es | pA Say SS Bae
AMERICAN JOURNAL
TROT aid
jet.)
SCIENCH AND ARTS.
EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS, JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, anp E. 8. DANA.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS,
Prorrssors ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp . COOKE, Jr., or CamBrinGe,
Proressors H. A. NEWTON, 8S. W. JOHNSON, G. J. BRUSH anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven,
. Proresson GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHrILapELpPuHia.
4
THIRD SERIES, __-VOL. XIV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, OXIV.] : Nos. 79—S4.
JULY TO DECEMBER, 1877.
tee ,l EC ET I Oe a es eS al ee =r - ee eee i ey
WITH SIX PLATES.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1877.
Misso0urR) BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIV.
——+oo—_____
NUMBER LXXIX.
Arr. [—Contributions to Meteorology, being results deriv ed rom on examination of the United States Weather Maps, and from other sources (Pl. 1, 2,3); by Eras Loomts,-. 1 IL—Germination of the genus Megarrhiza, Torr. ; by A. Gray, 21 III.—The absorption of Bases by the Soil; by H. P. Armspy, 25 IV.—Double-Star eat) with the 184-inch ae o Re- fractor; by S. W. as —Supplement to the Atiesttnt "of the Discoveries in Ver- mont of the Rey. Augustus Wing; by James D. Dana,._ 36 VI.—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that of Sermahive: Ge Jawus Doane 2 2 eos eS oe T.—On certain new ait owerful means of renderin g visible the Latent Photographic Ima age; by M. Carry Lr VITI.—On the perme of Transit Observation without Per- sonal Error; by 8S. ANGLEY, -.--. eye as Sikes .—Observations of Com ets; by C. H. F Prrens wip owe 60 X.—On Complex Fuiciiani Acids; Gizrs, A Dceped XI.—Characters of Cor phodontide we ve td O. C. Marsn, 81 XII.—Characters of Odontornithes H. 85 XIIl.—New and Gigantic roa ty 0 ce Marsu, Coane
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—Effect of Pressure on a a Bp nethod of determining the Specific ific Pryor of a readily decomposable oes. HRISTOMANOS, 64.—Determination of High Me eticg "Points, CARNELLEY, 65.—
I Cu New Vapor Density Method, Gotpscumrept and CIAMICIAN: de rare of rile scores BovuTLeRow: New — of ‘producing Salicylic acid. _ HERMANN, 66.—Formation of C an PERKIN New cag << pa N ade Pons the Chemical Laboratory io the Johns Hopkins Universi Geology and Maivatey sen: ic Eruptions on Hawaii, Rev. Trrus Coan, 68.— Geological Survey of Pennsylvania: U. 8. Geological ‘and Geographical Survey of the Territories, 69—Geological Survey of Canada: Shifting of the earth's | axis, Haughton. 70.—Samarskite of North Carolina; Analysis o of Samarskite, 71. Bota: toate Sig — Zoology. and Systematic Arrangement of the Pithopho- cen, VB. W : Ueber Sprossung der Moosfriichte und den Generations- went sel der Thallophiyten, doom HEIM, 71.—Algee Exsiccatze Americe . G. Farrow, ©. L. ANDERSEN and D. ©. eat Orchis rotundifolia: Beitr zur Bntmickelungsgoschich te dak Flechten, EH. Stan, tegen American Starfishes, A. AGassiz: Ninth Annual Begun on the Insects of the State of Missouri, | SV; Ries EY, 73.—Bulletin of U. 8. Entomological Connniseabiy 74. y.—Astronomical and Meteorological Observations at the U.S. N. Obser- vatory, 74.—Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College: Meteoric nsec the part of the motion of the lunar perigee which is a function of the mean motions of the Sun and Moon, G, W. Hitt, 75.—Chicago Observatory : The Ob-
iv CONTENTS.
servatory, a serra Review of Astronomy: An Elementary Treatise on Ellip- tical Functio
Miscellaneous Si es Intelligence.— American peepee New American Scien- tific Sepa, 76. —FKarth barca age wave: Treatise on Lightning Protection: Natural Philosophy for Be a 3, 77.—Vermont Toad of Agriculture, Manu- nett and Mining: Wisconsin ‘ewes my of sprees Arts and Letters
my of Natural Sciences of Phila a telpi 738.— bituar ry. Elkanah Billings, 78.
“e Jewett: P. P. Carpenter: D. Owen, 0.
NUMBER LXXX.
Art. XIV.—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun by Photography, - and a new — ote of the Solar Spectrum (eth Plate V1);
by H. Dra AY. = Medion of of eal Organic Substances in ‘increasing the ensitiveness of Silver Haloids; by M. C. Lra,_---.--- XVI.—Critical Periods in the eee! of the aia ’and their Relation to Evolution; by Joserpn LeCon XVII.—Notes on the internal and external struct of Pale-
ozoic Crinoids; by Cuartes WaAcHSMUTH, ---. ------ 15 Niger emical constitution of Hatchettolite ‘and Samar- : by. Os0an VD. AtLaN, .. o.4-~ ceneen ones ol sed XIX. poisons of the Geology of Vermont to that of Berk- a shire; by James D, Dawa, 22505259; 305 4~- ---~ a0 42h 132
—A proposed new method in Solar Spectrum Analysis ; y 8S. P. Lanerey, - 140 XXI.—Note on the Exactitude of the French Normal Fork ; by Rupotepn Kornie.
9- ccc ore
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistr —On the Heat of Combustion of Oxygen and Hydrogen in closed veiselk “THay, 148.—Va ee volumes and Av sogadiee Law: Plato-diiodo-
ILSON, u Pyrotartaric Acid, Bour 50.—Polybasic a. ‘obtained by the action of Carbon dioxide on Phenol tie Relation of Cystin to Sulphates in the Urine, _ Niemann, 151.—Gauss s Theory of Capillarity: Influence of Light upon the lectrical resistance of Metals, BOrystern: Chemical and Physical Researches, THOMAS bpm, 152
Geology an alogy.—Bulletin, Ms iii, No. 3, of Hayden’s Expedition, 154— The Coal Mine of the Western Coast of the United States, W. A. GOODYEAR:
the conditions influencing the projection of discrete solid
: g . materials from Voleaneit: : The Geological Survey of Portugal, 157. —Earthquake 2 i i cal ef
Botany and Zoology.—Some points of Botanical Nomenclature, 158. < Athecoaatli
Chinensis L.: Re rium Annum Literature Botanicse periodicee curarunt 6.
. W. BrowNensteG, 160.—Sir Joseph Dalton haag Ae nd party on Botanical
excursion to the ocky Mountains and California: The Influence of Phyaeat
itions in the Genesis of Species, | JOEL ri ‘Alum: Sir Wyville Thomson,
and the working up of the “ Challenger” collections, 161.—American Addresses, with a Lecture on the study of Biology, Tomas H. Huxuey, 162.
SEF SS ay Pe ne EE EE at og
CONTENTS. Vv
Astronomy.—Notice of the Meteor of June 12, ay DANIEL KirRKwoop: Micro- metric measurement of Double Stars: Chica 0, Observatory : Handbook of
: aay Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Abstract of a pre entitled Reflections sur les Chronometres, J. A. ehgr ses ate HKarthquake wave of May 9th and 10th, 166.—Tides of the Arctic Seas: Massachusetts ee of ig eee S rae Transfer of the potest Collections 4 Amherst College: Imperial my of Sciences of St. Petersburg: Nationa I Academy of re 167.—
BorroMLey, 168,.— Obituary.— Sanborn Tenney : Dr. Stephen Reed : G. F. Winslow, M.D., 168.
‘NUMBER LXXXIL ' age
P Art. X XII.—On a new Process for the Electrical Deposition of Metals, and for Soph eon: Metal-covered Giass Specula; by A . W. Wriecu canbivecccmse ct 168 XXIII.—A new and ready m aochod ‘for the Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes; by M. S. Cuznry
Sid 10 OHARA 178 XXIV.—Notes on the internal and external structure of Pa- leozoic Crinoids; by C. WacusMuTH, .--.-.-.----.--- 181 XXV. —Phen omena of Binocular Vision ; by J. LeConte, is A XXVI. Nitrate; G: Mitran, 00.2.5 3 fee ee 195 xxvii —On “a cxystaltine form of the hydrous | and anhy- drous varie y nium steeeate, e iS thins 198 XXVIII.—The relations of the Daslogs of Vermont to that of Berkshire; by J. D. Dana, ---- 202 XXIX.—On the preparation of Cylinders ¢ of Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light ; by 3: ©. Dawei o.oo: ee sk 208
XXX.—Oceurrence of Garnet with the Trap of New Haven; XXxi CDemaia of the » Rochester, Warrenton, and Cyn- thiana Meteoric Stones, with som arks on the pre- Maid falls of Meteorites in the nai regia by J. L.
a
MEAT Notiod ot x new genns of Annelids from the Lower Silurian; by G. B. Gri Pe eee SEO « IL—New as Sent 5 ates “by O. ©. Marsn,.. --. 249 SCIE sagt INTELLIGEN CE. Physics.—The Radiometer, Cooks, 23 and Mineralogy.—Gravel a sits referred to t 8 Dnt, in Boone County, reine nd Sutton: Gravel Ridges in the Merrim x valley, G. F. Wrieat, , sup; Fos: ; . J. CHAPMAN: Glaciers of the Swiss Alps in the Glacial era: Geology of New — Hampshire: Lithology of the Adirondac! _ 240.—New method of Gchiepirad
'y and Zoology.—Rapi wth of. Vallisneria spiralis: Evolutionary law as illustrated by ations) a ewe in an Apple tree, T. MEEuAN, 243. —Remarks _on the Yellow Ant, Lumpy: Sexual Dimorphism in be tterflies, 244.
vi CONTENTS.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. ap gow of the aoe Polar er 245.
—The American Meteorologist: The American Jou of is d Applied Mathematics: Publications of test Cincinnati “Obeervatory Tw w Meteoric Irons: Table of Logarithms: Tenth Annual Report of the Trasteee of the
Peabody Museum of American Aaclony and Ethnology, 246.— Kinetic - Theories of Gravitation, W. B. Taynor, 247. bituary.—Timothy Abbott Conrad, 247.—Robert Were Fox, 248.
NUMBER LXXXIL
Page Art. XXXIV.—On the relations of the ey of Vermont ,; pothat of. Berkshires by d: DiDaway «sce se wt 2c 25s - 257 XXXV.—Address before the Decanment of Anthropology of the British Association at Plymouth; by F. Gauron,... 265 XXXVI— Analyses of Cast Nickel, and Experiments on the Daeecee of Carbon and Silicon with Nickel; by W. E.
for Natural History ethene Shy OC, Sate. <". 77 XXXVIII.—On the lodates of Cobalt and Nickels pe- cific Gravity determinations; and an Analysis of Byivan: ite from Colorado; by F. W. Crark KE, 280 XXXIX. em phat on the Analysis of Bituminous Coal ; by Re OO; BOOAN SSS ooo oe ee ee 286 XL.—A Profiausary Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes and hg ee of the Bermudas, a lescriptions of four species of Fishes believed to be new; by G. B. Goopr,-- 289 XLI.—History of Cavern a ait in Devonshire, Eng- ene ty WP ENORtEE coe oe 299 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. eee . Dumas’s Vapor-density method, HABER MANN: Action of Ph hloride on Tungstic oxide, Tectu 309.—-Production of a from Pyru ie atid, Beaks: Hexyl Chloral, Prien: eo of Aurin into Ros: fo Sri DALE and ScHORLEMMER, 310. —Hem matin, CAZE
Na cacy of what is comm ee called a “ Vacuum,” Gad. Sroney, 311. mechike ob the thes grind x Hiees, 312.
Geology a ScArchian of a H. G. Vennor, 313. ripen de ff New inpetne C. H. Hrrcucock, 316.—Preliminary Report on the Pal tology of the Black Hills, R. P. Wurrr pata Age of the Tejon group, ¢ Califor, J. G. CooPEe —Fossil Tertiary Insects of Quesnel, S. H. ScuppER: First
America’ —Geological Survey of Victoria: Tantalite, J. L. Smrra: Geognostische und alae ap Beobachtungen im Staate Minnesota, J. H. Koos, 323. ot and Zoology.—Morphology of the Dentary System in the Human Race, LAMBERT, 323.—Arbeiten aus dem zoologische-zootomischen Institut im Wirtzburg, 324.—-Brain of Chimera monstrosa, B. G. WrupER, 325. y.—New Planets, J.C. Watson: Tim e of Rotation - Saturn , A. HALL, 325. othe tay discovered satellites of Meri 3 26.— Ameri n Ephe meris and Nautical Almanac for the year 1880: Does the Motion “ the inner satellite of Mars disprove the Nebular Hypothesis? a D. Kirkw meous telligence can peel the Advancement of Science, 328.—Distant Points Visible fro m Mt. Washington, W. H. PicKERING, 331.—Caution to Archeologists, 333. Handbook of Hygiene ath Sanitary Sci- ence, Witson: British Association: New Constructions in Graphical Statics, H. cag el 336.— —Oalinarg —Henry Newton, 335 ; edie Strong, Adolf Er-
CONTENTS. Vil
NUMBER LXXXIIL. Art, XLIL —Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life ee
in America ; y < SOARSH, no cee een 37 XLIII.—Note on the Helderberg Formation of Bernardston, Massachusetts, and Vernon, Vermont; by J. ANA, . 379 XLIV.—History of ocak Exploration in Devonshire, Eng- land; by NGEL 387 XLYV.—Is the Existence of Geom rings i in the Early. Exogen- ous ce proof of ee Seasons? by Cuarues B. RRING 394 XLVI. Bie Sipylite, : a new y Niobate, ‘from Amberst County, Virgie bed. Wi Matai ses na She ae ce 39
#4 XLVIL—Mean Motion of the Moon ; by Srwon Newcoms,.. 401
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Action of Saline solutions on Lead, Murr: New Method for the Synthesis of Aydrocarbons, FRiepEL and CrarTs, 411.-—-The Terpenes of Swedish Wood Tar, ATTERBERG: Amylene from Amyl Iodide, ELTEKOFF, 412 f e-
onions 416. ie rotatory Pola ries M. TL. Racin: <r ——— Sulphide of Mantphatees ” ecabvbiarot es Alkaline a and reed carbona -M. Hatem et mm fro:
in iron ores, M. G. Parr =i, 418.—Light, and C. BARNARD: Manual of Inorganic Chemistry, a bon Taoaee: System of. Yolumettio Analysis, by Dr. Emil Fleischer, M. M. P. M Geology and Mineralogy. ealanaed a asia Survey of the Territories, F YDEN, 420.—Fifth Annual Report of the Geological and Natural His- ta, N. H. WINCcHE 22.—Geological
tory Survey of Minneso ‘ LL, 422 Record for 1875, tice of Heterolite: a new eral Species, On some Tellurium and Vanadium Mine . A. Genta, 423.
: ad 8, Mine Mittheilungen, G. vom Rata: Elemente der Mineralogie, (’ F. Naumann, 424. Botany Zoology. oo iy aioe ~— Cephalopod on ha? coast of Rewtcandiet A. E. Verriut, 425.—The Antelope and Deer of America, J. D. Eaton: Life Histories of the Birds of ins Pennsylvania, T. ‘G. pee (9 4 he scum tH R. Levckart and H. Nirscue: Bulletin of the U. S.
ar . Sr
i. rbore ah ar land J. G. BAKER: Native “ Artichokes ” 428.—-Necrological, 429. Astronomy. —Discovery of a New Planet, 0. H. i teen 429.—Comets in nine Observations and Orbit of ioaien ents Miscellaneous Scientific In nee.—Davenport Academy of Natural 5 Sciences, 430.
tA Hy o ae Ko > w& A ie © i] aa ss By ar so =. 3
.
ARREN, 43 Leverrier, Joba G. Anthony, Benjamin Hallowell, a2.
:
Vili CONTENTS.
NUMBER LXXXIV. Art. XLVIII.—On the —— Motion of the Trifid Nebula ;
y Epwarp 8. Hotpen, bine sadn d ap iw ee Be XLIX.—The Northern Part of the Connecticut Valley in eee Champlain and Terrace Periods; by Warren Upuam,_ 459 L. <b oe arry of _ new § gree of Fishes; by G. Brown Goops and Tarieron .H.. Bran, Jososi Antic ek. LI. —Volametric Desisreuiarstinas by Chinois Acid; by C. W. LIL. woe Gries of Extinct Reptilia (Stegosauria) from the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains; by O. C. Marsu,.--- 51 LUI.—Notice of new Dinosaurian Reptiles from the Jurassic sormasion yy bY. CME ARNG, © O25. Chak ees ooo
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and P —On the Gases enclosed in eh Tuomas, 481.—On the oe Totween Tanolable Carbonates and Soluble Oxalates, Watson SMITH: On the new Metal Davyum, 482.—Upon Metalacetyl- gr ethers, CoNRAD: Phyllic acid, peters from leaves, BouGAREL, 483.—On the Constitution of
WICHELHAUS: Density of Vapors 484.—New Re- sults in Pivaies 486,
Geology and nd Mineralogy.—China, F. F. von ern 4817. Pa THERE cant logical Congress, 491. ba maces ogy of w Yo rk, JAMES HALL, 4 reales oor page: Report of the New Fork State Museum of Natural
istory: Notes on some new sections of Trilobites from the Tre=ton Limestone,
D. 494. —Large Bowlders in New ire: Pr ane = Organic eae. ee the ay, of Minerals, H. us - Boutos, 495.—Note Uranium minerals in North Carolina, W. C. KERR, 4
Botany and Zoology.—Wild hans ee America, Isaac SPRAGUE and GEORGE L. GOODALE: Peper in ong 497.—Catalogus Plantarum in Nova Ceesarea Repertar Srr JosepH Dayton Hooker, 498.—GrorGE HADLEY, M.D.: Joun Daney, 499. cS Hetbatinar for sale: rs Diagrams, LEUCKART and NITscHE, 5
Astronomy.—The a Distance, 501.
Miscellaneous apg Inielligence.—Notes on the Rocky Mountains, Sir JosEPH Hooker, 505.—The Earths found in the - North Carolina Samarskite: Artificial
Tremors through the Earth’s Crust, Henry L. Apsott, 509.—Recherches expérimentales, M. DAUBREE, 510.—National Academy of | Science, 511.—Canada and New England ceils eal Thin Sections of Rocks, Minerals, etc., 512.—
Obituary—James Orton,
ERRATUM.
On page. = line 8, for Swift-Borelly read Block- Swift-Borelly. Page 248, line 7 7 from foot, for depth read
heat. Page a5 i 10 from foot, for the i bi insert a comma. Page 426, line 3, for Eaton
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES.]
Art. I—Contributions to Meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the Observations of the United States Signal Service, and from other sources ; by Extas Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Seventh paper.
With plates I, IT and it.
. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 18, 1877.] Rain-areas—their form, dimensions, movements, distribution, ete.
vice stations during a period of fifteen months (Sept. 1872, to Nov. 1878). I propose now to consider those cases in which
erence; column 2d shows the day and hour of observation (the numeral one denotes the observation at 75 35™ A. M.; two denotes the observation at 4.35 P. M. ; and three denotes 11 P. M.) column 8d shows in inches the total rain-fall at all the stations during the preceding eight hours; column 4th shows the station - at which the greatest rain-fall was recorded ; column 5th shows the amount of rain observed at the station mentioned in column 4th; column 6th shows the state of the barometer at the same
Station; column 7th shows the state of the barometer at the —
direction of the rain center mentioned in column 4th from the _
center of low pressure mentioned in column 7th; column 9th
shows the distance of the rain center from the center of low _ Am. Jour. -
: eiice Sertzs, Vou. XIV, No. 79.—JuLy, 1877.
2 E.. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the
Total rain-fall at all the stations amounting to at least eight inches in eight hours. ;
Total lRai n center from Low. Wind No. Date. nif ghestert vu. ncaa. he to Direction.| Distance. |at prev.ob.| at date. 5 Marquette. 1:91/29°80)\29 ua Bow. 287 HB. 1 W.1 2 Saugeen. 1°74) 74) -68IN. 40 W. 78 ee Caim. 3 Vicksburg. {| 1°05/30°02 y. 8 E. 3 4 Montreal. 1°35/29°90| -°81|North. 156 W.2 |IN.E.3 5 Jacksonville. | 2°43) -99 ’ 1.E. 12 |E. 13 6 gaya eh aig 2°05; 83 re Wid yj Norf 3°41) °96 *95 * 0 mt! .H. 8 8 Philadelphia 2°09]. 78] -74'S. 65 E. 137 . 20 .W. 12 9 ontgome 273} 98 Lo Hy 22 10 New York. | 2°50| -‘68} -33/S. 54 E. ati .B. 4 y.W. 10 1l New Orleans. | 2°20/30-05 WwW. 6 1... 8 12 Ww 1°70}29-75 S. 55 EL 987 |IN.E.17 |N.W. 20 13 “08 Y.E. 21 IN. 20 14 kuk. 63) °3! Ww 134 ‘alm. W. 12 15 New York 1°80} -8 -09|S. 57 E. 61 v.H.16 |B. 6 16 e Ci 00} 8S BE. 4 cet ] Philadelphia. | 2-18! -6 4518. 58 KE. 218 iN.E. 20 |N.E. 8 18 New Orleans. | 2-01} -9 os TW. 12 19 Philadelphia. | 1-07} -at 54/8. 36 W 630 .W. 18 |N.W. 18 _ 20 uisville 1°60; “Be 49| Kas 195 YE. 8 ‘alm. Cape May. 1°54} -66) “S5IN. 87 E. 448 /|K. 18 .6 , Knoxville 23) -8C 36|S. 39 E. 507 5 alm. } Lake City. 2700; °9' 1.E. 8 l.W. 12 L Oswego. 1-48} + - 0 |S.E.12 |N.E. 12 ) Indianapolis. | 1:08) - -46E 343 |N.E. 7 . 4 26 ti. uis. 1°65; -€ . 82 W. 245 Y. 34 V.9 + | 3°05) *t E.4 |SE.4 } Wilmington. |1-01) .12, .|N.B3-9 ) i Mm. 11°02) + v.H. 2 .W. 303 ) Lynchburg. Sirs 8. 57 E. 562 |N.BE.12 |N.E.8 © 31 t. Paul. 2°30r: *t 52'S. 67 EB. 93 .H. 18 W. 2 4 ! Port Stanley. | 1:81] -56| -36/S. 60 EB. 591 IS.W.3 [SW.3 © 33 0. 2°00} -64| - * .W.14 |SW.7 | L Washington. | 2°12/30- 7218S. 63 HB. 1175 ig V.8 i 1 m. | 1°68 )4 IW. 4 W. 2 7 ; Philadelphia. | 2-31] -04| -92\N.73E.| 34 N.E. 12 — i Philadelphia. | 2°17|29-97| -85|N. 41 E. 348 LE. 12 |N.E. 22 — 3 Wilmington. | 1°50/30-0: S.W. 6 ) eston. | 3°67/29°9 5 Calm. 40 May. | 1°92) - 6S. 12 W. 48 3 N.W. 8 4 9.3} 8-96/Mt. Washington.) 2-20] -§ 59! North. 202 W. 24 |W. 12 42 24.1) 9°51/Mt. Washington.} 1°55/30°1 86\N. 7 E. 222 |W.6 1. W. 12 431 Fort Gibson. | 1°01/29°7 Fa | .B. 6 44 New London. | 2°25} °§ *B2iN. 34 329 E32 .B, 24 | 45 Philadelphia. |1:96| 4 A5IN. 16 . 12 12 3 46 Rochester. |1°38} -65| -26IN.26W.' 273 |N. 20 LE. 25 ~ 47 “95h #8 "BOIN. 54 W. 160 y. 23 14 3 48 eat 4 : TW. 24 |W. 25 49 Cape May. | 0-90 ‘ oe 8.35W.| 4 26 .W. 4 50 Boston. 15 E. 225 |E. 12 |B. 17 51 Boston. 1°50 98-69 28 a N. 48 FE. 101 I.E. 28 |W. 16 52 1:37 9\28-47|N. 75 E. 332 |K. 10 S.E. 18 53 Nashville. | 1:08) -8629°49/5. 48 W.] 52) Ww. 8 54 80 “2718. 61 W. S.E.14 |IN.12 — 55 Charleston. |1 N. 8
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 3
pressure expressed in English miles; column 11th shows the direction and force of the wind at the place mentioned in col- umn 4th and at the date given in column 2d; and column 10th shows the direction and force of the wind at the observatio next preceding the date mentioned in the table. :
For each of the cases named in this table, the curves of equal rain-fall have been accurately drawn upon maps of the United States, and these curves have been carefully compared. The following table shows the geographical extent of some of these rain-areas. Column Ist shows the number of reference taken from the preceding table; column 2d shows in English miles the greatest and least diameters of the area over which the rain-fall was at least one inch in eight hours; and column 8rd shows the greatest and least diameters of the area over which the rain-fall was at least half an inch, in eight hours.
Dimensions of Rain-areas.
Area of Area of Area of Area of Area of Area of No.{ one inch half inch No, | one inch halfinch || No. |} one inch balf inch rain. rain, rain. rain. rain. rain.
10 | 720-230 | 920-398 443-167 | 714-393 || 20} 338-173 | 890-406
17 9 | 605-334 | 668-430 || 36 | 440-160 | 858-356 |} 54 | 338-194 | 458-358 45 | 546-318 | 724-350 || 27 | 380-296 | 468-390 7 | 320-288 | 394-312 39 | 490-188 | 514-236 || 32 | 374-150 | 796-340 5 | 312-276 | 394-394 6 | 360-304 | 440-402 1| 300-174 | 494-300
55 | 468-162 | 652-312 446-216 2
1 174-33 8 | 354-144 | 436-266 || 18 | 242-162 | 858-224
The form of these rain-areas is sometimes quite irregular but generally it approximates to an ellipse of which the major axis is not quite double the minor axis. This elongated form of rain-areas is more noticeable in storms whieh prevail near the Atlantic coast, than it is in regions remote from the ocean. It will be seen that in three cases the area of one inch rain-fall exceeded 500 miles in length, and in six cases the area of one half inch rain-fall exceeded 750 miles in length. In number _ ten, the area of one quarter inch rain-fall was 1,180 miles by 500 miles ; in number twenty, this area was 1,000 miles by 572 miles, and in two or three other cases the dimensions of the rain-areas were nearly as great. Frequently the’entire rain-area is an oval figure whose length exceeds 1,000 miles, and whose breadth exceeds 500 miles. ig
It was shown in my sixth paper, that south of latitude 36° rain-areas are as frequently under the influence of an area of high barometer as of an area of low barometer. In columns 7, 8 and 9, of the table on page 2, I have therefore left blanks for the southern stations) The numbers in*column 8th, for the northern stations, show that in seventeen cases the rain center was north of the center of low pressure, and in sixteen cases it was south of this center. In twenty cases the rain center was.
-
4 £. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the
east of the center of low pressure, and in twelve cases it was west of this center. If, however, we consider the middle of the rain-fall as corresponding to a date four hours preceding the ’ barometric observation, we shall find that in four of these cases, iz: numbers 1, , and 54, the principal rain-fall occurred when the rain center was east of the center of low pressure, or at least very near it. In several of the cases, however, the rain a was clearly west of the center of low pressure, and of the cases the rain-fall apparently had a decided nfl ies upon the direction of the storm’s progress. specially true of numbers 45, 46 and 47, in which case he cen- ter of minimum pressure moved westward instead of eastward. As this Eas is a very remarkable one, I will consider it
800 or 400 miles. The barometer fell steadily during the ian ‘and a center of minimum pressure which had prevailed for twenty-four hours near the coast of Florida, advanced rapidly northward. During the evening of the 19th the same winds continued with increasing strength; the rain-fall increased espe- cially about — n and New London ; the barometer con- tinued to fall, and the center of minimum pressure advanced to Norfolk. On the morning of the 20th’the same system of winds prevailed but had advanced further northward, the south- east winds near the coast extending from New York to Nova Scotia, and having a velocity of twelve to twenty-five miles, and were opposed by fresh winds from the north and west in the vicinity of Lakes Erie and Ontario. At Quebec the wind blew from the east, forty-six miles per hour, and on Mt. Wash- ingtoa the wind blew from the southeast seventy-five miles per hour. The total rain-fall: . all the stations during the preced- ing eight hours was greater than was recorded for any other equal period during the fifteen months under discussion. The center of minimum pressure had now reached Cape May, and the center of the rain area was 250 miles further north. During the 21st the system of east winds near the coast of New Eng- land and Nova Scotia had pushed further into the interior, and in the afternoon extended to Rochester, which was now the cen- ter of greatest rain-fall, while the center of minimum pressure moved slowly in the same direction. The wind at a still
w from the east, forty-two miles per hour, and on Mt. Wash-
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 5
_ Sure was apparently pushed still further toward the northwest, but as this center hadi now passed beyond the stations of ob- Servation, it is impossible to locate it with precision. —
Plate I shows the curves of equal rain-fall for October 20, 7.35 a.m. The outer curve shows the extreme limits of the rain-area during the preceding eight and one-half hours; the next curve shows the limit of one half inch rain-fall; the third curve shows the area over which the rain-fall was at least one inch ; and the inner curve shows the area of one. a half inch rain-fall. At Philadelphia and Burlington the rain-fall was 1-96 inch during the eight and one-half hours, and it 1s Probable that near the center of the rain area the rain-fall ex-.
6 E. Loomis—Resulis derived from an examination of the
ceeded two inches. The successive positions of the-center of minimum pressure are indicated by the figures 19-2, 19°83, 201, etc., and the undulating line connecting these points represents the ‘path of the center of minimum pressure from October 19th to October 22d. The arrows at the several stations represent the direction of the winds for October 19th, 11 P. m., which was the time of commencement of the rain-fall represented upon the map.
This example presents a very unusual case of a storm center traveling for several days toward the northwest. This result was appercuky produced by a wind of unusual —_ setting in from the Atlantic Ocean, and meeting with o from the interior caused a very unusual rain-fall, and lie center of minimum pressure followed the center of the rain-area. These facts seem to indicate that a heavy rain-fall extending over a large area has a decided influence in determining the course of a storm center.
In No. 26 the principal rain-fall was on the northwest side of the center of minimum pressure but not over 150 miles from it. In No. 53 the principal rain-fall was on the southwest side of the center of minimum pressure, and these two cases, together with No. 12 on page 15 of my last paper, indicate that in the neighborhood of Kentucky it is not uncommon for the principal Ser to occur after the center of low pressure
as pas eastw
In Nos. 40 ae 49 the rain-fall at Cape May was aig than at any other station, but there was at the same time another rain-area of much greater extent near the center of minimum
ressure. The rain-fall at Cape May was apparently the result of a local cyclone which did not greatly affect the height of the arometer.
In No. 19 there was. a center of low pressure in Nova Scotia,
the winds near the Lake region were generally from the northwest. At Norfolk the wind was from the south, and a new center of low pressure was forming near the coast of North coats The rain about Philadelphia on the morning of Jan- 17th was apparently due to a local cyclonic movement, ‘aire than to the influence of the low center in Nov arr pid The average distance of the center of greatest rain-fall fro the center of low pressure for cases north of latitude 36°, is i 300 miles, but it sometimes exceeds 750 miles. In 19 cases the distance was less ae 250 siti 11 between 250 and 500 miles 5 ge eG oo 500 and 750 miles. 3 * el over 750 miles
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 7
In No. 34 (page 2) there was a center of low pressure in Minnesota, but it seemed to exert no control over the winds in the eastern and southern parts of the United States. Here - there were five centers of local cyclonic movement, each of which became the center of a rain-area as shown on Plate II. Neither of these centers became a center of low pressure saat the rain-area near Washington continued for sixteen
ours.
In No. 10 there was a center of low pressure over Lake Superior, but this was so distant that it exerted but little in- fluence over the winds near the Atlantic coast. On the evening of November 6th, winds from the south and east generally prevailed along the entire Atlantic coast, and these being opposed by westerly winds (the result of a high barom- eter in Tennessee), there was an extensive rain on the night of November 6th, which was especially heavy along the coast from Georgia to Massachusetts. This rain-fall seemed to have a decided influence in accelerating the movement of the center of low pressure, as was mentioned in my last het p. 16.
5 was i imi o. 10, but it did
on Ww not produce the same effect on the movement of the center, perhaps owing to the influence of another rain-area which prevailed near Montreal.
No. 19 has already been referred to; see preceding page.
In No. 82 the center of lowest pressure was beyond Lake Superior, but the barometer was quite low (29°56) at Port Stanley, and here there was apparently a local cyclone resulting in a heavy rain-fall. '
_No. 30 shows the influence of an area of high pressure com- bined with an area of low pressure. On the 7th of May there Was an area of low pressure near the mouth of the Ohio River, _ and an area of high pressure in New England, which gave rise to a system of southeast winds along the Atlantic coast, and extending to the Lake region. The result wasa slight rain-fall Over a large area of territory, but the rain was greatest about Lynchburg, near which place there was some evidence of cyclonic motion. Perhaps the Alleghany Mountains had some influence in determining the upward movement of the south- fast current near this place. No, 22 appears to’ have resulted from east winds along the, Atlantic coast op by west winds near the Mississippl, valley, on the south side ain area of low pressure. oo
No. 53 has already been referred to on page 6, and it 1s — remarkable that the center of low pressure moved towards the . northeast at the rate of 54 miles per hour, leaving the center Of principal rain-fall almost exactly in its rear. ere were,
Owever, at the same time two other rain areas of considerable
8 E. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the
extent on the northeast side, one about Baltimore and the other about Montreal.
From the preceding statement we perceive that in the United States, south of latitude 36°, great rain-falls are accompanied by a cyclonic movement of the air which sometimes appears to be the result of a neighboring area of iow pressure, and some- times of an area of high pressure, and the latter case is about as frequent as the former. North of latitude 36° rain-areas are most frequently associated with areas of low barometer and generally they are found on the east side of the center of low pressure; but occasionally they are found on the west side of the center of low pressure, and this case occurs most frequently in the neighborhood of the Ohio valley. Extensive rain-areas sometimes occur in the Northern States at a great distance from a low center, where they appear to be as much under the
a local cyclonic movement of the atmosphere.
Of the fifty-five cases enumerated in the table on page 2, in thirty-eight cases the wind blew from some quarter between northeast and southeast, either at the date given in the table or at the time of the preceding observation. Of the seventeen remaining cases, in five of them the air was reported as calm ; in three of them the wind was from the south, and two of the cases occurred on the summit of Mt. Washington. In one of the remaining cases the velocity of the wind was only two miles per hour; in another case the velocity was three miles
r hour; in a third case it was seven miles per hour, and in a ourth case it was nine miles per hour. There remain only three cases in which at both the observations the wind was
west or northwest. It seems probable that this northwest current crowded under the southeast current lifting it up from the earth’s surface and thus condensing its vapor, and that the south wind at Philadelphia was the result of the meeting of the southeast wind from the ocean with the northwest wind of the interior.
In No. 47, as has been already mentioned on page 4, the center of the rain-area was on the northwest side of the center of low pressure. It seems probable that in this case the violent southeast wind from the ocean extended further west than Buffalo, and that its vapor was condensed by its being elevated from the earth’s surface by the crowding of the northwest wind
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 9
beneath it. This fact is distinctly indicated by the following observations for October 20th, 7.35 4. M., from stations west of the limits of the rain area.
we: Direction of Amount of Direction. Ve loci ty upper clonds. clouds. Alpena __._.. North. 9 miles. S.W. & Detroit... ... North. 12 * South. 4 Louisville ___ North. 16 South. > Toledo. North. bd aa S.E. £
In No. 48, south winds generally prevailed in Georgia and the Carolinas, with cold winds from the west and northwest in the Northwestern States. This westerly current probably
current can sometimes be seen. The average velocity of the wind at the date of the.observa-
tain-falls are seldom accompanied by very high wind. the most noticeable facts connected with extensiv i rs
Of precipitation. If in each of the cases mentioned in the table on page 2 we trace the boundary of that area over Which the rain-fall was at least one inch, we shall find that in half of these cases there were two such areas distinct from each other, and in eleven eases there were three such areas. If we
‘ace the area of a rain-fall of at least one-half inch, we shall find that in forty-five cases there were at least two distinct
10 =. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service.
Nos. 8, 24, and 45, in which there were not at least two distinct rain-centers. In No. 45 there was apparently a subordinate rain-center, near Charleston, and in No. 8 there was a fall of
of precipitation, and this fact suggests the idea that those con- ditions which are favorable to rain-fall at one locality, are generally favorable to rain-fall over a much larger district, and this often results in a A onaateolae precipitation at several points remote from each ot
Plate IT exhibits the aoa areas for July 27th, 1873, at 4.35 P.M. Here we find four rain-areas showing a rain-fall of at least one inch, and an equal number of areas showing a smaller rain-fall. The dolewte, table shows the greatest amount of rain observed at any station within each of these areas:
Rainfall July 27, 1873, 4.35 Pp. M.
Washington _... 2°12 inches. Shreveport ----- 0°84 inch. New York ._... 1°54 Breckenridge _.. “45 “ Nashville _..... Loo Wilmington _... ‘18 “ Eastport --__... EOGs = Denver. csi be
It is possible that the Washington rain area was not entirely distinct from the New York area, but the observations clearly indicate two centers of greatest rain-fall During the time o this rain-fall, the barometer was a little above 30 inches at all of the stations here mentioned, except Breckenridge. The arrows show the prea: of the wind at 435 Pp. M. There ae
e miles per hour, no perceptible effect was produced upon the barometer.
A considerable number of the cases mentioned in the table on page 2, exhibit a variety of rain-areas nearly as remarkable as that shown in Plate I. Among these may be mentioned Nos. 1, 2, 8, 12, 14, 38, "36, and 41.
In order to determine the duration of great rain-falls, I selected all those cases in which any of the rain-falls mentioned in the table on page 2, were followed by at least four inches of rain (total amount at the eighty stations) during a succeed- ing period of eight igs The following table shows the result of this compariso
ade MONIG9-FL(ZPS “OUAYSE NOL LL FS oupég|ez.6 [2°81 “00480q |/£%-8 |1°8T ge Modysvg 60.9 |" 1 U0Ws0q|F9.8 |1°8 ‘AON ; AO odvg|s9. 8 1G" ‘otAxouyog.g [14g ¢ PUBTOAITO 06'S |1'1Z yOTPHNE)98-6 6°06 |} ¢LoysoOoU/ 12-61/2'06 |/s"BIUdjopeyiyd 99-L1]T°0G ||"WopuoT MON|Z8-6 |E'6T 300 ,BUedTY|¢9.) |1'°6% OBvoIYO| LZ-F |8'8S || , WOSqIy WOT 8E-9 |B" VUOSAID 410,7|69-8 |T'RZ HOPBUPONTLM 28-9 [1°06 ||"UOLUSE A IW'96-8 |" v4ey odegige-11\¢'6t “ydeg "19A00|9Z-F 1°91] 6 OTQOW 90-1, 5 || y Woysoayeyigg.6 |T1Z "OW, PUBTNIO|19-F |E°FL 1WOWOT|68-9 [ZF || OBpluoyoorg | ep") |1'FL || goroureg\ 1g", \e'et |leradweperyalyz-s leet || perqdjopepygqize.¢ \et ‘Bny é seIydoperryd Té-4 |e°Ls || puowurysem|e9.g jo'Lg ATS “MOAUO(T|OG-F | 1°T ,OB0MSQ'gZ-¢ |¢"o8 || Aoqumg yz0g|e2-6 |Z"vg ounE ‘UOAVH PUBLO|FF-F |§°6 || WOpuoyT MONT|86-) |2'°6 “*B[OUBIPUT 8g.) |1°6 Avy odveoigg.F |e'g || uouryse MA FT-L |2°9 Binqyous'y ¢¢.g8 |1°g ‘BINGSHIT!89-F |T'E "UOWOT |9F-F (€°S || UOPBaTUTLM 67.8 [o's || ;MoyBurat MA \gy.T1IT's || ‘savo~G MON] Gg.1 |e ‘ATOMOS OW LE.6 (GT AB ¢ OT]IAYStN|SP-F |g°8 s8INoT 48)19-8 |Z°g || syodeuvipuy|oy.g |i'g pady , 10qSOYOOY |08-9 \°6Z 1 OSOMSO|8F-0112'6% “AND ONPTICI-OLIL'GS “ABIL : ee odvgi1g-6 |z°91 POUMASMOT!LG.OL/T9T ‘qog sBIydopepyd'sd.g |1°y1 |} ,Bamquousyiog.¢ |g'91 ‘MONET )EZ-9 |Z°9T |) ‘BUBETIQ MON) 80.0T|T'9T “wrydpoperltyd|¢z-91\6°9 “AUD OYP'T|FL-ZLT'S sI1OX MON |69.8 [T's || AotaVg 40g) 16.9 [ez ‘MNYOoH|\Z1-6 |z°z “ure “E181 sBIydjoperyd|or-9 \z'9¢ VALOPION | 9F-6 |T'9Z sUOPOT/TE-S |°0B || LOX MON|GF-FIIL0Z 90d , UOpuoTyT MON) 12-9 |Z") PAIOX MONIZ9-ET) 1", “£IOULODIUOPT|TG-6 |£°9 “AON, gTOLUSOMIN|LL-G /6°9G |p BUATOped)og.8 |1'9 || ¢Banqsyigigo.g |e'ez || «310A MON 60-2, |z-ez VAOFION| 16-8 |T°9s e UOWSOTIVYY|CP.F (B's ||, OMAUOsHOUL!pe.g | Lez VoTAUosHoUs|g-8 |8°S “MIOJION | 90.9 |g") ‘TBoIUOW| 99.8 |Z"), ‘BINGSINA|16-9 |", “BANGS A |E1-8 |g"9 eWoOTNVG) g6.6 |Z°SI ||UoABH puvry|zo.F |r-gr || yevenbaeyq!gy.01/8 IT deg ‘SLST é re " . fe ; « “TTB: “wones — iyeaog, [IC || “uonms §— eyo, a|| “tons LI | oreq|| -uonmg | |royeal| — -uoseig poate) “Goce ry ‘ova
‘sunoy 2ybra uny) a4om Burnuyuoo (sunoy gybre ue anbasbbn soyour inof’) umy hawagy
12) FE. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the
We thus see that in a period of fifteen months there were twenty-six cases in which a total rain-fall of eight inches in eight hours was followed by a total rain-fall of more than four inches in the next eight hours; there were sixteen cases in which it was followed by a similar rain-fall for a third period of eight hours; there were eight cases of a fourth period of eight hours; five cases of a fifth period; three cases of a sixth
eriod; and one case of a seventh period of eight hours. hese rain-areas which succeeded each other in order of time,
that these rain-areas had in all cases a proper movement of translation in the direction of the stations here indicated. In some cases this apparent movement resulted from a slight increase of precipitation in one part of an extensive rain-area, and a decrease in some other part. This remark will probably explain two or three of the cases in which the apparent move- ment of the rain-area was from east to west. In one case however, viz: October 19th, 1878, the rain-area did unques- tionably advance westward for forty-eight hours as shown on
e average rate of motion of the rain-areas indi- cated by numerals in the table, is 20°7 miles per hour.
This table shows that great rain-areas are seldom of long continuance. In twenty-three cases the same rain-area con- tinued for at least two periods of eight hours; in seven cases it continued for at least three periods; and in only two cases did it continue for more than three periods, that is, twenty-four hours. We thus see that rain-areas with a total rain-fall of at least four inches in eight hours, for eighty stations, seldom con- tinue for more than twenty-four hours, only two or three such cases occurring in the United States during a year. This fact seems to indicate that the causes which produce rain, instead of deriving increased force from the rain-fall, rapidly- expend themselves and become exhausted. This fact cannot be ex- plained by supposing that the vapor of the air has all been ake ems because these cases chiefly occur near the At- antic
that movement to the air which is requisite to a precipitation of its vapor, become exhausted after a few hours exercise.
Of the fifty-five cases included in the. table on p. 2, in twenty-seven cases the place of greatest rain-fall was on the Atlantic coast. But only one-fifth of all the stations are on
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 13
the Atlantic coast; that is, the center of great rain-areas is found near the Atlantic coast four times as frequently as it is in the other portions of the United States. The center of great rain-areas is not found in the neighborhood of the great Lakes more frequently than it is at inland stations quite distant from the Lakes.
The distribution ofthese fifty-five cases by seasons was as follows : > : Spring 8; Summer 9; Autumn i0 and 16; Winter 12; showing a slight predominance of great rain-areas in autumn and winter. In my last paper it was shown that excessive rains at single stations were most common during the warmest months ; but it appears that very extensive rain-fails are most
common during the cooler months. The distribution of these cases according to the hour of the day was as follows:
7.35 A.M. 25 cases; 4.85 P. M. 22 cases; 11 P.M. 8 cases.
98.980 with regard to great rain-falls at single stations south of atitude 36°. It is essential to the accuracy of this conclusion
rain-column makes no mention of rain. It is presumed that generally in these cases the rain had but recently commenced, and the observer thought it would be equally satisfactory to report the entire rain-fall at the time of the next observation. There seems no reason to question the conclusion which these numbers indicate, viz: that the causes which produce exces- Sive rain-falls in the United States, act with less intensity in the evening than during the remainder of the day.
Areas of low pressure without rain. order to compare the influence of a very small rain-fall
n bre exhibits these cases. Column 1st contains the number of reference; column 2nd shows the day and hour of observa-
14. EK. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the
Rain-fall less than one-tenth of an inch in eight hours at any station. ,
Total Low moved {Rain No, Date. | rain- iy. Station. —_| pireetion.| Vel. |; High| station. 1872. 1 |Sept. 2.3.0°04 |29°65) Fort Sully. * 0 0-00 |30°25 que 2 3.1} °06| -67) FortSully. (East. 4|-°01| °26| Escanaba. 3 14.2] -02| “71 rt Sully. |Kast. 22 | -00| °30| Saugee 4 14.3} °02| °66) FortSully. (Hast. 6 | 00; ‘29; Toronto, 5 15.1) -06| 84 lu ast. 28 | 00; ‘35; Kingston. 6 20.3; °04| °63) Leavenworth. IN. 41 E.| 15 | 00] ‘23 ugusta / 9 4 le 0 9 ea 2 hi * 0} 04) °22) Wilmington. 8 jOct. 1.2) -33} °67 Fort Sully. (N. 69 EB. | 24 | -00 12| Nashville. 9 1.3] -O7| “8¢ Duluth. N. 69 E.| 24 | 00| °‘27| Nashville. 10 4.2) -12] “68 Keo East. 7 | -03|, -07| Jacksonville 7 5.1] *14| °82 Escanaba. . |N. 18 E.| 22 | -05| 35; Portland, Me. 12 8.3] 13| 71} Marque East. 17 | 00} -21| Lynchburgh. is 11.2} *04 2| Fort Sully. ? ? | 00} +30) Cincinnati. 14 11.3) °00 8% Dulu y 15 | 00} °30) Cincinnati. 15 12.1] 00) Marquette. last. 17 | -00| °30| Lynchb 16 12.2} 10}. “6! Alpe 67 BE. | 24 | -01 5| Portland, Me + 4.3) °08| °59| Breckenridge. |N. 62 E.| 42 | -00| ‘24 Vicksburg. 18 5.1) 05; -4é Escanaba. 8 33 | -05| +24) Knoxville. 9 5.2} -29| °47;| Grand Haven. |8. 36 EH. | 30 | -29| ‘165 10 5.3} *24) ugeen. 86 EH. | 2 24| °21} Augusta. 1 6.3} 08] -83| Fort Sully. 82 E.| 47 | -00| °34| Philadelphia. 2 9.3), °03 |=: Omaha. 54 E.] 5 | 00) 27). cinna’ Z 0.1;.°00| °80). 52 E.| 4{| -00/ °32| Nashville. 24 0.2) ‘00; °60| Breckenridge. 47 EB.{ 5 | 00) °25 orfo 0.3| 01] *t arque’ 55 B. 00| -27| Norfolk. 26 aL LiOTe: 4 Escanaba. Pie 3) IB FOO) Norfolk. : MAO 4 Milwaukee. |S.16E. | 11 | 00) - orfolk. 3 31.2} 00) “ aba. ast. ? | 00| :24| Nashville. 29 |Nov.15.2| -39| °E Quebec. + |Hast. ? | 23} -67| Fort Ben 30} ja} 28) Quebec. rast. ? | -15| °58) Fort Benton. OG t 4 Quebec. y ? | 02} -65) Nashville 4 .3| -06 |307] Alpena bast, ? | 00} -71)Leavenwo' } -1} -O7 |29°¢ St. Paul. . 58 E. | 36 | 05} 44) Lynchburgh. 7 L305) 34 Alpena. hast. 35 | 05] °30| Cape M 35 21.3) 091.4 Escanaba. hast. 6 | -06| °24| Lynchburgh. 36 33.2) 10|- 7 ver. oa de tf 101 OO 43 Mobile. 37 27.3! 02! + fast. | ? | 02] 64! i 38 28.1; 00 |30°( 2. ? ? |} -00 39 30.3) 17 |29° i jast. 18 | -16 40 \Dec. 3.3} -18| -99| FortSully. /East. 10 | -00 41 4.1| -11| ‘94| FortSully. Hast. 14 | -00 42 4.2) -07 |30-03 Paul 86 E. | 42 | 00 43 6.2) 13; -04| Fort Sully. ast. ? | 00 44 6.3) 04} -00| FortSully. |East. yi 45 7.1) °09 |29°67 Pembina. |. 49 BH. | 31 | 05 46 14.2} -11| ‘59 Milwaukee. [N. 73 H.| 48 | -06 47 14.3) -22) *%3 Alpena. . 69 EB. | 37 | -12 48 | 31.3| ‘43; -67) Santa Fe. 14 | Ol 1873. 49 |Jan. 10.2) -13| 82 ‘on East. | ee 50 11.3! -08! -55' FortSully. ‘S. 74 E. | 15! -08
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 15 Table continued. Tota Low moved /Rain No.| Date rain- edd Station. Direction.| Vel. 7 ig Station. 1873. 51/Jan. 12.3/0'10 |29°73| Milwaukee. 88 E. | 50 (0°08 30°56; Boston. f 19.2} -39] °43) Fort Garry. 72 EB. | 13 | 07} °28) Mobile. 19.3} -20} °41 rt G 81 BE. | 14 | 13} 2% Mobile Feb. 1.1] 19] °65) San Francisco. |Kast. 8 | 00; °95) Fort Sully. 1.3] 07] °67| San Francisco. | Kast. 13 | 02| ‘74! Davenport 9.1}. °33 6 Quebec. ast. ? | 11} °51) Vicksburg 10.1} -08| °50| Fort Garry. |East. 27 | -00| -50| Washingto 10.2) 08] “4: Escanaba. ast. 36 | °06| ‘41 avan List 104° “3 Omaha 76 E.| 46 | 10| 29} Oswego f 23.2) "82 | 70: Corinne ? ? | 00} °24| Fort Sully. f 25.2| *25) 35 nver S.62 BE. | 14] :10| -16 Chicago. f 28.2) 32} ‘77| Cheyenne. East. 5 | ‘11| °38| Cleveland. 63|Mar. 5.2) 10] -5 irginia Ci East. ? | 08; °66| Kingston. . 5.3} 00} -42| Virginia City. |East. ? | 00} 72) Baltimore. ¢ 6.1) 03} *45| Fort Benton. |East. ? | -02| -78) Lynchburgh. f 13.1) -02{| °92) Fort Benton ? ? | °00| -42| Nashville. 13,2} -03| °58| Virginia ast, 20 | -01| °33| Savannah. f 13.3] °02 vf Corinn last. 20 | 00; 4 v . 16.3) 04] 68 Santa Fe jast, 71-03; “4 Cincinnati. i 22.2) -10| -64 Om hast. 32 1 001. 3 Fort S$ a 22.3) -01 6€ Marquette. jast. 32 | 00) « Fort Sully. y 27.3} 05] °41 Om . 50 BE. | 42 | 00/ * Norfolk. 73/April 4.1) -08| °31 ankto: hast. 7 | -03| 26] Kingston. 74 4.3) -05| 50) Leavenworth. |East. 5 | -01| °36| Kingston. 7 21.2) 08} 45) Leavenworth. |S. 29 E. | 29 | -00| +26)San Francisco. 76/May 16.1} -09| 5s ta ? 2? | OT] <1 Duluth. T7/June 20.2) -23] -€ Fort Sully. ? tr 06)" 4 Mobile. 78\July 6.3) 04] °7 Omaha. 5 | 00] - enver. 12.3) -12| 48) Breckenridge. |S. 50 E. | 13 | -10| -29) New London. i ie ee Fort Garry. |N. 39 E.| 9 | 02] °19) Lynchb Sept.11.3) -09| -¢ Marquette. East. - 7 | -02] +29) Fort Benton. 21.1) 30) “4 Fort Garry. | East. 13 | -04| 34) Washi Oct. Lf “06 bay Havannah. ? ? -O1| -2' Marquette. .3| 06] -83] Ha ? 2 | -00| -32| Marq 9.2} 00] -49] Fo: T 7 PGT 9.3} -08| 68] Fort Garry. |East. ? | -02| -36| Ch 10.2} -04! -68! Fo s Me 2 | -00! +35) Corinne. 10.3] 02; -°86 uth, vast. 2? | -00| -34| Cheyenne. 12.3] -23| 61] Fort Garry. (East. 19 | -00| -39)Portland, Or. 13.3} --16-| *8% Alpena. last. 2 |} 00} ‘31; Wilmi 14.2] -11] -66 n I. 71 E.| 25 | -01| -34| Wilmington. 14.3) 02} °72| Fort Sully. t.71E.| 6 | -02| -44 Saugeen. 15.3] -03| -95) Pa 20 | -00| -52| Cape May. 30.1) *30| *71 m 69 E. | 27 | -21| -48} Philadelphia. Nov. 9.3] -16| -38 ? ? | 02} -36) Corinne. 10.1) 02} 48] Farther Point. ? 2? | 00; -38) Corinne. 10.2} -09| -87 ‘ort Sully. ? ? | 00| -34) Corinne. 13.3] -18| -61 inia City. IN. 77 E.| 25 | -00| -23) Portland, Or. 109 1) 1%] 43) Fort Garry. |N. 77 E.| 25 | -00| 36) Portland, Or. 101, #2} 17) 41] Fort Garry. |N. 77 E.| 25 | -09/ 34) Portland, Or. 16.11 11! -331 Oswego. IS 79H. ! 291-11) “46 Corinne.
16 EE. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the
ber of stations was seventy-two, but this number was gradually increased and in November, 1873, amounted to eighty-eight. Column 4th shows the height of the barometer at the nearest center of minimum pressure; column 5th shows the station at which the pressure given in column 4th was observed ; column 6th shows the direction in which the low center had moved during the last eight hours, and column 7th shows the velocity with which it moved expressed in miles per hour. Column 8th shows the total amount of rain observed within the area
with very little rain. Of the 101 cases here mentioned, more
there were at least thirty stations which showed a pressure below thirty inches; and in several cases there were over fifty stations which showed a pressure below thirty inches. The following table contains the most important examples. Column ist shows the number of reference from the preceding table and column 2nd shows the number of stations at which the
twenty-four hours or longer. These barometric minima seldom continue stationary for eight hours, but almost invariably
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 17 Number of stations within the area of low barometer.
|
| No. ae
No. |Stations No. |Stations|| No. |Stations|| No. |Stations|| No. |Stations
"51! 70 || 60 | 47 || 35| 43 || 74| 39 || 161 32 || 59| 30 101 | 67 || 39 | 45 7 | 43 |hoo| 39 || 24] 31 || 61 | 30 mu | 58 || 70| 45 liv! 42 || 58} 35 || 36] 31 || 90] 30
20 | 48 52 43 71 39 || 6 33 29 |. 30
travel to the eastward. In several cases the center of least pressure was beyond the limits of the United States so that it is impossible to assign satisfactorily either the direction of their progress or their rate of motion. The table on pages 14 and 15 shows the best results I have been able to deduce from the
isobar 29-8 for October 19th; the next curve represents the isobar 29°6 for October 20th; and the most eastern curve represents the isobar of 29°8 for October 21st; each of the curves corresponds to the 4.35 P. M. observation. It will be seen that during the first twenty-four hours, the center of least pressure moved only about five miles per hour; but during the next twenty-four hours the average motion was twenty-two miles per hour. During these forty-eight hours not a drop of rain was recorded at any station within the area of a pressure less than thirty inches, although on the 20th of October this area had a diameter of 1,500 miles.
The observations on the amount of cloudiness at the different stations confirm the observations of rain-fall. The following table presents a summary of these observations. Column 2 shows the number of stations within the area of low barometer (i.e, less than thirty inches pressure) at which the sky was reported to be entirely clear at the dates given in column Ist, xcept that the air was very generally reported to be smoky or
azy; column 8d shows the number of stations at which the
7 rtly cloudy; and column 4th shows the number Stations at which the sky was entirely overcast.
The following are the stations at which the sky was reported to be overcast, viz: October 19.2, Virginia City and Duluth; 20.2, Corinne, Cheyenne and Duluth; 20.8, Denver, Cheyenne
Am. Jour. grees Series, Vou. XIV, No. 79.—Juxy, 1877.
18 E. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the
No clouds. Partly cloudy. b wcarithe Z Oct. 19.2 5 stations. 2 stations. 2 stations. m3 8 < 2 ¥ none. 20.1 9 2 5 ae E 20.2 13 si T oe 3 stations. 20.3 15 rr 3 ae % 21.t 5 eg 7 ms 3 ag 21.2 4 ft 9 5 =
and Duluth; 21.1, St. Paul, Duluth and Escanaba; 21.2, Santa Fe, Duluth, La Crosse, Keokuk and Toronto. Six of these cases occurred in the neighborhood of the Rocky Mountains, so remote from the center of least pressure that if there ha
been a rain-fall in that vicinity, it could not be supposed to be the cause of the barometric minimum under discussion. The long continuance of clouds at Duluth, and the extension of this cloud area on the 21st indicates an upward movement of the atmosphere attended with a slight precipitation of vapor, and there may have been rain-fall at places further north. But when we consider that in the Southern States a heavy rain-fall covering an area several hundred miles in diameter exerts scarcely any appreciable influence on the barometer, we cannot suppose that the very limited rain-fall which may possibly have occurred from October 19th to the 21st had any sensible influence in the production of the barometric minimum, or in causing its eastern progress, so that it seems safe to conclude that rain-fall is not essential to the formation of areas of low barom- eter, and is not the principal cause of their formation or of their
earth’s rotation the result was a diminution of pressure over the region between the Rocky Mountains and Lake Superior. These two areas of high barometer on opposite sides of the low area were remarkably persistent from Detaber 19th to 21st, but advanced eastward at about the same rate as the barometric minimum. Plate IIT, shows the direction of the winds October 20th, 4.35 p.m. They indicate a decided inward movement of the air and a circulation about the center of low pressure. At several of the stations the winds were uncommonly strong. The following table shows the direction and force of the wind where the velocity was greates
Observations of the United States Signal Service. 19
Direction. | Velocity. | Direction, | Velocity. Fort Sully _..| N.W. 36 miles. ||Davenport_.._| 8.W. 18 miles. Datauth 222. N.E. ane Leavenworth Ss. LB Chicago ____- Ss. Ee Escanaba_._--| 8.E. PE ae Grand Haven S. 19 “ ||Omaha--.-.- Ss. 162"
The distribution of the cases of small rain-fall mentioned in the table on pages 14 and 15, according to the seasons of the year, is as follows:
Spring, 14 cases. Summer, 4 cases. Autumn, 39 and 21 cases. Winter, 23 cases.
We see that these cases occur most frequently in the autumn and especially in the month of October. They are generally accompanied by a hazy or smoky condition of the atmosphere, and this is the phenomenon which is generally known under the name of Indian Summer. It appears to be due to an uncom-
‘monly tranquil condition of the atmosphere extending entirely across the continent; and similar cases frequently occur in each month of the year from September to March, but are most common in October.
A comparison of all the facts which: have been presented in this paper, together with my six former papers, appears to warrant the following generalizations.
. Areas of low barometer result from a general movement of the atmosphere towards a central area, and this movement 1s accompanied by a deflection of the wind to the right, which causes a tendency to circulate around the center with a motion Brie | inward.
of an inch. In these storms, three-quarters of the observed depression of the barometer is usually the effect of the earth’s
20 HK. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service.
4. In North America, south of latitude 35°, areas of low pressure are less frequent and generally exhibit a less depres- sion than near latitude 45°, because the area over which a cyclonic movement of the winds prevails is small; and this area is small because if a cyclonic area could be formed having a radius of 1,000 miles with its center in latitude 30°, its cir- cumference must extend southward to latitude 16°, where the trade winds are steady and seldom interrupted. Such a diver- sion of the winds toward the north, even if it could be produced, could not be long maintained; so that a large cyclonic area with its center in latitude 30° is well nigh impossible ; and it is impossible that there should be a great depression of the barometer in latitude 80°, except with a wind having a hurricane velocity. This is believed to be the reason why in North
merica the centers of great storms are generally found north of latitude 40°.
erally the original cause of the barometric depression, but rather an incident of the cycloidal movement of the atmos-
here. The fall of the barometer during a rain storm cannot ye ascribed to the simple condensation of the vapor of the atmosp as some have supposed, since a rain-fall of one or two inches prevailing over an area 300 miles in diameter near . latitude 30° produces scarcely an appreciable effect upon the barometer. e tables on pages 2 and 3.
7. The progress of areas of low barometer in all latitudes is determined mainly by the same causes which determine the general system of circulation of the atmosphere; and their normal direction is changed by whatever causes may change. the direction of the winds.
A, Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza. 21
ologists who have given no little attention to the subject.
In preparing the materials for this article I have been assisted by Mr. Edward S. Cowles, Ph.D., a graduate of Yale College of the class of 1873.
—___.
Art. I.—The Germination of the genus MeGARRHIZA, Torr. ; by Asa if
present imperfect knowledge of this genus of big-rooted Cucur- bi | our Pacific coast. For the extraordinary peculiarity m question, being one which, in other cases, is exhibit itself in certain species of a genus (as in Anemone and Delphinium), and not in others, so it may in the present give aid in distinguishing the five species which have €n characterized upon more or less incomplete or scanty aces »He rst species known was from Oregon; the specimens, being In slower: only, were referred in eke Flora Borealis Americana, i, 220, to Sicyos angulatus, but were separated in Torrey and Gray's Flora of North America, i, 542, under the name of Sicyos Oreganus. In the course of time it was found that there was a similar if not identical species in California, and oy. more than one, that they were perennial from arge and fleshy roots, that, while the flowers much resemble those of Mehinocystis, the seeds were turgid, mar- ginless, and with thick and fleshy cotyledons. Dr. Torrey, "pon whom the examination of these plants devolved, many
22 A. Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza.
— thirty) years ago proposed for them the generic name of
garrhiza ; but he refrained from publishing it, even omitted ae mention of it in his account of Dr. Bigelow’s excellent col- lection made in Whipple’s Expedition (Pacif. R. Rep. iv, 1857), although good materials of that and other collections were in his hands, because he could not make up his mind whether he had to do with one variable species or with two or three. But in the sixth volume of the Pacif. Railroad Rep., which bears the same date of 1857, in Dr. Newberry’s list of plants collected rats Williamson’s Expedition (p. 74), two species are enumerated, t
. 'Mogitroeie eae ais Torrey. Petaluma and Sonoma, California; April, in flower.”
: Megarrhiza Oregana, ees On the shores of Klamath Lake and banks of Willamette River, O. T.; August and September, in fruit.’
Before this, however, viz: in March, 1855, Dr. Kellogg, of San Francisco, communicated to the California Academ my of Natural Sciences (Proc. Calif. Acad., i, 88), an account of one of these — apparently the second, under the name of Marah murica
A few years aa some se a been raised in France from Californian seeds, M. Naudin (in Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 4, xii, 154, t. 9, under date of 1859, but, as the letter-press shows, not ‘printed until 1860 or 1861), published he plant which Dr. Torrey had called M. Calfornica under the name of Echinocystis fabacea. This extension of Tolancaiats was Padded by Ben- tham and Hooker in their Genera Plantarum. It was, more- over, sear ne by Dr. Kellogg, who, in a second communica- tion to th rnian Academy, under date of June 4, 1855, re-describes his rsa Marah muricatus, states that it “ ne mately belongs to Eehv inocystis,” and gives it the name of muricatus. When, shortly after Dr. Torrey’s death, I superin- tended the printing of his account of the plants collected on our Pacific coast in Wilkes’ Expedition, I found that he had left the article on this genus unwritten, and apparently had not determined either upon the emo of the species or upon the distinctness of his proposed gen
When in the recent jepatetion of the Botany of California the subject came to be studied anew by Mr. Watson, with the aid of more extensive materials, and when these materials were found to exhibit such diversities that at least five species to be recognized (Bot. California, i, sce with notable differences in ovary, fruit, seeds, etc., but no approximation to the eastern Echinocystis, it could hardly oe doubted that Torrey’s genus ought to be reinstated ; and this was accordingly done
The M. Californica had been raised in the Botanic Garden of Harvard University many years ago, but I had not seen the
A. Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza. 23
germination ; and we were never able to bring the plant into
ossom, as it invariably died down to the ground soon after making a moderate growth. On germinating some fresh seeds early this spring, I was somewhat surprised to find that they came up in the manner of beans. Instead of
well out of the soil upon what seemed to be a well developed radicle, like that of Hchinocystis. If the coty- ledons had expanded, though re- maining fleshy, in the manner of Phaseolus, the difference between this and Echinocystis, with cotyledons truly foliaceous in germination, would be much less than had been supposed. I waited long to see if this would occur; I also waited in vain for the expected development of the plumule from between the bases of the fleshy cotyledons. After the lapse of about a fortnight, the plumule in all three oO germinating plantlets came separately out of the soil of the pot; and, on exposing the whole to view, the state of things represented in fig. 1 came to view. That is, the plumule came forth from the base of what ap- peared to be an elongated radicle (of \\ \ two or three inches in length); and \ below this the thickening of the root, which acquires enormous dimensions
wi | WA. in old plants, had already commenced. 3 iV. A large amount of the nourishin
matter stored in the cotyledons ha been carried down to the root and
cleft at the very base of the seeming
: radicle, which otherwise a | to
be solid. But on cutting it across toward the base this was
found to be tubular, as shown at the bottom of fig. 2; and
later, when more spent and beginning to wither, this stalk was
Separable from above downward into two, as shown in the upper Part of the same figure.
24 A. Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza.
This, therefore, is a case in which long petioles to the cotyle- dons (of which there is no appearance in the seed), connate into one body, are developed and greatly length- ened in place of the radicle, which is thus . simulated. It is the same as in Delphinium \\ nudicaule of California, and some other spe-
\\ cies; only in that genus the cotyledons expand } and become foliaceous. In the horse-chestnut / petioles are also developed to the cotyledons to a moderate extent, but without union, (see Gray’s First Lessons, fig. 24), thus pushing the radicle and plumule well out of the firm seed-coat, in which the very heavy and fleshy cotyledons remain ; and the radicle itself, as in the pea, does not further lengthen. In Lpomea leptophylla the radicle remains in like manner short, while petioles to the (here foliaceous) cotyledons develope to a great length, bringing these separately out of the ground, and the plumule between follows later.
Botanists on the Pacific coast are earnestly requested to examine the germination of all the species of Megarrhiza, and to compare them with the figures and description here given. At least three species should be met with near San Francisco, and in neighboring parts of California. According to the characters assigned by Mr. Watson in the Botany of California, JZ, Cal- fornica should be known by its obovoid seeds, of less than an inch in length, with a small hilum at the narrow base: Marah, by its more numerous seeds horizontally imposed in a large fruit (of four inches in length), each seed roundish and depressed, flattened, an inch in diameter and about half as thick, with a prominent lateral hilum. J/. muricata, by a nearly naked fruit only an inch in diameter, containing only two globose seeds of half an inch in diameter. MM. Oregana, which is known to occur from the Columbia River to the north of California, appears to have seeds resembling those of Jd. Marah, but rather smaller; but they are not well known. The remaining one, M. Guadalupensis, of Guadalupe Island, off Lower California, is much out of ordinary reach, unless it should be found in the southern part of the State.
Mature fruits and seeds of all the species are much desired.
Fig. 1 represents a germinating plantlet of Megarrhiza Califor- nica, of natural size, complete except the lower part of the root. Fig. 2 represents the cotyledons at a later period, with their united petioles separated from above, still united into a tube below, the lower end of which is, cut away.
H. P. Armsby— Absorption of Bases by the Soil. 25 Art. III.—On the absorption of Bases by the Soil; by H. P. ARMSBY.
THE question of the nature of the absorptive power of the soil for bases may be regarded as still to a certain extent an open one. Although the researches of Henneberg & Stoh- mann, Peters, Weinhold and others have shown concluslvely that the absorption is accompanied by a chemical reaction between the salt whose base is absorbed and the soil, an equivalent quan- tity of other bases being dissolved ; and though the investiga- tions of Way, Hichhorn, \Rantenberg, Heiden, Knop and Mulder have as conclusivel; connected this reaction with the presence in the soil of certain zeolitic silicates which appear to be the agents of absorption; it has been the opinion of many distinguished authorities, e. g., Liebig, Brustlein, Henneberg & Stohmann, that the prime cause of absorption is physical Im its nature.
The fact which more than any other has served to sustain this view is the peculiar effect of the concentration and volume of the solution upon the amount of absorption. As is well
other porous bodies. Peters and others hold that the physical force is the prime cause, and that the chemical phenomena are only secondary, while others believe that chemical action is the Prime cause and is modified by physical force. Knop ad-
which can unite with the acid, and that then the chemical union of the base follows. 3
Pillitz (Fres, Zeit., xiv, 55 and 282) has indeed found that, if a large volume of solution be filtered through a soil until no
removed, since in his experiments the absorption was constant. But these facts, however interesting and important, neither
26 H. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soi.
do away with the variability of absorption as ordinarily deter- mined nor rob that variability of its force as an argument for the physical nature of absorption, since as Pillitz himself says even the most dilute solution is not exhausted, which must be the case were the variations due simply to a lack of sufficient material to saturate the soil.
In view of the interest attaching to this question it seemed to me desirable to compare the behavior of the soil in this respect with that of pure hydrous silicates. If it should be found that the exchange of bases between these compounds and neutral salts showed the same variations as soil-absorption, then, what- ever view might be held as to the cause of these variations, all possible objections to the theory which considers soil-absorp- tion to be such an exchange of bases between the salt and the hydrous silicates known to exist in the soil would seem to be removed.
As illustrating the variations of soil-absorption the following determinations made in the laboratory of Prof. Knop in Leipzig may be adduced. ‘T'wo soils were used: No. 1, Deposit of the Nile. No. 2, A loamy soil from the vicinity of Leipzig.
The absorptive power of these soils for ammonia was deter- mined by Knop’s method (Bonitirung der Ackererde, 49) by digesting the soil in the cold with a solution of NH,Cl of known strength for forty-eight hours and determining the am- monia remaining in the fluid by means of the azotometer. The results denote the c. c. of nitrogen at 0° C. and 760 m.m pressure contained in the ammonia absorbed, and the concen- tration of the solution employed is stated in the same way. I was found more convenient to vary the amount of the soil than of the solution.
Absorption Nos. Ninle.c of Sol. Wt. of Boil. Soil No. 1. Soil No. 2. L ie 1:079 cc. 50 grms. 677 6.6, 45°2 ©. c. 2. Bo: 25 ee 49° “ *4 66 = oe 225 * 3i5...% 16-2 * 4. O25 * 14 > os IL 2158 “ ena pao Se iGo: e738. © 2. Sac . * i be Ered 38°2 3. week “i o> Sr’ aad me Ea A. ree 6°25 “ ae 1g 14 liga 3°237 “ 50 = taza. * 2, Ce 95 ae 85 “0 a4 g. ae "5 “ 48°8 “ 4. oo 6°25 “ac 32°1 ee IV. 4°316 “ 50 - ino't se] ™
OO PO ‘ $ 1
ee =) z eo o i) FS
H. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soil. 27
Representing graphically the results of the first series (I) we obtain the curve No. 1 in the figure, showing the influence of the relative volume of the solution on the absorption by soil No. 1. The other three series give exactly similar curves, and the influence of the concentration of the solution is seen in curve No. 2, which represents the absorption by fifty grams of soil No. 1 from solutions of increasing concentration.
140 =
~ ——>| ABSORPTION
8
|
10 20 30 40 50
But not only these experiments, but all others on the subject accessible to me show essentially the same result. With the ex- ception of a single experiment by Laskowsky (Knop, Boni., etc., p. 150) the absorption never increases proportionally to the soil, hor 1s it, as is sometimes stated, independent of its amount.
In order to study the absorption of bases by hydrous silicates +, artificial silicate was prepared in the method described by Way (Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. of Eng., xi, 313).
28 Hl. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soii.
Highty grams of airdry aluminum hydrate were dissolved in a strong solution of soda (containing about 200 grams NaOH), the solution was diluted largely, and to it were added about 310 ¢.c. of commercial water-glass, containing 91 grms. siO,. A bulky, flocculent precipitate resulted which subsided readily and could be washed by decantation without much dif- ficulty. The washing was continued till the washings showed no alkaline reaction, the precipitate collected on a filter and dried at 100° C. till it seemed dry to the touch. It was then pulverized, brought upon a filter, washed till the filtrate gave no precipitate with the solution of calcium chloride used in the experiments, and again partly dried at 100° C.
An analysis gave :—
Tous 26100? Ooo ooo 39°94 MOPY BUMMER VS ee ee 60°06 100°00 The dry substance contains :—
RIE aes: is Sages ase 48°42
Al,O, —-——— ee ew lm ee ee 2S 16
NA esas eee 14°20
Ree ee skl egos pot ee 14°13
99°91
A neutral solution of calcium chloride was also a by dissolving fused CaCl, in water, acidifying with HCl, and neu- tralizing with CaCO,. 1 ¢.¢. contained the equivalent of 001683 grams CaO. . o é Varying portions of the air-dry silicate were digested in closed flasks with the above solution diluted to five, ten, or twenty times its volume exactly as in the experiments with soil. The mixtures stood three days at ordinary temperature with frequent shaking, and then in 50 c.c¢. of the liquid the lime was precipitated as oxalate in the usual way, and weighed as oxide. The result calculated on the whole quantity of the solution and subtracted from the amount of tine originally present gave the absorption. The results in every case are ex- ressed as CaO, as is also the strength of the solution employed. he following are the results. Nos. CaO in 1 ¢.c.of sol. We. of silicate. Vol. of solution. | Absorption.
1, 0°003366 grms. 40 grms. 200¢.c. *[0°6732 grms.] & 7coes. 20 . mn 05952 “ Os. ee ey 10 we oe 04172 “ We Seen 5 ad ee 0°2432 “ Ge re ee 2°5 x te Oile7s * septs Cer 1°25 . <a 00680 “ 7 eee o625 = ™* ole 00328 “ hence 03125 * “'s 070164 “
ef
H. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soil. 29
Nos. CaQin1le.c.of sol. Wt. of silicate. Vol.ofsolution. Absorption.
VI. 3. 0001683 grms. 10 grms. 200c.c. 0°2996 grms. 4, eo oe 5 66 pen 0°2 “ Marit ark Sewce 2°5 - e 071217.“ Le are 1°25 em ghie 00673 “ (as 0°625 =“ at 0°0338 “ Dee bac es Og125. .< pine o°0198 “ VIL 5. 0°000841 grms. 2% grms. 200¢.¢. 0°1151 grms. . ee aceien i gs ag fe 00663 “ qe ee Se 0625 — ie 070359 “ eee ee 0°3125 “ mp 070187 “
It will be seen that the same variations occur here as in soil-
of replaceable bases in the soil. A similar limit seems to have been reached in some of these experiments. In experiment
II, 8, about two-thirds of the soda of the silicate has been replaced by lime, and an increase of concentration seems un- able to carry the replacement further. e same is seen in VII, 7, and the corresponding ones of the other series, while In those experiments where this limit is not reached the absorption increases with the concentration in the same wa in soil-absorption. For the same reason, apparently, the ab- Sorption in the last four experiments of (V) and the last three of VI, decreases proportionally to the soil, seemingly unable to pass this limit of two-thirds, © That the rest of the soda cannot be displaced is not probable, but it is evidently more difficultly replaceable. The high absorption of (VI, 8) is perhaps an error of experiment.
Since, now, it has been shown that the absorption of bases by tion there would seem to be no reason why the latter should not be considered to be due chiefly to these silicates in the soil. That other agents may also be concerned to some extent, especially in the absorption of free bases, is doubtless true, but that any form of Surlace-attraction can decompose simple salts is yet to be proved.
Jn regard to the chemical or physical nature of absorption it will hardly be denied, in view of the results of Way, Eichhorn and Heiden, that the reaction between the hydrous silicates and a salt is essentially a chemical process consisting in a partial ex- Change of bases. The reason why the exchange is not com plete would seem to be the same as the reason why, e. g., I Cl i O when heated together are not completely converted into
20 and Cl, or the reverse ; or why, when two salts are mixed
30 H, P. Armsby— Absorption of Bases by¥the Soil.
The latter is Soni what occurs in soil- Robeson or the ab- sorption of bases by pure silicates, and hence we may safely say that the variations caused by the volume and concentration are due to the influence of mass on a primarily chemical Rhee
This view has already been suggested by Ad. Mayer (Lehr- buch der Agricultur-chemie, ii, p. 93). It receives gee ar” from the researches of Gladstone already alluded to. He added to a solution of ferric nitrate increasing portions of potassium sulpho-cyanate and found that each successive addition pro- duced less and less ferric sulpho-cyanate, but that the ferric nitrate was never completely decomposed. His results repre- sented graphically give a curve essentially like patent for ab- sorption already described.
According to this view it is the accumulation of sodium chloride in the solution which prevents the further absorption of lime by the silicate. If then sodium chloride were added to the solution in the first pe we should expect the absorption to be less. To test this (VII) was repeated with the addition of 0°1700 grms. NaCl (about equivalent to the CaCl, present) to each experiment. The following results were obtained.
without NaCl. Abs. with NaCl 25 grms 0°1151 grms. 0°1039 grms. 1°2 5 0663 “ 0595 “ 0625 “ 00359 “ 0°0303 “ 0°3125 “ wood = 00143
exchange of the soil.
This ere ae which is primarily chemical, is only partial, its extent varyin
1st. With the ao cas of the solution
2d. With the ratio between the volume of the solution and the quantity Ag us
a f these variations is probably the “action of
mass,” or the _ tendency of the resulting compounds to re-form the original bodies, the absorption actually found in any case marking the point where the two forces are in equilibrium.
Laboratory of Rutgers College, May, 1877.
S. W. Tiahan-<Deuble-Shas Discoveries. 31
Arr. IV.—Double-Star Discoveries with the 183-inch Chicago Refractor ; by 8. W. Burnwam.
THE new double stars described below were discovered with the 184-inch Clark refractor of the Dearborn Observatory, on the nights of October 1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 15, 16, and 17, 1876, and are some of the results obtained in the use of that instru-
Servers in Kurope; and a considerable time might elapse before the objects would be re-observed elsewhere. It is nec
State, In explanation of its manifest incompleteness, that the work was unexpectedly, and without notice, terminated by the action of the officers of the Chicago Astronomical Society which has control of the instrument, and no opportunity has been afforded to complete the projected series of observations Which was but just commenced. Rewiaph is given, however, to show the value and effectiveness of the telescope in this impor- tant branch of astronomical research; and how much might be Accomplished for science, if it were used for any other purpose than exhibition to visitors.
_ The reference numbers attached to these stars are the numbers ™m ty double-star catalogues, seven of which lists, with the
No. 437=—L 4291. R. A.=—=2" 12™ 26° Decl.=-+-3° 39’
32 S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries.
Not measured, but angle and distance estimated as follows: P=45°4 D=5"+ The principal star is about 7} magnitude, and the companion not brighter than 11 of Struve’s scale. The pair of small stars in the field, sp is 2 247 rej No. 438—= > 2538 R; As 1b" oy" Decl.=+-36°27'
A and B Pa=48°°5 D=26" 52 - (1876°8) A and C 245°2 53°04 (1830-8) C and D 52°5 6°07 (1830°8) The three nan stars, A, C and D, constitute the double star 2 2538(=S 719), but the small companion near the principal
an error of 10° in ata micrometer of oe There is still another new member of this group, in an seepedingly faint star almost exactly midway between oO or-
tunity occurred to measure this. Struve gives the magnitudes of A, C and D as 8-2, 8°3 and 8’7 respectively. No. 439=Arg. (29°) 3845 KU A190 65" es
Decl.=+29° 3 The principal star is about the cant magnitude (Argelander, 8:1), with a small companion. ‘The measures of one night ve: : P=249°°7 D=2"-70 (18768) =
No. 440=L 38520 BR, A==20° 17 27° Decl.=-+-35° 277' Amae Fsstr's D=-6"47 Maga 7 ue oe —_ ac 8 15 por
an 25 7 1876" A and D 296°0 11°27 (1788 i) A and E 106-8 28°15 115 (1876 A and F 32°8 29°45 75 (1783°7 FandG 113-0 10°12 12 (1876°8)
e large stars (A, D , F), of this interesting group have long been known, and conatitats the double star IIL 113 (=5Sh 314= 2 2630 rej). The small attendants, C and H, I
S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries. 33
own results on the occasion last referred to. The relative situ-
ation of the stars known to the early observers appears to be
substantially unchanged. For A and embowski finds : P==300°°7 D=11'*12 (1876-7)
By comparing the measures of Sir John Herschel and Sir James South, with the recent observations of Baron Dembowski; there seems to be an error in Herschel’s distance of A F;—
==28°2 —=36°"52 (1823°6) 28-2 35°98 (1876-7)
The relation of the closer stars can be determined only after a series of carefully repeated measures, but it is at least proba- ble that they will be found to have some physical connection.
No. 441=—L 39013
This is a 7-5 m. star with very small satellite, measured on one night as follows: « P=65°°4 D=5"'87 (1876-8) No. 442—Weisse xx. 456 R. A.c30 13™ 3 Dech.—=-1-37° 11’ A fine group consisting of three large stars, each about 85 m.
with closer minute companions. The following measures were made on this occasion :
A and B P=104°1 D=—18"°47 A anda 157°5 4°40 A and b 17+
A ande 332°5 19°55 Band d 164°3 8°12 Band C 48°6 17°69
Decl. =+28° 37! Angle and distance estimated only : P=120°- D=10’+4 Mags. 7°5 ... 115 Am, Jour, oe Series, Von, XIV, No. 79,—Jury, 1877.
34 S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries.
There is a third star following, about 30” distant. No. 445=Cygni 287 R. A.=20" 58" 23° Decl. ==-+-28° 37’ Very unequal pair; the principal star 7 m. in Lalande. P=90°+ D=4"+. This is L 40821. No. 446—= Weisse xxi. 344 Re Asso 16". 44° Decl.=-+-32° 56’ A pair of small stars, the larger 9 m. near and south follow- ing a bright star. Pee3610°7 D=e2"'30 No, 447=Vulpeculae 129.
This is a a bright star, about 6 m. with a difficult companion in the direction of 340°. Distance not noted, but probably under 5”. No opportunity was afforded to measure or examine it a second time.
No, 448=L 41874 R. A.=21" 24™ 35° Decl.= + 44° 24’
There is some uncertainty about the place of this pair. It is assumed to be the above 7 m. star in Lalande, which | is near] in the observed ie but may be a larger star south following. Estimated as follo
Raut by Maga 7'O:i. . 11-0. A distant companion preceding. No, 449=Radcliffe 5335, H. A.=-21" 34” 49° Decl.=-+-41° 11’
The three larger stars, A, C and EK, were discovered by Sir William Herschel (= # ITI. 110), and also entered in the Pul- kowa catalogue (=O2 447). The new members of the system, B and D, are very minute, and aight be easily overlooked with even a large aperture. My measures of these, and Dem- bowski’s of © and E are as follow
A and B Patti D=6' “78 (1876°8) A and C 170°5 13°71 (1866°6) A and D 248°2 17-94 1876°8) A and E 45°7 29°13 totem
Dembowski gives the magnitudes of A, C and E as 7:0, 108 and 7‘7 respectively. A comparison of the measures of these
S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries. 35
stars with the early observations of Herschel, would seem to indicate considerable change, but this is not confirmed by the intermediate measures of Otto Struve.
Herschel A and C caniey op D=138""90 1783°8 O. Struve A and C 169°4 13°86 1848°3 Herschel —- A and E 49-4 25°97 (1783°8
O. Struve A and E 45°3 29°00 (1848°3) The close agreement between the measures of O, Struve and Dembowski accords with my own results on the occasion of observing the new companions, when the angles came out 170°, and 44°-9, respectively. No. 450=B. A, C. 7931
R. A.=22" 38™ 40"
Decl.=-+38° 50’
As a double, this beautiful object is found in the catalogues of both Struves, and Herschel (=> 2942= O2 478=H 1802). Struve’s magnitudes are 7-0 and 9-2. The colors are very strik- ing, the larger being, according to Struve, reddish gold, and the smaller, ash-color. A third much smaller star was discove with the 184 in., and measured once as below
A and B P==982°4 =2"°66 1831°6) A and C 232-0 10°23 Tees
Measures of A and B by Struve. Dembowski gives, P= 280°°6 ; D=2’-80 (1866:6), from which it is safe to infer there 18 no substantial change in the relation of these stars, and this View 1s supported by the measures of Otto Struve, Midler, Dawes, and others. The small star is not a difficult object with the 184 in., and can perhaps be measured with a smaller aperture.
No, 451=15 Lacertae. R.. A.==22> 46":37° Decl.=+-42° 40’
This star was seen with a minute attendant, roughly esti- mated from memory as about 20” distant. The angle was not noted, and no opportunity occurred to re-examine and measure Subsequently.
No. 452=L 44915 R. A.==22" 51™ 378 | Decl.=+-42° 22’
A fine pats observed about the same time as the proses oe like that only estimated for the purpose of certain identifi- lon :
P=270°+ D=6"+: ; ‘: The large star is 64 or 7 magnitude, and the companion elow 12 of Struve’s scale. oe Chicago, May 5, 1877. | | ,
36 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.
. V.—Supplement to the Account of the Discoveries in Vermont Geology of the Rev. Augustus Wing; by JAMES D. Dana.
SINCE the publication of the preceding number of this Jour- nal, containing the concluding part of the account of Mr. Wing’s aa. iscoveries, I have received from
ce _ Professor H. M. Seely, of Middle-
SS bury, Vt., a manuscript geologi-
cal map by Mr. Wing, which had
papers. Since the account is not complete without the results of his observations contained in this map, the portion of it is here reproduced in which his outlines of the slate and limestone areas
parison with the colored map in the Vermont Report.
Mr. Wing’s map contains also his deductions with regard to the distribution of the formations—
part of which are not mm yet established. The S utland and
is Hudson River (Cin-
J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 37
cinnati) in age, a belt of color indicating Trenton extends; then
others, more remote, for Chazy, Calciferous and Potsdam; and
the Chazy east of the slate-belt extends two-thirds of the way
to the quartzyte. These points in the map rest mainly on fos-
sils, except the eastern boundary of the Chazy, and the periods t
assigned to the part of the limestone still farther east.
Art. VL—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that of Berkshire ; by JAMES D. DANa.
sion there presented with regard to the age of the Berkshire rocks largely on the single discovery of Mr. A. Wing, of Chazy fossils in the West Rutland limestone, the only one of his that had then been made public. The wider knowledge of his discoveries which we now haye, through his notes and letters, gives a better basis for a decision, and I propose to con- sider the bearing of the facts as now understood.
We have first to enquire what reasons there are for making the geology of Vermont a key to that of Berkshire. These are
the northern of the series, are of political authority, not geologi- “si ps so are those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New ork, 3 (1.) The Limestone formation.—The great limestone belt of Vermont stretches southward, without interruption or dimin- ished width, into Berkshire Co., Massachusetts; throug’ kshire, into Western Connecticut; and, continuing its south- by-west trend over Canaan and Salisbury, it passes out of Con- hecticut, still as wide as in any more northern part, into eastern New York, over the towns of. Amenia and Dover, to Pawling. Thence it still stretches southward for seven or eight miles, but
* Vol. iv, 362, 450, (504); v, 47, 84; vi, 257.
38 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
with narrowing limits, and finally ends in a narrow strip among the flexures of hard gneiss rocks. It is one of the long Green Mountain formations (2.) The Quartzyte dene helaiied with the limestone belt, and following mainly its eastern border, there is a quartzyte series, consisting in Vermont of quartzyte and crystalline slate
Massachusetts, and into Dahinkedens ec throughout, its close attendant.
Herrick Mountains, in Ira, having a height of 2,661 feet, and Equinox Mountain, in Manchester, 8, a7 2 feet (auyot) above tide-level. It continues with unchanged course into Massachu- setts, or rather along the connecting borders of Massachusetts and
ew York, and this part, south of Vermont, has long borne the name of the Taconic Mountains; and here it rises into peaks nearly as high as those of Vermont, Graylock being 3,600 feet in height, and Mount Everett, 2, 634 feet. Further, the
aconic Mountains consist chiefly of ‘hydromica slate more or less chloritic, like the southern portion of the same range in Vermont.
Thus there is a marked unity in the area from north to south
The lithological identity is not aoe eke. yet the differences are introduced by very gradual transitions, evident only as the whole area from north to south is surveyed, a and hence they are additional Soot of the unity. They are differ- ences mainly i in grade of metamorphism.
t central slate-belt of Vernnotit commences to the north, according to the Vermont Report, in a clay-slate belt. Thirty miles or so south, hydromica slate, a more crystalline
J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 39
rock, commences on the two borders of the clay-slate area, with the band of the eastern border much the biases scatiaben fates ing in this with the general fact of a higher degree of metamor- phism on the east. Seventy miles farther south, in the Taconic Mountains, and its eastern spur, Graylock, the hydromica slate is in part of somewhat coarser texture and more chloritic, and this same rock constitutes Mount Washington in southwestern Massachusetts, near the southern termination of the Taconic range. It even becomes in part mica slate.
The distance from the north extremity of the slate belt to Mount Washington, through which this small change occurs, is 150 miles,
The ridges in Berkshire south of Graylock, or over the western third of the limestone region, including the ridges either side of West Stockbridge village, and the Tom Ball ridge farther south, west of Williamsville, consist of the same rocks as Graylock, with scarcely appreciable difference. Some of the beds are garnetiferous.
The ridges along a line a little farther east, near the center of the limestone belt, that is, those next east of Tom Ball, and east and west of Great Barrington, have the hydromica slate replaced by mica schist, and then by mica schist and gneiss, part of it a thick-bedded granitoid gneiss. South of Great Barrington, in Sheffield, the schist of ridges in the midst of the limestone area (which has here great width) is a coarse mica schist containing abundantly garnets and crystals of staurolite; and the same staurolitic mica schist exists under similar circumstances near Falls Village, in Canaan, Connecticut, the next town south of Sheffield, and also, farther south and west, in Salisbury. Thirty miles south-by-west of Canaan, about Pawling, and beyond to the termination of the limestone belt, the associated rock is mica Schist or gneiss,
mica schist, and gneiss; but only by very gradual transitions. It should be here kept in view that the difference in constitu-
the presence of a few per cent (three to six) of water in the mica of the former, and only one or two or none in that of the
A parallel change takes place in the associated limestone formation. To the north, in central Vermont, and especially along the western portion of the limestone region, occur the areas of grayish half-altered or semi-metamorphic limestone, affording distinguishable fossils. Further, the limestone of this northern
40 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
portion of the Holian limestone is generally very fine in grain even where of the purest white color. In Pittsford and Bran- don are found the best of statuary marbles, looking like the finest loaf-sugar in texture. South of Pittsford, in Rutland, the marble is a little less fine in its grain than it is farther north ; in Berkshire, it is mostly much coarser, none answerin
to statuary marble existing anywhere; and in southern Berk- shire and Canaan, Ct., it is still coarser in crystallization, and abounds also in many places in tremolite, white pyroxene, an
mica. Thus the fact of intenser metamorphism to the south- ward is as plainly apparent in the limestones as in the schists.
After this survey of the facts we have to admit that the differ- ences are so distributed shee ie tle as to prove unity of area and rocks, rather than diversi
eiss ; and then coarser and harder ener of the latter rocks ; "and the crystalline limestone, which is almost free from foreign erystallizations in Stockbridge and West Stockbridge, contains large crystallizations of white pyroxene or tremolite in some places in Lee, Monterey and Tyringham. 2. Tue STRATIGRAPHICAL RELATIONS. In Vermont we have found the following cases of conform le su; tion or interstratification, as described in the ens of Mr. Wing’s researches, and illustrated in the figures of sec-
tions accom ng.
(1.) Th fe ee and schists conformable.
ies quartzyte and schists conformable.
The quartzyte and limestone, and also the quartzyte, achnte and limestone, conformable.
The first of these Vermont cases of conformability is illus- trated in the sections on pages 338, 340, 344, 346, 347 of the last volume of — Journal ; pest soon in the suai a the quartzyte ormation, as explained on e411; the thi in the sections presented on pages 340 and 412,
The following facts show that hte Ey similar cases of con- formable superposition exist in Berks
J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 41
(1) Jnterstratified limestone and schists.*
Fig. 1 represents a very common case of this first kind. Chloritic hydromica slate, dipping eastward, lies between strata of limestone which have the same dip. Examples occur in the southern third of the ridge called Tom Ball, southwest of Van Deusenville; also in Alvord, west of Tom Ball; in West Stockbridge; along much of the Taconic range, the slates
2.
TEGAN \
i
Pp small. At the north end of Tom Ball the position of the rocks 1S aS represented in fig. 8, in which on the east the limestone
dips west 18° to 20° under the chloritic hydromica slate, con- taining in some places many garnets, and passing also into mica slate. The schist overlies the limestone in a synclinal.
ist of the north end of Tom Ball, on the road to Glendale, the limestone dips eastward 25° under a bluff of garnetiferous mica schist (fig. 4).
The facts connected with Graylock, in Northwestern Massa- chusetts, the highest of the Taconic peaks, point to a synclinal (or a synclinal with subordinate anticlinals and synclinals), grec the figures the blocked areas ee gy sho mentg the simply lined,
eastward end. the lined and dotted, quartzyte. Moreover, the right end is the
a
42 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
much like that of the north end of Tom Ball, as shown in figure 5, by Emmons, here repeated.* The same structure exists in Mount Washington in Southwestern Massachusetts, the next highest summit of the range. At the eastern foot o this mountain the limestone dips westward at a small angle, (25° to 30°), beneath the chloritic hydromica slate, as I have
escribed in a former article;+ and the more eastern and highest peak of the mountain, called Mt. Everett, partakes of
Half mile N. of Housatonic, west of the Old Furnace.
? P . In my examinations in Copake I had the guidance of Mr. William Miles, who had thoroughly explored the lime- stone localities. Besides the many conformable outcrops over the interior of the valley, there were others of large extent close to the slate of the mountains, and one where the lime- stone and slate were seen in contact. : Again, half a mile north of Housatonic, west of the river, the section in fig. 6 is seen in an abandoned quarry. The limestone dips 10° to 25°, and passes beneath mica slate. In
‘online. Canaan Mountain. Falls Village, Canaan. Hill west of the village of Southwest Front. West side of river. Tyringham.
Canaan Mountain, Connecticut, in the southwest front there are 150 feet of limestone at base, dipping 15° to 20° to the east-
under a mica schist containing garnets and staurolites. The mica schist forms the upper part of the hill and the limestone outcrops toward its base.
* See last volume of this Journal, p. 347. + This Journal, III, vi, 266, 1873.
J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 43
Further, in the most eastern of the limestone areas, in Tyringham, twelve miles east of the Taconic range, a hill, just west of the village, having a height of 450 feet above the
ridge near its base, consists of well stratified limestone to within sixty-five feet of the top, (fig. 9); and above this of mica schist (the contact distinct), and very hard whitish thick-
ded gneiss; the whole dipping southeast 20° to 28°, with the strike N. 40°-45° W. Within the limestone stratum, fifty feet below its upper limit, there is a thin layer of mica schist.
These examples are sufficient to illustrate the point in view. Two others are given beyond.
(2.) Interstratified quartzyte and schists.
At the east front of Monument Mountain, half way from Stockbridge to Great Barrington, quartzyte overlies mica schist and gneiss (fig. 10), the dip 15° to 25°, to the southeast. The
West end of Monument Mountain. East front of Monument Mountain. x Woda is a hard kind without bedding, but vertically jointed.
front and rises to its greatest height a little back from the front,
ern hal no bedding whatever; but in most parts of the mountain it is tather mica schist than gneiss. *
t Mountain, rising from the Great Barrington Valley half
my Patri ‘o the concealment of the rocks by the soil. The stratum of schist in state ep published section was inferred to exist there below the quartzyte, as I
mountains south of the old furnace, and from some ve ma: Masses of limestone on the east bank of the river, above the furnace, which ¥ Possibly be transported blocks.
44 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
a mile east of the village, consists below of thick-bedded gneiss, similar to part of that of Monument Mountain, but contorted in its bedding and dipping 40° to 50° to the eastward ; at top, for the upper 100 feet, it is laminated quartzyte (fig. 12), re- sembling the laminated quartzyte of many other localities in the limestone region. This quartzyte is gneissoid in many places, or a sandy gneiss, making manifest thereby the close relations of the two rocks.
SS SS Kast Mountain, Great Barrington. Cobble Hill, South Canaan.
In South Canaan, east of the village, Cobble Hill consists below, to the west, of a soft-bedded quartzyte, dipping south- eastward 40° (fig. 13), twenty to twenty-five feet of which aré exposed on the road side; next above, a stratum of mica schist and thin-bedded gneiss, containing scales of both black and white mica; and then a whitish, granite-like gneiss. The quartzyte contains at intervals, in its upper part, streaks of black and white mica, and thus exhibits its relations to and passage into the overlying gneiss.
East of the village of Lee, a low ridge consists below of
uartzyte; at middle of mica schist; and at top of quartzyte— all dipping eastward 15° to 25° (fig. 14). (3.) Interstratifiel quartzyte, limestone, and schists.
The fact that the quartzyte keeps by the side of the limestone, with small exceptions, from its northern limit southward to Connecticut suggests that there is a close stratigraphical con- nection between them. Further, seeing that the limestone occurs interstratified with the schists, and also the quartzyte of the same region with the same schists, there would seem to hardly any ground for questioning the inference that the quartz- yte and limestone are parts of the same great series of forma-
SS AGG 9 East of the village of Lee. Quartzyte ridge east of south end of Tom Ball. tions. On these fgrounds and the near by, it would be a reasonable inference that the strata of
occurrence of limestone _
J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 45
fig. 14 and the limestone are conformable. But there is also demonstrative evidence of this relation in sections. Fig. 1
Stone and overlying gneiss) are in contact, and so also are 9 and 10 (quartzyte and overlying gneiss). No, 1 is the east- ern border of the limestone of the Konkaput valley. The
Sas aE GEESE ~ SS 9 Three-mile Ridge, west side [UE ae HERE 5 1 8 of Konkaput Valley. Devany’s Quarry, east side of Konkaput Valley.
°F schist. This schist is mostly a whitish and gray gneiss, Hak tough and hard ; but with it there is granulyte, gray and blac mica schist, and blackish bornblendic schist.
* This Journal, III, v, 84.
46 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
Fig. 16 exhibits the stratification in Three-mile Ridge,—a ridge on the opposite side of Konkaput valley from Devany’s bluff, and shows the same succession essentially as on the Devany side—namely, limestone (that of the Konkaput valley) below ; next gee ti next a ere thickness of gneiss—not re than 800 feet. Three-mile Rid ge extends southwa
5.S.E.), with rather an abrupt front, a shows in a distant view nearly horizontal lines of stratification. The dip is mostly 25° to the northwest; but at base, toward the notch passed through by the road to Great Barrington, it is diminished to 8°. The gneiss (as may be seen three or four hundred yards south of the notch) rests on a stratum of Berit yte. It is hard
distinction between quartzyte and gneiss in Berkshire proves
be of no more importance than that of quartzyte and hy mica slate in the quartzyte formation of Vermont. The soil conceals at this place the lower part of the quartzyte stratum, and the underlying rock or rocks; but, half a mile southeast- ward, along a road which runs nearly parallel with the moun- tain and not far from its base, and also between this road and the mountain, the limestone of the Konkaput valley outcrops with a small northwestward dip (15°-20°), conformable to the schist of the mountain ; ae these outcrops continue numerous for more than a mile. In o e knoll, toward the mountain, the beds were found to dip eueuesd, but this seg an exceptional ease. Elsewhere the dip was northwestwar d, and at one spot the limestone was seen directly overlaid conformably by the schist.
I have above given the facts of my own observation. The same general conclusion with regard to the interstratification of these formations was long ago reached by Professor Edward Hitchcock, and announced in his Report on the Geology of Massachusetts. Bs Feat of the Leb pee ae he says (Report of 1841, p. 590) : “it
ternates with and passes impercept ais His into gneiss and mica slate ; and in fact it Lok y very mperly be regarded as a mem- ber of the gneiss and mica slate form ” in Berkshire “it is
frequently interstratified with gneiss Re, mica slate, especially along the eastern side of the valleys, as in Tyringham, Great on and Sheffield.”
He also states (p. 573 and ea nd) that in Berkshire, the lime- stone occurs ae oe with the gneiss, mica slate, talcose slate and quartz rock of the region; that in New Malborough and SO Bg tee it is found in als between the strata of gneiss, as at
adsell’s lime quarry ; and that its interstratification with woke
J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 47
slate may be seen in numerous places in all parts of the county. He adds that he had not “ met with a spot where the limestone is in direct contact with quartz rock; but as this rock frequently alternates with gneiss and mica slate, and the latter with the limestone, they must all be regarded as interstratified with one another.”
Before Professor Hitchcock’s observations were made, Professor Dewey announced in this Journal, in 1819, that the Berkshire limestone at the Cave or Falls in Adams, east of Williamstown, and also west of the Hoosac, rests on mica slate. Further, Pro- fessor Silliman, in the second volume, 1821, gives an account of the interstratification of the limestone and mica slate in Salisbury, Ct., west of the Housatonic, saying that “in the course of five or Six miles there are as many alternations and successions of these two rocks,” and “their junction in some places is exactly defined.”
ifting force, or that of conformability in the formations, because of the abrupt local changes, which sometimes amounted to 50 or in di i
; <ception absent and the conformability to the schist is placed yond doubt. An unconformable limestone ledge is alluded to above as ne in the valley near the Devany bluff. The conformable 'mestone-outcrops extend along the side of the valley for a
48 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
fourth of a mile. But toward the west end of the series, in front of the conformable outcrops, that is, a little nearer the middle of the valley, there is a ledge with a dip of 80° to 85°, instead of 25° or 30°. Its little extent shows that it is one of the local exceptions. And this is made more manifest, and its existence partly explained, by the fact that in the same trans- verse line across the flat valley, and just beyond its middle, there is a hill of schist whose beds dip 50° to the westward, instead of the usual 25° or less. The schist in the mountains forming the sides of the valley has little variation in dip for several miles.
The reason for these irregularities is to be found in the inflexibility of unerystalline limestone as compared with other uncrystalline rocks (shales and sandstones) and its tendency, therefore, to break and become irregularly shoved up under uplifting or flexing action. Moreover, the limestone areas appear generally to be regions of anticlinals, and the schist areas those of synclinals; and the former, whatever the rock, are usually the places of greatest surface fractures, and the latter, of least. In the synclinal, the limestone beds are kept in place beneath the overlying strata; and therefore, the irreg- ularities in the limestone should not appear close to the schist.
In such a region of extensive upturning and mountain-mak- ing as that of the Green Mountains there must be many lines of great fractures and faults. Yet the only case of non-con- formity in dip adjoining a ridge of schist which I have observed occurs near the middle of the limestone region within half a mile east of Great Barrington village at the foot of the section represented in fig. 12. The limestone dips 80° to 85° to the . westward ; and the schist, at its nearest outcrop—1l0 yards— dips 50° to 60° to the eastward, the strike being N. 10° E. The schist is mostly a thick-bedded gneiss; and its antique look and massiveness, with its contorted texture, led me, in view of the non-conformity of dip, to suspect actual uncon- formability, and also difference in age and system of uplift. But this idea was soon set aside by the discovery that the top of the ridge was made partly of quartzyte, like that of Monument Mountain three miles north, and by other facts showing that — both the schist and quartzyte were part of the limestone series.
The facts here brought forward fully establish the conclusion that the limestone, quartzyte, and schists under consideration have the same stratigraphical relations in Berkshire that they have in Vermont. They therefore sustain the view that these formations constitute together a conformable series; and, also, that the area they cover is geologically one.
[To be continued. }
M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographic Image. 49
Art. VII.—On certain new and powerful means of rendering visible the Latent Photographic Image; by M. Carey LEA.
THE development of the latent or invisible photographic image produced by the action of light is beyond all question the most remarkable and the most interesting fact with which pboto-chemistry has made us acquainted. Our knowledge, however, of the substances capable of exhibiting this power, has increased with singular slowness. It commenced with the discovery, by the late Rev. Mr. J. B. Reade, in the year 1836, of the existence of this power in gallic acid, and not long after pyrogallol was found to possess the same property in a more energetic degree. Mr. Robert Hunt discovered that ferrous sulphate acted somewhat more powerfully than pyrogallol, provided that a soluble salt of silver was present. This was more than twenty years ago. Since then, no useful addition has been made to this list of so-called “developers,” though several of simply scientific interest. I was enabled to add to It hematoxyline about ten years since. Morphia has been found to have limited developing powers. When pyrogallol or gallic acid was employed in the absence of a soluble salt of Silver, it was found that the activity of these bodies could be greatly increased by the presence of an alkali (alkaline develop- ment), for which purpose ammonium carbonate has been gener- ally employed. It has been recently affirmed that in the ammonia -pyrogallol process, pyrogallol could be replaced (though with less energetic action, and therefore not advan- tageously) by a decoction of coffee berries, probably by reason of the quinic and caffetannic acids contained; and possibly by one or two other substances. This I believe represents the !nformation acquired up to the present time.
In the following investigation I A age to show: 1. That the number of bodies en _pe developing the latent image, so far from being very limited, as
form of development, when no soluble salt of silver is present, 's that which depends on the use of free alkali. I propose to show that there exists a form of development which under
* Unless possibly after greatly prolonged exposure. Am. Jour. Sct.—Turp Serres, Vow. XIV, No. 79.—Juxy, 1877. 4
©
%
50 M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image.
appropriate conditions is more powerful than any yet known, in which there is no free alkali present.
4, It has been held that ferrous salts act only in the presence of a soluble salt of silver, and scarcely attack the silver haloid in the film, to produce an image in the absence of silver nitrate or other soluble silver salt. This also I think can be disproved.
As the development of the latent image depends (in the class of cases which shall here consider,) upon a reduction of the portions of the sensitive substance which have been acted upon by light, it is evident that it is amongst reducing agents that we must look for bodies possessing this power. But here we are at once met by the fact that it is not the reducing power alone that is involved. We find that many substances which reduce silver salts energetically, have no power to evoke the latent image, and also that the developing power, where it exists, stands in no sort of relation to the energy of the reducing power. It is an elective power that is required, a tendency to reduce, not the whole surface, but only those parts that have been acted upon by light, and to spare the others. For example, it is easy to prepare alkaline solutions of ferrous salts, by having present a sufficient quantity of neutral potassium tartrate. But such solutions, applied to a sensitive surface that has received suffi- cient exposure under a negative, or in the camera, for ordinary development, seem to attack equally those parts that have been acted upon by light and those that have not. So that the sen- sitive surface darkens uniformly without showing the vestige of an image. Other similar cases will appear farther on.
n the following series of investigations a pure photographic paper was selected as the material for containing the sensitive substances. In the selection of the sensitive material itself,
tassium bromide, two of potassium iodide, and one and a third ammonium chloride, to the ounce. This proportion was that which gave the best results and was maintained in the experi- ments throughout. Facility of development is always increased by the presence in the sensitive film of some suitable organic substance. In these investigations a decoction of cocculus indt- cus was employed : this was applied together with the haloids,
M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image. 51
first; after drying, the silver solution. Finally the sheets were very thoroughly washed out, to remove every trace o excess of silver nitrate and of all other soluble matter. To this careful washing much importance attaches. If any coc- culus were left in the paper, it might, by dissolving out in the developing solution, confuse the result, inasmuch as cocculus with potash exhibits some developing powers. Every trace of it was therefore removed by the most careful washing, and as an additional precaution, the most important results were re- peated on paper prepared with haloids only, in order to control the conclusions with exactness,
Resutts.—A. Sugars.
€ image produced by mannite is of a redder shade than that resulting from any other developing agent. B. Glucosides. Daphnin gave a moderately strong image; its derivative, Daphnetin, a bolder and fuller. Phioridzin and glycyrrhizin
turnings gave a moderately strong one, doubtless by the con- version of quercetin into quercitrin. Accordingly an infusion of white oak bark was found to give a good image. olanin .
52 M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image.
C. Acids.
Of a number of organic acids tried with excess of potash, one only, cevadic acid, exhibited tolerable developing power. Phenol, and glycerie, and gentianie acids powerfully reduced the silver haloids, but with little or none of the elective power necessary to produce an image. One, oleic, produced an image lighter than the ground. Sant nic, sinapic, gummic, malic, and seg acids produced either fain traces of an image or none
nadous acid (potassium vanadite with excess of ee failed to exhibit any developing power.
D. Resins. Resinous substances “8 the most part dissolve easily in dilute aqueous potash, and exhibit more or less developing power.
Foremost among them is i seis casi which gives a very vigorous image, not far short of what may be obtained with sertantion m of tolu and ordinary resin both have moderate develop- in veer: Resin scarcely attacks the parts that have not been acted upon by light, whereas tolu does so. Resin of podophyl- lin gives a strong oe E. Essential Oils.
