THE Je hh (§7 § AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. EDITORS, JAMES D. anv E. S. DANA, ann B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS, Proressors ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp J. P. COOKE, Jr., or Camprivgesr, Proressors H. A. NEWTON, 8S. W. JOHNSON, G. J. BRUSH anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Prorressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PaiiapEputa. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XVI.—[WHOLE NUMBER, OXVL] on Nos. 91—96. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1878. WITH EIGHTEEN PLATES. NEW HAVEN: J. D. & E. S. DANA. 1878. Misg90URI BOTANICAL ARDEN LIBRARY CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVI. NUMBER XCI. Art. I.—Contributions to Meteorology; by Ex1as Loomis. Ninth Paper. With Pla ah tee) id 0 na beret ke Il.—Acoustic Repulsion; by V. D 22 IIL.— Artificial Crystals: of Gold ar Gold “Amalgam ; by bo Ne) —On a new and’ remarkable Mineral Locality in Fairfield "Cou nty, Connecticut; with a description of several new spores occurring there ; by G. J. Brusn and E.S. Dana. irst Paper, - Seki we alee mete guna ae 33 y, ees Dinitroparadibrombenzols and their Derivatives ; ‘by a+ STE ee of ‘Temperature upon ‘Atmospheric Electricity ; : y H. Got eet ee vita canon of recording ‘Articulate Vibrations by means of Photography ; by E. W. Brake, eet omeaNe VITII.—Suggestions for a Telephonic felis: ; by 0. N. Roop, 59 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry -nd Physics. ieee oeieesp of Hughes, 60.—Boiling Point of i ge a ne various stren Substation pe Sulphur for Oxygen in the y Series, Dupr#, 63. heats war f Oxindol, BAEYER: ‘Aldahpdines a new Clase of varied DENBURG, sages nator and Properties of Invertin, BARTH, of Allantoin and Hippuric acid in the Urine of a Dog, eee Coloring —_ of the Shells of Birds’ Eggs, LizBeERMANN: Chemistry LOCKYER, i aR ae ea EE in Space, 66.—Studies in Spectrum Analysis, by J. N. oemac tas ce Levels in Pennsylvania, by J. P. LESLEY, 68.— Cretaceous and Tertiary of clash n, 8. C., Ss, 69.—Yucatan Coral Reefs and Cuba elevated coral rock: Richm hmond Pike wider Tr: ains, BENTON: Cleve Shale in Delaware County, Ohio, Ran Se + E. Hicks, 70. —Jurassic fossils in the Coast a of British Columbia, 71.—Thesaurus Devonico-Carboniferus, 72. Zoology.—Native nae and Ferns of the United States, by Tuomas ; . acs 4 he Bee ikon, by H. S. Elwes, 75. intacrd g zur Keimungsgeschichte der 4 Schizeeaceen, H. BAUKE: —— und Blattflechenkrankheit der Citro- 4 nenbaume, ioe F. von THUMEN. 6_—Bulletin of the United States Geological ani p ait Garvey of the Terie I y.—Observations of Comets made as the Sheffield Observatory of Yale A. —_ and W.B Bas ren ie ese Earth es, HatTo: =ront, © 0.—Amert- trograp . 8, 82.—Microscopical Society of San Francisco: , 83.—The Telephone for Deaf Persons iv CONTENTS. NUMBER XCIL Arr. [X.—Forest Geography and wenger so ; by A. Gray, X.—Structure and Origin of Mountains; by J. LeConrs, - - - XI. = obirremee of a Solid Pesnacarbus in the Eruptive 1 Page cS OO : . ea XIV.—« tadnrnted Bitumen” in cavities in the trap of the Connecticut vailey, from the Report of J. G. Percivat, 130 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Underground Temperatures, 132.—Law of Solid umes, SCHRODER: Flame Temperatures, Rosetti, 135.—Production of a i He of Gallium, BoIsBauDRAN, <1 Heo vions, Teenie “from. Manpite: HECHT E, 138. Geology and Mineralogy.—Geological results of the Polar Expedition under Sir George Nares, 139. 2 by serene results of the same, 140.—Geological Sur- vey of of platoon 2.—Hruptive copper-bearing rocks of Lake os geese 143. —Rock Salt ronine | in Western New York: Wilcox Spouting Water-Well, C. A. Naanviene’ 144.—Superficial pe “3 British Columbia. 147.—Geologi- cal Survey of Canada, 148.—Foasil Fishes fi oi oe rias a8 ioe ——s and ec oO; amp : American Min ore ra: 152. —Rocks of Oe ori 4 = hee 153. mee 154.—Crystallization of Silica: Mineralogi — of France: — 155. Botany w Fern-books, 155.—Ca atalogue of Pheenogamous and ses deena Plants, 1 156. —Native pee and Ferns in the United States: Zoological hepa and some of its difficulties, ScLaTeR, 157.—Corals of the oh ae He Meridi : 162.—Bulletin of the ane Institution: The Speaking Telephone, etc.: The cewtnone pe or bidet emery ereeeng oe Society of Solar of Ju July 29, 164 jtuary.— Wm. M. Gabb: Baron von Bibra: A. von Ettingshausen, 164. NUMBER XCHL Page rt, XV.—On the Origin of Comets; by H. A Ph he: Ge 165 dee the Animal of Mille sudan alcicornis ; 5 by W WiLL o — | istivesiies aula: out ndiaea ania ice and Anice W. Pau ed Bah OI SS SATS eT ae a pe SS a oe LON Oe CONTENTS. Vv XIX.—Seleniocyanates ; saasivein howd Estimation of Mereury 5 ; pecific Gravity Determinations y F. W. CrarKke,... 199 X.—Notice of recent additions to ‘die Marine Paine of the Eastern coast of North America; by A. E. VERRILL,.-- 207 XXI, Hag Pe of the Comet discovered by Mr. Lewis Swift; by C. « Perens;. osc wets 215 XXII. LEW ayeHY Gr oup in Cent tral Ohio; by L. E. eget 621 XXIII.—On some aah We Fossils from Southeastern New foundland ; cs tee ai Wik pies ioGbe Saami 224 IV.—Solar *Bclinee of July 29th, 1878; by H. eset 227 XXV. artes bea of an he eae i "Plows by Jame ee ee ee TSO XXVI. parts Fieiclaciyt from the Jurassic of the AOS Mountains; by: 0. C. Mansa, oo ecces seveccieel sks SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. gree ee Geology: by ARNoLD Hague and 8. F. Emmons, 234.—Flora Aus- N: poy d. BB Annual Report ee the United States Ento ss eg Commission, for the year 1877, ss to the Rocky Mountain;Locust: On the young stages o us re shes ; by ALEXANDER AGASSIZ, 241,—Results of the Recent Eclipse; by C. A, Young, 242.—Institute of aes Annual Meeting of German Naturalists and Physicist 8, 246. NUMBER XCIV. Page Arr. XXVII—Morphological Laws of the Configurations formed by Magnets floating Phere Be and subjected to the attraction of a superposed magnet ; by A. M. Mayer, 247 —On the presence of Dark Lines in "the Solar Spec- trum, which correspond closely to the lines of the Spec- trum of Oxyge en; OHN CHRISTOPHER Draper, ..-. 256 —Correction for Vaenum in Chemical Analysis; by Gee, PECL RR out ssc: . sae 265 —On the —— of the pis Meteoric Mineral Daubréelite; ty J Lawntnon Burr, 022-.-> > 65-5 270 XXXI—On the Artificial Mounds of ae eceioee See and the meoier of the employment of a Unit of Measure- ment in their erection; by W. J. McoGrg, .--- ..----- cae XXXIL—Observations upon the Solar Eelipec of July 29, eee vi CONTENTS. XX XIV.—On the Explosion of the Flouring Mills at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, May 2, 1878, and the causes of the same; by S. . Pecknam, pie bgt hae nes Gens mass 301 XXXV.—On Barcenite, a new Antimonate, from aes Mexico; by J. W. Mataaty cocis 4: pte Oe XXXVI.—On the Intra-Mercurial Planets ; J.C. War TSON, -- 310 XXXVII.—Letter from Mr. Lewis ees t, relating to ihe dis- covery of Intra-Mercurial Planets,.......-..----- : -- 318 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—On the Determination of ‘high Melting and Boiling Points, Ca ABNELLEY, 315.—On the vee “Densit ity of T and Lead chloride, oscoz: On the Action of — am on ignited ue LONG. AL ee do the Reduction-product of Gum Elemi by Zine-dust, Cra AN: On th e Constitution of Starch, us and oa SL; —Synthe sis of 1 Indigo-lue, Basra, 318. On haticetsie. a third Dio os ae HUNCK an : On a Fluorescein-carbonic acid, SCHRED —On new Coloring astors et Mala- chite green, DOEBNER: Piscwrolyis ges of ee lead, copper, zinc and nickel: Alcoholic Fermentation, 320.—Vapor of Chloral Hydrate, 321.— Solubility of Lime in Water, ae in tee ke Silver, 3: Geology and io ee of oe Tertiary hocks n the Grand and George’s Bank, A. E. Verrin 3.—On Liquid Cetboaie acid in H . Hawes. Botany and Zoology.—Monographize Phanerogamarum Prodromi nunc continuatio, nune revisio, ALPHONSO et CasmmiR DECANDOLLE, 325.—The Flora of British India, J. D. gem eas og aerate een -diagrams] construirt und erlautert, A A. W. 326.—Repertorium Annuum Literature Periodice, . BORNENSTEG iW. ene Synopsis of the Genus ——- J. G. BAKER, —Note on Pa Reéstablishment of Forests, C. A. WHITE: Entomological Gumieiictions J. A. LINTNER, Astronomy.—Observation of ‘tie new “planet (189), C. H. F. Perers: Annals of the —_- aneous Scienti Pag oe 329. = genera, keg ological Survey, 332. NORE RO og the 1 British Association: A n rm of ne A, F,. DELAFIELD, 333.— Obituary.—Rev. W. B. CLARKE, ~ a NUMBER XCV. Art. XX XVIII.—Some points in Litholo Aes J. D. Dana, 335 XXXIX.—Spectrum of the Corona; by W.T. 343 XL.—Reticulated Forms of Sun’s ida: b E S. Hoven, 346 XLL—Observations of Bright Meteors; by B ES XLIL—General Ocean Circulation ; by. WYVILLE renee 349 XLUI.—Notes on Antimony Tannate; by E. S. Ricwa ane AW: Pane a ec 2 os 361 XLIV. —Peeudosorph ace Anorthite, from Franklin, N. J.; x XLV. ative Agi hae of Glaciers a ‘and Sub-Glacial Streams in the Erosion of eos Oy Ee ae, Lc 366 XLVI.—Marine Fauna of the eastern coast of | North Amer- ica ; a4 E. VERRILL, 37 SLVIL-- scovery of two new Planets; by C. & F. Peters, 379 __ XLVIITI.—The Sonorous Voltameter; by A DISON. 379 _ XLIX.—Principal Characters of Ameri te Ratt by O. C. Marsn. Part L With seven Plates, ........ 411 A ea ae me a ey) en ase mm eee ee i ae ee CONTENTS. Vil SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Behavior of Hyd rogen peroxide with the Alkalies, ScHOnz, 380.—Series of Magnetic Compounds havin ving the Formula R’’Fe,0,, List: On ~ Rak Loge gs fois tase and on Nascent peas Supe sag ane —HEHlement mas FORD 80 rR: Contribution to the History of Spectrum Analysis, BECKER, 392 eralog i CH: i e in the N. Hamps ire satan? ig hen sane ase of der Kaiser-Wi fa of a Sponge in Ttalian Marble, VERRILL: Ophiuride and Anzeiger Tings 0 Astophitide the arose e8 re ition Fig es ida of N ew aed WIL- : UL BON 406 of the Gulf Stre m, sing cae 407. Miscellaneous Scientific In atelbigenoe, —Report on Bridging of the River ay ni RREN: n port of t! y of Coast Survey : Report of the Trusives of the Peabody Museum: A History of the reins of the Steam Engine, THURSTON: seman Alc “Quantitative Analysis, : American Quarterly an ‘oscopical Journal, 409.— Obituary.—Thomas Belt: Eh v. Asten: M. E. Quetelet: Thomas Grubb: Aug. H. Peterman, 410. NUMBER XCVI. Page Arr. L.—Valley of the Minnesota River and of the Mississippi River to the junction of the Ohio: its origin considered ; by G. K. Wa ARREN. With eight Plates aed eee eee 8: LL—On some points in Lithology; by J. D. Dan pan le eu 431 An the beaten of x Reece Substances ; by NNESSEY, * 461 LV.—Discoveries in Western “Caves; by H. C. ivan oy eee 405 LVI.—The Chinese Official Almanac; by M. Harrrneton,. 472 Vili CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Determination of Carbonic Acid in ne — — CHERS, 477.—Ultramarines of various metals, DEFORCRAND and B Bean eel, i io in the Animal Organism, SCHREINER: Persulphuric Oxide S.0;, BERTHELOT, eaten: “ ia aii =| n hr} tf a nm ° =| pans o i=) ° o grown : Cryptog : New york & Sito Museum ig N siete History, Report of the Botanist: Ferns of North America, 487.—Sarracen Fe rpurea: Professor Alexander Agassiz’s i aro Laboratory at Newport: it . 1. 488 Mise dents — Intelligence. —Report m the d Region of the United rate mater re d atid account of the AKiite a Utah, 489. “United pinion Geologie Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, CLARENCE Kine: Annual Repo of the Board of Regents of the Sm ithsonian Institution for the year 1877: The ved Professor Hoar, 490. Obituary.—M. Delafosse AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. I.—Contributions to Meteorology: being results derived from an examination of the Observations of the United States Signal _ Service, and from other sources ; by Eutas Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale "College. Ninth paper. With Plates I, IT and II. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 19, 1878.] Low barometer at Portland, Oregon. In my last paper, page 5, I showed that the great storms of the United States frequently come from British Columbia or its vicinity. In order to extend this part of the investigation I selected from the published volumes of the Signal Service observations (Sept., 1872, to Oct., 1874,) all — cases in which the barometer at Portland, Oregon, fell as low as 29°7 inches. ese cases amount to sixty-three, ‘and correspond to eighteen different storms, as is shown in the following table, in cts column ist shows the number of the storm; column 2d the date at whichthe barometer was below 29°7 inches ; oottics 3d shows the height of the barometer at Portland at the date. mentioned ; column 4th shows the direction of the wind, and column 5th shows its velocity at Portland at the date men- | tioned ; column 6th shows the rain-fall at Portland during the a Ze ht of © preceding eight hours; column 7th shows the least height of © the sitar ere observed at that hour at any station within the w area; column 8th shows the name of the station at — which the barometer was lowest; column 9th indicates the - - = region where the storm appears to have originated; Br. Co. denotes British Columbia; Can. denotes Canada, northwest ; 4% Joon, Sot.—Tarmp Sens, Veen the Oe ee Barometer below 29°7 inches at Portland, Oregon. i | winp. | 2%| ge . | High on Eastside. |Reached Attic. No. Date 8 ———|4 8 EB Station. ated ~ | 2 |Direc.|Vel. "S| 22 here./ Bar.| Station. | Date. | Lat. 1872 | 1 Nov. 7.3/29°68/8. 12 |0°21 29° tg Portland, Or. |Br. Co.}30°18) Br enridge Nov.12} 45° (Dec. 23.3; °57|N.E.| -- |2-40| -57|Portland, Or. ‘Br. Co.| -95 Breckenridge |Dec.31| 42 | 24.1] °15/S.E. | .- (1°50 15 Portland, 0 "85 | LaCrosse 24.2 O/S.E. | 4] -29 Fort Benton 64 Davenport : 24.3| -62\S.E.| 9| -05| 58) Virginia City -64| Kingston 25.3) -64/N.E.| 4] °32) °64)Portland, Or “17 Pembina 26.1} -65/E. 41°30) -65/Portland, Or ‘92 Breckenridge 1873. 3 Jan. 4.$ Ww. 3| -01) °68 Portland, Or. Co.| °41|Breckenridge |Jan. 11) 48 Jan.30.1} ‘64/S.E. | 4] °23) -54|Virginia City Br. Co.| -32|/Pittsburgh (Feb. 5) 45 4. 30.2) °55)S. 3| -06) -55/Portland, Or -23| Philadelphia 30.3) 55S. 4| 10) -55/Portlan -33 Fort Bento ; ) Mar.30.1) -70)S.E. | 20| -40) | -70/Portland, Or. |Br. Co 20 San Francisco Apr. 3| 48 30. 69/S.W.| 8} 23) °56 Fort Bent 3 San Franci April 2. 68|S.E. | 3] °09} -33|/Alpena Br. Co.| °18'Eastpo Apr.10| 42 6 - 2:2 9\S.E. | 21| -24) -33|Fort Garry 05 Punta Ras 2.3, -67/S. |12] -21| -40/ Virginia City 08 Punta Rassa " Ap. 20.3) ‘66/S.E.} 2] 0) °66)Portland, Or. |Br. Co “16; Galveston Apr.23/ 35 8 Dec. 5.2; ‘69 10] 0} -69/Portland, Or. |Pac. O LaCrosse Dec. 9} 48 9 § Dec.15,1) °62'S 4/| -02) -62)Portland, Or. |Br. Co a Vicksburg ec. 20) 45 (15.2) 67/8. | 24| -02; -67/Portland, Or. 9 Charleston 1874. ow Ta 708. 8 | -29' -45!/Fort Benton |Can. 64 Sydney Jan. 5) 48 10 2. 61/8. 16} 03, -26 Fort Garry “56 Sydney 104 29| -63S.8. | 8| -03| -09 Fort Sully +44 Sydney 2.3) “70/8. 8] -29| -16 Fort Sully 36 New London Jan.14.2) -67/Calm| 0| 0, -67Portland, Or. |Br. Co.| -89 Breckenridge |Jan. 19) 45 14,3} °59/S. 2} 0} ‘59 Portland, Or. 87 Yankton 15.1, °508.W.| 2| -24| -50 Portland, Or 0 Yankto 15.2} °37,Calm} 0} ‘11| :37/Portland, Or. 57 LaCrosse 15.3; °23|\Calm| 0 | -1: Portland, Or 58 Davenport 16.1; “11/8. 6 | -5¢ ‘Portland, 49 Louisville 16.2; “068. 30 | °24| -06 Portland, Or. 44|Cincinnati i, 16.3} 52/8. | 7] -06| -14'Fort Benton -47 Pittsburgh : 1} °53)8. 2| 01) -00\Fort Garry “56 Washi ; 518. 2| 0| -25 Fort Garry -56|Philadelphia 3 58'S. | 4| 0! -33/Fort Sully 60 delphia ll *47|S. 28; .0 irginia 62 elphia |Jan. 23) 46 3.2 60'S. W. 81°09 -45)| Virginia City *55 New London 3) “67/S.E. | 4] °28 ortland, Or. -47 Boston 1) 56S. | 12| -22) -56 Portland, Or. -49' Pembina 2} *65)9.W.| 8| 0] -63/ Virginia City 40 Marquette Feb.10.3 678. | 8] 0| -63 Virginia City |Br. Co. 27 Mobile Feb.14| 50 .3) ‘63\Calm| 0] ‘1¢ 17 Fort Garry *15| Punta 1} *60,\Calm) 0| 0) -15'Leavenworth 24, ockvill 124 2.2) “S7/S.B. |} 12) 5 Dubuque 24| New London 2.3, °448.B.| 5| -16| -35| Virginia City ? Feb.16| 47 2. 8S. |13| -42| -39!Virginia City ? 35, 10} -0 1| Virginia City ? ae .| 8| °31| -47/ Virginia City 18 Cai 13. Feb.28, 16 -67|/Portland, Or. |Br. Co.| 28) Norf Mar. 4) 46 r. 2; .| 20/115) -47 Portland, Or. |Br. Co. Se pyanay Mar. 8} 47 ik 16; 0, -29 Leavenworth 34 Sydn ey : 12| 56) -55|Portland, Or. (Br, Co,| 23 Fort Sully /|Mar.11} 30 ; 10} 06 -60 Portland, Or. | 28 Yankton | 06! -67 Portland, Or. -45| Yankton ] ( Portland, Or. |Br. Co.| 44 Breckenridge Mar.20] 48 | 07 -61/ Virginia City -45 Breckenridge | 8/15 -66/Portland, Or. 45 ba b | 14 pried Sully 42 Kingston 0} 0 -26)Fort Sully -51/New London 3| 08) -49/Fort Sully /|Pac.0.| -66/ Alpena Apr.16| 48 4) -25' +52 Fort Sully (Br. Co.| °37 Montgomery |May 4| 35 9| *33) +13 Fort Sully *22' Mobile | 2is re represented on Plate I accompanying my fifth paper EF. Loomis—Ohservations of the U. S. Signal Service. 3 and Pac. O. denotes Pacific Ocean; column 10th shows the highest pressure observed at any station at the date mentioned in column 2d; and column 11th indicates the station at which this pressure was observed. Each of these areas of low pressure appears to have moved eastward, and can be traced to the Atlantic coast. Column 12th shows the date at which the cen- ter of low pressure reached the Atlantic coast, _ column 13th shows Has latitude of the low center at that ti A comparison of these cases shows that pace all occurred dion the six colder months of the year, and they were most numerous in January. In a majority of the cases the wind blew from the south, and in only three cases did the wind blow In doy -SiX per cent of the cases, the pressure at Portland. was lower than at any other station at the same hour; in twenty- seven per cent of the cases, the lowest pressure was ‘at Virginia City or Fort Benton ; in thirteen per cent of the cases, the lowest aegis was at Fort Sully; and in the remaining cases the owest pressure was at some station still further east. com- parison of the observations at Virginia City with those at m8, phi stations indicates that the readings of the barometer at Virginia Cit a Mee and accordingly they have all — been Bopha by 0 With but sind encpin all of these cases of low pressure eee to have originated north of Portland, and generally west that station. In the table, this region is designated by the term British Columbia. It is probable that in some of these cases, and perhaps in all of them, the area of low pressure was first formed over the Pacific Ocean. No. 10 was apparently formed on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, but north of be fea States, a es designated as Canada N. W. Nos. 17 were apparently formed over the Pacific Ocean, near bed Cae of San Francisco. In a majority of these cases there was an area of high barom- eter on the east side of Portland, at an average distance of about 1500 miles. In one case the barometer rose to 30 95 inches ; In six cases the barometer rose as high as 30°75 inches; ins one-third of the cases the pressure rose to 30°5 inches; and in more than two-thirds of the cases the pressure rose to inches. In five cases (out of sixty-three) there was no stato: : ee within the limits of the United States where the pressure rose i as high as 30°15 inches at the dates mentioned. No. 17 i is ie : fel resented on Plate IIT accompanying the present. ape a : eo —? Mountains and two on the east 4 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. _ In each case the center of low pressure traveled eastward, and can be traced to the Atlantic coast. No. 11, being a depressed period of five days’ continuance, should probably be regarded as consisting of two abt bene areas, the second of which immediately succeeded the first, so that the two were united in Oregon, but traveled across the continent indepen- dently, one of them reaching the Atlantic four days later than the other. So also No. 12 apparently consisted of two depressed areas which were united in Oregon, but traveled across the continent ‘skeet one of them two days later than the other. average time of crossing the continent was five days, and the average latitude where the low center met the Atlantic was 45°. he paths by which these areas of low pressure crossed = continent differed considerably from ares of great circles. Sta ing from the Pacific Ocean, generally as far north as jatitdle 50°, the course was toward the southeast, until near the middle of the continent, and on the scsi dines of 100° from Greenwich the average latitude of the paths was 40°. Thence the course radually veered northward, and upon reaching the Atlantic the average latitude of the paths was 45°. Low barometer at San Francisco, California. The observations made at San Francisco have been discussed in the same manner as those = Portland. The following table shows all the cases in which (during a Peres of twenty-six months) the Barcieier fell as low as 29-7 inches. The tabl constructed in the same manner as that for Portland. The number of these cases is twenty-nine, corresponding to nine different storms, and most of them occurred during the winter months. A single case is reported for the summer months, which b apparently resulted from causes operating over the central of the North American continent. fourths of the cases the wind blew from some southern quarter, and in only three cases did it blow from a northern quarter. e average velocity of the wind was fifty per cent greater than at Portland, a ace which may be ascribed to greater proximity to the oc more than jaca of the cases the pressure at San Fran- cisco was the lowest reported at any station at the same hour. In eleven of the cases the greatest depression was on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, and in eight cases the point of reatest depression was situated about 1400 miles eastward. Five of these depressions appear to cae originated over the Pacific Ocean; the remaining four appear to have originated north of the United States, two of them — the west side of the o: ta i id E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 5 Barometer below 29°7 inches at San Francisco. g | wInD. | g8| dz Origi- | High on East side. | Reached At’ic. No. Date. 2 Teo] Bb Station. nated & |Direc.|vel.|"Z | 32 where-| Bar.| Station. Date. | Lat. 1872. 1 Dee. 28.2/29°68/S. EK. | 14 |0-11|29°68 San Francisco) Pac. O. piso ae Dec. 31} 43° 1873, Jan. 31.2} °55/S.E. | 20] 04) °55 San Francisco|Pac. O.| ‘78 Breckenridge |Feb. 5) 45 31 60'S.W.| 4} -28} °60 San Francisco 85 Breckenridge 24 Feb. 1.1) -65/N.BE.| 4| 0] -65.San Francisco 95| 1.2] -64iN. 4| 0} ‘64 San Francisco *82 Leavenworth 1.3) 67/8. 8| -02; °67 San Francisco “14 Da rt Feb.24.1} °61)W. 8| °05| °49 Corinne Pace. O. 35 Fort Sully Feb. 28} 43 3 24.2| “60;W. | 16 0} ‘41 Corinne 28 Fort Sully 24,3 W. |12] 0} -38 Corinne *36 Fort Sully 4 July 1.3) ‘70|\8.W./12| 0] ‘59 FortG Can. 18 Lake City [July 6| 45 Sep. 68'5.W.| 8 0| ‘14 Fort Sully C 3 Hali P 26.1 -66/S.W.|12| 0) -25 Breckenridge 21, Was D 26.2; -66S.W.|16| 0) ‘20 Fort Garry 2 y 26.3) °68/S.W.| 12 0| ‘53 Fort Garry 26 Philadelphia Dec. 3.3) °67/S.E. | 20/ -76) -66 Cheyenne Pac. O.| 28 Charleston (Dec. 9} 48 4.1! *63/N.W.| 16! *72) °63 San Francisco 42 St. Loui 4.2) ‘57/8. | 20] -08) | -57|San Francisco| "39 Cairo 6 4.3! °55/S. 20| °0. ‘55 San Francisco -b5 Fort Sully 5.1; °62!S. 8| °99 ‘62 San Francisco "65 Fort i Tl 08.8 8| °25 61 Corinne “11 1 Kin ngsto: 1.3) “67/S.E. | 4] -07| -66 Cheyenne ‘T1| Montreal ah *69\Calm|} 0} 0 9 San Francisco 76 Chatham Jan.15.3) -55/8. 28] 3 *23/ Portland, aa Br.Col.| °58Davenport Jan.19) 44 16.1; “58/8.W. | 24 2! °11)Portland, 49 Louisville 7 16.3] -67/S.W.| 8| 0] -14\Fort Pain fe pessoas 17.1) -56/S. | 24] -41| -00\Fort Garry -56 Lynchburg 17.2} °63/S.W.| 16] -35| -25\Fort Garry “56 Philadelphia 8 Feb.12.i) -70|S.W.| 12] -07| -15|Leavenworth |Br.Col.| -24 Brockville |Feb. 14] 50 9 9 Apr.11.1| 11.1) “70/W. |16| 0} -62/Salt Lake City|Pac.O.| -45 Pembina Ap. 16! 48. In nearly all of these cases there was an area of high barom- eter on the east side of San Francisco at an bayer: istance of 1500 miles. In one case the barometer to 30°95 inches, and in two-thirds of the cases it was as high as 80°36 inches. In No. 4 a moderate depression of the barometer extended over the entire United States, with the exception of the southeast portion. This low area continued to cover a considerable ol of the United States without much change during a peri on in ion }, ACCOUNE uncertainty attending the reduction of the mountain ob tions to the level of the sea, the progress of the barot is best exhibited by the changes of pressure, withed 6 EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. the absolute height of the barometer. Plate I exhibits the oscillations of the barometer for Nos. 2, 8 and 9 at San Francisco and several other stations, extending eastward to the Valley of the Mississippi, and a change of pressure of one-tenth of an rial is represented by one-tenth of an inch in the diagram. Plate II represents three other cases in which the minimum of press- ure is pretty sharply defined, and the progress of the barometric wave is very distinctly indicated. These examples show conclu- sively that barometric waves sometimes travel from the Pacific coast across the Rocky Mountains into the Valley of the Missis- sippi, with so little change as to leave no doubt of their identity. It will be noticed, however, that the barometric oscillation gen- erally increases quite rapidly as soon as the wave reaches the Mississippi Valley; and in several of the diagrams palpable changes will be usin in the form of the curves from one station to another. In several of the’ cases, not here represented, these changes are still more considerable. minimum at Salt Lake City usually occurs about sixteen howl later than at San Francisco, and at Cheyenne about one day later than at San Francisco. This indicates a velocity of forty miles per hour, which is greater than the velocity usually found for barometric Waves ; but it is probable that the motion of the center of lo w pressure was not parallel to the line joining San ds fo Cheyenne, so that the velocity of the center of low pressure was less than forty miles per hour. It sere then, to be ‘italy ucabtiobead that barometric waves frequen travel from the Pacific coast across the Rocky Mountains ra reach the Mississippi Valley with but little a The Rocky Mountains form an uninterrupted barrier 6,000 feet in height from British America southward to vitals 32°, and the Sierra Nevadas present a barrier of the same height extending from British America southward to latitude 36°, with but three interruptions amounting in the aggregate to less than one hun- miles. The Roc ky Mountains form a barrier of 10,000 feet in height, which eit nearly half the — from latitude 49° to latitude 32°, and which is continuous for about 350 miles in the neighborhood of Colorado. The Sierra Ne evadas also present short ranges of equal altitude, but the longest of them is less than 150 miles Thus we see that an unbroken mountain range of 6,000 feet in height cannot stop the progress of atmospheric waves; neither do omae of more than 10, 000 feet i in height, broken as in North le obstacle. A great t barometric ee a ae, ae a a E.. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 7 reached the Mississippi River, there are no mountain barriers to prevent the formation of a system of circulating winds over an area 2,000 miles in diameter. Areas of high barometer. Each of the areas of low barometer described in my eighth paper was preceded by an area of high barometer on the east side at an average distance of about 1,000 miles, and was fol- lowed by an area of high barometer on the west side at about the same distance. In order to discover the circumstances under which areas of siderable number of stations, all included within the same high area. In such cases, only one of the stations was employed, viz., the station at which the barometer was highest. ese cases of high barometer are exhibited in the following table, in which column Ist shows the number of the high area; column 2d shows the date at which the barometer was above 80°65 area; and column 10th shows the height of the baro 8 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Barometer above 30°65 inches. : = Low on East side. Low on West side. No. Date g Station. E En 3 nated EI = |FES| wn Bar. | Station. | Bar.| Station. 1872. | a | 1 Oct. 29.1/30°66! Kin Kingston 33| 33 |Can. 29°69 Omaha. Nov 13.3 Be Fort Pees 13| 47 |Br.Col.|29°55 St. Paul 4.) 1] “63 Marquette 14.3 ha 1g 5 scanaba 14. 88 do. ( 51 Montreal {ish Bl ae —1: Quebe 16 “6T do. 14 59 Quebec ] 69 do. : ‘Que 17.1 1% Nashville 1s | a l| Leavenworth | 14 3 Nov18.: at Portland, Or. | 43) 32 |Br.Col. ee a Nov 28.1} -71 Breckenridge —12) 57 |Br.Col.| -91 Que 2) B84 do. — € -98|B 4 .3| °98|/Duluth 0 “78| Rochester ‘99|Portland, Or. 1} -93|Breckenridge |—16 Boston 95) Portland, Or. .2| -71|Memphis 26 -95|Portland, Or. Dec. 8.2) -70|Breck — 3) 41 |Br.Col. 5 | 8 do. —lI AS do. 14 Dec.21.1| -72/Leavenworth |— 2! 38 |Br.Col. 6 21.2 do. ( a}. 2| Nashville 1¢ Dec.23.1| -70|Breckenridge |—33) 40 |Can. 3. do. cage x | q . do. oe ] 5 *85| LaCrosse —27 : i —2] Dec. 47|Pembina —24| 32 |Can. 26. -92|Breckenridge |—27 J 92 do. —22 “ do. —27 y do. —33 6'|Charlesto: 36) 36 |Arkan. Portland, Me. 3| 40 |Can. do. q No. 1873. ~ ou m v E. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. Barometer above 30°65 inches, Date. parser. E — a) 2 Se oe BP ST Re Oe Wee I Se So. GF BO BS bof pho wth bh bo — OS ho es Br.Col. Can. Can. Can. Br.Col. g d re . | Low on East side. | Low on West side. 8 Station. & |S) nated g # Fe“) where.| Bar.| station. | Bar.| Station. 30°77 Fort Sully “6| 36 \Can. {29-98 Quebec 93) = do. f 94; do. 84| = do. f “10| do. *86|Breckenridge |— 2‘ *82\Cape May *88| ~— do. —3 58 New London “75/St. Paul ‘35| Portland, Me. ‘97; — do. weft 36| do. 29°97 Portland, Or. *91/Omaha ‘ *64| do. 1] do. *70|Chicago 2 *88| do. 76| do. 1S) Oa: 1 “15| do. 4 oxvill 1] -70\Fort Benton 69/Port Stanley | 2¢ *b5| do. 72/|Baltimo: 2: 52) do. “78| Lynchburg 14 45] do. -69| Norfolk 3€ 35|Fort Sully “71| Augus' 3) 42) do. “6T do, 3¢ 42) Duluth. °68)/Fort Sully 1} 30 |Br.Col.| 63) 76} do. — -64| Nashville 94|Portland, Or. 66) Pembina —12} 32 |Can. “14 Cape Rosier *80|Portland, Or. *67| ~— do. _ *85; do. “75| do. 90} do. “TT| do. *84| do. “74| Virginia City. 66) do. “71\Cheyenne. *64| do. *62| do. 56] do. ‘47| do. 52 10 ££ Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Barometer above 30°65 inches. 2 g \=t. Low on East side. Low on West side. No. Date. ¢ Station. & |SoH) nated g a \g "| where.| Bar. Station. Bar. Station. 1874. | . { Jan. 23.3 30-71) Yankton — 2) 38 |Can. /|29-27|Cape Rosier 24.1; -86] do. 17 “TT do. 24.2; -90\Cairo 36 oa} 243] 81) Go 8 25.1) -91 LaCrosse 3 *85| Eastport 29°95) Portland, Or. 25.2} -81|Milwauk 1 “79 Halifax 86 do. 25.3} “75|Port Stanley 3} *88| do -83|Fort Benton. § 26.1! °81|/Memphis 41, “76|\Sydney 80; do. Jan. 29.2) -80 Pembina —18, 47 |Br.Col.| -88Cape Rosier 29.3; -98) do. —26 “98 0. 30:1; “TT; do. 22 “73| Halifax 30.2) 67 — —10 -69\Santa Fe. 30. ive —21 : do. Bis} 8 Chatham —35 *60| do. 254 31.3 “Marquette 2 *64| do. Feb. 1.1 sro |Brockyille —25 “14| do. 1.2} 84 Burlington 6. 1.3} -87| do. —13 2.1| -89 Chatham —22 2.2) -76 Father Point |— 6 *98| Mobile. 2.3) “73 Halifax —10 26 Feb. 5.1} -66 Brockville — 8 30 |Br.Col.' -59/Sydney ‘63 Santa Fe Feb.23.2| °72)/Yankton 11| 50 |Br.Col.}| °56/Que 23.3; °86| do. — 2 -47\Father Point 27 24.1} 82) do. 1 -63/ Sydney 24.2} -*71' LaCrosse 5 24.3) --68| do. 3 Mar.23.1| °73 Breckenridge |— 8] 48 |Br.Col.| -47/Sydney 28 2. 67 do. 15 *38| do. yt ‘TL Davenport 21 *49| do. ‘70 St. Louis 23 *60| do. 29 Apr.12.1} ‘66) Alpena 18} 32 |Can. 49) do. “49 Fort Sully. Sep. 17 67 es Rosier 39} 35 (Br.Col. 30 18.1 = 7 “69 Leavenworth. 18.2 8 49} do. 3}. . Get 122 0) Yankton 16| 37 |Can. *60\Cape Rosier 95|S. Francisco. 2 Oct. 30.3 0'Fort Sully 16! 41 'Br.Col.| -47'/Sydney These cases correspond to thirty-two different areas of high © from months from May to Au Areas of unusually high In order to show how far these dependent upon latitude and longitude, t hat oe aire Bes the barometer, and Ba of these occurred during the six months Octo March, and none —— during the four More than half of the whole number occurred during the months of Dees and January. pressure are thus found to occur at the same season of the year as areas of cargos low se ese cases 0 . a rp pornicsy. oe stations: ww os including the stations west of the ward of 102°, ail _ is very remarkable. The lowest temperature observed ina E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 11 Classification of the cases of high pressure. West of lon. 102°. From lon. 86” to lon. 102°. | East of lon. 86°. Station, Lat. ‘cases, Station. Lat. cases Station. Lat, \Gaele. Fort Benton |47°52’| 7 ||/Pembina 49° 07) 9 Iie Rosier |48°52’) 4 Portland, Or. |45 30 1 ||Duluth 46 48 1 |/Father Point |48 31} 4 Marquette 46 33 1 |\Chatham One be eee: Breckenridge 46 16 | 29 nebec 46 48; 1 St. Paul a4 53 | 3 |\Sydney 46 8) 1 Fort Sully 44 39 | 8 ||/Montreal 45 31] 2 LaCrosse 3.48 156 na ae «gs aa Milwaukee 43 3 1 ||Halifax 44 39 | 3 Yankton 42 45 | 13 rockville (44 31 2 Chicago 41 52 | 2 |/Burlington (44 29| 2 Davenport (41 30) 2 ingston 4412) 6 maha 41 16 1. |/Portland, Me. /43 40 | 2 Leavenworth |39 19 | 6 |/Port Stanley 42 40 2 St.Louis |38 37 | 1 ||Toledo 40 39| i 0 2 || Baltimore 39 18 i Nashville 36 10 | 2 |\Lynchburg (37 18; 1 Fort Gibson (35 43 1 }| Norfolk 86 bhp his 8 | 2 |\Knoxville ab Gh. 8 ugus 328) 2 Charleston (32 45] 1 The observations at each of these stations cover the entire period of twenty-six months, with the following —— viz., the observations at Pembina commenced in November, ;: those at Halifax, in Tics Whee 1872; at vankion and Fort Gibson, in April, 1873; at Chatham, i in October, 1873; at Cape Rosier, Father Point and Sydney, in November, 1873; and at Brockville, in January, 1874, We see that cases of high ba-_ rometer occur most frequently at the northern stations. About two-thirds of the whole number were north of latitude 44°, and only fifteen per cent of the whole number were south of latitude 40°. Only one of the cases occurred beyond the Rocky Mount- ains ; and on the east side of the mountains high barometer is most frequent near the meridian 97°. After making allowance for the unequal period of observation at the different stations, we find sak in ‘he “aelaldeorhood of —— cases of very high pressur nearly twice as frequent as they are at a corres- ponding latitude near the atic: ine This fact appears we make the comparison for pressures as. high as 30-9 aaah: he the region between Sina co 86° and : S 102° the barometer rose as high as 30-9 inches in fifteen cases, while only one such case occurred in the siete east of Tonsil 86°, and none occurred in the district west of longitude 102°. , ally 2% 3: Pe Mes high 5 essurt o case was —36° Fahrenheit at LaCrosse. In seven senna t] 12 E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. mometer fell as low as — 30°, and five of these cases occurred Breckenridge. In more than half of the whole number of cases the thermometer fel] as low as zero of Fahrenheit. The highest temperature reported in any one of these cases was 48° at Cape Rosier, September 18.2, 1874. This is a station where the daily range of temperature is unusually small, being influ- enced by the temperature of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In all of these cases the average temperature at Breckenridge and its vicinity was very much lower than at any of the stations east of longitude 86°. contributes to increase its pressure. This point will be further considered on page With a single exception, these areas of high barometer ap- peared to come from British America. About half of them appeared to originate on the west side of the chain of the Rocky Mountains and half on the east side; but on account of the small number of stations of observation it is impossible to trace these areas of high pressure satisfactorily to their origin. Each area of high pressure appears to have commenced with a moderate elevation above 30-00 inches ; this elevation gradually increased as the wave advanced, and generally attained its maximum over Dakota or Minnesota. In one case (Jan., 1873,) pressure seems to have been first developed in the neighborhood of Arkansas, and increased slowly in magnitude as it drifted eastward, attaining a baighs of 30°66 inches at Charleston, Jan- uary 12th, 1873. In nearly all of these cases an area of low pressure immedi- ately preceded the area of high pressure. When the center of igh pressure is west of the Mississippi, an area of low pressure is almost invariably indicated by the observations near the Atlantic coast. When the center of high pressure is near the Atlantic coast, there are no stations of observation where this 30. The vare case in ines observed of tourmaline and many other species Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 37 The crystals are invariably prismatic in habit, and show but one terminated extremity ; in this respect they differ from the ordinary childrenite of Tavistock, to which it will be shown they are ape related. The general be thee is shown in fig. 1. ec d also the optical exam- Hots prove that the crystals along to the ORTHORHOMBIC The | fundamental angles were obtained from measurements on a small crystal whose pyramidal planes gave excellent reflec- tions. The mean of a considerable number o ae whose extremes differed by only 11’, was taken in each c A goniometer provided with two telescopes was always stapled. These angles* are as follow. pap or lll a 111=46° 277 45” pap" or lll « 111=61° 17 54" From these the following axial ratio is obtained :— c (vert. } b a 066299 128732 — 1-00000 The observed planes are as follows: a it 100+ p 1 111 b it 010 q a4 10988 1 I 110 8 $2: 181 g a-2 120 The following is a list of the most acer angles both calculated and measured, so far as the last have any value. The angles ibtaihed from the prismatic planes in general, tee conspicuously the macropinacoid a (100) were in most case entirely unreliable. Measured. Lad 1104 110 Set AL" 76° 36’ Jag 120 120 = 114° 38’ aalI 100 £110 = «37° 60" Gag 100% 120 © <== BT? 14’ bAT O10. 716° = 67’ 10’ 52° 197 bag G16 «120° =~: 32° 46" Qap mee = 69° 29’ Gaq 160, 932. = 62°19 2aAs 100.1 = 65 be bap O10. Ill =: 66" 46” bag 010.233 =. 7° 13’ * The aon eee the normals of the planes, Be pple sig n making the sho rter lateral axis a, and giving the symbol 100 to the macro- oo ee follow Groth’s | Zeitschrift fir Krys- Miller (whose method is adopted in jook of Wanmeriie oieee true, 38 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. Calculated. Measured. bas 010,121 = 49° 2)’ Inp 110,111 = 49° 69” 49° 55’ gas 120,121 = 39°13’ pap 111,111 = ¥*46° 28” 46° 28” qag’ 232.232 = 65° 33’ roe @ 121,121 = 81°18’ pp Wid = et SF ¢i° 2 q.q" 232.232 — 55° 22’ $3” 121,121 = 49° 34’ 49° 397 pap” lll,Ti1 = 80° 2” 80° 0” qay”’ 232,232 = 91° Vl’ exe” 121.121 ° = 101° 33” as 111,121 = 17° 267 at° 18/ Eosphorite. Childrenite. Childrenite. Childrenite. Tavistock (Cooke.) Hebron (Cooke.) Tavistock (Miller.) 75° 247 74° 20’ 75° 467 ik AR" 41 sas’ 81° 18” 81° 20 80° 38 82° 8” sae 49" 34" ao 50° 36” 49° 56” ene” FOL" $3’ 101° 43” 101° 367 102° 41’ In order to bring the crystals of childrenite into this posi- tion the clinodome (2-3, or n of Miller) is made the unit prism. Optical erties.—A careful examination in the stauroscope proved that the three axes of elasticity coincide with the crys- talline axes, showing that the crystals are really orthorhombic. The optic axes lie in the macrodiagonal section, or plane of cleavage, the acute bisectrix (first mean-line) being normal to the Need en and the obtuse bisectrix consequently to ane. The axial angle could not be obtained with very great accuracy, owing to the fact that the best sections left much to be desired in the way of clearness. The measure- ments gave :— 2E = 54° 30’ _ red rays. = 60° 30 blue rays. The dispersion of the axes is strong, v>p; the character of the double-refraction is negative. * This Journ., II, xxxvi, 257, 258. Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 39 n examination of a parallelopided cut with its edges par- allel to the three axes of elasticity (crystalline axes) showed a very distinct trichroism. The axial colors are as follows: For vibrations parallel to a (that is) yellowish. b (thatis a) deep pink. ¢ (that isc (vert.)) faint pink to nearly colorless. with the sodium phosphate. The residue of oxides of iron and manganese was dissolved in hydrochloric acid and the iron separated from the manganese by means of a basic ace- tate precipitation. To insure the complete separation of the alumina from the iron, the precipitate of basic acetate of iron was boiled with sodium hydroxide, the solution filtered off and added to the solution from the fusion, the oxide of iron was then dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the iron precipitated with ammonia and weighed as iron sesquioxide. The iron was then dissolved in hydrochloric acid, evaporated with nitric acid and ammonium molybdate added to precipitate any phosphoric acid which might not have been separated by the sodium car- bonate fusion. In this case there was a complete separation. From the filtrate from the basic acetate precipitation, manga-— nese was precipitated by means of bromine, the precipitate dis- solved in hydrochloric acid, the manganese again precipita as ammonio-manganese phosphate and weighed as brrophus: hate. From the filtrates from the precipitation by bromine, ime was thrown down as oxalate. The solutions containing the alumina were acidified with hydrochloric acid, boiled to expel carbonic acid, and aluminum phosphate precipitated by means of ammonia; the precipitate was filtered, washed, dis- solved and again precipitated and weighed as aluminum phos- phate. As this precipitate is not constant in composition, after weighing, it was dissolved in nitric acid and the phosphoric d separated by means of ammonium molybdate. The phos- phoric acid was determined and deducted from the weight of the aluminum phosphate. , he sodium wis Sélertainad by precipitating the bases from 40 Brush and Dana—Feairfield County Minerals. an acid solution by means of ammonium carbonate, evaporat- ing the filtrate to dryness, igniting to drive off ammonium salts. e residue was taken up in water, Saco hydroxide added to precipitate any phosphoric acid or manganese which might have remained in solution, the excess of barium sepa- rated and the sodium weighed as ‘sodium chloride. Care was taken to carry on the eva eeuices in platinum and avoid contact with glass as muc possible. Water was deter- mined by igniting in a B anarhan ee tube ina gas snes the water being collected in a chloride of calcium tu Two analyses gave: Relative number of atoms calculated I, Il. Mean. from the mean. Li 2 31°10 30°99 31°05 "219 A ip A1O, 21°99 22-40 22°19 -216 “99 ‘i FeO 4-42 7°39. 7-40 "103 | MnO 23°47 23°56 23°51 “Sad. i j CaO 54 54 64. 10, 2°05 - Na,O “38 33 33 005] H,O 15°66 15°54 15°60 “866 3°95 4: 10051 100-75 100-62 The ratio P,O, : AIO, : RO: H,O=1:1:2: 4 corres “ to the empirical tpaala R, AIP yO; >; 48. O, which may be writ- ten AIP,O,+2H, RO, +2aq. The analogy in the Bains tion of eosphorite to that of childrenite oi ee however, that the better way of writing the formula R,P,0 H,RO, i AIP;O, +} Hi AlO, 1494 In the formula R corresponds to Mn and Fe with small quan- tities of Ca and Na, ; the ratio for Mn: Fe+Ca+Na,=3:1, and for Mn: Fe=10:3; for the last ratio the above formula requires :— Eosphi drenit drenite, analyzed Calculated from Res socuinia. “= Pieter — Church. ?,0; 30°93 28°92 30°65 Al0, 22°35 14°44 a 15°85 ‘ eO,; 3°51 FeO 7-24 30°68 Fe02 3-45 MnO 23°80 9°07 TIA MgO O14 1°03 H,0O 15°68 16°98 17°10 100°00 G.=3°134 100°23 G.=3-247 99°33 G.=3°22 The identity between the sh as form of poepnrte and that of childrenite has been pointed out in a preceding para- graph, and the male, between them in chemical composition, and at the same time the wide difference, will be seen from the above. The ratios obtained from the analyses of Rammelsberg and Church for the childrenite from Tavistock and that of eos- phorite are as follows :— Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 41 P.O; RO; RO H,O ~thesed Reg. 3 2 8 15 nara 1 & 4 3 9 18 Eosphorite 1 1 2 4 and P,0O, : RO,+RO : H,0 : . Rg. 1 - 34 : Childrenite | mr ME i 3 : 4} Eosphorite 1 3 : 4 It can hardly be doubted from the above relations and the other facts given that the two species are in fact isomorphous, although the uncertainty that hangs over the composition of childrenite makes it useless to compare the formulas. It is quite possible that, when the composition of childrenite shall be definitely settled, it will be found to be analogous to that given for eosphorite. It cannot be questioned, however, that the two species though closely isomorphous, are at the same time perfectly distinct: the physical characters, the habit of crystals, and method of occurrence speak emphatically for this. Chemically, too, they are not to be confounded, although they may be similar compounds; eosphorite is essentially a phos- phate of aluminum and manganese, and childrenite of alumi- num and iron. Pyrognostics—In the closed tube eosphorite decrepitates, whitens, gives off abundance of neutral water, and the residue turns first black, then gray, and aa liver-brown with a i .B. in the forceps it P,0, 26°93 A110; l “710 FeO 5°86 od Pale Sieve 19°21 CaO 2°58 H,O 12° Residue 14°4 A lk a 4 aa 2, traces \ ss 100-61 An examination of the residue insoluble in acids proved it to consist chiefly of quartz. The 0:144 gram of insoluble resi- due gave 0-131 silica (92°8 per cent), and contained besides traces of iron, alumina and perhaps other bases. The examination 42 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. of a thin section of this variety of som sper ie showed the quartz scattered as grains through the mas Deducting the pied from the analysis and calculating again to 100°61, we hav Atoms. P.O. 31°43 “331 “221 1 AO, 21°83 “212 “212 1 MnO - sah “316 FeO 6°84 ‘096 -466 2 Cad 3°01 054 H,0 15°07 "837 837 4 his is rary nearly the composition of eosphorite as analyzed Penie The excess of lime is in part due to the presence a ache which is found associated with much of the eosphor- ite. The compact mineral is simply eosphorite intimately mixed with quartz and other species found at the locality. The greener colored varieties contain dickinsonite and are somewhat more fusible than pure eosphorite, while the lighter colored varieties such as analyzed are more difficultly fusible. The density of these varieties varied from 2 ‘92—3°08. e name eosphorite i is from the Greek jae @mopos (a syno- nym of pwo@opos, whence the name phosphorus), which means dawn-bearing, in allusion to the characteristic pink color of the crystallized mine 2. bee liga rh is yellowish to reddish- broWit in the distinct —— also - to wine-yellow, and occasionally hyacinth-red. The preak i is nearly white. Transparent to translucent. The frac- ture is subconchoidal. Brush and Dana— Fairfield County Minerals. 43 Orystalline form.—Of the few terminated crystals obtained, three only were suitable for measurement and only one of these had the terminations complete. These were 4. planes in the prismatic zone are in the reason- ably good. The crystals show occasionally false planes, bearing no relation to the axes of the crystal, and which are evidently p. agien of portions of adjoining crystals. : he crystals belong to the Monoctinic System and their habit is shown in figure 4. The axial ratio was obtained from the following fundamental angles :— Cxv'¢€ == OOLN01L = °64° 48” GAd: = 106% 110. = -60° 27 Qne = 1064 001 = 71° 467 These angles are good, though a little less so than those given for oe TSN probable error, however, does not exceed +1’. he axial ratio is: c (vert.) b ie. 0°80367 0°53846 1-00000. The observed planes are: c, O, 001. foe ae b, it, 010. e 14, O11, i, 100. * Ss) TIL The following are the principal angles, both calculated from the above data, and as measured on the same crystal (1) and on the two others (2 and 8): Cc w Measured. IP, 110,110, =120° 54’ ine 52’ (3) I~I’, 110.110, = 59° 6’ 120° 54 @xc, 100,001, = 71° 56’ #7 1° 56’ 71° 55’ (3). @xe 1004011, = 79° 37’ 19° 36” ' ee ae *60° 27 aad, 100 ~ 110, — 60 aT’: } 60° 26’ a~p, 100.211, = 52° 49” 52° 457 bae, 010.011, = 35° 12” bam, 010.110, = 29° 33’ bap, 010.211, = 48° 33” cae, 0014011, = 64° 48’ #54° 48” 54° 49” (2) 44 Brush and Dana—Feairfield County Minerals. Calculated. Measured. a) @) @) cxZ, 001.110, = 81° 7 81° es 0014110, = 98° 53” 98° 52’ cap, 001.211, = 76° 35’ 76° 20’ approx. Inp, 110,211, = 29° 6’ exZ, 011.110, = 36° 53” 36° 50’ 36° 57’ (2) eal", 0114110, = 51° 33” 51° 24” eap, 011.211, = 47° 34’ 48° approx. ere’, 011.011, =109° 36’ pap’, 21211, = 82° 53” A comparison of the above angles with those given by Brooke and Miller for wagnerite shows that the two species are homceomorphou Thus in the three diametral zones, we have :— & Triploidite. Wagnerite (Miller). IAP, 110.110,=120° 54” g ag =122° 257 CAa, 001 .% 100,= Ti" 46’ Cag = 1 537 ere’, 011.4 011,=109° 36’ ere’=110° 6’ As the crystal of wagnerite is placed by Miller, the planes g, a, c and e have the symbols (120), (100) (001), (021) respect- ively. In the figure given by Miller the prism g 120 (= J, (110) triploidite) has the a development; it was made the unit prism aS dae: Unucal prone only point that could be established in si 2 ae Saal i tov of triploidite was the posi- tion of the axes of elasticity. The crystal used for measure- ment had the cinopinscaite so far developed that it could be examined directly in a Rosenbusch microscope. It was found that of the two axes which lie in the plane of symmetry, one very nearly coincides with the vertical axis, being inclined poe (see fig. 4) 8°-4°, and the other consequently is almost ormal to the orthopinacoid. The position of the optic axes oui not be fixed. Mh he crystals show no perceptible absorp- tion * ge cpr cal _composition.—Triploidite was analyzed by Mr. Penfield. This ae Ree os) was fo art to contain iron iron and manganese, as it was retain ed by the small aia of lime present. It was weighed with the iron, and afterwards was separated from the iron by means of ammonium molyb- : | | : | | Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 45 date, determined, deducted from the weight of the latter and added to the phosphoric acid determination. The results of two analyses are: Relative number of atoms 1. Tk Mean. calculated from the mean. P30; 32°14 32°08 $2°1] FeO 15°07 14°69 ....- 14°88 207 MnO 48°35 48°55 48°45 *682 } 895 3°96 4° CaO 36 *29 ‘So “006 H,0 4°01 4°15 4°08 "226 100°"'T- 99°93 99°76 99°85 The ratio P,O, : RO: H,O = 1:4:1 corresponds to the form- Bhs Fahl +H, ‘O, or R ig O,+H,RO,, where R=Mn: Fe :1. ‘This formula requires : P,0; 31°91 Fe0 16°18 MnO 47°86 H,0O 4:05 100-00 Among the other phosphates and arsenates rit rena a seem to be closely related to gene in compositi Libethenite Cu,P,0; +H,Cu0, Ort oar livenite Gag da) + Ha0u0, thee ite AIP,O triploidite immediately suggests itself The composition of these minerals is Watacths Mg;P.0,+MgF, Triplite (Fe, Mn iy sP,0, +(Fe, Mn) F, Triploidite (Mn, Fe),P,0, +(Mn, Fe) (OH), Hitthatory brinents were it Fripeited: The conclusion to which we are led is this—that in the compound triploidite the radical hydroxyl (OH) plays the same part as the sheen fluorine, the molecule R(OH), taking the place of the RF. Pyrognostics—In the closed tube triploidite gives neutral water, turns black and becomes magnetic. Fuses quietly in the naked lamp flame and B. B. in the forceps, colors the flame green. Dissolves in the fluxes, giving reactions for manganese and iron. Soluble in acids. 46 P. T. Austen—Dinitroparadibrombenzols, An analysis of another specimen of triploidite gave P,O, 3224, FeO 18°65, MnO 42°96, CaO not determined, H,O re 09, quartz 1°09. e lime was accidentally lost but calculating showing that the iron and manganese vary in different speci- mens, the darker colored varieties containing the most iron. The name triploidite given to this species, from ¢riplite, and etdog form, indicates its resemblance to oe side in physical char- acters, and its relation in chemical compositio (To be continued.) Art. V.—On eo, and their Derivatives ; by Dr. P. Townsenv AusTEN, F.C.S., Assistant Prof. of Chemistry in Tuten Gotieon: Third paper. former papers, I have described the formation of three starr panies Caro and proved the a and £ variations o be isomeric compounds. With regard to the third, I am stil somewhat in doubt. The peculiar formation of nitroparadibromaniline by treat- ment of alpha dinitroparadibrombenzol with ammonia, has | me to make experiments with other reagents, and I have been ratified at encountering some quite unexpected phenomena. These I shall mention in another paper. Beta-dinitroparabromphenol. ring a very concentrated alcoholic solution of potassa over oh beta-dinitrodibrombenzol, the mass became scarlet-red, indicating the formation of a salt. Examination showed, how- ever, a8 much of the substance was left unaffected. On heat- ing, an action set in, and fine bubbles were formed. On dilut- ing with carrie and acidifying with hydrochloric acid, a dark rown flocculent mass was obtained, insoluble to any extent in alcohol. It was soluble in glacial acetic acid and acetic ether, separating in the form of an amorphous powder. As it was also soluble in a solution of sodium hydrate, and was pre- iesareary therefrom by hydrochloric acid, I take it to be an azoxyphenol. Various attempts to obtain a good yield of the phenol by direct treatment with potassa, or soda, in different amounts a solvents, did not meet with success, except on a small Although in most cases, the phenol salt was formed, as could be discerned from shite red color of the liquid, yet on application * Compare this Journal, ITI, ix, 118, and xiii, 95. P. T. Austen—Dinit lib b ls, 47 _ of heat, the speedy browning of the liquid showed that a more vital action had taken place. The best results with this method wére obtained by long boiling of the dinitrodibrombenzol with an aqueous solution of potassa. Owing, however, to the slight solubility of the nitro-compound in water, but a small amount of the phenol salt was formed. I then endeavored to utilize a reaction which I described, some time ago,* as taking place between dinitromonobrom- benzol and potassium nitrite, when the two substances are heated under pressure in presence of dilute alcohol. The for- mation of dinitrophenol takes place easily : C,H,(NO,),Br+2KNO,=C,H,(NO,),OK+KBr+N,0,(?) The resulting oxide or oxides of nitrogen have here the beneficial effect of exerting an oxidizing action. The great ob- jection to the use of an alkali in forming hydroxy] derivatives from nitro-halides, is the tendency it has to affect the nitro- groups converting them into azoxy-compounds, By the use of potassium nitrite all reducing action is avoided—in fact, prevented—by the presence of the nitrogen oxide. The oxides react also on the alcohol present, forming aldehyde. Some of the f-dinitroparadibrombenzol was dissolved in dilute alcohol, and an equal weight of KNO, added. On stand- ing, the KNO, extracts the water from the dilute alcohol, form- ing an aqueous layer on which the alcoholic solution rests. By standing, even without warming, the line of contact between these layers solidifies to a crust of red needles. On boiling, however, the action is soon complete, and every trace of the f-isomer is converted into the phenol. The reaction is pre- cisely analogous to the former : C,H,(NO,),Br,-} 2KONO=C,H,(NO,),BrOK+KBr-+N,0,(?) _ Some of the pure @ was then treated in a similar manner, but did not suffer the slightest change. Some samples of KNO, gave a slight coloration, but this was owing to the presence of free potassium hydrate. They gave no reaction after the potassium nitrite had been moistened with a few drops of dilute nitric acid. The oil that I take to be a gamma-isomer, also remained un- affected. _ This method enables me to overcome several bitherto almost msurmountable obstacles. The separation and purification of the beta from the alpha by crystallization is extremely difficult, and from the almost impossible. By direct treatment with KNO,, of the mass obtained by nitrition of the dibrom- benzol however, all the beta isomer can be extracted in th form of phenol salt, leaving only the alpha, a solid substance * This Journal, August, 1876. 