i

Mobile = Meee of the wind was only one mile per hour; =
Norfolk a —— it was four miles; and at Sanita Fe fi
miles per
We dbus: see ge throughout the entire heated area (with a
few trifling exceptions which are easily explained) the move-
ment of the atmosphere was from the south. This vga
ours

in the vicinity of the western Lakes; that is, this cau

to be sufficient to account for nearly (if not fully) half of “the
rise actually observ

8 £. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

A considerable part of the remaining rise may probably be
ascribed to the accumulated effect of the sun’s radiation for
ura successive days without the interference of northerly
winds

the thermometer at Fort Benton and Virginia City, and this
was maintained pretty steadily until the 17th. This heated air
drifted slowly to the eastward and on the 18th reached the

neighborhood of the Great Lakes.
h

have a dry climate. At Madrid in Spain mean diurnal
oscillation of the thermometer is much grea han in most
parts of Europe. The following table shows the difference be-
tween the mean of the daily maxima and t ily minima at
Madrid for the months of June and July during a period of eight
yea The fourth column shows the highest perature

Range of thermometer at Madrid, Spain. Height, 1939 feet.

Years. June. | July. | Highest temp. | Annual rain-fall
1866 25°-2 Fahr, 29°°3 F 101°1 F. 19°82
1867 316 100 15°04
1868 Ej: 30°2 102°7 11°83
30°6 32°2 105°1 104
1870 32°8 104-7 12°81
1871 27-0 32°64 108-3 16°22
1872 32°8 a3°1 106°3 15°30
27°9 32°8 104 15°07
Mean 29-7 |. 318 | 1042 14-64

The last column in the table on page 6 shows that in June,
1873, an unusual drought prevail throughout Colorado,
Wyoming and Montana. In consequence of this extreme dry-

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 9

such cases for each year. For the year 1875 the observations
include only the first six months of the year. The mark (*)
0

were received from the stations indicated.

Number of cases of a temperature of 100° Fahr.

1873.| 1874.| 1875. 1873.) 1874.| 1875.
Fort Gibson --- * 21 0 }} Louisville -.--- 0 s 0
Shreveport --_.- be 3 18:1) Denver 2-2... 0 0
Fort Sully ----- 20 13 2 || Dodge City --.-| * 0 2
Leavenworth _- 0 12 0 Keokuk 7 2 0
Nashville -.--- = 7 0 ,aCrosse . 2 0
maha 0 6 0 A aa - Be 0
Bee es 0 4 0 incinnati 0 1 0
Corsicana -.--- * 0 4 || Indianola -.--- 0 sf 0
mphis * 4 0 Jacksonville --.}| * f 0
{ontgomery - -- 0 4 0 Mobile 0 1 0
St. Louis ....-. > 4 0 || Washington -..}. 1 1 0
Jubuque -_ _--- > 3 UH Ot ct . ¥ 1 0

These observations show that the thermometer seldom rises to
100° in the vicinity of the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico,
or the Great Lakes. Cases of extreme heat are of most fre-

exceptional. The first column of the following table shows a

the latitude of the stations; column third shows their elevation
(in feet) above the ocean; and column fifth shows the number
of cases in which the thermometer, in 1873, 4, and 5, was ob-
served to rise as high as 100°.

10 E. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

Temperature of 100° Fahr.

Latitude. | Elevation.) Cases.

Leavenworth __| 39° 197 813 12
Omaha 41 16 1045 6
42 45 1296 1
-| 44 39 1687 35
46 48 1677 0

, together with the fifth, show a

station the meteorological instruments are located within the

walls of the fort, and the series ga nce are probably influenced
by heat reflected from dry and stone walls. This seems
to be the most probable Seerubre of the excessive heat re- —
ported at Fort Sul :
presen form, movements, distribution, ete.

In order to investigate the form of rain-areas; the laws which —
govern their movements, and their relations to the isobaric —

curves I selected all those cases during a period of fifteen

at the piste as stations. Column first eontaiie the —

mber of reference, column second shows the day and hour of
hashes (the numeral one denotes the 7.35 A. M. a ]
tion ; two dena 4.35 P. M., and three = it f.

8 acyel
motion ; tin cee 5 ake ee was any loca
ttn of the barometer; and column tenth shows whether —
there was a high or a low barometer on the north side of the —
given station, — :
___ For a large number of these cases I have drawn upon maps of —
_ the United States, the curves of equal rain-fall for each fourth

Observations of the United States Signal Service. ad

Rainfall of two inches at Stations south of lat. 36°.

No Date. Station.
187
1 Sept. 10-2) Jacksonville.
2 11 Montgomery.
3 3 25-1; Shreveport.
q 4 26-1} Wilmington.
: 5 30-1} Charleston.
6 |Oct. 9-2) New Orleans.
3 7 22-2) Punta Rassa.
: 8 22-3) Jacksonville
9 23-1! Jacksonville
j 10 29-2) Shreveport.
11 |Nov. 6-1} Galveston.
q 12 Montgomery.
4 13 8-1) New Orleans.
: 14 Mobile.
15 |Dec. 10-1} Indianola.
1 New Orleans.
1873.
17 |Jan. 5-1; Lake City.
18 16-1| New Orleans.
19 |Mar. 29-1} Lake City.
20 |April 29-2) Savannah.
21|May 1-2) Montgomery.
5-3) New Orleans.
23 6- obile.
24 18-2) Galveston.
25 19-2 Mobile.
26 2) New Orleans.
27|June 1-1) Key West.
28 —2 Mobile.
: 29 Memphis
; 380 |July 21-2; Mobile
31 22-2 Mobile.
32|Aug. 2-2) Punta Ra
33 6-1} Charleston.
34 8-3! Vicksb’
35 9-2} New Orleans.
36 1i-
37 20-2! Jacksonville.
38 21- lves
39 1- obile.
40 ndianola.
41 |Sept. 13-2; Galveston.
1 Mobile.
43 18- Mobile
2 ‘ins
2 Indianola
46 Oct. 3- son
47 Nov. 1- avani
2-: Galveston.
5- ontgomery.
50 17-2 Havana.
51 22-3; Shreveport.
52 29-1| Havana.

Rain.
th Bar.

2°42/30°09 §.E. 3
2 4

elt

w bo
eet
nw
bo BD
oo
ra)
RN

Sb mie

So
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Co)
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2
2: 14.29: 86 N.
2° me oss.

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AAAPAL

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ec) :

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2-16 29°80 N. 5,
2°10'30°18|N.W. 6

Wi
* Jat prey. ob.

a

bw

&

©

w
oo 2s

Si

ia

ry

nd Cycloidal Local
at date. motion. dep’n. | side.
vy. 2 robable |none ow
.E. 2 decid slight iow
V.E. 14\decided (none Ww
4 ecided jnone high
v.K. 6 decided (none Ww
8 ecided slight high
-E. 15 \decided (slight {high
49 lecided light high
Ved ery dec’d decided {high
.W. 10\not dec’d slight ow
E. 28. decid ided |low
E. 22 \decided {slight high
v.18 jdecided (slight high
a lecided decided [high
v.40 (decided (slight high
V.E. 8 j\decided none high
E. decided slight ow
v.W. 12 decid slight ow
v.W.12 decided slight low
[slight slight ow
.E. 4 slight slight ow
- 16 decid decided low
v.E. 16 decided (decided jlow
v.E. 22 decided (decided jlo
y.8 not dec’d [none iow
-K. 12 ‘slight slight ow
.W. 6 decided slight high
NO cided small ow
V-E. 4 jdecided (sm:
. 8 decided {none ow
16 slight none low
i.2 |decided {none ow
y-E. 8 none none high
alm not dec’d |none high
- 10 doubi not dec'djlow
. 5 jnot dee’d |none high
. 20 decid none high
alm ‘decid slight ow
8 decided slight [low
6 not dec’ ne low
-E. 14;not dec’d not dec’djhigh
12 |decid
12 decid
W. 14 decided lo
14 (doubtful *dilo
-W.4 ‘doubtful not dec’djhigh
v.E. 10 donbtful ‘small i
oe bere small high
.E.1 dee all high
ee 6 Leohethe doubtful jlow
ecided jlow
CE. 4 \probable doubtful |high

ooh isn aaa ae aa

12 EF. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

in two successive periods of eight hours at the same station;
and in a few other cases these great rain-falls were followed —
during the next eight hours by a fall of one inch or :
either at the same station, or at a station a little to the eastward.
The following table shows all the cases in which any of these
heavy rain-falls were followed by one inch of rain at a neigh-
boring station during a succeeding period of eight hours.

5 Co)
|
E 8 e
2 = a
3 zg a
n | st
8 @
ga Re 3
en Leal 4
J 3 an Gr)
S| 2 a db
Ss i=) nN
< i ;
~ ah B&B
mor as =
S| § Es z
is 2 & &
ES Sa g
8 Ee) 3
ma Sect 2
2) 23 oe -
ro food aN —
bet 2
ee
oa = n n oD
= bod .d 5. Sy aed
ring a BESSS SEsSoot
zi] s OSseas Stageasa
Ss sekeo HS SBh§SS5
S 3 Zaebop ov oVoon
o|* | d2s%s =EtEs"
‘S s PA ae
S as onmawon Ootndtmo
>} 34 ot te CA ee eee
rpg slicn Be pe ENV re 3 n> Borel a
i] s MMmanra NMHON NSA
Sis adds Did ob
= a ar) = ane
: ~~ zi a eran is
: Picts 22a 8
S| ¢| g883 See8297
S| 2 | g@ss52a Sexeses
3 Bos & - Oa
Sie! Sheee SeERgag
S50 04 Soom
An” Zz aAw 5
g4| SS$ES2 23935382
ANIA AMANIMANA
aN ea RAN AS S|
ee ee
§ |Ssoa aod Aaa
flee vie o os
TBSSSS™ gee 2 PES
ROAZAR Seanad

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 13

In three cases we find three successive periods of heavy rain-
fall, and in two cases we find four such ccigplem pals ga dura
tion of heavy rain for thirty-two hou We conclude chetohars
that great rain-falls do not genérally-o continue oiter eight hou
and very rarely do they continue for twenty-four hours, eithier as
experienced at one station, or in succession at different places.

hese heavy rain-falls appear to result from the unstable
condition of the different strata of the atmos -_ When the

mine a strong upwar net: of the surface sis esti in

ae surface may be sufficient to etermin e an upward move-
ment at that er Bebe should Laine conclude that when
a Se of warm and moist air flows in from the ocean and

mpinges upon ¢ the Ze nd, a strong upward movement accom-

vations. mong the patie of the Signal Service south of
latitude 36°, there are twelve stations situated on the pare
coast or the Gulf of Mexico. At these stations during a
of fifteen months the average number of great rain-falls pis
inches in eight hours) has been 36. Am ong the stations of the
signal service south of latitude 36°, there are also five inland
stations, whose average distance from the coast is 200 miles,
and during the same period sop average number of great rain-
falls at these stations has been 18; that is, near the coast great
rain-falls occur twice as feavatnily as they do at stations in the
interior at a distance 200 miles from the coas
Whenever a strong upward movement of the air commences,

there must be a gottereh Pideugy of the surrounding air aiiaid
this point, and the a air — circulate from right to left as it
does in great storms. Hence every great rain-storm should be
accompanied by an | inward te eycloidal motion of the air. In
about Secbeutids of the preceding cases there is decided evidence
of the existence of such a cycloidal movement, and in most o
the remaining cases there are some indications of such a move-
ment. If ctecdeations could be obtained from a sufficient
number of stations, it is believed that some degree of eycloidal
motion would be indicated in every case of heavy rain-fall.

e depression of the barometer attending these rain-falls
was _ generally small, nevertheless in several cases it was quite

14 EF Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

appreciable. At the time of the observations shown in the
table on page 11, the average height of the barometer was less
than thirty inches, while the = Acar a lg the year —

miles in diameter), and third, the proximity of the stations to
the equator. According to Ferrel’s formula any great barome-
tric depression paoire: a strong wind; the cycloidal moveme a

must extend over a large area; and the "deprensibt of th
barstnater is piiedioned to the sine of the latitude of the
place. In about half of the = cases there was an area

different conditions appear to be about equally favorable to
sa hd rain-falls.

he Ti cee of these fifty-two cases by seasons was as
follow

Spring, 8; Summer, 14; Autumn, 14 and 12; Winter, 4.

We thus see that great rain-falls are most frequent when the
heating effect of the sun’s rays is greatest and the atmosphere
contains the greatest amount of vapor

The distribution of these cases according to the hours of the
day was as follows:

At the 7.35 a. M. obs. 19 cases.
4,35 P. 25 &

11.00 P. M. hes
The intervals between the observations, which for convenience
I have called eight hours, are in fact unequal aking, how-

ess frequent from "4 35 P.M. to. 11 Pp. cage Sidon the

sopargl of the cna, If we knew the pice ‘time of ge
an

peo bakoos the limits of a rain-fall of one mk a ; and oe inner
curve shows the limits of a rain-fall of two inches. The arrows
_ show the Speen: of the wind as reported at 4.35 p. M., which —
is presumed to have been about the time of the commencement —

of the rain-fall. Th ere was a center of low pressure (29-71) |

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 15

near Lake Ontario, and a center of high pressure (30-16) near

Charleston, S. C. s the result of this unequal pressure,

southerly winds generally prevailed throughout the Soathee
ates. rthwest current had how i

2
=
@
"3
g
~
>
3
>
ot
@

Rain-full of two inches at stutions north of lat. 36°.

The following table contains all the cases in which at least
two inches of rain fell in eight hours at any of the northern
stations from Sept., 1872, to Nov., i878. Column Ist contains
the number of reference; column 2d shows the day and hour

of observation; column 8d shows the station at which the

Ruin-fall of two inches at stations north of lat. 36°.

Wind R: 1
he ie ecce: comieeses se — at prey. ob.| at date. | Direction.) Distance. oid
1 Sept. as Grand Haven. | 2:8929-77/8.E.6 |S.E.7 East 660 29°38
2 26-2 Mt. Washington,| 2°27 30-'14'S.W. 43 SW. 328.80 EB. | 733 |29°5¢
3 28-3 Chicago. | 2°02/29-35|N.E. 22 |N.E. 11] = * 00 |29°38
4 (Oct. 25- Norfolk. | 3°41/29-95)E. 13 E. 8 * 00 |29°95
5 26-1} Philadelphia. | 2-09)29-78/E. 20 W. 128.54 E 137 |29°%4
6|Nov. 7-1! New York. 2°50/29°68)S.E. 4 v.W. 108. 65 E. VT 129-38
7 \Dec. 2 Norfolk. | 2°08/29-46/N.B. 21 |N. 20 * 00 29-46
1873.
8\Jan. 5-2 Philadelphia. | 2°18/29°61/N.E. 20 |N.E. 8 8. 58 E. 218 29°46
9/May 1-1) _ Nashville. 2'20)29°73 S.E. 4 25 |S. 64 EF. 420 2 4:
10 2; New London. | 2°35)/30°06/N.E. 4 v.E. 26 N. 83 E. 696 : 6:
rT 1 chburg. | 2-10/30-00.N.E.4 (Calm (8.80. | 886 [29-4
12\June 9-3 t. Louis. | 2-93/29°87/S. 8 .5 38 21 WwW) 420 7
13 22-3) St. Paul. | 2-28/29°558.E.13 SE. 18 |N.70 BE.) 185 [29-4
14 23-1 t. Paul. | 2°30|29°57|S.E. 18 |S. W. 2 |S. 70 E. 88 |29°5
15 |July 2-1) Indianapolis. | 2°04/29°94S.E. 12 /8.W. 3 8.5 E. 218 (29-7
16 16-1; Marquette. 1029-94 Call . 8 N. 88 E. 4!
17 16-2} Fort Garry. | 2-45.29-49 E. 10 5 : 00 29-4
19 teil? iemean<1S90 ae ze ats nw 86%| 160 [208
19 26— 0. "83/8..
20 21-2| Washington. |2-12/30:128.10 |W.8 |S.63B.| 1175 [29-73
21 2 hiladelp' 2-03 30°16. 8 S.8 (8.64B.| 1140 29°88
22|Aug. 13-1) Philadelphia. | 2°31 30°04 Teg v.E. 12 a 70 = 36 —
24 os ee seein Eu INE laisom “ao a0
24 13-3 i . 19°36. 2 v Z
25 14-1] Breckenridge. | 2-05 coded 16 ae an E. = aS
26 25-2 Erie. 2-00 29°82'8.E. 1 : . a ah
27 |Sept. 10-1; Norfolk. | 2-05/30-16 Calm 4 IN. 22 668
28 19-3/Mt. Washington.| 2-20 ool ah 24 |W. = aorth 202 a
-1} Portland, Me. | 2-02/29°40/N. °
30 “e 1 ee 2°25)29°80/S.E. 2 .E. 24|N.34E.| 329 |29°5
31 |Nov. 24-2) New London. | 2-80/29°30S.E. 14 _ IN. S. 61 W. 9-27

16 E. Loomis—Resulis derived from an examination of the

— rain-fall was observed; column 4th shows the precise
amount of the rain-fall; ¢ olamn 5th shows the height of the
eae at the same station; column 6th shows the direction
and force of the wind at the last pr ati observation; column
7th shows the direction and force of the wind at the date given
in column 2d; column 8th shows the direction of the rain
center from the nearest center of low pressure; column 9th
shows the distance of the rain center from the center of low
pressure, expressed in miles; and column 10th shows the
height of the barometer at the center e low pressure.

n all of these cases there was an area of low pressure within
the limits of the United States, and "pebiecally the place of
greatest rain-fall was within the cycloidal movement attending
this low pressure. The distance of the rain center from the
center of low pressure was however very variable.

In 16 cases the distance was less than 250 miles.
6 tween 250 and 500 miles,
5. “ between 500 and 750 miles.
ys - over 750 miles

In the two cases of July 27th, the low pressure was so incon-
siderable and remote as to exert — a e influence upon the
winds at Philadelphia and Washin

We thus see that north of lat. 36° iat rain- tae Spee’
occur within 250 miles of a center of low pressure, > cle

ie Sl on the east side of the low center. es af ee

ases (Nos. 12 and rfc the rain center is fated to be

west of the low center. But ould be sh a) that the

low center ge eienelie advances eastward 100 miles We m

therefore — that in No. 31 the principal rain-fall sence
when the rain center was east of the low center. In No. 12 the
principal rain-fall occurred on the southwest side of the low cen-
ter, e barometric gradient was only one-tenth of an inch
to 350 te The rain center occurs as frequently in the N.E.
rte from the low center as it does in the SE. quarter.

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 17

anywhere near the path of the storm, was thirty-eight miles per
hour (on Mt. iar Wig indicating that the progress of the
low center was not due wholly to the transfer of air {rom west to
east, but rather to a diminution of the pressure on the east side
of the low, and an zncrease of the pressure on its western side.

In No. 11 ynchburg was somewhat nearer to a center o
high pressure than of low pressure. There are indications that
a small local cyclone formed about Lynchburg, but the stations
of poem ration: § are too few to show this conclusively.

In Nos. 20 and 21 the rain center was much nearer to a center
of high Rana than of low pressure. At 4.35 P.M. a distinct
ocal cyclone was shown about Ba pe genta Washington, and
Cape May, but the cyclonic area was of s at and its

pet yaRe n the coast was seven : width shows an average
f 1-37 to each station. For the remainder of the United States
esi were sixteen cases, and the number of en, was ree

nine, showing an average of 0-27 to each stati Thus we see
that north of lat. 36° near the Atlantic — great rainfalls are
five times as frequent as in other parts o nited in

the same latitude. The frequency of heaes rain- “falls j in tbe
neighborhood of the great lakes is not aciagaed greater than at
inland stations quite distant from the lakes.

The distribution of these 31 cases fe seasons was as follows:

Spring 8; summer 15; autumn 6 and 5; winter 2.

Showing a predominance of great rain-falls in summer even
more decided than at the southern stations,

The distribution of these cases according to the hours of the
day was as follows: 7:35 A.M, 14 cases; 4°35 P. M., 9 cases; 11
P. ay

If we correct these numbers for the inequality of the time
intervals, Gee is still an excess of cases for the morning hour
of observ

The Piewis table shows all the cases in which any of these
heavy rain-falls were followed by at least one inch of. rai
during a succeeding period of eight hours.

At the southern stations, out a fifty-two cases of heavy rain
there were rig cases in which heavy rain continued through
two periods of eight og at the northern stations out of

Am, Jour. Sct.—THIRD Series, Vou. XIII, No. 73.—Jan., 1877.
2

18 EH. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

thirty-one cases there were thirteen which continued through
two periods, indicating that heavy rains are of longer duration at
the northern stations than they are at the southern. In two in-
stances the center of the rain area apparently moved westward.
Thus on the morning of July 16th, the center of the rain area was
at Marquette, which was more than 500 miles eastward of the
center of low pressure; but in the afternoon the center of the
rain area coincided with the center of low pressure; that is, the
center of the rain area moved toward the northwest. So also
on the morning of May Ist, the center of the rain area was
more than 400 miles eastward of the center of low pressure; in

and during the evening it extended toward the southwest.

Cases of heavy rain continuing more than eight hours.

Date. |eatn. Station. Date.| Rain. Station. Date, Rain. Station
In. In, ‘| In.

2.
Sept. 26-2 2-27 |Mt. Washington.|/26-3] 1-99/ Mt. Washington.
28-3! 2-02 Chicago. 1| Grand Haven.
Oct. 25-13-41 Norfolk. 25-2 New York.
Nov. 7-1/2°50| New York. 7 -49| New London.

3.
May 1-1/2:20| Nashville. 1-2| 3°05| Montgomery. || 1-3] 1:80) New Orleans.
St. Louis. St. Louis. i

June 9-3 2:9: Lor 10-1} 1:0 10-2) 1:50) Indianapolis.
8 St. Paul. 23-1) 2°3' St. Paul.
July 16-12°10| Marquette. ||16—2| 2-45 G
17-3 2°00 Buffalo. 18-1) 1-05 Mt. Washington
27-2 21 ashington. ||27-3) 2°03! Philadelphia.
Aug. 13-1 2°31 elphia. ||13-2/ 2:17} Philadelphia. |/13~3] 3-26} Baltimore.
7-1,2°02| Portland, Me. || 7—2| 1°6 astport.
19-3 2:25 | New London. |/20-1! 1-96; Burlington. 20-2| 1:38|Mt. Washington, —

e average direction and force of the wind during these cases
of heavy rain-fall both for the southern and northern stations
was as follows:

Direction. Force.

South of latitude 36°. At previous obs. N. 79° E. 81
at date, M75" B. 9°9

North of latitude 36°. At previous obs. B00" By x 26
at date, B 30. «118

east winds are not reported either at date or at the preceding
observation. These exceptions are Nos. 4, 10, 18, 20, 25, 28,

), 34 48 and 50. In four of these cases the force of the
wind was reported 0; in two of them it was reported a

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 19

one mile per hour; in two cases it was four miles per hour; in
one case it was five miles; in one case eight miles and in one
case twelve miles per hour. We thus see that during a heavy
rain-fall, the wind either blows from some eastern quarter, or
its velocity is almost invariably small.

At the northern stations there are but eight cases in which
east winds are not reported either at date or at the preceding
observation. These exceptions are Nos. 2, 12, 16, 18, 20, 21,
28 and 29. Two of these cases occurred on the summit of Mt.
Washington ; in one of the remaining cases the velocity of the
wind was 0; in one it was five miles per hour; in one it
was seven miles; in two it was eight miles; and in one it was
twelve miles per hour. We thus see that at the northern sta-
tions as well as at the southern, during a heavy rain-fall the
wind blows from some eastern quarter, or its velocity is almost
invariably small.

On Plate III are shown the curves of equal rain-fall for

which was previous to the middle of the rain fall. There was
a center of low pressure (29°35) near Omaha, which was about
west of the center of the rain area and distant from it 660 miles.
Near the Atlantic coast there was a belt of high pressure

ade of southeast winds throughout a large part of the

the neighborhood of Lakes Superior and Huron, being the

n ge number of the cases in the tabie on page 15 the
observations show that a southeast wind at certain stations was
ce) esterly or northerly wind at other stations.

ly s
the observat:ons se indicate such
a movement in nearly all of the cases in the table on page 15.

isobaric curves.

In preparing the materials for this article I have been assisted
by Mr. Edward S. Cowles, Ph.D., a graduate of Yale College
of the class of 1873.

20 J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation.

Art. I1.—On Some Points in Connection with Vegetation: by
Dr. J. H. GinBert.*

THE subject of vegetation is such a very wide one, and might
be treated of in so many different ways, that it seems desirauaa
to state at the outset what is the scope, ‘and what are the limits,
of the discussion which I propose to bring before you. I pro-
pose, then, to confine attention almost exclusively. to the ques-
tion a the Sources pol the nitrogen of vegetation in general, and of

now thirty-three years of our cultural investigations; and,
also, in so far * Me illustrates, and is eturciig by, the objects
contributed by Mr. Lawes to the Exhibition around us.

Before Goin > on the Eecal pate g mate of my dis-
course, I must claim the indulgence of those present, who are
already well acquainted with the main facts of the chemistry of
vegetation, while I call attention, very briefly, io some rather
elementary matters, with a view of rendering what has to follow
the more intelligible to any who may be less fully informed on
the subject.

When a vegetable substance is burnt—as a familiar meta
let us say tobacco, for example—the greater part of it is dissi-
pated, but there remains a ap a ash. The ashes of Pe or
unripe vegetable substances are found on analysis to contain
most, or all, of a. following Seb ae namely :—

xide of i iron, oxide of manganese, lime, ara Lage:
soda, eipat ric ‘acid, sulphuric acid, chlorin e, and si

Rarer substances than these are also ee ae Now,
much as of late —. been established in regard to the occur-

h
involved. It will suffice further to say in regard to these in-
combustible, or ‘‘ mineral” constituents, that the ash of one and
the same descri ription of plant, growing on different soils, may,
so long as it is in the growing or immature state, differ very
much in composition. Again, the ashes of different species,
growing on the same soil, Bie differ very mer) in the propor-

we approach to the aati ation of the final products of the plant
the seed, for example —the more fixed is the composition of —
oe of such products of one and the same species. In other —

* An address delivered at South Ke: ene eee he Chemical Section of -
Science Conferences, by Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F -R.S., F.LS., F.C.8.

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 21

words, there is very little variation in - composition ry the
ash of one and Ey same description of seed, or other final pro-
duct, provided: it be evenly and peifectly matured, This fact
alone, Dearpeacently of all that has been established of late
years in regard to the office or function, so to speak, of indi-,
vidual mineral constituents of plants, would be sufficient to
Boat, the essentialness of such constituents for healthy,
rowth ; and it is obvious that they must be provided within
he des
w as to the combustible tae yt pe earbon, the
isdrieee the oxygen, and the nitrog Leaving out of con-
a th such exceptional cases as Shee brought to light in
win’s beautiful investigation on insectivorous plants,
and ius the sources of the organic substance of fungi, and per-
haps of some forced nee nea productions, it may ‘be stated,
that the source of t arbon of vegetation generally i is the

actual amount, in the atmosphere; that the source of the
hydrogen is water; and that the source of the oxygen may be
either that in carbonic acid, or ae in water. 1 d
the nitrogen the case is, howev t, by no means so simple. Not
that there are no questions still open for Biers in regard
to the assimilation by plants of their incombustible or apes
constituents, or of their carbon, their ydrogen, sad their oxy-
gen; but those relating to the sources, and to the saniailniicn
of their nitrogon, are not only in many respects of more impor-
tance, but seem to involve greater difffeulties in their solution.
hat, then, are the sources of the nitrogen of Medico

Are they the same for all descriptions of plants? Are they to
be sought entirely in the soil? or ae in the atmosphere?
or partly in the one, and partly in the othe

Amount of nitrogen carried down by blgiephiertc precipitation.

in rain, hail, snow, mists, fog, and dew, does undoubtedly con-
tribute to the annual vield of nitrogen in our crops, let us first
nigel ipa ed what is known as to the amount of it annually
so comi own over a given area of the earth’s surface; and
as we are rik discussing the subject in England, I will adopt
the Euglish pound as the unit of weight, and the English acre
as the unit of area. The following table shows the sthoant of
ee coming down as ammonia and nitric acid in the total
rain, hail, snow, and some of the minor deposits, during the
years 1853, 1855, and 1856, at Rothamsted (Herts), the nitrie
acid being, in all cases determined by Mr. Way, and the
ammonia in some cases by him, and in otbers by ourselves:—

22 J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

TaBLE I.— Combined Nitrogen in Rain and Minor Aqueous Deposits at Rothamsted.

Nitrogen per acre, per annum, Ibs.
1853. | 1855. 1856. Mean.
8 ammonia... 2.2... 5°67 5°86 7°85 6°46
AS Nitric acid. . 22222) s- (not determined) O17 0-73 0°75
ee 6°63 8°58 1-21

Numerous determinations of the ammonia and nitric acid in

they indicate lower amounts. Lastly, M. Marié-Davy deter-
mined the ammonia in the rain, etc, collected at the Meteoro-
logical Observatory at Montsouris, Paris, during the last six
months of 1875; and the amount of ammonia so coming down,
even within the walls of Paris, represented only 5-25 Ibs. of
combined nitrogen Bo acre, or only 105 Ibs. per acre, per
annum. M. -

initiativ ults agree with the experiments of oth show-
ing the amount of combined nitrogen to be og wonbteld small
us, determinations hitherto made oant of

or ten lbs. per acre, per annum, in the open country, in Western
Europe. It should be observed, however, that the amount of
ammonia especially is very much greater in a given volume

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 28

of the minor aqueous deposits than it is in rain; and there can
be little doubt that there would be more ammonia deposited _
from them within the pores of a given area of soil, than on an
equal area of the non-porous even surface of a rain auge.

ow much, however, would thus be available to the vegetation
of a given area beyond that determined in the collected and
measured aqueous deposits, we sp not the means of estimat-
ing with any certainty. On other hand, numerous inde-
pendent determinations, by both. Dr. Voeleker and Dr. Frank-
land, of the ae ote Re the drainage-water collected from land
at Rothamsted w d been many years unmanured, lead to
the conclusion thes “there any be a considerable annual loss of
nitrogen by the soil in that

Amount of nitrogen derived rs crops of different kinds when grown
without manure.—The next point to consider is, what is the
amount of nitrogen annually obtained over a given area, in
different crops, when they are grown without any supply of i
in manure. This point may be illustrated by t
obtained in the field experiments on Mr. Lawes’ farm at
Rothamsted, which have now been in progress for about a third

=

TaBLe Il.—Yield of Nitrogen per acre, per annum, in Wheat, Barley, and Root
Crops, at Rothamsted.

f oe Sirceen

is . a - cin

Crop. &e. ig, &e Experiment. per acre,
per annum.

Unmanured

Wheat. 1
Complex Mineral Manure------.-- 12 yrs. 1864-75 172
24 yrs. 1852-'75 22°71

12 yrs. 1852-’63 22°0
12 yrs. 1864-75 146
24 yrs. 1852-"75 183

f; Unmanured

f
|
12 yrs. 1852-'63 27-0

Barley. + 12 yrs. 1852-63 26°0
Complex Mineral Manure --------- 12 yrs. 1864-75 188
24 yrs. 1852-75 22°4

l
Tarmiph 2-222 8 yrs. 1845-52 42:0
Complex Lo Seen © 3 yrs. 1853-’55 24:3
Boot Mineral ec 15 yrs. 1856-70" | 18°5
Crops. 1} Manure. Sugar-beet _._._- 5 yrs.187175 | 131
OS ee 31 yrs. 1845-15 26°8

* Thirteen years’ crop—two years failed.

2400 J. A. Gilbert—-Points in connection with Vegetation.

of a century. Table II shows the yield of nitrogen per acre,
per annum, in wheat, in barley, ard in root crops, each grown

has yielded an average of 20-7 lbs. of nitrogen, per acre, per
annum, without manure. But if we look at the quantities

have not conclusive evidence to show. Determinations of nitro-
gen in samples of the soi! taken at different times during the

course of the experiments do, indeed, show an appreciable reduc-

seen that while over the next twenty-four years, 1852-1875,
the wheat yielded 19-3 lbs. of nitrogen, per acre, per annum;
the barley yielded an average of 183 lbs. over t

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 25

To sum up the evidence in regard to the sources of the nitro-
en of these two ter gramineous plants, when none of it is
supplied to them ure, though it is not conclusively
shown whence the whole da it is derived, it would at any rate

e@ down in rain e

aqueous Heponlte from the atahopiieg by the condensation of
the ammonia of the air within the pores of the soil, and by the
previous seiner be within the soil.

Let us now consider what is the a of nitrogen by plan
of other natural families, and first of all by ce ertain s0- Laer

“ root-crops”—turnips of the natural me Cruciferee, and sugar
beet of the order Chenopodiaces. On this point we have the
experience of thirty-one years, excepting that during three of
those years barley was grown without any manure in order to
equalise the condition of the land as far as possible before re-
arranging the manuring, and during two other years the turnips
sestes there was no crop.

uld be premised that when root-crops are grown Kiem

out capi of any kind, there is after a few years scarcely a
produce at all; and hence the results recorded in the sits ii are
those obtained by the use of mineral manures, but without a

Swedish turnips, and two without any on there was a yield
of 18°5 lbs. per acre annually. During the ;
beet yielded 13-1 Ibs. per acre, perannum Lastly, over the
whole thirty-one years, during which there were tbree crops of
arley, two years without any crop, twenty-one years of turnips,
and five of sugar-beet, the average anpual yield was 26°8 Ibs.
of nitrogen.

ere, then, we have a reduction to less than one-third during
the later compared with the earlier years, and to a lower point
han even with either wheat or barley; though, during the
whole period, the annual yield is higher than with either of the
two gramineous cro t may be mentioned that we have
other experimental evidence showing that the so-called * root-
crops” exhaust at any rate the superficial layers of the soil of
their available supplies of nitrogen, more completely than per
8, any other crop. It may further be added that the surface

mental field
have fair grounds for concluding, pe ah that if in the cases
of the wheat and the barley the nitrogen yielded beyond that
retained by the soil from the direct measurable aqueous deposits,

26 J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation.

together with that condensed within the pores of the soil from
the atmosphere, be derived from previous accumulations within
the soil, so also may the excess of yield by the so-called “ root-
crops” be accounted for.

TaBLe III.— Yield of Nitrogen per acre, per annum in Beans, in Red Clover, and
in Rotation.

Re
eae an Duration Witenes
— as Experiment. ier anErahe
Tbs.
12 yrs. 1847-’58 48°1
Unmanured 12 yrs, 1859-'70(*)| 14:6
24 yrs. 1847-70 313
Beans
12 yrs, 1847-58 61°5
Complex Mineral Manure_._..__.__ 12 yrs. 1859-'70(*)| 29°5
24 yrs. 1847-’70 45°5
lover Unmanured -- | 22 yrs. 1849-’70(+)} 30°5
Complex Mineral Manure-_.__..._. 22 yrs. 1849-’70($)} 39°8
Barley lyr.1873 37°3
Clover ' Unmanured : { 1 yr. 1873 151°3
§ After Barley’ 1 yr. 1874 39°1
Barley /Unmanured.-_..__.- { After Clover} 1 yr. 1874 69-4
Barley after Clover more than after 30°3
Barley
1 Turnips Unmanured | 28 yrs. 1848-75 36°8
Rotation 2 Barley
7 Courses | ) 3 Clover or Beans Superphos-
4 Wheat phate....| 28 yrs. 1847-75 45:2

70
acre, per annum. Still, over the whole period of twenty-four
years, we have an annual yield of 31:3 Ibs., or more than one
and a half time as much as in either wheat or barley.
_ (*) Nine years Beans, one year Wheat, two years fallow.
Woeer gare Clover one year Wheat, three years Barley, twelve years fallow.

Re ee

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 27

In the ease of wheat and barley it was seen that a mixed
mineral manure increased the yield of nitrogen to a very small
degree only. Not so in the case of the leguminous crop, beans.
During the first twelve years a complex mineral manure, con-
taining a large amount of potass—I call attention to this fact
because we have abundant evidence that it is the potass chiefly

that is effective—gave 615 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre per annum
against 48-1 lbs. obtained over the same , period without manure.

uring the next twelve years, _ nee manure gave 29°5 lbs.
against scarcely half as much, or 14°6 lbs. without the potass
manure. And finally, aaa thie rf period of twenty-four
years, the potass manure has given 45° lbs. of nitrogen per

ure; and w
yielded by a potass manure over a period of twenty-four years
with beans than with either wheat or barley.
Before calling attention to the figures relating to another
t

leguminous red clover—it should be mentioned that
leguminous crops generally are, and clover in particular is,
extremely sensitive to adverse climatal circumstances; br

ing to grow lbeee year after year on the same , we
only succeeded in getting any crops. and some of those pod
ones, in si riod of twenty-two. Indeed, the

a crop of wheat or barley was taken, and in others the land was
left fallow. Hence, over a period of ey ee years we have
had only six years "of clo over, one of wheat, three of barley,
and twelve of fallow. Still, the annual yield of nitrogen over
the twenty-two years was 30-5 without any manure, and
Ad 8 Ibs., or nearly one third more, by mineral manure contain-
g potas. Unfavorable as was this experiment in an agricul-
one point of view, still it is seen that the influence of the inter-
polation of this leguminous crop has greatly increased the yield
of nitrogen compared with that obtained in either wheat or
barley grown continuously; and that, unlike the result with
those crops, a =e manure has here again, as with beans,

hala as Bere with gramineous crops, I will simply
mark in passing that we have no evidence leading to the

28 J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

conclusion that this increased assimilation is at the expense of
the nitrogen existing at any rate in the upper iayers of the soil.

yield of nitrogen in other cases in which leguminous crops have
been interpolated with others.

It is, indeed, well known that the growth and removal of a
highly nitrogenous leguminous crop is one of the best possible
preparations ; for the growth of a gramineous corn crop, whic
characteristically requires nitrogenous manuring. <A. striking
illustration of this apparent anomaly i is afforded in the results
next in order recorded in Table III.

ter the growth of six corn crops in succession by artificial
manures alone, barley was grown without manure in 1873 on

baste eure 39-1 “ce and barley sha et the clover gave
69°4 4 ibs. of nitrogen ; or 30°3 lbs. more after the removal of

that from which the barley had been taken; and this was so,
althouzh, in every case, all pce vegetable debris had been
carefully picked out. Here, t n, the surface soil at any rate
was positively enriched in ape pce re anes by soda-lime)
by the growth and removal of a ve y highly nitrogenous crop.
may be mentioned that Dr. Voces has obtained results of

a similar character.
The results next to be considered are those obtained in an
actual four-course rotation of — namely, turnips, parley
been co

clover or es and wheat. e experiments hay
ducted through seven such courses ; that is to say, over a seal
of twenty-eight years. One portion of the land, the results

years.
relating to which are given in the table, has been entirely
unmanured during the whole of that period, and the other has

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 29

ae ing aoa “2 lime alone, once Pc td four years
—tha ato say, for the turnips commencing each course ; but

Under these conditions—that is with a turnip crop and a
leguminous crop in sorpelaaed with two gramineous crops—we
have, without manure of any kind, an average of 36°8 Ibs. of
nitrogen yielded per acre, per annum; or not far from twice as
much as was obtained with either of those cereal crops, wheat
or barley, grown consecutively. With super-phosphate of lime
alone, which, in a striking a ‘gree increased the yield of nitro-
gen in the turnips, reduced it in the succeeding besiege increased
it greatly in the leguminous crops, and slightly the wheat

And it may be observed that where, in adjoining experiments,
no bist stisee crop was grown between the barley and the
wheat, but the land was fallowed instead, the tota tal yield o
—_— in the rotation was very much less: the wheat acces:
g the fallow yielding very little more nitogen than that sue-
deoding the leguminous crops which removed so much of
it. In other words, the removal of A ay most highly nitrogenous
crops of the rotation— beans or clover—has been succeeded by
a growth of wheat, and assimilation of nitrogen by it, almost as
great as aes en it has succeeded a year of fallow—that is to say,
a period of accumulation from external sources, and no removal
by ¢

pe
One other illustration must be given of the power of

the results in ques estion on this particular point, it will be neces:
nrg! to om a little to call special attention to the conditions
the experiments under which the results — obtained ; and
it is the more desirable to do this, since the m ost important of
r. Lawes’ contributions to this ibition is an illustration of

the results I am about to refer to.

Effects of manure.—I must here forestall a little _ r shall
have to refer to more fully further on, as to the effec char-
acteristically different —" on crops belonging : different
botanical families. I will say neo, then, that it is found
that nitrogenous sh — ve generally a very striking effect
in increasing the growth of a a crops grown separately

ble land, such as wheat, barley, or ont all of which -
na comparatively small percentage o of nitrogen, and, as has
Seca illustrated, assimilate a comparatively small amount of it

380 J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation.

ch as
act much more favorably than ammonia-salts. Again, while,
under equal conditions of soil and seasons, mineral without
nitrogenous manures increase comparatively little the poor-in-
nitrogen gramineous crops that are grown separately, such

contribute the largest portion of the herbage; , on g00
grass land, if eguminose do not come second, they are at

own special manure, and as a rule the same description year
ter year—and the experiments have now been conducted
over a period of twenty years.
Under this varied treatment, changes in the flora, so to

otanical separation, and the percent-
age, by weight, of each species in the mixed herbage determined.
Partial separations have also been made in other years.

Mr. Lawes has contributed a large case of s ecimens to the
exhibition, which shows the botanical composition of the herb-

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 81

of different manures, applied year after year on the same plot.
The general results of the experiments may be briefly sum-
marized as follows :—
The mean produce of hay per acre per annum has ra

ed,
on the different plots, from about twenty-three ewt. wi

ng
thout
manured.

The number of species found has generally been about fifty
on the unmanured plots, and has been reduced to an average
y twenty, and has sometimes been less, on the most

wv

of that
grown by the same mineral manures, with a large quantity of

ammoniacal salts.
Species belonging to various other orders have, on the aver-

mineral manures, and only about six per cent of that by
the mixture of the mineral manures and a large amount of

? « . .
indicate the interest of these curious illustrations of the dom-
ination of one plant over another in the mixed herbage of per-

32 0. N. Rood—Observations on a property of the Retina.

manent grass land. Nor do we pretend to be able to give a
satisfactory explanation of the variations induced, founded on
“i : :

ground character or habit of growth of the individual species.
The whole of the results—agricultural, chemical, and botanical—

(To be continued.)

Art. IIl.— Observations on a property of the Retina, first noticed
by Tait; by Oapren N. Roop, Professor of Physics in
Columbia College.

: 3, which seem
point out that after a nervous shock, sudden or prolonged, the
green nerves (adopting the theory of Young,) recover their
activity later than the red, and probably later than the violet
nerves. The first observation was made twenty years ago while

or

Upon regaining consciousness, and raising my eyes to the face
of the operator, I was a little surprised at not having previously
remarked his unusually ruddy complexion, but the next instant

G. W. Hawes—Iron in Dolerytes from New Hampshire. 338

filled with a greenish haze.
Two of these cases and, probably that of Tait, point out, that
i ight of medi

Art. IV.—On grains of Metallic Iron in Dolerytes from New
Hampshire; by GEoreE W. Hawes.

THE presence of metallic iron in certain basalts and dolerytes
has been repeatedly proved. It was first shown Tr.
Andrews that it was contained in the basalts of the Giant’s
Causeway.* Reuss has proved its presence in Bohemia
basalts; and in this country it has been found in the Mesozoic
dolerytes of New Jersey by Cook.t

In all these cases the iron has been detected by a microchem-
ical method. If a portion of a rock is pulverized, and the

* Pogg. Ann., 1853, Bd. 88, p. 321.
} Cook, Annual Report of State Geol. Survey for 1874, p. 56.
Am. Jour. Sct, ae Serres—VoL. XIII, No. 73.—Jan., 1877,

their color and luster, will be seen. ut as Dr. Andrews re-

marked in speaking of the Ovifak iron, in his inaugural address

before the British oe last summer, it has never been
found possible to detect with the microscope this iron which —
was known to be icoate Mis is proposed here to point out the
mode of occurrence of visible grains of metallic iron in dole-
rytes from New Hampshire.

Upon the Dry river, a small stream which gathers its waters
from Mount Washington, there are numerous large dikes of
chrysolitic doleryte, which cut through the old ~crystellial
rocks. These dolerytes are composed of Sie Sain. pyroxene,

chrysolite and magnetite, with a little mica; and, though they —
contain such decomposable materials, the rocks are eck a
fresh, and all the minerals are clear when 1 t in thin

F. E. Nipher—Phenomena of Binocular Vision. 35 -

the large grain is the metallic iron. The other minerals of the
slice are as follows: The white mineral with no cleavage but
with irregular fractures
is chrysolite (C); the min-
eral showing an inter-

he chrysolite and bio-
tite show an attempt at
regular crystallization,
while the other ingredi-
ents do not possess any
regular external form,

but the labradorite is finely striated by t
duces a beautiful effect when it is examined with polarized

ts i :

se
be described in the third part of the report of the New Hamp-

the oxidation of the iron.
Sheffield Laboratory, New Haven, Conn.

Art. V.—On certain Phenomena of Binocular Vision ;* by
Francis E. NIPHER.

Ir is possible that the phenomena here described may have
been observed before, but I have been unable to find any
record of them.

1. Fold asheet of writing paper into a tube about an inch
in diameter. Look through the tube at some distant object

* Read before the St. Louis Academy of Science, Nov. 6th, 1876.

36 F. E. Nipher—Phenomena of Binocular Vision.

with one eye, and toward the open hand with the other eye,
The

the edge of the hand being in contact with the tube.
dissimilar objects producing unlike images upon the retine, the
sensations blend and a hole will appear to be cut through the

palm of the hand, through which the tube passes. That part —

of the tube between the eye and hand will appear to be trans-
parent, as though the hand were seen through it

This experiment is very old, but seems not to have found its
way into scientific literature.

2. Replace the hand by a sheet of unruled paper, upon which

a drop of ink has been placed. By proper management, the —

ink blot may be made to appear within the tube, by so plac-
ing the paper that the hole which is apparently cut through it,

coincides with the blot. Ordinarily the blot will then appear

opaque, the paper immediately around it, and apparently within
the tube, being invisible. The blot appears as it were suspended
in space. By concentrating the attention strongly on objects
seen through the tube, especially if they are strongly illumin-

be made to disappear altogether. The mental effort necessary
to do this cannot be maintained more than a few seconds, and

of a few seconds, the absolute time depending — the illumina- —

ecome fatigued,

ee
tabi, distinguishing itself by its different illumination, the sur-
rounding paper being invisible, unless attention be directed too

around it depends upon the relative illumination of objects upon
which the tube is directed, and that of the sheet of paper

4. Keeping the same arrangement, place at a distance of one

foot from the end of the tube a sheet of paper so that objects

aia’

W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 37

will now appear to be ra ise by a hole the same in size as
that cut through pie
utting a small hole ae sheet No. 2, matters are easily

arranged so that it Anes within the hole which was before
i hese experiments may be paki in
showing the simultaneous accommodation of the two eyes.

by green sees the red Sue intensified, the effect ae
rendered the more striking by the simultaneous impressions
received by the two eyes. Experiments in the combination of
color sensations will readily suggest themselves.

The editor of the Sczentific American has written something
ipod similar to some parts of this communication (Oct. 14), but

arison of it with my short note in Nature, Aug. 10th,

ay oe that I am not the borrower.

Art. VI.—WNotes on the Vespertine Strata of ot and West
Virginia ; by Wiuu1aM M. FonTAIN.

Structure and geographical distribution.

THE eastern re of the unbroken area occupied by the
Vespertine in the two Virginias may be taken as limited by
the Main peesce: in the northern and middle portions of
the area in question, and in the southern portion, by Peter's
and Hast River Mountains.

As Prof. Wm. B. Roger has shown, the rocks of the Vesper-
tine, or No. X, compose the middle piece of the Main

“the Eastern Front Ridge of the pre eet while from the

northern part of Pendleton county to the ata corner

sociated strata first dip gently westw and then
into a eae of undulations, which erate ee to the Shio

38 W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

River, declining more and more in abruptness. Owing to the
increasing depth to which they are buried, the Vespertine
strata are rarely brought to the surface in that direction by the
flexures.

As we go south of Pocahontas the westward thrust which
has affected this region, causes an increased elevation and flex-
ing of the rocks. e structure of the Alleghany passes from
monoclinal to anticlinal, with increasing steepness of dip, so
that, in the vicinity of the White Sulphur Springs, where pen-
etrated by the tunnel for the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad, the

]

east side of the mountain, and caught in a synclinal fold. This

ives us the small coal beds seen near the Lewis Tunnel.
At the same time the increase in the elevation and flexing of
the strata southward from the northern part of Pocahontas
county has brought up rocks lower than the Catskill ?, not only
in the Alleghany but over a belt about ten miles wide to the
west, so that the east limit of the unbroken Vespertine, is
thrown off to the western side of this area.

This belt shows strata all the way in the series, from the
Oriskany to the Vespertine. The former barely appears in the
lowest eroded places, and the latter shows merely small uneroded
remnants of its lower portion. In the vicinity of the White Sul-
phur Springs, the strata throughout this area seem to be dis-
posed in closed and contorted anticlinals overturned to the
westward, which are separated by comparatively broad belts, in
which the beds show moderately stee ips.

This disturbed belt is separated by a line of fault from the
Vespertine strata. ition is very abrupt,
region which shows remarkably little disturbance. Prof, Rogers’
description of the geology of the eastern corner of Monroe

county; for there we find that the eastern outcrop of the Ves-
pertine area has closed in upon the Alleghany, while within
the county this mountain chain is continued in Little Moun-
tain, which is composed of upturned Vespertine strata,

W.. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 39

With this aap earance of the elevated belt of disturbed
Devonian oe e fault which bounded it on the west also
vanishes, b sip cot a much more import

the Alleghany, in the northeastern oie of Monroe Ronni.
t

Every observer who has examined the structure of the
Sonnets to the east and west of this fault, in the region extend-
ing from Monroe county to the southwest, has been ts with
the remarkable difference in the amount of disturbance exhib-
ited by the strata on the opposite sides of it. Prof. Lesley has
given an excellent account of the condition of the country to
the southeast of the fault above mentioned. The entire area here
has been fractured, displaced, and folded, showing a truly as-
tonishing amount of disturbance. On the northw est, or western
side, we tind the beds sometimes with their edges upturned, but
they pass into an almost pga ae poaeae in a short distance
to the west. This is well sh n Prof Lesley’s section of
Stone pict where the oct eum series is thus affected.
Prof. Rogers, in his section - the str ea in the northeast corner

count of the section near Greenbrier River, a similar structure
will be shown. But here the Be of fault separating the dis-
turbed from the undisturbed region, is a minor one, developed
by the rise of the Devonian belt near the White Sulphur
S

. While the. direction of this fault is thrown more in
northerly direction, and hence farther to the west than that
of — taps above eon bed, yet it occupies the same relative
position, and pe office, viz: that of checking
“ © propagation of a disturbance through the strata to the
of ult does not seem to continue far north,
a a ei osha county.
The country everywhere to the west of these last lines of
fault, from Greenbrier county nearly to the Tennessee line,

40 W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

us upon higher and higher strata. This region may then be
regarded as an eroded plateau, sloping from the east toward

n are simply uneroded remnants of higher and _ softer

, eat n
overturned to the west, and finally fractured. This feature is
shown, as I have explained above, in the Devonian area near

ur.

corner of Monroe county, are then thrown farther west, and
made to take a north-northeasterly direction. The more south-
erly chains are produce by resistant strata, brought up along
lines of fault, the more northerly, by folds.

he following seems to me to be the course of events, which
resulted in the production of the present structure of the coun-

The westward thrust, which, at the close of the Carbonifer-
ous Age, uplifted the Appalachian Belt, found the strata along
its present western cine, for some distance: south of the

Potomae, with their power of resistance comparatively unim-
n.

W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 41

Passing south, into still more weakened strata, the sudden de-
velopment of the great fault near the Sweet Springs, in Monroe

belt on its west, to disappear, and the mountain chains to as-

ume a more easterly course. From this point southward, in
the region of greatest tension, the fractures are more rofound
and numerous. Any residu. al i SS unrelieved by the faults,
seems to have been exhausted in ucing flexures in the im-
mediate vicinity “2 the west of ay fault, and in raising the
eastern border of the great coal ~ as a whole, producing a
gentle westerly dip toward the

oubt the great freedom of this area, thus tilted, from

flexures ee = magnitude, is due in part to the great develop:
ment of massive sandstones in the lower Vespertine, and in the
conglomerate series in this section, which would produce great
rigidity.
A somewhat detailed explanation of the connection supposed
to a between the faulted and folded portions of the country,
and the deep — occupied by the —— strata of Carbon-
seat age, has been given in the above na “ Resources of
West Virginia,” in =? chapter by Mr. asin on the ‘Coal
Field of West Virgi

The Vespertine ace occurring to the east of the limit men-
tioned at the beginning of this “article, are found in detac
— and patches, mostly of small extent. As might be

expected, from the above account of the structure of the coun-
try, in the northern and middle portions, they occupy —
the lower parts of synclinal folds, while in the southern portion,
they are confined to the a of faults. In each case they
are more commonly found along the flank, or at the foot of a
mountain, formed by the more resistant lower portion of the
—- or underlying strata.

The following are the more important of these belts, and the
only ones which I propose to notice, since they may ‘be taken
as true representatives of all the areas to be found in Y be region
saree — exist.

e belt montined above, as occurring on the east flank

?
This belt contains the coal strata and plan ressions seen at
Lewis Tunnel. It is especially instructive since it shows the
strata lying immediately above the , as _ pri — jae

the strata here are es exposed in the pra free nat for the
Chesapeake & Ohio R.
This belt extends an = ae distance north of the railroad,

42 W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

probably to the northern part of Bath county. To the south,

it terminates near the northeastern border of Monroe county.

It occupies the bottom of a synclinal fold, and possesses but

small width.

more extended and important belt, which lies
e last. This commences in the

bounds it in that direction. In the northern and mi por-
tions, the coal-bearing member of the Vespertine lies under the
inverted massive sandstones of the lower member, ence is

Mountain,” the southern continuation of “North Mountain,”
he coal-bearing member lies on the southeastern face of the
mountai e great number of faults in this section has

of Price’s Mountain, near Christiansburg in Montgomery county.
T have been informed that coal has been discovered still farther
to the east, within the limestone area, in the north end of Lick
Mountain, in Wythe county. If this is true, it is without doubt
Vespertine coal.

no means small. Judging only by the exposures which now
remain, the belt of country over which well defined coal beds
were formed, was more than 300 miles long, and fifty miles

ckingham counties in Virginia, and in ontgomery county.
I will give in the remainder of this article, some of the facts
observed at these points

The strata from the top of the Chemung to the base of the
“Productive coals,” in the two Virginias, pass into each other

W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 43

so gradually, that, in subdividing this great mass of sediment,
one is forced to select the dividing planes sper bogey
and to take for his guide, physical pri in the The
most natural horizon, to select as upper peers of the
Vespertine i in the Virginias, as it peek to me, is the base of _
“Lewisburg,” or “Lower Carboniferous Limestone.” Ye t,
we proceed north into Pennsylvania, this rock is absent. This
is also the case in the eastern exposures in Virginia. Along the
Greenbrier River there are certain red beds, underlying the
limestone in question, ve resting on the coal. -bearing member
of the Vespertine. Professor Wm. B. Rogers, if I understand
his measurements sabres eo these in his Umbral, or No.
XI, as he does the Lower Carboniferous Limestone, here exposed.
There are two objections to this, I think. The pb se —
ter and composition of these red beds assign t ore
naturally to the Vespertine than to the limestone

Another, and more important objection is, that if the lowest
of these beds be made the base of the Umbral, then the great

reasons, I include the beds in question, in the Vespertine series.

The U ee series naturally begins at the top o of the “ Lewis-

burg,” or “ Lower Carboniferous Limestone,” at least in the
las.

The Vespertine as on Greenbrier River.

Commencing at the fault above described, which occurs a
little west of Caldwell cote, on the Chesa peake & Ohio R. R.,
and about six miles west of the White Sulphur, we find on the
east side of the deep channel cut by a small stream, highly con-
torted, and overturned, strata of the Catskill?, while on the
western side, and only 100 yards distant, the upper red beds of
the Vespertine are seen dipping at an angle of only three or
four degrees eastward, toward the contorted strata. These
compose the base of the high hill there air The middle and
upper portions - this hill are composed of the Lower Carbon-

ot The ese strata are com almost entirely of dee
crumbling marlites. Some —— beds of flaggy, reddish,
and gray sandstones, occur in the passage beds near the base of
the limestone, and toward the middle of the series. of

bb W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

marks. Toward the base, as we approach the coal-bearing

In his measurement of the Umbral in Greenbrier Mountain,
near Huntersville in Pocahontas county, he puts fifty feet of
red shales under the limestone. This point is thirty miles north
of my section.

Still farther north, on the Potomac, near Western vort, Profes-
sor Rogers gives no red beds under the limestone, but shows
that fifteen feet of red shales and sandstone occur about twenty
feet from the base, which is composed of reddish and sandy

important undulation affecting the strata ina westerly direction,
for these maintain apparently a westerly dip nearly to the Ohio
River.

Tn my article on the “ Conglomerate series of West Virginia,”
published in the numbers of this Journal, for April and May,
1876, I have given some account of the geology of the country
lying in that direction.

e middle member of the Vespertine as disclosed here,
shows at its top, about seventy feet of rather siliceous, bluish
gray sandstones, in thin beds, and of very firm texture. Under

out to the thickness of nearly a foot. No underclays exist,

and all the material was plainly derived from drif vegeta-

W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 45

tion. This is ve: indicated by the frequent mixture of the
carbon with the substance of the sandstones,

But while this portion of the field seems to have been under
water, a portion of the neighboring area was in a condition to
permit the development of a arate coal bed. 1 have
reliable information that some two and a half miles north of
this point, and near the river, a coal bed exists at this horizon.
At one time attempts were made to work it, but the coal proved

be too impure, and full of sulphur. It is locally about four
feet thick. This is the coal bed mentioned by Professor
Rogers, as existing on the river near Lewisburg.

Beneath the above mentioned carbonaceous portion, come
120 feet of firm gray, and brownish sandstones, and then forty
feet of very flaggy, gray, soft sandstones and shales, with some
layers of fissile black shale, containing indistinct vegetable e im
pressions, mostly leaves of Lepidodendra. The lowest rock
se s about twenty feet of dark gray, otipatl fine
grained sandstone, full of specks of pyrites, and containing in

nests and pockets of yellow ochre poorly as impressions
of shells. The entire thickness, here shown, of the middle
member, is by estimate about 290 feet.

Professor Rogers shows that farther north, where the Vesper-
tine forms a portion of the mass of the Alle hany Mountains,
this member shows pretty much the same features, but that the
amount of coal is much smaller, since it appears only i in ocea-
sional thin strings of very small lateral extent.

Vespertine Strata near Lewis Tunnel.

Twelve miles east of the last mentioned locality we find the
Vespertine rocks disposed in a narrow belt along the east side
of the Alleghany Mountains. The Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad
sar from this mountain, on the east side, in a deep cut made

n Chemung strata, which dip about | 75° southeast. Passing
alos the railroad eastward, we enter first the strata intermediate
between the Chemung and Vespertine, which are probably
Catskill, and after passing through these, see the lowest beds of
the Vespertine, coming next in order. The dip flattens down
rapidly in going east, until in the Vespertine strata it is not
more than 25°.

The Chemung here is much like that of New York. Alter-
nations of flaggy sandstones and shales, weathering olive brown
in color, form the principal a of the Toward the
top, rather massive, dull gray, and dingy brown sandstones
occur, with some portions octamer pebbles as large as a garden
pea. Thin layers, crowded with impressions of shells, occur at
intervals, being found even in the coarse sandstones. The

46 W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

stones; succeeding them, the rocks show a decided change, and
in this portion, the Catskill beds, if they exist at all here, must
be found. The following is a section of them, with the thick-

in the character of the deposits, and here I place the base
the Vespertine. This rock is a white, pebbly, highly siliceous

the dimensions of half an inch. The great mass of the rock,

especially the middle and upper portions, is a coarse sandstone

of impure white color, becoming somewhat argillaceous at the

top. The thickness seen was about sixty feet. This rock, it

will be remembered, was not brought up at the place examined
er.

his is one of the most persistent and highly characteristic
members of the Vespertine. Thoug always containing con-
glomerate bands, and marked by its siliceous character, it
shows considerable changes in thickness, and the coarseness of
its texture. Along the Greenbrier River the conglomerate
portion, when exposed, often shows pebbles an inch in diame-
ter. Professor Rogers mentions an exposure near Huntersville
where the pebbles are even two inches in diameter.
_ Next above the sandstone member at Lewis Tunnel, we find

W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 47

the middle member as on the Greenbrier River, containing gray
flags with coal. It is here fully exposed, and is by estimate
soe 350 feet thick.
he base is composed of forty feet of argillaceous, thick-
bedded sandstones of a dull yellowish gray — —— eded b
twenty feet of firm olive colored sandstones, e one or two
hin films of coal occur in the first named, sieoeinian with black
shale. The second stratum brings us to about the horizon of

u

- mentioned stratum we find a true coal system, showing

underclays with ~— The following is a section of it,
beginning at the bas

1. Bluish- tones ‘a ron 5 feet. . Fire clay, 12 inches,

2. Fire clay, 5 9. Coal, 1-2 ine

3. Coal, 8 inches. . Fire “clay, 5 5 fee

4, Brown n, flaggy sandstones, 3 feet. 1 Slaty coal, 5- 4 inches.
5. Slaty coal, 6 inches. . Sandstone, 3

6. Black shale, 12 inches i. Black sandy alate, 15 ft.
7. Gray sandstone, ‘30 feet,

No. 7 contains films and str eaks of coal from es vegetable
eo) shows

erosion, before the Bonples of the overlying strata. The
lower part of No. 18, for some four or five feet, contains large

to
material derived from the red and brown Pie oe
losing by weathering the carbon to which they owe tne black
color, they assume reddish and brown an
h

e coals are really two in number, disposed in an upper
and lower do about thirty feet et which accords
well with their ca yaar: throughout the Vespertine coal

m wey impure, platy and full of sulphur.

ae
ver this we have twenty feet of gray sandstone of fi
texture, graduating into ten feet of firm thin bedded a

48 W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

e find from the above data that in this section the Vesper-
tine strata may be divided into three members.
ower member, characterized by siliceous sandstones
and conglomerates. “Thickness exposed, sixty feet. With this
should probably be counted 500 feet of underlying, more
argillaceous flags, giving a total of 560 feet. :

2. A middle member, characterized by the predominance of
gray sandstones containing coal. Thickness, about 350 feet.

3. An upper member, consisting almost entirely of red
marlites, and having a thickness of about 250 feet. This would
give the entire group a thickness of 1,160 feet.

t will be seen that, as the base of the lower member is

has increased to 800 feet. Thisseems in any event, to establish
the fact of a considerable thickening to the south.
[To be continued.]

A. W. Wright—Production of Transparent Metallic Films. 49

Art. VII.—On the production of Ay the agree gues by
the Electrical Discharge in exhausted s; by A
Wricut, Professor of Molecular Phycis and Cheaneey,
Yale College.

suspect that its presence may affect the character of the discharge
somewhat, and its removal becomes desirable. In some recent

small pellets. As this wanes is readily amalgamated it will,
after a time, take up the mercury vapor, causing the disap-
pearance of its chegmetetentit lines from the spectrum. A stil
better method is to wrap a small piece of the foil about the

gold will be volatilized and deposited upon the walls of the
tube in a very thin layer, thus exposing a much larger surface
to the action of the mercury vapor, in the manner described
below.

s
glass, the gold having evidently been volatilized b. the elec-
tricity ee condensed | upon the walls of the tube. In order to

ily, when it was found that the gold was speedily deposited
upon the tube as before, and by shaking the foil along, a con-
siderable area was covered with it ina short time. It appeared,
even under the microscope, as a perfectly continuous film,
forming a brilliant mirror, and showing the charset green
Am, Jour. Sct.—Turrp Series, VoL. XIII, No. 73.—Jan.,
4

50 A.W. Wright—Production of Transparent Metallic Films

color by transmitted light very beautifully. When the tube
was afterwards rather strongly heated the gold lost its mirror-
like surface in the thinner parts, assuming a frosted appearance,
and the light passed through it had a fine ruby color, conform-
ing in this to what was observed by Faraday in his experiments
on the relation of metals to light.* A singularity in the result
was the fact that the volatilization occurred only at that end of

the foil which was made a negative pole. This was observed

the investigation was extended to a considerable number of
metals. i

cases it covered the whole area of the glass opposite the
electrode, but did not extend much beyond it. After the film
was sufficiently developed the small branch was closed with a
gas flame, the tube drawn off, and sealed.

* Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics.

by the electrical discharge in exhausted tubes. 51

For metals readily oxidized it was neers to fill the tubes
i eposit formed, as
results. these

of the electrical action, and the proper regulation of the power
of the current used. When the Holtz machine was employed
as a source of electricity no effect was obtained without con-
densers, and with them the discharge, at least with the tension
of gas used, did not occur in such a manner as to yield good
results. The trifling deposit obtained in this way was opposite
the positive electrode. Possibly by exhausting the tubes so as
to reach a much lower tension the electro-machine might be
made available, but the induction coil is both efficient and con-
venient.

green. By reflected ea the film has a splendid luster, and
the full golden color.

upon the tube was scarcely less beautiful and perfect. The fu

luster was developed gradually, and the light transmitted by the
completed film is a pure, deep blue. Copper gives a fine lus-
trous mirror, appearing dull green by transmitted light. It is
volatilized with more difficulty than the preceding metals.

52 A.W. Wright— Production of Transparent Metallic Films

Platinum is volatilized with oh eh ease, especially in
a narrow tube. Its deposition on the glass in this way is a
familiar occurrence, as few of the common vacuum-tubes which

long time fail to show the effect. In a small tube the layer is
very bright, and is easily made thick enough to be quite opaque.

ity of the coloration in the case of the zine.
uminum was volatilized with considerable difficulty, re-
uiring five or six cells and a powerful coil. It formed

yielded even less readily, and showed no effect at all when tried
with the means which had given good results in the other cases.
It was necessary to reduce the electrode to a very fine wire, and
this was enclosed in a tube of only 3°5 millimeters caliber. The
larger coil was used, and the power of the battery gradually
increased to six Grove cells. N

ter, and when the light was seen through it, a grayish-blue color
similar to that of zine or cadmium, but less clear.

by the electrical discharge in exhausted tubes, 53

Interesting results were obtained with iron, which gave a
very beautiful and perfect film, having a brilliant luster, and a
high degree of transparency. The light transmitted by it is
very nearly of a pure neutral tint, though with a faint tinge of
brownish. The electrode was a wire 03 millimeter in diameter.
This was carefully cleaned, and the tube filled with dry hy-
drogen three times before the final exhaustion. Without this
precaution it is impossible to obtain reliable results, as the
metal is partially oxidized, and the film not only stained, but
its color by transmitted light changed to brown, or even to
deep orange-yellow. This was the color exhibited by the film
obtained in the first trial, in which the tube was filled with air.
Externally it exhibited a vivid iridescence, in various colors,
but at the extremities of the deposit the metal had its proper
luster. Subsequent trials in which the tube was once filled
with hydrogen gave better results, but the yellow tint and the
iridescence did not disappear until the thorough removal of the
oxygen and moisture, as described.

For those metals which are not readily obtained in the form

used in the ordinary way. j
Nickel and cobalt were experimented upon by this method,

observed in this experiment.

54 A.W. Wright—Production of Transparent Metallic Films.

In Faraday’s experiments deposits of several different metals
upon plates of glass or other materials were obtained by passing
the spark from a Leyden battery between the points of wires
near the plates in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Films so ob-

n :

e uous. Those formed by the
here described, however, are gery very uniform

ve cain and even under the microscope appear to be
fectly continuous. For a study of the optical pretties of the
metals they can be formed upon narrow slips of plane ser

imtroduced into the tubes by the side of the electrode. Si
examination of the tubes with a Nicol’s prism shows that pt ine
films, at least in the case of gold, silver, iron, zine and cadmi-
um, which have been tried by the writer, polarize the light
transmitted by them powerfully, and the degree of serps te
appears to he Mee with the incident angle | as far as observa-
tion can be eka er earried, which implies a very high
refractive index. It t be expected that the Tight should
' be elliptically olavised, ay this point was not determined, and

the optical properties of the films remain for further study.
With respect to the relative energy of electrical action neces-
sary to volatilize the different metals the observations were
ardly precise enough to warrant the statement of a definite
law. Hise uth was vola meg ei readily of all, gold and

lead, tin, zinc and cadmium. ield “tes readily, while copper,
6

energetic — action exerted for a long time, and the
electrode must be a quite fine wire. Magnesium is acted upon
pa less “readily, and is by far the most difficult, of all the

tal e obtained in the state of a thin layer. Suc-
cess was attained by the use of an energetic battery of five or
six Grove cells, with: a coil capable of giving two-inch sparks,
the electrode being a wire cut from a thin srt of the metal
and not more than one-fifth of a millimeter in ahjokneaie
Even then no effect was produced till this was enclosed in a
very narrow tube by which the electrical action was concen-
trated.

metal, n
Pilg of vapor about it, which did not aft the glass how-
ever u the power of the current was increased and the size
of the tabs considerably diminished. It will be seen that the
heavy metals, that is, — with high atomic weights, are most
readily volatilized, while those with smaller atomic weights
Oppose grea tance ma the electrical action, and those with
medium weights occupy an intermediate position ; but the

Chemistry and Physics. 55

fusibility, tenacity, and electrical conductivity also appear to
t some influence as to the place of the different metals in
the list.

in m, the interior portion of the platinum wire
hich passes through the being itself covered with a
small glass t the two metals magnesium is the best, as

wire of platinum. Of course these metals could only be used
with gases which would have no chemical action upon them:
Yale College, December 13, 1876.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics.
On the so-called Crystallized Bor Hamper has prepared

Ly On.— E
and submitted to careful examination both of the forms of the

by red hexagonal plates of the aluminum boriae of Wohler and
chocolate-brown crystals of silicon.
25

56 Scientific Intelligence.

mm.

y are honey-yellow in color, very brittle, harder than

corundum and nearly as hard as the diamond, and have a density
2 :

a :
iron 0°24, copper 0°04, carbon 3°76, boron (by difference) 82°81;
corresponding to the formula C,Al,B,,. All attempts to prepare

e boron crystallized were fruitless. The author is now exam-

Lovevuinine e made a thermic research on phosphoric acid
t vie ermine its basicity. They studied the heat-
changes characterizing the union of this acid with two widely
different monia and baryta, and those produced by
ater y various acids of different energy upon t hree
classes of phosphates. To these, they added alkalimetrical
idence e conclusion h t reach is that the. three

Ox 4 second equivalent of base is not
neutralized by the acid and is entirely separable by hydrochloric

Chim. Phys., V, ix, 33, Sept., 1876. G. F, B,
3. On the Critical Point of Liquid Carbon Dioxide. —Hanriey

Chemistry and Physics. 57

a large number of those composed of liquid carbon dioxide.
Canounls enough this point was found to vary consider pent 7
topaz, in bi a parse the critical point was 28°5°, 26 es

and 27°5° to C.; in two specimens of tourmaline, from Seskdon

gests that corundum may have been formed by the action of
aluminum chloride or fluoride upon calcium carbonate, producin
alumina and carbon dioxide; the latter being condensed, woul

ide; but if moisture were present. would contain water also
With reference to the diamond, he suggests that yh
been formed by the action of reducing agents upon very pice

be
mse pant carbon dioxide at oe * ap above its critical _
as XXX, 237, Sept.,
ectra of Indiu ocho and Sieeaons- while
observing the spark spectra of the metals, in the Cavendish Lab-
orato bridge, noticed that instead of the three lines which
os

oo by interpolation from ares scale of the four- ee ectro-
cope with whic : 7 measurements were made.— Phil. Mag., V,
ii, 387, Nov., 18 G. F. B.

"5. On the Donation of ee Lsky and

Scuvter have discovered a new and comparatively simple

method of preparing the diatomic phenol “of the ortho or 1:2

58 Scientific Intelligence.

phate, containing 10 to 15 per cent of concentrated sulphuric
acid, be boiled till its lee changes to a dark red, and, afterward
be extracted with ether, the ether leaves on evaporation crystal-

wi

See green needles having a metallic luster. This su
stance is hydroquinone at the yield is 462 per cent, the theo-
fatisal Pith 50.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., ix, 1159, Sept, 1876.

6. On Gelsemium sempervirens.—SONNENSCHEIN has e ned
the root of the wild jasmine and has isolated its alkaloid, pre:
mine, to which ie gives the formula e substance
called oy pear mo ena = he finds to be esculin,—

Berl. ott i Gea. 2, Sept ,1
eee cd carina . ‘an .aromatischen Nitro-v

can readily be fonind: The ss of the book i is clear and remark-
ably con

There i is no doubt but that similar treatises on various other

ups of — compounds, such as the hydroxyl, amids, and

engaged on orhaial researc

ee book is dedicated to Prof. A. W. Hofmann, of Derlits

8. Mariotte’s Law.—Prof. MENDELEEFF, at t the Warsaw meet-
ing of’ Russian naturalists, described the results of researches he
has pursued during 1875 and 187 6, for the verification of Mariotte’s
law. His former researches had proved that the decrease of vol-
ume of the permanent gases proceeds at a slower rate than the

Q
2 &
8
q
5
@
5
et
"
oS
aa
a
ge
DR
oO
oe
oo
@
4
5
S

curacy 0 W SE’
of vaiinirdhatdas pressures varying fro m 700 to “es snillameters
These researches confirmed ain thes conclusions of Regnault,

Chemistry and Physics. 59

showing only numerical differences in the values obtained, an

roving, for instance, for the air, that its deviations from Mariotte’s

viations from Mariotte’s law are far more complicated than has

been suspected.— Nature, xv, 70. ®,. 0: 1B:
9. Physical Properties of Gallium.—M. Lecog pr Boissavu-

DEAN has recently prepared more than half a gram of pure gallium.

to correspond to gallium, at least in several of its properties, con-
ducted to the number 5-9. The first measurement with 6 centi-

strongly, heated, and, finally, solidified in dry air. ,
24°45 was then 5-956.— Comptes Rendus, \xxxiii, 611, Phil. Mag.,
OP.

would t
ice sive Material repulsed from beneath the intruding body, and

60 Scientific Intelligence.

)
may be said to have a velocity. The early experiments on the
time elapsing between starting electricity into one end of a con-
ductor and receiving it at the other end, gave totally contradic-
tory results. This interval would depend on the electromotive

after starting the electric impulse. It thus becomes possible to
measure the form and speed of a wave. Suppose one end A of a

t of the
tential which will be proportional to the resistance of A C. is
i d by connecting C for an instant with a
condenser or accumulator, and then discharging the latter through

a delicate galvanometer. n the circuit is first closed a minute

disk between the two connections to be recorded. The time
of revolution of the disk was first determine by noting the fig-

ures ri Im succession under the film of a small telescope, when
es of a

Chemistry and Physics. 61

according to the —_ — from the initial and final read-
If th

ngs of the galvanomete e two do not agree, the spring is
altered until they do; oe ts action is found to be very constant
and not to need alteration, except after aking: the bi oriticg to

the ap show the delicacy and accur: acy of the method. — Phi
Mag., ii, p. 321, z.
Mb Chemistry and Physics in America. Address apatite
rican Chemical Pine at its session on the 16th of last
Rocce. by Prof. Joun W. Drargr, its President.—The fol-
lowing is the latter half of the able address of Prof. Draper, the
cL stagy 0 Se would ere be cited if space allowed. “ nese our

nature. We try to represent on the pages of our books an

blackboards formulas of the constitution of things, — all
the time that these are at ia? only convenient fictions, which
must necessarily change as we gain a more perfect inaighe into
that grandest of all problems the distribution of Force in Space,
and the variations to which it is liable. The geometry of chemis-
try is that of three dimensions, not of two. We have to consider

Ww, ev
while we have accomplished aie a soil ieapebteds
find

nd no
examination of objects that we find on the earth, see how, on a
sudden, through the vista that has ~ opened by the spectro-

scope, what a prospect lies beyond us in the heavens! I often

E at the bright yellow oe emitted from the ie eR of

the sun, by that unknown element, Helium, as the astronom
it,

Se

elements of its ? t each a chemical laboratory in itself?
Look at the clusters in the sword-handle of Perseus ; in Cassiopeia,
@ universe of s 0 ground of star dust; Hercules, of
which as astronomers say, no one can look at for the first time
thro reat telescope without a shout of wonder—the most
superb spectacle that the eye of man can witness ! at the
double stars of which so Nord are now known, mem =
“sagentiag ng rays, garnet, o ruby, or emerald, « or sa

all a are under the same universal ordinance.

62 Scientific Intelligence.

Now here a fact of surpassing importance presses itself on our
attention. The movements taking place in those distant bodies

cal law, and the multiple law, stand good. Sodium absorbs its
two waves of definite refrangibility, and iron gives in the spectra
its more than a hundred lines, more than a hundred silent but

engendered in the beginning of the vast time so passed at-
ever there is that is in harmony with facts now happening here, is
to us an unimpeachable evidence that the laws which wer rn-

ing in those old ages have undergone no depreciation, but are
active as ever until now. Then shall I exaggerate if I say that
these laws are eternal in duration?

Infinite in influence, eternal in duration, what. a magnificent
spectacle? In the resistless energy of the motions of the uni-
verse is there not omnipotence? ‘The Omnipotent, the Infinite,

e in your sight? Rather shall y. i i e over-
whe th a conception so stupendous? And yet let us not
forget that these eternal laws of nature are only the passing

God.

thoughts of God.

ut grand as this is, there is something still grander. There is
another temple into which we have to pass, not that of the visible
but that of the invisible. e must persist in the invasion we
have made, in the revolution we haye brought about in Physiol-

Chemistry and Physics, 63

ments and admire its own movements. My own thoughts have
of late years been forcibly drawn to this, from a recognition that
the interpretation by the mind of impressions from without takes
place under mathematical laws, as ae instance, that when exter-
nal ethereal vibrations create in mind a "certain idea, that
same idea will arise when the holon are doubled, or tripled,
‘ee quadrupled in frequency; but other ideas will be engendered
ibrati an inte i what i

under the influence o:

. But what is number pups there be one who numbers ?

Pompey, in his Syrian war, broke into the holy of holies at
i i t

phantom trace, a shadow of him
e experiments. of Galvani om a have not yet reached
their conclusion; those of Farada, os eee is Reymond have
only yielded a eg nee ug gest: o the nervous foree.
Excepting the great sympathetic a =. nervous fibers them-
ves are, as is well-known, of two ¢ classes—those that gather the
impressions of external thin ings and convey t them to the nerye-cen
ters, and those that transmit the dictates of the will from niin
outwardly, The capabilities of one of the former—the apparatus
for sight—have been greatly ae by various optical con-:
i telescopes, an earnest of what.
may hereafter be done as respects the four eh special organs of.
Sense ;, and as concerns we second. class, the result ef mental ope-
rations, the resolves of the will, may be transmitted with greater

64 Scientific Intelligence.

velocity than even in the living system itself, and that across vast

terrestrial distances, or even beneath the sea. Telegraphic wires

mal series, we shall not fail to remark y ngular interest
gathers round these artificial developments—artificia y
scarcely be called, since they themselves h risen interior]

omnipresent. The electrical nerves of society are spread to a
plexus all over Europe and America; their commissural strands
c

In many of the addresses that have been made during the past
h of

erhaps, then, we may without vanity recall some facts that
may relieve us in a measure from the weight of this heavy accusa-
tion iti

determined, and their beautiful mechanical appliances, have

exacted the ens expressed admiration of some of the greatest

European —— ers, and the conduct of that survey their un-
stinted applause. We have instituted geological surveys of many

Chemistry and Physics. 65

of our States and much of our Territories, and have been rewarded
not merely by manifold local benefits, but also by the higher
honor of extending very greatly the boundaries of that noble sci-
ence. At an enormous annual cost we have maintained a meteor-
ological signal system, which I think i a os equaled and certainly
s not surpassed in the world. Should it be said that selfish in-

r
e ee. Yas there any selfishness in that mission that a
citizen of New York sent to equatorial Africa for the finding and
Aid of Livingstone, any in the astronomical expedition to South
merica, any in that to the valley of t:» Amazon? Was there
any in the sending out of parties for the ol serv vation of the total
eclipses of the sun? It was by American astronomers that the
true character of his corona was first determined. as there any
in the seven expeditions that were despatched for observing the
transit of Venus? Was it not here that the bi-partition of Biela’s
comet was first detected, here that the vey satellite Saturn
was discovered, here that the dusky ring of that planet, which
had escaped the penetrating = of Herschel ae all od great
uropean astronomers, was seen? Was it not by an Ameri-

8

lege professor that the showers of shooting stars were first scien-

tifically discussed, on the occasion of the grand et an icp
h

of that meteoric phenomenon in 1833? Did w n the
investigations respecting terrestrial — instite teat % uro-
an governments at the suggestion of Hum oldt, and contribute

our quota to othe results obtained? Did not t ie Congress of the
United States vote a money grant to carry into effect the inven-
tion of the electric telegraph? Does not the published flora of
the United States show that something has been done in botany ?

ave not very important investigations been made here on the
induction of magnetism in iron, the effect of magnetic currents on
0

were first investigated, the connection of gg se: ng temperature
with increasing refrangibility shown, the dist ‘bation of light,
heat, and chemical nettle in the solar Den anil ascertained, and
8 of t i

an <iq: industrial art!

Of our own special science, chemistry, it may truly be affirmed
that senachiied are its most advanced ideas, its new conceptions,
better understood or more eagerly received. ut how useless
would it be for me to attempt a description in these few moments

Am. Jour. ——— ‘o. XIII, No. 73.—Jan., 1877.

66 Scientific Intelligence.

literature of Europe can present. How unsatisfactory then is this
rief statement I have made of what might be a olainied for
merican science! Had it been ten times as long, a

forcibly offered, it would still have fallen short of cont pleco

I still Should have been open to the accusation of not having done

justice to sre subject.

e who gloat < over the fm riaersee of American sci-
ence ever sildwsied the Coast Survey Reports, those of the Naval
Observatory, the Smithsonian @uuabecres those of the American
cauatenerie for the Advancement of Science, the Proceedings of
the erican Academy of Arts and Science, those of the —

is its due, Each labors to cies its conspicuous men opie its pub-

himself. But how is it with us? Can an impartial person read
without pain the act ich so often attribute to our
most iThastvaatie pepe in political, and what is worse, in social

fi Can wi i ngers accept us at our own depre-

ciation, whether of men or things
We need not go far to detect the origin of all this—it is in our
political condition. Here wealth, power, preferment—preferment
even to the highest position in the nation—are seemingly within
= reach of all, and in the internecine struggle that takes
n

are t
i eee = lette — we may ase for better —_— = d those

“pr knowledge may oo ead ot ed by

e sue that sometimes fall er generous rivals.
How can they read without blushing at their own conduct such
declarations as that recently uttered by the great organ of Eng-

b e 0:
lish opinion, the foremost of. — journals ? (The ae sires. -
0 one will P pai *TIn the

Chemistry and Physics. 67

natural distribution of subjects, the history of wean discovery,
and conquest, and the growth of republics fell to America, and
she has dealt nobly with them. In the wider ana enous
provinces of art and science she runs Sock nd neck with the
mother country and is never left behind!”

ere are among us some persons who depreciate se mi merely
through illiterate arrogance; there are some who, incited b
superticiality, dislike it; there are some who r regard it wit
an evil e

er, take courage.

Day . day the number of those who hold her in disfavor is
diminishing. We can disregard their misrepresentations and
maledictions. Mankind has made the great discovery that she is
me Jong hoped-for civilizing agent of the world. Let us continue
ur labor unobtrusively, conscious of the integrity of our motives,
ebsnciene of the portentous change which is taking place in the

behind us! Let us not return railing for railing, but above all,
let us uelines. nines to others the truths that Nature has
delivered t

The bo a of sree ! sball va mene aca and all our brother-

on the cano * “of the oe she hes ‘nk it all around us on the
platform of the earth! No man can tamper with it, no man can
interpolate or falsify it for his own ends. She does not command

been, in her pieced i ie will find betallaceaak concord and unity.
13. : Draper's researches in Physics.—Prof. Draper’s re-
searches are y inent part of the scientific work of the

e
dent of i cademy of Arts and Sciences, in March
last, on the presentation to Prof. Draper of the Rumford medals.