When oil of cloves is boiled for a few moments with dilute aqueous potash, and the mixture is then much diluted with water, it acts slowly on the image, but as the action is sustained te cle, pre sate ae the ay of about an hour, a vig-
us a 1 of Roman chamomile acts ibaa sides Ayah pie eclly. Oil of peppermint produces an image of a i color, and at the same time darkens the parts not acted upon by light, thus producing an image on a darker
round. Something similar has been already mentioned in the ae of oleic acid. In these cases, where the light acts, the de- veloping agent seems to reduce metallic silver, elsewhere, a dark basic salt, pene with organic matter in combination, is formed.
F. Bases.
Daturin (atropin?) gives a weak image. Codein, As a general thing the organic bases exhibit little laoleaey: to evoke
the latent image. G. Pyrogaliol.
In the course of this investigation, some interesting and new observations were made in connection with this well known agent, ais deserve mention here
gallol is well known to have, when employed by itself, i tlerahie developing power, which however, 1s greatly in- creased by the presence of caustic or carbonated alkalies. It appears that these alkalies can be re laced with sodium mefa- phosphate, with about equal results. With sodium hypophosphite,
4M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image. 53
indicate that they might exhibit power of development al Cases they were boiled a few moments with dilute aqueous
potash, as it was found that in that way their characteristic actions were most fully brought out. Aloes, uva ursi leaves, areca nuts, the bark of the berberin tree, morus tinctoria, exhib- ited very considerable developing power. Gratiola, qpecacuanha, pimento nuts, well marked power, but less than the foregoing. A decoction of Iceland moss exhibited the properties already described in the case of oleic acid and essential oil of pepper- mint. Many other substances were examined, and showe either faint traces only or absence of power, e. g., litmus, cartha- nus, rutin, bryony, stavesacre, colchicum, turmeric, nus: vomica, caffe- in, berberin, ete.
Acetone, in conjunction with aqueous potash, is a powerful developer and gives a bold and vigorous Image.
ldehyde, with potash, gives no image, a result that seems
somewhat remarkable.
matters,
_ When to a solution of cuprous oxide in ammonia, formic acid 's added in quantity not quite sufficient to neutralize the bases, and this solution is applied to the latent image, a powerful development is obtained, resulting in a pure black image. Lactic acid exhibits a similar reaction, but less perfectly, and no doubt a large number of other organic acids share the same
rties
pro :
arious substances that develop in presence of potash, especially gum guatacum, gallotannic acid and manna, heighten the action of the cupro-ammonia solution. Others do not, of + which picrotoxin (coceulus indicus) is an example. Of all the substances named, guaiacum appeared to have the most power, and next to it, perhaps formic acid.
J. Ferrous Salts, : The salts of ferrous oxide have proved to be the most inter
esting and remarkable of all the bodies examined, in their
=
54 M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image.
action on the image. When a salt of silver is present in solu- tion, to suffer reduction and to furnish silver for building up the i image to be developed, as in the case of the so-called O wet process,” ferrous sulphate is the most Se developing
agent known, and is accordingly, always employed. But in
the absence of silver in actual solution it is powerless. It is in connection with such sensitive surfaces (i. e., those from which silver nitrate or other soluble silver salt has been removed by washing), that the resent investigation is made,
A surface of sensitive paper, om which all silver ‘compounds have been removed, may, after receiving a latent image, be left long in contact with ferrous sulphate without an image being develope
Desirous of finding a means of applying ferrous salts to these developments, my first efforts were directed to the formation of alkaline solutions containing ferrous oxide in solution, but they did not appear to possess any power of development. I - then tried ferrous oxide in combination with organic acids, and here at once most interesting results followed. Severa Sree salts furnished beautiful developments, among which may especially mentioned /errous succinate, lactate and eatin
he succinate is best used by forming a slightly acid solution i i ing to it a solution of ferrous sulphate in quantity not quite sufficient to form a precipitate.
any other ferrous salts, among whith may be mentioned citrate, formate and tartrate, give images, but much inferior to
errou. manner ated described, echibiis that powers af a
ment, the ‘other with the wy alkaline pyrogallic develop- ment, — the following differences :
“The sa e exposure which with the alkaline pyrogallol gives a weak or sunk-in image after a protracted development, gives with ferrous oxalate a bright, bold image, and this in a
* much less time. The development is particularly clear and
clean. Rotate unexposed parts are not attacked: the developer possesses a great deal of that elective power previously spoken of, whick causes it to react strongly on those parts which have received the influence of light, and spare those which have not.
Ferrous oxalate is easily obtained by adding a strong warm solution of oxalic acid to one of ferrous sulpbat A bright
S. P. Langley— Transit Observation. 55
yellow precipitate falls, which continues to increase for some time, and which may easily be washed by decantation. The method of employing it is by dissolving it in an aqueous solution of neutral potassic oxalate. The latter substance is to be dis- solved in about three times its weight of hot water, and the pre- cipitated and washed ferrous oxalate is dissolved in it to satura- tion, A deep red solution is obtained, which for use needs only to be diluted with from five or six up to twenty or thirty times its bulk of water, according to the energy of effect desired. _An active solution of ferrous oxalate may be obtained by simply adding a solution of ferrous sulphate to one of neutral potassic oxalate, in quantity just sufficient to avoid forming a permanent precipitate. But the first described method gives the best results.
Philadelphia, May 8, 1877.
Art. VIIL—On the possibility of Transit Observation without Personal Error ; by 8. P. LANGLEY.
swe should travel at the same apparent rate as the star.
forming a part of the telescope. These difficulties have never been overcome,—scarcely attacked, and were they vanquished, others would remain. This method then, though perhaps still Susceptible of success with skillful treatment, has not yet prove of any practical utility. A very different proposition, originally due I think to M. Faye, and made as long since as 1858, is that for the use of photography in transits. This evidently, if peneable, does away with personal error, and if the exposure
reduced to a very brief time—let us say to 0°-01—it is clear that the motion of ‘the star is immaterial, for we have its post- on photographed relatively to the wires, as it was at a given ‘nstant. This method has been little used, except for the sun, owing to defective light, but though not yet practicable save in limited cases, it is perhaps not too much to say that it will Probably be the method of the future.
56 S. P. Langley— Possibility of
Under the second class come the ordinary procedures for the determination of relative error, or the personal equation between two observers; such as their interchange of stations, or their observing the same stars with adjacent instruments, or with the same instrument jointly, ete. These comparisons are liable to error themselves, are commonly tedious, and often compel long journeys. When successful, they give, not the absolute error, but the error as compared with another error, itself subject to an unknown variation. Unsatisfactory as all this is, however, such methods are in common use, and will remain common till better are provided. . An effort in this direction has stimulated the invention of a great number of devices to enable the ob- ‘server to determine bis equation by comparison with the transit of an artificial star, itself, self-recording. This suggestion (said to have been sea made by Pr azmowski i os has been. the parent of many attempts, among which those of M.M. Hirsch and Plantamour; ane that of M. Wolf of ih Paris Observatory, particularly deserve attention; and of subsequent ones too numerous for description, though the apparatus of Professor Eastman, U.S. N., sais of Professor Rogers of Harvard me
is fale? haa most are aware.
To propose to offer anything new at this day on such a sub- ject may seem to be hardy. I venture however to ask attention to a method for eliminating the equation on the star itself, which has worked well on trial.
Before stating it, Jet us observe that we restrict the words
‘‘ personal equation” here, to the correction for the error com- mitted by the observer in noting the time of transit of a star owing to the motion of the latter, and that for brevity we leave untouched the effect of certain minute irregularities familiar to
the observer, such as the actual inequality of wire eri which should be equal, or the apparent irregularity in the
remove the error from the observation, in the act of observation itself. One mode which presented itself many years since, and which has been tried in numerous subsequent plans I have made, was to view the star only for a bnef time through a narrow linear aperture in a moving screen, thus exhibiting its
Transit Observation without personal error. 57
position in the field for a moment only, though the use of a
ash of light which for an instant illuminates the wires has seemed better. In any case the essential idea was to treat the © eye as it has been proposed to use the photographie plate, and to impress upon it by instantaneous vision an image of the position of the star independent of personal error (in one sense,) since the star was to have sensibly no time to move, while the view lasted, while yet the effect then seen would remain (owing to persistence of vision,) quite long enough for cognizance. After a great number of forms of the movable screen were considered, they were set aside for the flash of light from the electric spark.
To make the present plan plain, let us recur to the use of photography as an illustration, and first suppose that the transit . wires are twenty-five in number and so near that a star occupies one second in passing from one to another. In the place of a transit lamp, let a wire, attached to a repeater in the clock circuit, dip in a mereury cup, and the circuit being broken every second by the clock, recording simultaneously on the chronograph; the otherwise dark field will be illuminated by a brilliant instantaneous flash, by whose light the wires are projected with the crossing star on the sensitive plate of the camera. If this plate be renewed or moved downward at each flash, we obtain twenty-four successive pictures while the star 1S Crossing, each showing it at the extremity of its luminous traces in precisely the same relation to the adjacent wires, since the wire interval in time, and the flash interval, are identical. If then the star is caught by the first flash, one-third of the
those we could expect from the photograph, and equally exempt rom personal error, in the sense in which we have defined it.
tst as to the difficulties to overcome. — In the case of the photograph, there is an opportunity for subsequently measuring the distance of tie star from the wire, which we have not with © eye. There is one particular case however, where the result is the same for both, that, namely, when the flash comes, the Star is on the wire and bisected by it; in this case we know US position as accurately by the eye, as if we bisected its image ‘on the plate by the wire of our measuring micrometer, with —
58 S. P. Langley—Possrbility of
the same magnifying power. If we suppose, then, that the star observed was in the equator, and that, by a happy accident, the first flash came just as it was crossing the first wire, this wire would be sharply defined on the dise of the star and bisecting it, and the simultaneous record on the chronograph (made with- out any intervention of the observer) would evidently give us the same result as though the star had electrically recorded its
the top of the rod, and by sliding the bob sufficiently down- ward ; with the use of a readily-constructed table, we can, given
the ses! of a stationary horizontal wheel, concentric with the i
revolv passing from a groove in its cireumference to the hand of the observer at the transit. As the upper, or ordinarily fixed, and the lower or constantly moving, wheel have, a common vertical
Transit Observation without personal error. 49
nothing to do, except possibly to note _ Nite, for each records itself on the chronograph without ae intervention of his. But if the star be, for instance, two-thirds - the way from the first to the second wire at the first flash, m will draw one of the cords, accelerating the flash and thus Causing the star to appear nearly coincident with the second vite when the next spark comes, and repeat the adjustment by the light of subsequent flashes, till the bisection 1s perfect. ree or four trials are in practice found to yield a bisection Which will satisfy a fastidious eye, and when a satisfactory one
60 C. H. F. Peters— Observations of Comets.
has been once made, the effect is automatically repeated. Of course, no increase in number of the wires, under these cireum- stances, ~— weight to that from the first satisfactory Be tion, but, w h the usual five tallies of five wires each, the server can na if he please, obtain five independent bisae tions,* or one for each tally, and in this case the chronographie record corresponding to the last wire of each tally is assumed to be the significant one, unless the contrary is recorded.
Under the general conception, then, of the. possibility of diminishing to. any limit personal error, by employing brief views of the star or wire and utilizing the phenomena of per- sistence of vision, the par ticularly described device assumes to dispense with the observer's record upon the chronograph altogether, and to substitute a purely automatic one, giving the same virtual result as though the image of the star were a tan- gible object, itself making electric contact with each wire. The
share of personality in any observation, is relegated to the prior +8 of bisecting a star, virtually motionless with relation to the secting wire, so that if (as seems to be the case) this act is independent of quickness or slowness of perception, of the time of cognition, or of the speed of nerve transmission ; peers / in the technical sense, appears not to intervene at a
Art. IX. ees of Comets made at the oe Observa- ‘y of Hamilton College; by C. H. F. P
1, Comet 1877, IL (Winnecke’s) :
1877. Meag t. H. C. App. AR. App. Dee. No, of Comp. Apr. 6. 16" 18™ 56%/22" 8™ 46°29°; +16° 23’ 12°7”
i 39 25 |2 10 23°76 8 46 6°0 10 “10.418 260 24: 192 38.1971 215. 22:32 10 “12,115 30 34/22 14. 18°84 24 10 11°5 10 (34144 64.97 122 2.16... 3648 27 i 2S 14 “93.114 8 82 |22 382 39°34 43 3 33°9 10
May 2.|14 0 48 |23 12 23°07 62. 25 28:1 10 19.;138: 41. 37. ..2 50. 42°20 79 . 48 .19°5 8 “13.112 46 23 | 3 38 25°44 a0. 10. 32°7 8 ee 68 52 | 4 21 43°23; 80 8 25°0 8 “99,.;12 2 6| 8 41 11°96 |-+62 21 31°6 9
* I regret that this lengthy description may convey an agus of complexity as to a really very simple apparatus, all we ask of which, as a timekeeper, is that
and connecting it with the wires, and i eed not exceed that of the break- circuit my teegega box; it may ssaed er’ Bela-work He conveniently enca' with the latter.
W. Gibbs— Complex Inorganic Acids. 61
1877. Mean C; App. App. Decl. No. of Comp. May 3. | 11" 235), — - 80° ia 6 ae F 56 31 paris * mn 2’ 29°07 4 M4, 510 ~ B.- .6:4.5%) 26" 26°08 5 4-60°-9".25¢1 8 “ 5.110 10 88/15 15 50°04 59 30 24°7 8 “12.110 6 41/6 29 25:59 BA Fe Bi 10 *30.1. 0-58 dt 1848 1°60 ites 45 34°3 10
_Tefractor. All the other observations were obtained by myself with the filar micrometer of the 133 inch refractor, using a power of 270, and illuminated wires. Comet III had always a more or less blurred aspect, without oe nucleus, paces the pointing difficult. n, N. Y., June 1,
Arr. X.— On Complex Inorganic Acids. From a letter of Dr. va Grsss to one of the Editors, dated Cambridge, June th, 1877,
oo, acid. ‘The two first mentioned are src or metameric, and de We on an es the formulas: Si0,. 40H,, or W, 203,Si(OH).,
while the third bist he formula
10WO, . SiO,. 40H, or erin It occurred to me that these results might be generalized in various Ways, and I have in fact obt see | _ very interesting new re of acids of the same or similar typ Platinic c hydrate PuOH H), boiled with an acid we tun bath yickia two isomeric °F Metameric sodium salts which have the formula:
LOWO, . PtO, . 40Na, +25 aq.
62 _ Editorial Correspondence.
WO,. Pto, Nees ior ia eens PtO, . 40Am, +12 aq.
but both belong to the yellow series. I have not yet obtained the 12-atom series corresponding to Marignac’s pire The platino-deci-tungstates ethos tungstic hydrate, W(OH),, on boiling, but the hydrate separates again on cooling without thange. Acid molybdate of sodium also dissolves platinie hydrate giving a deep olive-green solution which appears red i
ayers. The only salt of this series yet graded “crystallizes in amber-colored tabular plates which have the formula:
10Mo00, . PtO, . 40Na, +29 aq.
They are very soluble and give — pronipltates with many metallic solutions. I thin have also obtained the corre- spondi ng metameric series, but of this 3 more in dee time. The
ohis : all the salts of both series effloresce strongly and the alkaline salts have a very distinct acid reaction, so that the limit of the basicity is certainly higher than eight. a am endeavoring to
(OH),, &e. the formation of new complex acids I have etd definite at present. gets i acid appears ho seahag to be fo rmed b
venue to ‘ por unusual exte 2 According to my analyses, phonphotungati acid hasthe formula 20 or Wo057P2(0OH),¢ independently of water of ‘rystallization. y have obeatned salts of this series having respectively the form : 20W0,.P,0,.ONa.z. ny +16 aq. 20W0,.P,0, . 2Ba0. 6OH, +18 aq.
mS 20W0, p 20,. 80K, +18 aq.
W. Gibbs— Complex Inorganic Acids. 63
sium salt, and I consider this—provisionally at least—as deter-
ici id. This is important as
showing that it is not phosphoric oxide, P,O,, which alone is
saturated. Debray considered the corresponding phospho-molybdic
ith the newer atomic weights it
would of course be regarded as 12-basic, if his view were correct. He describes however a 7-atom silver salt which I should write
20Mo0;.P,0;.7O0Ag, . OH, + 24 aq. and which is clearly the analogue of my potash salt above men-
excepting possibly that of the very acid sodium salt which heads the list. The analyses of these salts as well as of the platinum
The n tungstic acid and its salts are easily obtained, and I have more or
acids, I prove that there are also niobio-tungstic and tan- talo-tungstic acids, an experiment will soon decide this point But generalization is also possible in other n
Well defined. You see that. in this way the number of new acids is Very great and that I have a heavy task before me. It is of e0
me phospho-tungstates, &c., will be more easily seen, as we shall ‘ve for the sodium salts for instance, ‘ 20WO, . Pt,O, . 80Na,, and 20 WO,.P,0; . 80Na,, meantime I have as yet seen no satisfactory reason for the change. rv m disposed to think that the well known and very singular Shonty tates and molybdates, 30Na,.7WO, and 30Na,.7MoO,, ould be multiplied by 3 and written
64 Scientific Intelligence.
WO; .WO;.90Na,, and 20Mo0; . MoO, . 90Naz. They will = fall naturally into the 20-atom series. It seems also possible that the curious salt of Wohler wag written WO,Na,+W,0, may be represented by such a formula as i6WO, .4WO 1ONa, or W2,.W.0,,(ONa),,;.- T shall de- vote myself to these compounds until I have exhausted the sub- ject as far as possible, and meantime anticipate many new results,
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. J. CHEMISTRY AND PHysiIcs.
On the Effect of Pressure on Chemical action one attention to Quincke’s statement that in some Sexpaineitle e made in which sulphuric acid and zine were placed in
contact, the pressure of the evolved hydrogen rose in a few days” from i4 to 10 atmospheres (varying with the apparatus), in five months from 27 to 54 atmospheres, and in 17 years, from 25 to 126 atmospheres, and remarks that these experiments, made for an entirely different purpose, ee prove that the evolution of hydrogen is not arrested by pressure, but is only diminished in rapidity, confirming his results of acne — ago. in this case, chemism is not modified, but only the nature and extent of the surface of attack, the metal becoming covered with an adherent oe: layer, while the acid close to it becomes cara Hence, in his opinion, the evolution of hydrogen would indefinitely, limited in time only by the strength of the von reine the reagents.— Bull. Soc. Ch, U, xxvii, i ae 1
is obtained by means of the formula oni (c, —6, —ce+ 9) m
which 4 and &,, ¢ and ¢, represent the first and second weighings with chlorine and carbon dioxide respectively. This weight
Chemistry and Physics, 65
known, the volume is calculable at the temperature and pressure of the experiment, and hence the volume V of the trichloride is 7
known. Its weight, W,= in grams. From
71(c,—6,)—44(e—6)’ these data, the density is obtained since w= D. The result with | ICl, gave 3:1107, which the author thinks too high.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 782, May, : ae
3. On the Determination of High Melting Points,—CaRNELLEY has proposed a new process for fixing the melting points of less readily fusible salts, founded on the principle that if three metallic salts A, B and ©, which fuse at different temperatures such that A fuses before B and B before C, be arranged on a cold block of smooth iron and this be placed in a muffle kept at ‘a constant high temperature, and if 2 be the number of seconds which elapse between the melting of A and B and y, the number of seconds
between the melting of A and ©, then the ratio ¢ is approximately
constant for the same three salts whatever may be the temperature of the mufile, provided only it is considerably higher than that at which C fuses. Thus in sixteen experiments, using the three substances, sulphur, silver nitrate and potassium nitrate, the experiments being made at widely different temperatures, the ratio in each was 2°67, 2°68, 2°81, 2°80, 2°72, 2°67, 2°67, 2°67, 2°56, 2°62, 2°58, 2°87, 2°65, 2°88, _ 2°71, 2°91; mean 2°72. If the ratios obtained with different salts be reduced to the same scale, as by assuming the ratio between sal- phur and potassium nitrate and any other third salt to be any given number, the value for a given salt is constant, whatever the other salts used with it in the experiment. From these ratios, time-values are obtained for nine standard salts, S, AgN 2 0,;, KCIO,, TICI, PbCl,, KI, KCl, and Na,CO,. Thus if in
This (or the mean of a larger series 26:4) : F KNO,. So 32 is the time-value for KClO,, 45 for TICI, 59 for PhCly, 115 for KI, 197 for KCl, and 458 for Na,CO,. From the equation voor, in which ris the ex- perimental ratio for any salt, the time-value of that salt may be obtained. Thus with 8, AgNO, and KCIO,, if r=2-72, 42°72; ence if c=10, y=27-2, the time-value. Or, again, the value sid for PbCl,, KCl and Na, CO, is 1°50. Since the time-values the two former are 59 and 197, r==138, and y=207; or Na,CO, — 207 seconds after PbCl, ; and since PbCl, melts 59 seconds F ‘er 8, the time-value of Na, CO, is 266 seconds. By accurately etermining the melting points of these nine salts, and collating AM, Jour, oretide se Sentzs, Vor. XIV, No. 79.—Juxy, 1877.
66 | Scientific Intelligence.
them with their time-values, a table may be obtained from these data, either by direct or by graphic interpolation, from which,
knowing the time-value for any salt, its mene point can be ob- tained.— Jour. Chem. Soc., xxxi, 365, April, 1877. .F.B
ew Vapor Density Method. fest ocean and C1aAMICIAN
ve modified somewhat Victor Meyer’s method of fixing vapor
densities, and by substituting mercury for fusible metal, have contrived an oer which is Han See aa effective. A glass
5. On the oo of Ipdbabeliae. — Bourierow has obtained a curious body, which he calls isodibutylene, by _ ba action of diluted sulphur acid upon pip eniteiac soi It i
ng
on the iodide thus obtained, giving rise to a new oc Sets! Danek
isodibutol, having a characteristic smell of camphor, and boiling at 146 6°-147°5°. When isodibutylene or isodibutol is ape with chromic acid, the principal products are acetone and trime- thyl-acetic rapt "hence the constitution of the iyarotaibe: is
ae ot represented by the formula © HI>o=C 0<CH.. It is isobuty- CH,
lene, in which an atom of caviar belonging apparently to the ‘methylene group, is a by tertiary butyl.— Zoo oe as Il, xxvii, 370, April, 1877. G.
6. New method of producing Salicylic acid, rents whe 4 studied some time ago the action of sodium on poe ether, now finds that if the action be te Joe ntinued, t
yeotcton of this substance in this way is Hips! nero because
vial —CO—CH. COOH
én, C0. ¢H.coon? is a member of the fatty series, while
salicylic acid, C,H, 1 Sat belongs to the pine it shows &
conversion of one into the other, the closed ring o arbon — atoms in the former suffering a further condensation fee eves op-.
Chemistry and Physics. 67
ing a true benzene ring; and second because from this mode of
formation it is clear that in salicylic acid the hydroxyl and the
carboxyl groups aad the para position.— Ber.
Ges., x, 646, April, 1 G. F. B. 7. On the x Sasa of Coumarin, and of Cinnamic and
other analogous acids, — PERKIN, who synthesized coumarin
C,H, CO ° several years ago, now finds that this substance is
readily produced when a hydride is boiled with acetic oxide and sodium acetate. He was thus led to try other aldehydes in the same way. On bo cling benzoic aldehyde with acetic oxide and sodium acetate for a day, a considerable quan sig v# an acid was obtained which on examination proved to be cinnamic or ordain bioe acid C,H,.CH.CH.COOH. — Usi i "propionic
xide and sodium epee the product of the reaction was
C
phenyl-crotonic acid, *” From butyric acid and
OH) sodium we was obtained phenyl-angelie acid, CH 2(C,H,.C sips
CO(OH) sodium succinate, isophenyl-crotonic acid. From cuminic alde- hyde, acetic oxide and sodium acetate, cumenyl-acrylic or isopro-
From benzoic aldehyde, succinic acid and
acid, Ad Saar oxide gave cinnamenylcrotonic acid, and butyric oxide e cinnamenylangelic acid. “Avice aldeh yde pid oe Ma paroxyphenylacrylic, niga pe NEES lee ah ape and m ee oxyphenylangelic acide, hen thus treated. Met ea nabe ii alde- hyde gave methylort dey henylacrylic, methylorthoxyphenylcro- m8, a arses dig onptensangee acids.— J. Chem. ta ag ey 877.
furfurol is treated with a few drops of h hydrochloric acid and warmed, a splendid arpleviolt re or is Wagalépedt paid Fe rl. - Chem . Ges ce gE iB. ise Notes Won the Chemioat Laboratory of the Johns “Hopkins ow Nos. 1, 2,3. 16 pp. 8vo: Baltimore, May, 1877.— € Papers here included are: Oxidation of Mesitylene-sulphonic — by L. B. Hart and Professor REMSEN ; on the oxidation o . Sulphoacids derived from metaxylene, by M. W. Ines and €ssor Remsen; on isomeric nitrotoluenesulphonic acids from Paranitrotoluene, by E. Harr and Professor Remsen.
68 Scientifie Intelligence.
Il. GroLoagy AND MINERALOGY.
ts Begone Eruptions on Hawaii; by Rev. Tirus Coan.— On the 6th and 7th of January, 1873, the e great t terminal pit of a Loa, Mokua-weo-weo, was intensely active, exciting the
Ma
witnessed in that lofty crater. But it was as transient as it
was t. e were favored with only two nocturnal exhibi-
tions, woe the curtain dropped and the lights were extinguished, On the 20th of April, 1 — this crater fired up again, and for
months the illumination was grand by night, and the column of
smoke and gases rose in a magnificent pillar by day.
Mokua-weo-weo, and onntibted for fifteen months. During all
d n startling detonations of the fiery abyss, and oan set jets as they spouted upward hundreds of feet, and the glowing waves
t,.and awakening the ‘aablinalaatio sdmiredon of beholders. This continued but one week.
On the 13th of February, 1876, we were entertained 8 another grand display of Pele’s fire-works, keeping thousands of people on the watch at midnight, but this also was of short duration.
All these d pga ra were confined to the great mountain crater. There were no overflowings and no lateral outbursts.
the fing In the morning the mountain had on a veil of thick
can’s trip hammer, and a smoky atmos pce So sudden and —
ple Hilo, enquiring if we were having the eruption all to ourselves ; and we sent back the inquiry to them, “ What has become of the
Geology and Mineralogy. 69
voleano ?” while the mountains stood above in silent and solemn grandeur. The steamer came up to Kona and to Kau, loaded with passengers, curious to witness the eruption, but the fire had become extinguished, and they returned disappointed. But before the vessel was fairly out of sight, a.remarkable bubbling was seen in the sea about three miles south of Kealakekua—where Capt. Cook fell,—and a mile from the shore. Approaching the boiling
Cambria, 194 p- 8vo, with 44 wood-cuts and 4 maps and sec- tions. 1877. This report gives from “the elaborate hypsometric map of Edmund Smith yet to be published,” the heights of the
0 to 2,510 feet; also those of the priacipal summits of Laurel Hill, 2,270 eet,
(3) Special Report on the Coke Manufacture of the Youghiogheny River in Fayette and Westmoreland Counties, with geo- logical notes on the Coal and Iron-ore beds, by FRANKLIN Puatr. © ee are appended a Report on methods of Coking by John ulton,
facture, by J. P. Pearse and F. Platt. 252 pp. 8vo, with maps
oo 3 oo a =. bs oO = 3 =| a &, o
D OX 5 > a g . e oO $ y “0 he *] bas =
70 Scientific Intelligence.
ig = Wuirs, papers on Judith River group Unionide and Phy- ; Uniones and anew genus ods fresh- water Saeeronoee from
and associated mollusks with tte 1€8 5 paloohichoutal char- acteristics of the Green River Cenozoic and Mesozoic; Dr. E. Coves, U. 8. A., notes on American Insectivorous Mammals; Ornithology of source of Red River of Texas; S. Aucury, cata- logue of land and fresh-water shells of Nebraska ; A. D. Witsoy, on the Geographical work of the Survey. A further notice is deferred to another number.
4, Geological ate of Canada; AtFrrep R. C. SELWYN, Bice Report of Progress for 1875-76. 432 pp. 8vo, with maps and plates. 1877.—This volume opens with an "Intro- ductory Report, reviewing the work of the ws by Mr. Setwyn, after which come eae reports: on British Columbia, by Mr.. Serwyn; on the same region,
AWSON; and on other western areas, by Prot. Macoun, Le Wuirnaves, R. W. Exts, Roserr BELL, and 8. BaRLow 3; and on
i Ba
rt, by C. Horrmann; on the Insects of the Tertiary at eee by 8. H. ScuppEr; and List of Coleoptera alloted on the Lower Peace and Athabasca Rivers, by Prof. ONTE, Mr. Selwyn states that Mr. H. G. Vennor ih ioand a large variety of crystalline rocks in Western Quebec and Eastern . Satie characterize y hat great beds "of cating, the
with t that these oa. rest probly ‘inconformably on the ° “* Lower Laurentian or reddish r. Dawson describes aap region between the Cascade Range and Fraser River, the 52d and 54th parallels of 2 pe It con- tains extensive basaltic areas; porphyritic rocks of uncertain a e; stern beds generally if not always beneath the "banal are “undoubtedly Tertiary; Cretaceous rocks; besides gneiss, , granites, vote etc, The Report on New ett w, describes the Silurian etal rocks of the Mascarene ek “oeludi chloritic rocks, dior oa felsytes and argillytes. They are shown to be Upper Siluria 5. Shifting of the earth’s axis.—Prot. Haughto eign E the- matica nal papas on the shifting of the earth’s axis caused by the elevation of the exieling continents, in the Proceedings of the oyal Society, vol. x p. 41. He finds by calculation ‘hat the displacement would pe as follows: Toward Greenwich. Toward Behr. Str. baichas ne sewers oe to
Miles. Miles. Europe and Asia, - .--- 58-7 eee Sass , ks 26-9 sit 4 North Ameri 15:2 fone 5 105°5 South America, 19°9 a 351 a
Botany and Zoology. - 71
The power of Europe and Asia in moving the pole is partly due to the extension of this continent along the parallel of 45°, which is the most effective latitude.
Samarskite of North Carolina.—A letter to one of the editors, from J. Lawrence Smith, dated Louisville, June 15, states
a few tenths of one per cent.” And that he has discovered a new method of separating thoria from the mixed earths, easily used, and giving accurate results even when the amount present is very small, :
fetallic acids of the tantalic group_---------- 54°96 Oxide of tin 0°16 Oxide of uranium 9°91 Oxide of iron : 14°02 Oxide of manganese 1 Oxide of cerium (La, Di) 517 Yttria 12°84 Magnesia 0°52 Insoluble residue from the oxalate of cerium... 1°25 ] on ignition 0°66
The loss was determined on another sample of the mineral.
‘ Ill Borany AND ZOOLOGY.
the genus Cladophoru. Instead, ho pores as is the case with species of Cladophora, the upper portion of the cells swells and the contents pass into the swollen portion, faving the rest empty. A cell wall is then formed, cutting off os Swollen portion from the rest, and the spore is thus form
eas foreigners who read Swedish, or to the imperfect adapta- ity of Latin to modern scientific writin 3
72 Scientific Intelligence.
grow directly from the sete of mosses. The latter part of the article in which Pringsheim discusses the alternation of generations in Thallophytes is excessively recondite and difficult to a
G. F. seb Ou Basicoate Americe —— 3 curantibus W. cr goes on, edite. Fasciculus
a in this i! ha they dave: cocuseth ed to issue sets of specimens, with printed tickets, &c. This first facie as con- - tains ona species, all of real interest, many of the to new, at least in collections. The specimens are > fall and beau- tiful, at the fasciculus is in every way attractively prepared. e have no announcement of the price, but we understand that a limited number of copies are to be put on sale. Professor Eaton at Yale College, Professor Farlow at Harvard, and Dr. Anderson at Santa Cruz, California, conld be applied to by those who wish to obtain these sets, Algw from the Californian coast have until now been unattainable; and er from Florida almost equally so since the late Dr. Harvey’ s time. The few species from our New
ae! species by Farlow, L. nigrescen , Calothrix crustacea U. pulvinata. Among the Californian species of Dr. Ander- “ s iclecdan’ is Agardh’s Farlowia co A. G. Orchis rotundifolia of Pursh, Witch Richardson referred to Bohenaban (it was confidently supposed with good reason), and Lindley after him to Plutanthera, is a genuine Orchis, having a ouch to the pollinia-disks as manifest as that of O. spectabilis. is is seen in fresh flowers of the living plant sent by Mr. Prin- gle from Vermont to the Cambridge Botanic Garden. . G 5, Beitrdége zur Pan aay a hamranibat der Flechten. Heft. I, Ueber die bas peste ig oer der Collemaceen.— EK. Sranu. Leet 8vo0 e ae rune important contribution joel
Zeitung, 1 . 177. He has avoi any discussion of the te theory with regard to the gonidia ony has sought in the study of the <oosprinamcabigh —_ of lichens to discover their relationship to other ark part first, he aiile of Collema
ot he
"spe female, The anatomy of the former has been known for some time, but the latter organs are now described for the first time. e carpogonia consists of two portions, the ascogone and the fi
Botany and Zoology. 73
the ascomycetous fungi. The trichogyne, also composed of sev- eral cells, is a more slender filament hi proceeds bet abs from the. ascogone until it makes its way to the surface of the thallus. The experience of Stahl shows eas the inkog rites seek the surface in that part of the thallus exposed to the light. In the majority of cases the spermatia and carpogonia are distinet.
In the genus Physma, however, the ascogone is in the base of the same cavity in which spermatia are found, a ae which
of t the Museum of Conspearaiee Liston by ALEXANDER AGASSIZ. Cambridge, June, 1877. 137 pp. 4to, with 20 plates.—The plates,
ago, to Tuntite a fifth volume of the Contributions to Zoblogy, by P Renae? eo whic f unfortu mney was not completed. e firs
ast illustrated. An i important chapter is also devoted to - oe gees ogies of Echinoderms
7. Ninth Annual “Report on the nowious and benefit aed other insects of the State of Missouri ; by C. V. Ritey, State son City Mo. oe DP. Bv9, with man figures and a map. Jeffer-
tTmy Worm, and the Rocky Mountain Locust; and also of the noxious Insects” the Hellgrammite and Yucca Borer. Of the
ight miles a year (though not over
Se “ty a _ over the region west of the Mississippi), and es ow mvaded nearly 1,500,000 square miles, or more tha
eet the 2 area of the United States. It does not thrive ies
ot its ra range very far south of the territory now occupied ; Ut its northern spread is not limited, and it may push to the
74 Scientific Intelligence.
northernmost limit of the eee ra sa limit which it has already well nigh reached. It travels by means of wings, But “it undoubtedly availed itself se no ee EEN extent, of
8. Bulletin of the Daeg Commission—U. 8. Geol. and Geogr. ove. — 2 pp. and No. 2, 14 pp. 8vo.— The Entomological Commission consists of Packarp, Jr., and Cy Their first bulletin treats of
and No. 2 of their natural history and habits in the young unfledged state, with wood-cuts, and a map of the region east of the Rocky Mountains overran by the insect.
IV. AsrRonomy.
. Astronomical and eioteoroligieat Observations made during ee year 1874 at the U. S. N. Observatory, Rear-Admiral Davis, upt. Washington, 1877. —This alin contains the observa- — of the year 1874 atthe Naval Observatory, with the reduced sults. The astronomical work has been mostly done by means
of the three instruments, the transit circle, the 26-inch equatorial, ral circle. The latter instrument has been under the
of the U. S. N. Observatory (see p. 242, vol. xiii, of this Journal),
illustrated with heliotypes of the eemeneds ; IL. Report on the
difference of longitude between Washington and Ogden, Ce y, Professor Eastman, This difference is found to pes
te Relative ages of the Sun and certain fixed Stars. _proteanor Kirkwoop closes a communication upon this subject to the Amer- ican ploeophipsl Society with the following summary of his conclusion tt. The history of ibe hg system is comprised within twenty _
or thirty millions of -<) rom the fact that: the larger component of guehe Centauri ice as much light as the sun while the mass of the
our solar system is the more advanced in its Shien! history.
(3.) 61 Cygni seems to have reached a greater degree of con- densation than the sun, since, on the hypothesis of equal density, the surface of the larger member is ae that of the sun,
while the intrinsic > light | is less than on
e companion of Sirius soca to have reached a stage of greater maturity than the sun, while the contrary seems to be true in regard to the spat, star, H, As N,
Astronomy. 75
3. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard Col- lege. Vols. VIII and X.—The first seven volumes of the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College contained the results of the work done under its first two Directors, W. C. Bond and G, P. Bond.
Three catalogues gave the observed places of 16,084 stars observed in zones between the equator and 1° N. declination. The great comet, of 1858, the nebula of Orion, and spots on the sun, each filled a volume, and the planet Saturn filled one part of a volume. The second part of vol. IV has not yet appeared, but is in course of publication. The eighth volume contains in its first, part an historical account of the Observatory from 1855 to 1876, and is richly illustrated by engravings of the instruments and apparatus of the Observatory. The second portion consists of the “ Engravings from the Observatory of Harvard College,” which has been furnished separately to subscribers, and has been hereto- fore noticed in this Journal, ey are thirty-five in number (mak- ing more than fifty engravings in the volume), and constitute a
were made in 1871 and 1872 by Prof. W. A. Rogers, aided Mr. A. McConnel, and the reduction of them and the editing of the volume was by Prof. Rogers. There were 564 stars observed,
with three catalogues: Ist, of 289 primary stars, being t which are in the list of fundamental stars of the Astron, Gesell- Schaft ; 2d, of the 275 stars not in that list ; 3d, of about 600 stars observed in R. A. in 1867 and 1868, with the transit circle, by Mr. E. P. Austin H. A. N.
i Stars in twenty-seven earlier catalogues. e volume concludes i ose
po t - On the part of the motion of the lunar perigee which is a Sunction of the ae motions of a Sun and oie ; by G. W. Hit, Cambridge, 1877. 4°, pp. 28.—The motion of the lunar ce. ee as observed does not agree with any of those computed
Y theory within the limits of error of the observations. This th ue to not carrying the approximations far enough and — © author undertakes to compute its value, so far as it depends on the mean motions of the sun and moon, with a degree of accu- Tacy that shall leave nothing further to be desired.
76 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
in Chicago to see if it is not possible to secure for him in some way the use of the telescope in the Observatory. or many years this large instrument (for a part of the time the largest refractor in the world) has lain idle, not at all to the credit of Chicago. It should have been steadily doing service in astrono- my, such service as almost no other instrument can do. Mr.
Burnham has shown that he can do good work, and the friends of
it. t. The eann a Monthly Review o Astronomy. Ed- ited by W. H. M. Curtstre, M.A. Nos and 2, April and ay.—This is a new monthly of thirty- two kon published by Taylor & Francis, London. For convenience of American sub- scribers currency will the received at the rate of one dollar for three months’ subscriptio ese two numbers contain accounts of the April and May sinesene of the Royal Astr. Soc.; and the following besides other articles : Photographic Spectra of Stars, by
Huggins; Determination of the Solar Parallax, by D. Gill; the Twinkling of the Stars, by E. Ledger; also Notes, Corre- — Memoranda, Ephemer erides, &e.
8. An Hlementary Treatise on Elliptic Functions ; y by ARTHUR Caytry. Deighton, Bell & oe Cambridge and London. 8°, 1876.—There has ol hitherto no elementary separate trea- tise in English upon ee finda tions. The thanks ae sien ma- ticians are due to Professor Cayley for supplying the An excellent feature of the book is the general outline hich ‘fils the
rst chapter.
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. American Association.—The American Association will hold its twenty- -sixth meeting in Nashville, during the week commenc- ing with the 29th of August. The Local Committee is oe
of Cam an nd O. C. Marsa, of New Fern Me J. Berrien Lindsley is Secretary of the Local Cosnnitter: ew American Scientific Museums.—A bill to establish &
Historical Library and Natural History Museum at Springfield, Tllinois, has been passed by the Se of the State. It appro riates to it one of the large halls of the New Capitol building. The valuable collections made in pinta Mh with the Sake lets survey of the State, many specimens of which are the types 0
species described in the volumes of Reports, will here have safe
Miscellaneous Intelligence. (i
keeping. Professor Worthen orcs that about it will be built up an institution of science that w e an important addition to the educational resources of the Wes
At St. Louis, Ae aah the “St. Louie Museum of Arts — Sciences” has recently been instituted. It includes among 1 officers the names of prominent men of science of Missouri, oe mies to be a center of great see activity.
Earthquake oceanic wave of May 9th and 10th, 1877.—The
Monthly Weather Review for May, published by the Signal Ser-
> rise ximum) 2% - an the seiokiead Islands, on eastern Hawaii, at Hilo, a and the great wave, 36 feet high, came in - 4h 4 45’; at eae first felt at 4° 45’, and the great wave at 5
Rey Coan, in a letter to one of the editors dated Ma states that “ thirty- -six hours subsequent to the catastrophe at ile the pulsations of the tidal wave still continued, the incoming and outflowing wave oomepeng about an hour, the latter leaving the channels nearl
4,
- 180 pp. 12°. Philadelphia, 1877, eB feos & ‘Haffalfinger. )—This tr eatise discusses the various questions that arise in the construction ‘of lightning rods, and their application to different kinds of structures. The great defect of most light- ning rods, that of imperfect earth resent ai with the remedies, are very fully treated. The directions are such that an intelligent mechanic can n carry them into effect With nee minor statements of the author we should not agree. Thus (p. 76) he says, “a building over 100 feet square cannot be
are employed through the interior, etc.” The book, Shakes asa commended. 5. Natural See ang Banas: y Part I, the Proj and Flu 1 To
A., F. 368 pp. small teem Lo ei ” 1877. (MacMillan & Co.)—The character of this little work will be best understood by the follow- ing quotation from the author’s preface :—“ The design of the Work is to furnish a simple and trustworthy manual for those who ire beginning the study of natural philosophy ; and it ventures claim a distinct position among the numerous publications
78 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
which have appeared with somewhat similar aims. On the one hand great pains have been.taken to render the book intl to early students; the amount of mathematical knowledge assu
is merely a familiarity with the elements of siiichanutd: "On the other hand the subject is presented, it may be hoped, with ade- quate fullness, so —* a person who has mastered the work will
pare 500 in number) is added.” The many excellent text- books of Prof. Todhunter are now so well known that it is —a sary to add more than a general commendation of the ner in which the author’s plan, as above expressed, has been vite” out. ~~ second part of the work is now in the press.
6. Third Biennial Report of the Vermont Board of Agricul-
ure, Manufactures and Mining, for the years 1875-76. By Bees M. SEELy, Secretary of the Board. 704 pp. 8vo. [ut- land, 1876.—This volume is made up of brief original reports by various citizens of Vermont on topics of general noha con-
d an analysis of fertilizers, by Prof, See ely ; Pisciculture wit reference to farming, by G. B. Fre nch, of Woodstock ; Experiments e hybridization of cereals, b OG: Panel of Charlotte; Toeiies injurious to the potato and apple, by Prof. G. H. Perkins. 7. Transactions of the Siaseheelie shaadi my of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Vol. III, 1875-76. 270 pp. 8vo. Madison, oe
small lakes of ite scterr by I. A. Lapham; on Copper tools found in Wisconsin, b J. = Butler; Report of se on Exploration of India Skea: in = vicinity of M
Journal of the en of Ne ural Sciences of Philadelphia, Vol. VIU, part 2. Thi is part seo ea = Batrachia and
Manchester Science Lectures for the People. Eighth series, shes 7 in pam- — of 45 to 64 pages, 12mo.—Why the Earth’s Chemistry is ; three ectures by J. Norman LOcKYER, PRS: 60 pp.—The Suceession 0 of Life’ on the Earth ; three lectures by Professor W. 0. Wit {AMSON, F.R.S.; 62 pp. — Technical Chemistry, by Professor Roscozg, F.R.S., 46 pp. Macmillan & oe London and New York. OBITUARY.
Exxanan Bririves.—The decease of Mr.: Billings a year since, at ae mgt was announced in this Journal, in volume xii, at page e are indebted to his successor as paleontologist in the Canada Geological Surve J. F. Whiteaves, for the following facts connected with his ice in science.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79
Mr. Billings was born near Ottawa City, on the 5th of May, 1820, and died on the 14th of June, 1876. In 1839 he com- menced the study of law, and for seven years, beginning with 1844, his pursuit was that of a barrister. or the four years following he added the duties of editor of the “Ottowa Cit- izen,’
d co foreign and North American British fossils as threw light on Canadian species, the remainder of his life was passed at Mon- treal, in the study of the Canadian collections, and in excursions ks of Canada and adjoining portions of the United States. Besides numerous papers contributed to
sty moirs :
illustrated monograph of Lower Silurian Cystidea and Asteriade, and on the Crinoidea of the same formation: these two memoirs con- stituting Decades 3 and 4 of “Canadian Organic Remains;” Paleo-
a3 : é h nine plates and many Wood-cuts, 1874; and “ Catalogues of the Silurian Fossils of the Island of Anticosti.”
Devonian formations was extensive and profound, and his deserip-
elaboration of the remarkable, and still somewhat enigmatical, .tuna of the Quebec Group, of the south shore of the St. Lawrence, ja Eastern Canada, and of the northern extremity of Newfound- land. His paper “on the remains of the Fossil Elephant found in Canada,” and another on the bones of a Beluga dug up at Corn- Wall (Ontario), show that he was well versed in comparative pean Sh and many of his earlier contributions to the “ Canadian
aturalist” bear witness to the eagerness with which he prose-
; panadian Naturalis ies, vol. viii, 1863.
t Read before the Natural History Society of Montreal, but never published.
80 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
cuted his seclew studies. Entomology and mineralogy were favorite departments of science with him, and he made at one time a tolerably complete collection of Canadian Cole eoptera, which he presented to aa Natural History Society of Montreal a few year before his For years Mr. Bi llings was one of the Vice-Presidents of the Natural History Sty of Montreal. He was frequently pressed to accept the office of President, but invariably declined. He was elected a Fellow of the Geological Society of London in 1858. The silver medal of the Montreal Natural History Society was voted him the members at the annual meet ing held in 1867, by way of testifying to their appreciation of “his long continued and successful labors for ie promotion of science in nada.” Mr. Billings possessed great firmness and strength of character coupled with a winning simplicity of manner and unaffected modesty. "To these traits were added inflexible love of truth and jiative, disinterested and self-sacrificing zeal ua the acquisition of knowledge, and unt mae aie a a purs In 1845 Mr. Billings married a sis of Mr. Wilson, of Toronto, now the Hon. Judge Wilson, but sere aM junior partner in the legal firm of Messrs. Baldwin & Wilson, in whose office he studied the last year wes to his being called to the bar. Since his decease the members of the Natural History Society of Montreal have passed Peblitions expressing their high estimation of his personal character and writings; and a few of his more intimate friends in the society have subscribed for a fine life-sized portrait of their distinguished associate, which now adorns its lecture room. Coronet Ezexien J EWETT, died at Santa Barbara, Cal., May 18th, aged 86. He was born at Rindge, N. H., Oct. 16, 1791. He was an officer in the U. S, army in the war of 1812, and afterward took part in - Chilian war, under Gen. Carrera. He has long been well known to geologists and conchologists as an enthusi- astic and indefatigable collector of fossils and shells. An exten- sive geological collection, made by him, is now the property 0 Cornell University. For several years past he has devoted him- self entirely to conchology and had accumulated a valuable col- lection of shells, subeatad < over pe ,000 species. He collected ex- tensively on the west coast of r. Paitre P. CARPENTER, one at the ablest modern concholo- gists, , well known especially for his several excellent works on the mollusea of the west coast of North America, died at Montreal, May 24th, aged fifty-eight. A more extended notice is necessarily eferred to another number. R ALE Owen, died on the 24th of June, at his summer residence on Lake George, at the age of seventy-six.
ATTEN Dis.
Art. XI. — Principal Characters of the Coryphodontide ; by Professor O. C. MarsH. With plate IV.
tiary Mammals, and mark a definite geological horizon in this
Kuropean specimens.
The identification of the American remains with the genus Coryphodon of Owen, and the determination thereby of a definite horizon, common to the two countries, and containing the oldest known Tertiary Mammals, was published by the writer In ge 1876, and subsequently in the following number of ournal (vol. xi, p. 425.)§ - j
The Museum of Yale College contains a large collection of
phodon remains from Utah, Wyoming, and New Mexico, and this material is amply sufficient to indicate all the more important characters of the group. Among these specimens are portions of the same individuals described by Cope under the hames Bathmodon and Loxolophodon,| both of which are syno- BA ms of Coryphodon, as the remains on which they were based Clearly belong to that genus. One of the species best repre- sented in the Yale collection is Coryphodon hamatus Marsh, and this has afforded many of the characters given below.
*This Journal, vol. xi, p. 428, May, 1876.
{Anat Fossil Mammals and Birds, p. 299
Scien re
p. 2 des les, tome vi, p. 87, 1856. Fe en turalist (vol. xi, ah ‘of. Cope has rece ly claimed = 8 di very on of a paper which he read before the Spring Meeting ~ cademy, in 1876. He knew, however, at the time that my article
W: "Y Publication was in the room, in the hands of a member. I Proceedings American Philosophical Society, 1872, p. 420. Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, VoL. XIV, No. 79.—Juty, 1877. : 4
82. 0. C. Marsh—Principal Characters of Coryphodontide.
The skull of Coryphodon, in all its more important characters, is of the perissodactyl type. It is elongated, and the facial portion is most produced. A line drawn from the lower mar- gin of the foramen magnum along the palate is nearly straight. The zygomatic arches are expanded, but the malar is compara- tively slender, and unites with the maxillary in front of the orbit. The general form of the skull is shown in the accom- panying plate, figure 1. The maxillaries are massive, and usually deeply indented on the sides behind the canines. The lachrymal forms the anterior border of the orbit, and its fora- men is inside the orbital margin. The nasals are slender in front, and broad posteriorly. The premaxillaries are expand transversely, and the narial aperture is wide. The occipital condyles are well separated, and there are condylar foramina. Between the basisphenoid and the periotic, there is a large opening. ere is a paroccipital, and a,post-glenoid process.
The dental formula of Coryphodon is as follows :
Incisors 3 canines <3 premolars = ; molars a x2
The teeth in American specimens do not differ essentially from those described by Owen and Hébert, which are well repre- sented in the memoir of the latter author, cited above.
The brain cavity in Coryphodon is perhaps the most remark- able feature in the genus, and indicates that the brain itself was of a very inferior type. It was quite small, as in Eocene mammals, but its most striking features were the small size of the hemispheres, and the expanded cerebellum. The form and relative size of these are shown in the accompanying plate, figure 1.
he olfactory lobes were large, and entirely in advance of the hemispheres. They were bounded in front by a well ossified cribriform plate, and partially separated by a vertical bony sep- tu e cerebral lobes were ovate in form, and very small, a transverse section exceeding but little that of the medullar opening. In shape and relative size, the hemispheres and olfac- tory lobes of this genus are somewhat similar to those of Dino- ceras. The cerebellum was proportionally large, and widely expanded transversely. Its peculiar form is shown in figure 1, which is drawn from a cast of the brain-cavity of C. hamatus. This portion of the brain nearly or quite equaled the hemi- spheres in size, thus differing widely from any known mammal. There is a well marked pituitary fossa, but no clinoid process. The foramina for the exit of the optic nerves are small, but for the others very large. The brain as a whole was very low in grade, and precisely such as might be expected in a mammal from the odes Tertiary deposits.
0. C. Marsh—Principal Characters of Coryphodontide. 83
These facts are important, since Cope has recently published a paper on the same subject, and given descriptions and figures of the brain case of Coryphodon which differ materially from m own.* He makes no reference to my article, although perfectly familiar with it. A comparison of his figures with the speci- mens mentioned above, shows at once that he has made most Serious mistakes in his observations. What he represents as
Ing. Similar errors are apparent in other portions of the
ately longer. The odontoid process of the axis is a short peg. The articular faces of the cervicals and dorsals are nearly flat. The candals indicate a tail of moderate length.
The limbs of Coryphodon were comparatively short. The scapula is acuminate above, as in Dinoceras and the Ele- phant. The humerus is much less massive than in Dinoceras, but otherwise resembles it. The deltoid ridge extends beyond the middle of the shaft. The distal end of the humerus is com- pressed antero-posteriorly, and the ulnar side of the articulation 18 much more prominent than the radial, thus approaching the Rhinoceros where it departs from Dinoceras. The radius is
roximally smaller, compared with the ulna, than in Rhinoceros. ts distal end is larger than that of the ulna.
The femur of Coryphodon is of the perissodactyl type, and has a distinct third trochanter. The tibia, when in position,
d
the Elephant, but was inclined at a moderate angle. The fibula Was entire, and its distal end articulated with both the astrag alus and caleaneum. ‘ he feet of Coryphodon, hitherto essentially unknown, resem- ble most nearly those of Dinoceras, and can perha best illustrated by a direct comparision with them. In the follow- ing figures (see plate iv), the feet of these two genera are placed side by side, and in the same position. ‘The main points of difference between them are stated below.
* Proceedings American Philosophical Society, p. 616, 1877.
84 0. C. Marsh—Principal Charact’rs of Coryphodontide.
The manus and pes of Coryphodon had each five short digits. The carpal bones are shorter, measured in the line of the foot, than in Dinoceras, and the distal row present more curved articular faces to the metacarpal bones, indicating greater free-
om of motion. The pyramidal is destitute of the tubercle projecting outward and forward for the support of the fifth digit, seen in Dinoceras. The metapodial bones and phalanges are throughout less roughened and tubercular than in Dinoceras, and all their articular faces indicate greater flexibility in the feet. The ungual phalanges expand laterally for the support of the hoofs, instead of being rounded, as in Dinoceras. ;
In the hind foot, the astragalus, and in a less degree the cuboid and navicular bones are shorter, along the line of the foot, than the corresponding bones of Dinoceras. The astragalus has the tibial articulation less convex, and the fibular articula- tion more extensive, covering the whole exterior or fibular side of the bone. The navicular and cuboid faces are more dis- tinctly separated, and make a greater angle with each other than in Dinoceras. The caleaneum approaches the ordinary perissodactyl type, the shaft being much longer than in Dino- ceras, and the tubercular surface below for the support of a plantar pad, seen in the Elephant and Dinoceras, is undeveloped. The cuboid is of peculiar shape, being sub-triangular. he caleaneal face is long and oblique, reaching nearly to the face for the fifth metatarsal. Both the metatarsal articulations are essentially in one plane, and are separated only by a very slight ridge. The navicular articulates very slightly, if at all, with the cuboid, but covers the face of the astragalus, and fully supports the ectocuneiform. The latter bone is not at all supported by the astragalus, as asserted by Cope (Catalogue of Vertebrata of the Eocene of New Mexico, p. 27). He has also published a remarkable figure of the hind foot of Coryphodon (Bathmodon), showing the hallux with three phalanges, and the fifth digit reduced to a rudiment (loc. cit., p. 28
The average size of the animals of this genus was about that of the existing Tapir. Some were smaller, and others nearly twice as large. Their mode of life was probably similar.
A careful consideration of the characters of Coryphodon, so far as now known, indicates that the genus represents a distinct family of perissodacty] Ungulates, the Coryphodontide. The skull is clearly of this type, and the skeleton and feet present no differences sufficiently important to justify a separation from that natural order. Only a slight modification of the limits of the Pertssodactyla, would bring this five-toed genus into it, and simplify classification.
he geological horizon of Coryphodon in this country is near the base of the Eocene, in the strata named by the Survey of
AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XIV, 1877.
fk view. “About one fifth natur. vali size. d foot of © iat eed vie
aaure 2.—Hin ew igure 3.—Fore foot of ¢ uph re mm; fi ; é TO ew. see 4 4.—Hind foot of Dine as ; ‘tr eae igure 5.—Fore foot of Dinvesr as } fant view.
Plate IV.
Both one-third natural size.
Both one-fifth natural size.
0, C. Marsh— Characters of the Odontornithes. 85
reek series, an localities are in Utah, Wyoming and New Mexico. Amon the associate mammals are the equine Hoheppus, and the suilline Helohyus, showing clearly that we must look to. Cretaceous strata at least for the parent form of the Ungulates.
Yale College, June 12th, 1877.
the Fortieth Parallel, under Clarence King, the Vermillion C ; the Wasatch group. e known
Art. XII.—Characters of the Odontornithes, with Notice of a new allied Genus; by Professor O. C. MarsH. With plate V.
first sight to indicate the near affinity of Hesperornis with the Colymbide, proves to be only an adaptation; while the skull, scapular arch, and other important portions show unmistak- ably that the nearest existing allies of the genus are the Fatite, or Ostrich group, the most reptilian of modern birds. The characters that show this affinity are nearly identical with those laid down to distinguish the Fatite by Huxley in his impor- tant memoir on the Classification of Birds.| They may be briefly stated as follows:
l. The sternum is devoid of a crest.
2. The long axes of the adjacent parts of the scapula and coracoid are parallel, or identical. :
€ posterior ends of the palatines, and the anterior ends of the pterygoid are very imperfectly, or not at all, articu- lated with the basisphenoid rostrum.
4. Strong “basipterygoid” processes, arising from the body of the basisphenoid, and not from the rostrum, articulate with facets which are situated nearer the posterior than the anterior ends of the inner edges of the pterygoid bones.
5. The upper, or proximal, articular head of the quadrate bone is not divided into two distinct facets.
* This Journal. vol. x, p. 403, Nov., 1875.
t Proceedings Zoological Society, 1867, p. 448.
86 0. C. Marsh—Characters of the Odontornithes.
The vomers are separate, as in lizards and a few modern birds. In the pelvic arch, the ilium, ischium and pubis are free at their distal ends, as in the Emu, and the acetabulum is perforated only by a moderate foramen. :
The scapular arch of Hesperornis is represented in plate V, figure 1. Its position in the skeleton is shown in the restora- tion, figure 2.
The scapula is long and slender, and has no acromial process. The clavicles are separate, but meet on the median line, as nm some very young existing birds. The coracoids are short, and much expanded where they join the sternum. The latter has no distinct manubrium, and is entirely without a keel. The wings were represented by the humerus only, which is long and slender, and without any trace of articulation at its distal end. Its position was close to the ribs, and it was probably nearly or quite concealed beneath the integuments, as 12
This rendered the rudimentary wings of no possible service in flight or swimming.
Baptornis advenus, gen. et sp, nov.
bone from the same geological horizon. This specimen, although pertaining to a bird not fully adult, is in excellent betel and is so characteristic that it may be readily istinguished from any forms already described.
inner metatarsal, a short distance above the articulation. AS in Hesperornis, there are no canals or grooves for tendons 0D — the region face of the proximal end.
The principal dimensions of this tarso-metatarsal are 4 follows :—
Bniite eegth ce a, 7650" Transverse diameter of proximal end .____.._......---- ye Antero-posterior Cismiever 8° Length of secoed Mietatarteet 2 64°5 Dength of third tinetatirr 72°
Length of fourth metatarsal Antero-posterior diameter of distal articulation of second metatarsal :
ae ee ee 0 te we et eR law Se ee ee i eh gl we a ee a
———S we eee ee ee ee
AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XIV, 1877. Plate V.
Figure 1. Scapular arch of Hesperornis regalis — stars natural size. ’. Scapula; 4. humerus; f. furculum; ¢. coracoid; 5 re 2. Restoration of He Hesperornis rega alis, about Ltagfoners sy cantar size.
O. C. Marsh—Notice of a new and Gigantic Dinosaur. 87
Transverse diameter ssis)s5¢ cscs S25. a a aewui seta seer Antero-posterior diumece of distal articulation of third metatarsa. int seneoeiitehat Jab Genre elas sew oes Transverse diameters: o2c.24u un cou desig ected Leb os Antero-posterior epee of distal articulation of fourth Metatarsal os on cen cae ee Peale eee eee ee
This specimen indicates a bird about as large as a loon, and apparently of similar habits. The locality of the only remains at present known is in Western Kansas, in the same Cretaceous beds that contain the Odontornithes and Pteranodontia.
Art. XIII.—WNotice of a new and ete Dinosaur ; by Professor O. C. MAR
THE Museum of Yale College has recently received from the Cretaceous deposits of Colorado a collection of reptilian remains of much interest. Among these specimens are Agog of an enormous Dinosaur, which surpassed in magnitude any land animal hitherto doovacs d. ‘The most yale bones preserved are portions of the sacrum, and posterior limbs. The former is represented by the last two vertebrae with their transverse processes, nearly complete, and by other fragments. The last sacral vertebra has its centrum moderately concave below on each side of the median line, but only near its ante- rior end can indications of a keel be observed. “The next sacral . vertebra has its inferior lateral surface so deeply concave as to materially lessen its bulk. ‘This is also true of the next ante- rior centrum, and may be ee, a distinctive character of these vertebre. A’ mo mportant character of the same centra is a very large eens in each side, connected with the outer surface by an elongated foramen, below the base of the neural arch. e inner surface of this cavity indicates that it was not filled by cartilage, and it probably was a pneumatic es ge ne to lessen the weight of the enormous sacral
+ verse processes of these vertebree are very aha ey of mipdanas length. Their distal ends are firmly codss fied, forming a powerful support for the ilium. Between Chie processes are large oval openings.
The following measurements ite the more important dimen- sions of these interesting fossils
Length of centrum of last sacral souks aa Transverse diameter of distal end ........ .....------- 270° Vertical diameter of distal end_....__... a
Distance between extremities of transverse processes ~<a 860°
88 30. C. Marsh—Notice of a new and Gigantic Dinosaur.
Length (approximate) of next sacral vertebra_......-.. 280° ™™ Transverse diameter of posterior end ---..--..-------- 200 Least transverse diameter of centrum---------.-------- 85° Distance between extremities of transverse processes -.. 680°
Antero-posterior diameter of opening between transverse prccebece OF Bove vertebra ot leu
PRR re OEE oe Prin ever ee cape eh Sew eed. oe
Antero-posterior diameter (approximate) of shaft of femur 230°
eR NN on oS ee ee Se <= =---, 950° These dimensions would indicate for the entire animal a
described, the species may be called Titanosaurus montanus. It was perhaps a distant ally of the comparatively small
much smaller carnivorous reptile of the same order, which
Yale College, New Haven, June 20th, 1877.
* This name Lelaps is preoccupied, having been used by Koch in 1835, and again by Walker in 1843, It may, therefore, be replaced by Dryptosaurus. This genus is allied to Megalosaurus, and is represented in American Cretaceous strata by several species, among them Dryptosaurus aquilunguis
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JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. XIV.—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun by Photography, and a new Theory of the Solar Spectrum ;* by Professor HENRY Draper, M.D.
I PROPOSE in this preliminary paper to indicate the means by which I have discovered oxygen and probably nitrogen in the sun, and also to present a new view of the constitution o the solar spectrum.
Oxygen discloses itself by bright lines or bands in the solar spec- trum, and does not give dark absorption lines like the metals. We must therefore change our theory of the solar spectrum and no longer regard it merely as a continuous spectrum with certain rays absorbed by a layer of ignited metallic vapors, but as having also bright lines and bands superposed on the back- ground of continuous spectrum. Such a conception not only opens the way to the discovery of others of the non-metals, sulphur, phosphorus, selenium, chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, carbon, etc., but also may account for some of the so-called dark lines by regarding them as intervals between bright lines.
It must be distinctly understood that in speaking of the solar spectrum here, I do not mean the spectrum of any limited area upon the dise or margin of the sun, but the spectrum of light from the whole disc. I have not used an image of the sun upon the slit of the spectrocope, but have employed the _ beam reflected from the flat mirror of the heliostat without any _ condenser.
* Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 20th, 1877. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XIV, No. 80.—Aveust, 1877. 7
90 H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun.
In support of the above assertions the accompanying photo- graph of the solar spectrum with a comparison spectrum of alr, and also with some of the lines of iron and aluminium, is intro- du he photograph itself is absolutely free from hand- work or retouching. It is difficult to bring out in a single photograph the best points of these various substances, and I
ave therefore selected from the collection of original negatives that one which shows the oxygen coincidences most plainly. There are so many variables among the conditions which con- spire for the production of a spectrum, that many photographs must be taken to exhaust the best combinations. The pressure of the gas, the strength of the original current, the number of Leyden jars, the separation and nature of the terminals, the
nm ao = et ro ° "A Sef 9°) =] o Pa) i=] ct oa ro) me Lee § ° — “ih =} B 5 oy o o =i
creased in number and distinctness. For the metals the electric are gives the best photographic results as Lockyer has so well shown, but as my object was only to prove by the iron lines that the spectra had not shifted laterally past one another, those that are here shown at 4825, 4807, 4971, 4063, 4045, suffice. In the original collodion negative many more can be seen. ' Below the lower spectrum are the symbols for oxygen, nitrogen, iron and aluminium. No close observation is needed to demonstrate to even the
H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun. 91
tive strength and the general aspect of the lines in each case is ar. Ido not think that in comparisons of the spectra of ] th
cyanogen. When these gases were in Pliicker’s tubes a double
series of photographs has been needed, one set taken with and
the other without Leyden jars. : to the spectrum of nitrogen and the existence of this
est effect for oxygen, the character of the evidence appears.
The triple band between 4240, 4227, if traced upward into the
sun has approximate representatives. Again at 4041, the same
thing is seen, the solar bright line being especially marked. In
another photograph the heavy line at 3996, which ne this pic- : o
ture is 5 mt an insufficiently ex the solar Spectrum shows a comparison band in the sun.
92 H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun.
The reason I did not use air in an exhausted Pliicker’s tube
spectrum. In Pliicker’s tubes with a Leyden spark the nitro- gen lines are as plain as those of oxygen here. As faras I have seen oxygen does not exhibit the change in the character of its - lines that is so remarkable in hydrogen under the influence of pressure as shown by Frankland and Lockyer.
The bright lines of oxygen in the spectrum of the solar dise have not been hitherto perceived probably from the fact that in eye-observations bright lines on a less bright background do not make the impression on the mind that dark lines do.
gives increased strength to the nebular hypothesis, because to any persons the absence of this important group has presented
H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun. 93
are only partly accounted for by oxygen. Further investiga- tion in the direction I have thus far pursued will lead to the discovery of other elements in the sun, but it is not proper to conceal the principle on which such researches are to be con- ducted for the sake of. personal advantage. It is also probable that this research may furnish the key to the enigma of the D, or helium line and the 1474 K or corona line. The case of the D, line strengthens the argument in favor of the apparent ex- emption of certain substances from the common law of the relation of emission and absorption, for while there can be no doubt of the existence of an ignited gas in the chromosphere giving this line, there is no corresponding dark line in the
.
or channelled spectra. This subject requires careful investiga-
tion. The diffused and reflected light of the outer corona
could be caused by such bodies cooled below the self-luminous nt.
wo Ww :
machine thoroughly adjusted, a large Ruhmkorff coil with its Foucault break in the best order, a battery of Leyden Jars carefully proportioned to the Plticker’s tube in use, @ heliostat Which of course involves clear sunshine, an optical train of slit, prisms, lenses and camera well focussed, and in addition to all this a photographic laboratory in such complete condition that wet sensitive plates can be prepared, which will bear an exposure of fifteen minutes and a prolonged development. ‘It has been difficult to keep the Pliicker’s tubes in order; often before the first exposure of a tube was over the tube was Tuned by the strong Leyden sparks. Moreover to procure tubes of known contents is troublesome, For example, my
94 H.. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun.
hydrogen tubes gave a spectrum photograph of fifteen lines, of which only three belonged to hydrogen. In order to be sure that none of these were new hydrogen lines it was necessary to try tubes of various makers, to prepare pure hydrogen and
employ that, to examine the spectrum of water, and finally to
and nitrogen were made, because these gases seemed to be of greatest astronomical importance on account of their relation to stars, nebule and comets. Before the subject of comparison spectra of the sun was carefully examined, there was some con- fusion in the results, but by using hydrogen the source of these errors was found out. : But in attempting to make a prolonged research in this direction it soon appeared that it was essential to be able to control the electrical current with precision, both as to quan-
was the first person in America to procure a Gramme machine. e was also the first to use a Brayton engine to drive @ ramme.
The dynamo-electric machine selected is one of Gramme’s Spbpae made in Paris and is a double light machine, that is, it as two sets of brushes, and is wound with wire of such a size as to give a current of sufficient intensity for my purposes. — It is nominally a 350 candle-light machine, but the current varies in proportion to the rate of rotation, and I have also modified it by changing the interior ti The machine can produce as a maximum a light equal to 500 standard can- dles, or by slowing the rotation of the bobbin the current may be made as feeble as that of the weakest battery. In ono use it is sometimes doing the work of more than fifty — rge Grove nitric acid cells and sometimes the work of a single
mee. The Gramme machine could not be used to work an induc-
1. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun. 95
tion coil when it first reached me, because when the whole
generally, in order to get the maximum effect, I arrange the current so that the aluminium terminals are on the point of melting. The glass, particularly in the capillary part, often gets so hot as to char paper. The general appearance of the machine is shown in fig. 1.
The Gramme Machine.
As long as the Gramme bobbin is driven ata steady rate the current seems to be perfectly constant, but variations 0% Speed make marked differences in the current, and this is espe- cially to be avoided when one is so near the limit of endurance of Pliicker's tubes. A reliable and constant motor is therefore
96 M. C. Lea—Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids.
of prime importance for these purposes. A difference of one per cent in the speed of the engine sometimes cannot be toler- ated, and yet at another time one must have the power of increasing and diminishing through wide limits. The only motor, among many I have examined and tried, that is per- fectly satisfactory, is Brayton’s Petroleum Ready Motor. This remarkable and admirable engine acts like an instrument of
night, supplying water and air to the aquaria in the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. At any time on going into the laboratory it can be started in a few seconds, even though 1t
as not been running for days. Henry Draper’s Observatory, Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.
Art. XV.—On the Theory of the Action of certain Organic Sub- waging tnereasing the Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids ; by » G. dma.
In the early days of photo-chemistry, it was observed that all the silver haloids gained in sensitiveness by being in contact with a soluble silver salt; that when the soluble silver salt was removed by careful washing, a considerable diminution in sen-
M. C. Lea—Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids. 97
sitiveness followed. After a time it was noticed that certain : : : appeared to take, to some extent, the place of the silver salt ° removed, and that the silver haloid was distinctly more sensitive when in contact, for example, with tannin, than when isolated. In explanation of the fact, a theory was published by M.
.
lodine came into play in aid of the action of light. Shortly after, Dr. H. Vogel published the same theory.
light in the presence of tannin, because the affinity of tannin for
the other side to combat, or experiments to discuss, as I can find none. I shall, therefore, state what I conceive to be the true p pacstion, and endeavor to support it adequately by proof.
of increasing the sensitiveness of the silver haloids, we notice that the one property which they possess in common is, not an affinity for the halogen, as the Poitevin—Vogel theory would ead us to expect, but that they are ail reducing agents.
Betty of pyrogallol was added and the mixture was expose Sunlight for fifteen minutes in contact with water. The
istinetly acid reaction, increasing with continued exposu
98 M. C. Lea—Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids.
acid) because the former is perfectly neutral to test paper, and - cannot confuse the reaction as would be the case with tannin, which of itself reddens blue litmus paper].
Again: if the Poitevin-Vogel theory were correct, it would afford a criterion as to what substances should, and what should not, exalt the sensitiveness of the silver haloids. Substances
aving an affinity for iodine should increase the sensitiveness, and substance not possessing such affinity, should have no such action. This is not the fact. There are substances which ex-
the iodide to darken..
8. Starch, which has a well-known affinity for iodine, does not appear to increase the sensitiveness of silver iodide by con- tact with it.
a strong support to the view that I have here expressed. I conclude, therefore, that such organic bodies as increas?
J, LeConte—Oritical Periods in the History of the Earth. 99
the sensitiveness of the silver haloids to light, do so, not by forming substitution compounds with the halogen, but by pro- moting, in virtue of their affinity for oxygen, the decomposition _ of water by the halogen. : There is, probably, another affinity which plays some part in the tendency to form the halogen acid, and that is the tendency shown by the silver haloid to form combinations with the cor- responding halogen acids, e. g. hydroargentic iodide AgIHI, etc., in the absence of an alkali. Philadelphia, June 26, 1877.
Arr. XVI.— On Critical Periods in the History of the Earth and their Relation to Evolution: and on the Quaternary as such a Period ;* by JosepH LeConrn.
of the unconformity. These general unconformities attended
boundaries of the great divisions of time, and the less genera
sai ly; and that these exterminations were followed b peereations of other and wholly different species at the begin- oe & of the subsequent period of tranquility. Now, however, "e believe that no such instantaneous general exterminations forms oreations ever occurred. Now we know that uncon- amity simply indicates eroded land-surface, and therefore ae 4 period of time during which the observed place was nd and received no sediment—that two series of rocks uncon-
ae le to each other indicate two periods of comparative quiet, “ring which the observed place was sea-bottom receiving sedi-
ily, separated by a period of. oscillation at pains
u
* Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 18, 1877.
100 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.
like the evolution of society and even of the individual, bas its perio id mov i i ; !
represent the periods of comparative quiet, during which organic forms are either permanent or change slowly; uncod
J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 101
formity represents a time of oscillation with increase and decrease of land, and therefore of rapid changes of physical conditions and correspondingly rapid movement in evolution. The general unconformities, of course, mark times of very general commo- tion—of wide-spread changes of physical geography and cli- mate, and therefore of exceptionally rapid and profound _changes in organic forms.
These periods of revolution in all history are critical; and there- fore are of especial interest to the philosophic historian and to the evolutionist; but they are also in all history periods of Jost record. And as in human, so also in geological history, the farther back we go, the longer are the lost intervals and the more irrecoverable the lost records. We will now give exam- of such lost intervals and show their significance in evolu-
on.
The first and by far the greatest of these lost intervals is that which occurs between the Archean and the Paleozoic. In every part of the earth where the contact has been yet observed the Primordial lies unconformably on the upturned and eroded edges of the Archean strata. This relation was observed first in Canada, then in various parts of the eastern United States, then in Scotland, Hebrides, Bavaria, Bohemia, Scandinavia. Unconformity in such widely separated localities, indicates wide-spread changes in physical geography, and therefore pre- sumably of all those physical conditions included in the wor
imate, These changes of physical ge hy are best illus- h
an formed at the bottom of the sea in Archean times, and erefore these localities were all sea-bed receiving sediment at ti ttime. We know absolutely nothing of the land of Archean mes, and never can know anything until we find still older re from the debris of which Arch
— 2, was land of t Interval. That the ot itm of above, was land of the Lost Interva
102 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.
erosion. That it was a period of wide-spread oscillation is also © evident ; for all the places mentioned were sea-bed in Archean, land during the interval, and again sea-bed during the Silurian. But of this long interval not a leaf of record remains.
Evidently then at the end of the Archzean an enormous area of Archzean sea-bottom was raised up and crumpled and became land. After remaining land for a time sufficiently long to_ allow enormous erosion of the crumpled strata it again went down to the old Primordial shore-line and the Silurian age com- menced. This time of elevation is the lost interval.
Now, when the record closed in the Archean, as far as we know, only the lowest forms of Protozoan life yet existed. The beginnings of life had not yet differentiated into what might be called a fauna and flora. en the record again opened with the Primordial we have already a varied an highly organized fauna, consisting of representatives of many classes and of all the great types of animal structure, except vertebrates. Nor are these representative the lowest in three several departments; for Trilobites and Orthoceratites can hardly be regarded as lower than the middle of the animal scale as it now exists. It is certain therefore that all the great departments except vertebrates, and most of the classes of these departments including animals as least half way up the animal scale, were differentiated during the lost interval. The amount of evolution during this interval cannot be estimated as less than all that has taken place since. Measured by the amount of evolution therefore, this lost interval is equal to all the his- tory of the earth which has elapsed since. We escape this very improbable conclusion, only by admitting a more rapid rate of evolution during critical pervods.
It is one of the chief glories of American Geology, to have first established the Archean as one of the primary divisions of time. It is even yet re admitted as such by many
we have the next most general unconformity, indicating the next most wide-spread changes of physical geography and cli-
J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 103
e re-adjustment of equilibrium and prosperous development of these forms,
ike the previous lost interval, this was also a period of
and culminated in the lost interval, which is in fact for that very reason lost. . Far less in length of time and perhaps in the sweeping char- acter of the change of organisms, but far more important and. interesting on account of the high position of the animals in- volved is the lost interval between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The length of time lost here is comparatively small. In Amer- ‘ca in many parts of the west the uppermost Cretaceous seems to pass into the lowermost Tertiary without the slightest break of Continuity. There may be some break, some unconformity, some lost record, but certainly it cannot be large. Yet the change especially in the higher animals is immense. In Amer- 1ca the break and the lost interval is much greater between the : urassic and Cretaceous than between the ( roms — Ter-— Niry, yet the organic change is far greater in the latter case. The reason is that the ehatges of physical geography and cli-
most and which therefore produce the profoundest changes in Organic forms,
104 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.
and were a principal agent in the extermination of the great reptiles. The wave of reptilian evolution had just risen to its crest and perhaps was ready to break, when it was met and overwhelmed by the rising wave of mammalian evolution.
We have dwelt only on the great change in the higher classes, but the change really extended to all classes. This was therefore a time of exceptionally general and rapid changes 1n all departments alike. In other words it was a critical period in organic evolution. 2
it was also a time of very great changes in Physical geography, here in America as well as elsewhere, is well known. The Cretaceous sea which extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, covering the whole western plains an plateau region, and thus divided the American continent into two, an eastern Appalachian continent and a western or Basin region continent, was abolished at the end of the Cretaceous, and replaced by great fresh water lakes in the same region, and the continent became one. Moreover it is probable that 1t was a period of wide-spread oscillation, i. e, of upheaval and in subsidence to the condition of things found at the begin- ning of the Tertiary. It is probable that the upheaval which abolished the Cretaceous sea went much beyond the condition of things afterwards—-that just at the interval the land was higher and larger than in the Tertiary—that, in short, this was again a continental period and probably a period of greater cold than the subsequent Tertiary.
The change in physical geography, then, was immense, but in most places by bodily upheaval, not by crumpling of the strata, and therefore the usual signs of such change, viz: uD- conformity is often wanting. The change of climate all over the American continent was no doubt very great and the
J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 105
change in organic forms correspondingly great everywhere and in all departments; but this was especially true of all water- inhabiting species, in the region of the old Cretaceous interior sea; for here there was a change not only in climate but from salt to fresh water through the intermediate condition of brack- ish water. The Cretaceous marine species rapidly disappeared, partly by extermination and partly by transmutation into fresh water species, as has been observed, recently, to take place in some crustaceans under this change of conditions.* The Ter- tiary fresh-water species rapidly appeared partly by transmuta- tion from the previous marine and partly by transportation in various ways from other fresh lakes. But all this occurred in some places without the slightest break in the continuity of the strata.
perhaps sufficiently explain the change in envertebrate species, ut it is impossible to account for the somewhat sudden appear-
Interval in some unknown locality whence they migrated into the Tertiary lake region of the United States during the inter-
period and therefore probably a period of broad land connec: fons between Nearctic and Palearctic re ions. The complete
early Tertiary mammals of Europe and America. This intro- duces us to a most important element of rapid local faunal change especially in higher animals, viz: migrations. If we do not dwell longer now on this, it is only because we shall have to recur to it again, I have pretorred, thus far, to speak of general evolution- organisms, whether slow or rapid, as produ
* Arch. des Sciences, Nov., 1875, p. 284. Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vo. XIV, No. 80.—Aueust, 1877. 8
106 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.
preferred, thus far, to represent the organic kingdom as lying, as it were, passive and plastic under the moulding hands of the environment. I have done so because it is in accordance with true method to exhaust the more obvious causes of evolution
or of resistance to change. Of these, however, the latter seems to be most certain. There may be in the organic kingdom an ‘“anherent tendency” to change in special directions, similar to that which directs the course of embryonic evolution—a tend- ency, in the case of the organic kingdom, inherited from phys- ical nature from which it sprung, as in the case of the embryo it is inherited from the organic kingdom through the line of ancestry. This cause, however, is too obscure, and I therefore pass it b
y: But whether or not there be any such inherent tendency to
e
J. LeConte— Critical Periods in the History of the Earth, 107
social change are gathering strength, but make no visible sign, being resisted by social conservatism—rigidity of the social crust—and periods in which resistance gives way and rapid changes occur ; so also in the evolution of the organic kingdom the forces of change, i. e. pressure of changing environment,
_ Some persons seem to think that saad evolution is inconsistent with the uniformity of Nature’s laws. n th
without any missing leaf, species come and go an others take their place, and yet only rarely do we find any transition-steps. If this were only once or twice or thrice, or to any extent
genera, families and higher prone at certain horizons, are n. these cases the i
sail ence of the truth of evolution. But the difficulty on the ssumption of a uniform rate of evolution is none the less here,
108 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.
for the time required to evolve a new genus or a new family is of course immensely greater than in the case of a new species. We will illustrate the difficulties of the ordinary view by one striking example. In the Upper Silurian in the midst of a conformable series, where if there be any break—any lost record—surely it must be very small, appear suddenly, with- out premonition, Mishes : not a connecting link between fishes and any form of invertebrates, but perfect, unmistakable fishes. Here we have, therefore, the appearance not only of a new class, but of a new sub-kingdom or t: of structure, Vertebrata. Now to change from any previously existing form of inverte- brate, whether worm, crustacean or mollusk, into a vertebrate, by a series of imperceptible steps represented by successive generations—steps so imperceptible that it would take 100,000 them to advance from one intermediate species to another— would require an amount of time which is inconceivable to the human mind, and a number of steps, each be it remembered, represented by thousands of individuals, which can scarcely be expressed by figures. And yet we must believe that these innumerable transitional forms, each represented by innumera- ble individuals, are all lost, and that this prodigious time shows no evidence in the rocky record. If this case were exceptional we might possibly admit that fishes appeared in Great Britain by migration (as they probably did), but only after having pre- viously existed untold millions of ages, somewhere else; but similar cases are too common to be explained in this way. Now the whole difficulty disappears—we avoid the incredi- ble imperfection of the geological record (imperfect at best)— we avoid also the necessity of extending geological time to @ degree which cannot be accepted by the physicist—if we admit that the derivation of one species from another is not necessa- rily by innumerable imperceptible steps, but may sometimes be by a few decided steps ; and that the same is true for the orl gin of new genera, families, orders, etc.; in a , that there are in the history of evolution of species, genera, families, orders, etc., and of the organic kingdom, periods of rapid movement. When the whole organic kingdom is involved in the move ment, then we call the period critical, and the record of it 1s often lost. Thus, on the a of such rigidity or resistance 10 i orms, varying in degree in different species
species re and more rigid. In times of very gradual change, the more plastic species change gradually part passt, while the more rigid species change paroxysmally, now one,
J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 109
now another, as their resistance is overcome. Finally, in times of revolution nearly all forms yield to the pressure of external conditions and change rapidly; only the very exceptionally rigid being able to pass over the interval to the next period of re-arjusted equilibrium.
ous revolution, was the death-sentence of the long-continuing and therefore rigid Paleozoic types. But the sentence was not immediately executed. The Permian represents the time between the sentence and the execution—the time during which the more rigid Paleozoic forms continued to linger out a painful existence in spite of changed and still changing condi- tions. But the most critical time—the time of most rapid change—the time of actual execution—was the lost interval. Only a very few most rigid forms pass over this interval iuto the Trias,
‘ow, the Quaternary is also such a critical or transition Period, marking the boundary between two great Eras. The
lying unconformably on the eroded edges of an older ‘series— "iver sediments in old river valleys, marine sediments in fiords {2 other words, we have unconformity on a grand scale. — In connection with these oscillations = _— great ehanges in physical geography, and corresponding and very wide-spread changes in climate, and therefore corresponding
110 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.
rapid changes in organic forms. Here then we have all the characteristics of one of the boundaries between the primary divisions of time. Here then we have a transition or critical period—a period corresponding to one of the lost intervals; only in this instance being so recent, and being also less vio- lent than the preceding ones, 7 7s not lost. The study of the Quaternary, therefore, ought to furnish the key which will unlock many of the mysteries which now trouble us. Some o the problems which have been or will be explained by study of the Quaternary, we will now briefly mention.
I. Changes of species not sudden.—If the Quaternary were lost and we compared the Tertiary rocks with the unconformably overlying recent rocks, and the Tertiary mammals with those now living, how great and apparently sudden seems the change! How like to a violent extermination and re-creation! But the Quaternary is fortunately not lost, and we see that there has
een no such wholesale extermination and re-creation, but only gradual though comparatively rapid change. :
II. Migration one chief cause of change—But what is still
of Europe as far north as Lapland and Spitzbergen. In America, Magnolias, Taxodiums, Libocedrus and Sequoias very similar to, if not identical with those now living on the Southern Atlantic and Gulfcoast and in California, bundant in Green- land. Evidently there could have been no Polar ice-cap at that time and therefore no Arctic species unless on mountain tops.
uring the latter part of the Pliocene the temperature did not differ much from the present; the polar ice-cap had therefore commenced to form, with its accompaniment of Arctice species. With the coming on of the Glacial epoch, the polar ice and Arc- tic conditions crept slowly southward, pushing Arctie species to middle Europe and Middle United States, and sub-Arctic species to the shores of the Mediterranean and the Gulf.
ith the return of more genial climate, Arctic conditions went slowly northward again, and with them went Arctic species slowly migrating generation after generation to their present Arctic home.
J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 111
Similarly molluscous shells migrated slowly southward and
again northward to their present position. But plants and some terrestrial invertebrates, such as znsects, had an alternative
similar migrations among mammals also. ut it is evident
that while plants and invertebrates might endure such changes
element of very rapid local change, viz: the znvaszon of one fauna by another equally well adapted to the environment, and the Struggle for life between the invaders and the autochthones.
the two Americas were certainly separated by sea in the region
in : as . application, with reference to Mount Washington and other Arctic insects th e ca, was previously made by Prof. A. 8. Packard, Jr., in the Memoirs of © Soston Soc. Nat. Hist., i, p. 256, 1867.—Eps.
112 J. LeConte— Critical Periods in the History of the Earth,
and a far broader connection existed then than now. Through this open gateway came the fauna of South America, especially the great Edentates, into North America. Similarly a broad connection then existed between America and Asia in the regions of the shallow sea between the Aleutian Isles and Behring Straits. Through this gateway came an invasion from Asia, including probably the Mammoth. With this invasion probably came also Man. It seems probable, therefore, that the earliest remains of man in America will be found on the Pacific coast.
lso the great Pliocene Lake, which stretched from near the shores of the Gulf far into British America, and possibly into Arctic regions, and formed a more or less complete barrier to the mammalian fauna east and west, was abolished by upheaval, and free communication was established. It is impossible that
some Pliocene Autocthones isolated there by subsidence in Mediterranean region closing the southern gateways, and still exist there under slightly modified forms; the Arctic invaders were again driven northward by return of more genial climate,
invasion came man, and was a prime agent in determining the final result.
J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 118
influence of all the factors of change, known’ and un nown— €. g., pressure of changing physical conditions whether modi- Sying the individual, certainly one factor, or selecting the fittest
everywhere, and therefore would produce geological faune,
be impossible.
8. The forces of change resisted by heredity, in some species and genera more than others, determines paroxysms of more Tapid movement of general evolution affecting sometimes spe- cles, Sometimes genera or families. The sudden appearance of — genera, families, ete., in quiet times is thus accounted
4 Du changes ph: ; rapid rate of change in all forms, Ist, by greater pressure Physical conditions, and, 2d, by migrations partly enforced by
114 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.
the changes of climate and partly permitted by removal of barriers, and the consequent znvasion of one fauna and flora by another and severe struggle for mastery. This would tend to equalize again the extreme diversity caused by the second law ; but the effect would be more marked in the case of animals than plants because voluntary migrations are possible only in this kingdom. Hence it follows that a Siac horizon is far better determined by the fauna than by the Ill. Historic value of the Present time. Most geologists regard the Present as one of the minor subdivisions of the Cenozoic ra, or even of “ Quaternary period. More commonly the Quaternary and Present are united as one age—the age of —of the eee Era. The Cenozoic is thus divided into fet ages; the age of mammals coupe agp with the Tertiary, and the age of man commencing with the Quaternary ; an the Sheeree subdivided into several ae the last of which is the Present or Recent. But if the views above ex- pressed in regard to critical periods, be eg ee: then the Pres- ent ought not to be connected with the Quaternary as one age, nor even with the Cenozoic as one era, but i 1s itself ee
the hee the inaugurating change less a. the interval less long, but dignified by the appearance of man as the dominant agent of change, and therefore rel entitled to the name Psychozoic sometimes given it. The geological import- ance of the appearance of man is not due only or chiefly to his transcendent dignity, but to his importance as an agent
had not yet established his supremacy; he was still fighting for mastery. With the establishment of his supremacy the
mals, so man peared before the age of man We, therefore ,rezard the Cenozoic and Psychozoic as two consecutive era e Quaternary as the critical, revolu-
Berkeley, California, March a 187 i:
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 115
Art. XVIL—WNotes on the internal and external structure of Paleozoic Crinoids ; by CHARLES WACHSMUTH.
THE structure of fossil Crinoids has occupied the attention of many able writers, and numerous ingenious and plausible theories have been advanced to demonstrate the physiological functions of the various parts of their complicated organization. The results of investigations heretofore made have been by no means harmonious, and newly discovered evidence renders many of these theories wholly unsatisfactory. I have been favored with unusual facilities for obtaining accurate knowledge upon many of the questions involved in these researches, and therefore hope that I may contribute useful information on the subject. The collections of eighteen years at Burlington, Iowa,
ave brought to light material, unrivaled elsewhere, for this study. I have obtained upwards of four hundred species of
have led me to conclusions which I present in the following pages. 1. The mouth and the tubular skeleton below the vault.
The apparent absence of a mouth has proved to be one of the most perplexing points in the investigation of the structure
visceral radiation and within the interradial area, where, from analogy, we must expect to find the anus. If, as Mr. Billings, White+ and the older writers on Crinoids supposed, this aper- ture served both as mouth and vent, so that these Crinoids
* This Journ., 1869, vol. xlviii, No 142, p + Journ. Nat. Hi
. ee st. Boston, 1862, vol. vii, No. 4, p. 481.
116 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids.
exception to the rule governing the class. It is true, the Ophiurans, for instance, have no separate anal opening, and the same aperture performs both oral and anal functions, but it is placed within the radial center and therefore cannot be homolo- gized with the interradial orifice of Paleozoic Crinoids. In Antedon rosaceus, although the nascent Crinoid develops already within the pseudembryo a separate mouth and_ vent, a single orifice serves for some time both as oral and anal aper- ture, yet it is the permanent mouth occupying the center of the ambulacral system.* While we thus find the mouth perform- ing permanently or temporarily anal functions, we have on the other hand no evidence either from recent nature or from em- bryology that an anus ever becomes developed into, or per- forms the office of, a mouth. ? The Crinoids of our present seas live exclusively on micro- scopic food, and we must expect to find that the Paleozoic Cri- noids subsisted upon very similar food and had a very similar mode of alimentation. enever in Aniedon alimentary par-
wherein the furrows terminate. Dr. Carpenter remarks on this subject :+ ;
“The transmission of alimentary particles along the ambula- cral furrows is the result of the action of cilia with which their
transmission of minute apni along those portions of the immediately lead toward it; and 1t is, I feel satisfied, by the conjoint agency of these two mov- ing powers, that the alimentation of Antedon is ordinarily effected.” Ita rs from these observations, that the mouth of Ante- as
nule, enters; a passage which might as well be external, hid- den beneath a vault, as open to the surrounding element, pro- * Sir Wyville Thomson, Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society. + Researches on the Structure, Physiology and Development of Antedon rosa ceus. Part I, by W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clvi, Part IL, 1866.
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinotds. 117
vided the food could be brought in contact with it. The large cilia on the inner wall of the alimentary canal, which Dr. Car- penter describes as being capable of producing such a power- ful indraught to the region of the mouth, afford, it seems to me, also a very satisfactory explanation ‘of the mode by which the transmission of food was effected in Paleozoic Crinoids. How much more powerful must have been the effects of these cilia in individuals, in which mouth and furrow were arched over and in which the current was unobstructed from without. Considering, further, that probably the covered parts of the food channels themselves were fringed with cilia of similar fanctions, it could have been of but little moment how remote: from the mouth the food entered. We find another most strik- ing example in confirmation of this supposition in Hypomene Sarsi Lovén, a recent Cystidian, indicating in analogy with re- cent nature that Crinoids had the mouth sometimes internal. ’rof. Lovén found in the covered parts of its channels micro- scopic Crustacea, larval bivalyes, and other remains of the food of the animal, apparently taken through the open parts of the channels. Applying this observation to Paleozoic Crinoids it seems very probable that their food was taken up along the open parts of the arms or pinnule, and conveyed through the closed parts to the concealed mouth.
Dr. Ludvig Schultze, in his excellent “ Monograph on the
and compares these with the covered food grooves in Hypo- mene Sarsi, expressing the opinion, that the galleries under-
tom and thus transformed into ducts, were food passages. _ Meek & Worthen describe and figure in the Illinois Geolog- teal Report, vol. v, from my former collection, now in the Mu- um of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, several specimens of well-preserved digestive organs, and also an Actinocrinus pro- oseidialis, in which a skeleton of tubular canals proceeds from 4 point below the central axis of the vault, to the arms. There are in that specimen five main tubes which bifurcate midway toward the arm bases, each division bifureating again, sending 4 branch to each one of the twenty arms of that species. The
118 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.
main tubes and branches are constructed on their lower side of alternating plates, upon which on either side, a second row of
cently, in which they are well preserved and in place. e condition of the specimen, as Meek & Worthen remark, leaves but little doubt, but that the tubes form through the arm-open- ings of the calyx a continuation of the arm furrows, In re- moving parts of the vault, I unfortunately broke the upper ‘part of the fragile skeleton, but enough is preserved to prove that the five main tubes did not connect di
sometimes closed underneath, particularly in very old speci- mens, thus forming regular ducts or tunnels. Their arrange- ment seems to be similar in all these Crinoids, no matter whether the species has a subcentral proboscis or merely 4 lateral opening, they always diverge from a plane on the inner wall of the vault, in front of the anus, and branch to the arm
ne. generally attached when I found them, but so much decayed,
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 119
that it was removed by the least touch. The substance of which the casts are formed appears to have been a fine silicious mud which could penetrate the smallest pores. The internal organs are of course not preserved, but their impressions at the surface of the casts throw much light on the structure beneath the vault. The center of radiation appears here a small pen- tagonal, rounded, or in species with strong subcentral proboscis, subtriangular or even heart-shaped space or plane, enclosed by a deep groove, from which, in some of these specimens, ele- vated ridges, alternating with depressions, pass out toward the arms; but before quite reaching them, there proceeds, from be- low the ridges of the casts to every arm, a smaller ridge which clearly indicates the tubular canal, as described in Actinocrinus proboscidialis, The casts are so perfect that I can even detect at some places the impressions of the alternating minute plates of the tubes.
orming the casts; closely underlie the test, and their counterparts are preserved.
ve no annular groove, and the radiation which is marked by elevated rounded ridges, almost like strings overlying the nt % enter where I noticed th
the arm-bases in the same manner as the tubular canals; they are stronger toward the center, decreasing in size with each bifur- cation. That these ridges are remains of muscular cords is not Probable from the perishable nature of such organs, and they are not their casts, or they should have left depressions in place of elevations. They can only be casts of passages which com- Municated with the central aperture, and which were evidently
oa
=
120 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.
in all Crinoids. at we find no trace of it in some of the casts is no.proof to the contrary; it may have been sometimes composed of more perishable material and was not preserved, or situated at a greater distance from the vault and covered by the substance of which the casts were formed.
2. The ventral furrow of the arms,
The arms of Paleozoic Crinoids manifest great diversity in outer form and structure, but are invariably provided with a ventral furrow, which continues from the arm bases up to the tips of the arms and along the pinnule. The pinnule spring out alternately right and left from the arm-plates, their urrows connecting with that of the arm and forming in fact a continuation of the same :
he furrow appears, in specimens in ordinary preservation, : : pain
tained. The best specimen of this kind, that I have seen, is 4 Cyathocrinus malvaceus, in which the little plates above the fur- row can be studied in all their details, with the greatest pre-
‘cision. The specimen is the property of Frank Springer, Esq.,
who had the kindness to leave it with me for investigation and description. The arms of Cyathocrinus are composed of long slender joints with a wide ventral furrow. They bifurcate fre- quently, each branch bifurcating at intervals again. There appears on the arms of Cyathocrinus no scar for the attachment of pinnule, and as these appendages have never been observed in the genus, it is probable that the many little branches per- formed their functions. In Mr. Springer’s specimen the plates above the furrow consist of two rows of minute pieces, on
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 121
either side, the inner rows of which join in the middle, inter- ock with each other, and form an apparently solid covering. The outer plates which are attached to the arm-joints are toward the upper end of the arms placed partly upon the edges of the joint, pat nearer the calyx rest wholly against the edges of the upper part of the ventral furrow. They are longitudi- nally arranged, partly hidden from view by the inner plates. The visible part is quadrangular, with a narrow tooth-like pro- jection toward the lower end of each plate, which is directed inward and slightly downward as a sharp, elongated process, and forms a support for the inner plates. The inner plates are elongated triangular, resting with their shorter sides against the inner faces of the outer series, and, between the tooth-like extensions, overlapping them with their beveled lateral edges, im such a manner that each plate exteriorly fits in and fills the space between each pair of similar triangular plates on the other side. The two longer sides interlock with corresponding sides of similar plates of the opposite row, their sharp angles or apices meeting the sutures between the opposite quadrangu- lar plates. At each of these points of juncture, just beyond the apex of each triangular piece, on either side of the furrow, there is a little pore, which evidently communicates with the mner channel. There are six sets of plates to each arm-joint, all the plates being imbricated from the lower side upward,— that is, the lower ones lap slightly the edges of the upper ones
—thus facilitating the movements of the sms. n describing the skeleton below the vault, I suggested that trans-
?
the tubes were a continuation of the erm furrows. A tran
122 @ Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Orinoids.
out, their ventral furrows are open, the quadrangular pieces in place, their tooth-like extensions stand out like the teeth of a saw, and are so arranged that the indentations face the salient angles of the opposite side, thus giving to the furrow a strongly
the neo themselves, and especially by the manner of their chment. The inner edges of the quadrangular plates (be-
small movable plates are evidently homologous with the ‘“ saumplatten” of Antedon, and the imbrications of these plates, as well as of the entire covering, seems to hint at the conclusion, that the furrow was always closed when the arms were folded up as in Mr. Springer’s specimen; but that on the contrary, as in my specimen, the furrow was open when the peur spread, and that in this position the animal took in i
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids. 128
it, This is evidently the case. In a transverse section of the arm, with the help of a magnifier, I think I have detected within the tube, traces of two passages: a deep groove oceupy- lng only the median region, and on each side of it a smal canal, underlying the pores. The condition of the specimen does not enable me to say whether the two side passages connect at the
ttom or not, but in either case, they undoubtedly represent the ambulacral canal, the food-groove occupying only the me- dian and upper part of the channel.
It is to be regretted that in no instance the upper part of the tubular skeleton has been found in perfect preservation. re has been observed beneath the vault an annular vessel, con- structed of plates similar to those of the radiating tubes, with small openings directed toward the radial sides of the specimen, with the alimentary canal passing through the inner space o the ring, but its connection with the surrounding parts was not preserved. The position of the annular organ in the center of radiation leaves but little doubt that it is the cesophageal ring
the to the direction of the tubes, indicates most strongly that the tubes and the circular organ were connected, and that the
to the center, another series of passages, which passing the region of the annular vessel, unite in the center. I hold these
2€ & continuation of the food-grooves in the arms, which evidently passing over the top of the circular organ termina within the central orifice.
in all Echinoderms with an external mouth, is attached to the inner side of the test, is located in Paleozoic Crinoids at a distance from the vault. Howeve vault cannot be homologi with the oral skin of recent - Crinoids, and that only the tubular skeleton corresponds to the
> ,
radiating passages connecting with the peristome, the vant
124 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozote Crinoids.
thus forming a mere covering, we shall find the position of the circular organ perfectly harmonious with that of all other Kchinoderms.
I have mentioned already that there exists in the arm-groove of Cyathocrinus, beneath the tube and at the bottom of the fur-
r. Schultze, in his “ Monograph on the Echinoderms of the Eifel,” p. 17, gives a most excellent description of the arm-fur- row in OCupressocrinus. He found two sets of plates covering the furrow like a roof, and asserts, that the inner pieces could be turned back in the living animal. I had overlooked this in making out my descriptions, but it was pleasing and highly satisfactory to me to find that we both had arrived independ-
furrow of Cupressoerinus is very similar to Cyathocrinus. In a section of the arm of this genus, I readily distinguished, by transmitted light, the food-groove, which has a narrow and dee outline, a canal on both sides of it, and I have but little doubt but that the arm-furrows were similarly constructed in a Paleozoic Crinoids. :
3. The alimentary canal. k and Worthen publish in the Geological Report of
convoluted body, resembling in outer form and outline the shell of a Bulla, with a longer vertical axis, and open at both ends. The upper end is placed below the center of the ventral
ue cases it is subcylindrical and slightly truncate at bot ends.
_ pieces or bars with intervening meshes, but its delicate texture 1s but seldom observed, owing to the piece of incrustations of calcareous or siliceous matter which {ill up the meshes, ap
give to the structure a rather dense appearance. *
_ * To these shisha which = evidently deposits from the water, we oWe
in a great measure the preservation of these delicate organs, and as they are com-
ara thicker in adult specimens, they seem to have accumulated already
—— life of the Crinoids, and may have caused in many
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids. 125
The convolutions are directed outward from left to right, varying in number from two to four in different species. Judging from external appearance only, the convoluted walls of the organ appear as mere partitions leading to the inner chamber of a bulla-shaped body. This however. is not the act. Hxamining the so-called walls in some transverse sec- tions, I find them to be coiled, without touching each other at any point, and composed of two distinct partitions, placed side by side and closed at the edges, thus proving that the apparent
more turns, while the inner one, winding in a spiral way around its Own axis, passed upward to near the center of the dome. ecimen of Actinocrinus in which the digestive organ is Apparently perfect, though showing the usual rough appearance, I succeeded in removing at one side the two upper convolutions, ‘n such a manner that the detached parts can be replaced or lifted up for investigation. I had here an opportunity to examine the inner or more properly upper end of the ali- mentary canal (as distinguished from the outer end or terminal part). The top is unfortunately hidden below some inorganic matter, but enough can be seen to prove that it proceeded evi- dently from a place below the center of the dome. The organ, where it comes into view, is an elongated tube, which passing downward, widens first gradually to near the middle of the visceral cavity, then rapidly until it acquires the width of at least two-thirds of the entire length of the cavity. The upper end in descending spirally turns from right to left, but on oming wider curves sharply in the opposite direction and the convolutions are now directed from left to right. The outer end also tapering rapidly and forming a flattened tube, ascends the outside spirally from below all the way up to the top, and
while the ma end communicated with the food-groove. _ Such, wit slight modifications, was probably the construction . the alimentary canal of all Actinocrinide, Pla tycrinide, ete., Ut not that of the genus Ollacrinus.* I found the alimentary Lone sured by Cumberland without generic or specific diagnosis or specific name, 30% 1826, in the Appendix to Reliquie Conservate. eS 9 20n.—Gilbertsocrinus Phillips, 1836, Geol. Yorkshire, Pl. II, p. 207. Gont- qiteroidocrinus Lyon & Casseday, Suppl. Geol. Rept., Iowa, p. 70. Zrematrocrinus
Hlall, 1860, Suppl. Towa Geol. Rept., p. 70. a, : - Cumberland’s figure is perfectly correct and easily identified as Ollacrinus ) calcaratus, his generic name “ Ollacrinus” must be retained accord- ing to the laws of nomenclature.
126 CO. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Orinoids.
canal partly preserved in Ollacrinus tuberculosus Hall, in which it seems to have been composed of the same delicate network, but the organ consists here of a round canal which descends spirally, and contracting gradually, takes at the lower portion of the visceral cavity an upward direction. The upper part of the organ is unfortunately not preserved in this specimen.
4, The anal aperture and the proboscis.
The anus of Paleozoic Crinoids is placed always within one of the interradial series, which is generally wider than—and often constructed differently from—the others. The aperture is situated either in some part of the calyx itself, or at the top of along proboscis. It is a most remarkable fact that genera which evidently belong to the same group, even species, apparently of the same genus, for instance Strotocrinus, differ so widely in the construction of this organ. Some having 4 long massive tube, reaching to several inches above the tips of their arms, while others are provided only with a plain lateral opening without any superstructure whatever.
I do not speak at present of the inflated or balloon-shaped proboscis of Zeacrinus, Coeliacrinus, Poteriocrinus, Heterocrinus
The
homologized with the “We can only
compare its lateral opening, which is generally placed low down near the arm-bases, with the anal aperture of species 12 |
. “sag . is tube may have connect with the terminal intestine which I have described above, and
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 127
tinct branches, This be in some instances the result of accidental development, but is more frequently due to an ob- struction of the anal canal. found a specimen nus
caused the destruction of an entire ray, the plates of which are bulging out, forming together with the anal plates, and inter-
poboacis of this species, a large elongated cavity with a rather arge aperture. All these instances give evidence of a pressure from within, and indicate that the outside opening of Paleozoic Crinoids was solely an ejective organ, and could not have had
toward the posterior side, and the development of the abnormal
roboscis occurs invariably in the anal series. It is therefore
ardly necessary to argue on Dr. White's supposition that the abnormal second proboscis, wherever it occurs, might have Served as buccal orifice, as such a theory is unsupported by analogy, : (To be continued.)
128 O. D. Allen—Hatchettolite and Samarskite.
Art. X VIII.— Chemical constitution of Hatchettolite and Samarskite from Mitchell County, North Carolina; by Oscar D. ALLEN, Professor of Analytical Chemistry, Sheffield Scientific School. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory. No. XLVI.
I. Hatchettolite.
with pyrochlore. t time I was to make only a partial qualitative analysis of this mineral with -25 gram placed at my disposal by E.S. Dana. The result showed the presence
n an elaborate paper on American columbic acid minerals, published in this ptt (May, 1877), Professor J. Lawrence Smith has also given a description, accompanied by analyses, of this mineral, for which he has proposed the name Hatchettolite. Having recently obtained from Mr. L. Stadtmiiller a specimen of this new mineral, which he received in a lot of Samarskite sent to him from the locality above mentioned, 1 have analyzed it, hoping to gain some additional facts bearing on its chemi constitution. The specimen was a large, but imperfect crystal. t was broken into small pieces, and afforded twelve grams 0 material judged sufficiently pure for analysis. Pieces from dif- ferent parts of the mass gave the specific gravities, 4°77, 484, 4°82, 4°90, 476. The results obtained are here presented, Nos. tand 1, together with one of the analyses of Dr. Smith, No. 11.
(1.) (11) (iI1.) Tantalic acid ___.. See re 29°83 29°60 Colambic acid ...-......... 34°24 35°94 67°36 RAO BOT sn ess 1°61 | Tungstic and stannic acids. _ . 30 60 UTaguim Oc100,... .-.-.... 15°50 15°63 Bate an oo ee 8°87 8°89 7°09 Yttria and cerium oxides ____ "86 cron Prowride 2 2°19 2°33 2°51 Magnesia’ soo ee: 15 Potato trace* 1°21 Soda -20So ee sick ee Water lost by heat --...... 4°49 4:42 MU SS his trace trace 98°55 100°18
O. D. Allen—Hatchettolite and Samarskite. 129
K,CbOFI,. Then redissolve the latter and collect the former on afilter. If the weight of both acids is known, Cb,O, may be calculated by difference. On account of the suspected presence Of titanic acid in the substance here examined the second crop of crystals of K,TaFl, was redissolved in hot water and recrys- tallized. No more acicular erystals could be obtained in suffi- Clent quantity to collect. For the same reason the bisulphate
sion of the mixed acids was treated with cold water. The fil- trate and washing on boiling deposited a light precipitate, which brought into solution and tested with tin gave an unmistakable reaction for titanium. Moreover, after separation of tantalum the columbie and titanic acids remaining in solution were ob- tained by evaporating with H,SO, and boiling with water and
‘ CO :
left but very little residue, which further examination proved to be mostly potassium titanate. eee n analysis No. 1, the two products containing titanic acid, obtained in this way, were fused with HKSO, which rendere the greater part soluble in cold water. This solution on boil-
* Professor Smith remarks, ‘ I refer to the metallic acids in the analyses in this On oolumisa cata & the fact that 2 * it
130 O. D. Allen—Hatchetiolite and Samarskite.
per cent. Iron was — assumed to exist as protoxide
and uranium as U A calculation of the relative number of atoms from No..: 1 wae the following : Atomic weights. T : 182 a "13 ; 95 Cb 252 t “ 50 Ti 020 U 240 UO, 054 Fe "030 Mg “004 } 268 Ca "158 Na, 022 H,O0 255 Ss
n 002 Disregarding the small amount of tin or tungsten and deduct- ing Ti with R sufficient to form with it normal titanate, there remain R 248 R 386 H,O -255, whence R: R: H, O= 228-4; @ a ratio closely approximating to that required by R, R, 2H,O or R, R, O, +2RR, O,+4H,0, in which R represents one atom
of a bivalent basic radical or two of sodium and R, Ta, or Ob. The investigations of Rammelsberg* lead to the sudihsiobie that three columbates 5 (in which Cb may be replaced by Ta) occur
in minerals, viz: RCb, Ae R, Cb,0., and R Cb, O,, correspond- ing to phosphates and “arsenates ; which, singly or combined with iat) other, with or without titanates., zirconates, thorates, éte., vabininace mineral species. Hatchettolite appears to be rst two with a small quantity of normal titan- ate.t It it perhaps questionable whether there is any signifi- cance in the fact that the amount of water present bears simple ratio to the other constituents. Some pew from one side of the specimen uae Bip ie material for analysis was selected had the specific gra 4°60 to 4°70 per cent and were rejected. They lost ne ‘Daition 4°97 per cent. Hatchettolite may have resulted from alteration of a mineral having essentially the same chemical constitution, as well as crystalline form, as pyrochlore, an alteration consist- ing of hydration and removal of alkaline fluorides, Il. Samarskite. marskite from Mitchell Co., mite to the analysis of the writans has the following compositio * Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. xxv, p. 1 Ph mara (Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. Xxv, p. 203) supposes that these three compounds may isomorphous, and that they exist in the isometric crystalline
on Ba Dd Beats Sons Bitie ot Mincealogy, p. 340, March, 1877.