48 P. T. Austen—Dinitroparadib b l fs fusing at 159°, snc the gamma, an oil, which I hope will prove easy of separat It also bine an réxeatfent test of the purity of the alpha-com- pound, since the color of the potassium beta-phenylate is so vivid, that if the alpha contains the slightest trace of the beta, it is shown by the formation of a red tint on boiling it with di- lute alcohol and potassium nitrite. By treating the beta-com- pound in the same manner, evaporating to dryness and extract- ing with hot carbon disulphide, an admixture of the alpha and gamma modifications is easily revealed. In this manner, I have succeeded in proving that several specimens of what I thought to be pure alpha and beta, were not absolutely free from isomers, although the fusing points had long since ceased to show any appreciable variation. inally this method promises a means of obtaining phenols by substitution of the halide in those nitro-halides ‘Which on treatment with an alkali suffer substitution of the nitro-group.* For if a reaction takes place it is only the halide which can be affected. Preparation.—150 grams of the raw product, obtained by nitri- tion of the paradibrombenzol, were treated in a flask with — absolute alcohol until all was in solution. The boiling liqui was diluted with hot water until the substance began to per- manently separate. Alcohol was then added until solution had taken place, on which water was again added} the liquid being kept boiling all the time. In this manner, by successively adding water and alcohol, the volume of the liquid was brought up to ; about 11 liters. The object of this excessive dilution was to prevent the separation of the liquid into two layers from the removal of the water by t ri KNO,. The flask was taken off the sand bath, and 100 grms. of KNO, carefully added. It was then replaced, and the fiqued allowed to boil violently. The formation of the phenol salt took place quickly. In about half an hour, during which water was occasionally added to replace the loss by PH heat the reaction was comple The contents of the flask were poured into a tall beaker holding about 11 liters of cold eaten stirred, allowed to settle, and washed several times by decantation to remove the potassium bromide and unchanged potassium nitrite. The mass was Sine ona see and a owed to drain, after which it was ny ¢ iiikasty red in boilng, water’ an grees fecolbrined with 4 * As for instance the dinitro-chlorbenzol of Laubenheimer, Ber. d. d. chem. Ges., viii, 1929; ix, 768. P.T. Austen—Dinitroparadibrambenzol 49 lute* hydrochloric acid (1: 10), filtered, washed and purified by crystallization from dilute alcohol.t Analysis——A combustion gave : 0°2852 grms. of substance ei 0°2870 grms. of CO, and 0°0422 grms. of H,O. 63 oT [4a NO, The formula C,H, { Ah 0;—C H.N,O,Br. OH Calculated. Found. C=27°38 27°44 H== 1°38 1°64 Properties.—This compound is identical with the dinitrobrom- phenol obtained by Kérnert from nitrition of bromphenol. It forms when crystallized from water or alcohol, long, flat, very thin and strongly glittering needles, fusing at 71°. Korner found 78°. On careful heating it volatilizes unchanged. Ex to the air it soon turns reddish, undoubtedly, as Korner suggested, from the presence of ammonia. Heated ee water, it fuses to a yellow oil. It has strong tinctorial powers, dying the skin yellow. In all these properties my observations agree entirely with those of Kérner. By nage with concentrated sulphuric acid, decomposition se bod) is libera which smells like nitrous acid, aie a a ho = “— giving a arium-salt soluble in water, is obtained. heated on a platinum foil, it burns brightly with a ee ae a smoky flame. Thrown on a red-hot platinum foil it puffs. On heating the phenol with fuming nitric acid a violent action took place. The resulting liquid on evaporation furnish an abundant quantity of picric acid. There are already several instances known where picric me is fovicind: te the substitution of a halide by the nitro- A directly analogous case is quoted by Post} who cokers that picric acid is formed by nitrition of | the phenol isomeric to this (dinitrobromphenol fusing at 117°).§ This proves con- clusively then, that, when a halide is expelled by direct treat- ment with nitric acid, we are not in a condition to assume that the entering nitro-group takes the same relative position as the antecedent halide; for, as in the case above shown, both the dinitrobromphenols give picric acid on nitrition. * In many cases the addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid to a hot, concen- trated solution of a nitro-phenol salt, will entirely decompose the phenol. If I am not mistaken, this fact has been noticed, but I cannot recall the ce. + This compound is also formed when (-dinitroparabromaniline is heated with a solution of potassium hydra . Ber. d. d. Chem. Ges., vii, , Ber. pg kag ASS vi, 64 Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turep Sexes, Vor Mesh 91.—JuLyY, 1878. 50 P. T. Austen—Dinitroparadibrombenzol It is not a little peculiar that nitric acid should drive the bro- mine atom out of dinitrobromphenol, forming picric acid; for picric acid when treated with bromine, yields* dinitrobrom- phenol. Solubility.—Difficultly soluble in boiling water. Apparently less easily soluble in boiling dilute hydrochloric and nitric acids. Easily soluble in boiling dilute sulphuric acid. In hot alcohol and acetic acid (glacial) very easily soluble. In carbon disul- phide, less easily. In hot aniline it is very easily dissolved, giving a red solution. Silver Beta-dinitroparabromphenylate. Preparation.—The salt was made by mixing aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and ammonium dinitrobromphenylate. It is dif- ficultly soluble in boiling water, but much more easily in alcohol. NO, cu. N°.=0,H,N ,0,AgBr. (OAg 0°4903 grams of substance yielded 0°1884 grams of AgCl. Cal culated. Ag=29°19 28°90 hse cong ag glittering red needles, having a brilliant green reflex. hen dry the salt puffs on heating, If thrown on a hot surface, it explodes. Potassium Beta-dinitroparabromphenylate. J have already described the formation of this salt. It is somewhat difficultly soluble in boiling water. It forms long glittering and red needles, having a greenish reflex. This is the only salt that Korner prepared. He considers the play of colors to be like that of murexide. Barium Beta-dinitroparabromphenylate. Preparation.—Barium carbonate was boiled with a dilute alcoholic solution of the phenol until all carbonic anhydride was expell The residue was extracted with boiling water, filtered and allowed to crystallize. nalysis.— (C,H,(NO,),BrO) ,Ba=C,,H,K,O, Br, Ba 0°3824 grams of substance gave 0°1331 grams of BaSO,. Calculated. Found. Ba=20°72 20°46 Properties.—Saffron-yellow needles. Moderately soluble in hot water or alcohol. When heated in a mattrass, it explodes, covering the sides with carbon. * Armstrong, Ber. d. d. Chem. Ges., vi, 650. Ce ae ee ee ee P. T. Austen—Dinit librombenzol: 51 ft a Ammonium Beta-dinitroparabromphenylate. Preparation.—By action of ammonia on an alcoholic solution of the phenol. Analysis.— C,H,(NO,),BrONH,=C,H,N,O,Br 0°52 grams of substance gave 0°4 grams of PtCl,, 2AmC1. Calculated. Found. NH,=6'52 6-20 Properties,—Bright red silky needles. Soluble in boiling water and alcohol. When heated in a mattrass to 140°, it is volatile, forming a red sublimate which can be driven about by cautious heating. On higher heating it is dissociated into ammonia and phenol. A partial recombination takes place on cooling. Copper Beta-dinitroparabromphenylate. Preparation.—It was obtained by action of a slight excess of well-washed CuCO, on the phenol in boiling dilute alcoholic solution. The resulting mass was dissolved in glacial acetic acid. The salt was thereby decomposed, cupric acetate an phenol being formed. On diluting the blue solution carefully with water, a point was reached where the color changed to brown. The solution was then allowed to stand. After a short time the substance began to separate in crystals.* perties.—The salt crystallizes in short, brown glittering needles. It is insoluble in water and alcohol. Moderately soluble in boiling acetic acid. The best way to obtain it in New Brunswick, N. J., April Ist, 1878. * It would be interesting to determine exactly at what point of dilution the acetic acid becomes equal to the phenol in its attraction to the copper. 52 H. Goldmark— Atmospheric Electricity. Art. VI.—The effect of Temperature upon Atmospheric Electricity ; by Henry GoLDMARK. (Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College. No. 24.) Str Wiii1Am THomson, by means of the different forms of electrometers, devised by himself, has investigated the electric potential of the atmosphere under varying conditions and in different localities. The effect of an increase of temperature upon the potential of the air he does not appear to have ascer- tained, and the following experiments were undertaken with a view of arriving at some conclusion upon this subject. From the nature of the case the measurements made were approxi- It consists merely of a can of water A, insulated by standing upon a glass support, and discharging by the small pipe p through a fine nozzle. The insulation is made more perfect by drying the atmosphere around the insulating stem by means of small pieces of pumice stone, moistened with sulphuric acid and placed around its base. The water breaking into drops from the nozzle assumes the potential of the air at the point and communicates it to the cop- per plate C, from which the insulated wire B leads to the elec- trometer. In order to investigate the effect of different tem- peratures upon the potential, it was n to have a lim- ited volume of air upon which to experiment. To do thisI _ enclosed the nozzle of the water-dropping tube and the copper plate in the interior of the cylindric: mD. This drum was made of several layers of sheet iron, so arranged that the air, after being heated oy three Bunsen burners below, would pass several times around the cylinder and so raise the temperature of the enclosed air, without otherwise affecting it. The water which dropped from the plate collected in the glass dish below from which it was deaiaod out by a syphon, as fast as it fell. H.. Goldmark—Atmospherie Electricity. 53 To measure the potential I employed one of Thomson’s quadrant electrometers, which was charged sometimes by ‘a Holtz machine and sometimes by the Ruhmkorff coil. This instrument carries a small concave mirror which reflects a spot The method of procedure was as follows: The opposite quadrants of the electrometer were connected with two of the four binding screws of a peculiar key constructed for the instru- ment, while to the other two the wire coming from the measur- ing instrument and a wire leading to the earth were respect- ively attached. The potential of the air in the drum was then measured, the temperature being that of the air of the room. The result showed a very constant negative potential, varying but little in the successive days on which the experiment was made. The potential of the air of the room was also measured at the same time, and found to be the same as that of the enclosed air, thus proving that the drum had no effect upon the electric céndition of its contents. The burners were then lighted, and the potential was, from time to time, measured after the temperature of the enclosed air, as observed by the thermometer ¢, had risen above that outside. The change was by no means marked, but I did not on any occasion, notice any decrease of potential, but on the contrary a small but constant increase on raising the temperature. The following table gives some of the measurements m April 21. April 24. 25. in Potential in cee ee ges eer ees Soe 203 154 23 15 22 164 30 19 50 204 42 19} 60 20 67 23 14 204 88 22 96 23 On extinguishing the burners and allowing the enclosed air to — cool slowly, it retained the maximum potential it had reached on heating, even after it had regained its original low tempera- t ure, Asa result of my experiments I arrived at the following con- clusions; Pee ‘Ist. That, even a very considerable change of temperature, does not have any great or marked effect upon the electric poten- tial of the air. 2d. That however a rise in se? yest does produce a slight but constant increase in the potentié as, 54 E. W. Blake, Jr—Articulate Vibrations. Art. VIL—A method of recording Articulate Vibrations by mean Z Photography ; by E. W. Buakg, Jr., Hazard Professor of Physics, Brown University. E extreme minuteness of the vibrations of the iron disc of the Bell telephone withdraws them from all ordinary methods of observation and measurement. A pointed wire fastened to the center of a ferrotype disc 24 inches in diameter, and mov- ing on smoked glass, gave ;'; inches as the extreme ampli- tude of vibration under a powerful impulse of the voice, while sounds moderated to such a point as to be fairly articu- late, were with difficulty Sica by the movement which they communica Animal membran nes, possessing greater flexibility than the metal disc, seemed to promise better results, but the inertia of the attached wire, and the resistance offered by the smoked sur- face, become o importance, and throw doubt on the accuracy of the seni: sich ait Dr. Clarence J. Blake employs the human membrana tympani as a logograph,* and has obtained very beautiful aed interesting tracings. I find by sapraete, of some, which he kindly sent me, that the number of vib tions as rpc! atte ae considerably below the baeaay | ree ot Ps as 80 per secon hae logo a “daseribed by W. H. Barlow, F.R. a in a fa beter’ the Royal Society,f serves to record the var ae pressures of the expelled air taken as a whole. With a single exception the diagrams give no suggestion of the musical character of the sounds. The width of the line drawn by a camel’s hair brush and the slow movement of the paper would mask the minute vibrations even if the apparatus were otherwise adapted to showing them The opeioscope, invented by Professor A. E. pee con- sisting of a tense membrane, to the center of which a small mirror is seanel | is well adapted to proving the aes of ae sap in human speech, but not to determining their The dooce at of Mr. Edison records on tin-foil enough of the vocal elements to reproduce intelligible articulation. The minute indentations are therefore a record of great scientific value. In the hands of Mr. Fleeming Jenkin they promise to lead to valuable results} in the analysis of vocal sounds. Dr. S. Th. Stein§ described in 1876 a method of photograph- * Archives of Opthalmology and Otology, vol. v, No. 1, 1876. in the Po Science Review, 1874. {Nar May 9th, tea Atane on Phonograph by Mr ys J. Ellis. Annalen, Bd. clix, E.. W. Biake, Jr.— Articulate Vibrations. 55 record of the combined motions. Dr. Stein considers his method applicable to vocal sounds, but I cannot learn that he has ever attempted this application. My own Sei Sa a in that direction by Stein’s method resulted in failu The object of this paper is to describe a method of obtain- ing photographs of minute vibrations on a magnified scale. plane mirror of steel, A, is supported by its axis in the metal frame B. The ends of the axis are conical, and carefully fitted into sockets in the ends of the screws C, C. On the back of the mirror is a slight projection D pierced by a small hole. The vibrating disc, as hitherto employed, is a circular plate of ferrotype iron, 23 inches in yeti screwed to the back of a telephone mouth-piece of the for invented by Professor John Petes: and now universally used. From O the center of the back of this disc a fi stiff steel wire projects, the end of ¢ which is bent ata right angle. This care | patties Canduler to re eens dias de a beam of sunlight Soripecbeigs through a small crear opening. This beam passes intoa dark closet 45° to the | horizon. The ra pass through a lens at whee! focus bin! form an intensely lumin- ous sponds of the circular openin carriage moving smoothly on four wheels travels beneath the lens at such a distance that the sensitized plate laid upon it comes at the focus for actinic rays. A uniform velocity is given to the carriage by a string fastened to it and passing over a Prictis “To this string a lead Shee bs sufficient to balance The velocity attain = e carriage is det paaaners by p ing a sheet of smoked glass upon it and letting it ran under 56 FE. W. Blake, Jr.—Articulate Vibrations. tuning fork (Ut 83—512 v. s.) provided with a pointed wire. = every case more than 200 vibrations were counted and m ured, and careful comparisons made between the earlier id later ones, so as to be certain of the uniformity of the motion. From the description it will be evident, that when the car- riage atone isin motion a straight line will be photographed upon the plate. On speaking into the mouth-piece the disc is set in vibration, each movement causing change of angular position of the mirror, the reflected light moves through twice this angle, and the resulting photograph gives us the combination of its motion with that of the carriage.* The general character of the curves obtained is shown in the accompanying figures, which are about one-half (0°56) the actual size of the originals. The reduction was accomplished by pho- tography on the wood itself, so that the skill of the engraver was employed simply to follow the lines, which he has done with prot fidelity. he velocity of the carriage for the vowel-sounds was 214, for Beats University, 40, and for How do you do, 14 inches per secon In the mathematical discussion of these curves the 7 are measured by the known velocity of the carriage, and se to determine the pitch, the ordinates represent the amplitude of vibration of the center of the disc, magnified 200 times in the photographs. The “peer of scale makes the magnifying in the wood-cuts only 112 tim The ordinates are not strictly straight lines, but parts of the vertex of a parabola, and closely approximate to circular ares whose radius is the cay banal of thelensemployed.t In the figures given, the centers of curvature of these arcs is at the right hand. With an ordinary tone of voice an amplitude of near ge inch is obtained, implying a movement of the center o dise of “005 inches as determined by actual measurement. By varying the atealorating weight and its fall, any ma able. velocity may be given to the pemaess Each syllable requires for its arti about one of asecond, hence run from right to left The negative (examined from the }It can easily be shown that at the reflected beam describes the envelope of cone, Boon eae an angle of 90°, and whose axis is inclined 45 Be ag to reflect the beam almost directly Wor on an path: asa having the sensitized plate move up and down in a vertical plane. 2 i wri bit ie anna ~ 0) ROWN 3 TY = pee LETT eeeteceege ae LEtata trent et eeeeeeyeEee eee bs ahadheauee DO THEE ay THUTELER PEPE EEE vee gee jqaneee? 58 E.. W. Blake, Jr.—Articulate Vibrations. the plates must be quite long when ar velocity is great. I employ plates two feet in length, and that velocities from 6 to 40 inches per second give good secs The action of the light is however inversely as the velocity. To compensate for this, the size of the circular opening admitting the light may be increased, This, of course, causes an enlargement of the luminous image, and apparently involves an injurious widening of the line traced, but, as observed by Dr. Stein in his experi- ments, the effect of velocity i is to narrow the line pho since the maximum exposure is in that diameter of the circular poesee which lies in the line of motion. This isa great advan- tage, since a variation of velocity in the vibration is marked by the widening of the line, often more clearly than by the form of the curve. I have employed the ordinary photographic process, not at- tempting to obtain special sensitiveness. The brightest sunlight is required, a slight haziness interfering seavialy with the result. y heliostat employs two reflectors of ordinary look- ing-glass, and the loss of light is considerable. To guide those who may wish to try this method I add the ollowing measurements : Diameter of circular opening --_-._.-_--- 7s inches.* Distance of mirror from circular opening ---. -. -28 feet. Distance of mirror pe photographic plate - . _114 inches. Bock temas OF tenn 94 inches. Size of steel sik i ge, Pic ay pce aed 0° pone 34 inches. Weight of steel mirror_-_-_.__. 065 The question naturally arises whether the mirror may not so interfere with the vibrating disc as to destroy its articulation. The telephone gives a direct answer and banishes the doubt. mirror was attached in the manner already described to the dise of a telephone, and the instrument showed itself still perfectly capable of eens. and ‘receiving,’ without notice- able one of clearness or the audible peed of speech traceable in these résonie? in other words, is the record com pet I am not prepalot = yet to answer this question definitely, but the fol- owing experiment leads me to doubt whether an affirmative taken from it while the instrument was talking au : resulting record was almost a smooth line, poms but very slight indications of oaths of the mirror. It would there- fore, appear that there are distinctly audible Marae: which © Doxending oo talosity toquiveli auc cd. | the light. attached to the disc of a receiving telephone and a ‘pho Se © ibly. The a ee ee Se ee ae we O. N. Rood—Telephonic Relay. 59 are too minute to be recorded by this method. It is to be noted, however, that the width of the line traced where the vibrations are extremely small, is so great as to mask the curv- ature, so that the experiment just cited is not entirely fair. The clearness and beauty of the curves obtained can hardly be 2 ape without inspection of the originals. Their complexity and variety open a large field for investigation, and they seem to offer the means of analysis of articulate speech. Art. VITI.— Suggestions for a Telephonic Relay; by Professor O. N. Roop. AFTER reading an account of the experiments of Mr. Hughes,* which may be regarded as an extension of the work of Edison, it occurred to me that the peculiar property of car- bon, upon which they depend, might be utilized in the con- struction of a telephonic relay. I accordingly arranged three pieces of carbon in the form of an H, attaching the two outside saben to the diaphragm of an ordinary telephone; this, with a attery, was destined to act as relay and re-transmitter. The first circuit included, then, a common telephone as sender, and the coil of the relay; the second included battery, vibrating carbon, and a common telephone used as a receiver. It was found that the vibrations of the pivots of the central piece of carbon were indeed able to modulate an electric current, so as to reproduce with somewhat diminished intensity sounds uttered in the sending telephone. Eight small vibrating car- bons were now substituted for the single piece, and the repro- duction was effected without loss of intensity or distinctness. The battery used with the relay consisted of eight small cells of zine aad ‘caition placed in diluted sulphuric acid only. For a relay to be efficient it is of course necessary that it should increase the loudness of the sounds so as to allow for electrical re-transmission to a more distant station ; this can probably be effected, 1st, by making the telephonic relay of such dimen- | sions that six or eight carbons can be placed pg etary: J over the center of the iron diaphragm, and 2d, by using simul. taneously several of these pieces of apparatus in the same circuit. An arrangement like Hughes's microphone was also employed instrument; an inverted cov xX was single one. The sd acoagrae of the carbons was due to a Suggestion of Dr. W. Gibbs, who at the time proposed various * Nature, May 16, 1878. : 60 Scientific Intelligence. forms of sending apparatus, all including the principle of mul- tiple vibrating points or surfaces of contact. This simple apparatus was very sensitive, and reproduced with fidelity con- versation in a low tone at a distance of more than thirty-five feet from the box; its performance suggested to me the multi- plication of the carbons on the re ay. above I may add that when the electrical current introduction of a pure. musical note, which often runs through considerable variation in pitch. This voltaic tone may be due to the repulsion exerted by the electrical current on itself, causing one of the carbon points to rise and fall with coqulanal in a manner analogous to the motion of the Trevelyan rocker, or it may be caused by rapid changes in temperature and hence in volume of the contact-surfaces. With fourteen small cups it oceurred quite frequently. Columbia College, June 10, 1878. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHrysics. 1. On the Microphone of Hughes.—At the meeting of the ney some) on May 9th, Professor Huxley presented a paper E. Hughes of London, on the action of sonorous vibrations in varying the force of an electric current.* The results described were obtained in an attempt to investigate, by means of the tele- phone, the effect of sound vibrations on the electrical behavior of matter, Using a Daniell battery of three cells, with a telephone in circuit, the wire conductor was subjected to strain until it broke; ted even by sound w Ten or twenty nails piled up log-hut fashion, increased the effect, and a piece of steel watch chain worked very well. Still better results were bbtaiied by the Pigh8 of a metallic powder in a glass tube, the instrument in this fo: So sensitive as to reproduce articu: late speech, All finely divi ed conductors which do not readil oxidie as such as platinum, mercury and carbon, or still better od lized “carbon (willow charcoal heated to whiteness and plun into mercury) may be used for the purpose, a glass tube filled with pa substances, and provided with wires for insertion in a ‘ = Roginmeting, xxv, 369, 384, May 10 and 17, 1878. Sci. Am. Suppl. v, 2024, une 8, Chemistry and Physics. 61 circuit, being called a “transmitter.” Exposed to sound, even when quite inaudible to the unaided ear, the resistance of the transmitter varies in scnsenmiai of the vibration, thus varying the current strength and producing in the telephone a distinct ’ h t is lying, the merest contact with a feather or a camel’s hair pen is distinctly heard in the receiver, and both instrumental and vocal sounds are transmitted with power. Acting on these facts, Baghes devised inch thick, pointed at the ends and supported vertically between two blocks of the same carbon which have small cavities hollowed out to receive it, the upper end being more blunt than the lower, and rounded. The weight of the upright _ is only just st suf ficient to make a feeble contact. ith this form of transmitter the beating of the pulse, the tick of a watch, the tramp of a fly can thus be heard at least a hundred miles from the source of sound. In explanation of these facts, the author says: “It is quite evident that these effects are due to a difference of pressure at the differ- ent points of contact and that they are dependent for the perfec- tion of action upon the number of these oats of contact. The are not dependent = any apparent difference in the bodies in contact but the same body in a state of minute subdivision is ? e results which have been marry by Hughes as above described, are clearly ae ene by more than a year by those of Edison.* In January, 1877, while sabid in perfecting an aa eae telephone, Edison made use of the fact discovered by n 1873, that semi-conductors wali the peculiar bane ed of * To the center of a escri new form of relay based on the gee of th ing resistance by pressure, using disks of carbon on th the receiving electro-magnet, on which disks the armature r *The Speaking Pea bone, Talking Phonograph and other novelties. By B. pp. 431, 8vo. New York, 1878. D. Appleton & Co, + Journal of the the Telegraph, x, 163, June, 1877 62 Scientific Intelligence. disks and armature in the secondary. When a current through the magnet, the armature was attracted, compressed the carbon disk, diminished its resistance, and so increased the current strength in the secondary circuit. Since the Aniieration of the resistance is exactly as the pressure, the relay translated the varying current strength of the one circuit into a varying moi ig strength in the other, of precisely similar character; thus for the first time making it ible to relay telephone currents. That ‘the effects thus obtained by Edison are due simply to varying external con- tact, aa first proved = ee . Richards of Serr rd in J “Hh 187 a led by erie of Edison, all the phenomena fedoribe d with it being adily repeated with Edison’s carbon transmitter, especially if a Cael button be used which has been worked over several times so as to be in a state of minute division. The tick, the pire the fly tramp can all be heard with it. For purposes of practical tel- overcome by Ediso n only after long experimenting. It i is mainly a matter of adjustment of the contact pressure, as well in the car- acts. =a is easy to talk with the carbon transmitter of Edison, by project the sound waves directly against the carbon itself as in the shiciephieati Finally, Edison has utilized the varying resist- | | Chemistry and Physics. 63 ance of carbon contacts by pressure, in the construction of an ic ur be m ured, and has applied it to the construction of a thermometer, barometer, and hygrometer of ‘extraordioaty delicacy, and to the “are of a rheostat of great simplicity. os On the Boiling Point of Sulphuric acid of various pret ot hoagh the boiling point of the most concentrated sulphuric acid—containi ining 98°5 per cent H,SO,—was carefully fixed by Marignac at 338°, no determination of the boiling ett pe of acid of less concentration has been made since Dalton E h undertaken to redetermine accurately these boiling ‘points ra the following method: About 150 ¢.c. of the acid to be examined was placed in a flask having a long and wide neck and heated to boiling. In the nia ne beer was so suspended by wires of platinum as to ntain entral position, the bulb bein wholly immersed in the Sean. ig by loss of water the strengt of the acid is increased, the boiling point must be determined at nning of ebullition. This the author takes to be the instant at which the stem of the thermometer is surrounded by transparent vapors, and a partial condensation takes place on the neck, the Sermenndics heenmn at the same time stationary for O, as abscissas, a curve is obtained which is very ne arly a parabola and by which the boiling scales may be obtained for reeneainte strengths.— Ber. Beri. Chem. Ges., Xi, m0, yee /B wholly replaced by ee giving rise to three series of bodies, C,H,,,,CSOH, C. 2: Bin COSH, sed ,CSSH, the first two which are isomers. The confusion in naming these bodies n gen nee upon pot cyanide, a materials being placed verted co heated on the water bath fort five or six days. The. ait said two layers of liquid, the upper one of which was a eR of sodium sulphydrate. 64 Screntific Intelligence. On decanting this, an oily liquid remained, which on cooling became a crystalline mass; and this after purification gave on analysis the formula C,H,OSNa a,H,O. To establish the constitu- tion of this body, nothing more is necessary than to convert the hydrate into the chloride, ~ see if the chloride contains aie yor. as this, of course, could no the case . = is the hydroxy! oxy- gen a gat is replaced. Fo r this = the sodium salt was whi a at on ~ um salt was also 0 waren oc. Ch; IL, x "303, ence 1878. Ont the Bpntheaiin oF Ozxindol.—The conception that ica acid is is oxthoumidophenylalyoxalic acid and that isatin is its anhydride, as first enunciated by Kekulé in 1869, who announced ~ inten- tio n to prepare orthoamidophenylacetic acid, and from this by oxidation to produce isatin. Banysr has now succeeded for the oxindol. That o: dride of orthoamidophenylacetic acid was proved by Suida, who, at Baeyer’s suggestion, examined the question whether, in the reduction of isatin to oxindol, one or two CO groups were attacked, and if only one whether it was that group which was attached to the benzene, or the other one. On analytical grounds, the formula 4 f tay was established for oxindol, thus answering the problem. The synthesis of one | is extremely simple. Phenyl- acetic acid is nitrated by means of fuming nitric acid, — nitrophenylacetic acid. This i is reduced with tin and hy nitrous acid.— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 582 Raa 1878. G.F.B. On Aldehydines, a new Class of Bases —Lapensure has ive the name aldehydines to a class of basic bodies formed by the condensation of one molecule of an orthodiamine and two Chemistry and Phystes. 65 is purified by recrystallization from —— It fuses at 195°5°, crystallizes in clear colorless monoclinic prisms, sublimes in small quantities, is ripen in water, but at in sivobel and acetone, and in dilute acids. Its formula is C,,H,,.N,. Heated with ethyl iodide: to 120° , yellow crystals of tolubenzaldehydine-ethy] iodide are obtained ; and these treated with silver oxide, yield a strongl alkaline solution from which on eva poration an oil separated wish could not be crystallized. Oxidized with permanganate, . — dibenzenylamido-benzoic acid, CH,COOH(NC,H,),. Hence, the author assigns to volubienaiadanesine the probable rational acsoaibe 6 C,H,< X F Tolufurfuraldehydine, and tolusalicylaldehydine —to which he gives the special name azurine because of its mag- nificent blue fluorescence—are also described.— Ber. Ber : rips Ges,, xi, 590, April, 1878. . B. 6. he Preparation and Properties of oe Spine has investigated snbariatinety the substance which is the inverting constituent of yeast, and which Donath called serve in. To pre- Eee e it, compressed yeast, freshly prepared, is coarsely pulverized, read out in a capsule, and ~— at a temperature not exceeding 40° , until it can be rubbed to a fine powder between the fingers. It is then heated on an air ” path to 100° to 105° for six hours, mixed with r toa magma, allowed to stand for twelve To free the ferment from er bars gs this treatment with alcohol renders insoluble in water—the precipitate is freed from alcohol by pressure, digested in just sufficient water for solu- tion, and filtered ; the albuminates remain on the filter as a gelatinou us mass. On pouring the filtrate into alcohol, the ferment is precipitated in the pure form. It is filtered off, washed wit: absolute alcohol at least ten times, the excess of alcohol expressed, and the precipitate dried in vacuo. e yield is about two grams urity. sodium hediatn, no violet color appears, showing the absence of peptones, No leucin could be detected on long boiling with sul- Taran Sears, Vou. XVI, No. 91.—Juxy, 1878. — 66 Scientific Intelligence. present, reaches its limit in about forty hours, pans pera one _ of invertin produces 760 parts of inverted sugar max rl. Chem, Ges., xi, 474, March, 1878. G. aise On the oecurrence of Allantoin and Hi ippuric acid in the Urine of the Dog.—Sa.kowskt has confirmed fully the statement of Meissner that both allantoin and hippuric acid occur in the urine of the dog. In the une Tse to dissolve the ciepeindlial residue of the evaporation of the urine of a dog in cold water, he noticed that a not inconsiderable mass npc, undissolved. By recrystallization from hot water, = of pure allantoin were obtained. The amount given was 0°8 gram from the urine of four days, the dog being fed on meat. The hippuric acid was detected in the urine of the four days’ experimented with, when hungry, when it reached one one hundred and same, Seosene of the urea. It was never entirely absent, even when no food or only purely animal food was given ; and the ligation seemed to be without — ce. —Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 500, March, 1878. 8. On the Coloring Matter of’ the Shells cA sie Pee aD brilliant and remarkably permanent color eggs of many birds has led LrzperMann to the ssifohesentioe "at its cause. He finds that however widely different these colors are from each other, they are due essentially to but two coloring matters, one a ue or green substance, ante’ a biliary. coloring — the other characterized by a remarkable absorption spectru ese coloring matters are seat in the superficial layer of | the shell, often in several thicknesses. When the shell is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, the coloring matter separates in flocks, and by treatment with alcohol a strong solution may be obtained. With the eggs of gulls and seein an unsuccessful attempt was made to obtain the coloring matter pure. The colored alcoholic solution shows two sharp xi se tion bands, one on each side 0 the D line, _ strongly a When alkaline, four weaker bands appear, none of which ae re with the firs “ ea — Chem. - xi, 606, April, 1 om neenenety in Space. — Spotulakiens on the forms “of ee cules and the arrangement of the atoms in space are generally as useless to the: scientific ; aerial as they are entertaining to their authors, and are therefore almost exclusively confined to fanciful cereers like J. G. MeVickers, D.D., LL.D., who draw from their maginations most beautiful and s symm of mole- calm tl which resemble nothing earthly unless senapso many-angled ornaments made of straw or perforated card-board so common in re — of farmhouses. e pamphlet on “Chemistry in Its importance is shown by a most complimentary preface written Chemistry and Physics. 67 by a violent criticism from the great — _— Nats who never deigns to attack any but the most important theories. The principal points made by Van’t Hoff ee be stated briefly as follows: First. If a four affinities of an atom of carbon project from it toward the re ea of a regular tetrahedron, and each of these affinities is satisfied by a different radica , two isomers are possible (instead of none as predicted by the same formula con- e these radicals which cannot be made to coincide by any change of position. One of these stands to the other in the same — as that of any object to its image in a looking-glass. For example, one of the carbon atoms in laché acids is attached to four different a (CH,, COOH, H, HO), and we find two laché acids rdingly, one from milk, the other from flesh, resembling eac aha in chemical relations most closely, but differing i in physical are satisfied by different radicals; for instance in maleic and fumaric acids each carbon atom is attached to COOH and to H ; accounting for the ease with which its anhydride is formed ile in fumaric acid each carboxy] is adjacent to a hydrogen atom, HOOC H HOOC H V V/ © C Maleic acid, } Fumaric acid, ( Hood 1H rf Coon This is sagt erent a simple and probable yg ag cages of soe puz- zling case of isomerism, which drove Fittig in his recent classical n explained by a spiral arrangement of the different radicals attached to a easbunsione: ; according as this screw turns to the right or the left would the plane of polarization be deflected in _ or the other direction ; while two atoms with opposite lpi the same molecule would give an inactive substance. By this lighethoek the different forms of tartaric acid and the differences rs to our chemical ee and marks out a great umber “e new lines for experimental work.* Otte: anemone reat wg ee och pre Translated by F. Hermann as Raume. Vieweg und Sohn. 1877. 68 Scientific Intelligence. 10. Studies in Spectrum gash alysis 5 3 by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. 258 pp. 8vo. New York (D. Appleton & Co. —Interna- tional Scientific Series). ss eeotonick Lockyer’s name has been so graphy, the spectra of salts, dissociation, quantitative pr nae analysis, results of .the study of the sun with the spectroscope, and other kindred subjects. The work is a collection of interest- ing essays written in a clear and simple style, with excellent illus- trations, and embodying what is newest in this branch of science. Taken together, however, the subjects are somewhat wanting in connection, II. GroLogy anp MINERALOGY. On Terrace Levels in Pennsylvania ; by Prof. J. P. Lester, esr of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey. Letter to J. D. ne dated Philadelphia, May 27, 1878.—In my preface to Prof. C. White’s Report of Progress’ Q on Alleghany, Butler ae foc Counties lying on the north side of Ohio river, in West Pennsylvania, I have ventured to discuss the character of the nie place a provisional Prot White, of the facts, thus far collected by Prof. Stevenson and Pr other gentlemen, gence in a study of our surface deposits in Ww it other districts of the hat opinions I ventu much hesitation to ieee were not entirely eet of by rof. Stevenson and Prof. ae who had the best right in the d. ¢ blocks, confined geogra phically to the country west of the Beaver River and north of the he Ohio; and I concluded that a submergence to that extent was pro robable ; also, that the upper clay terraces represent the sloping plains oF mind which during that submer- gence were deposited in the valleys, by ordinary deposit from the vesbarriongs - intervening coal-measure high lands. I have (it is needless to say) always considered our whole Soil penipihiaad sculpture het accomplished and finished previous to the com- man Ki eo Geology and Mineralogy. 69 mencement of this era of late and temporary prune op and I am still unable to see any need for changing my old views. I older ers erosion out of the hea and soft hotizbrital layers of e coal-measure mass. hae | ust received a letter from Prof. White, announcing an important discovery bearing weightily ape the subject in ques- tion, made by Prof. Fontaine and himself about two miles from Morgantown sai est Virginia, Here a broad level reach of Pennsylvania State line e tically exa the e area of the Flats was pao ae to be “covered to an unknown depth with a very fine, tough, aluminous, creamy-white clay, con- um ne} immense i of vegetable remains in the m ost perfect state of preservation of which it is possible to conceive.” Only a small collection has as yet been made and a few weeks must elapse before a sufficiently large collection can he made to decide non ya how far the plant-forms differ from those of our present ocal fi The top of the deposit is about 300 feet above the river, which would make it more than 1,200 feet above tide. English geolo- gists would be very apt to suggest a glacial dam at Pittsburgh to account for such deposits in the water basin of the Monongahela River. But there is no such short cut to an explanation . a phenomenon coéxtensive with half a dozen States of the Uni r. White says the level of the Flats must be about ths hits vith: that of the pe lays so extensively worked at Greens- boro and Geneva in Fayette County. He adds that on the Second Tecan! ” (of Prof. Stevenson’s series) below nec town, Mr. Keek in sinking a well 70 feet deep, passed through shan ging silt and clays, and no rock. Prof. Stevenson’s third pe tt of Progress lettered KKK) is just coming from the press, will be read with great rata by geologists who busy them- selves with the more recent ¢ 2. Cretaceous and Tertiary of Charles ton, S. C. — Lieutenant A. W. Voeprs, U.S in a communication to the Charleston News and Courier for yer ril Oth, st ates that in the Artesian bor- ing at the Citadel, Charleston, the Cretaceous formation was reached at a depth of 950 feet, "where oceurred Eco. ogyra costata, and other fossil shells, among them a new Cham names Chama Charlestonensis, The Ezogyra continued to be brought up si a depth of 1 825 feet, and with it at the lower depth ~— china’ sr tychodus Mortoni, Gryp. Pitcheri, etacea, etc. The present depth of ‘the SS is 2,870 feet , and Lieuioaaal Vogdes believes that they ai in the “second bed of the Cretaceous above the undies g sili, Specimens of water-worn gravel and sand of decomposed granite 70 Scientific Intelligence. now being brought up;” and that the whole depth from the sur- ee The overlying Eocene consists of the Lower Eocene or Buhr- ogee group, which has a thickness at Aiken of 200 feet and rests n the granite, and of 250 feet at es the Middle or Bautce beds, which have a thickness of 300 feet at Charleston, and were formerly known as the Calcareous beds of the Charles- ton basin; and the Upper, which includes the Cooper and faney groups, soit 300 feet thick in the Artesian boring. Next c the later Tertiary, called by Lieutenant Vogdes Pliocene, which rests upon the Cooper group, and at Goose Creek is about ‘12 feet thick; it is stated to contain 45 per cent of recent shells. Yi ucatan Coral Reefs, and ous elevated Coral Rock.— Prof. A. Agassiz, in his “ Letter No. 1” on “ Dredging operations of the U. 8. Coast Survey, Schooner ‘Blake,’ during parts of January and February, 1878,” describes the coral reefs of the Yucatan coast and land, and also the life of the sea bottom from there to the Florida Reefs. He states that the fauna of the Yucatan bank is identical with that of Florida. Alacran reef, on this bank, is an atoll, elliptical in form, about 14 miles long ‘and 8 wide, with a depth of 1 to 6 fathoms inside, where are growing over the serge parts “huge masses 0 Astrea, Gorgonia, Meandri rind, d Madrepora palmata, which occasionally ris e to the surface.” The reef is steep to the eastward and s ae gradaatly to the west- war e structure is identical poe ge t of the main Florida reef, and those of the northern coast of Guba In Cuba evidence of great elevation is seen in the orice of ancient ote ea in the hills surrounding Havana and extending to Mat these hills being 1200 feet high and ote entirely of pe 9 Gdeuical in sag s with those now livin Large numbers of siliceous sponges were brought up on the Cuban frre the living Favosites, “ perhaps the most interesting coral ever dre edged,” together with many of the corals collected by Count Pourtalés on “the rocky plateau south of the Florida aera in 200 _ 300 fathoms. The mond Bowlder Trains.—These trains of bowlders, diet made esgare by Dr. Stephen Reid, and described by Prof. Edward Hitchcock and later by Lyell, have been studied with care by E. R. Benton, and a description and map of them, with an ex- cellent discussion of the facts, os peusained in Bulletin Nos. 2-3, of oe v, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, 1878 o synchronise ( a Cleveland; a which "hake based his subdivisions. This section is as follows, beginning with the summit of the series: se Siig | Oe eo 5 Geology and Mineralogy. TL Cuyahoga Shale -....-..- .-..150to 250 feet thick. Berea Grits: . 2. sess o.b ews gan BO Test thaek Bedford Shale... ois acwel aves ciuag 75 feet thick Cleveland Shale. ............-.21 to 60 feet thick. Of these four members, so wel] and werden sid ot developed in Cuyahoga County, only the last uniform rmly r s its typica character in Central and Southern Ohio. It is saya & a black bituminous shale containing scales, spines and teeth of fishes, and shells of a small species of Zingula. Not only is it uniform, but it is unique, both in respect to its fossils and its litholowical characters. In the latter particular, it is true, it closely resem- bles s the Huron shale (Devonian). But the two never exist together ediate contact, In Northern Ohio they are separated by the Erie shale (Chemung) ; on the Ohio River Wy 147 feet of shales and sandstones of the Lower Waverly ; and in Central Ohio by 75 to 100 feet of shales, pected limestone and sandstone. he great v Sunbeny in Delaware County, Sout nA ORB, 6 on the land of Horace bho d It lies above the ‘Maleuvebit sandrock of the ally wrong in respect to his Berea grit in Morrow and Crawford counties. I risk the predate that the Cleveland shale will yet be found to the east of the supposed Berea at Mt. Gilead, Iberia and Leesville. 6. Jurassic fossils in the Coast Range of British Columbia. —Mr. J. F. Whiteaves vig described the Jurassic fossils collected by Mr. G. M. niga mostly from the vicinity of Iltasyouco River, a tributa £S alacon River, and Sigutlat Lake. The author concludes that nine of the twenty-eight species are identi- cal with those of Jurassic rocks of Dakota described by Meek, pee & Gryphea calceola var. Nebrascensis, Camptonectes ex- uatus, Humicrotis curta, Modiola ( Volselta) formosa, M. per- picts Gram natodon inornatus, Astarte fragilis, Pleur uromya subelliptica, Planorbis veternus. The other species include Lima duplicata “boweeh , Stephanoceras Humphreysianum Sowerby, omya unioi les Remer, Astarte ventricosa Meek, a species described from Jurassic rocks 0 f Nevada, Trigonia Dawsonit _ Whiteaves, also identical with a eves species, a Belemnites, ue. The species are stated to be probably either Liassic = sower Oolite. Mr. Whiteaves remarks that’ the Upper to extend from Mexico to British Columbia, and that “Monotia subeircularis of Gabb has been found recently in the northern p of Vancouver Island, on Peace River on the mainland, Ferns we have three plates (many ae os two species) for a dollar ; 72 Scientific Intelligence. Upper Pine River east of the mountains; and that the Jurassic and Cretaceous seas were probably equ ally extensive; that some Texas Cretaceous species have been found in deposits of the same age on Peace River and_on Vancouver Island; that during the Mesozoic there was no ensky Mountain barrier separating the ee st ae those west. (i rus Devonico-Carboniferus; The Flora and Fauna of the peukaecs and Carboniferous Per iods, with large Addenda (from recent acquisitions); by Joun J. Bres By, M.D., F.RS., F.G.S. 448 pp. 4to. London 1878 6. (J. ait Voorst. )—Ten years have passed since the publication of the Thesaurus Siluricus y Dr. Bigsby; and now has appeared a volume still Larger, and equally elaborate hd complete, on the veh So and Carbonifer- ous Periods. Like the former work, it gives tables of the names 8 constructed as to exhibit the horizons of the species, their recur- rences, localities, references to the places where described, and the synonymy of genera and species. In addition, the author lays down his deductions from a survey of the facts, deseribes sections of the Devonian and Carboniferous in Great Bri ain, various countries of Europe, and in other parts of the world ; ives lists of the fossils of these countries, thirty in number, and a a catalogue of the works an memoirs o on the subject. The volume i is hence most TP pend) 5 ot ~ =] wm known at the time of publication of his work (February, 1878) is about 9500, of Devonian 5600, of Carbonifer- ous 8700, Dr. Bigsby spent five summers in traveling puionge the Cana- das, east and west, together with the State of New York and the States bor dering on the Great Lakes, and the country northw ard to Hudson’s Bay, and thus has had personal acquaintance with the older American rocks and their fossils, and also with many Amer- ican geologists. Ill. Botany AND Zoouoey. 1. The Native Flowers and Ferns of the United States ; by Tuomas Mrernan, Illustrated by chromo-lithographs. Boston: L, Prang & Co, his Tand II, not dated, but issued in May, 1878. Each part with 4 plates and 16 pages of letter-press. Imp. 8vo. Published at 50 cents Lape Sa the title this work might be aim is somewha' lee ere is no attempt to rival the ex- qnisiteness of these, and rey size is “aE pa The endeavor here is to give g setia at a wonderfully low price. In the work on 2 aaere we have four for half the money. And the publishers, the ; Botany and Zoology. 73 well known firm of Prang and Company, have certainly done their work well, considering the price, whaebas must increase rapidly with the number of stones used and the number of ¢ color-impressions necessary to give the right effect. Ify we sf the draughtsman rom his representation of Anemone nemorosa we could highly commend his work. If we took those of Gelsemiwm and Aquilegia chrysantha as the e type, we could do no such thing. But we have an idea that the artist, Mr. Alois Lunzer, is not to be judged by these, and that his capacity for improvement, already manifest, has a te a He has well — his set for fort is jo h Linneus as having “ made botany simple by reducing the Latin names given to each bisot to two, the generic and the s ecifi re 8 emignachron nism. . 20, — the “Some have contended that. the Seon s is used as a lever, which, on abe raised by an insect in search of nectar, causes pollen to be thrown on the insect’s back, and the pollen is thus Renemembrane is 80 closely fitted to the ‘levi er’ that it ees are t is eee E in “these speculations” i is not further explained. But this particular speculation is so out of keeping with the obvious facts that we are should think it not only “i aman ” but till now unimagined. Sprengel’s apenaietions: upen.t relations of insects to the violet, as reproduced by Lubbock, cnn nothing of this sort. ee aig ee ures eet the merit ‘of being founded on genuine obsery reat part c sit Sag an have ought not to bee beset aside by slot ae them pees an absurd and “ wholly Ata the § Pia Tike these must be taken as exp ressive of our perpen desire that a work like this, which seems likely to succeed, and which has our best wishes, should be as free as possi- 74 Scientific Intelligence. ble from flaws and short-comings. High art and exact science we do not expect; but completeness and substantial correctness may be looked for. . & . Mono raphia Metzgerie ; auctore S. O. LinpBERG. cil pamphlet of 48 pages and — plates (leaf-secti mins -~ gives eleven , Species to Pe genus of Hepatice, besides of Mr. rep S. O. LinpBere. Helsingfors, 1878.—A gn of a new ee wees ural arrangement the Acrocarpic Moss 4, 0 nidad, — Mr. Ave ards FENDLER, who hoped his botanical hey as a collector, thirty years ago, when he first ex- "Seip the region of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and made an admira- e and well known collection, and who afterwards made still larger sullnerions’ in Venezuela, is now resident in the Island of Trinida € proposes to collect ar the species of Ferns and . Flora anette Fase 73, “iauiied | in October last, ooutaae se Lythracee, by Koehne, of Berlin , 4 new ‘collabo rator, and ane aan an able one. Under the genus Cuphea, of which the zili j tinguished ‘aha the A lants referred to ge wea alatum Posh lora o —. America, and —— works. Michx., a cartilaginous capsule; it is meng! membranaceous and thin; but the oti ae opening at the summit by short stigma and prevailingly a (A. Vatifotia of the FL Bras, A, lingulata Griseb, ete.,) and one with longer style (A. sanguin- ] | | CIRO SIE Ser he i ar eid ec iE fi Botany and Zoology. 