—Ebs,

te i ti Lopieags - 1847, Dr. Draper established experi-
mentally ee ‘shower 3 mares" All solid nrg and tere
_ liquids, become incandescent at “s sees mpe: igre thermometric
point at which substances beco! Sc sabes tk about 977° Fahr The ome m
of an incandescent solid is eoeuinas ; it contains neither right nor dark fixed

68 Scientific Intelligence.

4. From common temperatures nearly up to 977° Fahr., the rays emitted
d are invisible. At that temperature they are red, and the heat of the

8
ieve, for the first time rays 0! wave- sb: ing
chemical changes, and that too little account has hithe: ot os een taken of the nature
of the substance in whic! e decomposition is produced. 10. ‘inally, Dr.

ublis
, which are of the highest interest, and which have lar, coin contributed to the
Sih icons of our knowledge of the subject of radiant energy.

II. GroLocy anp MINERALOGY.
1. Heplorations made under the direction of F. V. Hayden, in

tinuation of the labors of the three preceding years, westward, fin-
ishing the entire mountainous portion of Colorado with a belt fifteen
miles in width of northern New Mexico and a belt twenty-five

miles in breadth of eastern Utah. Six sheets of the ae ies Atlas

square miles. e maps are constructed on a scale of four miles

*

Geology and Mineralogy. 69

The primary bererrce party was placed in charge of A. D.
Wilson and took the field from Trinidad, the southern terminus
of the Denver can Rie Grande Railw way, August 18th, making
the first station on Fisher’s Peak. From this point the party
marched by the valley of the Purgatoire, crossed the Sangre de
Christo range by way of Costillia Pass, followed the west base of the
range meta sale as far as Fort Garland, making a station on
Culebra Peak, About six miles north of Fort Garland is
located one of the highest and most rugged mountain peaks in
the west, called Blanca Peak, the principal summit of the Sierra
Blanca group. This was ascended by the ois under Mr. Wilson,
ado a he sec

peak in —- in the United States. A comparison with some of
the first class peaks in Colorado will show the eslosive heights.

Blanca Peak above sea level, 14,464 feet.
Mt. Harvard * be 14, 38
Gray’s Peak r 4 14, 4r
Mt. Lincoln = es 14. 296 “
Mt. Wilson 4 ste 14,280 se
Long’s Peak rf was 8 eg
wae be Peak - 14,285. %
Pike’s Pea “ 2% 14,146 “

r. Wilson made eleven primary stations over a large portion
of Southern and Western Colorado and completed about 1,000
square a of tantSes that had been omitted by one of the

east, the other along the west base of the Rocky Mountains.
For. nearly 2 Aas meee travel he had constantly in view the Cre-
taceous and Ter ary formations, among which are involved some
of the most Pape fs geological questions. — He observed among
other things the great persistency of the various groups of rocks
throughout the east, west and north, and a in the west ;
tha

t trom Northern New Mexico to. lager n Wyoming the
various membe: the Cretaceous lie dao unbroken belts,
while the Tertaris are hardly less cil cpt ed.

Between bee east and the west there is only one great incon-
ae east beg of the sachin the upper Cre-
taceous tke Wioclading Imost ing an

the Dolores plateau, it comprises s upward of 2,000 feet of coal-
bearing strata, chiefly sandstones, while in the north it reaches a

70 Scientific Intelligence.

thickness of 3,500 feet and forms the gigantic hog-back of the
xrand River valle
While in the sout ithwest, he visited the Sierra Abajo, a small
group of mountains which lie in Eastern Utah, and found as he

lat er \. Ww
additional observations on the geology of the
and secured much valnable material for the coloring of the final
m

states that the northern pena of ancient a Cv pale in
is h

purpose of assisting in the management of the Indians, who last
fool i prevented the ‘completion of the work in this locality by their

ost

The work assigned this division consisted in part of a small
area containing about 1,000 square miles lying south of the Sierra
la Sal. The greater portion of the work of this division lay nort
of the Grand River, limited on the north by the re of 39° 30°
and apes between the meridians of 108° 00’ and 109° 30’.

eological work of this division, by Dr. Pe ma connects

directly with” that done by him in 1874 "and 1875. Sedimentary

; a
e San Miguel vale ea the San Juan Mountains flows

About en ae or thirty miles north of Lone Cone, the river
turns abruptly to the west and flows west and southwest for

west until it joins the Dolores. Between the San Miguel and

Geology and Mineralogy. 71

Lone Cone the sandstones of tie Dakota group or No, 1 Creta-
ceous are nearly horizontal, forming a plateau which on approach-
ing the mountains has a capping of Cretaceous shales

Beyond aaa bend, the San Miguel flows in a monoclinal valley
in which the cafion walls are of the same description as in the

of the Dolores, Lower Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic strata
outcrop and present some interesting geological — which will
be fully considered in the report on the distri he Dolores

t fro:
which it turns to the northward and westward, finally shengens
to northwest again to its gums: with the Grand. It i

ii

in a cafion in the Red Beds. On the north ne the No. See
taceous sandstones form a hogback sloping toward the 8.
Between the crest of this hogback aud the oli, ‘the ere is a prone
Movi formed by the erosion of the so oft Cretaceous shales which

end to the base of the cliffs and in some places form their
ae portion

liffs are composed mainly of Cretaceous beds, rising one

we another in steps, until an elevation of about 8,000 feet is

ched. The summit is the edge of a plier sloping. to N.N a
This = is cut by the drainage flowing into the White Riv
_— the south. These streams “yarely cut pon sha Tertiary

orale f poor 5 reese is found in the sandstones of the Dakota
group and also the sandstones above the middle Cretaceous
beds. Wherever noticed it was in thin seams and of little
economic import.

The White River division was directed by G. B. ae as
topographer. , accompained by F. M. Endlich as geolo

The district assigned to this party as their field for pes pn

uring the season of 1876, commenced from the eastward at

was determined to make the sbsaba’ Riyer Agency he eevee

72 Scientific Intelligence.

According to the report of F. M. Endlich, the geology of the
district is very simple though interesting. nasmuch as but one

Colorado. ree es = region soak is compar atively
simple. The k Cliffs” are the summit of a = au about
8,000 feet shai sea level, qoecinking pibiohes over to the Green
iver, Toward the south these cliffs fall off fe! —

On th h side—with the dip of the strata—th is more
gentle, although in consequence of erosion numerous precipitous
re fo me g that direction the character of
the country c ese I aye d of an unbroken slope, we find tha
the plateau has b cu rallel by ithe White River drainage,
and the long, sbarsslerinie mesas of that region testify to the
action of erosion roaching the se constantly descending

Dwarf pines, pote and sage brush abound, to the almost entire
exclusion of other trees or grass. Tr aveling down White River
this character is again found to change. A new series of bluffs,
occasioned by heavy superincumbent strata, gives rise to the for-
on of deep cafions. For 45 miles the party followed the cafion
ite River, that, no doubt, is analogous to that of Green
River, and probably closely resembles that of the Colorado in its
detail features. Vertical walls enclose the narrow river-bot ttoms,

es Tw
three piemca — may be sta ie as the height of the alle
iver.

3) ologic aioe speaking, ae district was one of singular uniform-
ve! , the older formations, reaching b back as
i) These we ow

ed

quarters of the region surveyed was found to contain beds belong-
ing to — pone Owing to the lithographical character of the

strata, water was a rare luxury in this region, and men and ani-
mals cat palesamette-a dependent upon springs. Farther west
still, the Green River group sets in, forming those numerous
¢caiions Py ewe that of the White River is one.

The work ‘of the Ya —— — under Mr, G. R.

sie as sopeguahes and Dr. C White as geologist, dur-
ing the past season was principally oehoas to a district of north-

Geology and Mineralogy. 18

30",
cks of this district embrace all the —e forma-
tions yet Mecemsiaen by the investigators who have — the
region that lies between the rk Range and the Gre t Salt

of the great Uinta uplift and the blending me its vanishing pri-

mary and accessory displacements with those the north and
south range above mentioned. uc SC ecibatien _was also
obtained concerning the distribution of the local drift of that

Wyoming Territory. Thes last named localities were also
visited at the close of the season’s work, and from the strata of

this horizon at Black Buttes station, thre Ww speci of Uni
were obtained, making six clearly distinct species in all that have
been obtained associated together in one strat that locality.

a
They are all of either snare cies i es types or closely
living in an fresh waters. They
represent, by their affinities, the following living species ; Tinio

clavus Lamarck; U. securis Lea; U. sus Barnes; U. meta
nev afinesque, and U. complanatus tas They are asso-
ciated i same stratum with species of the genera Corbula,

Corbicula, Neritina, Viviparus, ete., = stratum alternates
with layers containing Ostrea and Ano
The close affinity of these foueil iors with species now livin
in the Mississippi River and its tri ibutaries, seems plainly pee.
oO

and clearly defined as early as late Cretaceous and early Tertiary
times. Other observations suggest the probable so of om is =
cal distribution, during the late eae 2 cal perio

i by one or more of which ee have probably
reached the Mississippi River las ge c ated in the

74 Scientific Intelligence.

The work of the past season shows ned clearly the ener
relation of the various gro f strata over vast tha
hi

rom the C Cretaceous to wae middle Tertiary is fully established:

only purely fresh water forms are to be found. Dr. White, an
eminent paleontologist and eo says that the line must be
wh somewhere between the Cretaceous and Tertiary epochs,
but that it will be strictly arbitrary, as there is no physical break
to the summit of the Bridger group. H.
Geological Survey of Kentucky.—Chemical examination of

its be p Cult in y Dey
Chemist to the Survey. Publications of the Geological Survey of
entucky r N.S. Shaler, Director. Part II, ii. See

Se ) ankfort, Kentueky.—The following re-
marks on hemp and the analyses are copied from pages 11

of this Report In er to ascer the relative fertilizing
influence of the leaves and roots, three hemp plants were collected
July 25th, 1864, in the dry se e, on a wo
female plants, were about six to seven feet hi The leaves,

stems and roots, carefully separated and thoroughly air dried,
weighed as follows:

The leaves weighed 23 oe grams, equal to about ia wa cent of the whole Plant.
The roots TA: i
The stems “ 48- er “ “ a “a a“

o7
were -of spare ‘incinerated and their ashes analyzed,
with the following results

RELATIVE ASH INGREDIENTS OF THE Leaves, Roots, AND STEMS OF THE HEMP,
CARBONIC ACID EXCLUDED

THE LEAVES. THE STEMS. THE ROOTS.
In 100 p’ts|In 100 p’ts Tn 100 pts. In 100 ’ts| In 100 p’ts In 100 p’ts
of as ee — of ash. | rt of ash. = othe
Lime 48°819| 4°992 | 23-371) 0-949) 20-368/ 0°713
Magnesia 5: *585 5-803 194) 8-297 208
Potash -.-.----------.---- Mss) a ee ; 49°599 1-659 52-233) 1-829
Phosphorie acd cacnenene..| 9264) ‘947 | 13°374 © aay] 15164) “531
Sulphuri “| 9-209} -226 1-215) -040| -1-344| 04%
‘ Tb a) 7014 576] 019} 405] ~~ 014
eer er et 5-620} -575 1:062| 035} 2-189) 077
Per cent of phosphates _.__- .-| 19-160] 1959 | 28-158 0-942) 26-885] 0-949
Per cent of ash 19-995 |2c. 22. Levpepmpliegaces 3-502

Geology and Mineralogy. 15

examination of the above — it is to be seen, that the
in

and magnesia salts and silica of the nature o ite; for w
see that while the amount of silica in the ee is nearly fourteen
times greater than that in the stems, and m en time

S
greater than in the roots; the dime more chs five times as great
as that in the stems, and seven times more than in the roots; the
magnesia three times more — that in the seater and twice a

hat i

>
°
om
BR
fc)
I
4
ct
=
°
=|
1
e

its former chose present erste .
me Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. Harris-

2 Report of Progress in the Greene and Washington District
the Bituminous Coal-fields of Western Pennsylvania, by J. J.

76 Scientific Intelligence. :

STEVENSON, vo, with 3 sections and 2 County maps,
showing oo calentated rae depths of the Pittsburg and W.

(2. ort of Progress in the District of York and Adams
Gounitiss, 196 pp. ev 0, with Maps and Beebe ons ee the
Tron-ore belts and Sopa Mines; by Prrsiror Frazer,

c
the distribution and source of the petroleum of the district. ie
Stevenson concludes ths oi to the oil, that it has not arisen
from the distillation of shales, but that “it is in the highest

ormer place there are seven terraces at 40, 120, 190, 290, 340,
400, and 480 feet; and below Pittsburg, at ’Chartiers, het are
six, the highest 390 feet, They indicate great oa in those val-
leys f or the Glacial flood, when water and earth terial were
both, for a Bete period, of indefinite supply from the melting 0

r treats of a belt in Eastern Pennsylvania which in-
cludes euliaeeias limonite beds associated with granular limestone
and hydromica slates, similar in character and position to those
characterizing the Green Mountain region in Berkshire, Mass.,
and Salisbury, Connecticut, and the e adjoining parts of New York,
also in Vermont. e relative position of the rocks is made

a special study, sad several sections presenting the author’s pres-
ent views on this subject are given, though with some expressions

nd slates are not ¢ able—which is at variance with most
(not all) of the sections observe Bd t lies in Berkshire
e volume also contains des scriptions of som rap rocks, analy-
ses of <f ee eg limestones, iad detailed descriptions and
analyses of iro
5. On

the Gluci ial a of North Americ ca; by Pro-
fessor Orro Tor RELL, of Sweden. (Proc. Seed Assoc., Buffalo.) —
The following is a report of the paper by Professor Torell in the
New York Times of August 30.—It may be assumed that the

mos
temperature, due ithe to great elevations in low iaeses, or 6

j

Geology and Mineralogy. 77

high latitudes with or without such re some of land, These
conditions insure snek a np ow above the line of

t
Simultaneous wit these sence: we. ve this action of the
glacial river, namely, a partial denuuation of the moraines, and
é

ean he
The glacial phenomena of the Gla cial period w vere as follow:
1, The sinking of the howe eho accompanied by t oration
and increase of glaciers; 2. The motion of the ice to its extre

was passed over by the ice, and then became bottom or ground
moraines; 4, The removal by this advancing glacier of the glacial
river deposits, 0 or the lece of them by the pepe — — bes
ee mora A geological section of the

would then pea she (a) preglacial beds; (3) ae sified ree
its pit (ec) a ground moraine; (d) the ice with el ese
moraine: or (a) scratched sagas (ec) a ground moraine; Ne?
and terminal moraines. rst-named section is most common
in the porars of Europe. watuead by Sea ve aes fe jesse Phe
0 is found generally in Scandinavia and in the United

tates.

The retrograde movement of a glacier during the period of
melting: i is characterized: 1. By the formations of upper or termi-
nal moraines, which are more or less leveled by local backward
and forward movements of a glacier during pea) intervals of
time; 2. ‘By stratified river deposits lying upon the unstratified

ellow moraine, so that a section above the a ns just described
will present (a) page beds; (6) writes oe ©) till or
round moraine; (¢) terminal moraines leveled down to great
ids containing ‘unstratified materials ; (e) stratified eae formed
io glacial rivers with grades! y desce ndin ng sources. The charac-

angularity of the bowlders, which are aed scratched, and usually
long to wockbonne localities. ‘The characteristics of the de-

78 Scientific Intelligence.

posits (e) are: reader aemage abundance of rounded and un-
ne

ica. e gr fie Ww
nated in the highlands of Scandinavia, and thence extended over
those portions of N — EKurope which are known to be covered

Cier crossed the Baltic and Woe Ocea ean, and cate nded its mo-
raines into the suburbs of London on the west, to the slopes of

fully examine this region it will readily appear that the glacial
area is not continuous from ocean to ocean, but it is divisible into
a northwestern area, and the Rocky Mountain area and others to
on gid ss by a broad, driftless belt extending a the

gists that the source of the eastern ice-fields is to be sought in
th n i

phenomena ev here —— as glacial; but I think in no
ease char. Aig rocks known to have been covered with per-
petual snow. Again, the palette and extent of the highest por-

factory evidence that chere had been a northward as well as
southward movement of glaciers from the highlands of Canada.
It, scsi the phenomenon of the northern and oS United
States, aay supposed to glacial, are indeed such, and if
there is n i i

Te.
I think it will be conceded by all geologists who ame tudied
the glacial phenomena of these regions that both the owas of

Geology and Mineralogy. 79

lations of ice, we may easily assume that this avenue was south-
westward across British America and the northeastern part of the
t

é

lands.” In my papers on this subject in this Journal for 1871 (ii,

324) and 1873 (v, 204), I was speaking of the “Glacier of New
b

and Hudson Bay as the head of the glacier that moved southeast
wardly over New England.” I regret that my words were in any

80 Scientific Intelligence.

sn calculated to mislead. Professor Torell corrects the above
y by making Greenland the great source; but to put Green-

hind in the above sentence would make it absurd, for no height of
e in nd, so far to the northeast, could have determined
southeastward movements over New England. I did not doubt
that the ice mass of the Canada water-shed, continued northward

tation, as the chief ice-mass of the continent ; but only whether the
increase of height in that direction exceeded enough that on the
water-shed to cause movements in the directions indicated. I con-
cluded that the height of the ice-surface on the water-shed would
have had to have been at least 13,000 feet to have given it a slope
of even fifteen feet a mile to its discharge i in the ocean south and

subje
Glacier ;” and I had no edecsoustory facts as to the present amount
of precipitation to the north, much less -_ data for judging of
th al

n this Journal for _ 1875 (ix, 312), in citing facts from Dr.
Bell, in the Report of the Canada Geolo ogical Survey for 1873-4, I
observe that the facts ree the vicinity of Lake Minwioeys show
that a line of greatest aes height was continu ed from the ice-

h wa il}

greatest amount of precipitation, supposing the melting the same.’
I then explain the absence of the glacier from the central per

at the eastern.
6. A monograph oe American Trilobites ; by A. W. VoapEs,

A ampa, Florida.—This pamphl rt 1

of onograph. It is wholly bibliographical, giv-

g the general bibliography on the subject, from the per,

in 1698, b , and Rll references to the works or me 8

that treat of the several _ of the genera Asaphus, Odonto-
pleura (Ac D> Pro ea dpa nite us, Agraulos,

Botany and sabi ed 81

8. An outline 5 th te Geology — meri based on a subdivision
of the setter natural area EJ. Cuapman, Prof. Min.
and G le mane College, es Canada. 106 8vo,
with ace maps and plates of fossils. —Prof. Chapman’s work is
a brief resumé of thie facts in Canadian geology, preceded by an

logical t The work is a convenient one for the student _
also for the ania who would acquire a general knowledge o
British-American Geology. It contains six plates of fossils oon
senting Canadian —

9. Origin of Forest and Prairie regions.—Prof. J. D. Whitney
has a ieals gree on ory subject in the American Naturalist
for October and Nov

10. The Great Ice nf om ‘and its relations to the Antiquity of
Man, by cpa Gerniz, F.R.S., of H. M. Geological Survey of
Scotland. 2d edit. revised. 624 pp. 8vo, with several maps and

—In second edition, Prof. Geikie’s very popular work has
received vari additions from recent observations, partl r
sonal, in B : om researches in other countries,

the general courses of erosion. Amon mg t anges of views
introduced, are the use now of the terms till ai bowlder clay
“as strictly synonymous ;” and os ese ee of the conclusion of
Mr. Jamieson, that “ the sea had not any share in the formation of
the kames.” ‘The work is the sche review of the subject to be had,
and owes much of its value to Professor Geikie’s own researches.

Ill Borany AND ZOooLoey.

e
Acerates have priority over. Nuttall’s saan and gi Et erix.
To avoid future trouble it is desirable to put upon record such
evidence upon the point as is now ” Religie Bu The onl —

0

lovingly edited by his "Gina Dr... Dar fogion. By reference to
p. 202, 248, 249, and 585, it is made out that the first number of

Bites work was issued as early as October, 1816, was recalled,

reprinted, and issued anew, ane, with the second number, before
Am. Jour. eget Serres, VoL. XII, No. 73.—Jan., 1877.

82 Scientific Intelligence.

January, 1817. The first number probably ended on p. 96; the
second on p. 222. The third and fourth numbers were published
before November 10, 1817. The fourth number must have in-
cluded p. 466; the fifth and concluding number of the volume (to
which the title-page assigns the date of 1821), must begin on or
before p. 529. For, on the latter page Nuttall’s genus Diamor-
pha occurs, and his work is for the first time cited; while the pref-
atory list of decandrous genera, on p. 466, does not contain Déa-
ha

Collin
ences, Philadelphia, which Mr. Redfield has kindly consulted, at
my request ; from which it appears, in short, that No. 1 was first
issued, September 26, 1816; No. 2, on or before February 19,

17; No. 3, on or before April 3, 1817; No. 4 and No. 5, no
data found; No. 6, the commencement of the second volume, ap-
peared on or before October 12, 1821. The title page of this vol-

stamens and style, reciprocally, which in Torrey and Gray’s Flora
of North America, was very long ago designated by the term diw-
cio-dimorphism, Mr. Darwin—who detected and has made much
of the meaning of the arrangement—called simply dimorphism.
Besides these dimorphic, he also brought to view trimorphic flow-
ers. The first name is too long for use, and carries with it some

name is now required, on account of trimorphie, ete. is has

on
heterogone (or hete ogonous) for these flowers, suc
those of Primula, Houstonia, rum, etc. The counterpart,
homogone (or homogonous) would designate the absence of this
kind of differentiation. These terms, either in Latin or English

Botany and Zoology. 83

form, would work well in generic or specific characters, and have
the advantage of etymological correctness. A. G@

3. Geographical Statistics of the European Flora.—In a paper
contributed in 1874 to the Transactions of the Historic Society of

aritim
widely than herbaceous plants over land, less so over sea. Plants
r

with creeping rootstocks or stolons are much more widely dis-

rsed t e 0 hem. The distribution of annuals,
especially of t armer temperate species, exceeds that of peren-
nial herbs. End are more widely spread than Exogens

vee

Apetale than Polypetale, and still more than Gamopetale
plants with inferior ovary are more limited than those with supe-

rior ovary; that is, the lower and less specialized in structure are
more widely distributed than the higher or more specialized.
i nge those wi

the E flora: these being woody plants of comparatively
s ongaltenticns, aid laniely: Dewi code. doakast this rule holds

ones ; and variable species, than tl
The laws that govern the distribution of plants are complex and
ndite. A, @.

84 Screntific Intelligence.

4. The Wild Flowers a —— Illustrations by Isa
Spraaur. Text by Grorcr L. Goopatz, M.D., Assistant Pei

pp. 16, tab. 1-4, imp. 4 le’ is ts eae to published this work
in quarterly parts or ae : t “to present illustrations
ll the

even the Pacific States as the w Tt is a large under-
taking, even under the most restricted vie The want has been
felt, and various futile attempts have been made ply it

co «
few worth havin ng | _— e they would not pay. The only work
of the kind we can now call to mind which gave fairly good

part or volume, was by the late Dr. W. P. C. Barton. This was
upon a plan not unlike that of the present work, perhaps equally

line was first made known. The plates of that sce were ad-
dressed to botanists only, are uncolored outlines, mainly valuable
for their dissections and other details. These are imperial quarto
plates, representing the se heat and as much of the herbage as is
needed to give their part and bearing, in their natural colors,
reproduced from the artist’s paintings by the chromo-lithographic
process. The undertaking was probably suggested by the success
of = kind of work by the same artist in the colored plates as
Emerson’s Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, to which w

tied attention a year ago. The present work therefore ae
dresses itself to amateurs as well as to botanists, to all lovers of
flowers an i

Powe but oo upon their arrangements for insect-aid
n fertilizatio ovel and perora topic of the day—and
wae other — ie

Astronomy. 85

familiar as Magnolia or even Lobelia.) “The great expense at-
tending the work requires that the price per part shall be $5.00,”

indications that their laudable endeavors will be responded to,
and that the time has at length arrived when a popular work of
this kind and in this style—so creditable to all concerned in ~
~ be appreciated and sustained.

eport upon Geographical and Geological Ticniocanaas ‘nd

Gawnie west of the eon Meridian, in charge of Firs
Lieutenant Gro. M. ELER, under the direction of Brigadier
ral A. Vol. V.

naturalists who have contributed reports to it. The plates
are well executed, several are colored (chromolithographs.)
maa this volume is dated 1 1875, and was doubtless: then

=]
A

ralist to the expedition ; Notes ame bisgeaphiees Distribution
and Variation, by D i
Mammals, by Dr. Elliott Coues and Dr. Yarrow;

the Ornithological Collections, by H. W. porn Report u
the collections of Batrachians and Reptile s, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow;
sir of the eo = sae iRe of — with critical
and field notes and a sive synonymy, by Dr. Coues;
Report upon the i CR “of Fishes, by Prof. E. D. Cope and
Dr. Yarrow; e Hymenoptera, by E. T. Cresson,

a
oO
|
$
8
=
3
=
ct
=
o
or]
ae)
©
fc)
&
—_
8
=
R
°
Lea)

arrow ; Report upon the — pers es, by A. E. Verrill.
The plates illustrate rare or novel species and varieties ae —
reptiles, fishes, and insects.

IV. ASTRONOMY.

The secular change of — Declination in the —
Sates, and sie parts of North America: New discussi
Cuartrs A. Scnorr, Assistant U. S. C. “se s is an a er
sion of Mr. Schott’s paper in the Coast Survey Report of 1859,
and forms App. No. 8 of the Report for 1874. | Paegahwes sta-

86 Scientific Intelligence.

Formu
puted therefrom. Mr. Schott says:
“ A cursory examination of the column containing the epochs
xcursion, the deflecting force producing the
ining then an easterl aximum, shows that

land, Portsmouth, Newburyport, Salem, Boston, Cambridge,
Nantucket and Providence, about 177 Hartford, New Haven,
e , Hatborough, Philadelphia, Washington and Cape

8 jana,
about 1800; New Orleans, about 1831; Vera Cruz, Mexico, Aca-

?

Mex
pulco and San Blas, about 1837; San Diego, Monterey and San

n
the western declination), was felt in Lower California (diminishing
there the eastern declination). In California, Oregon, and Wash-
ington Territory, the eastern declination is at present still increas-
ing, but with a losing rate. By the time the western elongation

f the secular change is reached in Maine, we may expect to see
the needle in the opposite phase, or at its eastern elongation in

the average turning
t

oO,
epoch 1794. It may be quite practicable
hereafter to trace ou i d

d me; yet, as far as our
present experience reaches, and within the interval when the first
reliable observations were made to the present time, it is found
trustworthy.”

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 87

2. wear Seo i Corrections to Hansen’s Tables of the Moon ;
8S. NEw his memoir forms Part III of papers pub-
i . For determin-

amounts to about 10”. In addition to this and to several other
corrections, Prof. Newcomb finds an — term necessary to
satisfy observations, ve form of whic
0 sin. [g+21°, pen ay

where g is the mean : corti, and Y the sani: in years. This term
is ca yet explained in the theory of the

‘nobel’s Reference Catalogue of Aue Ono’ sommes Papers and

ee pith have eaes vance sheets of the Monthly

Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for November, 18%,
: : : b

cals and in arate raion The subjects chosen are: (1.

os
"oO
oo]
oO
it
fe")
i
a
3
a
C2
* oo
°
So
oO
q
@
oO
.B
oO
fa")
R
a
5
oe
=a
fa)
md
nm
Rad
oO
3

examination of one section by the writer has proved gr accur os
and its completeness. s.

V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

. Notes on Assaying and Assay-Schemes; by PIERRE DE
Prysrer Ricxerrs, E.M., Ph.D., ete. 172 pp. 8vo. ork,

aeetly. present ted ee e.
2. Alcoholic Strength “of heatboties Wines.—From the pee
ission appointed by the Governor to ——. into the

a printed by
authority of the House of Assembly (July, 1874). BF ielaide, it
om that the amount of glucose in the mature grapes 0 ~~
province ranges from 25 to 30 per cent, and produces in the w
an alochitic strength of from 28 to 40 per cent of proof piri

88 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

rancis, one of the ial ptn says in his report, “the natural
grape juices of this colony are capable of producing very strong
cent of pro

wines, which are more likely to exceed 26 per cent roof-spirit
than o i and that the fruit contains all the elements to set
up and complete fermentation to the full conversion of the sugar

into ‘aleohol without acetification.”
the colonies of Victoria and New South Wales we have a

districts of the same colony. Messrs. Moody an th, govern-
ment inspectors of distilleries, made the determinations
show, Ne Wales and the Murray district, a range of
proof-spirit ve a Basie ee of * per cent to a maxim f 34,
the =. anging abou

— altvated are rake of European origin. The
soil 2 climate are wonderfully well adapted to the growth of

abundant fruits fier as yet the qualities of bouquet and flavor, ad-
mired in the best Euro opean wines, are feebly and often not at all
developed in those of Australia ma: ade from the same grapes. Nor
is the géut de terre—the result of a too rank soil and growth—
wanting in the Australian wines. In this respect and in intoxi-
cating power they much resemble the wines of California. B.S.

OBITUARY,

F. B. Mexx, the author of various elaborate works and memoirs
on American sepa died on the 22nd of December. A
i: ; . be

oyal Society, died on the December, aged forty-eight
. _— great traveller and resided for a while in Bolivia
and Peru making researches in its mines and geology, which he

aibotweaed published.

PLATE 2

THERMIC ISABNORMALS.JUNE 18.1873.435.EM.
o* / 2 Be ag, eet Joo ae x : we ] |
S H fe ere mB ; : 5
* (x Base
3 eed a 08 = Oe
: \ sh . ie
: ed. ||| C
i ge i
pS . : —L Wh
mj _ Bi Mot 10° io
ed i
: cha Hi = fi, eg
! ”
‘0°

1
{
fi

ats a
<i

4.35. PM. PLATE If
89 87. 85 bh ; rer i G7

\

ISOBARIC CURVES. JUNE 18.1873
109 107 105 103 _10t_ 99 97 "95 a3 oT

Sere

a ieee 88

RAIN AREA SEPT 23. 1872. RAIN AREA JUNE 10.1873. PLATE IL
a _S9° ee 87” BS

Punderson & Crisand Néw Haver. Conn

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

Art. VIII.—Astronomical Observations on the Atmosphere of the
Rocky Mountains, made at elevations of from 4,500 to 11,000 feet,
in Utah and Wyoming Territories and Colorado; by HENRY
Draper, M.D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry and Physi-

ology in the University of New York.

ANYONE who observes with a large telescope soon becomes
aware of the great obstacle atmospheric undulation offers to the
pursuit of astronomy, particularly in the application of photog-

raphy and the spectroscope. During two years when I photo-

‘it would seem that the only complete solution is to ascend hig
mountain ranges or isolated peaks, and leave as much as possible
of the air below the telescope.

Having had occasion during the months of August and Sep-
tember, 1876, to go on a hunting trip with two distinguished
officers of the United States Army into the Rocky Mountains

* Professor Henry Draper’s Observatory is at Hastings-on-Hudson, near New
York; latitude 40° 59/ 25"; longitude 73° 52’ 25"; elevation above the sea, 226 feet,

Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIRD =e Vou. XIII, No. 74.—FEs., 1877.

90 Henry Draper—Astronomical Observations

gratifying results, he seems on the whole to have been disap-
pointed te the character of ‘the atmosphere.

As the region into which the party pro week to go was diffi-
cult of access and entirely without roads and much of the
traveling was to be on horseback, through fallen timber and
up precipitous places, it was not feasible to take an instrument
of any great size. I therefore contented myself with a small

with a short brass tripod, holding an a valtiende
aad azi a movement, giving both a and smoothness
of ac The eye-piece was capable of adjustment by a rac
and pinion, and the object glass was so arranged as to

be free from injurious compression. This little lens stands the
severe tests invented by Foucault, and in spite of its size is
capable of doing good work.

n such observations on the atmosphere as those proposed

ranges weve have given the maximum chance for cloudless
and still skie

e first ia to Salt Lake City, which, according to the

Casella aneroid I carried, is at an elevation of 4,650 feet above

leven

o'clock on the evening of arrival, August 25th, I took some
cteerston oe pee ee ag catty centering the object-
glass. Saturn 1 me as on an ordinary

on the Atmosphere of the Rocky Mountains. 91

night at my observatory. Capella, which was just clear of the
house-tops across the street, twinkled as badly both to the

w Y
a tremulous condition in these high regions, because, the pre-
ceding night. having stopped for a few minutes at Fort Steele,
on the Union Pacific Railroad, I perceived that Antares
twinkled very much though we were nearly 7,000 feet above

e sea.

However, in order to make a thorough trial it seemed best to
ascend one of the high peaks of the Wahsatch, and accordingly
the Red Butte was selected. The officers at Camp Douglas
facilitated the trip in every way, furnishing horses and a guide,
and the surgeon of the Post, Dr, i

strongly that it was necessary to retire over the brow of the
mountain, and eventually we returned to Camp Douglas. At
this point, 5,250 feet above the sea and about 600 feet higher
than Salt Lake City, the telescope was set up to take advantage
of some breaks in the clouds, through which the Moon, Antares,
2 Urse Majoris and Jupiter appeared. With a power of only
twenty the twinkling was surprisingly great; I do not remember
ever to have seen it worse with my large instruments.

These results led to an examination into the meteorology of
Salt Lake City, so as to find out the rainfall and its distribution
and the percentage of cloudy days. Dr. Smart had the follow-
ing copy of the post records made for me:

TaBLE I.—Rainfall and other Cloudy Days at Salt Lake City.

JaNuARY. | FEBRUARY.| MARCH. APRIL- May. JUNE,

Rain fall cay Rain |cray| Rain |cray| Rain |CV’dy, Rain | CVdy} Rain | Cl’dy
Saline bed By sr ese Alle fall. | days. - 8

92 Henry Draper—Astronomical Observations

TaBLE I —continued.

JULY. AveusT. | SEPTEMBER.) OCTOBER. | NOVEMBER.| DECEMBER.

Rin |CVdy| Rain |Cl’dy| Rain | Cl’dy| Rain | cray Rain | Cl’dy| Rain | Cl’dy
fall. | days.) fall, | days.| fall. | days.; fall. | days.| fall. | days.| fall. | days.

1872 | 02 | 10) °72 | 16) ‘94 | 9 | 1-44 | 13] 66 | 16 | 2:26 | 15
1873 | 12 | 7| 94 /14/ -42 | 6] ‘84 113/] 88 | 10 | 1-20 | 24
1874 | 2:12 | 10} 2-11 | 9} °380 | 6| 1:89 | 27 | 2°26 | 26 | 1-06 | 27
1875 | °64 | 14 0 | 6/ 1°15 | 13 | 1-48 | 18 | 4°54 | 30 | 2-78 | 31
1876 | 1°08 | 6

From Table [, it Appears that the average annual rainfall for
ne past five years is 18,,°, inches, distributed as shown in

Table II. There is no mes ectly dry month, the nearest approach
being during the summer. The cloudy days are 194 per annum,
the disposition te similar to the rainfall.

TaBLe II.

January, 1-64 inches of rain. 25 cloudy days.
February, 1-44 “ 21 vis
March, 2°27 - 23 hee
April, 153 = 16 tbe

ay, 3°33 “ 14 “
June, 56 9 Gs
July, “80 “ 9 “
August, “94 “ il “
September, “70 es 8 by
October, 1:41 = 18 wn
November, 1-96 “ 20 “
December, 1°82 ud 24 kg

A former pupil of mine, gh graduate of the University, Dr.
Benedict, informed me that the Mormons believed the rainfall
had much increased since a paca had settled in Utah,
and this seems to be borne out by statement that whereas
formerly three ee of Salt ae ae produced on evapora-
tion one gallon of salt it now takes four gallons to nro
the =e quantity

On the Saale it is doubtful whether there would be enough
eau: in bringing a large telescope to this region to make
it worth while to encounter the labor and ex rs nse.

On August 30th, having taken an escort we moved sout
from Fort Steele, latitude 41° 48’, dpogitade 107 ° 09’, ag the
north fork of the Platte River into the main range of the
Rocky Mountains. During the fifteen dave? expedition there
were =~ two nights on which we saw clouds enough to pre
ve

eetcut | took place in our immediate vicinity; about one-

%

quarter of an inch of rain fell. _ The sky was rarely perfectly

on the Atmosphere of the Rocky Mountains. 93

e
free from clouds and many local thunder storms occurred
about the higher peaks, but they seldom extended to the
plateaus below.

September Ist and 2d our camp was 8900 feet above the
sea in the vicinity of mountains rising 10,000 and 11,000 feet.
These peaks seemed to be nearer than they really were, for the
transparency of the air causes estimates of distance to be decep-
tive.

50 miles away. The night of Sept. lst was quite clear, with

. Capella was
oy ay though there was a slow change of color

attained if there is much of this weather. But this particular

place is difficult of access and possibly no better than other

situations on the line of the railroad. The sky is not as black

as I had expected ; it is rather of a light blue, though the full
oon makes much difference. :

On several other nights in both lower and higher places I
made observations but never saw the combination of steadiness
and transparency again. On the plateaus at the foot of the
mountains and away from the groves of aspen trees and pines

94 Henry Draper—Atmosphere of the Rocky Mountains.

the sun sends down scorching rays all day long on the pe
plains where only sage plants are sparsely scattered, and ev
orse

on ne can see the he aves rising from the
aig The air is far from being moist for the lips are apt to
crack and bleed, and’ the mucous membrane of the nose is
parched. hen the sun sets the ground aes rapidly, and

we frequently had by morning one-quarter of an inch of ice in
our vessels of water standing outside ‘the tents. hee plateaus
ut 72 a es The mere

was exceedingly ac eene it was — uns i I rose at
four A. M. to see Venus, and her splendor was so great thabas it

The i of Fort Steele and the guides say it would be im-
possible to do any astronomical work in this region from the
middle of October till the middle of May, that is, for seven
oat. The fierce winds, nearg falls of snow and intense
le.

P. T. Austen—Dinitrop Lib b l 95

Art. IX.—Photographs of the Spectra of Venus and a Lyre.
Note by Prof. Hunry Draper, M.D.*

region unlike anything in the solar spectrum. The research is
difficult and consumes time, because long exposures are neces-
sary to impress the sensitive plate, and the atmosphere is rarely
in the best condition. e image of a star or planet must be
kept motionless for from ten to twenty minutes, and hence the
driving clock of the telescope is severely taxed.

uring last summer I obtained good results, and in October
took photographs of the spectrum of Venus, which show a large
number of lines. I am now studying these pictures, and have
submitted them to the inspection of several of my scientific
friends, among others Professors Barker, Langley, Morton aud

of the spectrum toward H and above that line, of the same char-
acter as that I have photographically observed to take place in
the spectrum of the Sun near sunset.

New York, December, 1876.

Art. X.—On Dinitroparadibrombenzols and_ their Derivatives ;
by Dr. Peter TOWNSEND AUSTEN. Second Paper.

ers
consisted, for the most part, of A-dinitroparadibrombenzols,
which i iti ese

1-

bon disulphide, were recrystallized from glacial acetic acid.
After six crystallizations, the fusing point remained constant.

Betadinitroparadibrombenzol.
_ The betadinitroparadibrombenzol crystallizes from its solu-
tion in carbon disulphide in thick white point and peculiarly
nt needles. It is very easily soluble in the usual solvents,
* This article was printed on the third page of the cover of the January num-
ber, and is here reproduced without change.-—Ebs.
+ This Journal, vol. xii, 118, 1876.

96 P. T. Austen— Dinitroparadibrombenzols.

especially in —_ acetic acid, carbon disulphide, acetic
ether,* alcohol,
It fuses at 99° 100° to a yellowish liquid. 0°2940 germs. of
substance gave 00330 germs. of H20, and 02418 grms. of CO?.
Calculated for C°H?(NO?)?Br?. Found.}
C=22°08 22°43
= 1°24
The compound is somewhat volatile. Inspiration of its
vapors occasions an inten inflammation of the mucous mem-
bra

excites itching, saree, and inflammation eocmphe by
subsequent peeling off of the skin. A minute quantity
b é :

eral dove On the more sensitive skin of the face it gives rise
to a eee after it has attained a maximum, sudden
iia: It is hence a powerful excitant.

*Tt is very striking that nearly er somnaloe s which are soluble in glacial
acetic acid, are also afta in acetic

+In a preliminary notice I gave Aim faulted beng as The substance was
not saa free from the i isomeric compounds. separation of the last traces of
th alt

: mer a of
been working, retained an exact fusing point of 195° during seven crystallizations
from glacial acetic acid, while two crystallizations from alcohol proved that two-
- : : 36°

I have rarely a substance which was so refractory during combus-

ce was inadequate to peleize it. In making the combustions of this com-

pound, as well as of many ot! t tered in this investigation, I have

used a variation of the ordinary method of combustion, which has of late found

an extended application in the analysis of refractory organic substances. It was
i of the i aborato’ a

with a net-work oh copper spicule. The sree haee to pass through
tis net-work and are hence posed to a very great oxidizing surface. Loss by

; cas

tains haloid elements, hina pes ches of the lead chromate nearest the cork

- the tube must be kept just off the red heat ead cd as to pris nt ager
haloid copper compounds, which may be formed, from passing

potash bulbs.

P. T. Austen FA ea 2,7, I 7 97

Lf

Betadinitroparabromaniline.
By heating ee betadinitroparadibrombenzol with alcoholic
ammonia for eight hours in a closed tube at 100°, I obtained a

allowed to stand. The pure substance obtained 1 in this manner
formed “mois -red scales fusing at
0 grms. of substance gave 010506 grms. of H?O and
. grms. of CO?.
0-24 grms., after ae parip of Carius, gave 0148 grms. of
AgBr and 0° 0027 erm

Calculated for a RE Found. Z
L
C =27-48 Le) Seg penne
H= 1552 ie. - ...
53

30
The recor et is easily soluble in boiling sicbiel. aad glacial
acetic acid. It is almost insoluble in water, and entirely so in
nee Tene if
not acted u upon by boiling amy] nitrite, although in a
dat tube at 100° the substances react. No defined produe ct
was obtained, which, however, was more probably owing to the
small amount of substance used than to the absence of a dini-
trobrombenzo
Strong alcoholic ammonia remained at 200° without action
ue Be is, however, was pee surprising, since, according
to nd Wurster,t onl e bromine atom of the mono-
nitroparadibrombenz ol can be * subatitated by. direct action of
onia mewhat similar case is recorded by Armstrong.}

ammon

When oiled with alcoholic potash the substance evolves
ammonia, but the nitro-groups spPe to be affected, and a
general desoanodtinn t is the resu

On treating the can ee ai with aniline,
the mass assu imed a fine red color. n heating a violent reac-
tion ensued, and the mixture boiled "of itself The solution
was allowed to cool, and then treated with dilute chlorhydrie
acid. An oil separated and eae solidified. The dark
* It is worthy of notice that the int of this —o (160°) is nearly

the same as that of the al seatireeomrantircaibekue nzol (15
t Ber. dd. cl heen. Gon, 6 632. ¢ Ch pga (2), x72:

98 P. T. Austen—Dinit librombenzols.

Sg

violet mass was several times well washed with water, and then
dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol containing animal char-
coal, filtered, and allowed. to crystallize. The substance forms
superb orange-red fine hairy needles fusing at 120°. hey. are
soluble in boiling glacial acetic acid and in alcohol.

0- ent hoe e substance gave 0°0684 grms. of H?O and
04444 o of CO?.

0- 1685 orms. after the method of Carius gave 00910 grms.
of AgBr and 00016 grms. of Ag.

Calculated from the formula—

. NO?
NO2
C*H? ) NH. OSHS
Br
Theory. Found.
3 H.
C =42°60 42°64 mii

The preceding oot poand was added in A oes portions to
fuming nitric acid at a temperature of +12°. It dissolved
pened with a weak action, the color of ‘he shar becoming

0:2057 grms. of substance after the reihdeet of Carius gave
0:0552 grms. of AgBr and 0:0035 grms. of Ag.
The formula—
NO?
NO?
eH NH. C°Hs(NO#)?
requires 18°69 Br; 18°81 was ae
The co mpound is is easily soluble in boiling glacial acetic
acid, ey with difficulty m alcohol. If it be warme ed with a
solution of sodic hydrate, it forms immediately a deep boo
red achation, from which, after a few minutes have-elapsed, the
a of glittering red and green dichroic needles takes
This e

— compound eto be asodium betadinitropara-
nitroanilidophenylate—
NO2
| NO2
cone NH. C*H3(NO?)2
ON

x a
University Laboratory of Berlin, July 15, 1876.

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 99

Art. XL—On some Points in connection with Vegetation; by
Dr. J. H. GILBerr.

[Continued from page 32.]

Amount of nitrogen assimilated by plants.—Let us now recur
to the question of the various amounts of nitrogen assimilated
over a given area by plants of different natural orders, and call
attention to the facts bearing upon the point which these
experiments on the mixed herbage of grass land have supplied.

Taste IV.— Yield of Nitrogen in the Mixed Herbage of Permanent Grass land at
Rothamsted.

Average pace ae acre
er annum, ears,
1856-1875, according to Al rae
Conditions Men per cent at 6periods
Plots. of 1962, °67, "71, "72, "74, "75.
gear Eee) 10 0 20
years | years | years
Grami- |Legumi-| Other 1856- 1866- | 1856-
nee. | nose. |Orders,;{; 1865 18%5 1875
Tbs. | Ibs. | Ibs. Tbs. | Ibs. | lbs.
3 an 1635 | 219 | 529 |} 35:1 | 30°9 | 33-0
4-1| Superphosphate* 1671 | 149 | 673 |} 35-7 | 315 | 33°6
8 | Complex Min. Manure.t | 2442 | 296 | 639 |} 54-4 | 381 | 463
7 | Complex Min. Manure.t | 2579 | 806 | 573 || 55-2 | 560 | 55%6
In Table IV. is shown the average produce (in the condition
of hay) in lIbs., p re, per annum, over twenty years, er
age he gramineous family, of herbage of the leguminous

at six periods, namely, in 1862, 1867, 1871, 1872, 1874, and
1875, in samples of the produce of four of the plots which have
received no nitrogenous manure from the commencement;
and there is also given, by the side of these results, the fin

must be taken as only giving a general indication or an

approximation to the truth; for, while the amount of the
total mixed produce is the average of that of the twenty years,
* Mean of four separations only, namely, 1862, 1867, 1872 and 1875.
Pc tame potass six years, 1856-1861; without potass, fourteen years, 1862
- $ Including potass twenty years, 1856-1875.

100 «J. H. Gilbert —Points in connection with Vegetation.

the amount of it referred to the different orders is pene
i of

v season is in some cases very considerable, while in others there
a progression in the changes, which render an accurate
susiciacs of the average botanical composition of the herbage

undoubtedly represent the truth sufficiently nearly for our
present purpose. But before referring to the yield of nitrogen,
it may be remarked, in passin ow much greater is the
increase of gr: amineous ag by the use of purely mineral
manures in this mixed herbage than in the case of gramineous
crops grown separately. The interesting question arises, how
far ‘the result is due to the direct action of the mineral manures

in enabling the grasses to form much more stem and seed—
that is, the better to manure—which, as a matter of fact, they
are fo o do? or how far the increased growth is to be
explai y a eased accumulation of combined nitrogen

Teterrng to the yield of nitrogen, it is seen that, without
manure, it has diminished during the last as compared with
the first ten years; but that the average is thirty-three pounds
per acre, per annum, or nein more than with a gramin-
eous crop grown separate

With super-phosphate of lime alone, the yield of nitrogen
over the first ten, the second ten, and the twenty years, is ver,
nearly the same as without manure. It is slightly higher as
is also the total amount of produce; but while the To

'y leguminous species is less, and is by species belonging to
other orders more than without m
With eae phoephale of lime, said sulphates of potass, soda

and magnesia, during the first six years, but no potass during
the last | ‘parca years (plot 8), the amount of both gramineous
oO

u
years. The result is a yield of 55-4 lbs. of nitrogen per acre,
per annum, over the first ten years, of only 38-1 Tbs. over the
second ten years, and of 46°3 lbs. over the twenty year
ith the complex mineral Soman: including citteas each
year throughout the period of twenty years (plot 7), legumi-
nous species contribute about one-fifth of the whole ee
ry much more than in either of the other cases. The

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 101

result is an annual yield of 55:2 lbs. of nitrogen over the first
ten years; of even slightly more, or fifty-six Ibs., over the
second ten years: and of 55:6 lbs. over the whole period of

h

gramineous and the leguminous on the four very differently
manured plots.
Here again, then, the results relating to the growth of species
many different natural orders growing together, like those

than the Graminex, have obviously a different character of
‘ root crops”

foliage; as, for instance, the ‘ ps’—turnips an
like; and the leguminous cro ns, pers, clover, €
obvious explanation, therefore, which will ound in books
of authority, is ti ese istinguished ‘ broad-leaved

102s S.-H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation.

atmosphere. But I think I am right in saying that the con-
clusion of both of these experimenters is that this — takes
place in a very immaterial degree in natural vegetatio

In reference to this subject, may observe that the results
of the determinations of the ammonia in the atmosphere
different experimenters, and in different localities, = ver
greatly; and it may be concluded that a shower of rain will
wash out much of it. According to M. Schlésing’s stain
of the results of his recent determinations of the ammonia in
the air of Paris (Compt. Rend., 1xxxi, p. 1252 et seq.), it ranges
from one part in about = 500, 000, to one part in abou
260,000,000 of air by weig If, for the purpose of illustra-
=e we assume that, on cg average, the ambient atmosphere
in the open country—in Europe, at any fabbe-onll contain one
en of ammonia in 60,000,000 of air, or one part of nitrogen
as ammonia in about 50,000,000 of air, the atmosphere would
thus contain more than 8,000 times less nitrogen as ammonia

actual and relative emnitranit 26 nitrogen as ammonia in the

produce would contain from two to three times more
saben: and approximate measurements show that a wheat

weight of dry sub than a bean plant, and greater still
therefore in relation to a given —- of nitrogen fixed :
then, the bean can in some wa e up more nitrogen from

the atmosphere than the wheat, ahs result must be due to
character and function, rather than to mere extent of surface

e un ¢ may, however, be observed that, as a rule,
even $hose of the leguminous crops which are grown for their
ripened seed, maintain their green and succulent surface, over

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 108

with any other crop. The evidence of this kind is, however,
admittedly not so conclusive in regard especially to plants of
the leguminous family. BE

Is the free nitrogen of the atmosphere the source of the assimilated

rounds the leaves of plants consist of free nitrogen, why should
not this be a source to them of the nitrogen they require? To
assume that it is so is such an obvious and easy way out of so
many difficulties, that this assumption has from time to time

gen over

in a rotation of crops than he could well account for; and

almost from that time to this he has been occupied with inves-

tigations of very various kinds, sometimes on the atmosphere,
c

a pe f
Mr. Lawes and myself have devoted much thought and inves-
tigation to the same end.

104 «Sf. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

nitrogen el the atmosphere, leavin t view, lack o
time and space, the experiments and conclusions of several
th ~ worke e subject on a less comprehen-

taken up and assimilated by the leaves of plants.
During the years 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1854, 1856, and

someti n quant
supplied to the soil. Lastly, a great variety 0 of plants were
experimented upon. M. G. Ville’s results are summarized in
Table V, below.

TABLE oe Drbtomeraecha Vé the Results of M. G. Vinix’s Experiments, to determine
hether Plants assimilate free Nitrogen.

| ‘ Nitrogen—Grams. Nitrogen
a

PLANTS. Sepiry H | G Products
and eekt, es or to1

Manure, cts. Loss. Supplied.

if any. |
1849: Current of unwashed air supplying 0-001 grams Nitrogen as Ammonia.*

wacbd Cea w nL. 0°0260 ary 0°1210 56
adi Lupins__-.-._- 0-0640 0640 0-0000 10
Small Lupins.._..... 0°0640 4 0470 —0°0170 O77
071550 0- 02580 071030 at

1850: Current of unwashed air supplying 0-0017 grams Nitrogen as Ammonia.*

Colza mgt ase: ee 0-0260 1-0700 1-0440 41-1
bale ase 0-0160 0-0310 0-0150 19

tee aac Cease . 0-0130 0°0370 0-0240 2°8
eee | 0290 071380 0-0990 44
0°0857 1-2660 171803 148

1851: Current of washed air.*

0-0050 0°1570 071520 31-4 |

0-0040 071750 0-1710 A3°T |
00040 071620 01580 40°5

— Expérimentales sur la Végétation, par M. Georges Ville. Paris,

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 105

TABLE V.— Continued.

Nitrogen—Grams. Siccine
PLANTS. stg Gain a
" a 3 I pe
aarnea, Products. hat Supplied.
if any.
1852: Current of washed air.*
Seapees 0°0480 0°2260 01780 47
Spring Wheat _.....- 0°0290 0°0650 0-0360 2-2
Sunflower 0°0160 04080 0°3920 255
Summer Colza._.__-_- 0°1730 0°5950 0°4220 3-4
Summer Colza__-_.-_- 0°1050 0°7010 075960 67

1854: Current of washed air (under superintendence of a Commission).

Cress | 0-0099 00097 | —0-0002 1-0
| Cress | 00038 00530 0-0492 13°9
|Cress | 0°0039 0-0110 0-0071 2:8

1

1854: Current of washed air (closed, under superintendence of @ Commission).t

0-0287 | 5°6 |

iia: Wes Sareea ira | 0-0063 | 0°0350

1855 and 1856: In free air, with 0°5 grams Nitre =0-069 Nitrogen.t

\Colza | 9-0700 00700 00000 | 1-0
ole | 00700 0-0660 —-0°0040 0-9
ee | 0-0700 0-0680: —0-0020 j 10

1855 and 1856: In free air, with 1 gram Nitre =0°138 Nitrogen.}

0s 071400 0:1970§ 0°0570 1-41

ie UE He Fane ene 071400 0°3740 02340 1°67

Colza 0-1400 0°2160 0:0760 1°54

oe ae | 0-1400 0-250 0°1100 1-79
1856: In free air, with 0°792 grams Nitre =0°110 Nitrogen.*

1d ees aS ee 01260 0°2180§ 0:0920 Hg é

Kid Se Siegler 0-1260 0-2240§ 0-0980 1:8

1855: In free air, with 1°72 grams Nitre =0°238 Nitrogen.*

[Wheat es oes | 0°2590 | 0°3080§ | onnee | oe |

1856: In free air, with 1°765 grams Nitre =0°244 Nitrogen.*
0-217 —0-0480 0-8
0°3500 +0°0850 13
* Recherches Expérimentales sur la Végétation, par M. Georges Ville. Paris,

1853, -
hes rend., 1855, + Recherches Expérimentales sur la Végétation, 1857.
In plants onl

Wiheato 2 2 ie, 02650
0°2650

Am. Jour. Sot.—Tuirp Series, VoL. XIII, No. 74.—FEs., 1877.
8

106 J. H. Gilbert—Poinis in connection with Vegetation.

as those of others, in a paper published in the Philosophical

a
mical Society, vol. xvi, 1863; and we can
only very briefly refer to them in this plac e. The column of

ain of more th gramof nitrogen; the
the products being more than forty-one fold that ice as
combined nitrogen in the seed, an - s result was
tained with colza. Those obtained with w : ize,
showed very much less of both actual ea pepe gain
xperiments with sunflower and tobacco showed a les ual

to more than ry -fold of that cde a In M. G. Ville’s ex-

periments (as a glance down the last two Sigduer in the table

will show), alsboeah he still had generally some gain, it was

usually both actually and in proportion to the quantity sup-
his earlier ones.

. Ville attributed the gain, in some s, to the large

e
observed to ozonize the oxygen of the air, and he asks, ‘Is it
not probable, then, that the nitrogen dissolved in the juices
will submit to et action of the ozonized oxygen with which it
is mixed, when we bear in mind that the juices contain alka-
lies, and penetrate tissues, the porosity of which exceeds that
of spongy platinum ?”

The experiments - M. a and of ourselves, on
the other hand, have not given affirmative answer to the
question whether st by eae fs a take up and assimi-
late free nitrogen of the a

M. Boussingault oiiaiietoad his experiments on this subject
in 1837, pea Table VI. which follows, summarizes his results,
obtained at intervals from that date up to 1858.

J. H. Gilbert-—Points in connection with Vegetation. 107

Tasie VI. Bayes ff the Results of M. Bousstngavtt’s es to deter-

hether Plants assimilate free Nitrog
Nitrogen—Grams,
In Seed, ies wey
PLANTS. or Plants; ; In Gat oe :
mn
Manure, Products. Lose. Supplied.
if any.
1837: Burnt soil, distilled water, free air, in closed house.*
Trefoi | 0-1100 01200 | +00100 1:09
Trefoil | 0-1140 | 01560 | 40-0420] 1:37
Whea' | 0:0430 | 0-0400 | —0-0030} 0-93
| 00570 | 00600 | 40-0030} 1°05
1838: Conditions as in 1837.4
| o-o460 | o-1010 | +0-0550 2
etal (Plants) | 0°0330 | 0:0560 | +0:0230} 1°70
Oats (P | 00590 | 00530 | —0-0060 J 0:90

1851 and '62: Washed and ignited pwmice with ashes, distilled water, limited air,
under glass shade, with Carbonic. Acid.t

HatOOG 980 oc oot aah | 00349 | 0-0340 | —0-0009] 0:97

Oats, 1851 00078 | 00067 | —0-0011 ] 0:86

rico, 1862 < 22 3s oS 0-0210 00189 | —0-00 90

Haneot, 1869" oc a , 00245 00226 | —0-0019 0°92

Mee, 1808. eee 00031 0:0030 | —0-0001
1853: Prepared pumice, = burnt brick, with ashes; distilled water, limited air, in
ner gba with Carbonic Acid.t

0-0483 "0003 1-01

01246 | —0-0036 0-97

00339 0-0010 0-97

+0°0004 1-02

00397 | —0-0002 00

00360 | +0-0006 1:02

0277 | —0-0021 0°93

0-0013 00000 1:00

0°1697 0°0130 0°93

distilled water, current of washed air, and
Carbonic ay in nono case.§

api 0-0196 | 00187 | —0-0 0.95
Swart’ Heist ee en ae 0-0322 0°0325 +0°0003 1-01
wart Hartook ce. 555.0. foiys 0-0335 00341 +0°0006 102
‘Dwarf Marion 3 es 0°0339 0-0329 —0-0010 0-97
Dwart Gitex co 00676. | 0:0666 00010 | 0°99
reapin a — t 00334 | —0-0021 | 0.94
> ginal aatnateaah tacit ot 00052 | +0-0006 J 113

* Ann. Ch. Phys., II, lxvii, (1838 Tbid., lxix. .
t Ann. Ch. Phys, Ta xi, Arg is om Ch. Phys., ILI, xliii, (1855).

108 JS. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

TaBLE VI.— Continued.

Nitrogen—Grams.

Nieey
In Seed, in
PLANTS. or Plants; In Gain Products
and Products. or tol
Manure, oducts. Loss. Supplied.
if any.

1851, ’52, 63, and 54: Prepared soil, or pumice with ashes; distilled water, free air,
under glazed case.*

|Haricot Guar iy eee eee 00349 0:0380 | +0-0031 1-09
merioot, 1862... ack cia ea 0°0213 00238 +0°0025 1°12
Hari cot, 1 a aE see aes ap ah 0-0293 0°0270 —0°0023 0°92
Harico aaa 386420 070318 0°0350 +0°0032 110
Lupin (white), 1853 ---.---_---- 00214 | 00256 | +0-0042 1:20
Lupin, 1854 0°0199 00229 +0°0039 115
Lup a TS64 ous 00376 00387 +0°0020 1°05
Oats, ene 0-0031 0°0041 +0°0010 1:32
PW heat 1853 og ac. 0°0064 0-0075 +0°0011 V1i
baa Oro, 1854 0°0259 00272 +0°0013 1:05

1858: Nitrate of Potassium as Manure.+

: 0-0144 00130 | —0-0014 0-90
eRe eee canes {| oti | 0-0245 aeeiy 0-96 |

M. Boussingault's ern consisted of burnt soil, washed and
ignited pumice, or burnt brick; his ex eriments were some-
times in free air, Kein es ina ' closed vessel with Timnited alr,

Feit be ol gain of nitrogen in M. Boussingault’s experiments.
will be observed that in his earliest experiments, those In

of sl Nae os twenty years of varied and laborious

n
free nitrogen of the atmosphere.

ow aa obi on this subject were commenced in
and shes r. Pugh, of the Pennsylvania State Agri-
aulttenad College Sere between ~ and three years to the
investigation a amsted. Mr. s has contributed one

complete set a the apparatus satis al to this exhibition.
The arrangement, ne the pa obtained up to that date,

* Ann. Ch. Phys., Sér. II, xliii, (1855). ¢ Compt. rend., xlvii, (1858).
} Nitrogren in seed and nitrate.

J. H. Gilbert-—Points in connection with Vegetation. 109

110.) «J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation.

TABLE VIL—Summary of the Results of Experiments made se Rothamsted, to deter-
mine whether Plants assimilate Free Nitrog
| Nitrogen—Grams.
in
Gee pre Gain aes as
uaa ure, ge oe or Loss. Supplied.
With no combined Nitrogen supplied beyond that in the seed sown.
Wheat--- 0-0080 0°0072 —0°0008 0-90
des, —— --| 0°0056 0°0072 +0°0016 At
arley 0°0056 00082 +0°0026 1:46
: Wheat--.- 00078 00081 +0°0003 1:04
Graminee. --+ 1958 ) Barley_-.| 0°0057 | 0-0058 | +0-0001 | 1-02
Barley - 0:0063 00056 —0°0007 0°89
Ainge cL VOulS 0-0078 0:0000 1°00
ike S2eL. 00064 0-0063 —0-0001 0-98
p= Beans -..| 0°0796 0-0791 —0°0005 0:99
peg wiainoay, iach i. 00750 | 0-0757 | +0°0007 | 1°01
rf | Peas 00188 | 00167 | —0-0021| 0°89
Other Plants. 1858. Buok 0:0200 00182 —0°0018 0-91
, “) Wheat f§ ~

Wirtx combined Nitrogen supplied beyond that in the seed sown.

Wheat...| 0:0329 | 0-0383 | +0-:0054| 116
1957, | Wheat..-| 0°0329 | 0-0331 | +0-0002 | 1°01
“| Barley...| 0°0326 | 0-0328 | +0-0002| 1°01
ey... | 00268 | 0-0337 | +0-0069 | 1:25
00548 | 0-0536 | —0-0012| 0:98
Graminew. --4 1359, Barley 0-0496 | 0-0464 | —0-0032 | 0°94
00312 | 00216 | —0-0096 | 0:69
00268 | 0-0274 | +0-:0006| 1-02
Ee Besley. 0°0257 0°0242 | —0-0015 0°94
00260 | 0-0198 | —0-0062| 0-76
igsg, { Peas----|; 0°0227 | 00211 | —0-0016| 0°93 -
Clover -.| 0°0712 | 0-0665 | —0-0047| 0:93
Leguminose.
1858. Beans...| 00711 | 0-0655 | —0-0056 | 0-92
A*
Oth Buck ‘ . : :
er Plants. 1858.4 ro ¢-| 0°0308 | 0-:0292 | —0-0016 | 0°95
® BpReE part of the table shows ie puis obtained in
iso? an n the experiments in which 1:0 combined
nitro i was su bhéd beyond that jontadoed in the seed sown
w how extremely restricted was the growth

pat ae Sidhe and the figures in the table show that

neither with the Graminex, she Leguminose, nor with buc

wheat, was there in any case a gain of three iigeans Pe
se ARCS cc ES baa M. G. Ville.

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 111

extremely so when enclosed under glass shades. It might be
objected, therefore, that the negative result, with the Legumi-

nos are not so conclusive as those with the Graminez. How-

Independently of the action suggested as possible by M. G.
Ville, that is between free nitrogen and nascent or ozonized
oxygen within the plant itself, it has been supposed that the
free nitrogen of the atmosphere may unite with the nascent

xygen, or ozone, as the may be, evolved by the plant,
and so yield nitric acid. In our papers abov red to
ave given reasons for supposing that such actions are not

al deg
should expect some, at least, of the resulting combined nitro-
gen to be collected in the aqueous deposits from the atmos-

[To be continued.]

112 O. H. F. Peters—The Orbit of the planet Urda.

Art. XIL—On the Orbit of the planet Urda (167); by C. H. F.
PETERS.

THIS eet was discovered as a star of 12th magnitude on
August 28th ult., and the observations obtained, after applying
corrected star ositions, are the following, each bei eing the mean
from twelve comparisons by ring-micrometer

1876. Ham. Col. m. t. App. a (167). App. 6 (167).

h m 8 h m 8 Fe 1 “
Aug. 28, 14 18 21 21 58 82°22 —il. 28 412
2 SU. 36 co 16 PM Sica Af 2°27 —11 33 23°
Sept. 12, 12 48 43 21 48 16°70 —12 81 14:2
MND, ae a8 2S 21 46 38°63 —12 42 24°8

It seems that the planet has not been seen anywhere else;
and the orbit therefore had to be evolved from the foregoing

aberration and parallax, and then using of the eight data the
four longitudes and the two extreme latitudes. The final
ellipse arrived at is the following:
Epoch, 1877, Jan. 0-0 Berlin m. t.
eegl 7? 48° 274 ue
m= 32° 39’ 22°2"45024” (t. — 1876).
=170° ei rite teense (t. — 1876).
i= 1° 42! 14:5" — 0-47" (t, —1876).
‘C7,

<6 ‘
log piu 507668.

sg these elements, three, viz., node, inclination and major
s, bear a rem arkable resemblance to those of Gerda (122).
Moreover, the eioiatais of the excentricity, as it is derived from
short an arc in our orbit, remains necessarily very uncertain.
The same is the case, though in n less degree, and for the same

we have for Gerda L= 168° roe and as the correctness of Mr.
Stockwell’s computations of Gerda are fully confirmed by ob-
servations upon this planet made at Berlin in April last, it is
proved that Urda is distinct from Gerda.

he fact of two planets moving in the same plane, with the
same time of revolution, having also the line of apsides in com-
mon (our elements, if correct, show a longitude of perihelion
nearly 180° distant from Gerda’s), but “ts a widely different

J. B. James— Compensation in Chronometers. 113

excentricity, is worthy of note. And it is therefore still more
desirable, that Urda should not pass unnoticed in its next
opposition, which will occur in January, 1878, and when the
planet will be of the 12:7 magnitude.

Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Jan. 6, 1877.

Art. XIIL—Principles of Compensation in Chronometers ; by
J. B. Jamns, M.D., Trenton, N. J.

“ For one to know, is nothing, unless others also may know,”
is an aphorism of modern progressive science; for it is only
from what has been attained that step by step further progress
may be made. This it is which impels the writer to offer some
considerations on the principles of compensation in chronome-
ters.

Tt may be assumed as an axiom of general application, that
an error should be avoided whenever it is possible, rather than
compensated ; yet this plain axiom is disregarded in the com-
pensation balance, in two respects

1 at is the action of the laminated rim as affected by

when ascertained, should therefore be regarded as the fixed
point; and if the compensation required were only for the

equidistant from the fixed point or not—the longer segment re-
quiring only the less weight. It is the attempt to compensate,
in the balance, for changes in the length and elasticity of the
spring that creates the necessity for a secondary compensation.

_ This principle of compensation for temperature has beeu_prac-
ticed in the pocket chronometer, with marked success, by Henry
B. James, of Trenton N. J., for some years. He attaches the
outer end of the balance spring to the elastic arm of a laminated
convolute, which, at the same time that it compensates, more or

‘114 J. B. James—Compensation in Chronometers.

of the balance; while, parting the rim of a balance having
equal thicknesses of brass and steel in its structure, at a dis-
tance of one-sixth of its circumference from the arm, he

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center; and the force thus lost, as to the movement of the
“spring and escapement, is transmitted to the pivots of the bal-
ance as useless friction. The errors arising from the relative
positions and directions of these forces and that of gravitation,
and the changes therein from change of position or latitude,

as to deserve attention and amelioration. ;
ow if we can remove from the balance pivots this intermit-
tent and useless friction, leaving only its own greatly reduc
and uniform amount, unchanged by change of position oF
temperature, a balance of greater momentum could be substitu-
ted, which, in a proportionate degree would lessen tlie effect of
the remaining sources of error, and this, it is believed, can be
accomplished nd practicabl bani

amnie
£

\

W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 115

Art. XIV.—WNotes on the Vespertine Strata of ilar to and West
Virginia ; by WiLu1aM M. Font.

(Concluded from page 48.)

Say of Augusta and Rockingham Counties.

rincipal es in this quarter were made at
ff No th River Ga es in the northern corner of Augusta county,
in the ‘‘ Dora Co al F ield.” m this part of ‘the State the eastern

ave been pressed down against the massive Lower Silurian
limestone, stag the line of fault. which runs on the west side
of the “Valley of Virginia.” This has resulted in the overturn

of the seate westward, and the catching of a narrow omg
belt of the middle member under the massive sandstones of
the lower portion. These, by their resistance to erosion, hands
— from removal es ew destructible strata of the coal-
earing rocks, and standing u ge ribs, form the core of
the Great North Mountain, cies eailéds Sical; “Narrow Back.”
As might be expected, ¢ especially in the ~~ itself, the
amount of contortion and crushing is imm
e sandstones are changed to aattaiton ‘wath all granular
structure obliterated. The shales which contain the coal, from
their more yielding nature, have suffered most. Where they
x

compact and er. This is sarees striking ‘example of the
i

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a
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oad
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-
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os
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rd, the bend Sing ‘the mountain. The
se

lower Vespertine, while we may conceive the middle member
with its es as “Alling the curve, and resting upon the shank.
It will thus be seen that the number of coal beds will be
doubled i overlap in the west oa of the mountain. The

116 W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

strata have suffered much from erosion, and show only the

cot
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lying the coal strata seems rather to indicate its former absence.
No limestone appears here.

id not make a complete section at this point of the strata
supposed to represent the Catskill. Hnough however was seen

Lewis Tunnel, but amount is not so great, and they are
now changed to red argillaceous flags. The upper members
here are somewhat massive liver-colored sandstones, which

graduate upward into the white sandstones of the lower Vesper-
tine. The Catskill? strata seem to be considerably thicker in
this region than at Lewis Tunnel.

he sandstones of the lower member of the Vespertine cannot
be separated by any distinct dividing line from the above men-

massive beds. No dividing line can be drawn in this mass of
nge m

brownish gray, then gray, and finally white, passing near the
top into gray flags. The white portion is about 200 feet thick,
being mainly a massive quartzite, but showing in the lower
portion some conglomerate bands. Over the above mentioned
rocks are about 40 feet of gray flags, in the top of which is the
lowest coal bed. This stratum may be taken as the lower potr-
tion of the middle member. The following is the section from
the lowest coal ascending to the highest :

1, Black siliceous shales, (floor). 6. Black siliceous shale, 4 feet.
2. Coal, 18 inches. 7. Sandstone, 1 foot.

3. Argillaceous sandstone, 4 feet. 8. Black shale, 5 feet.

4. Black siliceous shale, 6 inches. 9. Coal, 2-24 feet.

5. Sandstone, 8 inches. 10. Black siliceous shale, 12 ft.

constant bed, and has the largest amount of clear coal. In the
top of No. 10 a few thin strings of coal sometimes occur.

Tbe remaining rocks above No. 10 are gray and bluish-gray
sandy shales, showing in some places abundant plant impres-
sions. The exposures are too poor to allow any approximation
to their thickness. :

The coal here is a true anthracite, of pretty good quality.
Attempts have been made, from time to time, to work it, but

W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 117

mixed with the true coal, have led to an exaggerated estimate
of the thickness of the beds. This mistake was aided by the
expo

in my study of the Vespertine of Montgomery, to which my
investigations were confined.

The Vespertine strata in Montgomery county occupy two
distinct areas, which require separate descriptions. The most

described in Augusta county.
The smaller area lies about two miles south of Brush Moun-
tain, from which it is separated by a narrow belt of Lower

118 W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

mountain. The eastern end of the Vespertine belt in ae
is found in this watershed. From that point, where the str
stand at the general level of the country, they run nearly ina
westerly direction toward New River, and pass about 24 miles
northwest of Christiansburg. The strata of the eastern end are
the red — ~ ee are er = er. In passing westward
they begin to ri iclinal elevation, which soon
attains se rudy of pein 300 fost which height is maintained
for about 34 miles, showing a ey ridge. is portion
bears the name of Price’s Mountain. Farther west, toward the
river, the ridge is broken up into hills, and “ee finally —_
pears before the stream is reache am informed that no
trace of the cia is to be found west of Rew 5 we where the
rock i s ge limestone.

with its eastern end tipped lower than the middle and vain
portions. The Pe of course is nearly north and south, away
from me crest, and toward the limestone.

mount of contortion and rubbing exhibited by the

the West. As a consequence, the coal is worked with ease,
and unlike that of Brush Mountain, two miles off, shows but
little rubbing, and may be taken ary in seems ‘of any size.

There are two beds here as in Brush Mountain, being evidently
the same. The amount of ee panege is rae smaller in
Price’s Mountain, and the t er.

As the middle member sontabbing the coal beds is evidently
similar to that exposed in Brush ae while the exposure
here is not so good, the section of i en in that mountain

lower member. The upper red beds however are much bees

ern foot of Price’s — aephte to the limestone, oii
be ett as ar = Saeco e find here these rocks
posed, with a s' tendy northward dip, until they are sud-

deal cut off by the limes’
e dip on the north. side | 3 somewhat steeper than on the

W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 119

south side, being in the former case 80° N.N.W., and in the

latter, 26° SSE. The coal of the upper bed on the north side,

is somewhat thicker than that on the south side. The lower

ed is essentially the same on both sides. The lower bed,

everywhere averages about two feet. It is enclosed in gray

flags, and separated from the upper by about forty feet of the
ind of roe

n average section for the upper bed on both sides, is as fol-
top: i

1. Black slate, (roof). 5. Slate, 7 inches.
2. Coal, 12 inches. . . Coal, 10 inches.
8. Slate, 12 inches. 7, Slate, (floor).

No. 4 sometimes runs up to three feet, and the other layers of

coal show occasionally an increase of several inches in thickness.
The following section, omitting details, will give the char-

acter of the red upper member, commencing below:

1. Interstratification of brown sandstone, and red shale, 50 feet.

2. Red and mottled marlites, with some brown sandstone, 440 ft.

3. Thinly fissile, red shales, ee . “600 feet

sediments. and No. 2, in the lower portion, have a larger
proportion of sandstone. But in the greater portion of No. 2,
especially the middle and upper parts, and in all o No. 8, the

gree

ing a steadily progressing subsidence. is
This thickness of 1090 feet of red shales and marlites is sud-

denly cut off on the northern side, by the Lower Silurian lime-

stone, which throughout this region has a southeast dip, and

have a great development of the eae member, as compared
with the same near Lewis Tunnel, and this agrees well with the

120 W. M. Fontaine—Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

limestone by faults in its most easterly eens ter a renders
it difficult to draw any conclusions from a ¢ of thickness.
rush Mountain lies to the north of Price = Mos ain, and is

is much more fractured and rubbed than that of Pric oun-
tain, yet by no means so much so as that of sins rae and
Rockingham acai Poverty Creek, aise flowing for gee

oe ine.
The Chemung = show the same character here as at Lewis
Tunnel. The same alternations = flaggy sandstone and shales,

too much cone ena able. o determine whether it is
occupied by Chemung hed or veeate eatin may be the equiva-

are entirely absent, having been replaced by the greatly thick-

ned lower beds of the Vespertine The following is the sec-
tion of the latter in pre order

Lower member of the —

1. Massive white conglomerate and sandstone, 80 fee
2. apa he white sandstone, with layers of conglomerate, 150 feet.
3. white > tag sandstones, 100

4. White = at deacsias h flags, marked with red ard and streaks,

5. eats ais sandstones and flags, 300 feet.
Total for the lower member, 930 feet.

W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia. 121

No. 1 is a conglomerate of remarkable coarseness, and c

tains only subordinate bands of coarse white sandstone. Most
of the pebbles are from a half an inch to an inch in size, but
many are two inches in dinkndtes, and flat. The quartzose mat-
ter is all pure white, and.plainly ‘derived from the Potsdam and
underlying quartzites, as may be easily seen from the nature of
the larger pebbles. The smaller pebbles are rounded. The
great coarseness, pure siliceous character, and white color of
this stratum, contrast in. the most striking manner with the
underlying Chemung es and point to a radical change in the
wee nots of deposit

is. a highly sileescn white sandstone, with subordinate

decide of smaller pebbles. gradual change from a highly
siliceous character to a more argillaceous one, wis be traced as
we ascend in the series. No. 4 is marked with streaks and

Midile neither of he Vaspierttve
1. Argillaceous gray sandstones, 200 feet.
2. Coal. Upper bed, thickness not exposed.
3. Massive and ‘im gray cand interstratified, 120 feet.
4. Bluish, argillaceous gray flags, 3
Total for the middle member, nec fee i:
The lower coal-bed was not seen in this section. N

have been sabes Still the upper bed here is also worked
to a considerable e The lower bed has a sandstone floor
and roof. It is abit three feet thick, with a slate parting in

the middle, from five to ten inches t thick. is was
formerly worked on a small scale, but i is now entirely neglected.

No. 1 Bottom slate. No. 4. Coal, 6 inches.
“2. Coal, 8 inches. « 5, Slate, 1 inch.
“3. Slate, 3 inches. — « 6, Coal, 6 inches.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Serres, Vou. XII, No. 74.—Fes., 1877.
9

122 W. M. Fontaine— Vespertine Strata of Virginia.

No. 7. Slate, 10 inches. No. 11. Slaty coal, 6 inches.

a : Mining dirt, 6 inches. “ 12, Mining dirt, 6 6 inches.

“9. Main coal, 20-30 inches, “ 13, Coal and slate, 20 inches.
s 7 Slate, 8 inches. “ 14. Coal, 10 inches

No. 2 is quite see ee a as pee for blackenithe The
“bearing in” is d n Nos. 12. ese are composed

of crushed coal ne fete “als is material above and below
them is neglected. The roof above No. 14 is a coarse sand-
oO

small seams may o n Price
The coal is ails —_ ita nous some of it approaching an
anthracite. The coal of the lower bed is harder than that of

eld. It seems here to be remarkably free from saiptar e
coal of Brush Mountain is usually glazed by friction, and seems
to have more sulphur. An analysis by Prof. Rogers makes
these coals to gman 14 p. ¢. apee gi matter, 80 p. ¢
earbon, and 6 p. c. of ash. The ash is very fine, and of
a white color. The ‘coal is said to ie eicietiies for grates and

stoves.

It will be seen from the above account that there has care a
sat — hoger of the Vespertine as we proceed from

orth to south through the state, gag ee by an ‘nore

in ihe macnn of coal Soe tap in it. This increase seems t
be largely at the expense of th supposed Catskill beds. It is
in conformity with a law of increase which holds good for all
the strata from the Devonian 2 and fncluding: the Lower Bar-
ren Measures of the Upper Coa

— ts.

strata, I have, as yet, not been able to procure a arma large
enough to be offered as representative of the series. Hence I
will not attempt to give here anythi ing but a a general state-

of the beds above th ce omerate. The sis Radio and
characteristic plants are the following :

Re. H. Chittenden—Flesh of Hippoglossus Americanus. 128

1. Lepidodendron. The forms of Lepidodendron are the
most abundant and widely distributed. They are all character-
ized by small leaf-scars.

I have nowhere seen any impressions of Sigillaria, Calamites,
Sphenopteris, and others of the most common plants in the pro-

ded
much greater variety of plants than any other locality visited
by me. Of course this negative evidence, in the absence of

Art. XV.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale
College. No. XLL—On the Chemical composition of the flesh
of Hippoglossus Americanus ; by R. H. CHITTENDEN.

portions of the United States. : F
A fresh sample obtained at the market yielded by analysis

No. 1 No.
Water... 82°85 82°90
Solids 50-5 gee 17°15 17°10
Ash 1:08 1°08
Wat 2.6 gs, 655 2 1°21 1°32
Nitrogen: 2 2°02 2°00
Phosphoric acid (P,O,)--- 37

124 RB. A. Chittenden—Flesh of Hippoglossus Americanus,

The fresh flesh of the whiting yielded Payen*—

Wy ater sO ee ee ee 82°95

Souds 2. 0 ee 17°05
Bie he ee ee a Pe ee eee 1:08
Mei et ee ee ee 38

IN eteeron s.r Oe ao ie 2°4

1
According to Pavy the flesh of the whiting which is eaten
so extensively in England, is tender, easily digested, and
highly nutritious. A comparison of these two analyses shows
but very little difference in the chemical composition of the
flesh of the halibut and whiting.
The flesh of the halibut dried at 100° C. yielded by analysis:

No. 1. No. 2.
Osrbon 2 es oe 50°30 50°46
diydropen! 0022 oes 3 751
Nitrogen i ecasbia. Pes 11°70 11°66
Wlget hcl woenn co 6°32 6°39
Oxygen. 2228) ie 24°32 23°98
100°00 100-00
Fat 7-08 715
The ash of the flesh gave by analysis :
ilica 32
Chlorine : ad 1 ig:
Carbonic acid ee
Sulphuric acid 230
Phosphoric acid 34°36
Fron 5... eS
Sie Ce a ee ee "15
] agnesia 2°43
Potash 37°07
Soda 12°22
ithia ... trace
100°28

The ash for the analysis was obtained by carbonizing a large
quantity of the flesh, then leaching this carbonized mass wi h
ri The resi i

By a backward glance at these analyses we see that the food
value of the flesh of the halibut is not of a low order, but com-
pares favorably with the flesh of other fish of the same class.

* Compt. Rend., xxxix, 318.

Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization. 125

Art. XVI.—WNolice of Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-
Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom ;* by Asa GRayY.

_ Mr. Darwin, in the title of his new work, refers only
incidentally to adaptations for cross-fertilization,—a subject
hich has given origin to a copious literature since he opened

ids, in 1862. A’

England, and we believe that this author's scattered papers on
cross-fertilization, as secured by various contrivances, are about
e collected, revised, and issued in a rm. In the
volume now before us, Mr. Darwin deals with the effects of
cross- and self-fertilization, recounts at length the experiments
e has devised and carried on, collects and criticises the results,
glances at the means of fertilization, and the habits of insects in
relation to it, and ends with some theoretical considerations or
inferences suggested by or deduced from the facts which have
0 light.

been brought t

suggested, here and there, in a manner more likely to engage the
attention of the thoughtful scientific than of the general reader.

That cross-fertilization is largely but not exclusively aimed
at in the vegetable kingdom, is abundantly evident. As Mr.
Darwin declares, “itis as unmistakably plain that innumerable
flowers are adapted for cross-fertilization, as that the teeth and

far as we know), or first made prominent, by Knight, from
whom Darwin adopted it: However it be as to animals, there

* The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom; by
Granuxs Darwiy, M.A., FRS, etc. London: Murray. (New York: D. Appleton
Co.) 12mo, pp. 482. 1876.