O. D. Allen—Hatchettolite and Samarskite. ee
a Q) (2) See ratio. olumbic acid ._ .__- ee LLL ‘ a0. - 2754.1. Tantalic acid__.__.. odie Co eas 80 | 18°60 0838 venus Stannic acid _.___.. ate 0°08 0005 } wee 14°52 14°45 *1896 Cerium oxides*_____ 4°10 4°24 0382 +4430 Uraninm oxide (VO,0) 12°63 12°46 0433 Manganese protoxide 0 0°75 0106 Tron Be. 10°60 10°90 *1513 Se ee ae 0°55 160 | Wate ie lee the Be
100°35
rated s expelled by ignition was collected by a calcium chloride tube. 0° gram of the very finely pulverized mineral was com-
confirmed the first result. It may therefore be concluded that no material amount of uranium is present in the lower state of oxidation (UO,). The relative number of atoms of each ele- ment present is calculated from No. 2, uranium being assum to exist as UO, or an oxide (UO,0) of the bivalent radical O, which it is reasonable to suppose acts as a basic radical With tantalie and columbic acids, as it does with phosphoric
and arsenic acids in several natural compounds. R: R is then 0 : 3592=1-286 : 1=4-94:4 closely approximating 5:4 re- * 1: ok 3 eae quired by the formula R,R,O,+R,R,0,. | In chemical constitution this samarskite appears to approach Fergusonite being next to this mineral the most basic of the natural columbates and tantalates. The formula of Fergusonite, d uced by Rammelsberg from a large number of analyses, is R,(Cb, 13),0%. * The ato . ae eS Bas hea as ee ee ee + £ element is readil shown by spectroscopic examination of a solution. Only a the ute quantity ot cerium is -paubel ‘tis swidaenies or absence of other elements of Cerium group was not ascertained. : t Dr. Smith's analysis, contained in the paper already cited, gave 55°13 colum- t Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol., xvii, 424, 1875. See also this volume, p. 71. ee
\
132). zD. zDana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
Art. XIX.—On the relations of the tee | a Vermont to that of Berkshire; by JAMES D. D
ES: from page 48.]
izes the belt from north to south, and requires consideration : namel y— 3. Tue ABUNDANT OccURRENCE OF IRON.
The existence of iron in the rocks is known mainly from the beds of limonite along the region. This limonite, as is now well known, was made from the rocks in place, and hence it is testi- mony as to what the original rocks contained and still contain where unaltered. Its beds exist in Vermont at so many places that the geologists of the Vermont Survey represented it a their EEE map of the State as a continuous band of limonite. nd south of Vermont it occurs more or less in each of the towns over ace limestone area, and in some of them in a sits of great depth, the most noted being in Richmond
and West Stockbridge, Massachusetts; Salisbury and Sharon,
ca ie ee ie oe Copake, Ancram, North ge (ase Mille on), Amen a, Dover, and Pawling, in New Yor In jens that this fentaes of the region may be appreciated, T men- tion here the more prominent facts connected with the ore-beds. In a general way, and for special localities, the subject has been often treated. The descriptions given in this place have par- ticular reference to the regional characteristics of the beds the limestone belt, as illustrated by their mineral nature, dis- tribution, and stratigraphical relations; and they have been drawn mainly from my own observations.
(1.) The mineral nature of the beds. = the great limestone area, from north to — the ore-beds are alike in the nature of the ore, its m
apareation, and its association with yellow ochre sie anya Moreover, in most of the beds to the north as well as south more or less manganese is present with the iron. Manganese
nington, Chittenden; Pittsford, Brandon, Middlebury, Bristol; and ihe Vermont Report rt adds, § ‘in the vicinity of most a i beds of limestone in the State.” I
observ in various ore-beds of Berkshire and wee York, though oa
Limonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 183
abundantly than in Vermont. An analysis of ore from the Leet ore-bed, West Stockbridge, by Dr. A. A. Hayes, made in 1845, obtained red oxide of iron 76:18, oxide of manganese 504, phosphoric acid 2°36, water 10°80, quartz and gangue 3°40 = 98-78.* At the same time, phosphoric avid is ver
sparingly present; and there is only a trace of sulphur or none at all. The clay, while generally impure from the presence of iron ochre and other mineral material, is sometimes a white kaolin.t+ :
(2.) The geological distribution of the beds.
(1.) The limonite deposits are alike throughout the lime- stone area in their interrupted occurrence and varying depths— even many miles often intervening between those of workable value, and all depths existing from zero to one hundred and fifty feet or more.
on the borders of Wallingford and Tinmouth; and at the south end of the State in Bennington. These last are near the Taconic (or Great Central) slate-belt.
In Berkshi
* I am indebted for a copy of this analysis to Mr. J. W. Hoysradt, President of the Company. Mr. Hoyarats states that no later analysis has been made; but he oe impression that the ore now obtained yields less manganese and phos-
acl
+ While limonite (in which the oxide of iron, Fe,0;, and the elements of water are in the proportion of 2 to 3) is the principal ore, there is also at Salisbury, as first shown by Prof. G. J. Brush (this Journ., II, xliv, 219, 1867), and probably it fn Pose the same ratio is 2: 1), and a little géthite (in which the ratio is 1: 1); also occasionally a red ochre, which
be either turgite, or the simple anhydrous oxide Fe,0,. Besides the iron and manganese ores, there are also traces of cobalt and zinc. :
134 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
the west of the Taconic range, in the towns of Hillsdale, Copake, and North Hast, besides along its eastern border in Dover, Amenia and Pawling. The axis of the band of maxi- mum ore-beds appears hence to cross the axis of the limestone area in Bennington, Vermont; and to strike the Taconic range south of West Stockbridge, from which point, beds occur on both sides of the range. (3.) The stratigraphical relations of the beds.
The ore-beds, to the north as well as south, occur near the junction of a stratum of limestone with one of hydromica or mica schist, the beds of both having usually a high dip (gene- rally between 40° and 55°); or they have schist on both sides; and sometimes they are cut through by one or two beds of lime- stone or schist. Quartzyte often lies along the east side in Vermont; but a stratum of schist usually, if not always, inter- venes between the quartzyte and limestone.
This geological relation of the beds was recognized, at local- ities in Vermont, Berkshire, and Connecticut, more than fifty years since, by the late Prof. Chester Dewey, then Professor of
eology and Mineralogy in Williams College, Williamstown. In the fifth volume of this Journal, 1822, in an article on the ore-bed of Bennington, he says (p. 251)—“It has been re- marked that the great bed of ore is not immediately connected with any rocks. It seems, however, to be associated with lime- stone rocks, and the whole to lie between two strata of mica slate. It lies in the same [mountain] range with the ore of Salisbury, Connecticut, and has the same range of mica slate lying on both sides of it.” The in situ position of the ore- beds is here brought out by Dr. Dewey, and a relation to the limestone is suggested. T'wo years later, in vol. viii, speaking of the ore-beds of Berkshire, he says (p. 30), that the beds “ are near limestone, but on beds of clay.” And “as mica-slate 18 found on both sides of them, they must doubtless be con- sidered as lying in this rock, though the clay indicates that they are a later deposit than the rock itself:” in which the limonite beds are made a part of the mica slate, but not an original part. he facts at many of the ore-pits of Berkshire and New York, as well as Connecticut, sustain the statements of Pro- fessor Dewey. The schist often forms part of the walls of the ore-pits, or stands in ledges near by ; and when no rock is to be seen, the clays often show that. they are the decomposed schist in place by their having its schistose structure, its dip and strike, and also its flexures, all corresponding precisely with the stratification of the rock of the region. The schist makes sometimes the eastern wall, and sometimes the western? ; and it is also found dividing the ore of the beds.) Among the
Limonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 135
New York ore-beds the relation of the schist is well exhibited in the Weed ore-pit in the town of Copake, and in the ore-pit, a mile and a half to the west of the village of Pawling. Limestone strata outcrop near or within many of the pits. In Richmond, Mass., at the Cone ore-pit, a steeply dipping lime- Stone stratum forms part of the northwest side; and at the Cheever ore-pit there is an outcropping bed a few yards to the west, conformable with the slate; at the Leet ore-pit, in West Stockbridge, limestone forms a ledge close by the pit. At the Miles ore-pit, in Copake, a bed of limestone was met with cut- ting through it, having the strike and dip of the region. The Vermont Geological Report states (p. 820) that a limonite bed in Western Bennington reposes on an impure ferruginous lime- Stone, and it alludes to the similar position of the ore in other s of the State.
carbonates, such beds, when air and moisture have access to them, are in all cases undergoing alteration to limonite. Tn some of the ferriferous limestone manganese replaces part of the iron. : The pure carbonate of iron has been found thus far ony in western Berkshire. At the Leet ore-bed, one and a half miles west of the village of West Stockbridge, there projects from the east side of the pit, what is called the “white horse,”
Stayish white color, distinguished as ‘white ore.” It has for many years been quarried and used in the furnace along with the limonite. This “ white ore” is so close-grained as to be almost flint-like in aspect, and it evidently owes its preserva- tion from change to this quality, which renders it impervious to water. Wherever there are cracks water and air have entered, and the cracks are widely bordered with limonite. Some Pleces have a thin crust of limonite—a quarter to half an lnch thick—showing some progress of the alteration even over the harder portions. There are botryoidal prominences of the
limestone of a hill close by the north edge of the ore-pit ; and hence it was probabl ott of a stratum that has disappeared, ver the interval between them, by alteration. I have been
186 ~=—s .:zD. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
informed by Mr. R. Van Buskirk, who is in charge of the mine, that this ‘‘ white ore” has been taken also from the west side of the pit. There is also an outcrop of limestone in the ore-pit in which some of the layers are changed to limonite, while others above or below are unyielding—the presence of iron in any layers of the limestone (as an iron-calcium carbonate) determin- ing their destruction.
t the Cone ore-pit, one and a half miles north of West Stockbridge, mining is done mostly through shafts; only at the north end is open mining going on so that the structure of the walls can be studied. At this end of the pit, limestone 1s in view having an eastward dip of 40° to 50°; and while some of the layers are not much altered, others are wholly changed to limonite. At my last visit (in 1875) the work was going on in this stratified material, the limonite portion being selected out for further separation by washing. Soveial layers had be-
18 come wholly replaced by pure limonite, ye and one of those so changed was a yard
were intersected by cracks, making areas \. three to six inches across, as represented . 7g in fig. 18; each crack having a border ~ of limonite either side, an inch or so
= wide.
The schist near by—hydromica slate—was in part firm, and in other places turned to soft grayish or yellow clay—an 1m- pure kaolin—which was silvery in surface from traces of the original mica of the slate. The quartz veins in the hydro- mica slate remain of course unchanged, in the ores.
Tie Cheever ore-bed, in Richmond, has also afforded some massive carbonate of iron, but less abundantly than the Leet ore-bed ; and here, as already stated (p. 135), there is a limestone ledge near the pit. :
Professor EK. Hitchcock mentions the occurrence of massive carbonate of iron in Richmond, in his Report on the Geology of Massachusetts (1841), page 190, and gives an analysis show- ing that it contains 87°19 per cent of carbonate of iron, 5°21 carbonate of magnesium, 2:46 carbonate of manganese, 141 carbonate of calcium, and 2°81 of silica, alumina, ete. =99°09- The particular ore-bed in Richmond affording it is not stated, but it was probably the Leet ore-bed. In the Vermont Geo- logical Report (1868), p. 286, Prof. E. Hitchcock gives an analy- sis of a dolomite from the vicinity of the Brandon ore-b - which afforded 3°61 per cent-of carbonate of iron; and states that east of the bed another limestone was quarried for a flux which contained ‘10 per cent of iron” [carbonate ?].
The limestone has occasionally a little pyrite disseminated
Lnmonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 137
or rocks—these conditions are alike for the whole area, from its northern end. in Monkton, where is the most northern of the associated ore-beds, to the south extremity, near Pawling, N. Y., Which place also has its large ore-bed. The facts sustain our Toposition as to thé geological unity of the formations. The act that the belt of maximum ore-beds crosses obliquely the limestone area,—being near its eastern border to the north in €rmont, and near its western, west of the Taconic range, to the south,—affords additional demonstration of that unity, and Suggests a close stratigraphical relation between the eastern anc western sides and their formations. He i € iron-bearing minerals include an iron-bearing limestone (carbonate of calcium in which iron replaces part of the cal-— fium) both in Vermont and. in Berkshire. e simple iron- Aw. Jour, 8c1.—Tamp Senies, Vow. XIV, No. 80,—Aveust, 1877.
138 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
carbonate has as yet been found only in Berkshire ; but its ready oxidation is a sufficient reason for its not being "exposed to view even where it is or has been a prominent source of the limonite,
Most of the 2 saber in — preceding view with regard to the origin of the limonite have been recognized by different geolo- gists; and yet the view as a 5 whales is not so well understood that
stated, with commendat atory remars by Prof. J. P. Lesle ey, "an nounced the conclusion, after a study of the iron ores of Nittany valley and other valleys in that State, that “the brown-hematite Sa eee. ore of the valleys belonged to the stratified limestone ’ beds, and had been set free by chemical and mechanical decom sition” —ma king the iron to have existed originally in the lime- stone as the hydrated owide.
Professor Hitchcock, in 1861, in the Vermont Geological Re- port, after stating that the limestone contained sometimes ten per cent of carbonate of iron, and referring to the iene UP of
me cases from the quartz rock.” But to this mph a tag is added the ol error, hat é the iron had been taken “from the sub- aa rocks and re-deposited in connection with clay, pe and gra
if this were the place for a full discussion of. the subje
The change of the hard schists to soft clay is one of the most striking facts observed in the ore-beds. But if the iron was deriv pelo from pe carbonates, a powerful
The different views of other authors might be here a A a
* Historical sketch of Geological explorations in Pennsylvania other States. 200 pp. 8yo. Harrisburg, 1876, p. 81. ns
Limonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 189
the regions will be good for iron ore long after the limonite beds are exhausted. (To be continued.)
Nore.— Professor Dewey’s determination, by chemical means, that the Taconie “ talcose slate” es jan slate” of Emmons) is a
mica slate
us Species ; and on page 366 of vol. iv pie the analyses published in the Vermont Report are cited. Dewey, who in early life worked in chemistry as well as in geol- °8y, mineralogy and botany, to state that in the jirst volume of this Journal, published in 1819, in an article on the geology of * Analyses of the same ores, from similar positions, in Pennsylvania in Frazer's Geological Report, Harrisburg, 1876. :
140 S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.
the vicinity of Williamstown, Mass. (Northwestern Berkshire), he observes. that the rock of the Taconic range is mainly a “very Jine-grained mica slate—a rock which had been called ‘ soapstone
t,” he adds: “I have been able to detect but avery minute quantity of magnesia in any specimens I have tried, though I obtained a considerable pro- portion of alumina.”
In a later article (vol. viii, p. 8, 1824) he says: “The Taconic Mountain is a huge mass of mica slate.” He also uses in the same article the term “talco-micaceous slate” for some portions of the rock, but still holds to the result of his chemical trial that the amount of tale was very small, and that it was strictly mica slate.
Art. XX.—A proposed new method in Solar Spectrum Analy- sis ;* by S. P. LANGLEY.
_ No observation of modern Physical Astronomy is more strik- ing in its conception, than that which attempts to determine the
gave experiments of his own, to show that its causes were 80 numerous and so subtle that it was difficult to be certain of any
formidable one of its own. I mean, of course, the observation of the different wave-lengths of light coming from the east an west limbs of the sun, which, owing to that body’s rotation. on its axis, have equatorial velocities that together make up nearly two and one-half English miles a second. is speed, enormous in itself, is most insignificant compared with the velocity of light, and this relative smallness constitutes the difficulty i0 TS neg alana op National Academy, held in Washington, +0. R., tome Ixxxii, pp. 761-812.
SP. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis, 141
attempting the solution of the problem by means of the sun, for the whole displacement due to it, is (as Professor Young has remarked in illustration), but one-seventy-seventh of the distance between the D lines, or between one-twelfth and one- thirteenth of one division of Angstrim’s scale. Zéllner, Secchi and Hastings have believed that ‘they, nevertheless, detected a change in the refrangibility of the light, and Vogel* using Zéll- ner’s reversion spectroscope obtained a displacement of from ‘08 to 0-15 of one of Angstrém’s units. In August last, Profes- sor Young gave the results of his own measurements with one of Mr. Rutherfurd’s gratings, showing an equatorial velocity of 1™42. Professor Young was unable to find any displace- ment of the atmospheric lines. This last researcht+ being much More systematic than its predecessors, and given in satisfactory detail, has turned the weight of scientific opinion in favor of . the view, that the change due to motion of the luminous body 18 fairly proven. It can hardly, however, be deemed superflu- ous to still offer upon so important a question, the results of an independent method of measurement, and one which renders errors from instrumental displacement, on the danger of which. so much stress has been deservedly laid, in the sense in which the word is here used, not only unlikely but impossible.
In the course of a research upon the selective absorption of the solar atmosphere, I arranged in 1875, means for com mee homogeneous lights from different parts of the disc. The apparatus was too complex for description here, but it consisted essentially, in the provision of two pair of right- angled prisms.of total reflection, so disposed in connection with 4 spectroscope, that the spectra could be formed side by side, of light from different parts of the sun, and of a photometric “pparatus by which the relative intensity of the lights at differ- ent parts of these spectra could be compared. The results of this research, with an improved form of the instrument, will I
Doppler, to which this apparatus is especially applicable. The theory of the Daeg sta method is very simple. Let two spectra
* Beobachtungen auf der Sternwache zu Borhkamp. : + American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xii, Nov., 1876.
142 & P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.
respects to Mr. F. Walther, of Philadelphia, the optician, and to Mr. William Grunow, the maker, of New York. Not to
anticipations justified. That it has been possible to me to ndertake this research at all at present, is due to Mr. Ruther- furd, who has given me choice specimens of his gratings, which are so generally known and valued, that it is unnecessary that I should describe them. : It is desirable that a very clear mental picture should be resent to the observer, of the amount of displacement he is to expect, for though it is well that he should be ignorant, if possi- ble, of the anticipated direction, this knowledge of the amount will prevent him at the outset from confusing apparent pene
tage of a table prepared by Professor Pickering, showing the * The following method
mental picture. In the 3d spectrum of the 17280 line grating the D lines, viewed
nace :
a . eye at the distance of 10 inches. One of the units of Angstrém’s scale appears yi di . The displacement here due
© fill rather more than #; inch at the to rotation is as is remarked rather more than 7; or -08 of a unit, or, referred to e of distinct vision, very near of an . It is known that we can with the naked eye disti i Ih z#4ya Of an inch or less, in the form of discon-
i ective yet, but can still count less than ‘03 units, which again is less than half the amount in question.
S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis. 148
they meet, at the outer surface, and these owing to the excel- lent workmanship, still close so as to admit no light when held Up against thé sun. Over this slit, with their bases. almost in-
no more in the spectrum than a particle of dust, and in. fact, the division between the two spectra is with difficulty distin-
diameter.” Over them is a hood, carrying a screen, which recelves the image projected by the equatorial telescope. This
image is nearly one and three-quarters inches in diameter,
optical condition, as far as possible, similar, except as they may differ at their origin in the sun itself. It shows the difficulties of the method of research successfully employed by Mr. Huggins, and at Greenwich, that when the instrument is turned directly on the sun (i. e. so that each spectrum receives light from all parts of the sun’s disc), the-two sets of spectral lines will not ordinarily be continuous. Theoretically they should be, prac- Heally, we find they are not, owing to numerous latent causes
144 S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.
of disturbance. A touch on the prisms, a movement of the slit, an adjustment of the eye-piece, will ordinarily disturb one spectrum relatively to the other, by a minute amount. But the whole change we are seeking is of a minuter order still; how then, can we discriminate it with certainty? In our ability to do this lies the advantage of the method I describe, which, grant- ing sufficient dispersive power, makes impossible the instru- mental error that has been dwelt on by Secchi and others with . justice, as shaking confidence in the result. To see how we ate authorized to use this word “ impossible,” let us bear in mind that the solar spectrum consists of two distinct kinds of lines, one caused by absorption in the solar, the other by ab- sorption in the terrestrial atmosphere. These latter being formed by light from all parts of the sun are independent of its rotation.
spectra, as we see by the opposed chromosphere lines, but as
— were tangible things, like two engine-divided scales, whose
Moving the instrument 90° more, we come again into the axial line of the sun, and the coincidence should return: witb still 90° more we are again in the equator, but now spectrum A is formed by light from the western edge, and this time it is
S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis. 145
moved the other way, as if it were a scale which had been slid by a very slight but distinctly perceptible amount toward the ved end; while still the telluric lines retain their continuity, assuring us that no mal-adjustment has occurred.
It will be admitted that this change is, if real, excellent ex- perimental evidence that the wave length is virtually different In light from the eastern and western limbs, as theory predicts. For, granting that the instrument is mal-adjusted in auy un- known way or degree, any instrumental cause will affect solar and telluric lines alike, and -we may in fact defy ingenuity to Suggest an error of adjustment, which will modify one and not the other.
For the sake of clearness, I have assumed that we start with all the lines continuous in both spectra; in practice this condi- tion is not easily assured: commonly some lurking error, will, Without especial pains, cause them to appear broken upon a fixed source of light; but we disregard this, and consider, as we bring the instrament into new positions, only the difference of displacement of the solar and telluric lines. The simul- taneous observations of this difference, in each of two spectra, is the — condition relied on, not only in theory but in
trum. . Of these we do know that they are either caused by the sun’s atmosphere or ours, without always knowing which, for these can only be inferred to be telluric from their growing
to betray their solar origin. To merely see these two spectra With clearness, then, is to be enabled to pick out the telluric
10pe then, it will not seem too assuming a title, if I speak of this as a new method in solar spectral analysis. T have only to add, that in all my trials of this method, I have
3 a1 tm
* Or by experiment on artificial lights view ig g
146 SP. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.
constantly so arranged each experiment, that I remained in in- tentional ignorance as to which spectrum came from the eastern, and which from the western limb, until I had determined the point by the different behavior of these solar and terrestrial lines, which I have been able to do thus far correctly in every instance. I believe, in fact, that the effect under proper conditions 1s so marked that the observer hereafter need not take pains to
Useful tests of the desired condition are the duplication of such lines as 1529 of Kirchoff’s scale, and the more celebrates “1474.” known as a close double since Professor Youngs
used have been principally those of the Allegheny Observatory, to which institution my services belong, I should have been
Allegheny Observatory, April 14, 1877.
R. Kenig—Exactitude of the French Normal Fork. 147
ol XXI.—WNote on the Exuctitude Ais the French Normal Fork ; a Reply to the paper of Mr. A. J. Ellis ; by Rupoura Recs. Ph.D.—[In a letter to the Editors s. |
been hitherto su posed, but 878 ete vibra Mr. having established the further fact that the forks "eiiioketiated by me are in perfect accord with the French La,, does not hesitate
has never examin ed, are peep yea inexact. Not having at my disposal the instrument used b y Mr. Ellis, I confess that a
Myself under some embarrassment in sta ting at one
error of construction this instrument, in the hands of Mr r. Ellis, fins
' given results so extraordin ary. F ortunately, zi can refer to a letter fro elmholtz addressed to Mr. Appunn and published by
the latter himself in a paper on i die acoustic thenties of M. Helm- oltz. is letter speaks of an instrument of exactly the same
astonished at the constancy of its sadientious
would aie date believed that reeds could give sounds so constant a8 those given by your apparatus, thanks to your method of reg- . ulating the current of air. The instrument, it is true, varies a “little with the temperature, as do also forks; and hence it can be ‘used for dete ermining the absolute number of vibrations, only when one can work in a room heated by a stove. By the aid of an 4stronomical chronometer, I have counted the beats, re believe that your seconds pendulum must have been slightly inexact, because, though the number of beats agree very
fpemselven, the absolute number obtained is not 240 but 237 to the minute. The ove Greg which was rather low during my €xperiments, may count for something; but even a influence may be eliminated is counting the beats to the en a major third, which took me a quarter of an hour. In this way T have fo ound f for my Paris fork 43501 vibrations, ise agrees to the
512. On comparing this note of 505-6 single vibrations with a
148 Scientifie Intelligence.
the latter to be 64 fig vibrations more acute and, without
for my forks giving 512 single vibrations he has found 516’7 only, with the tonometer which he used. Whence it would seem that the fundamental note of this latter instrament had become more nearly exact than that of the tonometer aceite’ by M. Helm- holtz, since the number of its vibrations is 507°3. This note, however, “ remains ae distant from its true ‘value
e fact that M. Hel phen succeeded, with an instrument of
self a little practice in the manipulation of acoustic instruments, efore la ing so slightingly the results obtained by Lis- sajous, by Despretz, by Helmholtz, by Mayer, etc., etc., and before seeking to deride discredit upon the labors of a constructeur who had no reason to expect so valde an attack. 26 Rue de Pontoise, Paris, J une 5th, 1877
Ov
@) 255-97, (8) 255° 9, (4) 255°92, (5) 256-02, (6) 256°02. The ork’s vibrato ory BS eriod is accelerated or diminished sztor part by a difference of t —Eps. |
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND Prysics.
of electrolytic gas. Since, hitherto, according to him, this term has not been defined with sufficient exactness, Than uses “ heat of
Chemistry and Physics. 149 mixture of oxygen and hydro n, as —— that ri ie of when th t 0° an m.
ean of five experimen nts, the heat of combustion found Was 2°02930 gram-calories, with a probable error of 0°0018. That is, one cubic centimeter of pert SN a at 0° and 780 mm. on
duces 33°982 units of heat (gram-calories); a close agreement with the number —s by Andrews, 33°970.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 947, Ma ,
apor theres and Avogadro’s Law. —The law of
cous state, contain the same number of molecul rom which it follows that the molecules of all a in the gaseous state are of the same size ence calling the me of hydrogen mole-
ments, yielding two or more bodies, the molecule of each of which has a volume of two. Troosr has submitted this point, in the of chloral hydrate, to ves test of experiment, in a very in- way, by introducing into the vapor of this body, a salt
dis
containing ater, whose disso catertouion , as p ble, equal to that of the aqueous vapor of the — mi rate, € vapor of the chloral age suffers dissociatio 0)
" as such, its vapor is free from water and on introducing the salt it
wil up water and the volume will increase till the dissocia-
tion-tension is reached, The salt chosen was potassium oxalate,
20,0,+H,0, whose aeereaeesene at 78° is 53 mm. and
at 100° 182mm. The experiments were conducted in Hofmann’s
Vapor densit apparates, in i woth alcohol vapor and ee nd h ¢ ‘Sie was the same; the volume increased 0
"he !
te is a without decomposition.—Ber. J aged
€8., x, 899, May, 877. 3. ‘On Plato- Fido titipoayt tn and Triplat to-octonitrooylic ‘nesal ~—By the action of an alcoholic solution of iodine upon potassium
150 Scientific Intelligence.
or barium platonitrite, Nirson has obtained a new class of bodies which he calls platoiodnitrites. e mixture, which is at first dark reddish brown, becomes, on heating to 30° to 40°, clear amber-yellow, evolving abundance of gas, in which the char- acteristic odor of aldehyde is perceivable, and depositing on cooling the platoiodnitrite in crystals. The potassium salt forms large brilliant four-sided amber-yellow prisms, having the formula eee .(H,O),. Nilson assigns to it the rational formula ---Q---NO=:= eS the relation of this body to the pla- K---O---NO=:=I—~ K---O---NO=:=N0O---OW tonitrite ">Pt being very simple. K---O---NO=:=NO---O— The reaction he represents thus :— ee eons deb 5 2 =
The radical he names plato-diiodo-dinitrosy]. “en
- Nilson has described also a new platonitrosylic acid, obtaine while endeavoring to produce platotetranitrosylic acid by the method of Lang. For this purpose barium platonitrite was de- composed by sulphuric acid in the cold, an evaporated in a vacuum over sulphuric acid. At first red needles were deposited, corresponding to the acid of Lang; but on carry- ing the solution to dryness, a brownish-green brilliant residue remained, which was easily soluble in water, was strongly acid, was permanent at 100°, and which after drying over sulphuric acid, had the composition H,(NO,),Pt,0.(H,O),. Hence the unstable tetra acid, evolving one-third its nitrogen as nitrous acid, orms a remarkably permanent octo acid, the potassium salt of which is well crystallized. The author calls it triplato-octon!- trosylic acid and assigns to it the rational formula :—
~— — — = ee ed
H---0---NO---NO---O._
Ae | >Pt - 0+(H,0).- H---O---NO---NO---O0— | l - i i 4 H---O---NO---NO---O---Pt
— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 930, 934, May, 1877. G. F. B.
4. On the Action of Bromine upon Pyrotartaric Acid.—Bovk coin has studied the action of bromine upon pyrotartarie acid, prepared as usual by the distillation of tartaric acid. For this purpose 6°5 grams were heated with 10 ¢.c. of bromine and 50 ¢.c.
r to 152° for fifteen hours. On opening the tubes carbon dioxide was abundantly evolved, and the tube contained a dense liguid upon which rested an aqueous solution of hydrobromic acid. The heavy liquid, after washing with dilute potassium hydrate solution, was colorless and transparent, having an ethereal camphor-like odor,
Chemistry and Physics. 151
analysis it gave the formula C,H, Br As it readily solidifies at 17", it is thereby distinguished from acetylene tetrabromide, which remains liquid at —20°. From its reactions, the author
“wise a large excess of hot hydrochloric acid ; the acid separates in crystals on cooling. From
hours (when 330 grams of ene came over) and then for fourteen y increasing temperature (during which
ae acid were obtained. The dicarbonic acid is best obtain Y using a mixture of three molecules of sodium-phenol and one of potassium-phenol, and heating to 320°: reason of its insolu-
= heating, prove that the two carboxyls ceeney the ortho and st converted it
Fittig.” The phenol-tricarbonic acid is therefore oxytrimesinic acid. No further introduction of carboxyl into phenol was pos- riers the meta derivatives not being obtainable in this way; a io, also of the nitro-derivatives.—/. pr. Ch., Tl, xv, 301, pril, 1877, ; PB 6. On the Relation of Cystin to Sulphates in the Urine.—Ntx- MANN has examined a case of cystinurea and has sought to
152 Scientific Intelligence.
determine the quantitative relation between cystin and other con- stituents of the urine, in this disease. - The most noteworthy fact observed was that the per cent of cystin stood to that of the sul- phuric acid as 1:3°89, and that the two varied together. The quantity of uric acid was diminished, but that of the urea was not sensibly affected. The patient excreted from 0°4234 to 0°595 gram cystin per day.—Liebig’s Ann., clxxxvil, 101 suey 187 *
is connected with the variation in the contact line Lippman believes that re has rae this included lanseane as tor 1 first time” noticeable. He discusses the changed equation
which he has thus divided into two parts. By a peat of the facts that the volume variation of solids and in co onapreenie
particles of a ogeneous id without volume variation, no work is done—the original equations can be simplified. Lippman finally shows tte we cannot assume he rise of a liquid in a
ok parts of the walls of the containing wenn oF — tod , vol. i, No. 5, p. 275. 8, Influence af Light upon ‘the Hilectrical resistance
rays is not coteed to the metalloids selenium and tellurium, but belongs also to platinum, gold and to and in all ogres to
metals in general. The electrical current diminishes both the conductivity and also the fecadivecae | is light of its conductor}. and both of these, after cessation of the current, gradually ate their former value.—Phil. Mag. Supplement, June, 1877, p. 1
i.
Chemical and Physical Researches ; by Tuomas GranaAM.
Collected and printed for presentation only, Romi and Ana- . R. Aneus Sur
What Horace wrote of his own wor - mi monumentum sve eg onal
tellectual greatness than by abeal y iecaking that ieee] which the noble intellect during this earthly life erects to itse lf.
Chemistry and Physics. 153
Such a recognition, though long delayed, the French Government bestowed both on La Place and on Lavoisier, by publishing mag-
but we do not hesitate to say that the elegant volume before us, m which his two friends,—James Young and R. Angus Smith,— have embodied the ‘ Chemical and Physical Researches of Thomas Graham,” is the noblest tribute of all’ To the scientific contem-
the Roman p te) could write the famous verse we have quoted above; but no friend of Graham can doubt that this literary tribute would be far more grateful to him than the bronze statue which adorns his native cit ]
their works when dead. Every student of science would have
pa th and is seen with the perspective which time gives, the plan
ppe oO Scholar than to bring together his scattered papers, and make evi-
_ The tra “gations of Graham, and the service we have commen ’ been most ably rendered to his deceased friend by Dr. Angus Am. Jour. 8c1.—Turp Serres, Von. XIV, No. 80.—Aueust, 187. : ll
154 Scientific Intelligence.
works to which we have referred above. In a biographical notice prepared for the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and reprinted in this Journal, HI, vol. i, p. 115, we
we desire t : araday and Graham were two of the most successful dis- coverers who in any age have illustrated the annals of. physical science, and their success was wholly due to the power with which they wielded the inductive method of experimental research. Ex e
periment guided by analogy ever has been, and e ust be, the fundamental condition of all progress in physics, and Vv regret to undervalue this e of investigation as
can marshal differential equati nd forth the truths which volve d this mathematical skill, all important as it 1, and essential to the later development the science, wou
of what great results can be attained by purely and very simple experimental means, Newport, July 9th.
Il. GroLoagy AND MINERALOGY.
region to the Cretaceous, making the Eocene Tertiary commence with the Wahsatch group. These Judith River beds overlie the
dith beds have a thickness of 300 to 500 feet, and afford, above 8 well as below, various Dinosaurian remains, From the upper aue- thirds of a section of 332 feet, Dr. Cope enumerates the folanne : Lelaps, 6 species; Troddon, 1; Aublysodon,2; 12 others or the anus, nius, Trachodon, Monoclonius ; also species of Crocodilus ; of the Onyx,
Testudinate genera astomenus, Polythorax, Comp
Geology and Mineralogy. 155
semys, Eimys ; of Rhynchocephalia, 4 species; Batrachia Uro- dela, 5; others of Lepidosteus, and Ceratodus.
Mr. Cope makes the Lignitic formation include the Judith River and Fort Union epochs, as defined by Meek, and regards the Laramie or Bitter Creek beds as representing other epochs.
_ Prof. White discusses the age of the Lignitic group in connec- tion with his review of the species of fresh-water and land shells, He refers the Judith River and Laramie groups to the Post- Cre-
Mountain areas, Upper Cretaceous; the eruptions were certainly
th Park View Mountain and Spanish Peaks,
nitic strata are intersected by trachytic dikes. Dr. Peale con- sa
Morphie rocks lying beneath—the fusion being due to the heat eccasioned by the movements and plication. A Fourth edition of the “Lists of Elevations” by H. Gannett S been issued. It contains the Hypsometric map noticed on Page 387 of the last volume of this Journal. 3
156 ; Scientific Intelligence.
2. The Coai Mines of the Western Coast i the United States ; by W. A. Goopyrear, Mining Engineer. 4 pp. 12mo. San Francisco. 1877, (A. L. Baneroft & Co. THe author of this volume has had a ten years’ intimate practical acquaintance with the singe mines of California, Oregon and Washington Territory. His work gives a clear and full description of the coal fields (none of ehiok are Polder than Cretaceous), and of the mines themselves as they exist to-day, together with ctopata of production, infor- mation concerning the relative value for steam purposes of the various coals which come to the San i nadibenees market, and ee cognate matters sige not only to geologists and minin engineers, but also to a o are connected with the coal annie
the following tarot reached: that the mines of California cannot be relied on for much more coal ; an those of Coos Bay,
> On the ‘Ongi of ‘Kames or Eskers in New Hampshire ; by RREN Shapes of os sets N. H. (Proc. Amer. Assoc., Buffalo
Ne ew Hampshire; and as being Héttnes jevers! rine in length, or
n some places containing occasional angular bowlders. A single raieionel “kame,” 140 to 250 feet high, is said to exte nd in the Connecticut valley from Lyme, N. H., to Windsor, Vt., a distance of twenty-four miles. Mr. Upham describes the terraces as con-
—. ace
e han the ka. referred to depositions by sub-glacial oem of the ence dropped by the melting glacier before its ret 4, The American Paleozoic Fossils. A Catdloiree of the Gen- = and Species, with names of authors, et places of publica- n, Groups of Rocks in which found, and the Etymology and Sinification of the words, and an Suahrntiers devoted to the Stratigraphical mye d of the Paleozoic rocks; by S. A. MILLER. 254 pp. 8vo. Cincinnati, 1877, Published by the Author.—This title gives the contents not Mr. Miller’s work. The a wt nee result of a large amount of labor, me will be of great 8
se d so also a precedi on the construction 0 be morse in be du eeiess y Poot E. W. Claypole, of An- toch ° olle per commences with the names of foss Ani inni
imals, b eater Among Ve seeatel ie: includes only the fossil ae. A valuable addition to such a ee ould be # table containing the titles of the works referre
Geology and Mineralogy. 157
5. Heights of Mountains in Western Conneeticut.—The fol- lowing is a list of some of the mountain elevations of Western Connecticut, as obtained by a survey made two or three years ago Wins Ry ler and Civil Engineer George M. Bradford, ‘ot V insted re he Hon. Robbins Battell and H. P. Lawrence, of
ik. It will be seen that Aalbers, the northwest corner esc has pnd ape oe much higher than — of Mt. Ivy in
Spaulding’s Sain t, Norfolk 1,336 ea Platt oral peage ices ester 1,460 ‘ Chamberlain Mountain, Winchester. _......--.- 1480 *, Mountain, Goshen ie = Ri Mountain, Norfolk 1-566 ** Knapp Mountain, Norfolk 1617) Moses Mountain, 1 1,645“ Dutton. Moyntain, Norfolk ........-<.2. 2.2... BB i? Ri Summer Mountain, Norfolk .........-.-.----- 1.612. ° Hays untain, Norfolk pois. Gaylord Mountain, Norfolk LTT Bal ountain, lk 1780 24 ow Mountain, Norfolk 1p TO. Mt. Bradford, Canaan 1,960 “ lipper Mountain, Canaan 1 5 Bald Peak, Salisbury igge Buck Mountain, Salisbury 2.160 #4 Bear Mountain, Salisbury 2,250 Mount Bras Agi ie oe ea 2,300 “
“'The last a heights are estimated.” The report of the sur- vey says: Mount Brace and Bear are 150 to 200 feet higher than the ground chew stood on, [Bald Peak, Salisbury], and unques- tionably in the limits of this State,—w ‘hile there is some dispute as to whether the highest point of Mount Brace, which is con- siderably above the other two, is in this State, or just over the line in New Yor e bey nument to mark the State line is on
is mountain near the top, and it is exceedingly probable that the highest land in the "Stare j is exactly in the corner where New ork and Massachusetts join Odnneenént Only this seems now certain, that there is land in this State that will vary little, if any, from 2 300 feet above the sea-level.—Hartford Times, June 1877. This high land is in the Taconic range and just south of Mount Mfc gton
6. On some of’ the conditions ingluencing the projection of dis- crete os naeerkale From Volcanoes, and on the mode in which
Pee was Meee igo oTgchige we Mallett Sires has an ant
ot
_ 1. The Geo ah feeder eae of Portugal. — The recent publica-
Casareda containing human remains, by J. LN.D elgado; on the
158 _—_ Serentifie Intelligence.
C. Ribeiro has also published a memoir on flint and quartz im- plements from the Tertiary and agp = Si and Sado, in aA Memoirs of the Lisbon Academy of Scie ec of Jalisco, Mexico, and mes of the Vol- cano Ceboruco.—A detailed account of the Jalisco earthquake, of the 11th of Pebriiey: ed 7, shaking heavily the city of Guadala- jara, and of Ceboruco, voleano in the region, by a seid ommission, oubiedag of M. Iglesias, M. Barcena, and atute, is contained in the first volume of the bales del Minis- terio de Fomento de la Republica Mexicana, Tomo i, Febrero de 1877 9. West Rock at New Haven, Connecticut, not the termination of the Green Mountain range. ~The fidioulotia statement,* that the Green ee terminate in West Rock, is still afloat in the School Geographies studied in and out of New England. oe following corseiion of it appeared nearly sixty years since, mos Eaton’s “Index to the Geology of the a ate ae ” re 103) a shin viens published at Troy, New York, i
“It is very strange that several publications fess a ted the sout ae —— of this primitive range (the Green Mounsied n Wes , New Haven, which is greenstone resting on red
flvcone "Such random guesses given as facts are very injurious to the science.’
Ill. Borany AND ZooLoey.
1. Some points of Botanical Nomenclature.—The series of laws of nomenclature, revised and ded by Alph. DeCan-
questions, all rising out of the way in which genera, their syno- yms, and some “ney are at dealt with or referred to 0
the Genera Plantarum now in course of publication ; and he ve ay. addresses these questions to M. DeCando lle. The latter
oo aos down the law: and the correspondence is print he Bulletin ue i Sootbté Royale de Botanique a "Belgique,
1876 » Pp. “ta
. The iiculty ae which M. Cogniaux fell was not very for- midable, but it is one which a botanical writer has to settle, and which take if sides to be settled with unanimity, an and upon
all ahs rely ace ept the principle. It may well satisfy us; for the principle is one which for many years we have strenuously maintained in this Journal. The fact is, that the name 0
* See this Journal, III, x, 498, xi, 151, + fonshisck with comments, i in this Steal July, 1868.
mi
Botany and Zoology. 159
Hooker, in the 7 ee characterizes a new genus,
Cerasiocarpum, and states that it is founded upon the Zch-
mandra Leylanica of Thwaites, but does not write Cerasiocarpum
oa armpangind how is a succeeding writer to refer to this record ? hall he write Cerasiocarpum Zeylanicum, Hook. f.?” If pers
“a the caly kind of case coming under the rule, we should sa
it were best to do so,—that, a although Dr. Ho oker has not im-
nner. Bu tions grow; an i this one may form the fouhaation of a super-
gnia the species, already pablsbed: sider other apie: names, and these e in like manner enumerated, some with certainty, ‘some with
Paeitonen: into which Bentham thrusts twenty 0 A ericoe re- ceived genera, some of them numerous in species, what is to be done ? DeCandolle rightly answers these questions, first, by seem attention to the fact that, from the time of Clusius and Dodoe down to Linnzus, this suffix of authors’ names is néecly the com- mencement of, or in lieu of, a citation; that it is not a matter of ge or sentiment, or justice, but a matter of fact, i. e., of his-
which we ourselves Save Sreeetens to follow. It is at-
tions appl to the raising or lowering of the de of a name; for
instance, that Endlicher ess el not have written Ordo Swartzier, he Prodrom
Jey when, in t the rank assigned is Subordo ;
« Pt . Cnr $F tom.
nh “ edtoge ; ope
S J pF. of Leow
: Virgini
160 Scientific Intelligence.
also that, when a genus is reduced to a section of some other, should not write after it the name of an author who established it as a genus, etc. Consisten if and exact correctness require that he
But we do not agree in the retjuinition that the name of the author who first used a former generic name as that of a section, should always be appended. Sometimes it is not easy to ascertain this,
or to know whether or not it has been yet so employed. And when known, we may in many cases, in priat as well as in writing, innocently and safely omit the authority of a sub-genus or a as we
ecies.
2. Athamantha CUhinensis 1.—This is a puzzle, of ake a probable solution by Muhlenberg has recently turned up. The ve is the character, etc., in the Species Plantarum, ed. 1, 7 - hone Chinensis, seminibus membranaceo-striatis, foliis sur re levibus multifidis,
. cates . Chinensem dixit Barthram qui semina misit ex
* Caulis ang —— levis, — parum fiexuosus. Folia Cheerophylli, lavia. Umbella minus expansa, alba. Semina sin- gula 5-alis longitudinal paris ; involucrum duplex.
n the second edition of the popedion Plantarum it is added: “ Statura Selini Monier’
In reading the SS eksed correspondence of — Collins, which (as is already noted in this Journal) is prese the library of the Academy of Natural Sciences, philadelphia, I found
the following in a letter from Muhlenberg, dated Oct. 12, 1813.
“ Among the specimens from Genessee, sent by Mr. Srnesioe there is an umbellate agreeing with Athana nthas Chi ’ which Linnus had from Mr. Bartram, who had visited the Lakes Can we find out whether in Bartram’s time the name of Genessee was known, and how Bartram spelled it: perhaps Ohineees and whether such a word might have been misunderstood? I have never seen Bartram’s journa
The journal referred to must be John Bartram’s “ he made in his Travels from Pennsylvania to Canada.” o. London 1751. The name of Genessee is certainly older pisen “Bartram
6
me.
If Muhlenberg’s suggestion is the right one, as is probable, the plant is probably Conioselinum | Canadense. Yet that hardly posseses an “involucrum duplex.” There is, ‘perhaps, ad 7 in bg Linnean herbarium, which Secs settle this point.
epertorium Annum Literature Botanice periodicw cura: sae G. O. W. Brouninstne, Custos biblioth, Soe. Te meleng W. Burcx, Math. Mag. et Phil. Nat. Doct. Harlemi, Erven Loos- jes, 8vo.—We have before us tomm. II, 1876, and tomm. Til, 1877,
Botany and Zoology. — 161
and well. They put on record, in a systematic way, the titles of all the communications relating to Botany which are found in the periodicals and serials of the years in question. The contents are arranged under the heads of General Morphology, Special Morph- ology of the several classes and orders, Physiology, Plant-descrip- tions, Floras, Geography of Plants, Paleontology, ete., ete. <A list of the periodicals used is given, an alphabetical index of au- thors, and another of Families and Genera. e work appears to be under the patronage of the Teylerian Society of Harlem. It makes a valuable supplement or continuation, so far as concerns botany, of the Royal Society’s Catalogue, and has also the advan- tage of systematic arrangement. A. G.
4, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and party on a Botanical excur- sion to the Rocky Mountains and California.—Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, President of the Royal Society, and Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, arrived at Boston in the Parthia, on the 9th ult. He is accompanied by Major General Strachey, of the Royal —
5. The Influence of Physical Conditions in the Genesis of cies; by Jou, A. ALLEN. 32 pp. 8vo. (From the Radical
al: @ many distinct species which now are known to shade into one an-
or geographical conditions--and not natural selection—is the ah source of the variations, a conclusion the facts clearly estab- ish,
8. Sir Wyville Thomson, and the working up of the “ Chal-
If Sir Wyville Thomson has neglected auponpale ilirocte in ate matter, he may be said to have disregarded his own, by sending
162 Scientific Intelligence.
ciple involved in this distribution. The same cosmopolitan spirit has guided Sir Wyville on previous occasions. A reference to
urvey, gives them an unquestionable advantage in working UP these later collections. In short, i h
0 ¥ division, Sir Wyville has manifested the discriminating judgment which has
merican Addresses, with a Lecture on the study of Biology; by Tuomas H. Huxtey. 164 pp. 8vo, London, 1877. (Macm “ lan & Co.)—These addresses include those delivered by Prolene Huxley in New York, in 1876, noticed on page 399 of bone ve of this Journal (1876), and also his address on the occasion 0
Astronomy. 163
— of the Johns Hopkins University, delivered at Baltimore
n the 12th of September, 1876, and a lecture on the study of Bi ology, in connection with the ois Collection of Scientific Ap- paratus, South Kensington Museum, delivered December 16, 1876.
IV. ASTRONOMY.
1. Notice of ise Meteor aes June 12,1877; by Professor DanrEex Kirkwoop, (Communicated.)—On the aga June 12, 1877, about fifteen Pht Vive 9 o’clock, a large meteor was seen in Indiana, throughout almost the entire extent of we State. The Plymouth Democrat® of Th ureday, June 14th, contains the fol- lowing notice of the phenom
remarkably brilliant meteor, of a bluish color, passed through the heavens from ae st to ‘east, last Tuesday evening at about fifteen minutes past 9 o’clock, The movement of the meteor was much slower a is usual with such bodies, being visible for several seconds. It left no trace of its course, as some former meteors have done. Its elevation was about thirty de- grees, and the space traversed was about twenty degrees, accord- ing to the opinion of a city paper:
The time here wixeds fifteen minutes past 9 o'clock, is certainly
erroneous, as the meteor was seen be ore 9 both in ‘Muncie and
vi from west to east, nearly parallel to the horizon, at an elevation of about 40°. Mr, F, M. Parker, a graduate of Indiana University, i Monroe County. nae first seen it was about 15° east of north at an altitude of 17°
18°; its apparent magnitude was one-fourth that of the moon; ts
°
was aay and that its height above "the earth’s surface at t moment of its disappearance was more than thirty miles and ee than forty.
_. Indiana, July 2.
metric measurement of Double Seated memoir
this wibieietg extending to 266 pages, by N. ©. nee is mercer in the Acta Universitatis Lundensis, tom. xii, 1875-
3. We are glad to learn that Mr. Burnham has fed granted
4. Handbook of Descriptive Astronomy ; E Cuampers, 3d edition. Clarendon Press Series, Macmillan &
Co. London: 1877. 8vo, 960 pp.—The first edition of this ex- cellent work was published = ten years ago and is probably known to most amateur astronomers, In that edition there were
* Published at Plymouth, Marshall visa near the northern boundary of the
164 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
several very serious deficiencies. The present edition is much enlarged, and these —. iencies have been supplied. Some of the ceapedes are, from the increase of our knowledge, almost entirely new. The net caesar ad the volume is not less than 200 pages ‘The work is, as its title implies, strictly descriptive. The author has in general eviiicd all theoretical discussions. The law of — gravitation and the nebular hypothesis ~~ alike omitted. ‘he same is true of spherical astronomy and all methods of com- pu fiation except the v simplest. ‘The volume is therefore a handbook of the known facts of Astronomy, stated with the least possible amount of mathematics. Itis not designed or fitted to
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
. Abstract of a pamphlet entitled Reflections sur les Chron- phony par J. A. Rovyaux, Enseigne de Vaisseau. Translated by Lieut.-Com. C. H. Davis Nt
art {—Contains an exposé o of numerous inconveniences in ns direct application of formule to chronometers at sea, and a resum of the advantages to be derived from an application of the ‘ent to os differences of rates observed daily at sea.
t 11—Contains a demonstration of some properties of lines of sateen rates and temperatures (lignes isothermes et lignes isomarches).
8 a necessary corollary follows an examination of the results Sears uring a cruise of thirty months, by the chronometers
ib given oat view to make public a research biol: weld perhaps have little currency in this country, and without committing the translator to the views ich
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 165
is to record the rates —— = with corresponding temperatures, in the graphic form of curv :
The inconveniences - these two methods as ee to chro- sg on board ship
must be gre 2a and these differences will only appear with change of seasons. here must frequently occur, on board a cruising ship, inter- i Rei of the regular observations. (3.) In consequence of these interruptions the observations may be badly distributed on the scale of te — res (4.) Skill is necessary in the obser (5.) The a so dintaliaat ys dolicetéa 8 studied repre- sent only the Harbor rates, whereas the practical navigator is directly concerned with the ‘Sea rates, and it is well known that these — sometimes differ widely. igator on vr sereite these many and important a pectandad will be led justly to conclude that so much labor practically useless, rte will trust as implicitly to the veculation of his chronometers, as to ae demonstrations of a formula based on such uncertain condit It is proposed, therefore, ‘é apply the see not to the rates themselves, but to r diff erences, or what is the same thing to the second iocenton ‘of daily comparisons, _'These peieanes,
psc every day; the interruptions in the observations will not occur; the observations will be better distributed on the eae of reeset talent of observation will not be necessary; two chronometers will be followed at once; and finally the perturba- tions of sea rates nef nd directly.
There is one decided oe in this method, the impor- tance of which it is impossible to deny, viz: that the result practically useful to the navigator is the variation of the rate itself, which must still ve sought by the ordinary methods, because this method only furnishes the variation in difference of rate The ordinary methods mt however be facilitated by a study of the difference of rates, and are of themselves insufficient to pet the regularity of sea rates or the validity of the proposed form
Since the rate of a oe may be regarded as a fanctioh of the two variables, time and temperature, it may be expressed = the ei po of a series (Taylor 8 aa and Mr. Yvon
1 he .
same tim Pa The eral properties of chronometer-rates are implicitly contained in the formula of Yvon Villarceau. The importance of
166 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
these ig ir is that they are Sapp ta 2 and sufficient conse-
quences of the formula, and are con rh one verified or not
peribed. at the same time as the ormula, and are capable of
replacing it either as — of an aduntied law, or as a control on
the regularity of r: Their practical utility consists in the
fact that their ee construction is much easier than that of ormula,
Without entering into their —— demonstration these properties may be briefly stated as follow
(1.) All the acre cor wit to ng to ashelaa ame temperature are dis- ethoed on a para ving its axis parallel to the axis of rates.
pe on a conic, and all the conics one for different values of rate have the same center and are similar t be borne in mind that the aie corresponding to equal ceompculeres are points on the curve of rates, and the points nce te to equal rates are points on the curve of tempera- res, sachin slator. to the curves of temperatures and rates the same — time = properties will appear in a graphic construction of the ¢ A ain of the chronometers of the Decrés is given to show the influence of vibrations caused ~~ the screw of a steam vessel on the rates of chronometers on board. A practical way of siehiaens rates at sea, by the application of the formula to their differences, i is as follows e that the normal values of the b, ¢ and . their differences d—a, c—a,... have bee een erin een a pr an
t daily comparisons actually observed for the corresponding pets To deduce variations in the rates themselves we may
(1.) If none of the differences 6—a, e—a,... have varied it may be admitted that the rate itself has. ts varied. Because, if the rate has varied it is almost impossible that the pa cebeppeseo da, db, de, ... should all be equal and of the same f one or several of the differences tae a pees it ma
while 3 and a both change, it is necessary that da=db, which is improbable. . (3.) If all the differences have varied there is no longer any prob-
ge.
probably due to the action of the screw, and if the effect of this action is once determined, it may be the same in a second case. ’ —
2. EHarthquake wave of May 9th and 10th.—This . account of which is given on page 77, reached New South Wales
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 167
oe to a report from the Pacific Steamer, Australia) on the ing of the 11th of none 8 (Australian tim ime). At 5" 208 a. M. ae tide uage at Fort Denison recorded the first of the series of waves. The oscillations continued through the day and reached their maximum at 2 p.m. the height then being three feet six inches. Retegeaaca from New Zealand report that similar waves were felt on the east coast, from the Bay of Islands to the bluff, seus eg at 5 o’clock a. m. The maximum height was six feet. 3. Tides of the Arctic Seas.—These tides are mathematically diacabeps by Prof. S. Haughton in papers published in the Pro- ceedings of the Royal Society, the last of which (Part vii) was sae on the 17th of February last.
4, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. —In connec- tion with this excellent institution, laboratories for the instruction exclusively of women were open for occupancy on the 23d of October last, and have been in successful operation through the winter and spring. The design is to afford facilities for the ad- vanced study of Chemical Ana alysis, mee ogy and Chemistry as related to Vegetable and Animal Physio logy and to the Industrial Arts. The laboratories are nena in arrangement and are furnished with all needed apparatus. The laboratory is under the charge and tle abs of Protea John M. Ordway and Mrs Robert H. Rich The terms are $200 a year for a full term of eight preg six c anys per week. Students are also taken for one or two days per week, oes Transfer of the ag gh rong to Amherst College.— The scientific resources of t College have recently been
These collections have been for more than twenty-five years de- posited in the Amherst wine Museum; and while there they have been ever increasin a in extent ee the - and —
mg the collections in zoo be otany and archeolo ay will to the Tastitution, with which Professor Shepard ‘i ong been connected ole are now transferred to the ssa
for little more than half oe sum. The collection of meteorites ranks fourth in the world, and no institution in this country pos- — a superior ee of _— _
6. Imperial y of Sciences of St. Petersburg. — This Academy hi has published 1 Part I. 84 a Aeisiied index volume to its Eoreige ies covering 490 8vo pages and including the articles in foreign la)
- National feces Seiences.—The Academy has recently published vol. I, of Bicaraphionl Memoirs, 344 pp. 8vo, contain- ing memoirs of a S. Hubbard, J. G. Totten, B, Silliman, E. Hitchcock, J. M. Gilliss, A. D. Bache, J. H. Alexander, W. Chau- venet, J. F. Frazer, J. H. Coffin, J. Torrey, W. S. Sullivant, - Saxton , H. J. Clark and J. Winlock. Also volume I, of Procee ings of the Academy. 120 pp. 8vo.
163 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
8. Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, Vol. ii, Part 2.
8vo. Boston, 1877.—This number contains the following papers by F. H. Storer: (1) on ihe composition of certain Pumpkins and cn - record of results obtained on saasdysilie seeds :
on growi wk ti Pit-sand and of Coal-ashes; a nd the e following = W. G, Farlow No _ on some Common diseases caused by Fungi.
9. Dynamics, or Theoretical Meolunaiess a by J. T. BorroMLey, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 142 pp., small 8vo. New York, 1877. G. P. Putnam & Sons.—This little mak tna one of the vol-
ume s ent ciples of mechanics are presented with clearness and precision, without the introduction of difficult mathematics, and it is thus an excellent book for the class of students for whom it was pre- pared.
Eighth Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts, January, 1877. 498 pp. 8vo, = a maps. <A Report of high scientific gre The chief topics are: Pollut f streams; sewerage; sanitary condition of Lynn; registration of deaths ah pM growth of children ; disease of the mind (by Dr. C. F. Folsom); health of tei
Science Lectures at South Kensington. The Steam Engine, by F. J. Bramwell. 62 pp. 12mo, with iifeberatiouat London and New York, 1877. (Macmillan & Co.)
OBITUARY. Sansorn Tenney.—Sanborn Tenney, Professor of Geology and Natural History in Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., died
ee on the eleventh of July, at Buchanan, Michigan, while o Jhicago, the mri of cht of a Williams
unt was the projector and leader. Professor Tenney was the author of rent e text-books on sty Sah and PHEN REE — Ree died on, on the twelfth of July at
: INSLOW, M. D. — Dr. Winslow, formerly of Bos — weeny in Ut ah, a ave ars. He is the hor oe ork entitled “ Cosm y, ® Puttosophical views of the Sebati ablished at rt Becton in 1853, also later of one on “ Na- ture and pho ;” and, besides, of short papers on some Earth- uakes, in this J ournal, and on the discoveries of human resus in alifornia, "ae some other po ne
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES]
Art. XXIIL.—On a new Process for the Electrical Deposition of Metals, and for constructing Metal-covered Glass Specula ; by Professor ArTHUR W. Wriaut, Yale College.
Ivy a paper by the writer, published in this Journal, Janu- ary, 1877, an account was given of a method of producing me- tallic films upon the inner surface of exhausted glass tubes, by the action of a succession of energetic electrical discharges. The thickness of these films could be varied, from a tenuity such that the coating barely gave indications of a metallic lus- ter, and scarcely dimmed the intensity of transmitted light, to the point where perfect opacity was attained, by simply. con- tinuing the action of the current for a shorter or longer time. They were produced by forming the negative electrode of the metal to be deposited, exhausting the tube, and passing through it the current from an induction coil. The metallic coatings thus obtained, as seen from the exterior, were very brilliant, but the condition of the inner surface was not readily
rved, and the nature of the process made it seem proba- ble that they possessed a dull or eyen a frosted surface. With a view to obtain the films in a tter suited for examina-
as the nearer portion of the platgmieceived a larger share of the metal, the thickness of the de vas not: uniform, and it Am. Jour. 8c1.—Tuirp _— Vou, X
170 A. W. Wright— Electrical Deposition of Metals.
was found necessary to-construct a special apparatus, in which the relative positions of the plate and the electrode could be varied, so as to give the latter an equal action upon all parts of the surface to be covered. The plan employed was as described in the following paragraphs. —
rather thick-walled glass globe about seven centimeters in diameter, blown upon the end of a tube twenty-five centime- ters long and fifteen millimeters in diameter, was used to form the receiver. The top of the globe opposite the tube was cut off, so as to form an opening forty millimeters in diameter, and the edge ground flat, in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the tube. The end of the latter was drawn somewhat smaller in a gas-flame, and a glass stop-cock attached to it with cement. A little way above this, a platinum wire was fused into the glass to serve as the positive electrode. The cover of the vessel was made by cutting from a similar globe a portion corresponding in size to the part removed, but with the neck attached, the two pieces being carefully ground so as to fit closely. When they were placed together, a little cement applied to the out- side along the line of juncture rendered the joint perfectly air- tight. The tube or neck of the cover was five centimeters long, and was also somewhat reduced at the extremity by drawing it smaller. Into this was cemented a small and thick- walled tube extending to a point near the center of the globe. A platinum wire was placed in this tube, and was fused in at the top, enough being left projecting to form a small loop for the attachment of the wire from the coil. The inner end of the wire terminated at about one centimeter from the lower end of the glass tube. Into the latter was slipped a wire of the , was the negative g long enough to
The pan, when in meters below the end of the tube
A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals. 171
from which the electrode projected, the latter being adjusted to the proper distance by sliding it up or down in its support as
the plate. In some of the experiments the plate was station- ary, being held in a little tripod of glass threads, or simply laid upon the bottom of the globe. In these cases the tube hold- ing the electrode was jointed near the top, the two portions being connected by a hook and loop of platinum or magne- sium wire. It could thus be made to traverse all parts of the plate by giving suitable movements to the globe.
hen adjusted and closed the receiver was attached to the Sprengel pump. By means of a small air-pump of the ordi- nary construction, connected with this by a stop-cock and flex- ible tube, the whole apparatus was exhausted as far as possible and then dry hydrogen admitted, this being repeated two or three times in order to remove the air and moisture. ‘The pro- cess of exhaustion was then completed with the mercury pump. The degree of rarefaction required varied somewhat with the metal to be deposited, but was rarely above 2°5 millimeters. For platinum the best results were obtained, when it was from 15 to 1-75 millimeters. The use of hydrogen is not in all cases necessary, as some of the metals can be deposited perfectly well with only air in the receiver. This is especially the case with gold, but platinum, although ordinarily not easily com- bined with oxygen, becomes tarnished with a film of what apparently is A blue oxide, unless the air is removed. The electrode itself was formed of a small wire, usually not more than one-fourth of a millimeter in thickness, bent at the end
ree to six in rather weak acid, and a plunge ba f fiv two, or more were PE as Oc uired, the whole being
172 A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals.
joined in a continuous circuit. By immersing the plates of the plunge battery more or less, as well as by varying the number im the circuit, the strength of the current could readily be changed within the limits desired. The various metals required currents of different strength, and the power best suited to each had to be determined by trial. It was found advisable in most cases to regulate it so that the temperature of the electrode was below that of a red heat, or such as barely to redden it. Of course with the more fusible metals it was necessarily much lower than this. The metal is actually volatilized by the dis- charge, as is shown by the fact that the characteristic lines of its spectrum may be seen with a spectroscope, and the film is formed by the condensation of its vapor upon the cooler glass surface. For the production of films with brilliant surfaces, the strength of the current must not be great enough to give the discharge a disruptive character, as this separates some of the metal in the form of powder.
The primary object of the experiments was to obtain films of the different metals upon thin pieces of flat glass for the purpose of investigating some of their optical characters. The
to be perfectly successful in its operation, and beautiful films of gold, silver, platinum, and bismuth, were obtained with ease and certainty. As has been mentioned, it seemed probable that the surface of deposit would be dull, but the first trial showed that this anticipation was incorrect, and the films when removed from the receiver exhibited surfaces exquisite perfection and the most brilliant polish. They can only compared to the surface of clean liquid mercury, far surpassing in luster anything that can be obtained by the ordi- nary methods of polishing.
This circumstance suggested at once a valuable application of the process in the production of specula for optical purposes, and the subsequent investigations were directed to this end. The mirrors first made had been formed upon disks of thin
glass, such as are commonly used as covers for microscopical
objects, those being selected which were most free from de- fects, and had the best surfaces. By means of a ver delicate balance, the weight of the glass disks, both before and
assay after receiving the depo ld be obtained to the one hun- tes, hence it was easy to calculate ta
dredth part of a millig the thickness of the me
A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals. 173
through them. ‘he thickness of the gold layer was found to be 0:000183 mm., that of the platinum 0°000174 mm., or + pore: one-fourth the length of a wave of light at the red end of the spectrum. The gold, although thicker than the platinum, transmits perceptibly more light, showing that it is the more transparent of the two metals. As the films employed for mirrors may be much thinner than the amount mentioned
possible to apply the method of local correction for the im- provement of a defective figure, or to parabolize a spherical mirror by depositing the metal in a layer increasing in thick- ness toward the center, though, of course, it would be better to avoid a somewhat tedious operation by securing the perfect form of the glass beforehand. —
Of the metals that are suitable for the formation of specula, platinum appears to be the most valuable. For while, when well polished, it is but little inferior to silver in reflecting power and freedom from color, it does not become tarnished by oxidation or the action of sulphurous gases, and when dulled by atmospheric deposits the surface can be cleaned by washing with water or with acids, which is an important advantage. By the method here described it can be deposited upon glass
174 A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals.
surfaces very easily, and a mirror of the most perfect surface produced at once, without the necessity of a single touch to complete it. Several such mirrors have been made in the course of these experiments, by the use of concave glass lenses, with the most satisfactory results) The metal film adheres strongly to the glass, and when of sufficient thickness appears to be very firm and hard. In mirrors silvered by the ordinary method, trouble is often experienced from the insinuation of moisture between the glass and the metal, resulting finally in the separation of the latter. In those prepared by the new process the adherence of the film is so close as to render such an effect impossible. As a test of this, a small silvered speculum was placed in a beaker of water where it remained for two weeks, and besides this was wetted and dried repeatedly, without ‘ showing the slightest tendency to suffer the penetration of the moisture. Similar resuits were also obtained with platinum
The metallic luster was wanting, though it was readily devel- oped when a portion of the powdery coating, which was easily removed, was rubbed against the surface of the glass with some pressure. The defect was, to a considerable extent, remedied by surrounding the electrode with a small glass tube proce some three millimeters beyond it, so as to clear the surface
A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals, 175
the plate by an interval of only one or two millimeters. This had the effect to cut off the lateral portion of the discharge, and to confine its action to a limited area immediately below the extremity of the wire. :
The yellow tarnish is removed with the greatest ease by gently rubbing the surface with soft chamois leather and a little rouge, and the metal is so hard, that, when this operation is performed with care, the polish is not at all, or but very slightly, affected. Even then, however, the metal is not per- fectly white, having still a very faint yellow tinge. It is well known that silver is not a perfectly white metal, for light which has undergone repeated reflections from polished surfaces of this metal appears yellow or reddish-yellow, though this color is not perceptible when the light has undergone but a single reflection. But the real cause of the yellowish tint may possi- ’ bly be found in the very tenuity of the films, which when pre- pared in this way have a beautiful and intense blue color by transmitted light. When not too thick, the amount of blue rays which they suffer to pass, may be sufficient to cause, by their abstraction, a perceptible tinge of yellow, the complimen- tary color, in the reflected rays. If this were really the case, the coloration should grow weaker with an increase of thick- ness, and disappear when opacity is reached. Some of the results areas seem to favor this view, and the probability of its correctness is strengthened by the facts related in the next
ragraph, but further experiments are needed to decide the question satisfactorily. 7
ne result of the investigation has been to show that the color of the light which has passed through a layer of metal varies somewhat with the thickness of the film. is was
ulated by observing the color of the transmitted light. An experiment made with a circular disk of flat glass was perfectly successful, the platinum being readily deposited upon the sil- ver, the yellowish tint of which it entirely removed, producing
176 A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals.
light as much as may be desired. An image, nearly or quite
metal is deposited should be of non-conducting material. is shown by the fact that the process continues to go on after
A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals. 177
inirror has a diameter of a little less than four centimeters, and both this and the smaller one, so far as the nature of the sur- face is concerned, appear absolutely faultless. As only com- mon lenses were employed in its construction the performance of the instrument is not remarkable, but it is sufficient
to warrant the assurance that the method will be serviceable
_ Many useful applications of this process may be found, and its use is not limited to those metals which have been men- tioned here. Moreover for many of them no other available rocess is known by which they can be deposited in a uniform ayer and with a brilliant reflecting surface upon glass. very thin layer of platinum, or still better of silver and platinum together, could be used with great advantage in the camera lucida and similar instruments. Very perfect mirrors for gal-
178 Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes.
vanometer needles, and for delicate torsion apparatus, can be expeditiously formed in this way, and by the use of very thin
adherence, are serious disadvantages. These are entirely avoided by the use of an unalterable metal like platinum; and. though for instruments of the largest size the process here ' described may be found impracticable, for those of more mod- erate dimensions there is every reason for believing it may be employed with complete success. The labor and time required for its application are indeed drawbacks; but there is compen- sation for this in the important cireumstance that the mirror comes out of the receiver with a surface of inimitable perfec- tion, which would in fact only be injured by any of the ordin- ary methods of polishing.
Yale College, August 8, 1877.
Art. XXIIL—A new and ready method for the Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes; by MARGARET S. CHENEY, and ELLEN Swa.iow RicHarps.
WE had occasion several months since, to make a number of determinations of nickel in mattes where, for commercial rea-
separation of iron as a basie acetate. (Fre s, page 36e. ) This method requires considerable analytical skill and practice in its use. The large dilution and subsequent evaporation nec- essary render the operation a tedious one, even without the re- _ peated re-precipitations which are indispensable to a complete separation. : The method based upon the behavior of neutralized solutions at the boiling point (Fresenius, page 362), which we personally prefer to use, is open to the same objections. The process of
Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes. 179
separating the iron by ammonium hydrate, even with all the precautions recommended by various authors, has given very unsatisfactory results in our hands, By far the best success was obtained in the use of the method given by Frederick Field, in the Chemical News, vol. i, page 5 (1859). The method is as follows:
“In the case of nickel and iron, the nitrates are evaporated nearly to dryness, and, after the addition of water, oxide of lea (litharge) is added, and the whole boiled for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour. The iron is entirely precipitated, the ni- trates of nickel and lead remaining in solution. After filtration, which can be effected with great readiness, dilute sulphuric acid is added, and on standing for sixteen hours the sulpha‘e of lead is filtered off, and the nickel precipitated and estimated in the usual manner.”
This process uniformly gave good results as to the separation of iron and nickel, all the nickel being left in solution. The
containing acetic acid. The filtrate is heated nearly to boiling and caustic potash added until the odor of ammonia is distinctly
180 Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes.
perceptible. The apple- greek mrepiee of phosphate of nickel is partially washed, dissolved in a little dilute sulphuric acid, the solution rendered somitiy aaine by ammonium hydrate and a ome pesoinrtated by the bat e than retay per cent of nickel, it is necessa dissolve he” precipitate of phosphate of iron in necessary 10 acid, dilute this solution somewhat, render it nearly neutral by ammonium hydrate, add twenty-five or thirty cubic centimeters of acetic acid, and re-precipitate by phosphate of soda. The filtrate is added to the first filtrate. If the solution Tea been rendered alkaline before the addition of acetic acid, or if an insufficient quantity of phosphate of soda has been used a small amount of iron will remain in the solution, not enough, however, to interfere with the battery precipitation ‘of the nickel. The solution of phosphate of soda inal d be a saturated one, and, if it is heated separately, the troublesome boiling of the bulky precipitate is avoided. By the aid of the filter pump this bionagaad is readily filtered in spite of its unpromising
Found. Theory. per cent.
100 e. ¢. of which 1486 "150 99°06 100c¢c * 149 "150 99°33 Hen © 0748 075 99°73
To the first portion, the phosphate of soda was added first, and the acetic acid afterward.
C. Wachsmuth—sStructure of Paleozote Crinoids. 181
per cent. Matte No. 1 gave (phosphate method) 6°77 Cheney. “ 6c . e t Richards.
“ j i Matte No. 2 (neutralized ie eda 08 Pt Richie.
a eney Matte No.3 “ (phosphate method) fi ae Richards.
41+ Hardman. basic acetate) 7 79 Hardman, Pyrrhotite No. 1 (basi acetate) *32 9 { Hardman, So “ * (phosphate method) oe Cheney Pyrrhotite No. 2 (phosphate method) 0 so , Richards.
Massachusetts Institute Technology, Woman’s hee June, 1877.
Art. XXIV.—WNotes on the internal and yeti slg of Paleozoic Orinoids ; by CHARLES W ACHS
(Continued from page 127.) 5. The construction of the summit and its value in classification.
THE construction of the ventral disc or actinal side of the calyx has heretofore received less attention than almost any other part of the Crinoids, and thereby an important aid to classification has been overlooked. I think it affords a clear and most important distinction between recent and ancient Cri-
placed a number of Paleozoic genera in the same — with
5, Pp 227, divides “the true Cri a which are omar by an articulated or jointed column” into two divisions :
a, Crinoids in which the ventral side consists of a soft ski om hose in which the ventral side is covered by solid ae
oni includes with the former group, Pentacrinide, Apio- crinide, Eugeniacrinide, Encrinide, Cupressocrinide and Oy- athocrinidee This division seems to have been based on mere con- jecture, since a membranous ventral surface has been observed only in the Pentacrinide and the recent Crinoids generally, Richards i washings by the of a beaker. was Mr. Harn’ rt ta of the spuowphat and not enough Phosphate of soda was added to produce a white precipitate.
182 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.
though it is probable that Hugentacrinus and several allied gen- era had that summit structure. In the Apiocrinide and
contrary is covered by a soft peristome. Both are closely related to Apiocrinus ; Belemnocrinus particularly has the same heavy. body plates and the small viscera] cavity, and it appears to me that Apiocrinus is more nearly allied to the Paleozoic
type than to the recent Rhizocrinus. | The Cupressocrinide and Cyathocrinide are the only groups from Paleozoic formations which Roemer places in his division a. Dr. Schultze, who adopted Roemer’s classification, included in the Cupressocrinide the genera “* Synbathocrinus Phill. and Phimocrinus L. Schi.,” in which he is undoubtedly correct, for se two
covering of the central opening of Synbathocrinus resembles ina remarkable degree that of the central aperture of the Blas-
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 183
toids, and it seems to me highly probable that the consolidating plates are homologous with the partly hidden deltoid pieces of the latter.
the Cyathocrinide. Macrostylocrinus is allied to Melocrinus, and has undoubtedly a similar summit structure. The same may be said of Schizocrinus and Dimerocrinus which are not at all related to Cyathoerinus.
he genus Cyathocrinus was originally described by Professor Phillips and Mr. Austin as having a separate mouth and vent, which was considered by these authors and others to be its chief distinction from Potertocrinus: Accordingly, all species with a proboscis or solid dome, though otherwise agreeing with Cyathocrinus, were referred to Poterwocrinus or some allied
exceedingly interesting, and throws light upon the summit structure of many genera. I shall herein refer frequently to ar & Worthen’s excellent figures, vol. v, Plate 1x, figs. 13 and 14.
Looking only at fig. 14, one would at first naturally suppose there must have been, during the life of the animal, tw dis- tinct openings in the vault. But on examining it more criti- cally and comparing it with fig. 13, it will be found that fig. 14 represents simply the consolidating apparatus as figured by twoomer and Schultze in Oupressocrinus, placed here exactly as in that genus, and consisting of five large pieces, alternating With the upper edges of the first radial plates. ‘The plate of the anal side is larger than the others and forms the base of the Inner side of the proboscis. The five pieces which connect with each other laterally, extend inward for some distance, but hot so far as to meet in the center where there is a semi-circular or heart-shaped opening. Along the sutures, between the five
184 CO. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.
the base of a proboscis, and the consolidating plates are partly covered, leaving but a small uncovered space in the form of a delta in the interradial areas. The central opening is vaulted over by a number of various sized pieces, the largest one occu- pying the side toward the proboscis. The shallow groove be- tween the sutures of the consolidating plates is arched by a double series of alternating plates, forming underneath a pas- ge for the ambulacral canal and food groove. The vault, thus closely resembling that of Synbathocrinus, was in all probability arranged on a similar principle in Cupressocrinus. The same plan, with slight modifications, prevailed in Poteriocrinus, Scaphiocrinus and all genera with an inflated or balloon-shaped ventral sac. Among the latter, the center of radiation is fre- quently found to be pushed toward the anterior side, so that owing to the great size of the sac at its junction with the dorsal cup, 1t does not occupy the center of figure. mong all groups of Crinoids, the Cyathocrinide undergo the least amount of change in the course of time. They are
noids was open throughout, as in recent forms. This might
ibly have been the case in Cyathocrinus Jowensis, but I even doubt it here, as the corresponding plates in other closely related species, though arranged upon the same fen
We by themselves, having the vault supported by consoli- _<— plates, and covered by an immovable arch of small plates. The next group is one in which of all Paleozoic Crinoids the vault is least known, including Taxocrinus, Forbesiocrinus, Ony- chocrinus, Ichthyocrinus, Lecanocrinus, and probably other gen- era. The Taxocrinide, for such I will call them, have hitherto been described as being covered with some soft material inste of solid plates, even by Dr. Schultze, though he describes and figures a Taxocrinus with a long heavy plated proboscis, whic! could not have been supported upon a soft skin. * In this * I believe Dr. Schultze is mistaken in referring his Z briareus to Taxocrinus as it lacks all the istic features of the genus. Its rather large subra-
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinotds. 185
group, the plates of the radial series are indented on their upper margins more or less deeply for the reception of a protuberance from the lower side of the succeeding plate. The indentation of the upper margin does not extend throughout the thickness of the plate, and in Forbesiocrinus, it is filled by a superficial patelloid plate, which is separately articulated and sometimes anchylosed with the outer margin of the plate above. This peculiarity exists not only in the arm plates, but is conspicu- ous in the radials, thus producing apparently an articulate structure of the whole skeleton and indicating some degree of flexibility in the body as well as the arms. The interradial portions appear sometimes depressed, and in other cases swollen or bulged out, showing that they probably yielded to a moder- ate expansion or contraction of the body walls, due to the mo- bility of the radial parts which likewise involves a flexibility of the summit. I have not been so fortunate to find the sum-
. .
of the interradial series, and which decrease in thickness
dials, the large first-radials as compared with the succeeding radials, the single rs al plate upon which the heavy proboscis rests, indicate that it belongs to Cya- on or some allied genus. His 7. gracilis may prove to be Graphiocrinus
Am. Jour. Rot-—Titkco Santas, Vot. XIV, No. 81.—Sepr., 1877.
186 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids.
some of them as perfect in most of their parts as if dredged from the ocean, but only two specimens have been discovered in which the summit was preserved, and only a single Seaphio- crinus. That this could happen at a locality where even the finest tissues of the most delicate internal organs are preserved, is somewhat astonishing, but yet it can be accounted for by the fact that the pieces which cover the central opening, as also the ‘small alternating plates forming the ambulacral canal, are very thin and that they rest but partly upon the consolidating eaten being thereby rendered insecure and liable to removal
y any accident, even with very small force. Moreover the arms of the Oyathocrinide are generally attached, and the ven- tral dise thus hidden from view. In specimens in which the arms are destroyed, their destruction almost invariably involved that of the entire ventral side, and so delicate are these parts, that even when the arms are well preserved and so situated as to ex the dome, the plates are nearly always gone, or are found in a confused mass inside the calyx.
I come now to another group in which on the basis of the summit structure, such apparently diverse forms are included that Iam under the necessity, very unwillingly, of making a name for it. It includes the families Actinocrinide, Platycrin- ide, Rhodocrinide, Melocrinide, and the genera Schizocrinus,
ymerocrinus and Macrostylocrinus, which Roemer has ranged ome the Cyathocrinide, and I call it provisionally the Spher- oide, from the form of the calyx which is generally somewhat spherical. This large group, embracing over one hundred gen- era and ranging from the base of the Silurian to the top of the
ubcarboniferous, is capable of accurate definition, is easily distinguished, and fortunately the summit is very commonly found well preserved in most of the genera.
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids. 187
other by anal plates or by the proboscis. These seven pieces which i will call the “apical plates,” are easily recognized by their greater prominence and size in species with comparatively few summit plates and a lateral anal aperture; but their identi- fication is more difficult in species in which a subcentral pro- boscis is placed between the two small plates, and the whole vault looks like an immense proboscis. In these forms, the four large plates, together with the two smaller ones, are pushed toward the anterior side of the specimen, while the center plate rests with one side against the proboscis.
There are other summit plates following a radial direction, which are either attached to the apical pieces or separated from them by a belt of small polygonal plates. Their number, which varies greatly in different species, depends upon the number of primary arms that spring out directly from the
ody, no matter how often the arms branch afterward. In
each of them there originate two brachial pieces. As a gen-
corresponding brachial plates above the arms. Therefore in adult specimens, with some little practice, the number of arms can be ascertained nearly as well from the dome as from the
n loo bundred apparently irregularly arranged vault pieces, one Liscowit that this con-
188 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.
nus. Here, the basals, primary radials, first anal and first interradial pieces are comparatively large, while the higher series of interradials are yet absent or but slightly developed. The radials of the higher orders, which in adult specimens form a part of the body, are in young specimens free arm plates, unsupported by any interradial or interaxillary pieces. The 8, sberlin which spring directly from the body in adult specimens, in the young branch alternately right and left after emerging from the y, the spaces between the bases of the branches being subsequently filled by the upward growth of the body, so that the branching, instead of occurring in the
arms, seems to be. completed in the body walls. So, for instance, the young Strotecrinus umbrosus has at first but four arm openings to the ray, ata later period it is found to have eight, and m the adult state twelve, being a separate opening for each arm.
The rule, that the number of summit plates increases in pro- portion to the number of primary arms, holds good with refer- ence to the young specimen. The young Strotocrinus has fewer plates than the adult individual (the difference being in pro- portion to the state of growth), and these are arranged in the same order, and are as easily recognized as those of the sim-
lest species of this group. The apical and principal radial pieces are larger than the intervening interradial plates which, exceptionally in this genus, attain by age the same size as the apical and radial pieces. The interradial plates of the vault oc- cupy the intermediate spaces between the radial areas. As their number depends greatly upon the age of the individual, they vary often im the same species. In species with but lew arms, we find comparatively few interradials, and those are gen- erally smaller than the other plates. The latter is especially true in young specimens, as also in small species. Sometimes,
generically from an adult Actinoerinus idialis, and both have the same entation with the same number of arm openings, they but slightly in specific cha Act p is the ical species 0:
of all Strotocrini, which idea seems to be r confirmed by the geological suc- cession. The former group occurs only in the Lower, and Strotocrinus only in the Upper Burlington limestone.
C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozote Orinoids. 189
being comparatively of large size, have generally but two pri- mary arms, and consequently for each ray but one radial dome plate which is here placed at some distance from the arm bases.
tinguishing many genera. In Agaricocrinus, all apical and
plates to the subradials (the two smaller plates, separated by the anus forming together one large one), which on the other hand were undoubtedly the first developed parts of the dorsal side, and the parts which are the most highly developed in the Cystideans.
zoic Crinoids that are known. There are some few genera, as for instance Hucalyptocrinus, with a very peculiar superstructure at the ventral side, whose affinities I have not been able to de- termine. There is the genus Calceocrinus which differs so widely from all other known Crinoids by its distinct bilateral symme- try and unique structure, that it forms evidently a very dis- tinct group pe itself. There may be still others, differing in
190 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.
their summit structure from the general plan; but I have yet to discover a single Paleozoic genus in which a special oral aper- ture has been identified, or in which the existence of a solid
furrow, recedes in Paleozoic Crinoids one step further and dis- appears within the solid walls of the body. The actinal sys- tem here consists externally only of the arm furrows, whence it continues underneath the vault. These Crinoids therefore are evidently of lower development and belong to an inferior type.
The ventral peristome of the recent Crinoids serves as a mad- reporic apparatus, introducing the necessary water for respira-
in which the actinal side is closed, represent the young stage 0 growth of the living types. They ee evidently the same re- lation to the Pentacrinide and Comatulide as the Perischoechinide bear to the Echini, as the Cystidee and Blastoidece bear to the Pa- leozoie Crinoids. They unquestionably form a distinct group ot Crinoids, and I therefore propose for it, from the fact that 1ts representatives lived almost exclusively in Paleozoic times, the name: “ Paleocrinoidea” as a suborder of the Crinoids.
Whether Encrinus, Apiocrinus and allied genera of the Juras- sic time are to be brought within this suborder, depends upot the construction of their vault, which cannot at present be de-
J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision. 191
termined. Should they prove to have a solid dome they would — be included here, and this might detract slightly from the tech- nical exactness of the name Paleocrinoidea. Still as its charac- teristic types were so prevalent and constituted so important a part of the life of Paleozoic ages and the Mesozoic forms are comparatively so insignificant in variety and abundance, the term would nevertheless be significant and appropriate.
I shall not attempt to separate the Paleocrinoidee into fami- lies, as I think our present knowledge is hardly sufficient for such a work, but I feel convinced that it must be based mainly upon the diversities in the structure of the vault, not upon the construction of the dorsal cup, nor upon the structure of the arms or column, upon which former authors have founded such divisions,
The discoveries which have been made within the last few
, Seopa herein suggested. Other discoveries will follow. he labors of the Zoologist will supplement the researches of the Paleontologist and through their properly united efforts, we may hope in time to comprehend the structure of the Paleocri- nidece almost as perfectly as if they were yet living in our oceans,
ArT. XXV.—On some Phenomena of Binocular Vision; by JOSEPH LECONTE.
X. The structure of the crystalline lens and its relation to Periscopism.*
THE following thoughts were suggested by the recent memoir of Dr. Ludimar Hermann “On the passage of Juminous pencils obliquely through lenses, and on a related property of the crys- talline lens of the (human) eye,”+ in connection with my own recent publication ‘‘ On the comparative physiology of Binocu- lar Vision.” :
It is well known that the crystalline lens of the mammalian eye increases in density and refractive power, from the surface to the center; so that it may be regarded as composed of ideal
* Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April, 1877. + Archives des Sciences, vol. lii, p. 66. t This Jour., vol. ix, p. 168, 1875.
192 J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision.
concentric layers, one within another increasing in density and in curvature until the central nucleus becomes a very dense
curious and universal structure.
Very recently Dr. Hermann (loc. cit.) has discovered another optical property conferred upon the lens by this structure—a property which he regards as of great importance in perfect vision, and which, therefore, he thinks, entirely explains the design of the structure. It is the property of forming images of olyects lying on the margins of the field of view, far more per- feet than could be jormed by a homogeneous lens of the same focal distance. And since, as he supposes, perfect images of marginal objects necessitates distinct vision of these objects, he calls a lens having this structure perzscopic.
By mathematical discussion he shows that, in a homogeneous . lens, while the central rays from radiants near the middle 9 the field of view—i. e., of pencils nearly parallel with the axis of the lens—are brought to a perfect focal point, the central rays, from marginal radianis—i. e., of very oblique pencils— form crossing caustic lines. The refraction in the former case is stigmatic, in the latter astigmatic. Therefore the picture formed by such a lens is distinct in the central parts and very indistinct on the margins. Now this well known defect of a homogeneous lens Dr. Hermann shows is certainly in a great measure, probably entirely, removed by the structure peculiar to the crystalline lens. For in the case of a lens composed of con- centric lamin increasing in density and curvature to the center, the astigmatism of oblique pencils is greatly diminished, and if the lamine be infinitely thin, probably entirely removed. The picture formed by such a lens would therefore be perfect in all parts, even to the extreme margins. The crystalline lens, therefore, by its structure is endowed with the properly of form- ing distinct images of objects lying even on the extreme margins of the field of view—of forming perfect images on all parts of the retinal screen even to the extreme anterior margins. It is
this structure, according to Dr. Hermann, which gives the eye
its enormous field of view, compared with that of optical
J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision. 1938
instruments. This then is the purpose of this structure. Jt gives periscopism to the eye.
uch is a brief statement of Dr. Hermann’s discovery, and his deductions therefrom. This discovery I regard as very
great accuracy the exact degree of indistinctness. This is an exam- ple of one kind of indistinctness of vision. But if I hold my pen far to one side, on the extreme verge of the field of view, Say 90° from the direction of the optic axis, the pen is again indistinct, far more so than before, but from an entirely differ- ent cause, viz: imperfect perception of the retinal image. My perception, in fact, is so imperfect that I cannot tell whether the image is distinct or not. This is an example of the other kind of indistinctness of vision.
ow of these two kinds of indistinctness, the latter is by far the greater. Objects on the margin of the field of view are
}
* Loc. cit.
194 J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision.
important that it should be so organized), that the perception of its images, good or bad, is most perfect in the central spot,
useless, Per riscopic structure of the lens is useless because periscopic perception of the retina is wanting. e periscopism, i. e. the power of distinct vision over a wide
the lens, i.e. of making distinct margin ell as central images; 2d, a periscopic property of the retina, i. e. of distinctly ceiving marginal as well as central images. ow, Dr. Her-
mann has left out the second factor, and se identified peri- scopism of the lens with periscopism of the 1 think it quite certain, therefore, that the canes of making distinct marginal images, and therefore the characteristic lens structure, in so far as 4 sibeerses this purpose, is useless in man. Yet it seems equally certain that this property is a very impor- tant one. here then shall we seek its use, and what is its significance in man? I believe we must seek its use in the lower animals, where it originated. In man it must be Pebis as an example of a structure which has outlived its usefulnes e —_— already shown in our last paper (p. 170), that true ism, or distinct vision over a wide field, is a necessar siiaiNine of safety in many of the lower animals. In accord- ance with the law of evolution, therefore, an ocular structure, suitable for this purpose, mus st be gradually formed and per- fee This ocular structure, as we have mg seen, consists of two parts, a lens structure to produce perfect marginal images - a nnd structure to produce e a perception of all images, a of these were rs in the
tribution of rception is inconsistent with fixed attention and thoughtful prepton and therefore with the development of the higher faculties of the mind. The uses of distinct marginal tatigidgien: viz: breadth of distinct view, are sacrificed to the igher uses of distinct central perception — viz: fixe coougheiat’ attention to the object regarded alone. Thus with the development of the central spot of the ser distinct mar- ginal perception is lost ; because the uses of the latter are incon- sistent with the higher uses of theformer. But the other factor of periscopism, viz: the hie of forming distinct margina images, is retained by inheritance; because though no longer
Tih 55 4 . Ses coe . oe y g y Nitrate. 195
useful in this way, it is in nowise hurtful and may even be use- ful in other w
Berkeley, Cal., Jan., 1877.
Fe Me ate" be
ArT. XXVI.—On Ethylidenargentami y Nitrate ; TER. Contributions from the Sheffield XLIX.
,
by W. G. Mix Laboratory of Yale College. No. XLI
moved by a blast of air, and from equal weights of aldehyde-
* Liebig’s Ann., xiv, 147.
196 Ethyla y 9g 4 °. thyli }] ws Nitrate.
tals were obtained, which were washed with alcohol, and dried over oil of vitriol. The carbon and hydrogen were determined by burning with lead chromate, the nitrogen by Schiff’s method with copper oxide and displacement of air by a slow stream of carbonic acid, and the silver by simple ignition. The following results were obtained from the two crops above mentioned : Atomic Calculated for g.
1st crop. 2d crop. Mean. ratio. CyHioN;0s
Carbon 18°32 18°33 18°33 18°75 Hydrogen 4°31 4-16 4°23 10°8 3°91 Nitrogen 16°63 16°65 16°64 3 16°41 ilver 2°06 41°99 42°03 1 42°18 Oxygen 18°77 3 18°75 100°00 100°00
These results give a formula different from NO,Ag 2(C,H, ONH,), which is given in Watts’ Dictionary, vol. i, p. 108, as vowed representing the substance. Taken together with
iebig’s analysis, they also indicate that the same body is formed in both aqueous and ammoniacal solutions.
,oN,0,Ag differs from two equivalents of aldehyde- ammonia and one equivalent of silver nitrate by two molecules of water, thus: 2(C,H,ONH,)+AgNO,—2H,0=C,H,, O,Ag. This view of the chemical process is supported by the reactions of aldehyde with benzamide and aniline, in which water separates, and also by the following experiment: 29°2 grams of a mixture of silver nitrate and good crystals of alde- hyde-ammonia, in the proportion of one equivalent or 17° grams of the former, to two equivalents, or 12-2 grams of the latter, were dissolved in 40 ¢. e. of concentrated ammonia-water. The solution was evaporated in a weighed dish, first by a blast from a laboratory bellows and finally over oil of vitriol until the weight was constant. The residue weighed 25:445 grams. The weight, according to the above formula, should have been 25°600 grams. The difference of 0-155 grams between the experimental result and theory may be ascribed to the slight decomposition the substance had undergone in drying, which was shown by the small black residue it left when treated with ammonia- water.
When an ammoniacal solution of aldehyde-ammonia and silver is evaporated at 20° to 30°, hydrous monoclinic transpar- ent crystals separate, which do not change rapidly on damp days, but become opaque with loss of water in dry weather. Together with the hydrous crystals, small poorly defined tricli- nic crystals form which do not become opaque in dry air. latter are transparent and colorless, or more frequently have @ resinous tinge. Dr. E.S. Dana has studied the crystalline form of both the hydrous and anhydrous crystals, and gives his re-
Ethy IJ ry ‘ thy li, , Nitrate. 197
og
sults in the following paper, Art. XX VII. The hydrous crystals ean be picked out before losing their luster if the atmosphere is damp, and the anhydrous crystals are easily distinguished after the former have become opaque. The following results were obtained on good monoclinic crystals which had been dried over oil of vitriol, and on transparent anhydrous crystals:
Monoclinic Triclinic Calculated for
dried crystals. crystals. C,H, .N;0;Ag. Carbon 18°55 18°62 18°75 Hydrogen 4°08 4°12 3°91 Nitrogen 16°58 16°64 16°41 Silver 42°03 41°97 42°18 Oxygen 18°75 100°00
Specific gravity, 2°13 2:28
Melts with rapid 0 ° ° ° dsconepoaitibel wt t 190 dae sk ia To determine whether the monoclinic substance lost any ammonia on drying, nearly two grams of crystals, not entirely free from the triclinic body, were heated to 100°, in air which traversed a caustic potash drying tube before reaching the sub- . Stance and then passed a weighed tube filled with fragments of caustic potash. The substance lost in weight exactly what the latter tube gained, and the water thus estimated corresponded to 420 per cent. The following results were obtained by dry- ing well selected monoclinic crystals in a desiccator at 20° to 80°: 0°383 gram lost 4°28 per cent. ce 4°26 oe
0343 ; 0°437 “ee (<4 4°23 ee 1°0504 “ S. 4°34 a
After the 0388 gram had obtained a constant weight in the desiccator it was exposed for half an hour to 60° without further loss; in three quarters of an hour at 100° the loss increased 0:0025 gram and the crystals had become brown. These water determinations lead to the troublesome formula for the mono-
oxide fumes. Both turn brown at 100°, the monoclinic crystals remain brittle, but the triclinic substance becomes gummy at
198 FE. & Dana—Crystalline form of
100° after some time. The triclinic crystals seh ges rapidly a few degrees lower than the monoclinic. Bot S appear
yields on recrystallization some monoclinic crystals. s to the constitution of the bodies their reactions make evi- dant: that they contain the ethylidene and nitro groups. ie gous to the ammonio-silver nitrate, whic
may een “regard them as amines, a may show their rela- tion to ammonia-silver nitrate as follow
HN CH ae
HN { AgNO; CH? —CH=NH f AENOs
In accordance with the requirements of the now received theories, these bodies may be formulated as substituted ammo- nium nitrates, viz : H,=N—O-NO,, ammonium nitrate.
H N= =—N—O-NO, argentamine-ammonium nitrate.
Ag Hy CH ,CHN—O—NO, neers eer mg WT ethylidenammonium nitrate. CH, Essen Ag
Art. XX VIT.—On the e crystalline jorm of the ei and anhy- drous varieties of Ei Nitrate; by Epwarp S. Dana.
A: Hydrous y 19 Pe Be 4 * ae Ue) os Nitrate.
ve
7 am
THE nyliigad variety of etl monium nitrate, described by Bratece! Mixter i in te preceing article, crystallizes in the monoclinic system. The observ planes (see figs. 1, 2) are as follows:
e (001), d oe g (111), ¢ (011), and rarely 5 (010).
ement of a considerable number of stent the following were 2 vbicead as the fundamental angles
Ethylid 77 i thylid - Nitrate. 199
a
e (001) A e (011) = 69° -2’ e (001) A @ (111) = 78° 35’ d (111) A d'(111) = 60° 50’ From these angles the elements of the crystals were calculated,
l c:6: & = 4°32645 : 1°65788 : 1°00000 B = 89° 43’ 52” Sade important angles, calculated from the same data, are as ¢ (001) ~A.¢g G1). =. 78. = g G11) A g'fill) = +=60° 56’ @(ill) qj g (1) = 114° 17 d (111) A e (011) = 66°18’ g (111) A € (011) = 65° 35’ d@ (111) A e'(011) = 122° 56’ g (111) A e(011) = 122° 48’ d (111) A 5 (010) = 59° 35’ g (111) A (010) = 59° 32’ The measured angles agreed quite closely with the calculated angles when the character of the planes was such as to admit of satisfactory observations. This will be seen from the follow- ing oy ey lagi the angles measured on different crystals or da pp mip nae 5 per 60°46’, 60°47’, 60°51’, 60°52’, 60°50’, e ¢ Ad=78°35', 78°39’, 78°40", 78°33’, 78°34’, 78°40’, 78°38’, 13°36, ete. In many cases, hbsaedvee. the or were by no means er factory, being generally polishe and yet far from smooth, hence the reflections given b them were more or less faba tain. The planes g, g’ were quite rage striated, and hence the measurements made upon them were always unreliable. The following angles were all obtained tro a single crystal ; the wide variations from the calculated angles observed in some cases are due to the cause nam peer: 97' cigeue 12’ dad= 60° 46’ 6 AGg=78° 38’ Gag=aNe. 7 g Ag’= 60° 46 € Ag =78° 10’ d Ac = 65° 52 gae= 65° 41’ € Ag’=78° 30 d' Ac'= 66° 23' Ae= 66° 33’ } ce Ae =69° 3’ & Ae'==122° 51’ g Ae=122° 57 c' Ae = 69° 2! BAe == 122° 30’ J A€ =1238° 33’
200 E. 8. Dana—Crystalline form of
The crystals examined were quite small, averaging from one to two millimeters in length. The are generally rhombic
(fig. 1) at one extremity, and hexagonal in outline on the other; occasionally, however, from the extension of the clinodomes they take the form of hexagonal tables (fig. 2). The hemihedral: character of the crystals, shown in the figures, is a marke feature which they all possess. No trace of either of the miss- ing pyramids or clinodomes was in any case discovered ; a few isolated crystals of apparently holohedral development were without exception found by optical means to be twins, though showing no reéntrant angles. Other twins had the form of fig. 2. e twinning-axis is here a normal to the basal plane.
The cleavage is highly perfect parallel to the base (c), and the _ erystals have a pearly luster on this face.
The examination of the optical properties of the crystals proves that, though the angle of obliquity is small (89° 4+’), they unquestionably belong to the monoclinic system, and, on the other hand, that they are not triclinic. :
natural crystal, or still better a cleavage section, viewed in the polariscope in a direction normal to the basal plane (¢),
The apparent optic-axial angle in air was obtained with con- siderable exactness : f
2E=68° 23’ for red rays, =67° 30’ for blue rays. The ordi- nary dispersion is consequently p>v; the dispersion of the bisectrices, on the other hand, v>p. The character of the double refraction is negative.
The twins (see fig. 2) gave interference figures of great beauty, both sets of axes being visible, situated symmetrically on either
Ethylid 9 i “ ethylid “¢ 901 side of the medial line. The apparent angle between the two axial planes, measured in the usual way, was found to be 81° for blue and 25° for red. The true angles soriesiiStlen « to these, obtained with the stauroscope, are 16° and 11° respec- tively. The first-mentioned angles, however, are not sufficiently accurate 35 serve for the calculation of one of the indices of refractio
B. saaevis Hthylid tamine-ethylid
nitrate.
The crystals of the second, or anhydrous, variety of this compound belong to the triclinic system. Unfortunately the material which Prof. Mixter has thus far 3.
exception cannot be relied upon within less han 30’
The crystals are quite uniform in habit, and figure 3 represents as closely as possible the common form. The crystal is placed in the position given in order to exhibit the close approximation to the monoclinic form. e¢, g, h are planes of the lower side, and a’ is Le es a.
The angles measured on one crystal are as follow
a (100) ,d(111) = 57°20’) a eee lig cae 10’
a'(100) AA(A11) = 58° 2’ ~— a (100) Ae(i11) = 64° 4’
g (111) Ae (111) = 65°44’
These angles pvint to a form having an obliquity in a vertical Testis of about 5°, but very slightly inclined in a horizontal] direction. The measurements for a wes (010) gave in ee : best case 90° 10’, and again 90° 20’. The variation from 90° i here within the possible error of observation, owing to ee imperfect character of the planes; the question was not decided, consequently, until a stauroscope examination showed that the plane of vibration for the light was not normal to } (010), but made an angie of about 18°, thus proving the ¢riclinie nature of the ore
Th aa, angles, a as has been stated, are not sufficiently reliable t ey give the axial ratio calculated from them any especial
Maa the sat shee mr values of the axes are, c=1'45, 5=1°98, =1, emihedral character of the crystal figured i is true at all i crystals, and the examination in_ the stauroscope failed to show any evidence of twinning. e crystals were hot suited for any further optical examinations. Am, Jour. Sct.—Tutrp 8 — XIV, No. 81.—Sept., 1877.
202 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
ArT. XX VITL—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that of Berkshire ; by JAMES D. Dana.
[Continued from page 140.]
CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE RELATIONS OF VERMONT AND BERK- SHIRE GEOLOGY.
presented under the following heads:
1. Chronological conclusions: or the equivalence and age of the formations.
2. Lithological conclusions.
3. Orographic conclusions.
And, asa sequel to this discussion, I propose, next, to pre- sent stratigraphical facts bearing on the geological relations: between the area which has been under consideration and the. country lying to the southward and eastward of it, in Connecti- eut and New York.
I. CiHRonontocicaL ConcLusIoNs: OR THE EQUIVALENCE AND ; F THE FoRMATIONS.
1. Age of the: Limestone series as a whole.—From the facts brought forward it is manifest that the limestone, schists and quartzyte, making up the limestone series of Vermont and Berkshire, are continuous formations, and that they are con- Jormable throughout. Hence we have proof that the conclusions deduced for Vermont, from Mr. Wing’s discoveries, are true alsa for Berkshire: namely, that—
(1.) The limestone series is made up wholly of Lower Silurian Jormations ; that is, of formations not older than the Primordial or Cambrian, nor newer than the Cincinnati or Hudson River
Equivalence and Age of the Formations. 208
York. In Vermont the Taconic slates (those of the central slate-belt) overlie the adjoining rear in one or more syn- clinals, as plainly shown in Mount Dorset, Danby ee Equinox Mountain, Spruce Peak. in Arlington, and Mou Anthony in Bennington ; ; and in Berkshire they have the same position, as observed in Graylock and Mount Washington. Hence in both States the Taconic slates overlie, or are younger than, the adjoining limestone.
In Vermont, as Mr. Wing has shown, the limestone nearest the slate contains, in several places, Trenton fossils (Trinucleus, etc.), and at West Rutland, Chazy fossils (Maclurea, etc.) if n ot Trenton; and the slates are, therefore, as has been ‘already
tated, younger than the Trenton limestone of that region and rise probably to the Hudson River or Cincinnati group. If this be true in Vermont, the Taconic range in Berkshire, since it is part of the same slate- belt, consists of rocks younger than the Trenton, and is therefore ee of the Upper Trenton or of the sro River or Cincinnati gro :
may be questioned whether the Graylock Spur should be ptchides with the Taconic range, since it stands to the east of
oat as first observed by Emmons.
The Berkshire niinols of the band adjoining the Taconic range is mostly, if not wholly, non-magnesian, like that of Vermont. Hence its constitution, as well as its position, makes it altogether probable, that it is Trenton or Chazy, as in Ver- mont. The limestone west of the Taconic range in Hillsdale, Copake and farther south, must also be Trenton or Chazy since this is true for that similarly situated in Vermont; and, more- over, it is the west side of one and the same synclinal hexiie the Himéstone on the east side of the Taconic range passing beneath and coming up again on the west side.
8. The Limestones and Schists of the Buen half of the limestone area.—Like the Taconic slates to the westward, these more eastern rocks in Berkshire are a continuation of those north of them in Vermont. The quartzyte is not all in one range. in either State; but, whether i in one or several mene it 168 alike
204 soo. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
then, the Berkshire limestone of the middle and sonia half of the area may include the Calciferous, Quebee, Chazy a ren- ton formations, and perhaps also the Primordial; but, since there are no fossils to fix the precise age, the areas of these different formations in Berkshire cannot be se arately distinguished.
4. The age of the Quartzyle formation, and its relation in position to the adjoining limestone.—The quartzyte formation includes, as
one, and sometimes the other, acted The special age
heats to the associated limestone—is well illustrated in Berkshire. Mr. Wing, in his explanations of the Vermont sections (pp. 410, 411 of the last volume of this Journal), makes this limestone to overlie the quartayte, and to be the equivalent of the “suberystalline limestone” which overlies the Red Sand- rock on. the west side of the limestone area—the quartzyte being in his view the same rock with the Red Sand-rock. It1s to be noted, however, that the sections themselves do not indi- eate aehettiar the limestone is over ying or anderly'0g and may be explained as well on one supposition as the other. In Berkshire, beyond all reasonable doubt, the sake, genie formation overlies the adjoining limestone. e most distinct and positive proof of the superposition of the quartzyte over limestone that I have observed is that
Three-mile S eaaan went mre
of Konkaput Valley.
3 tees) 8 Beets — side of ‘takin valley. afforded by sections either side of a apcone Fs locality brought to my attention, as I state in my memoir of 1 1872-8, by Dr, R. P. Stevens. The figures of the atone of Devany’s
Liquivalence and Age of the Formations. 205
Bluff and Three-mile Ridge, which face one another on oppo- site sides of the valley, are here repeated from page 45 of this volume. In each of the sections, quartzyte strata and over- lying schists of great thickness rest on the limestone which outcrops in the valley. The dip is small (8°-25°, p. 46).- The limestone is plainly at the bottom; and 2 és strategraphi- cally so, unless there has been a flexing of the strata and an overturned fold at the place. Nothing in the region suggests that there has been such an overthrow: the facts, on the con- trary, prove the flexure which the strata have undergone to be a gentle one. As has been stated, the two ridges stand oppo- site one another, not quite a mile apart. In the eastern, the dip is 20°-25° to the northeastward; in the western, about the same to the northwestward. The series of rocks from below upward, limestone, quartzyte, schist, of one side, is repeated in the other, and the schist of the west side has a thickness of several hundred feet like that of the east. All the conditions are those of a low anticlinal spanning the valley; and one Whose axis dips gettly northward, and whose sides flare south- ward or southward and eastward. The valley south of Devany’s Bluff widens much to the eastward and has its lakes with lime- stone about tliem. Besides this, the rocks of the gentle anticlinal are continued in the high land either side in a broad shallow synclinal—the high land synclinals and the anticlinal valley between covering a breadth from east to west of ten miles. (a) In the synclinal to the west (between the Konkaput valley and Great Barrington), the schist has first a dip northwestward of 8° to 25°, but, after three- fourths of a mile, the dip is eastward 20° to 25°, and finally 40° to 50°, just east of Great Barrington. () In that to the east, the dip is 5° to 25° to the northeastward, over the high land an mountainous region all the way east from Devany’s bluff to the village of Monterey ; but on the northeastern side of this high land, at the village of Tyringham, and at South Lee, it is to the southwestward. A section between Monterey and Tyringham, east of north in course, shows the change of dip. The limestone about Monterey dips 25° to the northwest; along the highest part of the road, the gneiss and mica schist of the hills outcrop and have the same dip and strike; descending to Tyringham, five miles to the north, the dip diminishes, and for the last mile
of °c and mica schist, with a dip of 15° to 25°.
206 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
or areas of high land are synelinals, a rule exemplified exten- sively in the continuation of the Appalachians from Pennsyl- vania to Alabama, where the facts are little obscured by -meta- morphism. The position of the limestone beneath the quartzyte and schists aloug the Konkaput is then the original position. _ This underlying of the thick quartzyte and schists by lime- stone appears to be a fact in many other parts of the Berkshire region, as in Monument Mountain, in quartzyte ridges east of om Ball, and elsewhere, though these examples are not as free as the above mentioned from other supposable explana- tions. The evidence is complete with or without them, that the quartzyte and the associated schists in some prominent cases in Berkshire, if not all, overlies limestone. In such cases, ac- cordingly, the limestone is the older formation of the two; and this is as true for Vermont as for Berkshire. And where so in either State the quartzyte and the associated schists constitute
Equivalence and Age of the Formations. 207 .
equivalent of the Red Sandrock; it is even related in age to the Taconic slates; these overlying a western portion of the limestone and the quartzyte formation an eastern. If so, the east- ern quartzyte formation ts of the age of the later Trenton, or the Cin- cinnali group, both in Vermont, Berkshire and Connecticut.
ill be remembered that the axis of the iron-ore belt is
and I have found that both are unquestionable fossils. The former is the shell of a small lamellibranch about six and a half lines long and five broad. The so-called Orthoceras is a slender conical
ge, The facts that have been reviewed have established : (1) The Lower Silurian age of the limestone series as a whole; (2) the unity of position, and of epoch of uplift, of the series; (3) the very probable Trenton and Chazy age of the limestone ad- joining the whole of the Taconic slate-belt or range; (4) the equally probable Upper Trenton or Cincinnati age of the Ta- conic rocks. But the age of the more eastern portion of the limestone and of the quartzyte and schists remains undeter- mined. My opinion is that the quartzyte will be found to be newer than the Red Sandrock, and of the same age essentially as the Taconic slates. [To be continued.]