75 olentu Swartz, etc.,) which is usually petaliferous. It is to A. arenaria HBK. (which, as Koehne remarks, all subsequent botanists overlooked) that A. Wrightii Gray, belongs, and apparently A. longipes of Wright also. Fasc. 74 does not invite particular remark. It has the Humiriacee and Linew by Dr. I. Urban, also a new hand; and Oxalidaee, Geraniacee, and Vivianiaceew, by Dr. A. Progel. e key to the 108 Brazilian species of Owxalis comprises also 1877; so that the present genus has priority over D. Hartog’s i wu G n cae 6. onograph of the Genus Lilium; by Henry Joun Etwes, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Illustrated by W. H. Fitch., F.L.S. Folio. as a most successful and enthusiastic cultivator of lilies and other bulbous plants, and his collection of them is one of the most com- plete in existence. Not on y has he been a most assiduous and 8 - mie much confusion and difficulty. In Lilium, particularly, this diffi- whose previous opinion of this plant must be rather confirmed than otherwise by Mr. Fitch’s beautiful drawing, which clearly represents a small form of Z. superbum. Mr. Elwes notices as a curious fact “ that all the American lilies, though varying remark- ably among themselves, differ entirely in their bulb-structure from those of Europe and Asia, and the same peculiarity is noticeable 76 Scientific Intelligence. among the American species of Fritillaria, which, as far as we know them, have bulbs of small white and granular ‘scales, loosely esi to a solid central axis from which the stem springs. Of all the Old World Lilies and Fritillaries, only two, namely, Lilium avenaceum and Fritillaria Kamtschatkensis, resemble their American congeners in the formation of their bulbs, and both is ae eee by two or three pages of letter-press, containing a technical description of the species with a list of synonyms and references to other figures, as well as all available information in regard to its native “habitat and mode of growth: also the his- tory of its introduction into cultivation, and full cultural eel tions, derived from the author’s own experience, and from that of the most successful lily growers of Europe. When Doniiogel the work will contain forty-eight colored plates, to which is to be joined an introductory chapter, containing wood-cuts of bulbs and oeyer details, and a map showing the geographical par hea of the genus. 7. Beitrdge zur 6g hd der Bolieteacten, “Dr. “EL. Bavxe. Extract from Pringsheim’s Jahrbiicher, me xi, 1878.— But little now remains to be studied with regard. to the formation of the the nu in the raged suborders of Ferns. Not to germination of the eegacenes Dr. Bauke hing: Sa ing nation in several species of Aneinia an and in M iffers from Burch who has recently eee the det rum. He di opment of the prothallus in Aneémia in several respects, and he oes not consider that what Burch calls the “ pousse latérale nor- male” is in any sense a lateral shoot, but simply that the forma- tion of the cushion, in which the archegonia are produced, is in pia case on the lateral margin of the prothallus rather than at the sinus, as in the Polypodiacee este states that, aigics ugh in general the prothallus of the ‘Schizwacece differs from that of the Polypodiacee, fick there are Parancoas a — connect the two su Ueber Aschesivanhholt und Blatiflechenlorank: heit ee Cieamenhinead e; by Ferix von Taumen.—The pamphlet beatins the present title is the latest contribution from the Experiment Station for the Culture of the Grape and Fruit at Klasterreenberg, 4 : . FE ee re ee Ee ee ae eS PRD Sak Ses et ey ee Astronomy. 17 acs Vienna. The botanist of se Station, Baron von Thtimen, an account in Italian of two fungi, Api asporium citre and Rpharetia gibelliana which cause , aikenae 4 in the leaves of lemon trees. Another publication of interest is the list of fungi which are found on grape vines, of which the number of species is said to be 224. It must be remarked, however, that many of xi pes are not peculiar to the vine. 9. Bulletin of the United States go ge and peptic y 2 Survey of the Territories, Vol. IV, No. 2. Department of the Interior. —This number of the Bulletin contains the following laws that govern the Pact of satel life, _ A. ALLEN. Descriptions of new extinct Vertebrates from the pper Tertiary and Dakota formations, by E. D. Cops. eee of the Fishes of the fresh waters of North America, pare D.S. Jorpan. tana, by C. Tuo OMAS. “Heinips era ‘of Dakoks and Mokioe by P. R. Unter. Lepidoptera if Montana, by W. H. Epwarps. Fossil insects from the Tertiary of Colorado and Wyoming, by S. H. Scupprer. These fossils insects are a few out of a large num- ber of species which Mr. Scudder has under examination. He remarks that those from the Florissant Shales of Colorado indi- : ‘A : : these, pied the two eerie were OE oe of the two, one or thereby Scientific Intelligence. BANNAN M MMH MAN MANA SS he et mo et oe ee er ee ee ee ey ee eae one ‘suostied BRO ooOV OH HRB eBnN EA 0 ® “IBIS ‘durog 1 OD 18 oD HOO r= ads oo oN i) Gr) WAWDHARHON wr oewDontnrT | mA em uw a on a 8-08 Ih LP 0-96 ZF LP &¢ LC 99 0,-98.F1 .F9 + 4 quoreddy UL8SL. Vv Xx ‘18d ‘Boy mM NN ANN OH td €3-99 Ye) - Lyd i r=) oma AGPearAwovuDaDeoor 66-6 61 &% 8 Ww Y Sean re OY) Han. SSoey yer ei- OO mt id a eo OO OD OH ee SH OD AA OtAS oe PommarEe Caomen moo Ht AeA wMsdid RS PE GA tee = o D quomddy 88 626 ‘Sin ‘9F L OT no» 4 uoAvH MON “LLBI 78 (‘Aayoruury, ) ‘LLB ‘g¢ amon to tons é 107n8, n stars for 1877-0, with reduct date of observat Mean place of ¢ 411 0— 93 f 8 55°60 —1:90 S ~ “ n * °SS 2 : 3 ie iH h 3 26 8 7 32° 50°19 8 28°56 . N.Z(a 1842, 2: (a 1790, 2631, 1472, Z.(a 1842, 8 49 (a 1842, 8 51 (a 1842, 9 1 “ue “ d=Groombridge e = Oeltz. Arg. N. += A= a-—Oeltz. Arg comet, a +00-66 12 8 pike opuvye'T = aa $99 Peo ehe el, 3 8.9 +0-99 9 &€ ih Bilao ges 0G 8 a vA oa go wo = 2 ‘ee OD mm + + GL +862 9 FE 9%1 +913 0% ; 89% L890 ” sae aE ae sh, ae i Be : -LE ST #9 + 01-88 98 9 =? Sib Gs ah aa ch oo A 1S 0-91 +9 03. 9 eae 7 ARaoaS : i. 0-91 +609 &F ro el. —6L-0¢ 9 seer sou “LOTG “Wo 4 SPM SRERS & val +a-19 & 8 et. i bp dag foie ‘ON ‘9g ouoz a oa “xo wog =2 “SIIIRSS if ETH POMS F.01-+6.98 GT 0 page med A 9% & aes aa gz 2 £ 09 simeeen eG "SSSSses - ri takes #9 89-1 ee-86 © - a a anal i ” , +++ ° 7 D 23 2 2 ese 4 : é ‘sings uos~unduoo fo 900),7 . 3 2aOMm ¥ wo a f . °) si— QG.§ Sa esa & 28 £-PP > yee = . [66-82 & ZI “VE PaeRatae £% Th |9-8l 69 BE yelB. LUO. 08 8 Meg yaaa a fo einaccea tha | Yoao. [seo to oe | Yate cig 68 |¥9 £ oe = aace rd i “ ee eat ara pba ip dna eee nl oes = 4 198 : ba) 8 d g : ISP. 5 ces 2 | 2 | gue jog eves | area ett 9 [ol FE 4 26+ Wis “5 oe a Sy 8 f | soe cian | wat Lineeee nethenbeng ts bens ai eeer a % ES & z a a 1TBk can I¢ 09 Shs ZL 4 { eat: ee I Toa9- |. %99 91—I6e. me G 4 0-19 91 09 #83 690 |, 8 a a a ee os 4 9 q 6218. 99,69 + 9861. @ wy Bagsei2 BS ox g p> | 1068" | 49 , oy ny SOORAS 4 g i D & a & 2 Ls = a T meg ° Vv 3 iv quoavddy | *B—jou10y ss bd FS “gqo jo | suoslaud ‘reg iV x oavddy Bol © =| ry 8 “BqO yo “m0 ‘duroy “Bol oad yan : cael 310M 0 °ON ‘9 2010 § eS = 3. 344! I (zheng) *LL81 oF 0) FH Se s¢ Ss Ebel m0 r=] wm a ct S20: s- sz Pat Se ii Il il ttl Fes a, zy pe Ob) loa eee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 80 g2N 2 G-03+-19 ST 61— 83-F+88-86 FI es PLY 4 = ayy B 0-13+€-91 9F 8I— 92-F+ 96-FF BI 8% Sesser yy 2 8 a @-G6+F-0F ST LL GEF+1GE 6% 8% 6619 epuLyey—=p SB 8a so 9-26+9-08 99 gI— PE-F+ 68-42 82 &% 6SELI Joqumy = ‘E Eo o™ CES+E-G FG FI— &G-F+61-FS SE &% £9686 “I Tedry “99 =9 q at 3 Be L8E+8-L0 69 E1— 1Z-F+E2-6F LE 2% PPL IIIXX ossioy = S ans 5 ‘ Ry a I 9 f | F9L8- |€29 9% 6I—| 7896-6 |£6-8 GI ez|F-9L eI1—|ze-980+|.61 BL OL ZI», S & 9 9 | 4688- | 9-08 8% 8I—|%L969- [61-11 18 2] Z-ge % —|86-12G+|.4% TFL ‘IL » Pas o= ; z 8 P | 0828 | 0-92 0% LI—| 9089-6 |99-28 96 €2/8-9 ¢ —l08-rEZ—|.91 oc 6 ‘6 4, ee 8 € ral 9 | 6898- | €-2% OF SI—|"OShO. |26-FE GE EZ| LG FI+|98-9 F+lZ BFE ‘Ly, dS -5 € IT 2 | 9998. |G1 Lb FI—| “9689-6 |9E-9F 9€ £3/Z-1F 9 +/F6-912+].08 €2 6 ‘9 4, 2 2 Se: € Il D | 8098- | &-8F 6h 1—|“LZLE-6 |8E-9 6E £2|8,-01 .2 +(F6-2T 1+|.0F 08 OT'G “300 a Sth g § um 8 UI 8 UL Y a hay ra 3 ° gPéas (qoduaz) ‘4181 YF romp ae a fo cee Weer a mn et ot 0.6 —0.99 £2 3F BE-9+LL-8% 91 8 OLE "380 wed 9g “Ys =v =) s 5,53 Es : oy cae 4 6 w ape 9 D : NE $ £8 ‘sungs uosrwpduos fo ant 4 : 3 Ay E o * T € D | OL19- |9,-8 6F SF+| “6996. [69-1 618 |9,-TS 22+ 09-e€5+)% gE et's wo : 2 3 tes s wy 8 Ul s Uy a Sate : ‘sqo jo |‘Suosted 1B19 |v x ‘Iegq 9 peers i D Vv oy | 9 ‘Ul WATT MONT = i aes -m09 Z fi . . qys10 MM jo ‘ox duroy Boy quoredd y Zor | quorvddy “¢—jou10g “NIST ¢ " ae — St SP (‘oebbog) ‘1481 9 rauog bd Lol “opgaee Bed B Miscellaneous Intelligence. 81 lin 5th century. 7 in 13th century. ee oie BS: Lathe 7° [th “9 15 “ 15th - 7“ 8th $8 6k OS 28 “ 9th ae 15 “: 17th . 11 “ 10th a 13 “ 18th “3 16st high - 16 “ 19th ow anging the recorded shocks according to the seasons the author : “If we take the 11th, 12th, and 1st months of the Japanese old Meaibaide as cold months, sth, 6th and 7th as hot, and all the ence ‘being only three.” He also gives a curious deat of an early Chinese seismograph = fianted by Choko in the first year of Yoka, (132 ” It is quoted from at Life of Choko in om Rotel “ee reported ba Gedhiranee's of an a oiaak e the “a 2. American < seo a t St. Lou is, Aug. 21.—The fied diaiae ters of the Association at St. Louis will be at the Lindell Hotel on the Monday a Rate preceding the meeting, and afterward at Armory Hall. All members plann ing to attend the meeting are requested a communicate at once with Prof. J. ees, who is Secretary of the Local Committee. Co mmunications relative to membership, papers, and payments of assessments should be made to the Permanent Secretary, F. W. Putnam, whose address is om, wach until Md pe h Aug. 14, and after that time, St. Louis, Misso The first meeting of the Standing Committee will ill be at the L Lindell Hotel, Rise Wednesday, Aug. 20, at 3 P. M. oun. Scr.—Tairp i XVI, No. 91.—Juxy, 1878. 82 Miscellaneous Intelligence. co ne: ese for half fare on various railroads can be learned of by addressing Wm. Taussig, St. Lou 3. Cakallogthe of Scientific Serial Puthcaltone —An extended catalogue ot Scientific Serials is soon to be issued under the auspi- Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, Librarian of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. The work has double the extent of any exist- ing list of the kind, and aims to include all Society Transactions and independent journals in every branch of natural, mathemat- ical and pbysical science, are only » applied sciences, medicine, agriculture, technology, e The arrangement is base on the countries and places where pnblished. It will be a work of great ie hay all a and men of science. The volume will be in and extend to about 300 pa Those desiring the walk Should "adress 5 ustin Winsor, Libentian of Harvard College, ambri ‘te ass, les of Machine Construction: an application of geo- metrical tsa for the representation of Machinery ; by Epwarp OMKINS, edited by Henry Evers, LL.D. Vol. i, Text, 368 pp. 8Vv0; vol. i ii, Plates, small quarto. New York, 1878. (G. P. Put- nam’s Sons—Putnam’s Advance Science Series.) — A clearly written and well arranged treatise, rendered the more useful by the numer- ous illustrations in the text, and still more by the forty-seven excel- a plates. Geological Survey of Victoria.—Decade 5 of the Paleon- tology of Victoria, by FrepERIcK McCoy, has appeared. Among ictorian species mentioned is the graptolite, Didymograptus ge, described by Hall from the Lower Silurian of Canada. On the Paleozoic JSossils of New South Wales; by L. DE ‘Koxtyen 374 pp. 8vo, with an Atlas of 24 quarto plates.— work is a complete review of the facts relating to the Paleo- ZOIC thoes of New South Wales, and contains descriptions of 176 species. Besides this, it enumerates 76 species described by others, of which the writer had not yet seen specimens, Out of the 176, 74 exist also in European rocks, 7. Mineraloyische und petrographische Mittheilungen, heraus- gegeben von G. TscHERMAK; Neue Folge, Bd. I, Heft 1. Vienna, Lig peas nage ’ Mittheilungen of Vienna, begun by ear inner in feng numbers eac rear. e ne journal. e first number contains five oe articles upou various mineralogical and onpaencating subject 8. Marine Zoological Laboratories for ins nee ae of Students. —A marine e ighavaiey for zoological instruction is to be opened at Fort Wool, on the Rip Raps, near Fortress Monroe, near the SEGRE ER or Miscellaneous Intelligence. 83 mouth of Chesapeake Bay, under the auspices of the Johns Hopkins University, and the charge of Professor Brooks ; and another on Salem Neck, between Beverly and Salem Harbor, Massachusetts, by J. H. Emerton and C. S. Minot, between June 1 and October 4; she _< terms $20.00 a a thenceum, May 25th. Al. Probable Dirtbasios of a Spider by the Trade Winds.— Rev. H. C. McCoox states ned = Sarotes venatorius Linn., a to Cuba, Florida and Yucatan, Centra America, Seepa and California, Sandwich Islands, Loochoo Islands and Japan, and thence across Asia and Afric: Liberia, and suggests, in view have promoted this distribution. mong the other localities, Caledonia, before a bathers fet breeze, the ri ing was covered with v ast numbers of small spiders ‘with their webs, each, a first coming in contact with the ri ging, seated upon a single filament of spider web, and so slenderly in some cases that a Saute breath of air was found to bear them out of sight. Mr. McCook states that the specimens examined by him — no soe whie pra not be accounted for “by difference in age, or which ma come within those ordinary natural re Sage whieh all ethane more or less exhibit.” But most of the specimens had lost their colors in the alcohol in ape “ie were preserved.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1878, p. | 12. Pol; ymicroscope.——A new ; improvement in the microscope is reported from Germany. Herr I. von Lenhossék has constructed an apparatus which permits no less than sixty microscopical pre- parations being observed in immediate succession, without the — of chistiees the slides and readjustment of the object- ts construction is similar in principle to that_of the well- wn revolving stereosco and the inventor has given the new 4pparatus the name of “ polymicroscope.”— ature, June 6. 84 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 13. The Telephone for Deaf Persons.—Having seen a paragraph string round the Sorehedd of the deaf person, who clasps the string with both hands and presses them over his ears. The experiment in this way was partially successful; the sound of the voice was always heard, and some words were ‘distinguished. Afterwards I to hold the string between his teeth. oe then heard every word distinctly, even when spoken in a low tone of voice at the whole length of the room.—John Browning, in coment of June 13. New works in Science, notices of which are os deferred. Report on Astronomy ‘and mashed Hypsometry, making vol. of q Renores of the U. S. Geographical Survey — of the 100th Meridian, geen Lieut. G. M. Wheeler. 566 pp. 4to, with 22 Pennsylvania Geological Survey. Report aut Prieto in the Beaver River Dis- trict of the Bituminous Coal-fields of Western Pennsylvania: by J. C. White. : lates. Harrisburg. 18 Mineralogy and Lithology of New Hamps shire by G. W. Hawes, Geological Survey of New Hampshire. 262 pp. roy. 8vo. With 12 plates. Concord, N. H. 18 - ws a) fo) 3c ie) 4 2 0 ze — bo 5 et Report on Seentnere Fish-culture for stg ie By S. F. Baird. 1030 pp. 8vo. U.S. C sion of Fish and Fisherie ‘scene e 1878. Report o Bethe Survey of Canada, rg 1876-77. 3 Re 6. Selwyn, Direc- tor. 532 pp. 8vo. 1878. Report on Forrestry, pt ah d under direction a the Commissioner of Agricul- ture. By F. B. Hough. pp. 8vo. Washin: The Speaking Telephone, "Tetking Phonograph fiat other ene ong by G. B Prescott. 2 pp. 8vo, with many illustrations. New York. 1878. (D. ‘Apple- ton & Co. Ann of Science and mre’ | for 1877, edited by Spencer F. Baird, be the ceoahive of men of science. 0 pp. New York. 1878. sare & f Dynamic; an Bier to the Study of Motion and Rest solid ore Fluid Bodies, by W. K. Clifford, F.R.S. Part I, Kinematic. 222 pa 12mo. London. 1878. A forges & 0. Die Vereinigten Staate: von Nord America, von Dr. Fri Set aa der Erdkunde zu Mi ached. Erster Band, Physatsehe G Seorrap hie und Natur- charakter. 668 pp. large 8vo, with illustratio us. Munich Metasomatic Development es the Co oppet: bearin nie Rocks of Lake Superior, by R. Pumpelly. 310 pp. 8vo. ‘oc. Am. A Bulletin of the Bussey Tnatitution of > ea Tigieceniey Vol. ii, Part iii. 18 aa 78. In zur Bestimmung der Mineralien von Franz von Kobell. Elfte vermehrte sate. 110 pp. 8vo. Miinchen. 187 the Chemical Laboratory of the ioe Hopkins University, Nos. itimore, Report on the Hydroida collected during the Exploration of iy ee Stream by L. F. de Pourtalés, Assistant U. S. Coast Survey and forming N. — i: the — of the Museum, of Comparative Zoology at Harvard a Coleg, y G.J Allman. 64 pp. 4to, with 34 plates. ambridge, Mass \ ahi A\N\ oe ot es cc \ \ “Sg IUNINIIVS N asd es ee acid x iTyHo4 ple VN 2s Ble Se ee a a Z\ NNGAZHD we N\ An ne Ne ot | a e on \ ‘ALS BVT EIVS ee | Vand | LZ. ~ 09310 N¥s Fae 4 FP fe P | gone VMVOILIJNVOEOINY rT ag F ot TI OT 6 ‘PL-6 IlYdV P4SL T LV Td ‘SNOILLVILLOOTI OIWLAWOUVE NX | an A =k YN Saiaina a OP fe {-\ ese _ ee \ HON SMO Soe | 2 \ | / f\\ | Ps \\vitwwo ra Y Gea PAB | rd ¥ S YuaANa0 4 é = Take f oe § | J. am | } MO os AS Y rs “Janruoo vate & Re «| Zaye. Ra See “QOS 1DNVH4 NYS tA x tl \ | aa q * 42. Of oh BBO (ee SEs. 46-60 Gd SLet 7 J } Ps ee “a + 7 + 4 t aqai- one GL8L L~ Rese | "A ‘os io / \ aa + ae © x Ee JOGIUNINOINS \ = ees Y és BIA ATIns 1404 f X ae cay Y A — Fil et f- \ IJNNSABHD e % XN a ANNINOS Bae \ —| f- is aa Fi? 0 SR DS cs: rn oY Ree ¥ 4 "a a pte a a JNaoonmnaxoaga f™ b. ame ig = a ‘ = ee wi AN 8 e.g ‘ “I aNNIYOD _ be oosid ‘fg f- Ta pana 7 . ae ‘oi = 4 ek q f : Neat Atel VIN EU ESS? AEA aes PAG ea ae am = ue ee | rfl an ae ih. | L- — aqua & oe ~< Noosrowras ave ft SN Sao Se — 23 GNVIUHOd : NOINIE LWOd Ha | | — a | | i | | | a in NYS aaa oc 3T 8 7 ae 8 4 ¢ TL oT ‘6L-St G24 FASr "8-9 HOUVIL ciare Eek ee Pie Ait hh Asy. “SNOILVILLDLOON THI OFLLAHWOUVEe EU OD annoy > rs oDE # — 29 —________ OF \ \ \ | 30S ee ne 2..| \ \ SSvy VANMd “ SVHAHSYN, oulv NONI OL SSou - LZ —- Vavey: J 2OT “ST 20% tee 20S aT L’sl TIYdV SHAUNO OINVYOSI OO EEE ee ee AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. IX.—Forest Geography and Archeology: a Lecture delivered before the Harvard University Natural History Society, April 18, 1878; by Asa Gray. Iv is the forests of the Northern temperate zone which Wwe are to traverse. After taking some note of them in their present condition and relations, we may enquire into their ped- igree; and, from a consideration of what and where the com- ponent trees have been in days of old, derive some probable explanation of peculiarities which otherwise seem inexplicable In speaking of our forests in their present condition, I mean not exactly as they are to-day, but as they were before civil- ized man had materially interfered with them. In the dis- trict we inhabit such interference is so recent that we have lit- tle difficulty in conceiving the conditions which here prevailed, a few generations ago, when the “ forest primeval’”—described in the first lines of a familiar poem—covered essentially the whole country, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Canada to Florida and “Texas, from the Atlantic to beyond the Missis- sippi. This, our Atlantic forest, is one of the largest and almost the richest of the temperate forests of the world. That 18, 16 Comprises a greater diversity of species than any other, except one. In crossing the country from the Atlantic westward, we Mississippi. We exchange it for prairies and open plains, 86 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. and more bare and less green as we proceed westward, with only some scattering cottonwoods (i. ¢. poplars) on the imme- : “dba ag ks of the traversing rivers, which are themselves far between. ta the Rocky Mountains we come again to forest, but only in narrow lines or patches; and if you travel by the Pacific Railroad you hardly come to any; the eastern and the interior- desert plains meet along the comparatively low level of the divide which here is so opportune for the railway; but both north and south of this line the mountains themselves are seem to be as bare as the alkaline plains they traverse, mostly north and south; and the plains bear nothing taller than sage- brush. But those who reach and climb these mountains find that their ravines and higher recesses nourish no small amount of timber, though the trees themselves are mostly small and always lo When the western rim of this great basin is reached there is an nee change of scene. This rim is formed of the Sierra Nev Even its eastern slopes are forest-clad in great meas- ure ; oF the western bear in some respects the noblest and most remarkable forest of the world Ria ie rkable even for the Eucalyptus-trees in certain sheltered ravines of the southern part of Australia, it is probable that there is no forest to tonipated for grandeur with that which stretches, essentially unbroken,—though often narrowed, and nowhere very wide,— from the southern part of the Sierra Nevada in lat. 86° to Puget Sound beyond lat. 49°, and not a little farther. Descending into the long ‘valley of California, "the forest changes, dwindles, and mainly disappears. In the Pacific Co: nges, it resumes its sway, with altered features, some of them not less magnificent and of greater beauty. The Red- woods of the coast, for instance, are little less gigantic than the Pe -trees of the Sierra Nevada, and a handsomer, and a thou- times more numerous. An veral species ges are we shave two torcoe seeicilit in Rank America,—an Atlan- A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 87 tic and a Pacific. They may take hors names, for they are vise upon the oceans which they respectively border. so we have an intermediate isolated region or isolated lines of seit flanked on both sides by bare and arid plains,—plains which on the eastern side may partly be called prairies,—on the western, deserts. and less arid region, is larger, becaibii more diffused. Trend- ing westward, on and beyond the northern boundaiy of the United States, it approaches, and here and there unites with, the Pacific forest. Eastward, in Northern British territory, it makes a narrow junction with northwestward prolongations of the broad Atlantic forest. So much for these forests as a whole, their position, their limits. Before we glance at their distinguishing features an component trees, I should here answer the question, why the occupy the positions they do ;—why so curtailed and separated at the south, so much more diffused at the north, but still so strongly divided into eastern and western. Yet ‘I must not consume time with the rudiments of physical geography and foliage, its vast amount of surface which it cannot diminish or ta except by soli that weheng it lives, it is completely elplessly exposed to every atmospheric change; or at sem its resources for sdnpiatid are very limited ; and it can- not flee for shelter. But trees are social, and their gregarious habits give a certain mutual support. A tree i doomed, where a forest, once established, is comparatively secur so rees vary as widely as do other plants in their constitu- tion; but none can withstand a certain amount of cold and other exposure, nor make head against a certain shortness of summer. Our high northern regions are therefore treeless; and so are the summits of high mountains in lower latitudes. As we ascend them em we walk at first ie ruces and fir- trees. 88 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. most luxuriant forest-tract in the d, where winter is unknown, and a shower of rain falls almost every afternoon The size of the Amazon and Orinoco—brimming throughout he other side of the Andes, mostly farther south, shows the absolute contrast, in the want of rain, and absence of forest; happily it is a narrow tract. e same is true of great tracts either side of the equatorial regions, the only district where great deserts reach the ocean of our country is forestless from dryness in our latitude, as the high northern zone is forestless from cold. The Atlantic United States in the zone of variable weather and distributed rains, and the Gulf of Mexico as a caldron for . country east of it bordering the Gulf of Mexico, forty-five to . n tri Sag Se Se ges Te ae ee ay ee ee eee ae A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 89 From the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the amount of rain decreases ae and oni regularly from south to north; but, as less is needed in a cold climate, there is enough to nourish forest. throughout. pre the Pacific coast, from the Gulf of California to Puget Sound, the southerly third has almost no rain at all; the middle portion less than our Atlantic least; the northern third has about our Atlantic average. Then, New England has about the same amount of rain-fall in winter and in summer ; Florida and Alabama about one-half more in the three summer than in the three winter months,—a fairly equable distribution. But on the Pacific coast there is no summer rain at all, except in the northern portion, and there little. And the winter rain, of forty-four inches on the northern border, diminishes to less than one-half before reaching the Bay of San Francisco; dwindles to twelve, ten, and eight reach the United States boundary below San Diego. Taking the whole year together, and confining ourselves to the coast, the average rain-fall for the year, from. Puget Sound to the border of California, is from eighty inches at the north to seventy at the south, i. e., seventy on the northern edge of Cali- fornia; thence it diminishes rapidly to thirty-six, twenty (about San Francisco), twelve, and at San Diego to eight inches. The two rainiest regions of the United States are the Pacific coast north of latitude forty-five, and the northeastern coast and borders of the Gulf of Mexico. But when one is rain: the other is comparatively rainless. For while this Pacific rainy region has only from twelve to two inches of its rain in the summer months, Florida, out of its forty to sixty, has twenty to twenty-six in summer, and only six to ten o ‘it in the winter months Again, the diminution of rain-fall as we proceed inland from the Atlantic and Gulf shores, 4 is ve the 9, ah that is so favored with winter rain is but a narrow “strip, betwee the ocean and the Cascade Mountains. East of the latter, the amount abruptly declines,—for the year from eighty inches to sixteen; for the winter months, from forty-four and forty to eight and four inches; for the summer months, from twelve and four to d one. ok So we can understand why the Cascade ae abruptly ee separate dense and tall forest on the west from treelessness on _ the east. We may conjecture, also, why ph North Pacific forest is so magnificent in its devolopment. : 90 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. Equally, in the rapid decrease of rain-fall southward, in its corresponding restriction to one season, in the continuation of the Cascade Mountains as the Sierra Nevada, cutting off access of rain to the interior, in the unbroken stretch of coast ranges near the sea, and the consequent small and precarious rain-fall in the great interior valley of California, we see reasons why the Californian forest is mainly attenuated southward into two lines,—into two files of a narrow but lordly procession, advancing aimee ure along the coast ranges, and along western flank of the Sierra Nevada, leaving the long valley between seowitvaly bare of trees. By the limited and precarious rain-fall of ria ee we may account for the limitations of its forest. But how shall we account for the fact that this district of Pensemtigale little rain produces the largest trees in th ot only pro- e what it can ie indeed, does the rain-fall of the coast of Oregon, great as it is, aa account for the extraordinary development of its orest ; for the rain is nearly all in the winter, very little in ea Yet here is more timber to the acre than in any other part of North America, or perhaps in apo other part of the world. The trees are never so enormous irth as some of the Californian, but are of equal belated least on the average—three hun red feet being ae and they stand almost within arms’ length of each oth The explanation of all this may sancti be found in the great climatic differences between the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the continent; and the explanation of these differences is foun in the difference in the winds and the great ocean currents. The winds are from the ocean to the land all the year round, from northwesterly in summer, southwesterly in winter. An the great Pacific Gulf-stream sweeps toward and along the coast, instead of bearing away from it, as on our Atlantic side. e winters are mild and short, and are to a great extent a season of growth, instead of suspension of growth as with us. So there is a far longer season available to tree-vegetation than with us, during all of which trees may either grow or accumu- and in this latitude, trees use the whole autumn in getting ready for a six-months winter, which is sracnielians lost time. a « A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 91 Finally, as concerns the west coast, the lack of summer rain is made up by the moisture-laden ocean winds, which regularly every summer afternoon wrap the coast-ranges of mountains, which these forests affect, with mist and fog. e Redwood, one of the two California big trees,—the handsomest and far the most abundant and useful,—is restricted to these coast- ranges, bathed with soft showers fresh from the ocean all win- ter, and with fogs and moist ocean air all summer. It is nowhere found beyond the reach of these fogs. South of Monterey, where this summer condensation lessens, and winter rains become precarious, the Redwoods disappear, and the gen- eral forest becomes restricted to favorable stations on mountain sides and summits...... The whole coast is bordered by a line of mountains, which condense the moisture of the sea-breezes upon their cool slopes and summits. These winds, continuing eastward, descend dry into the valleys, and warming as they descend, take up moisture instead of dropping any. valleys, when broad, are sparsely wooded or woodless, except at the north, where summer-rain is not very rare. Beyond stretches the Sierra Nevada, all rainless in summer, except local hail-storms and snow-falls on its higher crests and eaks. Yet its flanks are forest-clad ; and, between the levels of 3,000 and 9,000 feet, they bear an ample growth of the largest coniferous trees known. In favored spots of this forest—and only there—are found those groves of the giant uoia, near kin of the Redwood of the coast-ranges, whose trunks are from fifty to ninety feet in circumference, and height from two hundred to three hundred and twenty-five feet. And in reach- ing these wondrous trees you ride through miles of sugar-pines, yellow pines, spruces and firs, of such magnificence in girth and height, that the big trees, when reached—astonishing as they are—seem not out of keeping with their surroundings. ; I cannot pretend to account for the extreme magnificence of this sierra-forest. Its rain-fall is in winter, and of unknown but large amount. Doubtless most of it is in snow, of whic fifty or sixty feet falls in some winters; and—different from the coast and in Oregon, where it falls as rain, and at a tem- perature which does not suspend vegetable action,—here the winter must be complete cessation. But with such great snow- ~ the supply of moisture to the soil should be abundant and asting. Then the Sierra—much loftier than the coast ranges—rising from 7,000 or 8,000 to 11,000 and 14,000 feet—is refreshed in Summer by the winds from the Pacific, from which it takesthe __ last drops of available moisture; and mountains of such alti- tude, to which moisture from whatever source or direction must necessarily be attracted, are always expected to support 92 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. forests,—at least when not cut off from sea-winds by interposed chains of equal altitude. Trees such mountains will have. The only and the real wonder is, that the Sierra Nevada should rear such immense trees ! Moreover, we shall see, that this forest is rich and superb are to be compar In order to come ‘to this comparison, I'must refrain from all Mexican plateau type; that they are common to the mountain- all through that arid or desert region of Utah and Nevada, of which the larger part belongs to the great basin between the ocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada: that most of the ountain trees are identical in species with those of the Pacific forest, except far north, where a few of our eastern ones are interm rmingled. I may add that the Rocky Mountains proper get from twelve to twenty inches = rain in the year, mostly in winter snow, some in summer show But the interior mountains get little, and the plains or val- leys between them less; the Sierra arresting nearly all the moisture coming from the Pacific, the Rocky Mountains all coming from the Atlantic side. ours is not i to th degree that the correspon regions west of the Rocky Mountains are. The ali from the Pacific which those would otherwise share, is—as ave = e seen—arrested on or near the western border, by the coast- ranges and again by the Sierra Nevada; and so the interior (except for the mountains), is all but desert. n the eastern side of the continent, the moisture supplied by the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico meets no such obstruc- tion. So the diminution of rain-fall is gradual instead of abrupt. But this moisture is spread over a east surface, and it is naturally bestowed, first and most on the seaboard district, i « Sg ae Se ee a Re TR ee eee eR ee eo A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 98 and least on the remote interior. From the lower Mississippi eastward and northward, including the Ohio River basin, an so to the coast, and up to Nova Scotia, there is an average of forty-seven inches of rain in the year. This diminishes rather steadily westward, especially northwestward, and the western border of the ultra-Mississippian plain gets less than twenty inches. ndeed, from the great prevalence of westerly and southerly winds, what precipitation of moisture there is on our western — is not from Atlantic sources, nor much from the Gulf. he rain-chart plainly shows that the water raised from the heated Gulf is mainly carried northward and eastward. Itis this which has given us the Atlantic forest region ; and it is the limi- tation of this which bounds that forest at the west. The line on the rain-chart indicating twenty-four inches of annual rain is not far from the line of the western limit of trees, except far north, beyond the Great Lakes, where, in the coolness of high latitudes, as in the coolness of mountains, a less amount of rain-fall suffices for forest growth. e see, then, why our great plains grow bare as we proceed from the Mississippi westward; though we wonder why this should take place so soon and so abruptly as it does. But, as already stated, the general course of the wind-bearing rains from the Gulf and beyond is such as to water well the Missis- sippi valley and all eastward, but not the district west of it. oes not altogether follow that, because rain or its equiva- lent is needed for forest, therefore wherever there is rain enough, forest must needs cover the ground. At least there are some curious exceptions to such a general rule,—excep- tions both ways. In the Sierra Nevada we are confronted with trees we know: under the more copious and well-dispersed rain, we have prairies, without forest at all. There is little more to say about the first part of this para- dox ; and T have not much to say about the other. The cause 94 A, Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. owing to a deficiency of rain. That, the rain-charts settle, as Professor Whitney well insists. The prairies which indent or are enclosed in our Atlantic forest-region, and the plains beyond this region, are different things. But, as the one borders—and in Iowa and Nebraska passes into—the other, it may be supposed that common causes ave influenced both together, perhaps more than Professor Whitney allows. He thinks that the extreme fineness and depth of the usual prairie soil will account for the absence of trees; and Mr. Les- quereux equally explains it by the nature of the soil, in a dif- ferent way. ese, and other excellent observers, scout the idea that immemorial burnings, in autumn and spring, have any effect. Professor Shaler, from his observations in the the reconversion of. prairie into woodland. I am disposed, on general considerations, to think that the line of demarcation between our woods and our plains is not where it was drawn by nature. Here, when no physical bar- rier is interposed between the ground that receives rain enoug for forest, and that which receives too little, there must be a debateable border, where comparatively slight causes will turn the scale either way. Difference in soil citend —pra racticed for hundreds of years by our nomade prede- cessors, may have had a very marked effect. Za suspect that the irregular border line may have in this way been rendered more irregular, and have been carried farther eastward wher- ever nature of soil or circumstances of exposure predisposed to it. It does not follow that trees would re-occupy the land when the operation that destroyed them, or kept them ery: ceased. The established turf or other occupation of the soil, and the [To be continued.] J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. 95 Arr. X.—On the Structure and Origin of Mountains, with special reference to recent objections to the “Contractional Theory ;” by JOSEPH LECoNTE. (Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 19, 1878.) In order to write intelligibly on this subject it is necessary first of all to define clearly in what sense we shall use the word mountain. In ular and even in scientific language this word is used to express every considerable elevation above the general level of the earth surface, whatever be its extent or its mode of origin. It is applied equally to a complex svstem of ranges formed at different times, such as the Andes, the North American Cordilleras, or the Appalachian ; or to each one of the components of such a system, as for example the Coast Range, the Sierra or the Wahsatch ; or to each one of the com- ranges formed at different times a mountai Each monogenetic* component of such a system, such as the Sierra ) the formation of Ranges. For, on the one hand a mountain- proper—in all cases they belong to the category of mountain decay, not to that of mountain-origin. It seems to me that much of the refined classifications, and of the minute divisions and subdivisions of types of mountains, in which some recent writers have indulged is the result of an imperfect recognition of the distinctions enforced above. Limited, as above, moun- tain ranges are, I believe, always formed by horizontal pressure * A well chosen word | reatly ct. We are in- Jet isha bein oe often 2 pnes Sethe apes Aare = te, 96 J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. crushing the strata together and thus producing foldings and thickening and consequent elevation. In what I shall say of mountain-structure I shall be compelled for the sake of clear- ness to assume this. I hope to justify this assumption in what I shall subsequently say on mountain-origin. ’ TL. Mountain-Structure. Mountain ranges may be conveniently divided into two gen- eral classes which, however, graduate completely into each other, viz: those which are com posed of a single anticlinal fold, and those which are composed of a number of folds alternately anticlinal and synclinal, either open, as in the Jura, or closely appressed, as in the Appalachian, the Coast Range, the Alps, and many others. The one kind is formed where the earth crust is more rigid, the other where it yields more readily to the horizontal pressure. Both kinds are greatly modified, sometimes by eae aE sometimes by faulting, Bea y voleanic outbursts, and > ways by subsequent ero - Mountains of a single fold.—The simplest concoienble mountain range consists x % a single anticlinal fold of a series of strata. In such cases the deeper strata of the series are thickened and swelled upward by the horizontal pressure, while the upper strata are raised into a vault with little or no thickening, or may ev e thinned and broken by tension. Nearly always the yang’ is greater on one side than on the other; so that the vault is unsymmetrical. In such cases a great fissure and slip is apt to occur on the steeper mde The following figure (fig. 1) is an ideal section of such a mountain efore erosion had modified its form, or rather (since up- swelling and erosion goes "t together pari passu) as 1 would be pean Now is evident that in the pir would almost certainly be formed; and if beneath the vault there — exist & mass of fused or semi-fused — se inaninan males er), formed either by the invasion of the Poo whe with their included waters, by the interior heat of the earth during the preparatory process of sedimentation, or by the heat evolved by crushing in the act of formation itself of the pe ge dislocations would be apt to occur: and further, both the fissures and the faults would be most apt to occur just hae the bending of the strata is ees on ree: an phe ea HAsQUSSOREREED 1009/1 : TORR | | | toe ye a SS Soe) ee TL ie ged ae = een ae Cee J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. 97 greatest, viz: on the side of the steeper slope. Such a fault is ideally represented in figure 2. But very few great mountain ranges belong to this simpler type. Perhaps the best illustration which can be found is the Uintah Mountains. The figure given above (fig. 1) may be structure of this mountain. This simple structure, however, is complicated in a portion of its extent by a prodigious fault of 20,000 feet on the north or originally steeper side, just where the bend of the strata is greatest, as in the ideal figure (fig. 2). Figure 8 is a perspective view taken from Powell, showing in 3. Uintah Mountains—Upper part restored, showing fault; lower part showing the present condition as produced by erosion (after Powell). its upper part the restored form and the amount of slip on the north side, and in the lower part the amount of subsequent erosion, in this case, 25,000 feet in thickness. f the crust in the uprising region be extremely rigid, then the vault instead of being forty or fifty miles across, as in the case of the Uintah Mountains, may be a hundred or several hundred miles across. In such case a great plateau is formed (geanticline of Dana). And since an arch of such extent, whether filled or unfilled beneath with fused or semi-fused matter, cannot sus- tain itself, such elevated plateaus are peculiarly liable to fis- sures by breaking down of the arch, and to slips by gravitative adjustment of the broken parts. If such faults be of compara- tively recent origin, or occur in a region where erosion is ex- ceptionally small, then they will form conspicuous escarpments or even conspicuous mountain-redges in the general direction of 4. a tr) ¢ 2 © 3 ss a7 Kaibab plateau. Kanab plateau. East and west section, across plateau region north of Grand Cafion. Section east and west across a portion of Utah. (After Howell). . the axis of the uplift. Such is evidently the origin of the north and south escarpments of the plateau-region described by 98 J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. Powell (fig. 4), and of the north and south monoclinal ranges (ridges) in the Basin-region described by Gilbert and Howell (fig. 5). These mountains are evidently formed by the break- ing down of a great arch (geanticline). Perhaps the arching and the breaking down may have gone on together pari passu. But in any case, certainly the whole arch must be regarded as a monogenetic upheaval and therefore corresponds to what I have called a Range, and the so-called north and south ranges are not ranges but ridges. Again: a simple anticlinal fold such as I have described, may be greatly modified by metamorphism. This is especially apt to be the case if the strata be very thick and the fold be narrow and high; that is, if the compression in a given space and therefore the heat of compression be very great. If now, such a sharp fold, metamorphosed in its deeper strata along the line of greatest compression, be subjected to profound erosion, it forms a common type of mountain, viz: one consisting of a granite or highly metamorphic axis flanked on either side with tilted strata corresponding to each other. The early geologists held, and many even now hold, that in such cases the granite axis was pushed up through the broken and parted stra- te ta. But it is far more prob- mere enn, S - bea: a ee ‘Z To” pet ra able in all cases, and certain VIS °. PO" SERPS OR SY, es. . ’ “ SE ee ~ Inmany cases, that the weak- ened and _ broken - backed anticlinal has been cut away, and the deeper-seated and there- fore metamorphic and therefore also harder strata have been exposed along the axis, as shown in the ideal section, figure 6. 2. Mountains of many folds.—We have thus far spoken only of mountains consisting of a single anticlinal fold modified by metamorphism, by faults and by subsequent erosion. But great mountain ranges most commonly consist of many folds, alternately anticlinal and syn- clinal; either open as the case 83 = of the Jura or more usually Section across Coast Range, from San Closely appressed as in the Ap- range of California, as I have shown (this Journ., ii, 297, 1876) consists of at least five anticlines and as many synclines closely appressed so that fifteen to eighteen miles of original sea-bottom is compressed into six miles. As this range may be r as the type of this class I introduce here the section used in the paper referred to. The structure of the Alps is similar but even J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. 99 morecomplex. Renevier has recently shown* that the Vaudoise mountains in which the horizontal mashing has been extreme is probably in most cases, the result of an arch strongly pressed together at the base, spreading at the top by its weight, and per- haps broken by tension, and the whole powerfully eroded, as shown in the ideal diagram, fig. 8. This is the view now taken by Favre, by Lory, by Heim and Giordano and other Alpine geologists.+ A similar structure, however, may result also from the erosion of a closely appressed syncline, as shown in fig, 9. ee ee ee ee Payee crs a Sap 7 — > Ideal section showing how fan- Ideal section showing how fan- structure may be produced by structure may be produced by erosion of an anticline. erosion of a syncline. The kind of mountains just described and of which the Coast Range may be taken as the simplest type, is that which is always formed when the crust of the earth yields sufficiently easily to the horizontally-acting mountain-making force. course in such cases the whole mass of crumpled strata is usually drops, by gravitative adjustment, ur ; 100 J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. their former existence and place. These are in fact extinct cosa: eae forms are gone; only their buried and fossil- ized skeletons remain. Again: in all mountain ranges, but especially in those of this type, the great swell constituting the range, and often also the subordinate wave ets, are unsymmetrical, the slope on one side being long and gen ntle, and on the other short and abrupt. The crest is near one side: the wave is, as it were, ready to break, or has already broken. This asymmetric form has mountains is admirably shown in the Sierra, the a- lachian, and to a less extent in the ay be reg as the typical form of a monogenetic upheaval oun The Sierra Nevada may be taken as a typical example both in form and in structure of a monogenetic upheaval, or what I have called a Range. As to form: this range rises on its western side from the San Joaquin plains, only about a hun- dred feet above sea level, by a very gradual slope of fifty to seventy miles in length, until it ieee a crest 12,000 to 15,000 feet in height, and then plunges down by a steep slope which reaches the plains of Lake Mono, or Owen’s River valley 5,000 feet high in sixor seven miles. As to structure: it consists of a granite axis twenty to twenty-five miles wide, flanked on either side by slates and schists dipping at a high angle. Fig. 10 is a generalized section of the Sierra, from the San Joaquin plains, 8. J. P., to Lake Mono, L. a , Showing the typical con- our of a mountain range. On the long western slope the slates and schists outcrop = so = =] many parts, in fact, = er- yay on across Sierra Mount rt from San kaso. plains to Lake Mono. a Ging the ct en _ pa occurs a broad interval of granite, twenty to twenty-five miles wide, after which the slates reappear, forming the highest sum- mits, such as Mounts Lyell and Dana, and the whole eastern slope So simple appears the structure of this mountain, that might imagine that it consists of only one grand fold, eroded ~ J. LeConte—WStructure and Origin of Mountains. 101 Zi esse) SAS Se closely appressed folds such Ideal diagram showing probable st 1 ave formed the of the Sierra Nevada range. Sierra Nevada, showing the grand wave composed of enormous thickness of sediments, the subordinate wavelets, composed of the upper crumpled portions of the series, the lower portions being metamorphosed into granites and exposed along the axis by erosion. Again: the Sierra range is an admirable example of a fold passing gradually into a fault. In the northern portion of Lake Tahoe the slates occupy a broad area on both slopes, though =a Pens ie> ructure more unequal and the crest higher, viz: 138,000 feet. The great wave is ready to break (fig. 12,6). In the southern portion about Lake Owen, the eastern slope is still more abrupt, the eastern slates have entirely disappeared, granite alone forming the summit and the whole eastern wall, and the crest here reaches its highest point, near 15,000 feet. The great wave has at last broken with the formation of a prodigious fault (fig. 12, ce). membering that the escarpment is here 10,000 to 11,000 feet, and that the whole thickness of the slates has been removed by erosion from its summit, and that their eastern continuation lies buried beneath the soil of the plains below, we cannot estimate this slip as less than 15,000 feet. It is probably much more. It is almost certain that it was a slight re- adjustment of this slip which caused the hyo earthquake of March, 1872. In fig. 12, a, b, ¢, are generalized sections repre- senting these facts. It is on 2 the steep slope side, or else along the crest, that all the great Voleanic outbursts have occurred. This is exactly what we Am. Jour. ioe Raises ar. Vou. XVI, No, 92.—Aveusr, 1878. 102 J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. might expect; for the squeezing out of the sub- mountain fused or semi-fused matter would naturally take place there, where both the fissuring and the squeezing are In conclusion there are two or three suggestions which seem eile pie here the Basin and Plateau regions there occur many paral- le] souk and south faults. In the Plateau region these form h it is a remarkable fact that in the southern part of these two regions just where the Plateau is highest, all the western faults of the Plateau region and all the faults of the Basin region drop on cone west side, so that the escarpments look westward. But the Sierra escarpment, as we have already seen, looks eastward. Now just between = two, 1. e., between the Sierra escarpment on the one side a the Plateau and Basin escarpments on the other and ae ase by both, lies the great a ea 5 area, occupied by the alkaline la es, ono and Owen. It robable that this great depression is correlated with the ees on each side—that the up-push- ing and over-pushing of the Sierra on one side and the eleva- the up-folding of the Sierra on the one side and the up-lifting of the Plateau on the other is greatest, there also the down-fold- ang of the intervening basin is also greatest. The wonderful Owen’s River valley, with the Sierra near 15,000 feet on one side and the Inyo Mountains 10,000 to 14,000 feet high on the other, with only se miles from crest to crest, is this down- folded troug nly forty miles from Mount ‘Whitney, the highest a on ne Sierra and in the United States except Mount St. Elias in Alaska, occurs Death-valley, which is seve- 7 hundred feet below sea-level. 6. According to M. Suess’s view (if I understand him aright), the typical form of mountain ranges described above, is the result of the fact that the yielding crust which by compression and upswelling forms the Range, is abutted against an mide se ing mass of a gee stiffened crust. Thus according to the Al as pushed over against the resistant crust of ie Black sce and Central France, and, therefore, its steep slope is toward the north, The A palachian was pushed over toward the alneady-suchet Silurian and Laurentian land- crust on the north and northwest. This is a necessary corol- lary to my view that mountain ranges are the up-pushed sedi- ments of marginal sea-bottoms. For observe: marginal sea- J, LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. 103 Finally, the already asymmetric mountain is pushed over margin of the Sierra region. The Sierra region, as I have else- where shown,* was then a marginal sea-bottom receiving sedi- ments from the Basin-region continent, until an enormous thickness had accumulated. When these thick sediments began to yield from the aqueo-igneous softening of their floor, they would first swell up asymmetrically, and then be pushed over against the stiffened Basin region land-crust, forming a steep slope or even a fault and escarpment on that side. c. I have said that the Basin region was land during Meso- zoic times ; moreover that the Sierra region was then marginal Pacific sea-bottom. Now the Wahsatch region was at the same time a marginal sea-bottom of the great interior sea which then covered all the Plateau and Plains region. -At the end of the Jurassic, as already said, the marginal sea-bottom on the Pacific side yielded, and the Sierra was born. Probably at the same time the bottom of the Jurassic sea of the Plateau region went down and the more open Cretaceous sea of that on the east or seaward side and the steep slope on the west or landward side. Such according to Emmons is, indeed, the fact. The Wahsatch range rises on the east by a gentle slope twenty miles long, until it attains a crest 12,000 feet high, and then plunges down by a slope so steep that it reaches the plains * This Journal, III, vol. iv, p. 460 and seq., 1872. 