126 Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self- Fertilization.

was until now no clear and direct evidence that eries-fertilias
d

nite perpetuation of bud-propagating varieties, which have no
fertilization at . rik the inference from this is not as cogent
as _ at firs pear, fon a“ bud-propagation is,

and, accordingly, the diminution to an injurious de
inherited quality or essence might us correspondingly remote.
Yet, as sexual reproduction may be and often must be muc
closer in plants than it can be in eon animals, the ill effects of
a Jovecresgert or the good of cross-fertilization, might the
oticeable. Mr. Darwin arranged a course of ex-
pernents to pt this question, prosecuted it as to some species
or eleven years; and the main object of this volume is to set
forth the results
Ipomoea purpurea, the common Morning Glory of our gardens,
was the leading subject. The flowers of this species self-fertil-

seeds from both were ee allowed to germinate on ‘damp
sand, and as often as pairs germinated at the same time the two
were planted on opposite sides of the same pot, the soil in which
was well mixed, so as to be uniform in composition. “The
plants on the two sides were always watered at the same time
and as equally as pent and even if this had not been ee
the water would have spread — equally to both sides
the pots sige not inige. The crossed and self-fertilized ater
were separated by a su oclieiad partition, which was always
kept Pein towards the chief source of the light, so that the
plants on both sides were equally illumina ted. ” Five pairs

and oaly the tallest ee on each side was measured. This
was followed up, for ten generations; the close fertilization
being always act fertilization, i. e., ollen to stigma of the

me flower; the crossing, between individuals in successive
generations of this same stock, except in special instances,

Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization. 127

when an extraneous stock was used as one parent,—to eminent
advantage, as will b
he diff

e seen.
e difference in vigor between the cross-bred and the close-

bred progeny, as measured by ea rowth, was well marked
throughout he mean of the ten generations it was 0
to In the tenth generation it was to 54, that is, five

100 to

the fifth as 100 to 75; the sixth as 100 to 72; the seventh as
100 to 81; the eighth as 100 to 85; the ninth as 100 to 79;
the tenth, as already stated, 100 to 54. The general result is

ll the men in a co we 1 an average six feet
high, and there were some families which had been long and
closely inter-bred, these would be almost dwa average

It is remarkable thet the difference between the close-bred
nes: x

(p. 56. :
Further light was thrown upon these points by two kinds of
subsidiary experiments. In one case, the cross was made be-

indeed, the offspring of the self-fertilized flowers appeared to be
rather more vigorous than the close-crossed. And other exper-

128 Darwin on the Effects. of Oross- and Self-Fertilization.

sources, and = had presumably grown under che nth

sanke: same variety, but from a distant garden. The
resulting Senin showed the benefit of the fresh stock remark-
ably, ber uch superior in vigor to those of the tenth
inter-eroseed g generation 3 as the la iter: were to we self-fertilized

as 100 to 51. Indeed, Mr. Darwin’s main conclusion from a
his observations is, ‘that the mere act of crossing by itself does
no good. eng epends on the individuals which are
crossed differing slightly in constitution, owing to their progen-
itors having been subjected during several g: generations to slightly
different conditions, or to what: we call in ‘our ignorance sponta-
neous variation.
The greater constitutional vigor of the crossed plants of

in degree (the xtremes in differ experiment and in differ-
ent hase er seins 100 to 99 ase: 100 6), but was pee
sustained. 0, “the impaired fertility. of the self-fertilized

the eye, about half of that contained in one from a crossed

may often be observed in hybrids—namely, by. the first- ~~
flowers being Selle
Similar experiments were made, but not carried to the same

a dg
Sess for the advantage of cross- fertilizing, and this
Se manifesting itself in ifferent ways, some in vigor or
amount of growth, some in hardiness, most in fertility ; but

Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization. 129

with twelve cases in which the crossed plants show no marked
advantage over the self-fertilized.. There were, however, fifty-
seven cases in which the crossed exceeded the self-fertilized by
at least five per cent, generally by much more.

Increase of vigor, as evinced in growth, appears generally to

na
larger amount of seed. This proved to be the case in Hsch-
scholtzia, in which—strange to say—self-fertilized p ants of several
generations were superior in size and weight to inter-crossed

whether this exceptionally vigorous plant would transmit its

plants of the corresponding generation. The six children of
Hero (the name by which this individual was designated), beat

f
what increased fertility. Here, then, an idiosyncracy arose, from
some utterly unknown cause,—a spontaneous variation of con-
stitution, which was transmitted to posterity, and which gave
7

180 Darwin on the Hffects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization.

In Foxglove,—the flowers of which are naturally = sterile
or ere so, and in which crossing gave a marked advantage
over self-fertilizing, both as to ou and ptainstincaeae
decided, though small advantage, appeared to come from the
crossing of pha on the same plant.

n Qriganum vulgare, crosses were made between different
plants of a large clump, long cultivated in a kitchen-garden,
which had evidently sprea ad. from a single root by stolons,
and which had become in a good degree sterile, as is usual
under such conditions. The crossing caused rather more seed

to form; but the seedlings from the crossed Pe not surpass in
Rent those of the self- fertilized ; “a cross of this kind did no
more good than crossing two flowers on the same plant of Lpo-

mea or Mimulus. urned into the open ground, and both self
and cross-fertilized the following summer, and equal pairs of
the Sumit seeds planted on opposite sides of ne very large
pots, the sed plants from seed showed a clear oo
over their, ‘self fertilized — at the rate of 100 to 86
ut this excess of height by no means gives a fair idea of the
vast aga oe ae in vigor of the crossed over the self-fertilized

plants. The crossed “flowered first and produced thirty flower-
stems, while ‘dees sl fertilized ep only fifteen, or rags the
number. e pots were then bedded out, and the roots prob-

ably came out of as holes at He bottom, ‘and thus aided their
growth. Early in the following summer, the superiority’ of the
crossed plants, owing to their i ener by stolons, over the self-
fertilize plants, was truly wonderful. . Both the crossed
and the self-fertilized plants tae left freely exposed to the
visits of bees, manifestly produced much more seed than their
grandparents, —the plants of original clumps still growing yaa
by in the same garden, and equally left to the action of bee
hese few cases must here — and they give a - ‘get
eral idea of the main results reached,—somewhat qualified,
se by certain instances in aes little or no Suer was
served. Let it be remarked that while most of the cases
a decided and unequivocal good from the crossing, none
: — 2 ae tell ~ oe contrary, as the advantage
sometimes in one ection, sometimes in another.
“thus, the seabed and self- fertilized plants of Jpomeea, Papaver,
Re odorata, and Limnanthes were almost equally fertile, yet
the former exceeded considerably in height the self-fertilized
plants. On the other hand the crossed a self-fertilized =
of Mimulus and Primula differed to an extreme de in
oid but by no means to a corresponding las in aes:
or v
- Ve “must wholly omit—-among many other things—
the interesting account of self-sterile plants, meaning here

Darwin on the Hffects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization. 181

not those in which the pollen does not reach the stigma un-
aided, but those in which it is impo or nearly so, when
applied, although efficient upon the stigma of another indi-
vidual. Verbascum, Passiflora, Corydalis, and many hids
afford inst&nces of this sort. In these the advantage of cross-
fertilization rises to a necessity. A noteworthy fact respecting
them i . Darwin makes much) is, that such self-

bees. These B ; nts
with moderately self-fertile flowers, and this limited self-fertility
: : E

_and by inter-crossing these for a few enerations, obtaine
plants which inherited this peculiarity, so that “ without doubt

: te race of Mignonette could easily have been estab-
shed.”

Nine of the twelve chapters are devoted strictly to the effects
1 eans

tion in a volume. Here he gives a list of plants which, when
insects are excluded, are either quite sterile or produce less

182 Darwin on the. Effects of Oross- and Self- Fertilization.

‘* Kach of these lists contains by a mere accident the same number
of genera, viz., forty-nine, The genera in the first list: include

x
e greatly increased ; but the lists are confined to

species ch were actually ex ente Its can be
considered approximately accurate, for fertility is so vari-
ble a character, that each species ought to been tried many
times. The nu of species, namely, 125, is as nothing
to the hosts of living plants; but the mere fact ee more than half
of them being sterile within the specified degree, when insects

tility, there is at least a good chance of cross-fertilization. I
not, however, believe that if all known plants were tried in the
sam i

limits; for many ers were selected for experiment which pre-
sented some patie Paton and such flowers a require
insect-aid.” (p. 370.)

It is worth noticing that Drifolium repens and T. pratense (the
common white and red clovers) have a place in the first list; 7.
arvense and T. procumbens in the second. Darwin refers to Mr.
Miner's statement that “in the United States, hive-bees never
suck the red clover, "and says it is the same in England, ex-

by meen sealed carried se the anthers to the stigma of the

me flower, or from flowe flower, are insects, belonging to
the orders of ius ccaan: ae era; and in
some parts of the world, bir a note the author cites all

the cases known to him of birds fortiliaing flowers. Ergon are
chiefly humming-birds. ‘In North America they a d_ to
frequent the flowers of Impatiens” (for which Gould, Trochilide,
is referred to as authority, and a reference is given to the Gar

ers' Chronicle, which we find relates to something else in South

Darwin on the Lffects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization. 188

America) ; and this is all concerning the United States. Can
it be that there are no references in print to the most familiar
fact that our humming-bird is very fond of sucking the blos-
soms of fer te Creeper (Tecoma tee and of Honey-
suckles? Both these are, in size and arrangement of parts, well
adapted to be thus cross-fertilized.

Flowers are rendered sapier Sihyla i oe and still more to
insects, by bright colors. t every fruit which

tages in vigor a pears gained by cross-fertilization.

si ntl:
time, which is tantamount to greater opportunity for cross-fer-
tilization.
That odors attract insects is certain and many flowers are
both conspicuous and odoriferous, while others make u
we

“ Of all colors er is the sealing one; and of white flowers
a “gsi larger proportion abe weetly than of any other
color, namely, ue pe cent; of red, only 8°2 Ad cent are odorif-
erous. The fact of a larger proportiotl of white flowers smelling
Sweetly may depend in part on those which are ~iscmar b
e

odor chiefly or exclusively in the ing. me flowers, how-
ever, which are highly odoriferous 5 nd solely on this quality
i night-

and some species aphne ; a d these present the rare case of
flowers which are fertilized by insects being trea oe te
“The shape of the nectary and of the adjoining part
wise related to the particular kinds of insects which habitually
it the flowers; this has been well shown by Mal
Comparison of lowland species, which are chiefly visited oy. ;
pine species jpelon: ging to the same genera, which are
visited by butterflies.

184 Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization.

“Pollen contains much nitrogen and phosphorus—the two most
precious of all the elements for the growth of plants—but in the
case of most open flowers, a large quantity of pollen is consumed

pollen-deyouring insects, and a large quantity is destroyed
during long-continued rain. With many plants this latter evil is

compensate the loss of pollen in so many ways, the anthers pro-

duce a far larger amount ace is jecsmesey for os fertilization of

the same flower. I know this from m experiments on

Ipomeea, given in the Ancvoduntion: and it i 3 till more plainly
t

a
a8
2
o
ao)
a)
°S
f=")
=|
i)
o
a
os
co.
or
a)
in)
<S
®
bon
=")
°
4
®
a
iow
°
5
3
co)
o
|
et
bh ag
°O
Dm
8
5
®
ted
—
3
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ao
nm
)
a]
: a

sd ee: tne

These are meee fair averages of the numerical ratio of
ollen to ovules in flowers which are adapted to be fertilized
y insect agency. Their _ in “the economy yor nature ”

Here is no waste, and accordingly the —_ are very small,

he only advantages of this close-fertilization which we can
think of are sureness and strict likeness; both of which are
r

quite as well secured by budding-reproductio as
a a ers are borne, we believe, chiefly and perhaps
species whose normal blossoms are adapted for insect-

Reilianion pal must be regarded as a subsidiary arrange-
ment, a safeguard against failure of proper insect-visitation.
As the volume before us amply shows, this failure is in general
provided for by a more or less wide margin of self-fertilization

Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization. 185

in the very flowers which are adapted for crossing. In Impa-
tiens, Viola, and the like, it is provided for by separate flowers,

by many
more kinds of insects than are smal] inconspicuous flowers.
He further remarks that the flowers which are rarely visited
must be capable of self-fertilization, otherwise they would
quickly become extinct.” Mr. Darwin’s list seems to show

arwin’s experiments tending to prove that cross-fertili-
r

sure their fertilization with pollen from a distinet peste This

each other. In ordinary hermaphrodite species the expansion
of only a few blossoms at a time greatly favors the intercross-

136 Darwin on the Hffects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization.

the other) i is so prevalent that it may almost be regarded as the
rule; and this ensures such crossing between few-flowered
hata and greatly favors it in the case of spikes, racemes, and
the like. For, ee being the commonest arrangement,
so that the younger flowers act as male, and the older as female,
and bees habitually alighting at the bottom and proceeding
-Biely i ey jams the pollen from the upper and younger

wers stigmas of the lower and older flowers of the next

of the ge a . acne r to certain funtion, ‘such as
Orchids, or lants—such as Posoqueria, with its wondrous
mechanism > uickly stopping out access to the nt at when
the pollen is _— —- upon some insect, but opening
the orifice the n ay—are of a kind to favor: the crossing of

effect of the plant’s own pollen, though placed on the stigmas
twenty-four hours previously, was destroyed by: that of the red
Vv y . - - Ad

flowered in a cottage r’s perio half a mile away. Mr. Gordon
records a case e crossing between Primroses and Cowslips
through pollen carried by bees over more than two kilometers,
or an English mile and a quarter.

ice must copy the close of this section—long though it + be—
because of its capital illustration of the topic in hand, and for
the ‘alaolopiens lesson which it teaches

“The case of a great tree covered with caper esti 8

rodite flowers, seems at first sight strongly opposed to the

eth in the frequency of intercrosses between distinct individuals.
e flowers which ~~ on the opposite sides of such a tree will
ve been exposed to somewhat different conditions, and a cross

Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization. 187

between them may perhaps be in some degree Pe — it is
not probable that it would be nearly so beneficial a: s be-
tween flowers on distinct trees, as we may infer from nae ‘ineffi

the same tree, than from owers on a istinet tree.

should bear in mind that with the Horse-chestnut, for instance,
only one or two of the several flowers on the same peduncle pro-
duce a seed; and that this seed is so et 9 of only one out of
several ovules within the same ovari Now we know from the
experiments of Her bert and others hab if one flower is fertilized

ma.

flowers on a large tree, if other and adjoining flowers were cross-

Ertifised. Of the flowers sual produced by a great tree, it

is almost os iy lar; mber would be salt. fertilized ;
if we

With a white sheet of bloom in the spring, we should not falsely
accuse Nature of wasteful op hath comparatively
little fruit is produced in the a

The Horse-chestnut is not aogier a well-chosen example,
for in it, as in our ckeyes, sap & arge pr ‘oportion of the

the speculation as to how, when flying insects came id PCE
an anemophilous plant may have been rendered, © tomophi-
Am. Jour. Sct., Tarr Serres—VoL. XIII, No. 74.—Fas., 1
10

138 Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization.

lous,—how pollen, being a most nutritious substance, would
soon have been discovered and devoured by insects, and b

oe y
adhering to their bodies be carried from anthers to stigma and

from one flower anoth how a waste secretion, such as
honey-dew or glandular exudations, may h eveloped
into nectar and utilized as a ,—th eresting illustrations

and the great distances to which their light pollen is often
carried by the wind,—all these inviting topics we must now
ass by.
Ih pee we note the remark that “the excretion of a sweet
liquid by glands seated outside of a flower is rarely utilized as
a means of cross-fertilization by the aid of insects;” and the

sexes with much less
failing, and seeds not being produced, than in the case of short-
i i q has remarked,
that annual plants are rarely dicecious.” The number of
anemophilous species is comparatively small, but that of indi-
viduals of the species strikingly large, so that they form 0
themselves, in cold and temperate regions, where plant-fertiliz-
ing insects are fewer, either vast forests, as of Conifers, birches,

their advantage is gained at the expense of the production of
enormous superfluity of pollen, a costly product; and, when

an
dicecious, half the individuals produce no seed. Hermaphro-

y an appeal to the senses and appetites of insects, secures all

7

even = the fertilized material, in manner of most of the Alge:

ae

Darwin on the Effects of Oross- and Self-Fertilization. 189

bee visited the flowers of the same species as long as possible

know that color is not a good specific character. r. Darwin
has repeatedly seen humble-bees flying straight from a red
Fraxinella to a white variety, from o arkspur to a different

of Popp as one;
and H. Miiller traced hive-bees from blue hyacinths to blue
violets. On the other hand, Darwin’s bees fly straight from
clump to clump of a yellow (Enothera without turning an inch
from their course to Eschscholtzias with yellow flowers which
abound on either side. This constancy to species, however, is
manifested only when their flowers abound; a fact which may
have led Mr. Darwin to his explanation of the reason of it.

the cut holes, than by entering in the proper way. Nevertheless
each bee before it has had much practice, must lose some time in
making each new perforation, especially when the perforation has
to be made through both calyx and corolla. This action therefore
tmplies foresight, of which faculty we have abundant evidence in

* H. Miiller had come to the same conclusion.

140 Darwin on the Effects of Cross- and Self- Fertilization.

ae essampy operations; and may we not further believe that

me their social instinct, that is, of working for the
A of cae members of the community, may here likewise play
a part? Many years ago I was struck with the fact that humble-
bees as a general rule perforate flowers only when these grow in
apa numbers near together,” etc., etc. 3.)

appears that the cutting of these holes is done only by
pumble -bees, never AB hive-bees. Yet the latter are quick to
take advantage of t

“Tn the early part of the summer of 1857 I was led to observe
uring some weeks several rows of the scarlet kidney-bean ( Phase-

bese the holes which had been made only the day before by
the humble-bees; and they continued this habit for many follow-
ing days. Mr. Belt oe communicated to me (July 28th, 1874) @
similar case, with the sole difference that less than half of the

e sucking at the mouths of t owers an
visited exclusively the bitten ones. ow how did the hive-bees
quickly that holes had been made? . Instinct seems to
be out of the question, as the plant is an exotic an-

te) or bees; and
abgiess that they saw the Iramble-bées at work, ar understand-
ing what they were about, imitated them and took eyes 23
e

But we must cut ae our citations and remarks; passing by
one of the most important points, relative to the amount of
fertilizing work done by insects, namely, the evidence of the

S. W. Ford—Note on Microdiscus speciosus. 141

perfection

Art. XVII.—Note on Microdiscus speciosus ; by S. W. For.

thus made. The deception, in the first instance, was ren ered
all the more complete from the fact that, by the displacement
of the head alluded to, the articular fold of the first ap S|
Ww £ . . .

fectly formed body-segments, this notion is without foundation
at the present time. I should here also add that the last body-

142 EF. Lewis— Water Courses on Long Island.

ring is not, as I originally believed it to be, firmly soldered to
the pygidiu

Itisa fomakable fact that, under each of the four trilobitic
genera represented in the Troy Primordial, viz., Olenellus, Cono-
coryphe, Microdiscus and Agnostus, there should be found, in this
fauna, a species affording an example of a weil-marked ‘depart-

thorax is known have four; pod nobilis has but one e body-
ring, while nearly all of the other species have two; Conocoryphe
irilineaia, with its singularly-cleft caudal margin stands widely

apart from all the other certainly known species of the genus;
while Olenellus So gra unlike the other described species in
which the thor as been observed, has none of its anterior
pleurz paeinesteys prolonged as compared with the others.
In this respect ‘this latter species, as Barrande has already indi-
cated, sustains the same relation to the Vermont forms of the
genus as do the Swedish Porcini to their Bohemian allies.

November 20th, 1876.

_ Art. XVIIL—On Water Courses upon Long Island; by ELIAS
Lewis, Jr.

?

southward to the e bay « or 0

On the north side of be. eae of — = shall first oe
many small lateral valleys open into the larger ones, cutting
the surface into a series of valleys and ta forming a land-

: ag Senie Filed with that
of the island, and which vary -— 150 to 384 feet in height.

This range . called, absurdly enough, the backbone of the
sland. Ite nsists, however, of ie drift, with boulders, many

of i immense size, but is wholly without rock in place. It is

upon this range, quite at t the top in many instances, that the.

E. Lewis— Water Courses on Long Island. 143
principal water courses have their source. From these eleva-

wooded, rarely presenting evidence of recent erosion.
An inquiry is suggested, how and when were they formed ?

course which opens at Glen Cove there occurs, three miles south-
ward from its termination, a deposit of fine clay six feet or
more in thickness, and thirty feet below accumulated sediment
in the valley. Th posit

iter:

te ]

material which filled it, or which might have filled it, has been
removed by a stream of sufficient volume to accomplish the

rk. A quantity of rainfall is conceivable which would
erode and deepen the valleys in question, and t at such oc-
cured at a former period is quite possible, but we insist that
while some erosion must occur when water moves over the
surface of the ground, that the great development of these
valleys, especially at their source, and upon the highest grounds,
is not explained by the present surface waste. The watershed of
the island upon the hills is narrow; frequently a few rods, or
feet separates the source of a valley extending northward from

ap
ance of the ice sheet from the coast. If from the surface valleys
We turn to the similar but vastly greater ones on the north side
of the island which now constitute the series of magnificent
harbors upon its coast, we find proof that they too had their

144 E. Lewis— Water Courses on Long Island.

origin in glacial times. These harbors are eight in number, and
although in glacial drift are as truly fiords as those along the
rocky coast of Greenland. ey extend into the island from
three to six miles, they are from half a mile toa mile and a
half broad and are in the deeper portions from ten to twenty-
five feet deep. ‘They were probably deeper when free from
sediment. In a few instances where tidal currents are strong
the water is from thirty to fifty feet deep. The land on either
side of the fiords is from a few feet to as much as 200 feet

able that these great fior
formation of the island, water-courses opening to the ocean, and
were maintained as such until filled by accumulating drift.

region, and the streams were under or sub-glacial ones. When

eastward and westward through, what is now, Long Islan
ound.
There is no evidence that the fiord valleys have changed in
their general contour since the glaciers disappeared. The facts

bay. They are over a formation geologically different from that

v

on the north side of the hills, it being stratified gravel and sand,

E. Lewis—- Water Courses on Long Island. 145

the stratified, and newer beds. ave traced several of these
to their source, and find that in each instance new valley is
a continuation of an old one. new valleys are called

surely erode the plain valleys in question. It thus appears
that the water courses over the modified drift of the plains have
their origin in older valleys worn by glacial torrents in a pre-
ceding a

quent upon diminished precipitation. ustai
In review the following conclusions seem to be s nae

146 Scientific Intelligence.

1. The formation of the principal valleys about the hills of
central Long Island and northward to the Sound was concur-
rent with the closing period of the ice over the region, erie so
deepening has taken place by water from rainfall, both from is
surface waste, and from under-drainage, forming aaa in some
of sg valleys

. The great, fiord valleys were contemporaneous with the
“<a of the ice perio

8. The “plain valleys” have been formed by streams from
both surface and under-drainage, and originated in older valleys
ae ur ain ee the flow of the eroding waters

A further eee is suggested that the volume of
ae eros over the region was greater at a former period
than at the present time.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics.

BIG has made a series of experiments upon the use of a saturated
solution of potassium permanganate for this purpose, the results
of which appear to be quite satisfactory. The impurities which
were introduced were the hydrogen compounds of sulphur, phos-
phorus, arsenic, antimony and carbon. The permanganate was
used as neutral, acid, and alkaline solution, contained in a Bun-
sen wash-bottle. Careful examination of the gas after saris
i f e

te
osited no carbon when passed through an ignited tube, the
carbon being oxidized to carbon dioxide. As to the question
whether hydrogen itself is not oxidized by the permanganate, nee
id an

e
succeeded in reducing a silver solution, in the dark and in the
_ absence = organic matter. In dilut e solutions the silver separated
as wder; in Sickatinted ones, it formed a mirror.—2J.
pr. Ch. xiv, 289, Oct., 1876 G. F. B.

Re oC e eNO RN SS

Chemistry and Phystes. 147

2. On Hypovanadice Oxide ney its Compounds.—Cro
examined, under Roscoe’s direction, the modes of production pipe
the properties of the hypo came ‘oxide of Berzelius (vanadium
tetroxide) and some of its compounds, the vanadium being hare
mined analytically either by titrition with permanganate or by
fusing and weighing as pentoxide, Hypovanadie oxide, prepared

ers. ” Two similar eae were also obtained. The ch hloride,
i e in

8
cess of potass seat ae ate and allowed to stand, closely nae Lacie
some hours. The sodium salt is similar. The ammonium,
lead and silver ok, ue last two of which are lay bass are also
described . bro r black precipitates —J. Chem. Soe., xxx
453, Nov., 1876. G. F. B
8. On Plato- and oc nase costae —Nirsoen has examined a
length the peculiar double nitrites of platinous oxide and er
Slum, sodium, ammonium, silver, mercur and barium deseril ed
by Lang, and, adopting Blomstrand’s view that they are paired
porns 0 quinguivalent nitrogen, he cons ne -

——
H---O---NO=:=NO--
being called oot ay acid or date icixile acid, and
the salts platonitri He describes also new compounds contain-

ing another Bitlae Tadieal in whtbls to the four peat © it
there are two platinum atoms and one more atom
This radical he calls diplatotetranitrosyl, the free acid,
H---O---NO=:=NO---O---Pt~__
5 >
H---O---NO=:=NO---O---Pt~
being diplatonitrosylic acid and the salts Pinmenrert
has prepared — — rubidium, —— a a
lium, sodium, lithium, silver, calciu ‘bavied m, lea
Magnesium, dasa gndel cobaltous, peteloak, pone cupric, zine,

estes

148 Scientific Intelligence.

cadmium, mercurous, aluminum, yttrium, erbium, cerium, lantha-
num and di idymium platonitrites, and silver, glucinum, aluminum,
chromous, indium and ferric diplatonitrites. The former salts
are ~ the — part beautifully crystallized, though the solution
entrated, since they are very solu ble in water.
Esiplaconiteivey with the exception of the silver salt, which is green,
are characteri 28 - ne brilliant red color.—Ber. Berl. Chem.
Ae ix, ern
On

porous and brittle, and having, upon Graham’s discovery of the
remarkable occlusion of hydrogen by this metal, assumed this as
the cause of the phenomenon cee tt by him , has now sought to
verify the supposition by passing pure dry ’ ethylene gas over
palladium sponge, first at 100°, then at higher temperatures; but
no result was obtained until a red heat was reached, when carbon

and separation therefro te) cribes a ¢ nient appa-
ratus for showing the absorption of hydrogen by aie =
its evolution on heating.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., Ss se
_

new Dichlornaphthalenes.—The a and vesiecad
of dlichlornaphthalene, described by Faust and Saame, have
fusing points of 35-36° and of 68° nig oma the y variety,
ven ta by Atterberg, fuses at 107°. Cieve has prepared two
ew forms of this substance, d-dichlorna aphthalene, fusing at 114°,
, by the action of phos-

tallizes in brilliant prisms.— Budi. Soc. Ch., Ul, xx i oe t.
1876.

- Emodin from the bark of Rhamnus frangula. are
and WaLpstTEIn hye examined the crystallized substance con-
tained in the bark of Rhamnus frangula (buckthorn) with a view
to ascertain the sian of the frangulinic acid of Faust, which he
had reco: ognized as an anthracene derivative, to the other isomers

f s :
ization from glacial acetic acid, it gave beautiful
orange silky needles, which after sublimation and crystallization

Chemistry and Physics. 149

e i
semblance is clearly shown in the following formulas of these
substances:
_-CO.C,H,0OH _0O.C,H,N(CH;),
C.H,< C.H,<
mCO.C, HjOH: ™CO:C,H, N(CH 5);
Phthalein of phenol. Phthalein of dimethylaniline. a
The new phthalein was obtained by the action of dimethylaniline
upon phthalic chloride. The mixture heats, foams violently, and

comes dark-green in color. ater is added, the excess of
dimethylaniline is re y evaporation, and there is left a
resinous mass which, crystallized from chloroform, give
yellow needles 0 i-chlorides, chloro-platinates

Academy at their meeting of Dec. 4th the platinum-iridium 4-

oO
|
=
na
4
oO
4
o
"S
5
oO
y|
>
“oS
me
i=]
©
a
2
os
oO
=)
oO
<
es
oO
)
i=}
pu

150 Scientific Intelligence.

bar was cut off and the other two-thirds when forged and well
annealed had the following dimensions: Length, 95 cms.; breadth,
2°5 cms; thickness, 2 cms. Its weight was then 10°315 kes. and

¢
receive from the makers, MM. ers the high degree of polish
of which it is susce can and which in its present rough condi-
tion it does not
Deville in jomilaii on this communication gave the fol-
lowing result of an analysis of a portion of this alloy : Platinum,
89°42; iridium, 10°22; rhodium, °16; ruthenium, ‘10; iron, ‘06;

nents was 21°515; that peiamriee 2 A second Te
y computation 21°51; by observation, 2k: — en
exhibited two tubes of the same alloy made from ortion cut
ar as described above. These ae are closed by

spherica s which one terminates in a capillary tube which
nables the interior to communication with Regnault’s
ma f these tubes is more than a meter long and one

over a hit
mometer for the determination of the boiling points of various
liquids under known pressures. These tubes will have on their sur-
i The di

Chemistry and Physics. 151

thousandths of a millimeter in the distance between the two lines

marked on the tube.— Comptes Rendus, Ixxxiii, 1090
I R

_ OL water un .
eliminate the action of all forces except that of gravity by im-
mersi is “val i

being d, was capable of lifting by cohesion a heavy mass
of metal, the nature of the surfaces in contact differing in the sey-
eral instruments m experiments with them he concludes

that the time during which a heavy valve can be supported

‘ac
Tylor considers that the supporting of a body in water is due toa
difference of pressure in the water itself, and he adduced Giffard’s

that when a fly walks e
manner as the heavy valves in the models exhibited.—Wature, xv,
mak E. 0, P.

10, Fog-Signals.—Prof. Hunry at the recent meeting of the
United States National Academy communicated some additional
facts obtained in his long-continued and elaborate researches con-
cerning sound in relation to fog-signals. His principal investiga-
tion this year had reference to the divergence of sound, especially
as to the phenomenon known as the Ocean Echo, To te e@ ex-
planation given by Prof. Tyndall, requiring reflection from the
air, the trumpet of a siren was turned etly to the zenith. The
blast was exceedingly intense, but no echo was heard from the
Prolongation of the axis of the trumpet, i. e., from the zenith.
A loud ech

Count of the divergence of the sound, portions of waves in every
direction must have descended to the horizon, and as some of
these must have reached the plane of the ocean in a path curv-

Ing inward toward the source of sound, they would, hey
Teached the ear of the observer in the vicinity of the source, seem
as if comin point in the horizon, and hence would give

ferent distances from the ear could be reflected from the surface
of the ocean and thus give rise to a prolonged echo. This is in

152 Scientific Intelligence.

igri with the fact observed during last summer, that a
blast of five seconds’ duration gave an echo that was prolonged
c hi i

eal

arrangement of the material of the atmosphere which (on the doe-

trine of probabilities) os not be of frequent ———
lature, xv,

r. e

holes are punched in a long strip of paper, ee central row serving

to carry the paper through the machine and the row on one side

os to the dots or positive casi that on the other

to the lines, or negative ewrents. When the e paper passes ie
m moti

oe
3
©
>
roe
Ss
Cc)
a
2 yf
oo
°
©
fe
=
oO
i
os
i]
°
oa
°
8
ce
=
°
5
<
)
so
5.
3%

makes connection between the ba attery and another set of springs,
by which a current is sent through the cable, and shortly after it
a second current is sent in the spronte direction. ake cur eee
are reversed when the other pricker ac Cc.

IL GEoLoGY AND MINERALOGY.

sport on t ay Osean 9 route along the Wisconsin and
Hea Rivers in » State of Wisconsin, between the Mississippt
WwW

River and Lak Michignn; OUVERNEUR K. WARREN,
Major of i and Brevet Major General, U rmy. 114
pp- 8vo, with maps. Sen x. Document, No. 28, 44th
Congress. Washington, 1876. neral Warren’s Report gives,
first, a history of geographical knowledge and surveys respecting

transportation route, then an account of the work that

has been done Me eo under his direction. We take the fol-
lowing facts from

e two streams—the Fox River which joins Lake Michigan at

Geology and Mineralogy. 153

: ‘om Portage eastwar ox River) passes
through Lake Winnebago (besides three smaller lakes), with a
descent of 39 feet, and then plunges 1 the remaining 169}
feet along a limestone gorge whose sides are fifty fees or less in

eig

a
5
=
3
e
=
®
ay
5
B
(4)
mn
ew
8
5
®
nm
2,
© .
=)
i
‘ad
I~)
5
a
Lox]
i]
i]
=
a
5
cad
=
Ss
mn

ower Fox River é
the Glacial period is stated to be shown by the absence of glacial

interior of the Continent, for which it is so difficult to find evidences

eneral Warren obtained the same proofs of a northward sink-
Jhamplain period, in the region between the Upper

ward by Minnesota River valley; but that afterward, subsequent

di
charge of Lake Winnipeg must have been determined by a previ-
Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Srims, Vou. XIII, No. 74—Fsp., 1877.
ll

154 Screntifie Intelligence.

ous rising of the land to the — (as referred to in a notice of
his report in this Journal, vol. ix, p. 313); thus sustaining the

north. These conclusions—an elevation aoe in amount
northward, followed after the Glacial period by a aha in-
creasing nort Salus reached without reference to any p
conceived po drat

an vs.—Gen. Warren also describes with detail the form and

arger pa the st
down-stream edge of the bars, thus building up this edge toward
the water’s surface. The sand, where the current is strong,

‘is moved along the gentle slope of the upper side till the crest is
reached, when it falls over and stops in the still water below.”

outline. Such sand-bars have a channel of deep water either
side, snd also tend to make, by acting as a dam at the low-water
stage the stream, large areas of deep still water above them.

The pao: in the current produced by the growth of the bars

So

and the greater changes from change of level in the river by
ent i

the same in position from Sag to year. At very low water, the
bars may be oe dry, with winding narrow channels of water
among them. This tends ‘6 improve the navigation for the time ;
but a rise, if small ne temporary, sends the water across these
channels and fills them

e sand-bars se: in the Seer he by the ee of the
Wisconsin are of great extent. Besides Seon Oe the deep water
channel to the west shore, they act as a dam a <i an area of

elo
vases of the Missiseippi basin. » Wisconsin River flows 57
of much less sum

often at low-water stage when the ‘latter 1 is high ; and hene ‘is
made very shoal by sand-bars formed in its —
The sands of the Wisconsin River bars are ost purely sili-
ceous, and come from the drift deposits borderi ing its course. The
specific gravity, “excluding voids,” of t ecimens from dif-
erent

$ ; Paw ?
Minnesota, on the oer, — 3; at Rock ‘gp eae
rook Bar, m

—

Geology and Mineralogy. 155

due to wetting when loose and packed. The loose sands of the
Wisconsin River shrink in volume -0146, and -0197 (two speci-
a while ie Se Saint Paul shrinks -0695; that of Block

Island, R. 1, -0788, bag that of Newport, R. Le 1352. These
Di aieton: of ‘didfer t sands were Paces in order to ascertain
the reason — the Waacsee ssa jte * easil

y move
. Ice work now going on nm Newfoundland-—Mri S. Myr
gives pias valuable facts on saddens ice-work in Newfoundland
a paper in the Geological Magazine for September last, from
which the following are here cite
Ice forms on _ — from the spray and occasional snows,
enveloping and thus grasping firmly the stones and bo wlders
beneath, and saeininis considerable thickness ; and when a north-
ern pack poo = it is pushed up shore, sometimes to a distance
of a hun idred y n the movement the rocky surfaces beneath

y
blow ean by one of the immense ice eas s is sea to that of

many cases, and aids us in realizing the greatness of the wo
coast degradation carried on in every cold season by the iene
str ae

recent traverse in Shetland I obtained evidence which
tends te icaes then this remarkable theory. In the north island
nst, the direction of the strie, the bowlders on the surface,

156 Scientific Intelligence.

and the sca in ~~ till, aah indicate that this island was
glaciated by a s of ice moving from east to west. The proofs
of continental item which are comparatively clear in the

WwW fo}

its oe features, and are often at Mgnt ang t
astly, the wide distribution of m ma with groups
of moraines indicate the gradual disappearance of the local ice-
sheet and the presence of small glaciers, where the ground pre-

sented favorable conditions for their de evelopme
The islands are dotted over with small lochs; ee most of these
lie in peat or drift, while others oceupy true rock basins. The

voes or sea-lochs are admirably adapted for their preservatio
hese observations will be described in detail in a forthcoming
paper before the ew Society. Joun Horne
—WNature, Dec. 14
4, Note on the a of Balanus pa age 7s the ee
Mio ocene; by T. A. Conrap. (From a letter bes o

miosoma gregaria) beste the te. Its ‘0 ge to me,
th member of udistce should be in Micene strata, that I
have recently ended its characters anew, an o be a true

Balanus, and I think you will agree with me, if es eae the
figure and description of 2. levis figured in Darwin’ 8 Monograph,
pl. 4, fig. 2. In that figure the basis exhibits septa of the precise
character of B. Estrellanus ; besides, the loss of the basis shows
t re

a eing unknown in Eocene strata; when “the allied pou
appears in the — and recent fauna it assumes the radiated
structure, I also exclude from the Cretaceous fossils the following
genera of Veneride: Callista, —_ ee rat ae

genera, as Cardium, Pecten, Radula, Ostrea, Anomia, Sj ae
Axinea, Turr iteita, ‘etc, were continued from Cretaceous strata to

Geology and Mineralogy. 157

the recent period, but I have not yet made out a list of all the
extinct genera. As it is interesting to note the occurrence of cor-
i dia of the sam

genera are common an spies chit lina.
er of the Annals and se om
. Xavur al History Pa as wiatarys ae matopora concentrica is pro-
ced a Sponge in a paper on a new genus of Crvetanesiil Hex-
actinellid Sponges, b Sollas. A second paper, by H. J.
arter, treats of the close relationship of Hydractinia, Parkeria,
and Stromatopora, thus making the genus, or part of it, Hydroid in
ae lations, and so removing it far from the Protozoans.
treolog gical aeons sh of Victoria, Report of Progress, by R.
i. uGu Smyru.—The most important Report in this volume is a
ee one on ‘whe Devoutias rocks of North Gippsland, by A.
0
fe Forait ety Apt in Mf ota iy Territory ; by Wu. O. Matz-
ER

one tooth on a side, measuring at top ten inches by three. The
discoverer thinks that he has found portions of at least five indi-
viduals,

8
whe Riis een i Charlotte Islands lie just to the n of -
couver Islan ssils are in general too imperfect for satis-
factory identification. The Jude a large proportion of species
e e fam hey have some Oolitic affinities, while

“at least one or two are known to be Cretaceous,” and indicate a
relation in the beds rather to the Shasta Group (Lower Cretace-

Bre erii, A, Stolicekanus and Aucella Piochii, are well-known
California Cretaceous ossils

. Mioe New
of the Geological Barrer of New South Wales, sher an examina-
imens i inea ss
from Hall’s Sound, which are of t e Lower Miccene,—a 2 of
re-

much interest since no marine na ary beds have yet bee
ported from Eastern Australia, while they are found in Victoria

158 Scientific Intelligence.

— South Australia. Professor M’Coy, as Mr. Wilkinson states,
s shown that the Miocene fossils of Southern Australia were
saexly related generically, and even specifically to those of many
Lone of Europe and America. The N uinea species are
identical with those of Victoria. They include Voluta
inten, species of Ostrea, C2 sthevibll, Crarsatella, Pecten,
Turrit Astarte, Corbula, Leda, Venus, Cyprea, and other
genera Me Wilkinson makes the following concluding observa-
tions
The discov ery of these Miocene beds on the southern coast of
New Guinea i is one of consider - importance. Their occurrence,

~
ot
fe}
oO
&
2
Ss
Bog ©
ee
i
ares
”
=)
=)
=)
7O
Q
ct
a)
°
fos)
4
oS
i)
i)

t orme
with the Australian continent, aad this belief is farther borne out
by i fact of the shallowness of the intervening
m geological data it is believed that this poate [ Aus-
tvilia} has not been submerged to any great extent, since the
Lower Pliocene period; and we know that it ha as risen a —

ee

e flows.
of ae ens land shows, in his am hlet on the ae of

ma
Diprotodon, Micoreian ses Noiahaanee and others; and, as
their allied representatives now occupy both Australia and New
uinea, it is not i bee eo en e that those gigantic animals, whose
bones are found in Northern Queensland, also roamed in both
ose countries. And thee as the luxuriant vegetation and
e

rt of those immense marsupials, still exist i ew Guinea, is it

rash to conjecture that some of these large creatures may not be
living there at the present time? Farther casaeckes may prove
this.

es $
tralian species, and of them a considerable number are

ma
identical wih those of its antipodes, Europe and Britain, or of
rt

s, Eu

merica, tice the latter from Silurian beds, are Haly-

sites escharoides, Alveolites repens, Favosites cristata, F. Forbest,

F. aspera, F. ‘fibrosa ,E. Gothlandica ; Chonetes striatella, Leptena

quinquccotit, L. ¢ compressa, Strophomena pecten, S. rhombvida-
te 7

erinea ampliata, hoceras ibex, Cheirurus i
nis, Encrinurus punctatus, Calymene Blumenbachii, Bront

Geology and Mineralogy. 159

Partschii, Hurpes ungula, - others ; there are as many fro

the later Paleozoic. The author hence confirms the a i
expressed by McCoy, 00 Fegan to the c general specific identity
of the marine fauna o o hemispheres in the Silurian age,

and extends it to all Pomona sige; Se ciieias the Carboniferous
age, so that we may say that “the entire marine Paleozoic fauna
The species occur
many cases of larger size than in Europe or America. Prof. -
Koninck states that he was mainly indebted for the specimens
has described to the Rev. W. B. Clarke, who has long oe in

Australian Geology.

1. On the Syenitic raion, tains of Ditro, and the —
Hirg itn near Bids —_ paige yivania, with observa-
tions on the charger Dis — pb atak an Nagyag,

Prof G. vom Rar Bonn, cate he Syenitic

mountains of Ditro, damied ee Prof. vom Rath, pret from
enti: Szt. Miklos to Szarhegy and Ditro, having a lengt

The orthoclase of the ditroyte gave Prof vom Rath the
iy fan ratio 1:018:3:11:4383 and the blue sodalite was found
1m to consist of
Si 38-66, Al 32-61, Oa 0°95, K 1-04, Na 13°28, Na 3°93, FH 2-36, Cl 6-08.
In these mountains there is also a reddish quartzless =i a hams
toys consisting of a reddish orthoclase, black biotite and horn
blen salad some yellow sphene.
m Rath describes in this paper also the trachytic rocks

ha
crystalline slate, and shetty becomes a rei ee is inter-
rite.

12. “ Greenstones” o estern Cornwall mf eee PHILuirs,
Esq. (Q. J. Geol. Soc., May, 1876.)—This paper has ebewe
interest on account of the elie opinions with regard to the

160 Scientific Intelligence.

a trace of lamination, into which a pass by gradual or
abrupt transitions, and also killas or clay-sl The kinds of
greenstone least metamorphic consist, as seer in sections

little apatite, and with rarely flake mica, some horn-
blende, and rite. ore alt e a semi-
transparent base — ne corer and the chlorite are

kly disseminate it there are eudomorphs
after augite, and faint outlines a idea crystals. In some placer
here are lar rge crystals of the feldspar, yet with the augite

changed to hornblende and chlorite. The material of the inter-

altered, while the feldspar crystals appear merged in a colorless
slightly opeame base, which shows faintly the outlines of the feld
spar crystal
Four different varieties of the greenstones afforded on analysis:
EV.

I. ik. II
Site Jace Somaeabaee 46°32 47°22 43°48 47°26
Alumina 18°18 19°85 18°60 21°64
Worric 0x1d6:3.5 500) vesce 0°82 101 3"
Ferrous oxide____.--___-. 10°92 9°87 11:38 8°92
Manganous oxide __-_..-- tr trace trace trace
Migiemia oo 2 7-46 6°30 6°01 4:02
imi $32 10°18 12°31 6°01
POtish sso oe 2-07 1:12 1°12 1°91
Soda 2°95 2°13 1°69 a4
Phosphoric acid _--._..-- 0°52 0°95 trace 0°33
Water, _hygrometrie (0°24 0°21 0°22 0°29
tot GaN Sen ene Ne 0-76 0°80 ry 1°92
BoM awa Stes 0°32 017 trace trace
99°88 99°81 99°66 100°04
— gravity _....-.._- 3°02 2-97 3-01 2°98
is greenish and cr ystalline, ie consists, as shown micro-
aionally, mainly of augite and feldspar, the "former predomi-

nating. » with some chlorite, Monn sad green hornblende, and

e in T
No. 2, from Tolearn Quarry, resembles No. 1, but is nf
Heise color, "and consists of feldspar with altered augite, chlorit
magnetite partly replaced by a greenish-gray miner: ral, and oe
No, 3, from Tolearn Quarry, is very fine-grained crystalline, sage-
green in color, and consists chiefly of hornblende and altered
eldspar and chlorite, = augite being replaced b gear ae
and chlorite. No, 4, fro me Cb apee Hoe (‘which rests on slate”),
; ish-g s n appearance
and consists of a feldspar base, with ocriaals of feldepan, hornblende
in angular patches replacing augite, chlorite, apatite, magnetite
With these rocks occur fine-grain crystalline slaty kinds, which

Geology and Mineralogy. 161

graduate ons killas or clay-slate. These slaty gnatee's rocks

are bluish-green to greenish-gray ; and the slaty structure is some-
times sai . They consist largély of hornblende in “Tiuinate
acicular crystals, with lorite, and not unfrequently a
slightly opaque base, and with occasional patches of quartz, and
emp ac incompetap n average slat ind re a . colo

e on analysis the results in column A below. ock of grayer

Sota, similarly hornblendic, containing much ‘chabeeitinng afforded
the results in column B

A B Cc D

Silica 37°44 50°51 37°63 48°41

Hii tiers, guar ee gga merges 16°32 19°69 1715 17°02
Ferri id6s: 2o020 A tas 1°28 753

Ferrous oxide. 22s... 14°75 7-40 16°03 9°41

peace OF108 is os trace trace 0-4 trace

Pepa pei pang” “06 8-04 3°5. 6°20

Mie cs oso ee ee 12°83 7-38 13°95 13°15

Potash is i eae 1°50 1:00 0-9:

OAs seus ei aaies Se Sac 1°85 3-41 0°95 2:13

Water, hygrometric 0°54 0-20 0-40 0°12

Gompingd | 37s j O77 1-07 65

eo Ei Sapes Saiae 0°27 trace 0°46 trace

witidanwee beuece 0°23 Gee tr e

88°89 99°67 100-03 100°07

Specific gravity... __. 3-29 2°89 3°35 3-03

(A_ho cng ® of Botallack, Cornwall, fhe’ ng sp. gr.=3°24,
afforded A. G. P’ hillips—Silica 4 0°12, alumina 16°75, ferric oxide
& ide 12°70, m ped Nee oxide 3°42, magnesia 6°82,
lime oo potash trace, soda 2° “65100 09.)

mpact greenstone, dark reanals black, and ethapen
from Pend er Cove, in Gurnard’s Head District, largely m
up of hornblende, with an occasional grain of quartz, afforded the
i ve nother greenstone, bluish

gr. egies

usually a distinct slaty as
Mr. Philli lips picnics of ie greenstones as in part altered gabbro
or doleryte; others as metamorphic hornblendic mage some of
them containing ; magnets or tes others s killas or
ordinary clay states, ‘containing usually much more ais than the
ri

Leary
2
43
o
=
5
6
o
9
coc
“
.®

r
half of the New Haven region and of New
probable has even ths rocks of dolerytic composition (the augitic

162 Scientific Intelligence.

kinds) are ordinary sediments metamorphosed, and constitute
either siaharaecnid re or metadiabase according to the —. of
h

chlorite or not; that part of the hornblendic kinds—those that
vei the requisite spar—are basic hashed co that
the r —— into hornbleadyte ae saa rock), and also

1B. Petrographische Studien ~~ — ‘Moliphyegettainen: Boke

mens, Von oRIcKY. Pra 6.--The volume in hand is a
continuation of Dr. Boricky’s vataable examination of the igne-
ous rocks of

emia.

14, atneruiv of New South oom by Prof. A. Liverstper. 63

pp- 8vo. Sydney, N.S. W. 1876.—Prof. Liversidge has given a
ou

with descriptions mostly taken from specimens which ha
himself had in hand. ‘The occurrence of gold is described in

which have been found. e average oo composition of the
gs shee image is 93} p. ¢. gold, and about 6 p. c. silver. E. S. D.

ée Miner alogicat Magazine and Journal of the Miner-

atogica Boctety of Great Britain and rs land; No. 1, August,

and No, 2, Noiahes 1876.—The Mineralogical sprneg! of

Great B ritain and Ireland was — theoreti with

special reference to the advancement of the Sciences ot Minera

s 3
AuGHTON and Professor Heppixe; Treasurer, R. REG, Esq. ;
General Secretary, J. H. Cots, Esq.; Foreign Secretary, C. Lz
EVE Fosrzr, Esq. e wth: Mah age phi f the Society

N00!
bluish-green color upon limonite; the exterior surface

masses shows oe Bescon facets. =4-4°5, @.=2°67.
Analysis: P,O, 4, AIO, 18°24, FeO, 2° 74, CuO 7 te CaO
0°54, SiO, 1°37, i gn. hey 10, loss 397400 0°00. Tt is somewhat re-

lated to lazulite, wavellite, and turquois, but differs in the relative
amounts of alumina and "pho sphoriec acid. Found at the West
heenix Mine in Cornw

mysite. Occurs in stalactitic forms in a cave at St. Agnes,
Cornwall. H.=2-24, G.=1°59. Color bluish-green. B.B. infu-
sible; in the closed tube yields much water. Analysis: SO, 8°12,
AIO, 29°85, CuO 1 1, CaO 1°35, SiO, 3°40, H,O 39°42, CO,
1°05, Na,O, CL "FeO, vege 0710. The “walneral is regarded as

gin.
16. Prospectus of the “ Zeitschrift far Ripeito eights an
Mi imeralogic,” under the editorial charge of Prof. P. Groth,

nm des In- und Aus-
lane, ”*—In this prospectus Dr. Gro A elved: in full the ae and
objects of his new Journal of PsataBocie and Mineralogy,

Botany and Zoology. 163

the proposed eryennat - piss has already been announced in
this Journal (vo The Zeitschrift will fill a place
itherto noeenpied iy any sscieoaaas ipubliqatans being neuen

Physical Mineralogy It will thus cover the whole | of miner-
reover, in addition to original articles, it “will contain
abstracts of all mineralogical papers wherever the appear,

that the "Zeitschrift will be a most invaluable help to all mers rs
in this field of science; and it i is much to be hoped that the dis-

nt

e deserves, not only in Germany, but in all countries where the
Pa is cultivated. It will be published in octavo numbers of

6 to7 signatur es, <a with January, 1877. Each volume
will include six numbers, and, ~~ the accompanying plates, will
cost not re ‘has 30 mar Authors of original articles will
receive free twenty- five ar copies. The publisher is W.
Engelmann in Leipzig.

Ill. Botany AND ZOOLOGY.

1. Ulothrix zonata. Ihre oid cans Aes und ung Orstch fills the
Fortpflanzung ; Dr. ARNotpd Dopet.—This paper, W ich fills the

t phase. :
methodical eerslibeient f the article, it is elaborated with such

contirms the views of Areschoug, Cramer and others, that the
macrozodspores do not conjugate, but, after losing their cilia and
coming | 2 rest, grow at once into a new plant. He also agrees, in
with Aresel houg as to the conjugation of the micro-
Zodspores, and besides has been able to give a more exact account

164 Scientific Intelligence.

of what becomes of the zygospores. He finds that they remain for

a considerable time unchanged, and finally divide into a number of

zoospores, which soon come to rest-and grow into new plants, as in
of

s are m

ommon in winter and spring, and were produced abundantly on

thawing tufts which had been frozen, while the microzodspores
er.

are more common in summ

e most
zoospores which, for any reason, do not succeed in conjugating,
grow at once into new plants just as in the case of the macro-

With very rare exceptions he
once atrophies after fertilization has been accomplished.

M;.

Ww. G. F.
2. De Copulati sporarum Enteromorphw com-
press, (L.) Scripsit J. E. Arescuouc, ex Botaniska Notiser.
1876. No. 5.—In their Observations sur quelque
s

oug
zygospores in Hiematococcus lacustris (Protococeus nivalis) the
existence of which Rostafinski denied. W. G. F.
essor Sir ville Thomson on some of the Echino-
Porcu iti

f the recent numbers of the Transactions of t oyal Society
f London contains an account y Professor Thom f t
Echini of the “ Pore Benga st interesting portion is a

na Biel is family has been called Sir aA Pere
throws a good deal of light on the affinities of the extinct Pale-
ieMtide: e

Botany and Zoology. 165

In addition to the Crinoids noticed by Professor Thomson
one bi his former preliminary rep — rea to the Roya
ety, a has published a short ace of two remarkable
era saya longing to the family of Apioerinide, which are dessenpie 4 as
Bearinie and Hyocrinus, the former from a depth of 2475
fathoms, south of Cape Clear, the latter from a depth of 1850
fathoms, 300 miles east of St. Paul’s Rocks. The paper is illus-
‘trated by five cuts, and forms the beginning of No. 66 of the
Journal of the Linnean Society for December, 1876. Ba Her inate us
is allied to Rhizocrinus, while Hyocrinus has a hia ims resem-
blance to Poterioerinus and Cyathocrinus. Int number
of the Journal of the Linnean mae? Sir Wreville "Chetan has
given a most interesting account of the direct mode of propaga-
tion in a number of Echinoderms, showing that this mode of re-
production is not 80 exceptional among Echinoderms as was rr

erly ca Agere e Bape mode of reproduction w

shows most conclusively that this view was iret aa opens a
most interesting field of speculation regarding the causes which
may have brought about, often in closely allied : — one or the
other mode of - reproduction. t is somewha ous that the

» Hemiu 3 W.’ -» Hyn
and Ophiocoma didelphys W.T. These species are all figured

of the groups are not yet determined upon, but the e pers
who erkeap the “ t Poroupine” species will ts oad ea

166 Scientific Intelligence.

of the Challenger collection. Young Carpenter will work u
Comatul, Lyman will have the Ophiurans, and I shall bei a over
with me the chi and perhaps some other group of Echinoderms,
so that 09 United States ny ite their fair share of the work.”

which seems to prove that the growth of ¢ oy is much m
rapid than has been supposed. —Melbour. ne
7. Bulleti

ALLEN; see Editors, 8. AIRD and E.urorr Cove
The November sie iayed élosed the first volume of this pees
journal. It contains papers by E. Ingersoll, Dr. J. G. Coo er, R.
Ridgeway, J. O. Merrill, M.D., U.S.A., and 'T. M. Brewer, if i

G
Journal, an ae ing shee will be a and low rates of
advertisement les ed. Subsetiptisne should be — to
Mr. ailey, Newton, Mass., and communications or adver-
tisements to Mr. J. A. All en, Mansons of Comparative Zeoloey;
Cambridge, Mass.

IV. Astronomy,

1, Meteor of Dec. 21st, 1876.—On the evenir ng of Thursday,
Dec. 21st, 1876, a meteor of unusual size and brilliancy pasbed
a, and Ohio.

a the ss en

Leavenworth, re at an altitude of about 60 m
cro t ississippi between Hannibal and Keokuk, but nearer
to the former plac ver the center of the State of Missouri one

spp it broke into several fragments. ‘The breaki ing up fe Seg
it was crossing the States of Illinois, logignn and Ohio, A

Miscelianeous Intelligence. 167

loud a sasepe is reported as far east as Concord and Erie, Pa.
The meteor consisted in fact of a large flock of brilliant balls

from these accounts. A rumbling is reported as far south of the
track as Bloomington, Ind., 120 miles distant, but whether it was
caused by the meteor is doubtful. Yet over the northern part o
Tndiana the passage of the body was followed by loud explosions.
re

surface and might easily be in its latter part upward. But if the
sky was then clear over western New ork the meteor would in
such case certainly have been gee in “that region,
ath was about N. 75° nd was nearly or quite a —
=~ and not less than 1 000 par long. The duration of flight
as of course variously estimated, from fifteen seconds up to three
a. and yet no sla bal robably saw the body through more
than a fraction of its
It entered the air in a course saptian only about 30° from the
anh motion and was overtaking the earth. Its real motion made
therefore a still smaller pins Sa that of the earth. But the
relative velocity was so slow, probably not over ten or fifteen
miles a a that the eart rth’s attraction had changed aes direc-
tion great ly. Tt must have been coming, apelin to “that change,
from a point near to and a little south of the ecliptic in the
eastern or southern part of the constellation Caprico ornus. There
— to Leia no known meteor-radiant at that time near that part
of the hea
See no one else undertake the complete discussion this
teor, we may treat it more fully in a future number the
UL

l. Bressa Prize, of the Turin Academy of Seiences.—The fund
for the Bressa prize—instituted by the bequest of M. Césa. r Alex-

andre Bressa, Doctor of Medicine and ho died in 1835
—became available in 1876. A prospectus oe by the Roya
A y announces that, in carrying of the testator,

t >
& prize, amounting to the income of two years, vill be given in
1879, and every four years thereafter, to the man of science, of

168 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

whatever country, who shall, in the judgment of the Academy, have
made; during the preceding four years, the most brilliant and use-

r
in pure or applied mathematics, or in the sical sciences, such
as physics, meson £ phy siology, natural history, or geology.
pathology. ee y, geography or statistics; and, secondly, the
same pe n the same conditions, in 1881, ais aie four
years taken to an Italian savant, ‘The prize ’ will not be given —
to any of the National members of the Academy, resident or non-
francs. The amount of the prize given in 1879 will be 12,000

anes

nual ag i of the Board of Regents of the oe

Dumiatios jor i875.—The work of the Smithsonian ance
covers a a wide range of subjects of both ser dagaae we and s ‘entific
mportance, and has a phim mgt - good on the “voll are
om scientific progress of the nation. As one exan a e cite the
fact, stated in this report, that ee department of the Tnstitation

having charge of eat seme which is er the direction of Pro
fessor Baird, distributed in the years 1874 1875, of young aval
Oe 550; of Penobscot salto, 2,294,565; of California salmon,
1,340 ; ; making i in all over twenty-five ot a half millions which,
With ‘the distribution doce? the winter and spring of 1875-6, of
these and other fishes, make a total of forty million fish supplied
by the Commission in three years. The Report on t the Museum
shows great increase. One object of special interest acquired
during the year, is the Tuczon meteorite, presented by Dr. B. J.

D. Ir very extensive collections displayed by
the Smithsonian Institution at the International Exposition at
Philadelphia were se in interest to none there exhibited
Very f dit connected wi is due to Dr.
Baird, the assistant secretary of the Institution, who gives in this
volume a statement of the aa — arrangements.

The general 1 the Report contains the following
SS f Volta, oy ARAGO; The pre obable future of the

Human race, by A. DE CANDOLLE; Report on the Transactions of

1 i on $
versed in the science of hae crt ect of whick treats, and knows
how to present its facts briefly and clearly.

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

In MemortaM.—FIeLpING BRADFORD MEEK.

THE readers of this Journal were informed in the January
ap) i

Meek, the eminent Paleon-

s
pulmonalis. It had been his habit for several years, to spend

h
parents, two sons and two daughters, besides Fielding, all of
e

cumsta :
Aa. Jour. Sct.—Turp Serres, VoL. XIII, No. 75.—Marcu, 1877.
12

*

170 Fielding Bradford Meek.

tion was greatly interfered with by the delicate condition of
his health. Upon reaching manhood, by advice of his friends

all he possessed. A fter this, while laboring for his support and
struggling with ill health and poverty, he continued his studies,
general and special, for he began early to devote himself to

urv
Bad-lands of Nebraska, together with Dr. F. V. Hayden, both
being commissioned by Professor Hall for that work. Three
years after this exploratioa, he prepared for publication, in
conjunction with Professor Hall, an important memoir on

Fielding Bradford Meek. 171

Illinois State Geological Survey (published jointly with the
Director, Mr. A. H. Worthen); that of the Ohio State Geologi-
cal Survey; a part of that of the California Survey; that of
several of the western exploring expeditions, besides those of

r. Hayden’s surveys of the Territories.

It was the custom of Mr. Meek to publish preliminary de-
scriptions of his new species, and afterward elaborate and illus-
trate the subjects for final publication. These preliminary
papers were published mainly in the Proceedings of the Phila-
delphia Academy of Natural Science, while his reviews, an
memoirs on the higher groups were largely published in this
Journal.

Only a few months before his death Mr. Meek finished what
he considered to be the most important of work his life, namely:

Report on the Invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of
the Upper Missouri Country. This work constitutes volume
IX of the quarto series, of the U. S. Geological Survey of the
Territories, and contains more than 600 pages of text, and 45

tes,

f the character of Mr. Meek’s scientific labors, it is only

His personal character cannot be too highly eulogized, for it
hig without a blemish. He was a genial, sincere, pure-minded,
0

munication with his friends.) He was never married, and leaves
no hear relatives; but all with whom he was ever brought in
contact will remember him with pleasure, while to those who
Were permitted to enjoy scientific intercourse or correspondence
with him during his life, his memory will be epeaely ise

172 A. GC Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado.

ArT. XX.—WNotes on the Age of the Rocky Mountains in
Colorado; by A. C. PEaue, M.D.

In the “ Report upon Geographical plates, Pres and Surveys
west of the 100th Meridian, in charge of Lieut. Geo. M.
of

“Structure and age of the Rocky Mountain System,” in Chap-
ter XVII of his report, makes the Siecle emaaray (p. 501) :
“The Rocky Mountain system, then, is the result of four es-
eae marked upheavals, the first at the loss of the Carbon-

ous, the second at the close of the Trias, the third at the
élose of the Cretaceous, and the fourth during the Tertiary.
Of ee” the first and third were the most general in their

These conclusions he deduces from his investigations during ~
the season of 1878, in the “area embraced between the meridians
of 105° and 107° west from Greenwich, and between the north
latitude 39° 45’ and the southern boundary of Colorado, giving
a length of one hundred and ninety miles, and a breadth of
about one hundred ee Six. OD.

My duties, as one of the Assistants of Dr. Hayden’s ie 2
cal Survey of the Territories, have taken me over the
area, and as far west as the meridian of 109° 40’. tigi) ag

which the Appalachian chain was completed.” (pp. 499, 500.)
He bases this statement upon the following facts (?):
ist. The occurrence of Paleozoic strata high up on the flanks
of the mountains and the absence of the Trias in the interior,
and the abutting of the Cretaceous against the Paleozoic, (with
the Als ahd of the Elk Mountains.) p.
nt of conformability between the Paleozoic rocks
and the toe rocks. (p. 499.) : :

se up in order:
Ist. The eae cA Paleozoic strata and the absence ae ee Trias
in af Interwor. J use the name Triassic to denote the Beds

that have been so ete’ enerally in the west. It isso use oe by
Prof. Stevenson. Prof. her

tevenson says, (p. 499): “In the in-

A. C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 178

terior® no rock of more recent origin than the Carboniferous is

involved in the main axes.” Again he says, (p. 495): ‘In the

kansas or Saguache (Sawatch) Range, see pp. 490, 491,) no
rocks oceur of later date than the Carboniferous, which with

are present from the Primordial to the top of the Cretaceous,
all conformable and dipping to the eastward, extending from
the summit of the Park Range eastward into South Park. I

we find, with the exception of faulting in the Carboniferous
and Silurian strata, which probably occurred in Post Cretaceous
time that the formations succeed each other in regular order.
The sequence is uninterrupted. It is true that when we com-

the same, but we must remember that the outcrops are three or
aie .

t
Crossing the Park Range to the Arkansas Valley, we find
ss sedimentary beds on the eastern front of the Sawatch

unbroken from South Park to the Arkansas or Saguache
(Sarwatch) Range. How terrible was the erosion which not
of He does not explain what he means by the interior, but I take it to mean the
interior of his distri

174 A. C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado,

only cut away these rocks but also tore out and removed the
metamorphic rocks to a depth of 6,000 feet along this valley of
the Arkansas.”

He restricts the sedimentaries to the Paleozoic. Why could
not this erosion have removed not only the Paleozoic but also

per portion of these beds which are conformable to the quartzite,
I obtained, in 1873, Carboniferous and Permian fossils.* Fol-

conformable.+ On the west side of the Sawatch Range the
entire series is again seen towards the north.t The lines of out-
crop can be traced from Eagle River to the Elk Mountains.

Sawatch Range to the westward and becoming horizontal in

<

the plateau region.
T

Triassic is also present. (See Report of Macomb, Geology, by

1017, Report of Chief of Engi-

neers, Part II, for 1875.) Mr. Holmes and myself have also

identified the Red Beds in Western and Southwestern Colorado,

ree revs forthcoming Reports of the Survey they will be
ri

I think I have shown that the Red Beds (Triassic) are
* Report U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1873, p. 245.
{oor U: & Gent Survey ist a 79-84, ;: as

_ & Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1873, pp. 245, 266. Report for 1874, p. 80.

Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1874, p. 54. . g

A. C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 175

present not only in the interior but also west of the mountains,
and that where the Paleozoic rocks alone show, the overlying
rocks have been removed by erosion.

The want of conformability between the Paleozoie Rocks and
the Mesozoic Rocks. J have already noted the conformability of
the Paleozoic and Mesozoic in the Park Range, and on the
north and west sides of the Sawatch Range. Prof. Stevenson
(pp. 886, 497, 499, 500) notes unconformability between Meso-
zoic and Paleozoic along the Eastern Range, (Front or Colorado
Range,) on the interior axes of elevation, and in the southern

art of his area, in the San Juan Mountains, and near Tierra

erior.

In the reports of Dr. Newberry* and Prof. Cope.t I can find
no evidences of the unconformability in the southern portion
of the San Juan Mountains and about Tierra Amarilla.

Dr. Endlich sayst that in his district, “although the Creta-
Ceous beds dip off, apparently uniformly, m the same direction

. 500.) S : ‘
ses on the unconformability between the Trias an
the Cretaceous, which he observed along the Hastern Range at
* In Macomb’s Report on the Exploring Expedition to the junction of Grand
and Green Rivers.
In Report of Chief of Engineers, Part II, 1875.
Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1874, p. 215.

176 A. C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado.

Golden, near Colorado Springs, and near Cafion City (pp. 490,
500), and also in Huerfano Park. Near Colorado Springs we
et

. Going eastward we next meet with Triassic red sand-
stones, standing on edge, or inclined past the vertical. ee
the to the Dakota group of cue « oe the di

Monument Creek it is only 4°. wit first sight pete would ees:

quenterosion.t The e thing occurs near Golden, (see section
13 on plate opp. P- 136, ee, t U.S. Geol. Survey, 1873.) Mr.
Marvine says,t ‘ Within exceedingly short distances, then,
great changes of dip may occur, and from them, with but
slight changes of exposure, uneonforinability might be inferred.
Yet all are perfectly conformable; sudden change really
Laie only a very, a si a in the main fold, as
indicated by the dotted lines.” Near Cafion City, neither Dr.

a
unconformability. The ‘other ones are probably similar to
those of Golden and Colorado Spri

What I now wish to show is that i in Colorado the evidence
exists that there was a subsidence commencing in, or prior to _

sic, Cretaceous and into the Tertiary. This may have been, and
doubtless was interrupted by pentienony oe the igs move-
ment was depression until the close of the Cretaceous, when

there were probably local Soaaiene A gen a gradual eleva-
tion of the whole West is not incompatible with local depression
in Colorado. There are evidences that the upward movement

iocene Terti
From a oe of the Carboniferous rocks in Colorado, ai

seas prevailed with large continental areas or islands. she

The Giskas easure cools at the northern end of the ea
Range denote in their structure, the proximity of land during
Fin gee ica oe onary teh 1 a 201-205.
ten Kiger 40, Report of U. S. Geol. Survey, 1874.

Report of U.S. Geol. Survey, 1873, p. 136.

A. C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 177

their deposition. They also show that they were derived from
* West of the Rio Dolores,

glomerate, I noted large angular fragments of granitic rock ex-
actly like that upon which the bed rested. Ascending, I noticed
the beds becoming finer, showing that the shore line ha
advanced to the eastward. Farther east the red beds (Trias)
rest on the Archean for at least 20 miles (the length of the
Unaweep Cafion) and probably more, with no older sedimen-
taries between them.

ew Mexico, Dr. Newberry found the Carboniferous rocks
resting on the granite, with evidences of terrestrial surfaces near

'y when they were formed.

It is evident therefore that there was Archean land above
the level of the Carboniferous sea, and that it was subsiding as
the age progressed.

This subsidence continued through Mesozoic time. Along
the eastern front of the Colorado or Front Range, with one or
two exceptions where they have been removed by erosion, the
Red Beds (Trias) rest upon the granite, (see Reports of 1873.)

t the base of the series, Mr. Marvine found conglomerates of

beds are so directly made up of the material of older rocks
: : >

e find the underlying rocks coming in gradually until the
eds show resting on the granite. West of the Elk
Mountains, between the Gunnison River the Rio
Dolores, the Trias rests on the granite, gradually thicken-
as we go westward. No lower strata are seen until
; Re 945, and Report of 1874, pp. 114-120.
por Kxpl. Baped, cag Aen Tot eank ant Green Rivers, pp. 17 and 42.
Report U.S. Geol. Survey, 1873, p. 96. § Tbid., pp. 194, 19

178 A. C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colurado.

we get within about five miles of the Dolores, when Upper
Carboniferous strata appear, with every evidence that a
xl there.

resting on the granite is exposed to view continuously
for more than 20 miles. The fact that the Red Beds thin
out and disappear as we go east, and that the Jurassic does the

the fact that the was gradually encroaching on the land,
and there must have been a subsidence here extending into

with no sedimentaries interposed, and in others the Archzean
ie project through the trachyte forming isolated granite

te South Park, on the west side as I have already said, the
entire series of sedimentaries from Primordial to the top of the
Cretaceous is present, while on the east side the Dakota group

rests on the granite. Prof. Stevenson acknowledges that there
was subsidence during the formation of the Triassic rocks, as
far as the Front Range is concerned. He s “In

Trias which affected the interior little, if at all, for over r the
greater portion of that area the Trias is altogether wanting.”
gain he says, (p. 490), “In South Park the Cretaceous rocks

Triassic rocks show at more than one locality in the interior.
On the east side of South Park the Dakota Group rests on the

der the head of Carboniferous, Prof. Stevenson refers to

exposures of coarse sandstones and siliceous limestones on the

west side of the Park extending 8 brociors east of the nos
he h

5. 1. Survey for 1873), or if he did, failed to recognize it,
as I can ee otal to the under his heading Triassic
and Jurassic, (pp. 378—

o shige le pa Me Morrine found the No. 1, Cretaceous

pe Pe S. Geol. Survey, 1869, p. 79, and Report for 1873, pp. 38-47

A. C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 179

granite, and on the west of the Park Range the whole series of
sedimentaries is present.+ Speaking of Middle Park he says,t
“As was first distinctly pointed out by Newberry (Amer.
Assoc. Meeting, Newport, R. L, 1860, also later Proc. Amer.

Assoc., Aug., , p. 185, etc.), east of the range, so here in

tions to develop extended limestone deposits; in turn followed
by a shallowing sea with e arenaceous accumulations.

though in some localities the action was excessive, turning the

strata on edge or pushing them over at Golden and the Garden

“2 the Gods. In South Park a well defined synclinal was pro-
uced.”

By referring to the sections in the Reports of the U. S. Geol.
Survey for 1873 and 1874, it will be seen that the Lower
Tertiary | is conformable to the underlying Cretaceous. In
South Park toward the northern end, in 18 8, I found Lower
Tertiary fossils in beds resting on the granite toward the east.§

hat the relations were to the Cretaceous at the west | was una-
ble to determine on account of voleanic action. At some points
along the eastern front of the Colorado Range, the Lower Tertiary
overlaps the Cretaceous and rests on the granite.{ In Middle

* See sections opp. p. 192, Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1873.

t Unpublished gent map of Colorado, U. S. Geol. Survey.
+) .

é 8 us. : :

§ Report U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1873, p. 219, and section Fig. 1, Plate VI

Opp. p. 212. : oe

‘J See line of coal outcrop map of base of mountains opp. Pp. 40, Report U. 8.
Geol. Survey, 1874.

180 A.C. Peale—Age of the Rocky Mountains in Oolorado.

middle of the Miocene. This may be because of the distance
from the axis of elevation, the elevation not being sufficient to
lift the area above the sea-level at the end of the Lower Ter-
tiary. I have no evidence in any of my districts of any violent
action at the close of the Cretaceous. The apparent uncon-

early Tertiary time, for the marine deposits of the Tertiary
change gradually to fresh-water deposits as we ascend, but
nu

areas these beds often plainly show that their material was
derived from the adjacent rock, often bei oarse gran-
itic or schistose débris, or of the lignitic sandstones worked
over.”’||

From what I have written, I think it is evident that in

* Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1873, p. 156.
Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1873, p. 157.
By Miocene I mean beds of the age of the Green River formation lying below

ip.
Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1873, p. 210.
Venes he can ane

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 181

3d. The elevation of the Rocky Mountains as we now see
them in Colorado, is the result of an elevation commencing in
early Tertiary time, and continuing through the period, accel-
erated perhaps at the close of the Lignitic, and after the de-
position of at least Lower Miocene strata.*

he elevation of the mountains was probably gradual as a

the western part of the North American Continent were out-
lined from earliest Paleozoic time.

Art. XXL—On some Points in connection with Vegetation ; by
Dr. J. H. GrLBert.

[Concluded from page 111.]

Is the nitrogen combined under the influence of the soul with or
without the aid of manures, the source of the assimilated nitrogen 2—
But if the plant itself cannot either assimilate free nitrogen, or
effect its combination so as to bring it into a state for its use,
may not such combination take place under the influence of
the soil? ;
ore than thirty years ago, Mulder argued that in the last

Stages of decomposition of organic matter 1n the soil, hydrogen
Was evolved, and that this nascent hydrogen combin with
the free nitrogen of the air, and so formed ammonia.

* Th ion i i resent also.

+ Uso Horatons, oe mpficrmsbar Geol. Survey, Miscel. pub. No. 1, 3d

4

edition, p. 47. ,
} See Ives Exploring Expedition, Geol. Rep., p. 47, also p. 57 of Macomb’s Ex-
Ploring Expedition to the junction of Grand and Green Rivers.

182 J. A. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

an increase of more than 40 lbs. per acre.
gain, Boussingault exposed a moist garden soil for three

months, and found a small gain of nitrogen. His explanation,
was, however, different. He supposed it possible that ozone

perfectly closed and preserved in a dark cellar for a whole
year. At the end of that period oxidation of organic matter

Wi s
ma ieee in proportion to the amount of soil used. The
gain was, indeed, in the soil rather than in the plant. In the

other experiments, however, either much less, or no gain was
indicated.
Much more recently, Boussingault has published the results
showed that when a gar

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 188

the formation of nitric acid within it; but, on the contrary, the
soil lost a portion of its combined nitrogen.

f M. d
from them, M. Berthelot objects that the soils being in closed
glass vessels, the intervention of atmospheric electricity was
x

ment of his views on certain points.

did not reach me until after the delivery of the lecture; but,
with his permission, I am now enabled to contribute a very
valuable addition to the discussion in the form of a translation

n
Organism, or in fertile vegetable earth, does not assimilate free
4 en,”

“(4.) In field culture, where dung is applied in ordinary
quantities, analysis shows that there is more in the
crops than was contained in the manure applied.

“This excess of nitrogen comes from the atmosphere, and
from the soil.” “ : :
_ “(A.) From the atmosphere, because it furnishes ammonia
im the form of carbonate, nitrates or nitrites, and various kinds

”

184 J. A. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

the presence of ammonia in and consequertly in
meteoric waters. Liebig exaggerated the influence this
ammonia on vegetation, s h nt so far as to deny the

“(B.) From the soil, which, besides furnishing the crops

which is the basis of vegetable earth; compounds in which
nitrogen exists in stable combination, only becoming fertilizing
by the effect of time. If we take into account their immensity,
the deposits of the last geological period must be considered as
an inexhaustible reserve of fertilizing agents. Forests, prairies,
and some vineyards, have really no other manures than what

Numerous experiments of Schlésing indicate a similar result
He selected a soil ee ]

to that last quoted of Boussingault.

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 185

in particular was very much the greater, the larger the propor-
tion of oxygen in the air.

In a second set of experiments, he used the soil in a moister
condition ; and instead of the experiment in which the air con-
tained only 15 of oxygen, he employed “_ nitrogen; and

iod of a

appeared ; but in the other cases there was a considerable for-

nitric acid in the soils, and add own quantities of potas-
sium nitrate in a dilute solution. The ture was enclosed
1 ask of several times the capacity of the volume of soi

B
the oxygen of organic matter, as in his own experim
It will be seen that on this important point of whether or

oussingault, or at the cost of nitrates, of ferrie oxide, or of
nts.

a a
hydrogen evolved in the decomposition of organic matter in
; i form of nitric acid by the oxyda-

tion of free nitrogen, the evidence is, to say the least, contiet.
Th re)

Am. Jour. Sct.—Turep Series, Vou. XIII, No. 75.—Mancu, 1877.
13

186 J. H. Galbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

The action assumed by Mulder and Dehérain, if it have
place at all in soils in their natural condition, would be sup-

matter also. Again, if such formation of ammonia d
place, it is probable that some at any rate of it must be oxi-

nitrogen in the drainage collected at a depth of about thirty

i
why cannot the Graminez avail themselves of this superficial
supply? On this point it may be mentioned that, on some
a

obtained by the use of very much smaller quantities of nitrogen,

as ammonia-salts or nitrate. It would thus a pear that the nl-

trogen of the farm-yard manure was only available to the cereals
: fort

J. H. Gilbert-—Points in connection with Vegetation. 187

ood

crop of clover would appear to be attainable in soil ri Aaeoag
in i y poor in

organic matter also ; for, in the experiments already referred to
in which barley was grown after barley and after clover, the

was after six corn crops grown by artificial manure alone ; con-
ditions under which the amount, both of available nitrogen, and

e evidence in favor of the supposition that the special
Source of nitrogen to the Leguminose is a

then, to say the least, inconclusive. It remains to cor
whether it may not be nitric acid, either in the soil or in the
bsoil ?

SuUDSO1

bonaceous and nitrogenous organic matter. mple
soil at Rothamsted which has been under garden cultivation,

carbonaceous organic matte C sd ses
forms, and thus the exact conditions which it supplies | yor-
able to the Leguminose cannot at once be discriminated.

188 J. H. Gilberti— Points in connection with Vegetation.

The fact of the comparatively little, or at least uncertain action
ms nt gue apes nitrates on the growth of the Leguminose,
ould s o be inconsistent with the supposition that it is

tion, it will be well in the first place to call attention to the
effects of direct cao ae manures, such as ammonia-salt, or

nitrates, on the growth o e of our
In Table VIII is sete she estimated amounts of carbon,
yielded per acre per annum, in wheat over twenty years, in

barley over twenty years, in onic over three years, and
in beans over eight years; each with a complex mineral
‘. :

in the form of ammonia-salts, and in others as nitrate. The
sie of carbon by the use of the nitrogenous manure is also
given

TaBLe VIU.—Estimated yield and gain of Carbon per acre, per annum, in experi-
mental Crops at Rothamsted.

Average Carbon
Der OnE
per annum.

Manuring, Quantities per acre, per annum. Boe Getwees
| Actual | Gain. |

Wheat 20 years, 1852-1871.

| Ibs. Tbs.
Complex Mineral Manur 988
Complex Min. Man. aid “a1 Ibs. nitrogen, as ammonia _____..-.- 1590 | 6
Complex Min. Man. and = Tbs. nitrogen, as aceasta i oscs succes 2222 | 1234
Complex Min. Man. and 82 lbs. nitrogen, as nitrate__.____.__._| 2500 | 1512
Barley 20 years, 1852-1871.
omplex Mineral Manu | 1138 |
Complex Min. Man. a “a1 | Ibs. nitrogen, as ammonia _____-_--- | 2088 | 1150 }
ee sist) ois eine ncrssng ate release MechSE
Sugar-Beet 3 years, 1871-1873.
Complex Mineral Manure | 1136
Complex Min. Man. and Tbs. nitrogen, Os ammonia .._....... | 2634 | 1498
Gonisples Min. Man. and 82 Ibs. nitrogen, as nitrate ____.__.___- | 3081 | 1945

Beans 8 years,.1862 and 1864-1870.

(aie Mine an aeces | a |
{Complex Min. Man. and 82 Ibs. nitrogen, as nitrate... | 992 | 266

J. H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation. 189

amount of it over a given area, a

beet. there was a greatly increased amount of carbon assimi-
lated by the addition of nitrogenous manure alone. In the
case of the wheat, there is much more effect from a given
amount of nitrogen supplied as nitrate, which is always applied
in the spring, than from an equal quantity as ammonia-salts,
which are applied in the autumn, and are subject to winter
drainage. There is also more effect from ammonia-salts

On the other hand, the effect of the nitrogenous manure
upon the highly nitrogenous bean crop is seen to be, compara-
tively, very insignificant.

In reference to this point, it should be observed that there
has been this greatly increased assimilation of carbon in the

1

wheat and in the barley for more than twenty years, without
he soi 1

r the gramimeous sugar-
cane, in the tropics, is likewise greatly dependent on the supply
of nitrogen to the soil. oe

n reference to the great increase in the assimilation of ear-
bon in the sugar-beet by the use of purely nitrogenous
manures, it may be of interest to observe that over the three
years of the experiments with sugar-beet, the increased produc-
tion of sugar per acre per annum was about 20 ewts. by the
use of 82 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre per annum as ammonia-salts, :
ee about 28 ewts. by the use of 82 lbs of nitrogen as nitrate
of soda, i

It is then our characteristically starch and sugar-producing
crops that are the most characteristically benefited by the
application of nitrogenous manures; while our highly nitro-
genous leguminous crops are comparatively little benefited by
such manures, :

Proportion of nitrogen of manure got back by the increase of
crops.—But now let us consider what is the proportion o
nitrogen supplied in manure that we get back in the a
of the crops that are most specially benefited by its use?

In Table IX is shown the amount of nitrogen recovered, and

190 J. ZH. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation.

the amount not recovered, in the increase of crops for 100 sup-

lied in manure, to wheat, and to barley, respectively; the
result being in each case the average over a period of twenty
years.

TABLE IX.—WNitrogen recovered, and not recovered, in the increase of Produce, for
100 supplied in Manure.

For
100 Nitrogen in
Manure,

Manuring. i per annum

Not Re-
Recov- |covered|
eredin in
Incr’se.) Iner’se.

Wheat 20 years, 1852-1871.

Complex Min. Man. and 41 Ibs. nitrogen, as ammonia ---------- 32-4] 676
Complex Min. Man. and 82 lbs. nitrogen, as ammonia -___------ 82:9 | 671
mplex Min. Man. and 82 Ibs. nitrogen, as nitrate __..._.----- 45°3 | 547
Barley 20 years, 1852-1871.
|Complex Min. Man. and 41 Ibs. nitrogen, as ammonia -___--__-- | 48-1 | 51:9 |

ed by the nitrogenous manures, two-

‘

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 191

TABLE X.—Mitrogen as Nitrates and Nitrites, per 100,000 parts of Drainage Water
from Plots differently manured, in the Experimental Wheat Field at Rothamsted,
t every year, commencing 1844.

Mannring. | Lalas: “parts Drainage Water” —
Quantities per acre, per annum. py. Frankland’s| Dr. Voelcker’s | __ yy
| Results. Results. | ean.
| Experi Experi. Experi-;
ments. ments. | ments.
Farm-yard Manure 4 2 | 1606 6 | 1°264
Without Manure | 6 [0-316] 5 |0-390| 11 | 0-353
Complex Mineral Manure ___-_.___- 6 | 0°349 5 (0506; 11 | 0:428
Complex Min. Man. and 41 lbs. 6 |0-793 5 10853} 11 | 0-823
nitrogen, as ammonia __- .-____
Complex Min. Man. and 82 lbs. 6 1477 5 11-400! 11 | 1-439
nitrogen, as ammonia _______-_-
Complex Min. Man. and 123 Ibs. } 6 |1-951 5 |1679| 11 11-815
nitrogen, as ammonia ________-_
Complex Min. Man. and 82 lbs. f 6 1:039 5 1835 10 1437
nitrogen, as nitrate ..._____._-

The figures in the Table conclusively show that the quantity
of nitrogen as nitrates per 100,000 parts of the drainage water,

of ia or nitrate supplied, and it is obvious that there has
been a considerable loss of the nitrogen of the manures by
drainage. But as the subsoil rests upon chalk not many feet

stantly going on, even

Fu er, determinations of nitrogen in the soils do show —
accumulation. Indeed, it would appear probable, that the who e
of the nitrogen applied to the wheat as ammonia salts or nitrate

192. S.-H. Gilbert—Points in connection with Vegetation.

of soda, was either recovered in the increase of crop, or may be
accounted for by determinable accumulation within the soil, or
by loss by drainage.

In ordinary agriculture, the amounts of soluble nitrogenous

tion of crops, more of the supplied nitrogen would probably be
gathered up before it reached the lower layers, than in the case
of a cereal crop grown year after year op the same land. It

J. H. Gilbert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 198

is, in fact, equal to the total amount that may be in question as
between two subsoils to be compared. Further, if this avail-
able nitrogen exist in the subsoil as nitrates, it may be a ques-
tion whether there would be a sufficient amount of organic
matter present to insure the evolution as ammonia of the nitro-
gen of the nitric acid.