208 J. C. Draper—Preparation of Cylinders of
Art. XXIX.—On the preparation of Oylinders of Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light; by JOHN CHRISTOPHER DraPER, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Natural History in the College of the City of New York.
position in the optical axis of the apparatus.
the experimenter has a good heliostat, the light from the sun fulfills these conditions better than any artificial light; but, experience teaches the unwelcome lesson that though sunlight is preferable to any other, it scarcely ever happens that it is available at the time it is wanted. The weather is almost cer- tain to be either cloudy or hazy just at the hour when it is desired to make an important demonstration, and the leeturer is obliged to postpone it, thereby lessening its value, and often entirely losing its effect. The selection of the best artificial light therefore becomes a matter of importance to those who desire to secure the advantages to be derived from the success- ful demonstration of such microscopic objects as reparations of animal and vegetable tissues, animalcules, the circulation of the blood, ete.
Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light. 209
its position in the optical axis of the apparatus, it is thrown into operation with comparative facility when cylinders con- taining the compressed gases are available, and it has sufficient intrinsic brilliancy for the majority of experiments. e diffi- culties in the way of its use are however serious, and it is very desirable that they should be lessened. They arise chiefly rom the volatility of the calcium oxide at the intensely high temperature employed. The volatilized material depositing on the condensing lenses prevents the passage of the luminous rays, and the cavity formed in the cylinder of hme at the spot where the flame impinges soon interferes with the brilliancy of the light; this necessitates a change in the position of the lime cylinder to present a new surface to the action of the flame, and this in its turn implies a distraction of the attention of the experimenter, which interferes seriously with the satisfactory management of his subject. Though the attempt is made to
trivances, they are stil] unsatisfactory in their action. Another serious objection i is the necessity of placing the cylinders in a closed vessel when not in use to protect them from the action of the air.
-magnesium light is similar to the preceding, differ- ing seg in the substitution of a cylinder or pencil of magne- sium oxide for calcium oxide, and the light emitted is of equal brilliancy. Following the instructions given for the prepara- tion of these cylinders, I have taken the greatest pains to pro- cure samples of magnesium oxide of the utmost purity. I have also tried various methods for its preparation, among which the combustion of the metal in oxygen may be men ntioned, but failure has thus far attended all efforts to make pencils or cylinders which could withstand the intense heat of the flame of the mixed oxygen and hydrogen gases without undergoing volatilization. The pencils obtained were fully equal in this respect to those of calcium oxide; but, I did iti find any superiority that repaid the trouble of their prepara
he oxy-zirconium light produced by the action ore the flame of mixed oxygen and hydrogen gases on a cylinder of zirconium elds meets all the requirements of the case in question. It has the intrinsic brilliancy, the invariable brilliancy, the fixity of position in the optical axis of the apparatus, and it does not volatilize under the heat employed. The condensing inneee ain free from deposit, and after the light is once adjust the experimenter can carry on his demonstrations without the distraction of his sop that attends the use of the’ other lights. All that is necessary is according to the size of the reservoirs of compressed gas to open the cocks a little as the pressure diminishes. There is also no necessity to remove
210 J. C. Draper—Preparation of Cylinders of
the zirconium oxide pencil from its position, as is the case with the calcium oxide, it may on the contrary remain 7 situ for any length of time, and the apparatus is always ready for use whenever it is wanted.
Though the standard works on chemistry generally mention the light-emitting power of zirconium oxide under a high tem- perature, the only successful attempt that has been made to apply it practically that I am aware of was that of Tessié du Motay. Unsatisfactory references to his process for preparing zirconia cylinders are to be found in various chemical works and journals, the best that I have seen being that given on page 47 of “Crooke’s Select Methods in Chemical Analysis.” The careful reader of this and other articles on zirconia will be prepared to expect difficulties in the way of its preparation, and it is to the removal or lessening of these difficulties that I now propose to address myself by the minute relation of the process I have finally adopted after many weeks of experiment.
e subject naturally divides itself: Ist, into the preparation of zirconium oxide; and, 2d, the preparation of the cylinders or pencils. Preparation of zirconium oxide.
2d. Reduce five or six grams in a steel mortar: or, by first heating to bright redness and chilling in water while very hot the same may be in a porcelain mortar.
wder. The final yield of zirconia depends on the thorough- ness with which this is done.
4th. Weigh out two grams of the fine zireon powder and mix it intimately in a mortar with ten grams of dry sodium carbonate, place the mixture in a covered platinum crucible of twenty cubic centimeters capacity.
. Place the crucible over a strong Bunsen flame; the burner should be at least fifteen millimeters in diameter; about twenty minutes the mass in the crucible will have shrunken to one-third of its original volume if the heat 18 sufficient. To secure uniformity in temperature of the erucible
Zirconia for the Ozy-hydrogen Tright. 2i1
I have employed the following device. The platinum crucible being placed in a triangle of platinum wire supported on the ring of a retort stand, a graphite crucible having a diameter of five centimeters was taken and an opening fifteen to twent
millimeters in diameter made in its bottom. It was then
Coal gas being turned into the burner, ignited, and the bellows thrown into action, seven clean sharp pointed blowpipe flames are produced which give a very intense heat.
e mass in the platinum crucible having been fused and the fusion continued until it begins to assume a pasty state, it 1s again liquified according to the plan of Berzelius by the addition of caustic soda about equal in weight to that of zircon. The heat being again applied the disintegration of the silicate continues, and if necessary a second addition of caustic soda may be made.
7th. The contents of the platinum crucible having cooled, separate them therefrom, and place in a beaker, add two hun- dred cubic centimeters of distilled water; any portions of the fused material that adhere to the walls or cover of the crucible are also to be removed by a jet of distilled water and added to the contents of the beaker. An occasional stirring will pro- mote the disintegration of the mass, which is completed in the course of a couple of hours, silicate of sodium, the excess of sodium carbonate and soda dissolving, and leaving a white powder, which according to Dr. Melliss is composed of zirco- _ ium oxide, silicium anhydride, and sodium oxide, together with any zircon that may have escaped disintegration.
212 J. C. Draper—Preparation of Cylinders of
distilled water added, the mixture stirred and set aside for twenty-four hours or longer, and when the precipitate has set- tled the liquid is decanted and the beaker with its contents set on the water bath to dry.
8th. Pulverize the dried material in the beaker with a glass rod, add twenty cubic centimeters of pure hydrochloric acid (Merck’s), cover the beaker with a large watch glass and set on the water bath; when the acid has dissolved as much as it will take up, it is to be decanted while hot into a shallow evap- orating dish of about five hundred cubic centimeters capacity.
second dose of twenty cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid is added to the contents of the beaker, and when all lumps are broken down the mixture is transferred to the evaporating dish, a little hydrochloric acid being used to complete the transference.
9th. For the final separation of the silica the contents of the dish are evaporated to dryness on the water bath, and the heat continued until they cease to emit acid fumes, a little distilled water is then added and thoroughly incorporated with the residue by stirring. The mixture is again evaporated to dry- ness at 212° F. The second drying being completed, about two hundred cubic centimeters of distilled water are added, and when all the soluble material is taken up the mixture 1s transferred to a filter. On the filter there remains silica an undecomposed zircon. In the filtrate there are zircomum — sodium chloride and iron chloride.
1
tate properly on the filter, it must be carefully transferred therefrom to a beaker while it is still moist by means of a glass rod and jet of distilled water from a washing bottle. The
Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light. 213
tilled water well stirred, and when the precipitate has settled it is collected on a filter as before and allowed to drain as long as it will yield any fluid.
th. The precipitate obtained above is dissolved in as little pure hydrochloric acid as possible, the solution diluted with distilled water to five hundred cubic centimeters and heated to _ boiling for some time. Ammonia is added to the hot solution, when the zirconium oxide is thrown down and is to be col- lected on a filter, washed with hot water and allowed to dry at the temperature of the air, the yellowish or whitish lumps resulting are pulverized in an agate mortar, when a white powder is obtained. The quantities I have given in the ’ various operations detailed above apply to two grams of the powdered zircon. For the preparation of a zirconia cylinder of sufficient size the product obtained from four grams of zircon is required, the quantities may be doubled throughout; but, it is better to make two fusions of two grams each and double the quantities given in the latter part of the description.
I have also tried the separation of zirconium chloride from iron chloride by hydrochloric acid; but, though I worked at a temperature of 32° F., the yield was very small and therefore unsatisfactory. In the process by hyposulphite of soda I found it very difficult to get rid of the soda. The process of disintegrating the zircon by chlorine at a high temperature also failed to give satisfactory results in my hands, and I find that Dr. Melliss records the same experience. :
Preparation of the Cylinders. The zirconium oxide powder obtained in the manner described b
above is to be heated in a platinum crucible and kept at a bright red for five or six hours; it will under these circum- stances shrink considerably in volume. I have sometimes in addition submitted the powder to the heat of the oxy-hydrogen flame with advantage, spreading it out for this purpose on a piece of platinum foil supported on a slab of iron, and directin the flame on the powder. The operator should wear smoke: lg The powdered oxide thus condensed by heat is then moistened with just enough water to give it a tendency to form small lamps. In this condition it is placed in a cylindrical — mould and submitted to severe pressure by a piston fitting closely to the cavity of the cylinder, both of which should b properly oiled. The size of the pencils I have prepared is about six millimeters in diameter and one centimeter in length. When in use they are mounted so as to present one end to the action of the oxy-hydrogen flame, when a brilliant circular Spot of light is formed admirably adapted for all kinds of optical experiments.
214 Preparation of Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light.
The cylinder in which the pencils have been compressed is about two centimeters in diameter and four centimeters in length; the cavity running centrally through it is six milli- meters in diameter, the piston rod fits closely, and both it
from the zirconia prepared in the manner related above have been tested alongside of those made from zirconia prepared by
erck, which is stated to be pure, and is sold at the rate of one dollar per gram. Whatever the process may be that Is used in its preparation it does not give a product as free from iron and silica as the one which I have described, nor does It possess the same illuminating power.
June 22d, 1877.
E. S. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven. 215
Art. XXX.— Mineralogical Notes. No. V. On the occurrence of Garnets with Sh oe of New Haven, Connecticut; by by Epwarp 8.
GARNETS have been recently discovered in connection with the New Haven trap rocks, at two distinct localities ; and their method of occurrence presents some points of considerable interest.
These “trap rocks,” as they are commonly called, belong to the system of dikes of igneous rocks which characterize the Mesozoic sandstone areas of the Atlantic border. Mr. G. W.
awes has given these rocks a thorough chemical examina- tion,* and has shown that they have all essentially the same composition, being for the most “pnt true dolerites, but Lg ing also the hydrous, chloritic variety called diabase. I tak the liberty. of quoting here Mr. Hawes’s analysis of the teu from West Rock, which, as he states, is “the typical rock of this region.’ Specific oravity 3°08.
ive OR Lillis cos ee eae eee 51°78 Bape eptipe nee Rear gee 14°20
a sesquioxide bck eiu ph be ee aus ees 3°59 Tron protoxide 425 Manganese protoxide Janie wha Uigbes aan ey can 0°44 Ailtie ooo oe a a ee 10°70 Magacis eas bee C eed ae Soa owe ome 7°63 BOGS oo ec ee ee eae 2°14 POR ie ee ae 0°39 Phosphoras pontémide 20. ak 0°14 RIOR es 0°63 99°89
writer has made a microscopic examination,t by means of thin sections, of this series of rocks, including, among many others, specimens from West Rock (see the analysis above) and also from the two localities where the e garnets have been found, viz: East Rock and Mill Rock. These three points, it should be stated, are within four miles of each other, all lying just outside of the limits of the city of New Haven. It was found that the specimens from the localities named were Hautes in mineralogical character, and that they were all quite free from any alteration. The mineralogical constituents are as follows: A. triclinic ss Jed which Mr. Hawes has shown mor fe o be labradorite, pyroxene, and magnetite, also more or less chrysolite, and . little apatite in minute acicular crysta.
< This Journal, III, ix, — — 1875. ; This wisi) Ii, viii,
216 ES. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven.
Garnets from East Rock.
nar, and the garnets occur on the vertical surfaces of the
front of the Rock, failed to reveal any other locality.
The associated minerals are: Magnetite, apatite, pyroxene now altered to chlorite, calcite, and also in traces chalcopyrite and sphalerite.
The garnets themselves are uniformly crystallized in rhombic dodecahedrons, with the edges truncated by the planes 2-2.
; : crystalline crusts which have been mentioned. It was selected with care to ensure freedom from the rock, and still more from the apatite crystals, which, as remarked below, were intimately associated with the garnet. The specific gravity was 3°740.
e mean of two analyses gave:
BOG: o.oo Be Tron sesquioxide (with AlO, trace). .-..----- 29°15 ron protoxide 23). iui oo. Me Oe emer 2°49 Manganese protoxide_... .. 0.0 2l en esse 0°36 NO So te Oe es ee 32°80 Maonesig posit, scsi oe seus fa 3s sesh Ge 0°24 APUIRION [ois ad ee, 26s ee ie ween oe 100°48
E. S. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven. 217
to prove its absence. The magnetite was also tested qualita- tively for titanic acid, but none was discovered.
The associated minerals deserve also a few words of descrip- tion. The magnetite stands first in order of abundance. tt appears in the form of brilliant octahedrons, scattered some- times thickly, sometimes sparsely, over the surface of the rock ; it uniformly underlies the garnet where they occur together. The octahedrons of magnetite are sometimes unmodified, but generally the solid angles are replaced with the planes of the form 8-8, and the edges beveled with those of the form 2-2; an m-n form is also common, but with planes so rounded as not to admit of determination. The development of the last form occasionally produces irregular bullet-shaped crystals. The octahedral faces are brilliant, the others dull.
The pyroxene occurs in minute dark-green crystals, destitute of luster; they are crowded together on the surface of the rock. These crystals are strictly pseudomorphs after pyroxene, for though having unquestionably its form, they are so soft as to be easily cut with a knife, and in the powder have all the mp of chlorite.
he apatite occurs in very minute prismatic crystals of a yellowish-green color. They are most common on and among the crystals of pyroxene. They are more numerous, however, than would appear at first glance, since a careful examination shows that they interpenetrate the garnet crystals in great numbers. The crusts of garnet particularly, which are appar- ently perfectly homogeneous, are found when broken up to be penetrated in every direction with these minute apatite needles. In this respect the garnets resemble those of the Kaiserstuhl described by Knop:
-
inally, the caleite is found in crusts, and in rhombohedral
the above minerals are here true secondary apes ably in
cite; the excess of silica above that needed by the garnet, and also the alkalies have disappeared entirely. Am. Jour. ——s Vou. XIV, No. 81.—Sxpr., 1877,
218 £. S. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven.
Garnets from Mill Rock.
The other garnet locality is at the west end of Mill Rock. In appearance and in method of occurrence the garnets here found are a decided contrast to those that have been just de- seribed. They occur on the line of contact between the trap and the adjoining sandstone, and probably owe their origin to the metamorphic action of the heat of the erupted rock. They are found best in seams and little cavities in the trap, where
other forms occurring with this are: 2-2, 3-3, and H. The adjoiming figure shows the habit of the crystals.
The following angles were measured to determine these forms.
For $-3A3-3 (over H) =136° 15’, required 135° 59’ 48”. “« «adjacent (edge B)=149°16’, required 149° 16’ 38”. For 64-4 edge B =178° 15’, required 178° 5’ “ce “cs 4 8 —178° 56’, “cc 179° 6
. ' .
Of the above enumerated forms, the basal plane (/) is quite rare with this species, the tetragonal tris-octahedron 3-3 is new, though it has been observed on fluorite, and also by Klein (as a hemihedral form) on sphalerite; and the hexoctahedron
admit of any chemical examination, but in view of their siml- larity of form and color, they may safely be referred to the
to obtain enoug character remains undetermined.
J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones. 219
ART. XXXI.—A description of the Rochester, Warrenton, and Cynthiana Meteoric Stones, which fell respectively December 21st, 1876, January 3d, 1877, and January 23d, 1877, with some remarks on the previous falls of Meteorites in the same regions ; by J. LAWRENCE SmirH, Louisville, Kentucky.
A SHORT notice of the three meteorites which form the sub-
ject of this communication, was published by me shortly after their fall, the detailed account of their flight and fall having been deferred until I could make a moré thorough examina- tion. his I am now able to do, as there have been sent to me the entire stone that fell near Cynthiana, and a large portion of the fragments which have been saved of the other two. _ The points of interest in connection with these three meteor- ites are as follows: First, they fell within a period of thirty-two days, and within a circumscribed territory of about two degrees of latitude and six degrees of longitude. ‘Secondly, they differ - from each other in their structural characteristics, and each has some peculiarity distinguishing it from the ordinary type of meteoric stones. Thirdly, they fell within a belt of cory which I shall show has been the lodging ground of all the meteoric masses that have been observed to fall and have been collected in the United States during the past eighteen years, with the exception of about one kilogram.
1. Rochester (Indiana) Meteorite.
The passage of this meteorite through the earth’s atmosphere has left but a small souvenir of its visit. It was well observed _ at Bloomington, Indiana, lat. 89° 12’, long. 86° 82', by the dis- tinguished astronomer Professor Kirkwood, who communica- ted to me at the time his observations; and he has subse- quently given them more in detail to the American Philosoph- ical Society, with the observations he had collected from others. I will therefore simply give a summary of the phenomena attendant upon its flight before describing the chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the stone which fell.
e bolide made its appearance about nine o’clock P. M.,” December 21, 1876, and was of extraordinary magnificence. It saree eastward over the States of Kansas, Missouri, Illinois,
ndiana, Ohio, and parts of Pennsylvania and New Yor Although no observations were made in the two last mentioned . States, still Professor Kirkwood is doubtless correct in defining this as its course. t Bloomington its elevation was fifteen
egrees. According to the calculation, the length of its observed track was from 1,000 to 1,100 miles, one of the longest on rec-
220 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteorie Stones.
ord. Its height is supposed to have been thirty-eight miles above the place where the small fragment fell from it.
In various parts of its track, it threw off fragments, accom- panied with the usual rumbling noise and commotion in the atmosphere common to the flight of these bodies. When cross- ing Indiana, the main body was followed by a train of smaller bolides, many of them of the apparent size of Venus or Jupi- ter. Its velocity in reference to the earth’s surface appeared to be from eight to twelve miles per second. The pyrotechnic display is said to have been transcendently beautiful, hardly arpa or surpassed by any previous occurrence of the kind. The cause of this brilliancy lay in the physical structure of the body, which will be detailed farther on.
e fragment which fell—The only fragment of this bolid known to have fallen was one found on the farm of Mr. Mor- ris, three miles northwest of Rochester, Indiana, lat. 41°, long. 86°. This farmer heard the explosion, and shortly afterward noticed a body strike the ground not far from him. There - were six inches of snow upon the ground, and, on the follow-
ing morning he found the stone, which had rebounded to a short distance from the place where it first fell, it not having ceeds the ground. The entire stone did not weigh four undred grams, and as we have not heard of the fall of any other mass, it is reasonable to suppose that it was dissipated into very minute fragments and dust, as in the case of the Hessle stones and other similar falls.
he manner in which the molten matter of the exterior of
many of these meteorites is swept over their surfaces, in shining streaks, covering freshly broken surfaces, show clearly that this disintegration is constantly and rapidly going on in these bodies during their passage through the air. I have in my collection many fine examples illustrating this fact.
Professor Kirkwood is of the opinion that this bolide never passed out of our atmosphere, which is in accord with my gen- eral view on this subject, viz: that a bolide rarely, if ever, gets entangled in our atmosphere without being entirely reduced to fragments or powder,
‘I'he stone has been broken up into many small fragments, of
‘which I have fortunately secured a good portion. Others have been lost and a few have found their way into collections. With the exception of the largest specimen in my collection, weighing ninety-five grams, hardly any other fragment weighs over thirty grams. It is important to treasure these specimens, small as they are, for it is a remarkable stone of its type. It1s of the pisolitic variety, very friable, of a gray color, easily crushed under the fingers into light powder (some of it to fine dust), and to small globules, some of them perfectly spherical, of which 1
J. L. Smith— Description of Meteoric Stones. 221
have specimens two millimeters in diameter. It resembles more closely the Aussun stone than any other I know of, although
much more friable. This peculiar gullet so often seen in many parts of meteoric stones, has rec ently attracted muc attention, Professor Tschermak, of pares paving recently published an interesting paper on the subjec
The specific gravity of the stone, taken ooh several average specimens, is 3:55. There is nothing peculiar about the coat- ing on the specimens I have examined; it is of a dull black and quite rough.
Chemical examination.—The stony part of the meteorite separated almost perfectly from the metallic part still on a notable portion of troilite ok could not be separat chanically. The amount of sulphur found in that part of ‘the meteorite indicated the amount of troilite treme viz: 3°31.
The stony material, when treated with chlorhydric acid over a water bath, affords soluble part 47-80 per cent, insoluble 52:20 per cent, and is constituted as follows:
Soluble part, per cent. Insoluble part, per cent. 34 57°81
Pig See D5 Iron. \ protoxide. agence ae 11°04 a be Gas eS gee as trace 23 eg Vel ebb Oke eee 5°31 Magnesia ........-.--. 36°38 24°97 ee O8IGG . cbs “40 ee ey re ae 46 ae
99°14 100° 00°30 : I separated some of the globules perfectly free from the inter- vening matrix, which is easily done oy rubbing a piece of the stone between the fingers. Very minute specks of iron could be distinguished on them, and when sh kee and treated with chlorhydric acid, they gave about the same result as the ma- a viz: soluble, 46°80 per cent; insoluble, 53-20 per cent; and magnesia in ‘the soluble part was 34°48 per cent, showing clensly that they were merely concretions of the matrix of the sto The piceaiperans iron, which was separated mechanically, is compos
i abn cals ok ee dk ace ae NICKS! iy Cy ek ea 4°12 Cena ee ee 51
99°12
The quantity of iron was too small for an examination of the other ceed dered Pa phosphorus and copper, but they were no doubt both p
* ee Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. Ixxi, p. 661.—Wien.
222 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones.
Mineral constituents of the Stone.—Careful examination under the microscope of the spo surface, as well as of a section rub
with nickeliferous iron and — anton like anorthite is distinguishable. The first two inerals constitute the bulk | of the stone, and ioe is easiiiy more than one variety of each of these minerals present. The nickeliferous iron is quite abundant, although Professor Shepard states that from a casual observation he estimates it at one per cent; by the care- re method adopted for aeparating it, I find in two average
and in this way it was found to contain both classes of silicates referred to, a fact, as already stated, sustained by chemical exam- ination. Iconsider He mineral constituents of the Rochester stone to be about as f
Bronzite ey py Hike minerals..._.... 46°00 Olivine mmersis... Sye0> 41°00 Wickeliterous irom 20 Fi ol. oe ck: OOO RYOHO es oe a 3°00 rome Wen Vi a Ie
2. Warrenton (Missouri) Meteorite.
About sunrise, on the 8d of January, 1877, five miles from Warrenton in the State of Missouri, lat. 38° 50, long. 91° 10’, a sound was heard by certain observers similar to the whistle of a distant locomotive; or, as stated by others, like the passage of a cannon ball throug the air. The sound came from the “north- west, and became louder and louder to four observers near Warrenton. On looking up they saw an object falling, which struck a tree, breaking off the limbs, and then coming to the ground with acrash. The observers were fifty or sixty meters distant from the spot where it fell. On approaching the place they saw a mass of stone broken into a number of pieces. From the fragments they suppose it to have = originally of a conical form, and about eighteen inches in len The snow was melted, and the frozen ground thawed near bhiees it fell, but the pieces, although warm, were easily handl The weight was estimated to have been about one hundred pounds ; but, whether this estimate be correct or not, only epee ten or fifteen pounds of fragments have been preserved, a por- tion of which is in my possession, mostly in small fragments ; ;
J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones. 223
some specimens are in the cabinet of Yale College, and others scattered about among the inhabitants of the country where it fell.
As regards its temperature at the time of falling I would say that I have a specimen, which gives as it were a satisfactory record that it was not very hot when it struck the tree, for a portion of the fibers of one of the branches is adhering to the surface entangled in the rough crust of the stone, and these del- icate fibers show not the slightest signs of having been heated. A fact to be noted in connection with the fall of this meteorite
its rapid motion through the atmosphere, and dropped quietly like an exhausted bird in its flight. Its direction, so far as made out, was from northwest to southeast.
Aspect of the Stone.—Studied by the various fragments that are under my observation, it differs in a marked degree, although pisolitic, from the one just described, and which fell only a few days previously. It has its own points of peculiar inter- est, and is not like any meteorite that I am familiar with, ex- cept the Ornans meteorite, which fell July 11th, 1868; and this it resembles closely in every particular, as may be seen by com- paring my results with those of Pisani (Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci., 1868, vol. ti, p. 668), although his method of recording the analytical results is different from mine, and the specific gravity, as made out by him, is higher than mine, which is not singular in different specimens of these porous bodies. Its crust is dull _ black, and quite thick; in many places, of several centimeters square, from two and one half to three and one half millimeters thick (the thickest I have ever seen), where the crust is a rough scoria that sometimes terminates abruptly on a smooth portion of the crust, and is doubtless produced by the melted matter on the surface being forced backward and opposite to the direction of the flight of the stone, being swept off one por- tion of the surface, and leaving this part smooth, and piled up behind it, in the form of a surface of scoria.
The interior of the stone has a very dark uniform ash color, and is soft and easily crushed; the latter fact accounts for its having broken into fragments as it struck the ground. Its spe- cific gravity is 8-47, and the amount of metallic matter con- tained in it is small.
Chemical composition.—The stone pulverized and freed from metallic particles gave on analysis an amount of sulphur equal to 3°51 per cent of troilite; the amount of nickeliferous iron was small, being equal to 2°01 per cent. The stony minerals treated with chlorhydric acid gave—
224 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones.
Solnblo:vin-eckdia, 25 tei ie. 04 80°40 per cent. Insoluble: in-neid 3 is0cscsweds 12013. 19°60 per cent. cn as follows Soluble. Insoluble. .--33°02 56°90 any protoxide ahh « alee ann Biase are 37°57 10°20 ek cio uleiduien Garr ts ware 0°12 20 _ ER aR Ee hace euhene wath Oe 7°62 ph) A IRS a 28°41 22°41 ee ks em tee ee aig cs “0 1°00 Petner OSIGO 2 oe ee ew 1°54 Covet oniae > co oe ’ Chromium oxide 33 101°04 97°66 I obtained chrome oxide thirty-three per cent, indicating 050 of chrome iron, if the chrome be present in t or
the oxide of nickel, with the exception of — a minute portion, belongs to the composition of the soluble silicates.
e nickeliferous tron contained in this stone is very small in quantity. This on analysis gave
99°32 Mineral constituents of the Warrenton Meteorite.—A microsco-
erals, subaeneg em four-fifths of the tink The proportion of
the mineral constituents is about as follows: ave vine minerals-- So eno ae tee Bronzite and pyroxenie minerals. ... .-_. -.--18°00 Nickeliferous iron -__.__.. AA Be a TYOHGE So Se eae 3°50 Chirsuis WON ee 50
3. Cynthiana 7 aot Meteorite.
I have called this the Cynthiana stone, although it fell nine miles from that place, in Harrison county, Cynthiana being the nearest important point to the place where it fell.*
* I will take occasion just here to correct an error that I have seen in several among them those of Vienna, the British a and the Garden = ic yy me i
Plants. These catal that of Harrison county, Kentucky: it s
J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones. 225
At four o’clock P. M., on the 28d of January, 1877, a brilliant bolide was seen traversing Monroe county, Indiana, in a south- easterly direction, about thirty-five degrees above the horizon. The same bolide was observed by a number of persons in Deca- tur county, of the same State, lat. 39° 27’, long. 85° 28’, and it disappeared just as it seemed to touch the earth, apparently not more than a quarter of a mile distant. As will be seen, it fell about sixty miles distant from these places. It seemed to fall almost perpendicularly toward the earth’s surface. I can- not learn that it was seen by any one in the State of Obio, but Suppose that it was. In the State of Kentucky it was seen over a considerable territory. The phenomena culminated in the usual noises heard in the heavens accompanying the approach of these bodies, and much consternation was produced among the inhabitants of the surrounding country. Fortu- nately one of the observers, an intelligent farmer (Mr. Crag- myle), heard a solid body strike the ground; he walked imme- diately to the spot, and dug the stone from a depth of thirteen inches, to which extent it had penetrated the ground, A few days after its fall and before it had become generally known,
rofessor Kirkwood wrote me a letter, stating what observa- tions had been made in Indiana, and telling me to look out for a meteoric fall somewhere about the region where the stone did fall. I had, however, made the observations and secured the meteorite, before his letter arrived, but the stone had not yet been forwarded to me.
Character of the Stone.—It is wedge-shaped, with one portion of it very extensively and regularly pitted, while the rest is comparatively smooth. The crust is dull black, and, as it reached me, it was as perfect as when it fell. There was a fresh broken spot of two or three square centimeters, which, to a cas- ual observer, would appear to have been made after the fall;
n close examination, I saw that it had been made prior to the fall, and before the melted matter of the surface had entirely cooled, for a few small specks of this matter have been sprinkled on this broken surface, to which it firmly adheres,
could not have arisen from any fusion of that surface, which is too fresh and unaltered to have been heated to any high degree. The fracture was produced by the same cause that produced the pitting.*
The weight of the stone is six kilograms. It is of the harder brecciated yariety, and when broken presents a mottled surface, identical with that of the Parnallee stone, which it resembles also in every other particular, the very,pale yellow round spots,
* This is clearly and fully set forth by Professor Maskelyne, in the Phil. Mag., for August, 1876.
226 shit Sinsthx Description-of Meteorie Siac,
sometimes five or six millimeters in diameter, are disseminated through the two alike; and so with the triolite, the globular structure in some parts, and a few specks of a black siliceous mineral; and, by a singular coincidence, the specific gravity of the part I tested is identical with that as made out by Maske- lyne, viz: 341. Under the microscope it presents the appear- ance described by the same author. Chemical examination.—The stony material freed from metal- lic iron, consisted : Matter soluble in chlorhydric acid --..--_--.- 56°50 Matter insoluble in chlorhydric acid --.-_---.- 43°50
Some of the soluble part was composed of troilite, which I could not separate mechanically, but is deducted in the follow- ing analysis:
Soluble part. Insoluble part. : 57°60 -
Pees ee ee gS 33°65 atom proceaiae (50'S. 2. 252252 80°68 11°42 An ee SE A EE *43 Mee foe) ea es ee 5°70 Magvew <; S52 2G ee. og 34°61 23°97 romfum ‘orble 4269. gt Jak "38 SS ae ee es sg 1°24
100° The portions examined contained nickeliferous iron 5°93 per cent, consisting of:
SVG 2 er a a Le ia 1 1 oe et hee a es |. re eee ea BSE Cweelt <u... .: Oth oes eae. ace t 73
99°72
Mineral constituents of the Cynthiana Stone.—The minerals in this stone are quite easily distinguished by the eye, but are very much more conspicuous ander a moderate magnifying power, especially the round and distinct concretions of a light yellow bronzite. The troilite and metallic specks and fila- ments are also easily seen. :
No attempt was made to separate the stony minerals in suffi- cient quantity for analysis; quantitative tests were made to distinguish their character. From the chemical examination previously made I deduce the following as about the propor- tion of the mineral constituents:
Obvisée Mies. 50°00 Bronzite and pyroxenic minerals ---. ---. .---30°00 Nickeliferous 1rO@R ob ee Er OO
ee ad
J. L. Smith— Description of Meteorite Stones. 227
There were no distinct — of minerals visible either to the unaided eye or with a
4, Remarks on the region where these meteorites fell.
In the study of tne three aerolites just described it is inter- esting to note the relation of = region where ty fell to that of deh falls of recent dat
ring a period of less chine eighteen years there have been igatve falls of meteoric stones in the United States, of which - specimens have been collected. "AN of these, with one or two exceptions, I have described in detail, and “ ished specimens to various cabinets in this country a and in rope.
In grouping together these twelve falls ad estimating the
amount of me teoric matter et them, I have been
of the surface of the United States, east of the Rocky M Moun- tains. It may be supposed that one reason for this may be that this region is more thickly populated than others, and con- sequently that there are more observers, This however is not aie ee Kd the population is not much above the average of the co
ag re a map of the region (see next page) where these eight “falls occurred, which shows at a glance their relative positions. The accompanying table gives a few comparative details in relation to each of them
No.| Time of Fall. _ Place of Fall. Lat. Long. Weight of Fall. 1 — Saen 1859) Harrison Co., Ind. 38° 207 | 86° 10’ 1: kilo. 2 1860 Guernsey Co. (Con- | 40 Sl 30 (0 cord), 3 |25th March, 1865 Chigwater (v ernon 43 30 91 fees Co.) Wis. 4 |Not known, 1874) Waconda, Kansas, 39 20 98 10 40° py 5 /12 -, 1875) Iowa Co., Iowa, 41 40 92 500° s 6 |21st Dee., 1876 ee. Indiana, 41 86 40. 7 |34 Jan, 1877) Warrenton, Missouri,, 38 50 | 9110 | 10 « 8 23d Jan, 187% [Oncidepar Ky. 38 20 84 20 es
Total, 1060°40 kilos.
There have rae four other falls in the United States during the same period; but the ageregate weight of them is less than two kilograms. They occurred respectively. Nov. 28th, 1868, lat. 34° 30’, long. 87°; Dee. 9th, 1868, lat. 34° 80’, long. 87° 50’; et 6th, th, 1869, lat. 32° 10’, long. 85° ; ; May 21st, 187 thy ie 44° 30’, on
228 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones.
Again: in this region more bolides have recently been ob- served than in any other. Professor Kirkwood has described,
re — to oo > ls 2 a ha eS” (oe) ° Oo <-S = ele . Moz] ay Lu wa < ~i 45 za wc < Sd oo) %&S =) 3 =z - 38 5 wall FOTN - Ya df aks Grr gee = wo oi © w = -™ bt oO ~ = El 5 2 aes °o rr rs. (2 v om 2-8 wh OZ = HS e5e = nay e a | 825 < pe ee 3 2) 3 = ei sD ie) 8 : sig 22 S oe ie eS aes oe < as ui g6 ad ‘ wo “oO <x al | 3 a 3 ° et
as seen by him and others, eight from July, 1876, to February, 1877, the stones from three of them are those described in this paper, the others left no evidence of their passage. By per- sonal observation I have noted, in the last two or three years, three splendid bolides, that were seen to burst in the sky, but of which no fragments were found; these I have described, and still others have been described to me by several observers. It is a still more striking circumstance, that, in the past sixty
Fossil Annelids from the Lower Silurian. 229
Hi ‘there have been twenty well noted falls of meteoric stones; and of these just one half have fallen within the
nearly twelve hundred kilograms—an amount twenty times greater than that of the other ten falls scattered over various
regions
I have mentioned this singular fact not that it has any cos- mical significance, but simply as a part of the record I keep of my observations and study of these curious links between heaven and earth. Before very long I hope to put together my more recent speculative studies in regard to these bodies.
Art. XXXII. — Notice of a new genus of Annelids es the Lower Silurian ; by Gko. BirD GRINNEL
THE Museum of Yale College has recently received, from the rocks of the Cincinnati group, a series of fossils which are of unusual interest. The remains are shining black in color, and present a striking contrast to the associated fossils, Trilo- bites, Brachiopods, Crinoids, ete., which have assumed the color and constitution of the matrix. An examination of these A remains shows that a are the hard chitinous parts of
ley
suggest Sake red com saul erith these specimens are the Phrou h the kindness of Professor arsh, the Boy ae been Bo to examine a number of the original specimens of these fossils, collected by Pander him- self near St. face lg ; and a comparison makes it clear that they are quite unlike t @ remains referred to. They are widely different in color and form from the material under observation, while chemical tests show that their composition is by no means simi hese Pacis fossils include a large number of specimens, and, as might be expected, there isa wide variation in their form. So little is at present known in regard to the jaws of Anne- lids, that any pry ee conclusions drawn from the material at the command of the writer would be premature; Besa for the same reason it would be unwise to distinguish b name each of the many forms which appear. Further study will doubt-
230 Fossil Annelids from the Lower Silurian.
less furnish data for a more extended description, with numer- ous illustrations, which it is hoped will soon be completed.
Nereidavus varians, gen. et sp. nov.
The jaw selected as a type for the genus (fig. 1), is one of the largest and most perfectly preserved of those at hand. It is
ark brown, with a coppery luster in some places, this coloring being due to the weathered condition of the specimen. It is hollow at the base and throughout the greater part of its length, and so strikingly resembles the jaw of the common Nereis pela- gica Linn. of the Atlantic coast, as to render their near affinity almost certain. The denticulations, or teeth, are eight in num- ber, but were probably more numerous originally, since the pos- terior portion of the specimen is wanting. The anterior tooth, which is the largest, is somewhat twisted outward, not Iving 10 the same plane with its fellows. The length of the specimen 1s _ 5°6 mm., the depth beneath the fourth tooth 1-4 mm.
A second very perfect specimen, which may possibly belong with the jaw above referred to, is represented in fig. 2. It con- tains eighteen teeth, the anterior one quite long and stout, the next five mere slight protuberances, and only to be seen under the microscope, while the remaining teeth are sharp and strong. The length of the exposed portion of this individual is 2°8 mm.; depth under the first of the strong teeth, the seventh in the series, 22 mm. Since the base of this specimen is burie in the rock and cannot be seen, it is not altogether certain what it is. It bears some resemblance to one of the seta of Nereis Dumerihi, Aud. and M. Ed., figured by Ehlers in his work entitled Die Borstenwiirmer, pl. XX, fig. 31.
e specimens under consideration were collected by Profes- sor A. G. Wetherby, near Cincinnati, Ohio. Through the en- ergy and courtesy of this naturalist, a large suite of specimens has been secured and forwarded to New Haven, and to bim the writer would express his grateful acknowledgments.
Yale College Museum, New Haven, Conn., July 28th, 1877.
Chemistry and Physics. 231
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,
I. Puysics.
hah have hee: during the past few months. Several of these
nomena in question are liable to be modified by many adventitious circumstances. Five theories of the radiometer have found promi nent and weighty advocates. The first regards the motion of the instrument as a direct effect of radiation. ‘The second refers it to electrical action. The third to convection currents. The fourth to the emission of material particles from the vanes or the -_ of the instrument. Beg eise st finds in the apparatus simply a n heat engine, and sees in the motion a simple result of the differ- ence of Gatiparaahin of the pas wholly in accordance with the mere mechanical theory of hea
n this motion was first ysis ered it seemed to. be a direct mochanioal effect of radiation, and there were not wanting ingenious speculations to show how the force exerted by the waves of the
$ ie 2) = mM bo) “4 A 5 © 2 co ra Lom oO © bs | be -_ = Mm O 4.22 ac = ae — PY] nm tae) oF ao “a o = © as pe oo jel os
whole tenor of his published’ papers have certainly justified, the common opinion that, until very recently, he regarded the phe- nomena—he had so admirably develo ae —as a direct effect of radiation, and not, as he now thinks, a secondary result depending on differences of temperature, which may be produced by radiation or by other means. Hence, several experimenters have labore
to show that in the motion of the little wheel of the radiometer the reaction was exerted not against anything independent of the instrument, but a A ge the enclosing walls - Spoce ane —
0
slightly in the opposite direction. Soon after M. Salet} con- ructed a very ingenious apparatus ‘in wel this reaction was made to turn a mica disk; and very recently, M.M. Bertin et * Philosophical M agazine, Nov., 1876. + Comptes Rendus, Nov. 20, 1876.
232 Screntific Intelligence.
Garbe* have published an interesting paper, in which they show by careful ae camp aveats that the reaction of the glass bulb fully accounts for the motion of the wheel; and their investigation
caused Ss forces which act within the glass
how de Pony ielle.+ In opposition it is oe that no distribution of statical electricity could maintain a constant motion, and furt Mr. Crook he cites an experiment of Mr. Cromwell F. Varley, with an apparatus so arranged that the electrical condition could tested with a delicate eg ata ; when not the slightest poke - electrical excitement could be de tected, aluhoogh the motion of e wheel was re er misiataiie whe convection theory has been recently advocated by F. Neesen,|| who describes a number of experiments which he thinks indicate that the wheel of the radiometer is moved by the gas
vane of the enclo ook 2 glass walls, But the effects he obtains by plating ditine wheels unsymmetrically under the receiver of a mitentd pump, do not, as it seems to us, necessitate his expla-
sn
n currents and the peculiar motion of the radiometer is raitklogiy marked in many experiments which have been else where described, the one passing into the other at a certain degree of
exhaustion. The emission or evaporation theory appears to have a with iy Osborne Reynolds. It was later maintained by Govi,** and recently it has formed the subject of an extended artiole—in
The particles thus emitted may be either those of aeriform sub- stances adhering to or occluded by the solid materials of which in
into the vaccuous s Leaving, peschie a questions in abeyance—as these pieyuialaty prefer, —there o doubt that the general order of the phenomena might be sioplelied if the assump- tions which the emission theory requires could be accepted; but on the other hand, the phenomena which % IIner adduces in sup-
ort of his view, may be,—for the most part at least—fully as well explained by the more general mechanical theory of heat. Zoll- * + baibtiee de Chim. et de Phys., [V] xi, 45, Mai, 1877.
Beiblatter, i, 170. gree rpacbge yf 329, § Pogg. Ann., clx, 143. [compar Zallner, Pogg. Ann., clx, 459. §[ Proc. Royal Soc., 1874, June 18. ‘Ann., clx, 154, 296 and 459. ++ Comptes Rendus, Ixxxiii, 1.
Chemistry and Physics. 238
ner endeavors to show* that the mean path of the molecules of the residual gas in the bulb of the ee when it is in the condi-
sitiveness is reached, and si on further exhaustion the sensitive- ness rapidly diminishes, seems to us,—especially when viewed in connection with the Seiticionie just referred to—fatal to the emission theor
tion of the ne mena is said to have been first suggested by Mr. Johnstone Stone Similar views were al ry early ex-
- pressed by Professors Tait and Dewar.{ More recently they have been adopted by Mr. Pa and are now very generally ac- cepted by physicists.
n
pail I fa indies i for exaienie, with the adjacent molecules, ae pene of one system, and, by a well known mechanical law, n
wall then of course a force is exerted between the opposing ne
esata is then simply a heat engine in which the action sakes place between two surfaces of different temperature, the heater and the cooler of the engine. As such a difference of temperature may be maintained in a great variety of ways, so the apparatus admits of a great number of modifications. Moreover, it is obvious that
* Pogg. Ann., clx, 305. + Beiblitter, i, 167 i 330. a July 15th, 1875.
§ Philosophical Transactions, vol. clxvi, p 5, in postscript dated June ot 1877. See also Mr. Stoney’s papers. Phil. Mag., aa t pp. 177-182, oe (18
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Series, Vou. XIV, No. 81.—Sept, 1
16
234 Scientific Intelligence.
when, as in most cases, the difference of temperature is the result of radiation, very irregular effects may be produced by the dif- ferent absorbing or radiating power of the surfaces for the various
_ It does, however, still remain to show that the dynamical theory of heat is quantitatively as well as qualitatively confirmed by the a
sent very great experimental difficulties, and t ta thus far obtained can only be regarded as rough estimates, and for this reason we attach much importance to the criticisms of
tension of the residual air is about 0°19 millimeters, but he has
succeeded in reducing it to 0-0076 millimeters, and then the
velocity of the motion was only one-tenth of the maximum 0 ;
the exhaustion, he has been able to reduce the tension to one OF two millionths of an atmosphere, and that he can most readily secure the condition of greatest sensitiveness by first pushing the exhaustion to the utmost limit of the power of his app@ ratus,* and then with the aid of a peculiarly constrneted =
i i h Mf
allowing gas to enter until the proper tension is reache * Crookes has obtained these later results with a new form of the Sprengel
Chemistry and Physics. 235
using vanes of mica previously rendered anhydrous by ignition and working with hydrogen, he has thus succeeded in constructing a radiometer of such sensibility that it moved under the sole influ- *s rays. The results of Finkener on the point of
otherwise like condinieng nan one 1 a large bulb and this also has been fully realized by Mr. Crookes.+ Quite rege Stoney and Mossf have published some preliminary results o
investigation, in which they propose to compare the i Foe
and wi and under varying conditions "of tension, ascent te. Investigation was begun soon after the publication of Stoney’s original communication to the Phil. ee , March, 1876, and is not yet completed. Th ive a description of their apparatus, and they call the reaction exerted between the cooler and heater in the radiometer and all similar instruments, “ Crookes’ Force.”
sure, sensible at a distance of at lea n mailion
rfac pent being rag of ia rota plate, the siemapiee he of t surfaces must be essentially the same. Such effects Boies ta studied both by Crookes§ and by Zéllner. Rok is ites noe in favor of the view of the subject _ presented no psc a new eu rip or exaggerate an old = pe
* Annales de Chimie et Physique, V, x, 396, pa jdt a Beiblatter, i, 165. pEehiaten i, 318, No. 6; also Proc. Roy. 'Soe., Beiblatter, i, 169. 1 Pogg. Ann., clx, 169.
236 Scientific Intelligence.
those who accept this theory the radiometer becomes an instru- ment of the very highest interest, affording as it does, another and very striking manifestation of molecular motion. Moreoy er, when we shall be able to overcome the experimental difficulties so as to estimate with certainty the force exerted under determin- ate conditions, we may hope to obtain by its aid a direct measure of absolute molecular magnitudes,
We may be permitted to add to this notice a brief account of a few experiments made with the radiometer at Cambridge in the spring of 1876, soon after the instrument had ip received from Europe. We ‘became at once reatly sarerasta in the new phe- nomena, and with the aid of a skillful glass blower made more
commu adem} and in a popular article in the Boston Daily Advertiser, we did ' not otherwise publish our results, because we felt that the field had been in a measure preémpted by the a ea of the phenomena, who was then investigating the subject, and who, we felt sure, must dean at last to the same conclusions Witch we had reached. Our results can now add nothing to the strength of the theory, Moe has been since so well ata out by aan ects < of the i ia Bisa have never been—so far e kno
aastirbed before, and being so aie that ity oii be easily repeated in any physical cabinet, a description of them, even this late day, may have an interest for cy of physic
st experimented with a common radiometer beetue pe
ned o i eam
made at once this experiment. We placed an opaque screen ‘iear
auntie ten petri et ait in a similar way cect only the uncoated faces ; when the wheel pagent to sb in the same ane although much more slowly than befor Again we
ounted the revolutions. Lastly we counted the avelaaions while the beam shone on batt sides of the vanes as usual. We repeat the experiment se times, and were surprised at the remark- able constancy of ‘he results. They were as follows:
Time of ten goby ee With both faces exposed ge ate 319 With ——— = alone exposed ____- e's a ca faces ne ex 29"
mmm wee eee
Chemistry and Physics. 237
the motion must take et ean the parts of the instrument itself; or else we are driven to the most improbable alternative that lampblack and mica should have such a remarkable selective power that the impulses, then supposed in some mysterious way to be imparted by the beam of light, could exert a repulsive force at one surface and an attractive force at the other. Were there,
faces were protected or not. It was now an obvious step to heat the glass of the bulb pi pees“, of the vanes in order to see if under these cireumstances we should not obtain a reverse action. This was easily effected “both by ace ng the dase over a lamp and also by placing the bulb pase A toward the beam from the lantern, so that it heated the glass without striking the vanes of a wheel. We thus easily obtained the now familiar reverse motion, but which was to us a new Dene very. We weep felt bairketees justified in spiking of the radiometer, as we di
communications referred to, as a heat engine, of which, when x mov- ing in the oo eae way, the — surface of the va 8 is
yeh then the parallel with he steam engine, which we seh Sak gested the extension of the dynamical theory of gases to include the new phenomena almost in the very words used above. More- over, while exhausting the large number of radiometers of which we have 5 spoken, we noticed variations in the effects kg ei caused by differences in diathermancy between crown and flin
glass, and were thus led to realize what an important ait this
a £ o = =| Rm s ° =} sort ot i cr ae O& aun eee So ° box J oe ; fo} | ~~] os a4 oO =} m o -~ 4 co) S i a ®
also devised an appé aratus for measuring the force exerted under determinate conditions, but our experiments were brought to an end by the sudden aak of the only skillful glass blower in our nei ipitiochs od.
238 Scientific Intelligence.
Soon after these experiments, Mr. B. O. Peirce, now Shek it in the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College, ma e fol-
a thermopile. He used a large Bunsen burner provided with an air valve, so that the non-luminous could be at once changed a lumi He placed the burner wide ay between
circular aperture admitted the rays and where the reflecting surface of the cover set obliquely enabled the observer to count the revolutions of the radiomet Tn front of the
, an also took the readings of the galvanometer ; then, after rendering the flame luminous (by oe the air valve), t the same observa-
tions were repeated, mparison of the similar values ee of cou beste —— Brie aa of the non-luminous and the feta nous us ay — ba the radiometer on the one side and the cheetaicile on the o Psat Thermopile. 1 0°342 028% 2 07309 0°380 3 0°248 0°283 4 0°267 0°325 5 0-277 0-350 6 0°367 0°250 7 0°394 0°304 Mean, "315 ll While, therefore, there was A eg a large variation between the several observations, as might be expected with such a variable
source as a Bunsen flame, yet the close agreement of the averages showed conclusively that with the radiometer, as with the thermo- pile, the effect caused by the rays of light must arise solely from the change of temperature thus produced. It will be noticed that—
as measured by either instrument— the radiation of the. Juminous
the same time showed that the illuminating power of the first was at least a thousand times greater than that of the second. wo separate experiments gave 1080 and 1079 times greater respec tive
In ‘ this notice we have been able to refer to only a few of the ‘omit sane presented in recent articles on the radiometer, and
t wi e be understood that our limits prevent us even sitidiigy t we a large number of other very eras t ere vations bearing on the “subject.
Ne August 3d, 1877.
Geology and Mineralogy. 239
II. GeoLtoagy AND MINERALOGY.
1. Gravel a referred to the Drift, in Boone County,
Kentucky.— GrorGE Surron states (Proc. Amer. <Assoc., 1876, p. 225), that on the highest part of the table-land in Boone Comity, Kentucky, 450 to 500 feet above hi igh-water mark in the
the mouth of ratte Creek, at about the same e height as shoei ver- terrace formation in Keeney That of Hogan Creek consists of laminated clay and loam with very little gravel, and, as the author remarks, “ was evidently formed away from the current of the Ohio Riv 2. Gr raed Ridges in the Merrimack valley.—Mr. G. F. Wricnt describes the gravel ridges connected with the Quaternary of the Merrimack valley, in the vicinity of Andover and both south and north of that place, in the Proceedings of the Boston Society ot Natural History for December, 1876. At Andover there are three such ridges, at a height of 82 , 90, and 132 feet above the bed of the river, Piha highest being most remote from the stream. They are often only wide enough at top for a foot path. The ourses of the ridges are more or hs tortuous, and they are
they are not in all parts stratified. The pie materia
240 Screntific Intelligence.
likely to abound near the top as at the bottom. The material overlies the “bowlder clay” or “till” of the region. These
pham in a paper pone on page 156 of this volume. The ey a
during its diaolnaion) modified afterward by the water Shin ees in the summer months, wee have flowed freely, over, neath and from the foot of the the supposed — denies: ‘called Protichnites and Climatictites by Professor E. J. Cuapman.—The Potsdam sandst of Beuharnois ue Vaudreuil, Canada, near the junc- tion of the St. Lawrence ttawa rivers, an the same forma- tion in the vicinity of Perth, Canada, afforded the Protichnites, four species of which were made out by Professor Owen. fes sor Chapman, | of Toronto, concludes, from his examination of shibie that they are impressions of large fucoids. This view he regards as strengthened by the occurrence of the Protichnites at Perth along with the i impressions known as Climatichnites. The latter have the form of a band five to six inches wide and several feet in length, with transverse series of narrow Geascatin ridges, an ex-
sabe the upper limit was from 1 200 to “1,600 meters. From the distribution of bowlders, ~ _ of the upper surface of the ancient glaciers has been ascertained to be about thirty feet in 1,000, in the narrow valleys, vile whore it was more pone and in some places the surface was, for 50 kilometers in lengt horizontal or nearly so. This state of things gives to the ancient Swiss glares, & as Loe remarks, a close resemblance to those which now cover Greenland and Giiabergen,-- Verhandl. Nat. Ges. Basel, 1875-76, ia 136.
5. The Geology of New iit ge C. H. Hrrencocg, State Geologist, J. H. Huntrneron, Warren Upnam, and G. Ww.
AWES, Assistants. Part II, Eeratigraphien! Geology. 684
described, in the American Chemist for March, rocks from the Adirondacks Bec ieee by him in Essex County and mostly in the
Geology and Mineralogy. 241
valley and township of Keene. He adopts for the 4 which Hunt showed to consist of feldspar identical with or r Labra- dorite along with hypersthene or a related augitic or hordblenaie minera (and more or less of iulageeting or menaccanite), the name norite, and uses the yi hypersthenic igen hornblendic norite, pyroxenic norite, for varieties. He giv s the specific gravities of
orty-four varieties of 1 siotkean; which vary from 2°67 to 3°459, the _ proportion of the feldspar to the amphibolic species and menacanite
determining it. The labradorite, from — norite forming the mass of Mount Marcy afforded him on analysis
SiO, AlO, FeO, FeO CaO MgO Na,O K,O H,O TiO,
5447 26-45 1°30 0°66 10°80 0°69 437 0°92 0°53 undet.=100°19 giving the qanvel rapeat ratio for the pr vlone ss, POPMlON ess and Silica, 1°13: 3: 6°83. Another analysis was ma a waxy felsitic variety, from the same place, which afforded ven Poe the same resu
Pricos Leeds gives also an analysis of a doleryte from the 5 Sie and others of the pyroxenic portion of the Mount Marcy
rite also gives the characters afforded by thin slices of Seas of the rocks,
On a new method of determining hs species of TLRS contained in rocks, by Dr. J. 5za86, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in the eee of Budapest, Hugs ty. 88 pp. 8vo;
: lammenreaetionen,” This method, to the elaboration of which
he has devoted four years of study and experiment, is based, first, eter atiatios of the degree of "fusibility, and,
secondly, u e degree of coloration of t
under certain omnes ns, Eos which the Saccuatd of sodium and
the methods employed in ih the different experiments reference
potereiams (observed with cobalt glass), is note r removal
rom the flame the extent of fusion and character of the fused mass
te observed. bh same assay is then introduced a ete time ty
242 Scientific Intelligence.
hottest part of the flame and allowed to remain two minutes; the alkalies, now converted into sulphates, . the flame more dis- tinctly than before, and this effect is duly no Professor Szabé gives a general scale of ‘fusibility containing eight cegreat from quartz (0) to antimonite (7), and a special scale of six grades for the different feldspar species; he distin- guishes the character of the fused products in the case of the
‘ 3 white or blebby enamel, is obtained; he also gives large colored plates exhibiting the inten oe of color, yellow and violet, a
of sodium and potassium seope tively. By means o of these ba is in cer
ado in a given spar, and thus to determine the species. method doubtless requires considerable skill in naatipiiine tion, “a also extended experience in the application of the de li- cate tests described. The end aimed at, however, is so important one—especially in view of the tendency now preva ent to con-
—that it is wo rthy of much time and labor, and Professor Szab deserves the thanks of eae toe for the care and oe Ww - which he has worked out his resu
8. Brief notices of some newly described be onli Voor it oceurs as a greenish earthy-looking ‘ ‘clay-or e” in irregular layers
beabeees :—SiO, 30°73, AlO, 14-67, FeO, FeO 0-29, CuO 17°58, MgO 18 55, = 20 12°83 = 100. The caniciealeet ratio 5 tbe R:#R:Si:H=3:4:6:4, “which puts the mineral, if it be a homogeneous subehaes (as its microscopic character indi indi- cate) among the chlorites.” (Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, in a pamphlet entitled “ Detatiption of a Double Muffle Furnace by pthc’ B. Silliman, and A new ore of Copper and its metallurgy, by T. Sterry Hunt; Sas ret Dec, 30th, 1876.)
UVranocireite ‘oceurs in quartzy veins in pt granite of Falken- stein, Saxon Voigtland; it has long gone by the name of autunite
bles. §S
Botany and Zoology. 243
Spheer ee occurs in spheroidal forms with ee at Schneeberg, S . Structure coarsely radiated; the sphe surface under the icine is found to be made up of minute rombohedral crystals ; veal Sasipalg red; hardness = 4; spec gravity = 4°02-4°13. B.B. es black on caution ‘in lous tube. ‘Dissolves with pe ste etie in warm hydrochloric acid. On analysis gave Winkler CoO 58°86, CaO 1°80, FeO, 3°41, CO, 34°65,
20. 1:22 = 99°94, or, deducting the hydrated iron oxide C00, 84:25, CO, 35°75 = 100. This sopneapane to the formula CoCO which requires : CoO 63:06, CO, 36 = 100. (Weisbach, I. c.)
the name of “per sofskite.” act gravity = 4° 3. An analysis gave Knop: Cb,O, 22°73, TiO, pts FeO 5°70, MnO 0°42, oe) 5°58, CaO 19°36, Meo tr. , Na,O 3°50, K,O tr., F tr., A1O, SiO, 2°31 = 100°17. This agrees closely with -” ann “ERT, + RPb,O,, when R= Fe, a, Na The mineral is named dysanalyte, i in ¢ onsequence of the aidizalties met with in its analysis. (Knop, Zeitschrift fur ihe Pith i, 284, 187 77.)
Ill Botany AND ZOooLoGy.
. Rapid Growth—A. W. Bennett says, of a plant of Vallis- siipin spiralis: The first flower-bud made its appearance in my aquarium this year on July Ist, the pedicel rte at 3 P.M. appar- ently about 1°5 inch long. On the 3rd, at 4 Pp. M., the base of the bud just touched the surface of the water, aid “the pedicel was about 7 inches long. At 1 P.M. on the 7th {an Saatigbe of ninety- three hours), it had. reached the astonishing length of 43 inches. og bed was then still closed, and the flowerstalk quite eee
ot showing yet any tendency tocoil. At 10 A. mu. on the the Teagth was 45°5 inches, the flower being then open, and the lower on of the flower-stalk so strongly undulating that it w most impossible to straighten it. At 11 a. M. on the 10th it had Feiched its ultimate length of 48 ces the undulation of the nd portion being more strongly mar
2. Evolutionary Law as illustrated i Abnormal Growth in
Apple Tree.—Mr. Tuomas Mrruan exhibited some branches of a “ Smoke-house” apple tree, which had the cluster of flowers at the end hes a young shoot, flowering after the leaves and growth had matured, instead of bloo ming in spurs early in spring, and denultaverunty with the expansidn of the leaves, as in ordinary case were numerous instances of the normal and abnor- mal growths on the same tree, the abnormal ones flowering about six weeks after the normal ones, but both classes maturing the fruit at about the same time in the fall.
e point he wished ages eit! to draw attention to was that when there was a change in one important character, there was often change in others Giakay a complete set of characters which need nothing but permanence to be regarded as specific. For
244 Scientific Intelligence.
instance, the fruit from these terminal neh was as unlike the ramet moke-house” as it was possible The fruit stems ere very long and slender, and the fruit Sakvened--whes omol- Salute term oblate. It might further be noted that this change was not a change by gradual modification through seminal agency ; but.a leap, wo from a tree that had sie bi produce flowers in the normal w. There was apparently no more reason why the law, reatavor it may be, that operated on this one tree might not under some circumstances operate on all the trees in the orchard, or on other wild trees in native places of growth, or on the indi- viduals of a whole district, as well as on a single tree. It was such osdeeero8 as these ehibshn made the doctrine of evolution in some form an absolute certainty.—Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Philad., pies p- 192, emarks on the Yellow Ant.—Professor Leipy remarked pe recently while seeking certain animals beneath stones in the s near Philadelphia, he had had the opportunity of —— the Yellow Ant, Formica flava, in possession of large numbers other insects, This fact, in itself common enough, in one vested was new and of special interest to him, and may be so to others.
midst of one of the former herds. In a larger colony of the Yel- low Ants, there was a herd of Aphides which occupied the under part of one margin of the stone and was almost ten inches long by three-fourths of an inch in breadth. The same colony also pos-
almost a square ee of Be Los "In bo th colonies Pe Aphis and
of the sto not attached to roots. They ap lets to be Srohally attended by the ants, which surrounded A at e larva alluded to was almost six millimeters long, was covered on the back with a thick white cotton-like secretion. It was also arely attended by
antenne. "The Aphides and Cocci were all in pre condition, but pti grass roots partially extending into the earth beneath the stones,
to which it is probable they were at uy *uaicgos by their vga —Proe, Aca d. Nat. Sei., 1877,
2 P of coloring of the group to which the species belongs; while it is
Miscelianeous Intelligence. 245
if male that shows divergences from the type in structural char- These structural divergences in Butterflies appear in the eae and the legs, and sometimes in the antenne. Mr. Scudder knows of no example in which the male alone diverges from the ee plan of coloration belonging to the group.—Prvc. Amer. cad., 1877.
IV. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1, Narrative of the North Polar ee on, U. 8. Ship Polaris, Captain Charles Francis Hall ¢ mmanding. Edited under the direction of the Hon. G. M. peeeinetin Secretary of the
vernment Printin fice, Washington. 1876-77. the iidantholy interest which
was seemingly about to realize his life-long hopes, is Hithoasist by the reflection that the erie shed officer, to whom was entrusted the preparation of this narrative, was himself called away by death while his task was aliiobt complete. e final chapters were consigned by him to the editorial care of Professor Nourse of the National Observatory. This volume is what its title declares—a narrative of the Polar Expedition from its incep- tion in 1870 until the “Frolic” brings the survivors of the party to Washington, on the 5th of June, 1873, after experiences which must ever be con siderél memorable, even among the almost incredible trials sink heroisms of Arctic exploration, The closing chapters of the narrative recite the cruises of the Juniata and Tigress for the rescue of the Polaris and her crew, the examin-
of the Board of Enqui . The volume also contains a translation of the report made to the Royal Gesenighicnt Society of Paris, April 21, 1875, b e Brun, oquette
and the U. 8. Navy Department in relation to the stores left by the Polaris Expedition on the west coast of Greenland; the Journals of Mr. H. C. Chester and Captain Geo. E. Tyson while
Expedition,
The scientific results of the expedition have been worked up b Dr. Bessels, under the supervision of the Smithsonian Institution, in three volumes, the publication of which may be shortly ex
This narrative is illustrated by thirty-eight full page wood engravings from original sketches by Mr. Emil Bohaitiitin and Dr. Emil —s painted in oil by Mr. J. H. Morgan and photo- graphed on wood by Mr. Smilie, There are also eighteen tail pieces from original sketches, two photolithographs, a steel por-
246 Miscelluneous Intelligence.
trait of Captain Hall, and a steel engraved frontispiece of the Polaris. It is a aces to know also that Professor Nourse is now engaged in preparing for publication Captain nage Journals ring his second expedition, 1864-69, in obedience to a resolu- tion introduced into the U.3. Senate, February: - 1877, by Mr. Sargen B. 8. The American aoe Joun H. Tice, Editor. In monthly numbers of 32 8vo. Saint Louis, Missouri.—The second volume of this J eae consisting of six monthly numbers, commenced with January of the current year. The author holds
ena, and their causes, and presents them in his Monthly. Facts are, in his opinion, in “irrepressible conflict,” as he expresses it, with ordinary physical theories.
The American Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. ose this title, a much needed addition to the scientific jour- nals of the country, will soon fe made, under the asrpes of the Johns Hopkins University. The editors announced a J. SYL- VESTER, BENJAMIN Perrcr, Stmon Newcoms, H. re OWLAND, and Ws. E. Story, the first were of Mathematics in the
* Associate-Editor-in-Charge.” Four numbers. in quarto, will for the tees be issued annually, making a volume each year of 384 pages. e price is five dollars a volume. ‘The first number will appear in erwrel he Subscriptions and contributions should i. aise to ig am E, Srory, Johns Hopkins University, Reldwects.: Marylee
4. Publications oe the Cincinnati Observatory.—Two numbers —2 and 3—have recently been issued in a ae No. 2, eighteen pages, contains Micrometrical Measurements of 176 double and triple stars, observed with the 11-inch reflector of the Observatory by O. M. Mi tchell; Cincinnati, 1876; and No. 3, thirty-four in ie
metri a
triple stars, during t 38 years 1875-76, under _ otistee T° of fag ond Stone, A.M., Director, Cincinnati, 1 Two New Meteorie trons. (Letter to a Shion )—I have had lately sent to me two new meteoric irons, one from Casey County, Kentucky, nd the other from Dalton, Whitfield County, Georgia. Descriptions and analyses of these will be published shortly. WRENCE SMITH. 6. Table of Logarithms. —M. Gav s Vicnias has pub- lished in Paris a volume of logari shias: pion tee tables for all numbers from 0 to 434,000,000,000 with twelve decimals, by M.
Belgium). This wonderful volume, selling at three francs, has been printed Py ae of the Royal Academy of Sciences of
7. Tenth taal Basia of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology. Presented
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 247
to the paced — Fellows of Harvard College, June, 1877. Vol. If, No. 1, p. 8vo. Cambridge, 1877.—A paper, ‘by Dr.
. C. Asport, ‘deaciites the occurrence of what appear to be flint chippings in undisturbed gravel deposits, only partially stratified, of the Delaware River valley, near Trenton, New Jerse stone is a hard or indurated argillite, somewhat fusible before the blowpipe; but in one case, flint. Bowlders eight or ten feet in diameter occur over the surface. Mr, Abbott regards the mate- rial as of Glacial origin, and the relics, ~ ‘meg of man of the Glacial era. This paper is followed by another, by Professor N. HALER, on the same relics and deposits, errs’ states that he accompanied Dr. Abbott over the region, and obtained from the beds two of the su pposed relics, and concludes with the remark that “if these remains are really those of men, they Prove the existence of interglacial man on this part of our shore.”
This Report contains also papers on the exploration of Ash Cave in Benton, Hocking County, Ohio, and on ge ena of
1 DREWS ;
mounds in Southeastern Ohio, by Professor EK 3; on the exploration of a mound in Lee County, Va., by ctu Carr, Assistant Curator d on se Art of War and Mode of Warfare of the Ancient Mexicans, by . BANDELIER,.
Professor Andrews describes instruments, anita and other or- naments of copper, from the mounds examined . One o
» Be Se ae the mounds (W. Connett’s in Dover, Athens County, Ohio) is spoken of as “of great scientific value, because ae . we prove
und,’ 8. Kinetic Theories of Gravitation ; poe WILLIAM B. TAYLOR,
either hypothesis can satisfy the two Newtonian conditions of a Scientific theory—verity and sufficienc A. W. W. acher’s Primer of Chemistry. Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia.
OBITUA Tororny Aspotr Conrap.—Dr. ‘tae p died on the ninth of Sage at the residence of his bier nee Mr. T. Abbott, n, New Jersey. He was son of the late Solomon Conrad,
of th the | University of Pennsylvania, and oe bons in 1803.
248 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
His scientific labors began early in life and were continued up to the present year. They were devoted especially to the study and description of recent shells and the fossil shells of the Tertiary
were determined by cold intervals in the course of the earth’s progress, and he points out the great fact that the Mississippl depression, as it is often called, was a consequence of the elevation of the Appalachians on the east, and of the Rocky Mountain area, late in geological time, on the west. On the first of these points he remarks that “the theory of periodical refrigeration alone can explain the sudden extinction of whole races of animals and es.
nd him lectual friends,” and watched with unfailing interest the progress of scientific discovery.
APPUN TET:
Art. XXXIII.—WNotice of some new Vertebrate Fossiis ; by O. C. Marsa.
known member of the family. A number of new genera are introduced, some of which have an important bearing on the genealogy of Tertiary Mammals. Among the other vertebrates is a new genus of Crocodilians from the horizon of the Weal- den, and a species of Crocodilus from the Pliocene.
Moropus distans, gen, et sp. nov. This genus of Edentates is based mainly upon the bones of the feet, which have been found in several individuals. These
(Orycteropus). The specimens here described belong to a dis- tinct family, the Moropodide.
In the type specimen of the present species, only the hind feet appear to be represented. One of the most characteristic ones 1s a codssified first and second phalanx. The articula- tion for the metatarsal is nearly in a horizontal plane, and situated on the proximal end of the upper surface of the base. It is somewhat heart-shaped in outline with the apex rounded and about equally concave in both directions, or slightly less so transversely, This articulation occupies nearly half the length of the first phalanx which is thoroughly codssified with the seco The line of junction between the bones can, how- ever, be traced easily, and is strongly marked on the under surface by a pit or foramen entering obliquely upwards and forwards. Except near this line of junction, the surface of the
Am, Jour. Sot.—Tump an Vou. XIV, No. 81,—Sept., 1877,
250 O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.
bone is rather smooth. The under surface, below the articula- tion, is flattened. The second phalanx is less than half the length of the first, and its surface is roughened, as if by abnor- mal growth of bone over the surface. The length of the first phalanx is 43"; the longitudinal diameter of the metacar- pal articulation 18"; its transverse diameter 23™”. e least transverse diameter of the bone is 21™™: its vertical 20
The greatest vertical diameter of the bone is 32 This bone resembles the penultimate phalanx of the middle finger of Priodontes, but is somewhat shorter and thinner. :
These and other less characteristic remains indicate an anl- mal somewhat larger than a tapir. They were found in the Miocene of Oregon by the Yale Expedition of 1873.
Moropus senex, sp. nov.
A second larger species of the same genus is indicated by @ few remains, among which is the characteristic bone formed of the united phalanges. The proximal phalanx is considerably larger than the one above described. Its length is 52%. The proximal articulation is oblique, and does not occupy more than one-third the upper surface of the bone. The me- dian phalanx is well preserved, and measures 25™™ in length. It is not united with the first phalanx in a line with the axis of that bone, but is inclined about 15° toward the sole of the foot. Its distal articulation is composed of two not very prom- inent pulley-shaped surfaces with a groove between.
Moropus elatus, sp. nov.
is more nearly vertical than in either of the Miocene species.
ts median vertical diameter is 30™™:; and transverse diameter
O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils. 251
420m, The least vertical diameter of the phalanx is 28™™;
The shaft of the bone is rounded throughout. The distal articulation is hemispherical above, but presents two shallow grooves below, which are carried around so far as to become nearly horizontal. The greatest proximal diameter is 50™™, and the greatest distal diameter 44™™. :
The proximal face of the fifth metatarsal is oblique, trian- gular in outline, convex vertically, and through the greater part of its tranverse extent. Its greatest vertical extent is
mm, and greatest horizontal diameter the same. The vertical diameter of the shaft of this bone is 40™™, and its transverse diameter 38™™, caneum measures 108™™ from its pos- terior end to the vertical face for articulation with the astraga- lus. The vertical diameter of the shaft is 53"™, and the trans- verse diameter 41™™.
: ese remains are from the Lower Pliocene of Nebraska, and Indicate an animal about as large as a Rhinoceros.
Amynodon, gen. nov.
The present genus is based upon a nearly perfect skull, and various other remains which belonged to the oldest representa- tive of the Rhinoceros family yet discovered. These speci-
nection with the rest of the anterior dentition, they prove con- clusively that the large lower teeth, usually regarded as incisors
252 O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.
in Acerotherium and many other members of the Rhinoceros family, are really canines.
The nasals in this genus are smooth, and evidently were without horns. There were four toes in front and three be- hind. The type species is Amynodon_advenus Marsh, which was provisionally referred to the genus Diceratheriwm when first described.
Tapiravus rarus, gen. et sp. nov.
genus, which may be calle ; validus Marsh, (Lophiodon validus) from the Miocene of New Jersey. This genus may readily be distinguished from Lophio- don or Hyrachyus, by the last upper premolar, which is similar to the adjoining molars.
second species of this genus occurs in the Lower Pliocene east of the Rocky Mountains, and remains were collected there by the writer in 1873. The most characteristic specimen ob- tained was an upper molar tooth which indicated an animal considerabiy smaller than the living Tapir. The crown of this molar was 15™™” in antero-posterior diameter, and 17™™ in trans- verse diameter. It is peculiar in having the antero-exterior angle very obtuse, and less prominent than the outer cusps.
Bison ferox, sp. nov. This genus has not hitherto been found in the Tertiary of
ras low as the genus has been found in the Old World. This specimen indicates an animal much larger than the existing Bison, and having very powerful horns. The specimen pre- served was over 500™ in length, when complete. The radius of the inner curve measures about 400™. The largest end has a diameter can and the smaller, at a distance of
A second larger species, with more curved horns, is indicated by a nearly perfect horn-core from the lower Pliocene of Kansas. This species, which may be called Bison Alleni, 1m honor of Dr. J. A. Allen, of Cambridge, also had very large
O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils. 253
horns. The type specimen has its greatest and least diameters near the base, 140™™ and 110™™. t a distance of 300™™ further toward the end, the diameters are 100" and 90™". The radius of the inner curvature, except for the last 150" of the length, was 350™™.
The discovery of these two lower Pliocene species of Bison, suggests the probability that this form is a New World type, although it has generally been credited to the other hemisphere.
Allomys nitens, gen. et sp. DOV.
Among the Upper Miocene mammals, a peculiar genus is found, which is probably related to the flying squirrels, but the teeth are somewhat like those of Ungulates. Its affinities are evidently with the Rodents, however, and it represents a distinct family, the Allomyide. The general characters of the upper molar teeth are shown in the accompanying figure,
which is six times natural size. The animals of this species are all very small, hardly larger than a rat. The extent of three molar teeth is 8™. The transverse distance between the two series is, in front, 3°8"™, and posteriorly, 4°4™™.
‘The known remains of this species are all from the Upper
Miocene of Oregon. Graculavus lentus, sp. nov.
The Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic coast and of Kansas have hitherto alone yielded remains of Birds, but these have recently been found in beds of the same age in Texas. The most characteristic specimen obtained is the distal end of a metatarsal, which differs from the corresponding bone of the toothed birds from Kansas, and may be referred provisionally to the genus Graculavus, the type of which is from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey. This specimen shows that there were three toes of nearly equal size, and also a hallux raised above the main digits.
Transverse diameter of shaft of tarsometatarsal bone. 4:2"
Vertical. diameter-of same << 1.0.0.) us. seedeseuds 3°6
Transverse diameter across distal articular faces-. -- - 10°
Vertical diameter of median distal articular face ..-- 48
The known remains of this species indicate a bird about as large as a small duck.
mm
254 OU. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.
Diplosaurus feliz, gen. et sp. nov.
An interesting discovery recently made in the lower Creta- ceous, or Wealden beds, of Colorado, is a new genus of Croco- dilians, intermediate between the old Teleosaurian type and the modern Crocodilus e new genus has a head and teeth very similar to the latter, but with this the ancient biconcave ver- tebree. The present type species is based upon a nearly perfect skull, and a number of vertebree belonging with it. These pertained to an animal smaller than most existing Crocodilians.
e of the principal measurements of this. species are as
follows: ries of skull on median line - oo ere Be5e™ Length of skull from quadrate to end of snout __...- 275. Transverse diameter of premaxillaries .__.__...__._- 46° Transverse diameter of skull, at front of orbits ------ 90° Transverse diameter at ends of qunenne S o 1 29 omy diameter of quadrate at end .__.-..___-_- 20°
econd species of this ci is apparently the Hyposaurus Vabbi Cope, which may be called Diplosaurus Vebbit.
Crocodilus solaris, sp. nov.
o Miocene Crocodilians are known from the Western lake- basins, and none have been described from the Pliocene of the same regions. One species, however, lived in the Pliocene lake east of the Mountains, and, as an indication of climate, at least, is well worthy of record. The remains preserved indicate an animal of moderate size, well protected with deeply ae bony plates, and probably belonging to the genus Crocodilu
Measurements of some of the more important pasate are the following :
Length of centrum of lumbar vertebre Sbcue tue Mees Vertical diameter of anterior articulation . eueree sed 25° Transverse diameter Pe ys ee ee oh diameter of neural ¢ dana al. _ ae tunes & Vertical diameter pes ni chien articulation .......--. 26° "Tranaverte CimQiOles Soa ce oe ee 30° Transverse Serta of dermal goute.. 25 4203 OH
These specimens were found by the writer, in 1878, on the
Niobrara 1 iver in Nebraska.
Nanosaurus agilis, gen. et sp. nov.
The most diminutive Dinosaur yet discovered is repececnl by various portions of a skeleton recently received from t Mesozoic deposits of the Rocky — ge sel indicate an animal not larger than a cat, and yet apparently fully adult. Most of the bones are hollow, and hen walls thin.
O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils. 255
The crowns of the teeth are apparently compressed, and inserted in distinct sockets. The femur has the characteristic third tro- chanter, and is shorter than the tibia.
The principal dimensions of this pigmy Dinosaur are as follows :
Space occupied by five teeth in lower jaw .-. .----- 13° ™™ Depth of jaw below last tooth -..../.2..-.. 222. 10° Length of femifs/eus 00s isle ie se ee Distance from head to middle of third trochanter.... 25° Length of tibiaies oy -6 oc seed wei asd amet 458 75° Least, diameter of shaft... ci.s5 nc coda ve htt cece
The geological horizon of this unique fossil is probably Jurassic, but possibly in the lower part of the Dakota group, which I regard as the equivalent of the Wealden of Europe.
Nanosaurus victor, sp. nov.
length. The remains at present known indicate an animal about as large as a fox.
Apatodon mirus, gen. et sp. nov.
One of the most interesting specimens hitherto found in the Rocky Mountain region, is a portion of a lower jaw with the last molar in place. This fossil is widely different from anything yet described, and its exact affinities are d ul. The frag- ment pertained to an animal about as large as a Tapir, and the general appearance of the specimen at once suggests the mam- malian type. The tooth most resembles, in form and superior surface of crown, that of a typical Suilline. The structure of the tooth, however, is different, and the fangs are, in part at least, codssified with the jaw.
is specimen was found near a locality where Dinosaur bones were abundant, and it is possible it may belong with that group. The jaw, however, is very unlike any correspond- ing jaw of a Dinosaur, so far as now known. This tooth measures about 41™™ in length of crown; 20™™ in transverse diameter, and 8™ in height. The geological horizon is Lower Cretaceous or Jurassic.
256 | O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.
Heliobatis radians, gen. et sp. nov.
The most interesting fossil Fish hitherto found in the Ter- tiary of the west is a land-locked Ray, recently discovered in the Green River beds of Wyoming. The specimen is in ex- cellent preservation, and shows the characters of the group most perfectly. It differs much from recent Rays, and resem-
es most nearly the genus Cyclobatis of Egerton, from the Mt. Lebanon deposits of Syria, which are probably in nearly the
latter differs from Cyclobatis in having a much greater number of radiating digits, which entirely encircle the body, and sug- the generic name. ere are also numerous dermal defensive tubercles, which are wanting in Cyclobatis. The principal dimensions of this rare specimen are as fol- WS:
Antero-posterior extent of rays.....-...-.-.--------- 235" Transverse diameter across scapular arch to bases of rays 75° ‘Sous Gremaverse Gmeter ee 5 -- e+ 280" Transverse diameter of head ee te TO, Distance between scapular and pelvic arches_.--.- --- 55° ngth of vertebrw at pelvic arch _-.-._-...-----.---- 2°6 Length of vertebrz in caudal region -._----...-.----- 2°
Yale College, August, 1877.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES.]
e.
Art. XXXIV.—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that of Berkshire; by JAMES D. Dana.
[Continued from page 207.]
2. LITHOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO Ui OF LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS AS A TEST O. GEOLOGICAL AGE. :
subject. The Taconic slate-belt in the western half of the limestone
area and the quartzyte group of the eastern half may be sep-
arately considered, and, afterward, the relations of the two.
1. Taconic slate-belt or range.
The diversity of rocks in the Taconic slate-belt is small compared with that in the Eastern or Quartzyte group.
A. In Vermont.—The rocks, as has been explained, are (1) argillyte to the north; then argillyte along the center with borders of (2) hydromica slate varying from a pure slaty hydrous mica to a mixture of hydrous mica with more or less quartz; (3) chloritie hydromica ‘slate, in which quartz seams and veins (often chloritic) are common. Besides these, there is (4) a hydromuaceous conglomerate, consisting of quartz pebbles in a
Am. Jour. — — Vor. XIV, No. 82.—Ocrt., 1877. —
258 =o. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
hydromica paste, ‘‘abundant in Ira, Middletown, Wells, Poult- ney and Pawlet,” and the main constituent of Bird Mountain, in Ira—as stated in the Vermont Geological ae (p. 426).
In Berkshire and farther south. —There are here the same slates, but in part coarser. Also (5), a rock of awed aspect, in which the mica is a pearly hydrous mica (found in the Graylock range, near Williamstown) ; (6) a garnetiferous chioritic eran slate, common ; (7) mica es af (8) graphitic mica
arnetiferous mica schist ; (10) staurolitic mica )*
schist ; (9) g schist (in Be liahdry and Sharon
2. Schists of the Quartzyte group.
A. In ilpion. —(1) Hydromica Sr which is often very fine in grain and is then called novaculite slate ; (2) chloritic hydromica eke (8) chlorite slate or ‘ache sometimes contain- ing octahedrons of magnetite; (4) hydromica conglomerate, like No. 4 above; (5) hydromica quartzyte, all shades occurring between hydromica slate and true quartzyte; (9) greenish- era hydromica gneiss, containing disseminated chlorite—a kin protogine—the mica pearl- -white, the feldspar ices seen by the
writer on the western slope of the quartzyte and hydromica ridge northeast of rise ee the rock much like the kind from near Base cabs (No. 5 above).
B. In Berkshire and farther south.—(1) Hydromica slate, more or less chiaits and often garnetiferous ; (2) mica slate, that is, fine-grained mica schist; (3) mica schist, varying in color from a dark- ray to black, the latter a fissile rock consisting largely of black mica; (4) garnetiferous mica schist: (5) quartaytre
schist.
Vora of gneiss.—(6) Fine-grained gneiss, thin bedded, the mic very small scales aud in general mostly black, the Bldeat in small white grains; (7) the same, sae thick-bedded and very hard, color moeey light gray, the rock sometimes a contorted gneiss; (8) the same, but with little mica, the color whitish, graduating ee (9) granulyte, a granular compound of quartz and feldspar, with only traces of mica; (10) a whitish or grayish striped gneiss having the mica in lines of spots or in interrupted lines, looking interruptedly striped, the mica mostly biotite; (LL) granitoid gneiss, eh ) fine-grained granite, the
neiss graduating into these rocks, by a loss of its schistose structure; (18) quarizytic gneiss, fine-grained, whitish (often yellowish ‘from alteration of pyrite or black mica), a rock t that graduates by insensible shades into laminated quartzyte ; (14) epidotic gneiss, containing much mica, half of which is musco-
ace Seger pong tio staurolite as well as garnet in the mica sla te of Salisbury ed by Prof. Dewey, in this Journal, vol. viii, P. 7, 1824. Earlier, in iia. wits, bs Dabonacmmnsh ial existence of staurolite in She
Luthological Conclusions. 259
vite, and also small green grains of epidote; (15) syenyte gneiss, consisting mainly of hornblende and whitish feldspar, not common ; (16) hornblende slate, occasional beds; (17) pyroxenyte, consisting of white pyroxene (at Canaan, Conn.).
arnet rock, a firm tough rock of a blackish-gray color, consisting of quartz, pale-red garnet, some feldspar, magnetite an rite, and also minute disseminated prisms showing one lustrous cleavage which may be zoisite (from Beartown Moun- tain)—
eral successive beds of the former, or taking wholly its place in the formation.
3. Schists along an East-and- West section of the limestone region.
In Vermont.—The schists of a,section across the limestone region from west to east in the line of Rutland, are the same nearly as occur in the Quartzyte group from north to south, argillyte being the only rock to the west not found to the east.
In wre.—The remark just made for Vermont applies equally to Berkshire. Along an east-and-west section i southern Berkshire, there are, commencing to the west: argil- lyte, various kinds of hydromica slate, from a black glossy slate differing little from argillyte, to pale pearly slates, chlo- ritie and garnetiferous hydro-mica slates; farther east, fine- grained mica schist and gneiss, coarser garnetiferous mica schist and staurolitic mica schist; and all the gneisses and other rocks mentioned above.
Thus the same kinds of rocks are met with on going from east to west across Berkshire as in going from north to south along the Quartzyte ranges of Vermont and Berkshire.
The above lists afford an idea of the great diversity in the crystalline rocks of the limestone series We are now pre-
ed for a conclusion.
Since then these rocks of the limestone series are confoi able, and of Lower Silurian age; and since they were all crystallized into their present state after the Lower Silurian
260 =o od. zD. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
era had nearly or quite passed, we leaniicthiat all the various mica and chloritic schists mentioned, and the varieties of gneiss, and ‘a6; the other rocks designated, as protogine, gran- ulyte, hornblendic, erie epidotic and garnet rocks, were in this case a produc a single metamorphic process, acting on deposits of lores: iturin age; and, since this wide diver- sity of rocks occurs in the eastern or Quartzyte portion alone of the limestone area, they have also come from that portion of the Lower Silurian to which the Quartzyte group belongs.
pia setting if the lithological canon is a good one, neither of the rocks in the above list can be good for distinguish- ing formations ‘of any other geological era than the one here conside
age. And if so, the lithological canon, as far as the varie-
have not cd it in New England
hydromica schists of the series we wor distinguishable from those of many other geological re
The lithology of the region ae “still some Lagesage oo These are: the absence of hornblendic granite, and syenyte; the sparing occurrence of hornblende schist and horublendic gneiss, these rocks occurring only in beds subordinate to er mica schist or true gneiss; the absence, so far as observed, of labradorite rocks; and the certain absence of granitoid labra- dorite rocks (those having cleavable labradorite as a prominent
Orographic Conclusions. 261
constituent) ; the absence of chrysolite rocks, corundum-bear-
g rocks, and zircon-bearing rocks. Moreover, coarse flesh-
colored granites and coarsely porphyritic gneiss or granite are ed
not among the rocks mentioned.
The frequent abrupt transitions between quartzyte and gneiss is of so much interest that I may refer to it here again, and repeat that it means abrupt transitions from sand deposits to mud deposits in the old seas, just as are now common along the borders of the modern.
In the condition of sedimentary rocks, the differences which, under metamorphism, have led to so long a list of rocks would hardly be apparent to the eye, and generally be overlooked in a description—a little difference in color, or in texture, or in proportion of sand, or in compactness, or thickness of bedding, being the chief points visible in an unaliered rock made of clay, mud or san
3. OROGRAPHIC CONCLUSIONS.
Among the orographic relations between the limestone region in Vermont and Berkshire I mention here only two.
(l.) The first relates to the positions of the rocks, and the connection between position and height.
_ a. Along the Central slate-belt of Vermont and its continua- tion in Berkshire, called the Taconic range, the slates, for the most part, have a high eastward dip; and the facts show that where this is the case they are pushed over in synclinal folds (sometimes with subordinate or local anticlinals and synclinals), the axial plane of which dips eastward.
_ 6. At intervals the slate-belt rises into peaks over 2,500 feet in height. Such peaks occur wherever the synclinal is a broad and comparatively shallow one. ‘
In Vermont, this is the case in Dany Mountain, Mount Dorset or Eolus, Spruce Peak, Equinox Mountain and Mount Anthony, as illustrated on pages 346, 347, of the last volume of this Journal. The explanation is simply—that a very br synclinal or trough holds a very large mass of mountain mate-
; and that, on account of its magnitude, and often also its
262 = od. zD. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
greater compactness or hardness due to the heat and pressure, it has had its height less reduced by denudation.
Berkshire, as I have already shown,* owes its highest sum- mits, similarly, to the occurrence of broad synclinals. Gray- lock, the highest, is one of them; and the Berkshire Mount
er.
This feature is so remarkable and so instructive in Mount Washington, that I here reproduce the outline map of the mountain, used in a former article,* on which the position,
x & o ~ \ Se fa \) */f \) Be H — ee WASHINGTON j B= Hf — 4 | 2S i i —— f 1 t
“2 a
boundary between Massachusetts and New York, the width of which seldom exceeds a mile; while the rest of the unlined part of the map represents the area of Mount Washington, over miles in breadth. The Taconie range, as above stated, corre- sponds in its narrower part to a close synclinal, with the axial plane dipping eastward. But in Mount Washington the lime-
* This Journal, IT, vi, 266. The outline of the mountain is taken from the large wall-map of Berkshire, bearing the date 1858.
Orographic Conclusions. 263
stone and schists at its eastern foot dip westward at a small angle—usually 20° to 25° (65° to 10° in the spur R); and also westward, but at a higher angie, in its highest summit, Mount Everett (E, on the map, 2,634 feet above the sea-level); while
the former bringing up the limestone. Such flexures are not distinguishable in the schists unless sufficiently profound to bring up the limestone; for the dip is throughout to the east- ward; and hence there may be many of these subordinate anticlinals and synelinals in the broad mass where there is nothing to prove it. In the memoir referred to I have men- tioned some evidence that the Graylock mountain-mass, while a broad synclinal, comprises one or more subordinate anticlinals and synclinals. It is a point to be considered in the study of all mountain-masses consisting of steeply flexed rocks.
In another place in this yolume, I speak of the Mt. Washington range in New Hampshire, east of the principal valley, as probably
.
corresponding to a synelinal, I would here add that it may be a
264 J, D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.
compound synclinal, and to this owe the apparently great thick- ness of its andalusitic mica schists. Flexures of less span than five miles, and. much less, are far more common among steeply dipping rocks than those of greater extent, and sisnply because, under the pressure producing such bold upturnings shaly strata cannot help flexing at narrow intervals, so as to have frequent local flexures subordinate to the larger folds.
twenty miles.
he magnitude of the results are strong evidence that the so-called limestone-area is really but a small part of a larger region of cotemporaneous disturbance and uplift. The true
e
Valley on the west, and so had the breadth of the Appalachian disturbance of a later epoch, or whether it had narrower limits —may be ascertained by studying the stratification. Some o the results of such a study as regards Connecticut and a portion of New York I propose to give in another paper.
are needed for a conclusion.
F, Galton—Address before the British Association. 265
“Art. XXXV.—Adiress before the Department of Anthropology of the British Association, at Plymouth ; by FRANCIS GALTON, E.R.S.
Under these circumstances I thought it best to depart some- what from the usual form of addresses, and to confine myself to certain topics with which I happen to have been recently en- gaged, even at the risk of incurring the charge of submitting to you a memoir rather than an address.
I propose to speak of the study of those groups of men who are sufficiently similar in their mental characters or in their physiognomy, or in both, to admit of classification ; and I espe- cially desire to show that many methods exist of pursuing the Inquiry in a strictly scientific manner, although it has hitherto been too often conducted with extreme laxity.
The types of character of which I speak are such as those described by Theophrastus, La Bruyére, and others, or such as may be read of in ordinary literature and are universally recog- nized as being exceedingly true to nature. There are no wor- thier professors of this branch of anthropology than the writers of the higher works of fiction, who are ever on the watch to discriminate varieties of character, and who have the art of de- scribing them. It would, I think, be a valuable service to an- thropology if some person well versed in literature were to com- pile a volume of extracts from novels and plays that should illustrate the prevalent types of human character and tempera- ment. What, however, I especially wish to point out is, that it has of late years become possible to pursue an inquiry into certain fundamental qualities of the mind by the aid of exact
266 =F. Galton—Address before the British Association.
measurements. Most of you are aware of the recent progress of what has been termed psycho-physiecs, or the science of sub- jecting mental processes to physical measurements and to phys- ical laws. I do not now propose to speak of the laws that have been deduced, such as that which is known by the name of
echner, and its numerous offshoots, including the law of fatigue, but I will briefly allude to a few instances of measure- ment of mental processes, merely to recall them to your mem- ory. They will show what I desire to lay stress upon, that the very foundations of the differences between the mental quali- ties of man and man admit of being gauged by a scale of inches and a clock.
should be lost on the road, in transmitting their impressions to the brain. Now the velocity of the complete process of to an
fro nerve transmission in persons of different temperaments has not been yet ascertained with the desired precision. Such dif- ference as there may be is obviously a fundamental character- istic and one that well deserves careful examination. 1 may take this opportunity of suggesting a simple inquiry that would throw much light on the degree in which its velocity varies 1n different persons, and how far it is correlated with temperament and external physical characteristics. Before I describe the in- quiry I suggest, and toward which I have already collected a few data, it is necessary that I should explain the meaning of a term in common use among astronomers, namely, “ rsonal equation.” It is a well-known fact that different observers make different estimates of the exact moment of the occurrence of any event. There is a common astronomical observation, In which the moment has to be recorded at which a star that 18 traveling athwart the field of view of a fixed telescope, cross
the fine vertical wire by which that field of view is intersected. In making this observation it is found that some observers are over sanguine and anticipate the event, while others are slug- gish and allow the event to pass by before they succeed in not- ing it. This is by no means the effect of inexperience oF mal- adroitness, but it is a persistent characteristic of each individ- ual, however saaiicha: in the art of making observations OF
F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 267
268 FF. Galton—Address before the British Association.
imagine few greater services to anthropology than the collec- tion of the various experiments that have been imagined to re- duce the faculties of the mind to exact. measurement. ey have engaged the attention of the highest philosophers, but have never, so far as I am aware, been brought .compendiously together, and have certainly not been introduced, as they de- serve, to general notice. Wherever we are able to perceive differences by inter-com- arison, we may reasonably hope that we may at some future
The history of science is the history of such triumphs. I will ask your attention to a very notable instance of this, namely, that of the establishment of the scale of the thermometer. You are aware that the possibility of making a standard thermomet- ric scale wholly depends upon that of determining two fixe
points of temperature, the interval between them being gradu- ated into a seale of equal parts. These points are, I nee
hardly say, the temperatures of freezing and of boiling water respectively. On this basis we are able to record temperature with minute accuracy, and the power of doing so has been one of the most important aids to physics and chemistry as well as to other branches of investigation. We have been so accus- tomed, from our childhood, to hear of degrees of temperature, and our scientific knowledge is so largely based upon exac thermometric measurement, that we cannot easily realize the state of science when the thermometer, as we now use it, was unknown. Yet such was the condition of affairs so recently as two hundred years ago, or thereabouts. The invention of the thermometer, in its present complete form, was largely due to Boyle, and I find in his “ Memoirs” (London, 1772, vol. vi, P» 403), a letter that cannot fail to interest us, since it well ex- presses the need of exact measurement that was then felt in 4 particular case, where it was soon eminently well supplied, and therefore encourages hope that our present needs as anthropol- ogists may hereafter, in some way or other, be equally well sat- isfied. - The letter is from Dr. John Beale, a great friend and correspondent of Boyle, and is dated February, 1663. He says in 1t:—
“T see by several of my own thermometers that the glass- men are by you so well instructed to make the stems in equa proportions, that if we could name some degrees, .. + - might by the proportions of the glass make our discourses intel- ligible in mentioning what degrees of cold our greatest frosts do produce. .... If we can discourse of heat and cold im their several degrees, so as we may signify the same intelligi
y, .... itis more than our forefathers have taught us to do hitherto.”
F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 269
The principal experiments by which the mental faculties ma be measured require, unfortunately for us, rather costly and del- icate apparatus, and until physiological laboratories are more numerous than at present, we can hardly expect that they will be pursued by many persons, us now suppose that, by one or more of the methods I have described or alluded to, we have succeeded in obtaining a group of persons resembling one another in some mental qual- ity, and that we desire to determine the external physical char- acteristics and features most commonly associated with it. I have nothing new to say as regards the usual anthropometric measurements, but I wish to speak of the great convenience of photographs in conveying those subtle but clearly visible pecu- liarities of outline which almost elude measurement. It is strange that no use is made of photography to obtain careful studies of the head and features. No single view can possibly exhibit the whole of a solid, but we require for that purpose views to be taken from three points at right angles to one an- other. Just as the architect requires to know the elevation, side view, and plan of a house, so the anthropologist ought to have the full face, profile, and view of the head from above of the individual whose features he is studying. f It might be a great convenience, when numerous portraits have to be rapidly and inexpensively taken for the purpose of anthropological studies, to arrange a solid framework support- ing three mirrors, that shal] afford the views of which I have been speaking, by reflection, at the same moment that the di- rect picture of the sitter is taken. He would present a three- quarter face to the camera for the direct picture, one adjacent mirror would reflect his profile towards it, another on the oppo- site side would reflect his full face, and a third sloping over him would reflect the head as seen from above. All the re- flected images would lie at the same optical distance from the camera, and would, therefore, be on the same scale, but they would be on a somewhat smaller scale than the picture taken directly. The result would be an ordinary photographie pic- ture of the sitter surrounded by three different views of his head. Seales of inches attached to the framework would ap- pear in the picture and give the means of exact measurement. Having obtained drawings or photographs of several persons alike in most respects, but differing in minor details, what sure method is there of extracting the typical characteristics from them? I may mention a plan which ee occurred both to Mr. Herbert Spencer and myself, the principle of which is to super- impose optically the various drawings and to accept the aggre- gate result. Mr. cer suggested to me in conversation that the drawings reduced to the same scale might be traced on sep-
270 =F. Galton—Address before the British Association.
arate pieces of transparent paper and secured one upon another, and then held between the eye and the light. I have attempte
this with some success. My own idea was to throw faint images of the several portraits, in succession, upon the same
acommon double eye-glass fitted with stereoscopic lenses to be almost as effectual and far handier than the boxes
e Criminality, though not very various in its development, is extremely complex in its origin: nevertheless, certain general conclusions are arrived at by the best writers on the subject, among whom I would certainly rank Prosper Despine. The ideal criminal has three peculiarities of character; his conscience is almost deficient, his instincts are vicious, and his power 0 self-control is very weak. As a consequence of all this, he usually detests continuous labor. This statement applies to the criminal classes generally, the special conditions that deter- mine the description of crime being the character of the 1n- stincts; and the fact of the absence of self-control being due to ungovernable temper, or to ion, or to mere imbecility. he deficiency of conscience in criminals, as shown by the absence of genuine remorse for their guilt, appears to astonish all who first become familiar with the details of prison life. Scenes of heartrending despair are hardly ever witnessed among prisoners; their sleep is broken by no uneasy dreams—on the
F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 271
contrary, it is easy and sound; they have also excellent appe- tites. But hypocrisy is a very common vice; and all my in- formation agrees in one particular, as to the utter untruthful- ness of criminals, however plausible their statements may ap- pear to be.
we are entitled to say is, that the prevalent instincts of each idual. A man
gress on the subject, I was enabled to examine the many thon- sand photographs of criminals that are preserved for purposes of identification at the Home Office, to visit prisons and confer with the authorities, and lastly to procure for my own private statistical inquiries a large number of copies of photographs of einous criminals. I may as well say, that I begged that the photographs should be furnished me without any names at- tached to them, but simply classified in three groups according to the nature of the crime. The first group included murder, manslaughter, and burglary; the second group included felony and forgery; and the third group referred to sexual crimes. The photographs were of criminals who had been sentenced to long terms of penal servitude. : By familiarizing myself with the collection, and continually sorting the photographs in tentative ways, certain natural classes began to appear, some of which are exceedingly well
272 FE. Galton—Address before the British Association.
marked. It was also very evident that the three groups of criminals contributed in very different proportions to the dif- ferent physiognomic classes.
This is not the place to go further into details: indeed m inquiry is far from complete. I merely quote my experiences in order to show the way in which questions of character, phys- iognomy, and temperament admit of being scientifically ap- proached, and to give an instance of the helpfulness of photog- raphy. If I had had the profiles and the shape of the head as seen from above, my results would have been much more in- structive. Thus, to take a single instance, I have seen many pencil studies in outline of selected criminal faces drawn by Dr. Clarke, the accomplished and zealous medical officer of Penton- ville Prison; and in these sketches a certain very characteristic = seemed to me conspicuously prevalent. J should have
een very glad of photographs to corroborate this. So, again, if I had had photographic views of the head taken from above, I could have tested, among other matters, the truth of Profes- sor Benedict’s assertion about the abnormally small size of the back of the head in criminals. ;
I have thus far spoken of the characters and physiognomy of well-marked varieties of men: the anthropologist has next to consider the life history of those varieties, and especially their tendency to perpetuate themselves, whether to displace other varieties and to spread, or else to die out. In illustration of this, I will proceed with what appears to be the history of the eriminal class. Its perpetuation by heredity is a question that deserves more careful investigation than it has received, but it 18 On many accounts more difficult to grapple with than it may at first sight appear to be. The vagrant habits of the criminal classes, their illegitimate unions and extreme untruthfulness, are among the difficulties. It is, however, easy to show that the criminal nature tends to be inherited while, on the other hand, it is impossible that women who spend a large portion of the best years of their lives in prison can contribute many chil- dren to the population. The true state of the case appears to be that the criminal population receives steady accessions from classes who, without having strongly marked criminal natures, do nevertheless belong to a type of humanity that is exceed- ingly ill-suited to play a respectable part in our modern civili- zation, though they are well-suited to flourish under half-sav- age conditions, being naturally both healthy and_ prolific. These persons are apt to go to the bad; their daughters consort with criminals and become the parents of criminals. An e traordinary example of this is given by the history of the infa- mous Jukes family in America, whose pedigree has been made out with extraordinary care, during no less than seven genera- tions, and is the subject of an elaborate memoir printed in the
F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 278
thirty-first annual report of the Prison Association of New York, 1876. It includes no less than 540 individuals of Jukes blood, among whom the number of persons who degraded into crim- inality, pauperism, or disease, is frightful to contemplate.
t is difficult to summarize the results in a few plain figures, but I will state those respecting the fifth generation, throug the eldest of the five prolific daughters of the man who is the common ancestor of the race. The total number of these was 103, of whom thirty-eight came through an illegitimate grand- daughter, and eighty-five through legitimate grand-children. Out of the thirty-eight, sixteen have been in jail, six of them for heinous offences, one of these having been committed no less than nine times; eleven others were paupers or led openly disreputable lives ; four were notoriously intemperate; the his- tory of three had not been traced, and only four were known to have done well. The great majority of the women consorted with criminals. As to the eighty-five legitimate descendants, they were less flagrantly bad, for only five of them ha in jail and only thirteen others had been paupers. Now the ancestor of all this mischief, who was born dante the year 1730, is described as having been a hunter and a fisher, a jolly, com- panionable man, averse to steady labor, working hard and idling by turns, and who had numerous illegitimate children, whose issue has not been traced. He was, in fact, a somewhat good specimen of a half-savage, without any seriously criminal instincts. The girls were apparently attractive, marrying early and sometimes not badly; but the gipsy-like character of the race was unsuited to success ina civilized country. So the descendants went to the bad, and the hereditary moral weak- nesses they may have had rose to the surface and worked their mischief without a check. Cohabiting with criminals and being extremely prolific, the result was the production of a stock exceeding 500 in number, of a prevalent criminal ty Through disease and intemperance the breed is now rapidly diminishing; the infant mortality has of late been horrible among them, but fortunately the women of the me genera- tion bear usually but few children, and many of them are alto- gether childless.
his is not the place to go further into details. I have alluded to the Jukes family in order to show what extremely important topics lie open to inquiry in a single branch of an- thropological research, and to stimulate others to follow it out.
here can be no more interesting subject to us than the quality of the stock of our countrymen and of the human race gener- ally, and there can be no more worthy inquiry than that which eads to an explanation of the conditions under which it dete- Tiorates or improves.
Am. Jour, — Vou. XIV, No. 82.—Ocr., 1877.
274 W. EF. Gard—Analyses of Cast Nickel.
Art. XXXVI.—Analyses of Cast Nickel, and en on the combining of Carbon and Silicon with Nicke 1; by WILLIAM K. Garp. Contributions from the Sheffield ‘Laboratory of Yale College. No. L.
NUMEROUS analyses of commercial nickel have been pub- lished, according to which the usual impurities of this product are cobalt, iron, copper, sulphur, arsenic, alumina, alkaline earths and silica, in very varying quantities. In a few cases carbon is report rted.
In text-books of metallurgy it is usually stated that the final step in the process of preparing commercial nickel is to reduce the oxide in the form of lumps or cubes without fusion by means of charcoal. According to Kerl,* the already reduced outside portion of the cube takes up carbon by con- tact and transfers it to the interior. If the reduced metal be allowed to remain in contact with the coal at a high tempera- ture, it takes up more and more carbon. It is also stated in Gmelin’s Handbook of Chemistry. on the authority of Déber- einer, that nickel takes up carbon
The nickel plates now largely used as anodes for nickel
t oxides, as alumina, alkaline earths and silica. The oe analyses show, per that silica may be reduced and retained as silicon, and that a considerable amount of carbon may be nt.
presen
No. L No. I. No, Ii. b- we ee a
n, "530 549 17104 1080 1°900 1°830 Silicon, 303 294 130 “125 255 "268 ron 464 463 "108 110 301 318
Cobalt, 446 438 trace trace Sulphur, 049 05 2 "84 104 = 096 [Nickel], 98°208 987199 98°392 98°345 97°440 977488
———
100°000 100000 100-000 100000 =—100°000 100°000
Carbon was estimated by the method that is generally employed in this labora for its determination in iron, viz: treatment with solution of perfect! neutral normal cupric chloride, or of cupric ammonium 8 te and combustion of the residue after washing on an asbestos filter. The action of
* Handbuch der metallurg. Hiittenkunde, vol. iv, p. 482, 1865. + Vol. v, p. 366, 1851.
W. EF. Gard—Analyses of Cast Nickel. 275
cupric chloride on nickel is extremely slow, two or three weeks being required for the solution of five grams, although crushed fine in a steel mortar. The cupric ammonium chloride is a
than nickel, while the reverse happens with sulphur.
Fzperiments.
It is well known that when oxide of iron is reduced by car- bon at a high temperature in presence of silica, a portion of the latter is simultaneously reduced and combined with the iron. To ascertain the deportment of silicon to nickel under similar conditions, the following experiment was made. quantity of pure nickel oxide was intimately mixed with about
alf its weight of finely pulverized quartz, and enough charcoal powder to effect reduction of both. The mass was made into
Oarbon . 2 2. 86 9°50 Sinton... ae. 6°039 6190
packed in layers with charcoal in a Hessian crucible and exposed to a full red heat twelve hours. Examination of the contents of the crucible showed that no fusion had taken place. The temperature was then raised until complete fusion ensued. The resulting metal was strongly magnetic, quite soft and toa considerable extent malleable. It possessed a specific gravity
of 8-04, and a fracture resembling that of fine-grained grey pig-
276 W. FE. Gard—Analyses of Cast Nickel. iron, scales of graphite being plainly visible. It was found to tain: a b BPDON 66~ x 2°105 2°130
Tot. Graphitic carbon.. 27030 1:990 360
re 3
, thin Sac of electroplate nickel—which a careful nase ertien proved to be free from impurities. No. 2, gerne prepared r re ducing = Oxl by h ydrogen. No. 3,
were then made, the — is weighed each time after
cooling in the current of A portion of the electro-plate
nickel was used for PR after the second exposure, SO
that an amount equal to 5638 grams was present at the last eat.
_ A condensed statement of the result is exhibited in the fol- lowing tables, in which the first column contains the original
Gain in Gain in Gain in &% CO. at
Weights of metals. 3t hours. 4% hours. 6} hours. close. Ni, "8597 0067 0823 [0672] 10°649
2, Mt, 19008 0046 0071 0114 . 5°96
3. Fe, 1°2837 0078 0096 0103 "795 4. Co, 1°2697 0758 1680 1857 12°758
No deposit of carbon could be detected on any part of the apparatus or on the metals at the close of the ape: The iron and nickel No. 2 were eee ae in appeara cobalt was somewhat aera It was as first stad very
rous and spongy ; a part of its seekiges in weight may have
een due to ete carbon. Nickel No. 2 was in the form of coarse compact grains presenting bcs little sur- face. The electro-plate nickel at the end of the operations ha become brittle, and resembled gas carbon in color and luster ; treatment with nitric acid readily dissolved the nickel, leaving a spongy mass of easily combustible carbon. A broken sur-
G. O. Sars—Practical use of Autography. 277
face appeared under the microscope homogeneous, granular, with dull metallic luster. When ground to fine powder with water all settled rapidly and every particle was strongly attracted by the magnet. These properties seem to render it probable that the carbon was all in a combined state.
Art. XXX VITI.—On the practical use of Autography, especially jor Natural History publications. Condensed from a letter to the Christiania paper ‘“‘ Morgenbladet,” 1875, by G. O. Sars, Professor of Zoology at the University of Christiania, Nor- way, and translated by J. LINDAHL.
AUTOGRAPHY is a long-known process by which manuscript, or drawings, made on common paper by means of a peculiar kind of ink, may be transferred to a lithographic stone and then printed. This simple and cheap method has, however, had hitherto a very limited practical use, and almost exclu- sively for the reproduction of original manuscripts, hieroglyphs, or other simple figures, for which types could not be used. In
orway it was introduced in 1878, by Dr. Lieblein, who illus- trated his Egyptological work with some pages of hieroglyphic Inscriptions reproduced in autography. This suggested to me the idea that the same process might answer also for represent- ing simple zoological objects, and thus afford the means of removing one of the great impediments that too often have interfered with a free development of zoology, viz: the heavy 8 seem connected with a production in the usual way—b lithography or copper plate engraving—of illustrations so necessary for all works on descriptive zoology. * * * There are a number of objections to the autographic process hitherto used, and these led me to experiment on the subject. I have been fortunate enough by my experiments to devise an easy method and to prove its extensive practical use, and it gives me pleasure to communicate it to the scientific world, coe that I am doing science an important service. I must ad that the success of my experiments is greatly due to Mr. Fehr’s warm interest and assistance.