104 J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. about Salt Lake 4,000 feet high in two miles. The east walls of the faults formed here are 12,000 feet in the air—the west walls lie buried beneath the soil of the plains . e same horizontal thrust which sushed up the Wahsatch also arched the stiffened land crust of the basin region and formed the north and south fissures and faults of that region. The basin ridges therefore probably belong to the same time. d. In passing from the lowest foot-hills, bordering on the San Joaquin plains, to the granite axis o 't e Sierra, we pass from fine fissile clay-slates through schists of increasing coarse- ness to granite. This is doubtless partly the result of increas- etamorphic change in this direction. But it is also, I believe, largely due to a change in the character of the original : sediments. If the eastern base of the Sierra was once a shore- line, then coarse sandy sediments would have been deposited there while only fine clays and silts would be carried farther out to sea. The metamorphism of the more siliceous material nowhere, as “far as I know, consist of pure and fine argillaceous matter like those of the western foot-hills. In the formation of this mountain it seems probable that the finer and softer clays at some distance from shore in yielding would be thrown into many small folds, while the somewhat firmer sands nearer shore, though yielding the most beneath, because thickest and therefore most softene aqueo-igneously, would rise as one simple fold, whieh would then be pushed over and perhaps break on the Jandward side. I believe it is very important from this point of view to compare carefully the strata on the two sides of mountain ranges. If mountain ranges are up- swelled marginal sea-bottoms, then the strata on the two slopes, though corresponding in age, and in fact originally continuous, ought not to correspond in lithological character. I believe we have here an answer to Studer’s objection to Lory’s theory of fan-structure (fig. 8), viz: the non-correspondence of the strata on the two sides of the crest. Il. Origin of Mountains. In all I have thus far said I have assumed that mountain ranges are formed by horizontal pressure in the manner and iene - appear. By no effort of the imagination can we even conceive * Emmons, Survey of 40th parallel, vol. ii, p. 340 and seq. J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. 105 how a range haying the structure of the Appalachian, the Coast range, the Sierra, the Alps or the Caucasus, i. e., a range con- sisting of many closely appressed folds, could have been formed except by horizontal pressure. It is, I believe, equally zncon- ceivab-e that horizontal pressure on a large scale can be produced otherwise than by interior contraction of the earth. Ranges con- sisting of a single fold like the Uintah are equally well explained by the same kind of pressure ; and therefore it seems unneces- sary to seek a different explanation for these. My own con- viction therefore is that all mountain ranges have been formed in a substantially similar manner. But since the publication my papers, some objections have been urged against this conclusion, which must now be examined. by north and south cliffs of the Plateau region, and the parallel escarped, monoclinal ridges of the Basin region are more prob- ably produced by direct, upward lifting forces. But we have already shown that these are not monogenetic ranges at all, but only the displaced parts of one great monogenetic bulge. There has indeed been a vertically acting force concerned in forming these ridges ; but it was not a vertically up-lifting but a vertically down-pulling force. It was a mere gravitative adjustment of the broken parts of the great arch lifted as usual by horizontal pressure, solid earth. I have long felt this as a really serious objection to the special form of the contractional theory expressed in my 106 J, LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. paper. But, let it be borne in mind that it is no olyection at all to the contractional theory, — only to that — of it which assumes the complete solidity of the earth. There can be no difficulty in the way of concentration ‘of the effects were interior contraction along certain lines so as to give rise to mountain ranges, if the earth be liquid beneath a solid crust, as maintained by some; or if there be a layer of aqueo-igneously fused or semi-fused matter between a solid crust and a solid nucleus,* as maintained by many of the very best geologists. To the idea of a sub- stantially liquid earth covered only with a thin solid shell, I elieve there are insuperable objections; but the existence of a layer of semi-fused matter would not interfere with the sub- stantial solidity of the earth in all its cosmical relations. ‘The but only large areas of the crust thus underlaid. These areas are undoubtedly the ocean beds which, as we have already said in our previous paper, are the most contractile portion second objection urged against the contractioual theory is this: the amount of contraction produced by secular loss of heat, it is said, is wholly inadequate to produce the foldings which we actually find, being in fact demonstrably very small. Now assuming that, in so complex a problem, all the data are correct and the reasoning logical (a large assumption, when we remember the difference of views among the best physicists on some geological Laing and the frank admission of grave error, Tecentl by one of the most eminent),+ allowing I say the objection its fall perro and all the certainty claimed for it; still it is evident that this is no objection at all to the contrac- tional theory ; but, again, only toa particular form of that theory, viz: that which assumes the contraction to be the result solely of loss of heat. This, it is true, has seemed the most obvious cause of contraction. It is certainly a true cause even if it be not by itself a sufficient cause. There are, however, other causes of contraction conceivable, and perhaps still others not yet dreamed of. Other things besides the earth shrink and shrivel, and in some cases without loss of heat. Apples shrivel by loss of moisture, and old people’s faces wrinkle for the same reason. Now is it not barely possible that there may be other causes of a ot the earth and the wrinkling of its face, besides loss of hea It is well are ‘us immense quantities of gas and vapors, especially steam, issue from volcanoes. This steam is usually, and perhaps truly, supposed to be derived from above—to be, * Fisher, Phil. Mag. -y VOL LD. Ont, 15 a <7: m. Thomson’s Address, before ‘Britich Association, 1876. This Journal, ii, J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. 107 distinguished vulcanologist Scrope, and at least deserves the serious attention of geologists. If this be the true origin of voleanic water, then in its escape we would have another important factor of contraction, although perhaps, by itself, also inadequate.+ a word, it is probable that in the present condition of science we do not know all the causes of contraction. But the jact of contraction is one thing and the cause of contraction another and quite a different thing. The fact of contraction is not conditioned on our knowledge of the causes of contraction but rests wholly upon the phenomena of structure. Tf loss of heat be inadequate, then we must seek some additional cause. If all known causes be inadequate, then we must frankly acknow- ledge our ignorance and seek still other causes yet unknown. The great importance of separating these two things and keeping them distinct in the mind, may be illustrated by ex- amples. In nearly all complex subjects there are two stages of theorizing and therefore two successive theories. e one dis- cusses and determines the laws of phenomena and the condi- oneny of the latter, the physical, and in fact forms its basis ; ut not vice versa. So again it is certain that glaciers conform educes to law, and consistently explains all the phenomena of glacial motion. But still the question remains. By virtue of * Cambridge Phil. Trans., vol. xii. part II; Feb., 1875. + Even while writing this, I see that Tschermak brings forward a similar theory of vuleanism and connects it with many cosmic phenomena, such as r explo Sions of gas, new stars, explosion of meteors, &e.—({Geol Mag., vol. iv, 569, 1877. 108 J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. what property do they thus move? Forbes answers, by a property of viscosity ; Tyndall answers, by fracture, change of position and regelation. These are Physical theories. Observe again: the formal theory is independent of the physical and forms its basis; but not vice versa. Now in both these cases it will be observed that it is the formal theory which is most important to the geologist. That slaty cleavage is produced by mashing together horizontally and upswelling vertically, or that glaciers move in the manner of a stream, is of immense impor- tance to the geologist; but the molecular cause of either is of great interest only to the physicist. When slaty cleavage was cussion. Now on the question of mountain origin we find the same two kinds of theories: That mountain ranges are formed b horizontal pressure crushing rock masses together in that direction and upswelling them vertically, is certain; and that this horizontal pressure is due to interior contraction of the earth is almost equally certain. This is the formal theory. But still the question remains: What are the physical causes of interior contraction? The discussion of this is the physical theory. The former we have shown is nearly perfect; the physicists for further discussion. But we must insist that the physicist shall make the formal ‘ans already established by the geologist the basis of his discussion. But observe again sic? it is the formal theory which is of the greatest and most im diate importance to the geologist, rio the physical haere may be the most so to the physicist. The two physical objections which I have just taken up and, I hope in part at least, answered, are brought forward by Rev O. Fisher* and Captain C. E. Dutton. + They are by far the most serious. But there are other minor objections advanced by Captain Dutton which I must, at least briefly, notice. e are concerned in this paper only with the origin of mountains ; but in my paper on “A Theory of the formation of the greater features of the Earth surface,” I discussed also the origin of continents. I attributed those greatest inequalities constituting continental surfaces and ocean bottoms to unequal radial contraction or a_ secular deformation, by cooling, of a heterogeneous earth. The same idea had been previously *“On the Inequalities of the Earth Surface,” &¢., Cambridge Phil. Trans., vol. xii, part 2d, Dec., a a ee: Phil. Trans., vol. xii, part 2d, Feb., 1875. + “Cri itical Obse on Theories of the Earth Physical Evolution,” this Journal, viii, 113, 1874s. Peat Monthly, May, 1876. | | J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. 109 brought out by Professor Dana and Archdeacon Pratt; and the latter had at one time extended the idea so as to include also mountain chains, although he afterward admitted lateral pressure as the more probable cause of these latter. ow, according to the view that continents and ocean bottoms are * Penn Monthly, May, 1876, p. 372. + Archdeacon Pratt, it is true, in the earlier editions of his “Figure of the Earth,” attributed the formation of mountain chains, especially the Himalayas, to 110 =. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. direction which will accomplish the required result with the minimum expenditure. Now he says, to make a mountain range by horizontal pressure would require demonstrably, a maximum, and by vertical pressure a minimum, expenditure of force, in proportion to the height and mass lifted. Therefore ~ thinks fore anticlines and downward for synclines. The s me of San Francisco are many of them paved with wooden ‘che sa which swell by wetting and are pushed up into ridges, as everybody supposes, by horizontal pressure. But acc cording to Captain force in proportion to the visible work don But again Captain Dutton thinks that the crust of the earth, under horizontal pressure, would not and could not yield gradually and quietly so as to retain its continuity, but would pene into fragments—it would not mash, but smash and “go 5, 1:10, or even 1:14; yet there is nosmashing or “ going to ” but only quiet yielding, like dough or plastic clay. Again tt mountain ranges consisting wholly of crumpled strata with many folds closely appressed, without even a granite axis, like the Appalachian or the Coast Range of California, it is simply inconceivable that the crumpling force should have acted in any other direction than horizontally; yet the strata, though sometimes broken and sli , are in large measure ‘continu- ous; there is no shivering into ‘rubble, like “ pack ice driven gainst a shore.” As to the condition of the strata at the time ps these results were accomplished, i. e., whether or not they were more p than now, is another question, and one with which we are not now as structural geologists concerned. But this is precisely the eres which Capt. Dutton as physicist should have discussed. Here are strata in positions such that it is inconceivable they could have been assumed except by hori- J. LeConte—Structure and Origin of Mountains. itt zontal pressure; but their hardness and brittleness is such that horizontal pressure would have smashed them into rubble; there- fore Capt. Dutton concludes the force was not horizontal. B would it not have been better to conclude: therefore the strata were not then so hard and brittle as now ‘ Again, and finally: Captain Dutton objects, that contractional theorists give no reason * why lines of thick strata should be lines original crust on which the sediments were laid down. This not the abutments. These ‘two objections, however, are well worthy rta ogy which ought to, and doubtless will, be used to modify the contractional theory as it now exists. Of Captain Dutton’s own theory, which he proposes to sub- Stitute in place of the supposed dead contractional theory, I 112 I. C. Russell—A Solid Hydrocarbon in the will say nothing: partly because to do so would transgress the limits which I proposed to myself at the outset, and partly because after reading and re-reading severa times I find it impossible to hold any clear image of the new theor ry in my mind, and I fear gras ge a I might do the author injustice, Berkeley, California, April 1, Art. XI.—On the oceurrence of a Solid not heart in the Eruptive Rocks of New Jersey; by I. C. Rus (Read before the New York Academy of Sciences, April 29, 1878.) IN an article by T. Sterry Hunt, published in this Journal in 1863,* mention is made of an interesting locality at yn Gaspé where a trap dike intersects the sedimentary rocks. cavities in the trap are frequently lined with chalcedony, or with crystals of calcite or quartz, and filled with petroleum which in some cases has assumed the hardness of pitch. Recently our attantioti was called to a newspaper spice” of — occurrence of mineral oil in the lava of Mt. Etna. The umerous round or irregular cavities contained in the inte are deacrtbed as being coated with aragonite and filled with min- eral oil. An analogous instance in our own country has been familiar to me for some time, which, taken in connection with the occurrences mentioned oct seems to be of sufficient interest to be worth rec Associated with the xhuer” of trap rock known as the First trap passing into a metamorphosed shale. In this region it is frequently impossible to distinguish in small exposures, the genuine trap from the metamorphosed shales that rest in con- tact with it.+ Many of the cavities in the amygdaloidal rock are filled with a brilliant jet black carbonaceous mineral resembling very closely the albertite of New Beanewerd These cavities are frequently tubular in shape, having a length out se = ae a coating of quartz or calcite a line or 1. XxXxv, p | + So0 article by ie erti “On the Sakvasive Nature of the Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey,” in this Journal, xv, 277, 1878. ¢ The occurrence of “bitumen” in am: amygdalo id trap is briefly mentioned by 8. Dana in an article on the Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley. Am. gt OC. Sci., 1874, B 47 [also, with an explanation of its origin, by G. W. Hawes, Journal, i ix, 456, 1875.] Eruptive Rocks of New Jersey. 113 two in thickness, before the carbonaceous material was intro- uced. Above the amygdaloid is found a metamorphosed shale which still retains its bedded structure, and in places presents hales the bottle is left coated with a solid carbonaceous layer. In the rocks, if a fresh supply of oil was furnished from time to time by infiltration, the cavities would eventually become com- pletely filled with the solid carbonaceous residue. A vesicular lava might in this manner be changed to an amygdaloid, the Cavities of which would be filled with solid hydrocarbons in- stead of quartz, zeolites, ete. ‘Such, it appears to us, must have been the history of the Triassic amygdaloid we have described, the cavities of which must at one time have been filled with mineral oil. This is but an epitome of what took place on a grand scale at the great fissure over 1,400 feet deep, in New Brunswick, which was filled with albertite, and in the case of the Grahamite in West Virginia, which also occupies an immense fissure. Since writing the above, our attention has been called, through the kindness of Prof. J. D. Dana, to the fact that Per- cival in his report on the geology of Connecticut, published in 114 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 1842, records the occurrence of “ bitumen” in connection with the trap rock of Connecticut. Those who are fortunate enough to possess a copy of this report will find that Percival with his usual accuracy of observation, mentions several times the occur- rence of this substance while ‘describing the Triassic formation of the Connecticut Valley. Mr. Per cival speaks aera of “indurated bitumen” as occurring in the cavities of a i trap, and in small veins in the indurated shale ausinieie Asso- ciated with these rocks occur, also, bituminous limestones and shales piaaiiins fossil fishes Similar bituminous rocks he describes as occurring in the small isolated Triassic area of Southbury and Woodbury in Western Connecticut. In refer- ence to the reported discovery of coal in Connecticut the state- ment is made* that ‘This substance, however, is a more or less indurated bitumen, similar to that occasionally occupying the pores of amygdaloid, or sh metallic veins in the trap and tbe adjoining indurat sandstones, and is perhaps derived from the same volcanic source as the trap it accompanies It will be noticed from the above that the bitumen described by Percival has the same geological associations as the mineral occurring at Plainfield, N. J. A specimen of this mineral from Connecticut which we have just cig eigee from Dr. H. C. Bolton of Trinity College, and obtained by him from seams in tra] which this mineral is associated in Connecticut correspond in lithological characters and geological position with the eruptive rock of New Jersey, and are a portion of the great system of trap ridges which traverse the Triassic formation in Connecticut and Massachusetts enema Arr. XII—On a new and remarkable mineral locality in Fairfield County, Connecticut ; with a description of several new species occurring there; by Geo. J. Brust and Epwarp §. Dana. First Paper. [Continued from page 46.] 3. DickINsonITE. Physical characters.—Dickinsonite occurs most commonly in crystalline masses, which have a distinctly foliated, almost mica- ceous, structure. It is also lamellar-radiated and sometimes stellated, the laminze beh usually more or less curved. This massive variety forms the gangue in which crystals of eosphorite are often imbedded, and also sometimes triploidite. It more- * Percival’s Geol. Rep. of Conn., p. 452. Brush and Dana—Fuairfield County Minerals. 115 over occurs in minute scales distributed through the massive eosphorite and giving it a green color, and is sometimes imbed- ded in the rhodochrosite. Minute tabular crystals are rare; they are observed implanted upon the gangue, and also scattered through the reddingite. In general aspect the mineral resembles some varieties of chlorite though very unlike in its brittleness. It has perfect basal cleavage. ‘The hardness is 85-4, and results. Dickinsonite crystallizes in the MONOCLINIC SYSTEM. The axial ratio and obliquity were obtained from the following n a gles :— Plane angle of the base=120° 0” cad, 001A 100, — 61° 30’ cam OO1A301, = 42°30’ The axial ratio is :— c (vert.) b a Q 0°6917 0°5773 1:0000 B=61° 3” For the unit prism (not observed), InI = 66° 36’, and 113° 24’ The observed planes are as follows :— % ce, O, 001 m1, 10 a, i-%, 100. SSR BBE j b, i% 010. a, -3-i, 30] ‘The adjoining figure shows all of these planes except the’ clinopinacoid, which was only once observed. . illowing are the most important angles, measured and ulated : : 116 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. Calculated, Measured. cad, 0014100, = *61° 30’ caa, 001,301, = *42° 30’ cap, 0014111, = 61° 87 61°—62° ¢xs, OO1K9%1, = ~82°° 9” 82°—82° 30’ ana, 100,301, = 19° 0” a’ xp, 1004711, = 81° 7 a’~8, 100,221, = 68° 22’ 68° bap, 010,111, — 40° 40’ Das, 010 . 321, = 30° 56’ pap’, 111,111, = 98° 40’ eae, 2214921, = 118° 9 It will be seen from the above table that pe : angle between the base and one of the two pyramids (eA p=61° 8’) differs but little from the angle between the base and the orthopinacoid (cAa=61° 30’); there are thus three planes which have nearly equal inclinations to the base. This fa et, which is analogous to that true of the Vesuvian biotite (meroxen) as pointed out by Tschermak,* gives to the crystals a marked rhombohedral aspect especially as the planes a (801) and s (221) have usually a minor development. As exact measurements were not possible the true relations could hardly be established beyond doubt until recourse was had to an optical examination. This showed that the cleavage planes are not isotrope as they must be if rhom- bohedral; on the contrary one plane of piconet is exactly parallel rs the edge c/a, and the other normal to i he rhombohedral pseudo-symmetry is also aces in the fact that the plane angle of the base differs very little if at all from 120°. th he most careful measurements practicable failed to establish any variation. That the angle really is 120° seems, moreover, to be indicated by the fact that on many cleavage lamine triangular markings are visible, which are apparently equilateral the angles measuring 60°; other analo- gous markings have four or ore! ares mi always me Pe of 60° or 120° as near as the can be The above facts show that ¢ er ryetallographically ickingonibe [ related to the micas and chlorites, although most unlike chemi ee Groth, Zeitschrift fir eevmaliaenphis, ii, p. 19, 1877. if OS ae ce Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 117 and normal to this yellow-green. No examination of a section perpendicular to the cleavage was possible, so that the position of the axes of elasticity in the plane of symmetry could not be determined. Chemical rene —The following analysis was made by Mr. 8. L. Penfield. The method of analysis was essentially the same as that already oe The purest material available was selected, but it was found impossible to ge it entirely from a little pi a quartz and eosphori The small amount of alumina present is assumed to Salone ‘to the eosphorite, and the calculations made accordingly. In the table below, column (1) gives the original analysis; (2) gives the amount of each constituent of the impurities to be deducted ; r r this deduction has and (4) the final composition after being averaged up to the original amount. ¥¢ Romsvorite ~ - and quartz, P,0, 37°49 35°36 —- 39°36 AIO; 1°55 155 FeO 11-64 “50 1114 = 1240 MnO 24°18 163 22°55 25°10 CaO 12-00 1200 13°36 Li,O 03 K,O 0:80 0°80 89 Na,O 4-71 4-71 5-25 H,O 4°55 1:08 3°47 3°86 Quartz 3°30 3°30 100°25 10°19 90°06 100°25 The ratio caleulated from analysis (4) is as follows :— P04 = oe yi § “227 1 4: FeO oa By MnU- == 7305 Ca0 = = -238 i.0 = ort Fe 8 K,0 oo ae Na,O = ‘085 H,O 271 3 NB: O31 The ratio P,O,: RO: H,O =4:12:8 corresponds nf bn formula R,P,O, +4H,0. If R= Mn: Fe:Ca:Na= 3:13; this ieerils requires : P,0O, = 40°05 20). = 1369 MnO: =. 26°04 Cad oo hPa Na,O = 6°56 H,O = 3°81 100-00 This corresponds as closely as could be expected with the se (4) given above. oun. Sct.—Tuirp Senizs, Vou. XVI, No, 92.—Aueust, 1878. 118 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. Another analysis by Mr. Penfield on a separate sample of dickinsonite is given below, the lime having been lost is determined by difference. The results are ——* as before: rite ‘present: (3 ast after deducting a and (4) the final result pais again to 100. ee Reetcrie ~ o and quartz. P,0; 38°18 2-13 36°05 39°53 AlO, 1°55 1°55 FeO 11: 50 10°86 11°90 MnO 23°48 1°63 21-85 23-96 CaO [13-67] [13-67] [1498] K,0 67 67 Na,O 436 4°36 4°78 z H,O 4°62 1-08 3°54 3-88 Quartz 1°89 1°89 100-00 8°78 91-22 106000 Pyrognostics.—In the closed tube gives water, the first por- tions of which react neutral to test paper, but the last portions are faintly acid. The residue is magnetic. Fuses in the nak lamp flame and B.B. in the forceps colors the flame at first There is no known phosphate, so far as we are aware, which bears any relation to dickinsonite in crystallographic character, and in chemical composition it seems also to be without any very near relatives We have named this most interesting mineral dickinsonite in honor of the Rey. John Dickinson of Redding, Conn., our obligations to whom we have already acknowledged. 4, LiTHIOPHILITE. The occurrence of this mineral in the deepest explorations made has already been mentioned. ae is found im 1 albite in irregular rounded masses one to three inches in nate eter and coated with a black ee ie result of its own oxi- dation some of these masses have only a small core of unaltered Phas characters.—No eyaals of lithiopbilite were found, although some of the imbedded masses have in external form a pecs at phones aspect. There are three distinct cleav- : one quite perfect, always observable whenever the mineral is = broken 5 ik cond nearly perfect at right angles to the first ; a third in terrupted, which is Pap having an angle of 128°-130°, and inclined at right angles to the first named cleav- age, and 115°-116° to the second. ~ salacas: in composition rt et a) bis | a» a Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 119 between this species and triphylite makes it possible to identify these three cleavages with those shown by Tschermak to belong to the latter mineral: the most perfect gsr fe is basal, the second nearly perfect is brachydiagonal, and the third inter- rupted cleavage is prismatic (A J=183° triphy lite Tschermak). The hardness is about 45; and the specific gravity, in two trials, 3-424, and 3-432. The color of the unaltered mineral is af tion. It has a vitreous to resinous luster, and is generally translucent, though small cleavage fragments are occasionally perfectly transparent. Fracture uneven to subconchoidal. ptical properties.—The optic axes in lithiophilite lie in the basal section or plane of most perfect cleavage, the acute bisectrix being normal to the aon y pinibold The axial angle is very | he axes being partially visible in the extreme border of the field in the polariscope. The angle could not be measured satiate ctovily except in oil (n=1°47); the result of the measured was as follows: 2Ha=14° 45’ for red rays. 2Ha=119° 30’ for blue rays. The dispersion of the axes is strong, v>p. The character of the double refraction is PONE e. The three axial colors are quite distinct, as follow fies alomicne parpliel toa (that is) @ deep pink. (that is) ¢ pale ereiiiaicelious 7 “ “a ¢ (that is) b faint pink. Chemical composition.—The following analyses are by Mr. Horace L. Wells. The method was the same as that employed by Mr. Penfield in the Balas ier of triphylite (see beyond). kk Mean. Quantivalents. Ratio P,0;, 44°83 Pe 1 44°67 ae 314 ela ¥ MnO 40°80 40°9 40°86 516 FeO —- 399 ee 402 056 ¢ 082. 2°01 2 li,O = 8-72 8°55 8°63 “288 4 ; Na,O +13 16 14 002 t oe eS H,0 17 ‘87 82 SiO 63 66 99°87 oer 99-78 The dame PAs : RO: R, O=1:2:1 proves nats to be a norm Ip hosphate analogous in composition to tri hylite. Its formula is LiMnPO, or LiPO .tMn,P,0,. This ormula requi P,0, 45-22 MnO 45-22 Li,O 9°56 ——— 100°00 120 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. The mineral lithiophilite is consequently a manganese mem- ber of the triphylite group. r. Penfield has previously shown that the true formula of triphylite, hitherto doubtful, is II R ;PO,+R,P,0,,* where ae Li, and R=Fe mostly, also Mn. His conclusions are confirmed by the results of Mr. Wells’ apalyele | of lithiophilite Rammelsberg eg (as a mean of four analyses) in the hodeniuata mineral 39°97 p. c. FeO, and 9°80 MnO. Mr. Penfield, in his analysis of the Grafton, Row Hampshire, obtained 26:09 p. ¢. of FeO and 18°17 p. c. ‘MnO. The altered triphylite from Norwich, Mass., also contains a considerable amount of manganese, but as manganese sesquioxide (22°59— 24°70 p. c.); the unaltered mineral has never been analyzed. These facts go to show that between the true triphylite,—the tron-lithium phosphate—,and the lithiophilite,—the manganese- lithium phosphate—a number of different compounds exist, containing varying amounts of iron and manganese, as is true in many other analogous cases of isomorphous groups of com- pounds. It is proba able, however, that to all varieties of the two minerals belongs the hese formul RPO, +R,P,0,. Pyrognostics.—In the closed tube gives traces of moisture, turns dark-brown and fuses but does not become magnetic. Fuses in the naked lamp-flame and B. ives an intense lithia-red flame streaked with pale green on the lower edge. Dissolves in the fluxes giving in O.F. a dee prea ae bead, and in R.F. a faint reaction for iron. Soluble The name lithiophilite, from lithium and ihe, “Ripoik may properly be given to this species as it contains a very high per- centage of lithia. 5. Reppryerre, Physical characters.—Reddingite occurs sparingly in minute octahedral crystals, belonging to the orthorhombic system. It is also found more generally massive with granular structure ; it is plage with dickinsonite, and sometimes with triploidite. compared with the other species which have been described ‘ti is a decidedly rare mineral. The massive mineral shows a distinct cleavage in one plane, the crystallographic direction of pi could not be ascertained in the crystals owing to their s The Rani ess is 3-35; and the specific gravity for the min- eral analyzed, containing 12 p. c. quartz is 3°04; this gives on calculation for the pure mineral 8°102, The luster is vitreous to sub-resinous: the color of the perfectly unaltered mineral * This Journal, II, xiii, June, 1877. Brush and Dana—Feairfield County Minerals. 121 a rose- eres to yellowish-white, sometimes with a tinge of brown; crystals are occasionally coated dark reddish-brown from surface alteration ; the ese ” white. Transparent to Tae form.—The sala ie reddingite are rare and occur only in cavities in the massive min- eral. They have uniformly an octahedral habit ; sometimes only the unit pyramid is present and in other cases a second macro- diagonal pyramid, with the brachypinacoid as shown in the accompanying figure. Th creas belong to the ORTHORHOMBIC Sys- EM. The fundamental angles are as fol- tones — pap’, Wlalll = 16° 50’ par”, WiaWL..=. 110° 4? These angles S only tolerably exact, the probable error being as high as+ 5’. The axial ratio calculated from the above angles is :— c Ae 7 a 11524 1-0000 The angles of the guerra prism (not eomerve), are Ix I=98° 6’ and 81° 54’.. The observed planes are: b, at, 010; Bt PRS 1-2, 313 ABs waporent angles are as follows, calculated from the axia pap, W1alll, = 65°16 pap”, 111 alll, ra Me ES pag”, Tibatll, =: 3 quq, Mandl xt 30° oy g.0", 219 913, = 88" 17° exe”, 219.318, = 0" 59" bap, ° O10K 711) = BT 92° et aa Ce Sk ee ae aa Of the above angles the only ones that admitted of exac Measurement were the three pyramidal angles, of which we have been taken as the basis of calculation and the third gave 111» 111=65° 29, required 65° 16’. dingite is close y isomorphous with scorodite and stren- gite; the corresponding pyramidal angles for the three species are as follows: 122 Brush and Dana—Fuirfield County Minerals. Reddingite. Scorodite. Strengite. ss (vom Rath.) (Nies.) M1 4111 =~ 76° 50’ yr <8" 8" 20" Ninxiit = e516" 65° 20’ 64° 24” 1I1L,]11 = 110° 43’ Lil" 111° 307 The axial ratios of the three species are as follow :— c (vert.) b a Redd 1°0930 1°1524 : Seorodie > trea Rath) 1°1020 1/1530 i Strengite (Nies) 1°1224 1°1855 1 The perre of the three species in chemical composition are spoken of in a later paragraph. emical composition.—T he best available material was used in the analyses by Mr. Horace L. Wells; it was free from every impurity with the exception of the quartz, which was so intimately intermixed that separation was impossible. The presence of the x bad however, did not interfere in the least with the accuracy of the composition finally deduced. The acne was determined directly. wo analyses gave I. {. Mean Quarts 12-09 12-07 12-08 PO, 30°17 30°56 20°37 MnO 40°85 40°58 40°71 FeO 4°88 4°70 4°79 Na,O (trace Li,O) 32 0:23 0-27 CaO : 0-64 0°68 H,0 11-76 11-33 1151 100-71 100-11 100-41 Excluding quartz, the mean of the two above analyses gives: P,0; 34°52 3 243 . MnO 46°29 652 5-43 “075 . Na,O (tr. Li,O) 0°31 ca 146 ik 014 H,O 13-08 121 ‘121 3:00 The ratio P,O, : RO: H,O=1: 8: 8, corresponds to the form- ula Mn,P,O . +8aq, which ono the following percentage composition :— PO, =< 34°12 MnO = 52-08 B,0. =. 18% It is interesting to note here that the same formula was deduced by M. Debray* for an artificial salt which he obtained in brilliant crystalline grains by boiling a solution of phos- * Annales de Chimie et de Physique, III, Lxi, 433, 1861. PD A ee NT ET Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 1238 phoric acid in excess with pure magnanese carbonate. He gives, however, no description of the form of the crystals obtained. The close correspondence of reddingite with scorodite and strengite has already been pointed out; chemically the relation is not so close, for the manganese is all in the lowest state of oxidation and only three molecules of water are present. The ormulas for the three minerals are as follows :— Reddingite Mn,P,0, + 3aq. Scorodite FeAs, 0, +4aq. Strengite FeP,0, +4aq. Pyrognostics.—On heating in the closed tube, whitens at first, then turns yellow an nally brown, but does not ecome magnetic. In the forceps fuses in the naked lamp flame (F=2). B.B. colors the flame pale green and fuses easily to a blackish-brown non-magnetic globule. Dissolves in the fluxes and reacts for manganese and iron. Soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids. Concluding note. _ In a second paper upon this locality which we expect to pub- lish within a few months we shall describe under the name of Jairfieldite a sixth new species, whose character has been deter- mined too late to find a place in these pages. It is a hydrous phosphate of manganese and lime, having the formula R,P,O, +2H,0, where the protoxide elements are manganese and lime chiefly ; also iron and soda in small quantities. Fairfieldite is a yellowish-white to colorless transparent mineral, with an adamantine luster on the surface of eminent cleavage; the hardness is 35, and the specific gravity is 8°15 i i ipti 1, so far as possible, analyses of the other associated minerals, as, rhodochrosite, hebronite, the black massive products of decomposition and other species of special interest. 124 L. Trouvelot—Transit of Mercuvy. ArT. XII.— Observations of the Transit of Mercury, May 5-6, 8; by L. TRoUvELOT. THE transit of Mercury over the Sun was observed at my Physical Observatory in Cambridge with the 64 inch refract- ing telescope by Merz, the full aperture being used during the whole time of transit. The power employed for the observa- tions of contacts was 158, but for physical observations higher powers were found necessary. Even as high as 250 and 450 were found excellent during the afternoon. The chronometer was compared before and after transit with the Harvard Col- lege Observatory mean time clock. On the morning of the transit the prospects for good observa- tions were not promising, the s eing overcast with dense and continuous cirri which, however, allowed the sun to be seen through them most of the time. But in consequence of this state of the atmosphere the telescopic image appeared rather poorly illuminated ; although, considering the circum- stances the definition was fair and the image quite steady, the sun’s limb appearing only a little diffused. alf an hour before the predicted time for contact the sun’s surface was carefully scrutinized, but no spots were seen; and although a few small scattered facule were visible later, none could be seen at the time, owing probably to the thick va in the sky. No trace of the granulations of the solar surface could be seen. The sky forming the background to the sun appeared of a milky whiteness, a very unfavorable condition for the observation of Mercury before ingress. rom 225 20” till the time of contact, efforts were made to find the planet outside of the sun, but with no success ; although the telescope was directed exactly where Mercury entered the solar limb, and my sight must very likely have been directed several times where the visible planet wassituated. At 22526, the chronometer’s beats began to be counted, and at 224 28" 3755, Harvard College Observatory mean time, the planet suddenly made its appearance, notching the sun’s limb almost exactly where my sight was directed at this moment. The suddenness of the phenomenon created some confusion in my mind from which ensued a delay of perhaps one or one and 4 half seconds in my record of the time, so that most probably the true contact really occurred at 22 28™ 360, H. C. O. mean time, Although the contact seemed to me at first to have been instantaneous, yet, some unexplained phenomenon must have taken place immediately before I saw the black notch on the sun’s limb, as I distinctly remembered afterwards that my attention LL. Trouvelot—Transit of Mercury. 125 was called to this particular spot by a something I cannot well define, but which made me aware of the approach of the planet. But the impression was so rapidly followed by the contact that I have no definite idea of it, and am consequently unable to describe it, our atmosphere were quite dense and the telescopic image faintly illuminated; in fact, the conditions were not at all favorable for such delicate observations. Id perhaps indicate that such a phenomenon took place; but if such was the case, the black drop could not have been as dark as the disc itself, otherwise it 1s likely that it would have been noticed, as I was in expectation of seeing such a phenomenon A few minutes after the internal contact, the disc of Mercury appeared pyriform and slightly elongated towards the sun's limb. This decided appearance of the planet continued visi- ble for fifteen or twenty minutes; the major axis of the ellipsis being directed from northwest to southeast, it being a little in- clined towards the east to the south of the path of Mereury on the Sun. This appearance was probably illusory, as later when = eg a was clear, the black dise appeared perfectly 126 L. Trouvelot—Transit of Mercury. From the time of first contact till one o’clock in the after- of the inter-mercurial planets, or of the luminous ring were seen. However, I had a persistant impression of a faint nebu- lous cloud on or near the center of the black disc, but notwith- standing my efforts, I was not able to satisfy myself whether it was real or illusory. At about three o’clock the sky cleared up, the definition was good; small facule and the granulations being well seen on the sun, Mercury was observed with much attention. At this time the planet appeared of an intense bluish-black color, much darker than in the morning. With the powers 250 and 450, the planet lost entirely the flat appearance of a disc, and its globular form became very conspicuous and striking ; although no difference in the uniformity of its intense bluish-black tint was noticeable which could produce this phenemenon. The blackness of the disc appeared much more intense than the umbra or nucleus of any solar spot I have ever observed, and I do not think that any observer familiar with the appearance of sun spots, could fora moment be mistaken and take a round black spot for a planet in transit, so striking is the difference in character. The small nebulous cloud observed in the morning on Mer- cury still appeared to be there in the afternoon, but while the vision had greatly improved by the clear sky, it seemed just as faint, ill defined and ghost-like as when the sky was vaporous. Great efforts were made to see a definite luminous point in this cloud, but nothing of the sort was visible. I was not able to con- vince myself of the reality of the phenomenon, and I am rather inclined to think it illusory from the well ascertained fact that the nebulous cloud was best seen in the afternoon when the image was slightly tremulous; but the moment it became steady, the phantom cloud vanished entirely, and the dise of Mercury appeared of a uniform intense bluish-black color. During the whole time of transit, attention was given to the supposed inter mercurial planets which might have been in transit on the sun with Mercury, but no trace of such bodies could be detected, either by direct vision in the telescope or by projection on ascreen. If such bodies do really exist and one or several were in transit with Mercury, their apparent diame- ter must be very small, and at least less than one-half of that of the smallest solar granules, asa black object of this size could have been easily detected during the afternoon. , Although pretty well defined, the edge of the black dise of Mercury never appeared very sharp, even during the moments of best definition ; nor did its outline appear perfectly smooth, L. Trouvelot—Transit of Mercury. 127 but irregularly and slightly serrated, either by black or grayish point is was particularly noticeable on the south preced- ing side, where the black disk seemed to be prolonged by a short grayish appendage. This peculiarity already observed in the morning soon after the first internal contact, was still visible during the afternoon when the sky was clear and the image steady ; although it was not then so apparent. A sharp watch was kept for the luminous ring, and I had almost lost all hope of seeing it, when soon after the sky cleared up, I saw a short and narrow arc of light hanging on the pre- ceding side of the black disc, and a little larger and wider one on the following side. Asa few small facule were scattered in the vicinity of the planet, I at first thought that Mercury was passing over some of these objects, but it soon became evi- dent that these luminous ares were really hanging to the dark disc, as I could soon see them passing over the solar granulations with the planet. Fig. 1. * 2. . rafal a cern Se MIC to me that if instead of having been on the granulations, the planet had been projected over some brilliant facule, by con- trast, it would have appeared surrounded by a grayish instead of a luminous ring. The outer edge of the ring did not appear sharply detined, except at its brightest parts, but its inner edge was much more apparent, and the irregularities of the black isc very visible on this luminous background, he ring did not appear perfectly concentric with the black 128 L. Trouvelot—Transit of Mercury. disc, and this became very apparent a little before five o’clock when the seeing was at its best. Then it certainly appeared narrower on the preceding side than on the following. At this moment I estimated its width on the preceding side at about one-twentieth of the diameter of the disc, while on the follow- ing it was estimated at about one-fifteenth. Fig. 2. Between four and five o'clock, Mercury was spectroscopically observed with an excellent diffraction grating which I owe to the kindness of Mr. Rutherfurd. The spectrum appeared of an intense black color, much darker than any of the absorption lines of the solar spectrum, and quite sharply defined on its edges. I attentively observed whether the absorption lines trum wou ve been visible with a spectroscope of small dis- persive power. After five o’clock the sky became partly cloudy, and observa- tions were difficult. At 5% 54™ the definition was rather bad, the image being unsteady and the limb of the sun wave 3. and boilin minute or two before the third of the sun in apparent contact with Mercury had = their corners atte off. Fig.3. This phenomenon which was very apparent seems to be of the same nature as the black drop, which I had not the good fortune to see. I do not remember having seen at ext this time any trace of the luminous ring either on, or outside the sun, but the seeing was bad at this moment, and my attention was so much occupied with the last contact that very likely it has escaped my notice. s already stated, the sun’s limb was wavey and boiling at the few seconds later, the planet rea red and was seen § notching the sun’s limb, it having probably been lost in the ae ee ee C. H. F. Peters—A New Planet. 129 trough of some deep wave of the sun’s edge. The last contact occurred at 65 0™ 36*7, Harvard Coll. Observatory mean time. No trace of the planet was seen after it left the limb of the sun, but the sky was not very clear and the image was too unsteady to make delicate observations. The luminous ring observed around Mercury in transit has generally been attributed to the horizontal refraction undergone by the rays of the sun in passing through the dense atmosphere which is supposed to envelop this planet. This explanation seems quite plausible, although it is difficult perhaps to con- ceive how atmospheric refraction alone can produce such a phenomenon, and it would seem that something else is wanting to fully explain it. Perhaps the refraction theory might some- what be helped by the fact that the sun, having a vastly greater diameter than Mercury, must necessarily illuminate at all times more than one-half of the globe of this planet, and this surplus of illumination must be visible from the earth during transits, and appear as a thin luminous ring surrounding Mercury. Of Cambridge, May 8th, 1878. Art. XITI.—Discovery of a new Planet ; by Professor C. H. F. Prrers.—From a letter to the Editors, dated Litchfield Ob- servatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., July 3, 1878. On June 18th 1 marked upon my chart, quite near to a star of the 11th magnitude, another of the 12th or 18th magnitude; and on June 19th this star was no more in its place. I there- fore drew upon the chart all the small stars in the neighbor- hood; but before the one among these that had revealed itself 130 “Indurated Bitumen” in the trap of the Connecticut valley. [188] apparent. 1878. Ham. Coll.m.t. a. 6 . m. h. m. 8. June 18, 10 30 — 15 40 28 —1%° 641” Uncertainty +10” | 5 AS Saag | 15 39 56 16 5971 +30” 20, 10 30 — 15 39 29 16 52°3 +30", 25, 12 23 4 15 37 23-01 16 22 51:0 18 comp. by ring micr. 27, 11 9 54 15 36 45°74 16:12 ..9°8 fe & 28, 10 45 49 15 36 29°20 16 6 524 9 comp. by filar micr. 1 “ “ce i) fed ped oO _— ol wo bo — oO w for) pad iP Se lor) ee [=r] bo CON hi. ? 2 : 3004 10 12 48 15 36 15 57 a comp. by ring micr. July 1, 102813 15 35 50: 10 —15 52 23-5 4 The comparison stars of June 28 and 30 require a re-deter- mination by some meridian circle. Arr. XIV.— On “ Indurated Bitumen” in cavities in the trap of the Connecticut valley. From the Report on the Geology of Connecticut, by Dr. J. G. Percrvat. Dr. Percivat’s observations on oe occurrence of what he called “indurated bitumen” in the of Connecticut valley, shacaliig veins in vei pet whose ores are sulphides of copper, lead, zine and iron, 3 atrix of “sulphate of barytes, quartz and calcarevus spar,” “occasionally contain seams or nodules of indu- rated ort similar to that already noticed” on p. 318, an that in the “altered rocks oie Oa ven trap ieee sandstone— various minerals are often found, including “hyalite, epidote, chlorite, brown spar, fluor spar and indurated bitumen.” Ag: p- 320, he remarks that in the trap region of Berlin and Hartford, there are in the shale a dikes that bing of weer gee shale, “ through ah points of bitumen are disseminated, already noticed in a variety of ainyodaloid ;’ and that in iG brown and Hiuninons shale accompan these dikes, there are “also included seams of bitumen with brown spar and sometimes with fluor.” The above are general statements as to the pris modes of occurrence of — “indurated bitumen _ In the course of the fol- ee ar the north point of a tide of any geulang ee spars. of paneer bitumen (considered as coal) was found on the back of th amyg- daloid, the pores [amygdaloidal cavities] of which in the iwiginaey “Indurated Bitumen” in the trap of the Connecticut valley. 181 were occupied partly by a similar bitumen, and partly by a dark green chlorite.” “Copper has been found in veins in the anterior amygdaloidal ridge west of the Hanging Hills,” near Meriden, and “a similar bitumen is found in the matrix of the veins, which consists ons geri calcareous spar and sulphate of barytes Page . In the trap range west of Middletown “ where the stream (ihe "Mattabesick) crosses the third (Eastern) ridge, con- siderable quantities of indurated bitumen have been found in the the trap appears as a dike and is oon \etially eS brown indu- rated shale small veins occur” in the trap and shale — terized as a pone action one—not a self-registe: one— slg placed in the! bot- Chemistry and Physics. 135 This RL a oe Geology and Mineralogy. 147 vanishes in one minute. The water from the pool and water vein minute and 10 seconds. e gas still continues to rise but no water flows into the well from the pool for 35 seconds, when the same series of phenomena repeat themselves. Such are the facts. he explanation of the action may be readily imagined. Th pressure of the gas having relieved itself in throwing out of the w pressure of the gas becomes so great again that instead of rising until the pressu well till the pressure of the gas in its reservoir has increased to such an extent that it thrusts out of the hole the larger column of water to a height of trom 85 to 115 feet. g from the greater vein at other column is produced by either of the gas veins exclusively, for the gas must be flowing from both horizons more or less all the time. It will be noticed that more water flows into the hole directly after the larger column has been thrown up, and that the smaller column throws up less water, and vice versa. > Structed by the water would probably not be more than 50 pound accompanying facts add much to what has been recorded of - Superficial Geology of British Columbia.—Mr. GrorceE M. Dawson has an interesting paper on this subject in the Quarterly _ Journal of the Geological Society for February, 1878. He speaks of Bute Inlet, one of the fiords, as a chasm 40 miles long, running into the center of the Coast Range, and surrounded by moun 148 Scientific Intelligence. which in some places rise from its —— in cliffs and rocky slopes to a height of six to eight thousand feet. The islands about its mouth are roches moutonnées, ard tad ibciree and one of them, a steep mountain 3 013 feet high, is smoothed to the sum- mit on the north side, while Hac _ the south. The striation of the Bute inlet region is 8. 22° E., or in the direction of the valley. The glaciation over southeastern Sadonaut Island is attributed to a great glacier which swept over it from north to south, a gla- cier that filled the Strait of Georgia, with a breadth in some places of more than 50 miles he fiords of the northern part of the Strait of Georgia, and to the north, kink ice-action to a height exceeding 3,000 feet. In the interior, scratches were observed on the isolated ‘Tsawhuz nce (lat. 53° 40! 4 3,240 feet above the uth. Gatcho aka near tt sou perha sources of the Nechaco River, . 8° E. South of the —s or Dean River, at an altitude of 3,700 feet, — grooving runs 8. 37° W. These glacial markings from north to south are attributed by Mr. Dawson to a glacier moving ieaharhd, erraces in —e Columbia extend from the sea-level to a height of 5,270 fee 8. Geological Survey of C adilan Report for 1876-1877, Atrrep R. C. Serwyn, Director. 532 pp. 8vo, with several colored maps. 1878.—This volume contains reports by Mr. ELWYN, G. M. Dawson, J. F. Wuirzaves, JAmEs RicHARDSON, T. Srerry Hunt, Roserr Bert, Henry G. Vennor, G. F. Martruew, L. W. Battery and R. W. Exts, hen FLETCHER, Ss. H. ScuppEr, B. J. Ha SARC and C, Horrm Carefully selected graphite from different lodatities in Bucking- ham, Canada, afforded Mr. Pie ete Carbon 99°675, 97°626, ash 0°147, 1°780, volatile matter 0°178, 0-594; and that from Gren- ville, ‘Cine 99°815, 99°757, ash 0°07 6, 0° 135, vol, 0°109, 0°108= 00. Ceylon graphite afforded him, Carbon 99° 792, 98° 817, ash 0-050, 0°283, volatile matter 0°158, "0-900==100. The ash of the Canadian graphite gave, on analysis, 45 to 60 p. ¢., of silica 8°5 to 1 of alumina, iron sesquioxide Rrepelininite mariganese sesqui- oxide 0 to 0°5, with some lime and ma 4 to 7 per cent of potash and soda and traces of copper, nickel elk cobalt. Rensselaerite has been found by Mr. Vennor in the Laurentian rocks of Portage du Fort. An analysis by Mr. Harrington ‘ aQ ness of 150 feet, and that much of the rock is a pure white alabaster. They are the most extensive and ae uabie of the plas- ter deposits of New Brunswick. ee Re Geology and Mineralogy. 149 The cab rocks of British Columbia, according to Mr. G. M. Dawso 1, Lower Cretaceous (or Creta taceo-Jurassic) on (Queen Saathens Tetasidi, etc., holding anthracite; 2, Cretaceous on Vancouver Island, with bituminous coal ; and 3, Tertiar y; affording bituminous coal and lignite. The pei yielded, on analysis by Dr. Harrington, Fixed Carbon 85° 76, 83°09, volatile combustible matter 4°77, 5°U2, sulphur 0°89, 1°53, ash 6°69 S70 100. The Vancouver Island — Saye. on an average, Fixed Carbon 64°05, 59°55, vol. 28°19 ash 6° 29, water 1°47. Trials under the direction of the United ae War ‘Department showed ight required to produce the same heat Se cncaceaa territory and Rocky Mountain coal was as 18:22: rtiary coals include those of Bellingham Bay, and Seattle on ey Sound. North of the 49th parallel they under- lie nearly 1,000 square miles of the low country ce oa pve of the Fraser and the lower part of its valley. These coal form tions cover great tracts in the interior of British Colenitiers aie the basaltic ye eth of the Be form the latest rocks of the ee Tertiary. By a rough estimate the number of squa iles the formation covers between the 49th and 54th sarallele is not less than 12,000. The Quesnel lignitic beds are interesting on account of the plant and insect remains found in them. Some of the insects are described by Mr. Scudder. Mr. more than three miles. It rests against a bed of crystalline lime- stone and partly pare Toy Relea 9. Fossil Fishes from ® Trias of New es: and Connecti- cut.—Dr. J. S, NewBErry tea escribed (Annals N. Y. Aca caudatus Newb, Piycholepis lat Newb., the former from d er fro lepis is in Europe a Liassic pct its occurrence here, as Dr, But h does not seriously invalidate the evidence that they are Triassic, though possibly Jurassic in the upper beds. The species is more heterocercal than the European 10. Stromatopora.