It has been shown, then, that there are many questions still

subsoil, before we can hope to arrive at a satisfactory solution
of some of the problems which the consideration of the facts of

of our crops may not be solved without further knowledge as
to the required conditions, or the actions, of the incombustible
or mineral constituents in soils.

lating to t omposition of the rainage water fr

variously manured, as well as others of different kind,
have shown the absolute necessity for an extended investigation
of the soil question by more exact methods; and Mr Warington
Is about to devote, probably so y enquiry at

194 oJ. H. Gilbert-— Points in connection with Vegetation.

there is little doubt that they can be overcome, at any rate so
far as the nitrogen existing as nitric acid is concerned; and by

papers already referred to, we have more fully considered what
s known o

en, or whether or not the agencies of its formation are more
or less active now than during the earlier history of the earth

J. H. Gilhert— Points in connection with Vegetation. 195

aqu
marine vegetation, and of the subsistence of animal life upon it,
as to be considered. But a soil onc en up, and under

at hitherto quantita-
tively determined to be annually deposited from the atmosphere
would be annually exported from the lan

nclusion.—And now, to summarize in a few words the re-

he word more in conclusion. ave, as explained at the
sutset, confined attention almost exclusively to one aspect of
the great subject of vegetation; but it will not be supposed that

pended
be transferred to the laboratory of nature?

i
po)
fon)

SW. Johnson— Apparatus for quantitative Kat-extraction.

Art. XXII.—Apparatus for quantitative Fat-extraction ; On the
Composition of the Sweet Potato; On the Composition of Maize
Fodder ; by S. W. JouNson.— Contributions from the Sheffield
Laboratory of Yale College.* No, XLII.

I. Apparatus for quantitative Fat-extraction.

again as vapor to be again condensed and
repeat the solvent action.

The cooling must be effectual and the heat
applied to the flask just sufficient to main-

co
=
oe
2
®
09
co
ts
>
=
ie)
=
ie)
an
—
S
Stee
aA)
i
o)
a
ct
So
fa)
a
°
val
<
o
=
es
bw

while a slow Stream of dry gas is transmitted, The loss in
: y in some cases give the
amount of oil extracted more speedily and accurately than direct

Detroit meeting of the Ameri-
gust, 1875.

S. W. Johnson— Composition of the Sweet Potato. 197

weighing of the latter. For ordinary quantitative fat-estima-
tions A and B may be made from stout test tubes.

This apparatus is not only easier to construct and to handle
than those which have a separate interior or exterior tube to
carry up the ether-vapors, but has the additional advantage
that the substance to be extracted is kept warm by being con-
stantly surrounded with hot vapor.

It is best to mount the apparatus so that it may be put into a
somewhat inclined position if needful, as then by revolving the
apparatus on the condenser tube D the stream of condensed

ts

home in all the Southern States, but is produced in large quan-
tities in Central New Jersey, and Central Illinois, latitude 40° ;
dh i

ginia, where it is said to have originated. e “ Nansemond
Improved,” raised in Hanover Co., Va., 18 the finest variety of
this esculent that has come under my notice. Iam indebted
, the high quality of which has induced me to
undertake its analysis.

198 S. W. Johnson— Composition of the Sweet Potato.

The composition of the sweet potato has been studied by
Proust, Einhof, Payen, Henry, Fromberg, and Antisell.

Their analyses were mostly made by methods less perfect

1 )

of newer researches — to the existence in plants of a
series of isomeric bodies with the denser and maturer forms of

diate, which defy separation and have long resisted identification,
the best that can be done in proximate analysis is to follow
some method conventionally agreed upon, by which fairly com-
parable results may be r e analysis of the ‘ Nanse-
mond Improved” was made essentially according to the plan
adopted by the German Agricultural Experiment Stations, and
the results have been for the most part verified by repetition
and critical examination of the educts. This analysis has re-
gard only to the more important food-principles, without refer-
ence to traces of malic acid, ete., which have been reported in
former examinations. ‘

_ For analysis, about 600 grams of the tubers were thinly sliced
(in December, 1874), air-dried in a warm roo d then pul-
verized. In 5 grams of air-dry substance, water was estimated
by three methods,

y drying at 100° in a str O) ogen, a me
somewhat tedious but less so than 1, and now adopted by many
of the German eriment Stations.

The three methods gave of loss ‘on air-dry substance:
1 7°19 per cent.
9 6°90 si
7°13 2
3 9°54 66

fe
Averys = Fig 4

oa)

S. W. Johnson— Composition of the Sweet Potato. 199

The total loss of water experienced by the fresh substance =
73°39 per cen

on d
before described. The process required twelve hours fo
pletion. Two trials yielded 0:26 and 0°31 of a soft yellow
substance, appearing at first like a pure fat, but which to the
feel and taste had more of the properties of wax than of the
ordinary fats. It probably resides chiefly in the laticiferous
tissue, whose yellow juice is evident on a fresh section of the
t

extracts were separately evaporated in capsules and dried at
212° F. The first extraction was practically complete, as the
second digestion took up but 3°5 mgr., or a little more than ;'5
per cent of soluble matters. The total amount of solid aqueous
extract, after deducting ash, was 7-94 per cent.

he aqueous extract was brown in color and perfectly clear.
Boiled, it gave a very slight precipitate, acids made it turbid,
and Millon’s test gave a faint red tint to the liquid on heating.

Todine Oo tion. Basic lead acetate gave a copious
Lite, separating in flocks on boiling, and in the filtrate
- tion gave reddish-yellow precipitate on boiling.

These reactions indicate presence of a trace of albuminoids, of
gum* and of a glucose. They exclude starch, amylodextrin
and dextrin.
0 effect proximate separation of gum and sugar, a portion
s, taken up in a
very little water and treated with 80 per cent alcohol. Sugar
was recovered by evaporation of the ihe solution.

. a glu 6
substance remaining insoluble after a second treatment with
da which was mostly gum, was 1:08 per cent of the fresh
tuber,

Cellulose was determined by alternate treatment of the pow-
dered substance with dilute (2 per cent) sulphuric acid and caustic
7 rhe term i i ic sense. The substance obtained appeared
1 bave more sitly tw eharathe a Lape ise than of pectin or other gummy body,

200 S. W. Johnson—Composition of the Sweet Potato.

gave 0°187 and 0-207 per cent of nitrogen, (
by 6°25 leads to the content of albuminoids. Starch was esti-
mated by difference. The summing up is as follows:

Wier Goo es ee Se 8
Stareh, by difference .0 0 cco cet 15°06
UNO 94 2 os eee Se eee Ae }
Sugar (levulose 2)... 6c ck 6°86
Cellalogs 23.200 Boo esa de 0°98
ANGUMINOIGS © oo
BE ON Wak ono a ee a 28
Be ee ee. LO

100°00

Table I includes all the analyses of the sweet potato that
L have been able to find.

in the older analyses, 1 to 6, the figures for starch and cellu-
lose are of no value because they were the results of an
attempted mechanical separation. In fact these analyses are
worthless for any purpose, except as regards the water and
sugar estimations. Fromberg’s figures for water are too excep-
tional to have any claim to accuracy

e

tato in its different varieties, remains to be established by
uture comparative investigations

In the common potato (Solanum tuberosum) a range of water
content from 68 3 to 82:1 per cent, and of starch-content from
15 to 26 per cent has been observed.

In nutritive values the Hanover sweet potato and the com-
mon potato on the average differ but little. Their comparative
composition is as follows:

Sweet potato. Potato }

ater. eg 84 Z )
Albuminoids ._...... 13 2°2

Stand wax... 2... "S 0-2 :

Carbohydrates... _. _- 23-0 21-2

et 0 0-7 :

Me. id |
100°0 100-0

The average composition of the common potato is that given by
Dietrich and K6nig in their Zisowaet ben, und Verdaulichkeut
der Futterstoffe.

201

S. W. Johnson— Composition of the Sweet Potato.

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202 S. W. Johnson— Composition of Maize Fodder.

wears”

England, Germany and France. The sweet potato is, however,
p “
better than any other vegetable save the common potato. Its

coloration and dry or wet rot. French authorities report that
the potato-fungus, Peronospora infestans, attacks the sweet
potato as vigorously as the common.

UL. On the Composition of Maize Fodder.

material on the farm of J. J. Webb, Esq., near New Haven,
Conn., as well as the most hearty assistance in preparing the
fodder for analysis at the hands of that gentleman. Two sam-

N
help of stable manure. No. 2 was taken from new ground,
which had borne two rye crops, was seeded, had been in pasture

S an
applied. No. 2 was sown 10 to 15 days earlier than es p
ane was more mature at the time of cutting the samples, Sep

“Ast, 1874. ig ie

|
'
i
i

S. W. Johnson— Composition of Maize Fodder. 208

In planting, three bushels of seed were sown per acre, in
drills 24 inches apart. When harvested the stalks had an
average height of 10-12 feet. Many stalks measured 14 feet
in length. Their diameter was very uniform, rarely more than
i# inch at the base.

The corn thus planted and growing under clean tillage was
so mature and uniform that it admitted of easy and perfect
curing, and yet at the same time was so tender and palatable
that little or no loss occurred in feeding. When harvested the
corn-fodder contained a good many imperfectly developed ears,
some of them with nearly ripe kernels.

he corn on cutting was set up in the field in large carefully
made stooks, where it remained until
removed to the barn in good order. The samples were ob-
tained by cutting off in each case an area of 10 feet square,

tions were taken for analysi portions were reduc
tolerable fineness by passing repeatedly through a sausage-cutter
the use of shears, and for the nitrogen estimations were

The results of the analyses, calculated upon the material in
the different stages of dryness in which it was weighed, are the
following :

In Barn, Dried.

4 Field-cured.
Sone Weed. Nov. 11, 1874. Feb. 10, 1875. eT

1 oe
Wares 10d1 2 87-18 85-04 27°59 2692 5376 5495
essa Ag iacBR4> OMIA (RTE: BGR 04 2124: OT 495
Sp ipmminoids 088 078 497 379 318 234 Gal 619
‘at, etc., (ethe: +28 0-22 1°55 107 0° &
Cellulose erties ean pe! Sane {2618 1 16S “10a 3K 848

treeee eee 6-44 8-06 3637 39°42 23°22 2429 50:23 53°95

100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100°00 100-00 100-00 100-0¢

204 S. W. Johnson—Composition of Maize Fodder.

The further examination consisted in extracting the pulver-
ized fodder with water, evaporating the solution, to determine

z
Water. ate:
Cold. Hot. Cold. Hot.
Total extract 1:49 22°27 2°01 26°54
Se Goes Se, AT 5°21 31 441
Soluble in alcohol, — sugar, fat, etc.,...--- *80 10°87 1-48 2151
Insoluble in alcohol, gt 22 616 “22 62

The water cules gave a reaction with Fehling’s solution,
showing the presence of a little sugar. The alcohol precipitate
when redissolved in water gave no reaction with Fehling’s

minoid.

Starch is carried into solution by boiling with water, and
soluble gum is more completely extracted by the hot macera-
tion of the imperfectly pulverized material.

These laborious trials were not duplicated, and it is not fully
established whether the absence of gum in 2 is the result of a
possible error in analysis or the consequence of maturer devel-
opment of stalks. The meet quantity of hot water extract in

é gay agree fairly with the average of a numbe r of
analyses made of late years in Germany and Austria, which,
however, doubtless refer sails to a much smaller plant t and

he subjoined paral gives: A, the average of my two
analyses; B, the a mee of the German analyses as given b
Wolff, Piderangslebre, 1874; C, the average em by Dietrich
and Konig, 1874. All refer to the fresh fodder

A. B. 0.
Water 8671 82-2 85°0
‘Albuminoia Me Ae 18

uminoi 0-8 12 ‘
Ether extract (fat and wax) 0-3 0°5 0°6
ose 4:8 aq 44
Curbohydrates o6 02 2 7-2 10°3 72
100-00 100-00 100°00

Total Yield.—The following figures give the gross produce of
the two crops upon an area of 100 square feet as ascertained
by Mr. Webb's weighing, and also the produce, per acre,

quantities of water and dry matter in the fodder at the several
times of weighing. = :

|
|

S. W. Johnson— Composition of Maize Fodder. 205

Crop 1. Crop 2.
100 sq. ft. 1 Acre. 100 sq. ft. 1 Acre.

oOo —————— —————

Ibs. oz. 8. tons Ibs. oz. Ibs. tons.
Fresh cut, Sept. 1..2...-.- 124-4 54,123 27 117-4 51,074 25 5-10
_ Containing . 108—5* 47,184 = 23. 1-2 99—11* 43,413 21 7-10
Field-cured, Nov. 11 ...._- 22 9,583 48-10 24 10,454 6 2-10
Water it 2,244 33-10 6—7 2,793 1410
dv barn, Febs8. 34-7 15,028 71-2 38-15 16988 8 5-10
* 8,089 21—6* 9,327 4 7-10

15-15+ 6,939 312 17-9¢ 7,661 3 8-10

Werner, Handbuch des Futterbaues, p. 602, gives the yield
of uncured maize fodder in Germany and Austria in four in-
stances, as follows: 50,000, 72,000, 72,000 and 52,800, or an
average of 60,000 kilos. per hectare. This average equals
53,440 Ibs. per acre. One of the crops of 72,000 kilos. equal
r acre, made 14,000 kilos. of cured fodder,

he loss

This gain of water was greatest with 2, amounting to more
than 3} tons for the produce of an acre, and being one-half as

* Nearly, More exactly 15,23; Ibs. More exactly 17-'in-
§ From Dietrich & tihige tosmanednte und Verdaulichkeit der Futterstoffe.

206 S. W. Johnson—Composition of Maize Fodder.

German. Mr. Webb’s.

Meadow Read Maize Maize
hay. clover. fodder. fodder.

gS age eaten ces see ome Gr pe me Me 4 6-7
Albuminoids—so-called flesh-formers --.------- 11:8 16°6 12- 6:0
Fat 2° 27. Bay 1:8
Cellulose—woody fiber 29°9 3071 29°3 34°3
Carbohydrates, starch, gum, sugar, etc.__.----- 479 43°2 AT-9 5271

It is seen from the above figures that the German meadow
hay and the German corn fodder are almost identical in com-

carbohydrates. Mr. Webb's maize fodder contains but one-half
as much albuminoids and fat as the German, while its cellulose

simply on the fact that most of the German analyses were

made on less mature maize. So

give but 0-9 per cent of albuminoids in fresh fodder, the same
3 1(08

) a nd i sturage contains in its dry matter
24 per cent of albuminoids, cut just before bloom 12 per cent,
and a lossomi ut 8 per cent. In case of bot
maize fodder a dow grass the inferior quality of the
older vegetation is compensated by their superior quantity.

uch maize fod Mr. b produces is valuable when
popeny employed. as a substitute for meadow hay 1
wo

trated foods, and combine them with coarse fodder to make a
cattle food equal or superior to the best of hay, at less cost
e

pene tne

0. U. Shepard—Meteoric Stone of Rochester, Indiana. 207

mixing of the two in proper proportions enhances their separate
value and makes a more perfect nutriment, and under New
England circumstances doubtless an economical cattle food.

excreta. The difference is the quantity digested. It has
been found as the average of some 45 experiments on oxen,

as digestible as the straw of the cereal grains. :
Tam indebted to my friend and late assistant, E. H. Jenkins,

XXIIL—On the Meteoric Stone of Rochester, Fulton County, In-
diana; by CHartes UpHamM SHeparD, Massachusetts Pro-
fessor of Natural History in Amherst College.

State University, as published in the Indianapolis espe
Professor Kirkwood's account says: “Last
* See also this volume, p. 166.

about 8:45 o’clock, our citizens witnessed a meteoric display of
extraordinary brilliancy. A fire-ball, described by many ob-
servers as surpassing the moon in apparent magnitude, followed

the horizon. Its greatest altitude, as seen from Bloomington,
was about 18° or 20°, and its disappearance occurred at a point
in the northeast, some 5° or 6° above the horizon. remark-

than three minutes. any of the meteors following in- the
train of the principal holidée were larger than Venus or Jupiter.
No attempt was made to count them, but their number was
certainly nearly one hundred. Some minutes after the disap-
pearance a rumbling noise was heard, which was supposed to
result from the meteor’s explosion.”

The second is from the Columbus (Ohio) State Journal.

“A meteoric display, which, for singularity and beauty, few
persons in a lifetime have the goo
Witnessed by six or seven persons, myself included, on the

k.

a flock ild geese, and m with about the same veloci y
and of regularity. The color of their light was a yellow-
ish red, resembling the light from the red balls of fire thrown
out e explosion of some kinds of sky-rockets. There was

little below an angle of 45 degrees from our point of observation,
and seemed not over a quarter of a mile distant from the rear
end of our train. The o

westerly direction. When seen by the rest of us, the meteors
ust i

orm, having witnessed it rom a moving train, but simply
San the facts as they appeared to myself and others as worthy
’ no’

}
1
i

: :
(
'

C. U. Shepard—Meteoric Stone of Rochester, Indiana. 209

The third notice attended one of the specimens sent me, and
consists of a letter addressed to Professor Kirkwood, from Mr,

. J. Norris, the finder of this stone.

“Enclosed you will find a specimen of the meteorite. The
circumstances under which the stone was found are these.

earing a rumbling noise, I stepped out of the house, and
heard the stone fall. I marked the direction of the sound, and

d from w
bounded to its resting place. No appearance of any other
Stone was visible in the region. Its weight was about three-
”

replies. I have also a number of newspaper accounts of the
er, tha

be relied upon as nearly correct : : :
ev. Dr. W ylie, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Indiana
State University, noticed the point in a tree apparently passed
y the meteor. The angle of elevation was subsequently
measured, and found to be about 15 degrees. But the meteor
passed our meridian 131 miles north. These data, making
allowance for the curvature of the earth’s surface, give about

is Emporia, Kansas. It passed that place a few degrees :

- . Corner of Texas, at an elevation of 70 or 80 miles. e
estimates of time for the meteor are so discordant that it seems
™possible to determine whether it was moving in an ellipse, a
Parabola, or an hyperbola.”

210 CG U. Shepard—Meteoric Stone of Rochester, Indiana.

Description of the Rochester Stone.

under the mere strength of the fingers. The thickness of the
crust in each is double that in the majority of litholites. The

pact structure.
_, rhe globules are probably forsterite, of a variety nearly
identical with boltonite. This appears the more likely from

ville (March 25, 1843) meteorite

exceedin er cent in quanti In place of being 1
shapeless grains or points, or in curved wire-like fibers, it 18
Semi-crystalline in structure, sh occasional rectangular

Points in the specimens thus far examined. Two distinct

grains of Chrysolite, of the size of half a rice grain, are present,

showing in each case the cleavage, color and luster of this species,

as existing in Krasnojarsk meteoric iron. Moreover, t ‘s
ns have not the perfect spherical form of the forsterite
u

oO

he specific gravity of a fragment, whose surface was one-
third crust, is 3°65. Tt may be added in conclusion, that the
= tion of this rather peculiar stone strongly suggests the
idea that the pisiform globules were produced by the sudden

i
|
f
:
&
4

i

J. L. Smith— Waconda Meteorie Stone. 211

fusion of what was originally a chladnitic material (similar to
the Bishopsville stone), amid particles of chamasite attended

a esia e
converted into the more fusible double silicate of magnesia and
iron

New Haven, Conn., Jan. 22, 1877.

Art. XXIV.— Examination of the Waconda Meteoric Stone, Bates
County Meteorie Iron and Rockingham County Meteorte Lron ;
by J. Lawrence Surru, Louisville,

he existence of the Bates County meteoric iron was an-

nounced by Prof. G. C. Broadhead (this Journal, Noy., 1875)

to whom I am indebted for a large portion of the original mass.
Waconda Meteorite.

One feature to be noticed in connection with this meteoric
stone is that the time of its fall is not known; it having been
discovered in a ravine near the village of Waconda in Kan
(lat. 39° 20’, long. 98° 10’). While there are three or four of
these softer meteoric stones, consisting almost exclusively of
stony matter, the exact time of whose fall is not known, there
18 every reason to suppose that their falls were observed, an
that they were collected at the time; but falling in remote
Places, and in the lands of those not accustomed to note pre-
cisely the dates of natural phenomena, the exact date of th
fall was forgotten when it reached those who were interested in
these bodies.

appearance, and was only recognized as a meteo:
TW:

; s, the interior is marked with large blotches i
Cai of iron arising from oxidation of the particles of iron by
© water penetrating from without.

212 J. L. Sintth— Waconda Meteorite Stone.

This exposure has doubtless had something to do with its
friability as a whole, for many parts of it are quite fi
where the iron is not oxidized, ‘and, as Prof. Shepard says, it
has the average cohesion of this class of meteoric stones. As
he has already given a general description of it, I will not
repeat it here, but proceed at once to give my chemical and
mineral analyses,

he specific gravity of pieces from the interior varied from
3:4 to 8°6, and when separated mechanically consisted of—

5
The amount of the last mineral was made out by chemical
analysis. The nickel iron contains:
Ir

OE A er A 86°18
ewe Fe a i SS ee 12°02
RODRNe Se ns ee Ss “91

OPPOR IG Sin) a) a ei od Sua a.

2 iphoriessais 22 eas esl al ot. not estimated.
The stony part treated with large excess of aqua regia gave:
Pemeihe Pere 00. oa ee ass coe ak 69°00
Piaiable part 60. toe) cs os 41°00
Composed of—
Soluble. Insoluble.
eet ee EE 54°02
Phokoxide yeiods Sos coe eG 30°01 18°10
penNeR SS 32°50 23°45
APM: OS ea es 04D 2°30
Manganese -- _-_- 61 3
Soda vith trace of potash and lithia -89 1°58
SES a ee en eS trace
The analysis ey: shows that the stony part of this meteor
ite consists of the usual mixture of olivine and pyroxene

minerals; the bry ijoubeaite predominating in the former, and
bronzite in the latter.

Two minerals were detached in small quantities and analyzed
tely. The first was a dark ¢ aed aa readily seen
in small parcels and veins; this, freed as far ible from
the adhering minerals, was found to be soluble i in poses hydro-
chloric acid, and the prolonged action of this acid on the min-

, heated over the water bath, decomposed it very pearly
completely ; ; it is composed as follows:

Pp. “a ee Se SS ee 41°10
xide ss 27°20
Magnesia a er ee 28°31
ies rout < ws ae
MUAUORG oe et eee Bea 32
‘Soda _.

4
;
:
:
|
i
\
:

J. L. Smith— Rockingham County Meteorie Iron. 213

Its solubility in chlorhydric acid, and its composition, clearly
point it out to be of the olivine type.

The other mineral was found only on one part of my speci-
mens and there in the form of a white crystalline mass not ex-
ceeding in weight 20 milligrams; it looked at first sight like
enstatite, but there was sufficient difference in its aspect to lead
me to detach a few milligrams and test it: when I found it
readily and completely soluble in hydrochloric acid, and as far
as it was possible to decide on so minute a quantity it appeared
to consist only of silica and magnesia.

Its solubility shows clearly that it is not enstatite, and I can
only imagine it to be of the olivine type and consisting entirely

’ of silica and magnesia, occupying the same place among the

unisilicates of the meteorites that the enstatite does among the
bisilicates. I simply note this fact here, not as iving any very
definite result but simply that it may be looked into by those
investigating these subjects.

Bates County Meteoric Iron.

This meteoric iron was first made known by a short note in
401. It was discovered near

214. oo. L. Smith—Rockingham County Meteorie Iron.

tion to it from those possessing specimens, I have concluded to

publish the notes made at the time it came into my possession.
his iron was discovered in Rockingham County, North
Carolina, on a spot known as Smith’s Mountain, two miles
north of the town of Madison, about lat. 86° 20’, long. 79° 45’.
It was found by Mr. Peters, from whom Prof. Kerr obtained it
about the year 1863, and was lying on the surface of an old
field which had been out of cultivation less than twenty
and for that reason it is supposed it may have fallen oiehin
that time. It weighed originally about eleven pounds and was
covered with a coating of rust. Its structure is highly crys-
sition ad when polished and either heated or acted on by

ec es ago as luaphaitite autres having first
observed them on the Wisconsin iron.

This iron so tear narrow seams of schreibersite that pene-
trate the mass for several centimeters in different directions,
some of them being two or three millimeters in thickness. In
one part of the iron I discovered some solid chloride of that
metal, enough to test its nature, and I detached a small fragment,
that is now in the Museum of the Garden of Plants at “Paris.
It attracted moisture after being taken from a crevice in the
iron, and became quite soft. This is the second time I have

observed this solid chloride in meteor ic iron. The wares"

kinds of ir iron.
I selected a fragment perfectly free from any schreibersite
visible to the eye; it gave a specific gravity of 7°78, and on
analysis was found to contain—
Iro

Ro ee ee ee ee OS
PNM os oe ca
Sr gem assem te meee 5

od 4 lana ee Se Poh cas ce ce
Phosphorus ____ ._._ .-

This will be seen to corres Sond ae the sats sis wot a co
before referred to, which ris follow ys

so eg se jo-e1
‘ie ickel pyre OOM
_ ---e---- O11

Seg S25

wee eee wee 0°27 osphide insoluble
Seco lé

vickel cobalt... 0°83 ad orhydrie acid.

werent e

et GR seen

)
i
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|
q

|
:

ee

a nn a

es ee ie es aN a

E. Lewis— Water-courses of Southern Long Island. 215

Art. XXV.—Certain features of the Valleys or Water-courses
of Southern Long Island; by E1ias Lewis, Jr.

| i is |
during the Champlain subsidence, and were probably formed as

216 Scientific Intelligence.
the coast gradually emerged from the water at the close of that
riod.

Pontus such as we have described have frequently been
noticed in river valleys, but we are not aware of any instance
where so large a number of short valleys, none of them more
than ten miles long, present in so striking a manner the pecul-
larities mentioned.

That the cause is a general one seems probable. As sug-
gested by Prof. Dana, who recently visited the island, the form
and direction of the valleys in question may have arisen from
the combination of motions to which Prof. Kerr of North Caro-
lina attributes similar phenomena in the south-eastward flowing
streams of that state. ‘The cause,” Prof. Kerr observes, ‘is
doubtless the rotation of the earth upon its axis co-acting with
the river current. o a like combination of motions Prof.
Maury, in 1856, referred some of the phenomena of ocean cur-

h

rents.
Seonlaton of ocean waters, in which, as a writer observes,
“Any waters flowing from the polar regions (where the earth’s
motion is slow) toward the a would be thrown mainly
against the west side of the oceans * for they have no
power to keep up with the earth’s ; eattio

A similar result occurs with sania ie streams over
the land. For this reason the bank upon the west side of the
stream is continually driven against it, in wate of which
the bank is abraded by the current, and worn a

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

J. CHEMISTRY AND Prysics.
1. o ig Balance-beams, Thermometers, and , rae

rotons the = form has Hier adopted in sectivene to ‘the
ylindrica’
ie Begone

“hows Scena reasons, among others, Papo “ fe very
ms, and scale-pans, the lightness of

2°65,
Ing only 2°61; moreover its cnalearabity
8

Chemistry and Physics. 217

the mercury, and the top closed with an air-tight stopper of the
same material.— Ber, Berl. Chen. Ges., ix, 1824, Jan. 1877.

Ersazsser has made the curious observation that if a wire 0
magnesium be made the anode in a decomposition cell containing

strongly diluted sulphuric acid, a wire of platinum being made
the cathode, hydrogen gas is evolved at both electrodes, though at

the anode only half as muc gas appears as at the cathode; and
that this ratio, though the total evolution of gas varies with the

current-strength, remains constant. e resul

in place of the sulphuric acid, a moderately dilute solution
of magnesium sulphate is used; only in this case, magn y-
drate is deposited at both electrodes. Direct quantitative experi-
ments showed that the quantity of esium dissolved at t

Same as ree in oltameter in the same circuit. The
author hence believes that the positivity of the magnesium is so
Increased the current that it combines not only with the

oxygen set free by this current, but also with additional oxygen,
is hydrogen which was united to it, appearing in the free state.

hou.— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., ix, 1818, January,

pile having an op :

by millimeter along this spectrum, the deflection of the needle
being constantly noted. From the data thus obtained the amount
of heat transmitted is calculated; the difference between the re-

for the eleme: tary bodies “when dissolved in the same m .
and (B) for elementary bodies which ¢ ibstances of analo-

d that when the temperature of a source of heat of kuown
character js raised, the absorbing power of bodies submitted to
t iation: inish the same ratio.—

Soc. ('h., II, xxvi, December, 1876. FB.
4. On the Existence of Solid Particles of Carbon in Luminous
Fames.—Hevmaxn, in his fourth paper on the theory of luminous
Am. Jour, Scx.—Turep Serres, Vor. XIII, No. 75.—Mancu, 1877.
15

218 Scientific Intelligence.

flames, considers at length the question of the nature of the light-
emitting material in luminous hydrocarbon flames, and concludes
. . . . . 2 h

in a flame is smoked o elt on the lower side, the side opposed to
the gas stream; were the carbon there as vapor, as Frankland
u

when it is in a state of ignition; this therefore cannot be con-
densation of a vapor. 4th, these particles can be actually seen in
the flame when it is made to sips against a second flame or an

ible m , the luminous mie of a flame is not very
cabanas no more so than the layer of smoke of the same thick-
— es above ame e fe wit th Perpeeaite: And by

G. F.
5. Aleoh ol fr om hie , ey et the sugar-beet.—PIERRE, saci
that the sugar found in the beet-root must be elaborated by the

leaves, has examined these leaves for s sugar. Ow however,
to the difficulty of ge 32teg 3 the sugar as such, he mutienl the
juice expresse se leaves to fermentation, and from the
alcohol obtained, easel the quantity of sug The leaves
employed were collected in November, and weighed 158 kilo-

8. ey yielded 34 to 35 liters of juice, which after

gra e.
fermentation, gave 275 cubic centimeters of alcohol of 68 per
cent. Calcu ulating from these data, each hectare of land would
furnish about 173 liters of absolute gcotik as a minimum.— C. &.
Ixxxiii, an FB

I wate
but if alcohol be pin achyloue will be formed
ed by bromine. So an a quantity as one or

ar bodies present in pos sari yiel “no pe pare
we ary » ix, 54, | 1876,
0,

|
|

mA eC EI ee a en eegucc i ne ae ke eh A ea ee

Chemistry and Physics. 219

itself. This he finds to be the fact. One part of glyoxylie acid

and two parts of urea were heated to 100° for 8 or 10 hours, the
mass was exhausted with four times its weight of boiling alcohol,
and the residue insoluble in alcohol, was dissolved in 12 to 15
times its weight of boilin ater. This on cooling deposited
crystals, which after recrystallization appeared as brilliant hard
lustrous prisms, giving on analysis the formula C,H,N,O,, and
having all the properties of allantoin. The reaction is:
C,H,0O,+(CON,H,),=C,H,N,O,+(H,0),.

The mode of its formation proves allantoin to be a glyoxylic
diureide with the constitutional formula: Co nw or 2
CO—NH/

— Bull. Soe. Ch., I, xxvi, 482, Dec. 1876. G. F. B
8. Lthodein, a new test for Aniline.—JacquEMin has proposed
anew test for the presence of aniline, which is a modification of
the hypochlorite test. A centigram of aniline in 500 ¢. ¢, of water,
shows no reaction ordivarily with the hypochlorite of sodium.
But if a few drops of a very dilute solution of ammonium sulphide
(one drop to 30 ¢. ¢. of water) be added, a magnificent rose color
1s developed, due to a new body which the author calls rhodein.
As 4 milligrams of aniline can be detected in a liter of water, the
limit of delicacy in the reaction is gsq5gq-—Ann. Chim. Phys.,

, 1x, 571, Dec. 1876.

CO

9 :
burner by which great sensitiveness is attained at very low pres-

Sensitive by lowering the inner tube. Several effects are described
Which may be shown by it at any pressures above one-tenth inch
of water, : :

A second arrangement is figured, in which two parallel vertical
tubes are connected by a horizontal tube in which a drop o te

ces
by @ noise or musical note. This effect may also be shown whether
the jet is lighted or not.— Nature, xv, 119. EC. P.

220 Scientific Intelligence.

distance between flame and burner, he arrives at the following
conclusions.

the grounds put forward by Benevides. (The production of such
a distance is much rather to be traced to the cooling action of the
stream of gas and of the outer air, and perhaps more especially to
the fact that the velocity of the stream of gas in the neighborhood
of the burner is greater than the velocity of propagation of ignition
within the gas,

(3.) In order that other circumstances conditioning the effect
may be removed, the velocity of propagation of ignition must be
equal to that of the gas-stream at the point, situated some distance
from the burner, where the flame begi

peratures, conclusions ma e drawn from such experiments

(4.) The velocity of propagation of ignition may be easily deter-
mined for solid and liquid combustible bodies; and the numbers

much smoke; their luminous power diminished, while the flame
uteapeg a yellowish-red color. The decrease of weight after one

ur g was found to be less than in burning in free air.
This last result is opposed to the observations of Frankland, wh
has affirn at the consumption of the burning material of a

candle, or the like, is not perceptibly dependent on the pressure

i
/
|
i

— —_.
i eal

a

Chemistry and Physics. 221

Mont Blanc and at Chamouny) was not sufficiently great to give
i ion of the burning matter, M.

pressure of 90 mm., the greatest rarefaction produced, the lumin-
the fla which now assumed

The diminution of the luminous power in this case M. Wartha
explains by the fact that under less pressure less of the products

diameter of 3-75. in. and an exte 5

other primary, which is intended to be used with batteries of less

resistance for short, thick sparks, or for spectroscopes, is heavier
* ighi 2 Ibs. an

ondary coil consists of 280 miles of wire arranged in 341,850
turns, ‘orms a cylinder 37°5 in. in le , 95 internal an

20 inches external diameter. The total resistance is 110,200

onms. is wound in four sections, the diameter of the wire in

the two central sections being ‘0095 and in’ the outer ‘01 15 and

0. e increased section of the extremities is to allow for the

i e

v

The size commonly employed with a 10-inch coil gave the best
Tesults. It consists of 126 sheets of tin-foil 18 X 8°25 in., separated
Y two thicknesses of varnished paper, °*0055 thick. With 5
quart cells of Grove, a spark of 28 inches was obtained, with 10,
One of 35 inches, with 30 one of 37°5, and later, one, of 42 inches.

Tee inche ss has bee pierced. sed
vacuum tubes this coil gives illumination of extreme brilliancy

222 Scientific Intelligence.

gy. s
long enough for their forward and backward motion to be per-

e Ore

13. Lectures on some Recent Advances in Physical Science,

with a Special Lecture on Force ; by P. G. Tarr, M.A. Second

edition, revised. London, 1876. (Macmillan & Co.)—The lectures

of Professor Tait, as is stated in the preface to the first edition,
: ; 4 7

ergy.
has developed this most important subject makes the book an inval-
uable one for all who would become familiar with the principles

II. GroLtogy anp MINERALOGY.

1. GranPeury on the Carboniferous Flora.*—This remarkable
memoir, though entitled the Carboniferous Flora of the Depart-

knowledge of the Paleozoic Flora. One of its distinguishing
aracteristics is the attention given by the author to the study
of plants in situ, and to the relati i

porte Carbonifére du Departement de la Loire et du Centre de la France, par
_B Cyrille Grand’eury, (Mem. Acad. Sci. France.)

Geology and Mineralogy. 223

detached fruits, must always be unsatisfactory, and yet this is all
that has been possible to many eminent and laborious workers in
this field. e need however much more than this. ‘The paleo-
botanist must dig for himself, and spare no labor to trace up any
plant to its leaves and fructification on the one hand, and to its
roots on the other. For work of this kind, M. Grand’eury seems

sections, but which have been persistently denied b some Euro-
pean botanists, because not in harmony with their preconceived
views

quarto pages, with an atlas of thirty-seven plates, M. Grand’eury

as belonging to the vascular Cryptogams and near to the modern
Equisetacea, he admits as true genera Culamites, Asteropiyllites,
Annularia, Equisetites and Sphenophyllum. This is in accordance
with the views always held by our American paleo-botanists,
but contrary to the hasty statements which have sometimes Deen

owever, some Volkmannice, as being fruits f ———
. erec

and Pinnaularie as roots of Annulariv. The phenomena of
stems of Calamites retaining their roots and other appendages,
at ctu these stems, have ed him to the same

are calamite-like bodies which are internal casts of stems 0
modendra, there are true Calamites of quite distinct nature. Of
the rhizomes of some Calamites, their branching at the base and
Sides, so as to form stools or clumps, and their following up the
erease of the sediment around them, by sending out branches at
Various heights, he has numerous exam les. £ .
mites true leaves, and thinks that their verticillate branches an

branchlets, which are sometimes though rarely preserved in Nova
otla, were either unusual or very deciduous. :
The discussion of the Ferns is full of interesting matter; but
cannot be entered into here, except to state that he sides with the

224 Scientific Intelligence.

writer in regarding Megaphyton as a tree-fern with leaves in two
series, and aerial i

recognized and used by paleo-botanists in this country. Under

e name Pseudosigillaria, he includes some stems referred by
authors to Sigillaria, but which, on grounds connected with the
nature and arrangement of the leaf-scars, he very properly asso-
ciates with the Lepidodendra. There can be no doubt that

re

many cases of this kind exist; though it may be doubted whether
the founding o us for them is the best mode of disposing
of such doubtful specim and Halonia are recognized

8.
as Sy umber preserved or aberrant Lepidodendree

rhaps the most remarkable part of this memoir is the great

he has discovered indications of seeds b
leaves, and he is also inclined to aceept the circumstantial
. evidence adduced by Dr. Newberry a e writer, that the
Trigonocarpa and similar fruits may have belonged to some
species of Sigillaria.

The elevation of the genus Cordaites, hitherto very imperfectly
known, to the rank of the type of an order is a feature in this
memoir. In some sg of America the leaves of th lants
occur in excessive abundance, beds of shale being filled with them

___* Incorrectly said to resemble Conifers, which is a misapprehension, arising
——e the imperfect way in which they have been figured.

|
|

Geology and Mineralogy. 225

be impossible here even to sum ze, to show that some at least
} of these plants were of arboreal dimensions and that they had woody
stems similar to those of Conifers. He even attributes to them the

which it is however admitted may be very distinct from each

The Calamodendra, whose structure was first made out b

Binneyana and a species of Volkmannia have structures similar
to those of Calamodendron and Arthropitus. Grand’eury believes
that these may be male strobiles with pollen, and that the true
fruits may be of the kinds known as Polypteroearpus and Stepha-
nospermum.

ts described might well
best manner of subdividing

226 Scientific Intelligence.

age of the coal-seams. There is of course also a large amount of
local detail relating to the French coal-fields.

On the whole, this memoir should be welcomed by all paleon-
tologists. It is undoubtedly most accurate and trustworthy as to
the affinities of the coal plants which the author has been able to
study in their various parts and organs; and in respect to all, it is
most suggestive, and cannot fail to lead to clearer views of the
whole subject. One conclusion which must strike every one, and

ments, we have on the other hand been forcing into unnatural
union very diverse forms, by trusting to merely external charac-
ters. J. W. DAWSON.
2. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Kentucky, N. 8.
Suater, Director. Vol. I, 334 pp. 4to. 1876.—This first volume
of the publications of the Geological Survey of Kentucky, con-
tains four Memoirs.

rst is on the Antiquity of the Caverns and Cavern life of
the Ohio valley, and is by Prof. SHater. We learn from it that

meet with n Ing water. In the history he caverns @
firm bed of limestone has often held the streams for a ong
eriod, and thus a tier of caverns has been made; and then, this

.

history of the cavern. Often a “ sink-hole” opening to the light
| ] ¥ t

’ ; om
varying from still pools to high waterfalls and using pebbles for

_ OF great caverns, and thi tributes to
its having haces “ei massiveness Prof. Shaler attribu

sm tee

I TS LTO. LO tT TLE

ee a

I a a rn a are me ie) SE

Geology and Mineralogy. 227

indicates, he remarks, a wide, warm, and L :
(the Molluscan remains being quite large) sea, its waters richly
i

The second memoir is Prof. J. A. Allen’s able paper on the
American Bisons, living and extinct, already noticed on page 75
of this volume. :

third is by Prof. Shaler and is the first of a series on the
Sy Brachiopods of the Ohio valley. The author, in this paper,
ta i

occidentalis, measurements of 40 specimens from a number of
localities are given, including dimensions as to length and width
of shell, length of hinge-line and of muscular impression, width
and height of foramen, and other points. The memoir is there-
fore an important contribution to the subject of the variation of
species. These variations are wonderfully great in many cases.

ein with the shadows which make one of the difficulties in prop-
erly taking a photograph for this process.
The fourth ‘memos 4 Mr. Lucian Carr and Prof. Shaler, ——

arrow heads, pipes and other articles.
Th ieper in the second volume of Me-
no

nthe Dynamic Geology of Kentucky, by Prof. SuaLer; on

Cavern Animals of Koniigky: py A. §. Packarn, F. A. eed
and others; on the Cavern-dwelling Races of Kentucky, Py zi.
Purwam; a history of the Investigation of Cavern Animals, by
Dr. H. A. H

AGEN, ee
The Memoirs published by the Survey on purely scientific sub-

228 Scientific Intelligence.

jects, like those mentioned above, will make a series of publica-
tions distinct from chapters on economical matters. The Preface
states that the Memoirs may be purchased separately or in vol-
umes at the office of the Survey in Frankfort, Kentucky.

3. Report of a Reconnaisance from Carr oll, Montana Territory,
on the Upper Missouri to the Yellowstone National Park, and
return, made in the summer of 1875; by Wu. Luptow, Captai
of Engineers, Brevet Lieut. Colonel U. 8. Army, Chief Engineer
Department of Dakota. Being Appendix NN a the Annual
Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1876. 142 pp. 8vo. - 876. ae
The report of Colonel Ludlow gives excellent descriptions o of the
gion beyond traversed

ch is
Bir s, and a Geological Report by Messrs. ow aae 8. Dana and
RINNELL. The subjects treated of in the ‘last-mentionad
report are the alluvial deposits of the Upper aeons the Creta-
ceous at Carroll and beyond; the Judith Mounta “ar ‘where were
beds of Cretaceous age, and the trachytic “Cone Butte,” a conical
hill, about 3,400 feet in elevation above the lev . * ets Missouri
River, the average height of the Judith rsa
of the Moccasin Mountains, whose appearance e ‘ indieated that,
like the Judith Mountains, they are Sonal trachytic;” the

. a
over Carboniferous limestone in Musselshell Cation, ce
to 60° to the south of west, which, through an overturn, was
overaid bs Lower Silurian (Primordial ?) strata, and finding the
ntral portion of the Little Belt Mountains to consist of trachyte;
aes aker and beyond toward Fort Ellis, where occurred,
besides the prevailing Miocene beds (containing remains of
Or eodon, Rhinoceros, ete. ), a limestone of Primordial age, afford-
ing an Obo ila, and new species of Trilobites of the geners
Arionellus and Crepicephalus, along with red shales and ely! a
er Mountains, having Cretaceous beds

Wahl Pat

= 2 of
of oi ee me bec of an article my the spy in et xi

|
|
|
|
|
|

Geology and Mineralogy. 229

at the mouth of the Judith River, overlying No. 5, where the

The a
Whitfield, and figured on two plates. e trilobites above
referred to are named by him Crepicephalus (Loganellus) Mon-
tanensis and Arionellus tripunctatus. We also describes the fol-
owing new species of Jurassic age from the Bridger Mountains:
Gryphea plano-convexa, Gerviilia sparsalirata, Myalina ( Ger-
villia) perplana ; also a new Pinna from the Carboniferous of the
Musselshell, P. Zudlovi.

4. The Yellowstone National Park and the Mountain regions
of portions of Idaho, Nevada, Colorado and Utah. Deseribed
by Prof. F. V. Haypen, Geologist-in-charge of the U. 8. Govern-
ment Exploring Expeditions to the Yellowstone Valley, and of
the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories,
Illustrated by chromo-lithographic reproductions of Water-color

trating some of the most striking points in Rocky Mountain .
Scenery, is magnificent in scale and beautiful in e ecution. Mr.

Yellowstone National Park:
(

230 Scientific Intelligence.

stone Park; (5) Yellowstone Lake; (6) Tower Falls and Sulphur
Mountain, Yellowstone Park; (7) Head of Yellowstone River ;
(8) The Grand Cajion of the Yellowstone; (9) The Towers of
Tower Falls; (10) The Mountain of the Holy Cross, Colorado ;
(11) The Mosquito Trail, Rocky Mountains of Colorado; (12) |
Summit of the Sierra Nevada; (13) Great Falls of Snake River,
Idaho; (14) Valley of Babbling Waters, Southern Utah; (15)

ry

The Great Salt Lake of Utah. “As specimens of chromo-lithogra-

5. Report on the Geological Survey of Alabama, for 1876; by
3 1

Evernr A, Surtu, State Geologist. 100 pp. 8vo. Montgomery,
Alabama.—The work duri 1876 was confined to the valley
own as Roup’s Valley and Jones’s Valley. The valley occupies

the summit of an anticlinal in the southwestern end e
. Appalachian region, and has the coal basin the Warrior on

together and pushed over toward the northwest, reversing the :
dip, so that all the strata dip southeast.

The rocks described belong to the Lower and Upper Silurian, the
Devonian and Carboniferous formations, The Upper Silurian is

siliferous iron ore. In Alabama the same ore occurs in several
beds. The strata in Tennessee constitute the Dyestone group 0
Professor Safford. Analyses of various iron ores and limestones

— of Nemakagon iver, numerous masses of native copper have
een found, associated with the trap, which apparently were not
~ date from their native bed, indicating that it is a rich
ne Seton,
Brot Irving, one of the geologists of the Survey, reports, among

other thin the ist me nies
and Jac! - Geis ence of —_ quantities of kaolin in Wood

+
i
|
H
i

eee ee ene

ee ee

——

Geology and Mineralogy. 231

7. Report of the ene a of New Jersey, Professor G.
H. Coox, for 1876. pp. —This report states that the
triangulation of the eae by the con Survey has been continued
through the year. A large part of the report is occupied with
facts relating to the subject of water supply, especially for ee
and Jersey City, from the Passaic River water-she naly

of the waters are given, and some effects on health from bad

eowhic not an over- -estim ate, since roton water-shed
it has ye found that sixty per cent of the ia tall runs off in the
i ams,
tt Region of Goderich, Canada.—Prof. T, Sterry Hunt,
. a recent ee on this region, gives the following section and
explana
BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILL MR. ATTRILL’S WELL, GODERICH.
F

eet. Total.

Clay, gravel and bowlder. 9.2... oo. ee ee 79
Dolomite, with a few thin limestone eS ee 278 ~ 357
Limestone, with fossil sare: chert, and beds of dolomite,... 273 630
Dolomite, with thin seams of gypsum, 246 876
Marls, Re green, and ear with dolomite beds, -..------ 121 = =997
Rock salt; first bed. 31 1,028
Dasuiee vith wesc toed oh the pase, 32 1,060
= ~ salt: 25 1,085

7 1,092
“seg ei hird bed, re ers
Mar with d 1 1 f hydrite,
eae rs ° apni. and ayers of an 2 11923
Marl and Bcd Sa 1” 1,330
Rock salt; fifth bed 13 1,243
Marls, soft, red pa nd bluish, with beds of anhydrite, -------- 136 gi

meee ee ’

Marls, soft pase ae grayish, with dolomite and anhydrite, - 1,517

rom the above section it ge be seen that from 1 a of ~
marls, which began at 876 feet, we have 641 feet of salt-beari
strata, including 126 feet of solid rock salt, and that the base ‘ot

© se that is to say the magnesian limestone of the Gue Iph
formation which underlies it, was not reached. The rock salt is
Tepresented as forming six beds, but the second and third, and

a single bed, divided in two by a few feet of rock. The whole
of this thickness of over six hundred feet of strata holds more or
less Salt, disseminated in small masses and in veins.

¢ salt of the different beds is not alike in purity. That of

Second and abjed. which m may be penne together as one bed
of sixty-seven feet of salt, including a layer of seven feet of gis
Serves more especial attention. This great mass carries at the

232 Scientific Intelligence.

top about one foot of colorless and transparent salt, followed by

about fourteen feet of salt slightly discolored in parts by a

admixture of a little clayey matter, and then by 102 feet of per-

fectly white and translucent salt of singular purity. Below this,

after seven feet of rock, succeeds thirty feet additional of salt,

nearly pure, but clouded in parts from the presence of a little clay.
t

t
oderich is situated at the base of the Corniferous or Upper Hel-
derberg limestone, which here rests directly upon a porous dolo-

water-lime beds at the summit of the Onondaga, as this salt-
earing formation has been named. The fossiliferous limestone '

act of much interest to the geologist is the occurrence below
nearly 300 feet of dolomite, of 273 feet of strata in which pu

.

e tas
can scarcely be completed in less th. uire
a longer time: P an two years, and may req

be ML its inthe Urals during the Glacial Hra.—It is reported
_ by™M. Poliakoff, that there are glacial Strie, scratched bowlders,
and moraine deposits, on the east slope of the Urals, above the

Geology and Mineralogy. 233

level of the stratified sand and gravel. The glacial striw have a
southeast direction. lower secondary ridge, the last crossed by
the highway before Ekaterinburg, has many parallel ranges of
immense: bowlders.—

10. Trilodites.—Mr. C. D. Wat OTT, of henge wen Falls, New
York, a famous place for Piensa Trilobi es, has suc ceeded in
finding many es illustrate ie or by sections,
the nature of some of the interior organs of the species. He

43 such appends ages. The bars appear to have had a fleshy or

the
fed coverin the isceral ca ee! beneath the axial lobe.
crdaspis 8 Trentonensis i is closely like the Ceraurus in the struc-
ture of ~ seca surfac
The ventral surface in = ube plat Bettye appears to have
been < aaee ae by arches, which supported the double row of
appendages on each side of the central axis. These are the arches
which were suspected to be legs by Billings
ese notes are from a brief paper by ae Walcott, from the
28th Report of the New York State Museum, printed in Septem-
ee ae in advance of its publication.
Geolog gy and pabgrecet se of the peace oat Republic. II.

Paleontolowieal part; 2nd Nene on the n plants and
animal remains of the Provinces of La Rioja, San Juan, and Me
doza, Guinrrz, 16 0, with two plates.—The

species here des cribe by e fi
endozaensis Gein. , the Gecbeacdan: ee Mica gtillbusie sat India
eci d

nervis Gein., Th. ? uinervis Gein., Pachypteris Stelaneriana
Gein. , Otopteris Arpentiotee Gein., Hymenophyllites Men
Gein, Baiera teniata Braun, Pecopterss eris tenuis Schouw, a species
described originally from IL "Bornholm, and from Whitby, Eng-
land, Teniopteris Mareyesiuca Gein.; the Cycad, Pterophyllum
AM. Jour. Sot.—Turrp Series, VoL. XIII, No. shaw 1877.
16

234 Scientific Intelligence.

Ocynhausianum Gipp., a European species, and the Conifer,
alissya Brauni Endl. var. minor, Gein.

12, Mémoire sur les Caractéres Minéralogiques et Stratigraph-
iques des Roches dites Plutoniennes de la Belgique et de 0 Ar-
denne Francaise, par MM. Cu. De La Vati&e Poussin et A
Renarp. 264 pp. 4to, with nine plates, six of them containing
colored figures of thin sections. A detailed account of the rocks
referred to, based largely on the study of their sections. In the

refer to another time), confirmin r, E. 8. Dana’s conclusion,
based on its crystallographic character. In stud ying the mineral, .
1 found associated with it three other columbates—one of them

already known, viz., Euxenite, and two new ones. One is in the
form of a very characteristic mamillary concretion, and contains
sixteen per cent of water. e other is fou , and also

bles somewhat pyrochlore, but differs from it both by its chemical

P |
and physical characteristics, its specific gravity being 4°85. e \

kindly sent me his crystals, and I have now made out its nature
thoroughly. The analysis of it will appear in a forthcoming
paper on the American columbates,

In addition to the above, I have discovered embedded in the
beautiful crystals of Amazo: stone, from Colorado, very small,
—- crystals of columbite.

. Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Boston, i

P . 8vo. 7.— Among the papers in ‘

valuable bulletin there are the following by Prof. F. H f
on the amounts of potash and phosphoric acid in several

afforded 2°587 to 7-434 p.c. of potash, and 0°058 to
Moric acid.

Geology and Mineralogy. 235

P,0, K,0

Four ware eastern Massachusetts 1-407-5°241 0°042-0:066
Mica schist from Dracu ; 0-287
Compact blue slate from Somerville 3°875-3°913 0-085
1:294 0°098
= Trap” uk “ Milk — somal Soulard: fees 0°303 0-444
West Dedh 1007 0-194
Quartz rock, with oa of ! feldspar, West Dedham she 5°035 0-053
Beach sand, et econ! 2384 0°051
Dune sand, Provi 0-613 0-050
Sand from bed Now pede Bers “Tnatibati HOM ers Chee Soe 0°891 0-035
White Berkshire sand used for glass making---..---- 0:448-0°630 0-0°021

15. Heights on Long Island.—The following facts are con-
tributed in a letter to Professor James D. Dana, from Mr. E,

geological interest. They constitute a prominent feature of the
great terminal moraine of the ice sheet upon this part of the ocean
border, and afford, as I have elsewhere shown, data by which
recent veut AAO of the coast may be deter mined.* In eed, it is
y the presence and position of beds of modified drift upon these
bills, and along their slopes, that the extent of subsidence since
‘the bowlder drift was Lad can be made out.
e heig iven a rt from the manuscript records of
Dr. Hassler, kindly fitulabed be ‘ie Coast Survey o thers
are from measurements made by the writer and others. In the
smediate ey of some of the hills whose heights are given
te others, nearly as high, sabi groups, as West Hills and Dix
Hills groups in Suffolk County. With the heights is given the
distance 2 vee locality from the City Hall in New York, as laid
e Map of Long Is a Beginning at the extreme

wn on
eastern os of the island we hav Elevation. istance.

womeemeane Point 8g 5 co acs 85 feet. 113 miles.
2 Wee Pond Will. ee 194 * 108“
- Neapeague ee ee ae 135 «¢ 102 ¢
4 Amagansett ‘ OO ce ee Se ee es i.” 95.2
O Chitin 6 ois 40 & so
8. Osborn’s ane 4 gr yhrels 3 ieee pit = 68 2
a, Balagd’s: @ fincae ob Gamins oo a 3 55
8. West Hills, (High i ° Field, gee as Jane’s Hill,’ 334 ms ne :
9. Layton’s Hill, ne yi ee ee 330 22
10. Westiury Wl te ge ees 260 “ 22 «
Nit Ubtipiead Hasios Hilt... se 384 & 9 ;
ro oo eee ‘ ‘
12, John M. Clark’s in (sans) ea ae eee 326 @ 16 a
eS yh Se 332 16
a
= Prospect Hit, (Grvolltyn):2c.<ui oe eee 7194 * +
ight by © 3 feet. I found : _by aner roid to be scarcely more
than a ee poate er Susp in his memoir of the Hon. Silas Wood, late of

: n, 8 ;
taken in October, 1825, by Mr. Abel ecura
Mined the height t to be 3544 feet pid the oer level of the

* This cai yp for eet ve Popular Science Monthly, Feb., 1877.
t —— 8S. Coast Surv:

236 Scerentifie Intelligence.

survey he states was recorded in the Town Records of rg It is possible
that in transcribing, 353 ~~ have been mistaken for 383 fee
. oe yap of this great mound ro or modified drift is not poster deter-
set a t given is paaaly
mt Mea m half-tide leve al by Hon. Stephen Tabor, of Roslyn.
- ay Hels acuaated by Geor > ainerd, Esq., Engineer in ‘the Brooklyn
ter Department, and by the wr

c2e the hills mentioned ne from others of the range, exten-
d, a

sive views may be ha the contour of the island throughout
its entire breadth wialed: to great advantage. A striking feature
observed is the vast, nearly level 0 which extends from the

elevations above tide were determined by early surveys, for the
Long Island Railroad. I quote from Prime’s History as follows:

1. Bedford, (in the city of Brooklyn), 73 feet.
2. ses 40 “
3. Mineola, sf 105 kf
4, Hickevi, ’ 142 *
5. F CN Bets
6. Suffolk Station, ane i sed
Ns edford 82 *&
8. Riverhead, - a2.
9. Southold, 40
The average elevation of the “ Plains,” so-called, along the line

of the railroad, is therefore about 70 feet. Northward of the hills,
urf:

Ill. Botany anp Zoouoey.

. Dextrorse and Sinistrorse: Which is right and which is left,
as at lied to sitoara emer aie in flower-buds, and course of the
ea in aoe xis? There are two opposite mye of r se aig

t

Botany and Zoology. 237

animal itself. The animal cannot speak to us and tell us which is
his left and which hi
able to do so.”

or left of a viewing pers DeCandolle’s illustrations concede

on.
this, although that of Braun ignores the distinction. en ‘in
the case i i

which the observer is upposed to occupy.

€ se oO
themselves on the outside,—a more feasible position, as it seems
8 i i i he mechanic, who

_ Avotpne Tuzopore Bronentart, who died in J anuary, 1876,
Just when he had completed the 75th year of his age. The lon

i i ear 1820, and was inter-
tiety of France being in
the year 1875. Some interesting investigations in fossil botany,
Which were in hand when he succumbed, are left unfinished. e

Bennett. the associate of Robert Brown in all
the latter part of his life, and his successor as keeper of the Her-

238 Scientific Intelligence.

baria of the British Museum, up to the close of the year 1870, was

born January 8, 1801, and died Feb. 29, 1876. e was one of

the best and most amiable of men, one of the most learned and

the most modest; and his writings, like those of his master, Rob-

ert Brown, have an importance greatly exceeding their number

and pretension. There is a biographical notice in Trimen’s Jour-
¢ :

as respects his life-long work upon the Diatomacez, and some o
his earliest papers relate to Phanerogamic Botany. His earliest
botanical paper bears the date of 1820,

ROPOLD KUcKEL, the Mycologist, author of the classical Fungi
Rhenani Exsiccati, died at Vienna, May 8, i876.

Epwarp Newman, who died, near London, June 12, 1876, at
the age of 75, was better known as a zoologist than as a botanist,
but is to be remembered among the botanists and amateurs for his
well-known History of British Ferns, which has passed through
four editions, and as the principal editor of the Phytologist, from

Iso be counted among the botanists, against his early convictions
i f

30, at the age S an active general botanist in his
earlier years. Later his attention in this line was mainly directed
to the of medicinal plants, especially those of America.
In lore of this kind he had no superior, at least since the prema-
ture death of Hanbury, n this country he leaves no equal.
He was an excellent teacher, a firm friend, and a most estimable
man

: r. Varson was one of a considerable circle of botanists,
whose acquaintance the present writer made at Philadelphia more

than forty years ago, of which there is now only one survivor,

graphic copy has subsequently been taken. fe
WiLaxtm OFMEISTER, the distinguished vegetable anatomist,
Successor of Von Mohl in the chair of Botany at Tubingen, as we
learn, died on the 12th of January last. A. G.
, 8. Mistletoe ( Viscum album Linn.)—-MM. Grandeau and Bouton,
_ in chemical examinations of the mistletoe, find that the stem

\ the species; it contains much more potash
nd phosphoric acid than its supporting tree and much less lime,

ee

ee ee ee ee eS en ae

Botany and Zoology. 239

and seems to live on the tree like a plant on its soil.— Comptes
Rendus, Jan., 1877; Nuture, Jan. 25, 288.

Observations on Rhizopods.—Prof. Lerpy stated that last

Mt., Mon-

ding ratio,
t contract

a.
he of the species of Ameeba which he had most enigaers |
Seen, he took to be the Amba verrucosa of Ehrenberg, wit

Shores of the Schuylkill River, in sphagnum swamps, in _
mud, ete. It is remarkable for its sluggish character; and in

240 Scientific Intelligence.

with delicate wavy lines; the pseudopods rise in short obtuse
mammillary eminences or wave-like ridges, the summits of which

very slowly enlarges, and then less slowly collapses. In addition
art of the structure, an oval granular nucleus is sometimes
The f

Ameba. It not unfrequently feeds on Difflugians. In a speci-
m wate :

examination with the microscope. After a few moments he ob-
served an Amba verrucosa, nearly motionless, empty of food,

ached and came into contact with the mot
loving to the right, it left a long finger-li
around its lower half, and then extended a similar one around the

ber (ten) of conical pseudopods projected. The 4.
oval form, and the contractile vesicle be-
he A. imax

Botany and Zoology. 241

shrivelled cord of
endochrome. Later the A. verrucosa was broken up into five
spherical granular balls, and these gradually became obscured and
tly iffused among the granular contents of the entosare
of the A. limaz. A

t
. ? -
limax discharged from one side of the tail end, the siliceous case

m ter.

The observation, from the time of the seizure of the A. verru-
cosa to its digestion, or disappearance among the granular matter
of the entosare of the A. limax, occupied seven hours.

From naked Amebe, the test-protected Rhizopods were no
doubt evolved, and it is a curious sight to observe them swal-
lowed, home and all, to be digested out of their home, just as the
contents of diatomes are digested. It was also interesting to ob-

an
ed.— Proce, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1876, 197

5. Habits of Formica rufa.—Mr. McCoox, sp KING
habits of Formica rufa, stated that the ants descending the tree-

Opened at these points, around and in which numbers of ants were

: aged in drawing or bestowing rations of honey-dew.

Similar commissary stations were found under the stones near by.
red upon her

| » an imental ]

; m the abdomens of repletes.. The latter commonly yie
| the honey-dew complacently, but sometimes were seized an
rested by the pensioners, occasionally with great vigor

Taternized completely when transferred. number of ants col-
— from veHious hills fraternized in an artificial nest, harmont-
| ®usly building galleries and caring for the cocoons.

| It Was and: that ants immersed in water when replaced _—
| ne hills were invariably attacked as enemies; the assailants, be-

242 Scientific Intelligence.

ing immersed, were themselves in turn assaulted. A number of
experiments were made which indicated that the bath had tempo-
rarily destroyed the peculiar odor or other property by which the

ou
nity. e crowds of human beings who occupied the spot
during the late International regatta had evidently dispersed the
republic.—Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1876, p. 200.

6. The Rhynchophora of America, north of Mexico; by J OHN
L. LeConrr, assisted by Gzorcz H. Horn. 456 pp. 8vo, constitut-
ing vol. xv (December, 1876) of the Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society.

- A new Kehidna (Tachyglossus) from New Guinea.—The
new species has its rostrum half longer (the length about 6-4
inches) than either that of the species from southeastern Australia
or that from Tasmania. It is named Tachyglossus Bruijnii by
‘Peters and Doria in a paper published at Genoa.— Nature, Jan. 18.

IV. Astronomy.

1. A New Planet; C. H. F 2
22 and 31, dated Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College,
Clinton, N. Y.)—On the 17th instant, I saw a planet unknown
: an

Company has made a liberal concession,—has not reached us

moonlight have permitted since the 21st,—each from ten compati-
sons with stars well determined :
18

us Mean time. a (170). 6 Qi 0). ”
Jan. 23, 950" 45° 8 9759-405 417° 35’ 24°8"
“26. = -11"48™51* —ghy4m 93-498 4.17° 26’ 15°0

—(Letter of January 31.)
nstruments and Publications of the U. 8. Naval Observa-
‘y. Rear Admiral C. H. Davis, Superintendent. Washington,
845-1876. Published by authority of the Hon. Secretary of the

Astronomy. 243

Navy. 44 pp. 4to, with six plates.—After a brief account of the
founding of the Observatory, its library, and its position, the

mounted in 1865, and the 26-inch Equatorial mounted in 1873,
and to the descriptions are added heliotype representations of
the instruments.
3. Note of the recent fall of three Meteorie Stones, in Indiana,
b WRE

bd
Missouri, and Kentucky ; y J. La NcE Situ, Louisville,
“gf

t

No. 2. On January third, 1877, at sunrise, in Warren County,
Missouri, latitude 38° 50’, longitude 91° 10’, the usual phenomena
accompanying the falls of meteorites attracted the attention of
Several observers, who saw the stone strike the branch of a tree,
(which it broke), then fall to the ground, penetrating it slightly,
and melting the snow that lay on its frozen surface. It was picke
Up immediately after, and a portion of it has been sent to me for
examination.

No. 3. On January twent : ;
miles north of C pelea Ba latitude 38° 25’, longitude 84° 15,

t

Louisville, Ky., February 6. ee
* This is the meteorite which is the subject of Professor O. U. Shepard’s article,
8 Page 207.

244 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

VY. MiscELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Topographical Survey of the State o New York.—As
announced in a former

aperi
Competent instructors in geology and botany are to be engaged,

for each additional day. The trip will be limited to thirty days
unless a majority vote of the pupils decides otherwis
3

DD: FBS
pp. 8vo. New York, 7 ; :
edition of the “Elements of Physics” by Dr. Arnott appeared in
1827, and within four years from that time five large editions were
called for. The author himself died in March, 18 i

of the science. Under the editorship of Professor Bain an é
Taylor, the new edition of the work is made to include the
_ recent advances in the science. .
Metric System. Metric Bulletin.—This bulletin, the official
fierce Metric Bureau,” is issued in Bos as
- fro Tr ace. Nos. 3 and 4 were issued together, as
number for September and October, 1876 5

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 245

s
as been urged for some time by the American Metrological
Society. These are the best first steps in the change; and when
once carried out, and teachers do their duty in common schools,
the change may become general, Compulsory for the people at

aga Museum of Natural History. Bulletin No. 1. 76

p. 8vo.—This first Bulletin, devoted to the Natural History of
inois, contains the following papers: A list of Illinois Crustacea,
by S. A. Forbes e tree in Winter, by F. Brendel; Sodi
Pinate as a test for lime, by J. A. Sewall; partial catalogue of
the fishes of Illinois, by EW. Nelson; on payee Fungi, by

amination, are prepared o R. Fuess, of Berlin
obtained at a mall price. The collection cgay thirty aoteotae
7. Third Reeiol Report of the Commissi griculture of

beds, and also of other mineral materials, by P. H. Mell, chemist.
8. The Applications of Physical Forces; by AME DEE GUIL-
_LEMIN, Translated from the French by Mrs. Norman Lockyer,
and edited, with additions, and notes, by J. Norman Lockyer,
F.RS. 742 pp. Roy. 8vo, with colored plates and illustrations.
pendon, 1877. (Macmillan & Co.)—This work on physics with

simplified and popularized. The edi pad ot Mr. Lockyer is a
ci ; :

graph illust sere being the best that
pay, paper, wh very numerous 1 is pation oa 2 Hie eccel

sses, fi
“9 pum fire-engines, atmospheric railwa ang ompressed-air
railways, eee = etc. ; eee ay looks 5 “he practical
under spplcations of ho egpesney. and laws of sound, of light,
of heat, of magnetism and pera city. Under heat, the art of
warming i 1s first teeta historic and practically ; . then practi-
nts arising from the poate of heat, burning
compensating pendulums, distillation, artificial preparation of ice,
Steam engines of various ne steam navigation, the locomotive,
hot-air and gas-engines, work, therefore, is not only attrac-
tive in i appearance, but also bs al value.

246 Obituary.

Ss)
.) 2.R.S.; Kin c Mod Kennedy, C.E. n
and New York; Outlines of Field-Geology, by Prof. Geikie; The absorption of light _
and the colors of Natural bodies, by Prof. Stokes. 1875, 1877. (Macmillan & Co.) :
L

Manchester Science Lectures for the People: What the Earth is composed of, ‘
three lectures by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S. London and New York. 1876. (Mac- ;
millan & Co.) :

OBITUARY.
Rear Admiral Cuartes Henry Davis died on the eighteenth
of February, at the age of seventy years, having been born in
Boston, January 16, 1807. Admiral Davis was Superintendent of
the Naval Observatory at Washington at the time of his decease,
and also one of the members of the Light House Board. He be-

came Superintendent of the “ American Nautical Almanac” in {
1859, the foundation of which was directly owing to his efforts.
From 1842 to 1849 he was an Assistant in the Coast Survey; and

a “ Memoir upon the Geological action of the tidal and other cur-
rents of the ocean, and the Law of deposit of the flood tide,” pre-

able articles on astronomy and geodesy, and published in 1858 a
translation of Gauss’s “ Theoria Motus Corporum Ceelestium.”
ear Admiral Cuautes Witxes died on the eighth of Feb-
ruary, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. Admiral Wilkes,
then a Captain, commanded the United States Exploring Expedt-

lished, after its return, a narrative of the expedition in five volumes,
a hydrographic atlas, containing the maps from the various surveys
m

one dark night in November, 1839, without pilot, in company

= Professor J.C. Poecenvorer, editor of the Annalen der Physik
und Chemie smce January, 1824, and long Professor in the Univer-
sity at Berlin, died the last week of January, in his eighty-first year

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

e

ArT. XXVI.—Note on the Sensation of Oolor ; by ©. S. PEIRcE.

IT may, perhaps, be worth while to notice a few consequences
of three theories concerning color which are usually regarded
with some favor.

First hypothesis. —The appearance of every mixture of lights
depends solely on the appearances of the constituents, without

istinction of their physical constitution. This I believe is
established.

: hypothesis.—Every sensation of light is compounded
of not more than three independent sensations, which do not
influence one another. This is Young’s theory. It follows
that, if we denote the units of the three elementary sensations
by i,j, and &, every sensation of light may be represented by
an expression of the form,

Xi+Yj+ Zk.

_Lhird hypothesis,—The intensity of a sensation is propor-
tional to the logarithm of the strength of the excitation, the
barely perceptible excitation being taken of unit strength.

egative logarithms are to be taken as zero. This is Fechner's
law. It is known to be approximately and only approximately
true, for the sensation of light. From this it follows that, if
%, y, z be the relative proportions of a mixture of three lights
8lving the elementary sensations 7, j, &, the sensation produced
by the mixture is

I log #.i+J log y.j+K log2z-h,

where I, J, K, are three constants. = : as
___ fom these principles, it follows that if a light giving any
Sensation such as that just written have its intensity increased
™ any ratio 7, the resulting sensation will be,

AM. Jour. 8ct.—Tairp Serres, VoL. XIII, No. 76.—APRIL, 1877.

248 C. S. Peirce—Note on the Sensation of Colors.

I log rx.i+J log ry. j+K log rz.k=
Ilog x.i+-J log y. j+K log z.k+log r (Ii+Jj+ KA).

Thus, the result of increasing the brilliancy of any light must
be to add to the sensation a variable amount of a constant sen-
sation, V+Jj+Kk. And all very bright light will tend toward
the same color, which may therefore be called the color of bright-
ness. Moreover, if the three primary colors be mixed in the

roportions which each by itself is just perceptible, the sensa
tion produced wi

log r (Ii+Jj+ Kh),

and can only differ by more or less.

Now I find, in fact, that all colors are yellower when
brighter. If two contiguous rectangular spaces, illuminated
with the same homogeneous light, uniformly over each,’ but
unequally in the two, they will appear of different. colors.

If both are red the brighter will appear scarlet ;

7 “green - . yellowish ;
. “blue - ss greenish ;
* Seite 4.) mh blue. ;
If we have the means of varying the wave-length of the light

of ends ver cross,

more ngible than D and having a wave length of 582°10-°
mm., according to Angstrém’s map. If both rectangles be
illuminated with this light, the fainter appears white or even
violet, but if it be varied in wave-length with a view of im-
proving the match, it will be found to return to the same point
with the utmost precision.

It appears, therefore, that, if our hypotheses are correct, the
color log r (Ii+Jj+Kz) is like that of the spectrum at A=582,
only that it contains less blue or violet and is consequently of
greater chromatic intensity.

It further follows from Fechner’s law that, if any light be
gradually reduced in brightness, one element of the sensa-
tion will disappear after another; and that when very faint it
will exhibit only one primary color, which is the one which
it contains in greatest proportion relatively to the a fe
tion in the light which has the color of brightness. oe;
although this does not seem to be exactly the case, yet we do
get some approximation to it. It is true that any light what-
ever, when sufficiently faint, appears white, owing to the self-
luminosity of the retina. We cannot, therefore, unfortunately,
get sight of the primary colors by reducing the light of three
parts of the spectrum. But we may, as has often been sug’

C. S. Peirce—Note on the Sensation of Oolors. 249

h
I show reason to think that the pure green has a wave length
intermediate between E and b. A faint green of this sort con-

of R (which we may denote by r) would be 596% R, or say

TR. Having mate a considerable number of such determina-
Hons of R, with different colored disks, let us ascertain their
probable error from their discrepancies, considering them as so
many independent observations of the same unknown quantity,
and denote this probable error by 7’. Ii, then, R really is the
Same for all colors, we should have

r= %
or, at least, the difference should not exceed p, the probable
*rror of »; which may be calculated by the formula

nt Ses
~~ p/mr”
hot merely accidentally, r’ should have a larger value. The

following are the values I obtained for R, the sum of the bright-
hess of the two surfaces compared being taken as unity.

250 C. &. Peirce—Note on the Sensation of Colors.

R. Diff. from mean.

WOU MA: fe Ris nin, oT oe the bn 0041
pera, sunt Getore © on. wun 0046 =-+-0006
hrome-yellow, WR. eee ass 0032 —-0008
Feb. 7. Red, just before C _..--._.._.-- 0040 +*0000
oma: eye hagas PET a Sa 0046 =-+--0006
goog ce bods OS 008
Canieyellow. “Al 0037 =—-"0003
Pu e, Hoffmann’ s violet RRR_. -0033 —-0007
Feb. 13. Red, dy jst MORNE OS. 280) 2. 70048 =-+°0008
complementary to carmine *0034 —-0006
Hide ‘vio bab, NG Beka. 0048 + +0008

Yellow, A a mixed with black . s2° 0082. —-0008

eee os 0040

_ After these experiments, ee method of observing was changed,
— and I obtained the following:

Feb. 14. White eyitars: ill. by sun - 0030 —-0002
003

0
Feb. 15. “Fundamental green of Miller”. -0030 —-0002
A OER half between C and D -0034 +-0002

pou oS Se ee ae 0032 -+-°0000
OW GS aoe ee fess yi 0036 =-+°0002 )
SiN oe. 0032 :

We thus get from the |

first twelve determinations, r=-00040, r’= 00048, cela
a

last nine determinations, r= "00032, r’=-00019, Le
:

and from the weighted mean, —=-96, so that it appears from

these experiments that the sienbesia susceptibility of the eye |
is the ~_ for all colors. The result is, however, uncertain,
may be that R is is chiefly due to other sources of error
than the imitation of sensibility ; still, the experiments show as
small a value of R as is aicgllp obtained. I shall endeavor, .
by further obnervations to obtain a conclusive result.
r consequence of our hypotheses will be reached ae
differentiating the expression for a — We

d(Llog 2.i+J log y.j+K log 2.k)= ae. li}—dy. J j+—_de.Kh
2 Now, as x, y and zall exceed unity, the decennial is greater the

C. 8. Peirce—Note on the Sensation of Colors. 251

imli j=Jj k=Kh
the formula is :
log #.i+log y.j+log z-k.
This loses its validity when any of the logarithms become ok
ative. Ifz is the iin atieas of the three quantities, we may sub
stitute
x= Y=!
= Z
and the formula becomes
log X.i+log Y.j+log ¢(i+j+ k). eg ting
When x or y is smallest there will be two other formule.
Now, as the Faiiadion in the brilliancy of the light wi nes #
the last term of the last formula, and not the first two | fo
ing on X and Y, it is more than probable that the h th a test
uated to separating the element oo aha its valu
term represents, and which is continually changing : : i
from the rest which remains constant. It is, cao a a
that the classification of light into three kinds, sc Sie glean
violet, the red, or the green, is contained in the sm ] i cae 0
tion, is one which has a relation to the natural po
discrimination. . ‘

y observations have been made with “ -agcetrage, be
which I am indebted to the liberality of the of blishin
Bache Fund. TI shall describe it on the ee red
Some work of a more serious character. fe oF Rood.
Made use of were very kindly lent me by Professo

* I will show this in a note in the next number of this Journal.

252 J. LeConte—Binocular phenomena, ete.

Art. XXVII—Note on the Binocular phenomena observed by
Professor Nipher ; by JoserpH LEConts.

0

all explicable on the same general principles. The principles

recall them here. .

1. The field of view may be regarded as an outward projec-
tion of retinal states. As each eye has its own retina crowd
with its own retinal images, so also each eye must have its own
field of view and its own external images. There are therefore

duce the phenomenon of double images. Moreover, the external
images of different objects may also be brought together and
superposed at will. In all discussions of binocular phenomena,
therefore, it is absolutely necessary that we speak not of objects
but of external images, the signs of objects.

brought logether and superposed. This is the necessary as

Same place in space and are therefore super
Now, in the experiment of Prof. Nipher, the visual line of

Revision of the genus Belemnocrinus, etc. 253
left visual line, by the law stated above, are brought together

ne thing more to complete the explanation, The impres-

Berkeley, Cal., Feb. 7, 1877.

Art. XXVIIL—Revision of the genus Belemnocrinus, and de
scription of wo new species; by CHARLES WACHSMUTH and
FRANK SPRINGER.

to the recent genus Rhizocrinus, and further ex r
ion that Belemnocrinus does not possess, a8 Dr. White supposed,

ired specimens
of this genus, including two new species 1D an. excellent. state
of preservation, and a comparison ©: t 3
specimens heretofore described, afford us new light in

254 Wachsmuth and Springer—Revision of the genus

the structure of this interesting type of fossils, and it enables us
to confirm the opinion of Count Pourtales, thereby rendering a
revision of the generic formula and description appropriate and
necessary.

A specimen of B. Pourtalesi, W. & S., has been deprived of
the column, and the lower part of the cup is somewhat
crushed, in such a manner that two of the long plates are sep-
arated along their entire length, exhibiting the sutures to tbe
central perforation which leads into the column. The lower
extremities of these plates are excavated, forming a concavity
for the insertion of the pentagonal column, the marks of its
attachment in a pentagonal outline are plainly visible, thus
proving beyond the slightest doubt that these long plates rested
directly upon the column, and formed with the first radials, the
cup which encloses the visceral cavity. From these facts it
follows that the long pieces, which were considered to be sub-
radials, y the author of the genus and by Messrs. Meek
and Worthen in their description of B. Whiter, must now be
designated as basal plates.

Additional light has been thrown upon the construction of
other parts in this genus; every one of the four known species
is furnished with a strong proboscis, inflated toward the top,
and resting upon the single large anal plate which is a part of
the wall of the cup. The exact structure of the summit of the
calyx has not as yet been made out, but the comparatively
massive character of the plates which compose the oscis,
as well as the size of that organ, render it altogether probable,

arms divide upon a bifurcating plate or joint, into equal branches,
which rest upon the upper faces of this joint ; while in Belemno-

t
j

Belemnocrinus, and description of two new species. 255

portion of the calyx is somewhat distorted by pressure, it was
at first supposed to be a Belemnocrinus. Upon removing the
calyx from*the surrounding matrix and arranging the plates in
their natural position, it was found to possess a series of large
sub-radials resting upon the basals, the anal plates arranged as in
ocrinus, thus exhibiting a fundamental difference from
Belemnocrinus. Careful examination of the interior part of the

>
y

forming the cup, and supporting upon its upper face the heavy
proboscis. The pales + radials have spaces between the
howing them to have been free. The most important

these genera in their external structure is found in the solid
proboscis and covered dome of Belemnocrinus.
sa result of the foregoing observations we give now the
following revised -
GENERIC FORMULA.

Basal plates, five; long, narrow, forming an ovoid to eylin-
drical cup, which is nearly solid, having a small central perfo-
ration, and a shallow subconical excavation at its upper end,
Which forms a part of the visceral cavity. ae -

Radial plates, four to five X 5; the first series with the anal
plate joined at the sutures and composing a part of the cup;
the succeeding radials free. :

Anal plate, one; supporting a rather long, comparatively
large proboscis. Dome covered by solid plates, arrangement

256 Wachsmuth and Springer—Revision of the genus

unknown. Arms, ten so far as observed. Pinnules long and
strong. Column pentagonal.
s yet found only in the Upper and Lower ‘Burlington
limestone.
The following species, new to science, have been discovered
us: :

Belemnocrinus florifer, 0. sp.

Smaller than B. typus. Column comparatively large, com-
posed alternately of large and small joints, the smaller of which
are nearly regular pentagons, and the larger pentagonal in out-
line, arched at. the angles, notched in the middle of the sides
making the column in general distinctly pentagonal, crenulated
transversely, with a somewhat interrupted longitudinal furrow
along the middle of each side. To the sixth and eighth large
joint from the base, are attached radicular cirrhi which originate
in the depressions or notches on each of the five sides of the
joint. Traces of other sets of cirrhi are visible lower down on
the column. They are all arranged precisely as those of Penta-
crinus Caput-Meduse, to the column of which this is in aspect
strikingly similar. The cirrhi are long, slender, tapering to the
tips, with joints longer than wide, and they increase in size as
they approach the root.

_The calyx is comparatively low, about two thirds as wide as
high, ovoid below, turbinate and rapidly expanding above, con-
stricted about the middle, with a deep transverse suture. e
five basal plates are smooth, about three fourths as wide as high,
slightly widest near the top, forming the ovoid portion of the
calyx, gently expanding from the column outward and upward.

ey are constricted and abruptly truncated at the summit and
appear as a heavy band around the lower part of a second cup
which seems to rest in thisone. The first radials are large, more
than one half the size of the basals, a little higher than wide;
outer surface strongly arched, curving rapidly inward at their
junction with each other, thus forming deep vertical sutures.
They compose, with the anal plate, a cup of conical shape whose
sides are crenulated or scalloped by the arching of the plates and
the depression of the sutures, and the diameter of which at the bot-
tom is considerably less than that of the ovoid basal cup beneath,
in which, rather than upon which, it seems to rest. The radials
he ina line with the sutures of the basals, and rest apparently
upon the mner edges of the upper faces of these plates. The
upper portion of this conical cup in turn projects outward in a
rim or band enclosing the arm bases, the arms seeming to pro-
ceed from the inside, the calyx and arms thus presenting , the
peculiar appearance of a bouquet of flowers in a conical vase,

es _ Which in turn rests in an egg-shaped cup truncated at the base,

_, eylindrical portion, while in our

Belemnocrinus, and description of two new species. 257

thus suggesting the specific name. The upper faces of the first
radials are truncated, and upon their inner edges rest the free
radials which are four in number, about one-fourth the size of
the first radials, a little wider than high and of uniform dimen-
sions up to the arms. The plates of this series are rounded,
strongly constricted, transversely in the middle, expanding at
their upper faces, producing a rim which envelopes the lower
part of each succeeding piece, this rim or wrinkle being rather
thicker and more prominent at. the lateral margins. The
fourth free radial is pentagonal in form, the two upper faces
forming an obtuse angle and supporting the arms which are
simple throughout their entire length, thus giving two arms to
each ray or ten to the species. Arms comparatively very long,
rounded, tapering very gradually to the tips, composed of joints
which are constricted in the middle, marked by strong lateral
wrinkles, thickened at the upper margin to embrace the suc-
ceeding joints just as in the free radials. In the lower part of
the arms, apparently every third joint, is a syzygium, wedge-
form in shape, with quadrangular joints between; while in the
upper part the joints are alternately wedge-form, and to the
onger margins of these joints the pinnules are attached. These
Syzygial joints are strong, prominent, and give to the arms an
obtugely zigzag appearance. Pinnules simple, rather heavy,
very long, directed upward, lying closely along the arms, com-

s first radials, and im the pe-

no ine’ es form a continuation of the
t prominent, and the latter plates fo clea heshagnlvt the

258 Wachsmuth and Springer—Revision of the genus

transverse suture, the beveling and constricting of the upper
edges of the basals, gives to the basal portion the appearance
of enclosing the cup which is formed by the radials. It differs
from those species also in the highly arched surface of the first
radials and the deep sutures between them, which give to the
upper part of the cup its crenulated aspect. Also in the cart-
nated surface. From 8B. typus, it further differs in the mode
of attachment of the free radials and arm joints, the rim-like
projection at the upper face of each plate, and in the strongly
pentagonal and crenulated column.

It differs from our species B. Pourtalesi, in most of the above
particulars and in the proportionally smaller size of its free
radials, in the succession of the syzygial joints, and in the sim-
plicity of the pinnules. ogee

imen from which our description is made, is In &
most perfect state of preservation, showing column, calyx, pro-
is, and arms, the calyx being plump and every plate ex-
actly in position.
eological position and locality: from a thin cherty layer
near the middle of the Upper Burlington limestone, Burlington,
Towa. Collection of Charles Wachsmuth.