The following is a detailed explanation of this improved autographic process. The drawing is done on common paper, not too thick (for instance common letter paper), which, on one side (where the drawing is to be made), has been coated, by means of a sponge, with a thin film of starch. As it is not well for the shading to use quite glossy paper, it is a good way to give it a granulated surface by pressing it against a litho- graphic stone. By using for this purpose stones with more or
278 G. O. Sars— Practical use of Autography.
less smooth surface, the paper will assume any degree of smoothness required, according to the character of the drawing. The next process is to fasten the paper to a sketching board or a piece of pasteboard; the drawing is then made by means of the lithographic crayon. I use a kind of crayon containing copal (‘“erayons copal’) and therefore less brittle than the common kind; and as this kind is also in other respects preferable, it had better always be used for this purpose. It can be obtained in small boxes from Monsieur Lemercier, Rue de Seine, St. Gn., 57, Paris.
The paper must be cut to the size intended for a full plate, and the drawings arranged in the same order as they wil have to appear in the printed plate. The execution is exceed- ingly simple, and any draughtsman will easily acquire the
ill in the work. The method is the same as in
common drawing with lead pencil, or rather crayon. The
_ figures should, however, first be sketched in outline on com- mon paper and then transferred to the prepared paper in the usual manner, by means of transparent paper and plumbago paper, blue paper, or, still better, red paper, the transferring being done with a lead pencil that is not too soft. The details of the figures, the shading and finer structural conditions may be drawn off-hand with the crayon on the prepared paper, after the outline has been transferred. Any correction or change in the drawing can easily be done by erasing with a fine scalpel, taking care only that the starch film be not injured. I have in this way made numerous corrections in my drawings without the slightest injury to the prints. When the plate is finished to satisfaction, it is transferred to a common smooth lithographic stone, in the following simple way. The back of the paper is moistened with water containing a small — of nitric acid; and, after having been put for some time etween moistened soft printing paper, the plate is laid, face downward, on the stone, which then for a moment is put in the press. To make more sure of it the outside of the paper
weak etching, and will then be ready for printing. The whole process of transferring the drawing from the paper to the stone . is simple, but requires practice and great care. This should therefore be left to the charge of a professional lithographer.
It may be thought that the zoologist, by taking on himself the execution of his plates, would have his labor excessively in is, however, is not really so. e drawing must at all events be made by the zoologist in one way or another
G. O. Sars—Practical use of Autography. 279
before the lithographer or engraver can copy them, and it is of no material difference to the former whether he makes them with lead pencil or in the above described manner. The onl difference is that he must himself arrange his figures on the plates, and not, as otherwise is the practice, leave this to the hthographer; and besides, he must draw all the figures that are to go on one plate in as far as possible a continuous sequence. But this increase of labor is of small account com- pared with the great and essential advantages offered by this method, viz:
1. Cheapness.—The expenses of such a plate are reduced simply to the cost of paper and printing, and will be even less than for a page of common printed matter. Thus any zoolo- gist who publishes his researches can illustrate his papers with any number of plates, without meeting the insurmountable obstacle of enormous expense, which too often has rendered illustration of such papers impossible. -
. Correctness.—It avoids the errors that come from the copy- ing of drawings by the engraver.
has seen, and consequently it is generally necessary that the
draughtsman should be a zoologist. : : me modern zoologists have, to save expense, tried to make
their drawings direst on the stone. Such a plate will of
requires unusual practice and a special study of the litho- graphic art, which can be e: very 8
number of zoologists. It is obvious that the same result is ob- tained by the above described method, and in a far easier way.
280 F.. W. Clarke—Todates of Cobalt and Nickel.
Art. XXX VIIT.— On the Lodates of Cobalt and Nickel ; some Spe- cific Gravity determinations; and an Analysis of Sylvanite om Colorado; by F. W. CLARKE, Professor of Physics and Chemistry. Numbers IV, V, and VI, of Laboratory Notes, from the University of Cincinnati.
IV. On the Lodates of Cobalt and Nickel.
Axovt forty years ago Rammelsberg described the iodates of cobalt and nickel.* He dissolved the freshly precipitated carbonates of the metals in an aqueous solution of iodic acid, and, upon concentrating, obtained the salts in the form of crys- talline crusts. To the cobalt salt he assigned a quantity of water of crystallization represented by 14 molecules, while the nickel iodate was found to be monohydrated.
During the winter of 1876-1877 I put one of my laboratory students, Mr. H. B. Fullerton, at work upon the iodates, requir- ing him, among other salts, to prepare the two in question. Rammelsberg’s mode of preparation was followed, and results somewhat different from fie obtained.
hen cobalt carbonate is dissolved in aqueous iodic acid
and the filtered solution evaporated rapidly over a flame, Ram- melsberg’s iodate readily separates out, nearly the whole of the salt being deposited in a very few moments. But when, on the other hand, the solution is allowed to evaporate spontane- ously, small red crystals are formed, having the composition Co his is evidently the normal iodate, since it con- tains the same number of molecules of water as are found in the chlorate, bromate, nitrate, chloride, bromide, iodide, hypo- phosphite, hyposulphite, dithionate, selenate, and numerous other salts. Indeed, a large majority of the known salts not only of cobalt and nickel, but also of zinc and magnesium, crystallize with six molecules of water. So general does this rule appear to be that all exceptions to it ought to receive the most careful scrutiny. Even the sulphates of these metals, &. are well known to be
F. W. Clarke—LIodates of Cobalt and Nickel. 281
21°. Rammelsberg’s salt gave 50275 at 17°, and 4:9885 at 19°. These determinations were made by weighing in benzol with an ordinary specific gravity flask.
The iodate of nickel was prepared in a manner precisely cor- responding to that which yielded the cobalt compound, and separated out in small green crystals resembling in color the nitrate. These also proved to be hexhydrated, and contained, according to Mr. Fullerton’s analysis, 11°15 per cent of nickel. Theory, 11-41. Specific gravity, 8°6954 at 22°. Want of time
water of crystallization, and that they are essentially different from the salts obtained by Rammeisberg.
V. Some Specific Gravity Determinations.
as a rule those of which the density is unknown, and thus he realizes that his work is actually adding something to the data of science. In short, every student is absolutely required to determine some new fact for himself, and to determine it accu- rately. The work is done under my own personal supervision, and a sufficient number of checks are put upon it to render it reliable. The weighings, with a few exceptions, have been made in benzol, as in the case of the iodates already described. In three instances only were the weighings made in water. The figures, however, all refer to water as unity, taken at its temperature of maximum density. . H. B. Fullerton, as I have already stated, was assigned the iodates. In addition to the figures for the cobalt and nickel salts, he obtained the following data.
282 F. W. Clarke—Todates of Cobalt and Nickel.
ear iodate, Bal,O,, ep Ce and carefully dehydrated, 2179 , 51853, 5°2855, a at 18°.
Siver jodate, Agl0,, precipitated, 5°4023, 16°5°. The same salt recryst stallized from ammonia gave 5° 6475, 14:5°,
Lead iodate, PbI,O,, p bay ge a 6°1783, at 19°, and 6°1322, 21°. For this salt Schroder found 6-209. These three iodates were weighed in wate
Ammonium Foie os NH,. io,, small crystals, 3°3085, 21°; and 3°3372,
Mr. Falierton “alls determined the specific gravities of two iodides which had previously been examined by Boédeker. CdI,, in rey beautiful pearly scales, gave 5°9857 at 12°, and 59738 at 13°5°. Bodeker’s figure is s 4576 at 10°, making the salt oe than either of the elements contained in it. This © fact of itself would tend to throw suspicion upon Bédeker’s results.
Bismuth iodide, Bil,, gave Mr. Fullerton 5-9225 at 16°, and 58813 at 175°. Bédeker found 5°652 at 10°. Here again I regard Mr. Fullerton’s figures as the more anos rthy.
he ae double and compound cyanides were deter- mined by . peace potassium tenia: K NAO, H,O; 1°875, 11°; and 1°871,
Potassium pacaeeuce, K ge Oe 3H,0, slightly moist, 2 Lig 13°, and 2°4548 The disc repancy between the tw ticgeice aig ns 19 the moisture which could not ae
yeaa um ee ide, NH .CyS, 1299 and 1°316 at 13°. Potassio-chromic sulphocyanide, K,CrCy,,8,,, 8H,O, 1°7051, 17°5°; 17107, 16°. Potasio-patni sulphocyanide, K,PtCy,S,, 2-370, 19°, and 2°342, Sodium nitroprusside, 1°6869, 25°. Schréder found 1-710 and 1-716 for this salt. Four nitrates were determined by Mr. H. Laws. NiN,O,, 6H,O, gave 2-065, 14°, and 2-037, 22°. n A CdN,0,, 4H,0, gave 2°450, 14°, and 2-460, 20°.
BiN,O,, 5H 0, well crystallized, gave 2°823 at 13°.
This salt has also been determined by Playfair 08 goa. who found 2°736. Their method of working, nome was less reliable than that with the specific gravity bot
The bromates were taken up by Miss E. D. a with the following results.
KBrO,, 3°323 at 19°. Kremers found 3°271, and Topsoé 3-218. The agreement is tolerable,
AgBrO,, 5°1983, 16°, and 5°2153, 18°.
BaBr,O,, carefully dehydrated, 40395, 17°, 3°9918, 18°.
F. W. Clarke—lIodates of Cobalt and Nickel. 283
Hyposulphites, measured by Mr. L. T. Richardson.
CaS,0,, 6H,O, in fine crystals, 1°8715, 13°5°, and 1°8728, 16°. SrS Kn Be 6H, O, in good crystals, 21566, 2°1991, both at 17° BaS, ey 0, ’ precipitated, 3°4461, 16° and 3° 4486, 18°.
Mr. Ri chardson also made a determination for potassium sul- phate, getting 2°653, 18°. This agrees closely with Petters- son’s figure, 2°66.
Tungstates, examined by Mr. J. L. Davis. The sodium salt was a commercial product, and was therefore first analyzed to be certain of its character. The nickel and barium salts were eam by the well-known method of fusion.
a,WO,, 4°1743, 20°5°, and 471833, 18°5°. Ne Wo. , 2H,0, i "2588, 175°, and 3°2314, 19°.
BaWo,, 0035, 13°5°, and 50422, 15°. NiWwo? . 8846, 20° 5°, and 6°8522, 22°.
Molyhdates prepared and determined by Mr. F. O. Marsh. BaMoO,, 4°6589,17°5°, and 4°6483, 19°5°.
SrMo,, "4: 1554, 20°5°, and 4°1348, 21°.
Mr. C. A. ss ae worked upon phosphates and hypophos- phites, as follow Barium iia er ee BaP,H,0,, H,O, 2:8718, 10°, and 2-8971,
se es Magnesium 5 buat MgP.H,0,, 6H,O, 1°5886, 12°5°, and 15681, Sodium metaphosphate NaPO,, ee by igniting microcos- mic salt, 24756, 19°5°, and 2°4769 Potassium metaphosphate, KPO, babel by pigee f the mono- potassium ortho-salt, 2°2639, ‘and 2°2513, both at 1
No other hypophosphites or metaphosphates have as - had their densities determined. amevaneg orthophosphate, anhydrous, Na,PO,,2°5111, 12°; 2°5362,
Sodium, p pC Re fhe 10H,O, 1°7726, 21°. Playfair ngs e found 1 The same salt, dehydrated by ignition, 2°3851 and 2:3618, 17°. Schréder’s determination makes the salt 2584, a widely different figure. The following series of chromates was prepared and exam- ined by Miss E. O. Abbot. sagas chromate, MgCrO,, 7H,0, finely crystallized, 1°7613 at 16°. For this salt Bodeker found 1 -75,and Kopp 1°66. The higher result is more probable. In her work on this com- pound Miss Abbot also determined another important fact, namely that, like the corresponding sulphate, magnesium
284 F. W. Clarke—TIodates of Cobalt and Nickel.
chromate loses six molecules of water readily, holding the seventh with much greater firmness. Heated to 130° the salt
more water, but not the whole, is expelled, the compound at the same time undergoing partial decomposition. The den- sity of MgCrO,, H,O, was found to be 2°2886 and 22301, at
Ammonium chromate, (NH,),CrO,, crystallized, 1:9138 and 1°9203, 12°. Schréder makes it 1-860 to 1°871. Ammonium dichromate, (NH,),Cr,O,, 2°1223, 16°, and 2°1805, 17°.
99
at 20°, a figure probably much too low. The difficulty in dealing with this body arises from the extreme instability of
Ammonium-magnesium chromate, (NH,),Mg(CrO,),, 6H,O, well crystallized, 1°8278 and 1°8595 at 16°. Also 1°8293 at 17°.
and 2°5966, 19°5°. Schréder er 2°592 to 2°608, a close agreement. _ These chromate determinations fill up some important gaps in this series of salts, and help us to arrive at some interesting conclusions. Pettersson has lately shown that selenates have molecular volumes exceeding those of the corresponding sul- phates by 6 for each molecule of the acid radicle. Thus, the molecular volume of sodium selenate is that of the sulphate plus 6; that of a selenic alum exceeds that of the correspond- ing sulphuric alum by four times 6, and soon. Upon compar- ing these and other chromates with Pettersson’s selenates we now find that the two series of salts have approximately equal molecular volumes; the difference, if any exists, being very slightly plus for the selenates. If regularities of this kind can be thoroughly established, it will be easy, having the density of a chromate, to calculate that of the corresponding sulphate or selenate, and vice-versa. This connection between chromates and selenates has already been suggested by Schréder, and Miss Abbot's figures do much towards confirming it. Miss Abbot has also redetermined the density of chromic chloride, CraCls, on a beautifully characterized specimen. She finds 2°3572, 175°, and 238766, 165°. Schafarik’s figure for the substance
F. W. Clarke—Jodates of Cobalt and Nickel. 285
“i 3°03, I redetermined it again in person, and got 2°349 at My result thus confirms those of Miss bbot, and the sicities is raised whether this ener he may not exist in more than one modification as regards density. ee féflowing series of pyrophosphates was worked up by . Lewis. They were prepared by igniting the double realise ee
Mg.P,O., 2°598, 299, and 2° 559, 18°, eohupidee found 2°22, 3°.
‘dias of the corresponding aj feheiies were prepared by Miss Helena Stallo, as follow Mn,As,0., 3°6832 and 3°6927, 298 Also 3°6625, 25°. Zn /As,O 4°7034 and 4°6989, Mg, As,0., 3°7305, 15°, and 8 eis: ys ha Miss Stallo also dletahniiied the ae trisodium ortho- arsenate, getting ,2°8128 and 2°8577, The following compounds, srceety various series, may be regarded as scattering. —— sulphate, GISO,, 4H,O, 1°6743, 22°, Miss Stallo. Top- oé found for this salt, 1725. The sample Miss Stallo easier with was slightly damp, which will account for the
difference. Potassio-chromic oxalate, CrK,0,0,,,3H,O; 271039, 23°, and ’ tte ae Bisho
Ae?
Stannous chloride, SnCl,, oF O, 2°634, 24°, E. P. head The published figure obtained by Penny was 2°71,
Cupro-mercuric iodide, HgI,. Cul, 6°1602, 15°, mt 6° 1412, 18°, A eighway.
Mercurie chloride with ammonium dichromate, HgCl,.Am,Cr,0.,
O, in large crystals, 32336, 21°, and 3-1850, 18°, A. E
20)
eighway. Mercuric nee eh Hg(C,H,0,),, 3°2544, 22°, and 3-2861, 23°, John Hagem
This inlets the list of determinations thus = made by my students. Sixty-three compounds are here given, forty-six among them not having been measured before. In concluding, I will give a few determinations of my own.
Potassium iodate, KIO,. There are two published values for this t, namely, 3° 979, Kremers, and 2°601, Ditte. Th ary from each other so widely that I thought it worth while to detente eo salt, and I obtained the figure 3°802, 18°.
This confirms mers. Tellurium dioxide, TeO,, 5°7559, 12°5°, and 5°7841, 14°. Schafa- rik found 5-93.
286 7. OC. Sloane—Analysis of Bituminous Coal.
Tellurium trioxide, re, ei 14°5°; 50794, 10°5°. Another ample gave 5: 111
Barium tellurate, BaTed, “fecbly ignited, 4°5486, 10°5°; 4°5305, o°. Another sample gave 4°4811, 16°. This salt, ‘like the
VI. An Analysis of Sylvanite from Colorado.
Having had occasion lately to analyze a sylvanite from the Grand View Mine, Colorado, I publish the result here, not because it contains an ything novel, but because it seems to be desirable that such material should be preserved for future reference and discussion. The ore from this mine has, I believe, not been carefully analyzed before. The specimen was imbed- ded in quartz, associated with a ie iron pyrites, and had all the usual characteristics of sylvan
The analysis came out as ‘sliowe’ after eliminating a little gangue.
Tellurium See i eae Old... J eee 2 eae Silver BP LEG Hligeos? y 4. ES Ma GR Ledger his" 10°55 TOR Oe a a ey Salphur .. ...<:- 5°62 99°97
The sulphur was not estimated directly, but was calculated as pyrites to correspond with the amount of iron found. Elim- inating the pyrites the ge will stand thus.
Peuuram — 207 co ...-58°91 RG a Foe 29°35 ee ee. 2a
100-00
This sylvanite wy ey given me by Professor E. S. Wayne, of Cincinna
Art. XXXIX.—WNotes on the Analysis o. oe Ooal; by T. O’Conor Stoang, A.M., aD.
THE determination of ash in coal appears a very sl imple matter; yet I have on several occasions found much difficulty in reaching a accurate results. I traced the error finally to Seiesfeint pulverization of the coal.
A sample of coal was reduced to powder and passed through a fine wire sieve, number sixty, or eighty, mesh. I made a
T. OC. Sloane—Analysis of Bituminous Coal. 287
number of determinations of ash, using different weights of the coal, and got the following widely discordant results: a. From 3 grams, 6°66 p.c.; 5. 12 grams, 3°72 p.c¢.; ¢ 1 gram, 4°67 p. c.; d. 2 grams, 4°40 p. c.; e. 12 grams, 2°63 p. ¢. I then took all that was left of the pulverized coal, spread it out upon a piece of glazed cloth, and divided it into two parts, each of about the same weight. I did this with the usual pre- cautions adopted in sampling, so that the coal in each half would be exactly the same. One of these parts was ignited and incinerated. Its weight was 23-9665 grams. The ash weighed ‘9920 grams, or determination f 24 grams nearly, ‘14 per cent. The other portion was powdered in a porcelain mortar until of a full brown color. The ash was deter- mined in one gram of it, giving 3°90 per cent, e. 1 gram, 3°90 per cent.
I have since this investigation subjected any coal I was about to analyze to a fine powdering in a porcelain mortar. I am of opinion that it would be well to prolong the operation in an agate mortar, but the process is too tedious. ou coal be reduced to a brown powder, it is still quite difficult to obtain good duplicate results. I give below some instances:
i 2 Coal Aiscuc cess 4°50 p. ¢ 4°00 p. ¢ ote ate ses "25 5°12 Wise uses 13°86 14°10
D
The ash I generally determine 'in one gram of the coal. If the crucible, in which the incineration is taking place be supported on the triangle in an inclined position, and if the lid be so placed as to direct the exterior zone of the flame into it, the operation will be greatly abridged. By looking into the erucible while over the burner it can be seen when the right position has been reached. The cake of coke will appear bright, or ignited, on the surface. From time to time it may be rubbed, or broken up if possible, with a platinum wire. Before incineration the sample should be ignited in the same crucible with the cover on.
‘The sulphur may be conveniently determined by fusion with the salt flux (Fresenius, Vacher’s Ed., p. 127). One gram of the coal is fused with a mixture of NaCl 24 grams, NaNO,
288 T.O'C. Sloane—Anaiysis of Bituminous Coal.
it exacts more attention and trouble. The salt fusion, in two comparative determinations that I made, gave higher results on the same coal,
Salt Fusion. Deflagration. 2 US sae cane 1°70 p. ¢. 1°37 p. ©. S| eS ae 1°92 1°69 The specific gravity cannot be satisfactorily determined with- out the specific gravity bottle. y weighing lumps in air
and in water all sorts of results will be obtained. I break up a sample in an iron mortar and pass it through a No. 4 or 6 sieve. I then shake it up in a finer, No. 15 or 20, sieve, so as to free it from the dust and fine particles. This seems a bad practice yet cannot well be avoided. The finely divided coal, if left in with the rest, will float on the surface of the water used in determining its specific gravity, and no amount of boiling will make it sink.
e coal thus prepared I place in a small beaker with some distilled water, and boil it. I then put the coal and water into the specific gravity flask, fill up with recently boiled distilled water, and cool it to about the temperature of the room. The last cooling is done in a beaker of water which is stirred once or twice, during the cooling, to make the water of uniform temperature. When the bottle and contents have attained this temperature, the bottle is carefully filled, the stopper put in, and the whole dried and weighed. The coal is then thrown out, the bottle filled with recently boiled distilled water, brought to the same temperature as before, and weighed. This careful reduction to one temperature is very important; by paying attention to it very close duplicates can be obtained.
The specific gravity of coal varies with the percentage of ash ; yet the correspondence is not so perfect as to make the determination of the specific gravity a substitute for that of the latter constituent. As the degree of correspondence is a
"some interest, I give below a number of parallel determinations of ash and specific gravity.
Specific gra Ash. SS) ¢ gravity. fi Sere 4°02 p. POCT. ce. 7°23 p. ¢ 1300 22... 15406 108 cs 1°286 222°. 24°14 Pose [sles 10°38 11206 2. see 4°68 Sy Gee ee 13°98 1906.25, 65,818 en eee es 16°22 190420354. 5°78
Tracing Cloth instead of Glazed Paper. For the purposes of sampling and pulverizing minerals, coals, fertilizers, &c., for analysis, glazed paper is generally
G. B. Goode— Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes, etc. 289
employed. This soon wears out. I have so ei Raa oy draughtsman’s tracing cloth in its place. This s indefi- nitely, is just as smooth, and is much to be Biaitintago for these purposes. In the assay laboratory, paper, bese — mix- ing the weighed ores with the fluxes, soon wears o Here, also, I would suggest the use of tracing clot
Sabkitaddey N. Y. Gas Light Co., New York, August, 1871.
Art. XL.—A Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas, with descriptions of four species of Fishes believed to be new ; by G. BRowN GOODE.
In a previous paper* I ih Sed seventy-four species of fishes collected in the Bermudas in 1872. ‘Another visit to these islands pune the past winter ho enabled me, with the codperation of Mr. J. Matthew Jones, who kindly allowed me the use of his collections and note books, to increase the num-
ber to one hundred and sixty-three. these one hundred and forty-eight have been sufficiently studied to enable me to give their names in this preliminary list. ope at an early
day to discuss the fishes of the Bermudas in a more extended paper. Since there is a peculiar interest in the chorological relations of the members of an insular fauna, I have in a gen- ral way designated the distribution of each species by the use of letters. W. indicates the West Indian province, U. the east- ern coast of the United States north of Georgia, E. the Eastern Atlantic, including Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Med- iterranean, and P. the Indo-Pacific waters. These however do not show faunal relations opp oa since in this way it is impossible to distinguish those species which are resident in any particular eee from mere stragglers. Those species which are pecu - to Bermuda are marked ‘“ B.” and are eight in number; tw ce these, with Carassius auratus, introduced, occupy the ined locked brackish marshes. Two species, Huci- nostomus Lefroyi and Haliperca phoebe, occur only in Bermuda and Cuba. The Bermudian fauna shares with the West Indies
ing number of others have their centers of distribution in that tegion, individuals having made their way in summer to the
* Catalogue of the Fishes of the Bermudas, based chiefly upon the collections
of the United ted States National Museum. By G. Brown Goode, Assistant ae v8. National Museum. (Bull etin U. S. Nat, Mus., No. 5.) Washington: Go ernment Printing Office. 82 pp. 8vo. 1876.
Am, Jour. shatitcngas Serigs, Vou. XIV, No. 82.—Ocr., 1877.
290 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,
coasts of the United States or Europe. With the eastern United
occur in the islands adjoining the coast . agate — the waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, it has ommon thirty-two species. Should Otyphidodon Sorelle Solnuder prove identical with @. pe another species will be added to this list.
The panel. are the numbers of species common to two or more faunas, the ae having significations as explained sheet W. Us ; B. W. E., 36; ee B. P. E, fae i B.W.U.P, 87 BW. : B.W.EP,,
The reps, ss: il re observed, are all pelagic except the lizard, which is peculiar to Bermu ida and most closely related to the West African species of the genus.
CATALOGUE. Class, REPTILIA. Order, Lacertilia. Eumeces longirostris Cope. Tidak.
Seed lh ow Rond. Leather Back Turtle.
assochelys dace aL. Loggerhead Turtle. Eretmochelys fonbihonsn L. Hawksbill Turtle. Chelonia mydas Schw. Green Turtle
Pterophryne @ picta (Val.) Goode. te Devl aaa W. * Pterophryne principis ( eee aS Orthagoriscus mola (L.) a “oe Fish. P, E. W. U. Paradiodon hystrix (Z.) Bikr. Sea Hedgehog. P. E. W. j a Cuv. P.W. veins reticul _ ae) Bibron. Sea Porcupine. E. W. Chilichthys arene! (Gioot Goode. ae ah E. W. acium quadri Cow E. W.
Baliste Gm. bot. P. BE. W.U Balistes vetula Z. Blue Turbot. W. U. atu
Canthorhinus setifer Benn. var. beta. P. E. ce U. Alutarius scriptus (Osbeck) Blkr. P. E. vw Ceratacanthus aurantiacus (Mitch.) Gil. B. U.
Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 291
r, Lophobranchii.
Hippocampus antiquorum bok a age P. E. Hippocampus guttulatus Cw :: Sea Hi Syngnathus Jonesii Gthr.
ae Hemibranchit. Centriscus scolopax L. KE. Fistularia serrata Cur. P. U. B Aulostoma maculatum Val. Trumpet Fish. W.
Order, Teleocephait.
Rhomboidichthys —— mi thr. Plaice. W. Rhomboidic riage ppg — Ww. Temi ) Gt
Hemirhombus per cn Cae) ) Gtr. Ww. Lefroyia bermudensis Jones.
rotula barbata pe Cur. W. Fodletsinatned — fish.
Blennius crinitus = 7 W.
Blennius (species determined).
Blennius (species undetermined).
Blennius (species undeterm
Labrosomus nuchipinnis (Q. & G.) Gu. E.W.U. Salarias texilis 9 & G. W.
Gobius soporator C. @ V. Molly Miller.
ot ak taal
earus Catesbyi ‘ Pseudoscarus vetula (Schn.) Gill. Blumber. W. Pseudoscarus a (C. & V.) Guich. Rainbow. W. Pseudoscarus coeruleus (2B wad yoke ams ec WwW. seudoscarus croicensis (Bloc seudoscarus psittacus (Z.) at. orator Fish. W.
Poey
bifasciatus (Bloch) Gth d aig nitidissima Goode, (ne “e pecies) 5 eS
1 peatntee M. hidodon saxatilis ZL. Cow Pilot; ; Sergeant 3 Major. E. W. U. 0.
canthurus nigricans (Z.) Gill. Doctor Fish. W. U. erotarodun er aren 06 (2 loch) Pee Four-eyed. Fish. W.
ilo ciliaris iL ‘ pon An ngel Fish. W. U. {olacanthus tricolor (Bloch) Lamp, Black Angel ‘Fish, W. — gladius Z. Sword Fish. E. W. U.
Thyrsites prometheus (C. & V.) Gthr. Cat Fish. Orcynus pment yo. :) Gil Mackerel. E. P. W. U.
{7m P ep a 4 2
ei ) ir. pterus —— ape e ype Hound ig hurops crumenophthalmus (Bloch ee 'P. W.U.
carangu : Carangus dentex (Bloch) C. & V. Trachynotus ovatus (L.) Gthr. ‘Alewiier P. K. W. U.
292 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,
Trachynotus goreensis C. & V. E. W. Naucrates ductor L. Pilot Fis sh. E.P. W.U. Zonichthys fasciatus (Bloch) Sw. Bonito. U. Seriola Dumerilii Risso. Bonito. Corypheena — (Z.) Risso. Dolphin. KE. Nomeus Gronovii (Gmel.) Gthr. P. Centrolophus (epecies undetermined). E.
ra
yi
Malacanthus Plumieri (Bloch) C. &. V. Whiting. W.
Mulloides flavovittatus (Poey) Gthr. Goat Fish. W. ypeneus maculatus (Bloch) Cuv. Goat Fish W. U.
Holocent sogo : uirrel. eques acuminatus (Schn.) Gill. Cluck; k Grunt. W. megacephalus (Sw.) Poey. Goat’s Heed Porgy. W.
alamus Samra orbitarius Poey. pa gk Head Eoeey: Pages Bre
le argente ee Lagodon Phomboides, “E) Holbrook Spanish Porgy. U. sored epte siprana ta aie andetermine® ‘Sailor's — Heeition capeuna (Licht. arg White Grunt. W. U. ylum xanthopterum C. x
(&V. Ye mylum macrostoma Gthr. Streaked wee Lutjanus caxis (Schn.) Poey. Gray Snap Lutjanus buccanella (C. & V.). Black- rio Red iii W. Lutjanus aya (Bloch) Gill. Red Snap Lutjanus (species undetermined). Silk Snapper Lutjanus abate undetermined). Schoolm Ocyurus chrysurus (Bloch) rio Bi ade Tail: Yelting. W. Triso sick go “indulosis ag de r. quadratu
=a
ae Rock Fish.
a cates 6 is
var. rub: tus de, Trisotropis guttatus (Schn.) Gill. Red Rock WwW
undetermin: W.
Epinephelus striatus (Bloch) Gill. Hamlet; Grouper. W Epinephelus guttatu 1.)
eace’ punctatus (L.) Poey.
var. tivere , MS. Coney; ition Fish.
talibi MS. Ni Fish.
Petrometopon guttatus (L.) Gill. Serranus (species undetermined). Gra raysby. Serranus i pag Mutton Hamlet.
(species
rea phoebe Poey. Blase ee puella pop Gill. Cataphebe. Rhyp’ us (Schn.) Cuv. Soap Tish. BE. W.U. Choteesranioed { perco
Elacate canadus (r) Gill. Oubby-yew. PEW: Apogon imberbis (Z.) Gthr. Priacanthus macroplithalmis 0d ¥ es Echeneis remora LZ. Suck Fish. P. BE. W. U. Leptecheneis tea tbe —_ Sack F Fish. P. E. WU. Sphyreena spet (He E. Sphyrena picuda Schn. Senne ey ogalorus ga ts (Wai) 6 ¥. Sea Serpent. EY, fugil liza Val. w.
\therina harringtonensis Goode, (ne = ee 8 _ Russ Fry. B. selone bona Boode, ( a ew poms 2. B. selone sc.& v. ge So Gar Fish. ¥._ Te nihamphus Pleii Val. Gar Fish.
exiliens Gmel. Butterfly Fish. WoW. ae bahiensis Ranz. Flying Fish. P. W.
eee Bag
Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 293
Exoccetus Roberti Mi & T. Flying Fi
Exoccetus Rondeletii C. & V. Tong F Pak E. W. Cypselurus furcatus (Mitch.) Weinl. Flying Fish. P. W. U. Fundulus Bermude Gthr. Pond Mullet.
na , Synodus fonaes (L. ) Gill. Snake Fish. U. Trachinocephalus myops (Schn.) Gill. Snake Fish. P. U. Albula conorhynchus Schn. Bone Fish. P. E. W. U. Megalops thrissoides (Schn.) ee Tarpum. W. U. — anchovi W. engula m acrophthalma (Ran,) Geol. i = odie W. Opistonema thrissa (L.) ring. Engraulis choe Mouth: Fry. B. tassius auratus (L.) Blkr. Gold Fish, Order, Apodes. Gres rostrata (Les.) DeKay. ah Eel.
Pes moringa (Cuv.) Goode. Speckl E. W. re haaecauien punctatus ( Cust.) Goode. ey I Yellow ists Maray. P. inni up. Green E
lk. : suru s Poey. Sand Rel. W. Ophichthys triserialis (Kaup.) Gthr. Spotted Sand Eel. P. W. Leptocephalus (species undetermined).
Sub-class, GANOIDEA.
Order, Glaniostomi. Acipenser, sp. Sturgeon.
Sub-class, ELASMOBRANCHII. Order, FP
aie, ‘Ktobatis narinari (Zuphr.) M. & H. Whip Ray. P. W. U. Order, Squali. rine ang sp. boas xx Shark. Sphyrna zygzena (L.) M. & H. Hammer-Head Shark. P. E. W. U. Rolain obscura ( Lvs.) Pad Shark. U.
Mustelus canis ( Mitch.) DeKay. a urse Shark. U. Ging preceleata ele (Gel. H. Curious form in collection of J. M. x ones, genus and species undetermined. Class, LEPTOCARDII. Order, Cirrastomi. Branchiostoma lubricum Costa. P. E. W. U.
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES.
1. Julis nitidissima, sp. n his species agrees in ay particulars with tht pak by Dr. Gunther under the name Julis. niti specimens in the British Museum.*, There per however, various diagnostic characters which it seems desirable aoiee
° Cuisine of Fishes in the British Museum, vol. iv, p. 190, 1862. —
294 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,
will indicate my suspicion that, upon comparison of the speci- mens, the two species may prove to be identical.
The fish is quite small, rarely exceeding three inches in length, and is very abundant among the outer reefs, swimming among the Gorgonias and Plexauras, six or eight fathoms below the surface, a very conspicuous object by reason of its brilliant yellow colors. It is extremely shy and it was only after repeated trials that I succeeded in capturing a single specimen, which took a small hook baited for chubs.
The diagnostic characters which separate Julis nitida from Julis nitidissima appear to consist in (1) the relative proportions of head and body, (2) the relative proportions of pectorals and ventral fins, (8) the number of rows of scales below lateral line, and (4) in the coloration. The latter character is, however, of minor importance, it being quite possible that a faded museum yc of the fish before me might have assumed the colors
escri
Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 295
of the caudal. The posterior blotch is prolonged upon the outer rays of the caudal to the tips forming a crescent shaped gure. Dorsal fin at margin transparent, white, at the base yellow, the intermediate space brownish green, deeper in shade anteriorly, and between the second and fifth ray, forming a blotch, similar to that indicated in the description of Judis nitida. Pectorals transparent. Anal rose color with yellow transparent margin. Ventrals yellow. Caudal, as hitherto described, yellow with exterior lobes brownish green. . Belone Jonesii, sp. nov.
The total length of the specimen selected as a type of the species is eighteen inches (m. 0°60). :
The body is slightly compressed, its greatest height, above the ventrals (m. 0°03) one-twentieth of total length, its greatest Width (m. 0022) about one twenty-eighth of the same. Free portion of tail somewhat depressed, quadrate, its height (m. 0-01) one-third of greatest height of body. Caudal carinz moderate.
Length of head (m. 0°196) contained about three and two- fths times in total length, and about three and one-fourth of length without caudal. Upper surface of head somewhat depressed, striated, with a broad shallow median groove, which expands posteriorly into a wide, somewhat depressed triangular area. Superciliary region sharply striated. :
Length of snout (m. 0°12) equal to length of maxillary (m. 0°12), contained five times in total length, and containing — orbital length of head (m. 0:04) thrice. Length of mandible (m. 0°14) slightly less than distance from snout to nape (m.
296 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,
0157) and ten times the vertical diameter of the eyes (m. 0-014). Lower jaw projects four millimeters beyond the tip of upper jaw. Horizontal diameter of eye (m. 0°019) equal to width of interorbital area (m. 0-019) and to length of opercu- lum (m. 0-019) and about one-eighth of length of head.
Teeth large, sharp, not very close. Maxillary teeth about sixty, the largest three millimeters in length; mandibular teeth about sixty, the largest two millimeters in length. Vo- merine teeth none.
Distances from insertion of dorsal to snout (m. 0433) slightly greater than that of anal (m. 0-481). Length of dorsal (m. 0:097) equal to distance from insertion of dorsal to insertion of ventral. Greatest height of dorsal (m. 0°026) equal to greatest width of head (m. 0-025).
Anterior rays longest, their length (m. 0°03) one-tenth of distance from ventral to snout. Length of last ray (m. 0°013) about one-third of that of anterior rays.
Length of anal (m. 0-085) less than that of dorsal. Posterior rays half the length (m. 0°007) of posterior dorsal ray. Anal fin terminating anteriorly to dorsal at a distance equal to length of first dorsal ray.
median rays (m. 0 012). = Aa orate 9+14:A,14+7:0,5+10—-9+6:P,
IN: 6:
Branchiostegals, 12.
Number of scales in lateral line (estimated), 380.
Coloration :—Above deep green, below silvery white, oper- cles and cheeks silvery white. Anterior rays of dorsal and pectoral fins, with caudal carine blackish.
I take great pleasure in giving to this species the name of my friend Mr. J. Matthew Jones, F.L.S., President of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Sciences, who has for two — been associated with me in the study of the Bermudian auna.
The “ Hound Fish,” as it is called in Bermuda, is a graceful, active species, attains the length of three feet or more. 4 frequents swift tide courses where it preys upon small fishes, particularly the schools of Atherina and Engraulis. It takes the hook well.
Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 297
3. Atherina Harringtonensis, sp. nov.
The length of the specimen selected as type of the species is one and one-half inches (m. 0-055), the measurement being that of a specimen which has been in strong alcohol for four months. From the discrepancy between this measurement and a partial set of measurements taken from a fresh specimen of the same species I infer that the shrinkage in the length of the body has been quite considerable, probably from six to eight millimeters. The proportions given below are taken from the alcoholic spe- cimen, In the study of fresh specimens allowance should be made for discrepancies caused by this shrinkage e propor-
tions of the head do not appear to have been changed by the
The height of body (m. 0-07) is contained in length about esa times (84 in fresh specimen), its width about twice in its eight. ;
Length of head (m. 0-011) about equal to length of caudal peduncle (m. 0-01) and contained five times in total length (52 m fresh specimen).
Diameter of eye (m. 0°004) about one-third the length of head, the length of snout somewhat less than that of post- orbital portion of head, also equal to length of maxillary, and slightly greater than width of inter-orbital area (m. 0-0037). Greatest width of head (m. 0-006) about double the length of snout. Length of mandible (m. 0-:005) about equal to that of post-orbital portion of head. Cleft of mouth quite oblique, maxillary extending to the vertical from anterior margin o orbit. Lower jaw slightly the longer; mouth very protractile ; teeth small, inconspicuous.
Spinous dorsal inserted behind extremity of ventral, at a distance from snout (m. 0°08) greater here than half the length
f body. Anal directly beneath dorsal, their lengths of base (m. 0-007) being equal. Greatest height of anal (m. 0-005) greater than that of dorsal (m. 0-008).
Length of ventral (m. 0:006) two-thirds that of pectoral (m. 0°009) which exceeds three-fourths that of head.
Radial formula:—D. VII, I, 10: A. I, 11
umber of scales in lateral line about forty-five; in trans- verse line about six. _ Coloration :—Greenish white, a narrow silvery band extend- Ing from gill-opening to tail, covering the third row (from above) of scales and the edges of the contiguous rows above and below.
The “Russ Fry” occurs in immense quantities in all the lagoons and protected bays of the Bermudas. The schools “swim near the surface of the water and are preyed upon by all the carnivorous species. They are particularly abundant in the beautiful little lagoon called Harrington Sound.
298 G. B. Goode—Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes, etc.
4. Fundulus rhizophore, sp. nov.
The length of the specimen selected as type is six centi- meters. Height of body at insertion of pectorals (m. 0-015) one-fourth of total length, at ventral (m. 0°009) about one seventh, at base of caudal (m. 00075) one-eighth.
Head much depressed, its length (m. 0-017) contained three and one-eighth in total. Snout broad, obtuse, depressed, its length (m. 0-006) slightly longer than orbital diameter and contained in length of head about three times. Inter-orbital area broad and flat, its width (m. 0°007) less than length of post-orbital portion of head (m. 0°009) and greater than length of operculum (m. 0:006). Diameter of orbit (m. 0-0045) half the length of post-orbital tract.
Origin of dorsal fin equidistant from tip of caudal and ante-
rior margin of snout, and over the eighteenth scale of lateral line. Distance from snout (m. 0-018) three-tenths of total length; extreme height (m. 0-006) one-tenth, and length of base (m. 0-008) two-fifteenths. First anal ray below third dorsal ray; length of base (m. 0:005) one-twelfth of total length. Extreme height (m. 0-011) double length of base, and nearly double the extreme height of dorsal.
Ventral inserted slightly in advance of middle of body (dis- tance from snout. m. 0-029), its length (m. 0°007) equal to width of inter-orbital area.
Pectoral inserted at distance from snout (m. 0°02) equal to one-third of total length; length (m. 0-009) equal to post-orbital length of head.
Length of caudal (m:.0°01) equal to height of anal and about one-sixth of total.
Radial formula :—D. 12: A. 11.
Number of scales in lateral line thirty-five; rows in trans- verse line twelve or thirteen.
Coloration :—Ground color light tawny yellow with about
teen regular transverse bands of greenish brown, each about two scales in width, obscure anteriorly but distinct upon pos- terior half of body.
is little minnow occurs abundantly in Basden Pond, @ brackish marshy body of water at the eastern end of the main island, among the arching roots of the mangrove (Rhizophora mangle). It is known as the “Pond Mullet,” but may more appropriately be called the Mangrove Minnow. ‘The specl- mens described are young males, not in breeding colors.
W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 299
Art. XLI—History of Cavern Faploration in Devonshire, Eng- land; by W. Preneewiy, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Geological Section of the British Association at Plymouth.
Cavern-Exploration in Devonsire. I am not unmindful that there were giants in those days; and no one can deplore more than I do our loss of Buckland and De la Beche, among many others ; nor can I forget the enormoas strides opinion has made since 1841, when, in this Section, Dr. Buckland “ contended — that human remains had never been found under such circum- Stances as to prove their contemporaneous existence with the hyzenas and bears of the caverns,” and added that “tin Kent's ole the Celtic knives * * * * were found in holes dug by art, and which had disturbed the floor of the cave and the bones below it” (Athenwum, 14th Aug., 1841, p. 626). This scep- ticism, however, did the good service of inducing cavern eX- plorers to conduct their researches with an accuracy which should place their results, whatever they might prove to be, amongst the undoubted additions to human knowledge.
_ The principal caverns in South Devon occur in the limestone districts of Plymouth, Yealmpton, Brixham, Torquay, Buck- fastleigh, and Chudleigh ; but as those in the last two localities have yielded nothing of importance to the anthropologist or the paleontologist, they will not be further noticed on this occa- sion. In dealing with the others it seems most simple to follow mainly the order of chronology; that is to say, to commence with the cavern which first caught scientific attention, and, having finished all that the time at my disposal will allow me to say about it, but not before, to proceed to the next, in the order thus defined ; and so on through the series. :
eston Caverns.—When Mr. Whidbey engaged to superin- tend the construction of the Plymouth Breakwater, Sir Ji oseph ks, President of the Royal Society, requested him to
assembled, and have the bones or any other fossil remains that Were met with carefully preserved (see Phil. Trans., 1817, pp.
300 W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.
176-182). This request was cheerfully complied with, and Mr. Whidbey had the pleasure of discovering bone-caves in November, 1816, November, 1820, August and November, 1822, and of sending the remains found in them to the Royal Society.
Cavern was not discovered until 1821. British cave-hunting appears to have been a science of Devonshire birtn.
The Oreston Caverns soon attracted a considerable number of able observers; they were visited in 1822 by Dr. Buckland and Mr, Warburton ; and in a comparatively short time became the theme of a somewhat voluminous literature. Nothing of importance, however, seems to have been met with from 1822 until 1858, when another cavern, containing a large number © bones, was broken into. Unfortunately, there was no one at hand to superintend the exhumation of the specimens; the work was left entirely to the common workmen, and was badly done; many of the remains were dispersed beyond recovery ; the matrix in which they were buried was never adequately examined ; and we are utterly ignorant, and must for ever remain so, as to whether they did or did not contain indications of buman existence. I visited the spot from time to time, an bought up everything to be met with; but other scientific work In another part of the county occupied me too closely to allow more than an occasional visit. The greater part of the speci- mens I secured were lodged in the British Museum, where they seem to have been forgotten, while a few remain in my private collection.
original rock, and overgrown with ” (Phil, Trans., 1822, pp. 171-240). ee ee eee
W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 801
The conclusion I arrived at, after studying so much of the roof of the cavern of 1858 as remained intact, was that Dr. Buckland’s opinion was fully borne out by the facts; that, in short, the Oreston Caverns were Fissure Caverns, not Tunnel
averns.
Thecavern of 1858 was an almost vertical fissure, extending a length of about ninty feet from N.N.E. to S.S.W. menced at about eight feet below the surface of the plateau, continued thence to the base of the cliff, but how much farther was not known, and its ascertained height was about fifty-two feet. It was two feet wide at top, whence it gradually widened to ten feet at bottom. The roof, judging from that part which had not been destroyed, was a mass of limestone-breccia, made up of large angular fragments cemented with carbonate of lime, and requiring to be blasted as much as ordinary limestone. The cavern was completely filled with deposits of various
lar stones, but otherwise perfectly homogeneous, and known to eae much more was undetermined.
€ osseous remains found at Oreston prior to 1858 have
been described by Sir E. Home, Mr. Clift, Dr. Buckland, nee
ig en
hippopotamus, I can only say that I have never met with satis- factory evidence of its occurrence in Devonshire; but the
802 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.
mammoth was certainly found at Oreston in 1858; and, unless I am greatly in error, remains of Rhinoceros tichorhinus were also met with there, and lodged by me in the British Museum. It may be added that the skull and other relics of a hog were exhumed on that occasion, and now belong to my collection. There was nothing to suggest that the cavern had been the home of the hyzena; and whilst I fully accept Dr. Buckland’s opinion that animals had fallen into the open fissures and there
rished, and that the remains had subsequently been washed thence into the lower vaultings (‘‘ Relig. Dil.,” 2d ed., 1834, p. 78), I venture to add that some of the animals may have retired thither to die; a few may have been dragged or pursued there by beasts of prey; whilst rains, such as are not quite unknown in Devonshire in the present day, probably washed in some of the bones of such as died near at hand on the adja- cent plateau. Nothing appears to have been met with sugges- tive of human visits.
Kent's Hole—About a mile due east from Torquay harbor and half a mile north from Torbay there is a small wooded limestone hill, the eastern side of which is, for the uppermost thirty feet, a vertical cliff, having at its base, and fifty-four feet apart, two apertures leading into one and the same vast cavity in the interior of the hill, known as Kent’s Hole or Cavern. These openings are about 200 feet above mean sea-level, and from them the hill slopes rapidly to the valley at its foot, at a level of from sixty to seventy feet below. :
There seems to be neither record nor tradition of the dis- covery of the cavern. Richardson, in the 8th edition of “A Tour through the Island of Great Britain,” published in 1778, speaks of it as “ perhaps the greatest natural curiosity” in the county. Its name occurs on a map dated 1769; it is mentioned in a lease 1659; visitors cut their names and dates on the stalagmite from 1571 down to the present century; judging from numerous objects found on the floor, it was visited by man through medizeval back to pre-Roman times; and, unless the facts exhumed by explorers have been misinterpreted, it was a human home during the era of the mammoth and his contemporaries,
In 1824 Mr. Northmore, of Cleve, near Exeter, was led to make a few diggings in the cavern, and was the first to find fossil bones there. Ie was soon followed by Mr. (now Sir) W. C. Trevelyan, who not only found bones, but had a plate of them engraved. In 1825, the Rev. J. MacKnery, an Irish Roman Catholic priest residing in the family of Mr. Cary, of Tor Abby, Torquay, first visited the cavern, when he, too, found teeth and bones, of which he published a plate. Soon after, be made another visit, accompanied by Dr. Buckland,
W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 308
when he had the good fortune to discover a flint implement ; the first instance, he tells us, of such a relic being noticed in any cavern (see Trans. Devon. Assoc., iii, p. 441). Before the close of 1825, he commenced a series of more or less systematic diggings, and continued them until, and perhaps after, the summer of 1829 (ibid., p. 295). Preparations appear to have been made to publish the results of his labors; a prospectus was issued, numerous plates were lithographed, it was generally believed that the MS. was almost ready, and the only thing needed was a list of subscribers sufficient to justify publication, when, alas! on February 18, 1841, before the printer had received any “copy,” before even the world of science had accepted his anthropological discoveries, before the value of his labors was known to more than a very few, Mr. MacEnery died at Torquay.
After his decease his MS. could not be discovered, and its loss was duly deplored. Nevertheless, it was found after several years, and, having undergone varieties of fortune, became the property of Mr. Vivian, of Torquay, who, having
ublished portions of it in 1859, presented it in 1867 to the
orquay Natural History Society, whose property it still remains. In 1869 I had the pleasure of printing the whole, in the Transactions of the Devonshire Association. _ Whilst Mr. MacEnery was conducting his researches, a few independent diggings, on a less extensive scale, were taken by other gentlemen. The principal of these was Mr. Godwin- Austen, the well-known geologist, whose papers fully bore out all that MacEnery had stated. (See Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., 2d series, vi, 446). In 1846, a sub-committee of the Torquay Natural History Society undertook the careful exploration of very small parts of the cavern, and their report was entirely confirmatory of the statements of their predecessor—that un- doubted flint implements did occur, mixed with the remains of extinct mammals, in the cave-earth, beneath a thick floor of stalagmite. The sceptical position of the authorities in geologi- cal science remained unaffected, however, until 1858, when the discovery and systematic exploration of a comparatively small virgin cavern on Windmill Hin, at Brixham, led to a sudden and complete revolution; for it was seen that whatever were . the facts elsewhere, there had undoubtedly been found at Brix- ham flint implements commingled with remains of the mam- moth and his companions, and in such a way as to render it impossible to doubt that man occupied Devonshire before the extinction of the cave mammals.
Under the feeling that the statements made by MacEnery and his followers respecting Kent’s Hole were perhaps, after all, to be accepted as verities, the British Association, in 1864, ap-
304 W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.
pointed a committee to make a complete, systematic, and accurate exploration of the cavern, in which it was known that very extensive portions remained entirely intact. This com- mittee commenced its labors on March 28, 1865; it has been re-appointed, year after year, with sufficient grants of money, up to the present time; the work has gone on continuously throughout the entire thirteen years; and the result has been, not only acomplete confirmation of Mr. MacHnery’s statements, but the discovery of far older deposits than he suspected— deposits implying great changes of, at least, local geographical conditions; changes in the fauna of the district ; and yielding evidence of men more ancient and far ruder than even those who made the oldest flint tools found in Kent’s Hole prior to the appointment of the committee.
The cavern consists of a series of chambers and passages, which resolve themselves into two main divisions, extending from nearly north to south in parallel lines, but passing into each other near their extremities, and throwing off branches, occasionally of considerable size.
The successive deposits, in descending order, were :—
1st, or uppermost. Fragments and blocks of limestone from an ounce to upwards of 100 tons weight each, which had fallen from the roof from time to time, and were, in some instances, cemented with carbonate of lime.
2d. Beneath and between these blocks lay a dark-colored
and known as the black mould. This occupied the entire eastern division, with the exception of a small chamber in its south- western end only, but was not found in the other, the remoter,
entrances to the cavern. Nothing of the kind has occurred elsewhere.
5th. Immediately under the granular stalagmite and the black band lay a light red clay, containing usually about fifty per cent of small angular fragments of limestone, and somewhat numerous blocks of the same rock as large as those lying 0D the black mould. In this deposit, known as the cave-earth, many of the stones and bones were, at all depths, invested with
W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 305
thin stalagmitic films. The cave-earth was of unknown depth near the entrances, where its base had never been reached ; but in the remoter parts of the cavern it did not usually exceed a foot, and in a few localities it “thinned out” entirely.
6th. Beneath the cave-earth there was usually found a floor of stalagmite having a crystalline texture, and termed on that account the crystalline stalagmite. It was commonly thicker than the granular floor, and in one instance but little short of twelve feet.
the oldest of the cavern deposits. It was composed of sub- angular and rounded pieces of dark-red grit, embedded ina sandy paste of the same color. Small angular fragments of limestone, and investing films of stalagmite, both prevalent in the cave-earth, were extremely rare. Large blocks of lime-
Except in a very few small branches, the bottom of the cavern has nowhere been reached. In the cases in which there was no cave-earth, the granular stalagmite rested immediately on the crystalline ; and where the crystalline stalagmite was not
resent the cave-earth and breccia were in direct contact.
arge isolated masses of the crystalline stalagmite, as well as concreted lumps of the breccia, were occasionally met with in the cave-earth, thus showing that the older deposits had, in por- tions of the cavern, been partially broken up, dislodged, and re-deposited. No instance was met with of the incorporation in a lower bed of fragments derived from an upper one. In short, wherever all the deposits were found in oné and the same vertical section, the order of superposition was clear and invari- able; and elsewhere the succession, though defective, was never transgressed.
Excepting the overlying blocks of limestone, of course, all the deposits contained remains of animals, which, however,
called the Ovine bed, the remains of sheep being restricted to it. In it were also found numerous flint flakes and “ strike-lights,” stone spindle-whorls, fragments of curvilineal pieces of slate, amber beads, bone tools, including awls, chisels and combs ; bronze articles, such as rings, a fibula, a i a spear-head, a socketed celt, and a pin; pieces of smelted copper, and a great Am, Jour, sia eons VoL. XIV, No. 82.—OctT,, 1877. :
306 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.
number and variety of potsherds, including fragments of Samian ware The e granular stalagmite, black band, and cave-earth, taken together as belonging to one and the ‘same biological period, may be termed the Hycnine beds, the cave hyena p09 8 5a most prevalent species, and four id in them alone. So f they have been identified, the remains belong to ss cave yena, Hquus caballus, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, gigantic Trish deer, Bos primigenius, Bison priscus, red deer, mammoth, badger,
Sewekes made from flakes, not nodules, of ie and chert; flint flakes, chips, and ‘cores ;” ‘‘ whetstones, “ hammer-stone,” “dead” shells of Pecten, bits of charcoal, Mi bone tools, includ- ing a needle or bodkin ‘having a well-forme eye, a pin, an awl, three harpoons, m4 a perforated tooth of badger. The artificial objects, of both bone and yroty were found at all depths in each of the ieenstie beds, but were much more numerous below the stalagmite than in i
The relics found in the crystalline stalagmite and the breccia, in some places extremely abundant, were almost exclusively those of bear, the only oo being a very few remains 0 cave line and fox. Hence these have been termed the Ursine beds. It will be remembered ‘that teeth and bones of bear were
ene N. NE., sient ‘the top of the lofty cliff pape the northern boundary of the beautiful Ansty’s Cove, Torquay, there is a cavern -where, simultaneously with those in Kent’s Cavern, Mr. MacEnery conducted some researches, of which he has left a lee account (see Trans. Devon. ape vi, Pp:
. bear, Ps hysena i coprolites, a few marine and land shells, one white aig tool with fragments of others, a Roman coin, and potshe
W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 807
In a letter to Sir W. C. Trevelyan, dated December 16th, 1825, Dr. Buckland states that Mr. MacEnery had found in this cave “ bones of all sorts of beasts, and also flint knives and Roman coins; in short, an open-mouthed cave, which has been inkabited by animals of all kinds, quadruped and biped, in all successive generations, and who have all deposited their exuvize one upon another” (ibid., p. 69).
Yealm-Bridge Cavern.—About the year 1882 the workmen broke into a bone-cavern in Yealm-Bridge Quarry, about one mile from the village of Yealmpton, and eight miles E.S.E. from Plymouth ; and through their operations it was so nearly destroyed that but a small arm of it remained in 1835, when it was visited by Mr. J. C. Bellamy, who at once wrote an account of it, from which it appears that, so far as he could learn, the cavern was about thirty feet below the original limestone sur- face, and was filled tu from one foot to six feet of the roof (see ‘Nat. Hist. S. Devon.,” 1889, pp. 86-105). In the same year, but subsequently, it was examined by Capt. (afterwards Col.) Mudge, who states that there were originally three openings into the cave, each about twelve feet above the river Yealm; that the deposits were, in descending order :—
1. Loam with bones and stones ._-.-.-... 3°5 feet. 2: Stiff whitish olay: 2205 oi -avee.ek. aac 2h. :# 8. Bam cs ad. eee el oes tees pe oa: * 4. Red clay-.--- bp inne OD oe 6. Argillaceous sand... <...-...-.-- 6to180 “
and that, where they did not reach the roof, the deposits were covered with stalagmite. On the authority of Mr. Clift and Prof. Owen, Capt. Mudge mentions relics of elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, sheep, hysena, og, wolf, fox, bear, hare and water-vole. The bones, and especially the teeth, of the hysena exceeded in number those of all the other animals, though remains of horse and ox were very abundant. Mr. Bellamy, whilst also mentioning all the foregoing forms, with the exception of dog only, adds deer, pig, glutton, weasel and mouse. He also speaks of the abundance of bones and teeth of hysena, but seems to regard the fox as being almost as fully represented; and next in order he places horse, deer, sheep, and rabbit or hare; whilst the relics of ele- phant, wolf, bear, pig and glutton are spoken of as _ rare. Phe bones, he says, were found in the uppermost bed only. They were frequently mere fragments and splinters, some being undoubtedly gnawed, and all had become very adherent through oss of their animal matter. Those of cylindrical form were without their extremities ; there was no approach to anatomical juxtaposition ; and the remains belonged to individuals of all
308 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.
between the town of Brixham and Berry Head, and about half a mile from each, there is a cavern known as the Ash-Hole. It was partially explored, probably about, or soon after, the time acEnery was engaged in Kent’s Hole, by the late Rev. H. F. Lyte, who, unfortunately, does not appear to have left any account of the results. The earliest mention of this cavern ave been able to find is a very brief one in Bellamy’s ‘Natural History of South Devon,” published in 1839 (p. 14). During the Plymouth Meeting in 1841, Mr. George Bartlett, a native of Brixham, who assisted Mr. Lyte, described to this Section the objects of interest the Ash-Hole had yielded (see Report Brit. Assoc. 1851, Trans. Sections, p. 61). So far as was then known the cave was thirty yards long and six yards broad. Below a recent accumulation, four feet deep, of loam and earth, with land and marine shells, bones of the domestic fowl and of man, pottery, and various implements, lay a true cave-earth, abounding in the remains of elephant. Prof. Owen. who identified, from this lower bed, relics of badger, polecat, stoat, water-vole, rabbit and reindeer, remarks, that for the first good evidence of the reindeer in this island he had been indebted to Mr. Bartlett, who stated that the remains were found in this cavern (see “ Brit. Foss. Mam.” 1846, pp. 109-110, 113-114, 116, 204, 212, 479-480). I have made numerous visits to the spot, which, when Mr. Lyte began his diggings, must have been a shaft-like fissure, accessible from the top only. A lateral opening, however, has been quarried into it: there 1s a narrow tunnel extending westward, in which the deposit is covered with a thick sheet of stalagmite, and where one 1s tempted to believe that a few weeks’ labor might be well invested, (To be continued.)
Chemistry and Physics. 809
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I, CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.
cat Hofmann, of making fhe tau un reduced pressure. For this purpose the neck of the balloon, which is made
serves as a receiv er, and then t through this with a Bunsen pump furnished with a manom waist to indicate the residual tension. After the substance—about one gram—is introduced into the bal- loon, and this is lowered into a bath and connected to the pump, an exhaustion of 500 or 600 millimeters is effected, the cock to the pump is closed and the heating is proceeded with, a tempera- ture mene than that at which the substance boils, never ae
for the reduction of sake —Liebig’s Ann., clxxxvii, 341, June 1877. F.
2. On the action of Phosphoric chloride on Tungstic ‘ovide.— Trev has proved that the sole products of the action of tungstic oxide upon phosphoric chloride are phosphoryl! chloride and tung- stic chloride (tungsten hexachloride ) Equivalent weights—three molecules PCl, and one of WO,—of the pure substances were sealed in glass tubes, well sbakelt. and peste) in a paraftin bath to for six or eight t hours. One , brilliant metallic
D i traces of PO Cl, were des pinived and the crystals obtained pure, For quantitative analysis, a weighed quantity was heated to 100° in a sealed tube with water and nitric acid, and the chlo- Tine determined as usual. The result showed the "crystals to be
be obt ained of | ge an es size. ‘The crystals are inne, and fuse at 189° is given b the Geen
310 Scientific Intelligence.
3. On the production of Tartronie from Pyruvic acid.—Gri-
solved in two or three times its weight of water, and barium poh gradually added, the temperature being kept at 30° to
0° white precipitate soon formed, which, decomposed by sul- aie ce acid, yielded a crystallized acid, very soluble in water and alcohol, fusing about 142°, and yielding the above formula on analysis. The author thinks that the mesoxalic aldehyde-acid CHO—CO— COOH is first formed, but that this body being at the same time an aldehyde and an acetone, is oxidized on its alde- hydic side and reduced on its acetonic. Hence it is hydrated and gives COOH —CHOH—COOK, which is tartronic acid. The reac-
HBr, COOH
ion & POO) HORA H
analogous to the transformation of rblehionecelee into lactic acid. — Bull. Soe. Ch., U1, xxvii, 440, May, 1877.
4. Ona Hexyl Chloral,—Prsn er has subjected to a more care- ful examination an oily body “ high boiling point, first observed by him nearly two years ago n the distillation of crude butyl chloral. From a kilogram of this oil from the factory of ce 20
yields trichloreapronic wn C,H,Cl,0,. Reducing agents, such as zinc powder, reduc this ‘acid to hexylenic acid C,H, which crystallizes etn ether in brilliant white needles, fases at 39°, is almost insoluble in water, and does not appear to be iden- tical with any of the three known acids having the no oma cal formula.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 1052, +h
B.
with that of rosaniline hydrochlorat Conversion into Hof-
mann’s Violet, aniline green and aniline blue still farther confirmed
it identity. The reaction is given as follows:—C,,Hy4 NH;),.= Onn GE: O),. The authors regard aurin and
Chemistry and Physics. 311 rosolic acid as identical— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, sie June, 1877. P
6. On Hematin.—CazEnEvve has prepared beinaiin nde ined its properties. For its areionaee defibrinated ides: ose treated with twice its volume of commercial ether, allowed to stand twenty-four hours, ie ether Heneneene from the clot, and this clot exhausted by the ether containing now two per cent of oxalic acid. The etherial solution, colored a sone ehiee by the hematin, was exactly saturate by ethe ae with ammonia gas, and the precipitated hematin was collected, washed with water, alcohol and ether and then ae e product is pure
ematin. In presence of alcohol and ether, it combines readily with Freire. Wise eect and hydri riodic nie, giving crys- tallized compounds. On analysis, it afforded 6 18 per cent of
es dichroic; and the hematin ae into two sutaiaeres (A) an e first is obtained ure by the dialysis of the solu- tion till it is no Ongar acid. It exists as suspended flocks, the
gives a one-banded spectrum, in alkalies, a four-ban Bull. Soc, Ch., UW, xxvii, 485, June, 1877 F. B. Shee On the Nature of what is commonly termed a“ Va acuum ;”
is commonly termed a ‘ Vacuum,’ ” might perhaps suppose with him that the subject is one which had not been previously noticed, and conclude that we are as yet without an explanation of “‘ Crookes’s force,” in which the vast multitude a he gaseous molecules that are present has been taken into acco
e subject is one which cannot, I should think, _ been over- looked by any real student of the ‘molecular theory 0 of gases; and in particular your readers ie a it ‘oe sree . a paper that I presented ten years ago t al we 5 pede hil. Mag. [1V], vol. xxxvi, p. 141):—“ It is peo ee le that there are
312 Scientific Intelligence.
not fewer than something like a unit-eighteen of molecules” [i. e. 1,000000,000000,000000] “in each rie creeper ~ a gas at ess H
177 ate 305, I phe an obiaateien of the daeiahndcieasll aioe within Crookes’s radiometers based upon this very 2 seem ent ee see in oe page 17 8, where co following words r:—“I
what we know of the number of molecules in gases at ordina
pipers that the number remaining in this so-called vacuum will be somewhere about a a i. e. one hundred millions of millions, in every cubic millimeter.” After which I quote, in
besa was new ‘to mself, and had been overlooked a some of the writers upon Gisokeas radiometer.— Phil. Mag., Sept. 1877,
8. Note on the Telephone ; by Pacer Hiees.—In the present agitation concerning speaking or telephonic telegraphs, the follow- ing extract from M. Le Comte du Moncel’s “ Exposé des Applica- tions de l’Electricité,” edition of the year 1857, vol. iii, p.110, may be atid as pointing out how nearly the ‘idea has been fore- _
“ The Electric Transmission o ech,—I did not wish to bring forward in the chapter of the electric telegraph a fantastic concep- tion of a certain M. Ch. B——, who believes that it will be possible — transmit speech electrically, because it might have been asked
had classed among so many remarkable inventions an idea
mint presented by the author as it is, is not more than a dream.
However, to be faithful to the réle that I have imposed upon my-
self of speaking of all the oo of electricity that have
become known to me, I wish to quote here the information which the author has pu ublished on this subject.
‘ After the marvelous telegraphs which are able to reproduce at
a issanoe writing of this or that individual, and designs more or
Geology and Mineralogy. 313
less complicated, it mee impossible, said M. B——, to advance further in the region of the marvellous. Nevertheless, essaying
which ar are ronnie oy the intermediate m aaa ut the intensity of these vibrations diminis shes _— rapidly with the distance, from which it follows, even in the thei nt
vibrations ect on ad by the voice, that this plate establishes and interrupts successively the communication with a tery. ou would be able to have at Z distance another plute which would exe-
cute at the same time the same mene sg
ice, and constant at the point of arrival where it is vibrated by slactaketiye But it is cemanatrable hae this would not alter the sounds, ‘It is evident from the first that the sounds would reproduce themselves with the same pitch in _ scale. — actual condition
of acoustical science does not permit of saying, @ priori, whether the same conditions would we old g sre for 9 asilanios articulated by the human voice. e manner in w these syllables are
produced is not yet mafticiéntly well “apc
‘In any case it is ‘impossible to ‘demonstrate, in the pr esent state of — that the electric transmission of sounds is impossi- ble. very probabilit , on the contrary, is for the possibility. An ele electric battery, two vibrating plates, and a metallic wire will
‘It is certain that, at a time more « or less distant, “speech ‘will be e
conomic minerals nny we have hitherto called the Lower pena sake of rocks.
314 Scientific Intelligence,
I may rgncr 4 give you the results arrived at, after now some work in Eastern Ontario and the adjoining ed of
but this does not appear to be dias to the nidpeuitics of sodichtie This rock forms the Salih bon of Canada. On it there has been
of these economics are in close proximity and have close relation- ship to each of the four or five great bands of crystalline lime- stone.
sil may, and indeed has been = set ound in some of the lower
limestones, The celebrated Petite Nation locality for Hozoon,
has now been proved to be on this highest band of limestone, and
in fact in the most a portion of my second system, the zone of
limestone in which t ossil occurs is ct eat characterized by i t 2
giving out as escend into these older rocks; while the fis- sures themselves narrow to threads and bifurcate. This fact has been proved by a close and careful investigation in Rossie.
wins ree <dasiowele: iaeiditiane: Bedford, Madoc, and Tudor, in Can-
é fmm — — the Sse limestone the a belt of rocks come in with horizons of both hematitic
delet iron oves-vehlall the vii’ and immediately low thine again a great belt of plumbago-bearing rock (extensively wrought for this mineral in Buckingham and Lochaber, — county),
of ma ) which occur a number of promising min es (e. g. the Baldwyn an Qs the Christies’ a —_ mucha Lake
with apatite intimately associated, which has now been identitie and followed continuously for upwards of one hundred sailen
Geology and Mineralogy. 315
chrysotile and veins of baryta and galena. You will t i
tion; while the great body of apatite-bearing rock is at the very mmit ”
Having established this important sequence my thoughts at once flew back to the discoveries of phosphatic nodules and shells in the Lower Silurian rocks at the Allumettes Rapids (Geology of Canada, page 125), and in several places in the eastern townships and elsewhere. Is it not probable that the source of our mineral apatite is in the Lower Silurian rocks, whence it has enetrated into the upper portion of the second division of the Laurentian system? Or, may the Hozoon not have furnished a considerable
long with the Eozoon, but if so their remains have been entirely obliterated by crystallization or other metamorphism. in that the gap between the Lo Silurian and uppermost crystal-
eral of my bands of limestone, and I fail entirely to discover Sir William’s upper distinct system—yet I have been over the same ground,
The Huronian and Hastings series of rocks I believe to be sim- ply an altered condition, on their westward extension, of the ower portion of my second system ; and this alteration com- mences as this portion reaches Hastings county, where you will
316 Scientific Intelligence.
remember Hunt, Macfarlane and others likened them to the Huro- nian, while Sir Kiera thought they more resembled some por-
tions of the Devo
The Seles of "New Hampshire. C. H. Hrrencocn, State Sant ba J. H. Huntineron, Warren Upnam, an G. W. Hawes, Assistants. Part II, Stratigraphical Geology. 684 pp.
Royal 8v0, with many maps, plates, and sections. Concord, 1877.
—This large volume consists mainly of chapters by Professor Hitchcock. The geology of the Coés and Essex TSO RTEB DION district and of the west part of the Merrimac mph and so other brief sections are by Mr. J. H. Huntingto
e difficulties of the survey have been linea on account of the
see: of the surface covered by unbroken forests, and the dis- turbed crystalline condition of the rocks. But, through great labor, the distribution of the several ads of metamorphic rocks has been to a large extent made out, and is carefully describedst in the Report. Professor Hitchcock has carried gue rd the wo with energy and fidelity, and has presented not only his saa views, but also,‘with fairness, as far as he has hh them, the views of others. As to the sone mcrae from the facts pre- sented in the volume, Professor Hitchcock is aware that the writer differs from him in many points; and if in the remarks beyond some of these differences are mentioned it will be without the assumption on the writer’s Lage that he is always right.
Professor Hitchcock refers the crystalline rocks of New Hamp- shire—taking his latest conclusions from the closing pages of the
volume—to the following groups in ascending order:—Lauren- ton: Montalban F anions to Huronian, and so named from the
esides, there are various areas of eruptive granite recogni ized, including those of the “ Be ted granite,” “Albany granite,
* Chocorua series ” aud o
The La
ite, feldspathic mica schists, the a ated gneisses, fibrolite
schists; the Upper Hu wronian, hams blade wink a chlorite schist,
greenstones, and other rocks; the Cods, staurolite slate, staurolitic
mica schist, Rentenyie § overlying er ORs Calciferous mica n
even one stratum may, after metamorphism, be, in its different parts, andalusite slate, mica hist, pas ar mica schist, gneiss,
3
Geology and Mineralogy. 317
pposed by
, be Professor Hitch- cock to be eruptive, may be for the most part, if in all
not in all cases,
8. The chief facts of interest in the valley region is the occur- rence at three places of limestone containing Lower Helderberg fossils—corals, crinoids, or brachiopods, associated with various metamorphic rocks. These places are in Littleton and North Lis-
The section given on page 326 of the Littleton rocks represents a synclinal of slate (the f the “ Lis-
i yman, Li bon, and Helderberg groups. On pages 329 and 331, this con- formability is again exhibited in sections, and also on plate xi.
Hitchcock, however, calls the Lisbon and Lyman groups uronian, a conclusion that is not suggested by the above-men- on
ley. The rocks of the west side in this part are, going southward, a light-colored well characterized granite (“Conway Granite”),
318 Scientific Intelligence.
a hard siliceous granitoid gneiss, varying into true granite, form- ing the eastern foot of Mount Willard, to the east of the Mount Willard poser in the Notch; ae ‘continuing southward, but at first a little westward, andalusite slate , Meeting the Mount Willard granite parallel with its “per eae s if conformable to it, and extending southward to the top of Bot Willey; then, on the southeast side and foot of Mount Willey, the Mount Willard granite again, which becomes, five miles south of the Notch, at : :
ebster; and a this, far up t the s ides of this mountain, the
“ Montalban schists”. (feldspathic mica schist chiefly), the charac-
terizing rock of the Mount Washington range. The rocks of the
region and of Mount Washington dip, with some local exceptions, to the westwar
a acare facts respecting the rocks are here cited from the
rt, as an introduction to a point of very PIOmSnEDY interest-—
e «1,200 feet ee the Spe ae Going southward in the gorge
“ster, at a "height nae to that of the top of esd Willard, where it has a thickness of two hundred to three hundred os Its sient coches from. "the Notch, “is not in a right line, on
sesiaid to the writer’s observations at the place, the granite becomes sye- nos ne a substitution of hornblende for black mica (biotite). The other ingredi-
ents are precisely the same—gray feldspar and gray quartz, so that the two rocks are iden tu apieon one. It is an interesting example of the abrupt transition “betwee two rocks, and is well worthy of a visit from those who are inter-
‘and lower parts of one’ original, stration br succeshite strata was consi without finding reason to sustain it.
Geology and Mineralogy. 319
Again: a similar petetieareene occurs one to two miles north of the Notch, (pp. 163, 165). Two miles southwest of Crawford’s, on Cascade Brook, the Mount Willard gran- ite “contains many fragments of the hard
seem to carry andalusite quite abundantly. ite Half a mile farther west up this same brook, andalusite slate succeeds to the granite (but with an intermediate po orp yritic junction- rock, like that observed in Mount Willard), and it continues up Mount Tom.
The writer had the pleasure, in 1875 examiring this part of the White Mountain region with Professor Hitehcock, adds here a pir representing a portion, six feet wide, of the surface of fo anite, just below the Notch.
e great number and erates size of the granite veins ——- ng ei the gorge in a north-and-south direction, and the extensive ange of breccia-granite followin ng the same course, seem + 4 su ‘ain the opinion, which Professor Hitchcock quotes in his incon from the writer, that the gorge, like most valleys of the Appa-
oba
\\ i
\
~ - . - - iz . ’ - of
lachians, was pr y the course of a lofty anticlinal, the frac- tures in which led to degradation and so de - ion of the valley. And if this conclusion ght, the Mount
tch is the central and lowest rock he anticlinal; that the Mount Willard (or Conway) granite is the amorphic stratum on both the east and west sides, it lying conformably
against the slate in Mount Willard and elsewhere; and that the andalusite slate on the west and the Montalban schists (often anda- a and part an ra a — together on the _ consti-
ute the succeeding stratum. e dissimilarity in the eastern se western portions of is last sougeie ma ac is Atha of a small variation from east to west in the constitution of the sedi- ments and of differences in the degree of metamorphism. The dissimilarity is chemically small; for the analysis of the andalu- sitic slate from this region by Mr. G. W. Hawes (Report, p. 233) found it to consist (No. 1, below) of—
SiO, AIO, FeO; FeO MnO MgO K,O Na.O hots H,0 1. 4601 30°56 144 6°85 0°10 Bs 666 1: 3 1-91 4:13=100°22 2. 4623 83:08 3°48 ... a) 290, 887). i 412= 99°28 which corresponds very nearly e the bes of common mica (muscovite), or rather wie hydrous variety wiih one
A similar pe pd amg the Franconia Notch, near the Basin, zag pis 137 of Professo’ r Hitcheock’s Report) masses “of porphyritic granite,
iss, hornblendic ona other siliceous rocks, are cemented together by a
tight Sotorel feldspathic paste.” Other localities also are mention
320 Scientific Intelligence.
analysis of which is cited in No. 23; and also, for half of it, as Mr. Hawes suggests, to that of common feldspar (orthoclase). The slate is peculiar in affording so large a percentage of alkali (7°78), and so small of silica; but it varies in its silica, being in some laces an “ argillaceous quartzyte ;” in others a "é felsitic slate,” weathering w
This view that the andalusite-slates and Montalban schists (which also are often andalusitic) correspond to a stratum higher in the series than the Mount Willard dea is sustained by the occurrence of masses of them in the of —e nite on Cascade
rytio % or “spotted” granite named the “ Albany granite,” is stated to bound it on the west and to occur e it disappears to the north. Whether the ‘ulate dinalppeaee os dipping beneath the granite, or by passage into it, is not stated. Th ‘Alb bany granite is in the larger part a ranite without cine (p. 143), and hence may have nearly the constitution of the slat
rofessor Hitchcock states that the penphtis granitoid a ten to two hundred feet wide, which marks the junction in Mo Willard of the andalusite slate and Mount Willard granite, 1 ak
from which is Mount Willard grits was made, and that from which the andalusitic slate proceeded, had some beds of passage ; there was a transition in the metamorphic products because of a transition in the material and in other conditions.
e structure of the White Mountains is so exceedingly com- plex, that it re reasonably give rise to Heo diverse ah eons tions. The view the write has here seems at least to be worth ecealbetiiiy’t in the future study of t of the region.
Geology and Mineralogy. 821
The volume also treats of the rocks of the Merrimack district, the Lake enero the Coast district, and the district of northern New Hampshi
he se Map, illustrating this volume, is in the hands of the engraver, It is onascale of two and a half inches to the mile,
The third and last nee of the Survey will contain a mport y Mr. Warren Upham on the Sine aternary of New Hampshire ee one by Mr, George oW. Hawes, on me Catoes of the State, we chemically and microscopically con Penelipinory Report on the Pale sos Bei of the Black ‘Hills, ¥ WN gee t S. Geogr. and Geol. Survey of the Rocky filha region, J. W. Powxt in Charge. 50 pag 8vo, July, 1877. Washington.—This valuable report conta eH
and of Cretaceous species, seventy. The sixteen be agTeDNNS plates are bse of well-drawn aoe finely enere ee? figu Age of the Tejon group, Californ ~The Dion is
from a cee by Dr. J. G. Cooper in the Re enge of the Cali- fornia Academy of Scienc ces, for Nov. 16, 1874 —The # baat of the age of the Tejon group is so far derived from only a few marine fossils which have been refer rred by different ee to the Ontee Conrad, the Nestor of Ameri- can paleontologists, over twenty years ago, phe a as unmis- s, now known as the Tejon group, among which he thought was the Cardita planicosta, “that finger- post of the Eocene, both in Europe and America.” Mr. Gabb, finding from better specimens that this shell differed from Cardita planicosta, described it as new, and referred the Te gon group to the Cretaceous, finding in it a very few species which
identical with the lower ioe proved to be Cretaceous by the presence of numerous Ammonites. He also stated, in an article in our Proceedings, publi ner November, 1866, that “a solit tary
the lower ones, less than one-tenth of ig a Cretaceous shells being Am. Jour. Sci. Ses Senizs, Vou. XIV, No. 82.—Ocr.
322 Scientific Intelligence.
common to both according to Gabb, of which several may be dis- tinct. On the other hand, many of the Tejon group are scarcely distinguiehatic. from Tertiary = living forms. One, Aturia Mathewsonii, is so near the Eocene A. zigzag, as om have been taken for it, no other Cretaceous Abivia being know
I may add that the ammonite (A. jugalis Gabb) + be found by me in a stratum just beneath the Mt. Diablo coal, and apparently on the same level as those from Clayton and “ Curry’s,” Postid by Gabb, so that its existence above the Coal, or in the Tejon group itself, is perhaps accidental. But, to pass by this doubtful fact, we have still later strata, referred to ‘the Eocene by Conrad, near "the mouth of the Columbia, where we would expect the first Tertiary to rise near the surface, and this time the Eocene Aturia zigzag
ue zi is so
to sosenate any Eocene here, that he calls the formation Miocene.
neral character of these ‘fossils, of which there are me dint in the eadent ’s Museum, shows, however, that they are of am tropical growth than any of our Miocene cjckia the Aturia itself being very similar to the Nautili now living in the tropics. Though perhaps mixed with ices species among the broken rocks so numerous on the lower Columbia shores, it is most proba- ble that true Eocene strata exist there, and, as shown by Academy’s specimens, extend south nearly to California, where later strata cover them. From all we yet know, we may assume that the gap between the Cretaceous and Tertiary, so marked on the Atlantic shores, was bridged over in part by the sain’
he “Tejon of mo
there, or the earlier part of it, just as we find the flora and fauna of Australia resembling forms fossil in the Eocene formation of Europe,
Eocene mollusca appearin ale just preceding the Miocene, —, me those of the Atlantic sil Tertiary Insects of Cubeiel, British Columbia.—Mr. S. 1 ‘Rovpone has described, in the Canada Geological Report for 1875-76, the “emrtitomg Columbian ape go sp — ed insects. Hyunoprers: Formica arcaria Pimp. asian: necta, Ca- lyptites (n. gen.) untedibuvianer. Dieters: ‘Boletina sepulta, Brachypeza abita, B. procera, Trichonta Dawsoni, Anthomyia in- animata, A. Burgessi, etehien ia senilis, Seciomyza revelata, Ti- deintegned (0 — ) picta, Lonchea senescens, Palloptera morticina. Cot Prometopia depilis. EMIPTERA: the Aphid, nus popermitin with mention of an imperfect satiate of a Mente ~ he first discovered traces of Fossil Insects in American Tortiarivs, and on new Carabide ipo ve interglacial “Hi Soup of Searborough
Botany and Zoology. 323
by Mr. Seuaddles edad species of ymenoptera o the milies ni ‘ ;
ress by the Secretary or Minzs, with Reports on the Geology, Mineralogy and Physical Structure of various parts iyi the Col- ony, . A. F. Murray, F. M. Kraust, N. Tay
How1rr, W. Nicuotas, J. Cosmo Newser ry, and Profe ssor F. Mc- Coy.--The Report of Progress states the following facts brought out in Decade [V of the Prodromus of the Paleontology of Vic- toria by Professor Maven which is nearly ready for issue. Three plates are devoted to the Diprotodon which, “like the Megathe- rium of South America, was obviously a feeder on the twi igs and phon ne. like their diminutive cease nels Mie of m
times ate V are represented Favosites Goldfussi, “ agreo- ing In every respect with the European Bnenaian coral,” Spirif- era levicosta, a species also of England and abounding se ea fiddle Devonian limestones of th ifel, Chonetes Australis,
E C. “closely allied to the C. sarcinulata of the Rhenish Devonian beds,” Astervlepis ornata, “ almost identical with ego found in the Russian Old Red Sandstone; ;”? on Plate VI are figures o Archeopteris Howitti, Sphenopt eris Ti uunensis, and Cordaites
sland. Mr. Howitt describes the basalts, and other rocks of North
Gipaeedy | and gives “gab of thin slices of the rocks, with de- tailed deseri ons The volume contains also facts on other for- eet | in Vieto and much on auriferous veins.
Tantalite. ae sa lately had sent to me a mass of tanta- tise weighing about 500 grams, somiitg from Professor Eugene A. Smith, State Geologist of Alabama; its exact locality in Alabama is not given. It is the first time that tantalite has been found in the United States; its specific gravity is over 7:2. It is a surface specimen, and has undergone partial decomposition in the crev- ices. It is an important “discovery at the ee a while this class of minerals is exciting interest. ; E SMITH ll ge! a8 und geographische Bichesinonias im Staate Minne Doctorate Inaugural dissertation by J. H. Kxoos, Mining: Rigiooer of Amsterdam. 58 pp. 8vo. Berlin, 1877.
Ill. Borany AND ZOOLOGY,
1. Morphology of the Dentary System in the Human Race.— Dr. E. La aMBERT, of Brussels, has given the characteristics of the ?
rrived at the following important conclusions, here derived from the — of the Royal Academy of Belgium, 46th year, No. 5,
324 Scientific Intelligence,
In the white race, the pees wea surface of the canines does not project beyond that of the other teeth, the two premolars are equal in volume, the first true molar is the ‘largest, and the last or wisdom tooth is the smallest. In the black race, the contrary is true in all these points, the canines projecting beyond the teeth adjoining, the posterior premolar being the largest, and the true molars increasing in size posteriorly.
In the white race, the molars have ordinarily only four cusps; in the black, five. If in the white race there are five, it is the first molar which has them; while in the black it is the last.
In the yellow race, ——, is usually a slight increase in the size of the molars from the interior to the posterior, as in the black race ; and, ~ in the black race, sherk is a fifth cusp on the wisdom tooth.
e black race, the ‘diameters of the incisors are larger than in the white race, and the bce surface of the canines is ee than that of the teeth “2
the black race, there is midlight diastema, which does not
int in the online race, and the inner tubercle of the premolar is 6 developed than the outer—as in the m man-apes. In the inferior molars, the first has often an inner tubercle feebly developed, whilols again manifests a slight approximation toward the man-
apes. In the black race, the superior molars have the antero-posterior diameter equal to the bi-lateral; in the white race, it is always
smaller, and, in the yellow, the form is interme is more difference in the teeth between the black race
and the yellow than between the yellow and the white ever, the Malay branch, the type of the fran race of D’Omaling, seems to transitional between the b and the pane as
e ner race—the red race of D’ Omalius usually united with the igre resents so nearly the dentary characters of the black race that Dr. Lambert unites the two. The Australians, Parnasiians, and New Caledonians present, in some respects, an exaggeration of the sie og characters of the ‘African negro, and
Anta), as has been remark ed os MM. Priine «Be ey, Broca and Custer Blake, approximates most that of the iAaaeratien and New Caledonian races, showing a resemblance in the age of the mam- et th between man in Belgium and the existing races of their
ntipodes. Dr. Lambert’s paper is published at length in the Bulletin of aha “Academy.
2. Arbeiten aus dem zoologische-zootomischen Institut im Wiurtzburg. 8vo. aacecroeten von Prof. Dr. Cart SEMPER.—
Astronomy. 325
The third volume contains the following ew gfe The Uranogenital system of the Amphibia, by PRENGEL, 114 pages, with 3 folded plates; Strobilation. ‘and abt ion in articulate animals, with special reference to the e homolog es between Vertebra ates, Annelids, and Anthropods, by C. Sempxrr, 290 pages, with 12 folded plates; Studies on the Tarbellaria (on the Plathelminthids) by Cuartus SeDG@WIcK Mrnor, of Boston, 62 pages, with 5 plates; on eng saliva and cement glands of the Deca- pods, by Dr. M. Braun, 8 een me with 1 plate; Remarks on the * Nephrofnensten” of v. ate ing, by C, SEMPER.
On the Brain of Chimera monstrosa, by B. G. WiLpER, Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., May 29, 1877. 34 pp. 8vo, with a plate.
IV. ASTRONOMY.
New Planets.—In a letter to the editors Prof. Watson says: “ The following are the places, from the observations — reduced, of the two planets recently discovered by me.
Planet ( (174) discovered pre ais 8th, magnitude 10°3.
Ann Arbor. Mean — 174)qa. sich = No. Comp. MA ite 1877, Bache 8, be 50 0 21 22 39°10 mT 4 70 s 21 13 57°94 1546 60 5 ; > 25 2113 5°89 1544 8:0 5 18,1040 5 2112 0-29 1541348 § 56 20, 11 1113 21 9 55°43 1536304 5 26, 9 30 21 4 91 15 19 581 5 30, 12 15 30 21 0 33°55 15 2 Sept. 1, 948 4 2059 3°24 1621 279 9 a; 20 57 34°90 14 54 53 5 Planet (175) discovered September 2d, re Ne 11°5. Ann Arbor. Mean — (175)a. (175)d. No. Comp. h m i ee 1877, Sept. - a 2 58 2310 4°80 +0 44 59°71 5 3 50 35 23 9 58°39 0 44 50°2 5 0 40 9 23 9 10°38 0 43 36°9 6 11 56 23 8 16°21 +0 42 11°3 5 wrens Ann — September 10, 1877. Rotation of Saturn.—Professor Haxx discovered on thie anlght of December 7th, a bright spot on the ball of Saturn,
at Poughkeepsie, Albany, Hartford, ets. The spot was followed, and its} baton famed at hay (es Sie sire Jan. 2d, or through an sixty
min proper motion on the surface of Sa shia Evan Hall obtains for the time of one revolution on its a 10" 14™ 93° . ie 2°-30. The only earlier determination of this quantity was made by Sir m. Herschel in 1793-4 who found it to be 10" 16™ 0%-4, which he ‘belienea could not be in error as much as two minutes. By a curious mistake his time for the rotation of the ring, or 10" 29™ 16*-8, has been hitherto given in almost all treatises on astronomy as the time of rotation of the planet itself.
326 Scientific Intelligence.
3. The newly discovered satellites of Mars.—The announcement of this remarkable discovery made by Prof. Hall was too late
but was given upon the third page of the cover. It is of such exceptional importance that we give in full Admiral ee Re- port to the Secretary of the Navy, dated August 21st.
“Sir: the outer satellite of Mars was first observed by Profes- sor Asaph Hall, U.S. N., on the night of the 11th of August,
served, and its motion was established d by observations extending thr rough an sated of two hours, during which the planet moved over thirty seconds of arc. The inner satellite was first observed on the night of August 17th, and was also discovered by Pro- fessor Hall. On Saturday, August 18th, the discoveries were telegraphed to Alvan Clark and sons, Cambridgeport, Mass., in order that if the weather should be cloudy at Washington, they
at aaa wee Mass., and by the Messrs. Clark, at Cambridge- port. On August 19th the discovery was ¢ scuhmusiaated to the Buchanan Institution, by which it was announced to oe Ameti- can and European observatories in the — dispa
Two satellites “of Mars discovered by Hall, at Washington. First, elongation west, August 18, eleven hours, Washington tim Distance er sec eg Period, thirty hours. Distance of second, fifty se
It will be ao hereafter that the statement of fifty seconds as the distance of the inner one was erroneous. The observations hitherto made are as follow
‘ na ie ee
1877, Aug. 11, 14 40, p= 59°6 (2); i 45, s='0: 57 (2) Obs, aa
16,114 lL.
13 7, p= 11°9 (2).2..-222 $=80°83 ah “ Hall
33 s=80-4 (1) “ Hall.
17,16 2, p= 85°5 (2); 16 19, s==63°24 (3) “ Hall. 18, 10 28, p=251-7 (3); 1018, s=82°93 (8) “ Newcomb. 10 57, p= 244°5 (1); 11 5, s=81°6 (1) “ Harkness.
11 50 6 (4); 11.57, 6 (4) Hall
, p= 232'1 (4); 1439, s=81-04 (4) I
19, 11 42, p=283°2 (2); 11 49, (4) “ Hall
15 43, p= 2554 (8); 15 . : 81-37 (6) “ Hall
20, 10 * p= 61°] (3); 1033, s=76-07 (2) “ Hall.
11 57, p= 52°1 (4); 12 “y $= 59°93 (4). “Hall.
The Second Satellite. h 1877, Aug. 4 16 "6, p= 43 0 (2); 16 21, $=30" 81 (4) Obs., Hall. 1 31, p=248°8 (2); 11 37, s=34-65 (4) H Wd } 25, p= 226'8 (2); 11 30, s=24-08 (2) “ Hall 20, 13 15, p= 67-1 (1); 13 26, 31: ~ (3)
13 56, 27-02:(4) -; “: > Halk
14 22, p= 170 (est.); 14 22, ‘Auciie = (3) “ Hall.
16 19, p= 250 (est.); 1619, e=15°15 (7) “ Hall.
16 35, s=16-70 (7) “ Hall.
Astronomy. 327
From these observations Professor Newcomb has derived ‘he following approximate circular elements of the orbits. The able errors assigned are only very rough estimates.
Ou te. Major semi-axis of apparent orbit seen at distance [9°5930]-.__82-75 40° "5 Minor semi-axis of apparent orbit seen at distance [9°5930 eine Sk 2"
—— semi-axis of orbit seen at t distance
Position angles of apsides of bit 70° phot Passage through the west apsis V0 260°) Aug. 19, 16°6h, W. m Ti con ty 30h ee +2m Hourly mo n Areocentric longitude 11°°907 Inclination ep clas orbit to ‘oi ecliptic 25°44 2° ngitude of ascending ni 82-°8 + 3° Position of pole of orbit i in celestial sphere. ..-- Long. 352°°8 Lat. +64°6 oA SEG! Decl. +53°8 1
Th Bae 3,090,000 ese elements gave for the mass of Mars 3,090,000
tele Major poertre 7 of the gantony orbit at distance ¥ 5930]-- ens "0+1 P wiser of revolution: 2: =--<u- 38° ae 5m Hour on in ie reocentric longitude --.._-....------ Pruaeet Cronah the eastern apsis (p= - 0°), Aug. 20, 13-0h, W. mn. t.
The American. tii ge and Nautical Almanac for the
within aheos days from the date of _ first ee Professor Newcomb found the period to be seven hours d thirty-eight minutes, On os theory, therefore, of a circular orbit the — is within 3400 miles of the planet’s surface. Professor Hall r marks that the diameters of bee _— satellites are extremely age probably not more than 5 100 miles. It is interesting o observe that even with the wanes limit the bodies are smaller < reteisin with their primary than any other ip eng in the solar system. Accor ing to Proctor, Mars revolves on its
three orbital revolutions in less sm a Martial day. How is this remarkable fact to be reconciled with the cosmogony of betes ? Although the period of no other madeline is less than that of the ~—— of its primary, the case can hardly be regarded as wholly u e rings of Saturn are clouds of extremely minute sec- sa planetoids revolving about the primary in approximate accordance with Kepler’s third law. The periods of those in the outermost ring, like that of the exterior satellite of Mars, are m
328 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
ring complete a revolution in about eight hours. “These rings of Saturn, like everything cosmical, must be leet 8 iit 3
and of two which impinge, one may be accelerated, but it will be siaceeiies at the expense of the other. The other falls out of the ici as it were, and is gradually drawn in towards the planet. The consequence is "that, ossibly not so much on account of the improvement of telescopes of late years, but perhaps simply in consequence of this gradual closing in of the whole system, a new ring of Saturn has bce gah seinen the two old ones,—what
formed of the laggards, as it tei: which 1ave been thrown out
The sedoess a ‘sinee! 3 in dies case of Saturn’s rings, the period of revolution has beco s than that of the planet’s rotation is eo Saree indicated. elnie is ane impossible that a similar process
y have been in a evorsete Siete: the forming period eae the Martial arti Unles uch explanation as this can be given, the short rt period of t ste inner satellite will doutetees be regarded as a conclusive kc me = the nebular hypothesis.
Bloomington, Indiana, August 2 27th, 1
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
ings, owin ng to the season of the year for a place so far south, and
Health, gotten a ihe» ecial reference to this ‘sabatation r port on the Topography of Nashville, tive Major Wilbur F Foster, illustrated with a map embracing an | three miles; report
* Tate’s Recent Advances in Phys. Sci., p. 259.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 329
Marsa was elected President for the ensuing B. ee of Hoboken, New Jersey, Vice-President of Section A;
. R. Grorr, of Buffalo, Vice-President of Section B; and H. C. Boron, Guae Secretary.
The retiring President, rec W. B. Rogers, was unable to be present at the meeting, and hence the occasion failed of a Presidential Address, which in this case was looked for with high oF ohne’
The even ning session of Wednesday was occupied with a lecture, by Professor Newcomb, on the recent astronomical discoveries— that of the Satellites of Mars by ee tal Hall, and that of oxygen in the atmosphere of the by Pr -ofessur Henry Draper; remarks, by —- ontop Hall, on the history of = ig poe te and the work it had done; a pee by Profe
. Lawrence Smith, on sitio stones ; and a paper, by Prolene
. RK. Grote, on an International Scientific Service.
Professor Marsh, the Vice-President of Section B, occu pie ed Thursd —- with a discourse on the “Introduction and Sue- reg of Vertebrate Life in America,” which was rich in facts
is own “ard work sinohe the vertebrate fossils of the
Marsh’s paper will appear in the following number of this Journal. On Monday a very valuable discourse was delivered by Professor Daniel — “on the ra — of America.”
mber of important papers read in the several sections was Ae The following “a a list of those read or accepted for reading,
I. Section of Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics. On a New Type of Steam Engine, theoretically capable of sag the full Me- chanical Equivalent of Heat Energy; and on some points of Theory indicating its practicability, R. H. THurston.—On a new method of planning gears an of representing to the Eye the a of ergo of three or more Elements in all poeeiele proportions, a —The work of the U. S. Board appointed to test th:
irom, other € proper motion or the Trifid Nebula, M. 20, G. C, 4355, etc. E. 8.
A new Quadruple Objective for Astronomical Telescopes, E. GunpLAcH.—A new Periscopic Eye-piece, id.
330 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
’ On the arbitrary coefficient A (?) in Laplace’s expression for the semi-diurnal tide, J. G. Barn
Mechanics of | the fl ight of birds, A. C. Camp
The Physics of the Mississippi river below the "Red river, C. G. Forsuey.—The Physics of the Gui of Mexico, id.
On a Measurement of the wave-length of the Blue line of the Spectrum of Indium, T. C. a DENHALL.— poet modification in the Metric System in its Introduction into the Uhited pitty
Improvement in use of the Reflecting Gorlonbstes H. W. WILEY.
A novel Radiometer, Mr. JEFFREY.
The — onetary Question , E. B. Enitorr.—On Standard os :
e Relation of Organ to Function; or of Form in general to Mode of Pee Racsiged and Exerted, R L. KirKPATRICK.
If. Subsection of ther and me A Steam blast pd fh voweing use in laboratories, with illustrations o e, J. L. Smitu.—Use of a ent of steam in boiling a ids with and without precipitates for use in the scalyigoal laboratory, id.—Some remarks on Phosphorus in Iron, i —A peculiar Silicide of Iron with remarks on artificial Silicides of the metal, id. —On the general methods scene in the analyses of the American Potunietie
The action ae Dilute Acid upon Ferrous Sulphide made from Cast-iron, F. P.
p Srrserome ss e Minerals a Deposit of Antimony Ores in Sevier County, Arkans
Ethers ots poe Bile Acids, and specimens, A, SPRI
On the of Hypos ulphite of Soda for the prec sipitation of Alumina, ©. L. MEEs.
The various methods of a as os Soegeirgn. Barium, Strontium and Calcium. Part I. Determination of Strontium, P. ScawxitzER.—On some inter- esting pemgreay from the solubility of aifioultly soluble Hactoesarath id.
N he Separation of Iron from Cobalt and Nickel, A. H. ELLIorr.
On ‘hes ssaggeenre of steel by the open hearth ined 5 8. HEDRICK.
If. Section of Geology and Natural History. Our wledge of the rage Worm, A. R. Grots. — A new Lepidopterous Tnsect injurious to Vegetati a On Sex owers, The iow of Repetition, Miss Vinorsta K. Sgihecs On the Respiration of Amia, B. G. Wimp Agamous reproduction among the Crs, H. F. Bas On the Origin of Structural Variai E. D. Cop m—On the Classification of the Extinct Fishes ‘of the Lower types, On the Silurian Island of the aes: ti uplift with reference to its part Tennessee, J. M. Sarrorp.—Notice of a specimen of Cyrtodonta ventricosa from tog seiner a
On Geographi piss spt Fossil asda: in the Rocks of the Cincinnati reer N. S. SHALER.
On Geodes, S. J. WALLACE. oe the Annual Deposits of the Missouri River during the Post-Pliocene, J. E.
"The Structure of Eruptive Mountains, J. W. PowELt.—Overplacement, id.
The Variation of certain Fresh Water Mollusks of the United States phe their Geographical dye tae ents Gh ERBY.
Notes on the Siluri veer of ab dor Nevada, T. Srerry Hunt.—Notes on the Githagy of the 3 Rocky 3
*
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 331
Geology and Topography of the Oil Region of Tennessee and the Oil Springs and Wells, J. B. Kinu Hossgrox of the hen on the Headwaters of the Androscoggin River, J. H. UN’ A se of McKinny Hill, Tennessee, E. L. Dra 3 ceouia position and mode of origin of Hy ained brown oxide of Iron, E. T.
On the Fibre of Gossipeum herbaceum (cotton aonsl considered with reference toa stp application of its manufacture, J.
On t i e to be made of the Post Route Maps in ae advancement of Science,
ven
epetmeneranay Concussion as a Means of Disinfection, Mrs. H. R. Ineram.
IV. Pena aes Anthropology.
On the ae of the Japanese, S. I
e fo and present numbers 6 our ar tnd ans, G. MALLER
Additional adil Mere -_ ificial Paitoreiseat of the Orient in Ancient Mounds in Michigan, H.
Habits of the Moqui Tribe, rE ‘A. BARBER.
Some Popular Errors concerning the N wae he Bae Indians, J. W. POWELL. —Introduction to the Study of Indian ee
On the —— excavations in Western N orth Carolixi: A, A. Jub xploration of the pi f the Mound Builders in in Scott and Mississippi Co ai ies, Missouri, H. N. Rust.
Observations on the skull of the Comanche, T . O. Summers, Jr.
2. Distant Points visible from Mt. oe sap oles: oi YY. ae fae (Read October 11, 1876). observer were to go up four particular peaks in the White Pan he could see all the pad points visible ie any of the other summits, together with a good many more not visible from them. ese four peaks are Washington, Moosilauke, Passaconnaway and Lafayette. I name them in the order af ee extent of the datant views obtained
S
of these four peaks must always be the most conspicuous object in the view, provided no near hills intervene. By means of the following formule the distance visible from any mountain may be readily calculated, and also the elevation a mountain must have in order to see a certain distance: d= 75 4/175h, h = $d?, where d= distance in “shies, an — elevation ‘in feet They may also
— to eck seen _ ce Washington, many of them ee visi- le only on = ae A occa’
Mt. Bele
and nearly over Prospect Lancaster. It is quite a high mountain near Montreal, and i. sid to be visible. Lake Memphre- magog, north border of Vermont: distance 70 miles, position north 40° west, and over Jefferson Hill. It requires a very clear day, as aie water is difficult to distinguish.
Mt. Carmel, Maine: distance 65 miles, position north 10° east, and jak: over Mt. Adams. It is very near the northern border o Maine, and is readily recognized by the steep slope on on the eastern
side. ‘It is said that a very fine view may be obtained from it. Mt, Bigelow: distance 70 miles, position north 35° ang and nearly
332 EMiscellaneous Intelligence.
over Mt. Hayes. It appears as three rounded hills. Just to the south of it and far beyond is a mountain with a very sharp apex, which is sometimes called Katahdin, but this is a mistake. Mt.
Abraham: distance 65 i position north 40° east, and somewhat to the right of Mt. Hayes. long serrated ridge, ‘also sometimes called Katahdin, Mt. Katahdin, Maine: distance 163 miles, posi- tion north 45° east, and about half way between Mt. Hayes and Mt.
all the view from shington. If visible at all in summer, it eet be far the faintest object in sight in that sgoceinyee Mt. Blue, Maine: distance 57 miles, position north 57° east, half
way ’ between Surprise and Moriah. It is quite a conspicuous pyramidal peak, ~~ is near iakeioe, Maine. It i is used as a Joast Survey Statio ortland, Maine: aitandl 65 miles, position south 51° east, and over the northern summit of Doublehead. It appears as
as t as often seen as some more di stant
Se
east, and over Mt. Gemini. It is 14 miles long, and about 11 wide. M amenticus, Maine: distance 80 miles, position south 24° east. Hi flat Heh omens hill ee considerable height in the southern Soa f Maine, and forms a conspicuous landmark for sailors. sles of Shoals, coast of New Hampshire: distandd 97 miles, posi- tion south 22° east. ey are very difficult to see, and are situa- ted on the ‘aisles just > the right of Agamenticus. noonuc, New Hampshire: distance 92 miles, position south 9° west, and half way between Mts. Crawford and Passaconnaway. Twin summits near Manchester. Mt. Wachusett, Massachusetts ; distance 1265 miles, position south 13° west, and just to the right of Whiteface, if it is visible. Mt. Mon adnock, New Hampshire: distance 104°5 pene — south 22° west, and a little to the
right of Sandwich Dome. A very regular rounded summit. Mt.
A ct q 3 fo) bd
Mt. Graylock, western Massachusetts: distance 147 miles, posi- tion south 40° west, and just over the summit of Mt. Webster. It has a pointed summit and is situated in the northwest corner of Massachusetts, near the Hoosac Tunnel, and is the highest moun- tain in the State, being no feet high, or about the same as Cho- corua. It is extremely d cult to see, as it is, next to Katahdin, the most distant point visible. se Guide Book says it is 160 miles distant; this, however, is an e
t. Ascutney, Vermont : sinende 3 85 miles, position south 45° west. Situated in Windsor, Vermont, close to the Connecticut
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 833
iver. Killington Peaks, Green Mountains: distance 91 miles, osition south 59° west, and between Mts. Liberty and Blue. i el’s Hum
win peaked summits near an ont. Cam Green Mountains: distance 80 miles, position north 87° west, and just over Bethlehem Street is ng looking mountain,
tains: distance 130 miles, posi tion north 86° w It i
barely visible, hardly rising above the right ate Spe of Canels Hump. This is one of the highest of the Adirondacks, rising to a height of 4,900 feet. Two lower peaks are seen just to the right,
south of Whiteface and nearly over the y 2. Mt. Mansfield, Green Mountains: distance 78 miles, Picenee north 78° west, and between the twin Mountain House and t. Deception. It is the highest of the Green Mountains, being 4,300 feet high, and appears as a long ridge bearing a fancied resemblance to a human _ —Appalachia, No. 2, March, 1
aution to Are junblosete The “Archeological Section of the aeadeis of Sciences of St. Louis has issued a circular dated St. Louis, Mo., June 12, 1877, war vi —— of all lovers
from the Mimourl Mounds are also bei ing sicmcerarte and offered
dealers — obtain a or that rat be worthless; or, at a se
tars direction, ra is spent - furnish to scientific ies, or
efforts, i refusing to porshana or in any way consieeiakios! the mercenary traffic in antiquities.”
334 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The noes of ee Society is Mr. F. F. Hilder, 604 North Fourth ih , dt. Lo
4, Win iieadioat of Hygiene and es Science. edition, cisnoaa and iy oes 490 pp. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1877. (Lindsay and Blakiston.)—Dr. Wilson’s well-know _—
h subjeets are treated in a systematic manner and — style makes — reading of even the most technical portion
5. British Association.—The meeting of the British ‘Association for 1877, Sate at Plymouth, on Wednesday, the 15th of August, and the address of the Oe aM Professor Allen Thomson, —
xalto
befor ae
before that of Ge rai Se are eeianecba on the ner ae pages of this volume, from ature of August 16 and 23. Sir William Thomson presented a paper advocating _ doctrine suggested
ecome the vehicle of animal life to this earth sre another planet or heavenly body, and “ was evidently listened to with much enjoy- ment.” Much amusement was caused by his saying that “though the outside shell of a meteoric stone might be incandescent from the riction caused by its flight through the terrestrial —— fet within a crevice of that stone might be concealed a Colora
eetle, oe falling ie" a earth, might become the 25 IN of a lar isbeliever in the doctrine, Profeme: ot Haughton, followed ‘with sWjecticiet; but said “ re still he didn’t care how many papa beetles came, so long as the mamma
were the following: on the rate of on ea of groups of waves,
and the rate at which wa is transmitted by waves, by Osborne
Reynolds; on the effect of transverse stress on the magnetic sus-
ceptibility of iron, by Sir Wm. Thomson; unit of light for pho- ium
°s structure, by Professor ——
It was decided that the fiftieth or jubilee meeting of the Asso- ciation—in 1881—be held in York, in consideration of the fact that its first meeting—that of 1831—-was at that place.
Obituary. 335
New Constructions in Graphical Statics ; by H. T. Eppy. Van Nostrand, New York: 1877. 8vo, pp. 62 an nd9 foldin ng plates.
to the arch rib with and without joints, the suspension cable, t continuous girder, the retaining wall, the dome, ete. The following oa at of the U. 8S. Geological Survey of the oe den in charge, have been received and will be noticed in another nu ber ; also other volumes whose titles fo Ninth A ort, embracing Ootors do and parts of adjacent Cabal being a report of progress of ae exploration for the year 1875, by F. V. Hayden 27 PP. ae Washington, f the United pa Geo logical Survey of the Territories, volume XT. odagretis of North American Rodentia, by Elliott Coues, Secretary and Natu- ralist of the o Rare and Joel Asaph Allen, Special Collaborator of ‘the Survey.
Misce adie Publications.—No. 7. Et seg ar see es the Hidatsa Indians, hy Gi rom —_— Matthews, Assistant Sur 239 pp. 8vo.
rig ring Animals: A Monograph ee North Ametioan Mustelide, yi lliott prey Gantaln and Assistant Surgeon U.S. A 8 pp. 8vo, with twenty plates.
Bulletin of the U. S. Geological ree bre are Survey of the Territories. Volume III, Number 4, August 5th, 1
Bulletin of the U. 8. National Museum; No. 8.—Inde the names which have Pome applied to the subdivisions of ‘the ae Bciiocls by W. H. Dall. 88 pp. 8yo. Washington, 1877.
hina : oF erp eigener Rei und darauf Le semi oc te — od
Mesmeri rism, Spiritualism, ete. Historically and scientifically considered; be- ing two Lectures delivered at the London Institution, by Whar as B. Carpenter, C.B., ete. 158 pp. 8vo. New York, 1877. (D. Appleton & C
Proceedings of ee Davenport Academy of N atural Sciences, aba I, Part I; January, 1876—June, 1877. Davenport, low
yee bent jan Naturhistorischen Yorsis von Wisconsin fiir das Jahr agit waukee. neers f Science and Industry, by Theodore 8. Case. f monthly of 64. pages published at Kansas City, Missouri, popular in its characte
Pr he American Association for the Advancement of Science. Twenty-fifth n eae he held at Buffalo, N. Y., August, 1876. 368 pp. 8vo. 1877.
OBITUARY.