—At the _imecting of the pa oo of June 5, 1878, a paper by Dr. Dawson of Montre , of to those of SMillepoa ‘that they showed no nummuline layer, Tike Am. Jour. Sco1.—Turrp eyes: Vou. XVI, No. 92.—Avuausr, 1878. 150 Scientific Intelligence. EKozoon, and so he doubted the Herepintiorst character. Dr. Murie stated that some specimens which he had seen resembled the Hexactinellide and he thought they represented sponges, though not exactly Hexactinellids, Mr. H. J. Carter, in the Annals and Magazine of Natual History for July, states that he has found the hexactinellid structure in the Devonian Stromatopora concentrica. 'To observe it, the plan of section must be “tangential to the curve of undulation in the layers of es faba or horizontal to its summit.” He adds, ‘“‘It must not be inferred because I have considered this hexactinellid gs: Sela nny in appearance’ with that of Zittel’s Dictyonina” (see a former pap between the hexactenellid structure of Stromatopora concentrica and its varieties and that of the vitreous sponges with octahedral Fecal a xix, pl. 9, £11, 12 “The pores (? Spee ue in the interstice ‘the hexactinellid structure; but I ¢ a more about sees than that by their minuteness in 8. perch te they appear to have belonged toa Hydroid saa than to an Seton ce polyp.” n the Section of the Alps, from the valley of Vedro on the Ser to that of the Rhone on the north along the course of the tunnel of the Simplon ; by M. Renevirer.—The rocks encoun- indications in its g of a low anticlinal; (2) ble “crystalline schists,” including mica schist, which is partly gar- netiferous, chloritic or taleose [? hydro mica, gneiss, hornblende slate, with three parallel ¢ pot ae bands; (3) the dolomitic band of Gautier; (4) gray shining schists or slates, which are traversed by numerous veins or seams of quartz. These slates have the same steep northwest dip with the dolomitic ape but between DevessE and M. pz Larparent. xiv, 228 pp. 8vo. Paris, 1878 —This new volume of Delesse and Velasuarceta Annual Review of Geology, like its predecessors, is a very convenient résumé of The mean oes of Europe-—According to a recent estimate from the heights of the surface over Europe by Dr. G. Leipoldt r Geology and Mineralogy. 151 of Vienna the mean height of the Continent is 296°838 meters, instead of 205 meters as made by Humboldt. The mean heights of the several countries are also given in the “‘ Revue de Géologie.” Temperature of the Earth’s crust.—According to M. Ludovic Ville, a deep boring in Algeria, west of Sebkha d’Oran, the temperature of 49°-7 C. was reached at a depth of 578 meters, making the mean increase downward 1° for 7°56 meters. The place, according to M. Ville, was 1° C. for 23 meters of descent. In the Sahara toward the latitude of Oued Rhir, the increase down- ward is about 1° for 17°55 meters; showing a diminution toward the south, or with the latitude. iffect ‘of moisture or dryness in rocks on the facility of crushing. —M. Tournaire, Mining Engineer and M. Michelot have experimented on chalk, dried in a stove (d), wet (¢), and air-dried te and found that cubes 3 decimeters each way, were crushed, as ollows:—when stove-dried it was crushed under 80-925 kilo- grams (mean 86:2); when air-dried, 16°5 to 35 (mean n wet, 13°9 to 26 (mean 18°6). lesse gives also the results of ious experiments of his own on ¢ and the Calcaire of Issy, ee stove dried, Bie crushed with 36°4 kilograms; when air-dried, 23°6; when wet, 12°9; and the Calcaire Grossier of trials with the Caleaire Grossier are given, all confirming the en result here exhibite 13. Mémoires sur a“ Terrains Crétacés et Tertiares, préparé bar feu Anprk& Dumont, edités Micuet Movrton, Conserva- teur au Musée Royals + "Histoire Naturelle. Tome 1. Zerrains Crétacés, 556 pp. 8vo. Brussels, 1878.—The late M. Dumont, the distinguished Belgian geologist, prepared in 1849 a geological map of Belgium. He died in 1857, tarts forty-eight years old, leaving his Reports illustrating the subject in part still i shores Script, and other unfinished work. The Belgian government has Tecently ordered a new edition of the map, and also the onbliage issued. It is a very valuable contribution to European geology. Hees Sigillaria | lepidodendrifot ia a Brgt.—Mr. H. L. Farrcuixp, Scie ea (vol. i, no. 5), gives reasons for believing that the Sigil- > sa ‘rhomboid (with S. obligua), S. Brardii, 8S. Menardi, 8. ancit of Bronguiaet and 8. seulpta of Aen a use Taontica species with S, lepidodendrifolia, and adds that 152 Scientific Intelligence. S. stellata Lsqx. and S. spinulosa Germ. may turn out to be the same. 15. Flora Fossilis er and Flora ee meso of Oswatp Henn, Professor of the University of Zur with 156 plates. The publishers, J. Wurster & Co., Zurich, have issued also four volumes of the Flora Fossilis Arctica, and the fifth is now in the press. The first four volumes of this work con- tain 214 plates, and the fifth, 44. 16. Mineralogy -_ Lithology of New Hampshire; by Guora Awes, Instructor in Mineralogy in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Come Part IV, of si ak volume of the Geology of New Hampshire, 262 pp. 0, with 12 plates. Concord, N. H., 1878.—No part of hs: thlickavos of the New Hampshire Gebtogica Survey has greater value than this Report by Mr. Hawes on the mineralogy and lithology of the State. The author, esis giving descriptions of external charac- ters and notices of di istribution, and of economic uses, in the ordinary style, includes the results of extended microscopic exam — of both minerals and rocks; and many of the most inter- ing points are illustrated on plates, some of them in colors. a litholo The are some peculiarities in the nomenclature of the rocks ; but these do not seriously interfere with the value of bh nal work. In addition, the author has added, in an introduction to the volume, full details as to the process of slicing minerals or rocks, and explained the method of making micro- scopic and polariscopic observations on crystals of the several pe tems. Besides this, he has introduced much information wit gard to the distinctions _by the same means of the more comm 17. American Mindrale —Strengite in crystals has — described by Prof. G. A. Konig, from Rockbridge Co., Virginia. It occurred in cavities in scorodite. Ana siaivaie. gave Phosphoric acid 39°30, pa sesquioxide 42-3, water 19°87, The author gives a figure of e of the crystals in his et in the Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, for 1877, p. 2 Niccolite has been vaatifiea by Prof. Konig among the minerals of “Silver Islet,” Lake Superior, associated with galenite, sphalerite and native silver. Protovermiculite is a vermiculite-like mineral occurring in large grayish-green folia at Magnet Cove, Arkansas, and so named by Prof. Kénig, in the same volume of sores gs (p. 269): the luster is submetallic, and G. = 2-269. “Avinlyars afforded SiO, 33°28, A1O, 14°88, FeO, 6°36, FeO 0°57, MnO trace, MgO 21°52, . SE es a ea ee ee ee ee Geology and Mineralogy. 153 TiO, trace, H,O 3°36, hygroscopic me 20°54 = 100° SI, giving the quantiv ‘alent ratio for R, R, Si, 8°735 : 8°842 : 17°788 ks of Quincy south of Boston te Htookp ort, near es Ann, sine ast of Boston.—Mr. E. Wapsworts states that the Qu uincy syenyte consists chiedly ~ schlibelaae, quartz and horn- blende, and that the hornbieads is black to dark green in color feldspar and also in some sietth issemin inute ¢ opie oO danalite. The stone of the Rockport uate has been called by most writers syenyte; but Mr. Wadsworth states that at least 65 per cent of it is micaceous and destitute of hornblende, —, hence true granite. But while the quarried rock is almos holly granite, there is some syenyte. The two are 80 ad that “they are geologically one and the same rock.” Besides ortho- Clase, quartz, and black mica, the last (referred to lepidomelane y Cooke), there are in some parts of the Rockport granite, the “ay als cryophyllite and danalite, first announced by Professor 19. On Lonite, a new Mineral; by S. Purnett.—In the Plio- cene argillaceous lignite of Tone valley, Amador county, Califor- nia, a peculiar mineral, more or less pure, occurs in thin seams. The specimen examined by me was of what may be called the best quality. It isa firm Pats snaps oan substance of a brownish-yellow color. "As s from the mine, it contains about 50 per cent of water, ‘but when sbcinenirhly ‘air-dried it readily floats on water, ss specific gravity being about ‘90. It rapidly — water & low; fracture, fy ee ne. When pita water dissolves or suspends a portion of the clay in the mineral, Par- maid soluble in cold scokels more so in boiling ateobal, giving a 154 Scientific Intelligence. naphtha; gives a pale red solution. In boiling rectified petro- leum, free oe naphtha an nici slightly more soluble than in naphtha; es a pale red solut Subjected és dry ransom a Sicicsk tarry oil passes over, mixed with green-colored wa This water is decidedly acid to cea At first the oil eae a specific _sravity less than that of r, but after a rg days sinks in the This oil and water quantity. Iam of the opinion that the amount does not exceed 5 per cent, but this was not determined accuratel rom the examination this mineral may be pronounced an acid hydrocarbon, or fossil cerite, more or less oxidized and more or less impregnated with clay. From its varying solubilities, it is probably a mixture of different hydrocarbon compounds. s this mineral is found in Ione valley, I would propose to name it from the locality, Zonite. To what industrial uses Tonite may be applied, has not yet been investigated, and it is foreign the purpose of this paper to inquire.— Wining and Scientific 1 ness, March 24, 1877. 20. Cyrstallization of Silica ; P. Hauterevitie.—If amorphous silica is kept in sodium tungstate at the temperature of fusion of silver, silica cayatedlis zes in minute crystals of the species tridy- mi the temperature is kept long at 1000° C., the tridymite is obtained in thick hexagonal scales. Sp. = 2°30 at 16° C. Tridymite is as aera than quartz when acted upon by the wet or dry proc By means — para of soda, amorphous silica or tridymite ed to quartz. At a temperature of 750° C., or that just saihchant to hold the tungstate in fusion, the grains of am morph- ous silica disappear ; and after several hun dred hours of heating, double ae onal pyramids of quartz are obtaine p- gr. 2°61 — 2°65. The crystals contain a trace of tungstic acid and 0-003 per cae of soda. The crystallization is so slow at 750° C., that practically it is necessary to adopt the following method: the silica with the tungstate is made to oscillate in temperature many times between 800° and 950°; with the increasing heat the silica combines with the soda, and with the decrease, the silica is Spee aes fete the tungstic acid. At the peanechi seis ement of each period of cooling the silica takes the form of tridymite, but as the Saipesice falls below about 850° = I takes that of quartz.— Bull. Soc. Min. de ance, No. 1 Ane 1878. 21. te-—M. Scuvsrer has examined the tridymite from an obgosiionien chyte of Monte Gioino near Tiolo in the Euganean Hills (Northern Italy), and concludes that its crystals are twins under the triclinic system, its optical characters affording evi- dence in favor of this a u. petrogr. Mittheil. herausg. v. G. Tschermak, Heft 1 Botany and Zoology. 155 22. Mineralogicai Society of France.—A mineralogical society was instituted in Paris on the 21st of March of the present year, and the first number of its Bulletin appeared in April. The President of the Society is the eminent mineralogist, M. Des- Ciceosan;, the Vice President, M. Mallard; Secretary, M. i el M. Mallard describes, in the first number of the Bulletin, the new mineral Bravaisite, from the coal formation of Noyant. It has an argillaceous appearance and is thinly iniithatell bet with a fibrous structure under the microsco ope. he color is gray, slightly greenish. When oe it is almost gum-like, rather than plastic, and strongly unctu Fuses easily to a white globule, and is attacked by obi: ih analysis afforded SiO, 51-40, AlO, 18°90, FeO, 4:00, CaO 2-00, MgO 3°30, me 6°50, H,O 13°30==99° 40, giving the quantivalent ratio for R, R, Si, H., &: 3°3 : 9°16: 3°93; or 1:3:9:4, if the iron is excluded as due to the pyrites present.! M. Malla na observes that it is in its composi- sor near pinite, glauconite and carpholite; but nearer a potash zeolite, 23. —Dr. A. von Lasaulx has examined sections of the Sianalsise of Monte Catini, and finds the radiate twinning structure to indicate that the crystals are of the orthorhombic sys- —. aad — to those of phillipsite—W. Jahrb. f. Min., 78, p. 5 Ill. Borany AND Zoouoey. Two new Fern-books are evidences ae increasing attention to thi beautiful order of plants, both as to botanical study and Tamental cultivation. Perhaps we may in time come to have as copious and popular a fern-literature as that of Great Britain ; the crowning work still being the classical one of Professor Eaton, which will take some time to finish. The new-comers are of m uch less pretension, are handy-books in single 12mo. volumes, of very moderate price, and ee to have a large circulation. "The o first published is ure, as the a ably lost somewhat of expression and sharpness in the transfer. ut the gain in cheapness is not to be overlooked. Still the wood- vg — of the spora ce aH much the best, and s stand out with refreshing distinctness. pages are occupied with the sub- 156 Scientific Intelligence. jects of cultivation, structure and Saige mate The bulk of the buok is devoted to the ferns of Ken ucky, and these are treated in a manner a make all plain and “pe to amateurs in that State. It serves as well for the adjacent States, which have the same species. We could have helped the author to one more Asplenium, viz. A. parvulum, which is so abundant in East Tennessee and i i Indeed taken A. emule for a smal ses A, ebene Ferns in their Homes and rns > OHN yeoman. is the tak- ing title of the second book on this subject. It is published by Oassino of Salem, the publisher of the Ferns of America, to which it becomes a desirable and useful companion. It fills 178 pages, and is ‘illustrated by twenty-two plates, eight of them color-printed representations of species, — a frontispiece photograph, ex- hibiting the attractive “ Fern-corner” of the author’s conservatory. The others represent aad Seseeation and structure of ferns, Fern-cases and jardinieres, out-ofdoor fernery, pots, pans, baskets, and other appliances, os lastly, a plate supplied by Professor Packed shows up the insects which are pests to cultivated ferns. work done not describe the species of ferns, but deals with than i in a general way, tracing their life-history, discussing their en a diavtbution , recounting their principal literature, at least as to the bibliography of the. papules and some of the ferns to grow and where and haw , With lists of Sond, ace for a theapie including also ‘Selaginellas, their natural associates. I looked, cai even the troubling of an out-of-doors fernery by the midnight revels of cats, for which evil an appropriate treatment escribed. The bo 4 unces, most nendsomely, Mr. Williamson’s volume, which was | r nited States, i Kentucky Manual supplies the want. for gene rn-l fern-management alem work has no . e Ga may be happy with either, happier nS aed provided with T. M eg Catalogue of the Phanogamous and Ci ae 2 gamous Plants (including Lichens) of the Dominion we Canada, south of the Arctic Cirele. Belleville, Ontario. pp. 52. 8vo.—The range takes in British Columbia; the number of cides ice up to 3,081; of the F henogaine to i eg It is a Bape num- Seat but not free from ee cled oversights. Over 2, of the species here enumerated have been collected in their native Botany and Zoology. 157 wilds by the ee editor. The remarkable accession to the North Am n Flora which this Catalogue records is oy of ae cena ris, The Native Flowers and Ferns of the United States, “edited bys Professor Meehan and chromo-lithographed by Prang "& Co s evinces its life and good promise of success in the prompt appear- ing of Parts 3,4, and 5. Our notice of the first parts is so recent and particular that we need onl announce the new ones, which mon observer would pass by unnoticed, such as Carex — Cuphea viscosissima, and Pedicularis Canudensis. 4. Zoological Distribution, and some G8 its Difficulties ; ; i T of natural groups of animals as form and structure, the lecturer spoke of “ specific” and “ generic” areas, and of the doctrine of their continuity. He then treated of “ représentative species,’ and showed that, while insular Pg me cane species are usually en continental representative ecies are ae crane er oun of the ata of Spain did not differ sotatan from that of the rest of Southern Europe, although a few North African species intruded into its limits. One little bird only seemed to have been introduced from afar, and disturbed the oe uniformity. ieee allies. Here was found the Cyanopica cyanea, so closely allied to the seta = a to be barely distinguishable. This was, (2.) Oayrham, rie scetg -= samme a These two South Ameri- fF br two — closely allied species were known, one (0. in Southeastern Brazil, and the other (0. pees a: Central 158 Scientifie Intelligence. America, the genus being quite unrepresented in the intermediate countries. In the Cuculine genus Neomorphus, the Central American form (V. Salvini) was —- in very nearly similar to the Brazilian (WV. Geoffroyi), whereas in the Tar countries three other quite distinct ceitthion: were known to occur. (3.) Pitta Angolensis.—Not less than from thirty to forty spe- cies of the brilliantly colored birds of the genus Pitta were known to science, distributed from India, on the north, through the great Asiatic islands into Northern Australia, But one single Pitta, in every way typical in structure, and closel _— to an Indian s species, occurred in a limited district of rn Africa, the genus being quite sir eabadines in intermediate soeaticat This was a clear instance of a on generic area. 4.) The So — of the Antill —The insectivorous mam- mals, according to the best spetrporec ay meray ea ten different families, which were mp restricted t e Palearctic, Indian and Ethiopian regions, and were ontiredy resebieneiteae in Aus- tralia and South America. Two families only extended into the northern portion of the New World, the ate ( Zalpide) and the shrews (Sorecide). But there was one very exceptional -_ The genus Solenodon, two species of which were known from two islands in the West Indies, belonged not to the shrews or aed but to the family Centetide, otherwise entirely confined to Mada- gascar. If, therefore, the descent of Solenodon and Centetes from & common ancestor nb assumed, the following assumptions must also be made. First, that the West India Islands had been united by land to Africa; and secondly, that the Centetide had formerly extended all through Africa, where there were now no traces of 5.) The Distribution of Lemurs.—Recalling Senne to our minds, we might well have expected that the Lemurs, one of the The giant land tortoises, which had ieeeky ‘cred the mallet of the elaborate 8 tudies of Dr. Ginther, presented a till instance of anom- alous distribution: These nimals. now only existed in the Gala- agos Islands and on the deal face of Aldabra, northwest of adagascar, but a third group, which formerly inhabited the Mas- carene Islands, had only recent become extinct. In order to derive these three groups of allied species from the same stock, it PN ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 d be necessary to assume first that giant land tortoises were mat distributed all over South America and Africa, where no . of them now existed; secondly, to suppose that the Gala- gos were formerly united to America; and thirdly, that the Midabra reef had once formed part of land that was joined to the African coast. But even then all the difficulties would not wile been surmounted, for it appeared that the Mascarene form of thes tortoises was more nearly allied to that of the Galapagos than to that of Aldabra. It would further have ~ ee assumed therefore, in order to bring these facts into harmony with the usual theory, that the Mascarene ancl had r ers CO witha to the African coast after the Aldabra reef had pe separated from it. ese six cases were vie selected instances of the many diffi- culties met with in endeavoring to account for all the known facts of serageagae by the Nines es of the derivative origin of speci It would be easy for those who had studied distribution in ae group of animals to add to them almost indefinitely. Two other more general phenomena of distribution, which it appeared to be d iffeult to reconcile with the derivative hypothe- sis, were also briefly adverted to, these were the ex xistence of both hemispheres, and the presence of several closely allied species in the same area. In the first case, it was difficult to sO aaa separated. In the second place, it never x sits to have been explained sntiohanesrity how more than one form could areas, and had come together into the same area by immigration, “peared, in some cases to be almost untenable. and other minor difficulties had led the author rather to aes “ehother identity of structure must be taken, w/thout parentage. At any rate, the subject seemed to be one still open as some recent writers had appeared to a 5. —— of the Atlantic.—G. Lindstrém haa: deseribed and figured several new corals from the Atlantic bed, in a paper in the Wacsan sss of the Swedish Academy, vol. xiv, 1877. IV. MisceLLANEous SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. III, Panta 2.—This part closes the volume . It con Ny § K. Thac sher, Medinn and Paired Fins, a eo iueitastian to the paisa of vie 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. brate limbs; by S. I. Smith, on the early stages of emcees tal- poida ; by J. Willard Gibbs, on the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances, this last paper occupying 220 pages of the number. Mr. Thacher closes his excellent paper—the Masel on verte- brate limbs—with the following addendum Since the views expressed in the foregoing pages were est my own mind six or eight months ago, I had looked for con- Griiation of them in the brilliant investigations of Balfour on the development of - lasmobranchs. The preliminary acco how- ever, in the Journal of Microscopical Science, somtaiodl raiehet and Physiology I have been able to obtain only irregularly. Immediately after the last proof of the preceding pages had been received, the number of that Journal for October, 1876, came into my hands. Here Balfour devotes three or four pages to the limbs. He says: “If the account just given of the development of the limb is an accurate record of what really takes place, it is not possible to deny that some light is thrown by it upon the first origin of the vertebrate limbs. The fact can only eae one inter- pr etation, viz: that the limbs ure the remnants of continuous lat- eral The cia of the limbs is almost identically similar to that of the dorsal fins.” He goes on to state that while none o his researches throw any light on the nature of the skeletal parts 7 fins y observations on adult forms, aud a coaice aF on the iano Balfour comes to the same results from embryo- logical investigations, in that group rome which on — aper - Wiede view P cuipaesag the ole i nature of the centrale. This had pre- Ur tarsus. This is a eae important confirmation of the chiroptery- gium, and relieves us of suspicions with regard to its correctness brs we push our inquiries into earlier history and more simple rms, In ete ree number of the Jahrbuch is a paper by Gegeabers, rehipterygium theory. He modifies his explanation the Stapediferal limb to accord with Huxley view of the eid * Morph. Jahrb., Bd. ii, Heft. Fe R. Wiedersheim, Die altesten Formen des Carpus und Tarsus der heuliver's mphibien. + C. Gegenbaur, Zur Morphologie der Gliedmaassen der Wirbelthiere. Miscelianeous Intelligence. 161 y of edges and faces of limb and fin. He says that while he pi not think the re of this view fully demonstrated, still he thinks there is a decided balance of probability in its favor. Therefore the ie side of the arm now appears as the hha In other particulars Gegenbaur reaffirms his previ- ous vie He proceeds to devote cbieileriole pont to the dis- cussion i the origin of the archipterygium, and again proposes to assimilate the limb and oo caetetes to the fe, we with their rays. He supports this weeeee with co nsiderable argu- Hotel, $1. 75 at the Remy Hote el). Those eve may atte tend the convention are desired to bring scientific communications, instru- ments, objects for the microscope, and whatever pertains thereto that “ will instruct their feliow_ workers with the cea ge Letters should be addressed to EBSTER BUTTERFIELD, Secretary of the Committee of A ceigeinesta: The daily sessions will be held in Hall Nos. 52, 54,56 and 58 of the Court House. The time for the Congress is one week before the meeting of the — Association at St. Louis. Geographical Surveys west of the 100th Meridian, in charge of Fine Lieut. G. M. Wue EELER, under the pias of Bri rig. Gen. ) a) iseg of time, latitude font longitude determinations, at various places in Utah, yo : jer Colorado, New } si Nevada Professor 'T. H. Safford, W. A.R The results of barometric hy sega are from observations made in the years 1871 to 7 included, and reported by First Lieut. L. Marshall, Corps of Engineers, U.S. A. The instruments scribed, the eethinds of observing, and tables of pi re given. e report also contains tables of hourly observa of barometric, thermometri and I phe 162 Miscellaneous Intelligence. at different places where the parties were encamped, and gic iy ou sixteen plates giving the horary and diurnal barometric curv temperature, mean differences of wet and dry thermometers, diar ae force of vapor, and relative humidity. Di. legos 8 Staaten von Nord Amerika, von Dr. pr. Ratzer. Erster Band. Physikalische Geographie und Sener eon mit 12 farsa El u. 5 Kart. in Farbendruck. 8 pp. large 8vo. Munich, 1878.—This very large and_beau- of the cou has been prepared by one who has well maste sat his subject, through the writings of the various American contributions it—those of the earlier and la exploring expeditions, the principal a a Reports, the works of Lyell, Fremont, J. D. Whitney, Guyot, Humphreys and Abbott, Walker’s Statistical Atom Scbatt’s table and results of Precipitation, and others; and he has presented = facts in a for example, forest regions, prairies, New England, the Atlantic coast, the Florida Keys, Cypress swamps, the Western plains, the Bad ‘Lands, “ California eta the Sierra Nevada, the Great Lakes, and other topics. The second volume will be occupied with aie ¢ culturgeographie” of Se United States; and will give the facts with fulness like the first, and with reference to the prac- tical rather than the theoretical. 5. Report upon Forestry ; by Franxuws B. Hoven. 650 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1 1878.—This report by Mr. Hough was pre- er the sravggety: of the Commissioner of Agriculture, in aber cts of trees; insect ravag and the consequences of polar sion of climate in this and other countries, in n its bearing on the subject, with the experiences and experiments of the nations = Europe and prompt afieene of Sean on climate; forest leg} Miscellaneous Intelligence. 163 United States; lumber statistics; and various other topics, on all of which the author has br ought forward a great amount of valu- able facts, and in a manner to enlighten and benefit every part of the c 6. ‘Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, vol. ii, Part iii, 1878.— This number of the Bussey bu 9 tin contains the following papers: on the hybridization of Lilies by F. Parkman; on the composi- tion of Lguisetum arvens F. H. Srorer; composition of cog of aie and lobsters, and those of oysters, clams, mussels, ; prominence sia carbonate of lime as a con minder of ak id.; a list of F _— found in the vicinity of Boston, with remarks, by W. G é ys bing Telephone Tulking Phonograph, and other Novelti ties; by GzoreE B, Prescorr. p- 8vo, with numer- ous illustrations. pee York. 1878. (D. Appleton ‘& Co. ee volume contains a complete account of the Telephone and Phon graph, in their various forms, with a large number of wa figures illustrating their construction and mode of use, and also diagrams of the vibrations or “1 gographi records” of the phonograph. It sas treats of Quadruplex wae at much length, giving many detailed figures in the course of the chapter. - The Naturalist’s Directory noe 1878, "Edite d by 8. E. Cassino. 184 pp. 12mo. Salem, Mass., 1878. —This well arranged catalogue of the names and addresies of al ‘naturalists of ry useful and Hedioioigse% work to he who are interested in any pare EN to iene ology by S. A. Miller and C. B. Dyer describing various Silurian fossils, figures of which are given on the plates; alae a paper on a new species of Pupa by C. R. y v. ae a and another on the tongue of some ee by y ’ mbes the Zour de surpass in extent any hitherto examined Outside of the pole regions. Inthe Mustagh range, two glaciers immediatel ining one another s a united length of y adjo posses sixty-five miles. Another cities in the fexrhberiaed is twenty- 164 Miscellaneous Intelligence. one miles in length, and from one to two miles in width. Its upper portion is at a height of 24 pee feet above the level of the. sea, and its lower portion terminating n masses of ice 250 feet in height, and be ee miles in breadth, is 16 ,000 feet above the sea.— Ne ature, Jul 12. Instr re for observing the Total Solar Eclipse of July 29, 1878. Prepared by Professor Wm. Harkness and issued by the United States Naval Obsery atory. 30 pp. 4to. Washing- ton, i878. lament of nip an Introduction to the study of motion and rest = _ and fluid Bodies; by W. K. Ciirrorp, F.R.S.—Part I, Kinematic. 222 pp. 1 Lesion. 1878. onion & Co.). OBITUARY. sophical Society (vol. xv). In 1873 Mr. Gabb went to Costa ica, under an appointment from the government of the State, and engaged i in a topographical and geological survey of the territory, n which he made also extensive ethn be cal and natural history edltentions for the Smithsonian Institution. memoir several in this Journal, mb last in the number for March of the current year. Mr. Ga as a man of vast energy, and an earnest and careful investigator. "His various contributions to science are a great honor to the country—and eminently so to the State of South America, an his discoveries in natural history. He is the author also of many. — orion of rileras, the scenes of several of which were laid n South Avon sie Tibet NGSHAUSEN, Professor of Physics at Vienna, died on the 25th of May, having’ been born in Heidelberg, Nov. 25, 1796. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] *. Art. XV.—On the Origin of Comets; by H. A. Newton. facts since the times of Kant and Laplace learned any thing which helps us to decide between these two hypotheses? T medium (if such exists), and the attraction of gravitation of the sun and planets. 8. Nearly all the comets that we have seen, and have com- ay the orbits of, come nearer to the sun than the planet ars. The exceptions are only about five per cent of the Am. Jour. sige ioe: ERIES, VoL. XVI, No. 93.—Sept., 1878. 166 HT. A. Newton— Origin of Comets. whole number. We may therefore assume that comets to become visible to us ought, in general, to come nearer to the sun than that planet. All others may be regarded as permanently invisible. There is, however, no reason to doubt that many such unseen comets exist. Even those which we see become invisible at a moderate distance from the earth and sun. 4. The orbits of most comets are so near toa parabolic form that it is only when they are very well observed that we can detect any deviation therefrom. They pass to a great distance from the sun, and it is reasonable to suppose that their origin, even on Kant’s hypothesis, was remote from the sun. e must interpret that hypothesis as meaning that some of the parcels of matter that would normally have gone to make up distant planets became scattered into comet masses. 5. Consider such a parcel, or comet mass, A, at a point such that the line AS from A to the sun S is large; for example, 1,000 times the distance from the earth tothe sun. Now if the ee would go around the sun at a great distance, and would belo point A, or rather shot from the point A. Through S draw @ plane perpenmeuly, to AS, aint n that plane draw a circle whose ius is twi i and circle we may regard as a target at which the several cometic masses may regarded as launch those whose velocities icular to AS small will strike within. the circle, and so coming nearer to the sun than Mars will form part of the group of comets which we know any- thing about. Hi, A. Newton— Origin of Comets, 167 8. Besides these we must suppose that there is a large num- ber of cometic masses which will strike the plane outside of the circle. If there is any law of distribution of the initial directions and velocities of the masses at A, that law will be exhibited in the distribution of the points of impact with the plane. ‘Thus if like the principal members of the solar system the masses leave A with a velocity belonging to a circular orbit, nearly at right angles to AS, and nearly in the plane of the solar system, then the points of impact in the target plane will be near each other at a distance from S equal to AS; for the masses will describe circles, approximately. Again, if the masses pass through A on their way from the stellar spaces and so have motions that bear no relations to the motions of the solar system, then the distribution of the points of impact on the target plane ought if numerous enough to be uniform about the point ; ght to be large compared to the area of the circle above described. The € orbits corresponding to the points of impact in the two Sectors next beyond (one on each side) will have inclinations between 10° and 20°; and so on, up to 180°. Hence, the 168 H, A. Newton— Origin of Comets, 11. But if AS is not large the above stated conclusion (10) would not hold true. hus if the comets came from the region between Mars and Jupiter, being, for example, asteroids somehow thrown out of the usual region of the asteroid orbits, the total area of the impacts in the target plane would not large relative to a circle whose radius is equal to the diameter of the orbit of Mars. The distribution of the inclinations of the orbits would in that case naturally exhibit some evidence of the law of distribution of the original motions. 12. Suppose, however, that the cometic masses are made from the more distant matter of the solar nebula, matter that should perhaps have gone to form a planet outside of the orbits of known planets. The masses must be supposed to come from points in or near the plane of the solar system, which for present purposes may be regarded as the ecliptic. Referring their inclinations to that plane, those inclinations, for reasons like those given above (10), should have been originally uniformly distributed through the two right angles from 0° to 180°. The aphelia of the orbits should all have been near the ecliptic. 13. But suppose, on the other hand, that the cometic masses are made from the matter in the stellar spaces. The points from which they approach the sun are no longer, as under the other supposition, points in or near the ecliptic. These points are scattered over the heavens uniformly. For, only those masses whose motions through space are very nearly equal to sun’s motion can come within sight of the earth. The 14. If now we consider a very large number of orbits and draw lines through the sun at right angles to the plane of each orbit, the points where these lines meet the celestial sphere will the poles of the planes of the orbits, and their distribution over the heavens must be uniform. For the directions from ich comets enter the solar system are uniformly distributed (13), and the poles for any direction of the line AS are unt- formly distributed (10) about that line. Hence there is n0 n why there should be more poles in one part of the heavens than in another. : 15. If we refer these orbits (14) to the ecliptic, the inclina- tion of any orbit to the ecliptic will be equal to the distance of the two poles from each other, the pole of the orbit from the pole of the ecliptic. If we divide the surface of the celestial * Prof. Schiaparelli by introducing (improper! e will concede) the motion of dus tesdbabe ie decide ‘lias cane comets. See Analyst, I, p. 80. H. A, Newton—Origin of Comets. : 169 sphere into 18 zones by parallels of latitude at even decades of degrees from +80° to —80°, then the orbits whose positive poles lie in the northernmost segment will have inclinations less than 10°.* The orbits whose positive poles lie in the next zone will have inclinations between 10° and 20°, and so on up to 180°. Hence the numbers of the orbits whose inclinations to the ecliptic are included in the successive decades of degrees will be as the areas of the zones. But these zones are as the sines of 5°, 15°, 25°, ete. Therefore we conclude that if the comets come from the stellar spaces their original orbits should have been so distributed that the numbers of orbits whose inclinations to the ecliptic fall in the successive degrees from 0° to 180°, should have been proportional to the sines of incli- nations. ‘I'he distribution of the aphelia would have been uni- form over the heavens. Hence their relative frequency at dif- ferent latitudes would have been as the cosines of the latitudes. e may represent the distribution of the inclinations by adiagram, Let the axis of abscissas (fig. 1) extend from 0° to 180°, and upon this describe the first half cycle of the curve of Sines, y=a sinz. Draw also the straight line, AB, parallel to the axis of abscissas, y=%. The ordinates of the two lines represent the original distributions of the inclinations from 0° to 180° of a given number of orbits according to the two theo- ries. The aphelia, according to one theory, are distributed iu latitude as the cosines of the latitudes, in the other they are all in the ecliptic, 18. If the comets came from the stellar spaces their original orbits were hyperbolas. If they originated from our system they were ellipses. In either case if their origin was very dis- tant the orbits would have differed so little from bolas that the deviations in portions visible to the earth would, in general, be covered up by the ordinary errors of our observations. If the orbits tas remained unchanged by perturbations the ques- on of origin would be simply cones by determining whether the orbits are now elliptic or hyperbolic. But the hyperbolic orbits might be changed by a resisting medium (if there is one) into ellipses, and perturbations by a large planet may change ellipses into hyperbolas, or hyperbolas into ellipses. If there 18 any known orbit of a comet that is beyond question hyper- bolic, and its path was such that in approaching the sun at its present appearance it did not so pass near to a large planet as to have its velocity thereby increased, then that comet at least must be rded as coming to us from the stellar spaces, — ee ety orbits have been assigned to certain comets, but is th Yperbolic character of any of them not open to reasonable * By positive pole is meant that pole from which the comet's motion appears to be oppoted to the motion of the hana of a watch. . 170 H, A. Newton— Origin of Comets. challenge? On the other hand, if the comets, or any of them, originate within the solar system, and not at a great distance from the sun, their orbits would be short ellipses, and their motions might be expected: to be somewhat like those of the lanets. The fact that most of the periodic comets move in orbits of small inclinations to the ecliptic, it must be admitted, is, till otherwise explained, a very strong —— that they, at least, always formed part of the solar n 19. The original distributions of the abhelia and of the inclin- ations were stated above. But the comet becomes subject to perturbations, and, if it was, or, if it becomes a permanent member of the system then the perturbations may accumulate so as to destroy or conceal the original la t is not easy to give useful expressions for the mesic: Bartubbadions for an orbit of large excentricity and inclination. But the general tendency of the forces would seem to resemble somewhat that of their action upon the moon are: the planets. Here the line of apsides has a progressive secular motion, while the inclina- tion remains quite constant. The effect of a resisting medium, if one exists, would be to shorten the periodic time and to leave the plane of the orbit er The effect upon the line of apsides sae? not be larg 20. The present diaribation of the aphelia is not critical between the two hypotheses. FoR rogression of the line of latitude for known orbits is very nearly as the cosine of the latitude. The principal exception is a slight excess of num- bers in the small latitudes. One conclusion may be safely inferred from this thorough distribution over the heavens; that is, that if Kant’s hypothesis be true, the period of past = since the comets were aggregated and made to descri these long orbits has been a very great one, and the process of disintegration of comets is a very slow one. ee rooms r as abey have pea favor the foreign origin of co 21. The general effect of small pertu Feattgtions “of a planet upon the ota of comets would be to increase the inclination of some and diminish that of others. If a comet 2s Jupiter on one side the inclination may be increased. This, however, is balanced by the diminution of the inclination of another comet moving in a parallel path on the opposite side of the planet, or, if you please, by one com- ing on the same side of Jupiter but from the opposite direc- tion. The total effect would at on sight seem to be neither to increase nor diminish the average inclinatio 22. The present actual distribution of the "Fuclinations is Hf, A. Newton—Origin of Comets. 171 then of such import as to be carefully considered. From the list of known cometic orbits I have rejected those for which the data on which they were computed seemed to me to be too slender to furnish an orbit worth retaining in the present inves- Le aprtaew There remained the following 247 orbits, arranged n the table according to their inclinations, which are stated to the nearest degree Table ey the inclinations of the known cometie orbits, Year. |Inc.|| Year. |Inc.|| Year. | Inc.|! Year. | Inc. || Year. | Inc. || Year. | Inc.|| Year. | Inc. 1743} 2/|1556| 32|| 1845 | 56|/1672| 83 || 1871 | 102 || 1739 | 124 || 1857 | 142 1770} 2 || 1779 | 32}/1790| 57 || 1774 | 83 || 1877 | 102 |} 1857 | 124 || 1843 | 144 1678 | 3/| 1811 | 32|/ 1802 | 57 || 1863 83 |} 1799 | 103 || 1824 | 125 || 1806 | 145 1844} 3|/ 1874/32]! 1804/57 || 1846| 85 || 1665 | 104 || 1780 | 126 || 1825 | 146 568| 4|| 1532 | 33|| 1840 | 58 || 184: 5 || 1823 822 | 126 || 1847 | 147 1702! 4|/ 1661 | 33 || 1874} 58 || 1861} 85 || 1577 | 105 || 1827 | 126 || 1870 | 147 1585| 6 || 1857 | 33 || 1680 | 60 || 1863] 85,| 1821 | 106 127 || 1718 | 149 1746] 6/] 1874} 34// 1773 | 61 || 1863} 85 || 1842} 106 || 1822 | 127 || 1770 | 149 1834) 6 |) 1618 | 37/| 1810 | 62 || 1762] 86 || 1558 | 107 || 1596 | 128 |; 1790 | 149 1833| 7 || 1851/38 || 1853 | 62 || 1593} 88 || 1811 | 107 || 1784 | 129 || 1590 | 150 1869; 7 || 1737 | 39|| 1807 | 63 || 1857 Si} 1 08 || 1797 | 129 || 1846 | 151 1766| 8 |/ 1826 | 40/| 1863 | 64||1707| 89 || 1854 | 109 || 1799 | 129 || 1781 | 153 1819| 9// 1850 | 40/1] 1580 | 65 || 1825 ) || 1864 | 110 || 1855 | 129 || 1877 | 153 Tem. | 10 |] 1769} 41 || 1788 | 65 || 1818 )!} 1699 | 111 |] 1723 | 130 || 1855 | 157 Faye 852 | 41 || 1684/1 66 || 1826} 91 || 1869 | 112 || 1792} 131 || 16 59 Win. | 11 || 1854 | 41 |} 1874 66||1865| 92|/1742/113]/1 131 |} 1801 | 159 1771 1874 | 42 |1 1748/67 || 1871} 92 13 5 | 131 || 1813 | 159 . | 13 || 1816 | 43 || 1849 | 67 || 1785} 93 || 1854 | 114 || 1852 | 131 || 1858 | 159 iela | 13 || 1798 | 44|/ 1849 | 67 || 17 95 || 1862 | 114 ]| 1787 | 132 1 1757 | 13 |} 1815 | 45}} 1758 | 68 || 1683} 96)/ 1796 | 115 || 1868 | 132 || Hal | 162 Tem. | 13 || 1844 46 || 1850|68|/1848| 96/| 1 16 || 1743 | 134 |] 1866 | 1 1854 | 14|/ 1744 47/|/ 1785 | 70 || 1859| 96 || 1877 | 116 || 1808 | 134 63 D’Ar.| 16 || 1845 | 47 || 1763 | 73 || 1873 | 96|| 1818 | 11 1 1737 | 18 47 || 1812|74||1847| 97 || 1858 | 117 || 1830 | 135 || 1698 | 168 1867 1783 | 48 || 1851 | 74|| 1854| 97 1 1 1788 | 168 1847 | 19 ||} 1860 | 48 |} 1729/77 || 1867} 97 || 1853 | 119 |) 1827 | 136 || 1855 | 170 1818 | 20 || 1847 | 49 [| 1877 | 77 || 1871} 98|| 56 832 | 187 || 1835/1712 1618 | 21 || 1864 | 49 || 1863 | 78||1813| 99/|| 1793; 120 || 1701 | 138 || 1862 , 172 1830 | 21 || 1846 | 50 || 1652 | 79 || 1870} 99 0 | 121 || 1798 | 138 || 1759 | 175 1695 | 22 || 1786 | 51 || 1759 | 79 || 1874} 99 || 1857 | 121 || 1861 | 138 || 1472 | 178 1858 | 23 || 1793 | 52 || 1860 | 79 || 1847 | 100 || 1877 | 121 || 1862 | 13 64/178 1826 | 26 || 1840 | 53 || 1860 | 79 || 1858 | 100 || 1846 | 122 || 1337} 1 | 29 || 1843 | 53 || 1840 | 80 || 1433 | 101 3/122 66 | 139 1873 | 30 | Tuttle 54 || 1961 | 80 || 1677 | 101 || 1870 | 122 || 1792 | 1 * 1846 | 30 || 1706 | 55 || 1819 | 81 || 1747 | 101 || 1873 | 122 || 1808 | 141 1686 31 "1824 ' 65! 1781! 82!) 1827 | 102 |! 1825 | 123 |! 1822 | 142 23. The — Lge of arranging these inclinations for use and exhibition in a diagram is to divide the 180° into suita- ble equal etme. and count the number of comets in eac div pst Another method seemed, however, — suited to resent pw. and as it is believed to be well adapted to many sin similar hetesaionh: I describe it as briefly as possible. Each orbit is represented by the area of a probability curve of 172 Hi, A. Newton— Origin of Comets. such parameter as was judged suitable. In the present discus- sion in the equation of the curve y=ce—"’2’, I assumed h=0°2. This makes the average removal of the area from the central ordinate less than 3°. e area for one orbit at an inclination of 90° is represented in fig. I. at the bottom of the figure. A similar area is assigned to each one of the 247 orbits and is supposed to be placed centrally on the ordinate correspondin to its inclination. The total ordinate for any abscissa is the sum of the corresponding ordinates of these several small areas. Th t is exhibited in the figure by the upper irregular curved line. The line cannot be carried within two or three degrees of the extreme ordinates without some assump- tion of numbers beyond 0° and 180° in the original table, and such assumption is, of course, not allowable. Fig. 1: showing the theoretical and the social distributions of the inclinations of the e cometic orbits of the ecliptic. » chen la Ab IY VIN | ace te Nurs ) 30 60 90 120 150 180 24. The periodic comets form so peculiar a group that it was well to separate them from the rest. There are thirteen such comets, if we add to the ten certainly seen at different returns the comet of the November meteors (1866 I, seen undoubtedly in 1366), Lexell’s comet, (1770 II), and Di Vico’s, (1841 I). The shaded area is the part contributed by these thirteen comets, and the lower curved line represents the distribution for the remaining comets. _ We have then in the line AB, fig. 1, the expression of the law of original distribution of the inclinations required by the hypothesis of Kant; in the smooth curve, or curve of sines, that H. A. Newton— Origin of Comets. 173 of the law of distribution required by the hypothesis of Laplace; and in the irregular curves, the actual present distribution of 247, and 234, known orbits. Does the present fact most favor the one hypothesis, or the other? The smaller irregular- ities of the curve are, of course, due to chance. But there are certain large differences between the fact and each hypothesis which show either systematic action of perturbations, or else that neither hypothesis as stated is exclusively true. The form the question may be this: after allowing for any perturba- tions and principles of selection that have acted on the orbits comet's potential relative to the mass of Jupiter and the sun 18 Increased without any corresponding increase by Jupiter's 174 H. A. Newton— Origin of Comets. tional to the amount of Jupiter’s motion normal to the average direction of the relative orbit. [This is more definitely shown, if desired, and the quantity of the change is found by solving the equations of motion for this case. Let a be the unit of distance, f the sun’s attraction at the unit of distance, v the velocity of the comet in its orbit about the sun, r and 79 the distances of the comet from the sun and Jupiter, and m the mass of J upiter (sun’s mass = 1): then if Whiade* st i Lal any change in P will evidently change Go i ns time of the comet in its elliptic orbit, or by diminution of P the orbit may change from an hyperbola to an ellipse. rs an x, y, z, be the codrdinates of the comet relative to the X,Y, %, of the planet relative to the sun, 2, Y%, %, O the Sana relative to the planet; so thata=at+am y=yH%t+y and z= 4+ % Neglecting the comet’s mass we have for ‘ie equations of motion, a6) bed al fd Fe en Sa’ (5+ at A minep nay by ay ie and 2dz, adding and observing that = dx, + dx, dy = dy, + dy, dz = dz, + dz, we have by re- roche dP __—- 2mfa (ux, da, . y, dy, , 4% d, a cd ee me ee a 2infa’ (a, de: --y, z, dz,.\ds, me (et ee 7, de,) dt’ where ds, is the element of J upiter’s orbit about the sun. The quantit 7s the parenthesis i is the cosine of the angle at the dlanet between the comet’s radius vector and the direction of upiter’s motion, which angle we may denote by gp. The factor ds, . oz iS the planet's velocity in its orbit, which may be denoted by v; Then we have, qdP_—_ 2mfa’v, Hx TE 008 9 The integral for P for the time that the comet is within the sphere of ; Jupiter’s special action (that is, while the comet may be treated as moving in a hyperbolic orbit about Jupiter, and the sun only as a perturbing body), gives the change in P H, A. Newton— Origin of Comets. 175 due to Jupiter’s motion. Let v be the comet’s relative velocity on entering the sphere of Jupiter's action, and py the perpen- dicular from Jupiter on its relative path at that time. From Kepler’s law 7°d@ = pvt, where @ is the angle in the plane of the comet’s relative orbit defining the place of the comet. Dur- ing the time of the comet’s transit past Jupiter his motion may be regarded as in a straight line. Project that line on the plane of the comet’s relative orbit, let 8 be counted from this projection, and call the angle of projection 6. Then cos gj)= cos é cos 8, and we have, pw dP = —2mfa*v, cos 6 cos 6 dé. Denoting the total change of P by 4, and the first and last values of @ by 6’ and @”’, we have, PY, 4 = 2mfa’v, cos 6 (sin #’— sin #” = 4mfa’v, cos 6 cos $ (6+ 6) sin 4 (7— 6). But 6”— @’ is the change of direction of the comet's radius vector, and is approximately that angle of the asymptotes of the hyperbolic orbit which encloses the curve. Denote it by 2a, observing that sin @ will in general be not much different from unity. Again 4(6’+ 6”) is the angle defining the perijove of the comet's orbit, and cosé cos 4(0’+ 0”) = cosg, where ¢ is the angle between the direction of Jupiter’s motion and the direction from Jupiter of the transverse axis of the comet’s orbit. Hence, pt 4mfa'r, Po cos p sin a. That is, the total decrease in the kinetic energy of a comet caused by the perturbing action of a planet during the transit of the comet past the nl ‘ae Pennine, ot ten? ed 7 a 4 f th £ v fa f UY} € MOMLEHLAHE the planet (mv,), the cosine of half the angle through which the comet's direction is changed by the planet (sin a), the cosine of the angle at the planet between the direction of the planet’s motion and the trans- verse axis of the comet's relative orbit (cos g), and the reciprocal of the constant area described in the unit of time by the comet in its relative orbit (2+ pov, motions are directed when they are near 2 e — and S the direction ee the ne me m the planet. Ifthe planet be rega as describing a circle cy ie ecliptic, then ah SP is a quadrant, and CSP is the incli- § hation of the comet’s orbit. Denote CSP by 4, CP by w, and CPS by &. CP will =a be greater or less than a quadrant according as S or @ is aya or less than a right angle, and by trigonometry tan i=sin f tan @. 176 H, A, Newton— Origin of Comets. If we suppose a large number of comets to approach the planet so that the value of w is constant but so that the points from which their motions are directed are equably distributed on the circumference of the small circle whose pole is P, and whose distance from P is w, then cased the mean value of tan is 1] a f* tan w sin Pdf, that is — * tan w.* Therefore the greater 9 the algebraic value of tan a, ate greater that of the mean value of tanz, Hence, also, the greater the value of w between 0° and 180° the greater the mean value of ¢, between the same limits. Therefore we may conclude that wien the perturbing action of a planet upon neighboring comets increases the angle between the directions of the motions of the comets and of the planet, that uction tends likewise in the mean to increase the tnclinahon gt the comets’ absolute motion makes with that of the planet on entering the sphere by @, and on leaving the sphere by w’, Let also 2V=v+v’', and 2d=v—v’. Then by composition of motions, oe: ta aa —2QWv V COS =D, *+-(V+d)’?—2v,(V+d) COs @ =v-+y"—20,0' cos c= 24(V—d) —2v,(V—d) cos w’. Hence reducing, we have cos @— cos G’= =ry- at yale’ Cos @). If now the action of the planet is to diminish v, both V—d and d are pclae and the sign of cos w—cos w’ depends upon that of V~zx,cosw. Hence @ is increased by that action when nag positive. If w>90° this quantity is positive, and at the same time #>90° (27). Since the action of the planet is to increase @, the resulting value of 7 exceeds 90°. Therefore, when the inclination of a comet's orbit is greater than 90°, and the velocity of the comet is reduced by the teers 2 action of a 1 planet near to which it comes, the orbit after the perturbation has an inclination greater than 90° ; and, if a large number of cases be considered, the mean effect of the urbations is to increase the inclinations. in, for a comet moving ina parabolic orbit we have v=v,/2. Hence, ters nad cos 45°, and esi Legh tip positive when w>45°. e, whenever any comet wn a parabolic orbit bie near to a planet and by the panels * The integration should not extend to the second semicircle, since the comets corresponding thereto belong to the other node. HI, A, Newton— Origin of Comets. i77 action has its velocity diminished, the angle between the directions of the motions of the two bodies about the sun is increased in all cases in which that angle is at first greater than 45°. 