Belemnocrinus Pourtalesi, n. sp.
Smaller than either of the other described species. The

h |

_Basal era nearly uniform in size, two-thirds as wide as
high, po ees widest above, strongly convex and bulging 1n the
ae le,

| server more than twice as wide as high. Fourth radials
___ darger than the others, pentagonal, supporting upon their upper
"sloping faces the freearms. © igen o nes

———

ae

Belemnocrinus, and description of two new species. 259

Arms comparatively robust, tapering rather rapidly to the
tips. The arm joints are at their surface angularly elevated in
the middle, depressed toward the sides, the sutures between
them have at the middle angular part of each joint a strong
downward curvature, a peculiarity which is also observable in
the radial series. e arms in this feature recall the charac-
teristic structure of those of Zasxocrinus and Forbesiocrinus.
Throughout the greater portion of the arms, every alternate
joint is a syzigium, very obtusely pentagonal, twice as large as
the other arm joints, and to the longer margin of each which is
slightly angular, is attached a pinnule. The pinnules originate
on a very distinct articulating scar near the upper part of the

late. The intermediate plates are quadrangular in outline.
rom the bifuricating radial to the second pinnule two quadran-
gular joints are interposed between those to which the pinnules
are attached. The great size of the syzygial joints, as compared
with the others, and their rather pentagonal shape, cause the
pinnules to branch from the arms at a considerable angle, and

men perfectly covered with alternating minute plates. The
same arrangement of plates has been observed by us arching
the ventral furrow in the arms of Cyathocrinus, Potervocrinus,
and Cupressocrinus, and Messrs. Meek and Wor-

to believe that the ventral furrow was similarly arched in all
aleozoic Crinoids. a :
The anal side and proboscis are hidden in our specimen and
cannot be described. The surface of the radials and arms is

differs In its shorter, more globose and mee cup and in =
of the first radials. From B. typus in the same respec
and also in the waving form and angular surface of the arms.

260 SS. W. Johnson—Estimation of Nitrogen in Nitrates.

We take pleasure in dedicating this elegant species to Count
L. F. de Pourtales, the eminent Zoologist of the Museum of

Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Massachusetts, who first |

called attention to the relations of this genus to one of the types
of recent Crinoids.

Geological position and locality: from the lower part of the
Lower Burlington Limestone, Burlington, Iowa. Collection of
Frank Springer.

tT. XXIX.—On Thorpe’s and Bunsen’s methods for the Est-
mation of Nitrogen in Nitrates ; by S. W. Jounson.—Controbu-
tions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College. No. XLVL
In volume xxvi, pp. 541, 549, of the Journal of the Chemical
Society, as well as in his treatise on Quantitative Analysis, p. 95,
Thorpe has described a method of estimating nitric acid, in
which this acid is reduced to ammonia by the use of slips of
zine coated with precipitated copper, a reducing combination
first employed by Gladstone and Tribe. The experimental re-
sults given by Thorpe in support of his method are such as
apparently establish its great exactness, while in simplicity
and ease of execution, it would seem to be quite superior to
the similar methods that have been previously proposed.
ing occasion to make some determinations of nitric acid,
I tested Thorpe’s method in five distinct trials with pure sodium
and potassium nitrates. The directions given by Thorpe 10
his Quantitative Chemical Analysis are as follows:
ut 25-80 grams of thin sheet zinc are placed in a flask of
about 200 ¢. c. capacity, and covered with a moderately con-
centrated and slightly warmed solution of copper sulphate. In
about ten minutes a thick spongy coating of copper will be de-
posited on the zine; the liquid is poured off the metals, which
are now well washed with cold water and covered with about
40-50 ¢. c. of pure water. Weigh out about 0% gram
pure nitre into the flask connected with a condensing arrange
ment. The liquid is gradually heated and distilled for about
an hour. The distillate is treated with platinum tetrachloride.
ese directions were followed as closely as possible save
that the distillate was received in a standard acid in order to
measure the ammonia volumetrically.
In the first experiment 0°5712 of sodium nitrate were em-
_. ployed, containing 009408 of nitrogen. After distillation was
concluded, the distillate contained | 7 of nitrogen. Think-
ing that the zine hydroxide resulting from reduction of the
bitrate might retain ammonia beyond the power of simple dis-

on ial

S. W. Johnson—Estimation of Nitrogen in Nitrates. 261

tillation to remove, although Thorpe makes no such suggestion,
added a quantity of newly fused, pure caustic potash, and
more water and distilled again.
This second distillation gave additional ammonia equal to
0°0227 of nitrogen.
The total nitrogen thus obtained was:
Ist distillation, 02947
2d ss 0°02275
0-05222 instead of 0°09408
Or a deficiency of 45 per cent.

In a second trial, 0°6689 grams of sodium nitrate were taken.
The conditions of reduction were as near as practicable the
same as before, but on completing the first distillation the odor
of nitric oxide was plainly evident in the receiving vessel, and
the amount of free acid in the latter was greater than at the
outset, the standard acid, not only being not neutralized by
ammonia coming from reduction, but made more acid by the
reaction of nitric oxide upon the oxygen and water of the con-
densing vessels. :

In a third experiment with 0°4193 grams of pure potassium
nitrate, 40 grams of cleansed zine were covered with concentrated
copper sulphate solution for fifteen minutes, the precipitated
copper was washed with great care to avoid as much as possible
detaching it from the zinc. 40. c. of water and the nitrate
were added, the mixture heated very gradually and distill
finally with addition of more water, for one hour. The result was
like that of experiment 2. Ae

A fourth trial resulted in the same increase of acid in the
receiver. In all these cases the copper was very loosely at-
tached to the zinc, so that by mere washing much of it, and on
boiling most of it separat: ae

I now referred to Gladstone’s description of his method of
preparing the zinc-copper couple, and made a fifth experiment,
following his different directions as follows: -

solution of copper sulphate (1 per cent CuSO,)
was employed, and the zine was let remain 1n 1t for some time
until the color of the solution was very nearly discharged.

05838 orm. KNO, containing 13°84 per cent N.

yielded. ee ee 8 BY
deficiency= 8°64 “ a

ion i ty in the application of his pro-

Thorpe mentions no difficulty mi 2pP ecard

tions of nitrogen made by Bunsen’s method,* on the same sample
of potassium nitrate and with aid of the same standard alkali-

e time of reduction in the first trial was twelve, in the
others thirty, hours. After these times, the ammonia was dis-
tilled into the standard acid. The results were as follows:

y 2. 3. Theory.
Nitrate taken, 0°4593 0°3374 0°2651
Nitrogen found, 13°29 p. «. 1349p. c. 13°25p.c¢. 13°84
The results fall short, it is seen, from 0°35 to 0°60 per cent.
My acknowledgments are due to Mr. E. H. Jenkins, for
assistance in these trials.

Arr. XXX.— Westfield during the Champlain Period; by J.S.
DILLER, of Westfield, Massachusetts.

WESTFIELD, Massachusetts, is nine miles west of Springfield,
and six miles north of the Connecticut State line, in a valley
cut off from the western part of the Connecticut valley by the
Divide Range (the trap vidas extending south from Mount Tom).
The village of Westfield is situated between Westtield River and
Westfield Little River. These rivers flow eastward, across the
valley, and, after uniting a mile east of the village, their waters
ea through the Divide Range into the Connecticut River

low Springfield. ;

The region contains three extensive plains. Hampton Plain,

the two rivers to the village. Poverty Plain begins south
of the rivers, and extends south by the Southwick Ponds into
the Farmington valley. Stratified deposits in the northern
part of the Hampton Plain, near Hampden Ponds, are 286 feet
above mean sea-level. From this place the plain slopes south

* Fresenius’s Zeitschrift, x, p. 414.

J. S. Diller— Westfield during the Champlain Period. 268

— feet per mile to near the Catholic cemetery, and is there

249 feet above mean sea-level, or 104 feet above highest modern
flood-level at Westfield. A plain extending south from near
Kasthampton toward the anadee Ponds, ‘slopes i in the same

f Cy
EASTHAMPTON
/
/

ournameron ft
GC) ff

e
=
w
Zz
°o
Langone
n
a
2
x
o

r:

MT. TEKOA

a

direction. The divide between Northampton and. Westfield

8 crossed, west of Hampden Ponds, by a valley through which

the old canal e xtends. The highest plain in “this valley near
el

Southampton is 256 feet above mean sea-level,
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turrp SrRizs, Vou. XIII, No. 76.—APRIL, srt.
18

and slopes

264 J. S. Diller— Wesifield during the Champlain Period.

toward the south. The northern part of the Hampton Plain
is made of very coarse material, which gradually becomes finer
toward the south. In the gravel of this plain, pebbles of trap
are found.

Poverty Plain is highest just south of Westfield Little
River, where the stratified deposits are 254 feet above sea-level
(109 above flood-level at Westfield), and slopes toward the south

to the same conclusion. Not any trap rock is found in the
basin of the Westfield River west of the Divide Range. Hamp-

part of the Westfield basin was at least 275 feet. The heights

_ _* Professor J. D. Daifa derived the same isi i al, vol. x, Dec.
No, 1875, 3 504-507. conclusion, this Journal,

4

625ne
Siem -

cena

S. W. Ford—Embryonte Forms of Trilobites. 265

cemetery, where its height is 232 feet and 87 feet above flood-
level of the Westfield River at Westfield. The east end of the

venue Plain is at least seventeen feet lower than the adjacent
ends of the Hampton and Poverty Plains, showing that seven-
teen feet of stratified deposits must have been swept off the
east end of Avenue Plain.

When the flood subsided, the overflow from the north ceased,
and the Westfield rivers began to flow once more through the
Divide Range into the Connecticut. By their conjoined action
they eroded the Avenue Plain to its present level, and cut for.
themselves, across the once continuous plain, deep valleys,
With the terraced sides that now appear. .

Arr. XXX.—On some Embryonic Forms of Trilobites Jrom the
armorial Rocks at thoy, W. Y.; by S. W. Forp. With
ate IV.

266 S. W. Ford—Embryonie Forms of Trilobites.

* by the researches of M. Barrande. In one instance, that of
Sao hirsuta, he has shown that twenty such phases are passed
through, the earliest and simplest forms being of almost micro-
Scopic minuteness and presenting scarcely any resemblance to
the individual when completely pa These phenomena
have been styled by Barrande the ‘Metamorphoses of Trilo-
bites ;” and in his truly magnificent work on the Trilobites of
Bohemia (Systéme Silurien de la Bohéme, vol. i, 1852,) they
are fully and ably set forth and discussed. Hitherto, however,
no example of a truly embryonic form of trilobite, or one show-
ing that the animal was mainly developed after quitting the

have obtained of the metamorphoses of an American trilobite,
the species being the Olenellus (Elliptocephalus) asaphoides of
mons. I shall discuss this evidence, together with certain
other material which I possess pertaining to this species, under
the following heads:
Genus OLENELLUS Hall.
OLENELLUs (ELLIPTOCEPHALUS) asapHorpEs Emm.
I. Embryonic Forms.
In the spring of 1868 I discovered several specimens of this
apres in the limestone beds at Troy, showing oleanty the
. ‘

the material. Further researches will doubtless supply much
as is still desirable.

ig. la represents, natural size, the earliest stage of growth
observed, and 1d the same enlarged five anit The speci-
men is nearly circular, one line in greatest width and length,

$ to form a neat marginal rim.
three-fifths the total length. It is divided into five distinct
lobes by four well defined furrows extending all across. The

7

ssaceeeeeaeneamen 4 cammemnetl

i ouster

lobes are of an elongate semi-lunate form, and, springing from

irect continuity with

S. W. Ford—Embryonie Forms of Trilobites. 267

_ forward lobe is considerably larger and spreads out laterally

them is a well-defined rounded ridge which extends outward
;

are all seen to taper slightly in the specimen ; but as they pass
beneath the stone a short distance from the disk, I have

altogether in attem ting to further develop them. Between
the two spines last described lie the last glabellar lobe and its

adults which hes between the genal angle and the facial suture.

inter-ocular spines I am inclined to r
as

tween the ridges extending from the eye-lobes and these spines

*

268 S. W. Ford—Embryonie Forms of Trilobites.

facial suture in the adult. At this stage that portion of the
terior margin of adults which lies within the sutures is not

even indicated. The specimen presenting these remarkable

features of structure is in a beautiful state of preservation.

Fig. 2a represents another specimen, natural size, and 2 the
same enlarged three and one half diameters. The lower left
hand portion of the border is slightly restored in each. This
specimen is, in extreme width, two-thirds larger than the first
example, andin extreme length, exclusive of the spines, one-
half larger. The form has changed considerably, but it re-

uires but a moment’s attention to convince one that the fun-

outward and backward. This body, both from what Barrande

has taught respecting the mode of development of the thorax

of trilobites and from the appearances themselves, I consider

to be most probably a rudimentary thorax and pygidium com-

bined. From the even manner in which it is outlined it 1s

' probable that none of the segments were yet free. The surface
of both this and the foregoing specimen is smooth.

Now, if we examine the figures it will appear evident, I
think, that, between 1 and 2, one or more intermediate forms
may exist, and between 2 and 8 a considerable number of such
forms. As yet, however, no such forms have been obtained.
Figure 3a shows, natural size, and 3 twice enlarged, a head
whose development is evidently nearly completed, but which
is, nevertheless, embryonic in certain of its features. There
still exist the strong inter-ocular spines and the glabellar ridge
uniting the eye-lobesin front. The glabellar furrows also extend
all across, but become fainter on the median line. The eye-lobes
are rather more regularly curved than represented in the figure-

*
‘

pee >: ou oe s
alae alae emma A ie
, se

A

S. W. Ford—Embryonic Forms of Trilobites, 269

sion of the postero-lateral portions of t I
these being extended so as to give to the form a nearly semi-
Circular outline; the relatively smaller size of the tumid spaces

270 S. W. Ford—Embryonice Forms of Trilobites.

the same. If, in the case of figure 2 we were to suppose that
portion of the ridge running from the lower extremity of the
eye-lobe which does not enter into the composition of the spine
of the general angle to be elastic, and then draw the lower end
of the eye-lobe downward and inward as close to the glabella
as semealile at the same time carrying the genal angle outward
a little way, we should get a short horizontal posterior margin
between the outer and inner spines. This is similar to what, I

ieve, has, in effect, actually occurred jn the growth and de-
velopment of this form, the growth being both inward or toward
the line of suture and outward or toward the angle, giving us a
form such as we observe in figure 8. I have no doubt but that
fature discoveries will bring to light forms illustrating this, and
also showing us more fully the various stages of unfolding
passed through in the development of this extraordinary species
of trilobite.

Il. Adult Forms.

Fig. 5 represents, twice enlarged, an unusually perfect spect-
men. It is of a young individual, but the characters show that
it was, without doubt, a fully developed form. The head is
somewhat crushed and fractured, but the main features are
beautifully shown. The thorax is incomplete, and the pyg!
dium is wanting. There are twelve pairs of ribs preserv
These decrease in length ina regular manner, constituting an
exceptional feature in the structure of the genus* In one o
the three specimens of this species figured in Dr. Emmons
works there are fourteen articulations in the thorax, but 1t 18
impossible to say whether this is the total number possesse
by the individual. His figure also shows one of the posterior
spines of the head in place with its characteristic surface-mark-
ings+ In our specimen the whole surface of the head beyond
the eye-lobes and glabella is covered with irregularly alter-
nating finer and coarser lines radiating outward to the margin.

ese lines are somewhat too coarsely represented in the figure,
but it shows well the peculiar character of the ornamentation.
In this specimen the slender ridges running from the eye-lobes

e posterior margin along the sutural lines are very appa!
ent. The eye-lobes are not actually in contact with the gla ella
behind as shown in the figure, which would also slightly change
the direction of the ridges extending from them. and 6

—

the shield i ut I do not consider either fracture as
* See Barrande,—“ Documents anciens et nouveaux sur la faune primordiale se
: Taconique en Amerique.” Bul. Geol. Soc. France, 2 Ser., vol. xviii, P-
203, eg Also, the writer, “ Note on Microdiscus speciosus,” this Journ., Feb.,

?
844,

a BEB pl. 1, fig. 18, 1855. See also “Taconic System, —

cece. men

S. W. Ford—Embryonie Forms of Trilobites. 271

coincident with the course of the suture. In fig. 8, which repre-
sents the glabella, eye-lobes, and portions of the cheeks of a-
large individual, the whole considerably weathered, there are
three such fractures. Of these a coincides very nearly in relative
position and direction with a in fig.5. But this coincidence ap-
pears to me to be only accidental. It is possible, judging from a
specimen in my collection showing the under side of the head
with the hypostoma in place, that the line c coincides with the
suture, but I do not feel at all satisfied of this. I have never

ormous size. e
Specimen of the glabella in my collection is an inch in width
at its narrowest part. The surface of the head in some cas
presents an exceedingly ornate appearance. Occasionally the:
Whole surface of the ch

tubercles or prominences in the polygonal spaces. Figs. 10a—
are ‘uteidad to illustrate what is here meant, 6 being a small

ho enclosing lines, and at still others with only irregular lines
with no tubercles, tak
Fig. 9 is of a portion of one of the cheeks preserving its
spine. The upper crust is nearly all removed, but at the spine
We see it present with its usual ornamentation. The specimen

2

272 S. W. Ford—Embryonic Forms of Trilobites.

is, for the most art, a cast in stone of the outer or lower sur-
face of the “doublure,” which is shown to be ornamented in
much the same way as the upper surface of the shield. Alon
the outer edge there is a portion of the doublure itself remain-
ing.

Ill. The Hypostoma and Epistoma.

of which, a very perfect example, is here figured twice the
natural size (fig. 6). Its form and structure both show it

het and was unaccompanied by a figure, we were thus left in
oubt regarding the testimony of this, one of the most import-

quite similar in shape to the 2 ep ae but placed in the
his he has called the “epis-

character from anything I had previously seen. The specimen
remained in my hands in this state for a long time, but I

portion of the plate has been removed. The surface presents a
smooth polished appearance. This plate I believe to be the
epistoma of this species.

he specimen whence this’ plate was obtained consisted as
ginally discovered of two one showing the inner surface
crust of the glabella, and the other its impression 1D

>

Coffin’s Winds of the Globe. 273

limestone. Beneath this latter, at about a line’s depth, was
shown a portion of the plate in question. At present the

represented in an inverted position in the drawing. The
upper portion in the figure is probably the backward portion
in the specimen. This is, moreover, its position beneath the
glabella. It lies diagonally across the latter, with its spinous
portion resting directly beneath the neck-segment. It has
doubtless become detached and slipped backward. It appears
tome probable that the straight dotted line in the figure indicates
approximately the middle line of the perfect specimen. This
1s all that I desire to say upon the subject at present.

To sum up: I believe the facts which have been presented
prove conclusively that we have in Olenellus asaphoides an ex-

hitherto possessed of any trilobite from American strata. In my
Investigation of this singular life-history I have striven earnest] y
to read the record aright. How far I have succeeded in this must
remain for my fellow laborers in the department to determine.

All of the ‘specimens described and figured in this paper
were collected by the writer from the limestone beds of the

New York, February, 1877.

Arr. XXXI.—The Winds of the Globe ; or the Laws of Atmos-
pheric Circulation over the surface of the Earth ; by James H.
Corrtn, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in

Lafayette College.*

TuIs volume, to which the author devoted many years sas
earnest labor, may be considered, as 1ts title implies, an ex

. / - ic Circulation over the surface

oe Winds of the Globe ; ore hae Oe of anavee eB .
omy in Lafayette College. xxvi and 756 pp. 4to, with 26 plates, Washington,
1876. Completed, on the author’s decease, by Professor Selden J. ss any
with a discussion and Analysis by Dr. ‘Alexander Woeikof.—Smithso
tributions to Knowledge.

274 Coffin’s Winds of the Gtobe.

sion of his earlier treatise on the Winds of the Northern Hemi-

sphere. Its design is to show

Ist. The mean direction of the wind in all parts of the earth. -

2d. The ratio that the progressive motion bears to the total
distance traveled.
3d. The modifications that the mean current undergoes in
the different seasons of the :
th. The directions in which the forces act that produce
these modifications.
5th. The amount of their intensities. f
6th. To show, by separate solutions for the surface winds
and those indicated by the motion of the clouds, how the two
differ, and how they differ according as we do, or do not, take
into account the difference in the velocity of the different winds.
he data used for elucidating these points consist of series
of observations on winds made at 3,223 different stations on
land, and during numerous voyages at sea, extending from the
_ parallel of 83° 16’ north latitude, to beyond the parallel of 75

Squares, from which no observations have been obtained, are as
follows: Twenty-one in North America, mostly in British Amer-

‘Unreduced, among the archives of the United States Naval

Department.
0 facilitate condensation in the results, the stations that
directly to the Smithsonian Institution have been

ee : _ When those of a particular epoch are sought, as in the case of

uaeeiell” “puiceeiaeecens

Coffin’s Winds of the Globe. ; 275

storms that occurred in March and September, 1859, and noting
not only the winds, but all the accompanying meteorological
phenomena. ,

The method of summing and presenting this mass of material,
is by five series: in each of which the separate seasons and
points of the compass are kept distinct, viz:

_ I. The number of observations.
II. The number of miles traveled, as estimated by the ob-

The deflecting forces have been wrought out in about 8,000
of these instances,
The peculiarity of series V may be seen in an exam le
Certain stations in New Hampshire, north of latitude 40°,
te the years 1854 to 1857 inclusive, give the following
t:

Spring
Summer.
Autumn,

Winter
Year

FE ein aeetremaieperesionestnans

Average velocity of all winds in miles, per hour,.| 8°16, 6°39
Velocity in mean direction, on the supposition that
the winds from every point of the compass move

the foregoing velocity, er

Pipe Poleciey in mean direction, giving to apes:

evel int of the compass eir own :

sla , as shown int the table above,.-| 2°91) 1°80 eed = 2S

2°72! 1°67) 2-77| 3°82) 2°66

. ocity, ‘
Excess of the latter over the former “| 4-19! +-13/—

Let the movement of a particle of air be traced, which is
Supposed to be stirred only by the winds that are found day
after day at a given place : at the end of the year the path of the
Particle, though entirely irregular, will—so far as its ——-
and general direction are conce ed—be essentially the same

* Results of Meteorological Observations, 1854-59. Vol. II, Part 1.—United
States Senate Document, 36th Congress.

276 Coffin’s Winds of the Globe.

as the curve more easily formed by joining the four lines,
whose direction and length are recorded in the resultants of
series I. On the North American coast of the Atlantic the

g
occur in mid-ocean at longitude 30° to 35° west. Except
where there are marked local obstructions to the free flow of the
air, this law seems invariable; and it holds in the majority of

cases, even in the motion of the clouds; but Mount Washing-

n, New Hampshire, seems a remarkable exception; the ob-
servations for 1870-3 give as resultants—

Resultants. Ratio. Monsoon influence.
Spring, N.87°21'W. ‘62 S17 is Ww. dee
Summer, N. 62° 33’ W. °62 Wi 12" 30 E38;
Autumn, N. 60° 46'W. 634 N. 9° 3’ E. "153
Winter, N. 87° 38’W. 60 gs es 134

These S-shaped curves were pointed out and illustyated by
Professor Coffin, in 1848, at the same time that he announced
the existence of the Polar system of the northeast winds, and

e corrects the error, so generally
prevalent, of limiting the monsoons to the tropical part of Asia,
showing that they extend as well to all China, Japan, Mant-
chooria, the western coast of the Sea of Ochotsk, and the basin
of the Amoor river; and, with a reverse of seasons, to Australia.
The winds on the whole Atlantic coast of the United States
were early shown by Professor Coffin to possess some monsoot
features, though slight. The influence of the Gulf of Mexico
over the basin of the Mississippi and Ohio, from latitude 34° to
_ 42°, in producing the west-southwest direction of the winds at
all s is traced to the constant maximum pressure existing
_to the south and the minimum to the north and northeast.

Coffin’s Winds of the Globe. , wane

In the United States, north of latitude 32°, the annual results
obtained by noting the actual velocities average S. 89°+W.,
with a ratio of 261; while those had by disregarding the un-
equal velocities are 8. 80°+W., ratio ‘227. The divergence is
therefore about 9° in the yearly resultants, but greater in win-

Variation in velocity be disregarded. oom :

The average velocity, so obtained, of all winds in the United
States, is seven miles an hour, being slightly in excess in the
northeastern part of the Union, and less in the States nearer
the center of the continent. ‘ :
. For positions considered separately, the velocity of the wind
1S greater— Z

1. On high isolated peaks, than at low stations, —
. * On the seashore, and especially on isolated islands, than
in the interior of continents, :

n level countries, than in countries surrounded by moun-

ms; and

4. In prairies, and especially desert countries, than in wooded
regions,

278 Coffin’s Winds of the Globe.

A less velocity than the average belongs to the winds of the
equatorial calm-belt, the calm-belts at the polar limits of the
trade-winds, and the trade-wind belts,

There is an extensive region in the southwest of the United
States, which has a common yearly period of winds, different
as are its geographical features. It includes the extreme south-
east of California, Arizona, New Mexico, Southern Utah, Texas,
Arkansas, the Indian Territory, Eastern Colorado, Eastern
Wyoming, Southern Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, and
Missouri. The wi

3
Qu
”
=
ej
fa)
nm
i)
&
4
s
ez)
°
er
7
o
n
©
Ss
et
=
4
&
I
B

mostly north and northwest. This region is equal to more
than a million square miles, or about one-third of the United
States, without Alaska.
comparison of the motions of clouds with the mean direc-
tion of the surface current, shows that they very nearly coincide

s
west-southwest direction between the Mississippi and the
Appalachian chain, and a west-northwest direction in New
England.

As the northern and southern boundaries of the great west-
erly current are approached—at least in the United States—the
gt

- much below the 42 per cent above named, a they surpass
that fi; i

rary
monthly and annual variation is traced ; and one chart exhibits
the connection of the wind with fluctuations in the thermometer,
amount of cloudiness, and fall of rain and snow. The whole

forms be sane summary of facts in this department of

P. T. Austen—Mitro-derwvatives of Diphenylamine. 279

Art. XXXII.—On some Nitro-derivatives of en by
Dr. PETER TOWNSEND AUSTEN

A PRELIMINARY notice of the following ies" peice
published in the Berichte der Deut. Chem. Ges., vol. vii, p.
1248. I had hoped, long before this, to have completed: ‘the
research in a more satisfactory manner, but my time having
been occupied eg other subjects, I have but recently been
able to return to i

Pisani* found ‘as trinitrochlorbenzol acted on ammonia,
and formed trinitroaniline. Clemmt+ applied this “Rei to
aniline, and obtained a trinitrodiphenylamine. In a similar
manner he produced a dinitrodiphenylamine by the wekoi of
dinitrobrombenzol on anilin

The reaction in all of these cases is simple—

Pe) Ot ee

Several nitro-derivatives of diphenylamine had cent been
discovered by Hofmann§ before the research of Clemm was
made. They tind, however, not been produced by oe | intro-

direct nitrition of benzoyldiphenylamine, and subsequent elim-
ination of the benzoyl-group.

m. P’ ., Xcii, 326. 4 Soe Pr. Chem. rm}, j i, 145
{ On the ease of substitution of haloid atoms in nitro-compounds, see my Ein-

leitung zu den aromatischen Nitroverbindungen, page 8. ‘‘Chlorbenzol lasst
beim Behandeln mit alkoholi miak unter keinen Umstanden sein
tom die Ami pe tuire! omer aber bei

reichen andern ahnli 0 Disinee i die Schlussfolgerung, dass die
di ‘ rane ouput Atome lockert. (Vergleiche

ppe die ‘Anaih L :
smh Helkowski (Ber. Chee. Ges tard und, Latechinolt (Ze
Chem., 1870, 22 B Chem.
“Umgeket an Meg’ ore Zincke 2 er dieselbe die : cee der positiven

Gruppen des a i ii Dass diese Voraussetzung richtig ist,
pen Molekiils ag ssggent coer Behandelt man Anilin mit

ppe ve
ped 80 ist die cet st | sehr ge hie bei Nitroanilin weniger, bei Dinitro
troanilin k

anilin sehr ruhig, wahre Reaction giebt.” According to
pg cgunimmabecicht,.1i is 305) home the weakening action of the nitro-
on ‘halogens is the relation is 1-2 or 1-4, not extending,
Soest -? l Aes
§ Ann. — exxxii, 1

Au, ay Scl.—Turrp Senin, Vos XII No. 76.—APRIL, 1877.

280 P. T. Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine.

sation of the action, most of the phosphorous oxychloride was.

distilled off. The heavy red liquid, remaining in the retort,
was poured into a large excess of cold water and violently
stirred. After the phosphorous oxychloride had been entirely
decomposed by the water, and the mass had solidified, the
impure substance was well washed with water, powdered, an
extracted with ether by means of a filter pump. A dark-red
resin was by this means removed. The bright yellow eee
left on the filter, was dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol and
purified by animal charcoal.

In this manner beautiful bright yellow crystals of trinitro-
chlorbenzol were obtained. By drying they became darker.
The yield is from 30-40 per cent.

obtained ‘better results, however, by simply heating the
substances in a high beaker glass, for I found that a consider-
able amount of the chlorpicry! was destroyed during the distil-
lation of the phosphorous oxychloride. I found, also, that
the yield was far better, when instead of 100 grams of picnic
acid and 200 grams of phosphorous pentachloride, 50 grams of
picric acid and 100 grams of phosphorous pentachloride were
taken. By this method the conversion of the picric acid into
chlorpicryl, the decomposition of the phosphorous oxychloride,
the extraction with ether, and the crystallization from alcohol,
all together do not take more than an hour. :
_ The trinitrochlorbenzol fused at 82°5°-83°. By dissolving
it in glacial acetic acid, diluting the solution with water, and
allowing it to stand, superb feathers, frequently over two inches
in length, were obtained.

ALAS tS ee Z 7. £ eo. oF. E 4
aerated

Preparation.—25 grams of metanitraniline (112°) and 27
grams of chlorpicryl were dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol.
On boiling the solution for a few minutes, the separation of a
heavy yellow crystalline sand began. This sand was not redis-
soived by ition of more aleohol. The solution was allow
to cool, the precipitate separated by filtration, purified by crys

-tallization from glacial acetic acid, dried at 100°, and analyzed.

Analysis.—A combustiont gave—

02744 grms. of substance burned with lead chromate gave 0’414
rms. of CO? and 0-582 grms. of H20.
0 Soe peer of substance gave V=48°'8 c.c. [B=764'8 mm. ; =

* The trinitrophenyl-complex of picric acid is in this research distingnished by
the prefix alpha. The relation is most probably para, but it requires experimental
_ + The large number of nitro-groups present in these compounds rendered the

= Use of an unusual amount of copper spirals

___S patie

se Gk eae

P. T. Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine. 281

C*H*(NO2),,
The formula N ) C°H2(NO2)3q=C!2H™N508
H

Cale. Found.
IL
C=41°20 41°15 coe
H= 2°00 2°36 sp
N=20°05 20°33

purification, used again.
he reaction is exactly analogous to the one representing

the formation of trinitroaniline (loc. cit.).

C*H*( oO )
C*H?(NO*)*°Cl+-2C°H*(NO*)NH’=N { C°H*(NO*)'
H+C*H'(NO*)NH*HCl

but crystallizes badly therefrom. In hot glacial acetic acid it
Is easily soluble, and separates in the form of a beautiful
orange-red crystalline sand. From a solution in acetylchloride
it crystallizes in small wine-yellow transparent crystals.
Aqueous ammonia dissolves it very easily, the solution

lies it behaves as with ammonia. Concentrated solutions of
sodium and potassium hydrates, especially by heating, decom-
pose it with evolution of ammonia. :
Properties, —The compound consists of a heavy, crystalline,
yellow sand, fusing at 205° to a red_liquid which, when undis-
turbed, solidifies at about 175°. By careful heating it vola-
tilizes in the form of a yellow powder. It burns with a yellow
uminous flame when heated on a platinum foil, and leaves a
porous coal. If it be thrown on a hot surface it explodes like
_ SUnpowder. By percussion it is not explosive.

Simp

Ce ee oe ee :
AROPINMUT EM dd fee ati ‘ ‘ .
Preparation. —This compound was made in a manner similar to

the preceding one. Paranitraniline (made by nitrition of acetani-
lide, elimination of the acetyl-group by boiling with ——
trated chlorhydric acid, and decomposition of the nitraniline
chlorhydrate by sodium hydrate) with the cal amount

282 P. T. Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine.

of picryl chloride was brought into solution in boiling absolute
cohol. On continuing the boiling, a red crystalline powder

a

Analysis—The substance was purified by crystallization

from glacial acetic acid, dried at 100°, and analyzed.

02888 grms. of substance burned with lead chromate gave
0-4354 grms. of CO? and 05920 grms. of H?0.

02852 grms. of substance gave V=49°8 cc. [B=767mn. ;
t=23°|.

C&H4(NO2),
The formula N { C°H?(NO2)3g=_C12H1N50Q8
H

Cale. Found.
I. I.
C=41:26 41°12 “le
= 2 0G 227 . ea
N=20°05 20°07

Solubility.—The solubility of this compound is nearly the
same as the preceding one, being, in seneral, somewhat higher.
Tn aqueous ammonia it is easil b

It dissolves in a warm solution of sodium carbonate to a
searlet-red color. On cooling. violet needles separate. This,
without doubt, is the sodium salt of the alphapicrylparanitrani-

4 3 :

line, N agian The needles are soluble in alcohol —

f onium car

bonate. Easily soluble in amyl alcohol, crystallizing therefrom
: itteri cales. In aniline it dissolves
easily, and separates on’ evaporation in a crystalline form. It

perties.—In general this ee, gee seems to possess more
somer. Th

por gg cs se than its ii e pure substance fuses at

place in the most satisfactory manner.
On cooling, the tube contained hard brown crystals. They
__ Were washed on a filter with warm alcohol until the filtrate
contained no trace of nitraniline chlorhydrate.

P. T. Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine. 288

Analysis.—The substance was purified by repeated crystal-
lization from an excess of glacial acetic acid, dried at 100°, and
analyzed.

02780 grms. of substance burnt with lead chromate gave

00896 grms. of H?O and 0-4844 germs. of CO?.

02822 orms. of substance gave V=46 cc. [B=757-2 mm. ;
t=22°2°).
CtH4(NO2),,
The formula N ¢ C8H3(NO?)?2,—C!*H8N#0%
H

Cale. Found.
i IL
C=47°36 47°81 fcce
H= 2°63 3°57 eae-
N=18°42 18°66

Soiubility.—The substance is insoluble in water, alcohol and
ether. Difficultly soluble in boiling glacial acetic acid. It is
soluble in an excess of boiling chloroform, separating in small
yellow crystals. je

Properties.— Small glittering yellow crystals, fusing at 189
toa red liquid. With alkalies it behaves in the same manner ~
as the trinitrophenylparanitraniline.

Dinitrophenylparanitraniline.

03080 grms. of substance burnt with lead chromate gave
0°5886 grms. of CO? and 00912 grms. of H?0. x
02848 germs. of substance gave V=87'6° [B=705'3 mm. ; =19"].

CsH*(NO?2
The formula N csH(NO#}*,=C 12}]8N#08
H

_. Cale. Found.
3
C=47°36 47°68 ----
— 2°63 3°29 ----
N=18°42 18°29

*Wilgerodt announced (i . Che: Cee ix, 1178) a dinitrophenylmetani-
aniline which he had pak Big by the action of a C°H*(NO*}*Cl on oteag
aniline. This is identical with my compound, although he finds

fusing point of 194~6°.

284 P. T. Austen—WNitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine.

Solubihity. —The substance is easily soluble in cold glacial acetic
acid. It here shows a striking difference from the dinitro- ]
phenylmetanitraniline which is difficulily soluble in boiling glacial
acetic acid. It is difficultly soluble in cold absolute alcohol,
easily in hot. |

rhes.- compound forms a light-yellow and extra-

_ ordinarily light, elastic and electric powder. It fuses at 131°.
wing to the small amount of the substance at my disposal, I
have not been able to investigate its properties more thoroughly.

nitrition could be effected. In this case, since the trinitro- |

picrylnitranilines, higher nitro-members would be formed, and

trinitrophenyl-group remains unchanged during the nitrition.t

t is, however, very possible that in one of the resulting com-
pounds the two picryl-groups may be identical.
Since the positions of the nitro-groups in these dipicrylamines .

as not been ascertained, I shall represent the trinitrophenyl-
group of picric acid by a, and the dinitromononitropheny!-
oups of meta and paranitraniline by 6 and y respectively.
ly two of these picryl-groups can be identical.
inne that the imido-group would withstand the action of the nitrous

| e if
T have no proof, however, that the introduction of two nitro-groups into the mono-

i does not exert a displacing action on the members of the
Picryl-group.

In nitrizing the paradibrombenzol, I find that the relative amounts of isomers
formed are mstant. Tt ms to depend on the strength and the amounts
the duration and temperature of the wera ;

present, endea rmi is more exactly, in the hope 10,
able to produce more of a given isomer at will. "
i ing in regard to whether several isomers are
the o

P. T, Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine, 285

Alphapicrylbetapicrylamine.

Preparation.—The alphapicryl-metanitraniline was added in
smal] portions to a cooled mixture of equal volumes of fuming
nitric and concentrated sulphuric acids. The liquid became
hot, and a violent reaction set in. er the reaction had sub-
sided, the liquid was poured into cold water. A bright sul-
phur-yellow cream was in this manner obtained. If, however,
the acid solution is boiled for half an hour, the substance is
completely destroyed, and, on pouring the liquid into water,
only a resin is obtained.

After washing out the acid with water, the cream was well
extracted with alcohol, by which means a resin, giving a deep
orange-red solution, was removed.. The substance was then
dissolved in boiling glacial acetic acid, and preci itated by
concentrated chlorhydric acid, well washed with dilute chlor-
hydric acid, dissolved again in boiling glacial acetic acid,
boiled some time with animal charcoal, filtered, and allowed to
crystallize. :

Analysis—A portion of the substance was purified by crys-
tallization from glacial acetic acid, dried at 100°, and submitted
to analysis,

02876 grms. of substance gave 0°3490 grms. of CO* and

00404 orms. of H?0.

02924 grins. of substance gave 0°3588 grms. of CO* and 00404

germs. of H?0.

C&H?(NO?) 83
‘The formula N / C¢H2(NO?)?q=C1?H5N707?
H
Calc. Found.
} It.
C=32°8 33°09 32°99
1°56 1°53

let ne A ie
erties.—Impalpable bright sulphur-yellow powce"
bahay crystallization from “naa acetic acid, it can be

glass. By touching it with a hard object when in a liquid
State, it solidifies to a yellow amorphous mass.

286 P. T. Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine.

‘Vapors of ammonia turn it scarlet. By boiling with mode-
rately concentrated solutions of sodium and potassium hydrates,
it decomposes with evolution of ammonia. In an aqueous
solution of sodium carbonate it dissolves easily, forming the
sodium salt.

By addition of water to the boiling glacial acetic acid solu-
tion, a thick precipitate is formed, which, after crystallization
from glacial acetic acid, showed a fusing point of 205°, and on
analysis proved to be the original picrylmetanitraniline from
which this dipicrylamine had been prepared. the addition,
then, of water, to the boiling solution in glacial acetic acid, the alpha-
betadipicrylamine loses two nitro-groups and is converted back into
the prerylmetanitraniline.

The dipicrylamine does not explode by percussion.
heated, it puffs with a white luminous flame, and leaves a light

orous coal. It explodes with violence when thrown on 4
ot platinum foil.
Alphapierylgammapiecrylamine.

Preparation. This compound was prepared by nitrition of the
picrylparanitraniline in the same manner as in the case of the pre-
ceding compound. On pouring the resulting mixture into cold
water, the substance separated as a light greenish-yellow cream.
After extraction with alcohol it was crystallized from glacial
acetic acid, dried at 100°, and analyzed.

0-2836 grms. of substance burnt with lead chromate gave 0'3480
. of CO? and 0:0436 grms. of H?0. :
02792 grms. of substance gave V=54-3c.c.[B=756™ ; t=22 }.

C8H2(NO?)3,

The formula N { C*H?(NO?)3g=C12H5N701¥
H

Found.

3

C=32°80 32°08 .

os 1°28 1°70 ou

N==22°32 sages 21°91

Solubility—The solubility is about the same as that of the

: —Small transparent glittering light-yellow prisms
with a green reflex. It fuses at 230° with effervescence and

___ Thave already mentioned that these compounds, particularly
_ the dipicrylamines, give fine scarlet piste with alkalies.

P. T. Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine. 287

According to Hofmann, the mono- and dinitrophenylamines
give similar ones. This fact was substantiated by Clemm.

I find that these colors are caused by the formation of salts
of the nitrodiphenylamines. The hydrogen atom of the imido-
group has become so negative by the introduction of the nitro-
groups, that it can easily be substituted by basic atoms. It
reacts easily, indeed, with carbonates of the alkalies.

the numerous salts of these compounds which I have
hte I have as yet had time only to investigate one—the
arium salt of the alphabetadipicrylamine.

Rardum-alnh , Thet ;, li,
PAT COMO HUEPIILG JJ 0CF

_ Preparation.—The a f-picrylamine was added to an aqueous

pap of barium hydrate (or carbonate). The dipicrylamine dis-
solved immediately with a deep intense red color. The solution
was boiled for a few minutes and then evaporated on a water-
bath. After a sufficient concentration had been obtained, the
solution was allowed to stand. A beautiful crystallization of
dark-red needles was obtained. They were puri
repeated crystallization from water.

Analysis,—A portion of the needles were dried at 100° and
mixed with sodium carbonate and nitrate. Some sodium car-
bonate was then fused in a platinum crucible, and the mixture
added to it in small portions. The resulting solution was kept
in fusion about five minutes, and then allowed to cool. ter
It had become quite cold it was dissolved in very dilute chlor-
hydric acid, filtered, the solution brought to boiling, and pre-
eipitated with sulphuric acid.

04012 grms. of substance gave 0°0908 grms. of BaSO*.
CsH2(NO2)83

C&H?(NO?)%a_ Geapan4Qz4
| CsEiNoys “= C*4H*N'40*Ba
C&H?(NO?)3a

The formula Ba | S
Cale.
13°52 ; :
ane reaction by which this barium salt is formed is very
Sim e: g ‘
2(NH[C*H?(NO*)"}}) + Ba(OH)'=Ba[N(C°H"(NO’)’)*?+H°O_
: Sobubility.— Quite easily soluble in boiling water, less so in
cohol,

Properties —Small, dark saffron-red glittering needles. Tt
See : : i orm salts with

288 P. T. Austen—Mitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine.

With the hydrates and carbonates of the metals, the dipieryl-
amine yields in the same manner fine salts.

The most beautiful salt which I have yet obtained is the

monium-alphag picrylamine. It crystallizes in superb
intense red transparent rhombohedrons(?). Whether it is
identical or ouly isomeric with the dyestuff “ Aurantia,” which
is now produced on a large scale, I have not had an opportu-
nity of ascertaining.

By treatment of the sodium salts of the dipicrylamines with
picrylchloride, a reaction takes place doubtless with the forma-
tion of the tertiary picrylamine, N(C*H?(NO?)3)8.

Immediately after the publication of my preliminary notice,
Gnehm* ann ich he

No. Rational Formula. oo For-
Hofmann, HNO? on
fin i (OHS)?
Orns Light-yellow crystals.
i x] C*H4(NO?) Ol? FION2Q? Do. NaOH on No. L
H Pe
C*H*( NO?) Do., fuming Bass on
Ti. N + C°H4 NO?) CELENI05 N « y he
6 ETS
bis e i Deep yellow crystalline substance.
pi lat Do. NaOH on No. Il. Red.
TV. "Nj CHYNO?) C"H°N*04 —_ yellow needles with metallic blue
be lex, :
Clemm, C*H%NO?)*Br on 0°H®
NH?®. Long thin scarlet-red or
a red-yellow glittering needles.
V. N CH (NO?)?,, OC? HYN304 8 at 153°. Wilgerodt,
“ a-C*H(NO?)°C] on alcoholic H’S-
solution of aniline. Fuses at 156
—157°
* Ber. Chem. Ges.,

vii,
: tion of a

diphenylamine gives dibromtetranitrodiphenylamine [Gnehm 1
vill, 930): tetrahydroisoxyloldicarboxyl (camphoric acid) yields trinitroisoxylol,
under elimination of hy 1 and carboxyl [Wreden] (ibid., v, 1106): many § d

part with the sulpho-group during nitrition. Cresolsulphonic aci
| [Duclos | (Ann. Chem. Pharm., cix, 135) and dinitrocresol [Arm-
Chem. News, xxvii, 318); dich!orphenolsulphonic acid yields 4
et ] Soe. Jour. [2], ix, 1112): mon a

honie acid, from solid chlorphenol, gives dinitrochlorphenol [Petersen au
; (Ann. Chem. Pharm., clvii, 121): the monochlorphenolsulphoni¢
or nol heahavac in a ra a Prevost]

Ber. + Vil, 404): sulphopodocarpinie acid yields dinitropodocarpinic
acid | Oudemans] (ibid, vii, 1317). By nitrition of “pth nes mr oiagsr
a Chem. Pharm., clxx, 212) think they obtained a small amount :

vamine. In the nitrition residues of diphenyl, Fittig (ibid., cxxiv, 27 )
amounts of nitrobenzol.

P. T. Austen—Nitro-derivatives of Diphenylamine: 289

C*HS
VL x} C*H(NO?)§g

{ounsor.
VI. N4 C*H{NO?*)?
O*H“NO dp

VII. x }onrtor

{omso3,

IX. N4C*HNO?)?
OH 2"

x x jones HNO},
H
C°H?NO?*)38

x xf SHE
C'H {NO

XI. x jon NON,
H

NO’

XIII Bal C*H'(NO?)4

N Jeu C*H4 NO?)

XIV. x fo ONO! ,
| CE(NO2)5?
XV, ONO}?
XVI. WN

{or oe HBr iat ?
32
x | (NO?)'Br?

C®E:

C8

H

C*H?(NO?)?Br ?
a (NO?)? ?

H

CtH
N CHG pial NH??

B

th 5 \ Cen nom

a sons pede

mx x} on
{SEE “A
Oe. x H O®H3|0*#H!#N*08 ith a violet color. oa
H [ovory 180 with a

Do., 0°H?(NO*)'Cl on CSH'NH?.
C’HeNios «Sparkling prisms. By reflection
scarlet-red ; bib penny nm reddish-
shag oe Fuses
b, OH NO Br on m-
OC? HEN408 ae 25 Small glittering yel-
rystals. Fuses at 189°.

CYHSN40* powder. Kasily soluble in cold
glacial aceticacid. Fuses at 181°.

Do., C°H?(NO*)°Cl on m-nitran-

O?A™NEO8 _ iline. Heavy cryst. yellow sand,

: tran-
C"H'"N*0* —itine. | Red crystalline powder, or
if.

cal
Do., nitrition of IX. Fuses a
C2HeN790% 261°. Impalpable bright yellow
nsparent glit-

powder or small tra
tering yellow crystals.
“ . nitrition of X. Small
CYH'N'O” — transparent glittering bright yel-
low ager ith green reflex.

—
Do., Ba( OH on XI. Dark
O*HSN¥4O™Ba iene d glittering needles.
Explodes on heating.
Gnehm, nitrition of diphenyla-
CYH NO” nine. Transparent, "pe Agate
prisms. Fuses at
C!HSN8O!2 Do., so on XIV. Beautiful
_red lea’
4
Do., nitrition of HN " feats
C°H®N*Br’0® Yellow pearly lea rhom mbic
tablets. Fuses at 935°-240°- 242°.
Austen, C°H®.NH? on
gd
CH? B
C™HEN*BrO! Beautiful vianc, = hairy
needl Fuses at 120°. (This

Small
C?HEN*Br0$ bro . scales. Fuses at 167°5°.

CHMN‘Ot 4 pads a =
m. Ges., ix.
“Do, formed: with X XIX. Yel
Se romsleus

dles.

August 30, 1876.

of Mines, New Fork oe Sue 3, 1871.)

290 FW. Clarke—Note on Mineral Analysis.

Art. XXXIIL—WNote on Mineral Analysis; Notes upon somé
Fluorides; and Note on Molecular Volumes ; by F. W. CLARKE,
S.B., Professor of Physics and Chemistry.—Laboratory Notes
from the University of Cincinnati. Nos. I to III.

I. Note on Mineral Analysis.

In 1868,* the writer called attention to the fact that certain
very refractory minerals are easily rendered soluble by fusion
with a mixture of sodium fluoride and acid potassium sulphate.
He now finds that in many cases, and with but little loss of
power, common salt may replace the fluoride, the mode of

anipulation remaining the same. The finely pulverized min-
eral is to be mixed with three parts of the chloride in. a
eapacious platinum crucible, and the mixture covered with
twelve or fifteen parts of the acid sulphate in small fragments.
The fusion is then performed over an ordinary Bunsen’s flame,
and in five or six minutes is complete. The fused mass, after

This method is not by any means equal to the original
process with sodium fluoride, either in speed or in generality
of application ; still, in some cases, it is convenient. Sodium

with

as oxidation ensued, but in no case did more than a§

* This Journal, March, 1868.

|
|

F. W. Clarke—Notes upon some Fluorides. 291

II. Notes upon some Fluorides,

hedrons. Upon recrystallizing, about two-tenths of a gram of
these crystals were obtained, both forms being represented, and,

2° e anhydrous fluoride gave in one experiment a spe-
cific gravity of 4556 at 17°, gee in another 4°612 at 12°
Th ures are noticeable from the fact that they do not

agree with the usual molecular volume of water of crystalliza-
Hon. They yield a volume of water ranging from 11-4 to 118;
*n amount considerably below the usual value. I will not now
: any conjectures as to the meaning of this apparent
€Xception,
* This Journal, December, 1874.

292 F. W. Clarke—Note on Molecular Volumes.

The writer has also determined the specific gravities of
several alkaline fluorides, as follows: Lithium fluoride, 2-295,
21°5°; sodium fluoride, 2°558, 14°5°; potassium fluoride, 2-096,
215°. According to Bédeker, potassium fluoride has a density
of 2°454 at 12°. Theoretical considerations, to be cited in the
third part of this paper, sustain the lower value as obtained by

An examination of rubidium fluoride, made upon a very

small quantity of material, may not prove to be wholly trust-
rthy. It gave a specific gravity of 8°102 at 17°. Rubidium
carbonate was dissolved in hydrofluoric acid, the solution evap-
orated to dryness in a platinum dish, and the residue fused at
a heat just below redness. The molten fluoride was so trans-
parent as to be almost invisible in the vessel containing it; but,
upon cooling, it became white and opaque, and contracted so
strongly as to split up into several fragments. This salt is ex-

tremely deliquescent.

Attempts to prepare fluorides of gold and platinum were wholl,
unsuccessful. Still, results were obtained which may be wort
recording. Toa solution of gold chloride, silver fluoride was
added, in order that by double decomposition silver chloride
might be thrown down and gold fluoride formed. In fact,
however, there fell a pale-brown precipitate which grew gee
darker in color, and which consisted of silver chloride mix
with gold oxide. The reaction may be expressed as follows:

2AuCl,+6AgF+3H,O=Au,0,+6AgC1+6HF.
With platinum tetrachloride and silver fluoride a pale-yellow
precipitate was formed, containing platinum dioxide, thus:

instead of fluoride, nitric acid being set free in place of hydro-
fluoric. This has long been known, the reactions being new
only in so far as they involve the effect of silver fluoride. This
Statement is made so that perhaps some other investigators may
be saved from tedious and fruitless experimenting.

IIL Note on Molecular Volumes.

metals with each other; and, later, that the haloid salts of
some of these metals had molecular volumes multiples of that
of hydrogen. For this latter relation, however, my materials
_ Were meager.

3 * This Journal, March and May, 1869; September, 1870.

F. W. Clarke—Note on Molecular Volumes. 293

for LiCl, NaCl, KCl, NaBr, KBr, Nal, and KI, or seven com-
pounds in all. To these I added, though unsatisfactorily, the
corresponding salts of silver, making a list of ten bodies closely
Alated, and giving volumes multiples of 5%, the value assigned
by Kopp to hydrogen in its tigaiid compounds, at their boiling
-séeyy This relation I am now able to extend, partly by new

ensity observations of my own, to include at least twelve
beck gies not in my earlier list.

_My own determinations, in addition to those I have already

u

chloride, 2-209, 19°; rubidium bromide, 2-780, 175°; rubidium
iodide, 3-028, 22°; lithium bromide, 8°102, 17°; lithium iodide,
3°485, 28°.

Now let us tabulate the material. The first column contains
the symbol of the substance, the second its density with author-
ity given, the third its molecular volume as found, the fourth
its volume calculated, the fifth a theoretical density deduced
from this volume. The calculated volumes are of course the
exact multiples of Kopp’s hydrogen value, and will be seen at
once to agree closely with the results of experiment. The real
variation between fact and theory, however, will be best seen
upon comparing the two columns of densities. The differences
here are always less than 0°1. :

L IL. II. IV. v.
lif 2°295, Clarke. 11°33 11-00 2-363
LiCl. /1-998, Krem 21-27 22-00 1-932
Li Br. 3°102, Clarke. 28-05 27°50 64
Lil (3-485, 38" 38°50 3-481
= F. /2°55 a 16°41 16°50 ats

aCl. |2-145, Buignet. 27°27 27°50
NaBr. |3-079, Kremers. 33°45 33-00 3121
Nal. _|3-450, Filhol. 3
KF, /2-096, Clarke. 28-20 27°50 2-113
he L945, Kopp. 38°35 ps a
- |2°672, Playfair, Joule. 44:57 “at
KI. |3-066, Filho * 54:35 55-00 3-020
RbF. |3-202, Clarke. 39°64 33°00 3°167
RbCL |2-209 54°78 55-00 2-200
RbBr. 2-789, « 59°53 60°50 2-735
RbI. [3-093 & 70-29 71°50 2-972
ee ee

A curious progressive relation is also worth noting. If

294 EF. W. Clarke—Note on Molecular Volumes.

we compare the five chlorides given in the table we shall see
that upon arranging them in the order of their molecular
weights the differences between successive members of the series
increase as we ascend. Thus LiCl and NaCl differ by 5°,
NaCl and KCl by 11, KCl and RbCl by 165. This regular

difference-increase is certainly suggestive of some law yet to be -

clearly made out.

ular volumes pean of that of hydrogen.

approximating to a multiple of 5°5, but not closely enough to
satisfactory. The sesquichloride does not even approxl
mate. At some future time I hope to be able to revise cae
extend our specific gravity determinations for this class °
thallium salts.
Now to sum up. Including the silver and thallium salts we

general law, subject to possible exceptions. very compou
_- * Compt. Rend., vol. Ixxviii, 970. + Jour. Chem. Soc., I, xi, 818.

A. H. Chester on Variscite from Arkansas. 295

_ containing only elements of the hydrogen group has a molecular’
volume an even multiple of that of hydrogen. This is probably
but a hint of some more general regularity connecting other
elements and other groups. :
Postscript.—Since the above pages were written, there has
been published by Johnson a density determination for -
sium.triiodide, KI. (Chem. News, xxxiv, 256.) This deter-
mination, 3-498, corresponds to a molecular volume of 120°1.
121 is an exact multiple of 5:5, and gives a theoretical density
of 8472. The multiple relation now holds good in twenty
cases out of twenty-five.

Art. XXXIV.— On the identity of the so-called Peganite of Arkan-
sas with the Variscite of Breithaupt and Callainite of Damour ;
by ALBERT H. Custer.

2

Phosphoric acid __- _ R08.) 226
MN ao re + 9°59 15°72
CAS) games een Aye ener Cece oe coger 7°08 11°89
Tnsoluble residue 5. Ser. ee 69°69 49°86

Total, 99°44 99°83
Deducting the insoluble residue, and calculating to one hun-
d per cent, we have'the results below in columns 1 and 2,
while 3 gives the average of the two, and 4 the oxygen ratio.

1 2 3 4
Phosphoric acid. ___ __- 43°96 44°74 44°35 5°05
PUN oo a | $924 31:46 31°85 300
Water .__- 23°30 23°90 23°30 4:32

»”
alumina was found to be 1 to 4:04, 426, 4°01, and 423. .

296 ‘A. H. Chester—Sepiolite from Utah.

founded. Its composition, moreover, is identical with that
obtained by Petersen for the variscite of Breithaupt, and
closely corresponds to that of the callais (callainite) of Damour.
Analysis 1, below, is by Petersen (Jahrb. Min., 1871, 357) of
‘variscite from Messbach, in Saxon Voigtland; and analysis 2,
- atte by Damour (after the deduction of 2°10 p. c. of sand),
of callais:

1 2

Phosphoric acid.....--..--...- 44°05 43°31
a Sb oe. ee cc. 81°25 30°09
ween Meemaonide ee. eae 21 1°86
meee. ce ec ONT
AU a a 0°18 0°70
Wem es tae 22°85 24°04

Total, 99°95 100-00

qu
all shades of bluish green to almost colorless. Some crys
are dark in the middle, and light at boti ends. It is trans

_ Chemical Laboratory, Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 12.

*.

Art. XXXV.—On a fibrous variety of Sepiolite from Utah ; by
Foe. ALBERT H. CHESTER.

SoME years since I obtained, while visiting a silver mine in
Utah, specimens of a fibrous mineral which upon analysis
proves to have the composition of sepiolite. It occurs in 4
. seam about two inches in thickness cutting across the rock

strata and vein at nearly right angles. The following analyses
_ give the composition of two varieties, one of which is white,
_ and the other bluish-green; 1 is the mean of four analyses ©

J. J. Stevenson—Age of the Rocky Mountains. 297

the white variety ; 8 is a single analysis of the green kind; and
2 and 4 are the respective oxygen ratios for the two.

1 2 3 A

Ria... .0 lll a I ee oe
MNO. SV ae: - 2°06
Tron sesquioxide ___.___-- “70 1°02
Manganese sesquioxide _.. 3°14 2°09
Copper oxide co .cck 6s x 0°87) 5 82
MND ii cia 22°50

Rbk es 990 192 930 1°88
MNT 5 co ee 8°

One half the water is driven off at a temperature of 100° C.,

mineral,
Hamilton College, Feb. 14.

Art. XXXVI.—On Dr. Peale’s Notes on the Age of the Rocky
Mountains in Colorado ; by J. J. STEVENSON, Professor of
Geology in the University of New York.

_l Have read Dr. Peale’s notés with a good deal of care, but
his long discussion of my conclusions contains very little in
the way of direct argument, which seems to me to call for a
reply. At the same time it is necessary to correct some of Dr.
Peale’s statements, which, no doubt without any such intention
on his part, certainly tend to give a false impression respecting

th my facts and my position. :

The first. of these is on page 172, where the final sentence in
the third paragraph seems to intimate that while Dr. Peale
does not regard his data as sufficient to extend his generaliza-
tions to the entire Rocky Mountain System, I, on the other
hand, feel no similar hesitation respecting my data, which were

procured within a smaller area. The opening pa h o
Chap. Xvi of Wheeler, vol. iii, contains a full statement of my

-°Pinion concerning the value of my data.

298 J. J. Stevenson—Age of the Rocky Mountains.

The second of these is on page 174, in the third paragraph.
There the statement is made that the Trias is present in south-
western Colorado and northern New Mexico, and the testimony
of Dr. Newberry, Prof. Cope, Mr. Holmes and Dr. Peale is
offered to prove the truth of the statement. This effort to

Sd

once settles the question here by showing that there is 00
pect of non-conformability at either Golden or Colorado
springs, so that, as I had made a mistake at each of these
localities, there is every reason to believe that the same mis: — [
take was made at the other localities. Now I grant him all
he says about the conditions at Golden and Colorado Springs ; !
the groups are not in direct contact there, and consequently no

re was no mark
nection with the

*

Chemistry and Physics. 299

context, readily appears to contradict the quotation from my
report on page 179. But there is no difference between Dr.
Peale and myself. When I wrote that chapter in 1874 I re-
garded the whole Lignitic group as forming the closing portion
of the Cretaceous. So I considered the period of accelerated
upheaval as occurring at the close of the Cretaceous, that is, at
the close of the Lignitic group. Dr. Peale places the action at
the same time.

I have no additional facts to offer in support of the provi-
sionat conclusions which I offered in the report to Lieut.
Wheeler. All the material in my possession is given in that
report, and the synopsis of that, which seemed to have a bear-
ing on the age of the system, is to be found in Wheeler, vol.
iii, Chap. xvi. Nor am I likely to secure any additional facts
either pro or con, as there is no probability that I shall have an
opportunity to revisit the Rocky Mountains for a number o

ears,

New York, March 9th, 1877.
1

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

L CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

defines’ velocity of reaction by supposing that u=/(a p92? a3,
tenes Um, #),in which u is the quantity of the new 0-
duced in the time ¢, and a,, @,, dg th : tl
der which the reaction takes place. Hence the first differential
Coefficient, “f= (@,, @g, Gs . . Qa, #) represents the reaction-
velocity under the conditions given. It remains to find the form of
the functions w and ““. Since all the conditions must be exactly

measurable and expressible in numbers, the author chose for ex-
periment the action of liquids on solids, in which the only varia-
bles—the temperature being constant—are the surface of the solid
acted on and the concentration of the solution. “‘ Concentration
. ‘ é : eee
18 used to express the value given by the formula D-5-i00" in

in €.¢., the formula VD. oey represents the concentration

300 Scientific Intelligence.

used in the experiment. Two modes of stating the results are
roposed: 1st, that the quantity of the new body formed in an
. . t

molecules of the liquid which act it of surface of the
solid. ive that me reaction between zinc and sulphuric acid, and
sum uit of zine su pena dips in a unit of volume of

pression for djH or we ee ue =~ 49kdt. By ‘siege be-

tween the limits y, and y,, the value of y, can be obtained ; and
by substituting this value for y in the first equation given above,
earye the signs and integrating between corresponding limits,

t
ee aHg=ky, f” eis ay there is obtained [H,]= ze¥o

a. as =75(¥. —y.), from which kat 7 ~ = comm. log. ri
experimental results Sete zine and sulphuric acid not being

Per Tag the author took Carrara marble and ot tia acid,
the marble parece ene accurately measured, From
this the su ohn a was calculated and also t relaiiie of liquid
ve a unit A — = ee bet of marble surface.

The Sones niin of the acid was determined volumetrically,
be Z Yo: ne Saretsily ethed isthe ia placed in the acid
or a known time, then removed. washed, dried and weighed;

from the loss, aie carbonic dioxide evolved and the acid consumed
were determined, giving y. From these data, by the formula

t=]3kM log “i the value of 734M, and consequently of %, was
oO

calculated. As a mean of 53 well agreeing experiments, the
value of [24M was found to be 0-01765, and of & 0-04442-0°008 at
20° and 760 mm. Since this value is constant, it follows that the

, ee In connection wit ne Kajander, ‘Boguski hag now ex-

a sei gp ete: olecular cbiahes From a
CO,|=kydt, we ely the velocity of the reaction

uently when different acids of the same

Chemistry and Physics. 301

_concentration act upon marble, the velocity of evolution of carbon

dioxide is inversely proportional to their molecular weights.—

Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., ix, 1646, x, 34, Jan. 1877. G. F. B
On the Equivalence of Nitrogen—LapEnBurG and StrRuvE

have sought to throw some light upon the equivalence of nitrogen

chlorides, one being apparently monoclinic, the other ortho-
rhombic. From this it follows that the five bonds of nitrogen in

€8., X, 43, Jan. 1877. G. F. B
ion of fuming Nitric acid on Coal Gas.—AKESTORIDES

f .
rents of nitrogen tetroxide gas, and on adding water, a yellow
i e crystals

, that ethylene is absorbed by nitric Day ee
oxalic acid; this substance being permanent even im ng
acid.—J, pr, Ch., II, xv, 62, Jan. 1877. G. F. B. -

4. On oxidized Platinic sulphide.—E. vy. Meyer has ee SSE
the so-called oxidized platinic sulphide, long known for its =
Catalytic activity. It was prepared by precipitating a hot solu-

302 Scientific Intelligence.

several days on the water-bath, during which latter process the

hydrate Ps | eet the other derived from ‘two molecules of this

by the loss of water ? Orr The analytical results for the —

* Pts
latter were enamine h but the former could not be obtained as
ure, e sulph-oxide (PtS)O does not a to exist free

ing 8, SO, givin SOo,,
and HNO,, éialic acid giving CO,, f

ferric Salts, aleohol to aldehyde and toluene yielding benzalde-
hyde.—J. pr. Ch., TI hj aa

i 1 G. F. Be
5. Preparation of Glycollie acid by reduction of Ozalic acid.

—Crommypis has succeeded in producing glycollic acid from
i ; drogen. The oxa

oxalic, by the action upon it of nascent hydrog in
i solved in water, was mixed with zine turn ngs and heated
for eight days in a water-bath. The liquid was then filtered,

warty masses formed which were soft like wax, and which on
analysis proved to be calcium glycollate, crystallized with four
molecules of water. The copper and zine salts were also prepared
sr examined.— Bull. Soc. Ch. II, xxvii, 3; Jan. 1877. 6. F. B.

A, :

the Decomposition of the Oil of Turpentine at high

Temperatures.—-Scuvtz has studied the products of the action of
high temperatures upon oil of ‘turpentine, using iron tubes an¢
heating them in a Hofmann furnace to a dull red heat. The oil
distilled between 158° and 161°, and was caused to flow into the
eated tube drop by drop. Carbon was deposited, pepe

This tar was fractionated, and the fractions examined.
tion boiling below 200° affor

G. F.
. Constituents of Beech-wood Tar-creosote. -~TremaNnn and
MENDELSoHN have examined the properties of creosol and phlorol,
constituents of that fraction of beech-tar creosote boiling near

22¢ oe By the action of acetic oxide on potassium-creosol acetyl- ‘

-

. Chemistry and Physics. 303

acetyl, gives vanillic acid. Creosol is therefore parahydroxyl-
metamethoxyl-toluene. From phlorol, methyl-phlorol and oxy-
ota acid were prepared.— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 57, Jan.

. em
8. Measurement of High Pressures.—M. 1. Camtetrer has
recently constructed a manometer capable of measuring high
pressures, on the slope of a hill near his laboratory at Chatillon-
sur-Seine. The apparatus consists of a metallic tube 70 meters
long and about 2 mms. interior diameter. One of the extremities
th mercury

and placed at the base of the hill. To the free extremity of the
= a large glass tube is attached, which forms the upper end.
ecg h :

en the mercury contained in the rvoir is compressed, it is
forced up into the metallic tube so as partly to fill the glass tube,
which is fixed on a vertical plate is portion of the apparatus

Attached thermometers give the correction for temperature.
pressure of thirty-four atmospheres may thus be obtained. M.

is only n ary to lower into the shaft to a
known depth a cylindrical reservoir of iron about two meters long
and containing the apparatus with gilt glass he previously used

i A small metal tube starting at
e surface is attached to the iron reservoir. When mercury is

Sought, arrives at the following conclusions: :
1st. That metals and paper are not athermanoug as Is generally
Supposed,

— than for the luminous heat rays, or th

€ spectrum.

od. That they have absorbent powers less than that of water.
complement of the inverse ratio which exists between the

*.

304 Scientific Intelligence. ..

quantity of heat which penetrates normally into a body and that
which goes out of it in the same direction is here called the ab-
sorbent power.

4th. That it is possible to find a mathematical relation between
the absorbent power of a body and its coefficient of conductibility.

meats of proving this fact for objects like a candle, which appear
to the eye to diminish. A candle is attached to each pan of &
balance, and above one a glass tube open at both ends is hung,
at nearly the height of the wick. In this tube is a piece of wire
gauze holding some pieces of caustic soda; after balancing the
candles, one of the candles is lit, when the products of combus-

of absorbent particles upon absorption. As such an arr
must be especially prominent when the substances afford well-
x wae :

2u8.

Cc =
_ 12. Lippmanis Electrometer—Professor Dewar exhibited 10
the agen Society a simple electrometer which he has designed,

= f on the discovery of Lippmann that the capill constant
___- 8 not really independent of the temperature or nes of the

Chemistry and Physies. | 305

law that the internal pressure multiplied by the diameter ofas
bubble is constant. It consists o U-tube one arm of which is
about fifteen inches long and is bent horizontally and levelled with

comprises the classes of sudpho- sulphi- and hyposulphi- acids, the
sulphohydrates or mercaptanes, and their derivatives.

With the discovery of the first organic de

the experiments of Dabit, Sertirner, pogels Gay-Lussae,

306 Scientific Intelligence.

phurous acid, Kolbe’s prognosis of sulpho-alcohols and aldehydes,
ete., which could not be conveniently discussed in the main body
of the work, are taken up.

After discussing the older modes of interpreting the sulpho-

sulpho-acids, the author next treats of the development of the
atomistic conception of combination by Kolbe and Fra _

tory explanation of the constitution of the copulated sulphur com
pounds, and the first conception of the sexivalence and conse
easons

and which showed that his conception of atomicity, thoug'
roadly stated, was not defined with sufficient sharpness 4
definiteness,

iscoveries of the sulpho-chlorides and amides, and Buckton’s and
Hofmann’s preparation of numerous disulpho-acids, Gerhardt $

-

Geology and Mineralogy. 307

tigations abundantly show, to explain any difference of constitu-
. * h . h .

tion between the sulpho-acids and the metameric hypot —
: ; .

as those given by Kolbe, some twenty years ago, that mists
differ however from Kolbe in their general conception of the consti-
tution of a body, and in their views as to er In Whi

Constitution of a body, does not hesitate to accept Butlerow’
definition of the sulpho-compounds, i. e. as compounds of a sexi-
valent S, in which the S is combined directly with a C-atom of the
organic body.
IL Gsotogy anp MINERALOGY.
1. Note on the Age of the Crystalline Rocks of Wisconsin M
vnc. (Communicated.)-—In a note on the “ Huronian
“ Canada,” published in this journal for December last, Mr. A. R

Wisconsin, and Michi Harost the Lower Silurian, uses
ichigan Huronian to the Suw |
the words: « nda it is an established fact that in Minne-

ih ;
Sota (Michigan?) and Wisconsin the same Huronian _ aa
unconformably covered by the Potsdam sandstone... .” Suc

308 Scientific Intelligence.

an unconformability in Wisconsin is certainly a fact, established

not by one or two instances, but by many. e exact junction

ward, is to be seen within twenty feet of large ledges of dark col-
ored amphibolic gneiss, whose bedding planes dip southward and

_ difficult to separate, similar rocks occuring in both groups, but the

ts

sandstones including numerous fossils many of which are closely
allied to those of the Potsdam sandstone of New York, and al

urian, Mr. Bradley would have to stretch that term so as t0
cover three entirely distinct terranes, each overlying its pre -

gay is certainly untenable fora moment. Such things may
m all probability do occur in the Appalachians, but there

- Geology and Mineralogy. 309

northwestern States since the beginning of the Primo
University of Wisconsin, March 8th, 1877.

certainly has been no period of metamorphism in the region of the
rdial,

; with twelve plates ashington, 1876.— eat region west
of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains, including the part in
the vicinity of the 40th Parallel, abounds eous rocks, from

results erefore excellent, and at the same time they give to
es student the present European use of the names of
rocks,

, 4e remarks also on the evidence that the crystalline. minerals
In the “base” were formed while the latter still had a flowing

€ FELD

8 of silica: ite ni rphyry. felsite-porphyry, rhy-
olyte, obsidian, pearlyte, anak Titchstone—(B) Containing no
arte, an ith } ioclase feldspar : ryt

an
leucite: Foyayte, miascyte, orthoclase-porphyry, phonolyte
(containing nephelite), and leucite and sanidin rocks.

IL @ FELDSPAR E PLAGIOCLASE OR TRICLINIC SERIES,—
(a.) Containing hornblende: quartz-dioryte, dioryte, pouty Qe
hornblende - rphyry, propylyte, quartz-propylyte, hornb ende-
andesyte, an dacyte.—(b.) Containing biotite: mica-dioryte.— (c.)

310 Scientific Intelligence.

Containing augite: diabase, augite-porphyry, melaphyre, augite-
andesyte, feldspar-basalt (including doleryte and anamesyte), and
tachylyte—(d.) Containing diallage: gabbro.—(e.) Containing
ypersthene: hypersthenyte.—( jf.) Containing olivine: (serpentine)
“forellenstein.”
III. Containing NEPHELITE as the feldspar mineral.—Nephelin-
yte and nepheline-basalt.

porphyritic felsite (typical porphyry) ; granite-porphyry is a por-
phyritic granite, though restricted by Zirkel to a kind in which

so on. Agel, the affix is used where the disseminated crystals
are not feldspar, but some other mineral: thus, hornblende-por-

augite along with more or less magnetite make together a rock
which is called basalt or doleryte if Tertiary or younger, and #@
base if of earlier date. It is a method of naming which might
multiply names indefinitely, and which has nothing to commend
it. It is to be noted also that Zirkel uses the name basalt in place
of doleryte. Both basalt and diabase are described as often com

is left as a variety of basalt
oa et the names of many of the rocks, is inserted by

«

Geology and Mineralogy. 311

Of the above mentioned rocks, those found in western America
include, under I, granite and granite-porphyry, felsite-porphyry,
syenite; under II, dioryte, hornblende-porphyry, propylyte, quartz-
propylyte, hornblende-andesyte, dacyte, trachyte, rhyolyte, dia-
ase, ep hi gabbro, augite-andesyte, basalt; under IV, leu-
cite rock.

comparisons with similar rocks of other countries; and erous
very Singular and interesting facts are brought out, besides impor-
tant illustrations of the relations and mo of the rocks,

from dioryte, the silica, according to the analyses given, amounting
to 64 to 66 percent. It is of Tertiary age, and hence it is not

y
ornblende; and the physical differences drawn out on page 133—
Such as a purer gray color, the hornblende in coarser crystalliza-
in ki d

; . The gro : 4

Sometimes spherulitic, and thus differs from that of voted bee an

Topylyte. ‘The analyses show that the feldspar contains relativ

little lime, and therefore must be, in the main, andesyte or oligo-

Clase. _ The quartz, unlike that of quarts pe shows no fluid-
ned,

ym
Plates grouped to i nbers. A‘
gether in great num
ee from the Cow Hills, between S or neti
adsworth, of dark brownish-black color, containing sani Hy! an
also pale gteen augite with some plagioclase feldspar and horn-
Aw. Jour, Sct.—Tuigp Suries, VoL. XIII, No. 7.—APRIL, 1877,
21

*

312 Screntific Intelligence.

blende, is called an augite-trachyte. It resembles in general com-
rae the augite-syenyte of vom Rath, which constitutes the
rger part of Mt. Monzoni in the “South Tyrol. Other localities

rocks which contained disseminated quartz, and bore “ olgarel evi-
dence than other rocks of having once flowed in a viscous state.”
The more or less glassy kinds comprise obsidian, pearlstone, and »
pumice. These Zirkel designates glassy rhyolyte. Other kinds,
Pag and sometimes porphyritic, not apponan g glassy, but show-

ing a fluidal structure in having the ingredients arranged in par-
allel wavy bands, instead of evengrained, as seen in microscopic
sections, he designates proper rhyolyte ; and certain granite-like

hae (sanidin) in Ao 3 and a a triclinic species, the eres
Ths same re . The percentage of silica was found to be 58°015.

n Hungary, etc, Augite-andesyte is near the melaphyre of some
Wthologiete, but differs in sive base being partly glassy. It shows
its relation to basalt by containing some chrysolite. The rock
also occurs red, blackish, snd of other colors.

Basalt is described from various localitie s. Ina variety from
Kawsoh Mountains, ‘hah a structure “intermediate between the
micro-porphyritic and “* Sid akcaise ete microscopic aggregations

« tridymite crystals were observed, in the form of thin 2 ene
plates, partly overlapping like tiles a partly in groups. .
is the . . e has been met with in basalt; and it is

semerken that “ since the, basalt comes to the surface thro ugh or

a substance originally oreign to basalt.
Leucite rocks are described from the peu Hills, northwest of
oi Rocks, Wyoming Territory. They are light yellowish-
gray felsite-like rocks, very rich in leucite crystals, and containing
augite in grains yet sparingly, with no feldspar of any
oT thus differ eldcly from the European leucite rocks.

314 Scientific Intelligence.

results are Se cin than by reliance upon short sections in either
one by it

Hanover, oe H, March 16, 1877.

4. On Gevtatee Time; by T. Metrarp Reape. Presidential

off the area of England and Wales annually is 68,450,936,960 tons,
equal to 18-3 inches in depth out of 31°988 inches of mean rainfall,
leaving 13°7 inches for evaporation. The amount of solids in solu-
tion is 8,370,630 tons, or 12°23 oe in every 100,000 of water:—
ie » which are ‘about 9°50 of ‘carbonate and sulphate of a
[ride of sodium, 0-08 of nitrates and 0°9

2

strata and Marlstone. The Thames, es, estimating the sass at
8 in. per oo ae the total solide at 29°26, as given by Prest-
wich, rem 147 tons per square mile per annum ; and the
detain. < over England 143°5 tons.

eade makes similar calculations for the rivers of sa
and finds that the Rhine removes about 92°3 tons per square mile;
the Rhone about 282 tons; the Danube about oe apn giving )

tons,
one the world about 100 tons of rocky matter are dissolved by rain
— square mile per annum: of which, as near as can now
ated, 50 tons may be at tg of lime, 20 tons sulphate
of du "7 silica, 4 each carbonate and sulphate of brgitg

ollie in 80 a ; that of the Micsiseipph according to Hum-
agg ie and eagaly tear of the water. Mr.
e

times je savage os lution, Mbt is'a very high estimate, we should
f the

pet 8, matter equal to one-third that
land, we should have annually removed
weal to 800 tons per square mile 2 of land

Geology and Mineralogy. 315

rock at 133 feet to the ton would weigh 10,903,552,000 tons, so
that to cover the whole surface of the globe one mile deep with
sediment from the land at the rate of 800 tons per square mile of
land surface, would take 52,647,052 years, or 526 million years in
round numbers for ten miles deep.”

. The Carboniferous and Permian a continuous formation
in Bohemia.—A paper full of details as to fossils is published b
Dr. Feistmantel in the Geological Magazine for March, in whic

other local-
ities) there is no strict boundary between the Carboniferous and
Permian :

other district referred to I
>

XI
et M. de LappaREntT,
8vo, with a colored

eldspathie rocks under the solvent action of water, ¢
waters and other reagents in solution.—M. Truchot
Series of Auvergne rocks in powder for several

% Cad K,0. P,0;
walk removed. removed. removed.
Granite of Montaigui__.----- 0°80 wai 0-1 —
Granite of Trezioux ........-- 0-90 bes dee a
Lava of Volvic 1°75 0°25 0 oe
Domite, Puy de Dome____--- 1°82 tr. tes ; :
Trachyte of Mt. Dore ______- 2°90 tr. 0 :

The trachyt ttacked, especially its silica, and
this cecosinks for the frequent occurrence of opal and other siliceous
sing the syenite of Bielle, finely pulverized, to
water, demalyer. O18 per pei at the ordinary temperature, an
°ent; to water saturated with sulphate of lime, 0°43 per cent.

316 | Scientific Intelligence.

Orthoclase feldspar has been exposed to different solutions by
A. tee aided by Birner, Ulbricht and Heinrich (Arch, Phar
TI, el, 193). A kilogram finely pulverized was put each time 16
two fitérs and a half of water or certain oe and kept so for
about five months—out of contact with the a
grams dissolved in the 24 liters of water for the different liquids
was as follows:

Equiv. K,0 Na,O CaO MgO #¥e,A)_ SiO,
0"

: illed wat ca ‘ MOG 2225
Carbonic acid i in water _. 0°071 0114 0-076 0-004 0-009 0-069
AMO oe ecu ects eds 0-1 0209 0-174 0-067 0°003 0-008 0°061

MOE. cone 10 0359 0315 0013 0004 -..... 0159
Narra and CO, ... 10 0312 0255 tr. 669 -.. 0048
= Uspeme oo) 02 0°053 0074 1:°906 0-016 -.--. 0°033
Sulphateof ammonium 0-2 07161 0°094 07122 0°035 .-.. 0°066
Chloride’of sodium__. 0°2 07163 _... 0°091 0°008 0°004 0°032

e results are of much interest, showing that common salt and
sabinnte of ammonium, produ sich that are usually in the soil, in-
crease much the dissolving wer of water; and still more do

be
zeolites, cperaete’ in closed tubes with heat, they were changed

ce of serpentine abi one

7. A fossil Saurian Vertebra from the Arctic Regions.— —Prof.
A. Lerra Apams has named the Saurian, a vertebra of which was
brought from Rendezvous Point, Byam Martin Chan nel, pe |
Admiral Sherard Osborn, Arctosaurus Osborni. It is «in a

others were remains of Ichthyosaurus, determined by
f. Owen, and said to be from Lias beds; and these are the only
Arctie Reptilian remains hither described.

8. Fossil Vertebrates from the Fort Union beds of topes
Prof. E. D. Corr has described the following species
Proceedings of the Philadelphia 7 of — selewneh, for
1876, p. 248: Aublysodon lateralis, Lelaps incrassatus, L.
explanatus, L. faleulus, Dysganus enewustus (a herbivorous Dino-

aydeniaunus, D. biearinatus, D. peiganus, ont

. variolosus, Polythorax Missuriens',
us @ Stombergt Ceratodus cruciferus, C. hieroglyph,
daphus bipartitus,

Geology and Mineralogy. : 317

9. A Text-book of Mineralogy, with an extended Treatise on
' Crystallography and Physical Mineralogy ; by Epwarp Satis-
U na, Curator in Mineralogy, Yale College. On the plan

8v0, wit .
1877. (John Wiley & Sons, 15 Astor Place).—This work is in-
tended for a class-book in the science. One half is occupied with

at much length in order that the student may have at hand the
means of acquiring the special knowledge demanded for complete
investigations; and illustrations and descriptions of the best instru-
ments are given for the same purpose, besides numerous diagrams
and figures of crystals, About seventy pages are devoted to
descriptive crystallography, over twenty to mathematical erystal-
lography after Nauman’s system, and as many more to the same
after Miller’s system, each of which subjects is very fully illustra-
ted by figures; and the chapter on optical characters extends to
thirty-five pages. Besides, there are lists of recent w« I

memoirs on the various subjects considered under Physical Min-

The Descriptive part of the volume follows in its classification
essentially that of the last edition of the system of Mineralogy,
and is,in the main, a condensation of that work. But all new
Species introduced since the date of its publication have been in-
erted. The more important species—about half of all known—
are described at length (though with few analyses, and often only
the percentage composition), and the rest more Drietly.

Sensing af the history’ Ot
or the full synonymy of the mineral species and the history
pele seymy, extehied descriptions of American and nan
localities, tables of the many chemical analyses of minerals t =
ve been made from the earliest times, notes on the alterations 0
Minerals an. curring pseudomorphs, and some other sei the
reader will still have to look to the System of Mineralogy an Its
Supplements, i 2 ee L
10. Second Preliminary Report on the Mineralogy of ich tl
vania, by F. A. Gentu; with analyses of mineral-spring ee the
Harrisburg, 1876.—This is a report of progress, embodying the

318 Scientific Intelligence.

work done upon the mineralogy of Henney rans during the year
1875. It contains a considerable number of new analyses, mostly
i al

nat 8.
SION E. other points Dr. Genth shows that the “ melanosiderite”

e is “ not a good species, but simply an impure Posies! of
hydrated iron sesquionide, probably limonite.” The “ cassinzie ”
from Blue Hill, Delaware Co., des¢ribed by Lea as a roneie of
orthoclase, is shown iy contain 3°7 p. ¢. baryta; the mean n of three
analyses gave: Silica 62:60, alumina 19°97, iron sesquioxide 0°12,
magnesia 0°02, lime 0°19, strontia, tr., baryta 3°71, soda 4°43, pot-

9°00, ignition 0-19=10033. Specific gravity 2-692. he ae D.

11. Brief Notices ere escribed minerals
—-Occurs in sma oclinic py with distinct rats pe:
age. Hardness 3-4, "Sp ecific. gravity 3°12. Color clear ai
trans er Its coinposition is expressed by the formula 2M est »

O,2+8aq, which requires: Phosphorus pentoxide 29°88,
iron protoxide 53°06, water 17°06=100, The formula of vivianite,
to which it is related, is Fe,P,0,+8aq. Ludlamite occurs in some
of the mines of Cornw all, England, See with v errs

ith c
Giesse sen, (Mig Tae. Min.,
Pelagite.—The na e pelagi ite ‘e given provisionally by Prof.
A, H, Church to the “Mea constituting the “ manganese nod-

dioxide 30-22, iron sesquioxide 20-02 2
chlorine 0-71, Mg, Ca, Na, etc., 0°83, water lost below 100° 24°55,
lost at a red heat 10° ie It will be seen that the nodules,

if omagsieo neous, have a complex chemical composition, and bes °
means consist essen tially of “ nearly pure peroxide of manga”
report As stated by Prof. Church, the further

analysis of additional material is needed before the name pelagité
- ? Nov. 184 accepted.—( Church, Mineralogical Magazine, No. 2,
p- Ov., 1876.)