_ Professor Henry Newron, E.M., Ph.D., Professor elect of Min-
engaged ee a Bic examination of the Black Hills, which, begun two ago, as Assistant Geologist to the United oer es Black Hills Expedion of the Interior Department. He w
region, with plates of fossils, and numerous drawings eae and other hae illustrations. The publication of this uable report by the department, as it has more than ap- ten before with other reports of the same kind, had been griev- ously delayed—much to the annoyance and disappointment of its
336 Obituary.
young and enthusiastic author, whose health became impaired under such an additional oe upon his nervous system, immedi-
ments, Professor Newton returned this season e Black Hills, where he was a ees stricken with mountain a while prose- oe nes
Prof ; heaton was fora number of years attached to the School of Mikes of Columbia College, Pig he received ao degrees and was Assistant in Geology. During the same peri id excellent service upon the Geo bloseldial Sarvey of Ohio, J.P. K
Moszs Srrone, Assistant Geologist in the Geological Survey of Wisconsin, died on the 18th of last August. Mr. Stron ng was en- gaged in a geological examination of the branches of the Chip- pewa River, and was erapxonng to pass in a skiff some rapids on the Flambeau ou, when the boat was upset, and he was
occupied by the co DO end be formation in the region of the Upper St. Croix River. and had exa amined the Huronian forma-
aa st trong, after graduation at Yale pig oa with the class of 1867, pursued scientific studies at a German University, and ha thus ‘thoroughly fitted sponge for the work in which he was en; gaged. He leaves a young wife and chi
Professor ADOLF at an eminent Gere an physicist, Pro- fessor in the ighen SV EOeN died on the 13th of July, at the age of seventy-on
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES.]}
ArT. XLII. oe and Succession of Vertebrate Life in tea ; a 0. C. Mars
[Address before the American Associa tion for the Advancement of Science, at Nashville, Tenn., August 30, 1877.]
Tue origin of life, and the order of —- in which its as forms have appeared upon the earth, offer to science most inviting and most difficult. field of research. Macech the primal origin of life is unknown, and may per haps never be known, yet no one has a right to say how ranch of the mystery now surrounding it science cannot remove. ’ It is certainly within the domain of science to determine when the earth was first fitted to receive life, and in what form the earliest life began. To trace that life in its manifold changes through past ages to the present is a more difficult task, but _ one from which modern science does not shrink. In this wide field, every earnest effort will meet some degree of success ; every year will add new and important facts; and eve ry generation will bring to light some law, in — with
which ancient life has been changed into life we see it around us to-day. That such a development noe taken pee no one will doubt who has carefully traced any single group
of animals through its past history, as recorded in the ne of
the earth. The evidence will be especially conclusive, if the
group selected belongs to the higher forms of life, which tha
sensitive to every change in their surroundings. “But lam
TI need offer here no argument for — since to doabe Am. Jour. Sct. prea pee Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Nov.,
338 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
evolution to-day is to doubt science, and science is only another name for truth.
Taking, then, evolution as a key to the mysteries of past life on the earth, I invite your attention to the subject I have chosen: THE INTRODUCTION AND SUCCESSION OF VERTEBRATE LIFE IN AMERICA.
In the brief hour allotted to me, I could hardly hope to give more than a very incomplete sketch of what is now known on this subject. I shall, therefore, pass rapidly over the lower
in so approach man in structure, and thus indicate his probable origin. These higher vertebrates, moreover, are most important witnesses of the past, since their superior organization made them ready victims to slight climatic changes, which would otherwise have remained unrecorded.
In considering the ancient life of America, it is important to bear in mind that I can only offer you a brief record of a few of the countless forms that once occupied this continent. The review I can bring before you will not be like that of a great army, when regiment after regiment with full ranks moves by in orderly succession, until the entire host has passed. My review must be more like the roll-call after a battle, when only a few scarred and crippled veterans remain to.answer to their names. Or rather, it must resemble an array of relics, dug from the field of some old Trojan combat, long after the con- test, when no survivor remains to tell the tale of the strife.
why. y this same method of research, the more ancient strata of the earth have been explored, and, in our Western wilds,
or gold. Without such spoils, from many fields, I could not have chosen the present theme for my address to-night.
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Infe in America, 339
According to present knowledge, no vertebrate life is known to have existed on this continent in the Archean, Cambrian, or
exist here in those remote ages. Fishes are known Sr the Upper Silurian of Europe, and there is every probability that they will yet be discovere in our strata of the same age, if not at a still lower horiz
In the shore pease of the early Devonian sea, known as the Schoharie Grit, characteristic peneaee of Fishes were pre- served, and in the deeper sea that followed, in which the
continue abundant in the shallower seas, and, so far as now known, were the only type of vertebrate life. 7 fishes were mainly Seceae a group, represented in our present waters by the Gar- -pike (Lepidosteus) and Sturgeon (Aipensr but, in the Devonian sea, chiefly by the aes ee, the ex affinities of which are somewhat in doubt, ith these were Elasmobranchs, or the ne, tribe, and among them a few epimers a peculiar r type, of which one or two members still survive. ‘The Placoderms were the monarchs of the ocean. All were gu protected by a massive coat -of armor, and some o them attained huge dimensions. The American Devonian fishes now known are not as numerous as those of Europe, but they were larger in size, and mostly inhabitants of the open sea. Some twenty genera and forty species have been described.
e more important genera of Placoderms are, Dinichthys, Aspidichthys, and Dee our largest Paleozoic fishes. Others are, Acanthaspis, Acantholepis, Coccosteus, Macropetalich- oys, and Onychodus. Among the Elasmobranchs were, Clado-:
dus, Nechaiath us, Machcracanthus, Rhynchodus, and Ptyctodus, the last two ang regarded as ohamttia ve the Chemung epoch, the great sha gy a was introduced with Dipierus, Heliodus, and possi Ceratodus. Species of the European legmtis Bothriolepis an Sega oes have likewise been found ur Devonian de With the close of tha Davekian. came the almost total extine-
Helodus, Psammodus and Sandalodus. Of the Sarangi there were Antliodus, Chomatodus, Ctenoptychius, Petalodus an
340 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
Petalorhynchus; and of the Slgeirma the genera eli, Carcharopsis and Diplodus. e Hlasmobranchs were the rulers of the Carboniferous open sea, and more than one hun-
smaller size, an denizens of the more shallow and confined waters. The latter group of fishes was represented by true Lepidostide, of the genera Paleoniscus, Amblypterus, Putgac mus and Hurylepis. Other genera are, Rhizodus, Megalichthys, Ctenodus, Edestus, Orodus, Clenacanthus, yracanthu s, and Cela-. canthus. Most of these genera occur also in Europe. rom the Permian rocks of America, no vertebrate remains
are known, although in the same formation of Europe Ganoids are abundant; and with them are remains of Sharks, oes sie other fishes, the affinities of which are doubtful. The zoic fishes at present known from this country are ive vi numerous as those found in Hurope.
In the Mesozoic age, the Fishes of America begin to show a decided approach to those of our present waters. From the Triassic rocks, Ganoids only are known, and they are all more or less closely related to the modern Gar- -pike, or Lepidosteus. ‘They are of small — ee the number of individuals preserved is very larg: e characteristic genera are, Catop- terus, Ischyplerus, Bichotepta, Rhabdolepis, and Turseodus.
rom the Jurassic deposits, no remains of fishes are known, but in the Cretaceous, ichthyic life assumed many and various forms; and the first representatives of the Teleosts, or bony fis es, the characteristic fishes of to-day, make
their appearance. In the deep open sea of this age, Hlas mobranchs were the eae forms, Sharks and Chimeeroids being most numerou n the great inland Cretaceous sea of
and many of them of large size. The Ganoids were compara- “aden few in number. In the earliest Eocene fresh-water deposits, it is interesting to find that the modern Gar-pike,
0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 841
and Amia, the Dog-fish of our western lakes, which by their Structure are seen to be remnants of a very early type, are well represented by species so closely allied to them that only an anatomist could separate the ancient from the modern. In the succeeding beds, these fishes are still abundant, and with them are Siluroids nearly related to the modern Cat-fish (Pimelodus). Many small fishes, allied apparently to the modern herring (Clupea), left their remains in great numbers in the same deposits, and, with them has been recently found a land-locked Ray (Heliobatis).
The almost total absence of remains of fishes from the Mio- cene lake-basins of the West is a remarkable fact, and perhaps may best be explained by the theory that these inland waters, like many of the smaller lakes in the same region to-day, were so impregnated with mineral matters as to render the existence. of vertebrate life in them impossible. No one who has tasted such waters, or has attempted to ford one of the modern alkaline lakes which are often met with on the present surface of the same deposits, will doubt the efficiency of this cause, or the easy entombment of the higher vertebrates that ventured within their borders. In the Pliocene lake-basins of the same region, remains of fishes were not uncommon, and in some of them are
pliocene fishes are essentially those of to-day. _ : : In this brief synopsis of the past ichthyic life of this Conti-
known in this country, are from the lower Devonian ; but these old fishes show so great a diversity of form and_ structure, as
It is safe to infer, from the knowledge which we now possess of the simpler forms of life, that even more of the early fishes were cartilaginous, or so destitute of hard parts as to leave no enduring traces of their existence. Without positive knowledge of such forms, and considering the great diversity of those we have, it would seem a hopeless task at present to attempt to trace successfully the genealogy of this class. One line, however, appears to be direct, from our modern Gar-pike, through the lower Eocene Lepidosteus to the Lepidotus of the
_ Cretaceous, and perhaps on through the Triassic Ischypterus
342 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
ians known from osseous remains are all of moderate size, but the foot-prints attributed to this group indicate animals larger than any of the class yet found in the old world. The Carboniferous Amphibians were abundant in the swampy trop- ical forests of that period, and their remains have been found imbedded in the coal then deposited, as well as in hollow stumps of the trees left standing.
The principal genera of this group from American Car- boniferous rocks, are, Sawropus, known only from footprints, Baphetes, Dendrerpeton, Hylonomus, Hylerpeton, Raniceps, Pelion, Leptophractus, Molgophis, Piyonius, Amphibamus, Cocytinus, and Ceraterpeton. The last genus occurs also in Europe. Certain of these genera have been considered by some writers to be more nearly related to the Lizards, among true reptiles. Some other
genera known from fragmentary remains or footprints in this . formation have likewise been referred to the true reptiles, but this question can perhaps be settled only by future discoveries.
No Aniphibia are known from American Permian strata, but
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 343
in the Triassic, a few oheractenietows pemaine have. been found.
ctory, an this class can be based upon them. rom the Jurassic and Cretaceous beds of this Continent, no remains of Amphibians are known. A few only have been found ‘in the ertiary, and sees are all of modern t,
berry, Leidy Cope, Dawson, Agassiz, St. John Gib es, , Wy- man, Redfield, and Emmons, and the pionpe literature of the subject will be tonans in their publication
Reptiles and Birds form the next om eat division of ver- tebrates, the Sauropsida, and of these the Reptiles are the older type, and may be first considered. While it may be stated with certainty that there is at present no evidence of the exist- ence of this group in American rocks older ve the Car- boniferous, there is some doubt in regard to their appearance even in this period. Various foot- prints which eee resem- ble those rl by Lizards; a few well preserved remains similar
In the Permian rocks of tonne Reptiles have been found.
odon, Ww Ss WwW iso | Roan It belongs to the Thecodont division of Reptiles, which have teeth in distinct sockets, and its nearest affinities
344 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
are with the Crocodilia, of which order it may be considered the oldest known representative. In the same strata in which the Belodonts occur, remains of Dinosaurs are found, and it is a most interesting fact that these highest of reptiles should make their appearance, even in a generalized form, at this stage of the earth’s history. The Dinosaurs, although true reptiles in all their more important characters, show certain well marked
ri enormous development both in variety of forms and in size. - Although comparatively few of .their bones have as yet been discovered in the rocks of this country, they have left unmistakable evidence of their presence in the foot-prints and
other impressions upon the shores of the waters which they frequented. The Triassic sandstone of the Connecticut Valley has long been famous for its fossil foot-prints, especially the so-called ‘bird-tracks,” which are generally supposed to have been made by birds, the tracks of which many of them closely resemble. A careful investigation, spe: ne nearly all the . Specimens yet discovered, has convinced me that there is not a particle of evidence that any of these fossil. ‘iipreekions were made by birds. Most of these three-toed tracks were certainly
detected the impressions of these anterior limbs in connection with the osterior foot-prints of nearly all of the supposed “bird-tracks” described, and have little doubt that they will eventually me found with all. These double impressions are precisely the kind which Dinosaurian reptiles would make, and as the only characteristic bones yet found in the same rocks belong to animals of this group, it is but fair to attribute all these foot-prints to Dinosaurs, even where no impressions of fore-feet have been detected, until some idler appears that they were made by Bi rds. I have no doubt that ae Boge at this time, although at paesent the proof is
The pritieipal genera of Triassic Reptiles known from osseo remains in this country are, Amphisaurus (Megat) from the Connecticut Valley, Bathygnathus, — Prince E ward’s Island, Belodon and Coiisiearsh Other generic names
a
A Reptiles have been found in undoubted Jurassic rocks of America, but they are not sufficiently well determined to be
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 345
character of most of the rocks then formed, which were not well fitted for preserving such remains, although admirably adapted to retain foot-prints.
During the Cretaceous Period, Reptilian life in America attained its greatest development, and the sediments laid down in the open seas and estuaries were usually most favorable for the preservation of a faithful record of its various phases. With out such a perfect matrix as some of these deposits afford, many of the most interesting vertebrates recently brought to light from this formation would probably have remained unknown. The vast extent of these beds ensures, moreover, many future discoveries of interest.
Some of the earliest forms are allied to the modern genus Trionyx. In the higher Cretaceous beds, some Chelonians of enormous size have been found. They belong to the genus
T ery numerous, an with them are many fresh-water forms of Jrionyx and allied
genera,
A striking feature of the American Cretaceous fauna, as con- trasted with that of Europe, is the almost entire absence in our strata of species of Jchthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, whic abound in many other regions, but here seem to be replaced by
346 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Infe in America.
the Mosasaurs. A few fragmentary remains have indeed been referred to these genera, but the determination may fairly be questioned. This is more than true of the proposed new order Streptosauria, ich, was founded wholly on error. The order
lestosaurta, however, is well represented, but mainly by forms more nearly related to the genus Pliosaurus than to the type of the group. These were marine reptiles, all of large size, while some of them attained vast dimensions. So far as at present identified, they may be referred to the genera, Cimolio- saurus, Discosaurus (Llasmosaurus), and Pliosaurus. e num- ber of species is comparatively few, and none are known above the Cretaceous. The important suggestion of Gegenbaur, that the Halisauria, which include the Plesiosaurs, branched o from the Fishes before the Amphibians, finds some support in American specimens recently discovered.
The Reptiles most characteristic of our American Cretaceous strata are the Josasauria, a group with very few representatives in other parts of the world. In our Cretaceous seas, they ruled supreme, as their numbers, size, and carnivorous habits, enabled them to easily vanquish all rivals. Some were at least sixty feet in length, and the smallest ten or twelve. In the inland
retaceous sea from which the Rocky Mountains were begin- ning to emerge, these ancient “Sea Serpents” abounded; an many were entombed in its muddy bottom. On one occasion, as _I rode through a valley washed out of this ad ocean bed, I saw no less than seven different skeletons of these monsters in sight at once. ‘ osasaurs were essentially swimming Liz- ards, with four a developed paddles, and they had little affin- ity with modern serpents, to which they have been compared. The species are quite numerous, but they belong to compara- tively few genera, of which Mosasaurus, Tylosaurus, Lestosaurus
and Adestosaurus, have alone been identified with certainty. The genus Mecasnaten was first found in Europe. All the known species of the group are cases us.
The Crocodilia are abundant in rocks of Cretaceous age in dere, and two distinct types are represented. The older type, which is foreshadowed by Belodon of the Trias, has bicon- cave vertebre, and shows marked affinities with the genus Teleosaurus, from the Jura of Europe. The best known tg is Hyposaurus, of which there are several species, all
ore or less resembling in form the modern Gavial of the Sane peculiar intermediate form is seen in Diplosaurus, te ite Wealden of the Rocky Mountains. The second type, which now makes its appearance for the first time, has pro- ecelian vertebree, and in other respects resembles existing Croc- odiles. The genera described are Bottosawrus, Holops and Tho- racosaurus, none of which, so far as known, pass above the
0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 347
Cretaceous. Of Crocodilia ae bi ge arse vertebree, Amer- ica, so far as we know, has Specimens similar to those so termed in Europe, are noe renee here, but they per- tain to Dinosaurs
Tn the Kocene fresh-water beds of the West, Crocodilians are especially abundant, and all, with the exception of Limno-
ATipabE The Miocene lake-basins of the same olen contain no remains of Crocodiles, so far as known, and the Pliocene deposits have afforded a, a single species. The Tertiary marine beds of the Atlantic Coast contain com- paratively few Crocodilian remains, and all are of modern
ern type. In the Eocene lake-basin mains of Lizards are very numerous, aa indicate species much larger than any existing to-day. Some of these, the Glyptosau- ride, were protected by a highly senatnerited bony coat of mail, and others were covered with scales, like recent Lizards. A few resembled, in their more important characters, the modern Iguana. The genera best represented in the Kocene, are, Glyp- tosaurus, Iguanavus, Oreosaurus, Thinosaurus, Tinosaurus and Saniva. Some of thesegenera appear to eth continued into the Miocene, but here, as well as in the Pliocene, few remains of this group have been found. It is not Seapmobatile that some of our extinct Reptiles may prove to belong to Rynchocephala, but at present this is uncertain. The genus Notosaurus, from Brazil, has biconcave vertebre, and some other characters which. point to that group. No Dicynodonts or Theriodonts have as yet been found in this country.
The first American Serpents, so far as now known, appear in the Kocene, which contains also the oldest European species. On the Atlantic border, the genus Titanophis (Dinophis) is represented by several species of large size, one at least thirty feet in length, and all doubtless inhabitants of the sea. In the fresh-water Western Kocene, remains of snakes are abundant, — all are of moderate size. The largest of these were related
© the modern Boa Constrictors. The genera described are Seti: Lithophis and Limnophis. The Miocene and Pliocene
348 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
Snakes from the same region are known only from a few frag- mentary remains. ’ he Prerosauria, or flying Lizards, are among the most interesting Reptiles of Mesozoic time, and many of them left their remains in the soft sediments of our inland Cretaceous sea. These were veritable Dragons, having a spread of wings of from ten to twenty-five feet. They differed essentially from the smaller Pterodactyls found in the old world, in the entire absence of teeth, showing in this respect a resemblance to modern birds; and they possess other distinctive characters. They have therefore been placed in a new order, Pteranodontia, ‘ from the typical genus’ Pteranodon, of which five species are nown. The only other genus is Nyctosaurus, represented by a single species. All the specimens yet found are from essen- tially the same horizon, in the Chalk of Kansas. The reported discovery of remains of this order from older formations in this country is without foundation. .
the remains discoverel in deposits of this age: the herbiv-
by far the largest land animal yet discovered; its dimensions being greater than was supposed possible, in an animal that lived and moved upon the land. It was some fifty or sixty feet in length, and, when erect, at least thirty feet in height. It doubtless fed upon the foliage of the mountain forests, portions of which are preserved with its remains. With T%tan- osaurus, the bones of smaller Dinosaurs, one (Nanosaurus) not larger than a Cat, as well as those of Crocodiles and Turtles, are not uncommon. The recent discovery of these interesting remains, many and various, in strata that had long been pro-
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Tnfe in America. 849
nounced by professional: explorers barren of vertebrate fossils, should teach caution to those who decline to accept the imper- fection of our knowledge to- rsh as a fair plea for the supposed absence of intermediate for
n the marine Oretadeous rn of the West, be? a single Ditibdaur (Hadrosaurus agilis), has been found, but in e higher resh-water beds, which mark the close of this Dacnesols their
Hadrosaurus and Dryptosaurus were foun n Cretaceous fresh-water deposits on the coast of Brazil, remains of this order occur, but the specimens hitherto discovered are not characteristic for accurate determination. This is unfortunately true of many Dinosaurian fossils from North America, but the great number of these Reptiles which lived here during the Cretaceous Period promises many future discoveries, and sub- stantial additions to our.present knowledge o e first appearance of Birds in America, according to our Leow i knowledge, was during the Cretaceous Period, although any announcements have been made of their existence in preceding epochs. The evidence of their presence in the Trias, ased on footprints and other impressions, is, at present, as we have seen, without value; although we may confidently await their discovery there, if not in older formations. Archeopteryz, from the European Jura, the oldest bird known, and now fortunately represented by more than a single specimen, clearly indicates a much higher antiquity for the class. The _ earliest American forms, at present known, are the Odontornithes, or Birds with teeth, which have been exhumed within the last few years, from the Chalk of Kansas. The two genera, Hes- perornis and Ichthyornis, are types of distinct orders, and differ from each other and from Archeopteryx much more than do any existing birds among themselves; thus showing that Birds are now a closed type, and that the key to the history of the class must be sought for in the distant past. n Hesperornis, we have a large aquatic he. rhe six — in length, with a strange combination of The ja are provided with teeth, set in gro OveS ; shai wings were ru Padi. mentary, and useless ; while the egs were very similar to those of modern diving birds. This last feature was merely an adap- tation, as the more important characters are Struthious, showing that Hesperornis was essentially a carnivorous swimming Ostrich. Ichthyornis, a small flying bird, was stranger still, om ie fort were in sockets; and the vertebrae biconcave, as and a few Reptiles. Apatornis and other allied + forins scien
350 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
in the same beds, and probably all were provided with teeth. It is strange that the companions of these ancient toothed Birds should have been Pterodactyls without teeth. In the later Cretaceous beds of the Atlantic Coast, various remains of aquatic Birds have been found, but all are apparently dis- tinct from those of the West. The known genera of Ameri- ean Cretaceous birds are, Apatornis, Baptornis, Graculavus, Hesperornis, Ichthyornis, Laornis, Lestornis, Paleotringa and Telmatornis. These are represented by some twenty species. In Europe, but two species of Cretaceous birds are known, and both are based upon fragmentary specimens.
During the Tertiary period, Birds were numerous in this country, and. all yet discovered. appear to have belonged to modern types. ‘The Kocene species described are mostly wading birds, but here, and in the later Tertiary deposits, some charac- teristic American forms make their appearance, strongly fore- shadowing our present avian fauna. ‘The extinct genera are the Kocene Utntornis, related to the Woodpeckers, and Aletornis, which includes several species of Waders. Among the existing genera found in our Tertiary beds are, Aquila, Bubo, Meleagris, Grus, Graculus, Puffinus, and Catarractes. The Great Auk (Alca impennis), which was once very abundant on our North- east Coast, has become extinct within a few years.
wealth of our continent in the extinct forms of these groups, and thus to suggest what its actual life must have been.
Although the Trias offers at present the first unquestioned evidence of true Reptiles, we certainly should not be justified in supposing for a moment that older forms did not exist. So too in considering the different groups of Reptiles, which seem to make their first appearance at certain horizons, flourish for a time, and then decline, or disappear, every day brings evidence to show that they are but fragments of the unraveled strands which converge in the past to form the mystic cord uniting all life. If the attempt is made to follow back any single thread, and thus trace the be e of a group, we are met by difficulties which the science of A can only partially remove. poate the anatomist constantly sees in the fragments which he studies hints of relationship which are to him sure prophecies of future discoveries.
The genealogy of the Chelonia is at present unknown, and
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 851
our American extinct forms, so far as we now have them, throw little light on their ancestry. This is essentially true, also, of our Plesiosauria, Lacertilia and Ophidia, although sug- gestive facts are not wanting to indicate possible lines of descent. With the Crocodilia, however, the case seems to be different, and Huxley has clearly pointed out the path for investigation. It is probable that material already exists in
nuine “missing link,” a saurian (Diplosaurus) with
352 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
that they are an aberrant type of Reptiles, totally off the line through which the Birds were developed. The announcement made not long since in Europe, and accepted by some American authors, that the Piarsitagiis) ‘in consequence of certain points _in their structure, were essentially Birds, is directly disproved by American So far more perfect than those on which the conclusion was base
t is now generally nilmitted by biologists who have made a study of the vertebrates, that Birds have come down to us through the Dinosaurs, and the close affinity of the Jatter with recent Struthious Birds will hardly be questioned. The case amounts almost to a set aap ag if we compare, with Dinosaurs, their contemporaries, the Mesozoic Birds. The classes of Birds and Reptiles, as now living, are separated by a gulf so profound that a few years since it was cited -by the opponents of evolution as the most important break in the animal — and one whi - that doctrine could not bridge over. Since then, as Huxley has clearly shown, this gap has been vatially filled by the discovery of bird-like Reptiles and reptilian Birds. Compsognathus and ani yiteaed of the Old World, and Ichthyornis and Hesperornis of the New, are the stepping stones by which the evolutionist of to-day leads the doubting ectaes across the shallow remnant of the gulf, once thought impassable.
It remains now to consider the highest group of the Animal Kingdom, the class Mammalia, which includes Man. Of the existence of this class before the Trias we have no evidence,
Marsupials, she lowest Mancosliae group hich we ey in
to the insect- are Myrmecobius, now egies in Australia. ura of Hurope has ‘segs other sumnilar
few years have brought to light i in the Eocene.
0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 353
important to define the division Lpstiy me indicated in our Tertiary and Post-Tertiary aapoihe as these in many cases
eae series of the West is uppermost Cretaceous, or lowes Kocene. The evidenoe of the numerous vertebrate remains is
are most setae witnesses ; that invertebrate animals are much better; and that vertebrates afford the most reliable evidence of climatic and other geological changes. e su
divisions of the latter group, moreover, and in fact all forms of animal life, are of value in this respect, mainly according to the gf molgese4 of their organization, or Zoologica al rank.
)
law, ene that the line, it sc ae a separating our Cretaceous from the Tertiary, m t at present be drawn where the Dinosaurs and other M sete vertebrates disappear, and are replaced by the Mammals, nencetirts the dominant type.
The Tertiary of Western n America ca comprises the most exten- sive series of. deposits of this age known to geologists, and important breaks in both the rocks and the fossils separate it into three well-marked divisions. These natural divisions are not the exact equivalents of the Kocene, Goons and Pliocene
Am. Jour. Sct. ime are Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Noy., 1877,
354 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
of Europe, although usually so considered, and known by the same names; but, in general, the fauna of ‘each appears to be older than that of its corresponding representative in the other
characteristic genus of which is the ungulate Coryphodon, and hence I have called these deposits the Coryphodon Beds. The middle Eocene strata, which have been termed the Green River and Bridger Series, may be designated as the Dinoceras Beds, as the gigantic animals of this order are only found here.
e uppermost Eocene, or the Uintah Group, is especially well apes by large mammals of the genus Diplacodon, and hence may be eahed the Diplacodon Beds. The fauna of each of these three subdivisions was essentially distinct, and the . fossil remains of each were entombed in different and successive
n central plateau of the Continent. As these mountain chains were elevated, the enclosed Cretaceous sea, cut off from the |
drained by the constant deepening of the ries rivers, and pe have yerrse remained essentially dry lan he Miocene lake-basins are on the wet of this region,
These basins contain three faunas, nearly or quite distinct. The lowest Miocene, which is only found east of the Rocky Moun- tains, alone contains the peculiar mammals known as the B Bron- totheride, and these deposits may be called the Brontotherium Beds. The strata next above, which represent the middle Mio-
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Infe in America. 355
cene, have as their most characteristic fossil the genus Oreodon and are known as the Oreodon Beds. The upper Miocene, which occurs in Oregon, is of great thickness, and from one o its most important fossils, Miohippus, may be designated as the Miohip- pus Series. The climate here during this period was warm
Above the Miocene, east of the Rocky Mountains and on the Basic: Coast, the Pliocene is well developed, and is rich in vertebrate remains. The strata rest unconformably on the Miocene, and there is a well marked faunal change at this
Eocene; and yet in beds of this age, coed over the Chalk, fossil mammals of many different kinds abound.
The enna strange to say, are here few in number, and - diminutive in size; and have as yet been identified only by frag- mentary specimens, dea most of them too imperfect for accurate description. In the higher Eocene deposits, this group is more abundant, but still represented by small animals, most of them insectivorous, or carnivorous in habit, like the existing Opos- sum. From the Miocene and Pliocene, no remains of Marsupials have been desaabiad, From the Post- Tertiary, only specimens nearly allied to those now living are known, and most of these were found in the caves of South America
The Edentate Mammals are evidently an American type,
which belong to animals of this rags and to the genus Moropus.
356 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
There are two species, one about as large as a Tapir, and the other nearly twice that size. This genus is the type of a dis- tinct family, the Moropodide. In the lower Pliocene above, well preserved remains of Kdentates of very large size have been found at several widely separated localities in Idaho and capes These belong to the genus Morothertum, of hich two species are known. Last of the Rocky Mountains, i in the
later fossils corresponds nearly with beds in Europe that have been called Miocene. In the Post-Pliocene of North America,
is ace by the huge Mylodon, ae Megalonyz, ren ie Ochotherium, Gnathopis, Lestodon, Scelidotherium, and
Sphaenodon ; and among the A phniilison were Chlamydotherium,
Hurydon on, Gly jptodon, Heterodon, Pachytherium and Schistopleurum. Peraiherim, another extinct genus, is supposed to be allied to the Ant-eaters,
It is frequently asserted, and very generally believed, aie pi large number of huge Edentata which lived in North Am during the Post-Phocene, were the results of an onteserts migration from South America soon: after the elevation of
the Isthmus of Panama, near the close of the Tertiary. fe) conclusive proof such migration has been offered, and the evidence, it seems to me, so far as we now it, 1s
? on ppnores. to this view. No undoubted Tertiary Edentates een discovered in South America, while we have at iat i species in our Miocene, and during’ na ehageie. of our lower Pliocene, large individuals of this oup uncommon as far north as the forty-third puttallel of latitude, on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. In view of these facts, and others which I shall lay before you, it seems more natural to conclude from our present knowledge, that the migration, which no doubt took place, was from north to south. The Edentates finding thus in South America a congenial home flourished greatly for a time, and although the larger forms are now all extinct, diminutive representatives of the group still inhabit the same region The Cetacea first appear in the Eocene, as in Europe, and
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 307
are comparatively abundant in deposits of this age on the Atlantic Coast. The most interesting remains of this order, yet found, belong to the Zeuglodontide, which are carnivorous whales, and the only animals of the order with teeth implanted by two roots. The principal genera of.this family are Zeuglodon and Squalodon, the former genus being represented by gigantic forms, some of which were seventy feet in length.
Saurocetes, which includes some small animals of this group, has been found in South America. The Dolphin family (Delphinc- de) are well represented in the Miocene, both on the Atlantic and Pacific Coast. The best known genus is Priscodelphinus, o
tiary, and with them in the earlier beds, various Ziphioid forms have been found. The toothless Balenide are only known with certainty as fossils from the later Tertiary and more recent deposits.
The Sirenians, which appear first in the Eocene of the
related to our living species. In the Tertiary of Jamaica, skull has been found which indicates a new genus, Prorastomus,
Artiodactyles, even at the base of the Eocene.
tially Perissodactyle, p s some characters which point to a -chhadiateh Ungulate type from which the present orders have een evolved m these characters are the diminutive
the mammalian foot have been derived. Of this family, only a single genus, Coryphodon (Bathmodon), is known, but there
358 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
were several distinct species. ‘They were the largest mammals
animals nearly equaled the Klephant in size, but had shorter limbs. The skull was armed with two or three pairs of horn- cores, and with enormous canine tusks. ‘The brain was propor- tionally smaller than in any other land mammal. The feet had five toes, and resembled in their general structure those of (o- ryphodon, thus indicating some affinity with that genus. These mammals resemble in some respects the Perissodactyles, and in others the Proboscidians, yet differ so widely from any known Ungulates, recent or fossil, that they must be regarded as form- ing a distinct order, the Dinocerata. Only three genera are known, Dinoceras, Tinoceras and Uintatherium, but quite a num- ber of species have been described. During the later part of the middle Hocene, these animals were very abundant for a short time, and then became extinct, leaving apparently no succes- sors, unless possibly we have in the Proboscidians their much modified descendants. Their genetic connection with the Coryphodonts is much more probable, in view of what w
now know of the two groups.
this Continent, and was told in reply that the reports to that effect were too unsatisfactory to be presented as facts in science. This remar me, on my return, to examine the subject myself, and I have since unearthed, with my own hands, not less than thirty distinct species of the horse tribe, in the Tertiary deposits of the West alone; and it is now, I think generally admitted that America is, after all, the true home of the Horse.
can offer you no better illustration than this of the advance vertebrate paleontology has made during the last decade, or 0 the important contributions to this progress which our Rocky Mountain region has supplied.
The oldest representative of the horse. at present known, is the dirninutive Hohippus from the lower Eocene. Several spe- cies have been found, all about the size of a fox. Like most of the early mammals, these Ungulates had forty-four teeth, the molars with short crowns, and quite distinct in form from
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 859
the premolars. The ulna and the fibula were entire and dis- tinct, and there were four well developed toes and a rudiment of another on the fore feet, and three toes behind. In the structure of the feet, and in the teeth, the ippus indicates unmistakably that the direct ancestral line to the modern horse has already separated from the other Perissodactyles. In the next higher division of the Eocene, another genus (Orohippus) makes its appearance, replacing Hohippus, and showing a greater, although still distant, resemblance to the Equine type. The rudimentary first digit of the fore foot has disappeared, and the last premolar has gone over to the molar series. ‘0- hippus was but little larger than Hohi ypus, and in most other respects very similar. Several species have been found in the same horizon with Dinoceras, and others lived during the upper Kocene with Diplacodon, but none later. ear the base of the Miocene, in the Brontotherium beds,
we find a third closely allied genus, J/esohippus, which is about as large as a sheep, and one stage nearer the horse. There are only three toes and a rudimentary splint bone on the fore feet, and three toes behind. Two of the premolar teeth are quite like the molars. The ulna is no longer distinct, or the fibula entire, and other characters show clearly that the transition is advancing. In the upper Miocene, Mesohippus is not found, but in its place a fourth form, Afiohippus, continues the line. This genus is near the Anchitherium of Kurope, but presents several important differences. The three toes in each foot are more nearly of a size, and arudiment of the fifth metacarpal bone is retained. All the known species of this genus are larger than those of Aesohippus, and none pass above the Miocene.
The genus Protohippus of the lower Pliocene, is yet more equine, and some of its species equaled the ass in size. There are still three toes on each foot, but only the middle one, cor- responding to the single toe of the horse, comes to the ground. This genus resembles most nearly the Hipparion of Europe. In the Pliocene, we have the last stage of the series before reaching the horse, in the genus Pliohippus, which has lost the small hooflets, and in other respects is very equine. Only in the upper Pliocene, does the true Aguus appear, and complete the genealogy of the Horse, which in the Post-Tertiary roamed over the whole of North and South America, and soon after became extinct. This occurred long before the discovery of the Continent by Europeans, and no satisfactory reason for the extinction has yet been given. Besides the characters I have mentioned, there are many others, in the skeleton, skull, teeth, and brain of the forty or more intermediate species, whic show that the transition from the Eocene Hohippus to the modern Hguus, has taken place in the order indicated, and I
360 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
believe the specimens now at New Haven will demonstrate the fact to any anatomist. They certainly carried prompt conviction to the first of anatomists, who was the honored guest of the Association a year ago, whose genius had already indi- cated the later genealogy of the horse in Europe, and whose own researches so well qualified him to appreciate the evidence here laid before him. Did time permit, 1 might give you at least a probable explanation of this marvellous change, but justice to the comrades of the horse in his long struggle for existence demands that some notice of their efforts should be placed on recor Beside the Horse and his congeners, the only existing Peris- sodactyles are the Rhinoceros and the Tapir. The last is the oldest type, but the Rhinoceros had near allies throughout the Tertiary ; and, in view of the continuity of the equine line, it a well worth while to attempt to trace his pedigree. At t bottom of the Eocene, in our Western lake-basins, the peor genus /elaletes is found, represented by numerous small mam- mals hardly larger than wer diminutive horses of that day. In
Miocene west of the Rocky Mountains, this line seems to pass on through the genus Diceratherium, and in the higher Miocene this genus is well represented. Some of the species nearly
equaled in size the existing Rhinoceros, which Diceratherium strongly resembled. The main difference between them is a most interesting one. The rudimentary horn-cores on the nasals, seen in Colonoceras, are in Diceratherium developed into
as in the Ruminants, and not on the median line, as in all existing forms of Rhinoceros. In the Pliocene of the Pacific Coast, a large Rhinoceros has been discovered, which may
e a descendant of Diceratherium, but as the nasal bones have not been found, we must wait for further evidence on =
The upper Eocene Stan Amynodon is the oldest known Rhinoceros, and by far the most generalized of the family.
O. C. Marsh Vertebrate Lifein Ameticas == UB
The premolars are all unlike the molars, the four canines are of large size, but the inner incisor in each jaw is lost in the fully adult animal. The nasals were without horns. There
as been referred to the genus Aceratherium. This form has lost the canine and one incisor above, and two incisors below. In the Pliocene are several species closely related, and of large size. Above the Pliocene in America, no vestiges of the Rhinoceros have been found, and our American forms doubt- less became extinct at the close of this perio
remarkable that the Miocene of the West, so greatly developed as
™ . . the Isthmus of Panama appear all to be generically distinct from those of South America.
In addition to these three Perissodactyle types — as e
the fittest, have alone survived, and whose lineage ay
362 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
represented, and with it is found a nearly allied form, Paleo- syops. In the upper Kocene, both have left the field, and the genus Diplacodon, a very near relative, holds the supremacy. The line seems clear through these three genera, but on crossing the break into the Miocene, we have, apparently as next of kin, the huge Brontotheride. These strange beasts show in their dentition and some other characters the same transition steps beyond Diplacodon, which that genus had made beyond
aleosyops. The Brontotheride were nearly as large as the Elephant, but had much shorter limbs. The skull was elon- gated, and had a transverse pair of large horn-cores on the maxillaries, in front of the orbits, like the middle pair in Dinoceras. There were four toes in front, and three behind, and the feet were similar to those of the Rhinoceros. There are four genera in this group, Brontotherium ; Diconodon ; Meno- dus (Titanotherium) ; and Megacerops, which have been found only in the lowest Miocene, east of the Rocky Mountains.
In the higher Miocene beds of Oregon, an allied genus, Chalicotherium, makes its appearance, It is one stage further on in the transition, and perhaps a descendant of the Bronio- theride ; but here,.so far as now known, the line disappears. It is a suggestive fact, that this genus has now been found in Western America, China, India, Greece, Germany and France, indicating thus, as I believe, the path by which many of our ancient mammals helped to people the so-called Old World.
rtiodactyles, or even-toed Ungulates, are the most abundant of the larger mammals now living; and the group dates back at least to the lowest Eocene. Of the two well marked divisions of this order, the Bunodonts and the Seleno- donts, as happily defined by Kowalevsky, the former is the older type, which must have separated from the Perissodactyle line after the latter had become differentiated from the prim- itive Ungulate. In the Coryphodon Beds of New Mexico, occurs the oldest Artiodactyle yet found, but it is at present known only from fragmentary specimens. These remains are clearly Suilline in character, and belong to the genus Hohyus. In the beds above, and possibly even in the same horizon, the genus Helohyus is not uncommon, and several species are e molar teeth of this genus are very similar to
those of the Kocene Hyracotherium, of Europe, which is sup- osed to be a Perissodactyle, while Helohyus certainly is not, ut apparently a true lineal ancestor of the existing pigs. In every vigorous primitive type which was destined to survive many geological changes, there seems to have been a tendency to throw off lateral branches, which became highly specialized and soon died out, because they are unable to adapt themselves to new conditions. The narrow path of the persistent Suilline
O: 0; March— Verlebricte Dije ta titneicae 368
type, throughout the whole Tertiary, is strown with the remains of such ambitious offshoots, while the typical pig, with an cn: never lost, has held on in spite of Catastrophes and Evolution, and still lives in America to-day. In the lower Eocene, we have in the genus Parahyus apparently one of these short-lived, eet branches. It attained a much larger size than the — lineal sori and the a of its teeth
these early Suillines, with the possible —— ss Parahyus, appear to have had at least four toes, all of usa
In the lower Miocene, we find the genus iskenn seem- ingly a true Suilline, and with it remains of a larger form, Hlotherium, are abundant. The latter genus occurs in Europe
e aberrant Suilline offshoots, pra mentioned. Some of the species were nearly as large as a Rhinoceros, more in all there were but two serviceable toes; the outer digits, seen in living ani- mals of this group, being represented only by small rudiments concealed beneath the skin, In the upper Miocene of Oregon, Suillines are abundant, and almost all belong to the genus Thinohyus, a near ally of the modern Peceary (Dicotyles), but having a greater number of teeth, and a few other distinguish- ing features. In the Pliocene, Suillines are still numerous, an
are all trne Poocatiens No authenticated remains of the genera Sus, Porcus, Phacocheerus, or the allied Hippopotamus, the Old World Suillines, have been found in Ameri ica, although several announcements to that effect have been made.
In the series of generic forms between the lower Eocene Hohyus and the existing Diciglen which I have very briefly discussed, we have ap arently the ancestral line ending in the typical American Suillines. Although the demonstration is
364 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
not yet as complete as in the lineage of the Horse, this is not owing to want of material, but rather to the fact that the actual changes which transformed the early Tertiary pig into the modern Peccary were comparatively slight, so far as they
ranches were so numerous as to confuse the line. It is clear, however, that from the close of the Cretaceous to the Post- Tertiary, the Bunodont Artiodactyles were especially abun- on this Continent, and only recently have approached extinction.
metapodial bones were distinct. The type species of this genus was about as large asa cat. With Helohyus, this genus forms a well marked family, the Helohyide.
In the Diplacodon horizon of the upper Eocene, the Seleno- dont dentition is'no longer doubtful, as it is seen in most of the Artiodactyla yet found in these beds. These animals are all small, and belong to at least three distinct genera. One of these, Homeryx, closely resembles Homacodon in most of its skeleton, and has four toes, but its teeth show well marked crescents, and a partial transition to the teeth of Hyopotamus, from the Eocene of Europe. With this genus, is another (Parameryx), also closely allied to Homacodon, but apparently a straggler from the true line, as it has but three toes behind. The most pronounced Selenodont in the upper Eocene is the
romeryx, which genus appears to be allied to the existing Deer family, or Cervide, and if so is the oldest known repre- sentative of the group. These facts are important, as it has
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 865
been supposed, — very recently, that our Eocene contained no eyen-hoofed mammals. n the lowest Macéens of the West, no re crescent-toothed Artiodactyla have as yet been identified, the exception of a single species of Hyopotamus ; but in a overlying beds of the middle Miocene, remains of the Oreodontide occur in such vast numbers as to indicate that these animals must have lived in large herds around the borders of the lake-basins in which their remains have been entombed. These basins are now the denuded deserts so well termed Mauvaises Terres by the early French trappers. The least upecialineds and apparently the oldest, genus of this group is Agriocherus, which so nearly resembles the older H: yopotamus, and the stil] more ancient fomeryx, that we can hardly doubt that they all belonged to the same ancestral line. The typical Oreodonts are the genera
In the nthe Pliocene formation, on each side of the Rocky Mountains, the genus wire a = one of the ath forms, and continues the line on he Miocene, where
oe) r surviving until the Post- are, so far as know A tibet interesting line, that leading to the Camels and ee mas, separates from the primitive Selenodont branch in the
Hocene, probably through the genus Parameryx. In the Mio-
ene, n Pebrotherium and some nearly allied forms ine ataeabie ‘ndibationh that the Cameloid type of ruminant had already become partially specialized, although there is a complete series of incisor teeth, and the metapodial ogee are distinct. In the Pliocene, the ‘Camel tribe was, next the Horses, the most vetoes of the = mammals, The Tine j is
e home of vast numbers e Camelide, and there can be little doubt that they eousee here, and migrated to the Old World.
366 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
Returning once more to the upper Eocene, we find another line of descent starting from Oromeryz, which, as we have seen, had apparently then just become differentiated from the
and its near allies, which resemble so strongly the Pliocene Cervide that they may fairly be regarded as their probable progenitors. Possibly some of these forms may be related to the Tragulide, but at present the evidence is against it.
The Deer family has representatives in the upper Miocene of Europe, which contains fossils strongly resembling the fauna of our lower Pliocene, a fact always to be borne in mind in com- paring the horizon of any group in the two continents. Several species of Cervide, belonging to the genus Cosoryx, are known from the lower Pliocene of the West, and all have very small antlers, divided into a single pair of tynes. The statement recently published, that most of these antlers had been broken during the life of the animals, is unsupported by any evidence, and is erroneous. These primitive Deer do not have the orbit closed behind, and they have all the four metapodial bones eat although the second and fifth are very slender. In the
liocene, a true Cervus of large size has been discovered. In the Post- ‘Tertiary, Cervus, Alces, and Zarandus have been met with, the latter far south of its present range. In the caves of outh America, remains of Cervus have been found, and also two gt of Antelopes, one referred to a new genus, ‘Leptothert tum. ollow-horned Ruminants, in this country, appear to date pack no further than to the lower Plioce ene, and here only two species of Bison have as yet been discovered. In the Post- Sacre this genus ~ represented by numerous individuals and several species, e of large size. The Musk Ox agen’ was et naty ete per ing some parts of this epoch, and its remains are widel) Sieibaes d.
No authentic fossil remains of true Sheep, Goats, or Giraffes
have as yet been found on this continent. roboscideans, which are now separated from the typi- Uoguletes as a distinct order, make their first appearance In
upper Pliocene, and in the Post-Tertiary ; although some of the remains attributed to the latter are undoubtedly older. The Pliocene species all have a band of enamel on the tusks, and some other fam Aone observed in. the oldest Mastodons of ht which are from essentially the same horizon. Two species of this genus have been found in South America, in
S.
The genus Hlephas is a later form, and has not yet been iden-
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Lafe in America. 367
tified in this country below the upper Pliocene, where one gigantic species was abundant. In the Post-Pliocene, remains of this genus are numerous. The hairy Mammoth of the Old World (Elephas primigenius) was once abundant in Alaska, and great numbers of its bones are now preserved in the frozen cliffs of that region. This species does not appear to have extended east of the Rocky Mountains, or south of the Colum- bia River, but was replaced there by the American Elephant, which preferred a milder climate. Remains of the latter have been met with in Canada, throughout the United States, and in Mexico, The last of the American Mastodons and Elephants became extinct in the Post-Tertiary.
The order Yoxodontia includes two very peculiar genera, Toxodon and Nesodon, which have been found in the Post-Ter- tiary deposits of South America. These animals were of huge size, sik ocean such mixed characters that their affinities are a matter of considerable doubt. They are thought to be related to the Ungulates, Rodents, and ae aeeER but as the feet are unknown, | this cannot at present be deci
Macrauchenia and Homalodontotherium are two ae peculiar genera from South America, now extinct, the exact affinities of which are uncertain. Anoplotherium and Paleotherium, so abundant in Europe, have not been found in our orth American Tertiary doposien ‘ithpieh reported from South America.
ica are the Tillodontia, which are comparatively abundant in the lower and middle Kocene. These animals seem to com- bine the characters of several different groups, viz: the Car- nivores, Ungulates, and Rodents. In the genus Tillotherium, the type of the order, and of the eee Tillotheride, the skull resembles that of the Bears ; the molar teeth are of the ungulate type; while the large incisors are very similar to those of Roden The skeleton resembles that of the Carn rnivores, but the pa | and lunar bones are distinct, and there is a third trochanter on the femur. The feet are plantigrade, and
each had five <> all with long pointed claws. In the
m fragmentary specimens. The Rodents are an ancient type, and their remains are not unfrequently disinterred in the strata of our lowest fresh-water
368° O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America
Eocene. The earliest ere forms are apparently all related to the Squirrels, and the most common genus is Scturavus, which continued pamiaen the Kocene. A nearly allied form, which may prove to be the same, is Paramys, the Fee: of which are larger than those of the older type. the Dino- ceras beds, the genus Colonomys is found, and the specimens preserved point to the J/uride, as the nearest living allies. A peculiar genus, Apatemys, which also occurs in the middle Eocene, has gliriform incisors, but the molars resemble those of Insecti vores, All the Kocene Rodents are of small size, the largest being about as large as a rabbit.
In the middle and upper Miocene lake-basins of the West, Rodents abound, but all are of moderate size. The Hares first appear in the Oreodon see and continue in considerable num- bers through the rest of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary to the present day. In these beds, the most common forms belong to the Leporide, and mainly to the genus Paleolagus. The Squirrel family is represented by Ischyromys, the Muride by the genus Fumys, and the Beavers by Paleocastor. In the upper Miocene of Oregon, most of ia same genera are found, and with them some peculiar forms, very unlike anything now living. One o these is the genus Allomys, possibly related to the flying Squirrels, but having molar teeth somewhat like those of the Ungulates. In the Pliocene, east and west of the Rocky Moun- tains, Rodents continue abundant, but most of them belong to existing genera. Among these are Castor, Hystrix, Cynomys, Geomys, Lepus and Lesperomys. In the Post-Tertiary, the gigantic beaver, Castoroides, was abundant throughout most of
orth America. Hydrocherus has been found in South Caro- lina. In the caves of the island of Anguilla, in the West Indies, remains of large extinct Rodents belonging to the Chin- chillide have been discovered.
The early Tertiary Rodents known from South America are the genera ae, pits aad and a large species referred to Arvicola. In Brazil, the Pliocene Rodents found are referred to the existing g pie Cavia, Kerodon, Lagostomus, Ctenomys, Hesperomys, Oxymycter us, Arvicola ana ‘Lepus. A new genus, Cardiodus, described from this horizon, is a true Rodent, but the peculiar Zypotherium, which has been referred to this order
some authorities, has perhaps other affinities. In the Post-Tertiary, the Rodents were very abundant in South America, as they are at present. The species are in most instances distinct from those now living, but the genera are
nearly the same. The Caviide were especially numerous. Cercolabes, Myopotam Ps and. i loc veg oe are nee found, and two extinct genera, Phyllomys and Lonchop
The Cheiroptera, or Bats, have not ae Sacacks in this country
0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 869
below the middle Hocene, where two extinct genera, Nyetilestes and Nyetithertwm, are each represented by numerous remains. These fossils all belong to small animals, and, so far as they have been investigated, show no characters of more than generic importance to distinguish them from the Bats of to-da
other members of this group are known from “ Tertiary.
found in North America, but from the caves 3 “Brazil quite a number have been reported. These all belong to genera still living in South America, and most of them to the family Phyllostomide.
The lias date back, in this country, at least to the middle Eocene. Here numerous remains occur, which have been described as belonging to this order, although it is pos- sible that some of them were insect-eating Marsupials. The best known genera are, — oo Talpavus, snk Entomacodon ; all represented by animals of small size. In the Miocene, ‘the bones of jo are comparatively abun- dant, and the genera best determined are Jctops and Leptictis.
few specimens only have been found in the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene, most of shen related to the Moles. No extinct Insectivores are known from South America, and no member of the group exists there at present.
The Carnivora, or true flesh-eating ~~ — an old type,
well represented in the Eocene, and, t be expected, these early forms are much less ae, Sr pits the living species. In the Coryphodon beds, the genus Limnocyon, allied to the Pterodon of the European Eocene, is abundant.
nother genus, apparently distinct, is Prototomus, oe several others have been named from fragmentary fossi In the middle Eocene, Carnivores were still more numerous, and many genera have been discovered. One of these, Zimnoj/elis, was nearly as large as a lion, and pd ea gd allied to the cats, although the typical Felide seem not yet to have been differen- tia
cyon, = Coheonion In our Western Miocene, Carnivores are abundant, and aces an approach to modern types. The Felide are well rep- resented, the most interesting genus being Jachairodus, which is not uncommon in the Oreodon beds on both sides of the untains. An allied genus is Dinietis, and several smaller Cats are known from about the same horizon. The Canide are represented by Amphicyon, a Kuropean genus, and ' Am. Jour, Sci. re Serizs, Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Noy., 1877.
370 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
by several species of Canzs, or a very nearly allied form. The peculiar genus Hycenodon, found also in Europe, and the type of a distinct family, is abundant in the Miocene east of the Rocky Mountains, but has not yet been found on the Pacific Coast. In the Pliocene of both regions; the Canide are numerous, and all apparently belong to the existing genus-Canis. The genus Machairodus is still the dominant form of the Cats, which are abundant, and for the most part belong to the genus Felis. The extinct Leptarctus is supposed to belong to the Urside, and if so, is the oldest American representative of this family. In the Post-Pliocene, the extinct Melide include species nearly as large as a lion, and smaller forms very similar to those still living. Bears, Raccoons and Weasels have also been found.
n the Pliocene of South America, Machairodus represents the Felide, while the genera Arctotherium and Hycnarctus belong to the Bear family. Species of Mustela and Canis have also been found. In the caves of Brazil, the fauna of which is regarded as Post-Pliocene, one species of Macharrodus is
nown, and one of Synelurus. Canis and J/eticyon, still living in Brazil, and the extinct genus Speothos, represent the Canidae. Mephitis and Galictis, among the Weasels, were also present, and with them species of Nasuwa and Arctotherium.
e come now to the highest group of Mammals, the Pri- mates, which includes the Lemurs, the Apes, and Man. is order has a great antiquity, and even at the base of the Eocene we find it represented by several genera belonging to the lower forms of the group. In considering these interesting fossils, it is important to have in mind that the Lemurs, which are usually oe as Primates, although at the bottom of the scale, are only found at the present day in Madagascar and the adjacent regions of the globe. the American Monkeys, moreover, belong to one group, much above the Lemurs, while the Old World Apes are higher still, and most nearly approach Man.
In the lower Eocene of New Mexico, we find a few repre- sentatives of the earliest known Primates, and among them are the genera Lemuravus and Limnotherium, each the type of a distinct family. These genera became very abundant in the middle Eocene of the West, and with them are found many others, all however, included in the two families, Lemuravide and Limnotheride. Lemuravus appears to have been most nearly allied to the Lemurs, and is the most generalized form of the Primates yet discovered. It had forty-four teeth, form- ing a continuous series above and below. The brain was nearly smooth, and of moderate size. The skeleton most resembles that of the Lemurs. A nearly allied genus, belong- ing to the same family, is Hyopsodus. Limnotherium (Tomithe- rium) also is nearly related to the Lemurs, but shows some affin-
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 371
ities with the South American Marmosets. This genus had forty teeth. The brain was nearly smooth, and the cerebellum
generalized forms, with characters in the teeth, skeleton and feet that suggest relationships with the Carnivores, and even with the Ungulates. These resemblances have led palzontolo- gists to refer some imperfect specimens to both these orders. _In the Miocene lake basins of the West, only a single spe- cies. of the Primates has been identified with certainty. This was found in the Oreodon Beds of Nebraska, and belongs to the genus Laopithecus, apparently related both to the Zimno- theride and to some existing South American Monkeys. In the Pliocene aud Post-Pliocene,of North America, no remains
f ; In the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Brazilian caves, remains
of Monkey cies of Callithrix, Cebus and Jacchus, all living South American enera. Only one extinct genus, Protopithecus, which embraced.
existence of Man in our Pliocene. All the remains yet dis-
Ip this rapid review of Mammalian life in America, from its first known appearance in the Trias down to the present time, I have endeavored to state briefly the introduction and succes- sion of the principal forms in each natural group. If time per- mitted, I might attempt the more difficult task of trying to indicate what relations these various groups may possibly bear to each other; what connection the ancient Mammals of this continent have with the corresponding forms of the Old World;. and, most important of all, what real progress Mammalian life has here made since the beginning of the Eocene. As it is,
372 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
can only say in summing up, that the Marsupials are clearly the remnants of a very ancient fauna, unas occupied this continent millions of years ago, and from which the other Mammals were doubtless all oo although the direct evi- dence of the transformation is wantin
Although the Marsupials are Bee related to the still lower Monotremes, now living in the Australian Region, we
supposed absence in our Miocene and Pliocene can have but limited weight, when taken in connection with the fact that they flourished in the Post-Tertiary, and are still abundant. The evidence we now have is quite as strongly in favor of a migration of Marsupials from America to the Old World, as the reverse, which has been supposed by some naturalists. Possi- bly, as Huxley has suggested, both countries were peopled with these low mammals from a continent -now submerge
_The Edentate mammals have long been a puzzle to to zoolo-
ocene, while Moropus, the oldest Edentate genus, is found in the middle Miocene, and one species in the lower Pliocene.
The Edentates have been usually regarded as an American type, but the few living forms in Africa, and the Tertiary species in Europe, the oldest known, have made the land of their nativity uncertain. I have already given you some Saget ot pe that the Edentates had their first home
taken place in the Miocene period, as the Isthmus of Darien was then submerged; but near the close of the Tertiary, the elevation of this region left a much broader strip of land than now exists there, and over this, the Edentates and other
*
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 373
mammals made their way, perhaps urged on by the increasing cold of the glacial winters) The evidence to-day is strongly in favor of such a southern migration. This, however, leaves the Old World Bicctare: fossil and recent, unaccounted for; but I believe the solution of this ite is essentially the same, namely: a migration from North America. ‘The Miocene rep- resentatives of this group, which I have recently obtained in
regon, are older than any known in Europe, and, strangely
eno ough, are more like the latter and the ete African types
than like any of our living species. If, now, we bear in mind that an ees of only 180 feet would, ‘as hms been said, close Behring’s Straits, and give a road thirty miles wide from America to Asia, we can easily see how this migration might have taken place. That such a Tertiary vie 3 “did exist, we have much independent testimony, and the known facts all point to extensive migrations of animals over it.
The Cétacea are connected with the marine Carnivores through
old type, which doubtless branched off from the more primi- tive stock leading to the Carnivores. Oar American extinct Cetaceans, when carefully investigated, sumer to throw much light upon the pedigree of these strange mammals, As most of the known forms were probably ache theif distribution is of little service in determining their orig That the Sirenians are allied to the ozelhice is now gen
erally admitted by anatomists, and the separation of the exist: ing species in distant localities suggests that they are the rem- nants of an extensive group, once widely distributed. The large number of teeth in some forms, the reduced limbs and other characters, point back to an ancestry near that of the
‘earliest ungulates. The gradual loss of teeth in the specialized
members of this group, and in the Cetaceans, is quite parallel with the same change in Edentates, as well as in Pterodactyls and Birds The Vagal are so distinct from other Bones that they must be one of the oldest natural divisions of mammals, and they probably originated from some herbivorous ats ial. Their large size, and great numbers during Tertiary and Post- tertiary time, render toa most pene in tracing migrations induced by ‘climate, as well as in showing the chan - ) structure which such a contest for pee ate may n the review of the extinct Ungulates, I have Pdeasored to show that quite a nanhee of genera usually supposed to
874 —«O. ©. Marsh—Vertebrate Life in America.
belong originally to the Old World are in reality true Amer- ican types. mong these were the Horse, Rhinoceros, an
Tapir, all the existing odd-toed Unguliates, and besides ‘these the Camel, Pig, and “Deer. All these I — and many others, went to Asia from our North West Coast. It must, for the present, remain an open qvestion ils we may not
continent. On this point there is some confusion, at least in
ames. The Himalayan yet ae called Upper Miocene, and
so rich in Proboscideans, indicate in their entire fauna that
they are more recent than our Niobrara River beds, which, for
apparently good reasons, we regard as Lower Pliocene. The )
better standard for comparison of faunas, I have preferred to retain the names already applied to our divisions, until the strata of the two continents are more satisfactorily codrdinated.
he extinct Rodents, Bats, and Insectivores of America, although offering many suggestive hints as to their relation- ship with other groups, and their various migrations, cannot now be fully discussed. There is iittle doubt, however, that the Rodents are a New World type, and, according to A Aes ga weed Saan a their origin i n North America.
a followed the huge Edentates to South America, and the Ungu- lates across pies to Europe. With this genus went scene e
was seat before nie reached it. The Edentates, in their southern migration, were Lair
remains of the last have yet ties found: oth of co. The Mastodon, Elephant, Llama, Deer, city and ott am- mals, followed the same path y the Mastodon, Elephant,
eo
0. Q. Marsh— Vertebrate Lage in America. 375
The relations of the American Primates, extinct and recent, to those of the other hemisphere, offer an inviting topic, but it Is not in my present province to discuss them in their most suggestive phases, s we have here the oldest and most
ancestry, is readily explained by the then intervening oceans, which likewise were a barrier to the return of the Horse and Rhinoceros. : :
however, came; doubtless first ; across Behring’s
a ? Straits; and at his advent became part our fauna, as a mammal and primate. In these relations alone, it is my pur-
visits to that region, many facts were brought to my knowl- edge which render this more than probable. Man at this time
as a savage, and was doubtless forced by the great volcanic outbreaks to continue his migration. This was at first to the south, since mountain chains were barriers on the east. As the native Horses of America were now all extinct, and as the early man did not bring the old world animal with him, his migrations were slow. I believe, moreover, that his slow pro- gress towards civilization was in no. small degree due to this same cause, the absence of the Horse
typical Mound-builders of the Mississippi Valley and those of the Pueblo Indians. I had long been familiar with the former,
376 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. .
assurance of a friend who had os Pearse them in New
Mexico, to convince me that they were not from the mounds. A third fact, -~ I leave Man to the dy Se nat Vea on whose province I am even now trenching. In a large collection of
waterjars from Peru, th at no one could fainty d douks that some intercourse had taken place between the widely separated peo- ple that made them
The oldest known remains of Man on this continent differ in no important characters from the bones of the typical Indian, although in some minor details they indicate a muc more primitive race. ‘These early remains, some of which are true fossils, resemble much more closely the corresponding parts of the highest Old World Apes, has do the latter our Tertiary Primates, or even the recent American Monkeys. a living and fossil forms of old world Primates fill up
so etek long survive. Texts the intermediate forms of the past, if any there opal become of still —. gc 8 For such missing links, must look to the caves and later
b] left their remains somewhere on this continent. In these two directions, as I believe, lie the most important future discov- eries in Paleeontology.
As a cause for many changes of structure in mammals during the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary, I regard, as the most . potent, Natural Selection, in the broad sense in which that term 1s now used by American evolution ists. Under this head, I include not merely a Malthusian struggle for life among the animals themselves, but the equally important contest with the elements, and all surrounding nature. By changes in the envi- ronment, migrations are enforced, slowly in some cases, rapidly in others, and with change of locality must come adaptation to new conditi tions, or extinction. The life-history of Tertiary mammals illustrates this nar at every stage, and no other
explanation meets the fac
O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 377
The real progress of mammalian life in America, from the beginning of the Tertiary to the present, is well illustrated by the Brain-growth, in which we have the key to many other
ceans with teeth retain this type, except the Zeuglodonts, which approach the dentition of aquatic Carnivores. In the higher mammals, the incisors and canines retain the conical shape, and the premolars have only in part been transformed. e latter gradually change to the more complicated molar pattern, and hence are not reduced molars, but transition forms 1 the cone to more complex types. Most of the early Tertiary mammals had forty-four teeth, and in the oldest forms the premolars were all unlike the molars; while the crowns were short, covered with enamel, and without cement. Each stage of progress in the differentiation of the animal was, as a rule, _tnarked by a change in the teeth; one of the most common being the transfer, in form at least, of a premolar to the molar series, and a gradual lengthening of the crown. Hence, it is often easy to decide from a fragment of a jaw, to what horizon of the Tertiary it belongs. The fossil Horses of this period, for example, gained a grinding tooth, for each toe they lost, one in each epoch. In the single-toed existing horses, all the premolars are like the molars, and the process is at an end. Other dental transformations are of equal interest, but this illustration must suffice.
The changes in the limbs and feet of mammals during the Same period were quite as marked. he foot of : the primitive mammal was doubtless plantigrade, and certainly five-toe
378 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.
changes took place in the limb bones. One result was a great increase in speed, as the power was applied so as to act only in the plane of motion. The best effect of this speciali- zation is seen to-day in the Horse and Antelope, each repre- senting a distinct group of Ungulates, with tive-toed ancestors.
If the history of American Mammals as I have briefly sketched it, seems as a whole incomplete, and unsatisfactory, we must remember that the genealogical tree of this class has its trunk and larger limbs concealed beneath the débris of Meso- zoic time, while its roots doubtless strike so deeply into the Paleozoic that for the present they are lost. A decade or two hence, we shall probably know something of the mammalian fauna of the Cretaceous, and the earlier lineage of our existing mammals can then be traced with more certainty.
The results I have presented to you are mainly derived from personal observation ; and since a large part of the higher vertebrate remains found in this country have passed through my hands, I am willing to assume full responsibility for my presentation of the subject.
r our present knowledge of the extinct Mammals, Birds and Reptiles of North America, science is especially indebted to Leidy, whose careful, conscientious work has laid a secure foundation for our vertebrate paleontology. The energy of Cope has brought to notice many strange forms, and greatl
brates have been described by Lund, Owen, Burmeister, Ger- vais, Huxley, Flower, Desmarest, Aymard, Pictet, and Nodot. Darwin and Wallace have likewise contributed valuable infor- mation on this subject, as they have on nearly all forms of life.
In this long history of ancient life I have said nothing of what Life itself really is. And for the best of reasons, because I know nothing. Here at present our ignorance is dense, and yet we need not despair. Light, Heat, Electricity, and Magnet- ism, Chemical Affinity and Motion, are now considered different forms of the same force; and the opinion is rapidly gaining ground that Life, or vital force, is only another phase of the
ower. Possibly the great mystery of Life may thus be solved, but whether it be or not, a true faith in Science knows no limit to its search for Truth.
ad. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation. 879
Art. XLII —WNote on the Helderberg Formation of Bernardston, Massachusetts, and Vernon, Vermont; by JAMES D. Dana.
IN examinations of the Bernardston Helderberg formation which were the basis of my former paper “On the Rocks of the Helderberg era in the Valley of the Connecticut”* my main purpose was lithological—that is, to ascertain and point out the kinds of crystalline rocks that were comprised within terranes of Helderberg (later Upper Silurian) age. he con- formable position of the Bernardston limestone beneath strata of quartzyte and slate, first made known by Professor Edward Hitchcock,+ I found to be, as I thought, a fact; and from there I traced the quartzyte at intervals, along with the slate— a peculiar mica slate easily distinguished by the minute garnets which gave its layers a pimpled surface, and the small crystals of mica set transversely to the lamination—over the country, to South Vernon in Vermont; and announced in my- paper that the Helderberg formation included, besides the quartzyte and mica slate, beds of compact green hornblende rock, a rock of the composition of syenyte, staurolitic mica slate, coarse mica schist, whitish and grayish quartzose gneiss, and all Stages of passage between quartzyte and gneiss.
Recently, Professor C. H. Hitchcock, in the Second Volume of his Report on the Geology of New Hampsbire,t and more briefly in a note in this Journal,$ has suggested that the order of stratification at the limestone locality is not the true order; that the rocks may be “in an inverted position :” that the limestone stratum may have overlaid both the other formations, that is, the quartzyte and mica slate;| that “the limestone occupies a small valley in the quartzyte."§ Having, throug this supposition, made the limestone*the newest of the forma- tions, he concludes, further, that the mica slate, now lying over it, is not necessarily Helderberg; that the hornblende rocks and gneiss of Vernon are not necessarily of the Helderberg series,** and neither the staurolitic slate; that a long period
-* This Journal, IIT, vi, 339. po etc. of Massachusetts, by E. Hitchcock, 8vo, 1833, Pp. 255; Report of Amer. Assoc. for 1851, p. 299; Report Geol. of Vermont, 2 vols. 4to, 1861, p. 447. This last notice was prepared in conjunction with Mr. C. H. Hitchcock. It gives a section representing the limestone dipping bene quartzyte and slate. Page 428 and beyond, 1877. § Vol. xiii, page 313, April, 1877. Tbid. Report New Hampshire, vol. ii, p. 455. It should be added here that the volume of the N. Hampshire Geological Report referred to conveys on an earlier page (p. 18), a different opinion as to the limits of the Helderberg, where it is stated that the Connecticut Valley Helder- series consists of several thousand feet in thickness of qu 8 stones, slates, conglomerates, sandstones, flags, and probably hornblende schists.
4 i=) Q $ o a
880 J. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation.
intervened ap the deposition of the hornblendie stratum and quartz
hile nc dissenting from my conclusions, Professor Hitch- cock adopts my suggestion that the garnetiferous mica slate which overlies the quartzyte and limestone at the pees limestone locality is identical with the Cods slate of the necticut Valley in all its characters and age, and hence that of the former should turn out after all to be Helderberg, the Coés formation (which extends up the valley to Canada, accord- ing to Professor Hitchcock) is also Helderberg or later Upper Silurian.
These differences of opinion, and the wide bearing of the facts on New —— geology have led me to revisit the place and examine it an n my former paper I closed by stating my intention, afeither season, to study the stratigraphical details of the region, aan trace out the limits or ran . formations southward along the Connecticut Valley. But other geological work in Westerns and Southern New England, and on the islands off its southern coast, have since occupied such leisure time as I could command. In my recent visit to Bernardston I was accompanied by Professor B. K. Emerson, of Amherst College; and it is a great sativfaction to know that he will give the whole subject a careful and thorough study, and connect it with a general geological survey of Central and Western Neauantinests <woek for which he is eminently fitted.
To facilitate explanations I repeat the section of the strata at the Bernardston locality before published, with one correc- tion. 0. 8, the blocked area, represents the stratum of Crinoidal limestone : Nos. 1 and 4, dotted areas, an underlying and an overlying stratum of quartzyte; and "Nos. 2 and 5 tinely lined areas, an underlying and an overlying stratum of
SE Se = TT
Older cla;
garnetiferons mica slate. The succession and BER are the me as in the section by Professor Hitchcock in the Vermont Geological Report, excepting the omission here of a layer of slate
papas over the limestone. conclusions which the facts coe to me to sustain, in Spposition to those set forth by Professor C. H. Hitchcock in the New Hampshire Report of 1877, Bae mostly in agreement with Mr. C. H. Hitchcoek of the Vermont Report* (p. 598) of
1861—are the following :
*The Vermont Report makes no — in the oe én the Bernardston limestone (p. 447), of the rei nat S, gnei ss, ete., of the adjoining region on the east. But on page 598, in an fas of “Section I,” extending across the
J. D. Dana—Note on the Pernardston Helderberg Formation. 881
“ ie the quartzyte is Helderberg as much as the lime- sto
9, “Phat the garnetiferous mica slate is equally Helderberg.
3. That the limestone is a lo Ser pod pete between the other Sean of the Helderberg format
4. That hornblende rocks, sinuroiti tae mica schist and gneiss of the adjoining region on the and northeast are of e and the same geological ‘ornate
. The Quartzyte as of the Helderberg formation. The overly- aa quartz te (No. 4) besides occurring in large outcrops over the hill-side, constitutes the upper two to four feet of the vertical section exposed in a portion of the limestone quarry. is alone proves its conformable position and close relation to the limestone. But further, while this overlying quartzyte is in part very compact and solid, some portions are very cellular from the removal of calcareous matter nd pyrite, and also from the removal of fossils. The first of the fossils was found by Pro- fessor Emerson, while we were together, an
h
. pseudo-galeatus, a Low Rpt cstes Se species. Besides these brachiopods, there were in the same layers of the reader dem humerous fragments of erinoidal pare mostly of small species. Some of the lamine of this quartzyte ‘have be tween them mica in seales, so as to look in a surface view like mica schist
The fact that there is conformability between the limestone and quartzyte is hence beyond question. And it is equally cer- tain that, overturned or not, the quartzyte belongs to the same
extremity of the State near the Massachusetts boundary, Mr. C. H. Hitch- Sock describes the hornblende rocks of Vernon and Bernardston as associated m
also “invariabl renting upon the quartz rock” and hence ‘‘ newer” than it; as, th pa F rivegrans Bec! the Sacer r Helderberg age, like the Hebron lime- stone (H (Hall’s first d pel eat which rests on the same quartz rock; thus mak- ing the ‘whole series Upper Helderberg. The unconformability e the quartz tock series on the clay slate is also recognized. re still his vee except ng the change of Upper Helderberg to Lower Helderberg, ie should be in close agreement. In my arguments above, I fact sustaining Mr. C. H. Hitchcock of 1861, against Professor C. H. Hitch- ba pe wen conclusions have been influenced by his faith in the
aE g
bd oo by C. H. Hitchcock,” and the poem 0 fos pad that oe pies on i were prepared by any other person.
382 J. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Held-rberg Formation.
era with the crinoidal limestone; for the former orcs graduates into the latter as its calcareous matter and fossils s
limestone as well as one (No. 5) above. This inferior mica slate wants the little disseminated crystals of mica common in the other; but it is pimpled with garnets like that. The line of outcrops extends for several rods, and runs along within a few yards of the limestone, at the nearest aes hardly a yard of earth intervening; and the strike and dip throughout cor- respond with that of the limestone snide: Basia garnet- iferous mica slate below the limestone as well as above, and the three strata conformable in dip, there can be no reasonable doubt that all are of one formation. The limestone stratum is- so placed with reference to those above and below that it could not have been originally at the top, and the newest of the series. Whatever faulting or inversion be supposed, it must have had originally, as it has now, an overlying and an underlying mica ey
The limestone a local depostt in the patna formation.— Phe fact that the limestone has not been observed elsewhere in
isolated calcareous eens in the “Calciferous mica schist,” would be regarded as showing the age of the schist; and so it hou ere. Professor Hitchcock says that if the Cods slate is Helderberg, the Calciferous mica schist is unquestionably so too. Admitting this to be true, the parallelism between the Bernardston lime- stone and the isolated calcareous depcits in the schist becomes ~ com T the hornblende rocks, staurolitic slate, mica schist and asso- ciated gneiss are of the Helderber gq formation.—As limestone has _ been found in the region only at the one locality in Bernards- ton, the evidence of equivalence has to be derived from the distribution of its associated rocks. This evidence, east and phate of the Bernardston village-plain, is as follows : 1.) The same garnetiferous mica slate with disseminated
brown mica erystals set transversely that lengurs associated |
* My knowledge of the rock formations of Western Vermont is not sufficient to warrant an independent opinion with regard to the “ Calciferous mica schist.”
J.D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation. 388
with quartzyte at the Bernardston locality on the west side of the Bernardston plain occurs associated with quartzyte at different points between Bernardston and Vernon. It some- times dips beneath guartzyte and sometimes overlies it.
(2.) Outcrops of the quartzyte and the peculiar Bernardston mica slate together appear east and northeast of Bernardston within one to one and a half miles of the Crinoidal limestone locality (the intervening flat valley being under drift and alluvium), and at intervals beyond, to Vernon, with the same aspect and conformable superposition as at the limestone locality.
(3.) In the same region, hornblende rocks, staurolitic slate, gneiss and mica schist occur in alternating beds with the Bernardston mica slate and quartzyte.
A mile and a half east of Bernardston,* the Bernardston mica slate occurs in alternating beds with the hornblende rock,
ray-green compact rock, not schistose—with so obvious junctions that the alternation cannot be questioned. The ho blende rock (1) dips beneath (2) mica slate; this beneath (8) hornblende rock; and the last beneath (4) mica slate again. Whether there is a fault between 2 and 8 is not certain; but it is unquestionable that 1 and 2, and 8 and 4 are strictly con- formable. Part of the hornblende rock is speckled white with quartzyte and feldspar and is like a quartzytic syenite in con- stitution, though unlike true syenyte in aspect.
Again: a mile to the north of the last. mentioned locality and less than a mile and a half northeast of the Bernardston
rolite, quartzyte is in some places a staurolitic slate. Another place, farther east, is mentioned in my former paper where the slate is abundantly staurolitic.
ain: in Vernon, four to five miles northwest of South Vernon, where the quartzyte is largely exposed to view, one of the quartzyte knolls consists partly of mica rock like that above described, made up mainly of aggregated scales of brown mica but containing distributed through it some quartz and * For the position of this locality see my former paper.
384 J. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation.
hornblende. In other outcrops in the field adjoining, the rock is mostly true quartzyte, but partly a Aiea es oc hornblende rock, “with insensible gradations between the quartzyte. Again: at South Vernon, over the ae nearly west of the hotel, there occur—first quartzyte, but with it, and ganas into it, the compact green hornblende rock ; then, slope, a coarse garnetiferous mica schist sarang mainly of brown mica, which is nothing but a coarse form of the Ber- nardston slate: a nd in this miea schist there are hornblendie layers; and some beds which consist of a quartzytic syenyte, though with the hornblende grains in slender crystals. ain: between Vernon Center and South Vernon, there are oer showing the transition between the quartzyte and a quartzytic gneiss. The gneiss has the aspect of any ordinary light-colored thick- — gneiss. But it is all quartzytic, and in part very largely esides this fishy. polos quartzytic gneiss, there is also, norta of South Vernon, quartzytic syenite, a whitish rock con- taining small grains of greenish hornblende, rather sparsely dis- seminated, without mica, and making . handsome rock whic might at first be taken for a white erani 5. Conelusion.—Thus, the region “affords examples (1) of the interstratification of the quartzyte and Bernardston mica slate, with a green massive hornblende rock; with a syenytic roc with gneiss; and with coarse mica schist; (2) of transitions of the Bernardston mica slate into staurolitic slate and mica schist ; and (3) of transitions of the quartzyte into (a) micaceous quartz- yte; (b) a tough quartzytic mica rock, more or less hornblendic ; (c) quartzytic gneiss often granitoid : (4) green hornblende rock ; and (5) syenyte, besides various intermediate forms. For some other examples of these transitions I refer to my former paper. emonstration is certainly complete that whatever the ape . the quartzyte and the associated Bernardston 1 mica slate, ame is the age of the rocks above mention and that che fossils of the Bernardston locality decide the age approxi- mately for the series; and tinally, that all are of the Helderberg formation a =i Upper Silurian, if that is true of the noidal lim 6. Lithological characteristics,—In using the lithological test of geological age it must hence be noted that the following may be rocks of metamorphic Upper Silurian formations: mica slate and iyi staurolitiec mica poe hornblendie Aue, varying from a kind consisting mainly of green hornblen a quartz- ytic soto and hornblendie a ious gia true gneiss; micaceous quartzyte ; bah zyte. minerals included among the abundant metamorphic species are: brown and white mica, the former much the most.
JD. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation. 885
common ; staurolite ; green and black hornblende; orthoclase; garnet; along with pyrite, magnetite, and granular limestone. The mica slate and schist and the staurolitic mica slate are not distinguishable from kinds that are of earlier age. e hornblende rocks are peculiar. Those which are made mainly of hornblende have a dark green color, and are massive, often indistinct in bedding instead of schistose and» muc
or quartzyte and orthoclase. he whitish quartzytic syenite mentioned on the preceding
quartz grains with few of feldspar.
e gneiss also is peculiar. It generally consists very largely of grains of quartz, even where looking to the eye like a true gneiss. The mica is almost solely the brown kind and is like that of the mica slate, though often seeming to have as little elasticity as chlorite; and the regular disposition of the spots of mica, give to the most quartzytic varieties a strikingly guneiss-like look. Professor Hitchcock refers the rock to the Bethlehem gneiss. But “the most characteristic of the rocks comprising this formation,” he says, speaking of the Bethlehem gneiss, “is a reddish granitic gneiss, the flesh-colored orthoclase predominating, with chloritic or some hydro-micaceous mineral
of orthoclase in characteristic “ Bethlehem gneiss” which renders connection with a Helderberg formation improbabi
The quartzyte in some places—as two miles west of South Vernon,—contains much pearly mica (hydrous mica?); a weathered surface of such a specimen shows that the rock consists mainly of quartz. In other places the quartzyte is marked with dark-gray and blackish lines where the mica is not distinguishable without a glass, of it indicates by its fineness of texture, and sometimes even flinty aspect, that the quartz sand of which it was made was very finely comminuted, -and not coarse like that from which the Green Mountain
Am, Jour. 8cr.—THIrp ce % Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Nov., 1877.
386 J.D. Dana=Ni ote on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation.
quartzyte was made; and hence that the region, when the deposition took place, was not the border of the open se
7. Origin of the Rocks.—To understand the rocks of this Helderberg region, it must be borne in mind: that quartzyte beds in their original state, that is, beds of quartz sand, may have been formed at different times in the course of the era, owing to changes of est or of currents; that the sand beds— like those of any other era and of the present time—would, in many places, have had more or Jess eartby material (ground-up crystalline rock) with the quartz sand, so that metamorphism
ould not make pure quartzyte out of it, but might make a micaceous or gneissoid quartzyte, ora quartzytic gneiss, accord- ing to the nature of the earthy material present; that while sand-beds were formed where the currents were rapid enough for the purpose, mud-beds would have formed where the waters
mica rock, and the hornblende rocks wou iave een pro- duced. The existence of some potash and alumina in the triturated rock or mud (both ingredients of orthoclase) would have favored the formation of brown mica (biotite) by meta-
the same proportion in the blende as in the mica. Anal- yses of average biotite and dark green hornblende afford : Biotite. Hornbiende. J RR Seas ae ce a 45 PRU 2a ce es a 18 * 10-12 Iron protoxide eee proto t ice sis es ap Magneto 2 See Ss: - 22 20 We 20 Set ee AL ae 14 WORMS Fe i ct 10
The magnesia would have come from the trituration of such older rocks as are made partly or wholly of minerals contain- ng nt hg which tise. hornblende and biotite are the most co ‘Admittitig the Cods formation of Professor baptipe 3: and the Calciferous mica schist adjoining it, to be of the same formation with the mica slate, headed bat and borhktinds rocks
of the Bernardston and Vernon region, which Professor H. states to be a fact, this Helderberg Somnitien stretches north-
ward beyond the ‘boundary of New England, with a breadth along the Connecticut Valley of fifteen to thirty miles or more’:
W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 887
breadth enough where narrowest—as at Bernardston—for a clear sea good for growing corals and crinoids. Whether Pro: fessor Hitchcock’s Lisbon and Lyman groups, which he refers to the Huronian, are not to be included, remains to be ascer- tained, as indicated on page 817 of this volume. Addin them, it would follow that the Connecticut bay or channel of the Helderberg era covered a large part of Northern New Hamp- shire, and was connected with a great area in Maine marked off by the occurrence of Helderberg and Devonian fossils.
Art. XLIV.— History of Cavern Exploration in Devonshire, England ; by W. PENGELLY, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Geological Section of the British Association at Plymouth.
[Continued from page 308.]
Brixham Cavern.—Early in 1858.an unsuspected cavern was broken into by quarrymen at the northwestern angle of Wind- mill Hill at Brixham, at a point seventy-five feet above the surface of the street, almost vertically below, and 100 feet above mean tide. On being found to contain bones, a lease in it was secured for the Geological Society of London, who appatiten & committee of their members to undertake its exploration ; funds were voted by the Royal Society, and supplemented by private subscriptions; the conduct of the investigation was Intrusted to Mr. Prestwich and myself; and the work, under my superintendance, as the only resident member of the committee, was begun in July, 1858, and completed at mid-
1859.
e cavern, comprised within a space of 135 feet from north to south, and 100 from east to west, consisted of a series of tunnel galleries from six to eight feet in greatest width, and ten to fourteen feet in height, with two small chambers and five external entrances..
The deposits, in descending order, were :—
Ist, or uppermost; a floor of stalagmite, from a few inches
to a foot thick, and continuous over very considerable areas, but not throughout the entire cavern. _ 2d. A mass of small angular fragments of limestone, cemented into a firm concrete with carbonate of lime, commenced at the principal entrance, which it completely filled, and whence it extended thirty-four feet only. It was termed the first bed.
3d. A layer of blackish matter, about twelve feet long, and nowhere more than a foot thick, occurred immediately beneath the first bed, and was designated the second bed.
388 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.
4th. A red, tenacious, clayey loam, containing a large num- ‘ber of angular and subangular fragments of limestone, varying from very small bits to blocks a ton in weight, made up the third bed. “ Pebbles of trap, quartz and limestone were some- what prevalent, whilst nodules of brown hematite and blocks of stalagmite were occasionally met with in it. The usual depth of the bed was from two to four feet, but this was ex- ceeded by four or five feet in two localities.
5th. The third bed lay immediately on an accumulation of pebbles of quartz, greenstone, grit and limestone, mixed with small fragments of shale. The depth of this, known as the fourth or gravel bed, was undetermined ; for, excepting a few feet only, the limestone bottom was nowhere reached. There is abundant evidence that this bed, as well as a stalagmitic floor which had covered it, had been partially broken up and dislodged before the introduction of the third bed.
rganic remains were found in the stalagmitic floor and in each of the beds beneath it, with the exception of the second only; but as ninety-five per cent of the whole series occurred in the third, this was not unfrequently termed the bone bed.
The mammals represented in the stalagmite were bear, rein- deer, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, mammoth, and cave lion.
e first bed yielded bear and fox only.
In the third bed were found relics of mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, horse, Bos primigenius, B. longifrons, red deer, rein- deer, roebuck, cave lion, cave hyena, cave bear, grizzly bear, brown bear, fox, hare, rabbit, Lagomys spelceus, water-vole, shrew, polecat and weasel.
e only remains met with in the fourth bed were those of bear, horse, ox and mammoth. human industrial remains exhumed in the cavern were flint implements and a hammer-stone, and occurred in the third and fourth beds only. The pieces of flint met with were thirty- six in number. Of these, fifteen are held to show evidence of having been artificially worked, in nine the workmanship is rude or doubtful, four have been mislaid, and the remainder are believed not to have been worked at all (see Phil. Trans., vol. elxiii, 1878, pp. 561, 562). Of the undoubted tools, eleven were found in the third and four in the fourth bed. Two of those yielded by the third bed, found forty feet apart, in two distinct but adjacent galleries, and one a month before the other, proved to be parts of one and the same nodule-tool; and I have little or no doubt that it had been washed.out of the fourth bed and re-deposited in the third. he hammer-stone was a quartzite pebble, found in the upper portion of the fourth bed, and bore distinct marks of the use to which it had been applied.
W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 889
validity of the doubts thrown upon the previously prevailing (Phil. Tr
the face of it lay several fine relics of the ordinary cave mam- mals, including an entire left lower jaw of Hyena spelea replete with teeth, but which had nevertheless failed to arrest the attention of the incurious workmen who exposed it, or of any one else.
Soon after the resumption of the work in 1861, the remnant of the outer wall of the fissure was removed, and caused the fall of an incoherent part, of the dike, which it had previously supported. Amongst the débris the workmen collected some hundreds of specimens of skulls, jaws, teeth, vertebrae, portions of antlers, and bones, but no indications of man. Mr. Wolston, © the proprietor, sent some of the choicest specimens to the British Museum, and submitted the remainder to Mr. Ayshford Sanford, F.G.S., from whom I Jearn that the principal portion of them are relics of the cave hyena, from the os aa whelp to very aged animals. With them, however, were remains of bear, reindeer, ox, hare, Arvicola ratticeps, A. agrestis, wolf, fox, and part of a single maxillary with teeth not distinguishable from those of Canis isatis. To this list I may add rhinoceros, of which Mr. Wolston showed me at least one ; :
From the foregoing undesirably, but unavoidably, brief
390 W. Pengetly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire,
descriptions, it will be seen that the Devonshire caverns, to which attention has been now directed, belong to two classes, —those of Oreston, the Ash-Hole, and Bench being Pissure Caves ; whilst those of Yealm Bridge, Windmill Hill at Brix- ham, Kent’s Hole, and Ansty’s Cove are Tunnel Caves.
Windmill Hill and Kent's Hole Caverns have alone been satisfactorily explored; and besides them none have yielded evidence of the contemporaneity of man with the extinct cave mammals.
Oreston is distinguished as the only known British cavern which has yielded remains of Rhinoceros leptorhinus (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxxvi, p. 456).
Yealm Bridge Cavern, if we may accept Mr. Bellamy’s iden- tification in 1885, was the first in this country in which relics of glutton were found (South Devon Monthly Museum, vi, pp. 218-223; see also ‘Nat. Hist. S. Devon,” 1839, p. 89). The same species was found in the caves of Somerset and Glamor- gan in 1865 (Pleist. Mam., Pal. Soc., pp. xxi, xxii), in Kent's Hole in 1869 (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1869, p. 207), and near Plas Heaton, in North Wales, in 1870 (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.), Xxvil, p. 407).
Kent’s Hole is the only known British cave which has afforded remains of beaver (Rep. Brit. Assoc.. 13869, p. 208), and up to the present year the only one in which the remains of Macherodus latidens had been met with. Indeed Mr. Mac-
1st. The lowest known bed in each is composed of materials which, while they differ in the two cases, agree in being such as
W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 391
may have been furnished by the districts adjacent to the cavern- hills respectively, but not by the hills themselves, and must have been deposited prior to the existing local geographical conditions. In each, this bed contained flint implements an relics of bear, but in neither of them those of hyzena. In short, the fourth bed of Windmill Hill Cavern, Brixham, and the breccia of Kent's Hole, Torquay, are coéval, and belong to what I have called the Ursne period of the latter.
2d. The beds just mentioned were in each cavern sealed with a sheet of stalagmite, which was partially broken up, and considerable portions of the subjacent beds were dislodged before the introduction of the beds next deposited. .
3d. The great bone bed, both at Brixham and Torquay, consisted of red clayey loam, with a large percentage of angular fragments of limestone; and contained flake implements of flint and chert, inosculating with remains of mammoth, the tichorhine rhinoceros, and hyzna. In fine, the cave-earth of Kent’s Hole and the third bed of Brixham Cavern correspond in their mate- rials, in their osseous contents, and in their flint tools. They both belong to what I have named the Hyenine period of the Torquay Cave.
But, as already stated, there are points in which the two cav- erns differ :
Ist. While Kent’s Hole was the home of man, as well as of -
the contemporary hysna during the absences of the human occupant, there is no reason to suppose that either man or any of the lower animals ever did more than make occasional visits to Brixham cave. The latter contained no flint chips, no bone tools, no utilized Pecten-shells, no bits of charcoal, and no copro- lites of hyzena, all of which occurred in the cave-earth of Kent’s
ole.
2d. In the Torquay Cave, relics of hyzena were much more abundant in the eave-earth than those of any other species. Taking the teeth alone, of which vast numbers were found, those of the hyzena amounted to about 30 per cent of the entire series, notwithstanding the fact that, compared with most of the cave-mammals, his jaws, when furnished completely, possess but few teeth. At Brixham, on the other hand, his relics of all kinds amounted to no more than 8% per cent of all the
tools were unpolished flints, until the quarrymen broke into it early in A. D. 1858. Kent's Cavern, on the contrary, seems
392 W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. .
to have never been closed, never unvisited by man, from the earliest Paleolithic times to our own, with the possible excep- tion of the Neolithic era, of which it cannot be said to have yielded any certain evidence.
Though my “ History of Cavern Exploration in Devonshire” is now completed, so far as the time at my disposal will allow, and so far as the materials are at present ripe for the historian, I venture to ask your further indulgence for a few brief moments while passing from tlie region of fact to that of inference.
That the Kent’s Hole men of the Hysnine period—to say nothing at present of their predecessors of the Breccia—belonged to the Pleistocene times of the biologist, is seen in the fact that they were contemporary with mammals peculiar to and charac- teristic of those times. This contemporaneity proves them to have belonged to the Paleolithic era of Britam and Western
urope generally, as defined by the archeologist; and this is fully confirmed by their unpolished tools of flint and chert. That they were prior to the deposition of even the oldest part of the peat bogs of Denmark, with their successive layers of beech, pedunculated oak, sessile oak, and Scotch fir, we learn from the facts that even the lowest zone of the bogs has yielded no bones of mammals but those of recent species, and no tools but those of Neolithic type; whilst even the granular stalag- * mite, the uppermost of the Hyenine beds in Kent’s Hole, has afforded relics of mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, cave bear, and cave hyena.
That the men of the Cave Breccia, or Ursine period, to whom we now turn, were of still higher antiquity, is obvious from the geological position of their industrial remains. That the two races of Troglodytes were separated by a wide interval of time we learn from the sheet of crystalline stalagmite, sometimes twelve feet thick, laid down after the deposition of the breccia
ad ceased, and before the introduction of the cave-earth had begun, as well as from thé entire change in the materials com- posing the two deposits. But, perhaps, the fact which most emphatically indicates the chronological value of this interval is the difference in the faunas. In the cave-earth, as already stated, the remains of the hyena greatly exceed in number those of any other mammal; and it may be added that he is also disclosed by almost every relic of his contemporaries— their jaws have, through his agency, lost their condyles and lower borders ; their bones are fractured after a fashion known
W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 893
dead near it ; and the well-known habits of his representatives of our day have led us to expect all this from him. When, sowerer, we turn to the breccia, a very different spectacle awaits us. We meet with no trace era of his presence,
operated, not a coprolite to mark as saa as a visit. Can it be doubted that had he then occupied our country he would have’ taken up his abode in our cavern? Need we hesitate to regard this entire absence of all traces of so decided a cave-dweller as a proof that he kad not yet made his advent in Britain? Are we not compelled to believe that man formed part of the Devon- shire fauna long before the hyzena did? Is there any method of escaping the conclusion that pine the era of the Breccia and that of the Cave-earth it was possible for the hyena to reach Britain ?—in other words, that the last vee nents state of our country occurred during that interval? I confess that, in the present state of the evidence, I see no escape; ahd that the conclusion thus forced on me compels me to believe also that = eke men of Kent’s Hole were interglacial, if not pregla The. ‘olla table will serve to show at one view the co ordinations and theoretical conclusions to which the facts of ents Cavern have led me, as stated briefly in the foregoing remarks, ‘T'he table, it will be seen, consists of two divisions, separated with double Be crc lines. The hii or left hand,
~
orizons, and tholk sotcaidiuaial continuity throug
columns denotes oe y. Thus, to take an exeuiple from the two columns headed “ nbebsicenad? and “ Danish- Bog,” in the second division: the horizontal “og passing con- sions! through both, under the words “Iron” and “ Beech,” is intended to suggest that the “Iron Age’ of Western Europe and the “Beech” zone of the Danish Bogs take us back about - equally far into antiquity; whilst the position of the line under the word “ Bronze” indicates that the, ‘‘ Bronze age” (still of Western Europe) take us back from the ancient margin of the Beech era, through the whole of that of the Peduneulated Oak, and about half- -way through the era of the Sessile Oak; and so on in all other cases.
394. C. B. Warring—Growth-rings in Exogenous Plants
KENT'S CAVERN. PERIODS. Deposits. Bones. Implements. Archeolog’al Danish-Bog Biological Geograph Climat Tron. Tron. Beech. : Peduncu- lated Oak. Black Mould.| Ovine. Bronze. Bronze. Recent. | Insular. Post- ’ Glacial Sessile and (?) Oak. Neolithic. || Neolithic. Scotch Fir. Granular Stalagmite. ’ ‘ Paleolithic Contin- Black Band. | Hyzenine. Flakes. ental. Glacial Cave-earth. ari and (?) we eis Paleolithic. oink Inter- Crystalline Glacial ws Insular. Paleolithic Ursine. | Nodules. Breccia. Contin- ental Pre- Glacial
Fae XLV.—Is the Existence of Growth-rings in the Karly Exogenous Plants proof oy Alternating Seasons? An extract from a paper read before the N. Y. Academy of mahences)
March 19, 1877; by “see B. WARRING, PH.D.
WE are told that there must have been the same alterna-
re seasons necessary to the cate : the rings? Until that is established their existence has no importance in this connection. Were it possible in some wer to secure a temperature uniform through the year we might be able to deter- mine the question experimentally. The nearest approach to such a condition in this latitude is to be found in green-houses.
as proof or not of Alternating Seasons. 395
The results thus far show that exogenous plants, e. g., the orange and lemon, so placed, form growth-rings as regularly as do the forest trees.
It would be interesting to know how generally exogenous plants in tropical regions exhibit these markings, an er they are annual or whether they are made at longer or at shorter intervals. I esi: found it difficult to obtain any in- formation on this point, either from books or from botanists.
nual layers. There is a woody Phytolacca which makes more layers, at least twice as many, as it is years old—probably indi- cating two periods of growth and rest.” To this I add that there now lies before’me a section of Chenopodium aibum cut on the first of August, and consequently not more than four months old, in which are eight well defined rings. This section is as hard and compact and as well formed wood as if it were a section of ash or pine. n the other hand there are exogens growing even in this ese which, notwithstanding our cold winters and hot sum- , show not the slightest trace of a ring. I have before me
a a section of Akebia quinquefolia cut by Dr. O. R. Willis on his
wn lawn from a plant five years old, which has no such mark- tet Then from a little further south I have a section of the Passion Vine in the same condition; also one of the Iron Wood ip sie precip neh which presents — ne ssible traces
ese also I am indebte . Willis
‘Mise C. C. Haskell, of Vassar College, pee the result of her examination of the ‘tropical woods in their museum, as fol- lows: In the Moria atiara of the Amazon, the circles are very apparent. In the Aliso or Birch of the Indus, the circles are evident. They are seen, too, in the Brazilian Red-wood (Upper Amazon), and in Siphonia elastica or Rubber trée, as well as in the Moria peranya of the Rio or None are seen in the Tortoise Shell Wood or in the Cow
These suffice to show that, in the sendin warm climate of the tropics, singe are formed as regularly as in the trees of our northern forests. But it may be said that although there is in these regions no Waernadion of hot and cold seasons, » yet that they do “undergo semi-annual changes from wet to.
seasonless condition which a perpendicular axis would produce. But there is evidence that exogenous trees would form these
396 C. B. Warring—Growth-rings in Kaxogenous Plants.
marks in a climate of absolutely no variation. I have before me a section of es ee also presented by Dr. Willis. This tree, as is well n, grows in the muddy margins of tropical rivers and all sin the shores, forming dense forests even at
seen ~ any trees an ywhe
To dispel any vestige of ‘belief that seasons and these mark- ings are connected as cause = effect, I add shah the Cycads require several years to form o
he consideration of these fnots leads to the chacluwie that
these circles have their origin in cycles of activity and repose, implanted in the constitution of the plant, which would con- tinue to manifest themselves although there were no climatic variations—a conclusion strengthened by the experience of all who have attempted, by artificially equalizing the temperature, to make their plants bloom all the year. It is true that where seasonal variations exist, the successive stages of activity and rest are for obvious reasons synchronous with them, but they are not absolutely dependent upon them
We may conc se ‘too, that the pre-glacial flora sig ate similar cycles of growth ‘and rest, some of which may hav been of short Rnration measured perhaps by weeks, like diode of the Chenopodium, while others like ~~ Cycads may have re- quired several years for their completi
The following propositions appear te ‘be established by the facts which have been presented.
. Some exogens form rings at intervals much less than a
ey "Others require intervals of several years.
3. Some form no rings. - The presence or absence of rings in exogens occurs in all climates.
5. Large and well defined rings are found under aces gaie in which there is absolutely no ~aesiienet variation of t aegis: or moisture throughout the
seaso adopt any conclusion as to the inclination of the earth's axis which may appear to us most reasonable.
J. W. Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate. 397
Art, XLVI.— On Sipylite, a new Niobate, from Amherst County, Virginia ; by J. W. Mauuer.
THE allanite found in Amherst County in this State, of which an analysis by Mr. J. A. Cabell, was published in the Chemical News, 1874, p. 141, occurs in large quantity, and furnishes an abundant source of supply of the cerium family of metals. In picking over a lot of three or four hundred pounds of it, I was struck with the appearance of a few fragments of an accom- panying mineral, which on more careful examination turns out to be a new niobate
iron ore. The vein is said to be about two feet wide, and runs about northeast and southwest, dipping at a large angle to the southeast.
Beside allanite, magnetite, and the new mineral now to be described, I have only noticed among the specimens which have reached me a few large crystals of hydrous zircon. One of these measured about 30x 18X13 mm., was doubly termin- ated, of sp. gr.=4°217, and yielded on ignition 1°89 per cent of water.
he new mineral is decidedly rare; all the specimens I have collected were picked out from three lots of the allanite, two m of several hundred pounds each, and would probabl} not weigh half a kilogram ; the largest single piece weighs about orty grams; most of the fragments are much smaller. It is found imbedded in, or more commonly adherent to, the outside of the masses of allanite and magnetite, from which it is easily detached.
398 J. W: Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate.
The color of the mineral in mass is brownish black, in thin splinters a red brown, like that of dark pine-rosin ; one or two small specimens display a gradual passage to a brownish orange, and even a yellow, but whether in these cases the chemical Iiebvprcia tices remains quite the same, there is not sufficient material to determine. The streak is light cinnamon-brown to pale gray. The luster resinous and pseudo-metallic. In general appearance to the eye the mineral is much like fer- gusonite from Greenland, euxenite from the neighborhood of Arendal, and samarskite from North Carolina, save that the last named is more distinetly pitchy blac ‘ranslucent in thin splinters. Hardness = nearly 6. Specific gravity may be considered = 4°89; one specimen gave 4°887 at 12°5 C.; another 4892 at 17°°5.
Heated alone in the ordinary blowpipe flame the mineral
before which a stout blowpipe wire of splot readily melts to a bead, thin splinters are fused merely on the edges. Heated in a close glass tube, the same decrepitation, glowing and change of color are observed, and water is given off, which condensing on the surface of the tube is found to have an acid reaction, and slightly etches the glass. Fused with borax in the oxidizing flame, the mineral is dissolved, producing a yellow glass, which becomes pale on cooling, and assumes a greener tint in the reducing flame. With microcosmic salt, a yellowish green glass is obtained. Strong boiling hydrochloric acid attacks to some extent the mineral in fine powder, and the partial solution, if boiled with metallic tin and diluted with water, gives the fine sapphire-blue color due to niobium. This — hydrochloric acid solution, if diluted, contains zireonium nough to brown turmeric paper to an extent quite sensible if a Sinai experiment be made with similarly diluted hydro- chloric acid alone. Boiling concentrated sulphuric acid decom- ses the mineral completely, though somewhat slowly ; and the diluted solution gives a blue color on addition of metallic zine. e chemical analysis was made, with much care an patience, under my direction by Mr. W. G. Brown, a student in this laboratory during the last winter. The details of the method used are given in a notice of his work in the Chemical News. Tantalum was found to be present, but in such small quantity, certainly less than one-twelfth of the niobium, that a satisfactory separation could not be obtained by Marignac’ s meth The sp. gr. of the mixed niobic and tantalic oxides
J. W. Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate. 399
was 4°60. By determination of the Siesne se erbium first as oxides and then as sulphates it was found that the mixture con- tained almost exclusively the latter metal, of which the absorp- tion spectrum is obtainable with great distinctness from the crude
solution. Iron and uranium were proved to exist as ferrous a uranous compounds. ‘The following results were obtained :
le, oe Sree ee aE Gos So f 48°66 WoO,. PRBS EEE RUE AF 5 "16 SWAN so ie cgmhing whe onus Came eee 08 GEO... Sie he des S age va pug oe 2°09 LE ee CeO F080 Sena en), ogee 1°37 OR Suey ee ee 3°92 :
THOS. aus 4°06
wae Sous hwae eke oenes ee 3°47 MnO soot ier A ioe es trace PeO ac soca oes Sa ic 04 BeO petuesy 62 MgO 05 CaO ii je sot sg ane apace abs 2°61 LA.OF oo oc bios trace Nat) cient wipe ena oe "16 BO oo 06 BF ns oan Bue ees baa trace FS lives + amen ee ene eeee 3°1
100°48 Throwing together, as ema age has done in his valuable paper** on 1 the natural tantalates and ai the acid oxides
of niobium, saritatier raerigwethe tin and zirconium, reducin @ br the basic oxides present to the equivalent acactatits of dyad oxides, and leaving out the water, we have from the above
gures the ratio, R’0: MYO, = 221:100 oe to the formula R’’,M)O, 4 R”,M?O,, or, applying the mon phosphate nomenclature, a single atomic group of obi niobates with four of pyro-niobates; while samars according to the calculation of Professor O. D. Allen++ from his analysis, contains one to one, or is represented by the formula * Ta,O; ma wo fin be assumed = Ah 2 per sg tos Y.0; may be assumed = erous oxide, but Seiomy th Oléve’s formule and atomic weights for this and the
u Containing a rue of Di,O,. | Co: ontatiing a trace of Ce.0s. se
Saal A; August, , 1877, p- 731.
400 J. W. Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate.
R” MYO, . R’,M$O,, and Rammelsberg ware »yrochlore
from Fredriksvarn solely the pyro-niobate, R I0,, and fergusonite, tyrite, es soley. the ortho-salt, R’’, owever, the water be included in the Paice and
considered basic, alas it on an equivalent footing with the dyad oxides we have the ratio,
R’O;: MSO. = 311: : 100, or nearly 3:1,
which gives the simple formula of an ortho-salt, R”,M‘O,. This I confess I am inclined to think more probable, and, if so, it may be allowable to suppose that the very remarkable glow exhibited by the mineral when heated is connected with the loss of basic water and the change from ortho- to pyro-niobate, as in the well known incandescence of ammonio-magnesian ortho-phosphate at the moment of change by heat to the pyro- phosphate of the latter metal.*
Whichever formula be preferred, sao hus for the mineral now described, it differs essentially fro that of any niobate hitherto on neon, the one view aking it the nearest approach to a simple pyro- -niobate (since the Fredriksvarn pyrochlore con- tains largely of titanium) and the other making it an ortho-salt
ike fergusonite, etc., but one partially acid in character or penne basic h drogen
5 heey grounds alone, but in several respects as to eg properties, the mineral is new and distinct. Carrying out the fancy of Heinrich Rose, which led him to name niobium ~ from the danghter of Tantalus, and remembering the number and SUEY of the natural niobates which have been met with, Foe a for this species the name sae dine from Sipylus, one of the numerous children of Nio
*Tt cade: aye worth remarking that from the nae of Professor Allen (loc. cit.) of Professor J. Lawrence Smith’s ele coal tchettolite, which accompanie samars' kite i in North ats sears water resent in it in definite leo tion; and, although Rammelsberg ~g waa aa the water found in his analyses of tantalates and niobates as non-essential, and the formula, R’’, MYO,, which he has assigned in common to ge gene nite, yttro-tantalite, eg and bragite, requires that bsg’ be e seluden: if it be also taken into account his analyses of these
minerals lead pretty closely to her acgtelh eno ns as to ee extent of hydration (without considering the water basic), mak
Fergusonite, from Gree: rset (with very ties water)—R’’,MYO,, or perhaps 2R’’,MYO, Brown yttro-tantalite, from Yiterby “ Bragi ae ciccua from Gamle Kararfvet_........--- 2R/’,MYO, . 5H, 0.
University of Virginia, Sept. 3, 1877.
S. Neweomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 401
Art. XLVIL—On the Mean Motion of the Moon; by Stwon NEWCOMB.
For some time after the appearance of Hansen's Lunar Tables, it was very generally considered that the theory of the moon, aftcr occupying the attention of the mathematicians and astron- omers of every century for two thousand years, was at length complete, and that the motion of that body could now be pre- dicted with entire confidence. That Hansen’s computation of the Seats of short period pies d mE the sun not only
Seiirerlen’s of modern sironomy, I conceive can hardly be ou i
agreement with Pebets from 1750 to 1860, it was there shown that this agreement had been obtained b sacrificing the agreement before 1750, and that the moon had then begun to
tinue satisfactorily to represent the observations. During the
entirely confirmed. So far as can be j y the most recent observations, the i of the tables now seh A ten seconds, d is increasing at a rate of not less than half a second a year.
Shortly after Ne phere yeti of the short paper to which I have alluded, it was made a part of my official duty to investi- gate this question. In accordance with this arrangement, I have aimed at the complete discussion of all recorded observa- tions of any astronomical value before the year 1750. These researches now being brought substantially to a close, so far as the din Maas are Sass the object of the present article is to ome account of them , and of their results. The material peoalete in brief, e every observation of an eclipse or an occultation previous to 1750, which appears to be worthy of confidence, and calculated to throw any light upon the ques- tion of changes in the moon’s mean motion. The available data may be Classified as follows :—
ccounts of ancient historians from which it has been i ae ferred that the shadow of the moon pet over certain points of the earth’s surface during certain total eclipses of the sun f Thales, of Lari, and of Agathocles have been very estan Sy discussed py Professor Airy i
7: ee Sct. heer, Vot. XIV, No. 83.—Nov.
402 S. Newcomb— Mean Motion of the Moon.
Society. Aftera careful examination of the six or eight eclipses in question, I was led to the conclusion that none of them could be safely relied upon as furnishing data for the error of the Lunar Tables at the times when they were observed. It is im- possible, within the limited space of the present article, to enter into any details of the considerations which led me to this con- clusion. It may be remarked, however, that among the eclipses in which I can feel but little confidence is the celebrated one of Thales. To prevent misapprehension I may say that I do not deny either that Thales predicted eclipses or that the shadow of the moon passed over Asia Minor, B.C., 585 as in- dicated by the Lunar Tables, or that a battle was stopped by some real or fancied advent of darkness, as described by Herod- otus a century afterward; but I fail to see any good reason . for maintaining that the extremely obscure account of Herodotus really refers to the total eclipse in question, or, in fact, to any eclipse whatever. Consequently, whilegthese eclipses may be useful in throwing more or less of evidence on the question of the moon’s secular acceleration, I do not think they can be considered reliable enough to be used for determining that uantity. : Il. The second class comprises the nineteen eclipses of the moon quoted by Ptolemy in the Almagest, on which he founded his theory of the moon’s motion. These eclipses appear to be worthy of some confidence, making due allowance for the very considerable errors of observation with which they are neces- sarily affected. The mode of treatment was this: from a very careful study of the account of each eclipse as given by Ptolemy, and without any knowledge of how it compared with the tables, I sought to make an estimate, first, of the most probable time of the phase described, and second, of the probable error of that time. These estimates I shall publish without any alteration suggested by the subsequent comparison with the tables. When this comparison was made, it was found that the general deviations of the tabular from the recorded times did not indi- able error essentially greater than that estimated, except intwo cases.