80. Again, when is less than 45°, and the planet before disturbance moves in a parabola so that v=, 2, then V—v, cos w is positive for all values of w unless V2v,( /2—1)=0°8282,. Therefore, when a planet overtaken by a comet, the directions 9 their motions differing less than 45°, hie its velocity apeiaio that difference of direction will be increased unless the comet comes so near to the planet as to lose by its perturbing action a part of as velocity at least equal to about gths of the planet's velocity 3 erefore, it is only” in exceptional cases (8, 29, 30) that the shortening by a planet's action of the periodic time of a comet moving in an orbit of long period is not connected with an increase of the angle of divergence of the two motions, and a consequent tendency to increase the inclination of the two orbits. In the exceptional cases the comet overtakes the hoor , passes around close to and in front of it, and is thus left ehind with an absolute veldeit} and hence a periodic time much less than that of the planet, and with a direct motion 32. On the other hand, for given values of % and io and w>90°, the smallest value of v’ corresponds to w’=180°, v= Uy—r. the comet approaches in a parabolic ‘orbit v=v,,/2, and we have for the smallest value of v’, (v*-+v,’—2uv, cos kage =i | ste sbe cos = ea at by a ‘planet’ attraction acting oe a single passage be red parabolic orbit to one whose periodic time is less yew oot of the planet. the planets at first a trifle 2 than if moving in a parabola. If one of them does not lose velocity, or if becsing hind a never to return, Bat if it passes in front: of a large p Within a moderate. distance of it, it loses velocity meng remain a permanent member of our s system. Most observed comets have on sia: hypothesis thus. lost 178 H.. A, Newton— Origin of Comets, velocity. What proportion have not depends upon how fast the process of disintegration of comets goes on. If this process is very slow, the new comers on our list should form a smaller proportion than if the process is rapid. But it has been seen that in the process by which they lose velocity their orbits have their inclinations in general increased. This is particu- larly true for the inclinations between 45° and 135°, for the corresponding comets are more likely to pass directly across in front of the planets. Hence in fig. 1 we ought to expect on Laplace’s hypothesis as : Papi of “perturbations an increase of the ordinates between and 135°, at the expense of the ordinates between 45° os 90°. Again, the periodic comets form a marked group and should probably be treated separately. Now it is reasonable to sup- pose that a large part of the area between 0° and 20° lying below the shaded area is due also to comets of short periods. Of the twenty-six comets in the table whose inclinations are less than 20°, nine are noted as periodic and furnish the shaded area near A. Of seven of the remainder, viz: 1743 I, 1678, 1585, 1766 Il, 1819 IV, 1867 I and 1847 V, the orbits com- puted are ellipses, mostly short ones, but the comets have not been certainly detected at any return. Of the other ten about f were not well enough observed to enable us to say whether their periods were short or long. It is probably sate to assume that the area between the curve of sines and the shaded area belongs, up to 20°, to comets of short period. hese return so frequently that their number in a list of observed comets is out of all proportion to their number among existing comets. Whatever theory of the origin of this group we may assume they should, because of the comparative ease of their being detected, not count for much in studying the original distribution of the inclinations. rrect then the curve in fig. 1 by striking ne the surplus | the area npr 20°, bringing back some of the area from We therefore o moncluiie, that the curve of fact magpie a ae the hypothesis of Laplace if we first make reasonable allowance for known perturbations, and for the —. of short 34. Can plained age reasonable suppositions on Kans fore esis? rm think not. If the comets are from matter at a very great dis- tance from the sun the line AB should represent the theory, and the decided turn of the curve downward towards 180° seems Zu nee Pe Ne HI. A. Newton— Origin of Comets. 179 inexplicable. The same is true for the downward turn of the curve near A when the comets of short period are thrown out, wholly, or in part. The effect of perturbation should be to push the area forward towards B. But if the comets come from matter somewhat nearer to the therefore, whose inclinations are increased, would return more uently and so be more likely to apres in our list, while some of those whose inclinations are diminished would go off altogether. But the perturbations would not easily remove the excess of area from near A in the figure. We therefore con- t seems very improbable that iron masses whose like in the earth is found only in the igneous trap rocks, especially in the Greenland traps, should have become consolidated in the cold iTagments are records of an interesting early history. To decipher the legends belongs rather to the mineralogist and the physicist than to the astronomer. My effort bas been to 180 W. N. Rice—Animal of Millepora alcicornis. ArT. XVI.—On the Animal of cna alcicornis ; by WiLLiAM Nort Ric THE attention of zoologists was called to the relations of Millepora by the announcement of Agassiz in 1858 that ‘‘ Mille- ra is not an Actinoid Polyp, but a genuine Hydroid, allied to Hydractinia.”* Professor Agassiz figured the animals as seen by him, in his Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, vol. iii, p. 61. On the evidence afforded by a single observation of Mille epora, be proposed to transfer to the Acalephe not only that genus, but all the Madreporaria Tabulata of Milne-Edwards. Professor Verrill has shownt that the latter inference cannot be accepted, and that the Mad- reporaria Tabulata form an Lennie and quite heterogeneous assemblage. There has much difference of opinion as to the soundness of Agassiz’s diholusion in regard to Millepora itself, and the extreme shyness of the animals has rendered it impossible to accumulate numerous observations. A paper b General Nelson and P. Martin Duncan,t contains figures of the animals of Millepora alcicornis, as observed by the former author while stationed at Bermuda many years ago. he figures differ from those of Agassiz in arranging the tentacles regularly in whorls of four, and the authors conclude that Millepora is probably an Alcyonarian. The arrangement of tentacles is certainly quite unusual in the Alcyonaria, admit- ting the correctness of General Nelson’s figures. In Novem- ber, 1875, a paper by Mr. Moseley of the Challenger Peps was read before the Royal Society,§ in which the author reported observations on pees at Bermuda and elsewhere. The observations seem to have been quite dapormpanhh and the author at that time ventured no conclusion from them. He was, however, more fortunate at Tahiti; and his paper read before the Royal Society in April, 1876 L gives the results of a more complete and satisfactory series of observations on the vente in question than has been made by any other Berg is conclusions agree substantially with those of A In the winter of 1876-7, the writer spent some ae in Bermuda, residing for A of the time at Flats Village, on the shore of Harringt und. The abundance of Millepora in the shallow water Por that beautiful lagoon afforded excellent opportunity for an investigation of the animals. In this work, * This Ann. ‘td Mag, Nats His, xvii, cae a BB orga Transactions, clxvi, 91; abstract in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ty Phil. Trans., clxvii, 117; abstract in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xviii, 178. ee a a 4 W. N. Rice—Animal of Millepora aleicornis. 181 the writer was favored with the kind assistance of Mr. G. about all hours of the day and night. Only once were we favored with a sight of the zooids in expansion. Though that observation was far from being as satisfactory as could be desired, the writer has thought it might be worth while to give an account of it; for, on a subject so important and presenting such difficulties to every observer, every scrap of observation is probably worth saving. The zooids which we saw in expansion showed generally a pretty regular whorl of tentacles at the summit. There seemed to be indications of a tendency to a grouping of the tentacles In one or more whorls below the one at thesummit. But these sometimes three. As regards the arrangement of the tentacles, our observation is therefore substantially in agreement with those of Agassiz and Moseley. We feel very confident that the tentacles are not in uniform and regular whorls of four, as figured by Nelson and Duncan. _ Pea eg The accompanying figures, 1 to 20, represent the outlines of several zooids in the various positions in which they chanced to present themselves, The drawings were made hastily while the pecimens were under examination. It is needless to remark that they make no pretension to any artistic character. What- ever value they may have arises from the fact of a conscien- tious endeavor to draw exactly the outlines which were seen, not a line being added hypothetically or inferentially. Figures Am. Jour. Bios seman Vou. XVI, No. 93,—Sxpt, 1878. 182 W. N. Rice—Animal of Millepora alcicornis. figures 17-20 zooids seen from above. Figures 5, 6, 8, 14, 13 were drawn by Mr. Goode; the remainder by the writer. The drawings testify to the entire agreement between the two | ites 6. Pe Sbite The at seen by us appear to have been of the outhless kind. Moseley has noticed the fact that these expand much ae readily than the others. Our observations were made partly with a two-inch, but chiefly with a one-inch “FR PEF Some attempts were made to study the zooids by means of decalcified specimens, previously treated with picric acid and alcohol ; a preliminary treatment with picric acid and subse- quent removal to alcohol having been shown by experiments Sea tee undertaken by members of the United States Fish Commission, gr Sbasaaies of feoak in " Millepora airs cornis, ries in the latter the Pg portion is somewhat nearer the base of the thread. The length of the thread in the longest of our specimens is about 027 inch. * Philosophical Transactions, elxvii, pl. II, fig. 1. A, Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 183 Art. XVII. — Forest Geography and Archeology; a Lecture delivered before the Harvard University Natural History Society, April 18, 1878; by Asa Gray. [Continued from p. 94.] Tux difference in the composition of the Atlantic and Pacific forests is not less marked than that of the climate and geograph- ical configuration to which the two are respectively adapted. ith some very notable exceptions, the forests of the whole northern hemisphere in the temperate zone (those that we are concerned with) are mainly made up of the same or similar kinds. Not of the same species; for rarely do identical trees occur in any two or more widely separated regions. But all round the world in our zone, the woods contain Pines and Firs and Larches, Cypresses and Junipers, Oaks and Birches, Willows and Poplars, Mapies and Ashes and the like. Yet with all these family likenesses throughout, each region has some peculiar features, some trees by which the country may at once be distinguished. Beginning by a comparison of our Pacific with our Atlantic forest, I need not take the time to enumerate the trees of the or example, it has no Magnolias, no Tulip-tree, no Papaw, no Linden or Basswood, and is very poor in Maples; no st-trees—neither Flowering Locust nor Honey Locust—nor any Leguminous tree; no Cherry large enough for a timber- tree, like our wild Black Cherry; no Gum-trees (Nyssa nor Liquidambar), nor Sorrel-tree, nor Kalmia; no Persimmon, or umelia; not a Holl timber-tree; no Catalpa, or Sassafras; not a single Elm, nor Hackberry; not a Mulberry, nor Planer-tree, nor Maclura; other things. But as to ordinary trees, if you ask what takes the place in Oregon and California of all these missing kinds, Which are familiar on our side of the continent, I must answer, nothing, or nearly nothing. There is the Madrofia (Arbutus) instead of our Kalmia (both really trees in some places) ; and 184 A, Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. pai is a California Laurel instead of our southern Red Bay in any of the genera common to the two does the Pacific ae oe the Atlantic in species. It has not half as ity; it has not half as many Oaks; and these and the Ashes are of so inferior economical value, ‘that (as we are told) a pass- able wagon-wheel cannot be made of California wood, nor a really ae oe in Oregon. This of the western forest in species and types may be exhibited gpa in a way which cannot fail to strike the eye more impressively than when we say that, whereas the Atlantic forest is composed of 66 genera and 155 species, the Pacific forest has only 31 genera and 78 species.* In the appended diagrams, the short side of the rectangle is propor- tional to the number of genera, the long side to the number of species a es ow the geographical areas of the two forests are not very different. From the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of St. Lawrence about twenty degrees of latitude intervene. From the southern end of California to the peninsula of Alaska there are twenty- eight degrees, and the forest on the coast runs some degrees north of this; the jenuath may therefore make up for ‘the com- parative narrowness of the Pacific forest region. How can so meagre a forest make so imposing a show? Surely not by the (or more correctly non-coniferous) trees are concerned ; for on the whole they are inferior to their eastern Ede in size if not in number of individuals. e reason is, that a larger Bro: ortion of the genera and species are son anes trees; and thes ing evergreen (except the Larches), of espiring, pent a, eminently gregarious habit, usually dominate where k laging the et _ almost three times as many sg aos four mes ies of non-coniferous trees as the west, it es slightly ion genera and almost one-half fewer species of coniferous trees than the west. That is, the Atlantic conif- ponderance may also be expressed by the diagrams, in which the smaller enclosed rectangles, drawn on t e e, represent the coniferous portions of these forests. * We take in only timber trees, or such as attain in th t fi ble localities to a size which gives them a clear title to the arboreous rank. The subtropical southern pared es ae aad Keys of Florida are excluded. So also are one or two trees of the Ariz t southern borders of the Californian tienes In counting the Coniferous genera, Pinus, Larix, Picea, Abies and Tsuga are ae ere ee Chamecyparis are taken as one genus. | j oe ' : A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 185 Indeed, the Pacific forest is made up of conifers, with non- coniferous trees as occasional undergrowth or as scattered indi- viduals, and conspicuous only in valleys or in the sparse tree- growth of plains, on which the oaks at most reproduce the features of the “ oak openings” here and there bordering the Mississippi prairie region. Perhaps the most striking contrast etween the west and the east, along the latitude usually trav- ersed, is that between the spiry evergreens which the traveler leaves when he quits California, and the familiar woods of various-hued round-headed trees which give him the feeling of home when he reaches the Mississippi. The Atlantic forest is particularly rich in these, and is not meagre in coniferous trees. All the glory of the Pacific forest is in its coniferous trees: its desperate poverty in other trees appears in the annexed diagram. oes Jere 1 ‘ 3 4 1. Atlantic American Forest. 3. Japan-Manchurian Forest. 2. Pacific American Forest. 4. European Forest. would be the Himalay-Altaian region, geographically interme- di ‘ Rocks Mountain district is between our eastern and western. Both are here left out of view, partly for the same, partly for special reasons per- taining to each, which I must not stop to explain. These four puked specimens will simply and pe exhibit the general 186 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. Keeping as nearly as possible to the same scale, we ma count the indigenous forest trees of all Europe at 33 pele and 85 species. And those of the Japan-Manchurian region, of very much smaller geographical area, at 66 genera an species. I here include in it only Japan, Eastern Manchuria, and the ptreaneen borders of China The known species of trees must be rather roughly determined; but the numbers here given are not exaggerated, and are much more likely to be sensibly increased by further knowledge than are those of any of the other regions. Properly to estimate the surpassing richness of this Japan-Manchurian forest, the comparative smallness of geographical area must come in as an important tae ration mple ete the view, let it be noted that the — of shes pis 8 into coniferous and non-coniferous is, for European spager ote so 26 genera, 68 species, niferous, 7 SAT 33 “ 85 “cs J apan-Manchurian non-coniferous, 47 genera, 123 species. coni iferous, 19 46 . 66 *. 168 r In other words, a narrow region in Eastern Asia contains twice as many genera and about twice as many + is of indigenous trees as are possessed by all Europe; and as to coniferous trees, the former has more genera we the latter ey species, and over twice and a half as many speci The only question about the relation of these four forest tc Pls as to their component species, which we can here pause answer, is to what extent they contain trees of identical ethos If we took the shrubs, hare would be a small num- ber, if the herbs a very considerable number, of species common to the two New World and to the two Old World areas respect- ively, at least to their northern portions, even after excluding arctic- —~ plants. The same be said, in its degree, of the North European flora poiriared: with the Atlantic North American, of the Northeast Asiatic compared with the north- ae eC) oO 2D 5 = HE 5.6 S Bp a) 2 = g4. BS % ff st 5 there is very little community of | ies. —— this is not abso- lutely wanting. The Red Ootay Oans A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 187 There are probably, but not certainly, one or two instances on the northern verge of these two forests. There are as many in which eastern and western species are suggestively similar. e hy should our Pacific forest region, which is rich and in some respects unique in coniferous, be so poor in deciduous trees? _ Then the two Big-trees, Sequoias, as isolated in character as in location,—being found only in California, and having no near relatives any where,—how came California to have them ? uch relatives as the Sequoias have are also local, peculiar, and chiefly of one species to each genus. Only one of them is American, and that solely eastern, the Taxodium of our Atlan- tic States and the plateau of Mexico. The others are Japanese and Chinese. _ Why should trees of six related genera, which will all thrive in Europe, be restricted naturally, one to the eastern side o the American continent, one genus to the western side and very locally, the rest to a small portion of the eastern border of Asia? hy should coniferous trees most affect and preserve the greatest number of types in these parts of the world? And why should the Northeast Asian region have, in a com- paratively small area, not only most coniferous trees, but a notably larger number of trees altogether than any other part of the northern temperate zone? Why should its only and near rival be in the antipodes, namely, here in Atlantic North America? In other words why should the Pacific and the European forests be so poor in comparison, and why the Pacific poorest of all in deciduous, yet rich in coniferous trees? _ The first step toward an explanation of the superior richness in trees of these antipodal regions, is to note some striking sim- ilarities of the two, and especially the number of peculiar types which they divide between them. The ultimate conclusion may at length be ventured, that this richness is normal, and that what we really have to explain is the absence of so many 188 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. forms from Europe on the one hand, from Oregon and Cali- fornia on the other. Let me recall to mind the list of kinds (i. e. genera) of trees which enrich our Atlantic forest but are wanting to that of the Pacific. Now almost all these recur, in more or less similar but not identical species, in Japan, North China, etc. Some of them are likewise European, but more are not so. Extending the comparison to shrubs and herbs, it more and more appears, that the forms and types which we count as peculiar to our Atlantic region, when we compare them, as we first naturally do, with Europe and with our West, have their close counterparts in Japan and North China; some in identical species (especially among the herbs), often in strikingly similar ones, not rarely as sole species of peculiar genera or in related generic types. I wasa very young botanist to notice this; and I have from time to time made lists of such instances, Evidences of this remarkable like, shou in Eastern ery few of such iso lated types remain without counterparts. It is as if Nature, when she had enough species of a genus to round, dealt and the other to Japan, Manchuria, or the Himalayas; when she had only one, divided these between the two partners on the opposite side of the table. The result, as to the trees, is seen in these four diagrams. As to number of species generally, it cannot be said that Europe and Pacific North America are at all in arrears. But as to trees, either the contrasted regions have been exceptionally favored, or these have been hardly dealt with. There is, as I have intimated, some reason to adopt the latter alternative. We may take it for granted that the indigenous plants of any country, particularly the trees, have been scape 8 by climate. other, no tree could hold — as a member of any forest : to endure even the extremes of the climate of the region or station. But the character of the climate will not explain the remarkable paucity of the trees which compose the indigenous European forest. That is to justify the inference. Probably there is no tree of the northern temperate zone which will not flourish in some pa of Europe. Great Britain alone can grow double or treble the number of trees that the Atlantic States can. In all the latter A. Gray— Forest Geography and Archeology. 189 we can grow hardly one tree of the Pacific coast. England supports all of them, and all our Atlantic trees also, and like- wise the Japanese and North Siberian species, which do thrive here remarkably in some part of the Atlantic coast, especially the cooler-temperate ones. The poverty of the European sylva is attributable to the absence of our Atlantic American types, to its having no Magnolia, Liriodendron, Asimina, Negundo, no culus, none of that rich assemblage of Leguminous trees represented by Locusts, Honey-Locusts, Gymnocladus, and Cla- rastis (even its Cercis, which is hardly European, is like the Californian one mainly a shrub); no Nyssa, nor Liquidambar; no Kricacez rising to a tree; no Bumelia, Catalpa, Sassafras, Osage Orange, Hickory, or Walnut; and as to Conifers, no Hemlock Spruce, Arbor-vitee, Taxodium, nor Torreya. . compared with Northeastern Asia, Europe wants most of these same types, also the Ailantus, Gingko, and a goodly number of coniferous genera. I cannot point to any types tending to make up the deficiency, that is, to any not either in East North merica or in Northeast Asia, or in both. Cedrus, the true Cedar, which comes near to it, is only North African and Asian. Tneed not say that Europe has no Sequoia, and shares no special type with California. Now the capital fact is, that many and perhaps almost all of these genera of trees were well represented in Europe through- out the later Tertiary times. It had not only the same generic types, but in some cases even the same species, or what must oe as such, in the lack of recognizable distinctions between ossil remains and living analogues. Probably the European Miocene forest was about as rich and various as is ours of the present day, and very like it. The Glacial period came and assed, and ra types have not survived there, nor returned. nee the comparative poverty of the existing European By a at least, the probable explanation of the absence of ose 190 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. applicable even to such wide wanderings and such vast inter- vals of time. the specific essence has not changed, an even if it has suffered some change, genealogical connection is to be inferred in all such cases. hat is, in these days it is taken for granted that individuals of the same species, or with a certain likeness throughout, ha asingle birthplace, and are descended from the same stock, no matter how widely separated they may have been either in space or time, or both. The contrary supposition may be made, and was seriously entertained by some not very long ago. It is even supposable that plants and animals originated where they now are, or where their remains are found. But this is not science: in other words it is not conformable to what we now know, and is an assertion that scientific explanation is not to be sought. Furthermore, when species of the same genus are not found almost everywhere, they are usually grouped in one region, as are the Hickories in the Atlantic States, the Asters and Golden- rods in North America and prevailingly on the Atlantic side, the Heaths in Western Europe and Africa. From this we are because birds have carried seeds from the one to the other. I take it that the true explanation of the whole problem Ns, Sea ee A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 191 comes from a just general view, and not through piecemeal suppositions of chances. And I am clear that it is to be found y looking to the north, to the state of things at the arctic zone,—first, as it now is, and then as it has been. North of our forest-regions comes the zone unwooded from cold, the zone of arctic vegetation. In this, as a rule, the Species are the same round the world; as exceptions, some are restricted to a part of the circle. The polar projection of the earth down to the northern tropic, as here exhibited, shows to the eye—as our maps do not—how all the lands come together into one region, and how natural it may be for the same species, under homogeneous conditions, to spread over it. When we know, moreover, that sea and land have varied greatly since these species existed, we may well believe that any ocean-gaps, now in the way of equable distribution, may have been bridged over. There is now only one considerable gap. WwW kept together at a low level, and made good their retreat, form the main body of present arctic vegetation. Those that took to the mountains had their line of retreat cut off, and hold their positions on the mountain-tops under cover of the frigid climate due to elevation. The conditions of these on different conti- nents or different mountains are similar, but not wholly alike. me species proved better —— to one, some to another, ace of the world; where less adapted, or less adaptable, they ive perished ; where better adapted, they continue,—with or Without some change ;—and hence the diversification of alpine lants, as well as the general likeness through all the northern emisphere. All this exactly applies to the temperate zone vegetation, id to the trees that we are concerned with. The clew w seized when the fossil botany of the high arctic regions came to light; when it was demonstrated that in the times next pre- ceding the Glacial period—in the latest Tertiary—from Spitzber- gen and Iceland to Greenland and Kamtschatka, a climate like that we now enjoy prevailed, and forests like those of New 192 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. England and Virginia, and of California, clothed the land. We infer the climate from the trees; and the trees give sure indi- cations of the climate. I had divined and published the explanation long before I knew of the fossil plants. These, since made known, render the inference sure, and give us a clear idea of just what the climate ginia now. It would take too much time to enumerate the sorts of trees that have been identified by their leaves and fruits in the arctic later Tertiary deposits. I can only say, at large, that the same species have been found all round the world; that the richest and most extensive now peculiar to Japan and China, three kinds of Gingko-trees, for instance, persed over such widely separated continents. The lands all pas 8 from a polar center, and their proximate portions—how- climate, the forest they possess now, or rather the ancestors of it. During this long (and we may believe first) occupancy of Europe and the United States, were deposited in pools and shallow A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 193 waters the cast leaves, fruits, and occasionally branches, which are imbedded in what are called Miocene Tertiary or later eposits, most abundant in Europe, from which the American character of the vegetation of the period is inferred. Geologists give the same name to these beds, in Greenland and Southern when Greenland probably had very nearly the climate which it has now. Wherefore the high, and not the low, latitudes must be assumed as the birth-place of our present flora;* and the present arctic vegetation is best regarded as a derivative of the temperate. This flora, which when cireumpolar was as nearly homogeneous round the high latitudes as the arctic vegetation is now, when slowly translated into lower latitudes, would preserve its homo- geneousness enough to account for the actual distribution of the same and similar species round the world, and for the original endowment of Europe with what we now call American types. It would also vary or be selected from by the increasing differ- entiation of climate in the divergent continents, and on their different sides, in a way which might well account for the present diversification. From an early period, the system of sides, there are re-siftings to take into the account. The Glacial period or refrigeration from the north, which at its in- ae er paleontology nor the study of arctic sedimentary strata afford any evidence of it. Or if they were any, it was too remote in time to concern the Present question 194 A. Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. To what extent displaced, and how far superseded by the vege- tation which in our day borders the ice, or by ice itself, it is difficult to form more than general conjectures—so different and conflicting are the views of geologists upon the Glacial period. ut upon any, or almost any, of these views, it is safe to con- clude that temperate vegetation, such as preceded the refrigera- tion and has now again succeeded it, was either thrust out of Northern Europe and the Northern Atlantic States, or was reduced to precarious existence and diminished forms. It also. Aa that, on our own continent at least, a milder climate than the present, and a considesable submergence of land, tran- siently supervened at the north, to which the vegetation must have sensibly responded by a northward movement, from which it afterward receded. | these vicissitudes must have left their impress upon the actual vegetation, and particularly upon the trees. They fur- nish probable reason for the loss of American types sustained by Europe. I conceive that three things have conspired to this loss. First, Europe, hardly extending south of latitude 40°, is all within the limits generally assigned to severe glacial action. ond, its mountains trend east and west, from the Pyrenees to the Carpathians and the Caucasus beyond, near its southern border; and they had glaciers of their own, which must have un their operations, and poured down the northward flanks, while the plains were still covered with forest on the retreat from the great ice-wave coming from the north. Attacked both on front and rear, much of the forest must have perished then and there. Third, across the line of retreat of those which may have flanked the mountain-ranges, or were stationed south of them, stretched the Medit an impassable barri Some hardy trees may have eked out their existence on the northern shore of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast. But we very late — was apparently prevented by the prolongation of the M iterranean to the Caspian and then ‘ 1. ii we accept the supposi anterior to the Glacial aan Haare was “bounded on the south by an ocean extending from the Atlantic over the present —_ ‘— and = Asia to the Pacific,” all chance of these American types having escaped from or re-entered Europe from the sow eux + eae thus be conceived to have been fora time somewhat in the condition in which Greenland is now, and, indeed to have been connected with Greenland in this or in earlier times. Such a A, Gray—Forest Geography and Archeology. 195 trast, we find the land unbroken and open down to the tropic, and the mountains running north and south. The trees, when touched on the north by the on-coming refrigeration, had only to move their southern border southward, along an open way, as far as the exigency required; and there was no impediment to their due return. Then the more southern latitude of the United States gave great advantage over . On th Atlantic border, proper glaciation was felt only in the northern part, down to about latitude 40°. In the interior of the country, owing doubtless to greater dryness and summer heat, the limit receded greatly northward in the Mississippi Valley, and gave only local glaciers to the Rocky Mountains; and no volcanic outbreaks or violent changes of any kind have here occurred since the types of our present vegetation came to the land. our lines have been cast in pleasant places, and the goodly heritage of forest trees is one of the consequences. The still greater richness of Northeast Asia in arboreal vege- tation may find explanation in the prevalence of particularly favorable conditions, both ante-glacial and recent. trees of the Miocene cireumpolar forest appear to have found therea Secure home; and the Japanese islands, to which most of these trees belong, must be remarkably adapted to them. The situa- tion of these islands—analogous to that of Great Britain, but with the advantage of lower latitude and greater sunshine— heir ample extent north and south, their diversified configura- tion, their proximity to the great Pacific gulf-stream, by which a vast body of warm water sweeps along their accentuated shores, and the comparatively equable diffusion of rain throughout the year, all probably conspire to the preservation and develop- ment of an originally ample inheritance. The case of the Pacific forest is remarkable and paradoxical. It is, as we know, the sole refuge of the most characteristic and —— type of Miocene Conifers, the Sequoias; it is rich im coniferous types beyond any country except Japan; in its gold-bearing gravels are indications that it possessed, seemingly 196 Richards and Palmer—Antimony Tannate. down to the very beginning of the Glacial period, Magnolias and Beeches, a true Chestnut, Liquidambar, Elms, and other trees now wholly wanting to that side of the ee though common both to Japan and to Atlantic North America. ‘* An attempted explanation of this extreme paucity of oa usually major constituents of forest, along with a great development of the minor, or coniferous, element, a take us quite too far, and would bring us to mere conjectu uch may be attributed to late slesietion ;+ something to the tremendous outpours of lava which, immediately before the period of refrigeration, deeply covered a very large part of the forest area; much to the saciocenees of the forest belt, to the want of summer rain, and to the most unequal and precarious distribution of that of winter. Upon all these oe questions open which we are not pre- save to discuss. I have done all that I could hope to do in one ecture if I have distinesly shown that the races of trees, like the races of ave come down to us through a pre-historic vestiges, and remains, and survivals; that for the vegetable kingdom also there is a veritable Archeology. AxgtT. XVIII.—WNotes on Antimony Tannate; by ELLEN SwAL- LOW RICHARDS and ALICE W. PALMER. In the course of some work on the determination of tannic acid, we tried Gerland’s method of direct estimation by means of a standard solution of tartar emetic in presence of ammonium chloride. Gerland’s formula, in which the aot atomic weights are used (Zeitschrift fiir Analyse, 1863, ii, page 419), is given as SbOs(CisHsOn)s [or in the new pale Sb,Oa CurEleOn)e] which requi Sb, 15°60 per cent, ©, 41°43 percent, H, 3°07 per cent. The formula that > have been led to adopt, is Sbe(C4Hs09)2+ 6H,0 which requi Sb, 18°59 per cent, ©, 38-41 percent, H, 2°74 per cent, in vee tannic ey is considered as di-gallic acid,} with, poss: of the Sierra Ppa 9 by fh Lesquereux; Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoology, vi,. 0 2.— maorigreperres > of fossil leaves, &e., su such as these, may be relied on to this extent by th e general botanist, ho however war These must be ma’ mainly left to the expert in fossil il botany. © + Sir Joseph Hooker, in an important lecture delivered to the Royal Institution of Great Britain, April 12, insists much on this. ¢ H. Schiff, Bull. Soe. Chem., I, xvi, 198. Sve Richards and Palmer—Antimony Tannate. 197 bly, three pheno] H’s replaced by Sb as well as three acid H's. This formula is deduced from the following analyses of anti- mony tannate. All the tannates described in this paper were prepared in the same manner. e solution, containing five to ten one of tannic acid per liter, was heated to 60° CG. in a ¢.c. of ammonium acetate per liter. After the whole was shaken and allowed to settle, it was filtered and dried at 100° C. to 105° C. for three or four days i in an ordinary air-bath. The bulky, yellowish-white, gelatinous precipitate at first formed became, when dried, yellowish to reddish-brown, transparent, amorphous, and broken into small angular fragments. Antimony Tannates. Sb. e j Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 2°91 From purified tannin 20°6 37°53 2°98 $761 2°78 From unfiltered tannin 37°95 2°71 From filtered tannin 89°30 2°86 88°32 2°88 From nutgalls 20°5 38°47 2°81 38°14 2°92 From sumac, No, I 39°60 2°70 II 39°54 2°74 Ii 20°1 40°51 2°92 The antimony was determined as a sulphide, and the calcu- lated pas are probably a little too high. to the process of titration, our first experience coincided With the statement of Gauhe (Zeitschrift fir Analyse, 1863, ili, page 122), that the end of the reaction was difficult £ to seize, and that the dilute solutions remained turbid. Even after we und an indicator, the process in our hands gave varying results with varying quantities of ammonium chloride and with different proportions of water. e then made a series of tests with other substances, viz: alin: salts of sodium, ete., as precipitating agents. The one chosen as a result of these tests was ammonium acetate, prepared by mixing in the right proportion glacial acetic acid and stron ammonia water of ign strengths.* 1 c.c. of this preparation added for every 25 or 80 ¢.c. of the total bulk, will give a clear, Without sta liquid after standing a few minutes. —— stating in detail the steps of the investigation, we process as we now use it. e used acetic aci nt gH4 d a er et Ni aha eh gn MEH hoe Am. Jour, es a Vou. XVI, No. 98.—Sepr., 1878. 198 Richards and Palmer—Antimony Tannate. The weighed quantity of the substance in which the tannic acid is to be estimated is taken in sufficient quantity to allow of, at least, three aliquot parts, each portion of 50 to 100 ce. containing ‘100 to 300 grams of tannic acid. Acer: the solu- tion, made by doa with water, is made up to a known bulk, three or four portions are measured out and set in a water bath to be heated to 50° or 60° C. The standard solution of r emetic contains 6-730 grams per liter of the C,H,KSbO, a ined at 100° C. 1 ce, is considered to correspond to 010 grams per liter for the same valu The estimation is facilitated by. obtaining a maximum and a minimum point at the first reading, as one portion is settling while the other is being treated; therefore tartar emetic is added from a burette to one portion in cn of the probable quantity required, and to another in less amount. ‘lhe anti- mony tannate is then Sronipitaien by the pasate number of cubic centimeters of ammonium acetate, and allowed to settle. A drop of the clear liquid is added to a drop of sodium hypo- ite dene, on a hot tage plate, and if the tartar emetic has been added in excess, the deep orange color of the antimony sulphide will at once appear. When this point is reached by successive additions of the standard solution to the minimum portion, we add to a third portion the oan quantity, and test the clear liquid as a check on the loss occasioned by taking out several drops. e have found it easier to carry the titration to a decided orange tint, and to subtract ‘5 c.c. of tartar emetic solution for 100 c.c. of liquid, rather than to pe to seize the first faint tinge, as most of the ean to be titrated contain coloring matter _ oi a yellowish or reddish tint, but not an orange color. states that neither gallic acid = the coloring ee Sonenied 3 in certain substances affects the results. is seem to be true so far as gallic acid is Reo but the dacucan of the relation of the coloring matter to the precipitate, together with the results of our titrations and combustions of antimony tannate from hemlock bark, oak bark, sweet-fern leaves, etc., must be reserved for a future paper. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Woman’s Laboratory, July, 1878. F. W. Clarke—Seleniocyanates. 199 Art. XIX.—On some Seleniocyanates ; on the Electrolytic Esti- mation of Mercury; some Specific Gravity Determinations. Being Parts VII, VIII and IX of Laboratory Notes from the University of Cincinnati; by F. W. CLarKkE, S.B., Professor of Chemistry. VIL On some Seleniocyanates. In 1855 Buckton discovered and described the double sul- phocyanates of platinum.* Of these, the potassium salt is perhaps the one best known, partly because of its beauty, and partly because of the ease with which it may be prepared. Recently, my attention having been called to this compound, it occurred to me that it might be interesting to prepare the corresponding seleniocyanate. Accordingly I assigned the task to Mr. W. L. Dudley, a student in the University of Cincinnati, who had little difficulty in attaining to success. hen an alcoholic solution of potassium seleniocyanate is added to a similar solution of platinic chloride, a heavy reddish brown precipitate is immediately formed. This, upon boiling, becomes darker in color, and apparently in part dissolves. e filtered liquid deposits crystals of the new salt, mixed with a reddish sediment of selenium; and these, although they are slightly unstable, may be purified by recrystallization from alcohol. The crystals are usually very small; mere scales in fact; although on one occasion they separated out as regular six-sided tables, several millimeters in diameter. By reflected light they are nearly black; but by transmitted light, deep eee red. Specific gravity, 3°377 at 10°-2, 3:378 at 12°. he weighings were made in benzol. Determinations of plati- num and potassium came out as follows: Z Theory. Potassium 8°57 8°61 Platinum 21°64 21°73 There is, therefore, no reasonable doubt that the new salt is represented by the formula K, Pt(CSeN),, and that it is strictly analogous to Buckton’s sulphocyanate. An attempt to prepare gold salts resembling the sulphocyan- ates described by Clevet was only partially successful. hen alcoholic solutions of potassium seleniocyanate and neutral gold chloride are mixed, a red precipitate falls, which consists in large part of free selenium. The pale orange-yellow filtrate from this precipitate yields by spontaneous evaporation a crys- talline crust, which under the microscope is seen to be made up chiefly of minute, deep red prisms. These crystals are so * Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ., vii, 22. + Jahresbericht, 1865, p. 295. 200 F. W. Clarke— Electrolytic estimation of Mercury. very unstable that we could obtain but a very small quantity f them, and in a somewhat impure condition. They yielded 48°31 per cent of gold, whereas the salt KAu(CSeN),, analo- gous to the potassio-aurous sulphocyanate of Cleve, should con- tain but 43°94. As the new salt was prepared by a method precisely similar to that which gave Cleve his sulphocyanate, there can be little doubt that we had to deal with the corres- ponding seleniocyanate, mixed with free gold. If we had been able to command larger quantities of material, we might have been able to prepare the compound in a state more nearly approaching purity. No seleniocyanate resembling Roesler’s potassium chromo- sulphocyanate, K,Cr(CSN),,, 8H,O,* could be obtained. When aqueous solutions of chrome alum and potassium selenio- cyanate are mixed, selenium is precipitated, and no trace of any double salt seems to be formed VIIL. On the Electrolytic estimation of Mercury. In 1865, Wolcott Gibbs published his well known method for the electrolytic estimation of copper.t More recently, Merrick has shown that a modification of the same process is eety precipitated by electrolysis from an ammoniacal solution, ut i * Journ. fir Prakt. Chem., cii, 316. — + This Journ. xxxix, 64. ¢ American Chemist, October, 1871; Chem. News, xxiv, 100, 172. F. W. Clarke—Specific Gravity Determinations. 201 IX. Some Specific Gravity Determinations. The following specific gravity determinations represent work done by my students and myself during the school year 1877- 1878. Those-portions of the work which were entrusted to students were carried out under my immediate supervision, and every precaution was taken to ensure a fair degree of accuracy. The salts were all weighed in benzol, and the figures refer to water at its temperature of maximum density as agg To Mr. W. H. Creighton and Mr. E, F. Wittmann I assigned mercuric cyanide and some of its double compounds. For the cyanide itself, HoCy,, we found a sp. gr. of 4:0262 at 12°, oo ; 40026 at 22-2, Wittmann; and 4:0036, 14°-2, F. W. Clarke.* For the oxy-cyanide, HgCy, HgO, Mr. Creighton found 4:437 at oe and I myself, in two determinations, 4-428 and 4-419 at 23°-2. For the double salt HgOy,HgCl,, Mr. Wittmann obtained the values 4531, 21°-7, and 4514, 26°. For the double cyanide of mercury and potassium we have, from experiments made by Mr. Creighton, 2°4470, 21°2; eo 21°5; and 2:4551, 24°. This salt is the well known vy. : ‘ ercuric eunide, prepared by Mr. Miles Beamer, gave 57461, 18°, and 5-7298, 16°.+ * Bédeker, Jahresbericht 1860, gives for HgCy, the value 3°77, 13°. + Karsten, Schweigg. Journ., v. 65, gives 5-9202. 202 F. W. Clarke—Specific Gravity Determinations. The double bromide of mercury and potassium was also pre- pared and examined by Mr. Beamer, both in the hydrated and the anhydrous state. For the salt HeBr,, KBr, he found 4°412, 17°-2; 4419, 24°5; 43996, 20°5. For the hydrated salt, HgBr, . KBr. H,0O, as a mean of six concordant determinations taken between 20° and 24°, he found a sp. gr. of 3°867. The ieee bromide used in these preparations gave a sp. gr. of 2:°712; 12°°7.* Mr. Dear also redetermined the — gravity of the curious double salt (NH,),Cr,0,.HgCl,.H,O, finding it to be 3329, 21°. Mereuric iodide and a — of a salts were determined by Miss Mary E. Owens. a ee mean of seven experi- ments between 10° and 19°, j is 565 Bio: For the double eo Ruse Hgl,).3H,O, the sp. gr. is 4-289, 23°°5; and 4254 For the ‘iodide of “a ee and sable agers ne N(CH,),1.HgI,, were found the values 3-968, 24°; 3°976, 23°; 3-97 1, 24°; 4:008, 23°-2. The iodide of tetramethyl- ammonium itself, well crystallized, ier found by Miss Owens to have a sp. gr. of 1 Loah. 1c"; 1831, 19°°5. Cadmium chloride and some of its double compounds were examined by Mr. Walter Kni The anhydrous chloride, CaCl, ga gave as a mean of three determinations the value 3-93 8, 23° The hydrated salt, CdCl, .2H,O, gave a sp. gr. of 3°339, 18°2; 3320, 23°°2 ; 3314 , 28°" The double chloride of cadmium and strontium, 2CdCl, . SrCl, .7H,0, in fine erystals; as a sare of three experiments, 2°952, 24°°5; and 2-966, 25°-2. Several salts of acids belonging i in the xanthic acid — were et by students under the direction of Professo arder; and of these, APS well are seannple! had their specific gravity determined. otassium pieiesidensi ianearbonete KOH, « vad pes Mr. E. P. Bishop, has a sp. gr. of 1°7002 ne 16754 Potassium et ee was determined by Miss Helena Beadle and by Dr. rt. Miss Stallo found the sp. gr. to be 15564, 18°-2; oe mae 21°5. Dr. Geppert’s determination gave re Bee a * a ge mean value for hy salt is 2690, Pogg. Ann., 1859. Filhol, Ann. d. Chim. et Phys. III, xxi, 1847, gives 6-250. Spe es a sp. gr. of "F6254, 12°. long. 1860. § Topsoé, Chem. Centralblatt, iv, 76, found 2 F. W. Clarke—Specifie Gravity Determinations. 208 by dissolving the carbonates of the metals in the respective water. e sp. grs. are as follows: | Cobalt formate, 2°1986, 22°; 2°1080, 20°-2. Nickel “ 2°1547, 20°°2, Cobalt acetate, 1°7031, 15°°7; 1°7043, 18°°7. Nickel * 1°7448, 15°°7; 1°7346, 17°°2, Miss Stallo also prepared, with a view to future description, the cobalt and nickel salts of monochloracetic and trichloracetic acids. These salts are readily crystallizable, and seem likely to be interesting. Cobalt valerate, which Mr. J. L. Davis attempted to prepare, was obtained by him only as a red, mmy mass, of a very unsatisfactory character. — : _ Another series of experiments having a certain theoretical Interest, relates to some salts analogous to the sulphovinates. e data obtained are as follows: Barium methylsulphate, Ba(CH,),(SO,),.2H,O, 2278, 19°2; and 2-279, 21°-2, determined by Dr. Geppert. Barium ethylsulphate, 2-080, 21°-7; 20714, 22°6; Dr. Geppert. Barium propylsulphate, 1°839, 20°°5; 1°844, 20°°5 ; Dr. Geppert. Barium se 1°778, 21°°2; 1°743, 24°°2; Mr. W. H. n. ue Barium amylsulphate; 1-623, 21°-2; 1°632, 22°; Mr. John Whet- stone. If now, we calculate the molecular volumes of these salts, we Sade find them separated by approximately equal differences. Tribute M ethylsulphate, molec. vol. 176, calc. sp. gr. 2°244. Ethylsulphate, “ * te," *. eee “ & {R68 Propylsulphate, “ “ 242, Isobutylsulphate, “ oe Amy te, phat el a Page missing from book at time of scanning. Page missing from book at time of scanning. 206 F. W. Clarke—Specific Gravity Determinations, These calculated values correspond to a supposed constant difference in the molecular volume, of 16°5 for each CH, group; a difference which holds in a great many series of compounds, This difference may also be made out, within narrow limits of approximation, in the series of sulphocarbonates previously given. Here, for example, we have, very nearly, Methy] salt, molec. vol. 88, calc. sp. gr. 1°658. Ethyl “ “ © 104°5, calc. sp. gr. 1°531. Isobutyl “ . “137s, “ OED tac Fi It will be seen that all these calculated specific gravities agree closely with those actually found; and that, curiously enough, the molecular volumes thus assumed are exact multi- ples by whole numbers of Kopp’s well known value for hydro- gen, 55. Are these regularities mere coincidences, or do they indicate the existence of some general law may give, in conclusion, a few determinations of specific gravity made by myself. Potassium chloroplatinite, PtCl,.2KCl, 32909, 21°; and 3°3056, 20°°3. Telluric acid, crystallized, H,TeO,.2H,O, 2°9999, 25°°5; and 2°9649, 26°5.* Fegan acid, H,TeO,, 3-425, 18°°8; 3-458, 19°-1; 3-440, 2 Ammonium tellurate, (NH,),TeO,, 3°024, 24°-5 ; 3-012, 25°. Thallium tellurate. Forthis compound, hitherto undescribed, I can give only a few preliminary facts. By a series of mishaps my material became exhausted, so that I was unable to complete the investigation of the substances obtained. Metallic thallium is not attacked even by a boiling solution of telluric acid. hen, however, a solution of ammonium tellurate is added to * Oppenheim, Jahresbericht, x, 213, gives 2°340. A. E. Verrill— Marine Fauna of North America. 207 Art. XX.— Notice of recent additions to the Marine Fauna of the eastern coast of North America ; by A. E. VERRILL. Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College. No. XXXVIII. Durine the summer of 1877, extensive explorations were made by the U. S. Fish Commission in the U. S. Steamer “Speedwell,” Commander Kellogg, in Massachusetts Bay ; in the Gulf of Maine; off Nova Scotia; and in the vicinity of Hal- . ifax. e dredging and trawling were very successful, and a large and valuable collection was secured, both of fishes and invertebrata, including, in all classes, many European and Greenlandic forms not before obtained on the American coast. s in es years the invertebrate collections and the direc- Mo.uvsca. Architeuthis megaptera Verrill, sp. nov. Much smaller than the previously known species, the total length of the body and head being but nineteen inches. Body relatively short and thick. Caudal fin more than twice as broad as long, the length about half that of the body. Its form is nearly rhombic, with the lateral angles produced and rounded, and the posterior angle very obtuse, the posterior edge, as pre- served, being slightly concave. The ventral anterior edge of the mantle is concave centrally, with a slight angle to either side, about -75 inch from the center; from these angles it is again concave to the sides; on the dorsal side the edge advances farther forward than beneath, terminating in a slightly prom- Inent obtuse angle in the middle of the dorsal edge. The eye- Sockets are large, oblong, and furnished with distinct lid-like margins; the eyes are large, oblong, and naked. shor arms are triquetral, the upper ones somewhat shorter and smaller than the others, which are nearly equal in length, the second pair being stouter than the rest, and a little longer. The ten- tacular arms are slender, elongated, expanded toward the tip, and have suckers arranged much as in the gigantic species, even to the smooth-edged suckers and opposing tubercles, proximal to the large suckers, as I have formerly described them in A. monachus. The sucker-bearing portion is margined by a mem- brane on each side. 208 A, E. Verriti— Marine Fauna of North America. Larger suckers of sessile arms, very oblique, with the rim strong, dark brown, bearing large, strong, sharp, much incurved, unequal teeth on the outer side of the rim; the inner margin is entire. On the middle or larger suckers of the ventral arms, there are seven large teeth, the middle one longest, while to either side there is one nearly as large, with a smaller one each side of it. Total length, 43 inches; length of body and head, 19; length of body from dorsal edge of mantle, 14; from ventral edge, 18; of head from edge of mantle to base of arms, 5; length of long tentacular arms, 22 and 24 inches respectively; of first (dorsal) pair of arms, 6°5; of second pair, 8; of third pair, 8°5; of fourth pair, 8; length of caudal fin, 6; breadth, 185; breadth across y, 5; circumference of body, 125; length of eye- socket, 1-25; its breadth, ‘75; length of sucker-bearing portion of tentacular arms, 65; of portion bearing large suckers, 3:25; breadth, °75; length of terminal portion, 15; diameter of naked or peduncular portion, 33 to 50; breadth of dorsal arms at base, °75; of second pair, 1°12; of third pair, 1; of fourth pair, 1; diameter of largest tentacular suckers, °36 to 40; of their rims, ‘28 to 82; diameter of largest suckers of ventral arms, ‘40; of their rims, ‘28 to ‘82 of an inc Color, reddish brown speckled with darker brown, much as in the common s i This unique specimen was cast ashore, during a severe gale, near Cape Sable, N. S., several years ago, and was secured for the Provincial Museum at Halifax by J. Matthew Jones, Esq, It is preserved entire, in alcohol, and is still in good condition. Rossia Hyatti Verrill, sp. nov. Body subcylindrical, usually broader posteriorly, in preserved specimens, variable in form according to contraction, its dorsal surface covered with small, conical, scattered, whitish papilla, which are also found on the upper and lateral surfaces of the head and base of arms; those around the eyes largest; one on the mantle, in the median line, near the front edge, is elongated. Front border of mantle sinuous, slightly advancing in the mid- dle, above. Fins moderately large, nearly semi-circular, attached from the posterior end for about four-fifths the whole length, the front end having a small, rounded, free lobe. The distance from posterior junction of fin to end of body is less than that from anterior junction to edge of mantle, the center of the fin being at about the middle of the body. Siphon elongated, con- ical, with small opening. Head depressed, more than half the length of the body. Eyes large, the lower eyelid more prom- inent but not much thickened. Sessile arms short, united at their bases by a short web, which is absent between the ven arms; the dorsals are shortest; the third pair the longest and A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna of North America. 