—M. Daubrée has given the name lawrencite to the
sevkebior ie of iron, the presence of which he has detected in
the Greenlan¢ meteoric iron. It was hes separated by Dr. J.
Lawrence sca from the Tennessee meteoric iron, and the name
48 given in honor of him.—( C. R., Jan., 1877:

Docu = )

A rene
= white mealy material surrounding the castorite of Elba, and be

Geology and Mineralogy. 319

makes it a new mineral under the name hydrocastorite, it having
been derived from the decomposition of castorite. It is in part

It seems, however, that the same mineral was at first named
guanajuatite by Fernandez, who described it in full in the Guana-
u a fiblica” for July 13th, 1873, The latter

an
a]
&
ao]
i)
Beg |
s

ur, shown in his analyses, to the admixture with a little pyrite.
i eeeerial analyzed by Frenzel received the formula 2Bi,Se,+
123.
Silaonite—In the paper, “La Reptblica,” for Dec. 23d, 1873,
Professor Fernandez describes a second bismuth selenide from the

lead-gray color, and is compact in structure. Its hardness is a
little less than that of calcite; its specific gravity 6428-6745.
The results of several analyses upon material more or less pure
led to the conclusion that the chemical composition is expressed
by the formula Bi,Se. BE. 8. D.

Krystallographie und Mineralogie ; vol. i,
; . first number of this new Journal, recently’
received, admirably fulfills the promises made in the Prospectus.

Me i

: D L
hitro phenol, by O. Lehmann; a ma ganese variety of tremolite,
by G. ‘Ebeutg: on the form of crystals of barium sulphate, etc.,
by H. Baumhauer; on the schorlomite from the crepe nd
i i notice

and extracts, upwards of thirty in number, and covering as many
Pages, follow. These are derived from
and form not the least valuable part of the number.
able editorship of Professor Groth, it cannot be doubted that the
new Journal will always maintain the high character it has at its
commencement. E, 8S. D.
13. Ueber den inneren Zusammenhang der verschiedenen Krys-
pllgestallten des Kalkspaths, yon Dr. F. SCHARFF ; 61 pP. 4to, with
aig dae Frankfort, 1876.—The memoirs previously published
Y Ur. Scharff upon the interior crystalline structure of several

320 Scientific Intelligence.

of the materials in J apan, and the methods employed in the prepa-

lil. Botany anp Zoouoey.

1, Dictionnaire de Botanique, par M. H. Bartton, Paris.
(Hachette & Cie.)—We noticed the first fascicle at the time of its

is the proper derivation given), Anthére, Antheridie, and Anther-

ozoides, Ihe work improves as it advances, and if in danger of

being too bulky

and fullness of i
nder Ainsli

, it is certainly low-priced, considering execution,
Hlustration,

perfect 'y known genus, Parthenice Tor. & Gra robably belongs;
and over the leat ; i ne g under
Aiolotheca

rte nd ; d
J. Wurster & Comp. 1877.—This fourth volume of a classical, a0

: ularly inte mo
First, Beitrage zur fossilen Flora S itzbergens ; with a geological

i ; | appendix, by Prof. Nordenskidld. belongs to the fourteenth

Botany and Zoology. 821

volume of the memoirs of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences,
Stockholm, no. 5, issued in 1876.

Second, Beitrage zur Jura-Flora Ost-Sibiriens und des Amur-
landes, is from the memoirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences,
of St. Petersburg, vol. xxii, issued in 1876.

ird, A small part, with only two plates, Ueber die Planzen-
Versteinerungen Von Andé in Norwegen, apparently has not else-
where appeared. :

This East Siberian Jurassic flora is rich in Gingkos (seven
Species), with some allied Taxineous genera, as well as some

les or forms of Gingko, three Pines, and a sort of Bamboo;
the Cretaceous, three or four Pines, Sequoias, a Zorreya, ete. ; and
the Miocene has Taxodium, Glyptostrobus, Sequoia, Cyperus,

arex, Maianthemum, Alisma, seven Poplars, two Alders, three

an Ivy, five species of Cornus, two of Nyssa, and a Nyssidium,
Tilia, three Maples, a Kelreutera,
! A. &

botanically. rotessor Sommers parison
tween the flora of Nova Scotia and that of Colorado. Rev.

- Ball, gives an interesting and readable account of the Ferns of
Nova Scotia. Prof. Lawson, in notes upon some Nova Scotian
Plants, takes up the Calluna vulgaris question, enumerates the

neces

plant,” and “that the various traditions as to the foreign origin of
the heather, are not unlikely to have been suggested by the i

has been skeptical about centenarians) along with an interestin

is
Pot ved three months longer, she would have been 104 years old.
he not only lived long but enj

: and r |
Sight of late failed only so far that she was unable longer to read
e her pen; “her hearing was f

her teeth Wee divicat perfect, al her memory was nearly unim
Since Dr. Torrey’s death, probably the only surviving

322 _ Seventifie Intelligence.

correspondent of her husband is Dr. Jacob Bigelow, who on the
27th of February attained the age of 90. - + Se

5. Joseph de Notaris, the distinguished Italian Bryologist, who
was born on the 5th of May, 1805, and who was lately transferred
from the chair of botany in the University of Genoa, to that at
Rome, died on the 22d of January last. » Ge

6. fecent Papers on Fungi.—The following are articles of in-
terest, which have recently appeared :

1.) Reproduction des Ascomycetes, par M. Max Cornv,—

Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 6° Série. Tome iii.

(2.) Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Pyeniden 1; von Dr. HERMANN
Bavuxe.—In the two papers by Cornu and Bauke, an attempt has

however, seemed to point to the conclusion that some pycnidia
were independent organisms, and it was to settle this point that
Dr. Bauke made his investigations. His method consisted in the

caused by Reestelia cancellata Rebent, which Dr. Kramer ae
with Oersted in considering a form of Podesoma Juscum Du
occurring on Juniperus sabina, L. ‘Pte
7. Destruction of Forest Trees by Mistletoe ; by E. S. Crozier.
From letter to Editors dated Louisville, Ky., March 9, 1877.)—
ithe American Mistletoe (Phoradendron Jlavescens) is very common
in this latitude (38°), and bids fair to become an important factor

it has increased to such an extent that large forests of the latter

ee a ne Sr re eR ee enn ee

Astrenomy. 393

are now almost destroyed. In many sections this valuable timber
has entirely disappeared ; and in others the branchless trunks,
still standing, attest the destructive effects of this parasite. As
soon as a bunch of mistletoe fixes itself upon a branch, the out-
ward extremity ceases to grow, and finally dies. The tree soon
presents a clubby appearance, followed by death. A grove of
black walnuts, just east of this city, was notable a few

So

Median and Paired Fins, a Contribution to the history of

proximally, were
pernaed inwards. ‘The cartilages spreading met in the middle

formed the hip girdle. They had not here extended themselves
dorsal. In the pectoral limb the same state of things prevailed,
but was carried a ste further, namely, by the dorsal extension of
the cartilage constituting the scapular portion, thus more nearly
forming a ring or girdle

IV. AsTRONOMY.

1. Elements of Borelly’s Comet ; by Aaron N. Sxinver, Assis-
tant U.S, Nay. Cbeceraiit (From a letter to the editors, —
Washington, D. C., March 13, 1877.)—I have deduced the follow-
ing elements of Borelly’s Comet from equatorial observations

324 Serentific Intelligence.

T = 1877, Jan. 18°9658, Wash. M. T.

m= 174° 15". 32”

8% = 187 10 4 } Apparent Equinox, Feb. 13°7.
} 8

log g = 990709
The constants for computing the rectangular codrdinates are:

' = 9°71223 sin (336°-7634-L-v) sec 240

vented us from continuing these experiments further; but we
. :

same plate, for the purpose of comparison, with the spectrum of
the star. Spectra have been obtained of Sirius, Vega, Ve t

Moon, ete. I do not purpose in this preliminary notice to describe
in detail the arrangements of the special apparatus which has
been constructed, nor to offer the results of the experiments in

M ue OG

Se ee len)

| a
cir present incomplete state to the Royal Society. Still I
venture to hope that, even in this early stage of the inquiry, the
enlarged copy of the spectrum of Vega (a Lyre) which accom-
panies this note may not be regarded as altogether unworthy of

* Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 428, ©

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 325

eenbion. After exposure to the light of Vega, the dry plate
allowed to remain in the instrument until the following

ing, w sa a solar spectrum was taken upon it, through the

half of the slit etch had remained closed when the instrument
was directed to the star. The photograph shows seven strong
lines, all of them slightly shaded at the sides. The two lines
which are least Pera ue coincide with two oy lines of

hydrogen in the solar ape rum. It is expected, by means of an
apparatus now in the course of construction, to obtain also any
finer lines which may ke present in the spectrum of this star, as
well as to extend the photographic method to stars which are less
right. I need not now refer to the many important questions in

connection with which photographic observations of stars may be

3. Tables of the Satellites vs od ; by D.P. Topp. 40 pp. 4
—Published for the American Ephemeris by authority of ae
Secretary of the Navy. The tables of Damoiseau published in
1836 give the places of Jupiter’s satellites up to the year 1880.
The present tables are a continuation of Damoiseau’s by the same
formule and elements to the year 1900.

V. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

eeologiedt. ao of London.—At the Annual Meeting,
se 16th, the Wollaston Gold Medal was presented by the
President of _ Society, to Mr. Ropert Maver, for his able
researches on earthquakes, volcanoes, Mang energy, and other
queen. scientific labors the Murchiso n Medal 2 ties fal B.
or his various eological discov-
of Sydney, Australis, ona - the Lyell
edal and part of the Lyell Fund to Tate lt EcTOR, Director
of the Geological Survey of New Zealand; the balance of the pro-
ceeds of aad Lye Fund, to Mr. PENGELLY, for his explorations of
ent’s

tebrates;” whose studies include “fossil remains of ne early every *
great group of the Vertebrata from the peg Levee ous
and Cenozoic strata of the New World, ve Cam “ are merous
and so important as to mark an epoch i in this line of Lise BS 5 a
2. Bulletin of the hifi dott Society of Migaral Sciences, bon
No. 4. 1877.—This number of the bulletin contains a check-
list of oe fresh-water fishes of North America —— ed) bd
D. S. Jordan; the Shinumos, Be F. S. Dellenbaugh ; _
Pies of America, by A. R. Grote; on the “a ypbom ec oe
M. ©. Cooke. Mr. Grote’s paper applies _— I —
respecting the migrations of species in consequence e

*

326 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

approach and retreat of the cold and ice of the Glacial era (which
has been illustrated by different authors with respect to plants
and animals generally, and in Europe as regards man) to man in
North America, but without any special facts in proof of the
suggested migration.

3. The California State Geological Society “has been recently
incorporated for the purpose of makin i

and the Secretary 8. Heypenretor, Jr.
4, Meteorology of Golden, Colorado, in lat. 39° 44’ 24” N.,
8

?

. and S.E. 20 to 30 days for the several seasons, and between
W.,S. and S.E. 20 to 30 days for the several seasons, and between
N. and 8.W., 57 to 72 days for the seasons.—Z. L, Berthoud, in
Colorado Transcript for Jan. 10.

The American Microscopical Society of the City of New
York.—At the annual meeting held January 9th, the following
officers were elected for the ensuin year: President, John

Atkinson, M.D., 41 East 9th street, N. Y.; Secretary, O. G.
Mason, Bellevue Hospital.

6. Remarks on the Structure of Precious Opal.—Prot. Lzipy
has an article in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sci-

xi :
7. Shoal in the Atlantic 300 to 400 miles northeast of Madeira
and 130 miles from Cape St. Vincent.—Commander Gorringe, of

ature, of
portion of the Atlantic from Capt. Gorringe’s soundings and those
of the Ch
Gazelle, in
OBITUARY,

Wotreane Sartorius von WALTERSHAUSEN, the distinguished
author of works and memoirs on volcanic rocks, minerals, an
phenomena, including extended treatises on those of Iceland
and Etna, Tickewece of Mineral. and Geology in the
University of Géttingen, died on the 16th of October tot, at the
age of nearly sixty-seven. He was the author also of memoirs on
terrestrial magnetism, meteorology and paleontology.

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. XXX VIL—On Vortea: Rings in Liquids ; by Joun Trow-
BRIDGE, S.D., Assistant Professorof Physics. (Contributions
from Physical Laboratory of Harvard College. No. XVIII.)

[Presented at the Meeting of.the Am. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Mar. 14, 1877.]

ortex motion, by the researches of Helmholtz, Thomson, Ran-
kine, and Maxwell, is now attracting so much attention, that I

€ rings may impinge on each other at any angle would forma
useful apparatus for studying :
each other. At the conclusion of this paper, several met
of studying liquid rings will be described. When a drop of
liquid falls from a short distance into a liquid of less density,
A. Jour. Sct.—Turep Serres, VoL. XIII, No. 77.—Mar, 1877. |
22

328 J. Trowbridge — Vortex Rings in Liquids.

in which it cannot diffuse, the conditions of its motion just after
the instant of its striking the surface of the liquid of less densit
are indicated by the general equations of heterogeneous strains.
‘For each particle we have the component velocities u, v, w,
parallel to the fixed axes OX, OY, OZ. These have the fol-
lowing expressions:
da d, d
Kq. (1): u= | oF w=;

x, y, 2, ¢ being independent variables, and a, £, y, functions of
them. If the disturbed condition is so nee to the initial
condition that every portion of the body can pass from its initial
to its disturbed position and strain, by a translation and a strain
- without rotation,—i. e., if the three principal axes of thé strain
at any point are lines of the substance which retain their paral-
lelism,—we must have—

_ 4B _ dy dy da da_ dp.
Kq. (2): da — dy? ie a dy — da}

surface, every portion of —e cannot pass from its ini
y a translation and a strain

the ring form. I£, on the other hand, the drop of liquid can
diffuse itself in the liquid through which it falls, each particle
with the velocity u, v, w, is solicited at the moment of impact
a superficial tension, by the force of gravitation, and by @
force arising from the rate of diffusion. In this case, there 15
no tendency of the body to reassume the spheroidal or spheroid
form in its passage through the liquid. On the other hand, to
assume that each particle in the next state of the drop very pee
qui

J. Trowbridge— Vortex Rings in Liquids. 329

do not exist. For the components X', Y', Z', of the attraction,
which tend to make the non-diffusible drop reassume its spher-
ical form, we have in the case of the diffusible the components
, Y, Z, of an external force arising from the superficial tension
of the liquid, and the impulse given to the drop.
_If we follow the notation of Poisson* and Helmholtz,+ we shall
have for the general equations of internal motion of a liquid:
Idp__ du du du du )
* 5G ae ae ae
ldp _dv dv du du
ldp__ dw dw dw dw |
hides dt ae t dy tae
dh dh dh dh oh
alte’ "@ "a a (4)
du. dv . dw
in Se a = 5
da * dy * de ° ©)
In which p is the pressure in a liquid at the point a, y, 2;
, Y, Z, are the components of the external forces acting on a
unit of mass; and / is the density. When the variation of A
18 Infinitely small, we have Eq. (5). The forces X, Y, Z, are
considered to have a potential +. So that

(3)

dV dV dV
anand oo: — — Ea. (6
X=—, ar ~ = ()
and the velocities u, v, w, a velocity potential @ So that

dp co dp 2 7 Eq. (7)

or ude + vdy + wdz = dp,
and @ satisfying the equation
eo ey" oF,
det ap a

which is wha uation (5) becomes under the conditions ex-
pressed above. e must therefore have

dus dw dv dw dw du 8

dy sno dx’ a — dy’ da dz Eq. ( )

uations similar to the equations expressing a strain potential.
ote has shown that in the case of rotation of a fluid ele-
ment, Eqs. (8) become
* Traité de Mechanique. + Crelle’s Journ., lv, 1858.

330 J, Trowbridge — Vortex Rings in Inquids.

de. dr sg

a aye

dw du

bestest are Se Eq. 9

dx er 4
dv

—

and therefore “the existence of a velocity potential is inconsis-
tent with the existence of rotation of the fluid element.” We
have seen from the equation of strain that the existence of a
strain potential is inconsistent with the rotation of a material
article. Let us now see if vortex movement can arise In a
iquid from variation of density and pressure. Following Helm-
holtz’s notation, we have, if # is a function of a, y, 2, ¢,
op _ dp, dp, db ap 6
fae Seay “ae “aget ee
Calling &, y, 2, the components of the angular velocity, we can
obtain their variations by substituting them in succession In
Hq. (10). If we eliminate X, Y, Z, from Eqs. (8) by the help
of Eqs. (6), supposing that h and p are functions of @, y, 2 4, We
obtain, introducing the values of &, y, 2, from Eqs. (9):
6§ (dv dw\, dv, ,dw 1 (dh dp ue)
Eq. (11)-= -2(F 42) +1 E+ tone a dy dz
and similar expressions for the variations of y and 2. If the
variation of h is infinitely small, we obtain by the aid of Eq. (6):

du dv dw
Ree at ee
If it is not infinitely small, we have the term

which is independent of 8, y, 2, and depends upon the varia
tion of h and p. This term enters into the expressions for the
variations in the angular velocities; and shows, therefore, that
a vortex movement can arise in a process of diffusion by @
variation in density and pressure, without the aid of initial
angular velocities. This condition can be shown experiment
“7 by dropping a somewhat dense solution of one of the aniline
colors into a mixture of glycerine and water. The origina
ring, after ceasing to move downward in the mixture, breaks
up gradually into segments, which slowly in their turn assume
the ring form. A mixture of water and glycerine is not neces
__- sary: peculiar cusp-like figures indicating the first stage of vor
_ tical movement can be seen whenever a thin stratum of one

es yee

J. Trowbridge— Vortex Rings in Liquids. 331
slg slowly diffuses itself through another liquid of different
ensit

By a consideration of the equations—
e+ (u,-wdt= (é +5,t)
6
ey + (v, — v)dé= (y +37)

62 + (w, —w)dt = (2 +57)

given by Helmholtz, from which he draws the conclusion that
“each vortex line remains continually com of the same
elements of fluid, and swims forward with them in the fluid,”
we see, on introducing the new expressions which we have

found for — &c., Eq. (11), that we approach nearer and nearer

to this theoretical conclusion when the variations of h are
smaller and smaller. Obviously, we should then obtain the
most perfect rings when the drop and the liquid in which the
motion takes place are composed of the same liquid. And,
therefore, a drop of water falling into water must form a more per-
fect ring than that formed by a drop of any colored liquid of greater
density than water. Be

The formation of these liquid rings is as fascinating and as
Simple an occupation as blowing soap-bubbles. All liquids
falling from such a height that the surface of the liquid is not
too much disturbed to enable the drop to be acted upon sym-
metrically by the forces at the free surface will form rings, if
too great differences of density do not exist, and if the drop can
diffuse in the liquid. The preceding mathematical discussion,
as we have seen, shows us that a drop of’ pure water on striking
the same element under the above conditions must necessarily
assume the ring shape. This can be shown experimentally by
covering the free surface of the water with a fine eee: or
With matter in a fine state of subdivision. L have
an alcoholic tincture of ginger, which gives on the surface of
water a milky liquid consisting of particles in a fine state +
Subdivision, answers the purpose very well. Fine particles Wi
be carried down by the drop, and will be seen to rotate in a vor-
tex ring far below the surface. This fact can be stated, also, by
the employment of any of the aniline colors which are solvent
in water, the falling drop consisting of a colored solution, whose
specific gravity does not differ sensibly from that of water. fhe
method that I have employed to produce the rings Pip on
merely of a small glass tube, slightly smaller at one
the other. A bit of cotton is wedged in nearer the ggeed
over which a piece of flexible rub tubing is slipped. i

332 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

~ the aid of the mouth, one can fill this tube with liquid and

eject it in drops at pleasure. The same apparatus enables us
to form the rings beneath the surface of the liquid. Witha
tube bent horizontally, one can send the rings through a liquid
in any desired direction; and, by means of a three-way glass
joint and a small india-rubber bag, one can send forth, by the
same impulse, two rings whose paths make any desired angle
with each other. By partly immersing the glass tubes connected.
with the three-way tube in the free surface of the liquid, and
covering the surface of the water with fine powder, one can study
the mutual behavior of half vortex rings. A simpler method is
to illuminate, by means of a gas-light, the bottom of a flat, white
porcelain dish filled with water, and to observe the shadows of
the half-vortex rings on the bottom of the dish formed by the
movement of two spatulae along the surface. It can be readily
seen, by this stipe method, that a half-vortex ring moving
near another in a parallel path and with a less velocity tends to
follow in the path of the first; and that two equal half-vortex
rings moving in opposite directions along the same path separa
into two vortices which move at right angles to the path of the
original vortices. We can conclude, also, from this general dis-
cussion, that, whenever a mass of vapor of greater density than
the surrounding air is suddenly formed in the higher regions of |
the atmosphere, it tends to descend through it in a vortex ring.

The results of the preceding discussion are as follows: ; ;

1. An analogy between the strain potential and the velocity |
potential is indicated.

.

el

Art. XXXVIII.— An account of the Discoveries in Vermont Geol-
ogy of the Rey. Aucustus Wine; by James D. DANA.

_, THE death of the Rev. Augustus Wing, in January, 1876,
deprived the country of an excellent geological observer, and
Science of the results, to a large extent, of his long labors.
_____ During the preceding summer, in July, I had the pleasure of a
___ €xeursion with him to various localities over th try between

Hw
Yur

* See this Journal, III, xi, 334.

a

A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 333

Rutland and Monkton, Vermont, and derived much profit from
the survey of the region he had explored, and from the inform-
ation he communicated in conversation. en we parted he
promised to prepare a paper containing the results of his obser-
vations for publication. His decease having prevented the ac-
complishment of his purpose, I have felt it a duty to him and
to science to consent to perform, with the aid of such material

.8s I could obtain, the unfulfilled task ; and the following article

is the result.

My sources of information have been two small note-books
and a few of his letters, received from his family through Prof.
Henry M. Seely, of Middlebury College. But these letters are,
in part, long accounts of his geological observations and views,
written at different times during the ten years over which his
explorations extended,—probably in response to enquiries from
those to whom they were addressed. Among them, one, of
many pages, bearing the date, August 9, 1872, is addressed to
me,,and was written, as it states, on receiving a request from
me, dated August 8, for “a fuller account of the fossi of West
Rutland,” a brief note on his discoveries by Mr. E. Billings,
being all hitherto published. No copy of this letter ever left
his hands, nor even an acknowledgment of the request; and it
1s probable that the same is true of the others. His disinclina-
tion to write, and his reluctance to make his results public, so
long as doubts remained, were, in all probability, the occasion
of these many unfinished epistles. But if hesitating with his
pen, he was all energy and enthusiasm in exploration. It was
in 1865 that he came to the determination “to ascertain, if pos-
gs the geological age of the limestones, slates and quartzytes
ot Utter

by the Vermont ices Parra The Vermont Re
olia

pre-
n limestone and the form-

834 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

ations adjoining, but settles nothing; while Mr. Wing’s discov-
eries shed light not on these rocks alone, but also on the gen-
eral geology of New England and Eastern North America.

In preparing the following account of his results I have used
mainly his letter to me of August, 1872, it being the latest
detailed statement of his researches left by him, and it giving
his facts and views quite fully in the course of its sixty-two

ut his earlier and later notes also have furnished some
acts, All remarks of my own, or additional facts from others,
which are introduced beyond, are put in smaller type.

1. The Region.

The region studied by Mr. Wing is part of the area of the
crystalline limestone formation of Middle and Southern Vermont
—the “Kolian limestone,” as named by Hitchcock, in the Ver-
mont Geological Report.* This limestone covers a wide cen-
tral north-and-south strip of country, extending from the south-
ern boundary of the State to Northern Monkton—a distance of
about one hundred miles. The limestone region is bordered
on the east almost continuously by ridges of quartzyte, or
tebe and slates, which extend along the western foot of

1¢ Green Mountains. Besides, there are north-and-south
dividing ridges or belts of hydro-mica slate} and clay-slate,
with sometimes interstratified quartzyte. On the west there
are, in some parts, other belts of the slate, and to the north,
-near the great fault, areas of the Red Sand-rock. These vari-
ous rocks are so associated that the study of all is involved in
that of the Eolian limestone. Moreover they together extend
southward into and through Massachusetts.

Mr. Wing’s special field of exploration was the part of the lime-
stone region and of the adjoining country lying between Rutland
and Monkton. The Eolian limestone formation occupies the broad
valley of “Otter Creek” (correctly Otter River), and also those
of its main tributaries,

he accompanying map is from the colored chart of the Ver-
mont Geological Report. Mr. Wing’s notes suggest pee
; ad

IMICA
“SLATE

HYDRO

Lil
a
fl
an
8)
<4
U
=
O
r
Oo
>
ui

ET
CASTLETON @)/

336 A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

base fi
local limonite deposits, which were mainly a result of the altera-

q

impure, and which were forming during earlier as well as later time.
the map all the areas that are horizontally lined are lime-
stone areas; those vertically lined are slates (hydromica or argil-
laceous) ; the dotted area on the east is quartzyte, and the finely
dotted on the west and north, Red Sand-rock. The areas most
openly lined horizontally are those of the “ Eolian limestone,” the
¢e ine or metamorphic limestone, which includes nearly all

the marbles of Vermont south of Monkton.
e main or eastern band of the Eolian limestone follows the

of Brandon has been called the Taconic range of mountains, it
being properly a continuation of the Taconic range of Massachu-
setts. This

The “gig formations on the western border of Vermont,
including the Hudson River and Utica shales, with some li
_ Stone in the former, the Trenton, Black River, Birdseye and
y limestones, are mostly unaltered fossiliferous rocks, and
hence their age was long since ascertained. The limestone areas
within that of the Hudson River slate are set down as Hudson
River li me in the Vermont map; but Mr. Wing’s notes 1m
ply that = thought them in part at least Trenton, yet without

rtzyte range there is, east of Bris-
tol, what the Vermont map calls “ taleose conglomerate,” and next
| i this, an area of “talcose schist,” the former certainly
onging ‘pe the quartzyte, and the latter a hydromica slate,

ding to e j h

A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 887

found to be true. The true Red Sand-rock, existing more espe-
cially in the northern half of Vermont, toward Lake Champlain,
has been shown through its fossils, since the Vermont Report was
published, to be Primordial. And, by recent discoveries also, it

.

has been proved that the Primordial of Northern Vermont includes

studying the metamorphic rocks of Central and Southern Vermont
and Mr, Wing’s views about them.

2. West Rutland Valley.

The West Rutland limestone valley, famous for its marble
quarries, is situated four and a half miles to the west of the
city of Rutland. It is separated from the wider limestone
band of central Vermont, in which the city of Rutland is situ-
ated, by three north-and-south ranges of rock; the first, going
West, occurring at Rutland Center (C on map), consists, at the
Falls, of quartzyte and an underlying black glossy argillyte,
dipping to the southeastward 10° to 20°; the second, is a nar-
tow north-and-south strip of crystalline limestone; the third a
narrow north-and-south ridge of black slate, closely resembling
that at Rutland Center, and like it in the genera direction of
its dip, though varying much in the amount of dip and in the
strike. This last ridge of black slate makes the eastern
boundary of the West Rutland limestone valley, while the
slopes of the “great central belt of slate” constitute the west-
ern boundary. The rock of these latter slopes is a greenish
hydro-mica slate somewhat chloritic.

The limestone of West Rutland valley has a width across of
about a mile. It has throughout a high eastward dip—vary-
ing between 40° and 70°; and the slates on the west, as well as
those on the east, have a corresponding eastward dip. Accord-

ing to Mr. Wing, this band of limestone does not connect on

pond in southern Pittsford, through the union of the slate
area of the east with the area on the west.

As first discovered by Mr. Wing, this band of limestone con-
tains fossils on both its eastern and western borders, and also

the following section: S and S’ are the slates of the two sides,
the west and east; a, ¢, ¢, the belts of grayish fossiliferous

338 A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

limestone, 6, d, those of the marble quarries. The width of the
border belts, a and e, is from 200 to 300 feet.

a Jee 2 @ ¢
Section across the West Rutland valley.
The fossils of the western border are found in the south-
western part of the valley, just north of an old abandoned mar-
ble quarry, the most northern one on the west side of the val-
ley, where the rock is grayer than that of the center belt. The
rock here is distinctly and abundantly fossiliferous. It was
from this place, at a point rather nearer the quarries than the
slate, that the specimens were obtained by Mr. Wing which he
sent to Mr. Billings, for his examination. Among them, “a
small convoluted shell was in crowded abundance,” which Mr.

pe |
5.
=
i)
wn
ie)
—
2
Sy
5
0g
DM
o
2.
jor)
m
er
°
=
te
nm
oS
ie)
ot
oO
je)
s
=
om

: AaZy Species... :
fossils,* “I think this collection is Chazy. The Cystidean, Pleu-
rocystites tenuiradiatus, is a never-failing guide to the Chazy; at
least it is so on the west side of Lake Champlain.”

At my visit to West Rutland with Mr. Wing, we went first to —

the central belt, to a place south of the railroad. The rock was
found to be, as he had de-

scribed it, literally full of
fossils. The worn suriace

LZ large distorted Maclureas
— —the well-known Chazy
2 : Z ZF species, and one of these,
ving the appearance of a white spiral line, is here figured natural
e. Other similar specimens are four inches in diameter. The
* Published in this Journal, in vol. iy, p. 133, 1872.

A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 339
gray limestone of the western border of the valley was also found
to be abundantly fossiliferous. That of the eastern border, just
east of the marble quarries we examined, but in the short time
there, no distinct fossil forms were found.

Mr. Wing in his notes explains the position of the Ch
belts in the limestone, and that of the slates either side by the
view that the slates lie in synclinals
and the limestone in an abraded
anticlinal, as illustrated in the an-
nexed figure, making the slates / /
younger than the Chazy. He ob- ;,
serves that he had suspected the
existence of the Trenton outside

that he had found no evidence of ;
it, and, moreover, the “space was too thin for the normal Tren-
ton.”

If there is here but one anticlinal, there are two fossiliferous
levels in the limestone of the valley, and ll the limestone is
Chazy; but if a double anticlinal exists, as is possible, though
perhaps not probable, then the marble belts may belong to a
stratum below the Chazy. y

About three miles southwest of West Rutland, in the town of
Ira, and within the “great central belt of slates” there are,

2 ee cion of its being a Sudbury fossil.

340 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

In the Sudbury valley, 14 miles south of thé village, on the
land of Mr. Clark Morton, the Trenton trilobite, Trinueleus
tricus, was first found in May, 1866, in the blocks of a
stone wall which the owner said had been quarried near by;
and, Mr. Wing says: “I walked home that night—seven
miles—after sundown, glorying in. my discovery of a Trenton
fossil in Sir William Logan’s Quebec Group. I was, however,
mpened in all this on reading, after reaching home, in Pro-
fessor Hitchcock’s Report, that the Zrinucleus had been
viously found in a bowlder in Sudbury ; for I could not tell
whether mine came from a bowlder or not.”* But “afterward,
in May, 1867, I discovered the Trenton trilobite near the same
spot, and in great abundance.” It was associated with various
other Trenton fossils, twenty or more species of which were
later collected by Mr. Billings.

The limestone, like that of West Rutland, and the slates
adjoining, all dip eastward. The limestone accordingly, says

r. Wing, constitutes an anticlinal between two synclinals of
slate—those of the slate belts or ridges.

Mr. Wing also states that he afterward found the Trinucleus
concentricus ten miles southeast of Sudbury (half way to West
Rutland) in Hubbardton, in a limestone band sixty vards wide
in the heart of the “great central belt of slates;” and also
farther south, one or two miles north of the slate-quarries of
West Castleton.

4, Eastern Orwell and Shoreham, Whiting and Cornwall.
The towns directly north of Sudbury are Whiting and Corn-
yeh and those adjoining these on the west, Orwell and Shore-
am.

e area of Holian limestone—that of its west branch
—covers only the eastern half of Orwell and Shoreham, the

-

Fig. 4.
Ww. E. Shoreham. ‘Whiting. Ot.Cr. Leicester.

SON

Qa

‘
a 6 &

Section from the Red sand-rock in Eastern Shoreham to the Quartzyte rocks and

_ interstratified Dolomite of Eastern Leicester, east of the main belt of Eolian
SE

“great slate belt” matey a the western half. But this slate

belt passes northward f rough the middle of Whiting and

Cornwall, so that the western part of each of these towns is
* The Vermont Report says (p. 301) only this: “A bowlder of this rock

* Bframton limestome] fas beer’ food ta Se “

-

.
.
.
.
’

A Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 341

ae Calciferous and Quebec; c, Chazy and Trenton; R. S.,
Sand-rock; SL, slates; Q, quartzyte. How ~ this con-

were found in the limestone. These were sent to Mr. Billings,
who replied as follows: “The specimens from East Cornwall
east of Dr. Porter's residence, and from a locality farther north,
are Stenopora fibrosa, St. Petropolitana, Escharopora recta?, part
of the rim of a Zrinucleus or Harpes, and species of Orthis,
Strophomena, Rhynchonella and Orthoceras ;” and he added that
“they are no doubt Trenton.”

North and south of East Cornwall, there are “ Rhynchonella
beds” full of fossils, including pygidia of ¢rilobites, a large
Maclurea, species of Orthis, Encrinal disks, and other kinds ;
and, half a mile south, one undoubted Bathyurus Saffordi, a

ebec Group trilobite, was obtained.

Near the west border of Cornwall, at Bascom’s ledge {three
miles west of south of West Cornwall and three and one-half
miles east of Shoreham), a bed in the “ Eolian limestone” is called
by Mr. Wing the “Trilobite bed,” it being almost made up of
remains of trilobites, with other fossils. It afforded—as identi-
fied in 1867 by Mr. Billings from specimens sent him by Mr.

ing—Asaphus canalis, besides two other species of the genus,
two or three species of Bathyurus, one of them B. conscus, some
of the cephalic spines of this species, three, four, and, four and
one-half inches long, besides Maclurea matutina and other con-
voluted shells. Mr. Billings made the species Calciferous.

East of Shoreham village the upper limestones hold Bathy-
urus extans Billings (Asaphus ? extans Hall), a Birdseye species,
Columnaria alveolata, of the Black River limestone, and the
Trenton trilobite, Zrinucleus concentricus.

Barbour’s Ledge, in southern Bridport, near Mr. J. Barbour’s
residence, affords similar fossils to Basco a s ti ; marcy |
many pygidia of trilobites of the species Asaphus canahs,

ath, and also, in an overying bd Maclurea matutina and
other convoluted shells and trilobi

The “Rhynchonella beds” extend from West Cornwall to a
mile or two south of Orwell, fifteen to eighteen miles. But in

342 A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

Orwell, in higher limestones immediately west of and underly-
ing the “sparry limestone,” there occur Petraia profunda (?)..
Stenopora fibrosa and St. Petropolitana, ‘which may be Birdseye
species ;” and at the bottom of a hill one and one-half miles
northeast of Orwell village, where the “sparry limestone is
largely developed,” a number of large Macluree were found
(one, as figured in the notes, three inches in its longer diam-
eter, and resembling fig. 2 on page 888), which seems to indi-
cate the presence of the Chazy limestone beneath the “ sparry
limestone,” or at its base. igher up toward the top, there
are obscure fossils; but at the top, near the slate, occur distinct
bivalves, and the coral Receptaculites Neptuni, which seems to
prove the “Sparry limestone” to be Trenton in age.

n northeastern Shoreham, two miles north of Shoreham
village, there is a limestone ledge called Mutton Hill, and here
several Lower Silurian formations are distinguishable by their
fossils. The rocks, in the words of Mr. Wing, have the follow-
ing ascending order:

|. Light gray even-bedded sandstone, in beds six inches to
two or three feet thick; six or eight feet at the top, honey-
combed with Scolithus linearis: Potsdam. 310 feet.

. Dark iron-gray, feebly calcareous sandstone or quartzyte,
with Fucoids: Upper Potsdam? 200 feet.

3. Suberystalline limestone, containing a small Orthoceras
and Knerinal disks: Lower Calciferous. 20-25 feet.

4. Dark greenish, fine-grained sandstone, the lower twelve
or fifteen feet perforated with small Scolithi (8. minutus), the
rest interstratified with dolomitic limestones, holding Ophileta
compacta, O. complanata, (hence called the Ophileta beds), a few
other species of convoluted shells including two or three
Macluree, a small Orthis (Orthisina), a Trilobite, ete.: Calcif-
erous. 3 f

ee
No. 1 is at the western base of Mutton Hill and No. 4 is its
geological top.
In a second fold or anticlinal, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 again come
5-8. up; and No. 8 is more than 2

00000 <~~ of small Orthocerata, two species

A) SB of Gasteropods, including a Ma-

‘ clurea and a Bathyurus. The

, 2#ccompanying figures by Mr.

0209 & Wing serve to sustain his state-

O° 0— ments. Figure 5, an Orthoceras

A os apparently the Calciferous spe-

cies, O. primigenium ; 6, sections of Maclureas ; 7, pygidium of
a Bathyurus; 8, shell resembling a Holopea.

t

A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 343 |

In this “second fold,” No. 4, or the “ Ophileta beds,” Scoli-
thus minutus and the Fucoid Paleophycus arcuatus are abundant.
In the same fold, above No. 4, appears No. 5, called the
“ Trilobite bed and Conglomerate.” It consists below of dark
bluish sandstone or quartzyte with green slaty seams containing
Fucoids; then ten or fifteen feet of siliceous limestone, holding
a few small 7rilobites and other fossils; then a conglomerate
made of flat and rounded pebbles from the quartzyte below—
the flat ones one to two inches across, the rounded, from coarse

shot to large bullets; the paste sometimes limestone; the slat
seams holding toward the bottom a small Orthis (Orthisina), a
u

n $
or supposed Rhynchonelle found in the next (6th) fold.” This
No. 6 is a nearly ii
generally weathering to some shade of yellow, red, pink,
buff; and is without fossils in the line of section of the 4th
old.

Over No. 6 occurs No. 7, the Sparry Limestone, 400 to 600
feet thick: and No. 8, the slate of the great belt, here perhaps
300 or 400 feet thick. The Sparry Limestone 1s the stratum
that, one and a half miles northeast of Orwell village, afforded
the Receptaculites Neptuni, “ which seemed to prove "its Trenton
age; and is the Sudbury rock affording Trinucleus. The slate
would consequently be the Hudson River slate.

he formations above recognized are, briefly, as follows :
1. Sandstone.—- Potsdam.
2 Iron-gray calcareous sandstone.— Upper Potsdam. ”
3. “ Suberystalline limestone,” part of the “ Holian Limestone
containing Orthoceras, ete—Lower Caleiferous. : ”

4. “Ophileta beds,” part of the “Holian Limestone.” —
Calcijerous, ” “Bal:
“Trilobite bed” and “ Conglomerate, part of the “ EKolian

Imestone.”— Quebec Group. : ee

6. “Rhy oe besa eich the “ striped stratum,” part of
_ the Eolian Limestone.— 4
Am. Jour, ae Vou. XIII, No. 77.—May, 1877.

WUVOL

344 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

7. “Sparry Limestone,” part of the “ Eolian Limestone.”—
Trenton.

8. The slates of the “great central belt.”"—Hudson River
Slates (or, Cincinnati group).

5. Northern Cornwall, Middlebury, Weybridge.

Weybridge is the next town north of Cornwall, and Middle-
bury lies to the east of Southern Weybridge and Northern
Cornwall. The area of the Eolian limestone includes both
towns on the Vermont Geological Map.

Ellsworth Ledge is situated in North Cornwall, two anda
half miles northeast of ‘‘ Bascom’s Ledge,” and two or three
miles west of Middlebury. It is Mr. Wing’s fifth fold. The
“great central slate belt,” instead of stopping in Cornwall as
represented on the Vermont Geological Map, continues on, as a
narrow belt, and part of the way a double belt, to middle
Weybridge.

9.

: Ss

~ <SSERSEREQRVU

SSS SSS w
5b Se 6

CS Sax.
ro im<<S SS 5 Ye jh a I AS

8 q
Mr. Wing’s section from west foot of Ellsworth Ledge, in Cornwall, to Middlebury
on the east.

_ Commencing at the western base of Ellsworth Ledge (see
the moet taf section from Mr. Wing’s notes) there 1s no
outcropping Lower or Upper Potsdam, and No. 3 also 18
wanting; the first formation is No. 4, the “Ophileta beds

Above this stratum come the “Rhynchonella beds,” (No. 8)
perhaps 300 to 400 feet thick, containing, in a “striped stra-
tum” characteristic of it, Rhynchonelle (?) in great abundance,
pygidia of Asaphus canalis and of one or two other species of
Asaphus, pyzidia of Bathyurus Angelini, a Chazy species 0
Canada; also species of Maclurea, Orthis, Leperditia (a small
_ hand specimen containing them by the thousands), Enerinal
stems, etc. This “ striped stratum,” twelve to fifteen feet thick,

ty a rt a

A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 345

is overlaid by an inch or so of a dark slaty sandstone and then

346 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

Moreover, other facts give us the age of the slates. ‘For the
limestones at the northern terminus of the slate seem to dip
down around under the slate. The limestones on the west dip
eastward beneath the slate, and so do the slates and limestone
beds on the’east, the slate being an inverted synclinal and the
limestones abraded anticlinals. Indeed, one of the folds of the
slate shows the limestone continuing around under the syncli-
nal axis of the slate.” “The evidence is plain that the slates
are decidedly the more recent.” Moreover, thin beds of lime-
stone in the slate actually contain Trenton fossils (p. 339).

The fact that the slates overlie the limestone, and are yee
fore Hudson River slates, is further shown in the direct and
nearly horizontal superposition of the latter by the former in
several high summits south of Rutland, as in Mount Dorset or
’ Kolus in the town of Dorset; Danby Mountain, on the borders
of Danby and Dorset, just north of Kolus ; Equinox Mountain,
in the town of Manchester, the town next south of Dorset; in
Spruce Peak, in ee oitagay Ys to the southwest; in Mount
Anthony, in Ben nningto farther south; and in Graylock, in
northern Berkshire, in Massachusetts

a New Haven and Williston ; of ais Ener
bury and Cornwall; of a species of Stictopora “ ‘remarkably vel
defined” He Sudbur ury.
ont Report gives also the particulars with regard to
the SE ethne. in the above mentioned mountains, with sec
bh views of some of them, which are here reproduced. Mount
us (fig. 10), 3,148 feet above the sea-level, has a c a of hydro-
mica slate, about 500 feet thick (498 feet, Vt. Rep., p. 412), over
lying in a very shallow synclinal 1,960 feet of Folia limestone.

~ a oe

Sp
SS
Eolus,

Spruce Peak, Arlington.

by Mountain is a continuation northward of the same moun-
tain, with the same structural conditions, but. with the slate,

“according to a rough trigonometrical calculation” (Vt. Rep., P-
: 2). 1,354 feet thick. In Mt. Equin uinox, which is 3,872 fot in
. ing to Guyot, the limestone rises “a s high perhaps
oe as in Mt Eolus.” In Spruce Peak, Arlington (fig. ii), the slates,

os

Trumbull and Gray—Helianthus tuberosus. gay

_ almost horizontal but in a shallow synclinal, constitute the larger
art of the height, and overlie about 300 feet of limestone. In
the Bennington Mountain, Mt. Anthony (fig. 12), 2,688 feet high,
the Eolian limestone makes the base, and over it are about “ 1,800
feet of shales and schists,” dipping westward on the east side, and
slightly eastward on the west side. In Graylock (fig. 13), having

€,
SO oa
Mt. Anthony, Bennington. Ss sit Graylock.
a height of 3,505 feet, the structure is like that of the mountains
just described. The section of the mountain here given, copied
" :

r
Over 2,000 feet of slates overlie the limestone.

Again, the occurrence of isolated north-and-south belts or
ledges of,limestone within the “ great central slate belt ”—as for
example, those of West Rutland, Ira, Castleton, Hubbardton, Sud-
bu st is not one

(To be continued.)

ee

Art, XXXIX.—WNoles on the History of Helianthus tuberosus, the
so-called Jerusalem Artichoke; by J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL
and Asa Gray.

Unper this heading the Botanical of
Proposes to offer a few explanatory remarks, introductory to
the subjoined letter which he received from Mr. Trumbull in

answer to a recent ae :

tuberos

lerosus ” In his earlier Hortus
Clifortianus the habitat assigned was “Canada.”

M. Alphonse

ng, ended in proving him right. |

hen Plantarum, gave to Helianthus

Editor of the Journal |

348 Trumbull and Gray— Helianthus tuberosus.

Jerusalem artichokes, and found to resemble them in flavor,
_although coarser. Consequently, in the second edition of my
Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States (1856), it is
stated that H. doronicvides is most probably the original of H.
luberosus. This opinion was strengthened year after year by
the behavior of the tubers, and by the close similarity of the
herbage and flowers of the two plants, as they grew side by
side; indeed, as the two patches were allowed to run together
in a waste or neglected place, they have become in a measure
confounded. Wishing to obtain an unmixed stock, I applied »

t autumn to Prof. J. M. Coulter of Hanover, Indiana, and
received from him a good number of tubers from wild plants
of the neighborhood, which will now be grown. Some of these
were slender, some thicker and shorter, and a few were to all
appearance identical with Jerusalem artichokes. If they were
really all from one stock, as there is reason to believe, the
question of the origin of Helianthus tuberosus is well nigh
se

See

Trumbull and Gray—Helianthus tuberosus. 849

HartTForpD, Conn., March 26, 1877.

My dear Prof: Gray :—I cannot refer you to the authority
(totidem verbis) for Dr. Palfrey’s statement that the Indians of
New England cultivated “a species of sunflower whose esculent
tuberous root resembled the artichoke in taste,” but there can
be, I think, little doubt of the fact. The historical evidence
that “artischoki sub terra” were cultivated in Canada and in
some parts of New England before the coming of Europeans is
tolerably clear. The only question, if there be any, 1s as to

species, and this does not appear to have been raised for more

than half a century after the “Jerusalem artichoke” was known
to English and Continental botanists.

Horto
Farnesiano,” published under the name of Tobias Aldinus

eral of th i F se en, at this time, were

C : ada” a 2 pate The Passion Flower (admir-

ably figured by Aldinus) is described under its Virginian name,

= Meeacat (the o —— ” of John Smith and Strachey);

‘oana” is otherwise named ‘“‘Campan-
ula Virginiana, seu ex Virginiis insulis.” |

C. Bauhin, in his Pinax (first published. in 1628), ed. 1671,

“ Helian icum tuberos

P. 276, notes that the ‘“ Helianthemum ~ ee ie

Uschoki sub terrd, aliis. Gigantea, Burgundis.”

850 Trumbull and Gray—Helianthus tuberosus.

P. Laurenberg, Apparat. plant. (Rostock, 1632), names the
species, “ Adenes Canadenses or Flos Solis glandulosus.” Ant.
Vallot, Hortus Regis Paris., 1665 (as cited by Bauhin) gives the
names *‘ Canada and Artischoki sub terra,” and “ Canadas,” and
describes, also, “Helenium Canadense altissimum, Vosacan
dictum,” which Tournefort distinguishes as “Corona Solis
rapuncult radice” (Inst. Herb. 490), and which became 4.
strumosus L, ‘“ Vosacan,” by the way, is a French fashion of

there seems to have been a general agreement among European |

botanists that it came from Canada. F. Schuyl, Catal. Horti |

Lugd. Bat. (Heidelberg, 1672), varies the specific name to )

“Chrysanthemum Canadense Arumosum.” P. Amman, Chara. ,

Plant. Nat. (1676), has “ Helenium Canadense.”
It was introduced to England about 1617. In that year, Mr.

en’s egg” (Purchas, iv, 1651).
of Apios tuberosa, But when

»

Trumbull and Gray—Helianthus tuberosus. 351

multiplient en telle fagon que c’est merveille;” and he thinks

these must be the “ Afrodilles” described by Pliny.
Sagard-Theodat (Hist. du Canada, 1636, p. 785) mentions the
oil

call Orasqueinta, which are not very (assez peu) common in

author of “A Perfect Description of Virginia,” printed in 1649,

says that the English planters have (inter alia) “ roots of several
artichokes.”

esculent roots mentioned by Hariot (Brief and True Report, o
3 : ‘

to any, to H. tuberosus. Hariot

found in Virginia: ‘ Openauk, a kind of ro

string. Being boiled or sodden, they are very good meate.
[C. Bauhin Picapeaiis 89) identifies these with “Solanum

*

352 Trumbull and Gray—RHelianthus tuberosus.

tuberosum esculentum,”—and has been followed by later wri-
ters. The description seems to me to indicate Apvos tuberosa.]
“ Kaishuepenauk, a white kind of roots about the bignes of hen
egs and nere of that forme: their taste was not so good to our
seeming as of the other, and therefore their place and manner
of growing not so much cared for-by vs: the inhabitants
notwithstanding vsed to boile and eat many.” These may be

‘Virginia potatoes,’ but their name, if Hariot recorded it cor-

rectly, means ‘Sun-tubers.’ The etymology is perfectly clear.
The other roots described by Hariot, “ Okeepenauk are also o
round shape, found in dry grounds: some are of the bignes
of a man’s head,” etc. These must be the “Tubera terre
maxima,” of Clayton, “vulgo Tuckahoo,” which Gronovius (Fl.
Virgin., .205) refers to Lycoperdon solidum L, and for which.
Rafinesque (Med. FI. ii, 270) proposed a new genus “ Tucahus.”
Kalm describes them ( Travels, i, 225) as “Truffles.” Fries (El.
_ Fung. ii, 39) assigns them to his Pachyma cocos. _

Writing in haste and with frequent interruptions, it has been
possible to do little more than copy, without condensing or
arranging, such notes as I had before me. They have extended
to such a length that I must not add even an apology for the
superfluous matter. Yours truly,

: J. H. TRUMBULL.

It would be interesting to know whence came the French

sippi Valley and of the plains to and beyond the Rocky Moun-
tains. It i i i ini

A, S. Kimball—Laws of Friction. 358

Art. XL.—A new Investigation of one of the Laws of Friction ;
. S. Kimpaut, Professor of Physics in the Worcester
Institute of Industrial Science.

REULEAUX, in the appendix to his recently published “Cin-
ematics of Machinery,” says that ‘‘many engineering schemes
have failed because they were designed in accordance with the
statements given in our text-books as the laws of friction.”
He furthermore adds, “that it is time that the experiments of
Bochet and Hirn should be raised from their place as foot-notes
to a position in the text.”

During the last year, I have conducted experiments, on as
extensive a scale as our laboratory would allow, for the purpose
of settling, if possible, certain contested points in the doctrine
of friction.

Our manuals of mechanics, following Morin and Coulomb,
say the coefficient of friction does not. vary with the velocity.
Bochet says that it decreases as the velocity increases. Hirn says
that it ‘nereases as the velocity increases. Contradictory as these
statements are, it is probable that each contains a partial truth.
They need to be combined to make a complete statement.

The results of my experiments, which this paper is to de-
scribe, would indicate that the following is the true law, within
the range of my experience. The coefficient of friction at very
low velocities is small;.it increases rapidly at first, then more
gradually as the velocity increases, until at a certain rate, which
depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact and the
intensity of the pressure, a maximum coefficient is reached.

changes the position of the maximum coefficient to a higher

Velocity, since by heat the bodies are made softer, and are caused
to yield to pressure-with greater ease. Kz
of velocities in the vicinity of the maximum coefficient the

Coefficient is sensibly constant.

t j
€ experiments upon which I base my conclusions may be
classified as follows:

(1.) Sliding friction down an inclined plane. ae

(2.) Sliding friction at uniform velocities on a horizonta! piane.
(3.) Friction of belts on the surface of cast iron pulleys.

354 A. S. Kimbali—Laws of Friction.

the velocities increased, the line changed its direction and be-
came convex toward the-time line; thus giving in the limits
of one experiment a verification of the statements made above.
For further particulars respecting this method of ex periment, [
refer to the article published in March of last year.

(2.) Sliding friction at uniform velocities on a horizontal plane.

’ _—A heavy pine plank, fifteen feet long, whose surface had been

constant velocity. The motive power was a fifteen horse-power
Corliss engine, belonging to our machine shop, whose fly-wheel
runs with great regularity at the rate of sixty revolutions a
minute. A shaft from the shop runs underground to the cellar
beneath my laboratory, whence through several countersh

the power is transmitted.to any part of the room. By means of
aS pulleys, I can easily command a great range of veloci-

es.

The experiments were made by drawing the box along the
plane at various velocities, and reading the friction from the
dynamometer. This combination answers very well for low
velocities, but the slide can not be easily stopped when the

is t.

Several series of experiments were made, with wood on wood,
also with leather on wood. The results verify the first part of
my statement, that the coefficient of friction increases with the
velocity, when this is small. The following are some of the

: : -Tesults obtained by this method of experiment.

.
|
|

dah oie ree

a a ih a

A, 8S. Kimball—Laws of Friction. 355

Taste I.— Pine on pine. Slide loaded with 100 lbs. Velocity in

Mches in A Minute.

‘ V. Coefficient of Friction.
OF ae ee 19
Le fees oe eee -. °20%
Te Sa ee eee ee 24
S00) 2 ae ee ee ee

Taxis Il.—Leather on pine. Slide loaded with 100 lbs. Velocity
in inches in a minute,

Vi Coefficient of Friction.
“TO i he Sa ee ee .
158 oe Se eae ee
. Oa eee ee eee 33
908. ou a PO a ae 36
S014 oo ee ee ee
TO BO i ee a ee
LS E5O a ee a ee
DOG 45
300° Pare Teed re oath Cex ea ae
AGG es ee ee 474

}

belting; and a considerable range of tensions was employed,
with uniform results.

and the fourth gives the relative values of the coefficients os

s

356 A. S. Kimball—Laws of Friction.

Taste III,
V. ae: T, C.
37 30 13 42
52 30 124 44
‘1 30 114 48
2°3 30 104 53
2°9 30 10 55
4°4 30 94 58
15°4 30 64 78
34:1 30° 54 86
80°3 30 44 96
1045 30 44 99
228°8 30 we 1:00
In the following table only velocities and relative coefficients
are given. ee
Tasty IV.
za C.

ee Ne user ee

lS Se Fe SE "93

pee es a eee

WIOG eee) ads Se es OB

BS aie as woes *82

RE cris acct ia hae et we ‘69

(4.) Friction of wrought iron journais in bores of different mate-
rials.—In this course of experiments a modification of the fric-
tion brake was used. A description of the arrangement in one
series will serve for all the others. A shaft 1” in diameter was
adjusted so that it could be driven at almost any rate between
one revolution in two days and 1,000 ina minute. A hole was,
bored through a block of cast iron 34x 84” x 14”, and carefully
fitted to the shaft; rigid iron rods were screwed into the top
and bottom of this block, and adjusted to stand ina vertical line

_ center of gravity of the brake could be readily adjusted. es
the front of the block a plane mirror was fastened, and before

te pe. As the center of ravity was always adjusted s0
that the brake never revolv through an angle of more than
_three degrees, the scale readings were approximately propor
_ tional to the coefficient of friction: and since relative and not
- absolute results were sought for, the labor of reduction was

4

AS Kinki Lief tittim 2

not undertaken. Several tables will be given to illustrate the
method of conducting a series of experiments with this appa-
ratus.
Taste V.

Wrought iron shaft, 1” diam. ; box, cast iron, 14” long; load, 100 Ibs.

Shaft well oiled. — ,

Velocity of the circumference of the shaft.
No. 1, 72". No. 2, 272". No. 3, 605". No. 4, 1320".
0

Seale readings __._.__. 515 50 asm o«
515 500 ae on
515 495 ei tee
515 495 eae x
515 495 ie de am
515 495 ee “oe
515 Panen 485 nee
515 et 485 pt
520 fa 485 ae
520 ee 485 en
520 oe 485 cay
520 aa 490 Rae
525 ae as 480
525 oo, hae 480
525 ea ns 480
525 bee eee 475
525 Ee hi 480
3525 oe mae 485
OR a ee a 497 486 480
Position of equilibrium 464 464 464 464
Deflections....._..._- 55 33 22 16

Relative values of the coefficient of friction.
No. 1, 1-00. No. 2,°60. No. 8,°40. + No. 4, 29.

The results given above were made with high velocities, and
show coefficients of friction decreasing as the velocity increases.

The results of a similar series with very low speeds are
given in the next table.
Taste VI.
Velocity of the circumference of the shaft: No. 1, °007"; No. 2,
027"; No. 3, 060"; No. 4, 132” in a minute.

No.1, 37. No.2, ‘51. No3,‘78. = No. 4, 1°00.
These results, unlike those of the former table, show a coeffi-
“lent of friction increasing as the velocity increases.

A large number of experiments similar to those given above
have been made with uniform results.

358 A. S. Kimball—Laws of Friction.

I have been able to verify it Solgeeyaeage the law —
early in this paper in the follow cases: wood sliding o
wood, wood on iron, leather on en zine on spi and ¢ con er
on iron; and to obtain ee verifying the first half of the
law in the case of leather o

The experiments above detailed make it easy to explain the
various results obtained ‘by the three authorities quoted at the
beginning of this paper. Morin experimented under conditions
which gave him a coefficient very near the maximum, and thus
his results are approximately constant. Bochet expen
with railway trains, his conditions were high speeds, hard
rubbing surfaces, and great intensity of pressure. All these
circumstances are favorable to the result he obtained, namely,
a coefficient decreasing as the velocity increases. Hirn, 0 on the
‘other hand, employed very light pressures, less than two ‘pounds

on a square inch, and kept his rubbing surfaces so thoroughly
Jubricated_ that the friction. was between oil and oil instead of
‘two metal surfaces; his speeds were not very great. These

conditions are precisely the ones I have found favorable to the

results he reached,—a coefficient, increasing as the velocit
increases. Tt would be very easy to form a theory whic
would account for the variation of friction with the velocity,
gre! ~ rule I have given.

well known, that if a given deflection in a bar is pro-
Sacks by a weight ‘acting for five seconds, for oe that

the same deflection may be produced, by a less weight, acting .

for a longer time. Now, as the force required to overcome
friction is, partially at least, expended in bending down the
minute irregularities on the surface of the rubbing bodies, it

omes evident how, other things being equal, a rapid motion
would call for the exertion of a greater force chic would be
Onn if the motion were slow.

n the other.hand, the longer two surfaces under pressure
are in contact the greater must be the interlocking of the irregu-
larities upon the rubbing surfaces. On this account a rapid
motion would not ibe Nae the expenditure of so great a force to
‘overcome the friction. Thus, we have two effects, varying
with the velocity, bat Pah, pproeite signs. Now it is no
probable, from the ure of the case, ‘that these effects are
numerically equal, or even proportional, and thus we can, at
rg least, say that ‘the conditions are ere ble to the existence

a maximum resultant effect. Havi ng, however, ascertain
the fact by a fogeuale the explanation becomes a matter 0 of
__- Minor importa
— ... It. may be ay that these facts have no practical importance

_ at the velocities ordinarily employed. I would call attention
Table V, where it will be seen that by increasing the veloc

J. L. Smith— Examination of American Minerals. 359

ity of shafting within the limits of ordinary shop practice, a

upon the pulley should be as great as possible. e conditions
usually met with, which determine the friction of belts, are,
low intensities of pressure, a rubbing surface which yields with
considerable ease. In such cases a high speed is needed to
ep the greatest amount of friction. See Tables III and

I am under obligations to Messrs. Butterfield and Wilson,
who have rendered me valuable assistance in conducting the

sae work of this investigation.
hope soon to be able to give tabulated results, which may

have a certain practical value to working engineers.

ART. TU Mebncanen of American Minerals. No. 6.

Description. of Columbie Acid Minerals from new localities in, —

the United States, embracing.a reclamation for the restoration g
the name to the element now called Niobium,
Description and analyses of Columbite, Samarskite, Euxcentite,
and Fergusonite, and the new species Hatchettolite, and Rogersite ;

by J. LawrENcrE SMITH, Tainigrie, Ky.

It is the common practice f all American chemists and min-

eralogists to speak of the metal which is called Niobis

nglish and continental chemists, as Columbium. This i
hently just, since the meta! was discovered and well detined, and
named columbium, forty-five years before the name niobium
ame was caused by a double
observations in

tantalum,
identical with columbium; and

hes on the
Am. Jour. Scr.—Tutrp Serres, Vou. XIII, No. 77.—Mar, 1877.
24

860 =. L. Smith-—Eaamination of American Minerals.

mineral contained not one but two metallic acids; one of these
was tantalum, and the other he supposed to be a new metal
which he named niobium.*

Subsequent examination, however, convinced Rose (and his
conclusions have been confirmed by cthers who have repeated
his experiments), that the two metallic acids obtained from the
Bodenmais columbite were really the original columbic acid of
Hatchett, discovered in 1801, and the tantalic acid discovered
by Ekeberg in 1802. Instead, however, of calling the’ first
mentioned acid niobic acid, its original name should have been
left to it. The result of Rose’s researches was in fact simply
the demonstration of the actual difference of columbium and
tantalum ; for Hatchett’s discovery was clear, precise, and well
made out, and has never been controyerted. E

This being a correct summary of the history of the compost-
tion of the columbium minerals, it is but right, just, and in
accordance with chemical and mineralogical precedence, that
the name given by the discoverer should replace that of nio-
bium, which originated forty-five years later. 3

A point of less importance, but worthy of some considera-
tion, is, that this element derived its name from the country 1D
which it was discovered, it being the first and up to the pres-
ent time, the only element discovered in that part of America
usually named Columbia. :

In addition to the above, an interesting fact connected with
the minerals of this group, is, that all the varieties, save one or
two, have been discovered in greater quantities and in larger
crystals in the United States than in other known localities;
_ for erystals of columbite weighing from one-half to seven
kilograms have been found at or near the locality where pe

in those remarkable crystals of green feldspar— Amazon stone—

coming from El Paso County, Colorado, and which are the

admiration of all mineralogists.
esides the above, fergusonite in fine specimens, although

small in size, has been found in the granite formation o: Roek-

port, Mass. In fact, if we look at the localities of columbium

one * H. Rose still supposin. g : |

_ @qually well as columbium.. oe rg pg he ane pe

J. L. Smith—— Examination of American Minerals. 361

minerals on the North American continent, they will be found
to range from Greenland in the north to Carolina in the south,
from Massachusetts on the east to Colorado on the west.

After these remarks in reference to the restoration of the
name columbium among the elements, replacing that of nio-
bium, I will detail my researches upon the more recently dis-
covered columbates.

- This mineral has been found during oe few years at the
i ancey County near
Burnsville, in the State of North Carolina. It occurs in rocks

ed
and distorted, as is not unfrequently the case with minerals
associated with mica. Most commonly I have seen it in irreg-

: The analyses of both varieties show that they are chemically
identical. The average of several analyses which agreed very
closely, is: ;

Massive
Columbic acid* -_----------- . 80°82 80°06
Tungstic and stannic acids---. 1°02 1:21
Iron protoxide..-.--- .------ - 878 23
Manganese protoxide- ---- ---- 8°60
Copper dxide.2---. ----.- «3- ce pas

99°17 100°62

_The distinctive peculiarity of the ga of this colum-
bite is the large amount of manganese oxide com) Ag hag
that of the iron in. the massive. variety, it being greater than
that given in the analysis of any other columbite. eer
“ay {sete to the metallic acid in egestas ep _—. Pages. gases from

‘act that the tantalic acid which accom 5 paatitics,
and also because none of the methods proposed for separating the two acids have

862 od. L. Smith—FKaxamination of American Minerals.

Columbite from Colorado.

Among the magnificent and gigantic crystals of Amazon-
stone recently discovered in El] Paso Co., Colorado—and so
energetically explored by A. E. Foote—some specimens were
shown me having small black acicular crystals imbedded just

RCI BOM eo es oo ses oe wa 79°61
Pre WRURORAG 0S es en 2
Manganese protoxide - -.... .......-. 4°61
Oss eed ed fa aoe wale *50
98°86

Samarskite.

A few small specimens of this rare mineral from North Carolina
have been in cabinets for several years, but its exact locality
and the nature of its occurrence were first made known 1D
April, 1878, through the agency of J oseph Wilcox of Philadel-
phia, and subsequently yo the investigations and collections

]

Its geological position is in crystalline rocks, in what may be
called a coarse granite; the minerals of which rock are not

J. L. Smith—Examination of American Minerals. 368

gists were not agreed as to its being samarskite,
having been found by which to establish its identity, and the
partial analyses made not giving concordant results. This dis-
crepancy arose, however, from the intermixture of other min-
erals, three of which I have detected, two of them being new.
one occasion I took a specimen of very compact mineral,
perfectly clean, and to casual observation perfectly uniform in
color and texture; on breaking off a portion from one end o
it and taking the specific gravity, 1 found it to be 5-221, which .
was so much lower than that of samarskite that I passed it over
to my assistant for reéxamination. His results corresponded

its usual characters. :
spect of the finest specimens.—Intense jet black, and when
broken having a large brilliant conchoidal fracture, perfect,
even, and smooth, with the luster vitreous. ave =
It is exceedingly brittle, breaking like black obsidian, with
very sharp edges; any one seeing it broken for the first time
would take it for black obsidian, until handled, when its weight -
would indicate that it was another mineral. All the pieces of
pure samarskite are not equally brilliant in fracture as above
described, but approach to it more or less. :
Hardness.—I should say that it was 5° to 6, nearer 6, but
Owing to the brittleness of the mineral it is not easy to fix its

ut, an : ough
described and studied by Mr. Edward S. Dana; the examination

made by this skillful erystallograpber is to be found in this

864. J. ZL. Smith—Eaxamination of American Minerals.

Journal, March, 1876, page 201; he also first published an
account of the region in which it is found, and gave an account
of the associated minerals.
Composition.—This mineral from North Carolina has already
been examined three times. In 1852, Prof. 'T. Sterry Hunt

(1) (2) (3)

PE IRMIOIE MGIG |. 5). s BB 1S 54-96 37°20
fA Yc Rt os a Seng paler ed 1 18°60
Tungstic and stannic acids--_- ___- 0°31 0°16 0°08

TRE ees es Sys a A ey 14°49 12°84 14°45
Bere Oxties” a a 5°17 4°25
Seren Glue... 10°96 9°91 12°46
Manganese protoxide............ 1°53 10°91 0°75
Iron p I Jos. ee ee 14°02 10°90

- Magnesia _.. trace eae 0°55CaO
Does by ignition 2210 22u1 222s. “9s, 6g 12

b ay = L. ae Ld Sa ea -! 1°25 eee
99°12 100°36

delay of my publishing this paper, for I desired if possible

to verify the results of Finkerer and Stephans It is only
recently that I have obtained a few grams of pure Miask s&
marskite, from the School of Mines of St. Petersburg, through
Prof. Norpé, but all of this, except about 14 grams, was lost
after reaching me, so I have not been able to do more than
make an imperfect examination; and this examination shows
that there is some difference in the earthy oxides from those in
the North Carolina specimens, the exact determination of which
I must postpone for some future occasion.

: oe Sco oe as ceri but I am not altogether satisfied in

um oxides,
) their true nature and proportion of the e oxides, which are DoW
ing’ é bes pro. respectiv

ung. Min. St. Pet., 1863, 13.

J. .L. Smith—Examination of American Minerals. 365

Eucxenite.

intense black of the samarskite, but of a brownish color with a
streak and powder much lighter than that of samarskite ; and in
“ema my researches further, the mineral was obtained still
ighter, of a hair brown color, the powder being of an ash color.
In thin fragments it is translucent; the fracture is subconchoidal,
but in most instances irregular, with a resinoi uster.

Its aspect made it very evident that it was something different
from the samarskite, and an examination prov _this opinion
correct, and established its true mineralogical position.

0 crystals have been found, so it is not possible to establish
its identity in crystallization with euxenite; but all its other
physical and chemical properties are those of that mineral.

- The specific gravity of pieces taken from different specimens
was respectively 4593, 4-620, 4°642. On analysis it was found
to contain

Columbic acid ._...__..___. 5412 Uranium oxide--.. ---- 9°53
ungstic and stannic acid. ‘21 Manganese protoxide... 08
Yttrium and cerium oxides 24:10 Iron protoxide ---- .--- 8 1
Lime ____ 5°53 oo ee ere
99°58

The columbic acid was tested most carefully for titanic acid;
both by fusion with bisulphate and with carbonate of potash,
but none of it could be etected; only 5 milligrams of a resi-
due was obtained as a result in these analyses, and it is well
known. to analysts that this is most probably attributable to

columbie acid.

for the small ‘quantity of iron oxide in it; being a hydrated
columbate of yttria, uranium and lime.

Hatchettolite—a new Columbate.

l : Is to
Samarskite. He had sent two or three of these crysials _
Edward 'S. Dana some time before, and this last mineralogist

ae J. L. Smith—Examination of — Minerals.

the samt columbiu It occurs in regular octahedrons, but
of the six crystals that I nytt examined, all have the cubic
planes and the form 8-3, and E. S. Dana observed the same on
the crystals he examined.

In referring to these modifications; I would state that, among
eight or ten crystals of pyrochlore seen by me ave never
observed them, although this last mineral 1 is found with them,

as may be seen in okscharow’s magnificent work on Rus- ~
sian minerals. I could not detect any distinct cleavage. Its
hardness is about 5: perhaps a little over. Specific ae

that of a fine small crystal was found to be 4°851; o
fragments well selected from a large crystal that had mica in
some part of it, 4°785. Prof. Brush obtained (as quoted by E.
S. Dana) 4-794.

It is well to add here the specific gravity of a very fine

stal of pyrochlore, weighing one and one-half grams; as
tak en by myself, it is 4°25. That of microlite—another octa-
hedral columbate,—by Shepard and Hayes, is 5-484.

Color of Hatchettolite.—Y ellowish brown with a grayish opa-

lescence: on heating to redness becomes of an opake greenish
yellow ; luster resinous; fracture subconchoidal.
omposition—I made three analyses, the first two on frag-

ments from the specimens of Mr. Ralston, and the third from
@ specimen in = — collection. The mineral was broken

selected under he gla to avoid admixture of any other min-
eral. Thus selected it was eae to contain :

Sclamomscid.... 67°86 = 6 7°25

T fungstic ore stannic cane nore 60 “91
Uranium oxide. __- sees 2-152 20 15°63 16°01
DM a be |
Yitria and cerium oxide. __ 2-00 86 “64
Tron tne wee 2-08 2°51 2°12
Potas iy 1°21 not estimated
Water—lost by bets 2 5°16 4°42 02
Lead Bee OL Co ee

99°42 100718 99°06

I
_ Yesults furnished were:

*

_ before complete and reliable analy
ait be eat

ln

J. L. Smith—Examination of American Minerals. 367

es

It will be seen that the special difference between this min-
eral and pyrochlore is that its predominating base is uranium
oxide, which last mineral, according to WOhler’s analysis of
that from Miask, does not contain any of this oxide, though
the analyses of others give a small quantity of it. It is to be
supposed that Wohler examined the best and purest type of
the mineral in that from Miask.

Rogersite, a new columbate.
On some of the samarskite, but more especially on the euxe-

nite, a white crust was found adhering with some degree of
firmness, and on examining it under the glass, it presented a

It is readily recognized by its well
ture even when the fragment is quite small.
about 8°5; specific gravity 3313. : a

e two analyses, each time on small portions. he
siceeliaa 26
20°21
Vttria, ete. .2o5..n8-- 2508 :

In the second analysis, owing to an accident, the yttria was
lost; the first also shows about 4 per cent not accounted for.
These analyses are to be taken only as approximative,

ses of this agccceeiong
made, a larger quantity will ired The mineral is an
interesting hee as peti the first columbate discovered so
largely hydrated. It has evidently resulted from the decom-
Position of either samarskite, or euxenite, OF both.
Fergusonite. re
ah, ce eieienbly

Two years ago rk brown mineral, with a remar:
bright ad peter conchoidal fracture, was shown be by aa
W. E. Knowlton of Boston, who obtained it from the gra

368 = d. L. Smith—Eaxamination of American Minerals.

quarries of Rockport, but its nature had ind been determined.
The quantity then found was very small and only a portion of
it was given to me; a short time afterward, I informed Mr.
Knowlton that it was fergusonite, and requested him to look
further: for specimens. Since then but little more has been
found, but enough was furnished me to make out its true char-
acter, ‘both physically and chemically, except its crystalline
form. It is found particularly at one locality near the intersec-
tion of = trap dykes.

or a space covering about thirty or forty feet, masses of
bidspen and quartz replace the granite, and it is in the oo
that the Fergusonite is tate ——— associated with cyrto-
lite, and sometimes even pen ing crystals of: this last mine-
ral. In the same feldspar, jitams eryophyllite, and fine crys-
tals of smoky quartz are found.

The mineral is of a fine dark brown color in the interior, witha
clear conchoidal fracture ; resinous luster ;* hardness 6 ; specific
gravity 5°681; streak light brown; pow wder, ash- colored ; bub
when heated to a bright red heat for fifteen minutes changing
to a light greenish yellow color with a loss of 10 per cent.

ee acid -48°75

Yt oa cee Whee eee

Beets “oxides _..- eax Re ete 4°23

Tron and uranium oxides... -_--- 25

: Water (loss by heat t) soe cae 1°65
100°89

Tt corresponds very nearly in composition with the fergu-
sonite from Greenland.

Remarks as to the chemical character of the minerals described.

The compositions of the columbates from the various Ree
ties appear at first sight to be very complex and irregular, DU
if examined critically, and due allowance be made for the tae
mixture of these minerals, which intermixture cannot 0¢
etected on account of re similarity of color and fracture of
the different minerals, this irregularity disappears to a greater
or less extent.
The first, and the one best known, columbite, is well recog:
nikeads as a simple columbate of iron and manganese.
/ Micro from what little we know of its composition,
appears & be a columbate of lime. Puccohloins is to be regarded
* The action of a red fragments their color to @
greenish a; but fore this ta Pay place, Paco tagnet eatt the phenome
- non of glowing ina ni cl Peg mee

: piunakicauhe ky ta wing, that {have experimented
rc heating.

M. 6. Lea—Sensitiveness to Light of Salts of Silver. 369

as a columbate of the cerium oxides and lime; whether or
not a neutral columbate, further examination is to determine.
Hatchettolite is doubtless a neutral columbate of uranium oxide
and lime. Then, when we pass to the samarskite, we havea basie
columbate of iron, uranium and yttrium oxides. Yétrotanta-

have not regarded those variable constituents existing in small
quantities and replacing more or less one or other of the pre-
ponderating bases of each species.

The analysis and chemical study of the above Minerals.

I have several points under this head to consider and to
describe in detail; but it more properly belongs to another
paper, which will supplement this, for I am now studying the
earthy oxides associated with the yttria of the North Carolina
minerals, which I am far from being satisfied contains cerium
oxide, although some of the reactions of cerium oxide are
obtained, a fact already mentioned in a note to the description
of samarskite. Iam separating the earths from one kilogram of
the mineral, which when obtained will furnish material enough
for the proper solution of this question.

Arr, XLII.—On the Sensitiveness to Light of various Salts of

ition by subsequent treatment. In
ight sets up a molecular change. The
light become, in the one case, more a t
formation (for example,
ey

‘ a

870 WU. C. Lea—Sensitiveness to Lnght of Salts of Silver.

and if I am not mistaken, no investigations have at any time
been made as to the capacity of silver salts other than iodide,
bromide, and chloride to receive latent images of the second
sort, viz: those susceptible of alkaline development, in the en-
tire absence of silver nitrate. This su ject I have recently
examined with the following results:

Soluble salts of acids capable of forming insoluble or nearly
insoluble salts with silver were selected and the surface of very
pure paper was impregnated with them. After drying, the
papers were floated on a solution of silver nitrate, containing
about twenty grams to the ounce, acidulated with half a drop

The salts thus formed on the surface of the paper were eX-

Silver citrate and tartrate both gave rather weak images. the
citrate showed a strong tendency to irregular reduction.
Nothing of this appeared in the case of the tartrate.

Silver platinocyanide gave quite a strong image, stronger than
any other substance tried, except of course the silver ‘bromide
used for comparison, ;
Silver mucate gave a very faint image with much irregular
reduction.

Silver pyrophosphate behaved in the same way. :

Silver arsenite save a moderately strong image, coming next
to the platinocyanide, and like it, clear and free from all irregu-

ar reduction.
, Silver sulphocyanide, an extremely faint image with much
irregular reduction. ee

Silver -antimonio-tartrate, a weak image entirely free from
irregular action.

Silver fulminurate, weaker than the last mentioned, but also

ia

|
}
;

Chemistry and Physics. 37k

Silver nitrite, similar to the last.
Silver hippurate, an excessively faint image with much irregu-
lar reduction.
The following substances showed (with the above mentioned '
as

exposures) no trace of a latent imag

Silver salicylate, Silver tungstate,
“valerate, « ferrocyanide,
‘* succinate, “nitroprusside,
“* sulphite, “chromate,
‘* resinate, “carbonate,
‘* phosphate, “oxalate.
‘* metaphosphate,

As these experiments were strictly limited to the subject
under investigation, viz: production of latent images capable of
development by the action of pryrogallol and ammonia it must
be understood that the insensitiveness spoken of is insensitive-
ness to this particular action with a rather brief exposure, and
under the conditions mentioned. And this action is that to

Philadelphia, March 22, 1877.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics.
1. Chemical Actions of the Silent Electric Discharge.—BERtHE-

LoT has published i his memoir on the various chemical

n ‘
cti : e produced by the silent elec- |
actions which he has observed to be pr : ad a the

part treats of the same absorption und
pheric electricity, the experiments being made
cal Observato a

»

372 Scientific Intelligence.

second five moistened dextrin, while the last two contained internal
armatures of silver and were filled with oxygen in order to detect
the formation of ozone. Two of each of the five tubes were filled
with pure gy ae two of each with ordinary air, while the
remaining one of each sort was left open to the air. e experi-
ments continued from July 29 to October 5, 1876, the mean elec-
tric ine being that of 3°5 Daniell cells, though it varied from
— 180 during the two months. In the ten tubes contain-

an amide which soda-lime decomposed ee 300° to 400°,

ethyl hydride. The fifth part treats of the d m-
position of binary compounds by the silent disch e
f one volume Rao and three volume drogen yields three:

49
with free nitrogen in presence of alkalies to form nitrous compounds,
is generally accepted, as furnishing an important basis for the
received theories of nitrification. BEertrHe.ot has examined the
question nie tabing eare to avoid the causes of error existing
in Schénbein’s experiments, two in number; first the use of lime

m the phosphorus, which contains nitrous com-
pounds roduved i in the slow oxidation of the metalloid. Oxyge?
collec rere Sens water was ozonized by the silent discharge,

! ith of a milligram of nitrate was formed in the four flasks.
Air ozonized by phosphorus and allowed to stand twenty-four
hours, and which contained 5-7 milligrams ozone per liter, gave
less than a twentieth of a milligram of ct essentially the

- = _ Same result. The author conc therefore that ozone does not

|
|

Fe rs

' Chemistry and Physics. 873

oxidize nitrogen under these circumstances —Budl, Soc. Ch., IL
XXvil, 160, Feb. 1877. G. F. B.

3. On the Equivalence of Nitrogen.—Victor Meyer has replied

to the paper of Ladenburg and Struve, noticed in the April. num-

iodide, a body which gives benzyl iodide on distillation.— Ber.
Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 309, March, 1877. ¢ G. F. B.
4. A new metallic element, Neptunium.—HerM ann has made an

this group, whic calls Neptunium. The mineral worked on
was labelled tantalite from Haddam, Connecticut ; but proved o
eXamination to »olumbite and ferroilmenite in equa 8

d, mixed with bat
fluoride, and the solution diluted to forty parts boiling water to

and dried over sulphuric acid. © Neptunic acid resembles in gen-

874 Scientific Intelligence.

brick-red with ilmenic, and cinnamon-brown with neptunie acid.
Boiled with tin and hydrochloric acid neptunic acid gives, like
columbic and ilmenic acids, a blue solution. From the pure erys-
tallized double potassium fluoride, the atomic weight of neptunium
was fixed as 118, its atomic volume as 18, and its specific gravity
as 6°55. The formula of the acid is Np,O,, (H,0),;.
sodium salt crystallizes in prisms. The author prepared metallic
columbium and ilmenium in the pure form and determined the
amount of oxygen taken up by these metals on heating them in
the air. Columbium required 20°49 and ilmenium 37-96 of oxy-
gen; the amount obtained by Rose being 20°60 and by Mari

prepared his metal. Hermann’s paper concludes with an account
of his methods of separating the metals of this group, and descrip-
i b, 1877.

tions of their compounds.—/. pr, Ch., II, xv, 105, Feb. 1877

his observations to other bodies and finds that paraaldehyde,
: > ; : wr

he t
oxygen is passed through a hot alcoholic solution of grape sugar

cine and as food under the name of Turanjbin. Crystallized from
Water and then from alcohol, it was obtained in the form of white

crystals, containing one molecule of erystal-water wile

: they lose even in dry air at the ordinary temperature, an

:

ee

Chemistry and Physics. 875

have the formula Cy elgg vines Ata solution is Biatrogersie,
5

vania. eee of Hopes Dissertation at raccoon 1876.)
—The investigation of the tri-substitution compounds of benzol
has only of late engaged the attention of chemists. The follo owing
results, recently obtained by me, are presented as a contribution
to the knowledge of bibromnitro-, bibromamido-, tribrom-, an
bibromhydroxylbenzoic acids.

PARABROMMETABROMNITROBENZOIC AcIp,
C,H, ase. ieee Pe satay 162° C.

tion, Gottingen 1875). The fusing cca of this latter acid is
22,°-230° C. To effect the introduction of the nitro-group (NO,),
the acid obtained by att above one was heated yee on a alate
bath with fuming nitric acid. The application of a more

heat —— entirely different acids. In ae cold,. coma nitric
acid was without action upon the stebgiiter ty:

The Siscucice acid was partially precipitated in flocculent
masses ; the greater quantity of the acid, however, remained dis-
ly : ;

puritied ie boiling it pala odium ch
In hot water the acid is ran soll, exystallzing from it in
fine Soe oer ide The fu f o be 162° C,
e acid is not volatilized sr ghee WwW hen heated between
watch glasses it sublimes with parti posit
probable this acid is identical with that obtained i Habner ad
Angertein ( Angertien’s pages: Gottingen, 1869).
tion of the nitro-radical to OH-group or to the adn

COO Pb. . Obta oa by precipitating a hot ‘aolekea n of Pd
sd ad salt with ney P | ae. A white insoluble powder.
Lead estimation, 0°2755 grm. dry salt gave 0°0965 grm, PhO,
=0°0659 grm. Pb = 23°95 per cent. Theoretical percentage =
24°21 per cent Pb.
Am. Jour. —S Serres, Vou. XIII, No. 77.—May, 1877.

— Scientific Intelligence.

Carbon and hydrogen determination: 0°2143 grm. salt gave
0°0433 grm. carbon = 201 per cent. Farther, 0°0256 grm. H,0
= 1 per cent H.

~ Nitrogen determination : 071581 grm. salt = 3°53 per cent N.

Theoretical percentages = Carbon, 19-7 per cent, hydrogen 0°50
ee cent, nitrogen = o.3* 26.per cent.

enzoate of Sodium: C,H, Br’ Br™
COONa+3H, O. This ‘salt erystallizes from dilute solutions in

needles, often forming bundles.” From concentrated solutions . is
obtained in almost ig ese broad shining leaflets. Solub

cold and hot water. The nhydrous salt requires 6-63 per lk

Na. Found 6°66 per cent
Pubdipomindtaloramnitnobonsciaté of Potassium: C,H, Br’Br®
NO,COOK. The pure acid was boiled with potassium "carbonate,
the salt oy eyetalieag from the solution in needles. Very soluble
water,

en pti tacos te ly of Barium : PBr"
N,OCOO),Ba+H,O. Broad colorless, pitoctey needles, ate
soluble in water. icy igi salt requires 17°45 per. cent Ba;
found 17°34 per cent.

“Seer -errearaiie nee of Caleium: (C,H, Br°Brm

enzoate of Magnesium : (C,H,Br’Br®

NO. s000) Mg. peru tall izes in baodin forming star-shaped

ups. Difficultly soluble in water. — gave 3-25 per cent
g; required 3°59 per cent.

Pp

AcIp.
c oH, BreBrn NH, OOOH. — 225° C.