There are five eclipses in which Ptolemy does not say to. what phase the time which he gives refers. It has very gen- erally been considered that in these cases the phase was that of the middle of the eclipse; but in all other cases the time which he gives is that of commencement; and there would be a cer- tain probability in favor of the times where no phase was given being also those of commencement. The errors in question were systematically different from those of the other eclipses, and seemed to indicate that in these eclipses also, the beginning was referred to. Owing, however, to the uncertainty of this
S. Newcomb— Mean Motion of the Moon. 403
correction. This discordance, however, is not the most perplex-
seen atall. If this one really was seen, it would almost neces- sitate a negative correction to the tabular times. We have then this dilemma: either the whole thirteen eclipses recorded by Ptolemy are, with a single exception, half an hour or more in error, or there is some mistake about this eclipse having been actually observed. Deeming the latter the more probable of the two hypotheses, I threw out this eclipse entirely. Of the twelve remaining eclipses, sixteen phases were observed, which were divided into four groups, and the mean result, by weight, of each group was taken. The mean corrections to the tabular times given by the several groups, are as follows :— Epoch, — 687 ‘dt=+20™ de=—11'+4' 38 phases.
— 38 dt = + 50 dé — 27 +5 3 phases.
—189 dt=—+ 36 d&= — 20 +3 8 phases.
+134 dté=+ 30 dé=—16 +4 — 3 phases.
may be remarked that the two or three given by Tycho Brahe furnished the first data from which the secular acceleration of the moon was deduced. It is therefore a singular fact that no comparison of them with modern tables has ever been seriously
Coelestis. Asa slight indication of the value of these eclipses
There are, in all, in this book, observations of twenty-five eclipses ‘including thirty-four phases of beginning or ending. They were all reduced and compared with the tables of Hansen. Three of them were so far discordant that they had to be re- jected entirely. This ratio of three out of thirty-four will not appear great if we reflect that the manuscript from which the
*
404 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon.
observations were translated, was frequently very difficult to decipher or to translate, owing not only to the fading of the writing, but to the uncertainty of some of the terms which the author used. Besides these three discordant observations, there were two which could not be used because the altitude assigned to the moon at the time of the observation actually exceeded its meridian altitude. Here it was evident that there was some- thing wrong, in recording, transcribing or translating the obser- vation. The general result was that each observation of a
Epoch, 846 de —4'4 926 et oe it 986 d&= —4°8
telescope by so short an interval that it can hardly be supposed that they would throw much light on the question under con-
. sidera carefully to find whether Tycho Brahe had ever observed an V. Observations of occultations and eclipses made with a
‘telescope but without a clock, the time being determined by the altitude of the sun or of some star observed with a quad-
have the great advantage that the only error to be feared is that of the determination of time, always supposing that the phenom-
S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 405
enon was actually seen. The, ee of the star — the moon’s limb is, in fact, a sudden nomenon which not require any measure of distance to Se well observed.
VI. Observations of eclipses and occultations made by Heve- hus with a very imperfect clock regulated by altitudes taken with a quadrant with pinnules. It is well known that Hevelius would never use a telescope with ‘ta quadrant; so that the re- sults to be derived from the observations of this most’ indefati- gable observer do not correspond to the labor which he spent in making them. His observations are much better than those of Gassendus, but far more inaccurate than those made with the telescopic sig
VII. Observations of Flamsteed at Greenwich, and of the astronomers of the French school, from 1672 to 1750. Flam- steed’s observations were published in the Historia Ccelestis. Those of the French — are not only for the most part unpublished, but seem to have ee totally forgotten — the time they were made aia I was fortunate enough to them in the archives of the Paris Dieaianan in 1871. Not oo it fears: wholly unreduced, but in many cases not even the
of the occulted star was given. — reduction we ion eee ties tae been the most laborious part of my wor The observers have left no explanations wbaeeves of their mass of a and it was necessary to learn this by induction from the observations themselves; and from the calculations sectieses — and there through the ooks.
supposed to commence. In the same class with these Paris observations are to be included those of ote at St. Peters- burgh, with which I was furnished by Str The following are some independent mean corvedone
by the observations of Bllialdas, grt Hevelius, Flam- steed, and the French astronom e list is incomplete, as the Maealation of the solar peters ia pe been finished; but it will suffice for the purposes of the present discussion :—
1621 + 77" 1661 + 37” 1630 +30 1666 24 oy 1633 + 53 1680 + 30°4 1635 +55 1682 + 255 1639 + 23 1715 + 13°8 1645 + 51 1725 + 7:0
- 406 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon.
The investigation is terminated at the epoch of 1750 so far as the reduction of observations is concerned, because there is reason to believe that a s tables are not greatly in error from 1750 to 1865. We may, therefore, in this preliminary discussion consider the tabular Sie zero between these epochs. For the epoch 1875 the correction given by some good observa- tions of occultations is —8’’0, a result 1” * less than that indi- cated by the observations at Greenwich and Washington. This discrepancy is quite surprising. It is, however, worthy of re- mark that Captain Tupman from a discussion of all the meridian observations made in Europe about the time in question ob- tained a mean result somewhat less than that given by Green- wich and Washington alone. It is well known ss Hansen’s term depending on eight times the mean motion of Venus mi- nus thirteen times that of the earth is almost enti rely empirical, being adjusted so as to satisfy the observations between 1750
and 1 And since this term fails to satisfy the observations oakids of these limits, in fact making the tables worse than they would be without it, it ought to be rejected from the com- parison of theory with observation, Its effect upon the ancient results is, however, so small in comparison with the necessary error of the observations that its effect need not be taken into account.
From the individual corrections to the moon’s mean longi-
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) - Hansen. H’; $=8""8. s—6"'18. At. —687 11" es by +16’ +397 —Tom 381 —— GT ao aay +10 i 38 —189 —20 20 4 +10 pees 14 +134 —-16 —16 8 +4 — 6 846 — 44 aie | fe | — 03 0 $26" ee | + 03 -. 31 mn 986 — 49 — 48 — 3°8 = 13 + 2 1625 +650" +33" 7 age +128 1660... +39 +18 SO i: Beene ee +3 1675 +32 +15 ay 8-6 +34 ¥ +21 +16 ee —13 °5 +25 1725 + 7 +16 - 68 86 +16 1750 0 +19 +64 0-0 0 1775 0 +31 +12 °5 + 8-4 —15 1800 0 +15 +112 +1 + 9°5 —17 1825 0 +32 +30 +44 — 8 1850 0 ~=—4} — 46 0-0 0 1875 — 8 —28 —15°8 —1°6 +14
S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 407
In column (1) we have the mean correction indicated by observations to Hansen’s tables of the moon without any mod- ification whatever. In column (2) these corrections are modi- fied by the effect of Hansen’s empirical term, so as to show the corrections to the pure theory after this term is subtracted from the tables. If "the theory is perfect, these numbers ought
The —— are the several corrections given by the method of least square
dex 41957 dn= —12 id: URpoek, 1700, ds= — 3°
The value of the secular eae. adopted by Hansen is 12°17. Subtracting the correction it seems that the accelera- tion to which we are led by observation alone, is
Column (3) shows the outstanding corrections whiol remain
value of the see acceleration much less than that indi- cated by the older ones. If we investigate the uniform varia- tion of the siesibebition which would best satisfy the whole of the observations, we shall find it to be —0”°9 in a century. The hypothesis of such a uniform vwiedon is, however, too improbable to be admitted; and moreover, it still fails to represent the modern observations, although the ancient ones are thus greatly improve
In recent times it has been generally considered that the difference between the theoretical acceleration and that given by observations arises from a change in the length of the
ay. It is worthy of remark that by supposing this change itself subject to variations, all the apparent changes in the mean motion of the moon can be accounted for. This is a hypothesis which I have suggested in former numbers of this
the between observation and aioe In the first place, the sec- ular acceleration must be supposed to be "iilonn and equal to 617. Two epochs at which we may suppose the time given
by the rotation of the earth to be correct, being entirely arbitrary, we shall take 1750 pe ge 0 for these epochs. Having thus formed a theory of the moon’s mean motion
ary. founded on gravitation alone, column (4). cone the apparent corrections indicated by observation. In column (5) these cor- rections are changed into time. The times here given are
408 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. hypothetical errors of the earth’s rotation which it is necessary
in order to reduce them to. a perfectly uniform measure of time. The sign + indicates that the mah is abead of its mean rotation, and the sign — that it is behind it. For some years
truth it would be no longer possible to predict the apparent motion of the moon, since the changes in the rotation of the
It is therefore extremely gratifying to find that the compari- sons we have just given lead to the hope that these deviations may, after all, be due to the action of some of the bodies of the
not very far from 260 years. Now, it is remarkable that this _ differs very little from the period of Hansen’s first Pe bam oe which is 273 years. The question therefore arises whether deviations in question may not be explained by a ibe in the constants of this inequality. The result is very surprising. By merely diminishing the argument of Hansen’s first ine- quality by 60° 48’ without changing the co-efficients at all, the observations from 1625 to 1875 may all be 2 i pany within the limits of error. In fact, we see that the numbers in col- umn (3) may be very nearly "represented by the formula
t~ 1800
— 5”°04—107°14 a — 15750 cos A, in which we have placed,
A=18V-16E-g, V being the mean longitude of Venus counted cet the equinox of 1800, E that of the earth counted in the same way, and g the mean anomaly of the moon. The com abot in question is shown in the following tables; the fourth column of which 1s taken from the corresponding column of the preceding table. The residuals still outstanding are shown in the last column.
Epoch. Pe paseo terms. Observ. Diff. 1625 ~47°-0 +3 +6"1 +3"9 1650 —14 -0 aid fs —6°9 —2 2 1675 +19 ‘0 snl all hy —0°3 1700 52 0 ~4°5 —3 6 +09 1725 85 -0 +1°3 —O 3 —1°5 1750 118 -0 +1°3 +64 —0°9 1775 151 ‘0 +110 +125 +1°5 1800 184 -0 +104 +11 1 +0 °7 1825 217 0 4°8 +3°0 —1°8 1850 250 -0 —4°3 —4°6 +0°2 1875 283 -0 —160 —165 °8 +0°2
S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 409
Correcting Hansen’s term by this dnidivicad addition, we find that instead of 15734 sin (A+-30°-2), the value given by Hansen, we shall have 15”°3 sin (A—30°'6), as the result of observation sa test of this result, the sum of all the corrections here found to Hansen’s tables has been a and compare corrections given in column 1. It is to be remarked in the first place that the diminatiun of 10” a century in the mean motion of the moon involves a further correction of —0’”4 to the value of the sistas acceleration in order that the ancient observations may still, on the AYerAees be best represented. Thus the secular pray rt reduces 87°45 and the total correction to the accnieration of Hansen is —3"°76. We put V, for the empirical term of Hansen, 217-47 sin (9SV—13E +274° 14’), the existence of which appears to have been entirely denis by the researches of Delaunay; and T for the time counted in centuries after 1800. Then the total corrections to the tables of ansen are as follows:— —V,~—1714—29717 T~3"-76 T? — 155 cos A.
The following are the values of these corrections for the principal epoc ochs from 1625 to 1900. The computation and comparison with observation is given so fully that any explana- tion of the table appears to be unnecessary.
1"-14 —15"5 ; Observa- ‘
Epoch. —Ve iia i 2 ra Sum. pe th Diff. 1625 | +17"1 =-10"°6 +38"4 +44"9 +50" +5" 1650 21 “4 —15°0 34 +] 40 °5 —1°5 1675 16°9 —14°7 29 °4 a1 6 3 +04 1700 + 5:°2 — 9°5 24°3 20°0 21 +10 1725 — 8°6 — 14 18 °6 8°6 7 —1°6 1750 —18°9 + 7°38 12:6 + 0°9 0 —0'9 1775 31-2 13 °6 + 5°9 — 1° 0 +1°7 1800 —14°7 15 4 — I'l — O04 0 +04 1825 — 2:1 12°4 - 8°7 + 1°6 0 16 1850 +11 °4 6°3 —16°7 0-0 0 0°0 1860 15 °7 + 1°8 —20°0 — 2°5 +1°5 +4°0 1870 19-0 — 1% —23 4 — 671 —5°5 +0°6 1880 20 °9 — 5-2 “—26°9 —11 "1 ae eae 1890 21 °4 — 84 —30°4 —17 “4 Bee nape 900 +20°6 —11°2 —34°] —24-7 Kees iua
410 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon.
The only case in which the difference exceeds the possible error of the comparisons is at the epoch 1860. Asan oa anniee of this I can only suggest that the term found by Mr. Neison as due:to the action of Jupiter is at that time let to the result of a possible error in Hansen’s value of the term which depends upon the ellipticity of the earth. The comparison may there- fore be improved when the theory is suitably corrected.
The great question which now arises is this. Is it possible that this correction to the term produced by the action of Venus can really be a result of the attraction of that planet? We are struck by the fact that the proposed change can be expressed by a mere change of the algebraic sign of the con- stant term of the argument, leaving the value of the co-efficient unchanged. It may therefore be inquired whether it is possible that the sign of this quantity is erroneous in Hansen’s formula. This question must be answered in the negative. I have found by an investigation still unpublished, substantially the same result as Hansen ; while the researches of Delaunay published in the Connaissance des Temps for the year 1862 show that the approximate expression of the constant term in question, is
180°—2h", h” being the longitude of the node of Venus, which does not differ much from 75°. It i is, therefore, a mere gine that the
change of Hansen’s term can be expressed in thi Although Hansen, Delaunay, and myself Baye all arrived at the same result for the value of the term in question, I cannot confidently say that that result is complete. In all three com- putations the terms of the second order due to the mutual attrac- tion of Venus and the earth are neglected. It is evident that in consequence of this mutual attraction, i direct action of Venus on the moon is different from what it would be if each planet moved in its elliptic orbit. It may Bus that this differ- ence is sensible in terms of so high an order as those under consideration. I have actually computed the additional terms
in — ae Be being the ewan of Venus from the earth) which
and observation which is produced by the introduction of this
empirical term, seems to me such as to warrant its provisional use
until a more careful investigation of the subject can be made. Washington, Oct. 3, 1877.
Chemistry and Physics. 411
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysiIcs.
1. On the Action of a solutions on Lead.—Mutr has ex- amined the action exe by various saline solutions upon lead, with and without access of air, with a view to explain the mech- anism of the process. e lead used was sold as pure, and con-
ER 10} : Pb(OH), or Pb SO’, in fine silky scales. It was found to Pb
be more soluble in ammonium nitrate when air was excluded (one part in 4,600), and in calcium chloride with access - air (one part in 26,000), though its solubility was very great in carbonic acid phased (one part in 4,300). e author believes that i in the action of saline solutions upon lead, a soluble salt is first produced; that earbon dioxide is slowly absorbed from the air, converting the lead into hydrocarbonate, which is mostly precipitated ; that in certain Sigids the formation of the soluble salt proceeds at first more rapidly than its ne TCE but that later the latter action preponderates; and that carbonates precipitate the lead ge as fast as it is formed, in the vate of hydrocarbonate.—v, — XXxxi, 66v, pnt 1877.
2. New Method for the Synthesis of Hydrocarbons. ia Ragen and Gearen in examining the action of finely divided aluminum upon organic chlorides, which is at first very slow, but becomes
re ‘fou i
remaining itself unaltered. If, for example, amy treated with the anhydrous chloride, hydrochloric acid gas is
412 Scientific Intelligence.
evolved in the cold, as well as a mixture of gases not absorbable _-by bromine. In the residue, beside the unaltered AI,Cl contained various hydrocarbons, some of high boiling point. If,
ri é"
Iodides and bromides act similarly, though not as uniformly. Ethyl iodide treated as above gave ethylbenzene, methyl chloride
zene, gives, by 1 u loride, the zophenone, acetyl chloride gives acetophenone, phthalyl chloride
organic compound to be first formed and then decomposed, regen- erating the chloride, thus: C,H,+Al,Cl,=HCl-+ Al,Cl,(C,H,) Al,Cl,. (C,H,)-+(CH,C,H,)CI=Al,Cl,+-(CH,. C,H,)C,H,.
4, On the Amylene from Amyl Iodide.—EureKorr has inves- tigated the action of alcoholic potash upon the amylene dibro- mide obtained from amy] iodide, and concludes that this amylene is really a mixture of two isomeric bodies, isopropylethylene
Chemistry and Physics. 413
CH[CH(CH,),] | OH whose bromine derivative gives isopropylacetyl- e by the ie of alcoholic potash; and methylethylethylene cH [CH(C.H P JERRY sOUny: cu, which does not yield valerylene under these cir- cumsta ances, but is transformed into valeric ether. Isopropylacet- ylene boils at 35°, forms a crystalline addition product with silver nitrate AgC=C — CH | On , which is decomposed by iodine, yield-
ing IC=C— —CHY OH » moniodisopropylacetylene. — Bull. Soe. Ch., Ul, xxviii, Aug., 1877. « BB 5. On the Co ies ta of unsaturated Dibasic Peers —At the ' Close of a series of researches 5 certain unsaturated dibasic acids made in his tabarston TTIG sums up the results and dis- cusses their bearing upon the sunceeiians of the acids in question ; i. e., fumaric and maleic acids in one group, and itaconic, citraconic ‘ and mesaconic acids in another. The facts are (1) the two former
unite directly with hydrogen to yield succinic acid OH,.C . oon’ as the three latter by the same treatment yield the same pyrotar- On,
taric acid, cH . COOH ; (2) the former acids by union with bromine
H,.CO give two different sete ae acids (both of which, however,
an isomer; (4) while mono- or di-bro m-citraconi¢ mht mesaconic
re m an and yield no carbon dioxide when thus treated; (5) while fuma- rates and maleates yield on Sigg th den the same acetylene, and citraconic and mesaconic acids the same allylene, itaconic "acid gives a hydrocarbon not precipitating silver solutions. There is no constitutional formula which will satisfy all these conditions if the position be maintained that in pores yde ompéunds se carbon atoms are always united by several bonds. Hence the
Promina a in which there are single carbon atoms eo eg Meena are not completely balanced. Rejecting also as unproved the xistence in a compound of carbon atoms three of whose units are
414 Scientific Intelligence.
balanced while the fourth is free, the author gives for maleic acid CH. COOH
the formula | and for fumarie acid || For =C. coon CH. COOH ma ae \ itaconic acid he gives cH . COOH, or C, COOH, for citraconic | . C
H,. COOH H,. COOH tei CH, acid CH. COOH and for mesaconic acid c. COOH . Hence the
=, COOH OH, COOH isobrommaleic acid of Kekulé is properly bromfumaric acid, and the dibrommaleic acid of Bourgoin, dibromfumaric acid. Of t two itaconie acid okey Fittig prefers the first.—Z — Ann s elxxxviii, 95, July, 1
Ona Phenol of | Phenanthewie. Phenanthrol, i Rieke Ne ex-
amined, under Graebe’s direction, the product obtained = fusing phe enanthrenemonosulphonic acid wit potassium hydrate. After : solution in water, the phenanthrol was separated in oily drops by the addition of. sulphuric acid, which solidified on cooling. After envi with sia Mga carbonate, and reerystallization from a
are gg troleum naphtha and aha! = was 0 ort in beautiful pan tuseaslag plates, fusing at 112°, and giving analysis the formula (O t forms rival érystallized com- pounds with alkalies, ‘and ethers with acid oxides. , rl. Chem. Ges., x, 1252, July, 1877.
1. Formation of Rosolie acid Jrom Cresol and Phenol. "The discovery of Caro and Wanklyn that by de-nitrogenizing rosaniline rosolic acid could be formed, and of Dale and Schlorlemmer, that aurin (rosolic acid) could be converted into Sieg Hong led Zut- KOWSKY to attempt the production of rosolic acid from cresol and phenol as rosaniline is produced from toluidine and Panflings A mixture of two molecules cresol, oe Pen) and three of sulphuric acid heated with arsenic acid to 120° C. became dark brown and thick and yielded to water a ist tod with a : arereh metallic luster, having all the properties of rosolic acid. It is = produced with pheno alone. The author represents rosaniline a
CHA Ly on joe NH,. CH, | i and rosolic acid asOH . C,H, J 7 . ; CH, CH, Son Ar
Corallin he ries = into five different bodies.— Ber. —_ Chem. 7 = —
» Co ehiape ee .—Hormann has upuniee a ee brilliant a coloring matter, obtained from Martius. He found it to be the sodium salt ofa an organic acid, which was separated by
easily soluble in alcohol, less so in water, having t CH. O,, and being ‘monobasic, No doubt, f aeebore, ches
Chemistry and Physics. 415
by diazonapthalene and a phenolsulphonic acid. Using the fi method, and pen sodium a naphtolsulphonate with aniline nitrate and p — es the nad color was obtaine ed Bot Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 8, July, 18
9. LKxamination ae a Nickel anid —H. Wir. (Abwtrses
tion a nickel magnet presented to Kotschubey, Pres ide nt of t
Russian Technological igs by Jos. Wharton of Philadelphia, It had the form of a flat 2mm. thick, 9.5 mm. broad, and 155 mm. long, pointed at shies ends, and had at its center an apna cap for ‘supporting it on a pivot. Its weight was 25 grams, Its
Pp 112,000 units, the steel giving 245,000. After ssa i ing, ce nickel gave 188 ,000, the steel 368, 000. With wolf m steel, t the ent went up to 594 000 in one instance. e nickel was Saeed by Butlerow and found to contain only one-third of one er cent of i iron, with traces of cobalt. The effect of Ae e
porary magne b ha
oo and one-fourth of that ack of "ein anicont in soft i. Ac. St. Pet., xxiv, 1, May, 1877.
a etroscope with a Fluorescent Eye-piece.—M. J. 1. Soret
has pablinad a detailed description of sig sarap se which he
t n he uses either a small plate of uranium agen or a cell fitted with an aqueous solution of esculine; and the spectroscope is best con-
416 Screntifie Intelligence. structed with lenses of quartz and prisms of Iceland spar. With en ]
i ae beyond N, but with the spectroscope whose construc- n he describes in detail the principal lines could be distin-
at an sage of Ae meters, and draws from them the conclu-
more refrangible than T. Whence he infers that it is the atmos- phere of the sun, and not that of the earth which absorbs the most Reirengibla rays of the spectrum. The diminution in bril-
~ Heat.- aa ‘ Crova has published a very avon de d paper on the calorific intensity of the solar radiation and its absorption by the atmosphere of the earth. In this paper the author discusses very exhaustively methods of observation and gives the results of a large number of measurements which are of great interest, but can nes nas described in a short abstract.—Ann. Chim. et de Phys, xi, By Cy TR
12. Changes tn the ‘Speatra ‘of Gases caused by increasing ten- sion.—In the spectrum of a gas rendered luminous by an electric spark M. eee dvi two classes of foc as caused by
remain meanwhile as definite as at first. In the case of compounds of carbon and markedly in the case of carbonic dioxide the bril-
is. “ The Tnpu ence of Light in Chemical Chances aad dell in kee ” is the subject of a recent paper by M. P. Cuas- tainc. The author distinguishes as a definite effect of the sun *s
solar spectrum from the well-known reducin eee le dedu toe this conclusion chiefly from the observation that the oxidation of
Chemistry and Physics. 417
such substances as ferrous sulphate, alkaline solution of arsenious acid, and aqueous solutions of h
proceeds more rapidly in the ‘light t than in oe Sax k, and he endeavors to estimate the action of the light by the diferencs in the pelea of the process in the two cases under otherwise like
as we an fuse the red to the violet end of th
co the air and light a direct effect of oxidation caused by the sun’s rays, and this effect is produced chiefly, if not wholly, by the more retrangible rays,— Ann. Chim. et de Phys., V, xi, 145. 5. P. 0., IR c rotatory Po laregion: —M. Henet rt BecQuEREL has
cs
<8 S
dS
cannot be stated in a few words. The most important genera conclusions are the followin
~ That thé positive rotation of the plane of polarization of a ray of “Tight having a definite wave-length, in passing through the unit of thickness of a diamagnetic mat terial under the influence of
index of refraction, an factor depending on agnetism and on the diamagnetism of the body, this factor jaca h prop a substances are magnetic. 2.) That with substances chemically allied or containing the same radical the qu tient the ma rotation, and the cor- responding value of n2(n? —1), varies yey slightly: (3.) That the chemical nature of the substance exerts an important influence on
8 phenomenon, and that the several conaadbeotien of a compound
roduce an independent effect. (4) That when in solution
the specific effect of the molecules o Vorunes bodies is not
cerita by the concentration of the solution, while that of the
lecules of magnetic bodies may be greatly affected by the he tee —THIRD ios Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Nov., 1877.
418 Scientific Intelligence.
closer proximity, which such a concentration would cause,
(5.) That when the substances are very diamagnetic the disper-
sion of the rays caused by the magnetic rotation is sensibly pro-
n? (n?—1) . 2
portional to in which expression A is the wave length
and n the index of refraction. For various qualifications and details we agit refer to the original paper, and also for a discus- sion of the theory scscapstebe by M. Becquerel pére, which refers the digerencee between magnetic and diamagnetic effects to the relative strengt of ‘ahs magnetic energy of the bodies experi- mented on and — of the ain um ad which they are o_o nepee Chim. et de Phys., eaeiees Siete of ie —The nadine of the “hitches of the rose-colored sulphide of manganese obtained pall Apinseniaes into the green semi-crystalline modification of the mpound has been studied by MM. Ph. de Clermont et H, aise who come to the conclusion that the two substances are different <tget - sic of the same body.—Ann. Chim. et de Phys., V, x 16. An nalysis of ‘Alkaline Sulphides and Sulpho-carbonates.— M.M. Detacuanat et Mermer have described a new method for the complete chemical analysis of alkaline sulphides and sulpho- carbonates based on the application of hypobromite of potassium as an oxidizing agent. e method offers certain mar rked advan-
aris and ‘Gmolived the process prop rallas for separating potassium from sodium based on the pianigiaiioes that potassic —. rate is insoluble - alcohol and the
LAUIVGE
uently is the only one whose prochlorat e gids not dissolve in this
as perchlorate after the salt has been teal to ae while the sodium is converted into sulphate and weighed as reo —Ann. Chim. et de Phys., V, xi, 561. Je Py 0.5 oR. = ar Ray ener. athod of determining i amount of Man- gan s described by M. Garcta ParreXo which will “andoubtedly 1 ue found useful in many shea The manganese
acid. The process is conducted in a flas the chlorine gas conducted into a weak solution of potassic ‘odide, the last traces being driven over by boiling the acid. The amount of iodine
Chemistry.and Physies. 419
thus set free is then determined by a standard solution of hyposul- phite of sodium which bleaches the solution colored by the iodine. The solution of the hyposulphite is standardized by a et Saba with pure Mn,O,.—Ann. Chim. et de P, 7 ae
ae aR, 19, Light: A series of simple, longed ie abit experiments in the phenomena of light, for the use of students of
every age; by Atrrep M. Mayer and. Cavacus BaRNnarp. 112 . 8v0. New Yo rk, 1877, (D. Appleton & Co.).—The purpose of this little volume is to present an tnstrate the fundamental phe- nomena of light in a manner suited to the ready comprehension of the younger class ‘of students, and to suggest means for verify- ing the laws of its action by actual experiment. The text, which was prepared by Mr. Barnard and revised by Professor Mayer, is written in vivacious and entertaining style, and with such clear-
use of the m ost common oe materials, and at a very
than fie seer dol s. The aim of t the dutho ors has ng to make
4 7. E. THORPE, Pb.D., F.R.S., Paskeaace of Chemistry in the herinerse College of Science, Leeds. New edition, 406
New York, 1877, (G. P. Putnam & Sons).—The — ious edition of this work, as well as the other volumes by the same author.
well known among chemists, and their value fally apprectinel ‘A feature of this new edition is the co —_ of examination q tions and exercises at the end of the wei
21. A System of Volumetric Analysis, by Dr. Emil thesenent
Translated with notes and additions from the second Germ edition; by M. M. Parrison Murr, F.R.S.E. 274 pp. 8vo. Lite
don, 1877, (Macmillan & — erit of this work
lies in the fact that it gives not “a complete collection of receipt
for indepen system of gene thods under hich the individual cases may be bro remar kes 3 ior
ugh s translator the work LF to divide volumetri a few great groups, to explain clearly the principles inde ance fay each, and farther to illustrate by examples the application of these principles. It will be readily seen how much greater benefit the
420 Scientific Intelligence.
student will derive from studying this subject, when so systemati- cally presented. We are indebted to the translator for the intro- duction of the shonidoal nomenclature and notation of modern chemistry, for some advantageous condensation, and for the addi- tion of more or less new matter
II. GroLtoGy AND MINERALOGY.
1. Geological and Geographical coding of the Territories ; by
. Haypen, U. 8. Geologist in charge. Conducted under the authority of the Secretary of the Nav vy. Washington.—The fol- lowing are notices of the recent publications of Dr. Hayden’s pet EE which has been so rich in results to science and the
“(. ) Winth Annual Report, being a Report of Progress for the year 1875. 810 pp. 8vo, ser numerous plates.—This volume
ports by A. D. Wirson and F. B. Raopa, H. Gannett. we CumirTENDEN and G. R, Brecu LER; and Zoclogical Reports on the History of the American Bison, . A, ALLEN; and on the ocky Mountain Locust and other i injurious insects of th e West, $i: A, > Packarp, Jr. We cite a few facts from some of these
River pe formed a shore-line in Cretaceous’ times.” ‘The area of the Archean Continent was probably of some consider-
sion of that farther east, where the main chain of the Rocky Mountains is now.” No Silurian or Devonian beds were ob- served; and over a great part of the district the red beds (Trias- sic) re rest immediately on the Archwan. The thickness of the Carboniferous in Colorado is stated to be 4,000 to 5,000 feet ; and of this only 500 to 1,000 feet consist of fra mental rocks. The
accounts of the other formation contain interesting sections and many important details.
~~
‘ Geology and Mineralogy. 421
Dr. Endlich describes the Sangre de Cristo range and the Luis and the Huerfano region. The highest mountains of this . :
c.——may boniferous, and he adds, this point is at least “entitled to further investigation.” The Aiootoaiton ous ae Cretaceous rocks are described and various sections are give The volcanic rocks are spoken of as either trachyte, dole coe or basalt. There are six volcanic areas situated—near the eastern entrance of the Sangre
idad regi s of
says of the coal. Dr. Endlich also discusses the distribution of the Ancient Glaciers of Southern Colorado, and illustrates the
i with a map.
- Holmes describes the geology of the La Plata mining re-
n, giving vty daganin oe views and — and stating a cts interest ted with the trachytic eruptions. Professor adce eater ‘stratigraphic details respecting the
ert ai Cretaceous
opographical an nd Geogra aphical Reports treat of the
courses and heights re es sabe of drainage, i and
is illustrated by chy outline slichihes which’ are very effective ve.
The a Report by Mr. Allen, which ae previously sppcareds: Ie already been noticed in this Journ Professor
ackard’s an treats of a subject of the highest stipiaaaibe to the country—the injurious pion of the west—and occupies 220 pages of the volume. He remarks that in the United States the loss of agricultural products gies this source is probably — two hundred millions of dollars each year, and that from on quarter to one-half of this amount might be saved by prev st measures. Many figures are added to the text illustrating the species.
422 Scientific Intelligence. :
(2.) Bulletin of 2 acti vol. ii, No. 4, pp. 118, 8vo, (739- 856 of vol. iti).—-This number of the Bulletin contains the follow- ing articles: The first aieruced traces of fossil insects in the American Sage mana by 8. H. ScuppER; ; description of two pa
of Carabide from Scarboro Heights, y 8. H. Scupprer ; Report on insects sk a in the cece — of = 5, by P. a "Unter; ‘ on Cambarus Couesi, a new craw-fish from Dakota yok: i.
STREETS; on a Carnivorous Diaceat (deslage tr adadaa) from ‘the Dakota beds of Colorado , by E. D. Cope; contribution to the Ichthyological fauna of the ‘Green _ er Shales, by E. D. Copr; on the genus Erisichthe, by E. D.
Mr. Cope states that the fish of ime Green River Shales repre- sent families partly of fresh water and partly of brackish or salt water species. Material is needed to a whether the Green River lake had communication with the
omy by Dr. Coues, and those of the Leporide, Hystricide, p eaten myide, Castoroidide, Castoride and Sciuride, by Professor Allen. Specific and family distinctions, structural relations, geo- divergences of varieties,
this are treated with atone ire and precision. The monograph on the Muridx is accompani four plates. The volume closes with a synoptical list of ‘he fossil Rodents of North America, by Professar Allen, and a neta by Mr. T. Gill and ‘Dr. 93 s.
This ie by ¢ one pores has Spent much time eth the ke treated of, contains a full account of the condition, habits, arts, histor , ete., of the people, and also a discussion of "the relations of me anguage, together with a ep and vocabulary.
(5.) Miscellaneous Publications, No. Fur-bearing ‘Animals. A ‘Monogr aph of Nort th American Masttider; ; “aA Ex.iotr Covks. 348 pp. 8vo, with 20 plates. Washington, 1877.—A work that is ner sclehtiie, while also in part popu lar in its character.
2. Annual Report of the Geological and Natural History
? ‘of Minnesota, for the year 1876, INCHELL, State Geologist. 248 8vo. Saint Paul, 1877 —— volume con- tains reports on the Geology of Houston and Hennepin Counties,
sota; a chemical report by Prof. . §. F. Pecknam; a list of the Fungi of the State, by Dr. A. E. Jounson; an entomological
Geology and Mineralogy. 423 Salaun treating of the locusts and other insects, by ALLEN
fog 4: os ort on Hennepin County contains many valuable facts about the drift of the county, and also on the cha — from ero-
. Fhe Geological Record ne ‘ists 3 an account of works on Geol ology, Mineralogy and Paleontology, published during the year. Edited by Wm. Wurraxker, B.A., F. er es the Geological Survey of England. 444 pp..8vo. Lo ndon, 1877.—This second volume of the Geological Record will be po by all who are interested in the progress of geological or mineralogical science.
e notices are brief, but yet ‘they are so well prepare red as to give a correct idea of the contents of publications. It thus enables the student to survey the year’s progress at a glance, and to gather up references to the papers or works which he may need to consult in detail. i
4. Steven Notice a wer Discovery of a new Mineral Speci IDEON , Ph.D. (Communicated.)—The ipecics here briefly deser ibed pace associated with chaleophanite in ochreous limonite, at the Passaic Zine oe Sterling Hill, New
See 2
Color black. Streak brownish ea paque. Before the blowpipe: in the forceps Lote eam in the closed ube yields a little’ water. With fluxes reactions ‘for manganese
zinc, The analyses lead to the _ Zn, Mn, Mn or Zn Mn. Whence the a is a zinc haussmanite.
invariable cant with and close genetic relation to chaleophanite, I te for the species the name Heterolite, from éraipos, a 00)
Jersey City, Sept. 2 1877.
5. On some Tetherium and Vanadium Minerals ; by F. A Gentu.—Dr. Genth’s al ruses sa SE of three new Species, whose characters are here gi
Coloradoite. No ot erystallize withons cleavage; massive, some- what i aaumes sometimes having an imperfectly columnar strue- ture. (Sma gler Mine). " Hardness about 3; specific gravity =
the specimens neato! ed were more or less i a “as it was impossible to separate entirely the associated minerals. Found in Colorado at the Keystone and Mountain in Mines, with
424 Scientific Intelligence.
native tellurium and quartz; also at the Smuggler Ming where it is often mixed with native gold, tellurium and tellur nolite. Occurs in exceedingly fine sation, poe in
at the Keystone Mine, Magrolia District, Colorado ; it occurs in ae upper decomposed portion of the mine, with quartz, limonite and aendiees having been produced by the oxidation of coloradoi
Kerrotellurite. A crystalline coating on quartz, associated with native tellurium; under the microscope it appears in very delicate tufts, sometimes radiatin ng, or in erate in minute prismatic erystals of a color between straw and lemon-yellow inclining to
tity in hand did not allow of a reliable ip Baeky sis. Found at the Keystone Mine, Colorado.
Dr. Ge also mentions the occurrence of 7ellurite (tellurium dioxide, TeO,) at the Keystone, Smuggler, and especially at the John Ja ay Mine, Ustors do. It is found in minute white, yellowish- white and yellow crystals, mostly prismatic, isolated or aggregated
into bundles. eavage eminent in one direction, luster on this face adamantine, elsewhere vitreous inclining to resinous. The same compound was observed ith native tellurtum at
nolia District, outed it contains, however, more aluminum and less vanadium. An analysis of the Siberian "volborthite i - oven and its relation shown to the species psittacinite. . D.
6. ineralogische Miitheilun gen von G. vom Rat ee pores
land, and on compou und rutile apron a recap the expla-
nation of the obscure be gabercre 1a ) thread- like forms of gold, oleae Sanh contribution, and is on idated by a considerable n of figur
Botany and Zoology. 425
important work, did not end with his death, but its continuation has been undertaken by one well fitted to perform the task. The present edition, while including much new matter, retains the form
and a arrangement of those Nicer have arene ed ex — in one
E. 6. D Ill. Borany AND ZooLoey.
Occurrence qe race gigantic Cephalopod on the coast of Naitountont: EK. Verritt.—A nearly perfect specimen of a large mee oa rang cast ashore after a severe gale, a Catalina, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, Sept. 24. It was living when found. It was fpraoee for two or three days at St. Johns, and subsequently was carried in brine to New York, where it was purchased by Reiche “& ae for the New York Aquarium, where T have had an PDE to examine it.* Although somewhat mutilated, and not in a very good state of preservation when received, it is of great chara pings, without doubt, the largest and best specimen ever preserve t proves to be Architeuthis princeps, formerly described by me, from the jaws alone, in this Journal.t The jaws agree well in form and color with the large
ie sessile arms (ventral ones) 11 feet; circumference at base 17 inches. Length of upper mandible 5°25 inches; diameter of large su bdokets 1 inch; diameter of eye-sockets 8 inches. The eyes were
matty a sagittate in form. The rims of the eps suckers are white, with very acutely serrate margins, and the small smooth- rimmed suckers, Wives a gas iohea tubercles, are distantly scattered along most of the inner face of the tentacular arms, the last ones noticed pette nipetesn feet from the tips. The sessile
ones being somewhat shorter and smaller than the others ; the serrations are smaller on the inner edge than on the outer of the
* When examined by me it was loose in a tank of alcohol. I learn that it has i inserted two
Vol. ix, p. 181. Plate V, figs. 14, 15, March, 18 Measurements soc the — caught specimen were made by Rev. M. Harvey, at St. Johns, and co cated to
426 - Scientific Intelligence.
suckers. A more detailed description is deferred to a es a together with a description of another specim The 2 Antelope and Deer of America ; by JOHN uae Eaton. 3 426 pp., numerous cuts. New York, (Hurd & Houghton.) 1877.—This is an excellent treatise on the ae antelope oa the various species of deer, moose and elk, of which eight species are recognized, The descriptions of the species are “de- tailed, and a large part of the book is devoted to their habits, domettiontiots hybridity, aliment, diseases, the chase, comparisons with congeners, and other kindred subjects. The illustrations are well executed | and characteristic.
Tuomas G, Gen Vol. ii, sre: 399 pp. Philade ‘Iphia. Pub- lished by the eee 1877.—The second volume of this work, which has just reached us, is, like the first, replete with details in respect to the habits of ’pirds, and more especially as to their migrations, the time occupied in building nests and oe and the nature of food at different seasons of the year. In this consists
its chief scientific value. The author has evidently spent ‘ great
of this kind. 1e volumes include all the families above the waders, and the author proposes to complete the work in —— volume.
4. Zoologische Minas toe by Dr. R. mpage and Dr. es - Nirscue. Bo — Theodor Fischer. oo ih ioe bee three
the analyses of certain seeds aaekascalty used for human food, an two or three other papers by Prof. Storer which this new number
Botany and Zoology. 427
of the Bussey Bulletin contains, we call attention here only to Prof. Farlow’s short article, which refers to some of the various questions and problems he has had to deal with during be past year. They mainly relate to the Black Knot of Plum trees, which was the subject of a former paper; to the American Grape ne mildew (Peronospora viticola), and a disease caused by Uncinula spiralis the conidial form of which is genres: undistinguishable
rom the notorious Oidium Tuckeri ; to the #umago of Orange and Cae trees, in which it t appears that the mischief produced is owing to 0a wooly p lant-louse, upon the excretions of which, or the exudations of the leaf caused by the punctures, the fungus i is thought to live; and, final wk there are some notes supplementary to Prot Farlow’s s memoir n the Onion n-smut. It seems that this
but is A all appearance Phe ae sa s U. magica, found on an Italian car
It is well that we have in this country an institution which furthers investigations of this sort, and intends to educate a sence of teachers capable of u undertaking them
7. Flora Brasiliensis.—The 70th fascicle, a large one, with, 70 plates, is tilled with Bentham’s pita ether ‘of the Mimosee, and concludes the sixteenth volume. The 71st contains the small orders, Ochnacew, Anacardiaceew, Sabiacew, and Rhizophoracee, by r. Engler. As to Ochnacee, the author confirms Planchon’s idea, aes in 1862 but not anywhere acted upon, that this order emb Ppergicdg 4 and he insists ak it is allied to Dillen iacee oi ap t to Rutacew. For the large genus of the sing op pete following pale, replaces Schreber’s long received na Gomphia by Ouratea of Aublet, and he appears to have in pes identified Aublet’s oda specimens. In dAnacardiacee the genus Lithrea of Miers is reinstated. Brazil has but one species
ocky M tains ss the jpice Popes of the Genhogiadl Survey of Canada for 1875-76, issued in 1877, we find an interesting narra- tive, by Professor John Macoun, of a botanical exploration from
ca
t to the Peace and Athabasea Rivers east of the Rocky Mountains, and t Canada, to which is appended a full Catalogue of the Plants collected, or known Mr. Macoun t occur on this range, with a careful indication of their cre
i acea ‘the continent. A very useful and er
9. Sketch of the rar of the Nicobar Islands ; Tne: thon of Burmese Palms ; Vontributions toward a knowledge of the
428 Scientific Intelligence.
Burmese Piora, ete.; by 8. Kurz.—These are the titles of some
se ames. ‘“ Petal occurs as a name for several different plants in Jelinck’s journal. I fear it is meant for ‘bétél’ (‘just so, ‘right
so’), a very usual saat of a Malay to a question regarding the pronunciation of a word.” A. 10. Arboretum aolana .... par Atpo. LavaLiee. This
handsome octavo volume, as i ‘te full title ductares is an enumera- tion of the trees and shrubs cultivated at Segrez (Seine and Oise), h
while the author was forming the Arboretum which now adorns
ames, and
through traditional errors or oversights of the nurserymen, som times thr rough less innocent practices of “ quelques hortionitours which our author is agin rained to denounce. In consequence he was obliged to stud the acanclalatins and cabin the sy- nonymy for himself ieanelieuk, with the best aid to be had from the Jardin des Plantes and elsewhere. Hence the raison @étre of this volume, and its value to all who have pistes eR to eee: or to. care for G.
1. Systema Iridacearum ; by J. G. Baxer.—This bogiits in ee 90th number of the Journal of the Linnean Society, and is continued in the following. When concluded, we may give an
peri and timely, and the Jridacee particularly need revision, n almost untouched by all later ee ae except by Dr. "Platt, whose synopsis in the Linnea co Sanat
and whose views are not always to be adopt
12. Native “Artichokes.”—Upon sae et the article upon n Heli anthus tuberosus, contributed to this Journal (in May last) by Messrs. Trumbull and Gray, the bios os herpes botanist and explorer, Mr. John Macom, wrote a
“It is a fact that a species of Helionthes week I took to be #.
Astronomy. 429
tuberosus, grows in baa mine maths in the valley of the paige eee pa on the e right t bank of the river, above Point Mem discharges into Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, anes is quite easy of access from the United States. I saw the plant growing in abund- ance on the alluvial flats on the 12th July, 1869, and found the tubers of a cao size at that time. Whether my plant i is the true tuberosus or not, it is certainly the parent of the Indian tuber. - Where I got it was ae the old (high) road to the northwest. It would be worth while to have one of the American tourists get a few plants late in Au te ust. I Lave no doubt but I have hit upon the exact locality from which the French took the tubers, and it only remains to identify my plant with A. doronicoides,”
It is well to know of this station; ie the Hurons of Sagard’s narrative doubtless dwelt much farther
Dr, C. C, Parry
of Wisconsin and Minnesota, publi in Owen’s Olea Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa an Minnesota, in nish. on page 61 is the entry: “ Helianthus tuberosus L., Artichoke, river
banks, St. Peter and St. Croix, es mative, and a well-known article of diet among the Indians, called by the Chippewas Ush- ke-baug.” An original specimen was kindly supplied by Dr.
Tn regard to the other sort of root mentioned by Sagard as resembling pa di . eo they call Sondhratates, and which a much better,’ Dr. Macom is confident that not Sium lineare but Aralia racemosa is meant’ for the older inhabitants of that part of Canada affirm that the root of this Aralia was a favorite food of the Indians, and that they taught its use to the first settlers. In flavor this root (commonly called “spikenard” and “ = "y might well be said to resemble parsnips.
13. Necrological.—There pete died during the past summer 96 European botanists of note, namely, Henry A. WepbpDELL and Pure et notices of dines will $e given in the ong record of the yea ee a
IV. ASTRONOMY.
Discovery of a New Planet; by C. H. F. Perers. (From a ne to the editors, dated Litchfield oe of Hamilton College, Clinton, = Y., Oct, 15, 1877.)—I take pleasure in for- warding an observation | of a new planet found last night, showing the brightness of a ies of 10°5 magnitude:
Oct. 14. 12h39m51sH.0.m.t. a(175)=1h6m4.73s, 6(175)= +8° 637°4", from 18 comparisons with Schj. 397. The daily motion ef the planet is about 36° in right ascension, and between 13’ and 14’ in declination toward the south. You are perhaps already aware, that the planet, of which the last number of the Journal contains
430 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
a valuable series of pose with the number (174), is ener cal with the planet (141) Lumen, so that what is’ called t (175), receives the former, and "the present Sianee the jute number,
2. Comets in 1877.—The number of comets for the present year already amounts to six. 1. Discovered ws Borrelly, Fe
. 2. Discovered by Winnecke, April 5th. eins by Swift, April 11th, 4. Discovered by Coggia, ap 13t Di covered by Tempel, Oct. 2. To these is to be nided PA rests comet of short period.
3. Observations and Orbit of Tempel?s Comet.—Comet 6, 1877, discovered by Tempel October 2d, was first seen at the Observa- tory of the Sheffield Scientific School October 5th. From meas- urements made on the 5th, 7th a 9th, the following provisional orbit has been computed. The comet is re ceding from both the earth and sun, and will soon dies pear. From places computed
as early as July, an been ever since that time both favorably situated for ee — at least as bright as when discovered It fgneag have us at any time neare about
‘BO saad bia to chee of any preted calculated orbit. The observations were made and orbit computed by Mr. W. Beebe and Mr. en, New Haven m.t. Comet’s a(m.eq.1877°0). Comet’s J. h m
Oct. 5, 10 30-7 2339 194 —13°50" 9” 1, 9: 483 32 31°0 5 40 4 9, 9 262 26 29°1 17 20 58 ll, 7 46.4 20 PT 18 48 53 ae a 26-800 Wash. mH. t. C.—0. = 2 Aa Aé
g=184 17 -o¢™ ed 18770 Oy 1, —18 4+ 2” 54 -0 11, —9. +38 log. peo nee
NG goccoaraibie SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Vo iL ii, Part - Jan., 18 76 to , 1877. 148 ss 8vo.—The Davenport Academy Ae iigee - e expecial rich in papers on merican Archeology. The num f the Eocesainee before
us ome several papers of ae character by the following authors W.. H. Pratt. Rey. J. Gass. R. J. pasa M.D., Rey. - Peet, C. T. Lindley and Fain J. W Mr. Gass announces the discovery of ee engraved tablets in an Indian mound, which he Bove “Mound No. 3 of the Cook’s Farm Group ;” | and these a re particularly deasriteld by Mr. Far- ees in a paper illustrated by excellent photographs of the blets. One represents a calendar, another a sacrificial or crema- oe scene, and the third a hunting : scene. In the last, thirty indi-
. 7
Aiiscellaneous Intelligence. 431
viduals are represented: of man, 8; bison, 4; me ss birds, 3 5 hares, 3; big-horn or Rocky Mountain goat, i; , 1; prairie lf, ‘1; " non-deseript animals, 3. of the last chee it is sug- gested may be the Mastodon, and as. and in view of other oe: announcements, the cotemporaneity of Man and the Tastodon is deemed probable. fe ~ number contains also a few zoological A bls by J. D. Put Tw. &. Geographical and fae ogical Survey of the pea Mountain Region. J. W. Powe11, Geologist in charge. Depart ment of the Interior.—This surve , under the Interior Department, has recently issued volume I of Cinniiations to North American Anology, a quarto volume of 362 pages, with many illustrations. Part I contains a Report on the tribes of the extreme N orthwest ; by W. H. Datz; Part I, on the tribes of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon, with a ma y GrorGE GI cluding, in an appen of 122 pages, CO mparative vocabularies, and a a Niskwalli-Roglish and English-Niskwalli Dictionary. Burial Customs of North American Indians ; Mr. H. C Yarrow, of Washington, D. C., has issued a circular requesting information in aid of a memoir he is preparing, upon the “ Bu a apt of the Indians of North America, both ancient and m
tion to the following points in regard to which information is desired: Name of the tribe; locality; manner of burial, ancient
at the xeny Medical Museum aa D GC, cular contains more detailed statements, On the Science of Weighing and ie nante Pata and Stand- ae
ards of Measure and Weight ; by H. W. Cutsnotm, Warden of
the Standards. 192 pp. 8 ndon; 1877, (Macmillan & Co. ture ).—This little volume contains a very interesting
account of the ancient standards of weigh easure, mo
ployed in’ the restoration of the imperial pound and yard after their destruction by the burning of the Houses of Parliament in 1834, Another chapel is devoted to the Metric Bh tena and one also to instruments for weighing and measuring. The numerous illustrations of the ancient standards add much to the foitarest of the description.
. How to draw a Straight Line; A Lecture on Linkages by A. B. Kemps, B.A. : pp. 8vo. London, 1877, (Macmillan
Jo. Nature Series). —A description of the ingenious Me tel
432 . Miscellaneous Intelligence.
herical axonometric and oblique projections. For colleges and
Scientific Schools ; S. Epwarp W ; j vo ew York, 1877, (John Wiley & Sons).—A salou work for students in descriptive geomet It is intended as a concis
- humerous examples in connection with the successive
ro ts iisitbtonde Report for 1876.—Many are the ways in which the Smithsonian Institution is promoting the progress of science in the land. One among these, of very wide influence, is the pub- lication, in its Annual Report, of an appendix containing memoirs on scientific subjects. Among the memoirs in the Report for 1876 there are the following:
Eulogy of aay Lussac, by M. Arago; a biographical sketch of Dom Pedro II, by A. Fialho ; a paper reviewing the kinetic theories a Gravitation, by W. B. Taylor; on the Revolutions of
the Crust of the Ea rth, y Prof. G. Pilar , of Brussels; on the Antecids ek eseas Mars and Jupiter, i > Kir — and vari- rin Ethnological ceri yrogne m _ relics.
RECEIVED TOO LATE FOR FURTHER NOTICE HERE. Paleontology of the Geological Survey of the State of New York: epee ron of Devin Fossils, Gasteropoda, Pteropoda, Cephalopoda, Crustacea, an
Publi ont of N rk, by authority of the Legislature of the State of New York, nearly 150 plates, 4to. Albany, 1877 Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the New Yor useum of Natural His-
' ° tory, by the Regents of the University of the State of New York (ex-officio Trus- tees of the Museum). Transmitted to the eulgeigie ieee 30, 1875; peau a paper by James Hall, consisting of 34 plates of fossils of the Nia agara group of Central Indiana with explanations, and important sth on Trilobites, etc., Sey C. D. Waleott, with a Botanical Report, by C. H. Peck.
OBITUARY.
Urs J. Leverrier, the French astronomer, died on Sun- day, tha: 23d of September, - — age of sixty-six, having been born a the 11th of March, 1
Joun G. Antuony, the Nauiahloplst: Professor in Harvard Col- lege, Cambrid e, Mass., died on the 9th of October, aged seventy- ep years. e was born in Providence, Rhode Island, May 17, 1
Bensamin HatLoweEtt, author of a work on Geometrical Anal- ysis, died at Nair Hill, Montgomery wiser Maryland, in his seventy-eighth year.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES.]
ART. rene the Proper Motion o the oe rod M. 20 = H. v; 10, 11,12 = h. 1991, 8718 = G. C. 4355. [R. A. = 17h 53m 518-8, N. P. D. = 113° 1/ 39-9; 1860- - by Epwarp 8. HoLpEn.
[Read in Abstract to the American Association for the Advancement of Science.]
It seems proper to collect the evidence now existing on this point in order to show the desirability of the study of this nebula, and because, in case the indications which we there find of a decided proper motion should be confirmed, such results would be of importance.
Following I give in chronological order such extracts from published and unpublished observations of this nebula as bear
on the points now under consideration, italicizing such portions as deserve particular attention. OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEBULA.
This nebula was discovered by Messizr June 5, 1764, but he gives no details concerning it.—Hist. de l’ Aca ” des Sciences 1771, p. 443
Am. Jour. Rok cPane ~~ Vou. XIV, No. 84.—Dec., 1877.
434 #. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifia Nebula M. 20.
Observations of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL
1784, July 12: “Three nebule faintly joined form a triangle. In the middle is a double star. Very faint and of great extent.” —Phil. Trans., 1786, p. 494.
1786, May 26: “A double star with extensive nebulosi sity of different intensity. About the double star is a black opening, re- sembling the nebula of Orion in miniature.”—Phil. Trans., 1789,
. 247
ll, ....: “Three nebule seem to join faintly together form- ing a kind of triangle; the middle of which is less nebulous, or perhaps free from nebulosity ; ; in the ameoe of the triangle is a double stur, ete.” —Phil. Trans., 1811,
236 Sweep July 12, 1784: ce Between, 3 ers (10, 71, °49, V class) is a double star.”— Mem. R. A. 8., i, p.
566 Sweep. May 26,1786: “ A double star yithin nebula IV, 41.” — Mem. R. A. 8., 1,
Observations of Sir JOHN HERSCHEL
Se ee “Tn the nebula R. A. 17" 52™, N. P. D, 113° 1’ mn Sagittarius * * * * the idea of an absorption by the double star in its middle is very forcibly suggested. This nebula is broken into three parts, and the three lines of division meet in a vacancy, in the midst of which is situated the aoe star. Ti og a object has perhaps a proper motion.”--Mem. R. A. S., ii, p. 49
8.
os Fig. 1. HERSCHEL, 1833.
1827....: “A double star placed exac tly in the central vacuity of a ine irregular nebula, which appears to have broken up into three portions by three rifts or cracks, extending from its ce miter to its circumference, pos ose directions meet at the double star.” —Mem. R. A. a: ili, p.
et “The ie star Sh. 379 in the center of the trifid
183 nebula” . [Sweep 2
E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 485
“A careful drawing t taken, but the nebula is not clear from twi- light and clouds. aaa This drawi ing is unfortunately lost, and that engraved in fig. 80 is constructed from much less elaborate sketches, aided by memor 5 32.
“Ver large ; trifid, three nebule with a vacuity in the midst, in which is righ situated the double star Sh. 379.”—Phil. Trans., 1833, p.
If we had nothing but the preceding evidence aes regard to this nebula we should be justified in laying down the following tpg. with regard to the situation of the triple ihe relative
to the three nebulosities. 8.
N. Fig 2. Mason and Situ, 1839.
4. From 1784, July 12, to 1833, this triple star was centrally situated habinash the three Ltacheetn f es. ‘The evidence is based upon two observations of Sir am Herschel and four phiseryations of Sir John, and in the tae Trans. for 1811-Sir William again repeats his former statements.
436 E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
Observations of MASON and SMITH. August 1: “The double star is certainly not as figured in Phil. Trans; 1833, but rather adhering to the |eastern| of the vies i ns.’ 839. yey 9..: “The triple star is certainly not central, ore involved * ” Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc y, vol. vii, pp. 175-
N. Fig. 3. HerscHen, 1834-8. Observations of Sir Joun Hersener at the Cape of Good Hope.
1835. August...: “I have been rather unfortunate in my fig- r Y “ ures of this “nebula. That given in my Northern Catalogue (our figure 1) is not to be taken as more than an attempt, and that a most rude and imperfect one, to show the situation of the fine triple star in its center with respect to the nearer portions of the
three principal surrounding nebulous masses.
oe then speaks of the drawing of Mason (our figure 2) as follow
E. 8. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 487
“On comparing our figures they will be found to agree in every essential particular, allowing for the difference of light between reflectors of 12 dnd 18 inches aperture, with one rather remanent exception, viz: in the form of the southern mass of the trifid neb- a and the character of the three paths or avenues which’ lead up
the triple star. Mason represents these avenues as free e from ate abrupt change of direction, the northern and preceding of them branching out with and easy and graceful biftreation from
N. Fig. 4. Index-Map. (Lassen.)
the southern; whereas my figure, whose correctness in this respect I cannot ¢ oubt, gives the prec eding avenue a remarkably sudden and uncouth flexure, like a gnarled branch of an oak, just at its divergence from the other two.”*— Astron. Obser. Cape of Good Hope, p. 10.
* M : = Art. 4 46, p. se this appearance | is recorded among the
thin ght His re represents only “things certain,” and sieobanly. Sir po Here hel referred Saily to the drawings in his comparisons.
438 H. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
The observations of Secchi* (1852-5) and of D’ Arrestt (1866, June 2) throw no light on the position of the triple star relative to the nebula.
Later observations of the nebula are those of Lassell, Lang- ley, Trouvelot and myself. (It has also been observed at Mel-
4-foot reflector, an instrument well suited to the purpose. They are published in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Soci- ety, volumes xxxili and xxxvi.
No verbal description of the nebula is given by Lassell, but the drawings are complete in themselves, and the evidence to _ be derived from them will be considered hereafter. The fol- lowing micrometric observations were made by Lassell. In order to present the nomenclature of the stars the Index-Map (Lassell’s) is given.
Table [—LasseL’s Star-Posttions.t [The positions are referred to Star 1.]
gusty Observed. Computed. Star —. Dp. 8. Aa. Ad, 3 25° 467 270"°15 +117"44 | +243"°30 4 333. 4 243-20 —110°16 +216°82 5 ves. ee 8 | 215'37 +175°38 + 125°02 q 116 49 181°21 +161°72 — 81°75 8 311: 94 391°68 — + 259-03 10 121 30 90:39 + TT07 14 43 PEPE + 11°49 +176°80 167 52 249°25 + 52°39 a 21 235 40 129-17 —106°67 — 72°85
* Mem. dell’ Oss. Coll. Romano, 1852-55, p. 89. { Abhand. d. k. Sach. Gesell. d. Wissenschaften, voi. v, p. 343. Memoirs Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxvi, p. 49.
E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20. 489
_ Observations at the Harvard College Observatory. 1866. July 31.
Prof. Sie discovered the 4th star of Sh. 379 Sa ra which he estimated 13 mag., and whi ae ue described as “blue.” inde- pendently seen ea Prof. Winlock, Measures of codr Saas made,
— August
[The following ree are copied verbatim from the original observing books, orca that. I have replaced the letters which are assigned to the stars by Prof. Langley, by Lassell’s numbers, for - the fee of antfoemit ty. The peptone’ in square brackets are m
1866. August 11.
Méxsulds of coérdinates of stars [omitted]. ‘Observed just south of 1, 10, 7, a faint, straight, narrow channel nearly filled up with nebulous matter. Was less confident to-night that the nebula surrounded the quadruple star, which seemed to be in the channel with blackness on each side, less in the preceding than in the fol- lowing side.
1866. August 13 Fifth component (E) of Sh. 379 discovered by. Prof. Langley. 1866. September 10
The entire region south of 1 [C] is judged, as before, to be the brightest part of the nebula, Ge nearly so, Cannot fe el sure that there is any nebulosity about 1. The channel [south of] 1, 10, 7, is rather suspected than seen
The drawing of M. Trouvelot was made with the aid of the Harvard College refractor (of 15 inches aperture) in 1874, and is
published in the Annals of the Harvard College Observatory,
as
proper p place. The following oe ae made by me with the 26-inch refractor of the U. 8S. Nay al Observatory “pbdalate the materials at our — in detail.* I give the Washington pisces almost literally from the
* Printed b fee ssion of pontine John Rodgers, U. 8. N., Superinten- dent of the U. 8. Naval Observato
440 HE. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
observing books, ee order that they may serve for future com-
arisons. ot infrequently a verbal statement can be made more definite and satisfactory than the presentation of the same evidence in a drawing.
Washington Observations. 1874. August 12. Observers, S. W. Burnham and E. 8. Holden: the subsequent observations are by the latter observer.
Sketch of ( made, 37 and 38 faint. Within 35” of Sh. 379 are 4 stars, I, II (=Lassell’s ade Ill and IV. [These have been subsequently measured, se h, Ast. Obs. for 1874-5-7 ; of these I and IV were Rincoveten byl Prof. Langley at Harvard College earvatary,
34 equal in brightness to 36. [The principal work of this night was the making of the star-chart f
6 is certainly inside the nebulosity, but is close to its preceding cone: 11 is inside the nebulosity by $ of the distance from 6 to
11, but the oe: is faint there; 12 and 13 both inside; 12 is nearer to the following edge of the “nebula ae 13. 52 is inside the eatin ?? Clouds prevent further work.
1875. August 5.
6 is on the edge of A. 11 is on the edge of a brighter streak, but follows the extreme edge by about } the distance 6-11. From 11 to the point near the triple star [this refers to the point of the edge of the nebula A north of 1-2-19 and about the prolongalon of the line 1-2; August, 1877] the edge is faint and tremulou 12-13-52 all inside the nebu ulosity. In the line 13-52 the cag to the following edge Sealy is not always sharp) is about equal to the distance tam 13 to 52, [This distance is to be measured from 52 toward the fillwinc side, 1877.
A figure was made, from which the following notes are derived. The nebula is condensed around star 4. Ifa line be drawn joining
this last line cuts ve ope edge of B at a distance from 18
20 is about vi middle of the dark channel f [see index-map]. The angle of position of this channel f is 160° (1 measure).
f extends ¢ of the distance from 20 to 9.
ay is immersed in nebulosity. The line 20-9 [16 ?] is nearly the
of f.
a second sketch of the bounding lines of the nebula made, which agrees more nearly with Lassell 1864 than the first one of this night, in the position of the nebulosit mera fo the stars 18 and 40.]
The triple star Sh. 379 is mali ia
E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 441
1877. July 2. The following stars were identified and placed on the chart: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, —, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, rd 28, 29, 30, 3], $e 33, 34, 35, 36, a7, 38, 39, 40, 41, —,—, 48, 49, 0. 51, 52, —, BA, 5 ; leaving stars
8, 12, 43, “6, 47, 53 to be aieiantee charted.
Measures of P, Ao, ete. See Table II. WNotes.—48 has a ne less 46 than 18. 44 has a little greater 4d than 18. The 1 and 12, 19°-2, is nearly that of 1 and 19. If anything the p of 1 and 19 is greater than oo id 1 ae 12
12,
Measures of p, Ja, ete. ‘See Table II. Notes.—The line 12-13 passes west of 1, and ‘the nebulosity near 1 is still west of this line. Star 3 is east of the line 12-13 by about 1” (est.). The line 1-18 bisects A (roughly speaking). 7 precedes 5 a little.
Along the line 14-20 there is nebulosity to the edge of y, then darkness to the edge of A, then nebulosity to the edge of A again, then darkness in /. That is, the preceding edge of A is cut off by the line 14-20
The nebulosity of A just following the line 14-20 is fainter for 3”-6” (est.); but beyond this sa it is uniformly bright up to 1, 2, 19.
877. July 13.
The line 14-20 is Pare gi in regard to the nebulosity as in figure [omitted]; that is, the line 14-20 really passes through the nebula near 1, 2, 19, but through a fainter part. It is, however, about tangent to nebulosity of the same brightness as that near 1-2 on
ebula ity i t, meturaehs had prides about ray stars since Mason’s faving 877. 'y 16
Measures of p and Ja. See Table IL. I suspect D to be vari- able, 11 very faint.
1877. July 25.
Measures of Ja, 46. See Table II. DandE seen. D is fi brighter than any other of the small components of Sh. 379, of quia aly D and E are visible whi ene E is quite faint. E<20
. July 26,
ae nlight. Placing ve Bae ometer wire through 12-13 the wire runs west of 1, 2, 19, but is involved in fainter nebulosity near them. Half way from this wire to star 1 Te noes mee becomes
442 EH. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
1877. V. The line 3-35 is sag 32 ona cecal to the line 12-13, = intersects the nebulosity A near 1,2,19. This line is tangent v
exactly to the preceding an of the brighter nebula about kan three stars.
An ee of position of #, passing through 20 and 16 (not 9), 162°°7
New dark channel between 1 and 10, as in sketch. It extends no further east than 10, and 10 and 11 are on or near its following borders. Its preceding border is 20’-30" following 1, 2,19. The seeing is poor, and this point should be reéxamined.
The brightest part of the nebula is about the triple star.
It is an oval mass nearly symmetrically disposed about the triple star. The triple star is, if anything, toward its western side.
(B) The next brightest nebulosity is near 36, but eae Pe not much brighter than (C) or the brightest parts of (B) ne
(D) Stars 12-13 are both inside the ne aie esi [See Oneeye. tions of 1875, Aug. 4; 1877, July 12
E) Star 11 is on the very edge of a ‘irighter portion, but follow the Pace Ga by 4 the distance 6 to 11. [See Observations of ar
OF Star a is within the brighter nebulosity, the boundary line of which runs (see sketch) [omitted] between 5 and 26, but much nearer 26 than 5; perhaps 4 of the distance 26 to 5
(G) [Star 6 is seekality inside the nebulosity, about half way from the shes | edge of the fainter nebulosity to ine preceding edge of the brighter.] See Observations of 1875, . tars 5, 27 and 28 are on the precedin g edge of ‘the fainter parts of A. [But preceding 5, 7, 28 it is not totally black. | (J) The triangle 40, 44, 21 has no nebulosity gs is’ at all bright within it exce t Al
(K) 21 is involved in C a few seconds, but it is ius to its north edge. 35 is well chs goa 36, 37, 38 are correct on the map. 1877. July 31..
21 and 1, —65"°73 (3), —0”-09 refraction, 46 = —65"°82. This is about the mean of the 46’s of 38 and 37. Sketch of stars, etc., age 5, 17, 28.
‘he tmosphere on this night was more favorable than pre- viously ‘auting the year, and the principal work was devoted to the examination bo the apparent differences between Lassell’s and Trouvelot’s fi
5, etc. is in the northern part of t , and the eye ae ors to trace the following “om of i "channel y, that it 1s n mpression that 5 on or the preceding
Plac ing'5 in ne center of the field, and thus prouilig ¢ the dis- turbing effect of the well marked border of the channel y near
E. & Holden— Proper Motion of the Prifid Nebula M. 20. 448
6 and 11, the ) maendepi of Lassell’s figure are most nearly pos sented. As before describe d, the nebulosity between 5 and 26 mostly faint, bata near 26 it becomes brighter, so that 26 is aacobved
now more dee eply in the brighter parts of (A) than is given by Lassell, and not so much as given by Trouvelot.
The ‘nebulosity immediately about 4, 27, 28 is faint. The dark channel y a to have well marked edges south of 5. The faint nebulosity about 5, however, does not seem to be connected (as in Lassell’s figure) with (B).
August 3,
Night very Baie i A sep 14 46) = -—211"'37 (2), —0"°30 re- fraction, Jd = — 7 (2). _Lassell gives Soden , and I pre- sume there is an error in ae numbering her
Order of brightness of the see stars.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 18, 20, 26, 21,25. 39 and 24 are quite faint.’ Lassell’s order of brightness is therefore main- tained. Nebulosity was traced north following Sh. 379 a consid- erable way, about half a degree to a nebulous star 8", but I was hindered in this by clouds which finally covered the whole sky. The same hindrance occurred in the same way on the clear night of July 31. The connection of this nebula with neighboring ones deserves examination, as it is vat extended, but no opportunity offered ——o 1877 for this work :
ith regard to t po triple star: It was first seen double b ee South ie Say ane aoe wit
in 1877. A = Lassell 1; = 3; r= The approximate oes me the various soimponents are;
A and B : o11° : 10” rg
A and C Swe & 65 t Bh. ay
B and D : 283 : 2°5
A and F ; 107 : 19°5
B and E ‘ 193 5°8 This nomenclature includes Trouvelot’s star s.f.1. Ihave several times sus eee the existence of a small star n. p. A. =310 s=6" r measures of the above stars, see the Washington Aiea.
n nd rve th triple star Sh. 379 on the iraneit-Cirole, in order to fix its position b solutely.
The ington observations of star positions are given in the table following It will be noticed that in the column “ Holden— Mason” the errors are usually within the limits set by Mason himself.
444 HF. S. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
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E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20. 447
Position of the mass A relative to the triple star.
Ir will be convenient to examine the various drawings with regard to ak situ! and to lay down a series of bom e com-
original ones and the propositions I have derived from
them. In the actual examination of the drawings, each one was studied separately, and all the evidence to be derived from it recor nd the various data were subsequently collated.
In this way a é tolerably pnt judgment can be formed.
In Sir John Herschel’s Cape of Good Hope figure we find:
I. Stars 1-2-19 are on the very edge of A.
II. The line 12-13 does not pile a t A,
Ill. The star 20 is not laid
IV. The line 1-10 is not rales le precedin
V. The star 35 is not laid down on = caving although given in the Catalogue
In general the soreenient with Mason’s drawing is good for ‘ e mass A near 1, 2,19. In the figure given by Mason and
mith :
I. Stars 1-2-19 immersed in
II. The me 12-13 does not pees A, but passes west of it by about 1
II. The . star 20 is not laid down, as it was too faint for Mason’s
bee = e line 1-10 preceding 1 is involved in A by a little over 14”.
V. 35 is not laid down in his drawing.
These measures are not made on the engraving representing the nebula as it appears to the eye, but on the contour map (Mason's Plate II). The two plates agree however, but the second is more useful for a purpose like the present one, as it was seen by Mason that it would be.
ring his residence at Malta in 1862-4, Lassell presented to the Royal Astronomical iety a figure “ei this nebula drawn under his coerne which is referred to in the Memoirs
that work. This Seater bed not be here given, as essentially the same observations are represented in Lassell’s second
448 E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
gure in the vol. xxxvi of the same series (p. 48 and fig. 32 Plate VII), which we give below. The first of these figures we may, however, briefly describe in some important points, using Lassell’s nomenclature for the stars, as given in the last cited work and Mason’s nomenclature for the “nebulosity, as in our Index-map.
N. Fig. 5. Lassen, 1862.
Lassell’s first figure. I. Stars 1, 2, 19 are immersed in the nebula. Il. The line ‘of stars 12-13 prolonged passes through the nebu- losity of A. If we draw the shortest line from star 2 to the pre- ceding edge of A this line is cut by the line 12-13, cbonnasel at about one-third its length from > _— eding end, and this line is involved in the nebula near 1, 2, 19, for about 30’ of its length. Ill. The line from 14 to 20 — the line from 2 at about its mee point, or) is involved in the nebula near 1, 2, 19 for about ” of its lengt
E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 449
FY, thee line 10-1 is involved in nebulosity preceding 1 by about 167°6. Vv. The line 35-3 is nearly tangent to the preceding edge of the nebula
Lasseli’s second figure.
This figure is the result of repeated observations and is to be considered as more trustworthy than the former.
I. Stars 1, 2, 19 are immersed in A.
IL. The line of stars 12-13 prolonged passes through the nebu- losity A preceding 1, and is involved in the nebula A for about 25” of its length.
IL. The line 14-20 is involved in A for about 17”, It is to be
noted here that all of A which precedes the line 1, 2, 19 is in this
rawing nappueoee fainter than that just on the border of which 1, , 19 are situate
This is “fot so given in the earlier figure, but probably this second figure represents more exactly the careful observations of Lassell himself. Returning to the second figure we find :
IV. hoo line 10-1 is inv olved in nebulosity preceding 1 by about 16
. The “line 35-3 is approximately tangent to the preceding shore o
From the Hareecd College observations by Professor Langley and from sketches accompanying them the following conclusions
may bedrawn. As remarked by Prof. Langley these tain are not of ae sre = as the micrometric observa
I. Stars not immersed in A, but wa in “the ‘duck channel waick, jotta is filled with faint nebulosi
he line 12-13 prolonged i is not involved in he nebulosity A,
IIL. Stars 14-20 not laid down.
IV. Line 1-10 not sips preceding a:
V. 35 not laid dow
In the drawing ads by M. Trouvelot at Harvard College Observatory*—
L Stars 1, 2, 19 are immersed in 4.
IL The line the does not intersect A, but passes west of it by many secon
UL. lags line 14-20 is not csic eras in A at all.
IV. The 1-10 preceding 1 is involved in A.
Vi The. star 35 is not laid - From the Washington hediats it appears that—
I, 1, 2, 19 are immersed in
IL The line 12-13 pechongel passes through A, Half way from this line to the line 1, 2, 19 the nebulosity becomes brighter,
* Annals Harvard College Observatory, vol. viii, plate 32. This — is not copied, as it is but lately published and is in the hands of cpap Am. Jour. Sot SS Vou. XIV, No. 84.—DeEc.
450 ES ee Re Motion of the T: mies Nebula M. 20.
and so continues up tol. That is, the line 12-13 is involved in the fainter nebulosity.
III. The line 14-20 cuts off the canes borders of A, but is involved only in fainter nebulosity. .It is, however, about tangent to the brighter nebula about 1, 2, 19.
IV. The line 10-1 prolonged i is involved in A preceding 1.
he line 35-3 is almost exactly parallel to the line 12-13 es and intersects A near the triple star. This line is tangent very exactly to the Bre edge of the brighter nebulosity about these three star
We may make the following summary of the evidence with Sate to the position of the triple star relative to the nebulosity.
the very ed e of. , but in Mason’s figure ant in his notes, ee Certain,” he places these stars within the nebula, and
ably a meet of the two memoirs will result in the sere that Mason was right mh that we must suppo the triple star to have been involved in 1837-9. It is all the
1 more proper to come to this aenelanon as Herschel does not ex- ss
to be noted here that this position is utterly different from the one derived from thesevidence of the earlier observatio
In the absence of satisfactory micrometric measures ionic indeed are almost impossible to make on this point even with bei Sounenetig wires), it may be said that Lassell’s (2 fig- ures), Trouvelot’s and my own observations agree in this re- spect with Mazon’ 8, rallowhig for difference of telescopes. We may therefore say with certainty that—
%. From 1839 to 1877 the triple star was not centrally oleae’ between the three nebulosities, but was involved in A. The ve
same time it must be noted that’ in several respects these observa- tions vary from other later ones, and it is to be remembered that the evidence is _— mostly derived from verbal and definite de- scriptions, an erefore are of greater weight than if deduced
II. The line 12- 13, according to Herschel, does not intersect ason—does not intersect ‘A; Lassell ( (1)—does intersect A ; Lassell (2)—does intersect 4; Lan ngley—does not intersect A; Trouvelot—does not intersect A; Holden—does intersect
E. S. Holden— Proper Metin of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 451
Ill. The line age wi dah pc ~ IIerschel, cannot be traced ; Mason—cannot be traced ; Lassell (1)—is i involved in A; Las- sell (2)-—is eee in A; apieye ts not involved in 4; Trou: velot—is not involved's in A; Holden—is involved in e line 10-1; the evidence under this head corroborates
that ides I, except in the case of Harvard College, 1 . The line 35-3: He rschel, star 35 not laid lowh: Mason, star 35 not lai d down; Lassell (1), stars Bees: about tangent to
35-3 intersects the fainter nebulosity A, te is about tangent to the brighter part of A near the triple sta
. In these points I-V, it appears that there are few discrepan- cies A the difference i in telescopes will not explain, and infer- ence % is con
General notes on the brighter portions of the Nebula.
The brighter portions only are considered, in order to avoid as much as poss gt => discrepancies arising from differences of instrumental
In this sxnnsietrian again it will be convenient to derive a series of api ges from each drawing in succession, which can afterwards be compared.
The following anal yats may be made of the figure of Her- schel (1837).
A. The brightest nebulosity i is that following 1-2-19, that called B, and that called C. The bounding line of C is stra angely different in Herschel and Mason’s figures, as remarked b on former. Mason refers in his notes to the outline as given b hel.
B To understand the distribution of the aiten nebulosity,
C. { a reference must be made to ox drawing.
D. Star 12 is on the very edge of the following side of B. might even be supposed to have been intended to be laid down in the channel y. 13 is immersed, but not muc
E. Star 11 is immersed in
G. Star 6 in immersed in A.
H. Star 5 is on the preceding side of A
J. The —— defined by stars 40, ‘44, 21 [these stars not
Herschel makes this inference somewhat
7 se ee
the aiesh ies of C near where star 21 would be, is 1
452 _ E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20. With reference to the distribution of the , in Mason’s figure we may lay down the following propositions
A. The brightest nebulosity is that immediately following 1, 19; that surrounding his star 5 [= Lassell No. 18], and that near
; Mason 6.
The fainter orders of nebulosity are pretty uniformly and C, ET acuta disposed about these three brighter centers. This is better understood from the figure than from a description. D. Stars 12 and 13 are immersed in nebulosity. E. Star 11 follows the edge of the nebula a considerable distance. Star 6 is somewhat immersed in H. Star 5 is on the preceding edge of J. triangle whose vertices would ‘be in the positions of Lassell’s stars 40, 44, 21 is completely filled with tolerably bright nebulosity. . The stars Mason 6 and 4 are both immersed in nebaloelty,® in very faint nebulosity, 4 in a brighter part. The chan is south of these. The 40 of 6 and 4 is according to Maton —63" and —39", L. The 46 of the south edge of B is-about the mean of the 46’s of stars [Mason] 4 and 6, that is, about 51”. About 7° pease: 1, the 4o of the aeesae "northern limit nt C is about 18
In regard = i distribution of the nebulosity in Lassell’s figure we may remark :
A. ca sick nebulosity is immediately about and following wh 2,
B. The next order of bright ‘aoa = about stars 35, 36, 37; i. €., just south of 1, 2, 19 in the lin
C. The third order of bright cenaac aia is between stars 12, 48, 40 and stars 40, 18.
tars 12, 13, 52 and 53 are immersed in nebulosity.
E. Star 11 is just on the edge of A.
F. Star 26 is just on the edge of A.
G. Star 6 is nearly in the middle of the dark channel y.
H. Stars 5, 27, 28 are immersed in the following border of B.
J. The triangle 40, 44, 21 is tree of nebula.
K. The pit gH 36, 35 are immersed in C south of the channel a.
LL. The southern limit of B instead of iia as in Herschel and Mason’s hited 4 ver 100” south of 1, is over 60” north of it. The 46 of the north shore of C is tedghity) about — 70”,
Lassell’s ne figure confirms the above propositions in gen- eral. The only changes necessary to introduce are with regard to— D. 12, 18, 52 on the edge or following the edge of B. F. Star 26 outside of A. H. 5, 27, 28 follow the east edge of B. . The triangle has a patch of faint nebulosity in it (4’).
E. 8. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 453
From the MS. observations and ae of Professor Lang- ley the following conclusions may be draw
A. “The brightest nebulosity is about 1” ie ~ “ The region south of 1 is judged to be the brightest” (Sept. 10).
C. See the observations in detail.
D. Stars 12, 13 are immersed.
E. Star 11 is, if wupthinas muses of A.
F. Star 26 not laid down.
G, Star 6 is, if anything, outside of A.
H. Star 5 is near the Niel edge of A, but immersed.
J. 40, 44, 21 not laid dow
K. Stars 30 ? 35? are immersed in C south of the channel a.
L. No measures — on the sketches, but it in general agrees with ‘Trouve
From the drawing of M. Trouvelot, which gives the general effect of the nebula to the eye bett ter than any other, we deduce what follows:
A. The brightest part of the nebula is in A south following tae ae 8 8
"B. Next in order of brightness is the nebulosity about star 40.
C. The northern borders of C are next in order of brightness.
D. Stars 12 and 13 are immersed in B,
E. Star 11 follows the extreme edge os me a little (see his out- line- go of stars in Annals H. C. Obs.,
F. Star 26 is teitoanly surrounded ee cleats light nebu-
losity. G. Star 6 is within the padersiiing edge of A (outline-map). H. Star 5 is within A (outline-map).
J. triangle 40, 44, 21 contains a considerable amount of
pretty bright nebulosit Star ie is on may northern border of C, Stars 35 and 36 are
not laid dow
The resu aa Are, oo is K, for the Washington observa- tions are laid down in the detailed transcription of those obser- vations (1877, July 30) and need not be repeated here. “As to L, we may say that the 46 of the north shore of C, 7* preceding lis about —65”.
We may summarize the foregoing results as follows: First as to the distribution of the brightest portions In all of the drawings the pace wigs closely pes the triple star is of the first order of brightness, while in the Washington observations between 1 and 10 a ag Se lead exists. J am
Fetnces g 1, exists.
454 FE. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Prifid Nebula M. 20.
It is possible that the brightness of the stars 1, 2, 19 pro- duces ss contrast part of the effect noted.
spite of minor nyt ta the general agreement as to the
seustion “Ot stars 12 and 13 is good. Lassell’s first drawing if not
corrected by his second would be difficult to explain im this ect.
3 According to Herschel: star 11 is immersed in A; Mason, star 11 is dee eply i immersed in A; Lassell, star 11 is just on the edge of A; Langley, star ab is not immersed in A; Trouvelot, star 11 is very slightly immersed in A; Holden, star "11 is on the bie Ms edge of the br am Fa eiesitiy, but follows the extreme edge a
Here Herschel aa Mason agree with each other, but differ from the later authorities.
F. According . Lassell: star 26 is just on the edge of A; that is, the space between 26 and 5 is totally black. In his first fig-
star 26 is within the brighter medley of A, whose boahdary ine runs between 5 and 26 at a distance from 26 equal to about 4 the distance of these stars.
The evidence under this head should be considered in con- nection with that under H, which is for comparison next given.
H. According to Herschel: star 5 is on the Wee edge of _A; Mason, star 5 is on the preceding edge of A; Lassell, stars 5, 27, 28 are immersed in the following border of B. In Lassell’s
first figure these three stars are entirely free from nebulosity and follow the east edge of B; Langley, star 5 “e shots mae Pe velot, star 5 is weiter A; Holden, stars 5, 2 € on
veding edge of a fainter strip of nebulosity which bepiite ae yt to horder A and continues northward beyond 28. The preceding edge of the brightest parts of is is very close to 11, a little east
18 b been able to see how the exact effect given in Lassell’s two draw- ings (by two different observers, be it remembered, at different times) can be produced. At the’ same time, I have no doubt that the appearance given by Lassell was a true one for 1862-4, and a slight change in the intensity of the nebulosity between 26 and 5 would reduce the nebula as — in the Ww
mo to the appearance’as given by Lassell. A change in the
verse direction is-needed to shoes, 3 the appearances given by treecil and Mason
E. S. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M!20. 455
While, therefore, no definite conclusion can be reached (as Lassell’s drawings of nebule in general are of the highest
must not only accept them as evidence, but as very positive
and conclusive evidence), it is possible that some slight changes
se brilliancy (apparently none of situation) may have oceurr red n the region 28, 17, 18, 26 during the ame forty years. Toning the previous order :
G. According to Herschel: star 6 is immersed in A; Ma star 6 is immersed in A, but is 8 very near the edge; Lassell, for
The evidence above seems to me to indicate some decided changes in the brightness [and position] of the edge of A near 6. The first two and the last two authorities agree, and both differ from Lassell and from Langley. Accepting Lassell’s authority, some change has here taken place, and it appears that it Is connected witb the suspected changes F and Z.
ones, but seem to confirm Lassell’s.
J. The triangle defined by 40, 44, 21 is, according to Herschel: free from any marked nebulosity ; ; Mason, completely filled with tolerably bright nebulosity ; ae free from nebula (2d figure), free from nebula except A’ (1st figure); Trouvelot, contains a con- siderable amount of pretty bright nebulosity ; Holden, contains no nebulosity at all bright except A’.
Here the various accounts do not agree. Positive evidence is more to be considered than negative, and this triangle in 1837 was Rabel filled with nebula considerably bright. It is not so now. ‘T'rouvelot’s figure really agrees with Lassell’s and my own, if we correct a little distortion of his figure near this part.
K and L. The point to be settled is, has the channel a remained unchanged? From Herschel’s figure we derive the following :
The apex of A’ (which in his figure is continuous with B, and is indeed about the beishved portion of the nebula, quite different from now) is about 38 seconds of arc south of 1. The 4a of this apex is (approximately) —7*. The width of the channel a-at this point is 85 seconds. Bee the north shore of C in the R.A.—7* (from 1) is in Jd —12
456 E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
From Mason’s figures (assisted here by the measured posi- tions of stars 4 and 6 of his 1 list) we find the south shore of B in 46 —51”; and the 46 of the extreme northern limit of .C 187”. An acquaintance with Mason’s memoir is necessary in order to understand the great dependence to be placed on his wor
In Lassell’s figure we find star 21 nearly on the northern limit of C, and hence in the (measured) 46 —73’"9. In La sell’s fioures the part A’ is completely detached from B by a wide, black opening. In Trouvelot’s drawing A’ is continuous with B, and in my own sketches A’ is indeed separated from B, but by a narrow and not very obvious channel. In respect to the southern parts of B we have then the following succes- sive results.
From my own observations the contour of the north shore of C near stars 21, 36, 37, 38 is similar to Lassell’s, and the 46 of 21 which gives s the 46 of this north shore is —65”. Collecting the various authorities—
} Herschel: 46 of north shore of C = ‘ Mason: J6 of north shore of C ale (measured. )
Lassell : As of north shore of C’-—=— 73”. ibs Trouvelot: 46 of north shore of C —=— 60’. Holden: 46 of north shore of C =— 65’. “ip
The last three authorities may be said to agree: the first two agree in placing the north shore of C 1’ or more further south. The amount by which it is further to the south is prob- ' ably best given by Mason’s figures, for reasons already cited here, and spoken of in general by Herschel himself (doc. cit,
. 11, foot note.
If there had been no stars (Mason’s 4 and 6) near the area in question, this conclusion would not be so definite as it now appears to be. In fact, the positions of these stars were fixed and then the nebalosity was drawn about them. It is certainly not about these stars n
The space A’ about 7° oe 1 and between the parallels of
4d=0" and 46=-—38" is, according to Herschel, about the
brightest portion of the nebula and S ainuaes with the rest of
B; Mason, nearly equal to the brightest parts of the nebula, and
continuous with the rest of B; Lassell, totally black ; Trouvelot,
tld bright, and part of B; Holden, bright, but separ ated from y a narrow channel.
n this respect, regarding all the drawings as of equal or ae equal accuracy, there has undoubtedly been a decided change.
E. 8. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20. 457
RECAPITULATION OF THE PRECEDING RESULTS.
We may now collect such of the Plena results as we have found bigelibat de First it has appeare
. H 1784, July 12 to 1833, the triple star was centrally situated ranean g oe three sobulosiiioe
Again,
%. From 1839 to 1877 the triple star was not centrally situated between the three nebulosities, but involved in A..
It has previously been seen that each of these Rope rests on a firm basis. Granted that A and 8 are correct, I know of but three ways to reconcile the opposing face: ;
a, The triple star une a large Propet s motive
6. The nebula A has a large proper ce. The nebula A is s subject to derided changes of gear
T in progress. The relative positions of 1 and the various stars a as is probable, the proper motion of the triple star fs si:
We have seen that the evidence with regard to the pbeitidik of the nebulosity A relative to the star 6, indicates changes in the brightness and position of this part o his appears to be connected with changes much less certain near star 5, ete. It has also pants that in 1839 the nebula B was about the stars Mason 4 and 6. This is confirmed by Herschel’s earlier
Each of the above inferences rests on undoubted authority, and only cases are included here in which no doubtful points have arisen. It therefore appears to me to be a just conclusion that—
he evidence as recorded with regard to this nebula indicates marked changes of position or brillianey, or both, during the period 1784-1877. The conjecture of Sir John Herschel, “perhaps this ost Sea object has a proper motion,” will be recalled i in this connectio I have, s my own mind, no doubt but that the evidence as recorded, if Nicer pele he. by any competent person will o the same conclusion. The examination of many draw- ings of nebulz has, however, led me in common with others, to the conclusion that too great care cannot be exercised in Drawings and observa- tions made from one point of view have to be interpreted from quite another and a different one, and misreadings and
es 4 @ bas 3 Tc ® a. B a 2 s a % as er 5.09 a 2 =) Ra wa
458 ES. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
misinterpretations are likely to occur. It is for this reason that I have given my own observations in detail, so that they may be repeated step by step at any subsequent time; and for the same reason, I have given in full the analysis of the sepa- rate drawings so that each point can be verified or rejected by any one who has the original drawings before him.
This method of examining each drawing, deducing from it all the evidence on all the points in question, and then collating the various data under each separate head, not only enables the whole work to be quickly verified, but it enables the person collating the evidence to form the final conclusions with little or no danger of bias or prejudice. The principal question is as to the goodness of the evidence itself. It may be worth while in this case to examine the evidence and to see what must be rejected in order to suppose that this nebula has remained wn- changed from 1784 to L877. First then, Sir William Herschel speaks of the triple star as being ‘in the middle” of the three nebulosities on several occasions. Sir John Herschel is explicit as to its being “in the midst” and “exactly in the center” of the “central vacuity.” Inference A rests on these statements, which could not have been made more definite by Sir John Herschel and which are strongly corroborated by Sir William - Herschel. 8 is undoubtedly correct. Heénce I believe that the previous inferences regarding the relative motion of t triple star and the nebula should stand, and are correct.
e further conclusions as to change, as I have given them, could have been deduced from the drawings of Mason and
to be solved, and his results are entirely trustworthy. In every point noted as “certain,” (and only such points are
aracter. In regard to my own obser- vations, I am satisfied that they are, in the main and on essential points, correct. The season of 1877 was very unfavorable and the star positions could be improved, but I do not think any error of moment remains. It therefore seems to me that the evidence remaining to be examined is such that it ought not to be rejected, and that the previous conclusions should stand.
Connecticut Valley in the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 459
Art. XLIX.—The Northern Part of the Connecticut a in the Champlain and Terrace Periods ; by WARREN UPHAM
A CAREFUL exploration of the stratified drift bordering Con- necticut River on both sides, from its source to the north line of Massachusetts, has been made for the geological survey of New Hampshire. Much of the present essay, which is based on this work, will be published, with i lid details, in the 7 volume of the report on that sur
At the end of the Glacial period, chi wallop: like every other prominent valley in New Engla and, received thick beds of Sins sand and clay, or fine silt. These were deposited dur-
The river-lands here to be considered include the interval, or present flood-plain, frequently known as meadow along the Connecticut, and called bottom-land in the western States; and terraces, which rise in steps on each side of the river, the high- est often form ming extensive plains. This highest ‘deposit ig found to have about the same height upon both sides, and to extend Sie Te ‘with early the same feiehey as that of the
over me dis ances , however, sometimes shows a wwell- marked
d and continuous flood-plain, now ‘bebe and st Pe swept away by the further porta of the channel. These terraces are almost always level-topped, and bounded at a
* Tt will be seen that these terms are adopted from Prof. Jam Be re a,
has given much attention to surface geology, and has YeOlhe he ue pro Pl nence the abundant deposition of drift, both stratified and ccteasinat goad ae the
apparently in all countries, which en ove tinetly characterized as successive arate of glaciation, deposition and erosion
460 W. Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley
face by a steep escarpment ; and their appearance is sometimes very striking, and even grand, as they rise in gigantic steps on the side of the valley, shaped with a smoothness, order and beauty, which could not be surpassed by art.
e most interesting discovery made during the survey of this valley is, that a massive gravel ridge, often nearly covered by the alluvium of the highest terraces, extends from Lyme,
. H., to Windsor, Vt., a distance of twenty-four miles. It is principally gravel, always waterworn, the largest pebbles be- ing one to two feet in diameter. with occasional layers one or two feet in thickness of coarse sharp sand. These deposits are very irregularly bedded, and a section always shows a some- what anticlinal stratification, conforming to the slopes of the ridge. Its height is 150 to 250 feet above the river, by which it has been frequently cut through, as well as by tributary streams. This ridge occupies nearly the middle of the valley, and as the river has cut its channel through the alluvium, this has been often a barrier rising steeply upon one side and pro- tecting the plains behind it. In two or three places it has been swept away by the river for a distance of one half mile to one mile, and below these places the terraces show by their coarse- ness that the ridge has supplied a portion of their material. Similar ridges of gravel have been often described by European geologists, under the various names of kames in Scotland, eskers in Ireland, and asar in Sweden. They have also been
escribed by geologists in many portions of the northern United States. In both the Connecticut and Merrimack Val- leys they extend long distances, but have hitherto escaped no- tice, owing to the large amount of levelly stratified alluvium, forming the conspicuous terraces and plains, by which these underlying gravel ridges, or kames, are often nearly concealed. "he kames are thus shown by their position to be the oldest of our modified drift deposits.
The series of kames already mentioned lie along the middle or lowest te of the valleys, which are bordered by high ranges of hills; but in the southeast part of New Hampshire, in some parts of Maine, and in eastern Massachusetts, where there are only scattered hills, with the valleys not much below the gen- eral level of the country, these ridges, of smaller size than in the great valleys, are found extending usually north and south without special regard to the present water-courses.
The origin of the kames has been a.question much discussed by European geclogists, and the theory commonly accepted on both sides of the Atlantic was, that they were heaped up in these peculiar ridges and mounds through the agency of marine currents during a submergence of the land. Even if such ridges could be formed by this cause under any circumstances,
tn the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 461
it seemed impossible to account thus for the kames in the Con- _ necticut and Merrimack Valleys, which, being bordered on both sides by high hills, would have been long estuaries open to the sea only at their mouths, and therefore not affected by oceanic currents. - From the position of these peculiar accumu- lations of gravel, which are overlain by the horizontally strati- fied drift, the date of their formation is known to be between the period when the ice-sheet moved over the land, and that closely following, in which this more recent modified drift was deposited in the open valley from the floods that were supplied by the melting ice. We are thus led to an explanation of the kames, which seems to be supported by all the facts observed in New Hampshire, and which appears to apply, also, to the similar deposits which have been described in other parts of the United States and in Europe.
At the beginning of the Champlain period, or final melting of the great ice-sheet, its nearly level surface of pure ice lay above our highest mountains. That it overtopped Mt. Wash- ington in New Hampshire, has been recently discovered by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, the State geologist, who has found trans- ported rocks, and shown that glacial drift, or .till, underlies the angular blocks at the summit. The melting of the ice-sheet appears to have taken place mostly upon the surface, which was moulded into basins and valleys; and near the terminal front of the ice, these came gradually to coincide with the con- tour of the land. Here the surface of the ice became covered with the abraded material which bad been contained in its mass, and which was now exposed to the washing of its innu- - merable streams. Its finer portions would be commonly carried away; and the strong current of the rivers which would be formed near the terminal front of the ice-sheet could transport coarse gravel or even boulders of considerable size. In the
462 W. Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley
The glacial rivers which we have described appear to have flowed in channels upon the surface of the ice-sheet; and the formation of the kames took place at or near their mouths, ex- tending along the valleys as fast as the ice-front retreated. Large ‘angular boulders are sometimes, but not frequently, found in the kames or upon their surface. They appear to have been transported by floating ice. Their rare occurrence forbids the supposition that these deposits were formed in chan- nels beneath the ice-sheet, from which many such blocks must have fallen upon the kames.
he necessity of referring the formation of these gravel ridges to glacial rivers became apparent emaee the exploration and study of our a ties in 1875; and in August, 1876, this was announced in a “On the origin of Kames or Eskers in New Heap In this essay it was supposed that these rivers more commonly had their course beneath the ice-sheet, but subsequent examination of the underlying till shows that this was seldom the case, and that the kames were deposited in channels formed on the surface of the ice. Prof. Otto Torell, of Sweden,t had pointed out a division of the till into two members, the lower characterized by its blue color,
two or three feet, as is mo ost © ommon, to fifteen or twenty feet, - between the upper and Sexe till. It should be added that the lower till in a majority of cases has no distinct blue tint, but is dark gray; being always somewhat darker than the upper till, which is colored by ferric oxide. The lower till may be dis- tinguished by an imperfect cleavage in planes parallel to the surface, noticeable wherever an excavation has been for a short time exposed to the weather. Before this, Professor James D. na had insisted that. the deposition of a great part of the til took place in the Champlain period, being dropped from the “melting ice-sheet. This suggested the origin of the upper till, and an explanation of its difference from the lower till ; the latter being the ground-moraine, while the former appears to ave been satitéslad contained in the body of the ice-sheet, and allowed to fall loosely on the surface when this melted. As the kames overlie both members of the till, exe plainly were deposited in superficial ice-channels.t * Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
vol. xxv
See this Journal, III, xiii,
Similar conclusions Tespoding ‘the eke of the kames had os neat - other observers, b unknown to me when my views were August, 1876. Probably rte first of els was — rN. H. Winchell, State
tn the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 468
- ae the descendin fone increasing in depth in the same way that additions are now made to the phage pas or intervals, of our large rivers by the annual floods o i The terraces began to be formed as soon as the ae of material became insufficient to fill the place of that excavated y the river. We must suppose that this process of erosion was slow, allowing the river to continue for a ong ti me at nearly the same level, undermining and wearing away its bank on one side, and depositing the material on the opposite side, till a wide and nearly level lower flood-plain would be formed, bordered on both sides by steep terraces. When the current
arrived at or confirmed oe long study of these deposits this valley and throughout New Hampshire.
The sources of Connecticut river are a series of four lakes, the highest of which, covering only a few acres, is 2,550 feet above the sea. The lowest of the series is Connecticut Lake, three square miles in area, 1,618 feet above the sea. Heights of the river, with distances {rom Connecticut Lake, are as fol- lows: Mouth ‘of Hall’s stream, 15 miles, 1,085 feet ‘above sea, ; at Colebrook, 24 miles, 1,010; at North 'Stratford, 37 miles, 891; at Groveton, 49 miles, 854; at Lancaster, 56 miles, 835 ; mouth of John’s river, 68 miles, 330; at Upper Waterford, 74 remind of Minnesota, who held this yer! as early as 1872. See Proc. Amer. nce, vol. xxi, 1872, p. 165; Geologygof Minnesota, First
b> ni
ralcg the glacial period, wile} insufficient to discharge these incre floods, and would become obstructed ‘the detritus which they brought.
464 W. Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley
miles, 674; mouth of Passumpsic River, 83 miles, 460; at Wells River, 95 miles, 407; at Hanover, 130 miles, 373; at White River Junction, 184 miles, 333; at Windsor, 146 miles, 804; at Bellows Falls, 170 miles, fall from 283 to 234; at Brattleboro’, 192 miles, 200; at South Vernon (Massachusetts line), 202 miles, 180.
The general course of the river to the mouth of Hall’s stream is S. 60° W. High wooded hills border the valley which is destitute of modified drift for half of the way. The largest alluvial area is on Indian stream, and the highest ter- races are of coarse gravel, 30 to 40 feet above the river.
From the mouth of Hall’s stream to that of John’s River, at the head of Fifteen-miles Falls, the general course is S. 13° W., with a descent in nearly fifty miles of only 255 feet, one-fifth of which: takes place in the first two miles, and two-fifths more in the nine miles between Columbia bridge and North Stratford. Below the first two miles the modified drift is continuous along this whole distance; and, including+both sides, it is usually a half milé to one and a half miles wide. It is very simple, having two heights, and consisting of the present flood- plain, bordered by remnants of that which filled the valley in the Champlain period. This ancient flood-plain is represented by a lateral terrace of sand or fine gravel, from 40 to 120 feet above the river, usually remaining at both sides, and in many places forming considerable plains.
At Colebrook we find an interesting gravel ridge or kame, portions of which remain north of the junction of Beaver brook and Mohawk River, but most noticeably west of the vil- lage, extending nearly a mile parallel with the river. Its height is about seventy feet above the river, and fifty above the low alluvium on each side. Its material is the same as
' that of the long kame farther south in this valley, being prin- cipally coarse water-worn gravel, with abundant pebbles six inches to one foot in diameter. In Stratford and Brunswick both heights of the alluvium are well shown, the highway be- ing on the upper terrace and the railroad on the meadow. At «Lancaster the upper terrace of Connecticut River is only fifteen or twenty feet above the present flood-plain. The only higher modified drift has been brought down by tributaries. Part of Lancaster village is built on one of these deltas, formed by Israel’s River on its south side, fifty feet above the terrace of the main valley. This delta sloped rapidly westward, and formerly occupied the whole area of the village; a portion of it, twenty feet lower than the former, remains at the cemetery opposite the court-house.
Between South Lancaster and Fifteen-miles Falls the broad river-plain is unterraced. It seems probable that a lake ex-
in the Champlain and Terrace Periods. ° - 465
ing to know the depth of the stratitied drift in this basin; it is probably couet than the height of the highest terraces north- ward above the river.
From the oak of John’s River, the Connecticut hasa rapid descent for twenty miles, falling from 830 to 460 feet above the sea. Its general course is deflected to.S. 70° W. along this distance, beyond which the direction of the upper is again fol- lowed in the lower valley, with but slight deviation, to Massa- chusetts line. The noticeable features of the valley along these rapids are, that it is deep and narrow, with sloping sides of till, and destitute of the level alluvial terraces and intervals which occupy a large width everywhere else along the river. Where any modifi ed drift’ does occur, it is coarser than usual, being generally gravel, sometimes imperfectly rounded or water-worn, and its surface has commonly an irregular slope. The river flows in a nearly continuous descent over coarse till, showing abundant bowlders, but with scarcely any exposure of solid ledges. The falls farther south are produced by ledges; and the channel, except at such falls, is composed of gravel,
sand or silt, which is also the case along the nearly level upper val The irregular surface left by the ice has been here re- vated toa channel of nearly regular slope with no abrupt falls, cut through the till, which still covers the ancient bed in which the river flowed before the glacial panad.
In a direct distance of 119 miles from the mouth of Pas- sumpsic River, which is near the foot of these rapids, to the Massachusetts line, the river flows 187 miles, descending from 460 to 180 feet above the sea, or two feet to the mile. The prin- cipal falls in this distance are Beard’ s falls, at Barnet, five feet; McIndoe’s falls, ten feet; Dodge's falls, three and a half miles south, five feet; at Woodsville, about ten feet; White River falls, between Hanover and White River J unetion, thirty-five feet; Sumner’s or Quechee falls. oe miles below the mouth of Quechee River, five feet; and Bellows Falls, forty-nine feet, —making a total ot 119 feet, and 1o igs an average descent, excluding falls, of one and one-sixth feet per mile.
ified drift of this lower valley is sor vatars well
developed, and occurs in extensive terraces and various heights, three or four often on each side, the upper one alae usually from 150 to 200 feet above the river, while the lo se is the interval or meadow. The largest plains are rig of the upper terrace or of still higher tributary deltas These areas are generally of a clayey, moist, saponin sil ee in con-
Am. Joon. Sc1.—THIRD ~~ Vou. XIV, No. 84.—Drc
*
466 W.Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley
trast with the dry sandy plains of Merrimack River and other arts of New Hampshire. The most extensive intervals or meadows are between Woodsville and Bradford, twelve miles long and one half to one mile wide, including the Lower Cods intervals of Newbury, Haverhilland Piermont; and in Charles- town and Rockingham, six miles long and half a mile wide. In addition to these, smaller areas, up to a mile or more in length and a few rods to a half mile wide, are of common oceurrence. These bottom-lands are very fertile, being com- posed of the finest silt, and enriched every year by a coating of mud from the turbid freshets of Spring. Many of the lower terraces which are not overflowed are of the same material; but the higher terraces usually show some intermixed sand or fine grave The greatest widths of modified drift that can be measured in this valley on the west side of New Hampshire, are in Haver- hill and’ Newbury, two miles, and in Hinsdale and Vernon, two and a half miles wide. The average width is fully one mile. The narrowest places are at Shaw’s Mountain, near the south line of Bradford, and at Barber’s Mountain, in Claremont, both of which occupy the middle of the valley, with narrow belts of alluvium on each side; at the west side of Rattlesnake Hill,
ot co) 7 sue] oD = 3 & ct Q 4?) gs a > ° im 5 bs] ba a") | <A 4 pe) io] oa S s cio} a> ct 5 oe °
ormer stream has cut its channel 200 feet deep through its delta, wide areas of which still remain on both sides. An old outlet of Wells River may be seen on its north side, one mile above its mouth, occupied at the close of the ice-period until it cleared away a hundred feet or more of modified drift from the pre-glacial rocky bed in which it now flows. A well marked kame occurs here, commencing in Bath half a mile northwest from the Narrows. It has been cut through by the river, and appears on the east side of the railroad at and above the junc- tion, and again at the southwest side of Wells River Depot, being more than a mile long. It is composed of coarse gravel and sand, anticlinally stratified, with varying height from 80 to 150 feet above the river. It is well shown by cuttings, but otherwise might escape notice, as most of it is partially or
tn the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 467
wholly concealed by the ordinary alluvium. In the twenty- four miles from Wells River to Lyme no similar ridge is found.
In Thetford and Lyme we come to an abrupt change in the height of the upper terrace-plain. This slopes in thirty-three miles between the mouth of Passumpsic River and the south line of Orford, from 650 to 440 feet above the sea, gradual] declining from 190 to only 60 feet above the river. At Nort Thetford this line of the highest terrace suddenly rises to 525, and in a mile and a half farther south to 545 feet. This forma- tion is well shown through Thetford, with remnants in Lyme, and continues well developed and nearly level for twenty-five miles to Windsor, varying from 560 to 500 feet above the sea, and from 150 to 220 feet above the river. It forms extensive terraces or plains on one or both sides along the whole distance and is clearly the original flood-plain of the river. Frequent delta-terraces rise above it, sometimes 100 feet higher, being more than 300 feet above the present river channel. It isa notable coincidence, that along this same distance we have a continuous kame, occupying the center of the valley, commonly rising somewhat above the highest plain, but not seldom en- ' tirely covered by it. Super-position and conformable stratifica-
tion show the fine material of the terrace-plain to have been deposited upon this kame or gravel ridge, which beforehand extended like a windrow along the empty valley. To the south from Windsor the highest terrace shows a somewhat regular slope, descending with the river, and preserving a height about 150 feet above it.
This high and continuous flood-plain, extending from Thet- ford to Massachusetts line, seems to have been formed during a gradual and slow melting of the ice along this distance. It would appear that the greater part of the depth of ice, as far northward as to the Passumpsic River, had been melted in the last part of this time, sending down its floods laden with gravel to form the kame. A comparatively shallow mantle of ice remained, and when the melting advanced to the north from Thetford and Lyme this disappeared too rapidly to give time for the formation of a kame, or the deposition of a high flood-
in.
In Norwich we find an interesting example of a well marked ancient river-bed high above its present level. This extends two miles from Pompanoosuc River, one-third of a mile above its mouth, to the bend of Connecticut River a half mile south of Tilden pond, which occupies a depression of this old channel. Its highest point, from which there is a gradual descent both ways, is 520 feet above the sea or 145 feet above the river. On the east side of this ancient channel is the steep gravel kame, which for a while turned the Pompanoosue River in this course, ‘till a direct passage was cut through its ridge.
468 W.Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley
Two miles north of Hanover the Connecticut River has cut through the kame, and thence flows close on its west side to White River Falls. Along this distance of four miles we find the high plain well developed in New Hampshire, averaging three-fourths of a mile wide. Hanover common, 545 feet above the sea, and 172 above the river, represents its greatest altitude. In digging the first well at this place (near the residence of Pro- fessor H. E. Parker), a large log was found in this alluvium forty feet below the surface, but no prospect of water, which caused this site, selected for the buildings of Dartmonth College, to be abandoned, and led to their Jocation farther east, upon coarse glacial drift. This log shows that the glacial age had here been succeeded by a temperate climate, under which forests grew again upon the land; ed that floods, sent out freighted from the melt- ing ice-sheet, which still remained farther north and on the high- lands, brought down drift-wood to be buried with their alluvium. It was not till considerably later that the river ceased its wor _ of accumulation and began to cut its present channe
Near the south line of Lebanon, east of Sumner’s Falls in Plainfield, and at several places in Cornish, we find banks of sand, or dunes, destitute of vegetation, and blown in drifts by the wind. These vary in height from a few feet to 100 feet above the highest terrace, from which they appear to have been carried up by the oe northwest winds. Southward through New Hampshire they are found in many places on the east side of this valley, but none were seen in Vermont.
‘From Lyme to Windsor we find a continuous gravel ridge or kame, extending twenty-four miles along the middle of this valley, with its top from 150 to 250 feet above the river, or from 500 to 600 feet above the sea, The gravel, which always forms the principal part of the ridge, varies in coarseness from layers with pebbles only one or two inches in diameter, to portions where the largest measure one and a half or two feet. The finer kinds prevail; and the channels of brooks cutting through the ridge frequently show no pebbles exceeding one foot in size. All the materials of this kame, and of its remnants southward, are plainly water-worn and stratified.
Large and unworn bowlders, which could not have bgen
at least of journey on foot along the top of this ridge, and the examination of many sections where the river or its tributaries
in. the nen and Terrace Periods, 469 have cut through it, failed to reveal other bowlders of this kind.