209 largest; the second pair and ventrals about equal in length. Suckers numerous, subglobular, not very small; near the base of the arms they are biserial, there being usually four to six thus arranged in each row; then along the rest of the length of the arms they become more soon and form about four rows, those in the two middle rows alternating with those in the marginal rows; toward the tip they become very small and crowded, especially on the dorsal and ventral arms. e num- ber of suckers varies with age, but on one of the larger speci- mens they were as follows: on each dorsal arm, sixty; on one of second pair, fifty-five; of third pair, fifty-three; of ventral, sixty-five. In this specimen the third arm of the right side and ventral arm of left side were abruptly terminated (perhaps acci- dentally), while the others were tapered to acute points. Ten- tacular arms, in preserved specimens, will extend back to posterior end of body, the naked portion smooth, somewhat triquetral, with the outer side convex and the angles rounded ; termina] portion rather abruptly widening, long ovate-lanceolate, curved and gradually tapering to the tip, the sucker-bearing portion bordered by a wide membrane on the upper and a nar- row one on the lower margin; the suckers are very small, sub- globular, crowded in about eight to ten rows in the widest portion. Color, pinkish, thickly spotted with purplish brown above, paler and more sparsely spotted beneath and on outside of long 25; of head, 15; breadth of body, 17; of head, 17; length of fins, 15: of insertion, 11; breadth of fin, 8; front of fin to edge of mantle, 5; length of free portion of dorsal arms, 12°5; of sec- ond pair, 15; of third pair, 18; of ventrals, 18; of tentacular arms, 40 ; breadth of dorsal arms, at base, 8°5; of second pair, 35; of third pair, 4; of ventrals, 85; of tentacular arms, at ase, 2; at expanded portion, 85; length of latter, 10°; diam- eter of largest suckers of sessile arms, 0°9 ; length of free portion of siphon, 7am Massachusetts Bay, in fifty fathoms, mud; off Cape Sable, N.S, eighty-eight to ninety-two fathoms, on hard sandy bot- tom ; off Halifax, fifty-seven to one hundred fathoms, on com- pact sandy mud, in September, with eggs. Frequently asso- ciated switts Octopus Bairdii V., and the following species. Rossia sublevis Verrill, sp. nov. Larger and relatively stouter than the preceding species, with the fins larger and placed farther forward, the front edge of the 210 A, E. Verrili—Marine Fauna of North America. two regular rows throughout the whole length. Anterior edge of mantle scarcely sinuous, advancing but little dorsally. Upper surface of the body and head nearly smooth, but in the larger specimens usually with a few very small whitish papillee, most numerous near the: front edge of the mantle. Color nearly as in the preceding species. One of the largest specimens measures, from base of arms to end of body, 46™; length of body, 31; of head, 15; breadth of body, 22; of head, 23; length of fins, 20; of their insertion, 16; breadth of fins, 10; front edge of fin to edge of mantle, 2°5; length of free portion of dorsal arms, 16; of second pair, 17 ; of third pair, 20; of ventrals, 15; of tentacular arms, 25; breadth of dorsal arms at base, 8; of second pair, 8; of third, 35; of ventrals, 3°5; of tentacular arms, 35; of their terminal portion, 3°75; its length, 10; diameter of largest suckers of sessile arms, ‘8; length of free portion of siphon, 7™™. Taken with the preceding species, and is the more common of the two, in Massachusetts Bay. The differences may prove to be only sexual, but this cannot be determined without a larger number of specimens. Octopus granulatus Lamarck; D’Orbigny. A specimen, believed to belong to this species, and similar to those taken at Cape Hatteras, was collected in the spring of 1877, in Vineyard Sound, Mass., by Mr. Vinal N. Edwards. Buccinum tenue Gray; Stimpson, Review of Northern Bucci- nums, Can. Naturalist, auth. copy, p. 14 Buccinum scalariforme Beck; Dawson; Packard. Dredged alive, in considerable numbers, in 1877, off Cape Sable, N. S., in 88 to 92 fathoms, on a bottom of fine compact The specimens all belong to a small form of the species. It had not been found so far south previously. Buccinum cyaneum Brug. ; Stimpson, loc. cit., p. 19. inum hydrophanum Hancock; Reeve. _ The smaller form of this species was taken with the last, living, and in about equal abundance. It has hitherto been as eminently arctic. We have recently received regarded re additional specimens, taken in 200 fathoms, off Sable L, by the schooner Lizzie K. Clark. A. E. Verrill— Marine Fauna of North America, 211 Triopa lacer Lovén. This interesting addition to the North American fauna was dredged in 1877, at several localities, in Massachusetts Bay, in 40 to 50 fathoms ; and off Nova Scotia, in 80 to 100 fathoms. Scyllea Edwardsii Verrill, sp. nov. A large species, the body in extension nearly three inches long and half an inch high, with the four dorsal branchiferous lobes about equaling in height, or exceeding, the elevation of the body. Foot very narrow. Tentacular sheaths stout, expanding at the end into a large, flat, rounded lobe, most prominent posteriorly ; the small, plicated tentacle projecting from a funnel-shaped orifice in its outer anterior margin. Branchiferous lobes expanding into a broad, thin, spatulate, or paddle-shaped, terminal portion, narrower and thicker toward the base, the margins of the thin portions sinuous; the two airs far apart; their inner surfaces covered with small, trans- back. Anterior surface of tentacular sheath iridescent bluish. Along the sides is a row of small white papille, and similar ones extend along the white line of the back. Tentacles orange, the plications edged with orange-brown, the tips white. Taken in the autumn of 1877 by Mr. Vinal N. Edwards, at Wood's Holl, Mass. i : in Vineyard Sound on floating Sargassum. Iam also indebted to Mr. Edwards for a colored drawing of this species, made by Mr. C. N. Webster, and accompanied by notes deseeiing the men Ww Pp beg ig men described above was not very active, though in pretty good condition, when receive , 212 A. E. Verrili— Marine Fauna of North America. ANTHOZOA, Keratoisis ornata Verrill, sp. nov. Corallum tall (over two feet high), spreading, arboresceatly, but distantly and irregularly, branched, the branches spreading, often nearly at right angles, elongated, rather slender, gradually tapering, giving off, in the same manner, elongated branchlets. The branches and branchlets mostly arise from near the proxi- mal end of the calcareous joints, but sometimes from the mid- dle. The calcareous joints are ivory-white, elongated, round, slightly enlarged at the ends, faintly and often indistinctly striated longitudinally, appearing smooth to the naked eye, but finely granulous under a lens. Chitinous joints golden yellow or bronze-color, short, scarcely longer than thick in the larger branches, about twice as long as thick in the smaller ones, where they become translucent and brownish or amber-color, without the metallic luster seen in those of the larger branches. The coenenchyma and polyp-cells are mostly absent, but so far as can be ascertained from the small patches remaining, the coenenchyma is thin, pale yellowish, and filled with rather large fusiform spicula; and the -cells are rather distant, in the form of somewhat prominent verruce, strengthened by rather large projecting spicula. ight of tallest specimen, 26 inches; breadth, 18 inches ; length of longest undivided branchlets, 12 to 16 inches; diam- eter of calcareous joints of main stem (base absent), 35 inch (9™™) ; of the larger branches, ‘20 inch (5™™); length of the calcareous joints in the larger branches, 1:25 to 1-95 inches (30 to 48"™, but mostly about 40™™); diameter in smaller branch- lets, about ‘06 inch (15™™); length, °75 to 1:25 inches (19 to 32mm) ; length of chitinous joints of larger branches, ‘10 to 20 inch (25 to 5™”). Two specimens were taken by Mr. Philip Merchant, of the schooner Marion, off Sable Island, N. S., in about 250 fathoms, on a trawl line. _ This is a large and beautiful species of a group formerly con- sidered chiefly tropical in habitat. The weiter: or bronzy chitinous joints contrast finely with the clear ivory-white careous joints. The genus was founded by Professor E. Perceval Wright, in 1869, for a species taken in deep water, off the coast of Portugal. Acanella Normani Verrill, Mr. was brought in by Mr. J. Murphy, from Banquereau, in the same region. The species Bviri 4 B A, E. Verrili— Marine Fauna of North America. 213 from a specimen collected off the coast of Greenland, in 410 fathoms, by the Valorous Expedition, in 1875. ur specimens are nearly perfect, with the cells and coenen- chyma well preserved. ‘They are from seven to eleven inches high; and from six to ten broad. They are much branched, in the form of a dense bush or small shrub, the branches aris- ing mostly in whorls of three or four, from the chitinous joints, and spreading nearly at right angles; the secondary branches arise in the same way, but the final branchlets mostly arise singly, or in pairs. The coenenchyma is very thin, yellow or brown, and filled with fusiform spicula, arranged in lines; the polyp-cells are scattered, very large and prominent, with the base and distal half expanded, somewhat hour-glass shaped, largest toward the tips of the branches, and covered with large acute spicula, which project as spines beyond the margin. he Mopsea arbusculum Johnson, from Madeira, is a closely allied species, for which Dr. J. E. Gray, in 1870, constituted the genus Acanella. It appears, from the figures, to have more slender branchlets, and polyp-cells of a different form. T coincidence in the names was, however, entirely accidental. Fine specimens of Primnoa reseda and Paragorgia arborea are often taken in the same region from which the preceding species were obtained, as well as from the depression between St. George’s and Le Have Banks, in 200 to 250 fathoms. One of the specimens of Paragorgia presented to us is over three feet high, and some of Primnoa are nearly as tall. Paramuricea borealis Verrill, sp. nov. _ Slender, arborescently much branched, four inches (or more) in height. Cells scattered, short cylindrical, or verrucose, with a series of small spicula projecting around the edge, sur- mounted by eight convergent groups of long, acute spicu Coenenchyma thin, rudely granulous, with irregular rough Spicula. Color, when dried, brownish gray; axis slender, yellowish. Grand Banks of Newfoundland, on stone, with Primnoa reseda. The only specimen seen was sent to me for examina- tion by Professor A. Hyatt, from the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History. It is near P. placomus, but is more slender, with longer cells. ECHINODERMATA. Asterina borealis Verrill, sp. nov. 3 Pentagonal, with a thick swollen body and short thick rays. Upper surface closely covered with short minute spinules, of nearly uniform size, arranged in groups of unequal size. Scat- tered over the surface are many papule of rather large size, 214 A. E. Verrilli—Marine Fauna of North America. and dark purplish brown color, when contracted giving a spotted appearance to the dorsal surface. Madreporic plate small, about half way between center and margin. Margin thickened, with an upper row of slightly prominent plates spinulated like the back ; below, and forming the edge, is a row of more prominent plates, their upper and inner portion spinulated like the back, the spinules increasing in length to the outer edge, where they are slender, elongated, crowded and divergent. Ventral plates, covering the triangular interbrachial area, prominent, with une- qual, slender, acute, divergent spinules, those on the distal edge longest. Adambulacral plates with two internal acute spines, forming a longitudinal row, and four or five others in a trans- verse row on each plate. Color, in alcohol, dull yellow or buff, with dark brown spots, due to the papulee. Greater radius, 12™; lesser, 7™: elevation at center, 7™™. muddy bottom, in 1874, by Dr. A. S. Packard and Mr. Richard athbun, on the steamer “ Bache,” (Coll. U. S. Fish Commis- ion). si Lophaster fureifer Verrill. Solaster furcifer Duben and Koren. Taken in the Gulf of Maine, north of George’s Banks, in 150 fathoms, by Dr. Packard and Mr. Caleb Cooke, on the ‘‘ Bache,” in 1872. This species differs so widely from Solaster in the structure of the skeleton, and the small development of the disk, as to require the establishment of a new genus for this type. It is specially distinguished by the highly developed skeleton of the under side; differentiated marginal plates ; an prominently reticulated dorsal plates. Pedicellaster typicus Sars. This species was dredged in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in 1872, by Mr. J. F, Whiteaves, who sent me specimens for examination. Asterias stellionura Perrier. This large and remarkable species, previously known only from Iceland and Greenland, was dredged by our party, on the steamer Speedwell, in 1877, at several localities off Nova Sco- Jarge numbers. It was especially abundant off Ca Sable, in eighty-eight to ninety-two fathoms, fine compact sand ; and off Hi: : in one hundred fathoms, sandy mud, where It was associated with Astrogonium granulare, Hippasteria phryg- tana, Archaster Parelii, Archaster arcticus, Antedon Sarsit, and man other arctic species. This species can be distinguished from all others of our coast by the five, very long, angular arms, with long slender spines, which are surrounded at base by large dense wreaths of crosse C. H. F. Peters—Positions of Swift's Comet. 215 pedicellarie. In life these clusters of pedicellarize are supported on soft extensible processes, which project beyond the ends of the spines of the lower surface, giving it a very peculiar appear- ance. Some of the specimens were two feet in diameter, Th color was usually bright red above, yellowish below; some specimens varied to orange-red, and others to purplish or e brownish red, above. Ophiacantha anomala G. O. Sars, Vidensk.-Selsk. Forhandl., 1871. A handsome species, having six arms, and of a bright salmon- color when living. single specimen was dredged by us in the Gulf of Maine, 140 miles east of Cape Ann, in 112 fathoms, sand and gravel, in 1877. With this was associated another beautiful salmon-colored species (?Amphiura Otteri Ljung.) with five long slender arms. Ophioscolex glacialis also occurred at the same locality. Both the latter had, however, been taken by our parties in previous years, Art. XXI.— Positions of the Comet discovered by Mr. Lewis Swift ; by C. H. F. Perers. (From a letter to the Editors, dated Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., July 6, 1878.) Or the comet found by Mr. Lewis Swift of Rochester on July 6, the following positions were here obtained : 1878. Ham. Coll. m.t. a Comet. 5 Comet. h July 10, 13 5 58 1717 1024 + 939322 10 “ July 19, 10 27 58 16 30 35°35 —12 42225 4 “ uly 28, 94212 1612 4158 ~—21 18169 8 “ The approximate parabolic elements herefrom derived are: (Epoch) Time of Perihelion passage, July 20°753 Berlin m. t. m = 279°52'-06 = 102 15°72 | M, Eq. 1878-0, i= 78 11°41 _Much labor would be saved to astronomers, if comet-hunters like Mr. Swift, would indicate the position of a new discovery With a little more accuracy. For obtaining it with only a few minutes’ error, nothing else is needed but a common watch jm connection with the field of the telescope used as a ring- micrometer. Am. Jour. gecetidane: pee, Vou. XVI, No. 93.—SzPr., 1878, 216 L. BE. Hicks— Waverly Group in Centrai Ohio. Art. XXII.—The Waverly Group in Central Ohio; by L. E. Hicks, Professor of Natural Sciences in Denison University. In this paper I propose to enumerate and describe the strata lying between the Huron Shales (Devonian) and the base of the Coal Measures, and to consider briefly their stratigraphical relations. I shall use names derived from localities in Licking and Delaware Counties—not that I wish to add to the already profuse nomenclature of this group, but as a matter of neces- sity until the application of the names proposed by other geol- ogists has been definitely settled. The section contains five well defined members, named below in descending order. Oc Lie SOelee cs 100 to 150 feet thick. 4. Black Hand Conglomerate and Granville Beds 85 “ 90 - 3. Raedoon Shales... ois occ oe 300 * 2. Sunbury Black Slate...-...... 10 1. Sunbury Calciferous Sandrock.. 909 “100 “ oc 15 i? which the Coal Conglomerate and Massillon Sandstone produce the most conspicuous effects in the landscape. At or near the top of No. 5 there is usually a stratum of compact, fine-grained, drab sandstone, which is quarried to some extent, having 4 thickness of three to ten feet. Below this are friable, earthy, gray or olive shales; and at the bottom, comprising about one- third of the whole, shaly drab sandstones. These, and the compact sandstone at the top, are fossiliferous. Spirifera Car- teri, Aviculopecten Winchelli, Allorisma pleuropistha, and other characteristic species of the Ohio Subcarboniferous, bave been obtained from this horizon. Wherever the Coal Measures Conglomerate exists it forms requently the sandstone is overlaid by shales differing scarcely at all from those below it. The lower limit, however, is pet fectly defined by the upper surface of the next stratum, which is one of the most distinctive and well-marked of the whole group. L. EF. Hicks— Waverly Group in Central Ohio. 217 The Black Hand Conglomerate, No. 4, is seen at its best about Hanover, though the Black Hand locality is better known, probably because the cliffs at that point are more con- spicuous to the railway passenger. Only about half its thick- ness is seen in these cliffs. At Hanover the bottom layers (which, owing to the eastward dip, are buried out of sight at Black Hand) come into view and reveal a total thickness of eighty-five to ninety feet. It is generally a rather fine pud- ding-stone, the pebbles of the size of peas. Occasionally they are an inch in diameter, and, in one case, I found a quartzite bowlder six inches long and three inches thick imbedded in the sandy matrix. In some places beds many feet thick are merely coarse sandstone, but the partings are pebbly. The prevailing color is light yellow or buff; sometimes nearly white, again brick-red. This stratum is highly ferruginous, but less so than the Coal Conglomerate, the upper layers of which are sometimes a siliceous iron ore. It also contains more earthy matter and less pure silica than the Coal Conglom- erate. ‘These characters, together with the presence of fossil nuts (Cardiocarpon, Trigonocarpon, etc.) in the upper, and their absence, so far as yet observed, in the lower, might serve to distinguish these conglomerates if they were in contact, instead vil oa separated by the Licking Shales. 0. 4 I as long been recognized; and its capabilities for massive and elegant superstructures have been shown in the erection of the us. Like almost all Conglomerates, No. 4 thins and disappears, or passes into fine sediments when traced far from its typical exposures. Black Hand is near the east line of Licking County. The Conglomerate appears in full force for seven or eight miles, to some distance west of Clay Lick station on the Baltimore and Ohio’ Railroad. Thence through the center of the county its horizon is occupied by an entirely different set of beds, of which only one, and that thin, bears any resem- blance to the rock at Black Hand. These beds are character- 218 L. EF. Hicks— Waverly Group in Central Ohio. istic and important enough to merit a full description and a separate name. ey are well exposed at Granville, and we may for convenience designate them as the Granville beds, remembering that they are only a local modification of No. 4, or the next highest member of the Waverly group. Follow- ing is the section of these beds in descending order: No. 4d. Coarse sandstone and conglomerate__-- 3 to 18 feet. O46. Wacom Meyer 25.050 aie a a ne Te de “ 46, Compact drab sandstone (argillaceous).15 “ 21 “ « 4a, Shaly . re 60 “ . The upper member, No. 4d, thickens and grows coarse and pebbly eastward, and tapers to a knife-edge westward. Hence was at first disposed to regard it alone as the equivalent of the Black Hand conglomerate, and to suppose that the rest of the Granville beds dipped under that stratum. But careful measurements have shown that the bottom of the Granville weathers black by the oxidation of its manganese. The upper half is more friable than the lower, and falls to pieces in being removed ; the workmen in some quarries call it “ soapstone.” The lower half, “nigger-head,” requires blasting, being quite compact in the quarry, from which it has to be “stripped” to get at the next layer, No. 46; but it soon falis to pieces under the action of the elements and lays bare the rich treasures 0 its molluscan fauna, which the quarrymen call “bugs” and “ butterflies.” This layer is so well defined and persistent that it furnishes a reliable means of determining the dip. This has been found to be on the average twenty-one feet ten inches per mile, nearly due : of being uniform, however, this general eastward slope is broken into small waves, which correspond to the greater ones in the Appalachian mountain system, both in direction and in having their western slope steeper than the eastern. (0. 4b is a fine-grained, easily t sandstone, extensively quarried at Newark and Granville. The shaly sandstone below it also thickens in some places into layers suitable for quarrying, but it is not reliable. « L. H. Hicks— Waverly Group in Central Ohio. 219 All the Granville beds are fossiliferous. They have, in fact, yielded a richer harvest to the paleontologist than any other member of the Waverly. Not less than seventy-five species, many of them new to science, have been found in them in a tolerable state of preservation; and several more have been seen, but only in fragments too imperfect for identification or description. In the upper layer, No. 4d, the remains of mol- lusks and crinoids have supplied enough calcareous matter to convert portions of the rock into an impure limestone. The carbonate of lime dissolves out on exposure to the weather, eaving a rusty, rotten sandstone full of fossils, but seldom furnishing a perfect or entire specimen. In the compact sand- stone the fossils are fairly preserved, but generally as “ casts.” From the Fucoid layer, however, beautifully perfect shells are obtained with both valves entire and in position, the matrix crumbling away on exposure. The unity of the Granville beds with the Black Hand con- bottom some layers are massive enough for quarrying. No animal remains have been observed in it; but there are abund- ant impressions of two species of sea-weeds, one with square stem branching at right angles, the other with round stem branching in the usual manner. : . ‘The next stratum, No. 2, as much exceeds the last in interest as it falls short of it in thickn It is a black, bituminous shale containing shells of Lingula and Discina, and spines, 220 L. E.. Hicks— Waverly Group in Central Ohio. scales and teeth of fishes. But one outcrop of it is known in elaware County, and that was revealed only by a systematic search of a day and a half. This discovery, which I made in May, is recorded in the July number of this Journal. An equally diligent search would, I am confident, result in tracing the same stratum much farther north; and thus the identity of one at least of the Waverly beds in southern, central and northern Ohio, would be established beyond a peradventure. The last member, No. 1, consists of shaly sandstone, com- pact sandstone (somewhat calcareous) and at the bottom a few feet of alternate shales and siliceous limestones. The calcare- ous matter is abundant enough to charge the water percolat- ing through the rock and form extensive deposits of travertine on the banks of Rattlesnake and Walnut Creeks. The forest . trees drop their leaves upon the surface of this travertine; they are caught in the petrifying mass and leave their models exact to the minutest detail. I have collected many beautiful specimens of oak, chestnut, maple and beech leaves from this locality. The rock which furnishes the material for the travertine is itself non-fossiliferous, at least as regards the remains of animals. It contains two species of sea-weeds distinguished by their posi- tion in the stone, one standing vertical, the other lying flat. The Portage sandstone of New York has two species which are distinguished in the same way. They belong, however, to different horizons, the vertical one being found in the upper beds only, and thus furnishing a basis of subdivision. In the ey no difference in their vertical distribution has been observed. The quarries in the lower Waverly at Sunbury, Delaware County, furnish an excellent quality and inexhaustible quantity of flagging and building stone. Ripple marks are so abundant that thousands of feet of flagging have been sold, every slab of which would be a good cabinet specimen. Near the junction of No. 1 with the Huron shale is a stratum of Calciferous sandrock | ing in huge, rough, concretionary m 2 low this are blue shales interstratified with thin layers of siliceous limestone, the lowest of which rests directly upon the surface of the Huron. Here we reach an unmistakable Devonian stratum, and our task of enumerating and describing the component members of the Waverly group is completed. It remains to discuss the stratigraphical relations and names of the beds described above, which is by no means the easiest part of my undertaking. : Let us first inquire what is the relation of the several mem- bers constituting the Waverly in central Ohio to those in Dr. Newberry’s section at Cleveland, which is as follows: L. FE. Hicks— Waverly Group in Central Ohio. 221 The Conglomerate. 1. Cuyahoga Shale, 150 to 250 feet thick, 2. Berea Grit, 60 4 3. Bedford Shale, i 5 eae oe Group. 4, Cleveland Shale, 21 to 60 ie Erie Shale (Chemung), The Cleveland Shale has been assumed by the Ohio geologists to be equivalent to the Waverly Black Slate, which is un- doubtedly the same as that at Sunbury (Newberry, Ohio Reports, vol. ii, p. 98. Orton, ibid., p. 624). At the time I discovered the outcrop at Sunbury I supposed there was no doubt of the correctness of this assumption. Now, however, Dr. Newberry asserts positively that there is no evidence that they are identi- cal. Until further explorations are made north of Delaware County, we shall therefore have. to be content with hypotheti- cal statements respecting the relation of Waverly beds in cen- * Position half way between, as is often done with the Oriskany 222 L. EF. Hicks— Waverly Group in Central Ohio. sandstone. Still another plan is to compound the names of the underlying and overlying formations, and apply the com- pound to the disputed rocks, as in the case of the Cambro- Silurian of Great Britain, a term which recalls the long and hot Sedgwick-Murchison controversy. After all, though, these it broadly and judicially. The Waverly was long regarded as Devonian. When the present Geological Survey of Ohio was organized, one of the first announcements made by its chief, Dr. Newberry, was that the Waverly was Carboniferous. This decision covered only what we may conveniently call the Cuyahoga sub-group, i. €., Cuyahoga shales, Berea grit, Bedford ‘shales, and Cleveland shales. That part of the Waverly which is probably equiva- lent to the Erie shales would still fall to the Devonian if Erie is Devonian; and that was tacitly admitted by the chief geolo- gist, though he now claims that he placed it there out of defer- ence to the prevalent classification, all the while believing that the true boundary of the Carboniferous was at the base of the Erie in Ohio and of the Portage sandstone in New York. His statements in the first volume of the Ohio Reports, p. 166, and vol. ii, . 82, justify this claim and exonerate him from the charge of reversing his own decision in affirming, as he now does, that the whole of the Waverly, the Erie, the Portage, the Chemung and the Catskill are Carboniferous. _ While it may be true that this is no real change, though it is an apparent one, in Dr. Newberry’s opinions, it is certainly a great and radical change in the classification of American rocks, and the reasons for it merit our closest scrutiny. These alleged L. #. Hieks— Waveriy Group in Central Ohio. 223 reasons are: Ist. A physical break at the close of the Hamilton, the previous movement of elevation being then reversed and a new cycle of deposition begun which culminated in the deposi- tion of the Subcarboniferous Limestone. 2d. “ A change of fauna ; the fossils of the Chemung and Upper Portage, that is Erie, show great development of the Productus family, and other fossils of Carboniferous type.”* A physical break of some magnitude and a marked change of fauna are certainly the two things, and the only two, upon which to base the boundaries of formations. But the break here appealed to is only one of a number of such changes, and of no greater magnitude than some others in the same series. For instance, at the close of the Chemung a large area in central and western New York was raised above the sea-level, Crinoids an forming limestones Manual of Geology, p. 281.) In this passage a contrast of physical conditions is indi- cated which is certainly equal, if not superior in importance, to the physical break at the close of the Hamilton period. As regards the change of fauna it was not general enough to be of commanding importance. The Carboniferous aspect of Chemung fossils is confined to those from western New York never be done, for it would open the door to endless contro- Versies respecting the new boundary. When we remember that all classification must be somewhat arbitrary ; that the logical rhythm of any system often demands the accentuation of * From a letter to the writer. 224 J. F. Whiteaves—Primordial Fossils from Newfoundland. certain distinctions, so that their apparent value in the scheme exceeds their absolute value in nature; that names and groups are, in some degree, matters of usage, of comity, and of con- venience, we may well pause before we precipitate the incon- veniences of unsettling a long established and generally received classification, especially if our substitute only accentuates another set of distinctions of no greater absolute value than the former. Unless there is a decided preponderance of evi- sylvania, and Western New York” (2d Geological Survey of a., 1874, i,) where this opinion is announced, no distinct line of argument in its behalf is indicated. The local red color of the Bedford is of such small significance that I cannot believe that bad any weight in the mind of so experienced a geologist. The Cuyahoga, Berea, Bedford and Cleveland, including the few feet of limestone under the latter, constitute a compact and natural group, holding substantially the same fauna throughout. ope to show this more in detail in a subsequent paper on the vertical distribution of the fossils of this group. Then again, the fossils of the Cleveland shale, at the bottom of the series, are of decidedly Carboniferous types. These facts constitute a sufli- cient reason for retaining the Cuyahoga sub-group in the Carbon- iferous, whatever may be done with the rest of the Waverly. - XXIIL—On some Primordial Fossils from Southeastern Newfoundland; by J. F. Wurreaves, Paleontologist to the Geological Survey of Canada. __ DURING the summer of 1874, Mr. T. C. Weston, of the Cana- dian Geological corps, spent a few days in collecting Primordial and Conception Bays, Newfoundland, on behalf of Mr. A. Murray, Director of the Geological Survey of that Jsland. J. F. Whiteaves— Primordial Fossils from Newfoundland. 225 The majority are from the banks of Manuel’s Brook, a small stream which is not indicated in most maps of the island, but which runs into Conception Bay, on its eastern side, not far from Topsail Head. In Mr. Murray’s Report of the Geological Survey of Newfoundland for 1868, the following paragraphs occur. ‘On Manuel’s Brook a very coarse conglomerate may be seen, in strong and moderately regular beds, resting directly upon the syenitic gneiss of the valley above, dipping to the north at an angle of 15°, and forming a picturesque fall about one hundred and fifty yards below the bridge on the Bay Road.” (p. 28.) “ About four hundred yards below the bridge the conglomerate is overlaid conformably by a set of dark brown or blackish shales, with a very fine lamination coinciding with the bedding, which, with some hard calcareous beds interstrat- ified, hold the banks of the brook until within a short distance of its exit into the Bay.” (p. 24.) In the same report the thick- ness of these conglomerates is estimated at fifty feet and that of the shales at two hundred and fifty. (p. 27.) Sir W. HE. Logan, in 1866, expressed the opinion that the slates of St. John, New- foundland, probably belong to the same horizon as the Acadian or St. John’s Group of St. John, N. B., and although little or no paleontological evidence of a satisfactory character had been obtained on the point, it has been supposed by Mr. Murray and others, that the shales of Manuel’s River are of similar age. € correctness of the latter view is however fully borne out by the fossils collected by Mr. Weston, which are as follows. _L Agnostus Acadicus Hartt. Not unfrequent, but usually a little larger than the types from St. John, N. B. ot 2. Agnostus (sp. undt.). A single head, apparently distinct from the preceding and perhaps new. ate : icrodiscus punctatus Salter. Abundant. This interest- ing species, which was originally described from the Lower Lingula Flags of South Wales, and which Mr. Salter thought might be “the fry of some larger trilobite,” was first detect in the Primordial slates of St. John, N. B., by the late Mr. E. Billings. It has since been observed in rocks of the same age on the Kennebecasis River, N. B., where it was collected by Mr. G. F. Matthew. Jf, punctatus is said to have an “ enormous nuchal spine,” but, judging by Mr. Salter's figures, there is no Spinous process on either of the postero-lateral angles of the ead; the number of rings on the axis of the tail also is stated to nD. 4. Microdiscus Dawsoni Hartt. One perfect and well served head. Very similar in sculpture to the preceding. The two forms occur together in the same pieces of rock from New- foundland and New Brunswick and are very likely only differ- €nt states of preservation of the same species. According to 226 J. F. Whiteaves—Primordial Fossils from Newfoundland. Mr. Hartt the posterior angles of the cephalic shield of I Dawsoni bear “backward projecting spines,” the glabella is described as “conical and pointed behind” but not spinous, and the middle lobe or axis of the tail as divided into six seg- ments. The figure of the head of this trilobite, in the ‘“ Acadian Geology,” is defective and does not show the lateral spines. 5. Conocephalites tener Hartt. Two heads of this easily recog- nized and well characterized form. . Conocephalites Baileyi Hartt. A single head, with an un- usually small glabella. 7. Conocephalites Orestes? Hartt. Abundant, but badly pre- served and hence the doubt as to the correct identification of the species. The facial sutures of Nos. 5,6 and 7 being un- known their generic position is of course uncertain. 8. Parudoxides (sp. undt.). Fragments only. os. 1, 8, 4, 5, 6 and possibly 7 are common to the Primordial slates of St. John, N. B., and to the shales of Manuel’s Brook. The shales of Kelly’s Island, in Conception Bay, hold quan- tities of a small Zingula which appears to be undescribed and which may be briefly characterized thus: Lingula Billingsiana, n. sp. Shell small, very slightly con- vex, compressed at the sides: outline elliptic ovate, narrowest behind: length nearly twice the width: margin of the valves widening convexly and gradually from the beaks to the center, or a little beyond it: front narrowly and evenly rounded. Surface ciate by fine concentric striations and faint radiating ines. Internal markings unknown. Length, about two lines and a half: width one line and a half. This little shell, which may be the young of some larger spe- cies, is somewhat similar in shape and size to the Lingula minima of Sowerby, from the Upper Ludlow rocks of Great Britain. The two shells, however, belong to very different geological horizons, and besides this, L. Billingsiana is much narrower posteriorly than ZL. mznima and not nearly so square in front. From Mr. Murray’s report already quoted it would appear that the shales of Relly's Island are not quite so old as those of Manuel’s Brook, but that they are older than the Menevian sandstones of Great Bell Island. H. Draper—The Solar Eclipse. 227 Art. XXIV.—The Solar Eclipse of July 29th, 1878 ; by Professor HENRY DRAPER, M.D. As I have recently been giving attention to the subject of solar spectroscopy in consequence of my discovery of oxygen in e sun, it seemed to be desirable to take advantage of the total eclipse of July 29th, to gain as precise an idea as possible of the nature of the corona, because the study of that envelope has been regarded as impossible at other times. The main point to ascertain was whether the corona was an incandescent gas shin- ing by its own light, or whether it shone by reflected sunlight. For this purpose I organized an expedition, and was fortun- ate enough to secure the codperation of my friends Professors Barker and Morton and Mr. Edison. The scheme of operations was as follows: 1st, the photographic and photo-spectroscopic work as well as the eye slitless spectroscope were to in charge of my wife and myselt; 2d, the analyzing slit spectro- scope was in charge of Professor Barker, with the especial object of ascertaining the presence of bright lines or else of dark Fraunhofer lines in the corona; 3d, the polariscopic examina- tions were confided to Professor Morton, who was also to spend a few moments in looking for bright or dark lines with a hand spectroscope ; 4th, Mr. Edison carried with him one of his newly invented tasimeters with the batteries, resistance coils, Thom- son’s galvanometer, etc., required to determine whether the heat of the corona could be measure due to a special incandescent gas; 2d, a fine Peggy OE the corona was obtained, extending, in some parts, to a height of more than twenty minutes of arc, that is, more than 500,000 miles; 8d, the Fraunhofer dark lines were observed by both Professors Barker and Morton in the corona; 4th, the polariza- tion was shown by Professor Morton to be such as would answer to reflected solar light; 5th, Mr. Edison found that the heat of the corona was sufficient to send the index beam of light entirely off the scale of the galvanometer. Some negative results were also reached, the principal one being that the 1474K, or so-called corona line, was either very faint or else not present at all in the upper part of the corona, because it could not be observed with a slitless spectroscope and the slit Spectroscope only showed it close to the sun. e general conclusion that follows from these results, is, that on this occasion we have ascertained the true nature of the 228 Hi. Draper—The Solar Eclipse. corona, viz: it shines by light reflected from the sun by a cloud of meteors surrounding that luminary, and that on former occasions it has been infiltrated with materials thrown up from the chromosphere, notably with the 1474 matter and hydrogen. As the chromosphere is now quiescent this infiltration has taken place to a scarcely perceptible degree recently. This explan- ation of the nature of the corona reconciles itself so well with many facts that have been difficult to explain, such as the low pressure at the surface of the sun, that it gains thereby addi- tional strength. he station occupied by my temporary observatory was Rawlins (latitude 41° 48’ 50”, longitude 2h 0™ 44s W. of Washington, height 6732 feet above the sea) on the line of the Union Pacific railroad, because, while it was near the central line of totality, it had also the advantages of being supplied with water from the granite of Cherokee Mountain and of having a repair shop where mechanical work could be done. I knew by former experience that the air there was dry and apt to be cloudless; in this particular our anticipations were more than fulfilled by the event, for the day of totality was almost without a cloud and the dew-point was more than 34° F. below the temperature. The instruments we took with us were as follows and weighed altogether almost a ton. Ist. An equatorial mounting with spring governor driving clock, loaned by Professor Pickering, Director of Harvard Observatory. 2d. A telescope of five and a quarter inches aperture and seventy-eight inches focal length, furnished with a lens specially corrected for photography, by Alvan Clark & Sons. 8d. A quadruple achromatic objective of six inches aperture and twenty-one inches focal length, loaned by Messrs. E. and H. T. Anthony, of New York; to this lens was attached a Rutherfurd diffraction grating nearly two inches square, ruled on speculum metal. The arrange ment, with its plate holders, etc., will be designated as a photo- telespectroscope. 4th. A four-inch achromatic telescope with Merz direct vision spectroscope, brought by Professor Barker, from the collection of the University of Pennsylvania. 5tb. four-inch achromatic telescope, also brought by Professor Bar- er; to it was attached Edison’s tasimeter. Besides these there were polariscopes, a grating spectroscope, an eye slitless Ma pe with two-inch telescope, and, finally, a full set of chemicals for Anthony’s lightning collodion process, which in my experience is fully three times quicker than any other process. he arrangement of the photo-tel troscope requires iar- ther description, for success in the work it was intended to do, viz., photographing the diffraction spectrum of the corona, was difficult and in the opinion of many of my friends impossible. H. Draper—The Solar Eclipse. 229 In order to have every chance of success it is necessary to pro- cure a lens of large aperture and the shortest attainable focal length, and to have a grating of the largest size adjusted in such a way as to utilize the beam of light to the best advan- tage. Moreover, the apparatus must be mounted equatorially and driven by clockwork so that the exposure may last the whole time of totality and the photographic work mus: done by the most sensitive wet process. After some experi- ments during the summer of 1877 and the spring of 1878, the following form was adopted. he lens being of six inches aperture and twenty-one inches focal length, gave an image of the sun less than one-quarter of an inch in diameter and of extreme brilliancy. Before the beam of light from the lens reached a focus it was intercepted by the Rutherfurd grating set at an angle of sixty degrees. This threw the beam on one side and produced there three images—a central one of the Sun and on either side of it a spectrum [ should have procured ring-shaped for each bright line. On the other hand, if the light of the corona arose from incandescent solid or liquid bodies or was reflected light from the Sun I was certain to obtain a long band in my photograph answering to the actinic region of the spec- trum. If the light was partly from gas and partly from re- flected sunlight a result partly of rings and partly a b would have appear Immediately after the totality was over and on developing the photographs, I found that the spectrum photographs were continuous bands without the least trace of a ring. I was not surprised at this result because during the totality I had the Opportunity of studying the corona through a telescope arranged in substantially the same way as the photo-telespec- troscope and saw no sign of a ring. d The plain photograph of the corona taken with my large equatorial on this occasion shows that the corona is not rom the sun toward the west while it was scarcely a degree in length toward the east. The mass of meteors, if such the Construction of the corona, is therefore probably arranged in an elliptical form round the sun. ; 230 J. C. Watson—Intra-Mercurial Planet. American an nion Pacific Express Companies made the most liberal arrangements, and Mr. Galbraith, the Superinten- dent of the Repair Works at Rawlins, gave us the free use 0 his private house and grounds. Of the citizens of Rawlins it is only necessary to say that we never even put the lock on the door of the Observatory, and not a thing was disturbed or mis- laced during our ten days of residence, though we had many visitors. They sent us away with a serenade. ArT. XXV.—Discovery of an Intra-Mercurial Planet; by JAMES C, WarTson. AT the recent total eclipse of the sun I was occupied exclu- sively in a search for any intra-Mercurial planet which might be visible. For this purpose I employed an excellent four- inch refractor, by Alvan Clark & Sons, mounted equatorially, ith a magnifying power of forty-five. There were no circles originally attached to the instrument and, accordingly, I placed on it circles of hard wood, the declination circle being five inches and the hour circle four and three-quarter inches in diameter. On these I pasted circles of card-board, and pointers were provided so that I could mark with a sharp pencil the position corresponding to any particular pointing of the instru- ment. This method does not compare in accuracy with grad- uated circles and verniers, but it has the advantage, and a very important one in the present case, of avoiding the uncertainty which might be attributed to erroneous readings of the circles. To read the divided circles would require considerable time, while the pointings can be marked on the paper discs in a few moments. And besides, while a doubt might be raised as to 5 ee ae ke pels is Tee J. C. Watson—Intra- Mercurial Planet. 231 ise a before the light became too ppgne I found, however, disturbed. I then went back to my own telescope, but the sunlight was already too intense to enable me to see the star last in the field. i did not therefore determine whether the 232 J. C. Watson—Intra- Mercurial Planet. also been placed along this ledge as a more complete protection in case of very strong winds. Upon reading the circles and reducing the observations, it is rendered probable that the telescope was disturbed in this instance; but I give the observations as they were made com- plete, in order that they may be made available in any future discussion. The places of the sun were again recorded and verified, and thus the position of the star a (which I believe to be an intra-Mercurial planet) can be determined relatively to the sun. The linear distances on the paper discs were roughly measured immediately after the observations, and the result was to show that the object which I had designated by a on the circles is not a known star. Since my return to Ann Arbor, I have placed the paper dises on the axis of a graduated circle, and setting them by means of a pointer, I have read off the positions. They are shown by the following table, in which the readings given are the mean of five readings on each mark: Chronometer Time. Object observed. Circle readings. 4° 39™ 50° Sun 168° 16'°3 4 48 56 Planet (a) 163 50°9 4 50 5 6 Cancri (4) 158 49° 4 55 10 Sun 164 246 5 4 50 Sun 161 52°3 The three comparisons of (a) with the sun give Planet — ©. Aa. (2) —8 288 ; (3) ~7 598 The mean is 4a=—8 21°, The difference in declination measured on the circle is 46 = —0° 22’ The place of the sun for the instant of observation is ’ a = 8" 35™ 56°. 6 = +18° 38'°4. and hence we derive : t Washington Mean Time. me : bibs 1878, July 29, 5" 16™ 378, gt oym 358. +18° 16’. It was not possible in the brief period of totality to change the eye-piece in order to observe the object under a high power: I can only state in addition to the above, that the appearance of the object arrested my attention even before I moved the telescope to the known star farther to the eastward. It was Meat Ses tres ieee eo ae A O. C. Marsh—New Pterodactyl. 233 very much larger than this star, which was 6 Cancri, and its light was quite red. e appearance of the disc was such as to lead me to believe that it was situated beyond the sun. I have not had an opportunity to make any calculations suf- ficient to determine whether the place observed can be recon- ciled with the reported observations of spots supposed to have been planets in transit across the sun. This I will do hereafter. The star marked (4), and supposed to be € Caneri, was 0° 85’ south from the sun, as determined from the place marked on the paper circle. If the telescope was disturbed by the wind before the pointing was marked, the disturbance would prob- ably be wholly in right ascension, since the motion in declina- tion was pretty nearly clamped. In regard to the star (a), which I consider to be the planet sought, there is no uncertainty whatever, beyond the unavoidable errors of the record as made. I consider the place given to be trustworthy within 5’ of arc. It is to be hoped that persons who have made suitable photo- graphs during the totality will examine the plates carefully in the region indicated. It is possible that the planet may appear upon some of them. My station for observation was at Separation, Wyoming Ter- ritory, on the Union Pacific Railroad. It is near the summit of the Rocky Mountains, in a circular walled plain of several miles diameter, at an elevation of about 7,200 feet above the level of the sea. It is proper to add further, that the major part of the expenses of my expedition were defrayed by the U.S. Naval Observatory from the appropriation made by Con- gress for the observation of the eclipse. Ann Arbor, August 13, 1878. ArT. XXVL—New Pterodactyl from the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains ; by Professor O. C. MARSH. THE Pterosaurian remains hitherto discovered in this coun- try are all from the Cretaceous, and most of them belonged to animals of gigantic size. So far as known, they were all desti- tute of teeth, and hence belong to the order Pleranodontia. A characteristic specimen recently found in the Upper Jurassic of : soning, and now in the Yale College Museum, is the first Indication of this group of reptiles from this formation in America. The specimen, which is in good preservation, is the distal portion of the right wing metacarpal, and indicates a small pterodactyl having a spread of wings of four or five feet. The shaft of this bone at its upper portion is oval in transverse section, but near the condyle it is sub-tribedral, with a distinct 234 Scientific Intelligence. ridge on the under surface. The shaft is hollow, and the walls are thin and smooth. The outer condyle is placed obliquely, as in the Cretaceous species, and the lower groove between the two condyles is unusually narrow. The inner condyle is nearly circular in vertical outline, and its articular portion extends over about three hundred degrees The principal dimensions of this specimen are as follows: Length of portion preserved ---- -- 32-0"™ Transverse diameter of shaft where broken _.__.-. 4°5 Anitero-posterior diameter -._.... 22.2.2. .2222-1- Transverse diameter of shaft immediately below BONG VIS SCS ? Antero-posterior extent of outer condyle -_.------ 75 This interesting specimen was discovered in the Atlanto- saurus Beds of Wyoming, by Mr. 8. W. Williston. Its generic relations cannot at present be determined, but the species repre- sented may be named Pterodactylus montanus. Yale College, New Haven, August 17th, 1878. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, 1. Descriptive Geology ; by Arnotp Hague and 8. F, Emons; Vol. Il of Geological Reports of United States Geological Explo- ration of the 40th Parallel, CLareNncE Kina, Geologist-in-Charge. 890 pp. 4to, illustrated by 26 plates. Washington, 1877. Sub- mitted to the Chief of Engineers and published by order of the sults was expected for another number. The expected article has not been received; and as the volume is of special importance In connection with American Geology, a notice is here given without further delay. The region explored is a very extended one, it reaching from the eastern Colorado range to the Sierra Nevada, with a width of about a hundred miles along the 40th parallel. The authors state that the seven years engaged in the work, from 1867 to 1873, was sufficient to make only a geological reconnaissance, rather than a . finished systematic survey. Still, the account of the region is f e of such the whole is presented so clearly and systematically, both as regards the physical aspect, topography and geology, the general Scientific Intelligence. 