; ae
225° ©, , considerably higher than that of a similar acid obtained by
Angert n (Dissertation, Gottingen, 1869). pee ioaet Fer decom-
en fused. A nitrogen determinatio ren
eat Required percentage of Nitrogen 4°75 per cent; “foun
: 5°03 3 per cent N.

bd of Barium: (C,H
. NH,CO0), fyi O. ne aqueous solution of the tela salt
was decom with barium chloride, the precipita te filtered and

e salt forms minute shining needles, oscealif unite

ii

so ieee ial a eeineiedieea ace ME Siena "

SE PI ater aA ite sna t SI P

: orrespon
Compound formed, and being insoluble in ether fell out in floce
masses. The diazo-compound, perfectl with

Chemistry and Physics. — - - oie

to bundles, Very soluble in water. Analysis of anhydrous salt
gave 18°90 per cent Ba; required 18°89 per cent.
Parabrommetabromamidobenzoate of Calcium: (C,H, BrBr®
NH,COO),Ca+44H,O. Obtained by decomposing the ammo-
arHeane tt Be ;

Parab etabi idob te of Strontium: (C,H, Br’Br™
NH,COO),Sr+2H,0. Large, dark-red colored needles. Difti-
cultly soluble in hot water. An analysis of the anhydrous salt
gave 12°55 per cent Sr; required 12°93 per cent Sr.

Parabrommetabromamidobenzoate of Copper: (C,H,BrBr™
NH,COO Cu. From the ammonium salt by treating it with
Copper acetate. Bright green in color; perfectly insoluble in
a Analysis: 9°23 per cent Cu found; required 6°70 per cent

u,

TRIBROMBENZOIC ACID.
C,H,Br?Br™Br?COOH. Fusing point 195° C.

Concentrated hydrobromic acid. pure aci
barium salt after many recrystallizations, prese he constant
Ing point 195° ‘he acid is almost perfectly insoluble

eedles. Fuses with partial decomposition.
Tribrombenzoate of Lead : (C,H, Br’Br Br’COO) , Pb. Ob-

and 0°43 per cent h en. : ped
The bromine was determined by burning the pure acid with
oxide of lime and the calcium bromide decom at silver

nitrate. Found percentage of bromine, 66°85 per cent ; calculated
66°48 per cent.
Tribrombenzoate of Barium: (C,H,Br? Br® Br’? COO), Ba +
5H,0. Formed when the free acid is boiled with barium carbon-
ate. The pure salt forms needles easily soluble in water. e
anhydrous salt when analyzed gave 15°53 per cent Ba; calculated
16°06 per cent Ba.
PaRABROMMETABROMOXYBENZOIC Actp.
- O,H,BreBr™OH?COOH. Fusing point 218° C. : :
An etherial solution of parabrommetabromamidobenzoic acid

. * a bd :- ; di diazo-
Was treated with nitragen trioxide until the ¢ one
ure

y dry, was

J

378 Scientific Intelligence.

water—the OH group being ae mente: This acid is
difficultly soluble in water. The fusing point is 218°. It crys-
tallizes in colorless needles, When ral partial decomposition
urs. <A beautiful violet color is imparted to its solution, when
treated with a few drops of ferric chloride. A combustion of the
acid gave 29°00 per cent carbon and 1°28 per cent ch calcu-

7°23 per cent Nes
Pa urabrommetabromomybencoate of y cen (C,H, BreBr" OH?
COO),Ba. When an aqueous solution of the acid is boiled with
barium carbons, this salt is formed. It crystallizes in red warty
masses. It is rather insoluble in water. I obtained ys a
18°80 per cent Ba; required 18°84 per cent Ba.
ghseprtancngiey Pa.

action of the mclenaie we may almost eee Messer aggre-

may consist of different sespaupre Raga ie even e ether atoms, & as

hey are of any other form of ti tigid bodies. These sae at
fat seem to agree so far with those found experimentally, that
one cannot say that experiment furnishes a contradiction of the
theory thus modified. It is further shown that the values experi
mentally got for the heat-capacity, under this view, are in satis-
factory agreement with the heat-capacities of solid bodies. Of
course the gas molecules cannot be absolutely rigid bodies ;

this
_is already disproved by spectral analysis, but it may be that the ~
rel

vibrations: ing gas spectra are merely brief eee dur-
ing the shock of two molecules, comparable to the und per
ceived on the shock of two ivory balls.— Nature, xv, 306.

Cc. P.
9. Vowel “ Clang.”.—M. Aversacn, from researches on the
nature of the vowel “ Seren i in Prof. Helmboltz’s physical labora-

the > whole i intensity among the individual partial tones as deter-

Chemistry and Physics. ae

mental tone therewith connected. 3. The difference of the vow-
els in the former relation is a result of the power of changing the
form of the mouth cavity. e differences of the absolute pitches
characterizing the various vowels, and of their influence, are a
result of the power of changing the volumeand size of the mouth _
cavity. 4. The first partial tone is always the strongest in ee

7

_ the characteristic pitch, are greater the fuller the vowel is. Very
re variations indicate the nearness of the consonant region. 9.
Al . . ° . ]

se; but
deep, positions.

that one beam shall fall on a bisulphide of carbon prism, and form
the spectrum which is to be examined. The second beam passes
- through a prism of flint glass which is so turned that the ultra
Violet portion of its spectrum shall fall on the ultra’ red portion of.
‘the other spectrum. The flint glass spectrum is not focussed on
the screen, or the slit is opened wide, so that the ultra violet lines —
and bands shall not be visible. These spectra are received on a

nh t
2 : e. The
well marked borders, especially on its more refrangible side. |
Wave lengths of its ¢ ies bape are 1220 and 1310. Since the light
of a diffraction spectrum was too small, the wavelengths were

380 Serentifie Intelligence.:

determined by interposing an apparatus giving colored rings by
means of thin layers of air. Attempts have been made, as yet .
without success, to form a phosphorescent eye-piece like the fluo-
rescent eye-piece of Mr. Soret.—Bib. Univ., cexxviii, 306.

E

s:—1.-There are
two kinds of fluorescence. In one, each homogeneous ray falling

i
equal wave-length. 2. There are substances which have only the
first kind of fluorescence; each excitant ray excites the whole fluo-

3. re
stances which have only the second kind of fluorescence, and
which therefore prasins die their fluorescence spectrum, obey
Stokes’s law. §
erto examined. 4. There are substances which have both kinds

P

n
Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences (1876)

ces 6), Te-
ceived the following exposition by Professor J. Clerk-Maxwell,
8

Chemistry and Physics. — 881

By differentiating the energy with respect to each of these
variables we obtain n+2 other quantities, each of which has a
physical significance which is related to that of the variable to
which it corresponds.

Thus, by differentiating with respect to the volume, we obtain

the pressure of the fluid with its sign reversed; by differentiating ©

with respect to the entropy, we obtain the temperature on the
thermodynamic scale; and by differentiating with respect to the
mass of any one of the component substances, we obtain what
Professor Gibbs calls the potential of that substance in the mass
considered.

As this conception of the potential of a substance in a given
homogeneous mass is a new one, and likely to become very it
tant in the theory of chemistry, I shall give Professor Gibbs’s

any h
tity of any substance added, the mass remaining homogeneous

is the intensity of the tendency of the body to expand, the temper-
: , : a

tends to expel that substance from its mass. :
i o classes of variables by
calling the volume, the entropy, and the component masses the
magnitudes, and the pressures, the temperature, and the poten-

The problem before us ae be stated thus:—Given a homoge-
a mass in a certain phase, will it — in that phase, or will
€ whole or part of it pass into some other phaser
ie etiterion of sig ile dltel may be expressed thus in Professor
Gibbs’s words—‘ For the equilibrium of any isolated system It 1s
necessary and sufficient that in all possible variations of the state
of the system which do not alter its energy, the variation of its
entropy shall either vanish or be negative.

to any other anne oe
this expression for the stability (which we may denote by t
letter K) as eosin: the ph ‘will not of itself pass into the

-

352 Scientific Intelligence.

phase B, but if it is negative the phase A will of itself pass into
the phase B, unless prevented by passive resistances. j

The stability K of any given phase A with respect to any other
phase B, is expressed in the following form: :

K>é+vup—nt—m, hy, —

% ? Ce '
corresponding to the given phase A. The intensities therefore
are those belonging to the given phase A, while the magnitudes

B

If, however, K is positive with respect to all phases which differ
from the phase A only by infinitesimal variations of the magn!

A: to the phase B will depend on whether it can do so without
any transportation of matter through a finite distance, or, in other

words, on whether matter in the phase B is or is not in contact

with the mass. —

_ In this case the phase A is stable in itself, but is liable to have

its stability destroyed by contact with the smallest portion of.

_ Finally, if K can be mage negative by any infinitesimal v aria-
tions of the magnitudes of the system A, the mass will be !
unstable equilibrium, and will of itself pass into some other phase.

finite mass for

h

tively or absolutely stable. :
: e absolutely stable phases are divided from the relatively
stable phases by a series of pairs of coexistent phases, for which
_ the intensities p, t, u, ete., are equal and K is zero. Thus water

and steam at the same temperature and pressure are coexistent

Geology and Mineralogy. 383

As one of the two coexistent phases is made to vary in a continu-
ous manner, the other may approach it and ultimately coincide
with it. The phase in which this coincidence takes place is called
the Critical Phase. .

e region of absolutely unstable phases is in contact with that
of absolutely stable phases at the critical point. Hence, though

h

limits of absolute stability, this process* cannot be indefinitely
continued, for before the substance can enter a new region of
stability it must pass out of the region of relative stability into
one of absolute instability, when it will at once break up into a
system of stable phases, : =o

hus in water for any given pressure there is a corresponding
temperature at which it is in equilibrium with its. vapor, an

But if, as in the experiment of Dufour, a drop of water is carefull
ed from air and entirely surrounded by liquid which has a hig

boiling point, it may remain in the liquid state at a temperature

far above the boiling point corresponding to the pressure, thoug

if it comes in contact with the smallest portion of any gas it
des.

instantly explodes : f

ut it is certain that if the temperature were raised high enough
the water would enter a phase of absolutely unstable equilibrium,
and that it would then explode without requiring the contact of
any other substance. ee

ater may also be cooled below the temperature at which it
generally freezes, and if the water is surrounded by another liquid
of the same density the pressure may also be reduced below that
of the vapor of water at that temperature. if the water when in
this phase is brought in contact with ice it will freeze, but if

IL GEoLogy AND MINERALOGY.

Va Bett
1. The Loess of the Rhine and Dunube, by Tuomas Ber,
F.G.S.—Mr. Belt Anodes the characters, position and height of
the less, and the evidences in the transported bowlders, Hetero
and organic remains it contains in some places, of its having.

iginated in connection with the Glacial era, observing that “no

~

*

384 Scientific Intelligenée.

account for the height of the stream, he assumes, as in his former
papers, that the ice accumulating along the coast and thus block-
Ing up the drainage of the continents, dammed up the streams
about their mouths and so caused lakes. He says, “I was first led

shores.” Thus “the waters were raised over which floated ice-

deposits are of lacustrine origin. The facts about southern New
England show that there has been no such damming by shore ice

as Mr. Belt suggests; for they prove that the height of the
n

river-floods, with only suc es as come from damming by ice
or ot - along their course. And it seems altogether probable
that the height .of the less on the Rhine and Da ad the

ces. J. Ds De
ness of the Paleozoic rocks of Central Pennsylvania.

Geology and Mineralogy. 385

sandstone in the Coal Measures, to what is ealled the Upper
Catskill or Pocono group (Rogers’s Vespertine, No. 10) inclusive,
at least 3,777 feet; Devonian strata, 7,975 feet; Oriskany sand-
stone (which is referred by some to the Devonian and others to the
Upper Silurian) 58 feet ; Upper Silurian 4,214 feet ; Hudson River

and Utica shale and Trenton at least 2,370 feet—making in all

18,394 feet,
In the section, the Pocono sandstone has a thickness of 2,133
feet, and is overlaid by the Mauch Chunk Red Shale (Rogers’s

Rogers’s Seral), 280 feet; and the Alleghany River (or Lower
Productive) Coal Measures, 264 feet. The Devonian commences
with the Catskill Red sandstone (Rogers’s Ponent), 2,680 feet
thick, and is underlaid by 90 feet of “transition strata” between
it and the next below; 1,860 feet of Chemung shales (Vergent) ;

t; Trenton limestone 500 feet. Below lie the Calciferous and
Potsdam, of unknown thickness.

are situated in the midst of what has very appropriately been
_ Called the Appalachian System; a system of long casera

Shongum) Mountain, at a distance varying

* Abri | by the author from a paper upon the same subject in vol. xi, Ann.
Lye, Nat. History N. Y.

>

386 Scientific Intelligence.

and the finn aerios are worked in the voutbvaiaveda fronts of the
anticlinals. This arrangement is further deversified by the dip;

There are at Bennet’s Quarry, bepinnings at the bottom:

No. 1. Tentaculite Limestone, Prof. Cook’s Quarry Stone ;* makes the best of lime
oid kent Be Lged ov net abo ut twenty et thick.+

No. 2. no rea Limestone; Bake two to five feet. thick.

0. 5. Delt ; ten feet thic
No. 6. Upper Shale; one hundred and fifty feet thick
No. 7 Layers; five to ten feet thic’

0. 7. Trilobite ‘
Nos. 5, 6 and 7 are believed to belong to the Upper shapes ypc subdivision
d are succeeded by rocks of the Orlakany Sandstone and Cauda Galli Gri it
os the latter exhibiting a thickness of from five hundred za eight hun-

te ov following fossils were very kindly identified for me by Prof.

Perm No. 1, Tentaculate Limestone; Zentaculites gyracanthus,
Spir er Peaccemi, Megambonia ovoidea, and Strophodonta
varistr

Fro r Favosite SEES Fanosites Helderbergi, %
Cy rthophyibum, aed Pentamerus ga

rom No. 3, or Lower Pentamerus pen Cherty Limestones ;
some pleuroptye, Pentamerus galeatus, and a form of Lich-
enalia.

From No. 4, Delthyris Shale; Spirifer macropleurus, S. lamel-
dosus, and many more forms peculiar to and usually abundant in
this subdivision.

From No. 5, Upper Quarry Stone; Rhynchonella ventricosa and

Platyceras retrorsum.

__ From No. 6, Upper Shale. This subdivision is very sparingly
fossiliferous.
rom No. 7, Trilobite layers; Chonetes tsa Renssel-
a

aeria mutabilis, —— Vasacones i, D almanites ir
- nasuta, D. rust D. den case ” “Hyolithes penkenhiates
phomena rhomboidalie, S. ices ei Strophodonta cavumbenda,
S planulata, 8. Beckii, 8. Leavenworthana, S. varistr triata,
* Geology of New Jersey,
t The thickness of stra’ sigh sive ~ this paper, and the mais of subdivisions
are different from the original paper. T think the thickness was overestimated ia

My first.
t Descri ied myself in this Journal, vol 200, Described by me i0
mye Nat Hist. ¥ oP

G cology and Mineralogy. 387

Orthis subcarinata, O. multistriata, Spirifer arrectus, “Cyrtia ross-

ig Prterinea teatilis, Diseina discus, D. Conradi, Holopea anti-

a, Lowon nema Fitchiana, Tentaculites elongatus, a form allied to

Mecmatie, a Beuitichsa. probably B. granulifera, and some other
ned.

“Species not determ
I

have been ca oxhautt ive in the punneency of the species
pemeaned. in this subdivis os because the richness of its faun:
se

n
sils, and in the iat named, are Chonetes complanata, Renssel-
aeria nutabilis, and vibes Wg sa dentata. The stony casts of these
ou literally make up the r

he Favosite Limestone,* Re 2, is also peculiar. It is so full
of large. corals, principally F avosites, that it is at first hard to
believe it is not the equivalent of the Coralline of Schoharie,
described by pee Hall in eed Fale Fossils of New Yo rk,
volume ii. It occupies, however, about the position assigned by
that daiezeuted aleontaiane to the Stromatopora limestone.
tis a coarse, brecciated limestone, and contains, besides Favo-
sites, an abu ndan nee of encrinal frag gments in an unrecognizable

presence of F. Niagarensis in the former. rs
seem to make that cat of little account in Ah had 885 the age
of the latter limeston

4. ete and " Cicgeomitoes Survey of the Territories, F.
V. ey n, U.S. Ge og ee rge. er bhe gabe de has rece eae

“Seige ol hic gree eels ne no tter than any m
+ ives, far better
whole of the United States, and $tvery of the piel aise
er ; , i
. aig ag, #9 ne aaaety , containing full lists oe ” heights —
and he w cecil

brings out well the great yap of the mountain region west
of the Mississippi. The en lines are those of 500 and 1,000

feet, and of each added 1,0
* Name suggested by Prof. D. S. Saino agers rae Clogs sg

388 | Scientific Intelligence.

A new number of the Bulletin of the Survey contains a paper
entitled “a Calendar of the Dakota Nation”—a document of picto-
rial hieroglyphics, comprising the chief events in Dakota history,
during the 71 years following 1799, with its interpretation, b
Lieut.-Col. G. Matiery; also others—on the Kjékkenméddings
and graves of a former population of the coast of Oregon,
ScuumacueER, with 22 maps and plates; on the Twana Indians of
the Skokomish Reservation in Washington Territory, by Rev.

Lis; Notes on a Collection of Noctuid Moths, made in Colo-
rado in 1875 by Dr. A. 8. Packard, Jr., by A. R. Grorm; on the
Tineina of Colorado, and on new Entomostracans from Colorado,

y V. T. CuamBers; on a new Cave Fauna in Utah, and deserip-
tions of new Phyllopod Crustacea from the West collected by Dr.
T. Watson and Dr. E. Coues, by Dr. A. 8S. Packarp, Jr.; N otes
on some Artesian borings along the line of the Union Pacific Rail- .
road in Wyoming Territory, by F. V. Haypen.

ig

Cretaceous, and lie in a basin, very nearly horizontal. No. 1
counting from the west, near Rock Springs, 1,145 feet deep, stopped
at the bottom of the Fox Hill group of ceous, an

No. 2, near Point of Rocks, 1,000
deep, stopped at the top of the Fox Hill group, and afforded
an abundant supply of water at 17 feet from surface. No. 3, near

the upper part of the Lignitic series, “and yields 2,160 gallons
i most

- 5, Note on the Criticism of Prof. Stevenson 3 by A.C, Puare.
(Communicated).—The only point’ in Prof, Stevenson’s criticism
my notes on the age.ot the Kocky Mountains in Colorado,*
whieh requires an answer is as follows:
On page 298 he says that on page 174 of my article “the state-
ment is made that the Trias is present in Southwestern Colorado
and Northern New Mexico,” and that I use its presence there as

assertion that it is absent in the interior. To prevent misappre

the sentence on page 174 of my artl
n Southwestern Colorado and Northern _
Triassic is also present.” On i 173 and 174

Geology and Mineralogy. _ 889

The main points of my article are ‘not touched by Prof. Steven-
son, except one, viz: in regard to the Tertiary elevation of the
Rocky Mountains, in which, as he says, we agree. . As to his Car-
boniferous and Triassic upheavals we differ

It is my intention to elaborate my views on the subject in the
Report of the Survey for 1876. ero

Washington, D. C., April 18th, 1877.

6. American Paleozoic Fossils—Mr. S. A. Mitixr of Cincin-
nati, Ohio, proposes to publish a catalogue of the species of Amer-
ican Paleozoic fossils arranged under each class in alphabetical

i
Mr. Miller should be addressed at No. 8 W. 3d street,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

1%. Paleontographica. Beitrdge zur Naturgeschichte der Vor-
zeit, herausgegeben von W. Dunxer (of Marburg) und K. A. Zrr-
TEL (of Munich).—It is proposed to issue the Paleontographica
hereafter annually in volumes like the earlier, at a price not
exceeding 45 shillings (English) per year, payable at the begin-
ning of each year by Post Office order. The editors will have the
assistance of W. Beneckxe, E. Beyricu, M. Nevmayr, F. Romer,
and K. von SrEBacu, as a committee of the German Geological
Society. The 20 volumes of the first series, and 1 to 3 of the sec-
ond, may now be had at 50 per cent deduction from the original
prices, if applied for at once. The publisher is ‘Theodore Fisher
of Cassel, Prussia.

ame, amite. Analysis (3)
=2°653), and (4) the same after the
is a pure white, soft, chalk-

appears to be made up of small, |
In water it falls to powder immediately.

«

390 Scientific Intelligence.

SiO, AlO, FeO MnO MgO (CaO Na,O K,O H,O
Ly Te 8) 16-70 66 tr. 10 aS ty 5 55-262 99°45
2. TT68 15-19 “89 “OL 10 ic eae 94 61 + 3°33= 99°33
3. i 49°93 38°74 1°58 ee at wage A 44 T61= 99°95
4.(47°95 40°32 1°67 weal 7-79=100°00

- On the help nent of onthe and on the pit tear of
North Varolind: by Prof. DeLarontaine. (Letter to J. D. Dan
dated Chicago, March 23, 1877.)—I aie recently. sind an exam-
ination of some tantaliferous minerals of the United States, a brief

specimens kindly given to me by Mr. C. U. Sh ‘ehise himself;

urthermore, the crystals of hermannolite contain some forei n sub-
stance in the form of yellowish semeet which I could tr sepa-
rate from the mass or were im dded |

A mon-
ssa of its merrtikeast emiounas will soon be published. All
my endeavors to find Mr. Hermann’s Diiahiaitn in samarskite have
proved unsuccessful as well as those of Marignae and Blomstrand,
working on other material.

he saat aah by cia Shepard states that the hermannolite was

a locality near the house of Mr. Cook (a dealer in min-

erals) be Mr. Cock. ious © us that there is no such locality,

that it t must ni come from the columbite locality, a mile
Seton from it.—Eps,

ae ee RT ME Se

Botany and Zoology. 891

III. Botany anp Zoonoey.

axis, will be assumed to be of the same sign, when their directions
correspond to those of an ordinary or right-handed screw.” “Th
combined action of the muscles of the arm when we turn the u
side of the right hand outward, and at the same time thrust the
hand forward, will impress the right-handed screw motion on the
memory more firmly than any verbal definition. mmon cork-
Screw may be used as a material symbol of the same relation,”
“This is the right-handed system which is adopted in Thomson and
Tait’s Natural Philosophy, §243. The opposite, or left-handed
system, is adopted in Hamilton and Tait’s Quaternions.” ~

ay, Darwin,
and Bentham” are blamed for taking, is regarded as the natural
one by Clerk Maxwell, Thomson, ete., among the mathematicians
and physicists. For avoiding ambiguity, “Prof, W. H. Miller has

everywhere out of the United States, the grape-vine (as we eall it)
is meant. Now the vine-tendril hardly coils except when it has
laid hold, and then, when half the coil is in one direction the

circle or coil. ‘Thus, in saying that the hop in twining “ follows

A.
] | lement des Vrilles, par M. Caste
Stentor sing estinegeney STaMay a mgm nae
Universelle. Jan., 1877. pp. 13.— double turn of - —
in attached tendrils excited the author’s attention, but he finds, as

Am. Jour. — a Vot. XIII, No. 77.—May, 1877,

.

392 Scientific Intelligence.

uld_ be expected, that this a a purely mechanical result and a
necessity of the situation. He neatly demonstrates this, by allow-
ing a tendril to seize by its Bes | tip some solid object suspended
from a ees , the torsion which takes the place of the imverse
turns of the coil in the ordinary situation. The lower side of the
tendril is always interior in the coil. This comes from the
arrangement of its fibrous Punt which form a circle only at

the base of the tendril, but above this only an arc, open on the
apeer. side; this upper aoe ge Sa is accordingly more
ected by turgescence and can y longer than the lower.

Tendrils which remain free are less vigorous than those which
gain attachment ; vigor, as well as increased growth in thickness,
is sah, 3 ed by use. The difference in the Depp of the coil?

way determined ‘ the pla ia for series of PED with de-
tached tendrils floated on water, or with the cut end immersed,
and with tendrils divided tics pieces (which preserve their vital-
ity and continue their action) show this; when fixed by one end
and free at the other, or at least ge fixed by the summit only,
they coil nearly as often in one direction as the other. The
elongation of the different portions of a tendril ceases Nerd i the

ase; it RewA'y augments from base to ape

3. Dat. € of the parts wo sone Botany. —Ref rring s “on
note in the January No. of this Journal, it is ahs recording
that the first fasciculus ets ended, as was supposed, on p. 9
No. 5 consisted of pages 401 to 496, and bears the date of 1817.
No. 6 contained pages 497 to 606, and is dated iB. This in-
formation is obtained from the e inspection n of copies of those parts

in their original state, and is obligingly pete 9 by His: a B.

Dexter, of the Yale College Library.

Onion-Smut, by Prof. W. G. Fartow.—A seat of 15
pages, with a plate, extracted from the 2th Aoaual Report of the
Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, Bos-
ton, 1877.—The smut in question is as yet unknown out of New

is given in this ee Ba pean with that of the oni The fungus
of the latter was named, by Mr. Frost of Brattlebor 0, Urocystis
Cepule ; but it is now for the first time described and illustrated
by Prof. Farlow. The subject had, however, been taken up by

TE NTS MeO. Se EN

Botany and Zoology. 393

upon it again for three or four years at least. The smut is thought

unlikely to be conveyed or introduced with onion-seed.

A,
5. Botanical Instruction at Harvard University.—In

: y. The course will begin on Friday
morning, July 6th, and continue six weeks. Microscopes and all

eneral ¢
development of Thallogens, and on one day of the week an excur-
sion will be made either into the country or to the sea-shore. =f

familiar with the more common moulds, blights, and with a few
agarics. Students who have attended a previous course ca | Se

ersity.” |

be made that Prof.

i y in the University
m a

Bary and of the late M. Thuret.
afforded, he should establish the school of Cryptogamic
™M this country which has lon n needed. :
At the Bussey Institution it is expected that a very full elemen-

394 Selentific Intelligence.

6. Monocotyledons, by
Gzorcr Benruam.—aA paper of 30 pages, and with three plates,
closing the 15th volume of the Journal of the Linnean Society,

. An arrangement of the orders is sketched, which, being
employed in the Flora Australiensis, will doubtless be adopted in
the new Genera Plantarum, unless in the mean while reason
appears for modifying it. They are grouped in four alliances, or

¥

Juncee and Palme. i

Alliance 3, Nupirtor#, with free ovary apocarpous, monocar-
lary, or rarely synearpous; the perianth either none or reduced
toa seale under each anther. -Alismacew are exceptional; but
their association with Aroidew and Naiadacew seems natural.

often more than one-celled, and ovule pendulous; Hriocaulonee,
Centrolepidee, Restiacew. The second, with one-celled ovary and
erect ovule, Cyperacew, Graminew. The schedule is followed _
by a series of critical remarks and explanations.

The homology of the parts of the blossom in Xyris is reviewed,
and better interpreted; the two outer so-called perianth-seg-
ments are shown to be bractlets; what was taken for a third seg-
ment, within the two outer, is shown to be the representative of
the whole exterior perianth, mostly caducous; as to the remain-
tn ad tubular perianth no conflict ‘has arisen

oe Pole ha of the latter part of this paperis found in the ex-
a oer t at "

sition 0: homology and terminology of glumes, ete., in Cype
cewand Graminew,—a just account of swhicle can hardly be given .

oe BE he a get RE RR a a ee ae ee
FE a2 : Tt . ” 2 ae es

Astronomy. (B95

in a brief abstract. Mr. Bentham prefers to use the term glume
in Cyperaceee as well as in Grasses. While highly approving the

country as to the structure in Cyperacew. As to Graminee our
prepossessions were all in favor of Robert Brown’s view. , adopted

by Kunth and most agrostologists, so that little attention was
paid to the view proposed i in our author’s Handbook of the Brit-
ish Flora. ve not room here to exhibit the proposed view

and the aptly-stated reasons for its adoption. Suffice it to say that

we are convinced by the latter, and that the adoption of this view

will simplify the study of Grasses, and bring the homology of the

gramineous ie: He into full accordance with that of Cyperacee and

other orders. The exposition given is certainly well calculated

“to enforce a principle generally admitted, but unfortunately too
ive b ists, viz: th

only enable the reader to identify the plant he has in hand, but
call his attention specially to those characters which may indicate
its real affinities, the homologies of its parts, and any other cal
tions they may have. But for this purpose it is necessary tha
the author should distinguish descriptions of plants from rere.
cal explanations, that he should, in terms the most capable of
strict definition, ’ describe only w what the observer may aval see,
not what it m may be theoretically imagined he ought t reserv-
ing his theories for comments sear what bes seadaliy been
Observed.” A.

7. The Various C spe ntrivances by which ee are fertilized by
Insects ; by Cu s Darwin. Second edition. New York.—
The first edition ‘of | this interesting — which se tba in 1862,
Was reviewed at that time in this rnal, and served as the basis
upon which to display the onee "adaptations of some of our

i

is in.

ie Athens, on the 24th of No-
in the Gonstellaton Cygnus, then near
rst observed, was of the t! er

Schmidt i that no corresponding
ing of Nowsekasiea : The He was oceuaat at Athens on the

three following days, and most probably the outburst appeared at

396 Scientific Intelligence.

its full brilliancy in the interval between November 20 and 24.
At midnight on the latter day the light of the star was of greater
intensity ‘than that of n Pegasi, noted of the third magnit tude by
. Argelander. Its position does not appear to be recorded in the
usual catalogues of small stars; certainly not in those of Lalande,
Weisse’s Bessel, Bode, DA elet, or in the Dure hmusterang of
Argelander. From an observation made by Mr.

Bishop’s Observatory on eee 13, its R.A. for 1876°0 is 21h
36” 50°41, and its N.P.D. 47° Pci

eens, aera? a te air was sent to Dr.: se at

in ae only in the second week in December, from the
ublic notices inserted in the Bulietin International and Comptes

Paris were more fertunate in obtaining information, for the star
was examined on December 2, duri ng a brief interval of clear sky,
by MM. Henry, Cornu, and Cazin, and estimated of the fifth mag-

Cornu made some satisfactory observations of the spectrum of the
star with -~ a wai Poa itr of the Pari ris Observatory, the

Nami ie the bri igh in lines according to their intensity by the
Greek letters a to 6, their = in the spectrum, in relation to

those of certain element nts, may be readily seen — the numbers
in the following table determined by M. Cor
Poh ee é y B : 1] 6
Observed . .__... 661.688: / 63l- 617 600 483. 451 435
Hydrogen__._.___ 656(0) ._. mbiser rejoins i oA) se ee
Sodium = wmiensiie tae oa 689 (D} -. wae a ine — 7 eg
la Lt a eta ph a Bs 517 ps --- --- ae
(6 mean)
Ci UR tsi aes ol ee
587 ne nee ee ve 447 <

act, but one e requiring con con-
t there are several pee Rea shown in the preced:

firmation, tha:

‘ing g table mei have led him to the conclusion that the bright

a

~

Ee

naar

~

Astronomy. 397

the line ¢ corresponds rather with the bright line of the chromo-

re
_ The spectrum of the star has also been examined by Father
echi, Dr. Vogel, and others, all of whom confirm generally the
previous observations of M. Cornu. Several bright lines were
seen by Dr. Vogel in the red, blue-green, and blue parts of the
Spectrum; bright bands were also visible in the yellow and green;
but these may possibly be portions of a continuous spectrum seen
right by contrast with absorption bands, of which there were as
many as eight or ten. The blue and violet were brighter than in

the spectrum of hydrocarbon. e seen in the violet may be the
third line of h drogen. Dr. Vo 1 remarks that there are three
other stars in iving quite unique s

ygnus pectra. —
y careful comparisons with several neighboring stars, _Dr.
Schmidt noted the gradual diminution in the intensity of the light

{ the star almost daily. e variations of magnitude are ex-
hibited in the following table :—
November 24 3-0 Magnitude. December 5 5-9 Magnitude.
“i 95 31 “i a3 7 63 “
“ 96 31 “ sc 8 65 “
se 27 32 ‘“ s“ 9 66 ‘i
&< 28 3:8 uc ‘“ 10 65 “
bd AT th “a ll 6% m7
sc 5-0 ie ub 12 67 “
December 1 5:2 “ 13. 68
mt 2 Br “ ‘* 14 69 ‘‘
bad 3. 5-6 t“ ‘i 15 7-0 “
bd 4 58 $6

since the beginning of 1876, are given in the following table.
The orbits ana coin ae circulars to the Berliner Jahrbuch.

ree scovere ‘
discovery, and names of discoverers of the minor planets found

398 Scientific Intelligence.

PLANETS RECENTLY DISCOVERED.

“Time of Mean /|Angleof! Long. of} Long.
No. Name. Discovery. Discoverer. | Dist. | Eccent.) Incl. | Node. | Per,
° ° 4 ° / ° i
‘158/Coronis, |Jan. 4, 1876 |Knorre 2990116 59} 1 23/282 49/355 10
159|\emilia, |Jan. 26, “ |Paul Henry.|3:1253| 6 38) 6 5/135 5/100 40
160|Una, Feb. 20, ‘ /|Peters. 44043| 3 “S015. 32| ko S)19hc te
Apr. 16, “ |Watson 2°3760| 7 38} 9 10} 18 33|312 56
162/Laurentia, |Apr. 21, ‘“ |Pros. He 0211; 9 31; 6 3] 38 15}14
rigone, |Apr. 26, ‘ rrotin. 2°3507) 8 34) 4. 41/159 0) 93/17
dL July oy “e aul Henry. | 2°5525|18 42/24 48) 77 27) 2
165) Loreley, AUS. ot ers. 1286| 4 10/11 10/304 1|282 24
166| Rhodope, vin] 15, ¥ eters. 2°T199\13 48/11 41)129 15] 30 52
167| Urda, Aug. Ps sei 3°218618 }1) 1 42}170 7) 32 39
168/|Sibylla, Sept. 28, i — 3°3781| 3 51] 4 35/209 36) 5 43
169 Zelia, 2) OS. ig 2°3580. 7 30! 56 31/354 35/326 35
170). Jan. 1877. Same 2°5510 3 44/14 21/301 18] 98 37
Tit va io, TBO ae 3°1472) 5 8} 2 30/100°54|151 21
172 Feb. 5, ‘“ ({Borrelly 2-3795! 46, 9 41/331 43 326 17

To the planet (150) the name Niwa has been given. The ob
servations of (149) Medusw and-(155) Seylla were not such as to
furnish. reliable elements of their orbits.

To the planets recently discovered might be “oe the two
es aalgglempages: by capt cage viz: (66) Maia, “(Sept.,

Camilia, (Mareb, "1877, not seen before since 1868, when dis-
covered ‘by Pogson. . Of the first 140 planets equa Mars and
pagers ee following have been seen only at the opposition near
the time of discovery, viz: (99) Dike, (125) prance (132)
seh as) Meliboca ape Ane) Juewa. i api wing have

68) “Mai
oe ico. “(s1) ty sig Cr yrene, (134) Sopirene —
(135) Hertha, observed a

wee form. It is ser ach (and re wall) bare and
- ;

larum Augie et inealttelichams mensure micrometrice,’
Struve, 1837, and ‘Additamentum in F. G. W. Struve maensuras
micrometricas stellarum duplicium’ (1837), including all the stars
m the ‘Syno psis observationum de stellis duplicibus, in oe
Dorpatensi, pags a 1814 ~ 1824, per instrumenta m weeds a
fectum’ and in the ‘IL. mensure micrometricee’ ~reiirrang an
— of R. iM and the positions brought up to 1875.
ach page contains thirteen columns and everything relating wd
‘Star is found in isch iene line or in a foot note. Colum

2ins Strie lander! column 2 the page in Mens. Mic.

“s

-

>

: Ophiuchus 8. Rardin elements are, 7=1i

Astronomy. 399

where the star is to be found, column 3 the synonyms, columns 4
and 5 the R. A. and 6 for 1875 ‘0, column 6 My lowest and highest
magnifying powers used by Stru uve, colum the mean date of
observation, columns 8 and 9 Struve’s Geianee and position angle,
columns 10 and 11 give the magnitude and color of the pane
component <A, cee 9 12 and 13 the same data for B.
pended is a table o f the precessions in declination for ten sas
and a diagram from which the variable part of the precession in
R. A. for ten years in minutes of time can be taken by inspection.
eae star observers will find this a most useful and Payee
wor

Luce Zodiacale, sue Leggi e Teoria Vosmico- Abnoue:
tea, dedotte dalle Osservazione di @. Jones, per il P. A, Serpreri,
D. 8. P., Direttore dell’ ite atoriv Meteorologico di Urbino. —
i a 1876. 4to, pp. vi, 113, with 4 plates.—This is a reprint,
from the Journal of the Italian Spectroscopists, of an elaborate
memoir chiefly founded upon the o SekRone of the Rev. George
Jones, of the U. S. Nav vy, but bat the use of many observations
derived from es fe sources. The author, rejecting the now com-

auroras merely in its having a particular fixed position and by its
rmanence. He supports this: conclusion by a variety of argu-

othoneine finds few pg.
Although the « omiors naga may be questioned with

ght, Ig
weal ations, and conta aining ines a ap as
sical a f this much discussed p: menon, — oe
cd rode. tae “4,—There have been chitin far this year three
i comets discovered. a reste contrast to the barrenness in
discoveries of the last four yea
1.) Borrell iaceanoadiace tive found a telescopic ao. s=ier 30, in
gd =

ix=159° 2’ 2’, log q=9°90712.

400 . Serentifie Intelligence.

2.) Borrelly discovered a second comet about the 6th of April.
3.) Mr. Lewis Swift at Rochester, discovered on the evening
of the 11th of April, a very faint comet in the head of Cassiopeia.

seems not to have been sent to Europe. This enabled Borrelly on
the 14th to announce his later discovery of the same comet.

6. Observations of Comets 1877b. and 1877e. at the Observa-
tory of the Sheffield Sci. School, made by W. Breese, H. A.
Hazen, and T. Smiru.—Comet. 18775. was observed here at
the dates given below. At first it seemed a round nebulous mass,

about 20’, and one southwest making with the first
about 60°, the whole forming a kind of fan-shaped tail. The fol-
lowing observations were made with a ring micrometer con-
structed by Professor Lyman. It differs from the usual form in
that it consists of four concentric rings, the largest about a degree,
the smallest about 8’, in diameter. By this arrangement any oF

a

?
names of the first three comparison stars are uncertain.
(C—S), Aa (C—S), 4d Comp. star. No. Comp.

an m 8 Z fi
April 7, 16 18 38 +2 17°86 —17 19°15 43397 LL. 11
9, 15 46 31 +6 36°97 —18 52°90 43247 LL. 14
iL... Ih 36. & +4 12-09 SEES 43417 LL. 12
12, 14 41 10 —8 8:89 — 9 425 43890 LL. -
ra, 16° 36 & —8 8-92 —12 44°90 43891 LL. 13
15

this star was taken as that of the comet. The comet was again
seen on the 22d of Apri
New Haven m. t. (C—8), Ae. (C—S), Ad. Comp. Star. No. Comp.
-3

nh ABBR ibn B18 a 7
—9 16°18 +11 02. 1951 LL 5
+2 4000 —i5 45-0 5
, R. A. 2" 287-5. Dec. + 40° 185. w. B

Pe Le aE Te

_ Miscellaneous Intelbigeie 401

V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Notes on the Appearance and Migration of the Locust in
Manitoba and the Northwest Territories, Summer of 1875; by

Grorce M. Dawso 8vo the Canadian Nat-
uralist. )— Dawson states that in 1875 the hatching of the
locusts in Manitoba began in favorable places May 7th, and be-

en
toba Lake, in latitude 51°. The movement began in J uly, and
was most general during the latter half of the month and first of
August; and the direction was southeast or south, the insects
apparently using, by instinct, the winds that favored their pur-
pose. Many were carried into a country of thick woods, where
they did little harm, and few reached Minnesota. Others passed
over Crookston, Polk County, Minnesota, and Fort Totten, Da-
kota; and probably the Sioux City locusts, mentioned by Mr.
C..V. Riley, came from Manitoba.
Other swarms of locusts came from the south across the 49th

8.
Mr. Dawson concludes that the planting of belts of woodland
rmanent amelioration of the
grasshopper plague, since they usually avoid such belts,—their
Invading the forests’ in 1875 being perhaps due to the insects
i > cel

ight is towar hing grounds of their parents, so that two
gh oward the hatching g ioe aot

e migratory tendency,
a direction exactly the

until the appropriate time for destroying the young insects in
hatching eckada by fire; the protection of insect-eating birds.

402 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

concerts,” at which large audiences were e re given i
Boston and Washington, through musical instruments played in
Philadelphia. At both, the music, althou ther feeble in tone,

the Washington concert, April 9th, eight airs, commencing with
“Home, Sweet Home,” were listened to “ with profound attention,

New York Associated Press, where a number of the tunes played

in Philadelphia were distinctly heard on a “relay” used in the

office, which had no connection whatever with the wire that was
h

ments. It is expected that there will be instructors in different
departments, Prof, Tenney was over the region three or four,
ears since.

Dr. D. 8. Jordan, Prof. I. A. Myers, Prof. W. R. Dudley, Mr. E.
‘R. Copeland and Mr. C. H. Gilbert are the instructors to accom
. “ge :

apolis), Indiana,
5. Report of the Chief of Engineers to the Secretary of Wa",
Sor the year 1876. In three Parts, making three thick volumes
8vo, with many maps and plates, Washington, 1876.—Besides
_ the details with regard to the surveys and improvements in riv-
ers, harbors and lakes carried on, in the various States, the Report
of scientific interest. The report of General Q. A.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. - 403

third being the usual allowance, in the more northern States, and
40 per cent the result of the experiments of Mr. J. B. Jervis with
reference to the Chenango Canal, N ork.
_ In addition to other sources of supply that of water of infiltra-
tion is considered. Lieut. Smith found, on trials, that water
Stood in shafts in the sandy soil up : within five feet of the surface
during the months of July, August and September, and into
vember, except portions of July and August, when it was

REN,
this volume; Notes on European Surveys, compiled under the
direction of General C. 3. Comstock, oceupying 90 pages, giving
i i as. topographical,
and scales of maps, ete., with plates showing style of work; ——
sto
the 100th meridian, a notice of which is deferred to another num-
3 the Report of Capt. Lupiow, already noticed on page 228,

hers.
Height of “ West Hills,’ Long Island —We have nrigoes
. ~ oe t ”

doubt expressed on page 235 of this volume.—Ebs.
& Stren A ! aes ination of the Dimensions of Structures
of Iron and Steel with reference to the latest Investigations. An

404 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Elementary Appendix to all text-books upon iron and steel con-
struction; by Dr. Jacos J. Wryraucn, Prof. Polytech. School at
Stuttgart. Translated by A. Jay DuBois, Ph.D., Prof. Civ. an

ech. Engineering, Lehigh University, Penn., with an Appendix .
by R. H. Taurstoy, A.M., Prot: Mech. Eng., Stevens Inst.
Technol., Hoboken, N. J. 210 p

nd improved method based on for rig f.
Launhardt and the author, and presents practical directions avd
various experimental results, a knowl hich is essential to

e Chemis?s Manual: A practical Treatise on Chemistry,
Qualitative and Quantitative analysis, Steechiometry, Blowpipe
Analysis, Mineralogy, Assaying, Toxicology, &c., d&e.; by HENRY
A. Mort, Jr., E.M., P &e. 62 . 8vo. New York, 1877.
(D. Van Nostrand).—This work is a compend of chemical facts
and principles. The author has shown skill in the selection
of his materials, and has derived them generally from the latest au-
thorities. Many useful tables are introduced, as of Trautwine’s
specific gravities and weights; formule of frequently oceurring
substances arranged alphabetically; the table of alcohols in atomic

work hardly does it justice; for while containing astronomical
i 8

The Electric Bath; its medical uses, effects and appliances, by George
Schweig, M.D. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 18F1. pp. 134, 12mo. is
. on Elementary Inorganic Chemistry; by E. 8. Breiden
= A.M., Prof. Coe and Min. Pennsylvania College a Oativemy. 72 pp. 8v0.
a Getty m sburg, |
_ qltterpolation and adjustmont of Series; by E. L. DeForest. 52 pp. svo. New

+

ee GaN ee ONS MeO T SERIE Me ee

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

Art, XLIII.— An account of the Discoveries in Vermont Geology
of the Rev. Auaustus Wine; by James D. Dana.

[Continued from page 347.]

In the preceding part of this paper the discoveries have been
announced of Zrenton fossils in crystalline limestone in North
Castleton, Hubbardton, and Sudbury, within the area of the
“ great central slate-belt;” in East Cornwall just east of the belt;
east. of the village of Shoreham; in Kastern Orwell; in Middle-
bury, and north of East Cornwall—indicating a north-and-south
area of Trenton limestone either side and underneath the slate,
and showing the slate to be probably the Hudson River shales ;
of Chazy fossils at West Rutland ; in East Cornwall ; northeast of

and also in another fold near by (affording a Binal grainy
‘3

The Eolian limestone extends no
and New Haven and terminates in Monkton, an
fossils in its northern portion. ;

6. Northern Middlebury, New Haven, Monkton. —

About two miles north of Middlebury, a few rods east of the
road running by Messrs. Hammond’s to the Severanee (or Old

Am. Jour. 1 Sertes, VoL. XIII, No. 78.—Juns, 1877.

406 A. Wag s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

Middlebury) Marble Quarry, half a mile west-by-south from the

uarry, across a smal) stream, there is a thin bed of limestone
dipping to the east 70° or 758, underlaid on the west by six or
eight feet of dark fine- grained quartzyte oe Scohithi. At
this place ten or twelve specimens of a s Orthoceras occur,
weathered out over the exposed surface of yeaa near the,

lace of contact with the quartzyte. The Orthocerata are
tapering in form, three to five lines in diameter and one to two
inches long, and have very fine close septa. ‘I'he species is very

much like the Calciferous ere figured by Hall in the .

New York Report.

I visited this locality, on my excursion with Mr. Wing, and
found his description right ; the specimens are beautifull distinct

14-16,
1

only worn sections, Expecting

4
ee}
naed
6 2)
4
©

kindness of P.

teen in a arte inch, that is forty to
~A fifty-two in an inch; and I have also

| Miss Parker. e accompanying three
figures are from these oe ngs and the
squeezes. ey are natural size; and

poem that there are

a 5g doubtful, that the
. 1 may have been ha

an set longer. "The figures are restora-

doa a oe. having part of the septa more entire than in the

athe s rested pees the species is much like Orthoceras primigenium

Hal ied, hat part have aslight curve. Mr. Wing’s earliest notes

locality among those in my hands, occur in a letter dated
October, (1867.*

_ Half a mile northwest of the Orthoceras locality and two
and a half miles northeast of Middlebury village, and appar-
_ ently in the same formation with the last, there are Beer
resembling Ophileta compacta; there was also found here 4
Lrepest here that that the paragraphs in smalle consist of remarks by the
—— f this paper, and of mg dan other sources. 5 oe 2

*

*

A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 407

large Maclurea. ‘The figure here given is correct as to size

and general form, though not having the grace of the original.”

About a mile southwest of the
Middlebury quarry and thirty or
forty rods west of Mr, E. Kirby’s
residence, in an old orchard, seve-
ral distinct convoluted shells were
seen on a dark siliceous limestone
dipping west. The beds are prob-
ably Calciferous.

The quartzyte near the old Mid-

dlebury Marble Quarry above-mentioned extends northward

into the town of New Haven to New Haven River, a distance

of about two miles. The following figure represents a section

taken south of New Haven River on the southern border of
: ys ; .

Dolomite. Marble. Dolomite. S rtayte.

‘Section south of New Haven River on the southern border of New Haven town.
the town of New Haven. There are in succession, going east-
ward along the lines of section, 150 feet of dolomite (a) ; 200 feet
of marble (4); 150 feet of dolomite (c) ; 10 feet of gray quartzyte
(2); 800 feet (e) of buff and reddish quartzyte with some slate.
The get has been made the overlying rock in the view of
Mr. Wing by an overthrow fold. This quartzyte belt, with the
limestone west of it, stops at New Haven River. But, 80 to
100 rods to the west, another belt begins which stretches north-.
ward, passing ‘just east of New Haven village (four miles from
New Haven River), and finally joins the Red Sandrock of
Monkton.

_ Ata place two and a half miles south of New Haven village,
Ina field belonging to Mr. J. Brown, a small Orthoceras w
found over the weathered surface of the dolomite just west of
the quartzyte, which was apparently identical in species with
those of the locality above-mentioned. The Orthoceras is closely .
like that of Shoreham (figured on page 842), which was found
in limestone adjoining the underlying sandrock. The quartzyte
at Mr. J. Brown’s, two and a half miles north of New Haven

?

Village, is 400 to 500 feet thick, dips eastward at an angle of

50° to 60°, and contains “numerous Fucoids and obscure
Seolithi.”

This locality is one of those I visited with Mr. Wing. The
quartzyte is situated between limestone on the east and west, all

dipping alike. The dolomitic limestone to the east has a reddish

408 A, Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

color seamed with white, somewhat brecciated, and resembles
much the red Winooski limestone (Primordial). The quartzyte
ridge was nearly half made up of hydromica slate.

19,

Section near Mr. J. Brown’s.

For a mile northeast of the Weybridge Upper Falls, across
the railroad, the “striped stratum” is seen in short anticlinals
without fossils; but in a fold skirting the western foot of Town

shells and an Orthis were seen,” and they appear to be fossils
of the “Ophileta beds” or Upper Calciferous, ‘The limestones
end in Monkton not half a mile north of this place,” the rock
beyond being the Red Sandrock, with its Scolithi and Fucoids.
The Calciferous formation is thus traced to the northern limit
of the Kolian limestone.

At my visit to the quartzyte anticlinal just described, I found
that there was a small cross-gorge in the quartzyte, showing that
the quartzyte had little thickness and that it overlaid a stratum

: o ds at this place have only a small
_ ‘Gtp.._t+he general relations of the beds are shown in the above

of limestone, probably dolomitic, twenty feet in height of which
were ie to view. The

Pa

A, Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 409

nation, looking somewhat as if examples of the
flow-and-plunge structure, but more probably a
result of concretionary consolidation. To the lat-
ter cause I attributed some forms that looked ex-
ceedingly like casts of a urotomaria and a
Murchisonia, and of a valve of Orthis lynx. Others
of these imitative forms over the surface were
semi-cylindrical and chambered, as if worn casts ,7
of long crinoidal: stems ; yet having the chambers
too large and irregular for any known crinoidal
forms. A portion of one of them is here figured
natural size; its total length was over ten inches.
These simulations of Crinoids may also be due to
a concentric structure in the slaty portion of the
rock ; yet how, it is not easy to understand,

ed to dip east at a high
ecided westward
northern end of

410 A. Wing's Discoveries in Vernioni Geology.

the range, and also south to Starksboro, there is another north-
and-south range of limestone (dolomite), having an eastward
22: dip conformable to the

port, p. 846). The figure
here given (copied from
r. Wing’s note book
gives his view of the strati-
fication. : :

Ss Ne At Starksboro, east of
tion through Hogback. the dolomite, there is a

Mr. Wing’s |

of the quartzyte, and in so aces appear to be 400 to 500
thick; and they overlie ‘the quartzyte, being’ beneath
because of an overturn anticlinal.” T dolomites here

and Mr. Wing’s view as to the folds. a, The Red Sand-rock
dolomite or “Suberystalline limestone;” 6, The “ Ophileta
beds” or Calciferous ; ¢, The “Conglomerate” or “Trilobite bed

A. Wing’s Discoveries in. Veamind Geology. 411

Q, quartzyte. Adjoining the Red Sandrock on the west is No.
2 of the section on page 848, a “ dolomitic sandstone.” |

23.

Petit

, .
~ “.

Mr. Wing’s section from the Red Sand-rock west of New Hayen to the Quartzyte
at Bristol village.

In the excursion with Mr. Wing we passed along by the west-
ern foot of the Hogback range, north of the village of Bristol.
At one point the limestone stratum was seen to form the lower
part of the quartzyte bluff, and to dip beneath the quartzyte at
a small angle, as if actually an underlying stratum. si Wa
= of this limestone at the time as part of the Primordial or

d Sand-rock series. - .

A section of Hogback in the Vermont Geological se
taken along a line south of the region examined by Mr. Wing,
between Bristol and Lincoln, makes the limestone at the west base’

=

24.

ett.

SSSSS SEY
‘ Section of Hogback, from Vermont Report.

cf Hogback dip eastward 45° or.so beneath the quartzyte. T.
he eastward of Hog ng this section no limestone is
represented in the figure; but the ag. says (p. 346): “in the
valley of the north branch of New Haven River. g up to

To

0
Stratified with the quartz rock, nearly narro
and there is reason to believe that it may extend to meet a narrow

rmable. rma bie
the section through Rutland and Mendon given in the Vermont
Geological Report. The quartzyte in Vermont is in many places —
interstratified with, and replaced by, hydromica slate (sometimes

412 A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

chloritic), or a hydromicaceous quartzyte or conglomerate—a fact
dwelt upon in the Vermont Geological Report, which says as fol-
lows, when describing Pia across the eastern —_ te 7
In Sunderland the quartz-formation includes, with quartzyte, tal-
cose schist [that is, hydromica + alate) (p. 614). In Wallingford the

uartzyte and quartz conglomerate are interstratified with talcose
schist (p. 627). ‘‘Talcose schist is associated ive the quartz-rock
~ Nessa tpl (p. 634). In Goshen “the quartz-rock formation is

osed of hyaline quartz, talcose sabes, ape argillo-talcose

schist” (p . 640). In rude “the qua artz-rock is composed of 8
bands id different rocks, viz: hyaline quartz, compact sandston
talcose and chlorite schist * (p. 645). Speaking of the belt of “ tae
cose conglomerate” it says that it includes sandstones, breccias,
quartzyte, coarse conglomerates, talcose schist, novaculite schist,
and “talcose schist is the most common rock in the belt”
a — 38 =

e Geological Chart of the Vermont Re eport does not generally
represent this interstratification of the quartz and hydromica slate,
as the rt observes, because the details were not separately
made out owing to the intimate relations of the two. It is shown,
however, in Section VIII, where, near Ripton, occurs the remark
” z rock inte stuttatihied with taleose schist;” and bands of
_— in =e colored section represent the fact.

8. “Great Fault of Western Vermont.”

and the latter nearly conforming with it. This western side 1s
the course ‘a a great fault.

The rock of Snake Mountain east of the fault is the Red
Siedieak of the Vermont Report, and this continues to be the
surface rock eastward to Otter Creek. At the southern ex-
tremity of the mountain, in Brid west of the mountain,
there are the successive ‘Lower Silurian formations, but in an

inverted position. The following section gives the order and
Position of the beds ihe at t this s place.

e first and uppermost rock west of the fault containing
Feat is the Chazy ; below sia comes the Trenton, and next the
Hudso River, so that the Chazy and Trenton have been folded

A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geikigy. "413 .

back for two or three miles upon the slate. This arrangement
in the main prevails along the west front of Snake and Buck
- Mountains to near Vergennes.

4 L. Champlain,

8
ee

wy Se,
é
Chazy. Red Sand-rock, Snake Mt.

. Trenton L.
(a) Haden ates slates.
Mr. Wing’s section in Bridport, across south end of Snake Mountain.

~ “ Along the highest part of Snake Mountain no slate or lime-
stone is seen at all. At the north end of the mountain the Red

The Chazy beds on the west of the fault afford large Macluree,
one or two species of Orthoceras, an Orthis; the Black River
limestone, Columnaria alveolata in great masses, besides other
Species; the Trenton, Zrinucleus concentricus, and various
other fossils, and the Hudson River slate its characteristic
is

pecies,
This fault continues south through Bridport, Eastern Shore-
ham and Orwell to Orwell village and beyond, * but. with some
irregularity of direction, it following neither a meridian nor the
line of a belt or fold.”

am if . * . b
valley of Orwell, at Chittenden’s Mills, in a deep gorge made by
the stream, the Chazy, holding large Macluree, is seen oe Sarg

rt,

Again in Waltham, eight or ten miles north of Bri
Red Sand-rock is brought up against the Trenton.

4. «= Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

Prof. Emmons describes the fault at Snake Mountain and gives
a section in his American Geology (vol. I, Part 2, p. 87, 1855); but

i
preSilurian. Prof. Hitchcock, in the Vermont Geological Report,
gives a section which represents the mountain without the Sault.
9, Conclusions of Mr. Wing as to the Geology of the part of
Central and Southern Vermont investigated by him.

sides by limestone affording Trenton fossils (Trinucleus, ete.),
and no where else have Trenton fossils been found in the Eolian -

slate-belt, as if brought up from beneath by anticl the
slate-belt is plainly underlaid by the limestone at its north end;

(4) in Whiting the Trenton limestone of the Sudbury area has

a direct connection, across the slate area, with the limestone of
Otter Creek valley, east of the belt, which also is Trenton in age

slate being interrupted “for forty or fifty rods.”

A. Wing's Discoveries in Vermoni Geology. 415

The Trenton limestone has been identified west of or within
the ‘central slate-belt,” at localities but a few miles apart, in
all the towns north of Castleton (the most southern on the map
illustrating this paper, p. 885), including, in succession, Hub-
bardton, Sudbury, Whiting, Shoreham, Cornwall, Weybridge:
and east of the slate-belt, in Leicester, Eastern Cornwall and
Middlebury. The Chazy limestone adjoins the ‘central slate-
. belt” in West Rutland.

6. The several Lower Silurian limestone formations lie in

and the upper—the Trenton or Chazy—nearest to the “central
slate-belt,’

This is confirmed as regards the Trenton limestone, “Sparry
e

whether j ‘ Birdseye is not known. There is a
Sec ee resembling the Potsdam,
cts may help to solve

dlebury, adjoining beds of quartzyt
and dtehayie Bias to. ue The “ Ophileta beds,” or those
referred to the Upper Calciferous, come next, being more remote

™m the sandstone or quartzyte, as found to be true in Shoreham,
Western Cornwall, Weybridge, Middlebury and New Haven.

The beds occur, with their fossils, in Salisbury, Leicester a
Brandon. He |

The eastern range of limestone, or that forming the grosds
margin of the great Eolian belt, a mile in width in many places

416 A Wing's Discoveries in. Vermont Geology.

stone” just above the fucoidal sandstones or Upper Potsdam.
The dolomites farther east belong to the Upper Red Sand-rock
series, or else the bottom of the Calciferous, as has been else-
where stated.

The later formations extend less far north than the older
because of the inclined axis of the great abraded syncelinal:
“the Hudson River slates (those of the “central slate-belt”)
reaching central Weybridge; the Trenton, about a mile farther;
the Rhynchonella beds five or six miles farther north; an
finally these disappear, owing to the rising into view of the
Red Sand-rock.”

7. The quartzyte of the eastern range, with that also of the
local belts in the Eolian limestone area, is regarded as Potsdam
(or Primordial) in age, because it contains in many places Seo-
litht (worm-burrows) and Fucoids like those found in the Pots-
dam sandstone; because also it adjoins Calciferous limestone
New Haven; and because it joins the Red Sand-rock in Monk-
ton, and one rock has in many places the character of the other,
although not commonly alike in color, and showing differences
explainable on the ground of the greater metamorphism of the
quartzyte. “In Monkton, the Red Sand-rock and the Quartz
yte meet in a succession of short anticlinals, thus cutting off to
_ the north the great trough or synclinal;” and “the Red Sand-
rock absolutely overlies the beds of Red Sand-rock in one anti-
clinal and the quartzyte in another anticlinal, and both hold
Scolithus linearis. :

beds at the localities just mentioned in North Middlebury =

is on the line of strike of the quartzyte-range north of Pittsford.
This quartzyte is regarded as Pots and the limestone which
— directly to the west of it (half way from Rutland to. the
2 : est : i i t

|
|

A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology. 417

group. ‘But this narrow valley is a very disturbed region,
and the limestone seems to be greatly compressed between the
quartzyte belt on the east and the slate belt on the west (sep-
arating it from West Rutland valley).” ‘The region was stud-
ied farther south in the valley as well as to the north, to ascer-
tain what rocks occurred, and the conclusion was that nearly
all the formations found in other places here occur; that is, the
older on the east against the quartzyte (No. 1), and then the
others in succession, with the Trenton against the slate bound-
ing the limestone on the west, while the slate is No. 8 or the
Hudson River slate.” No fossils were found in it.

10. Historical Note. ;

The preceding notes have been taken chiefly from the letter from
Mr. Wing to me dated August 9, 1872. They show that his view,
that there are Hudson River slates in the Eolian limestone region,

“When, in 1866, the Trinucleus concentricus and other Tren-
ton fossils were found first in Sudbury, sradel yang on the west
side the great central mass of slate running sout from W
bridge through the State, embracing the “ Taleoid schists” cap-

ping Dorset and Manchester Mountains, Mount Anthony in

ennington, and also Graylock in Massachusetts, I reached the
conclusion at once that all these slates in Southwestern Vermont

ed also west to the Hudson
For. the Primordial fossils

my view as to the western extent of the Hudson River
Slates, Rut thoy have not weakened my belief in their existence
in Southwestern Vermont and New England.”

418 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

From the preceding account of Mr. Wing’s discoveries it is evi-
dent that he performed well the task he laid down for himself
in 1865—the determination of the age of the Eolian limestone. -
Knowing that fossils were the only sure criterion of geological.
age, he searched, and he found them, and thus reached sure conclu-
sions. For the western portion of the Eolian limestone and more
than half the eastern (that of Otter Creek Valley), the special geo-
logical age was thus determined, and the several Lower Silurian
formations identified. He further made a right use of the facts,
when, in view of the Trenton and Chazy age of the fossils in lime-

ing the eastern border of the Eolian limestone prevented his giv-

ing to the geology of this part of the region the same positive .
basis from

ferent localities on the west and north is however 2 strong one,
d

seems to set the question at rest for those outcrops. The
rt

3’ in form; al :
et the determinations of all. these fossils are admitted to be

urges, in one system of synclinals and anticlinals. ‘he quartzyte,
ps Semen aia gee limestones, associated on the eastern border

Mountain was simply one of the breaks and displacements at-
tending the mountain-making movement, as shown years since by

G. C. Broadhead on Barite crystais. 419

uite

that then followed, as Mr, Wing concludes, the epoch of upturn-
ing and metamorphism. The making of the Green Mountains has
for many years been referred by some geologists to this epoch, on
the basis of the fossils in the limestones of Vermont. These
fuller developments leave no doubt that this view is right, at least
so far as the Eolian limestone of Vermont and the associated
schists and quartzyte are concerned.

In another number of this Journal I will close this subject by
oe the bearing of the Vermont facts on the geology of Berk-

ire.

TT

Arr. XLIV.—On Barite crystals from the Last Chance Mine,
Morgan County, Missouri ; and on Gothite from Adair County,
Missouri; by G. C. BROADHEAD.

1. Barite from Morgan County, Missouri.

THE rocks of the barite locality in Morgan County, Missouri,
are of the age of the Second Magnesian Limestone. A shaft has
been sunk in a spring through masses of tumbled rock display-
ing what seemed, in Missouri miners’ parlance, to be a “ circle’
of about twenty feet diameter. This “cirele” was found to
be filled with fractured masses of limestone, sandstone and
clay for forty feet in depth, or to the bottom of the shaft when
I visited it.” These masses of rock were often found studded
over with beautiful crystals of barite. ‘Phe galenite was also
often covered with such crystals. In some cases a thin coating
of transparent barite covered the rock to which the crystals
gh but they were often seen loosely adhering to the
naked rock

perfectly transparent. This clear portion has a rhombic form
corresponding. to the jeihdiainanal (cleavage) prism, and is

420 G. C. Broadhead on Githite from. Missouri.

very sharply defined, the remainder of the crystals being of an
opaque milky white.

here being a spring of water in the mine. the water may
be sometimes charged with an excess of mineral solutions.
The lead has probably been deposited from an aqueous solu-
tion and the barite from similar and more recent solutions.

alteration, but that can hardly be the cause of the si
appearance of the crystals from the Last Chance mine.

2. On the Géthite from Adair County, Missouri.

he Coal measures, it is well known, often contain, within
the thicker shale beds, interstratified beds of clay ironstone,
sometimes in connected layers, at other times in concretionary
masses, occurring along a marked horizon. ese concretions
are often reticulated by calcite veins, one system in concentric
lines, the other crossing them; they are. generally termed
septaria. :
In 1878, while examining the structure of the formations on

A. A. Blair—Chromium and Aluminiiém in Steel and Iron. 421

Arr. XLV.—Estimation of Chromium and Aluminium in Steel
and Iron; by ANDREW A. Buarr.

HAvine had occasion, several years since, to examine a num-
ber of samples of so-called “Chrome-steel,” for the percentage
of chromium, I began by searching for this element in the resi-
due left after acting on the steel with dilute HCl, as, in the case
of cast-iron, this plan is reeommended.* Failing to find it here,
except in very small amounts, there seemed to remain two
methods of edie ana the first being to fuse the sample with

The principal objections are, in the first method, loss by spirt-
dating fusion, and in both, the difficulty of washing the

Fe,O; by means of H,O,, NH,HO, and LHS, exactly
as in eho separation of Al,O; and Fe,O;, might be added, but
the difficulty of washing such a mass of ferrous sulphide seemed
quite impracticable, and the method was not even attempted.

y means of barium carbonate, Cr,0, may be perfectly pre-
cipitated,| and thus separated from the great mass of the iron,
which in a hydrochloric acid solution of the steel would exist
asa ferrous salt, Following out this plan the result was the
following method.

Five grams of borings or
* Wéhler’s Mineral Analysis (Nason), p. 204.
{Roe Dict. of Chemistry, vol. iii, p. 374.

drillings are weighed out into a flask

Rose’s Chim. Anal. )
Crookes’s Select Methods, P. 127. W. Gibbs in Am.

58. : iii, 927. :
f Bose, Chim. Anal. Quant, p..515. Fresenius, Quant. Chem. Anal., vi ed., Eng-
lish, p. 379.

pes
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turep Serres, Vot. XIII, No. 78.—Juns, 1877.
28

422 A. A. Blair—Chroinium and Aluminium in Steel and Iron.

of about one-half liter capacity, twenty cubic centimeters strong
HCI diluted with three to four times its volume of water poured
in, and the flask closed with a rubber stopper, oe with a
valve, such as is used in dissolving iron wire in volumetric
analysis. Heat is applied as required, and, tana all the steel
is dissolved, a solid bg es is quickly substituted for the one
with the valve, and the flask and contents cooled. When cold,
the solution is diluted th cold water until the flask is about
three-fourths full, and a slight excess of BaCO, added with con-
stant agitation. "The BaCQ, should be free from BaSQ,, as it
obscures the reaction, and too great an excess should be avoi-
ed.* The

loosening the stopper occasionally to allow the CO, to escap

and allowed to stand over night. It is then filtered as rapi ly
as possible, the flask rinsed out several times with cold water,
and the precipitate on the filter (consisting of all the Cr.Os,
the residue from the steel insoluble in dilute HCl, some Fe,Os
and the excess of BaCO,) washed well with cold water. The
filter is then punched and the precipitate washed into a small
clean beaker, the portion adhering to the sides of the flask dis-
solved in HCl, which is poured on the filter and the sev’

boiled and the Fe Dy and On0. precipitated by po the
boilin pee continued until all sm NH,HO has disap-
A This eer is filtered aid a thoroughly with

a water to get rid o aC, ; dried and transferred to a pla-
tinum crucible, were iiarette the filter, which is ignited
and the ashes a to the i es (which should not be
heated). A mixture of three grams Na,COy and one-half hy Pre

being raised gradually bea all the KNOg is decomr

cooling, the fused m s treated with hot water, and the ae

ble portion etccae, the Cr as alkaline chromate, with the

excess of the alkalies, separated from the Fe,O; by filtration,
en and filter being thoroughly washed with hot

water. filtrate is acidulated with HCI, and evaporated to

* Tt is almost impossible to buy BaCO, free ores Pegi the very best brands
containing from 5-30 p. c. of BaSO,. I prepare wn by dissolving BaCl, in
water, ~_*. adding large excess of NH,HO pe passing toe into solution,
until all the barium is precipitated as BaCO,, washing thoroughly, drying,
grinding in water i of cream.

Oe uble in dilute HCl alone, or sep-
arately from that which remains in the caaetuahe sates, the filter should not be
punched, but the Fe,0,, Cr,0,, and BaCO;, dissolved on the filter, in dilute HCl,
and a separate determination made of the Cr in ths fonotals le residue (which re-

ee ‘alas on the Ate) burning the ter and fusing with Na,CO, and KNOs.-

A. A. Blair—Chromium and Aluminium in Steel and Iron. 4238

dryness with a little alcohol; when thoroughly dry, the Cr,O,
is dissolved in HCl, diluted and filtered from silica, the Cr,O,
precipitated by NH,HO, filtered with the usual precautions,
ignited and weighed as Cr,Os,* caleulated to Cr by the factor
0°6853. Atomic weight of Cr 52°2.

The only impurity this precipitate can contain is a little
Al,Os, partly from the Al in the steel, and partly as an impurity
in the Na,CO; and KNO; The best method for gi intone
this impurity, is to add to the solution of alkaline chromate
obtained above (after fusion and filtration from Fe,O;) an excess
of KC1O,, then a slight excess of HCl, and evaporate to syrupy
consistency on the water bath, adding a little KCIO, from time
to time, so that there may always be an excess to ee
any HCl. Redissolve in water, add a slight excess of (NH,),
CO,, and boil off all smell of the latter, filter, wash with hot
water, add to solution an excess of HCl and, after the greater
part of the KC1O, is decomposed, a little alcohol, and precipi-
tate the Cr,O, as before.t In Genth’s method (loc. cit.) of evap-
orating the solution of alkaline chromate nearly to dryness on

tating by NH,HO, and weighing as Cr,05,
This method for estimating chromium in steel may appear a

thod ean be very much shortened
: with Na,CO, and KNQOs or

or precautions 7
Chem. News, vi, 30. Fres. Chem. Anal. Quant., 387. “ho

Texter's method. see Rose, Chim. Anal. Quant., p. 520. Fresenius, Chem. Anal.
Quant., p. 372. Pogg. Anal., lxxxix, 142.

424 A. A. Blair—Chromium and Aluminium in Steel and Iron.

KCIO, (when KCIO, is used instead of KNO; the precipitate
must be thoroughly ground in and incorporated with the flux
before fusing) dissolving in water, filtering, and determining the
CrO; volumetrically. The results obtained in this way are
fairly good, but are apt to be a little low.

Aluminium, nearly always exists as such in steel, and may be
estimated with great accuracy by proceeding exactly as in the
above method for the determination of chromium, until after
filtering and washing the precipitate by BaCOs, which is then
dissolved on the filter in dilute HCl and the solution allowed
to run into a small clean beaker. This solution is diluted,
boiled, and the barium precipitated by a slight excess of dilute
H,SO,; the BaSO, allowed to settle, filtered, washed, and the
filtrate evaporated nearly to dryness to get rid of the excess of
acid. This solution is then diluted, and the Fe,O,, and Al,0,
separated by C,H,O,, NH,HO, and NH,HS. If the steel con-
tains any chromium it will be with the Al,O;, and must be sepa-
rated by fusing the residue obtained by running to dryness the
filtrate from the FeS and igniting with Na,CO,, and KNOs3;
dissolving in water and, without filtering, adding KClO, and
HCl, as before in the separation of Al,O,, and Cr,O;. The Al,O;
obtained on precipitating by (NH,),CO, will be contaminated
by small amounts of SiO,, and CaO (from the C,H,O,) from
which it can be separated by dissolving on the filter in HCl,
after washing free from alkaline chromate, into a small clean
beaker, running to dryness to render SiO, insoluble, dissolving
in HCl, filtering, and precipitating the Al,O; by NH,HO, a
eareful to boil off all ell of NH,HO. After filtering an
careful washing the precipitate can be dried, igni and
weig as Al,O;, calculating to aluminium by the factor
05331. Atomic weight, 27-4.

The great solubility of the Cr of chromium steel in the most
dilute HCl certainly seems to indicate the existence of a true
alloy of iron and chromium, and that a large part at least of the
chromium exists as such, and not as an at or in any inter-
mingled slag. Mr. E. Riley,* at a meeting of the Chemical
Society, March 15, 1877, presented some specimens of chromium
pig-iron containing from six to seven per cent of Cr. He men-
tioned the fact, during his remarks, that the Cr had dissolved
with the Fe in the.course of analysis. The president, Professor
Abel, F.R.S., said that he had examined a specimen of the so-
called chromium steel, but had found a mere trace of chromium
in it. It was possible however, he said, that the chromium
exerted a function in the production of the steel, but was elim-

_ Inated at some stage in the rocess, so that it did not a in
the finished on : a

re * Chemical News, No. 904, March 23, 1877.

S. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Triphylite. 425

In this connection the following analyses may not prove un-
interesting, showing as they do that, in some cases at least, the
chromium does “ appear in the finished steel.”

Sulphur, ....-_.___ 0°005 per cent. trace t
Phosphorus, __.".__ 0-021 0-020 per cent. 0°005 per cent,
Sil on, - ~< 0129 ee 0°189 0°279 ¥
Total carbort, _____- ones «O88 @. igo
Comb. ¢ arbon, Ppeperres, | Se = 0°920 be 1°186 =
Graphitic carbon, -- 0°014 e: 0°015 © eae ee
reg RDS: nes owes 0°245 “O02 Sone =

ee) as, ae NRE Ta | “3 0°010 = 0°005 =
Nickel,....._....._ trace 0°023 7 ee re
Brg Fs es * > trees 0°018 “
Aluminium, ____.__- 0°034 “ 0029 8“ 0°026 -
* Chro BEY OS ea Se OSIM
Chromium, soluble, - 0°615 <a eee
Chromium in residue, 0°021 “* trace trace

0°320 ig

The determinations of Cr marked * were made by the first
method without the separation of Al, and consequently are a
little higher than the sum of the “ chromium soluble in dilute
HCl,” and “chromium in residue,” which were determined in
the ieee and by the method taken for estimation of Al.

The “slag” in the first analysis given above, was determined
by the “iodine” meth od and contained by analysis ‘ae

Laborato of 00. i. a appointed to test Iron, Steel, etc. ;
wn Arsenal, Mass., April 14, 1877.

Arr. XLVI.—On the Chemical Composition of Triphylite, from
Soren, New Hampshire; by SAMUEL L. PENFIELD. (Con-
jrom the Sheffield Liew of Yale College. No.

XLVIL

THE rare mineral species, triphylite, i is —— at Grafton in a
soevaieg vein which has been extensively worked for mica. It
occurs imbedded in the granite in masses of varying size, an
dneaslonally of fifty or more pounds in weight. The exterior
of the masses in some instances shows sidetoes of the decom
position to which the mineral is peculiarly liable, but a lange
portion of the material is fresh and unaltered. It has a hi

lue color, a greasy to resinous luster and a perfect cleavage.
pecific gravity =352. Analyses of the finely Golverinsd,
pure eto dried over sulphuric acid, show the following

compositi

426 S. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Triphylite.

E

FO, 44°18 43°88
FeO 26°09 26°38
MnO 18°17 18°24
CaO 89 99
MgO "56 61
Li,O 8°77 8°81
K,O "82 32
Na,O 16 09
H,O 1°47 1°47
100°61 100°79

The phosphoric acid was separated from the iron and man-
ganese by fusion with sodium carbonate, except a small amount
retained with the iron, which was separated afterward by
means of molybdie acid. :

The alkalies were separated from the iron and phosphoric
acid by adding a small amount of ferric chloride to a nearly
neutral, oxidized solution of the mineral and precipitating the
iron and phosphoric acid together by means 0 i
ate. Care was taken to use platinum vessels in conducting the
evaporations. The total amount of water was expelled by
ignition and determined by absorption in a chloride of calcium
tube. Water amounting to 0°50 per cent was driven off at
100° C. These results show the Grafton mineral to be richer
in manganese and lithia than that from Bodenmais.

e relative number of atoms calculated from analysis 1 are
the following :

622 6°22
Fe 362 ©
Mn "256
a 016 648 6°48
Mg 014
Li, 292 Li 584
K, "003 } -297 K 006 + °594
Na, 002 Na 004

"945

secs of the univalent elements to those of the bivalent is
694: 648 =1:1-09 which gives the formula 10R,PO, +11R,P,0s
Rammelsberg * deduces the formula 4R,PO,+ 5R,P.0s from
the most trastworthy analysis of the Bodenmais mineral, but
_ Suggests R,PO,+R;P,0, as possibly the true formula. The

ue * Mineralchemie, 1875, page 307.

J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydrve Sulphide. 427

composition here obtained for the Grafton triphylite renders it
almost certain that this is the correct formula of the mineral.
This work was conducted in the Sheffield Laboratory under the
supervision of Professor O. D. Allen, to whom I wish here to
express my thanks.

Art. XLVII.— On a new Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide :
by Jostan P. Cooks, Jr., Erving Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in Harvard College.*

analysis is given rge numbers on ass system, the use
of hydric sulphide gas as a reagent is attended with grave
inconveniences. These evils can in t measure be avoided

niences V
on, which the dilution by
the reagent may render necessary. ‘course a solution of
hydric sulphide is liable to oxidation, and soon becomes turbid

is ; :
For quantitative work, and for the preparation of chemical

roducts, when considerable quantities of metallic sulphides
rant be precipitated, a solution of hydric sulphide, saturated
under the ordinary pressure of the air, 1s inconveniently ven ;
and two years since we described a simple method by w Le
solution concentrated under pressure could easily pe prepers -

with the ordinary laboratory appliances. A heavy glass dott
vol. xii (N. 8. iv), p. 113, 1877.

* From the Proceedings of the American Academy,

428 J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide.

ae
fs
n
oF
oo
a>)
3
14]
5
m
fq)
Qu
ot
=
2)
=
gg
e
o> «
4
is)
io2)
=.
o
°
et
er
ped
fe”)
>"
44
o
9
4
°
2)
ct
S
oO
ey
fom
°
a
e
B

This simple be darren was constantly used by us for two

years, and serv:
after the glass generators had been charged several times they

) same purpose some one of the various soda-water
tuses which are greatly used in the United States for the

J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide. 429

production of effervescing drinks. After examining several of
the patterns in the market, we selected for trial the one repre-
sented below, which is manufactured by the firm of John
Matthews, of New York, at their establishment,—First Avenue,
26th and 27th Streets,—in that city. The apparatus was de-
signed by them for preparing that overcharged aqueous solution
of carbonic dioxide, which in the United States is familiarly
called soda-water; but with a very slight modification it can be
used with equal efficiency for the preparation of a similar solu-

430 J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide.

fountains; and in Fig. 1 the generator is represented connected
by a rubber hose with one of the fountains, of which in practice
we use three, connected in a line by similar lengths of rubber
hose, like so many Woolf’s bottles. In the figure, only the
first of the line is represented, which is set on trunnions in a
frame, in order to facilitate the agitation of the water and the
gas. Only one of these frames, however, is required, to which
the other fountains can readily be transferred. A section of
the generator is represented in Fig. 2. It is made of cast iron,

= 3
= = <<

SS

ae

(os

and in two parts (readily distinguished in the figure), which are
firmly bolted together, so as to confine in its place the bell-

there are cut radial slits, half an inch wide, which are guarded
y four iron arms. These arms are attached to the agitator
shait S, and move over the surface of the plate, alternately

J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide, 431

covering and uncovering the slits, when the handle E is turned.
To the lower end of the same shaft is fastened the agitator O,
which is turned simultaneously with the arms just mentioned.
After the apparatus has been charged, it is evident that by
turning the handle the sulphide of iron may be sifted down at
pleasure into the acid water below; and the handle and arms
are so disposed that when the bungs are uncovered by the han-
dles the slits are covered by the arms. From the generator,

The lead lining of the generator is seamless and very heavy,

ous valves, bungs, and stuffing boxes indicated in the figure, it
is unnecessary to speak in detail. It is sufficient to say that
they are of excellent workmanship, and during a year’s trial
have kept perfectly tight. The charging bung, B, however, is
closed by a safety cap of peculiar construction, which deserves
special mention, because it insures the safety of the apparatus.
The cap is represented by Fig. 3, and a section is given in Fig. 4.
4.

It will be seen by the last that the escape of the compressed gas
from the generator through the apertures d is only prevented by
a thin disk a, which is shown in detail by Fig. 5. This disk is
made of two thin plates: the lower one, which comes in contact
with the acid spray, is of lead, and the upper one of silvered
copper, whose thickness is so adjusted that it must be at once
ruptured if the pressure in the apparatus should become unduly
reat.

h ;
solution of the gas and water is made—have all in general the

or glass. After
having determined y experiment that a solution of hydric

482 J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide.

sulphide—especially when some carbonic dioxide is added—
exerts no action on a surface of metallic tin, except a very
slight and superficial staining, we selected as best adapted. to
our purpose the steel fountains, also manufactured by the firm
of John Matthews, Fig. 6. These are made of plates of steel

e

4

r

i

| 3
iI
Wi
iI}
|
Hil
Hy
iM
|
Ith
i\\ |
——F)))\iii
‘ie
}
!
i
iy tle
!
i
|
Hit
it
Hl |
iN}
Wh
Hil
i
a
iE
Wel
ESS

i

united in a peculiar way invented by themselves so as to secure
with comparative lightness very great strength. They are
lined on the inside with sheet tin, and the tin lining forms an
independent vessel, which alone is connected with the bungs.
The tubes and valve cocks are also either made or lined with
tin, so that the solution never comes in contact with any other
metal! For making ordinary soda-water, the fountain requires
only a single valve, which connects with a tube leading to the

the vessel, and this serves both to charge the foun-
tain and to draw off the solution when made. But since 4

J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide. 433

line, to drive out all the air originally in the apparatus, as well
as the free hydrogen subsequently evolved. Moreover, in the
r

water. It may also be stated, although the fact must be evi-

cold water,—not only for convenience in charging
washing. Finally, there ought to be a good flue in the neigh-
borhood, into which the waste gas “ie be discharged. The
apparatus having been thus established, the three fountains—
first rinsed out—are filled each with twenty-five liters of dis-
tilled water, and the valves having been
are connected with each other and the generator by means of
stout rubber hose as already indicated, and the vent valve of
the last fountain is connected with the flue by a length of com-
charged as follows: The

slits in the diaphragm. Through the bung A is now poure
forty liters of soscaeien heated to between 70° and 80° & and

ta iron—previously sufficiently pulverized
it uenton to the inch, and

434 J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide.

trough for that purpose. T
the escape of gas should be reduced by the last vent valve

thoroughly agitate the water with the gas. The stop valve G
should then be opened, and then the valve D (very gradually),
so that the gas may be admitted slowly to the fountain. The
valves are then again closed, and the agitation renewed, and
the same operation is repeated several times until no more gas
is absorbed by the water in the fountain, the pressure in the
generator meanwhile being maintained at 120 pounds, by turn-
ing the handle. The first fountain is then removed, and the
same process repeated with each of the others. At the close
of the operation, after all chemical action has ceased, there
remains in the generator—both free and dissolved in the liquid
residue—a large volume of hydric sulphide gas. This we
economize by venting the generator slowly through Woolf
bottles containing aqua ammonia, and thus preparing at the
same time ammonic sulphide. It is not unimportant to add
that <e mananooa should be emptied before it cools, and the
ferrous sulphate has time to crystallize. The discharge valve
R should then be removed, and the whole apparatus thor-
oughly washed out. If the valve becomes clogged, it can

eneral! cleared by developing pressure in the generator
Otherwise,

ae _ necessary in
oe ence ; but, lest the details should convey the impression that

J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide. 485

the apparatus is complicated, and that the process requires
skilled labor, it may be stated that in this laboratory the appa-

smallest size generator, which may be used with a single six-
gallon fountain. The smaller apparatus is managed in pre-

and thus preparing it for a subsequent charge.
For dispensing the reagent in our qualitative laboratory, we

ratus (Fig. 9), taken,

al
boratories, we give a figure of the appa
like our ees phir from the catalogue of John Matthews. By

436 J. P. Cooke—New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide.

pressing the foot on a pedal shown at the base of the apparatus,
the siphon—confined in a cage—is raised, so that its mouth is
forced tightly against one opening of a valve of peculiar con-
struction, the second opening of which is united by a block-tin

tube to a fountain ; while at the same time the handle of the
siphon is pressed back. On now pushing the upper lever
hown in the cut to the right, the valve of the fountain having
been previously opened, a connection is made between the

through which the condensed air rushes out into the atmo-
sphere before the gas in solution has time to escape, and then
on pushing back the handle a further portion of liquid enters,
nearly filling the interior of the bottle. Lastly, on raising the
foot, the valve of the siphon shuts at the same time that the

»
-

P. H. Carpenter's Physical Investigations on the “ Valorous.”. 437

en the water is charged as directed above, it of course
holds in solution, besides hydric sulphide, a considerable yol-
ume of carbonic dioxide; and if, under any circumstances, the
presence of this last gas would produce an injurious effect, the
marble powder can be simply omitted in charging the gener-
ator. In almost all cases, however, the carbonic dioxide exerts

‘a very beneficial influence, and in several ways. In the first

place, it insures the non-action of the hydric sulphide on the
metallic surfaces of the apparatus. In the second place, it pro-
tects the solution from the action of the air when it is drawn
into an open vessel, so that after a metallic sulphide has béen

recipitated by an excess of the reagent, the products may be

gested in an open flask or beaker without fear of oxidation.
In the third place, the carbonic dioxide adds greatly to the
tension of the confined gas, and enables us_to develop sufficient
pressure to charge the siphon without unnecessarily increasing
the strength of the solution of hydric sulphide.

Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College, 1876. ‘3

Art. XLVIII.—Report on the Physical Investigations carried on
by P. Herbert Carpenter, B.A. in H.M.S. “ Valorous” during
her Return Voyage from Disco Island in August, 1875; by
Wituram B. Carpenter, C.B., M.D., F.RSt

In the first of the Serial Soundings taken by the ‘“ Valorous,”
nearly in the middle of Davis Strait and on the parallel of
Godthaab, the bottom-temperature, at a depth of 410 fathoms,
was 34-6° Fahr.: and the descent to this from a surface-
temperature of 40° was nearly uniform—389", 38°, 37°, 36° and
the firm of John

* All the apparatus here described may be obtained from
Matthews, First Avenue, 26th and 27th Streets. New York, at very reasonable
rates. Be in ordering to state the use to which the apparatus is to be put,
WIR the cention that no silver plating or leed-peiut deus OF Om% Ee 3
+ Proc. Roy: Soc., vol. xxv, No. 173, p. 230, June 15,1876.
Vot. XII, No. 78.—Junz, 1877.

Am. Jour. Sor.—THIED a

438 P. H. Carpenter's Physical Investigations on the “ Valorous.”

35° being met with at almost equal intervals. There was here,
therefore, no indication of any contrary movement of different
strata of water, or of any special superheating of the superficial
stratum. But the case was very different with the next
much deeper sounding which was taken about a degree further
south, but still toward the middle of Davis Strait: for there
was here a surface-stratum of 45°, but of such extremely small
thickness, that the isotherm of 40° was reached in about fifteen

ever, beneath this, so that 36° was reached at about 1400
fathoms, 35° at about 1500, and 34:3° on the bottom at 1660
fathoms.

Now these phenomena seem to me to point very distinctly
' to the existence (1) of a superheated layer, which is slowly

o __ The temperatures at Station VI seem at first sight rather
_ anomalous when compared with those of Stations VII-X—the

a

temperature of 34°6° at 1,350 fathoms, while the bottom-tem-
eratures both to the north and to the south of it are 34°6° ;
ut this only shows that the coldest polar water is flowing
south through some deeper channel, perhaps in the western
half of Davis Strait.* And the same explanation applies to
the yet moré remarkable fact that a bottom-temperature of
33°4° was met with near the mouth of Davis Strait, when no
such water was met with further north. But that even this
does not carry down the coldest water of the Arctic basin, is
obvious from the fact brought to light by the “ Porcupine”
temperature-soundings in the “ Lightning Channel,” (between
the north of Scotland and the Farée Islands), over a large part
of whose bottom we found the temperature to range two
degrees, or even more, below 32°.

The next temperature-sounding, taken on the 17th of Au-
gust almost exactly in the meridian of Cape Farewell, and not
quite two degrees to the south of it, gave, like No. a

at which the isotherm*35° was found to lie in the 1660 fathoms
serial sounding, it is obvious that the stratum een 35° and
33°-4° must be here a very thin one; while the upward slope
* As I pointed out on a former occasion, (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xx, p. 624, § 144),

: will have a westerly ten-

any water moving from either pole toward the equator
in virtue of its deficiency of easterly momentum ; just as water

the equator toward either have an easterly set, in virtue of the excess of
easterly momentum which it carries with it. The later te

the *C "in Atlantic have given the explanation of the tem-
perature of 32:4° observed under the equator int ; of her voyage, but
not encountered in any of the earlier temperature-so taken in the South
Atlantic, by showing that the coldest Antarctic underflow is met with on the

*

440 P. H. Carpenter's Physical Investigations on the “‘ Valorous.”

which is indicated by the next sounding, shows that it must
rapidly die out toward the east.

The course of the ‘‘ Valorous” having then been kept at first
nearly due east, and afterward southeast, another serial tem-
perature-sounding was taken on the 19th of August, in latitude
56° 11’ N., and longitude 37° 41’W. The surface-temperature
had here risen to 53°,—about the same as we had encountered
in the ‘ Lightning Channel,” at the same time of. the year,
rather farther to the north ; but the warm upper stratum was
here thinner, a reduction to 45° taking place within fifty
fathoms, and to 40° within 300; whereas in latitude 59° 35’ N.,
longitude 9° 11’ W., we had found the isotherm of 45° lying

low 500 fathoms, while the bottom at 767 fathoms was still
414°. It is obvious moreover, from the regularity of the de-
scent of the isotherm of 40° in this part of the North Atlantic,
that easting has more influence on the rate of that descent than
southing—thus confirming the view formerly expressed as to
the tendency of the warm upper flow toward the eastern side
of the basin.* The isotherms of 39° and 38° slope downward
toward the east at about the same rate; but those of 37° and.
86° still nearly keep their parallelism to the surface, confirming
the previous suggestion of the “neutrality” of the deep stratum
which they underlie.

Between the last station and the next, taken in latitude 56°
1’ N., and longitude 34° 42’ W., in the line of the channel be-
tween Iceland and Greenland, but considerably to the south of
it, the sea-bed was found to have shallowed most remarkably,
bottom being struck at 690 fathoms, and the bottom-tempera-
ture rising again to 38°2°. This elevation may be regarde
with great probability as a continuation of that which was
encountered by Sir L. McClintock in the line of temperature-
soundings which he took several years ago across the North
Atlantic between Rockall and Cape Farewell; for almost
exactly in a line between the “ Valorous” Station 13 and Ice-
land, Sir L. McClintock met with bottom at 748 fathoms,
between 1,260 fathoms on the east and 1,159 fathoms on the ©

est.

Ww
The course being now again kept nearly due east, another
ture-sounding was EN in latitude 55° 58’ N.,

temperature:
longitude 31° 41’ W., which, on a bottom of 1,230 fathoms,
gave a bottom-temperature of 36:8°, the surface-temperature
_ being 545°. Three degrees farther east, and on the same

P. H. Carpenter’s Physical Investigations on the‘ Valorous.” 441

depths of the isotherms of 39°, 38° and 87° show little change ;
and the bottom at 1,485 fathoms was 36°5°, as at the corre-
sponding depth on the other side of the ridge. Still farther-to
the east, in latitude 55° 10’ N., longitude 25° 58’ W., the depth
was found to have still further increased to 1,785 fathoms; but
the bottom showed no lower a temperature than 36°7°, although
in the 1,750 fathoms sounding on the other side of the ridge
the thermometer fell to more than three degrees lower.

Bad weather having come on, it was not considered ‘prudent,
in the disabled condition of the ship, to attempt further scien-
igh explorations ; and the course was accordingly shaped for

ork.

The Temperature-Section prepared from the serial soundings
taken in the “‘ Valorous ” after quitting Davis Strait has been
continued toward Valentia on the basis of the serial soundings
taken off the coast of Ireland in the first cruise of the “ Porcu-
pine ” in 1867, a sounding in 1,263 fathoms, latitude 56° 8’ N.,
longitude 138° 84’ W., being taken as the principal guide. This
being almost on the same parallel with the last serial sounding
of the “ Valorous,” (the difference of latitude being only half a
degree), and the seasonal difference being rather in favor of the
“Valorous ” temperatures, it is extremely striking to find in
this section the most remarkable contrast yet brought out
between the thermal condition of the eastern and the western
sides of the North Atlantic: for the descent of all the isotherms

It is clear, therefore, that the heating power of: the warm

@
y such superheated film as

since been confirmed by Capt. Chimmo
lose its excess of warmth long before it reaches our shores.

‘442 P. H. Carpenter's Physical Investigations on the “ Valorous.”

layer of 900 fathoms thickness, ranging from 40° to 55°, would
retain.an excess of temperature far longer.
The advocates of the doctrine that the wis a tergo is the Gulf-
_ stream, which cannot-be traced as a current by any distinctive
feature further to the northeast than the parallel of 40° and the
' meridian of 30°, have to show in what way it can raise the tem-
_ perature of so thick a stratum of ocean-water as we have seen
to be affected in the western portion of the North Atlantic by
a warm flow of some kind. hether, as Professor Wyville +
Thomson maintains, the approximation of its boundaries be-
tween the British Islands on one side and Labrador and Green-
land on the other can possibly produce this result, is a point
on which it is for hydrographers to decide. For myself, I
cannot regard it as probable that a spent stream of fifty fathoms

to light. The progressive closing in of the boundaries of this
poleward upper flow wiil obviously tend to deepen it. so as to
ive it a more persistent heating power.* In the South At-
lantic and Southern Indian Oceans,.on the other hand, the pro-
ive opening-out of the ocean-boundaries, as we pass south-_

persistence of its heating power. And in this, as it seems to
me, we have the true explanation of the marked difference
between the climate of Kerguelen’s Land (latitude 50° S.), for

* This position may seem inconsistent with the objection just taken to the doc-
trine of Sir Wyville Thomson. But the inconsistency is only apparent. I cannot
lid. tergo to give a northeast movement to a
or 800 fathoms deep, the se er
: t.

I cire’
ws Stronger as water which it puts in motion approa ?
is fully competent to deepen the poleward stratum in proportion to

P. H. Carpenter's Physical Investigations on the “ Valorous.” 443

example, or that of Heard Island (latitude 53° S.), and that of
Ireland, (lying between the parallels of 514° and 543° N. lati-
tude), the summer temperature of the former being but little
above the winter temperature of the latter.
The ‘“ Challenger” temperature-sections have most conclu-
' sively shown that the entire warm upper stratum in the Sout
Atlantic is very much thinner than that of the North Atlantic;
and while I fully admit that a part of this difference is due to
the fact that a far larger portion of the equatorial current is
deflected into the latter than into the former, I cannot see that
the Gulf-stream by any means accounts for the descent of the
isotherm of 40° in latitude 56° N. to a depth of 900 fathoms.
The “ Valorous” ternperature-soundings seem to me to be o
peculiar interest and value, in furnishing a satisfactory expla-
nation of the comparatively high bottom-temperature of the

the “Challenger” and “ Tuscarora” soundings show it to be,
than the deep stratum of the North Atlantic; and this ques-
tion appears to me to find an entirely satisfactory answer in

Bay and the “ Lightning Channel” would help to reduce the

deep temperature of the North Atlantic generally to t e

35°-36° shown in the “Challenger” Sections; but it is only

when, on approaching the equator, a bottom-temperature eee

this first shows itself, that I can recognize the influence of the

Antarctic underflow. :
* Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xxiv, p. 632. -

444 G. H. Darwin—Influence of Geological Changes

I forbear, however, to discuss this subject more ‘fully at
present, the Admiralty not having yet published the final
installment of the ‘ Challenger” temperature-sections. An
shall confine myself to an expression of my earnest hope that
the ship to be sent next year to communicate with the Arctic
_ ‘Expedition may have, as part of its work, the completion of*
that which the “ Valorous” was disabled from performing—
namely, the obtaining a continuous temperature-section between
Iceland and Greenland, and another across Davis Strait.

Art. XLIX.—On the Influence of Geological Changes on the
Earth's Axis of Rotation ;* by Georce H. Darwin, M.A.,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Received by the
Royal Society October 13, 1876.+

the Peer and nutations of an ellipsoid of revolution which
is 8
supposed to proceed from causes internal to the earth, and only

sdirne othe atiemael Socio of io Brian Assoation at Ciapow- He
at
the Royal ’ the author still ventures to offer his paper
Le Cape Darwin’s Memoir, from the Proceedings of the Royal. Society
___ tHiouy. Journ., 2° série, t. iii, 1858, p. 1; Routh’s Rigid Dynam, p. 150.

on the Earth's Awis of Rotation. = 445

the ellipsoid; A+at, A+dt, C+ct the principal moments of
inertia at the time ¢. Then it is shown that the secular effect
on the obliquity of the ecliptic, as resulting from the motion of
the principal axes in the body (which constitutes the first part
of the solution), is given by the equation

dd = Wa+b—2e .

— = ata

and as resulting from the change in the impressed forces, due
to the change of shape of the body (which constitutes the second
part), is given by

dé ne ILa+6—2¢
dt 2n C—A *

. The former part may be neglected compared with the latter.
But from such geological changes as we are entitled to assume
in the case of the earth, the total change in the obliquity of the
ecliptic must be exceedingly small. Even gigantic polar ice-
caps during the Glacial period could not have altered the posi-
tion of the arctic circle by so much as three inches; and this is
the most favorable redistribution of matter on the earth’s sur- _
face for producing that effect. Thus the obliquity of the .
ecliptic has remained sensibly constant throughout geological

istory.

lt iaiie shown that, during any gradual deformation of the
ellipsoid, the instantaneous axis of rotation will always remain
sensibly coincident with the principal axis of figure.

urse of the work by which the previous results are

attained there is shown to be a small inequality in the motion
of the instantaneous axis, in consequence of which that axis
describes a circle with uniform velocity, and is coincident with
the axis of figure every 306th day (in the earth). This circle
touches the meridian along which the axis of oe vate is traveling
in consequence of the deformation of the earth’s shape. The
diameter of the circle is shown ina particular case (not unfavor-
— to produce a large effect) opi less —. oar But
Ithough this inequality appears to be so small, it is of interest
and cndeueeaea es foapet It is shown that, if the earth

- . .
sidered, and the paths of the instantaneous and principal axes
in the petilatitas os a viscous spheroid undergoing deformation
are found. aE pan
It is maintained that although the earth may be sensibly rigid -
to the tidally deforming forces exercised by the sun and moon,

e

446 G. H. Darwin—Influence of Geological Changes —

solidation of the earth there must have been great instability in
the geographical position of the poles. Throughout the rest of
the inquiry, however, the hypothesis of the earth’s sensible
rigidity, together with the possibility of more or less rare
impulsive readjustments to the figure of equilibrium, is adhered

may be dismissed, and it only remains to consider the kinemati-
cal question of the change in the earth’s principal axes due to
any deformation of its shape.

2. Formulz for this end are here found, and are adapted for
numerical calculation. It is assumed, in the first place, that
the deformation is such that there is no change in the strata 0
equal density; and accordingly all suppositions as to the
nature of the internal changes accompanying geological up-
heaval and subsidence are set aside. 2 :

3. The forms of continent and depression are next mvestl-
gated, which, for the transport of a given quantity of matter
from one part of the earth’s surface to another, would cause the
maximum deflection of the principal axis of greatest moment—
subject, however, to the condition that the layer excavated or
piled up shall nowhere exceed a given small fraction of the
earth’s radius. ;

It is shown that the continents and depressions must be of unl-
form height and depth ; there must be two of each, all similar to
one another; that each has one of its own kind diametrically
opposite to it; that they are in shape sphero-conies, formed b
the intersection of a certain elliptic cone with the sphere ;

.that the centers of the four sphero-conics are all on the same
complete meridian and all in latitude 45°. A table of numeri-
cal results depending on the values of certain elliptic functions

is arin : fe,
In this part an endeavor is made to collect evidence as _t0
the extent to which the earth may have undergone deformation
from geological changes. The object is to discover what are
the largest areas over which there has beeu a consentaneous rise
or fall, and what is the test vertical amount of that rise Or
_ fall; also to determine how the erosion of the land and the sea
- affect the local excesses or deficiencies of matter on the earth’s
surface. The areas and amounts of elevation and subsidence

on the Barth's Aais of Rotation. 447

which on a sealess and rainless globe are equivalent, as far as
producing excesses or deficiencies of surface matter, to those
which obtain on the earth are referred to as “ effective ;” and it
is only the effective elevation or subsidence which we require
to know in order to determine the shift of the earth’s axis.

-

The evidence as to area is very meager, because precise

geological period. From a consideration of this and of other
points the author believes that from j, to ,'; of the whole
earth’s surface may, from time to time, have undergone eleva-
tion and subsidence. The greatest vertical effective amount o
tise or fall cannot be determined from geological evidence,
because of the effects of erosion and of the influx of the sea into
parts below the mean level of the earth.

can be at n : :
found to be 10,486 feet; and in the examples given in the
following part, the deflection of the polar axis, for an assumed

_ 4pproximately follow the rocky ,
might be wefesent change in the earth’s shape to sensibly affect
the position of the principal axis, without there being any
geological signs of elevation or subsidence. :
5. Numerical application is now made of the paeniing work
to the case of the earth, and, as before stated, all the results are

xwplication is to continents
The first application is to cont It may be here stated

are abrupt cliffs, in others shelving. : :
The conclusion is arrived at, that a single large geological
*The area of Africa is about 059, and of South America about “033 of the
Sa

448 G. H. Darwin—Influence of Geological Changes, etc.

produce an alteration in the position of the pole of from one to
change, such as those which obtain on the earth, is competent to
three degrees of latitude, on the hypothesis that there is no
change in the law of internal density. A

6. Various hypotheses as to the nature of the internal changes
accompanying the deformation of the earth are discussed.

First, it is shown that if upheaval and subsidence are due to
a shrinking of the earth as a whole, but to the shrinking being
Se than the mean in some regions and slower in others,
the results are the same as those previously attained.

nd, the increase of surface matter due to the deposit of

marine strata also gives the same results.

Third, the hypothesis that upheaval and subsidence are due
to the intumescence or contraction immediately under the
regions in question is considered. Under certain special as-

rigid, no redistribution of matter in new continents could ever
cause the deviation of the pole from its primitive position to
exceed the limit of about 3°. But if the previously maintained
view is correct, that the earth readjusts itself periodically to a
new form of equilibrium, then there is possibility of a cumula

°

F
ra

C. L. Jackson— Waste-product in the Aniline Manufacture. 449

Art. L.—On a Base derived from a Waste-product in the Aniline
‘ Manufacture ; by C. Lorine Jackson.

In the spring of 1875 under the direction of Prof. A. W.
Hofmann I investigated a waste-product from the factory of
Drs. Martius and Mendelssohn-Bartholdy at Rummelsburg near
Berlin, which was obtained after the toluidine had passed over
in the annual rectification of the highest fractions from the
aniline-oil distillation. The results I then obtained. were pub-
lished in the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft
for 1875, page 968, and may be briefly restated as follows by
way of introduction to my subsequent work.

The substance, a black oily liquid, was dissolved in strong
hydrochloric acid, and freed from tar by repeated filtration ;
the oily base set free by sodic hydrate was then fractioned, and
yielded at first xylidine and allied bodies which were not
further examined; later a fraction from 280° to 320° which,
after removal of naphtylamine with dilute sulphuric acid, was
converted into-a nitrate and purified by crystallization ; it then
formed radiated. groups of white needles which gave on
analysis :

Caleulated for C,;;H,,NNOs. Observed.
Carbon 263205 See 63°41 63°38
Hydrogotf:2 2 2. -<-- 2 5°69 5°66

The sulphate was very soluble. é

The chloride C, ,H, ,NCI crystallized in white flat needles.

The platinum salt (C,,H,,N),PtCl, crystallized in very
characteristic fan-like groups of sparingly soluble light yellow
needles often more than half a centimeter long. The analysis

Calculated. Found.
Platinnm ee 25°36 95°39
arn oo i oe eee 40°08 38°78
Hydrogen ---.-------3°59 3°82

The free base C,,H,,N was obtained as an oil which gave
with chloroform and potassic hydrate a smell similar to that of
the isocyanides ; it was yw a primary amine, and its form-

a must be written C,,H,, ‘ s

An acet-compound C,H, ,NHC,H,O was also prepared by.
the action of acetyl-chloride on the free base ; 1 crystallized in
white needles and melted at 114°25.. At that time also some
attempts were made to obtain synthetically a base with the
same formula, but the results were not published.

450 ©. L. Jackson— Waste-product in the Aniline Manufacture.

At the beginning of the next year, T. Carnelly* described a
base C,,H,,NH, formed by the reduction of mononitrotolyl-
phenyl made synthetically, but as he did not describe-either
the acet-compound or the platinum salt there were no data for
a comparison of his base with mine; to furnish such data is
the object of the present paper. Carnelly found that, on addi-
tion of sodic hydrate to a salt of his base and extraction with
ether, on evaporating the ether “an oily body was first pro-
duced from which there separated out a small quantity of
needle-shaped tufts. The melting-point of these after careful

rying was found to be 93°-97°.” Under the same conditions
my base also furnished an oil, but at the time of the investiga-
tion in Berlin I observed no eryaale. In the hope that longer

arranged in spenrtinte groups which broke up on pressure into
ral masses. Freed by means of filter-paper from a

nounced at the end of my first paper, attempted to prepare

B. Silliman—Association of Gold with Scheelite in Idaho. 451

vided material to a conclusion before abandoning the field to
him; the work however was delayed by other and more im-
portant researches and it was not until this winter that I was
_ ready to examine the products of the reaction of sodium on
a mixture of parabromanilin and parabromtoluol; just as I
had proved the absence of any base other than bromanilin I .
received the paper* Ueber eine neue Bildung des Azoben-
zols by R. Anschuetz and G. Schultz and guided by it have
succeeded in detecting also the azobenzol. I can therefore con-
rm the results recorded in that paper in every particular.

To avoid interfering with any of the above-named gentle-
men J intend to abandon this line of research. |

Chemical Laboratory of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., March 3d, 1877.

Art, LI.—QOn an association of Gold with Scheeitte in Idaho ;
by B. SILLIMAN, | ae

also chalcopyrite, traces of which are detected by close obser-
vation. Leucopyrite is j ;

the total quantity of sulphides is certainly not over 1 to 14 per
cent of the mass, if som

uch. ee
The scheelite is massive, with few crystalline faces; its color

chondrodite. Portions of it are

* Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesellschaft, ix, 1398.

452 On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures.

age amount of scheelite in the vein, as a whole, but the high
density of the tungstate renders its separation from quartz by
mechanical dressing an easy matter, and suggests this as a val-
uable resource for tungstic acid, the value of which in the form
of sodic tungstate, for fire-proofing textile fabrics, is well un-
derstood. Locality.—Charity Mine, Warren’s, Idaho Territory.

My correspondent says: ‘“‘The miners on this ledge (lode)
lately struck a pocket of ore similar to that I send, and ina
few evenings pounded out in a hand mortar about one thousand
- dollars, gold value, from a few candle boxes full of ore. The
ore usually pays about twenty dollars per ton.” .

e affinities of mineral association indicate that cassiterite
and wolfram may reasonably be looked for in the future explor-
ation of this interesting vein. *

Since writing the above, I have-learned of another.and much
more interesting example of the occurrence of gold in scheelite,
from Golden Queen Mine, Lake Co., Colorado. The gold is in
minute crystalline granules in the scheelite and fills. what
appears to have been a geode of scheelite crystals.

New Haven, April 19, 1877. 2

Art. LIL—Minth Report of the British Association Committee,
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase
of Underground Temperature downward in various Localities of
Dry Land, and under Water ; drawn up by Prof, EVERETT,
Secretary of the Committee.* _

pares occupying thirty-two closely printed quarto pages (
8) of th Zeit i

e

af .

On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures. 458

water a little colder than the temperature to be measured; the
temperature of this water is noted by means of a normal ther-
mometer, and at the same time the uumber of degrees that are
empty in the earth-thermometer is noted. From these data
the maximum temperature to which the instrument has been

In the following résumé (as in the original paper) tempera-
tures are expressed in the Réaumur scale, and depths in

the water above. After twenty-eight hours the plug was
drawn and the thermometer showed a temperature of 36:6.
On the following day the temperature was observed at the
same depth without a plug, and found to be 336. Another
observation with the plug was then taken, the thermometer (a
fresh instrument) being left twenty-four hours in its position.
It registered 36-5, and again, without plugging, it gave on the
same day 33-9. It thus appears that the effect of convection
ne to render the temperature in the advance bore 3° R. too

454 On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures.

tubes, between which the water had the opportunity of circula-
ting even when the innermost tube was plugged, hence the
observations taken in this part were rejected.

All the successful observations are given in the third column
of the following table, subject to a correction for pressure; ~
for the sake of showing the error due to convection in the
nary mode of observing, the temperatures observed at the peek
—. when no plugs were used, are given in the second
colu

| Temperature Reaumur.
por Without With | Difference
plugging. | pluggin;
700 16°08 17-06 0°98
17°18 18°5 1°32
1,100 19:08 0-8 0-72
1,300 20°38 Si 0°72
1,500 22°08 2°8 0°72
1,700 22°9 24°1 2
1,900 24°8 25°8 10
2,100 26°8 27-1 03
3,390 34°1 36°15 2°05

These om fae are not corrected for hee but they
are corrected for rise of zero in the normal thermometer ; and
this last aeunaaies explains the difference of 0-4 “4 ‘iccanan the
temperature 86°15 here given and 86°55, which is the mean of
the xecteainel observations at the depth of 3,390 feet.

Another proof of the injurious effect of convection was ob-
tained by comparing the observed temperatures (without png
gin i the first — pe of the great bore, designated Bore

tempera served at the same depths during the

sinking. of Sota ies gi abvied Bore II, near it; the ob-

servations in this latter mans always taken at the bottom.
The following were the resu

chs in Temperature
eet. Bore 1. Bore Il.
100 11°0 9°0
00 11°6 10-4
300 12°3 11°5
400 13°6 12°56

temperature at the depth of one hundred feet in the
mee "bore thus appears to have been raised about 2° R. by

ion.
» The following is a table of the successful observations, cor-
reeted for pressure :

a On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures. 455

Depth in Rhenish Temperature
feet. Reaumur.

700 17-275
18-780
1,100 21-147
1,300 21°510
1,500 23-277
1,700 24-741
1,900 26-504
2,100 28-668
: 3,390 37-238

1 Assuming, with Herr Dunker, the mean temperature of the
surface to be 7:18, which is the mean annual temperature of
the air at Berlin, we have the following increments of tempera-
ture with depth :

ig Increase Increase
3 Depth in Rhenish Increment Increment of per 100 feet 100 4 ga
a feet. of depth. temperature. | deg. Reaumur.| deg. Fahr,
700 10-095 442 3°24
800 to 900 200 1°505 752 1°69
700 to 1,100 200 2°367 1°184 2°66
,300 200 182
A,300 to 1,500 200 1-167 884 1°99
1,5 70 200 732
1,700 to 1,900 200 1°763 "882 1°98
1,900 to 2,100 200 27164 1-082 2°43
2,100 to 3,390 1,290 8°570 664 149
0 to 3,390 3,390 30°058 887 2°00

tures at the surface and 3,390 feet is exactly 1° Fahr. for 50
Rhenish or 51% English feet.

4 e numbers in the last two columns exhibit upon the whole
2 a diminution with increase of depth ; in other words, the tempe-
___rature increases less rapidly as we go deeper down. As regards
the first 700 feet, which exhibit a decidedly more erie rate
than the rest, it must be remembered that nearly half of this

3
x The mean rate of increase found by comparing the tempera-
distance was in a different material from the rest of the bore,

t . .
published, that the conductivity of rock salt is exceedingly
; and theory shows that the rates of increase, in su ;

456 On the Rate of Increase of Underground Tenvperatures.

With the view of summing up his results in small compass,
Herr Dunker has assumed the empirical formula:
t= 718+ ax + be?2,
¢ denoting the temperature (Réaumur) at the depth a (Rhenish
feet) ; and has computed the most probable values of a and b, by
the method of least squares. He finds
a@ = °0129857 6 = — -000000125791,

the negative sign of 6 indicating that the increase of tempera-
ture becomes slower as the depth increases.

A paper by Prof. Mohr, of Bona, as represented by an ab-
stract published in Nature (vol. xii, p. 545), has attracted atten-

assumed for convenience, to give the best values of a and 4.
err Dunker, in his own paper, lays no stress upon the for-

mula, and gives a caution against extending it to depths much

greater than those to which the observations extend. Writing

The following are the differences between the temperatures

computed by the formula and the observed temperatures :

aes Difference (computed

Depth. minus observed).

On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures, 457

The necessity of adopting some means to prevent the circula-
tion of water in bores, has for some time been forcing itsel
upon the attention of your committee. Many of the observa-
tions taken by their observers have contained such palpable
evidence of convection as to render them manifestly useless for

an elastic dise pressed over it.
advance-bores can only be l su
bore, a time when it is difficult to avoid error arising from the
heat generated in boring. The expense of m:
re at each depth at which an observation is required is also”
an objection toits use | ;
Another kind of plug devised by Herr Dunker, and largely
used in the observations, consisted of a bag of very stout india-

rubber (nine millimeters thick) filled with water, and capable of
ooden dises, one above and the

inspector Zobel, the pressure was ap
Be ose Two steal springs fastened to the upper dise, and

ppearing, in Herr Dunker's diagram, 4 ;
of a circular hoop distorted into an oval by pressing against 1ts

458 On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures.

the dises nearer together, and rotation in the other direction
brought them farther apart. The india-rubber bag could thus
be made to swell out and plug the bore when it was at the
desired depth, and could be reduced to its original size for rais-
ing or lowering. In order to prevent the boring-rods from
becoming unscrewed one from another, when rotated backwards,
it was necessary to fasten them together by clamps, a rather
tedious operation in working at great depths.

In taking observations at other points than the bottom, two
of these plugs were employed, one above the other below the
thermometer.

In some of the experiments, the apparatus was modified by
using linen bags filled with wet clay, instead of india-rubber
bags filled with water ; and, instead of screwing, direct pressure
was employed, the lower disc being supported by rods extend-
ing to the bottom of the bore, while the upper dise could be
made to bear the whole or a portion of the weight of the rods
above it. Some successful observations were obtained with both
kinds of bag; but the water-bags were preferred, as returning
more easily to their original size when the pressure was removed,
and consequently being less liable to injury in extraction. 10
some observations since taken in another place (Sudenberg),
Herr Dunker states (in the private letter above referred to) that
india-rubber bags, filled with water, and pressed, not by screw-
ing, but by the weight of the rods, were employed with much
satisfaction. ;

All the methods of plugging employed by Herr Dunker 1n-
volved the use of the iron rods belonging to the boring appara-
tus, and therefore would be inapplicable (except at great
expense) after the operation of boring is finished and the
ap tus remov

t

be let down and raised by a wire. In the first report of your
Committee, it was suggested that two bags of sand, one above
and the other below the thermometer, should be used for this
purpose. Bags of sand, however, would be liable to rub off
pieces from the sides of the bore, and thus to become jamm
m drawing up. Mr. Lebour has devised a plug which will be
£ small diameter during the process of lowering and raising,
ut can be rendered large and made to fit the bore, when at the
oper depth, by letting down upon it a sliding weight suspen-
vy asecond wire. Sir W. Seana: suggests that a serieS
ia-rubber disks, at a considerable distance apart, will Se
y be found effectual. oe

On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures. 459

which is at the rate of 1° in 69 feet.

r. Symons has taken a series of observations at the depth
of 1,000 feet in the Kentish Town well, with the view of deter-
mining whether the temperature changes. The instrument
employed is a very large and delicate Phillips’ maximum ther-
mometer. The following is a list of the observations :—

Depth Ther- Depth
Date oflowering. | indicated.| mometer Date of indicated.| Temperature,

Feet. set at. raising. Feet. ‘abr,
AG14 2s. 1000 | 6450 | May 8 | 1007 66°82
fo May 568 1000 | 63°80 | July 2 | 1009 a nak )
“July 1000 63°20 July 28 1005 67-40
“July 28 1000 65°10 Sept. 8 1 67°51
“ Sep 1000 65°80 Sept. 2 1 67-4
“Sept. 2 1000 65°8 Oct. 30 1006 67°68
re 30 1000 63°40 Dec.’ 3 67°52
. 1000 63°80 Jan. 1009 67°63
1875 Jan. 7 1000 63°75 Feb. 1 1006 67°56
gee aa 1000 63°90 farch 3 1005 67:58
“ “March 3 1000 63°90 May 3 1006 67-62
eo Mays 1000 63°95 June 1 67-49
5k 100 63-00 July 7 1005 67°53
Sc yey 5 1000 63°87 Aug. 3 1004 67°
aa. 1000 63°87 Sept. 10 1004 67
“ Sept. 10 100 64-00 Oct. 3 1003 67°58
¥. De 1 63°90 Oct. 19 67°62
= 19 1000 63°80 Nov. 1 1005 67-62
eBoy. 1 1000 63°70 Dec. I Wire broke.

The “depth indicated” is shown by a measuring wheel or
pulley, over which the wire rans by which the thermometer 18
raised and lowered, as described, with a diagram, in the Report

460 On the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperatures.

errors of observation. The observations will be continued at
intervals of six months, with additional precautions, and with
an excessively slow (specially constructed) non-registering ther-
mometer, in addition to the maximum thermometer hitherto
employed.

Through the kindness of the eminent geologist, M. Delesse,

shafts were tried. Those designated as Nos. I, II, II, were
in the mine Chabaud La Tour; and No, IV was in the mine

enard.

In Shaft I, observations were taken at eight different depths,
commencing with the temperature 564° F. at the depth of 38°
meters, and ending with 672° F. at 2005 meters.

In Shaft II there were observations at four depths, com-
mencing with 55° at 87-8 m., and ending with 634° at 185 m.

n Shaft IIT there were observations at three depths, com-
mencing with 56° at 87°83 m., and ending with 62$° at 144 m.

These three shafts, all belonging to the same mine, were very
wet, and the temperature of the air in them was 11° or 12° ©.
(52° or 54° F.).

_In Shaft IV, which was very dry and had an air temperature
of about 15° C. (59° F.), observations were taken at six depths,
commencing with 703° F. at 21-2 m., and ending with 84° F. at
«1348 m. :
The mean rates of increase deduced from these observations
In Shaft I, 1° F.in 14-4 m.,
oft i 28. AVE Ww
Bute cea SES my. 8... 2848S
Aeel, e Oa i Se

or in 47°2 feet.
“cs 37°7 “

2
)
{
,

RE Ee Me ey eee he a ee EE eee mee KR OERE «|,

eae ORT eae eae re Ue ee sac 2 2S Bee cry We BPA eS oll eh ea ae Re bn Ce at eee RRP FUP eee tree a ne ee

Chemistry and Physics. 461

The observer mentions that in Shaft II there was at the
depth of 90 m. a seam of coal, in which heat was generated

mometers. Two of the slow non-registering thermometers
mentioned in last year’s report have been sent to M. Delesse,
to be used for verification.

The slow-action thermometers are constructed on the follow-
ing plan: The bulb is cylindrical and very strong, and is sur-

rubber. When placed, without these cases, in water differing
10° from their own temperature, they take nearly half a minute
to alter by one-tenth of a degree. ees

In concluding this report, your committee cesire to express
their regret at the losses which they have sustained by the
deaths of Professor Phillips, Sir Charles Lyell, and Col. Strange,
of whose valuable services they have been deprived within the
last three years.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs.

white dense cloud of ph iis ai chloride appears in which float in-
numerable minute gold-yel

462 Scientific Intelligence.

of hydrogen iodide, but may be preserved in an atmosphere of
chlorine. Iodine trichloride fuses at 32° C., is volatilized at 47°
(though it gives off vapor even at —12° )and is dissociated at
72° into monochloride and chlorine. It is soluble in cold water
without decomposition.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 7 March,
1877. G. F. B.
2. On the Atomic Weight of Selenium.—-Putrmrson and
ic

POideculaunke acid and Antimonyl nit
Analogy points out the existence of an antimonic acid O=sb—0H
and an antimonyl chloride SbOCI,, corresponding respectively to
O=P—Oll and to POCI,. Davsrawa has studied the question

- the mag ees acids anew, using Berzelius’s method for prepar-
ing them, i. e., by dropping antimonie chloride into water. ‘The
results of pane aa 8 showed that the air-dried precipitate was
H,S8b,0, ; dried over sulphuric acid, it was H,SbO, ; at 100° C.,
it became H, Sb,O, ; at 200°, HSbO, ; at 275°, ‘Sb, O,; and above

b,0,. For the preparation ¢ of the oxychloride, ‘one part by
aie of water was dropped into sixteen parts by weight of an-
timonic chloride. A yellowieh-white distinctly crystalline oe
resulted, which was deliquescent in the air, and which fused,
and sublimed in a closed tube, ASCENT into SbOCI and Cl, =
higher temperatures. The analysis, which was difficult, gave “the ,
formula SbOC1,.—Liebig’s Ann., elxxxvi, 110, March, 187 =

B.
4. On the Constitution of Cyanamide.—Of the two > ational
formulas assigned to cyanamide, N=C—NH, and Ola: the

agp of di-silver-cyanamide would seem to fix the latter a6

the m le constitution. Finer and sagen have proved,
however, that this imide formula is actually not the true one.
acting on di-silver- anamide with ethyl lode, composition

xen atom—since it came from ‘eas =, we

Chemistry and Physics. 463

follows that they are in the former; and hence that the rational
ormula of cya aaa itself is N=C—NH 2: — Ber. gen pip
ae x, 425, March, 1877.

m Potassium ree ide.—J OHNSON has onsenin 4 in i i a
a potassinm = e by evaporating a saturated aqueous or
oan — n of iodine in potassiu m iodide, over sulphuric

po wens, —2J, Ch, Soc., xxxi, 249, March, 187, ae
6. On Ethyl-mercaptan and its Derivatives.—In the course of
an extended investigation into ethyl-mercaptan and the corre-
sponding mercaptides, CLaxsson has made the curious hana
tion that the grou mets C,H, of mercaptan is pres ex-

cactous of the compound, Thus b acting on pote ae ‘strands
ide with me e of sodium ethylate, sodium chlo-
ride heparates, es deg ah boils from the heat evolved, and a light
yellow oil of 1°01 specific gravity is obtained, which the author
calls carbon ttrasmercaptde, and which has the formula .
also ae c.(S. Cy

s)a- He has prepar
H,), and Saravana C,(S.C,H,),. The author
has prepared also ethy]-tetrasulphide Ae H,) 5, and has studied
its properties and reactions.—~/. pr. Ch., II, xv, 193, nanan eo te
G. F.

On the rite of Coumarin. ed Poor ae and HerzreLp

\O— co"

ee Ne wee
8. On the Decomposition of Glyoxalyl-urea.—To test q
tion whether the substance obtained by protracted boiling of a

464 Scientific Intelligence.

solution of uroxanic acid was really glyoxalylurea, as assumed,
Mepicus acted upon it with potassium hydrate, which would split
it into urea and glyoxalic acid, and then would decompose the lat-
ter into oxalic and acetic acids. The products were examined
and proved to be those mentioned. Hence the author pare "
O—}

HC CO,

proved his formula for uric acid which is coc’
N

H—C—NH
Glyoxalylurea is OG hes and uroxanic acid is
COOn
/NH-COH) NH

CO.
\NH—C(OH)—=NH~

—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 544, April, 1877. G. F. B.
9. On two new Alkaloids, Strophantine and Ineine.—Harvy
and GaLLors have examined the A ina variously known as inaye,

F
tract, to the alkaloid in which he gave the name Strophantine.
he authors have succeeded in preparing this body crystallized
and have shown that it arrests the action of the heart, the ven-
tricles being in systole. From the tufts about the seeds, they
have also obtained a second alkaloid which they call ineme.—
Bull. Soe. Ch., TW, xxvii, 247, March, 1877. © sacle acl
10. Oceurrence of Copper normally in the Blood of Wild Ant-
mals,—C.oiz, having to incinerate the blood of a roebuck, killed
in the woods, and to analyze the ash, was surprised to detect in It
eari

_ IL. Ls Glass impervious to Gases ?—Professor G. QuincKE has
tried to force hydrogen and carbonic acid, by pressures of from
_ 40 to 120 atmospheres, through a glass wall 1°5 mm. in thickness,
and to determine by the loss of weight, the quantity of gas that
had passed through during seventeen years.
One leg of a V-shaped glass tube was a capillary tube of 200

mms. in length, closed above; the other was a tube contracted in
ey the — and open above, 150 mms, long, 8 mms. in diameter

Chemistry and Physics. 465

tact with the zinc. The pressure of the hydrogen was shown b
the diminution of volume of the air in the capillary tube, whist!
served for a manometer. Its amount on the first day, in the
different tubes, was from 14 to 10 atmospheres, rose in five months
up to 27-54 atmosphere and in 17 years up to 25-126 atmospheres,
During this time the tubes were frequently doubly weighed on an
excellent balance; and exactly the same weight, within from 0°1 to
0°3 of a milligram, was always found.

Another similar tube, with carbonate of lime and concentrated
sulphuric acid, in which the pressure of the carbonic acid gas
amounted on the first day to 21 atmospheres, after five months to
34 atmospheres, and after 17 years to 44, showed likewise always
the same weight of 14°6361 grams.

Thus according to these experiments, a pressure of from 40 to
100 atmospheres cannot, during a space of seventeen years, force
through 1°5 mm. thickness of glass a perceptible quantity of
hydrogen or carbonic acid. ‘

While at the commencement the concentrated sulphuric acid
wetted the giass sides of the tube, and showed a sharp marginal
angle (apparently 0°), gradually in the course of years the angle
has become obtuse, and the acid flows in the tube with condensed
carbonic acid like quicksilver in a glass tube filled with air.

In the atmosphere of hydrogen the angle at the margin of the
dilute sulphuric acid, which at first likewise wetted the sides, has
also increased to about 60

a different attraction from that which glass exerts upon the
liquid particles at the margin of the surface. A similar film of

elx, 118; Phil. Mag., ili, 314. C. P.
12. Polarization of the Rainbow.—M. J. Decuant explains the

wall of the drop at an angle of 40°, while the angle of total polari-
zation is about 7°, The ratio of the two polarized beams for the

the violet 2°8. Forming a rainbow by scattering this liquid in
sunlight by an atomizer the light cannot be exting od by a
Nicol prism in any position.—Pogg. Ann., clx, 123. ROP,

466 Scientific Intelligence.

The Radiometer.—Two views have been offered as to the
mod of action of the gas in the radiometer. One attributes the
tion to reaction of gas particles pelea heated on the vanes,
oe dancing off; the other to air currents which are directed
toward the plate in consequence of heated air rising from it. M.
Neesen vod se (Pogg. Ann.) to decide between these
views. I ond view is correct, he argued, the wall of the
vessel, by riesvecian also heated, must also acquire influence

tion be merely a 2 tae of reaction there is no reason t
suppose such an influence of the fixed wall. Now by giving ‘he
radiometer an ec necro osition within the glass vessel such an
influence of the walls should be readily recognized. He describes
a number of experiments made in this way, and which he regards
as supporting the second view.

In an article contributed to Poggendorff’s Annalen, M. Zéllner
is led to take the following positions in reference to the radiome-
ter. The explanation of radiometric motions based on the princi-

les i

explanation further leaves out of consideration, without sufficient
ground, the simultaneous existence of mercury vapors whose mole-

cules have a more then seven times greater mass and a much
smaller mean length of path than the molecules the gases acting
according to the mechanical theory of gases. nee we are not

warranted in regarding the radiometric i discovered by
treat as an — confirmation of the mechanical sept of
— Nature,

. Fluorescen Mabe E. —— discusses the intensity “of the
light of fluorescence assuming that the quantity of the light which
an element of volume of the fluorescent substance can emit is pro-
aaa to the quantity of exciting light which is absorbed.
He concludes:

(1.) That with an increasing concentration, the perro of the
fluorescent light at first increases up to a certain minimum, and
the en decreases.

intensity of the ab ion, vor ch more feeble as we
observe it at a greater distance.

(3.) That the mi of colors which constitutes fluorescent
be ee with he: coefficient absorption of the exciting

ss “ .) "That the fluorescent light, observed at a great distance, 1s

_ formed of a mixture of colors in which the rays Mtge largely
ve are in less proportion than when the observatio: made
a small distance.

Chemistry and Physics. 467

(5.) That by observing the fluorescence by transparency as
Lubarsch has done, the proportion of the rays most absorbed is
strongly diminished.

That it is, on the contrary, as great as possible when, the
side of the incident rays, the
angle of incidence is very great.

All these conclusions follow naturally from the first proposition
and seem to involve only very natural hypotheses.

This theory demands nothing but that the law of Stokes shall
be in general correct. It explains, on the contrary, very well the
disagreement of the experiments of Lommel, made under condi-
tions theoretically more favorable than those of his opponents.—

ogg. Ann., clx, 75, Journ. de Phys., vi, 126. BO. B,
15, Electricity and the Electric Telegraph ; of Geo. B. Przs-

; pp. 8vo, with 564 illustrations. New York. 1877.
(D. Appleton & Company.)—This volume, by Mr. Prescott, is a
most important contribution to scientific literature, honorable
alike to the learning and industry of the author. It is a compre-

r
tion of these and other principles to telegraphic circuits and land
lines; the phenomena of charge and discharge on land lines and
underground lines; submarine cables; electrostatic induction on

i harge in submarine cables;

; ifi cy, ties rarely
combined, and worthy of the electrician of one of the most rth

468 Scientific Intelligence.

Il GroLocy anp Naturat History.

. Annual Report on the EME Sed Surveys west i: 4 i
100th Meridian, ey. = M. iglas , Ist Lieut. Eng. U.

i i) b
appendixes, Hes aiming rica geological and other infor-
mation, by Lieut. W. L. fe Lieut. E. Berevanp, Lieut.

; » DALPRNE HE Lieut. R. Brrnie, Jr., Lieut. C. C. Morrison,
and Yieut C. W. WurertE; on meteorology and hypsometry by
Lieut. 5 fe Fa sear on a e bse ogy “tite Paes of

Southern California, “by Dr. J. T. Rormrock ; on the ornithology
and the mammals of portions of California, by H. W. Hensuaw ;
on Orthoptera, by 8. H. ScuppEr; on Coleoptera, by Dr. J. L.
oped on the Alpine insect fauna, Lieut. CaRPEN-
eleven idioms spoken in Satheen California, Nevada

aaa’ on ithe Colorado River, by A. S. Garscuer.
in the paper by Prof. J. Marcou, the Tertiary beds of Chico
Creek, California, are referred to the Eocene ate instead of
Upper Cretaceous, reiki mpeiteg J the presence of a few Cretace-

ous species, as Ammonites Chicoensis, and Baculites Chicoensis, the
i stage ese these eepehe having prominently a Tertiary
charac

z Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories,
F. V. Haypen, U. 8. Geologist in charge.—Bulletin No. 2 of V ol.
ITI, recen tly 3 Sica contains a paper on Western Diptera, compris-
ing descriptions and new genera and Po ici , by C. R. OstEn-
SACKEN, occupying 165 pages; a report on Insects collected by

# Uhler in 1875, te = Hemiptera collected | by A. 8. Saat

r contains bicaberanha of oe families Cydnide and Salde.
"8. Contributions from the Laborat ory of the University aX
_ Missouri ; Report by the Curators of he University of Misso
te the Governor of the State. Includes a paper Ls ie xs
Schweitzer on the various methods of f separating and etermining
Barium, Strontium and Calcium ; a paper by C. P. Williams on
awe of Misso uri leads s (in which the lead constitutes
to 99°993 per sink ea the silyer 0°00029 to 0°00615 per

SE I aT ---

Geology and Natural History. 469

cent); and analyses of Copper ores, Smithsonite from Dade
County, ete.

4. Organogeny of the Female Flower of Gnetum Gnemon.
Della Organogenia dei fiori feminei del Gnetum Gnemon L.,
nota di O. Brccart. Extr. from Nuovo Giornale Botanico
Italiano, vol. ix, No. 1. Jan. 1877. With a plate.—Beccari’s
observations and notes were made at Ternate, in the Moluccas.
ee

8 y ral part is an ovular nucleu :
turns upon the nature of the coats. Now t orm in succes-
ion from without inwards; i. e., the external one 1s the oldest,

uments. According to Beccari, the nucleus
an ovule without coats in the manner of

, and the coats are flor

parison with the quasi-hermaphrodite flowers of

organs. A com : P.

Welwitschia assures him that the middle and shortest. envelope
answers to the andrecium in those Howers, whence it 1 h
that the outer covering is perigonia

floral envelope of Waals
simpler and confluent-diphyllous. ‘ (

most sac is carpellary and dipl s, The gist of the argument

470 Scientific Intelligence.

it is more likely that Sm ovule of Gnetum would correspond with
the simplified one of anthacece, with which the pemacR se is
not indistinct. 2. The oder of evolution of these ¢

eo

one latest. The evidence is fairly convincing, and other recent
investigations point to the same conclusion.

e accompanying dscorctioal deductions drawn by Beceari

not so convincing nor so important. Nor need we share the

are not a few angiospermous plants. We should prareteial it
)

were not palatlercd b him i in fie present bearin alae now
recognized, the question whether the coat of the seed in seat. ifere
and Cycadacee is of carpellary or ovular origin may remain an
ape one, or may be decided in favor of the former, sacha essen-
tially derogating from the fitness of the received name for this
marked group of orders. Moreover, a iow so little differenti-
ated as those of Coniferw, the Jecnction between ovular and

ti e
Gnetacee an important advance is made, and the ground 0
distinction between ovular, carpellary, and perianthial aon
rs appear.
is be so, a vexed —? in Eee may find a p
tical setae nt. The cultiva of fossil botany, finding that
Gymnosperms were far the peri ease plants, and that
no angiospermous Dicotyledons have been detected until long

mate the Gymnosperms to the Vascular weis ogams. But the
: Soles whether es ebery erms are a part—the earliest and

nd C
mer are mo uly Dicotyledonous and and exogenous s in structure
greater affinity with the Angiospermous etic ates ” than

Geology and Natural History. 471

ould a
pear to have cpu grounds for concluding that the proper yin
of the vegetable kingdom is, first into rae rash ge and Orypto-
gamia ; then the former into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons,
—— these last into Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. A. G.
é Paleontological Origin of those ae on shrubs indi-
eee to the south of France, which are sensitive to Salton in 7
winters (Sur [ Origine paleontologique, etc.) ; by Cuartes Mar
TINS, 1877, 4to. Extr. from Mém. Acad. Montpellier, tom. ix, pp.
87-122.—Prof, Martins gives a list of 19 of those woody plants
which are killed down to the ground by the cold which is ocea-
sionally dna at Montpellier, or on the Mediterr: _— coast
from Peripignan to Mentone, but which spring again from the
base and flourish matil another exceptional frost occurs. The | ist
ranked in the order of tenderness, begins with the Carob-tree,
Ceratonia siliqua, and ends with Vitis vi niferd, With very few
exceptions, these tg are aatary representatives in Europe of
their genus and tribe; they are represented in a fossil state in the
Tertiary formations of S . Europe and also of middle Europe, either
by identical species, or by ees so similar that they are regarded
by paleontologists as equally a stral. Wherefore, upon pe
discussion of the details, it is Seemed that these are remains of
the Tertiary flora of Europe, which have thus far resisted wih
success the rigors of a present climate to which they are =“ -—
Peey adapted.
. oh ND. RAUN.— We announce with sorrow the ak
of has excellent botanist, which took place in Berlin, on the 29th

oe botanists in pha ecease there are so suey.
w of mark, although signs of revival are apparent. Alexander
ade was born at Ratisbon, May 10, 1805, but was brought up
at Carlsruhe, where his father be came a trusted officer in the post
office department. Fifty years ago, there was a knot of closely-
allied students at the University: ‘of nt consisting of
arl Schimper, Agassiz, and Engelm Two of them

the th Unive saad of Freiburg in the Bries-

eau; chal “id bee sie yo in 1850; but in the opens of

nk was meted to Berlin, as a successor to Link and Kun
King charge of the Botanic Garden as well as of the pit a

472 Scientific Intelligence.

ship. Although he had nearly reached the age of 72, and felt the

full weight of his years, yet he was assiduously attending to his

official duties when he was suddenly prostrated by acute disease
“A :

and n
scales of pine-cones, etc., published in 1830. sie this publica-
tion began the present knowledge of phyllotaxis. It is well
understood that the first steps were taken by his fe Howatndene
Carl Schimper, and that the early investigations were pursued in
common by the two. But Schimper published nothing, or next
to nothing, — then or since, although he lived until the year
867. ame in connexion with the su ject is preserved by
the ieceable mention of his companions and contemporaries; but
Braun’s treatise was timely and fruitful, and became classical.
Braun’s ability for the philosophical treatment of vegetable mor-
prorey and development was manifested in his next ‘large paper,
viz: is memoir entitled Rejuvenescence in Nature, especially
in Ue ‘life and development - plants. This was first published at
Freiburg in 1849-50, and again at Leipsic in 1851, n Eng-
lish translation of was published by the Ray Sieg in 1853.
Of a ape character, and marked with equal acuteness, is his
essay on The Vegetable Individual in . relation to Species, etc.,
pabliohed { in 1853 at Berlin, and which, in a translation by a pupi
of mine, was mainly reproduced in this jour (May and Sept.,
1855). He reaches the conclusion—which would now be more
confidently expressed—“ that the individual appears in = full
import only in the enamel steps of the series of created beings.”
his systematical work, Braun was exceedingly a bonbu per
severing, and sonneichsitne: When we add that throughout

wonder that much which he hoy ed to tents is left undone.
His work upon Marsilia, Pilularia, and Isoetes may be essen-

hs mg ah Seeger he eae

Rs

tN Ab oad gets ae

Geology and Natural History. 473

i. Notice of Recent Works on Vegetable Paleontology ; by L.
LesquEerREvUX.—Professor O. Herr has added a fourth volume to

continent also.
The first part describes species of the upper Carboniferous of
Bell Sound. Even if the stage of the formation, where the plants

tain estone,) separated by Heer in two different periods, has
Calamites radiatus (Bornia), species of Cardiopteris, one P:
; Sphenopteris, the only plant of a type analogous to the

species, is supplemented in th ne D}
ed of Eastern Siberia, eighty-three species, whose analogy with
E :

474 Scientific Intelligence.

over a whole continent at a given period of time. From the Car-
boniferous to the Miocene inclusive the same relation is remarked
in the plants of the continent of Europe, and so far as the floras
are known, in that o merica from the 40th to the 80th
degrees of latitude. In tracing analogous or identical types from
the soe roe ous flora of Portugal, from the Jurassic of England,
from the Miocene of Italy, to ‘those of the same formations of
Gianna and Spitzbergen, we can derive reliable conclusions in
regard to the characters of the vegetation of these epochs over
the whats northern hemisphere, if not over the whole world.

Of the descriptions of the species of these Jurassic plants in the
fourth ee of the Arctic an of the ape ae: of the ji boo

species, Podozamites lanceolatus is, in its leaves, remarkably simi-
lar to the one described as Pterophyllum ? Haydenii in the Cre-
oT flora of Nebraska.

vegetable remains of the Cretaceous of Cape seelgores
already mostly known as described in a former volume, constitu
oe ok part, a very short one, of three pages and half a piste

The fourth part is a supplementary description of seventy-
one Miocene species of three different localities of Spitzbergen:
Cape Lyell, the nage Senet and Cape Heer. The relation
between the plants of these localities is indicated by a com-

Mountain s, the Oaition and the Green River groupe, B
seven. This relation is more than cesta. close to prove co ut
‘temporaniety of the formation, eve ith the North American
_ Miocene, though the ilar of Identical species may appear small.
Tt is even rier evident than with the European Miocene; for the
Tertiary this last continent is now known by more than
four thousand species, while, including even the Lower Lignitic
Eocene, we know scarcely as many hundred from the North Amer-
; Tertiary formations. Therefore the conclusions per -
1 distribution of the Carboniferous and Jura'
are valid i in the same degree for the Miocene. The said
es of me _— of this epoch are the same over the

Geology and Natural History. 475

whole northern hemisphere, modified, however, by a difference
already remarked in the climatic circumstances of regions under
distant latitudes. For the Spitzbergen Miocene flora has no species
of itr nor m8 ind of Laurines. It has, however, two Magno-

grou p, the Pliocene of Califorcis, capil of species now
no the shores Gulf of Mexico, and extending even as far
outh as a ba and New Mexico.

The milion of eight species from Disco, with two plates of
‘tustentions, closes this fourth part of the Arctic Flora. The
Species are mostly referable to Jurassic types

he volume under consideration has been ‘prepared from speci-
mens pollented by the = oa Polar expeditions in the years 1872
and 1873. These specimens were examined by Heer and described
in 1874; but the publication of the work then ready .has been
delayed by circumstances independent = the author’s control.
In the meanwhile, the celebrated Professor has undertaken the
preparation of the floras of the different oe formations of
Switzerland, pone with. that of the Carboniferous, just
published.* The s = part, that of the Jurassic, is complete
also, and ready “a ear. The Carboniferous flora repre-
sents the plants of the Antutscite of Vallais, a formation of very
limited extent. The general character of these plants is that of
the Upper Carboniferous, marked mostly, at least, a a prepon-
derance a ferns: Sphenopteris, Newropteris, Cyatheites , Pecopte-
ris, etc.; the Calamarie and the Cordaites, which the a author con-
siders as Conifers. A number of species of Lepidodendron an
Sigillaria are still in this group; and as it has also Sphenopteris
latifolia, trifoliata, ete., the large Alethopteris, A. nervosa
Serlii, muricata, Pluckneti, which in our Co al measures are more
abundant in the middle group or above the Millstone grit, the gen-
eral jae of this Anthracite flora, judging from the American
point of view, is ergctts that of the middle than of the upper Car-
eatioces But a one species 0 of _— which, together

age of the formation have part 7
peculiar trait, marking the vegetable re
Switzerland, is the presence, upon the surface of the leaflets of
hard carbonaceous matter,
th generally obliterates the

: hite, whi
nearly transformed i nto ges epaae, Peceaps s which are often

nervation, and the deformation of these pinnule
drawn and elongated on one si

fossilis Helvetia. Erste Lieferung. Die euavaieiant
ate: T. Wurster & Co.

Zurich.

476 Scientific Intelligence.

tracted or shortened and enlarged on the other. The fossil plants
of Rhode Island gc exactly the same appearance, the dimor-
phism of the species being there still far more evatin marked

as it is remarked along the -_ ch of New wport; a movement
eh, while the — were still in a soft state, caused an exten-
sion or traction to one side, and therefore this peculiar deforma-
tion of the leaflets when placed on one side of the line of the force

been piamay recently seen anywhere else in the American Coal-
measures. The Carboniferous flora of Heer contains descriptions
and Roa of one hundred species, seventeen of which are consid-
ered as new by the author.

Professor Heer see, it seems, i gs Pau to jor te plants of

pabliched a oe on some Pe ermian plants of Hungary,* and

there describes one species of Baiera, one of Tienonest two Volt-

zia, one Schizolepis, with six Carpolithes ; ; these all new species.

The work exposed in this short review, and which eK repre-

sents two years of the labors of the celebrated professor, wo d
‘ make an honorable record for a whole scientific life.

Another pages paleontologist, Count Sarorra of Aix, enjoy-
ing a degree of celebrity as high and as well merited as that 0
Professor Heer, and equally versed in xe study of the fossil plants
of the different formations of Saar has lately with the assist-
ance of his friend, Dr. Mari ublished the Pliocene flora of

ing species of the same country, this flora is like a link between
the vegetation of the Miocene and that "of the present time, and
thus affords evidence on the succession and modification of veg-
etable types which Tei not been obtained elsewhere until now.
The ald gh describes thirty-two species splendidly illustrated,
most of the figures having in contraposition a representation 0
the living species to which they are compared as identical or
a y related. The exhibition of this relation gives subjects

for consideration as instructive to American as to European

botanists, if not more so. We find in it a species of Zorréya, a
genus out of Europe now, but present in California; Platanus
aceroides var. cunet efolia fa related to, if not identical
fui Ponviacte Pflanzen von Fiinfkirchen in Ungarn, von Dr. Oswald Heer-
ches sur les végétaux fossiles de Maximieux par le Comte G. de Saporta
‘F. Marion. Lyon, ete. (1876.)

4

Geology and Natural History. 477

with the North American Platanus occidentalis, var. acerifo-

lia. Liguidambar Europeum, a Miocene species without relation ©
now in the European flora, but reproduced still in that of our con-
tinent; in the family of the Laurinexw the group of Maximieux has
Persea Carolinensis ; in the Magnolia, a species similar to the
American M. grandifolia ; and still more, one Lyriodendron,

Tilia represented now by our 7. pubescens, and an Jlex related
to L. Cassine. Thus, nine species of this group of thirty-two
Pliocene European species belong by identity or close affinity to

d
bearing gravel beds of Nevada County, California. From this
last formation fifty species are known, and ten from the former;

i

Lyriodendron, ete.,

cene as in that of Europe, i :

migration. This subject, however, of transformation and migra-
: with '

Orgunie Infusions ; by Joun TYNDALL, F.1.S. 5 :
ef 8, 187 spe beg leave to submit to the Royal Society a brief
preliminary note of the resu : !
of my researches “On the Optical Deportment of the Atmosphere,
with reference to Putrefaction and Infection.”

very remarkable experiments of Dr. Roberts, of Manches-
ter, which have been ¢ rmed Professor Cohn, of Breslau,
have been both verified and contradicted by m researches.

lkalized hay-infusions have been completely steril-
ling y in other cases they have with-

to sterilization. A single conspicuous example will serve as “
illustration. Cucumber-infusion has been subjected, for intervals

478 Scientific Intelligence.

varying from five minutes to five hours and a half, to the boiling
temperature without losing its power of developing life. wo
days’ exposure to a temperature of 90° Fahr., subsequent to this
treatment, sufficed to develop in it swarms of Bacteria.

The infusi

e infusion which thus withstood, in one of Dr. Roberts’s

nation.
I resorted to the mode of calcination by an incandescent plati-
num wire, applied with such uniform success in my last inquiry.

sions, highly concentrated by évaporation, remain with me to the
present hour; they are as clear as distilled water. But in my re-
cent. experiments, where the care bestowed far exceeded that

By the
nation I was able finally to maintain some of the most refractory
of the liquids operated on perfectly pellucid, in closed chambers

r . What was the cause of this discordance ? .
ne question is to be answered by reference to the experiments
hay-infusions, which were begun early and were multiplied

Geology and Natural History. | 479

and varied later on. By practice such a mastery over these infu-

sions was at length attained ore though the same method of ex-

periment was undeviatingly ued, I could contradict or cor-

5 oborate, at will, the speak of Dr. Roberts and Professo
ohn.

n analyzing these apparently irreconcilable results, it was
found that, in almost every case where five minutes
ficed to sterilize alkalized sn ibn: the Snotd peers was

sistance to sterilization was shown, ‘the bag was mown either in
1875 or some previous year. ve pee found at difficult to
sterilize was from Colchester, and i s five years old.
o the drying and eigen of he germs of ‘the old hay by

ie I ascribe this singular result

An experiment on stificially. dried peas, as compared with the
same peas undried, is not without instruction. After boiling for
an hour or so, the undried peas become a while the dried
ones retained a considerable amount of flav After a couple of
hours’ boiling the undried peas rendered she water in schicks they
were immersed thickly turbid, the liquid surrounding the dried
peas remaining at the same time perfectly clear. The dried peas
were rendered soft, but many of the green peas were reduced by
two hours’ Merged es a mere pulp, the mixture of which with the
a — it

d
the surrounding water. On the other hand, the clearness of the
water which embraced the dried peas indicated a restriction of

ee

liges
sible to make the et gravity of the stony of my oldest hay
t of water. The dryness and induration
d

© 2B
oO
. Ee
ot
ie
com |
So" .o
ae
Fo?
Ee
+B 4.
=
oO
Bg
oO
j=)
os
&
S
GQ 4
Se
PS]
3
18
aS o
*@
GQ
rE
f*)
eae
co
[eo]
SE

See ee see aE

of r resistance.

aperinnetics have bo been made with new hay dried artifi-
cially at temperatures varying from 140° to 185° Fahr., an ac-
count of which shall ee communicated in due time to the Royal

ciety.
The different samples of hay employed in this yripede mm
were nee in — into the laboratory 0

place —_ sales ‘tive that precautions which, under ordi-_
nary siccicias w
immunity Bice: acne contamination, were found utterly in-
effectual.

Thanks to the friendly action of the President of the Royal
Society, I was enabled to escape from this atmosphere to a purer

480 Scientific Intelligence.

air. I had a series of tin chambers constructed, which were not
permitted to enter the Royal Institution at all, but were taken
oe from the tinman to Kew Gardens. They were mounted

n the excellent laboratory papier erected there by the munifi-
cence of Mr. Jodrell. In this new position the insuperable diffi-
culties encountered in London CAME Sey and the experiments
followed the course of those described in my last investigation.
Two of the chambers gave way; but on being scrutinized sae

mained perfectly intact, a they embraced the pecs ya
stances which had given me so ne trouble in Lon Infu-
sions exposed to the common air at Kew became analy rotten,
ller account of these beccarokes shall soon be submitted to
the Royal Society. In prosecuting them thus far I have been
very ably assisted by Mr. Cottrell and his junior colleague Mr.
Frank Valter.— Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxv, No. 177.
9. On Heat as a Germicide ere discontinuously applied ;
n Tynpatt, F.R.S. Received Feb. 1877. (Letter

as erie an sstonishine 8 0 to sterilization by heat.
This resistance was trace “3 - source; and ave been since
informed that you were good enough to expr ess at the time a very
favorable opinion as to the eitouu and value of the results
indicated.

It will, I think, now interest ae to learn that the most obsti-
nate of the infusions referred to in the “ Note” have been since
rendered tractable by the application of very simple means. Fol-
lowing up the plain suggestions of the germ theory, I have been
able, even in the midst of a virulently infective atmosphere, to
sterilize all the infusions by a temperature lower than that of
boiling water.

sheet ns a seco cond sam le of the same sea tanto: to a temperature
: lower than that of boiling water for five minutes, and it is ren-
ered permanently barren.

f

a _ The secret of success n open one. I have already re-
ferred t period of latency whan precedes the clouding of
ions with visible B ring this period the germs are

of lateney of germ nding mg its condi. =
o— and in adoration, hi of

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 481

Seaing® before the latent period of any of the germs has been
completed (say a few hours after the eid ia fot of the fugit:
I subject for a brief interval to a temperature which may be under
that of boiling Spee Such softened and vivified fica; as are on

in duration in the case of an ‘fini which thes
have perfectly sterilized; they amount ogi oases to, say, five
tes. 1 her cunilas of the same infusi oe alenot

barrenne
In pare weeks I hope to bring this entire subject under the

notice of the Royal Society.—Proe. Roy. Soc., Feb. 1, 1877, vol.
xxv, No. 178, p. 569.

Es MISCELLANEOUS ssssibiccte sea mesugi sige

tional Aeatiany: held in Av ankingtots April 17-20, 1877, the fol-
lowing new members were elected: Elliott Coues, U. 8S. A.,
Washington, D. C.; John W. Draper, New York; Henry Draper,
New York; do H. Scudder, Cambridge, Mass.; ©. S. Peirce, Cam
bridge, Mas

The ohlowie’t is a list of the papers read at the meeting:

On a new measurin: the vernier ae ee A. M. MAYER.
ce the laws ruling the vibration | of ery Moria! y, fsolida; by AM et

5 ft. 4 in

Se +h,
Very

magnets; by A. M. MAYER.
gvseet Haidar errors in star declinations; by E. C. PICKERING and W. A.
naring
Micrometer-level and topographical camera; by E. C. PICKERING.
On the young stages of some rep — apc AtEE. AGASSIZ.
4 dred, + . LEx. A
oe cael ook ga See ct ts pet Ge their relations to evolution,

d rary h a period; by JosEPH Le!
On the es ‘Quater of ager ee a ae and its relation to periscopism; by

JOSEPH ONTE.
On the progressive motion of storms; by WILLIAM FERREL.
Contribution to Meteorology ; by Extas Loomis. (7th ag )
proved method of obtaining metallic spectra ; b eg nem ae
On the effect produced by mixing white with colored light; by ad Roop.
On Newton's use of the term indigo with reference to the color of the spectrum ;
by O. N. Roop.

structure of the earth as affecting the the phenomena of precession
nutation: -supplomentary to article under this head reed before Ss yousemys ans
published in vol. xiii, Smithsonian n Contributions; by J. G. BARNARD.

482 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

A proposed new method in solar spectrum analysis; by S. a pth
On some researches in the theory of invarients; by J. J.

Peculiaritie es noticed in ms eaidstion of senses sulphovacids; “tie Tak REMSEN.
On complex inorganic acids; bv

Description of a detached gravity mo aghth ih mt; by C. A. Youne.

Remarks on the apparent secular acceleration ei the mean motion of the moon,
derived from the | seated rt of 08 ancient ag wen by Suvon NEwcoms.
Re
O
0
Remar
in \

we

‘esearches in ogee enn? y
ge BO Mountains; by G. K. GILBERT.
n the ee doneaie by J. M
m some artesian aie along ‘the line of the Union Pacific Railroad
Wynne ar by. FV. Hayp

A paper on these deposits, in — er by H. W. st rot Co) (ioe

wings could reach, and sometimes on the roofs of cavities. All

3. Sieth Annual Report of the ae Jersey State Board of
Agriculture for the year 1876. 196 pp. 8vo. Trenton, N. J.—

mar, of the 5 in ne Te srr — of oe be

_ 4, Primer of Chemistry, in ing ana phe A. VacHER.

108 pp. 12mo. erupts hie {hte nitty —The author =
book

eid
ae ‘sindent is Toft to ican at atthe meaning of atomic Saati we
equivalent, these terms not being found in the book. The oe
into a small compass, but the condensation aay

tion.—Comet b, 1877, was discovered by Wissncke.

INDEX TO NOLUME Ait

A
pape cohggeenss pate 1877, 481.
ms, A , Saurian vertebra from the
16.

echinoderms of “Porcupine”
ana “Challenger” expeditions, 164.
zoology of “Challenger” expeditia on,
5.
oe action of fuming nitric acid

gas,
Allenton, synthesis of, 218.
J. A A

ents = pease 244,
Aetroubatoad myths 40

f Becky “Mts., Draper, 89.
uerbach, vowel pelPnea ct 378.
Austen af T., dinitroparadibrombenzols,
95.

nitro-derivatives of diphenylamine,
279.
nitrogen compounds, noticed, 58.
ymonnet, properties of chemical sub-

sees y ali.
a disthermaneity of metals and paper,

B
Baillon, H., Dictionnaire de Botanique,
320.
ce-beams, rock crystal for, ang
Barker, @. F. chemical abstracts, 55, 146,
216, ’299, 371, 461.
Barrett, S. £; Lower Sesvateaia of Port

Berihelot, constitution of ee 56.
ree ordinary al in

wood spirit, 2
chemical sections of the silent elec-
ic discharge, 3

Biancont, roma § of ice, 59.
owe — ar _ mena, LeConte, 252
and al

in
Bike J. % astronomical myths, 404,
ee und in relation to music,

Bogus, velocity of chemical reactions,
Boisboudroin, prope of gallium, 59.

“ego kinetic ae of gases, 378.
eres ., igneous rocks of Bohemia,

2 idoes so-called crystallized, Hampe, 55.
Botany

Dextrorse and ap preity 236, 391.

Ehiott’s E Batany, 81, 3

ropean fi wan sai hical statistics
of, 83.

Fertilization, cross- and self-, 125.

soo, tender trees and shrubs of,

vung recent nants on, er
Gelsemium

Gnetum gnemon, fenel aed of, 469.
Helianthus ate
Sak: haowcigals flowers,

Orchids, fertilization a oticed, 395.
Sugar cohol from leaves of, 218.

Sweet Potato, Johnson, 197.

Tendrils, coiling of, 391.

aie Soc. Nat. Sei, Bulletin of, 325.

Cc
Cailletet, L., measurement of high pres-
sures, 303.

piers Se eee

Carbon, in luminous flames, 217. :
GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, ZOOLOGY, and

Cy las SA it aaa ae
et sages eet ts tied

484

Carpenter, W. B., physical investigations |
on the

Ghitnoser expedition, zoology 0 of, 1

wuss = C., geological parr rr

* Geol logy of pape 81.
Chemical Sebel —_ city of, 2
Chemistry and a in America, 61.
Chemist’s manu

antl. . er

st lath 42
Chronometers, compensation in, James,

Claesson, ip nig ge

Clarke, F. W., notes on mine cal analysis
fluorides, Sew ba —— 290

Clayden, spectra of in

Cleve, two new dichlomaphithaienes 148,

aor copper in blood o d animals,

Cofin. J. H., winds of the globe, 273.
Color, sensation of, Peirce, 247.
Columbic acid mine!

Cooke, J. P., dr., new mode of manipulat-
ing F ijdste sulphide, 4:
Cope, E. D., fossil

Copper in blood of ape rte 464,

i uc

D

ralogical notes, 162, 318.

nae a Mineralogy, 317. *
Dana, J. D., note on the glacial era, 79.

A. Wing’s —

eats: x eries in Vermont
32,
ae C., feriliaion of Soe oN 396.
oss- and self-fe ertiliza’
mga

a pom underground temperatures,

hantine and ineine, 464.
T., to phical survey
the State of New York, 244,
tic theory of, 378.
| Geikie, J., Great Ice Age, 81._
Gei B., d paleontology
tine lic, 233-
Genth, F. A., Report on the Mineralogy
lyania, 317.

INDEX.

a polarization of the rainbow, 465.
Dela, ajontaine , hermannolite and samars-

ze

fatonas re de Géologie, 3
iller, J. S., Westfield during’ the Cham-
plain perio od, 262.

Piphenylamine, derivatives of, Austen,

Dea. A., Ulothrix —- 163.
mical a
ins.

enus and a cae
Draper, J. W., ieee and Physics
in Americ:
researches in Physics, 67.

E
an, atomic weight of selenium, 462.
Blecer discharge, chemical actions of,

Electricity, eal
volution m3 “hydrogen in
electrolysis,
odin from bark of py roe 148.

F
Farlow, as G., botanical notices, 163, 322.
oni -smut, 392.

.. | Fat-extractir ion, Johnson, 1

Fileti, conmtivitibe of eyananie 462.
Films, — a ight,
of wate:
a shiialetan of tertiary aromatic
149.

vieuwe: luminous, theory of, 217, 220.

Forest and prairie regions, —— of, 81.
Friction, laws of, Kimball, 35

G
Gallium, physical properties ©: of, 59.

GEOLOGICAL REPORTS OR SuRVEYS—

Fortieth Parallel (King’s), —e
Pe moet hy: by F. Zirkel,

Kentucky, 7

Montana Caeasibitty 228.

at rind faye

sylvai
Toritorea = (Hayden s), 68,229,387,468.
Vieto
poy of 100% Meridian (Wheeler’s),

Wisco
Geological ‘Sosy of London, 325.

EOLOGY—

Arctic — saurian from

Balanus Estrellanus, relations is 156.

Basalt, 31

oleae revision of the genus,
Wachsmuth and Springer, 253.

Belgium, plu ocks of, 234.

Botany, fossil, works on, 472.

Car orm relation of to Permian,

i C ts oniferous flora, 22
3 Connecticut valley Helderbe rg, 3
taceo us of Queen n Charlotte Is., "i.
Dolerytes i iron in, Hawes, 33.
as affected by geological
ca ale?
Elephan meg Pr ossil, 157.
— limestone of Vermont, fossils

ing,
Feldspathic Steep solubility of, 315.

Glacial era, note 79.
Glaciation of Shetland — 155.
in the

Superior

region,
—s Island, heights on, eo _
water-courses 142, 2
porcelain pac oe $68.

Kudaruyamite, 389.
icrodiscus speciosus, 141.
Miocene in Southern New Guinea, 157
b
E cal

Port J eg’ lower Paetoy of, 385.

Propylyte, 3

Rhine and Danube, the loess of, 383.
12.

Rhyol

Boley Movant itains, age of, in Colorado,
Peale, 172, 388; g laa 297.

Salt i Canada, 231.

INDEX.

485

oe
e, estimation of, Reade, 314.
Trlbits, 233.

pe of, 8
forms a Ford, 265.
Vernet Wing 8 discoveries in,

se br from Montana, 3
Virginia, vespertine strata ea 3%, 115.
Westfield —_ Champl ain period,

hep ade lline sae 7 307.
Blows ‘sath ultural repo:
Gibbs, J. W., equilibrium of ieee
ous ’ substances, ae

HZ, points in connection with
pe

lass, is it impervi 464,
Glycolic aci acid, wad oh of, 302.
Gi re decomposition of, 463.
raduated k-crystal for, 216.
Grand eury, Carboniferous flora, 222.
Gray, A., botanical notices, 81, 236, 320,
391,
Elliott’s Botany, 81, 392.
homogone and heterogone flowers,
82.
Darwin on cross- and self-fertiliza-
were 125.
rse and sinistrors, 236, 391.
Helianth us tube:
female yeh of pease “Gnemon,

469,
pes uz, synthesis of allantoin, 218.
Groth, new Mineralogical Journal, 162.
min, A., Physical Forces, 245.

a ripe oto

iro:
yden, F. V., publicatio

tion under, 68, 229, 387, 468.
Heat as — Tyndall, 4 480.

i Heer, O., Arctic “oss flora, 320.

s,” Long Isl., 403.

:
g 8
Bes

n, K., luminous flames, 920,
Hitchcock, C. H., Connecticut valley Hel-
derberg, 313.
Horne, J., glaciation of Shetland Is., 155.
ggins, W., photographic spectra of

‘ stars, 324.
Series, V Vor. XIIK, No. 78.—Joss, 1877

486

Hunt, T. os beans region of Goderich,
Canada, 2
Hydric sulphide, Cooke, 427.
Hydrogen in n electrolysis, 217.
purification of, 1
Hydroquinone, preparations of, 57.
Hypovanadic oxide, 147.

2 t soar! of, 5
k in Neuiansiaad 7
Tinois M us. Nat. Hist., Bulletin, 245.
7.

Irving, R,, crystalline pave of Wis., 307.

J
Jackson, C. L., oma Seer in the
aniline manufactur re,
ge oie Bs hodein, a oe ‘test for ani-
line, 219.
James, B. , compensation in chronom-
eters,

Johnson, § 2 W. Ge ech a A lh
fat-e.

Perth eet
ert 6.
satiioaition of ema in nitrates,

Suck, potassium triiodide, 463.

K
eared velocity of chemical reactions,

Kimball, A. 8., laws of friction, 35
Knobel, E. > Catalogue a Asean

papers and researches, 87.
Koninck, Paleozoic fossils of South Aus-
tralia, 158.

g, equivalence of nitrogen, 301.
* seni Revue de Géologie, 315.
Lea, M. C., oo to light of salts
- silver, 3
enomena

pods, 23
_— Lesquereua, notices sof works on vogtabi
x Lewis, E., eed State Ca Taine tilead.
sae 215.
Pen. comagpinne Pome ge
Gnaiie ten Be of buck-

INDEX.

—— ane. heights of, 235, 403.
Eastcote eS on, 142, 2 216.
Loom OE trib. to meteorology, 1.
ppenmelte eSatibalias ‘of the phos-
phates, 56.

~~ W. , Teport of a reconnaissance

m Carroll, Montana ‘Deertaly: 228.
M

Martin, C., origin of tender i and
Geen | in the Bn has of —

Feige andard m a,
Matzger, W 0, saat lahans: in ‘Wash-
“ington a.

Mc Cook, habits of Fo rmica rufa, 241.
—u ibe Wi
Mee k, F.B “edge White, 169.
Melezitose, 3
ras leeff, Mariotte’s law, 58.

endelsohn, beech- ‘wood tar- ee 302.

Meteoric stone and irons,
= Rochester, Indiana, Shepard 307.
t falls of, Smith, 2
ee contribu ne, Tome.
of Golden, Colorado, 326.
r, standard, 14
Metric System,
Meyer, HE. v. a platinie sulphide,
Meyer, A rease of w eight h com-
bustion. :
uiv: seh o nitro
ca New Yo var. a
dian d, 15. :

Mete:

ralogi
Mineralogy, Groth’s er rohiea ‘of, 162.

Barite from Missouri, Broadhead, 419.
Columbia, eee 362.

368, 369.
usonite, 8 367, 369.
Gothi te from Missouri, Broadhead, 420.

Guan:
pee 4 365, 369.
oodi

Opal, 32
Poganie, identity of, Chester, 295.
Pelagite, ae “
Samara, 234, 362, beet in,
go. .
Sepiolite, fibrous, Chester, 296. :

2S aaa te Se Se eae ee eg ee Aye hay

INDEX. 487

souri, chemical contributions, 468,
Molecular volumes, Clarke, 292.
weights and heat-absorbing power
- chemical substan 21%:
nm, Hansen’s tables et ie:

Naphthalenes, 148.
Nees en, the radiometer, 466.

a new metallic element, 373.
peepee: Si stigation of corrections
to Hansen’s tables of the oa st,

New Jersey, Agricultural report, 48
New a H. A., meteor of Dec. 21st, 18%,

Rison, ae and a ae 147.
, binoew

Ware ae tek action ort on coal gas, “30:
Nitrites, plato- and diplato-, 147.
Nitrogen, oa - ozone on, 372.

poder
equivalence ae 301, 373
trates, e: estimation of, Johnson,
260.
Nova Scotia, Institute of Nat. Sci., pro-
ceedings of, 321.

Carson, Joseph, 238.
Davis, Rear rere ©. H., 246.
Ehrenbe

z
Palaeontographica of Prussia, 389.
Palladium. in alcohol flame, 148.

Peirce, C. S., sensation of color, 247.

Penfield, S. 1» Pp seperti position of
triphylite, :

Pemieyivania, be rocks of central,

oe C. H. = Loe s Urda (167), 112.
a new pla
Petterson, atomic weight of selenium,462.
Phillips, J. rns tones ” of West-
ern Corn wall,
pineehennn: ped ovale of, 5
Phosphorescence of organic liquide, 374,
Phthaleins, 149.
Phy: sics, researches in, 67.
eri C. Lapharig notices, 58,
149, 219, 308, 378, 4
Pierre, al | from oe leaves of the
su Hyer

men new, 242, 397%:

odide,
in, plu utonie rocks of Belgium, 284.
Prescott, G. B., <p 7 ads and the Elec-
tric Telegraph, 46
Pressures, high, measurement of, 303.

Q
Quincke, is glass impervious to gases?
464.

a OR 466.
ki, phosphorescence of organic

Rood, 0. N, Scart tee
s

Sabine, appre Seb of page po, Mg
Seharff, F., of calcite, 319.
Schifi, contitition pe cyanamide, ee
Schobig, purification of Spr tei

Sel mi

Shaler, y of Kono oky ra
survey of an een
gto: 8 C. U., Meteoric stone of Roch-

ver salts, — of Lea, 369.

Siphon-recorder,
Skinner, A. N., B orally’ 8 comet, 323.
gy Oo f Alabama, 230

examination of American minerals,
359.
Smithsonian ian Report for 1875, 168.
ee as A., copula compounds of
paur,
Smyth, R. z "Geological Report, 157.
Sonnenschein, Gelsemium sempervirens,
58.
Spectra of Venus, seine a Peet photo-
graphs of,
Spectrum, ultra me
Spottiswoode, W. ates istastion call, 221.
Sprague, q; Wild flowers of — 84,
ocrinus, 253.

Stev
of the e Rocky <okctains, 297.
Serer, F. H,, phosphates and potash in

Sulphur, copulated \aeigbiadae mt 305.

os P. G., Lectures on
in physical science, 222.
-creosote, constituents of, 302.
oo 402.
emperatures, un nee eee 452.
Thacher, J. K., on fins, 3
Toc!

of North

Trowbridge, J., vortex rings, 327.
aes J. H, Helianthus tuberosus,
: T.

Turpentine, decomposition of vil of, 302.
_ Tylor, films of water, 151.

dl. aevelaiaeais of epasities in

Urda (167), orbit of, Peters, 112- .

, In m
“ Whiteaves, a F, Mesoaoic > foot Bt
Whi D., origin of for

INDEX.

Vacher ; A; A nivsewl of chemistry, 482.
Villiers, melezitose 374.

Sa 2.

ican Trilobites, 80.

Vortex rings in fiquids, Trowbridge, 327.
WwW
Wachemtth, C., Le-meewmige 253.
n from ges bark of
ansportation route along
ers, 152.

elsky, hydroquinone, 57.
hi See Ag J., structures of iron and

Wheeler, 6. M. 1 geo. 3 a of, ie 468.
hii am, Meek, 169.

itney, J. ests and
oyntete regions x
Wilkins wees oe _ Miocene in southern

ae tuike Coffin, 2°73.

ds
acts Wines, alooholic strength of, 87.

pe. A a fossils in Eolian limestone,

Wahler, in alcohol flame, 148.
Wood spirit, detection of hong in, 218.

Wright, A, W., production of metallic
films Lage ele trical dichanes,

Wurtz, H., —, and porcelain rocks
of Japan, 320, 389

Z
Zirkel, F., microscopical Petrography,

Zodiacal light
ner, the riiometer, 466.