One or both sides of this kame are generally covered by the alluvium of the upper terrace; but its top usually projects in a long, rounded ridge, 10 to 80 feet above the tines highest plain. At one place, east of Hartland Depot, this plain has been swept away from both sides, and the kame forms a con- apne steep ridge 125 feet in height. Wherever it is
xposed, it is readily recognized py the pebbles which strew its Pare and which are ve ry rarely found in the ordinary modi- fied drift of the valle ey.
he most important feature of this kame, if we compare it with others in New Hampshire, is, that along its entire extent it constitutes a single continuous ridge, which runs by a very direct course nearly in the middle of the valley, having no out- lying spurs, branches, parallel ridges, or scattered hillocks of the same material associated with it. In calling it continuous from Lyme to Windsor, however, it is not meant to imply that it is now entire, since it has been frequently cut through and con- siderable portions swept away by the main river and by tribu- tary streams; but that so much of it remains as to make it certain that it , Snealy formed an unbroken ridge. The por- tions now separated by gaps always lie in a continuous line.
Probably a aime ridge once existed along the vole ey south- ward, though now shown by only a few fragme These occur in Cha ee pata Springfield eat and the
e r as it occupied the main valley, but the escarp- nts thus formed remain at the mouth of the valley of C River, ets 100 to 200 feet high. On the south side of Saxton’s
iver a ecasioneies art of its delta remains, and the upper terrace is increased in ceieht by this cause for two miles south. The poate of this delta by Saxton’s River has formed a most interestingly terraced basin, situated less than a mile south from Bellows Falls Junction. On both sides of this river, and crossed by a voles is an interval about one fourth of a mile in diameter. Around this on all sides are ranged terraces, which rise in succession like the seats of an amphitheater, the highest on the northwest being 220, and on the south 200 feet above the arena below. They do not, bowever, show a perfect regu-
*
470 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.
larity either in correspondence of height or in continuous extent, and no single section would embrace all of the eight distinct and pasted terraces which were noted on each side of the river.
It is mainly sides of sand, nearly level, but with a slight slope to the west and south, being as usual towards the river and in the direction of its course. Its northern portion changes to gravel which becomes coarse on the southeast side of Wantastiquit Mountain, containing pebbles one foot or some- times a foot and a half in diameter. The position and slope o this plain show that it was not deposited wholly from currents of the main valley, but that a considerable portion was con- tributed from the melting of the ice-sheet east of this mountain.
Art, L.—Deseriptions of two new species of Fishes (Macrurus Bairdii and Lycodes Verrilli’) recently discovered by the U. 8. Fish Commission, with notes upon the occurrence of several een forms ; by G. Brown GoopE and Tarueton H.
EAN, *
AMONG the mers ee discoveries made during the pegs ae summer by the United States Fish Commission (Prof. F. si, Donemsiiontn) is ger of a species of Macrurus believed a ‘be undescribed. As ngle specimen was taken in rawl net, August 19, 1877, on the + voyage of the U.S. Steamer “ Speedwell” from Salem to Halifax. It was found in the Gulf of Maine, forty-four miles from Cape Ann (east $ south) in 160 fathoms, muddy bottom (locality 35). Two members of this family ee included by Professor Gill in his Catalogue of the Fishes of the East Coast of North America (Washington, 1873). One, Coryphenoides norvegicus, has been recorded only from Grasnlands a and the northern and western coasts of Nor- way. The other, Macrurus rupestris, has ave the same geo- graphical range: a fish found floating at sea near Gra vesend, N. Y., in 1876, and now in the U. 8 Na Ganal Museum, has been identified with this species. The genus Macrurus, auct., has been subdivided into three, viz: Macrurus, Coryphienoides and Malacocephalus. The most important diagnostic character eran. by Dr. Giinther as sepa-
Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes. 471
rating Macrurus from the other genera is the joining of the ridge of the suborbital ring to the angle of the props ae as in Scorpenide and Cottid. This character does not hold good in the species here under consideration, which in all other respects agrees with Macrurus, as aint n Giinther’s Cata-
The closest affinities of Macrurus Bairdié are with MZ. sclerorhyn- chus, described by Valenciennes from the Canary Islands. Its relations to this species and to the other representatives of the amily in North America are if sitet in the following table :
she Macrurus | Coryphenoides ? Macrurus Bairdii. scerorhynchus. rupestris, norvegicus.
Snout. Sharp, conical,| Sharp, trihedral,| Sharp, trian-| Obtuse, ob- ota ate, shorterjshorter than eye,|gular, as long asjliquely truncat- neye, ‘less than| which is two fifths|eye. ed. one-third of head.|of head. First Dorsal.| Second spine| Second spine} First spine} First spin denticulated from|denticulated, ex-|denticulated on-|denticulated an- ase to tip, notex-|tending far be-ly towards thelteriorly. tending to origin bre htiacrd of sec-|top.. of second dorsal. jond dorsal. Vent. Under middle Bekin d vertical} Behindvertical| Before etd of first dorsal. ed _ ny offrom origin ofjfrom origin of first second dorsal. jsecond dorsal. Scales. Spiny. Median aay Median} Each with a} Spiny, without ro of spinesrow of spines strong longitud-|keel. keel inal i
w forming keel upon forming 5 inal keel termi- scales of head and nating in a point. upper anterior Transverse por tion of body. 4 rows of scales|) 6+19 or 20. 5+21 or 23. 5+ -4or54+. Radial | D111. 137. | IL. 9or11. 87.| 11.124. 1l+. formule. A. 120, %2. 148, ; 7, 8 >
Macrurus Bairdii, sp. nov. Extreme ty Se of ppeemen described,* 0-296 m. (117 inches). Body tapering from first dorsal to tip 6f tail, much mpressed posteriorly, its greatest. bright over origin of pec- Bah fs (0-087 m.) contained eight times in length; its greatest width at same point (0022 m.), conmbat "3 times in length. Pl irregularly polygonal, the free portions covered with ransparent, vitreous ARNO aan ged in from ten to twelve
prominent and presents the Lineaehee a a low median keel. eral line nearly straight, formed by a smooth groove which replaces two or three median rows of spines of each * Cat. No. U. 8S. National Museum, 21,014.
472 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.
scale. Number of scales in laieral line, 152; six transverse rows above it, and nineteen or twenty rows below it, counting from vent obliquely backward. : ; Head.—Greatest length (0°045 m.) equals distance between first and twenty-third anal rays, and is contained six and one- half times in extreme length. Greatest height, at posterior margin of orbit, (0°028 m.) greater than width at same point (0023 m.), and contained one and four-seventh times in length of head. Width of interorbital area (0-012 m.) equal to verti- cal diameter of orbit (0°012 m.), and almost equal to length of snout (0018 m.) and length of maxillary (0013 m.). Length of post-orbital region (0°017 m.) about equal to horizontal diameter of orbit (0-016 m.). Length of operculum (0-007 m.) about half the length of mandible (0:015 m.). nout sharp, a front view presenting four ridges radiating from the tip at right angles to each other, the lower one being merely a fold in the skin of the under surface of the head. he horizontal ridges are continued into the ridges upon the suborbitals. Ridge extending backward from tip of snout upon top of head is lost in the interorbital space. Branches of the horizontal ridges are continued upon the upper margins of orbits, and there disappear. Nostrils immediately in front of orbit, the posterior pair much the longer. outh situated entirely on lower side of head; symphysis of lower jaw in vertical from anterior margin of orbit, and articu- lations of mandibles in vertical from posterior margin of orbit ; width of cleft of mouth (0°012 m.) equal to distance between symphysis of maxillaries and line connecting their articulations. ha) 08 jaw protractile vertically. Barbel 0-005 m. in length. eeth conical, somewhat recurved, of nearly uniform size, arranged in villiform bands. Palate smooth. Distance of first dorsal from snout (0:057 m.) about four
Goode and Bean—Two new species of — 473
of longest ray A posterior third) 0-004 m., which 3 is less than length of bar All rays very feeble. ‘Membrane scarcely perceptible. :
Distance of anal from snout (0-070 m.) three and four-fifth’ times in its length of base, its origin under 18th seale of lateral line. Length of first ray (0° 006. m m.) one-half the length of tenth ray (0 012 m. ), and three times the length of last ray (0-002 m.), the length of rays increasing to a point beneath ante- lope part of first dorsal, and thence gradually decreasing to tip )
Distance of pectoral from snout (0-048 m.) four times width of interorbital area; its length (0°029 m.) twice the length of mandible. . Insertion above the middle of the depth of the body, on a level with center of es be its third ray jconent its tip reaching to vertical from base o f fourth anal ra y:
Insertion of ventral behind pectoral and slisibek under that of first dorsal; its distance nie snout (0°053 m.) slightly ex- ceeding twice ‘its length (0°025 m.). Tip of ventral filament reaches to base of third oe
Radial formula: D. I, 11. 137; A 4208 Podht- Vet,
Color: Ground color, light brownish eray ; under parts, sil- very; belly, darker, bluish. Under surface of snout, pink, as is also the first dorsal except spines. Spines of dorsal, ventral and anterior anal rays, blackish. Throat, branchiostegal mem- brane and isthmus, rich deep violet. Sclerotie coat, green. Hyes, very dark blue
Spermaries well dossieied: but milt not mature. Individ- ual apparently adult.
This species is dedicated to Professor Spencer F. Baird, LL.D., Assistant ce ica of the Smithsonian Institution, Director of
the U. ional Museum and U. 8. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.
Another interesting form is a species of Lycodes taken in the trawl thirty miles south of Cape Negro, N. 8S. (localities 44 and 45), in ninety fathoms, fine sand and mud bottom, and twenty- seven miles south of Chebucto Head, Halifax, (locality 83) 101 fathoms, fine sandy mud. Five specimens (Cat. N o. U.S. Nat. Mus. 21,013) were taken in the first locality and one (No. 21,015) in the latter.
Eleven species of this genus have been described, eight of which are found in arctic seas, three in antarctic, the latter be- ing — by Dr. Giinther into a distinet section of the genus. The form under consideration is — by (1) its elongated form, which it shares, with J. (2) the great proportional length of the maxillaries ; (8) ie bake presence and arrangement of scales; (4) by various proportions of par
‘which distinguish it from one or all the allied species; (5) the presence of five rays in the ventral fin, and; (6) by coloration.
474 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.
Lycodes Verrillii, sp. nov.
The extreme length of specimen described 0°127 m. (five inches).
Body more elongate than in any other described species of that section of the genus occurring in arctic seas, except L, Sarsit Kroyer: its greatest height (0010 m.) equal to its great- est width between pectorals (0010 m.) and nearly one-thirteenth of its total length.
Distance of vent from ventrals (0°023 m.) slightly greater than length of head (Om. 022), which is contained about five and two-third times in total length. Distance of vent from snout (0-041 m.) about one-third length of body.
Head, body and fins enveloped in tough lax skin..
Scales cycloid, circular and ovate, 0:00025 m. to °00085 in diameter, with numerous concentric stri#, and with about eighteen lobes upon margin, the whole perrimeter being lobed : they are deeply imbedded in the skin at distances from each other equal to their own diameters: they are most numerous upon the upper half of the body, and extend upon the base of the dorsal; very few upon the lower half of the body; and are absent from the anal fin. :
Head much depressed, its width (0-014 m.) considerably greater than its height (0°010 m.) which equals length of post- orbital portion 6f head (0-010 m.) and double the width of the inter-orbital space (0005 m.). Length of maxillary (0011 m.) is half the length of the head (0-022 m.): the maxillary extends nearly to the perpendicular from the posterior margin of the orbit. Diameter of orbit (0°004 m.) is half the length of snout (0°008 m.).
Viewed from above the snout is somewhat obtusely rounded, and a line drawn through the center of the eyes would form with the sides of the snout a figure approximating in shape -an equilateral triangle, the angle of the snout being rounded.
Upper jaw far overlapping under jaw; gape extending from ventral to center of orbit.
A series of large pores, six on each side, extends backward from nostril toward angle of operculum, following line of upper jaw at a distance above it about equal to diameter of pupil. The fourth of this series, counting backward, is under the cen- ter of orbit, the last is situated about two-thirds of the distance from snout to angle of operculum. :
A similar series, seven on each side, follows line of lower jaw from its symphysis obliquely upward toward angle of oper- culum, in such direction that if the maxillary row were con- tinued by the addition of a single pore to the series, the two lines would intersect. A line connecting the fourth pore of the one series with the fourth pore of the other would intersect the
Goode and Bean—+~Two new species of Fishes. 475
articulation of the jaws. The first four pores of the mandibular series are slit-like; all the others in both series are circular or nearly so, their diameter equal to one-third to one-half that of the pupil. The profile of the head resembles that of Zoarces anguillaris ; the top of the post-orbital tract is on a level lower than that of the top of eye, the outline of the head then rising to a point over the center of the orbit, thence sloping abruptly to the snout.
Cleft of mouth horizontal, in width equal to post-orbital length of head (0°010 m.), also to distance from snout to angles of gape.
Nostrils at extremities of fleshy tubes, the length of which is equal to the diameter of the largest pores.
Teeth in lower jaw in two rows and nearly uniform in size, in upper jaw, in a single row, some larger ones near symphysis with patches of smaller ones behind them. About seven teeth on the vomer. <A single row of teeth on palatines. All the teeth are curved. ~
Gill openings narrow; gill membranes attached to isthmus.
Distance of dorsal from snout (0°033 m.) one and one-half times the length of head (0-022 m.
Distance of anal from snout (0-045 m.) twice the length of head.
al and anal fins are about equal in height, with even margins, not differentiated from caudal; the rays increase some- what in length toward extremity of tail, though the fins do not increase in height.
Distance of pectoral from snout (0°023 m.) about equal to length of head, twice length of pectoral (0-011 m:) and more than three times breadth (0-007 m.). Pectoral extends to ver-
above lateral line light grayish brown with numerous minute circular dots marking the position of the scales; below lateral line pearly white. Brown irregular patches upon the sides, bi- sected by the lateral line, the part lying below lateral line is of the dorsal hue, that above a darker shade of the same color, and exhibiting the white dots already described. These brown atches are seven to ten in number on each side, in some speci- mens regularly alternating with each other, in others approxi- mating each other in such manner as almost to form broad irreg- ular bands across the back. A spot of brown upon the tip of tail. Abdominal region livid blue Jn a very small specimen* the brown patches are for the most part circular and are not confluent over the back. : * 21,015 of the U. S. National Museum Catalogue.
476 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.
Four of the six specimens taken had a lernean parasite on the gills.
This species is dedicated to Professor Addison E. Verrill, of Yale College, who has been in charge of the invertebrate work of the U. S. Fish Commission since its organization.
In addition to the above species a number of new or unusual forms have been taken or observed, among which may be speci- fied the following:
Alutera cuspicauda Dekay. A specimen of this species which has not before been recorded north of Cape Cod, was taken in Halifax Harbor, September 6.
Euchalarodus Putnami Gill. Several specimens of this un- common species, which had been taken in Salem harbor in winter, were found in the collection of the Peabody Academy of Sciences.
Myzopsetta ferruginea (Storer) Gill. Taken in Massachusetts Bay in forty-five to ninety fathoms; near La Have Bank in ninety fathoms; and at the mouth of Halifax Harbor in sixteen to eighteen fathoms.
Pleuronectes glaber (Storer) Gill. Several specimens, taken in Salem Harbor, Mass., were noted in the collection of the Pea- body Academy.
Glyptocephalus cynoglossus (Linn.) Gill. This fish, the Craig Flounder or Pole of Kurope is cited by British authors as one of the rarest of arctic flounders. It has hitherto been unknown to the coast of North America. At least one hundred speci- mens have been secured, representing great variety of form, age and other conditions. The species was first taken August 6, 1877, off Salem in forty-five fathoms. It has since been secured near La Have Bank in eighty-eight. fathoms, and in Bedford Basin, Halifax, in from twenty-five to thirty-five fathoms.
Hippoglossoides platessoides (Fabr.) Gill. Taken on La Have Bank in eighty-eight fathoms. Heretofore recorded only from Greenland. It is not identical with H. limandoides as suggested by Dr. Giinther.
A species of the genus Hippoglossoides which is distinct from H. platessoides and may prove to be identical with the H. limandoides of Giinther has been taken in company with Glyp- tocephala seynoglossus in Bedford Basin, Halifax.
Kthinonemus caudacuta (Storer) Gill. Several specimens taken in Massachusetts Bay, and on La Have Bank
Cryptocanthodes maculatus Storer. One specimen taken in Massachusetts Bay, August 13, 1877, in forty-eight fathoms.
Humesogrammus subbifurcatus (Storer) Gill. A single speci- men was taken August 25, 1877 in the mouth of Halifax Har- bor in sixteen fathoms. |
* Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 1862, p. 405.
Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes. 407
Sticheus punctatus (Fabr.) Reinh. A single specimen of brilliant scarlet color, was taken in the same locality with the preceding.
Eumicotremus spinosus (Fabr.) Gill) One specimen was dredged by the U.S. Fish Commission six miles off Half Way Rock, Salem, Mass., August 10, 1877, in thirty-five fathoms. “It is of very rare occurrence. Two specimens were dredged in 1861 by Professor Verrill, off Anticosti in ten fathoms, and another was taken by U. S. Fish Commission at Eastport, (Maine), in 1872.” (Putnam.)
Aspidophoroides monopterygius (Bloch) Storer. Up to the time of the visit of the U. S. Fish Commission to Salem, this species has been very rarely taken south of Greenland, Mi: that pele from the stomachs of cod, haddock, halibut and other
fishes. Several specimens were dredged by. the Commission at Portland and Eastport, Maine. Many specimens were taken in Massachusetts Bay, often a dozen coming up ina single haul of the trawl.
Kcelus uncinatus Reinhardt. Trawled in considerable num- bers in Massachusetts Bay in forty-two to ninety fathoms. One or two were ia by the U. S. Fish Commission at Eastport, Maine, in 1872. No other specimens are known to have se iauals on the coast of North America
Triglo An undetermined member of this genus, has been ae in “deep water in sales dose ties.
Fistularia serrata Cuy. Specimens from a NGF Bay are in the museums of the Boston ee of Natural History and the Peabody Academy, Salem; also one from the West- ern Atlantic in the Colonial Museum at Halifax. Later writers have excluded this species from the fauna of North America, following the lead of Dr. Giinther who gives its distribution as exclusively Indo-Pacific. A specimen taken by J. Matthew Jones, Esq., in Bermuda, was identified by Dr. Giinther with F. serrata. This species must be restored to the faunal relations claimed for it by the earlier American authors, to w Giinther makes not the slightest reference in his synonymy.
Raia radiata Donovan. This species is well described by Fabricius under the name of Raia fullonica. Adultsand young have been taken sparingly in Massachusetts Bay, on La Have Bank, in Halifax Harbor, and in Bedford Basin.
Canthorhinus occidentalis (Gthr.) Goode. A specimen of this fish, not before recorded north of Bermuda and Key West, was taken in the summer of 1875 at Linen Island near the entrance to Chesapeake are and presented to the National Museum by sig se John
Hypeneus womcsilice (Bloch) Cuvier. A specimen was taken at Wood’s Holl, Mass., July, 1877, by Vinal N. Edwards. The
478 Hinman— Volumetric Determinations by Chromic Acid.
species occurs in Bermuda, the West Indies, and on the coast of Brazil.
Chilichthys Spengleri (Bloch) Goode. A single individual was taken by Vinal N. Edwards at Wood’s Holl, in August, 1877. A West Indian and Madeiran form.
Lactophrys trigonus (Linn.) Poey. Ten or twelve individuals were taken at Wood’s Holl, 1877. The species has only once before (in 1838) been taken north of Florida.
Art, L1.—Volumetrie Determinations by Chromic Acid; by C. W. H N.
for chromic acid in estimating the quantity of sulphuric acid in drinking water.
Hinman— Volumetric Determinations by Chromic Acid. 479
During the last few years I have had occasion to make a large number of determinations of the quantity of sulphur in coal gas, and have often wished for some process of determin- ing sulphuric acid less tedious than the ordinary gravimetric
ne by barium sulphate and more accurate than the volumet-
reduced by quite a number of reagents. I had previously found a delicate test for chromic acid in the acid solution of starch paste and potassium iodide. It remained to be seen if the blue color disappeared as soon as the chromic acid was all reduced. I found that of the ordinary reducing agents only an acid solution of stannous chloride produced Ps result, even when a large excess of acid was present. I found that
as allreduced. It was finally found desirable to boil the bichro- mate solution And cool it out of contact with the air; when this was done the quantity of water present made no difference
in the amount of stannous chloride required. The following * ch
nearly tothe neck. The flask is closed with a stopper agit which passes a glass tube, at the end of which is a rubber v
opening outward. The contents of the flask are boiled for eget Segoe and then cooled; the valve preventing the access OF ® A few centimeters of h drochlotie acid are added and
and potassium iodide added to the contents of the flask pro- duces a dark blue color which is to be removed by the cau- tious addition of stannous chloride. The exact point is easy to hit as at last the color changes rapidly with a small addition of the chloride. The following determinations were made in
this manner, a standard solution of potassium bichromate con- -
taining 14-761 grams per liter being used
K,Cr,0, SnCl, Ratio. 25 ec. req. 19°26 ce 770% 10°04 10 7°72 772 10 7°73 “773 3 2°32 773
480 Hinman— Volumetric Determinations by Chromic Acid.
Of course bodies like ferric and cupric salts that are reduced by stannous chloride must be absent and the solution must not be so concentrated that the green of the chromic chloride ob- scures the iodo-starch blue. Stannous chloride has had the reputation of changing rapidly on standing, but I have found it quite stable, when properly protected from the air, as the fol- lowing results show :
March * 10 cc. potassium bichromate required, ; ep ec. stannous chloride.
“ Aai a“ “ ““ . Joucy a sé
April 16, a“ “cc 4“ “ 7-734 ce : “
May 21, “ “c “ “ i V4 “ i“
The following determinations can be made by means of chromic acid. The chromates of lead, barium, and bismuth
n be accurately precipitated, barium from an ammonical ion, the others from an acetic solution. The determina- tion of lead is given as an exam
Twenty-five cc. of a solution of lead acetate, fifty cc. of which gave 0°5908 gram lead sulphate, were diluted with water and a little acetic acid, heated to boiling in a small beaker and 10 ce. standard bichromate solution added. The precipitate of lead chromate was filtered off after standing a few minutes, washed, and the excess of chromic acid determined in the fil- trate. The quantity of stannous chloride required was 0-20 ce. ; other experiments gave 0°21, 0.21, 0°20, and 0:20, by calcula- _ tion from the amount of lead sulphate there should have been
peguiran 0°19 ce. being an error of one or two parts in about fa known quantity of bichromate is added to acid solu- tions of arsenious or antimonious acids they will be oxidized to
can then be determined. Twenty-five cc. of a solution of arsenious acid, containing 5-2675 grams per liter, plus 10 cc. standard bichromate solution, required 1:36, 1°35,.1°33, and 1-35 cc. of stannous chloride. If the arsenious acid had been pure only 1°22 cc. stannous chloride would have been required instead 1°85. In other words the arsenious acid contained about one and four-tenths per cent impurity. The only anti- mony compound I happened to have at hand was tartar emetic, but tartaric acid in that seemed to interfere with the reaction to a certain extent so that the results were not satisfactory.
Sulphuric acid can be determined as follows: ‘To a slightly acid solution of a sulphate heated to boiling is added a small excess of a solution of barium chromate in hpdrochilorie acid, barium sulphate is precipitated ; then the solution is neutral- ized with ammonia which precipitates the remaining barium chromate, the precipitates of barium sulphate and chromate are filtered off and the chromic acid determined in the filtrate is equivalent to the sulphuric acid in the original solution.
Chemistry and Physics. 481
H.SO, sol. SnCl, sol. © Calculated. 3 ec, req. 1°87 ce. 1°85 ce. 5 3°10 -
10 6°16 615
25 15°38 15:37
Twenty-five ce. fe the sulphuric acid oo gave 0°4633
rams barium sulpha
Perhaps the slater in drinking water can be determined by means of the chromic acid method, but my experiments are as yet incomplete. —
laving worked for Some time with the method of ee
iron by means of stannous chloride, I am convinced that importance is not yet recognized generally. |The ohana modification seems to simplify the process as given in the last edition of Fresenius’ analysis. To the iron solution which has just been decolorized by stannous chloride, add a small pipette full of iodine solution, equivalent to about one-fourth cubic centimeter of stannous ‘chloride, cool, then add a little starch paste and stannous chloride until the color disappears. The equivalent in stannous chloride of the pipette of iodine solu- tion substracted from the whole amount used leaves the quan- tity required by the iron. By this means the use of a second burette is avoided and less calculation is required.
Office of State Gas Inspection, 32 Hawley street, Boston.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics.
On the Gases enclosed in Lignite.—Tuomas, in continuation of tis erica upon the gases enclosed in coals, has examined with this view the lignites of Bovey Heathfield, Devonshire, =
also a specimen of mineral resin, a . retinasphaltam” of Hate
ett. A leafy lignite weighing 1 0 grams, on being kept in a Sprengel vacuum at 50° for fous days, scckon’ 56°1 cc, of gas, canara: of CO, 87°25, O 0°24, CO 3°59 and N . 92== 100. It
100 grams of resin, comsting of CO, 882 ‘24 an 0°23, a : ies
0-47, CO 7-0, N 3°16=100. On further bestia hk sonic began
to melt, and ‘decom saat set in at 110° to 112°, the gases col-
lected below 150° consisting of H,S 0°41, CO, 78°88, C,H,, gases Am. Jour. Sct. ae Series, Vou. XIV, No. 84,—Dec. , 1877.
482 Scientific Intelligence.
2°67, CO 7°82, CH, 8°05, C,H, 1°86, nitrogen 0°31=100. Com eek with the coals proper, ‘lignites show therefore a marked faa ference in their gaseous contents, approaching most nearly, how- ever, the cannels. But while the greater portion of the gas en- closed in both cannel and lignite consists of CO,, the former con- tains the gases and other compounds of the a ogee series and the latter C,H,, gases as well as oily aromatic bodies and CO. 3 ore-
ea 146, Aug.,
2. On the eae between Insoluble Carbonates nd Soluble dice —Warson Situ, observing that ammonia was evolved on mixing ammonium oxalate and chalk or marble powder, re- peated the experiment with sodium oxalate, and Fess ate even in the cold a distinctly alkaline reaction On hea the tw ahs bona together and then ae the filtrate eavesoa on aad
chloric acid. is to a series of experiments to de- sitive the character and extent of this reaction, and to compare it with that of alkali Sap ogre upon the e arthy oxalates. Re- garding the possible O, formed when the decomposition is complete as 100, a Ec carbonate treated with sodium oxalate gave 19°83 Na CO, in the cold and 22-90 when heated; strontium carbonate gave 7 ‘63 in both cases; barium carbonate. gave 4°84 and 4°98; and lead carbonate 6°35 and 13°08. Conversely, if 100 represent, the possible Na,CO, converted into oxalate, calcium ox- alate converted 16-07 in the cold and 52°34 when heated ; stron- tium oxalate 57°24 and 79°96; barium oxalate 73°20 and 87°96; me lead oxalate 81°54 and 90°61. In the cold, calcium carbonate is as much more acted on by sodium SENG ‘than is barium car- bondie as bata oxalate is by sodium carbonate more than cal- cium oxalate. In the case of soluble Seataten, the reaction does not appear to be bycrireaas materially by heat.—/. say mM. i * xxxli, 245, Sept., 3. the new Me tal Da avyum.—tIn the month of Fane ees
Sir Huinphrey Davy. To prepare it, 600 grams of the platiaifer
ous sand were treated by Bunsen’s metho d for the separation of the pl iridium, rhodium, osmium, palladium, ruthenium, iron and co which it contained. The mother liquors after
its solutions pees Hp tern sulphide ives a brown precipi- tate in solutions of davyum chloride, whic rying. Potassium sulphocyanide colors this solution red, like
Chemistry and Physies. 483
ferric salts, when dilute, and gives a red precipitate when concen- trated. In Men ndelejeff’ ’s classification, the author thinks davyum a ear ee element placed between molybdenum and ruthe-
subsequent paper, Kern gives the reactions of the new metal alkanes by dissolving his ingot in _ regia. The yel-
ow hydrate is readily soluble in acids, even cetic. - The nitrate Ad gee as a brown mass, which on ea sti gives a black xi issolved in potassium cyanide, um chloride
in water and alcohol. No second chloride is ea eter- minations give the density 9°389. Its atomic sieht mo not yet been determined, but it is porters between 150 and 1 fs 38 Ixxxv, 72, 623, July, Oct., 1877.
solution of copper sulphate on oeens ener, the author ina H,CO- ees —Cu—CH-COCH, establishes the formula as 600C,H, éooc.H, , in
which the carbon atoms of the two groups are ‘linked directly by copper. Nickel, cobalt, magnesium, aluminum and mercury ¢ pounds were also prepared. —Liebig’s Ann., clxxxviii, 26, Ang. = ag A
On Phyllie acid, extracted from leaves.— Fount has suc- hed 3 in sacle from the leaves of the cherry-laurel, a new acid to which he gives ‘the name phyllic acid. The leaves are extracted hap boiling er the extract left on wit off the ae
a
¥° i at 170°, and decomposing at 200°. Analysis of the ] potass sium salt fixed the molecular weight at 624; and ultimate analysis, conse-
484 Scientific Intelligence.
quently, the formula C, he Or which the author regards as pro- visional only. The so and ammonium salts are well crys- tallized. The acid has aoe been obtained from the leaves of the quince, apple, ig almond, banks lilac and eines Bull. Soe. Ch., T, xxvii, 148, Sept., 18
6. On the Constitution of Buwanthon. cases and Wr ICHEL- HAvs have experimented to determine the constitution of euxan-
eibaiion sy. wa It has t g cameos C, tl 0, Its vapor passed over zinc sae wder in a current of rogen ‘gave the product O. This, oxidized with nitric acid or permanganate aye C,,H,0,; treated with fu uming nitric acid, gave a nitro-pr ae
C,,H,Br,O and CG. Hbr,O; e rae wee wie acetyl chloride to 100° gave diacet yleuxanthon, HC, ; From these reactions, taken in connection wit po fact ern ‘. obtained a hydroquinone- -like body on reduc- tion with sodium amalgam, the author regards euxanthon as a C,H. carbonein of hydroquinone CO “te >O. , the reduction product OF ee
with zine being carbodiphenylene CO Sale nei >, giving on oxidation
pa a a a oxide CoG uP >O.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 1397, Oct., oe
rf Secs a ‘Vapors. —- One of the most important of ies recent additions to chemical methods is that of Victor Meyer for deter- mining the density of the vapor of substances which have a high boiling point. As in the method of Gay-Lussac or in the modifi- cation of that method as employed by Hoffman, a given weight of the substance used is converted completely into vapor and the volume of this vapor measured under determinate conditions. An
ut varying dineala noi Bs with the seen of the vapor to be deter-
e glass having been weighed to decigrams and the material introduced, the interior is or at | 100° . with W 00d’s ‘fusible
~
Chemistry and Physics, 485
apparatus is sacar and again weighed, but as before, only to decigrams. The apparatus is now immersed in the vapor of boiling sulphur, which, according to the oe et of Regnault has a constant t temperature of 442°2° when the barometer stands at. 723°5 m The substance passes into visio? and a considerable — of the alloy overflows and the tension of the vapor thus formed is evidently measured by the height of the barometer column at the time, plus the equivalent in mercury of the height of the column of melted metal which fills the neck of the apparatus above the level of the metal in the bulb. The last is easily meas- ured with a millimeter scale if at the instant of peed the apparatus from the sulphur bath the levél of the metal is arked on the bulb, which may be easily done with melted seers wax, using a heated glass rod as a pen. hen now the apparatus has partially cooled and the adhering particles of metal have been removed, it is weighed for the third time and from the three weights we easily> ascertain what quantity of metal has overflowed in the sulphur
wb ¢c. ¢., so that its density was about two-thirds of that of mercu From these values he deduces the following formula for the eeletacion of the vapor _— from such observations as we have described :
Density (referred to air as unity) = Woaets WHET 3h)?
* This is the pr hap of the barometer at Zurich where Meyer’s Persea tions were made. e mean level of the sea with the mean height 760 mm.
the boiling point is eatin nearly At the sea level when the barometer stands at 760 mm. this constant du ced.
2 the tension in millime by H’. The density of the vapor is equal to its ee divided by the et er the same volume of air at the same temperature sion, or d = — and as is well known, ra : ohis 1 a ig w’ = 0':001293 (71 5-9-003665-444~2) ~ 760° But in the process we are consiflering the volume of the vapor is evidently equal to the volume of the overflow at 444°2° less that of the overflow which bose : ; “10 (Ww —0-036 W’) and as we have seen, H’ = H+ $h. Making now the substitu- tions and combining the numerical wala we obtain the expression given above.
486 Seientific Intelligence.
here w is the weight of the substance used, W’ the weight of alloy which filled the bulb at 100°, and W the weight which overflowed in the sulphur bath; also H the height of the barometer and /A the difference of level of the alloy in the bulb and neck of the appa- ratus at the moment it was withdrawn from the bath.
Wood’s fusible alloy is exceedingly well adapted to the use to which it has been so beautifully applied by Victor Meyer. prepared and sold by Dr. Schuchardt of Gorlitz it appears to have a — constant co ommpoeition and equally constant physical quali- tie Spry aden it is but slightly acted on by boiling sulphur an can reaaie be recovered from the sulphur bath into which it over- flows. It can an be easily cleaned and used over again re- peatedly. But for these and other details we would refer to the ey full description of the process which has recently oi eae in Fresenius’ Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie, xvi, 4 Of
with any substance which would act chemically upon the alloy. Still it has already very oe extended our — of
such substances it is both more easy of application and more’
site than the only comparable method, that of Dumas as ed by Deville and Troost. We add two examples for illus- foxcions
Anthrachinon. . Substance used -_-. cite 0. ae OOCE2 germ. Met a reas Oe Me ene nrRenTT Oning eit ic ereie aie W...o 2644, * Which Gvermowed 22 .0c00.2.22W. =7,179°6.:...° Barometer height oo. 5. eis nen H =728% mm. pierenes Of level... 2 acs cence mee 388°. Resulting density .-.. ..2..2/.-0.- 7°22 e OY Ge Ae OE kyon ean 7719 Found by Grabe with the process of : Deville and Troos Se Paradibrombenzol. Substance weeds) os. bbs w == 0°0772 grm. Metal used ____ ._. i eee ee eee “which overflowed ......------ Wo @ 1874. * Barometer teint... .- 2 2c se H = 7285 mm. Difference of level .....--.-2.-...-- Restitting detisity 05505 oo. ik, 8°14 Theory. fon 00 Eb By eden op een tins 8°15
Po Os New Results in Physies.—(\.) A. F. Beraeren concludes
wi the chlorides of the alkalies and alkaline earths possess
greater electrical conducting power than the sblabie sulphates 0 of
the same bases.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, new series, vol. 1, 499,
“(2.) Sirow has undertaken an investigation of weak magnetic substances. His method consists in observing the deviation of an *astatic system of needles, produced by appending to it a cylin-
Geology and Mineralogy. 487
drical vessel containing the magnetic substance under considera- tion. He discusses the method ‘by t the aid of the theory of poten
tials and obtains for an aqueous solution of chloride of iron of density 1°475 a magnetizing constant of -K = 0:0000815.—J2.,
(3.) Hanxet discusses the results of previous experiments upon the electrical effect of light rays upon metal plates, immersed in fluids, and adds some experiments of his own which show that the difference of potential of certain metal plates immersed in fluids is assert altered by light; and that in certain cases this effect is opposite to that caused by the heat rays.—
4.) Cuausius shows that if there are a number of condueting bodies C,, C,, C,, ete. which influence each other and if these bodies are first char ged with the quantities of electricities Q,, Q,, Q, ete. giving the potentials Mig V,, V, etc., and afterwards charged with the page co 2, Diyas wi ith the ——— 8, B,, B,; the equation [VQ=2[8Q results.—J0.,
.) Herman Herwie collects the facts in leeks 8 ‘the differ- ent mechanical actions of positive and negative electrical poles; joins to these some observations of his own in regard to the havior of flames placed between their poles, and discusses the generality of these phenomena together with their bearing upon the tywo-fluid theory of electricity. ie p. 516.
6.) According to an investigation of W. von Muncumavsen carried on in the laboratory of A. Wullner, the _ heat of water et . is represented by the sg, ese me pie _ Ib., p. 5
II. Geology AND MINERALOGY.
, by Frerpinanp FREIHERRN VON Ri ICHTHOFEN.
auspices of the Prussian Government. nly a few prominent points in Chi ina were heotere - interior of the country not being
aiping rebellion. He also went to Siam, Formosa, the Bhitipy ‘ipnines Celebes and Java. Japan was not at the time open to foreigners.
The year 1867 and part of 1868 were spent in California, in con- nection with the Geological Survey of that State under J. Whitney; and av volume treating learnedly of the N atural Sys- tem of volcanic rocks, and describing those of Western North America was one result of his labors.
In July, 1868, he left for a second fe Chis: ai was there
- Pe pea Ergebnisse eigener Reisen at darauf gegriindeter Studien; von a RICHTHOFEN. Erster Band. Rinleitender Theil.
ND FREIHE VON fon 1877, (Verlag von Dietrich Reimer,
438 Scientific Intelligence.
— the center of the Province of Sz-tschwan, over 900 miles
of eo and to the north, the borders of Mongolia, sacra of Pekin. During a portion of the years 1870, 1871 (from August, 1870, to the spring of 1871), he was in Japan.
The work, of which the Ist volume, out of the four to be pub- lished, has acenip been issued, will embrace the results of his observations and studies with reference to the t topography of China, its geography, climate, density of population in different parts of its histor y, its production ns and their mercantile importance, its geology a gy, etc. Besides the account of China, the work wi ntain a sketch of the author’s observations also in
pan, sera Manilla, Java and Siam; and, in conclusion, a discussion of some pro roblems connected with the earth’s general arog" and history, as illustrated by the special facts observed.
he fourth volume, on the Paleontology, will be prepared by 2 specialists, among them, Dr. Kayser of Berlin, Prof. Schenk of Leipzic and Dr. Schwager of Munich. There will alse
in the text. The atlas will contain twenty-eight special charts on the scale of 1: 750,000; a general chart of China, on that of 1: 3,000,000; and other charts to illustrate the geology, — phy “of products, density and movements of population, etc., 1 China; also, a general chart and several special charts of Japan. The volume issued is princely in its style of publication; and it manifests, bess dus; that the work will be thorough in its discussion of the subjects taken u up.
‘he first yolume commences with a survey of the general topography of China and Central Asia. It next treats of the dss-formation of Northern China—its features, structure and ori- gin, and its relations to the salt ste pes of Central Asia and the léss-deposits of other countries. e mouutain-systems of Cen- oe Asia are then described, and with this subject Part I closes.
rt II consists of a histor rs of geographical knowledge with dle to China, and treats of ancient Chinese geographies and
ing the different periods of grr history, of the intercourse of
the people with the people of Southern and Western Asia, and,
after the arrival of the Pecaene in 1817, with the nations of urope.
The account of the léssformation of Northern China is of special interest, because of its wide distribution and its connection with the social ‘condition and welfare of the people. Baron von Richthofen observes that west of the alluvial plain of the sea-border —which plain in the vicinity of Pekin extends 175 English miles west from the Petschili gulf—there is a terrace of léss thirty to eighty meters in height. Continuing west, there is, next, a moun- tainous region on the east border of the Provinee of Shansi, and then succeeds a plateau largely covered with léss, which is 600 to 1,000 meters above the sea-level. Again, farther west, after pass- ing a mountain range, there is a second ‘plateau, 1 500 to 1,800
; Geology and Mineralogy. 489
meters above the sea-level, which is covered in great part with liss. The river Fénn-ho "(a stream flowing s onthward into the Hoang-ho, through the center of the Province of Shansi), occupies a deep channel cut through it along its western border. West of this — there is another mountainous region, in which flows north and south, for 300 miles, the Hoang-ho or epee River.
Beyond, Jeeaagh the Provinces of Shensi and Kansu, the léss is widely spread; and, on the authority of the missionaries and the
Chinese, it continues in the valleys to the most western sources of the affluents of the Hoang-ho, over 900 miles robes alte coast. The loss spreads northward along the plains or valleys into Mongolia,
Southward, it occupies basins in the broad valley of the Wei, the largest tributary of the Hoang-ho; and it also occurs in the val- ley of the Han. It is found also farther east over parts of the low near Nanking, Tung-ting Lake, and Po-yang Lake, which are its lands of Honan and Shantung. South of Honan it exists in iso-
€ ?
otal to Baron von n Richthofen,
The material of the = like that along the Rhine, is a brown- ish-yellow earth (whene the name “Yellow River,” given to the a very inded, exceedingly fine in grain, and friable
when ; and affording on chemica ment, more or less car- bonate of lime. It often contains, at different levels, calcareous
also p
ing to the author, shells of fresh-water snails. Vegetable se also occur in it. From top to bottom it is penetrated by ve small tubular Swear d which are like shone — are now in many
ever, at intervals usually of — than fifty feet (but vary ing from a few feet to more than a hundred), horizontal divisional ‘planes which are usually connected with planes of concretions. In con- sequence of these structural aigicayh hie the léss fronts the val- leys with high vertical walls, in which are occasional horizontal terrace-like shelves. It becomes reduced by intersecting stream or streamlets, and the rills from the heavy rains, to regions = deep and narrow labyrinthine passage-ways, groups of oft ty o lisks, castles, clustered towers. Instructive views of its alate
are cla in the volume.
Baron von Richthofen discusses the theories as to the origin of the liss, sad adopts that which he had advocated in his memoirs
490 Scientific Intelligence. :
on the Provinces of Honan and Shansi, published at Shanghai in
1870. He objects, with reason, to the theory of marine submer-
gence, advocated by T. W-. Kin ngsmill, Esq., in the Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society for 1871 (p. 376 ,) on the ground
that the shells, bones and vegetation are all terrestrial; that there
are no marine relies of ny kind in the deposits ; and states that ould re
which would give a chance for the introduction over the area of China, within comparatively recent times, of all kinds of marine li He e rejects also the view that the 16 ss is of freshwater origin deposited from the waters of vast lakes that formerly covered a wi part of the country—the opinion brought out by ae
He says also that there is no evidence of glacial origin, no moraines or other marks of glaciers having been observed in any part of the country.
Baron von Richthofen holds that the léss formation is a subaerial accumulation, due to the drifting action of the winds; to trans- portation by rivulets from the hills immediately a one each léss basin; and to the mineral material left over the growing peste and other plants. The first and the last of these causes are made the most effectual. The degradation of the rocks of the neighboring hills by decomposition and alternate changes of temperature, produces the loose grains for emg ocewee The plants covering the great plains served to stop the wind-drifted earth, and so keep the en nb ever in ies ss. He observes that the true léss is made over a dry surface and he calls it Jand- léss. But the liss basins have generally had a lake at center; and about the a the deposit is thin-laminated or stratified ; an
* Mr. Pumpelly’s Memoir was published in a quarto of 144 pages, . iets maps, by the Senittloeah Institution, as No. 202 of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Washington, D. C., October, 1866. The author visited the region
wagon-roads run for many miles without rising to the plain. In the valley between the Kvenkates (pu) and the Moose defile, I crossed a gully forty or fifty feet deep and not more than four feet wide, having the same _— sg the way down, and following pc these Piha a tortuous course for more than nile. ; ' :
channel from top to bottom, and this with each succeeding rain works its way backward toward the mountain. As the erosion a the sides of the gullies offer new starting points for tributary ravini
Geology and Mineralogy. 491
this he wails lake-liss. The lakes had formerly sag width than now; and in the valley of the Wei where the true léss is oe sive,. “he has seen it overlying the laminated lake-los ss. Abou the ‘dried-up basins, under the present dry climate, salt aoe cences are common.
From all the facts he concludes that the léss-basins were originally sites of salt lakes; that the land had less height in the interior to the northward than now, as shown by the succession of liss basins going west, and that the basins had consequently very great extent ; that the climate was so dry that the evaporation | exceeded the fall of wat er, and consequently the streams were very feeble, or dried up, an nd that this was another occasion for great undrained basins; that the true léss was formed about the dry borders of the basins by the methods above mentioned, and gradually spread inward covering the lake-léss as the water of the basin diminished, so giving the upper surface of the deposit a
was much like the present state of ‘be salt-steppes of Central Asia; and that the léss-making era was brought to an end de a change of climate in which gr reat rains chan nged ‘08 rivers
floods, which led to their cutting channels through Ky basins a opening up the present system of drainage. Thus the Hoang-ho
this drainage a ag was promoted also by an elevation to the ev
a eapenil?s article, referred to "a was peace ne a perme of Baron von Ri chthofen’ s views; and it is of inter-
est here s arguments. ost important are these: that the disintegration going on over the hills is a very inadequate source o r such great and thick deposits, and the winds
made, Pe p von Richthofen’s, yes Pekin and about Kalgan) for the freshwater and lacustrine origin of the liéss from the presence of shells in the deposits (at Té Hai) ; rom the uniform constitution and fineness of the liss, this “ prov- ing that it has not come from what were the neighboring shores, but that it*was brought into the lakes by one or more large = which must have drained an area of great extent. J.D 2. International Geological Congress,— The nu mber of shis Journal for December of 1876 contains the announcement of the
492 Scientific Intelligence.
— of a Committee, by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, to take action with reference to holding an International Geological ee at Paris, dur ae the
derived from a ee issued by the Committee, of which Prof. James Hall is
At the recent svtcnting of the Association, at Nashville, a report on the subject was presented by the Secretary of the Committee,
r. T. Sterry Hunt. According to it, the circular was sent to learned societies over the world, and has everywhere called forth gratifying st The oe Society of France has expressed its hear es oe abet and English, —, Swedis
a
the project of a similar International Geological Congress, to be
held in [taly, before the Italian Minister of Agriculture, Industry
and Commerce. German has declined to take any part in the this m
the Committee is now in correspondence with the Secretary of the - Geological Society of rae upon this point, and believes that a time convenient to all will be agreed upon e Report also atibodila a resolution of the Standing Com- mittee of the Association’ recommending that the Presidents, for the time being, of the Geological Societies of France, Lo don Edinburgh, Dublin, Berlin, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the Imperial Geological Institute of Vienna, be invited to form part of the Commiss After the presentation of the report to the American Associa- tion, the Secretary received official notice that the Geological Society of France, had, in codperation with the above plan, ap- pointed in Paris a local committee of organization for the pro- posed Congress, constituted as follows: Hi&serr, President ; -OURNOUER and» ALBerT Gaupry, Vice-presidents; BrocHE Treasurer; JANNETAZ, Sec retary-general ; Deraire, Sauv VAGE, Broccut and Véiarn, Reananastes ; with the following : BreLGRAND Bureau, pE CHancourrots, G. Corre EAU, Damour, Dauprée, &,
Gonceaatics.
A circular Seued by this Committee, ae date er Faly 31, in- vites all those interested in geo logical, mineralogical and pa aleon- — tological studies, to take part in the approaching ag Sta and to subscribe the sum of twelve francs each, which will give a card of admission to the Congress, and Tight to all the sablications
Geology and Mineralogy. 493
thereof. All those who intend to be present are at the same time invited to send, as soon as possible, a list of the questions which seem to them worthy of general discussion, as well as of the com- munications which they intend to make touching these questions. They are also invited to indicate What time appears to them mos convenient for the meeting of the Congress regards an International Geological Exhibition, the Paris Committee of organization state that the difficulty of finding a suitable locality seems to them an obstacle in the way of realizing this part of the programme. They hope however that there will e many special pallsetions sent, and beg the exhibitors of such to give the committee due notice of these, in order that a special catalogue of them may be prepare The circular issued by t e Committee of the American Associa- tion did not contemplate, as Dr. Hunt states, the holding of an International Geological Exhibition apart from the Universal Exhibition, but, in 5 or guage of that circular, the making as e pegs department of the Universal
Exhibition. It is that, as at all previous similar exhibi- tions, the different eaten will contribute more or less of geo- logical terial; an yas conceiv hat such collections,
International Geological Exhibition. To the accomplishment of this end it will only be necessary for the exhibitors of all nations to sehd a list of their Por contributions to the local Com- mittee of organization at Pari
All correspondence oaien to the ye oe should be addressed by Dr. Jannetaz, Sécretaire-général, Rue rands si apace
7, Paris, France, and all moneys sent to Dr: Bioche at the sam ac ress,
3. Paleontology of New York, Illustrations of Devonian Fossils: Gaster opoda, Pte sh Ale Cephalopoda, ¢
nse :
IV of Professor Hall’s great work on the Paleontology of New k was published in 1867, and contained descriptions and fig- ures of the fossil Br: achiopods of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung ype illustrated by about seventy rec Since its publication, as reface to this new volume states
with the care of the Museum, in connection with impaired health, the descriptions still remain incomplete. In 1875, eighty plates of the Lamellibranchs had been drawn and litho graphed, and the drawings of the greater part of the Gasteropods, Pteropods, Cephalopods and Crustacea, now issued in this new volume, had
494 Scientific Intelligence.
been finished, while those of the Corals were in progress. Dur ing that yea r the Legislature of the State authorized the pitsiio: tion, by the albertype process, of a hundred copies of each of one hundred of the plates, ree the pape bi of thirty additional lates. Through this means the new volume of plates, with the explanatory pages of ext; vias been pins All the plates it con- tains were photographed from excellent original drawings, except- ing part of those of the Corals which are direct from the specimens. The most of the drawings were made under the supervision of Mr. R. P. Whitfield, and many of 1 those of the Gasteropoda and
The plates form a beautiful volume, and, with the explanations accompanying each, they ‘scence even aw ork which will be of great
Geole shogieid Sur rvey h made him an reenter in that ieee ond eee conferred oak in order to avoid any duplication of
ad io
Pictessr Hall states that to complete the Devonian Cephalo-
a, the number of plates—here forty—will have to be doubled, the plathe of the Crustacea will need some additions, and those of the Corals, here over forty, will have to be greatly increased in number. Prof. Hall’s eee have been of vast service to Ameri- can negate and of great honor to the State under whose rt
ibe
4, Twenty-cig. hth Annual Report of the New Yu orks State Museum of Natural History, by the apes of the University of the State of New York. 100 pages, 8vo, with 34 plates. Trans- mitted to the Legislature, March 30, 18 75. Albany, 1875.—This
eport, whose contents are mentioned on page 432, is one of special paleontologic eal value. The chief article is by Prof, Hall, and consists of plates and their os ae te illustrating “the fauna of the iets Group in Central Indian e number of plates is thirt r-tW e figures include s eid of fossil Sponges,
by the Sake A serait C. HL. Peck. T e new Create ioualle de- scribed by C. D. Walcott are of the iter stig: Concho- os ee patelliform shell), Bathyuras whe Asaphu
on some new sections of Trilobites from ‘the Trenton chee and meer dose of new sp oes of fossils, by C. D. Watcorr, 22 pp. 8vo, with one plate. Published i in "advance of the Rep. N. Y. State Musenm, Sept. 20, 1877.—In this paper Mr. Walcott gives an account of the discov. ery of articulated append-
Geology and Mineralogy. 495
ages connected with the mouth of Trilobites, derived from see- 3 of ssenee oe of Cal mene senaria, - urus. leurex- l
Brat = the 2 ect position acro oss the he ads is not stated. More sections ey needed before the facts observed can be satis- factorily interpre
Mr. Walcott fone also observed in sections of the body of a Ceraurus pleurexanthemus what he regards as remains of the ova of the animal, similar to those described by Barrande as occurring in Barrandia crassa. The space between the dorsal shell and the
that the question naturally arises whether the ovoidal bodies are not of can noite origin 6. Large Bowlders in a Te Hampshire.—One of the largest of
about 70,000 ods giving for the te nearly 6,000 tons. Close
about the sa The largest parle in Vermont is called the Green Mountain Giant, Pe de on a hill in Whitingham ; it contains 40, eg cubic
feet.—Daily Monitor, Concord, New Hampshire, Oct 7. Bo of Org nie Acids to the inesribaiatians of Min- erals ; b . Carrineton Borron, Ph.D. 36 pp. 8vo, with one
plate. New York ‘Acad. Sci., i, 1877. —Professor Bolton presents in this memoir the results of a ‘long investigation with regard to the action of citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids on minerals, and
with malic, formic, acetic, benzoic, pyrugstie ce, and picric acids. The minerals were subjected to the acids i ad ae wder, the solid acids having been made into satarated solution
From a table in the concluding part of f the memoir, we take the talewing reactions of citric acid. CO, is given off when the cold acid acts on the mineral carbonates, excepting magnesite and siderite which require heat. CO, is also given off, when acting
with the h cid o sm e, mang and _psilo- lane. H,S is liberated when neting with the cold acid on stib- nite, nape a sphalerite, pyrrhotite, e hot acid on
t bornite and bournonite as well as the preceding. A jelly is formed when the hot acid acts on willemite, datolite, pectolite, calamine, natrolite ; and nou-gelatinous silica, when the same acts on wollas-
lite, rhodonite, analcite, chabazite, stilbite, serpentine, retinalite, deweylite’ The following minerals are decomposed by boiling
496 Scientific Intelligence.
with citric acid and KNO,: argentite, chalcocite, pyrite, marca- site, niccolite, smaltite, chalcopyrite ullmannite, arsenopyrite, te-
trahedrite, uraninite, and a the species above enumerated as decomposed wi e “Th owing are decomposed by boiling with citric acid and NH,FI: olivine, wernerite, ortho-
talc, spodumene, almandine garnet, epidote, and also the above- enumerated species which yield silica,
Professor Bolton inate that solid citric (or tartaric) acid is far more convenient than hydrochloric for the traveling mineral- ogist; and also that potassium nitrite, KNO,, should be added to the usual list of blowpipe reagents ; for it a with citric acid, nitric acid, and it affords a ‘convenient means of carrying this reagent, We refer to the memoir for special detaila Hes reference to ay several mineral species studied by Professor Bo
Note on Uranium minerals in North Cuesiinay i State Geologist. (Communicated.)—Besides the samarskite of the Wiseman Mica Mine in Mitchell County, with the associated hatchettolite of Dr. Smith, the minute crystals of microlite found in iia mines, and some stains and incrustations of uranium lat R
the latter, and of the fragments of rock adjacent, Zorbernite and “ooh nite. These minerals occur only in one part of the mica-
of irregular nodules and rounded masses, some with a. key tien of uraninite of one half to three-fourth inch, enveloped a heavy
ite, from an eighth to a fourth of an inch thie k, which is uranochre, or uraconite. One — the largest, weighs "just a ead: an all I obtained between three and four pounds. The quantity of pitchblende eksiadasgr 1 naltered is very small and by far greater part of the mass “of the nodules, probably n aan is — and the smaller ones are nearly or entirely changed to uracon I oe recently obtained specimens, one pound in weight, of
— from a new locality, viz: Grassy Creek Mine, in Mitchell
unty. rab eiaa§ this mineral had been found chiefly, I believe onl vl at the Wiseman Mine.
notable fact in connection with the occurrence of these ura-
Botany and Zoology. 497
Ill. Borany AND Zoonoey.
1. The Wild Flowers of — illustrated by Isaac Spracus.
Text by Grorce L. Goopats, M. D., Assistant Professor of Vege- sey Fhysilogy and Lassitees in Botany in Harvard University Houghto Seg emer of
so closely as to adopt the genus rep Sp might have been mentioned that the cogent reason for t e rehabilitation of ‘Rafin- esque’s genus was not the sterile = Saeed ich were known
from the first and suggested the name, but a involution of the petals in the bud around the fi pei ee enwrapping each, which was a new discovery. In the letter-press accom- panying the very pretty plate of Viola saps (which is well set off with a tuft of sedge behind it), the method of the discharge of the seeds is clearly explained, and the _ gpa mode in
amamelis is incidentally alluded to as = it were a recent dis- covery of the persons mentioned. Far rlier dates are referred to in this Journal for Feb., 1873, with a aeruace to the amusing
muddle of the subject into which an English — periodinal
was led. Eastern flowers have served hitherto; but in the present
fasciculus the ultra-Mississippian Rudbeckia cemnnaal columna-
ris i Sibec nd to great advantage, especially the two-colored
vari The velvety red-brown bases of the drooping dane rende
a me before the Botanical Society of France (printed in ite Bulletin, xxiii, agg in which he described the production of fruit and seeds in Jmpatiens ee apparently without
rticipation a the male. sex, and when two learned botanists
since lost. A. G Am, Jour, Sc1.—Tutrp oe Vou. XIV, No. 84.—Derc., 1877.
4938 Scientific Intelligence.
Catalogus nage in Nova Cesarea Repertarum.—This is the title on the cover. The title page, all eyes is “ Catalogue of Plants pwwhie ainouk cultivation in the State of New Jer- sey, with a specific description of all the species of Violet found therein, Directions for sipenren tel Ba Labeling and Presery- ing Botanical Specimens, and a ription of suitable i tsi therefor; with suggestions to Tea mans rosecuting the study o Botany; to which is added Directions for commencing the study of Botany; a also a Directory of living Botanists of Nort mer- ica and the West Indies. By Oliver R. Willis, Ph.D., Instructor of Natural ar in the Alexander Institute. Revised and enJarged edition, (A. 5. Barnes & Co.: k, &e.” 8vo pp. 88.) This full title leaves no need and little room for any particular petit of this compendious volume. It lacks only a date, which we may put at 1877, and it has an Index. The pret- ace to the fier edition bears the date 1874. We gave a notice of the original — at the time; the present edition is much en-
the ditficulties and labor incident to the preparation of a w
like this,” adds that, “ consequently I expect to be judged with lenity and criticised with ¢ charity.” We see no good reason for disappointing his expectations. We will add—since the title page does not mention it—that, while the catalogue stops with the Lycopodiacea, it is supplemented by one of marine Alge, by Samuel Ashmead, and that there is a monograph of the forms or varieties of — ruit of one of the States’ staple products, the cranberry. New Jersey has a rich flora, as is well known. This catalogue enumerates 1,603 species of Phxnogamous lants, and states that there are tifty-seve n first class and — sc opateah second class trees. _ this posi 27 eee speci G.
4, Sir Josepy Darton Hoox ached bis home at iow on the 19th of Setiber, after an msaally long voyage of almost a fortnight. In his rapid reconnoissance of the botanical features of the United States he traveled over between nine and ten thousand
miles of American territory, asoended some of the highest moun- tains, and botanized with a vigor and industry which he could hardly — mig in his bears days. The time—all too
visit as soon as ossible, and then ie endeavor to see ibe of the Atlantic States (its institutions as well as its natural pt ductions), and also of New Mexico, Arizona and Southern Calitor- nia, which are now becoming readily and promptly accessible to the rapid-moving traveler.
Nature for October 25 contains an excellent steel portrait of Sir Joseph Hooker as one of the series of Scientific Worthies; the
Botany and Zoology. 499
accompanying biographical notice is by his companion in Ameri- can travel, Professor Gray, but was written in May, and was in “type before Sir J — reached this country. The same number Nature contains two pages of Notes on the Botany of the Rocky Mountains, a brief sketch, drawn up by him on the — ward vo 5 nie ree Hap y, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- versity of Buffalo, died, at Buffalo o, N. Y., Oct. 16, in the 63d year of his age. So passes to his rest the last and the oldest of the three gifted sons of gifted and most excellent parents. The sub- ject of this notice, called to a less conspicuous position, did not attain the eminence of his brother James, but rather follos wed in
., at Fairfield, then at Geneva, and lastly at Buffalo, where his son succeeded him. The father and the son were singu- larly alike, model teachers and model men, truthful to the core
and loveable exceedingly, modest and quiet a ree that musked from the world their ability and their learning: but these traits could not be hidden from those who in nerations came under their influence and shared their abiding friendship. From the father the writer of these lines received, you
of sixteen, his first help as a student of botany, and later his first encouragement in essaying a scientific career. He would lay this
tribute to the memory of both father and son fees the sons rag ey. uy receive the mortal remains of the :
N Darsy, who graduated in 1831 at Williams allen ark fe North Adams, Mas s., Sept. 27, 1804. His life was cee
y years in G orgia Female College at Mac on. He filled the ae of Mathematics for one year in Williams College: his alma mater. om this chair Professor non went to Auburn in Alabama as Davies of Chemistry and Natural History in the East Alabama College, where he Sed. pore his death in August, 1877.
Professor Darby’s scientific work outside the time occupied in teaching—to whi ch he ever gave a most “ee aii kr and willing devotion—was chiefly in botany, of which science he was an enthusiastic student. In he published his “ pee of the Southern States,” in two : I. Structural and Physiological Botany and Vegetable Pious IL. Deseri ie ions of Southern
r i
work, Dr. Gra (* is Journal, vol. xx, - “WI, 1855), on “the book is excellently planned, and is well adapted to its purpose —that of a text-book for the Colleges and High Schools of the
500 Scientific Intelligence.
Southern States.” Professor Darby also published a large of Chemistry. He was married August 20, 1833, to Miss Julia P. ee: daughter of Calvin Sheldon, of Manchester, Vt. Profes.:
arby enjoyed the enviable reputatio n of a man of high eeu and pure life, zealously devoted to teaching in his chosen departments.
7. Herbarium for sale-—The herbarium of the late Arthur Schott is offered for sale, for the benefit of his meget hoe is said to contain 7,000 species, in good condition, and to be rich in plants
of the U. S. and Mexican Boundary, of Mexico, and “of Central many from Southern Germany x Hungary.
dred to one hundred and ten sah diagrams, both plain and xg 7a illustrate the structure and development of the prin- cipal forms of animal life. They intend to copy their illustrations
Py German, French jen English text. The authors intend to take at care not _ follow eases school of zoology and always
a in ve issue of the harta but the separate numbers w
d he icat by a i mega the plates for which each is cass responsible The plates are issued at a very moderate price, at far less than a
ordinary. draughtsman can afford to make similar diagrams.
The three plates of the first number are devoted to Corals, Rinepede and Isopods; the coloring of the various organs and of special parts is identical in the different figures, thus greatly facilitating the comparison of different animals.
It is a great pity that both the French and English text should be marred not on serious misprints but also by the most ies translations of the German explanation of the fig-
re cture of some of the French and English sentences is as marvellous, and we earnestly hope that the authors will
the meaning of the : But these are minor oe and if the work is carried out as it has been commenced, it cannot fail to be a most valuable guide to * Zoologische 1 eae gee . Dr. R. Leuckart u. Dr. H. Nitsche. Erste ]iefer- ung Tafel I-III. Cassel, 1
Astronomy. 501
teachers of zoology, for they may rest Te that the distin- guished editors will give them nothing w has th stoud the test of time, and we most cordially Secunia the se
“AL AG.
TV. ASTRONOMY.
1. The Sun’s Distance. (Abstract of the Report of the Astro- tee pilach on the Telescopic Observations of the recent Transit of Venus, from Nature of Nov. 1).—A most interesting state paper has just been issued ; we refer to the Report by the Astro-
sc
observations made in the expeditions organized by other goveru- ments.
t will be seen from the ‘ieee; report that the plan of opera- ine actually pursued has been very nearly that proposed by the Astronomer-Royal in his communication to the oyal Astronomi- cal Society on Dousutvie 11, 1868, when for the third time direct- ing attention to the arrangements ‘which it would be necessary to make tor the efficient observation of the transits of 1874 and: 1882. The method of absolute longitudes was to be applied for observa- tions both of ingress and egress; it being therefore essential that
x ritain were Alexandria, stations in New Zealand and i “oA Sandwich Islands, sok dn aes s oe and Mauritius or the tw oe of Rodri uez and Bov
expedition * entirely by consideration of th influence | — pesmi would have in determining with accura tion of parallax.”
y t rati allax. They were: Egypt, the roller aad the lia 1d of Rodriguez, New Zea- land, and Kerguelen’s Land. It was iuionded to adopt in each of these districts one fundamental station, the longitude of which was to be independently determined, for conversion of local times into Greenwich times, and itbordinate to this primary station, other stations were proposed to be selected at such distances that oo. pe taken of different states of weather that mi me
tro ng Rae 8 ighness the Khedive rendered every possible ass ssistence, “8 being supplied with military guards for the pr tection of the observers and their i instruments, and telegraph wires
erected. edeacromeiertb Eas acknowledges the obligations of the expedition to the liberality of the Eastern sea a Company, in affording the means of determining with extreme accuracy an great facility the longitude of the principal station Mokattam.
502 Scientific Intelligence.
Greenwich was easily connected with Porth Curno, in Cornwall,
whence there is an uninterrupted line to Alexandria, = longest submarine line in the world; Alexandria was connected with Mokattam by aid of the special new constructed by yt Khedive rom Cairo to the station. It is further stated that time-communi- cation was also made from Mokattam through Cairo to Thebes, and to Suez by the peerety baphipase: Thebes and Suez being the other Egyptian stations where the transit was observed.
In the Sandwich Islands ani assistance was seceived from King
sea
station was at Honolulu, the longitude of which was determined partly by meridian- transits of the moon and partly by transits o the moon observed with the Altazimuth instrument. Waimea, the island Kauai, where observers were also placed, was connected with Honolulu u by means of chronometers carried in H.M.S. Zeredos. At the Tsland of Rodriguez the longitudes were determined in the same manner as for the Sandwich Islands stations, for three posi- tions, viz: Point Venus, the Hermitage, and Point _ an
the acrextioun and Sir George Airy hind at first bee ade d to suppose that all useful observation had beenslost ; it sakanoie appeared, however, that this was not the case, "one phase of the transit being w well seen at Burnham, the longitude of which was fixed by meridian transits of the moon The report is divided into three sections or tables. In the first are given the descriptions of the various phenomena, in the words ith the Greenwich sidereal times of the different phases, obtained from accurate reduction of the observations for longitude here particularized ; where such longitudes depend upon lunar ea the places ‘of the Nautical Almanae were care- fully corrected by observations on nearly the same days at Green- wich, Paris, Strasburg, and Konigsberg. In studying these or iginal descriptions, Sir George Airy was led to infer that it was “possible to fix upon t three distinct phases for the Zngress and four for the Egress,” though it might have been supposed that Egress and Ingress would exhibit “the same number of distinct i ases in inverse order; this was not the case a practice. The r e
Astronomy. 508
George Airy finds that of these phases 6 is the most exact, observers, even in the presence of clouds of moderate density,
much greater discordances are e Similarly at the Egress, he first appearance of a fine line or faint shadow is called hi becomin “bro ze” appearing, is called «.
hen most observers record “contact,” the shadow having reached a maximum intensity, the phase is — 6, and in this phase there is an agreement amongst observers, much closer than in other phases at Egress. The e ame. contact at Egress is called 7
In the second section of the report, or Table II, these “adopted phases are massed for each district in which the parallax-factor is nearly identical,’ and several of the details of reduction
verted h_ sidereal es vith the at apparent places of the sun and Venus in the Nautical Almanie
of alterations of the third class, as it is remarked, constituted “ the special object of the expedition.” The form of the reductions was “entirely determined by the consideration that such alterations must be made in the parallaxes as will render the observations of the same phenomena in rire parts of the ste consistent with each other.” In Table III. we have “ the m solar parallax deduced from 3 sheen’ combination.” Thus In Dares acceler-
t the reper ere and secondly, upon the esiiier
phase «, #, y, , and g being ren: it is found that
all the cobibnasiiinn for Ingress give mean gens parallax ‘
8”-739, weight 10°46, and all the Sonibinntgies for 8"°847, weight 2°53, "whence the general result is 8” 760, fro whi ch Sir George Airy finds the mean distance of the sun saeal
504 Scientific Intelligence.
to 93,300,000 miles. The New Zealand es were not included i in these calculations ; their mean result is 8"°764, almost identical with the above. It is remarked that any persons may perhaps consider that the more clo cp agreeing phases 6 and ¢ should be employed in deducing the value of the parallax to the exclusion of the others. If this be sous we shall have from the Ingress 8"*748, and from the “gress 8”:905, or with their due weights a mean valne 8”°773 In this outline of the details contained in the Astronomer- Royal’s first report upon the observations _ the transit ied Venus, the conclusions to be drawn from t we have adhered closely to his own words. Pending the pend of the deduc- tions to be made from the complete measuring of the photographs, the results before us are perhaps to be regarded as — ones only, or we have not yet learned all that may be done from
Sir sn of any astronomers we can imagine will regard with some secpieiba so small a parallax as 8"-76, whidke: is a tenth of a borate Jess than has been given by the most reliable previous investigations, ra different principles. In illustration we ma
From meridian eee? tions of Mars, 1862 8”°855 From ea, observations of Mars 1862 8"°842
— ality o of the m 8"-838 From the lu wien tion of the ear 8”-809 From the transit of Venus, 1769 (Powaiky’ s reduction) 8"-860 From Foucault’s e es | on hgh os. 8"-860
To these may be added Leverrier’s Mage pu eanenuly deduced from the ae tary one , which is also Newcomb’s
mean figure, taking account of Soe corres ae to the prob- able errors is 8’*848, which, with Capt. Clarke? *s measure ot Be earth’s equator, implies that the mean distance of the is 92,393,000 miles. Sir George Airy’s 8’°760 would AEE ob Boe the re at a mean distance of 93,321,000 ng
tunity as is presented by a close opposition of ae as nln at least as favorable conditions, and the result of Mr. expe- dition to Ascension to utilize the late eppomtian will be. on this account awaited with much interest. Nevertheless, whatever degree of ae might be entertained by competent authorities, it appears to have been felt by those immediately responsible for action, in different civilized nations where science is enGonraant that so rare a phenomenon as a transit of Venus could not allowed to pass without every exertion being made to utilize * and this country may lay claim to an honorable share in the great scientific effort, thanks mainly to the long-continued and admur- co ay irected endeavors of the Astronomer-Royal to secure this sult.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 505
Several of the stations occupied during the transit of 1874 will be available for ie transit of 1882, Kerguelen’s Land in particu- lar, where at Ingress the sun wil ‘be at an elevation of 12°, the
and
smallest altitude of the sun 12° for observing the reta rded Ingress ; and for observing the Egress as ae ated by = x, the fac- tors are about 0°85, the sun’s elevation varying from to 32° at New Orleans, or Jamaica. Australian and New Zealand Stations are important for retarded Egress.
s is well known, the transit of Venus on December 6, 1882, will be partly visible in this count
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Notes on the Rocky: ee ; by Sir Joseps — (From Nature of Oct. 25.)— apeey: with Dr. =
rth American flora. In order to comprehend the at ae of
Colorado and Utah as the basis for such investigations, I should
state that they occupy a very central position in the continent, i i Rock ou
long and about as seen namely, from N. lat. 37° to 41°, and from — = _— 105° to 11
vated 4,000 to 5,000 feet abov sabe sea, called “g idea in local to opography, which are iatarpon between innumerable iii mountain ridges of very various geological age form
which often reach 12,000 feet, “sg enpestaRt 14,000 feet sieve tion, the maximum bein under 14
Those of the so-called parks shies are watered by rivers that flow to the east are continuous with the prairies that lie along the eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains; those watered by rivers that flow to the west are continuous with the sehen desert or
Way are sometimes low, and the a features of the east and bens may hence meet and mix in one
ich a section of the Rocky Meaniedia must hence contain rep- rohedtetiv es of three very distinct American floras, each charac-
506 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
teristic of immense areas of the continent. There are two tem-
the two latter of widely different origin, and in one sense proper to the Rocky Mountain ranges.
The principal American regions with which the comparison will have first to be instituted are four. Two of these are in a broad sense humid; one, that of the Atlantic coast, and which extends thence west to the Micsissipp! River, including the forested shores of that river’s western affluents ; the other that of the Pacific side, from the Sierra Nevada to the western ocean: and two inland, that of the northern part of the continent anette to the Polar regions, and that of the southern part extending ‘through New Mexico = the Cordillera of Mexico proper.
t and second (Atlantic plus Mississippi and the Pacific) teatime of are traversed by meridional chains of mountains approxi- mately parallel to the etks Mountains; namely, on the Atlantic side by the various pore a — under oe cee te term
t
tending from the Snake River to Arizona and Mexico. Thus the Colorado and Utah floras might be expected to contain represent- atives of all the various vegetations of North America except the small tropical region of oo which is confined to the extreme southeast of the Continen e most singular breach aeergein * are America is un- questionably the marked cont between its two humid floras, peaiet Se those of the “Atlantic ies nw: and the Pacific one ; his has been ably illustrated and discussed by Dr. Gray in vari- ous communications to the American Academy of Sciences, and elsewhere, and he has further largely traced the peculiarities of each to their source, thus laying the eee BTS for a fat ture re-
ssing. Our course and direction in ice as cermers westward to Colorado, where we followed the ostionn flanks of the Rocky Monntains for about 300 miles, that i s fro om Denver i in the north,
Miscellanéous Intelligence. 507
in Utah, which lies on the base of the Wahsatch Mountains, them- selves the western praise of the Rocky Mountains proper in that latitude. After ascending these we proceeded westward by rail through Utah, to Mews da, “thus crossing the great inte region that intervenes between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Ne- vada, which is variously known asthe Desert, Salt, or Sink region of North America, in accordance with the prevailing features of
y numerous short meridional mounta ee ges, often reaching 8,000 feet, and rarely 10,000 feet elevation ; unlike the Roe cky Mountains or over the Sierra Nevada, these © preset no —— slopes, and shi the highest have a limite pine
‘rom Reno, at the western base of the Sierra aw aid we pro- ceeded es by Carson City, flanking the Sierra for some sixty miles to Silver Mountain, when we struck westward, ascending the Sierra, which was crossed obliquely into the Pacific slo ope. There we visited three groves of the “ Big Trees” 7 Sip gigan- tea) at the headwaters of Stanislaus and Tuolomne Rivers, and th singular Yosemite Valley, whence we descended into the great valley of California, and made for San Francisco.
From the latter place w mate e excursions first to the old Span-
: reat , anist, as being the scene of Menzies’ labors during the voyage of our countryman, no snaieniay in 1798 (whose surveys are
cers of the Coast Survey of the United States), whom he accom- panied as botanist. Then we went northward along the coast range to Russian River to visit the oe of Red-wood (Sequoia sempervirens), the only living congener of the Big Trees, and
almost their rival in bulk and stature. "Phen to Sacramento, and up the valley of that name for 150 miles to Mount Shasta, a noble- forest-clad volcanic cone about 14,400 feet in elevation. Return- ing thence to Sacramento we took the Union Pacitic ailway east- ward, and from the highest station visited Mount Stanford, on the crest of the Sark Nevada, and Lake Tahoe, which occupies a basin in the ciaberiae at about 7,000 feet elevation, and with which we
maximum ovebeuaen in number of species and in stature on the Pacifie a2 of the American continent.
The net result of our joint investigation and of Dr. Gray’s pre- Vious intimate knowledge of the elements of the American flora is, that the vegetation of the middle latitudes of the_ continent re-
as ees and enera of herbaceous plants are concerned, abso lately distinct. ese are the two ie 7 and the dry intermediate regions above indicated.
508 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
rege of these, again, is subdivisible into three, as follows :— The Atlantic slope plus Mississippi region, enbdivisible into a an Atlantic (8) a Mississippi valley, and (y) an interposed mountain region with a temperate and sub-alpine flor
(2.). The Pacific ies subdivisible into (a) a very dual cool] forest-clad coast range; (/) the great hot drier Californian val- ley formed by the San J oaquin River flowing to the north, and the Sacramento River flowing to the south, both into the Bay of San — and (y) the Sierra Nevada flora, temperate, sub- alpine; and alpin (3.) The Rocky Mountain region (in its widest sense extending from the Mississippi beyond its forest ie? to the Sierra Ne- vada), subdivisible into (a) a prairie flora; (/) a desert or saline flora; (v) a Rocky Mountain proper flora, temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine.
As above stated, the difference between the floras of the first and second of these regions, is ne snares and to a great extent generically absolute ; not a pine or oak, maple, elm, plane, or birch of Eastern America extends to piety and genera of thirty to fifty species are confined to each. The Rocky Mountain region, again, though abundantly distinct from oR: re a few elements of the eastern region and still more of the w
the on temperate an and rigid zones, and which had a ready en- gaged Dr. Gray’s attention, as may be found in his various publi- cations. No less interesting are the traces of the influence of a
continent, and of the effects of the great body of water that oc- a the whole saline region during (as it would oe a gla- cial period.
eocnee was ma Pi A ray’s. ously visited both the Rocky Mountains and California, shows not with the same object. But for unflinching determination
More reover, chantighins the ex saci on we seule great hos- pitality, aud enjoyed unusual facilities, not only from the staff of
Se ee Ue ae en ne a ee eee
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 509
the Geological Survey, but from the railway authorities, who franked us across the continent, and on all the branch lines which we traverse e Earths of the Cerium Groups as found in the North Barolinn Samarskite.—In my original paper and subsequent note on this group of a as separated by sulphate of potash from the mixed earths of North Carolina ee I then stated that oxide of cerium was not to be ranked among them. have con- tinued the researches in this direction, asd while they are far from being complete, it is pretty well determined that the bulk of the earth separated by the sulphate of potash is a new earth, if it be
The other oxides of this group are thoria and ox um, Tam still prosecuting a researches, and hope before ps ps give more oth ae — awrence "Smith's letter 4
abstract of aper ae Henry L. Axssort, Major of Rogites ers, Bvt. Brig. ence read before the National Academ my of Sciences at its recent meeting in New York.—Mr. Mallet’s results, reported
many years ago to the Royal Society, were: Velocity i in ft. per second i - Mase Se eee 825 ft. n discontinuous — much shattered granite,, 1306 ft. ts “ ee in more so lid gran 1665 - a = “in quarries at Holyhead (MOAN) 5 a 1320 ft. The Pe ger obtained by the officers of the United States Engin- eer School of Application at Willet’s Point, for the rate through drift deeteation of Long Island, are the followin ng:
TABLE I. 2 . & & |&,,| Tremor of Ss Be 2 = a3 mercury. BS y=] Date. Observer. | Cause of Shock.| 23 |35 38 Qa o : a | d) Lasted g A & apie for a = miles.| | sec'ds. 'sec’ds ft. pr sec. 1| Aug. 18, "76./Capt. L 200 Ibs. dynm.| 5 + |B| 5 5280 + 2 Sept. 24, 16.\Lieut. Young /|Hallet’s Pt. ex.) 5134) A.) 7+} 634) 3873+ 3 “ |Lieut. Griffin is «1. 1. $330) B.|. .5°3.) T2°3.) 8300 et “'Lieut. Kingman} “ “ “| 9333) A.| 10°9 | 23°5| 4521 1. * \Lieut. Leach . 12°769| B.| 12°7 | 19:0} 5309 6/Oct. 10, '76./Lieut. Kin; an be Ibs. powder.| 1°360} A.| 5°8 | inst’t} 1240 gm. po 7\Sept. 6, 77.|Lieut. Kingman 0 Ibs. dynm.} 17169} A.| 1°8 | 7:8} 3428 8} “ “© Lieut. Leach “ | 1169) B.| O'7 | 17-8} 8814 9\Sept. 12, '77.| Lieut. Griffin 306 i dynm.| 1°340) A.| 1:05) 88| 6730 10) “ “ * ILieut, Leach ye ng 1340} B.| 0°81} 17-1} 8730 ll} “ \Lient. Griffin (70 Ibs. powder.| 1-340) A.| 1°27) 4°8| 5559 I) eo eo: h ee es 13401 B.| 0°84! 15-11 8415
In the case of No. 6 the charge was five feet below the surface. In those of Nos. 11 and 12 the charge was thirty feet below sur-
510 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
face, giving a much more violent shock than No, 6. Lieut. Leach reports, ae papers say that it (the tremor) was at least two seconds in attain a maximum.” ence, an instrument just capable of datdesien it, would have registered only 2,489 feet.
TABLE II. (Analysis of above.)
Seismometer A, (power 6). Seismometer B, (power 12). No. of obser- No. of obser- vations. vations. 4 Velocity of Duration of Velocity of | Duration of transmission. tremor. ij transmission. tremor. ft. per sec. seconds ft. per sec. seconds 2 3873 + 1 5280 + 4 452] 3 8300 6 1240 instant 5 4 5309 7 3428 78 8 8814 9 6730 8°38 10 8730 FEL ll 5559 4:8 12 8415 Mean. 4225 M 7475
Conclusions. In such observations a high magnifying power of telescope is essential, The more violent the initial shock, the higher is the rate. This rate diminishes as the wave advances. For ee mile, yt drift formation, a severe shock gives a velocity of say 8,500 feet per second. The rate for the great Hallet Point explosion was about 8,300 feet per second for the first eight miles, and about 5,300 feet per second for the first thir- teen miles. These conclusions are supported by much additional sdents shat cannot be stated in a tabular form.
4. Recherches pitiinadles Saites avec les gaz produits par fee de la dynamite sur divers syilconaks des météorites et
es bol i le
‘he ters of meteorites. ‘Pama of 1 plamel steel, aad side tatug a surface of $5 mm., were subjected under different conditions, to
heap mass acted upon was broken up into numerous poly- hedral fragments, the planes of fracture being mostly perpendicu- lar to the “surfuce of action” on which the force of the gas was
' felt. The surface directly exposed to the explosion showed nu- —_—- gee depressions; these sometimes attained a diam- ain o 18mm. and a de ith of 4to5mm. They were often lees in tae like the links of a chain, and in some cases were
i . }
t
Miscellaneous Inteliigence. 511
bordered by an elevated ring. Outside of these distinct cavities
the whole surface acted upon was fretted, or covered over with
minute irregular depressions, Moreover the lateral faces showed c
F duced by the violent crushing action of the exploded gas; and further, when these lateral faces were polished and a Ply dilute acid, it was B fous that the parts close to the urfac eXx-
a sort of caarpeniesl whic the surface had undergone from its
the surface in the case of iron meteorites; the striated, ae sur- faces in the interior of the mass, due to the Bs ope e parts against each other; the black veins (“lignes noires”’) rerun from a portion of the fused surface being prec into cracks in the interior; and finally, the black marbl ed s
Professor Daubrée concludes that, as in Bios case of steel sub-, jected to the action of dynamite, a also oe the bolides and meteorites the effects observed are due mostly to the action of strongly compressed and hence highly hea a “ets Although it
P
upon a bolide, from the time it enters the fA oe until it ex-
erted by the gas in ‘the experiments wit : writer would also ascribe the ieee of the large num- r of individual stones which have c = some falls, as
that of Pultusk in 1868, to the fracturing of an original ma
the compression of the air, and not by the unequal contraction due to a heated surface and a cold interior. He also calls atten- tion to the fact that the “ eee ptic” character of ‘the surface is true of the whole meteori not to one side only, and con- cludes from this that the jaat mass must have had a motion of rotation, so that the different surfaces were in ae dosh in Katanl and subjected to the action of the compressed a ioe Rt.
5. Mi ational se eel y of Science.—At a session held at Columbia
College, N. Y., Oct. 23-25, 1877, the following papers were read :
EN ALEXANDER.—(1.) On the laws of extreme distances in the Solar sys- tem =) On the inclinations in a direction retrograde of ‘the shadow of the pl 3.) On the luminous band which see encircle the m
partial solar eclipse.—(4.) Whence came the inner satellite of Mars?
512 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
A. M. Mayer. —On a new and simple method of determining the number of vibrations of ba ous bodies —On con development of haere et
caer the Morphology of the Anitle ae vide. test Loomis.—Contributions to Mete crology (ih yper). Henry L. Aspot.—Velocity of transmission ineke caused by the explosion of gunpowder and of a ar gi compounds, th ig the earth’s crust. JOSEPH HENRY. abnormal snag f ound. in relation to Fog — aia behalf « of t ine w. 8. Light House . N. Roop.—(1.) On the photometric comparison of Lh of different colors.—
(2) ‘Ona a ee the study of the contrast o
Dr. Tats nek method of studying of Signs of Sound in Wood. Presented hee "0. | N.
J. S. NEWBERRY. Bor ) ‘On some new fossil ee from Ohio and Indiana.— (2. y “9 the geological age of ee hilyoanee Ligni
AWRENCE SMITH.—(1.) mn the s,m of Columbates.—(2.) Notes on
Pe Pac iron and basalt of Greenland. —( fe sete te ns sie of specimens showing the occurrence of rape of chromium
JamMES Hatu.—Note on the Hedemutie ag regeciae ‘and associated strata at the Falls of of the Ohi
O. C. Marsa rit .) On some gigantic Dinosaurian Reptiles from the Wealden of the Rocky Mountains.—(2.) American Cretaceous Birds. H. A. NEwtTo
f Locu JosePH LECoNTE. —On the gly: eopeaie tenitotel of the Liver, and its relation to vital force and vital A. GUYOT. —Biggrapia memoir of Louis Agassiz. 1st part, relating to his life and work in
6. Canada and 1 New England ab einagl —A paper on this recent earthquake by Prof. Rockwood, f Princeton, N. J., swill appear in another number of this Souris
7. Thin Sections of Rocks, Minerals, ete., e made to order by A. A. Julien, School of Mines , Columbia Dollese, New York, who also has made arrangements for sawing an lishing rocks,
and polishing and Sen oe He has also collections of slides of various rocks on OBITUARY.
JAMES Orton, Professor of Natural History in Vassar Sehr: died in Bolivia about the 24th of September while crossing acca and oa buried on a little island in the lake. He sass
at Seneca F rane N. Y., in the year 1830, and graduated at is thi our
to South America, In 1867-68, he took charge of an expedition to the Upper Am gage under the auspices of the Smithsonian
in 1873, he made a secant ke exploration of the enetrati ing to Bolivia. About ten months since “af cial for ‘his thin ex loring tour, with the design of tracing the waters of Eastern Bolivia to
This Journal contains partied wer from
peared the Continent of South America,” giving a full account of observations and discoveries.
APPENDIX.
Arr: LIL—A New Order of Extinct Reptilia (Stegosauria) — the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains ; by Prof. O. C. Marsa
THE Museum of Yale College has recently received the greater portion of the skeleton of a huge reptile, which proves to be one of the most remarkable animals yet discovered. It was found on the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, in beds which I have regarded as corresponding nearly to the Wealden of Europe, and which may be classed as upper Jurassic. The remains are well preserved, but are embedded in so hard a matrix that considerable time and labor will be required to prepare them fora full description. The characters already de- termined point to affinities with the Dinosaurs, Plesiosaurs, and more remotely with the Chelonians, and indicate a new order, which may be termed Stegosauria, from the typical genus here described.
Stegosaurus armatus, gen. et sp. nov.
In this specimen, some of the teeth preserved have com- pressed crowns, and are inserted in sockets Others are eylin- drical, and were placed in rows, either in thin plates of imper- fect bone or in cartilage. The latter are especially numerous,
and may possibly prove to be dermal — having all the pa er characters of teeth, as in some es. e vertebrae are biconcave, their neural arches baat. coosified with the centra, and the chevrons articulated. The limb bones indicate an dae life. The body was long, and protected by large bony dermal plates, somewhat like those of Atlantochelys (Pro- tostega). These plates appear to have been in part supported by the elongated neural spines of the vertebre
The length of one of the compressed teeth of this ae is 112 mm., and the greatest diameter of the crown 2 One of the. fs areal teeth is 75 mm. in length, and 1 it in diameter. Seven of these teeth in position occupy a space of 63 mm. A trunk vertebra measures 450 mm. from base of centrum to top of neural spine, and 170 mm. to the floor of the neural canal. The extent of seven posterior caudal verte- bre is 660 mm. One of the large dermal plates was over three feet (one meter) in length,
e present species was probably thirty feet long, and ge ieee bagerieg by swimming. For its —— science is R. Sct.—THIRD tr oro , VoL. XIV, No. 84.—Dec.,
514 O. C. Marsh—New Dinosaurian Reptiles.
indebted to Prof. A. Lakes and Engineer H. C. Beckwith of th avy, who found the first remains in Colorado near the locality of the gigantic Adlantosaurus montanus, and in essentially the same horizon.
Yale College, New Haven, Nov. 15th, 1877.
Art. LITI.— Notice of New Dinosaurian bees lates the Jurassic jormation ; by Professor O. C. M
THE gigantic Dinosaur, Atlant montanus, described by the writer in the July number of this Je ee * proves to belong to a lower horizon than at first supposed, and is really from the upper Jurassic. Additional remains of the type specimen, moreover, throw considerable light on the structure of this largest of land animals, and indicate that it is the representa- tive of a distinct family, which may be called Atlantosauride.
In the type genus, Atlantosaurus, one of the most important characters is the pneumaticity of the vertebre, as mentioned in the original description. Another noteworthy feature is the absence on the femur of a third trochanter. The shaft of the
one is somewhat thickened at the point where this process should be, but the trochanter is wanting. The size of the orig- inal specimen of A. montanus may be estimated from the femur, which was about seven feet in length. If the animal had the proportions of a Crocodile, it was at least eighty feet long.
Apatosaurus ajax, gen. et sp. nov.t
Another gigantic Dinosaur, allied to the above, and of scarcely less interest, is represented i in the Yale Museum by a nearly complete skeleton in excellent preservation. It is from the Jurassic beds in the Eastern foot hills of the Rocky Moun- tains, but from a somewhat lower horizon than the type of Atlantosaurus.
the centra. The anterior dorsals have stings shan ter The posterior lumbars have the articular faces very nearly flat, and transverse. The sacral vertebra are more solid, and have ‘their transverse processes nearer the middle of the centra than in Atlantosaurus. The anterior caudals are biconcave, and their * Vol. xiv, p. 87, 1877. The name Titanosawrus was first given, but, being pre-
occupied, may be replaced by Adlanto: — ¢ The principal chatunides | of this genus and its nearest allies were given by the
writer in a paper before the Wotiinal 1 pt of Science, at the meeting in New York, October 25th, 1877. : _
0. C. Marsh—New Dinosaurian Reptiles. 515
interior structure is cancellous. The chevron bones differ from those of most known Dinosaurs in having the superior articu- lar ends of the rami not united, but — from each other, as in the orgy with free heemapophys
Some of the dimensions of this skeleton are as follows:
ee of centrum of anterior ry vertebra. =. ..2 2306" Transverse diameter of anterior Ee ena assaf toevoe BOO
Wertioal didmeter . oe ee
Amount of convexity [ors (Serer ee aoe Length of centrum of lumbar vertebra. - 240° Transverse — of anterior Thee co52 52s 410° Vertical diametet - 266.3. e465) «970 Length of eae sacral ver sane Wee WeaS ge saan wes 250
760°
Expanse of its waperone PIOOCRSCB fan os Hine 4 pg oat Length of centrum of median oie picnin ham aot oe 190° Length of poate CARON Sec. 6 pi ia ne i : This animal must have been between fifty and sixty feet in length, and more than thirty in height when erect. Apatosaurus grandis, sp. Nov.
Another huge Dinosaur, apparently of the same genus, but * smaller size, is represented in the Yale Museum by the more
mportant parts of a skeleton, in remarkable preservation. In thie specimen the cervical vertebrae have the walls of the cen- tra very thin. The caudals preserved are elongated and slen- der, indicating a long tail. The femur is comparatively short, and wit thout a third trochanter, The great trochanter 1s much lower than the head of the femur, and continuous with it. The metapodial bones indicate a foot of medium length.
The following measurements indicate the size of the reptile :
Length of femur - ‘Vebesn hae ae Transverse diameter of proximal end Fe see 340° Transverse diameter of distal end ___........--.--. 290° Length of posterior caudal vertebra iwtiate [ae Vertical diameter anterior Ccteclac face - oe oats 110°
Transverse diamete ee ooo ee
The known remains of this species are from the same geo- logical horizon as those above described. They indicate an animal at least thirty feet in length.
——e Mee deg gen. et sp. nov.
516 O§fC. Marsh—New Dinosaurian Reptiles.
the middle part being so diminished as to greatly reduce the strength. The vertebra preserved are biconcave, with shallow cavities. The feet bones referred to this species are very slender. A lumbar vertebra has its centrum 105 mm. in length, and 89 in least transverse diameter. An anterior caudal, 35 mm. long, has its centrum so much cae ied that its least transverse diameter is 38 mm., while its anterior face is 90 mm. in transverse diameter.
The animal indicated by the remains preserved was from fifteen to twenty feet in length. All the known specimens are from the upper Jurassic of Colorado.
Nanosaurus rex, sp. nov.
A diminutive Dinosaur, about as large as a fox, is indicated by some remains in good preservation, the most characteristic of which is a nearly perfect femur. In this bone, the great trochanter is prominent, and the third trochanter especially sO. There is a well developed fibular ridge, directed outward and backwar "be cavity in this bone is unusually large, and the walls are smooth. This femur agrees so nearly with that of the type of Nanosaurus, that the present species may be provision- ally referred to that genns.
e dimensions of this bone are as follows:
Length of fem TOR = Distance from head to middle ‘of third trochanter . = 30° Transverse diameter of distal end __._......-.---- 21 Great ro-posterior diameter ...-.--.-...--- 18 Least transverse diameter of shaft_....._...___--- 11 Diameter across third trochanter__...... ....-.--- 15°
The known remains of this reptile are from the upper Jurassic of | Colorado.
The specimens described in the resent articles are deposited in the Peabody Museum of Yale Co ollege. They are all from essentially the same geological horizon, which I find to be upper Jurassic. The deposits which contained them may be called the Atlantosaurus beds, from their most characteristic fossils, the huge Dinosaurs of that genus
Yale College, New Haven, November, 1877.
‘ee eee eee
NDEX:-TO VOLUME AI¥
A
Abbott, H L., ein = ear through the earth’s crust, 5
Academy, National, pablicalioin of, 167.
oO a By - OF
Ss sett: oy phenol, 414, salicylic, met od of producing, 66. tronic, from pyruvic, 310. arm ‘onstitation of unsaturated diba-
gherny satire Gibbs. — A., N. American sa shes 73.
te and samars-
2
Amylene from amyl iodide, 412.
Anthropology, Galton, 265.
Archzeol caution to, 333.
Archeology, Peabody Museum of, Re- port, 246,
vi. P., absorption of bases by
5. sar omy agg observa’ rien Harvard Col- aaa os Washington, ce the nee of Swedish wood
Pers me of into rosaniline, 310. |
Autography, practical use of, Sars, 277.
B
—— J. G., * gpreowe a; naam pet ie 64,
ner '309, 411, epee
Barna: rd, C, Light, 4 TH, two one secios of ees. Becquerel, H, rotatory . 417.
* The Index contains the under each the titles of Artic
Bennett, A. W., rapid ata 8 ig tes fishes of, Goode, 2
Berthelot, effect of pressure ba * ibied action,
Bolton, er of t winer.
‘organ ic acids in examina- 49
rals, tein, influence of te a electri-
tal resi ce of metals Botan
th Ame ee Ps
Fun by, 4 Gri abnormal, in an aie Meeha ner
rapid. Gro een | in exogens, Warring,
394, pei clei ee 497. ature, Gr TAY, 158.
rt
See
Bottomley, J. T., Dynami ics, 168.
Brug paylli acid, extracted leaves
Bour: rgoin, Sine - bromine upon pyro-
from
tartaric acid, 1 tlerow, isobutylene, 66.
Bout
Brohnensie : , Year book of botanical literature, We.
Bromine, action of, upon pyrotartaric
aci Burnham, S S. W., double-star discoveries,
Bussey Institution, Bulletin of, 168. Capillarity, _ s theory of, 152. Carbon:
ates and o pn dotermination of high melting Caton, T D, "Antelope and deer of Amer-
cavern > mien in Devonshire, Pen-
meral heads pias ae MINERALOGY, ZooLoGy, and rticles referring thereto are mentioned.
Am. Jour. S8c1.—THirp — Vou. XIV, No, 84.—Dec., 1877.
518
Cayley, A., Elliptic oe 76. Cazeneuve, hhoms atin,
Chambers, Handbook of descrip- tive ace
Chapman, E. osed fossil a Protichnites ea Climati ichnites, 240.
~~ ing, i We in
mical | change sont
Cheney cies * nickel in pyrrho aha mattes, 1
China, Richthe — 487
léss of, 48
Chisholm, H. W, science of weighing
and ener ga "431.
Chioral, hexyl, 3
Christie, W. = ML, ‘the Observatory, 7
Christomano. 8, specific gr avity of a cook ily deco: mposable boty: ia
oo researches
Ciamician, new vapor cast iol
F. Ag iodates of cobalt and “el, 28 ape vity determinations, 281. sylvanite from Colorado, 286. Coan, T., volcanic eruptions on Hawaii,
Cobalt, ate = Daag’ 280. Col
Semssk Tempel orbit Ps 430. Comets ats
) o. Py pik the radiometer, er, J. G., age 4 eg Tejon group. Californi ia, 321. : Coues, E., fur-beari North Ame
, sun’s heat, 4
ire conversion of aurin into rosaniline: of Brachio 426. 8 Telok mney
S., ethyli Sucka: iaemear nitrate, 198 ts from the trap rocks of New
garne Haven, ce mineralogical notes, a“ eo 510. sig J.D. ie disco 8, 36. logy 0 See nak Beeknhire 37, 132, 202, 257 White Mountain geology, 319. note on the Bernardston Helder- berg formation, 379
INDEX.
Daubrée, meteorites, characters of, 510.
Davyum
Delachanal, analysis of alkaline sul- phides and sulpho-carbonates, 418.
Draper. H., discovery of oxygen in the sun, 89.
Draper, J. C., zirconia for the oxyhy-
drogen light, 208.
E HKarthquake, wave of ag 187 il tt 66. of Jalisco, Mexico, 158.
Barth's axis, ehifting = 70.
Earths i - - Carolina samarskite, 509. Eddy, new constructions in
phi ical — es, 335.
Blevation, see HEIGHT.
Sltekof. amylene from amyl iodide, 4 Entomologica il Commission, Bulletin a
74,
Ethers, metalacetyl-acetic, Hhesy ecusgeneeninerge yeni ium nitrate, Mixter, 195 98. Euxanthon, constitution of, 484.
Farlow, W. G., botanical notices, 71, 72. diseases of plants caused by fungi, 426. Favre, A., glaciers of the Swiss ate in the glacial era, 24 Fittig, eo of unsaturated diba-
Fleischer’s ‘Volumetric analysis, 419.
Fossil, see GEOL
Frazer, P., Jr., Geol Report
Friedel, ne w method for the ses a Pareacbons, 411.
G Galton, F., address before British Asso- ciation, 265. Gard, analyses of cast nickel. 274. Gases, effect of tension on spectra of,
enclosed in lignite, 481. Genth, F. A., vera jellurium and vana- diu om. minerals, Gentry, TG, Dinde. of Eastern Pennsyl-
LOGICAL REPoRtS oR SURVEYS— Black Hills, 321. Canada, 70, a pn saint w Hampshire, 240, 316. New York, 4 Pennsylvania, a Portugal, 15 Rocky Moun se (Powell), 43 arenes Seren 69, 164, an Victoria, 323
IN DEX.
GEO’ Adirondacks, ee, me 240.
Alleghanies, heights
gee elids, Lower sition Grinnell, isd zean of Canada, 313.
Berkshire er Vermont, Dana, 31,
32, 2 Birds, Cretaceous Moral, 85, 253. Bowlders, large, 4 Breccia-gran nite, Pe re eo 319. Cavern Ce s in nshire, a 299, 387.
Climatic tes, Vise se 240,
ut valley in the ‘Ohainplats and Terrace periods, tea 459. Coryphodontide, Marsh, 8 Crinoids, structure of Semee Wachs- muth, seit new, Marsh, 8 87, 254, 514. stay on periods in the history
Pal ~ St. "Anthony, recession of, 423. Fishes of Green River shales, 256,
Geolo ogical Record, 1875, 423. Glaciers of the aie Alps, 240. af —
Gravel deposits o ne county, spree Sutton Ss bags n the persis valley, Wright,
Gro: cit ‘as indicating seasons, ea
Halder in Vermont and Massa- chusetts, Dana, 3 ertiary of Quesnel, 322.
merican fertiaries, 322.
Kames in New Hampshire, 156.
Lignitic of Judith River. eee
Limonite ore beds, Dana, |
ion characters, use “oe Dana,
259, 3!
P pein new ae Marsh, 249.
New Hampshire, 3
rpms Marek
eozoic fossils, ontslogs of, 156. corr , Chapman,
Reptiles, new, Mera, 87, 264 sah pie
Stegosauria, a order
Marsh, 513. -
Tejon group, age of, Cooper, 3
Trap rocks, garnets ‘fro ‘om, pint ‘215. bites, appendages of, Walcott, 494.
Insects,
> Trilo! Vermont ager? on Dana, 37,
132, 202, 2 Wing’s feels in, Dana, 36.
519.
GEO Vertebrat rate life, American, Marsh, 33". Vertebrates from Lignitic beds, ‘Cope, 154. new fossil, Marsh, 85, 87, 249,
19. W., complex inorganic, acids, 61. chmidt, new vapor density method,
Goodale, G. L., wild flowers of America,
Goode or BB, catalbutie of reptiles and fishes of the Bermudas, 289.
Grahan, T., a and physical re- searches, 1 ay, A., germination of the genus Megarrhiza, 2 botanical sonnei e,
botanica Sich perm 42; ib "126, 497. Grimaux, at pee n of tartronic’ from pyruvic a
Grinnell, G. “B. fossil annelids from the lower ‘Silurian, 2
Habermann, on Dumas’s. vapor density method, 309. Hall, A., time of rotation of Saturn,
Hall, J., Paleontology of New York,
Haug hton, shifting of earth's axi Hawaii, voleanie eruptions on, Trai 8. oo » pu a of pai tions Fat 69, 154, 4 heeding in western Goma 157, Hematin. a 3 Herm new method of producing salieylic acid, 66. liggs, P., note on the telephone, 312; ot C. W., volumetric determina- by chromic acid, 478. Hitchec — = i, Geology of New Hamp- shire, 240, Pa a new coloring matter, 414. researches on chronome-
Holden, “ie S, ters, 1 inten motion of the trifid nebula M. 20, 433. Hooker, botanical excursion to
5D; Rocky Mts., 161, 505.
Huxley, T. a sfc addresses, 162.
Hydroe arbons, new method for synthe- sis of, 411.
Hydrogen, heat of combustion of, 148.
520
Tron ores, amount of ee ok » 418. Tsobutylene, oudanesuae of, 6
J Jordan, D. 8., North American Ichthy- ology, 426.
K Kempe, A. oy anae to draw a straight line, not., Kern, S., on ie hew me etal, davyum, — uranium minerals, N. U
lina,
Kirkwood, tellite of Mars and nebular hypothesis $2 327%.
Kloos, J. H cology and geography in DP onae
Koenig, F., bee of the French normal] fork, ., botanical ‘publications, 427.
L. Laboratory notes of Johns Hopkins Universi Lambert, > morphology of of the dentary system —* s. Ps bsber ng robservations with- ut pers
new od *y sda spectrum nok 141. vallée, A., Arboretum Segrezianum, Cooage
M. C., new pea of the pho- wietepbie i
age, 49 sensitiveness of silver haloids, 96.
Lead, action of solutions on, 411. Le Conte, J., critical periada t in the his- tory of the ea
rth, phenomena of binocular vision, 191. agree | A. R., lithology of the Adiron- 240.
‘ay, J remarks on the yellow ant, 244. Fe a R., zoological diagrams, 500. _ influence of in chemical chan
hag ccna 152. Liss < of ‘chi a, 4 i contienioks to meteorology, M Macoun, J., Botany of British Columbia, 427.
Mallet, J. W., 8 pie a niobate, 397. Mallet, Ki, yolcanoe 157.
Manganese» rane sulphide of, 418. |
Mars hy ow ti
charactors of the oe 85. giga mse
characters of Coryphodon-
soit vertebrate Sodatiag
INDEX.
Marsh, O. C., introduction and succession of vert ebra te life in America, 337. Seago a new order of rep-
sic ph aterind 5 ne diners of satellites of, 3 sachusetts Institute of poohaobay,
aathoradice, American Journal me Pica Matthews, W., Pi ida oe ae
Mayer, A. M, Light,
Mecha, I, arian seowuri in an apple
weting io s, determination of, 6
Merm alkaline a ai: and ante sion tes, 418
—_ siden} deposition of, Wright,
aad ape _ ged Kirkwood, 163. mse sae — arse 246. specail ie a ihe 219. Meteorol contribution aae 1. ., density of vapore 8. a, Amattiels aoe fossils,
NERALS—
Autunite, 496.
Coloradoite, ae
thet St
Fe ee Sade new mga of determin- a5
Ferrotellurite te, 424. Garnets from er of New Haven, Jonn.,
Gummite
Huse tte cain a
Hetzerolite, Moore,
Labradorite ¥ Mt. Maivy, 24). oli
Weel estimation of, 17
Samarskite of North oaroinn 71, 509. analys' is of, 71,
pen Mallet, sat.
Spheerocobal
Sylvanite, pes tat eo ap 286. Tantalite pry Alabama,
Mixter, eth Sager ome epee aes ethylide nammoniutp nitrate, 195. Moon, mean motion of, New —_ 401. motion of the igen aoe core, G. £., on hetzerolite, a neeionese
species. ount Washington, points visible from, 331,
INDEX.
Muir, saline solutions on ~~ 411. ae a. national, Bulletin of, 42 new American sclantities 76.
= nn, 0. F., Min gs 42-4. a
den esis and munis of d, 327. ewcomb, S., mean motion of the moon,
New astronomical notice, 74. New Y Tork, mera of Natural History,
Nickel, cast, analyses of, Gard, 274. in pyrrhotites and mattes, Cheney
magnet of, 4 Niemann, ronticn of ysis to satabtes in urine, — platoiodnitrites, 14 Nitsche, H., zoological dine 500.
OnitvuARY—
tained vty ation of carbon dioxide hate
Parrefio, G., manganese n ores, 4 18. Pengelly, W., cavern sadestcbeet in Devy- onshire, 299, 387.
Perkin, pcan of coumarin, 67. Peters, C. H. F., observations of comets, 60; a new planet, 429.
Phenan'
Phenol, acids obtained from, 151.
Phosphoric popes action on tungstic | oxide,
melee image, new developers of, 49.
521
Phyllic acid from leaves, 483.
Physics, new results in, 486.
girs W. Wot distant oe visible from
69.
. Penn., 69. Polaris expedition, ‘narrative of, 245, Polarization, — etic rotatory, 417.
Potassium, separation from sodium, 418. Pringsheim, germination of mosses, ae Pressure, effect on chemical action
. Radiometer, Cooke, 2 Rath, G... v., ies Mittheil- 424,
ungen, Rehs, phenantbrol, 414 Richar rds, E. W., e stimation nickel in
Rouyaux, J. A., chronometers, 164.
Salicylic acid, new method for, 66.
Schloesing, separation of : potassium from sodium, 418. Schorlemmer, aurin, Scudder, S. = "sexual denoupnie in butterflie insects in F Auoationt Tertiaries, 322. eee insects of Quesnel, 322. Sea, see Seeley, iH it, Vermont board of agri- culture, report ‘of, 78. An
Semper, C., atomical publications, Wirtzburg, see She collec Amherst Coll., a3 ness
a haloids, riteee Foo ., bituminous — 33. ‘Smith, 's Ve meteoric stone a ite, Oa: s in North Carolina samarskite,
Smith, W., ween insoluble carbonates pon gee oxalates, 482.
Smithsonian report for 1876, 432.
Soil, oe ion of bases by, ‘Armsby, 26.
Soret, ny ea spectroscope with a fluo-
Spang, H. W. Sonning: protection, 77.
522
TTS gravity determinations, Clarke,
decomposable body, Spectroscope with fluorescent Sian
pitesin analysis, solar, Langley, 141. Sprague, L, Wild flowers of America,
‘ahl, ‘EB, — of lichens, 72. oe double, discoveries, Burnham, 31. Stars, sored 163, 246.
7a « vacuum,” ts, ts, T. i, natural “iy iv Hawai- os Islands, 426. sec pt ih ee en 418. n stars, relative ages, pe very of ox ygen in, Draper, 89. Sun’s acess ;
ea’ : Sutton, G., gravel deposits, in Kentucky, 239, Szabd, J., species of feldspars, 241.
T
peor W. B., kinetic theories of gravi- Teel, action of Leow chloride on
tungstic Teeth, m inonphe a ws ‘ot human, 323. hist note on.
rk wood tar, 412. Than, Soak of maaan of oxygen and : i ssels, 148
nclosed in lignite, 481. and ‘ een
crust, 5 jrovtridee physical notices, 152, 48 Tuning-fork, exactitude of, Koenig, ay,
Beets Upham, W., orig of “kames” in New
Hampshire. 4 Connectic oe “alley in the Cham- plain and sagt periods, 459. Urea reaction.
mee relation of fale to sulphates i in,
a Gees? nature of, 311. cage oor new neethod, 6 modification of ph: sory 309. of omic high boiling point, 4 Vapor volumes, 149.
INDEX.
Vennor, H. G., Ar — se ee 313. or transit of, report Verrill, A. #., gigantic cephalopod, 425. ological notices, po ace etek Board of Agricu heh Rep., 78. Villars, G., Table of garth 246. Vision, pinocula r, Le Con olumetric roohurscoenes s "chromic . acid, Hinman, 478,
Wachsmuth, C., cr hagas of paleozoic ernoids, 115, 181. alcott, C. D.,
trilobites appendages, 494. Warren, 8. E., Dése
eto a cpcagint 431. s proof
Ww Moiese 325. Whitaker, W., Geologica] Record, 423. Whitfie eld, R. P., Paleontology of Black Hills, 321.
— harper Wi
li, N. H Wittrock, Vv. P. , Pithophora oraceee, ight, A. Ria electrical deposition of metals, 1 physical notices, ae 419, Wright, G. F., gravel ridges in the Merrimack valley, bo
x Yarrow, H. C., burial customs of North American Indians, 431
: Z ape for oxy-hydrogen light, Draper,
Ant, ae, ool Leidy, 24 Autography, for a — History pub-
Butterfi shies
Gee: rig Vorval 4
Challenger expeditio coins 161.
Gaisrnse potato bentle
Diagrams, 426
bt bes logical Commission, Bulletin
Fi shes oe the weeny ae y eer 470
Ww species Musenm, Nationa Bulletins, 426.
from cresol and chee