235 are given in five chapters Pipebea aati cae to the five maps of the Atlas illustrating the regi The first chapter treats "of the Colorado range, its mountains, plains and rocks, the Laramie Plains, Medicine Bow Range, the North Park and Park Range, the Bridger’ Pass Region, the } ocks, The pent Hills described by Mr. Hague in the first chapter, include the part of the eastern Clore range mostly within the limits of the 41st and 42d parallels. The altitude of the peaks is generally between 7,800 and 8,300 feet, one of the apa reaching probably a height of 9,000 feet, This part of the range is an anti- clinal, having an axis of granite and granitoid rocks of Archzan age, on either side of which lie unconformably sandstones and “reddish ara - rocks compo u and feldspar,” becoming to rth and south decidedly schistose, being well- and in another 1°40 per cent, showing, as Mr. Hague remarks, that the triclinic feldspar cag be either albite or oligoclase. The mica is biotite, but with some lepidomelane. Tron Mountain is a labradorite granitoid rock, with cleavable labradorite, described by Professor Zirkel, in his Survey Report, as gabbro. The amount of foliated pyroxene is small. On oigg west side of the Hills, gra wes occurs in thin beds and sea e geological features onaneeacuii the Laramie omen con- tinues southward along the Colorado Range. The granite of the summit of Gray’s Peak afforded on analysis the same saa pontiios essentially as that of ne Hills. The ov ei fowd peaeepens for- mations bordering the mountain range are ted to have a 800 to 300; the Jurassic, 200; the Cretaceous, 4.3 0 feet gr feet of the Dakota group, 1 ,000 of the Colorado seat 1,500 of the Fox Hill, and 1,500 of the Laramie). The Paleozvie beds con- tinue along the eastern foot hills for nearly 70 miles, ret then disappear, none bei ing found north of Colorado Sprin Triassic beds consist of red sandstone with some red me and thin beds of limestone, and, in some localities, i ieeed lar eposite OF slightly red two to twent five feet poatge! The fare rassic ahent ish in ti fist h ora 236 Scientific Intelligence. thin layers of limestone and gypsum. But the — between this formation and the Triassic is stated to ts uncertai The Medicine Bow Range is made up seve exclusively of rchean crystalline rocks, inclu ding granites, | mica athints: hornblende schists, diorytes, argillytes, quartzytes, ete. e granite and gneiss contain much of a triclinic feldspar, and in some places zircons. At Cherokee Butte, there is a granite whose quartz grains of wear, and hence of the metamorphic origin of the rock. Medi- contains some cyanite. It is cut through by what appears to be dikes of a fine-grained dioryte. The Archean quartzyte is under- by a hornblendic rect At Mill Peak, the quartzyte is and overlaid by a red conglomerate, and, above the conglomerate, gem bebet Lee ealeareou us. The Nort and Park Range are described at length by Mr. pes only a few facts os eal the voleanic rocks are lifted by the erupted trachytes. East of Parkview Peak the eruptive rock of some of the hills is granitoid and porphyritic, though probably related to the trachytes, Zirkel calls the rock granite-porphyry. The eruptions are not older than Cretaceous. The basalt of the divide between the two Parks lies almost en- tirely westward of the trachytic region The Elkhead Mountains are described by Mr. Emmons. They are a group of high volcanic peaks, some over 10,000 feet above the sea-level. They include the north-and-south elevations of some places, chryeolite, as desctibved by Zirkel. There seems to have been a transition from the e trachytic outflows In Hantz Peak to eons In the basalt of Bastion Peak occur, be- sides the ordinary constituents and nephelite, some chrysolite, ‘and plateau increases westward from 4,300 to 6, 000 feet, Ruby Valley, sete the east base of the Humboldt range, being the highest por- tion. The valleys are mostly under Quaternary fiepoutte coarse 5 PEARS, WR ine as ae SENSE Scientific Intelligence. 237 and fine. The ridges, which rise 2,000 to 6,000 above the level of the valleys, trend nearly north-and-south, are approximately par- allel, and vary from five to ten miles in width. ~— pesca sedi- mentary strata are also con wauisd to a large extent by great out- flows of Tertiary volcanic ae which have spr sh in all air ections from the old lines of uphe Between the Desert Region—an arm of the Salt Lake Valley lying to the west of the Aqui Mountains—and the first ridge called the Ibenpah Mountains, there are terraces at the heights 800 feet, 500 feet and 300 feet, above the Desert level, the second marked by calcareous tufa. The Wachoe Mountains, rising out of the Gosi-Ute Desert, con- — with the north-and-south lines of Paleozoic ridges in consist- ing of a dark reddish-gray granite, dioryte and quartz-porphyry, and outside of these a Coal-measure limestone, and then weer a and rhyolytes. The granite contains little quartz, and affor Professor T. M. Drown only 55°53 per cent of silica, with 5°20 of potash, 4:84 of soda and 5°62 of lime. The so-c o-called “ andesyte” 1s really, not a hornblende rock (hornblende grains being exceed- ingly rare), but contains much biotite, along with a triclinic feld- spar. One of the two agreeing analyses by Mr. pe odward ob- tained Silica 67°63, alumina 18°08, iron protoxide 2°17, magnesia 1°14, lime 3-16, soda 2° 87, potassa bse 86, ignition 1 -49=100" 40, agrecing little with ordinary andesyt ast Humboldt Range is the in range of Central Nevada, and the highest between the Wahsatch of Utah and the Sierra Nevada. One of the peaks, Mt. —=? has a height of 11,321 feet and several are over 10, _ feet. A mass of Archean rocks unconformably, Devonian and Carboniferous strata. There are numerous cafions in the limestone of the eastern slo All the ridges of the plateau are — in detail in the Report, and also _— of the N oye Bas eport makes an ex ale nt companion volume to that on the Petrology of the 40th puradiel by Zirkel, it explaining at length the geological ~~ of the rocks. Many chemical es of rocks are given, the most of them by ) ; W. Woodward. Besides the lags and heaatiflly-colored Atlas already pee in this Journal, there are many most excellent ambrotype plates in the text, which are sacaiiskokle for their topographic and a Australiensis: a Deseription of the Plants of the Aus- tralian Birnieorys By Groret Bentuam, F.R.S., assisted by Baron Ferdinand von Masler, F.R.S., ote: &e. Vol. VIL Row burghiacee to Filices. London: Reeve & Co. 1878. 806 pp., 8vo. —This volume brings a great lg a happy completion. volume was issued in the year 1863, and the work has — steady ea ise to the end. It is the complete phenoga- a continent, and the only one; is worked up by one 238 Scientific Intelligence. mind and hand, within a time and at an age which allows no sensible change of ideas or point of view, so that it is throughout comparable with itself. It is the work of the most experience and wise systematic botanist of the day, and when we know that fully as much other work, of nae character, has been done within these fifteen years, it will not be denied that the author’s indus- try and powers of pupae thao are unrivalled. o one else has done such good botanical work at such a rate. If, as some fear, the race of first-class systematic (phenogamous) botanists is destined to die aioe or dwindle, it will not be for the lack in our day of a worth In the conel eaing Pr -eface, Mr. Bentham turns over to his able and equally indefatigable coadjutor, Von Mueller, the duty of incorporating addenda and corrections, and suggests the prepara- a eahacical. synopsis, for convenient use, especially in Australia, where such a hand-book will be most helpful and need- ful. This trust, we doubt not, Von Mueller will duly undertake, and may be expected worthily to accomplish. His fellow-workers over the world are not unmindful of their great obligations to him in the development of Australian botany, and in ren erin presnnnae the production of this Flor a Australien sis, which has been equally enriched nd his vast aalaasidie and facilitated by is preliminary study of them. . Bentham now declines to undertake “a detailed examina- tion of the relations, as well of the whole flora to that of other any large part of the globe. Let us still hope that he may some =a reconsider this determination, so far as to discuss in a - neral oanoge sears points which concern the student of the American ora. Especially interesting to us is the elaboration, es the present volume, of the Graminew, in which General Munro’s matured views—as yet little known b publication—have pa ener lips seen consideration M2 a veteran general botanist, and in which author’s own conclusions regarding the mor- ra 8 ext a this i in ‘importance i is the order Cyperacee, upon the arrangement of which sound judgment is brought to bear. The great order Liliacee is our hy to include the Sm and not the Rowburghiacee. We should have excluded both, but Smilax in preference. Goltea to Mr. Bentham’s opinion, we Scientific Intelligence. 239 should “Heige that the anthers in Smilaw are uated but dilocel- late. The diagnosis of Roxburghiacee in the conspectus distin- cet the pre i from Australian Talianeds only, and by an over- sight the second genus of the order is said ot ie —— to co ey area's it was founded on a North Am n plant. a Flora of Manali and the Seychelles: a ne son ar of ‘the Eiomenis Plants and Ferns of those et ge By J. G. Baxerr, ., etc. London: Reeve 0. 1877. 557 pp.—Another of the British Colonial Floras, complete in one volume. Contains 112 orders, not a few of which are represented mainly by natural- ized plants, 440 genera, and 1058 indigenous species. Thanks to sugar-culture and bad management, “the forests of Mauritius, “which at the time when it was named by the Dutch, in 1598, covered it to the water’s edge, have baie by degrees abet dow n, till they are now almost entirely destroyed..... From 467 tons in 1812, the amount of sugar exported increased till it: reached a maximum in 1860, so that it was calculated at that time that this island, with an area of 700 square fae) Z ~ ct 3 = z fae) | cs 8 eo Temperature. fom alae wih [a ee ‘tae pied weg 0° 1362 grams. 1-377 grams. 1-430 grams. 10° 1309 1328“ 1384 15° 29. © 1295 1345 =“ 30° 1142 1158 1196: * 45° 0985 1005 POs 2 60° 0841 0-864.“ 0-385)“ 100° O56 = 0575 « 0585 = In each case the numbers indicate the weight of lime contained in 1000 grams of the solution, and we have selected this table from several others in the paper because as the author says the values Geology and Mineralogy. 823 are comparable, having been obtained under similar conditions. The other series of results which are given do not differ greatly State of science no certain conclusions can be reached in regard to the validity of Prout’s law or of other numerical relations between the atomic weight of the chemical elements. Il. GEoLoGyY AND MINERALOGY. 1, Occurrence of Fossiliferous Tertiary Rocks on the Grand Bank and George’s Bank ; Verritt.—Among the ant results of the investigations made by the party connected with the U. S. Fish Commission, stationed at Gloucester, Mass., during is the discovery of fragments of a hitherto more or less abundance fossil shells, fragments gnite, one case a spatangoid sea-urchin. Probably nearly one-half of the Species are northern forms, still living on the New England coast, k r From dozen fossiliferous fragments have been obtained, containing more than twenty-five distinct species of shells. ong these one of the most abundant is a large thick bivalve (Jsocardia) much resembling Cyprina islandica in torm, but differing in the struct- 824 Scientific Intelligence. ure of the hinge. This is not vane living. Mya poh tage 2 tinea te Americana, and the gen Cyprina are also com together with a large Nisea.s a _Cyeloeardia (or Venera allied to C. borealis (Con.), but with smaller ribs, Cardium Islan- dicum, and also various other less common forms. bebe frag- ments came from various parts of the bank, including the central part, in depths varying from 35 to 70 fathoms, or more. From Banquereau, N. 8., we received one specimen of similar ceived. One of these, from thirty-five fathoms, lat. 44° 30’, long. n outer banks, from off N a nearl cr e Cod, and sd Se constituting, in large part, the solid pais se of these Dats bmarine elevations. Although the number of sections was large, yet in no case was I able to find it in any of the granitic rocks, except in a sye enite from Columbia, and here it occurred in the ‘greatest abundance, and under circumstances that render its occurrence interesting. The syenite referred to is white in color, spotted with black, and macroscopically only orthoclase and hornblende are recog: nizable. In thin pena, however, finginclose, partes Ee one < Apatite are seen, and moreover calcite is found; 4 ral material from ani this Tock was male, and that at the tem- perature at w e, a reaction occurre between the “lion dips pr carbonate seedling in the liberation of carbonic acid, Botany and Zoology. 825 Ill. Botany AND Zoouoey. Meliacece, cum tabulis ix. Paris, Masson. June, 1878. pp. 779, nt 8vo.—In this form and way we may hope to see the Monoco- tyledonous orders elaborated, and some of the earlier Dicotyle- onous ones re-elaborated. e middle of this volume is filled by the monograph of Restiacew, by Dr. Masters. This is an order allied on the one hand to Juncacec, on the other to Cyperacee, of a tropical order. The stamineal tube in the monadelphous ed, two more are obscure or doubtful. There are thirty-eight pages of prefatory generalia, in DeCandolle’s best manner. We are — to find that he keeps up the specific phrase, and with true nnean curtness, relegating all particulars, not truly diagnostic under the sections and other divisions, to the description. In dis- cussing the nature and characters of the leaf (which in its general Sense is called “récentement et assez inutilement phyllome”) the morphology of the petiolar tendrils has to be considered; the conclusion is that these i and the articulation, in some species well marked, between the Specific characters, which have been overlooked. e umbels are . ? 2 centrifugal or cymose. To distinguish, as is here done, the peri- Perigone will then have no raison détre. Whatever the number and position of the stamens, the carpels are superposed to the Sepals, as indeed is the case in most Monocotyledons. It is perti- 326 Scientific Intelligence. a noted that in Smilax, always diccious, i with dull- colored perianth, the pollen is ’papillose as in most en tomophilou flowers; but that AAipogonum, the only hermaphrodite genus, a a smoothish pollen, more like that transportable have odorous blossoms, some aeeman A some the reverse. DeCandolle asks whether in our Coprosmanthus (the name of which indicates the ill odor) this is common se ie sexes and the same in both. Can any of our readers speak to this? An expo- sition of the geographical distribution of the order, and of what is known of it in a fossil state, is followed by a statement that all the four natural sections of Smilax and the two other genera— a comprised between the north of New Holland, the Figi Islands, the Sandwich Islands, and Japan; that India has four of these six types, New Holland three, North America two, a E e and Africa one; South America only one, but is rich in species. The s eculative inference i is, that, anterior to the eocene formations of Europe, the ancestors of the family occupied a con- tinent situated in the region above indicated, of which the most n to | its aati The sole Californian Smilax is pay ts as a variety, to S. rotundifolia, but is nearer S. hispida, although distinct from both. 2. The Flora of British India, by Sir J. D. Hooxsr, KOS S.L, President R. S., etc., assisted by various botanists, makes fair progress. Part %, the second part of the second volume (pp. 241 —496) is before us, ‘undated. In it the Leguminose by Baker are finished, a Kosacee elaborated by Dr. Hooker — - orr. & a , Flora. ‘Briobtrya is kept up as a ented: as are Dabnicns! 8 Docynia and Pourthice a 3. Blithendiagramme [| Flower-diagrams] ¢ sindteiiel und erldu- raise — oo _ Ww. aa pes park Univ. Kiel.—Th ar, the botanical chai vacated ge the of Bra It Seals with the Apetalous and Choripetalous ‘Pak; pesabanal Dicotyledons, * We take a fancy to this name Sympetale; but Gamopetale is older and in common use. Botany and Zoology. 327 intercalated into one class; it fills 575 pages and is illustrated by 237 wood-cuts. We had deferred notice of this admirable work ious, and able contribution to morphological botany should have. Being a eciall definition of the flower, its development, and its parts, precede a brief discussion of the arrangement of the floral organs, the rela- tion of the blossom as a whole and of its outer members to bract his former views in consequence of the later researches of others), log im systematic sequence, mark this work as one of the first impor- tance, G A. G. 4. Repertorium Annuum Literature Periodice, car. G. Bou- NENSIEG et W. Burcx. Tom. iv, for 1875. Harlaem, 1878. 283 - 8vo.—Having noticed the preceding volumes, we would renew the expression of admiration for the careful and thorough manner In which this work is planned and executed. The classification of topics is very detailed and special; and there is a full index of names of genera and orders, and another of authors. A. G. ©. Synopsis of the Genus Aquilegia, by J. G. Baker.—A con- tribution to the Gardener’s Chronicle, London, concluded in the number for August 17, 1878; intended specially for horticultural use, but also of botanical consequence, arranging under artificial a from the sepals only giving the measure. A. truncata, the Cali fornian Species, is quite distinct from Gall: making Lae aie Dinosaurian Reptiles from the Jurassic of the Roc ky enn caine dh O. C. Mars Fria the ae ae Series of Superficial Formations in North Eastern Iowa, with ons, A new Fossi fea pepadles on in a Glacial Bowlder, A. R. GROTE. 2. The iron Or “sis of Alabama, with Special Reference to their Geological Relation, Embryolog of Cle oe 1) Stages = gaueead to Cleavage, (2) Cleavage, Germ camile: se : 4 ge fas woe from pers Science bearing fs the Law of Repetition, Miss V. K. y,Richthofen s Theory of the Loess in the light of the Deposits of the Missouri, J To Are the so-called Chetetes of the Cincinnati Group Bryozoans? A. Wrruersy.—Remarks on the Geogra water Mollusks of the United States and their local varieties, id. Notice of a recent discovery of Gold in the Unaka Mountains of Tennessee, J. M. Sarrorp.—Notice of Certain Sulphide Springs in hepa i The Lands of Utah, J. W. Powsut.—The Rainfall e Arid Region of the United States, id. On a remnant of the Spiracles in ame and Hesaiding sonic B. G. WILDER. cli tipuliformis Lin., G. H. Perxrixs.—Osteology of Sciwropterus volu- n the Development of Amia, S. A. Forzgs. at on the mocks 3M Decay of the ahr Tarai in Cannabis sativa: A Parallel and a Contrast, C. S. P 332 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The ea of Adhesion to Horizontal Pressure in Mountain Dynamics, H. F. Wa ~ pry me indications of Recent Sensitiveness to Pressure in the Karth’s Cru Geclogca Sars of the Colorado River and Plateaus, ae K. Duron. ~ Fae nsus in Animal and Vegetal Life, L. F. W on ne acteristics of the Vegetation of Towa, J. wen On port difficultie ca with in using the Cat’s Brain as a ia of the brains of Mammals, B. The All eged Voleand a ab ‘al Mt., net Carolina, F. W. CLARKE. On the Compass Plants, i hereon Discovery of ‘A iaiicsioerc and other Dinosaurs in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, A. LAKES. ao nega of Fossils showing the effects of the Geodizing process, A. H. IV. Anthropology. Ancient Mounds in the vicinity of Naples, Scott County, Illinois, J. G. Hen DERSON. —An cient Names, Geographical, Tribal and Personal, in the Mis aintnd Valley, i Description of two Stone Cists acy lot near cme Illinois, A. ORHLE Description of a House in the of Mancos River, Colorado, with a Ground Plan of the sehen ge W. F. Mor Remarks on the of a Stone Pots, on the Animas River, New Mexico, with a Ground Plan —% TL Morean.—Observations on the San Juan River Dis- trict, as an important ancient seat of Village Indian Life, id. e Sources for Aboriginal History of Spanish America, A. F. BANDELIER. Houtirkable Burial Custom from a Mound in Florida: The Cranium 7 abiieed as a Cinerary wok H. Grutman.—Description of a Glazed Karthen Vessel, taken from a Tumulus in Florida, id. Evidences of Cannibalism i in a Nation before the — in Japan, E. S. MORSE. Remarks upon the Archeology of Vermont, G. H. PERKI An Atlas of asin fear nds Antiquities, 0. ae Mason.—North American Indian Synonym Ancient Pettary Stone Chiriqui, Central America, O. C. MARS On the anatomical peculiarities by which Moundbuilders’ Crania may be distin- guished from those of the Modern Indian, J. McGue. Exhibition be Problauities relics from Missouri, A. J. Con ex laa = of a Walled Town of the a aroundendilieea of the perme ope Valley, F n the Discovery of a I Hiden Skull i in the Drift near Denver, Colorado, T. BELT. Pe ennsylvania eo Survey.—Two new volumes of cuts ; and Two peer Tables of Elevation above Tide Level of mits a ~ ete., in and nin Pamipieania, by Cuartes ALLEN. 250 pp. 8vo. Professor Stevenson, in his volume, besides describing with detail the stratification and coal beds ni the region, gives in chap- ter 18, a partial statement of the facts on which were based th ‘Is chapter 19, he discusses the relations of the axes west from and in- cluding the Alleghenies of Pennsyly vania ; Sra the axes to their final disappearance in West Virginia; shows that they are suc- imei lie, ae satanic inde cm ma i cia aA eaten ih i a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 330 important ones existed early during Coal-Measure times. n page 282 are some conclusions respecting four of the coal-troughs ; chapter 21 treats of the structure of coal-beds and intervals be- tween coal-beds; shows that coal-beds divide; that in the great trough, the groups thin out east, north and west; also contains a briet discussion of the nature of clay veins, besides giving a few notes on the Paleontology of Southwest Pennsylvania and imper- fect lists of fossils observed. department of Anatomy and Physiology; in Geography, by Pro- fessor C. Wyville Thomson ; in Mechanical Science, by Mr. Edward aston. Lectures were delivered by Mr. Romano upon Animal Intelligence, and by Professor Dewar on Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of Chemical Action. A considerable number of papers were d shape of a thin plate. The size of the plate being determined within pretty narrow limits by acoustic requirements, the strength of the magnet which can be used is also limited. € magnets which I use in the new form of telephone are shaped like a W; two U magnets with, say, their N. poles bolted 334 Miscellaneous Intelligence. together, while their 8. poles form the two outer branches of the W. The middle bar fits the center of the coil, while the outer ends nearly touch it on the outside. The nu mber of lines of force perpendicular to the direction of its motion which are cut by the coil is much increased by this disposition of the poles of the magnet. Pe sre ig of North American Invertebrate Paleontology, by C. A. White, and H. Alleyne Nicholson, M.D., ete. 132 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1878. onion of ee Peon rior U. S. Geol _ Survey of the Territories ; Miscellaneous Publications, No. Annual tae of ‘the _ ee Officer to the posuere § of War, for the year 1877. 570 pp. 8vo, with twenty charts. Washin Annual ns npon the Survey of the P rthern and Northwestern Lakes and the Pat River in charge of Gen tock and Capt. H. M. Adams. Appendix of the Annual Report of she Chit "ot Engineers for 1877. Wash- ington, 18 fe Gallatin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. Vol. iv. The terrestrial air-breathing Mollusks of the Uni ted States and the adjacent Territories of North America, described and i eae iy We Binne ee v. Text, 439 pp. 8vo; vol. v. with 74 plates for vol. iii, and 16 plates of vol. v. pretest and orbits of < Satellites of Mars, with data for pb gtenaleg in 1879, by Asaph Hall, Prof. Math. U.S. Navy. Rear-Admiral Joh U 8. Nav. F Bapeciieiiione of the Naval Gist atbry. 46 pp. 4to. Washington. 1878. Anales de la Oficina Meteorologica Argentina, por su Director Benjami Gould ; ek I, Clima de Buenos Aires. 522 pp. 4to, with 17 plates. ee Aires, 18 _Mefats and i oa agen inc ng anes being with some consider: ditions the subst ctures delivered at the cage saison r Great Britain in 877. oo Chane rom Wright, D. Sc., etc. 191 pp. 12mo London, 1878. (Macmillan & © The Ancient Life-histo tory of the Earth; a ee ovis 8 of the princi- ples and leading facts of paleo tological science, by H. Alleyne Nicholson, M.D., Ph.D., ete. 407 pp. 8vo. New York, 1878. (D. Appleton ‘k Co 0.) OBITUARY. Rev. W. B. Crarke, a geologist of eminence in Australia, as well as a clergyman of the Church of England, died on the 16th of June last at St. Leonards (near Sydney), New South Wales, * the age of eighty-five. Mr. Clarke was an enthusiastic worker geology. His labors in Australia were continued for more tikes forty years, and resulted in many important discoveries and great ee gress to Australian geology. The first announcement of gold in Australia was claimed by Mr. Clarke; and from that logical Society of London ; a s as Vice-Presi dent of the Royal Society ; and various pamphlets on geological discoveries in Australia and Australasia, with one on the Causes and Phenomena of Earthquakes especially in relation to shook felt in New Wales and in other Australasian Provinces. e was a man of great excellence and of earnestness in his parish work as well as in his field explorations. sith iii iarmnetineerieiei enna AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES|] e Art. XXXVIIL—On some points in Lithology ; by James D. DANA. I. ON some or THE CHARACTERS EMPLOYED IN DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT Kinps oF Rocks. LirHo.oey is a department of Geology, rocks being the ma- terial in and through which geological problems are presented for study. The true aim of the science of lithology is to describe the kinds of rocks mineralogically and chemically, and to note down their distinctions, in such a manner as shall best contri- bute to the objects of geology ; and these latter objects include, the nature or composition of the mass. The defining of rocks is attended with special difficulties on account of their mutual transitions. From granite down the are, with very few exceptions, mixtures of minerals, as muc is the mud of a mud bank. They graduate into one another by indefinite blendings, as the mud of one mud bank graduates into the mud of others around it. In fact a large part of the Am. Jour. Sot.—Turrp A capa Vou. XVI, No, 95.—Noyv., 1878, 336 J. D. Dana on some points in Lithology. crystalline rocks were once actual mud beds or sand beds ; and even part of the eruptive rocks may have been so in their earlier history. Strongly drawn limits no where exist. Rocks are hence of different kinds, not of different species ; and only those mixtures are to be regarded as distinct kinds of rocks which have a sufficiently wide distribution to make a distinct name important to the geologist. Other kinds have to be classed as varieties, if worthy of that degree of recognition. In the following pages I propose to consider the value of some of the distinctive characters which are generally accepted at the present time in defining certain kinds of rocks some magnetite or titanic iron: and so does doleryte. Diabase. to a large extent, is a crystalline-granular rock ; so is doleryte. iabase was formerly supposed to be peculiar in containing chlorite, but it is now proved, as asserted by Rosenbusch, that chlorite is not an essential characteristic, so that diabase may be chloritie or not; and the same is true of doleryte. Old dia- base was described as differing from the younger rock doleryte o glassy portions or grains among the crystal” ular diabase, (2) diabase-prophyrite, and (8) glass-bearing 4 ; for dole absence of glassy portions, the two rocks are identical. Anal- from the Archean to the Tertiary, and of ee J. D. Dana on the characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 337 “dolerytes” of subsequent time, have shown that material of essentially the same chemical composition, has been ejected in all geological ages, as has been well urged by Allport and others. The analyses might be cited; but this is not necessary, since in mineral composition typical diabase and doleryte are admitted to be identical. € facts show, consequently, that orthoclase rocks, or ortho- clase and oligoclase, have been erupted from Paleozoic time Cency in the feldspar, and some glass at times among the erys- talline grains ; but nothing that has any geological weight. While then it may be well to retain the names of trachyte and felsyte, on account of the obvious external differences and the 338 J. D. Dana on some points in Lithology. wide extent to which the two varieties of rock are distributed over the earth’s surface, the epithet ‘‘ younger” as — to trachyte and some felsy te can subserve plainly no good use. The essential chemical identity of the “older” and “ younger” rocks is further exhibited in the fact that the hornblende- bearing rock lisboa aie called one of the ‘ older,” has the same ultimate constitution as the augite-bearing rocks ‘“‘older” and “younger,” called diabase, doleryte and basalt. This fact emphasizes the great truth, that the rock-making materials of former time are the same as those of recent. During and since the Tertiary era more true subaerial vol- canic eruptions have taken fia than in any one ancient eriod ; but there were also m then. As to fundamental differences between the (aaderiate ejected by the “older” and ‘‘vounger” world baie appear to be none which are of essential importance. Glass or no glass is made an important criterion ; but glass is simply a Soils of comparatively ra cooling and alone indicates no essential differences in the melted mass. Dropping the adjectives “ younger” seit “ older” would require the dropping of the distinctive names based on them, unless some better reason exists for retaining them. If diabase is not distinct from doleryte in some important way besides that of time of eruption, the name diabase (the newer of the two) is unnecessary. In fact, the rocks are not distinct in external characters any more ht in chemical or miner- alogical. The rock of the Giant's Causeway was pronounced diabase on microscopic grounds when its geological age was unknown ; but it has since been proved to be Miocene Tertiary ; and now although just as much diabase in constitution as be- a it becomes, on the “younger” and “older” scale, doleryte or Some ee the differences attributed to difference in age may be due to differences in origin—that is, to the rock’s being is of ores y importance to be used as a distinction among kinds of rocks. In the first place it is trivial as a crystallographic distinction. Secondly, although mineralogy once made ea 3 of the distine- Se ed SP SES ee ee be J. D. Dana on the characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 839 tion, it now makes little of it. Thirdly, it is not sustained by the analyses of the varieties of foliated pyroxene—diallage, and the wrongly called hypersthene being essentially identical in composition with common augite of eruptive rocks, an SiO, Al,O, FeO MnO MgO CaO H,0O Florence, Diall.... 53-20 2°47 8°67 0°38 14°91 19-09 1-77=100-49, Kohler. Piedmont, Diall... 50°05 2°58 11°98 — 99°61, Regnault. Harzburg, Hyp. .. 52°34 3°05 8°84 8 0°66= 99°65, Streng. 84 —— 15°58 19°] Neurode, Hyp. _.. 53°60 1:99 8°95 0°28 13-08 21-06 0°86= 99°82, v. Rath. Etna, Augite Cryst. 50°55 4:85 7-96 —— 13-01 22°29 —-= 98°66, Kudernatsch. esuvi 50°90 5°37 6:25 —— 14:43 22°96 —-= 99-91, Kudernatsch. . Vesuvius, “ 49°61 4-42 9°08 —— 14:22 22-83 ——=100°16, Rammelsberg. The mineralogical and chemical differences are thus too mon serpentine. Ferber in his “ Briefe aus dem Walschland” (Letters from Italy), written in the years 1771, 1772, and published in 1778, describes so_well the rock der greasy to the touch (the diallage) and also amianthus. He then adds that “in horizontélen Schichten in den Gabbro-Bergen aus weissen Feldspat, der an einigen Stellen Kalchspatartig ist und mit Siuren brauset, etwas grinlichtem silberfarbigen wiir- flichten Glimmer, und griinlicher Serpentin-Erde, besteht :” a description that distinguishes the gabbro from the granitone. F urther, he says, that some of the granitone consists of the ‘White feldspar in large parallelopipeds and green gabbro- earth, without the micaceous mineral.” - 340 J. D. Dana on some points in Lathology. The word Gabbro, as it is now used (and was so first by von Buch in 1810) is applied to the granitone, the associate of the Italian gabbro; but, besides this, to rocks consisting of foliated pyroxene (sometimes called hypersthenite), and cleavable lab- radorite the idea of foliated standing out prominently ; and also to an eruptive diabase-like or doleryte-like rock, in which the augite happens to be foliated. n this last variety, as the analyses show, there is evidently no foundation whatever for separating the rock from other labradorite-augite eruptive rocks. Granitone is the same as euphotide, a rock distributed at intervals along the Alps from Savoy and Isére in France through Piedmont, to the valley of the Saas, north of east of Monte Rosa, and the Graubiindten, occurring also in Silesia and on the island of Corsica, and found commonly associated with serpentine. Its chief characteristic is—not its foliated diallage or smaragdite (either of which is usually a mixture of horn- blende and pyroxene), but its consisting largely of the com- pact jade-like material called saussurite ; for it would be the | - rock, essentially, whether the hornblende and pyroxene | were distinctly foliated or not; and, in fact, in part of it the | texture is aphanitic, and nothing foliated is distinguishable. | Saussurite has a close relation to some of the feldspars in its | constituents, it being essentially a soda-lime-alumina silicate ; | and still, as has long been recognized, it is not afeldspar. This has been rightly sustained by the fact of the high density, which is over 2°9 (2°9 to 8-4), in saussurite, and less than 2°765 in the feldspar group. It is further proved by its occurrence occasionally under the crystalline forms of a triclinic feldspar, but with a fine granular or aphanitic structure; thus having, instead of the cleavage structure belonging to the feldspar, a feature belonging to a pseudomorph. In such cases it was once feldspar; but some change has come over it that has resulted in a molecular transformation, affecting both the crystalline character and the density. Saussurite appears to cover a group of minerals, like feldspar. One kind is between anorthite and zoisite in composition, though differing from both in the soda a sauss peamien with the feldspar group. The first is Saussurite, Th J. D. Dana on the characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 341 The following are analyses of the three prominent kinds, and of normal anorthite, labradorite and oligoclase. ne Se E SiO, #10, FeO; FeO MgO CaO Na,O K,O ign. 1. L. Geneva _..____ 43°59 27°72 2°61 -—— 2°98 19°71 3°08 -—— 0°35=100-04, Hunt. 4, i. Geneva. 2... 45°34 30°28 —— 1:37 3°88 13°87 4:23 —— 0-71= 99°68, Fikenscher. 3. Schwartzwald _... 42°64 31-00 —— 2-40 5°73 821 3°83 3:83= 97-64, Hiitlin. Il. 4. Mt. Genévre _____ 49°73 29°65 —— 0°85 0°56 11°18 4:04 0°24 3-75=100-00, Delesse. Dy CNG a oa 50°84 26°00 2°73 —— 0°22 14:95 4°68 0°61 1:21=101-24, v. Rath. a 51°76 26°82 1°77 —— 0°35 12-96 4°61 0°62 0°68= 99°57, Chandler. 4 aA 52°21 29-64 0°48 —— 0-26 12°43 4-00 0°44 O-ll= 99°56, Heddle Rit oe 53°14 29°99 0°25 —— 0°21 12°29 3-86 0:47 0°21=100-42, Heddle. 9. Durance... 2... 56°12 17°40 7°79 —— 3-41 8-74 3°72 0°24 1:93= 99°35, Delesse. Ill. 10. Jadeite, China... 59°17 22°58 —— 1°15 1:15 2°68 12°93 fr. ——=100°07, Damour. 2 Sat - 58°89 22-40 —— 1-28 1:28 3°12 12°86 0-49 0°20—100-63, Fellenberg. at “2... 68°28 21°86 —— 2°41 1°99 2°53 13°97 —— -— MnO 0-22, Fellenb. 13. Normal an ies. 43:1: 865 2 — 200 — — —=+100 14, Normal labradorite 52°9 30°3 -—— ——- —— 123 45 -— —=$—100 15. Normal oligoclase. 61°9 24-1 ——- —- —— 52 88 -—— —-=100 Specific gravity of 1, 3-227; of 2, 3-3-3°4; of 3, 3°16; of 4, 3:10; of 5, 2998; of 6, 2°74; of 7, 295; o ; the specific gravity of labradorite and was therefore that species, a mineral that would be present where the crystallization took p without, or with only par- tially, the conditions needed to produce saussurite. No. 9 is of the globules of the “ Variolite of Durance,” a rock associated with euphotide. ve Boulanger’s saussurite, from Corsica, is near zoisite in composition and density (G.=3-18), as stated by T. S. Hunt, who referred all true saussurite to zoisite (con- ing his view by his analysis above), and the part near labradorite to that of feldspar. Damour obtained for jadeite the ratio 1: 2: 6. . - differences, makes it desirable to distinguish such rocks by : Special name, The saussurite, and not the foliated mineral, is the chief ingredient on which the distinction rests. ner Euphotide is therefore a different rock from any consisting of cleavable labradorite and pyroxene or hornblende, both ‘on mineralogical and geological grounds. The foliated condition of the latter constituent is not reason enough for overlooking 342 J. D. Dana on some points in Lithology. the more fundamental differences. As the name gabbro has Adirondacks, British America and other regions, sometimes called Hypersthenyte, and this name is so used by Zirkel. 3. Porphyritic Structure—Porphyry naturally took the posi- tion of a species in the mineralogy of the ancients. But it is now well known, and generally admitted, that the porphyritic structure is largly due to conditions attending the former tem- perature and cooling of the rock-mass, and distinguishes only varieties. But still it is usual to find dioryte divided, for its primary subdivisions, into ordinary dioryte and dioryte-porph- yry; diabase into granular diabase and diabase-porphyry or diabase-porphyrite; felsyte into felsyte and felsyte-porphyry ; and so on, as if the porphyritic structure were deserving of first prominence in the question of division into varieties, even greater than mineral constitution; and sometimes it is even made the basis of a distinct kind of rock. fourths of an inch broad) and this last graduates near by into ordinary gneiss; and gradations from porphyrytic to ordinary eo Fe ee ES ery a ianaaaiinaanagy W. T. Sampson—=Spectrum of the Corona. 343 gneiss are very common in the region. Such facts make it evident that the porphyritic structure is a characteristic of little relative importance; that a porphyritic variety may have rightly a place on a level with other ordinary varieties, but never above one based on variations in composition. The porphyritic structure is an easy character to observe, but this is not an argument in its favor that science can enter- tain. Such names as /elsite-porphyre, amygdaloporphyre, granito- porphyre, melaphyre (this last signifying “ black porphyry”) and others (abbreviated sometimes to felsophyre, amygdalophyre, granophyre, etc.) have high authority. But they seem to belong rather to books on polished stones than to scientific works on lithology. [To be continued. ] ART. XXXIX.—On the Spectrum of the Corona; by W. T. ampson, U.S. N. mounted telescope of 34 inch aperture and about five feet focal length. In addition I had prepared to use a hand polariscope to the sun’s surface or broke off some distance above it. Pre- Vious observers were somewhat at variance as to the fact B44 W. T. Sampson—=Spectrum of the Corona. and upon it seemed to depend the simple or compound nature of the gas emitting the green light. I therefore determined to commence my work by adjusting the slit tangent to the disap- pearing limb of the sun at the beginning of totality in order to witness the reversal of the Fraunhofer lines, so admirably seen Prof. Young in 1870, but not visible to some observers who looked for them in 1871. I proposed to look particularly for the 1474 line with the slit in this position and then to place it radially to see if the line thickened as it approached the sun’s surface. The remainder of the time was to be devoted to the dark lines of the coronal spectrum and to the polariscope. I was fortunate in securing the services of Dr. Dewitt, M.D., U.S.A., to direct my telescope. During two days we practiced upon the changes and adjustments I had decided upon making during totality. By practice upon bright clouds, the sky and the moon, I decided that I could open the slit to “1 mm. while searching for the dark lines. All previous observers had described the continuous spectrum as faint. It was therefore necessary to use a slit as wide as possible and at the same time e certain of seeing the lines. As totality approached we adjusted the slit carefully tangent to the narrow crescent of the sun. The slit plates had previously been covered with white paper to secure a distinct image of the corona at the focus of the objective. The telescope of the spectroscope was clamped so as to have the spectrum from about C to F in the field. Placing my eye at the telescope in time to get the last glimmer of the solar spectrum, I was greatly surprised an instant after at the briliancy with which the bright lines appeared, flashing out at once to their maximum brightness. The time during which this beautiful sight lasted was not sufficient for me to posl- tively identify the lines; yet their familiar grouping left no doubt in my mind that they occupied the places which a mo- ment before had been occupied by the dark lines of the solar spectrum. The continuous spectrum of the sun entirely disap- peared before the bright lines made their appearance. I coul not estimate the number of bright lines that were in the field during the probable two seconds they were visible, but they this brilhant line spectrum vanished, no lines either or right were visible, but a continuous spectrum held its place. I did not notice any continuous spectrum while the lines were visible. As previously arranged the slit was placed radially, still nothing was visible but a continuous spectrum, not bright. Haren me W. 7. Sampson—Spectrum of the Corona. 345 Several observers during the recent eclipse failed to see the dark lines, though they looked for them carefully. While I do not uestion the results of observers who report the presence of ark lines I think all the observations taken together show that the continuous spectrum of the corona is not the spectrum of the sun. Aside from this, Prof. Arthur W. Wright made measurements of the polarization of the light of the corona, the first time I think it has been attempted, and has found the polarization to be but a small percentage of the whole light emitted. Although all reflected light does not reach us as polar- wed light, yet I think the small percentage of polarization taken with the faintness of the dark lines indicates that the cor- ona is to a considerable extent self-luminous. The meteoric dust not only reflects the sun's light but it is continually show- ering upon the sun and in its passage through its atmosphere is rendered incandescent. No photographs of the spectrum of the corona can probably throw any light upon the matter. August 31, 1871, 346 EH. S. Holden—Reticulated Forms of the Sun’s Surface. Art. XL.—WNote on the Reticulated Forms of the Sun’s Surface ; by Epwarp S. Hotpen. Communicated by permission of Rear Admiral John Rodgers, Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory. On September 16 and succeeding days a watch was kept on the sun’s disc, at the request of Professor Watson, for a possible transit of Vulcan. ust before noon of September 16, Professor Eastman called my attention to certain cloud-shaped forms on the sun’s dise which were visible when the sun’s image, seen by projection, was allowed to move across a white screen. This was with the inches from the focal plane and the shadows of the micrometer wires (which were placed 100” apart) gave a scale of reference. and Langley. The area bounded by these lines was not seen filled by the smaller forms of Janssen. These dark lines when E. S. Holden— Reticulated Forms of the Sun’s Surface. 347 seen were traced upon the screen by pencil lines and the result is shown in fig. 1. The representation is rough at best, but it has the merit of fidelity. As I was in doubt as to the meaning of my sketch and almost as to the real nature of the appear- ances, I enclosed it to Professor Langley and received from him the accompanying sketch, made July 25, 1873, at Allegheny, and a letter, a portion of which I quote with his kind permission. ageregations. Yet it cannot be said to be absolutely sure that this obscuration of detail may not occur in the sun itself and It is quite clear that there is an essential agreement here ” fragmentary character. U. 8. Naval Observatory, Oct. 1, 1878. 348 E. F. Sawyer— Observations of Bright Meteors. Art. XLI.— Observations of Bright Meteors; by Epwin F. THE following short list of meteors, equal to or exceeding first magnitude ‘stars in brightness, have lately been recorded by m e during some regular period of watching, at Cambridge, ae The times of Gripdeltib may be considered as accurate to within half a minute. The list is given for publication in hope that other observers may have recorded some of aii in which case interesting and valuable tenn can be deduc o. 14 was also seen and mapped by Mr. S. ©. Ciaidicr Jr., at Marios: N. H., further paricalars of which, together with the results deduced from others doubly observed by Mr. Chandler and the writer during the last of August, will be given in a future communication. a ; aan 2 Observed path. a o| Date. | Mean’ = be 4| 1878. | time. & ea nue 25 Remarks. S |R.A. Dec.| R-A. Dec. | 9 | | 16 6] 1 [365 +68 |ais +69 11 +/Rapid; | 306 +45 | 312 +42) 6 |Quite Beis acheen niall 315 + 9/318 — 1 [10 |Rapid. 283 +15 | 286 +11! 5 |Slow; across ¢ and ¢ Aqu uilee. 56 +56 | 252 +38 |18 tapid; probably Perseid. 9 T= 4/332 +56 6 +51 |21 ee red, red streak, 3 sec. et et et 19 +30 | 22 +47 |17 low ; between Panigs 47 +55 | 50 +55 | 3 |Rapid; a Perseid; from y Persei. 0 +6 Lapid. 248 +63 | 230 +77 {15 |Deep orange; orange rian 3 sec. 15) Ay 5 2493439 | 2504 +27 {12 gids from 7 Here 16)Aug. 27/10 4) 1 |263$+48 | 245 +523/15 rather ee ‘an ag Lyriad. 17j;Aug. 27/1019) 1 1245 +56 | 229 +458 |10 word 8|Aug. 29} 8 46 74+45 | 1854 +384! 6 19} Aug. 30) 852) 1 |257 +50 | 2524 +623/13 — deep oran. 20)Aug. 31) 835, 1 /212 +24 | 2024 +26 | 9 low; ne 1 g! 1 |236 + ‘apid; near a Coron. S. 21 10 +30 . 22\Sept. 18] 829} 1 |323 —15 |/395 —20 | 5 low; orange; orange streak. 23|Sept. 20} 939) 1 |329 — 2|396 —16 14 ap) id; from near a Aquarii. 24|Sept. 22} 719] 1 |289 —15 |295 — 2 117 soy 25|Sept. 22] 8 33)>7 23—174; 5 —221/ 5 rertically; very slow; near B Ceti. deep orange; no trail; 2 sec. 26|Sept. 23) 718} 1 |3553+123| 346 — 63/15 pipite 27|Sept. 23} 8 25 360 +28 | 10 +26 10 |2 sec.; gree 28|Sept. 23) 926/>1 | 42 +56 |105 +65 |33 |Slow; sible 2 sec.; blue. Sept. 27; 810) 1 |3413+16 |347 +4221] 7 Very’ ow; -; Orange. siiSent 29| 9 is : : ot vee approximate +s Statio: 1 sec. ; : 3alSept. 29 gael 1 | as tar! be 4174! 8 [Rapid TT Se Sir W. Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. 349 Art. XLIT.—Remarks on the General Ocean Circulation ; by Str Wyvitite THomson. From his Address to the Geo- graphical Section of the British Association, at its recent It was pointed out long ago by Sir Charles Lyell that many of the most marked phenomena of the present physical condi- and that any physical phenomena affecting obvious! r- tion of its area must be regarded as one of an interdependent system of phenomena affecting the ocean as a whole. Shallow as the stratum of water forming the ocean is—a mere € cause of natural phenomena, such as the movements of i areas of co abnormal temperature conditions, are always more or less com- plex, but in almost all cases one cause appears to be so ver much the most efficient that in taking a general view all others * Nature, August 22, 1878. 850 Sir W. Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. may be practically disregarded: and speaking in this sense it may be said that the trade-winds and their modifications and counter-currents are the cause of all movements in the stratum n the distribution of climate is sufficiently simple. Disre- garding minor details, the great equatorial current driven from east to west across the northerly extensions of the ocean by the trade-winds, impinges upon the eastern coasts of the continents. A branch turns northward and circles round the closed end of the Pacific, tending to curl back to the North American coast from its excess of initial velocity ; and in the Atlantic, follow- ing a corresponding course, the Gulf Stream bathes the shores of Northern Europe, and a branch of it forces its way into the Arctic basin, and battling against the paleocrystic ice, keeps imperfectly open the water-way by which Nordenskjéld hopes o work his course to Behring’s Strait. The southern deflec- tions are practically lost, being to a great extent, though not entirely dissipated in the great westerly current of the southern anti-trades. One of the most singular results of these later investigations is the establishment of the fact that all the vast mass of water, a LT LE ET LTE OTe AO TES , stint date ta Wyville Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. 351 account of the high specific gravity dependent on its low tem- perature, it supplies the place of the water which has been remo The cold water wells northward, but it meets with some obstructions on its way, and these obstructions, while the lstance nearer home. Evaporation is greatly in excess of Precipitation over the area of the Mediterranean, and conse- quently, in order to keep up the supply of water to the Mediterranean, there is a constant inward current through the Straits of Gibraltar from the Atlantic; I need not at present refer to an occasional tidal counter-current. The minimum temperature of the Mediterranean is about 54° F. from a depth vf 100 fathoms to the bottom. The temperature of 54° is reached in the Atlantic at the mouth of the Straits of Gibraltar average depth of the ocean is a little over 2,000 fathoms, and y to be usually pits in the neighborhood of voleanic islands. In all the ocean basins there are depressions extending over consid- erable areas where the depth reaches 3,000 fathoms or a little more, and these depressions maintain a certain parallelism with the axes of the neighboring continents. ; Within 300 or 400 miles of the shore, whether in deep or in shallow water, formations are being laid down, whose materials Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turrp ans, Vox. XVI, No. 95.—Nov., 1878. 352 Wyville Thomson— General Ocean Circulation. are derived mainly from the disintegration of shore rocks, and familiar, of every age. In water of medium depths down to about 2,000 fathoms, we have in most seas a depoais of the now well-known globigerina-ooze, formed almost entirely of the shells of foraminifera living on the sea-surface, and which after death have sunk to the bottom. This formation, which occu- pies a large part of the bed of the Atlantic and a considerable part of that of the Pacific and Southern Seas, is very like chalk in most respects, although we are now satisfied that it is being laid down as a rule in deeper water than the chalk of the Creta- ceous period. Tn depths beyond 2,500 or 3,000 fathoms no such accumula- tions are taking place. The shores of continents are usually too distant to supply land detritus, and although the chalk- building foraminifera are as abundant on the surface as they elsewhere, not a shell reaches the bottom; the carbonate of lime is entirely dissolved by the carbonic acid contained in the water during the long descent of the shells from the surface. It therefore becomes a matter of very great interest to deter- mine what processes are going on, and what kind of formations are being laid down in these abyssal regions, which must at present occupy an area of not less than ten millions of square es. The tube of the sounding instrument comes up from such abysses filled with an extremely fine reddish clay, in great part amorphous, but containing, when examined under the micro- scope, a quantity of distinetly recognizable particles, organic and inorganic. The organic particles are chiefly siliceous, and for the most part the shells or spines of radiolarians which are living abundantly on the surface of the sea, and apparently 10 re or less abundance at all depths. The inorganic particles are minute flakes of disintegrated pumice, and small crystalline gments of volcanic minerals; the amorphous residue is prob- ably principally due to the decomposition of volcanic products, and partly to the ultimate inorganic residue of decompose organisms. There is ample evidence that this abyssal deposit is taking place with extreme slowness. Over its whole area, and more particularly in the deep water of the Pacific, the dredge or trawl brings up in large numbers nodules very itreg- « ular in shape, consisting chiefly of sesquioxide of iron and per- oxide of manganese, deposited in concentric layers in a matrix of clay, round a nucleus formed of a shark’s tooth, or a piece of Wyville Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. 353 bone, or an otolith, or a piece of siliceous sponge, or more fre- quently a fragment of pumice. These nodules are evidently formed in the clay, and the formation of the larger ones and the segregation of their material must have taken a very long time. Many of the sharks’ teeth to which I have alluded as forming the nuclei of the nodules, and which are frequently brought up uncoated with foreign matter, belong to species which we have every reason to believe to be extinct, Some teeth of a species of Carcharodon are of enormous size, four inches across the base, and are scarcely distinguishable from the huge teeth from the Tertiary beds of Malta. It is evident that these semi-fossil teeth, from their being caught up. in numbers by the loaded line of the trawl, are covered by only a very thin layer of clay. Another element in the red clay has caused great speculation and interest. Ifa magnet be drawn through a quantity of the fine clay well diffused in water, it will be found to have caught on its surface some very minute magnetic spherules, some appa- rently of metallic iron in a passive state, and some of metallic nickel. From the appearance of these particles, and from the circumstance that such magnetic dust has been already detected in the sediment of snow-water, my colleague Mr. Murray has a very strong opinion that they are of cosmic origin—exces- sively minute meteorites. They certainly resemble very closely the fine granules which frequently roughen the surface of the characteristic skin of meteorites, and from their composi- tion and the circumstances under which they are found there is much to be said in favor of this view. I cannot, however, hold it entirely proved; there can be little doubt, from the universal presence of water-logged and partially decomposed pumice on the bottom, and from the constant occurrence of par- ticles of volcanic minerals in the clay, that the red clay is formed in a great measure by the decomposition of the lighter products of submarine volcanoes drifted about by currents, and finally becoming saturated with water and sinking; and it is well known that both iron and nickel in a metallic state are fre- quently present in minute quantities in igneous rocks. I think It is conceivable that the metallic spherules may be derived m this source. : 0 far as we can judge, after a most careful comparative ex- amination, the deposit which is at present being formed at extreme depths in the ocean does not correspond, either in Structure or in chemical composition, with any known geologi- cal formation; and, moreover, we are inclined to believe, from @ consideration of their structure and of their imbedded organic remains, that none of the older formations were laid down at nearly so great depths—that, in fact, none of these have any- 354 Wyville Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. thing of an abyssal character. These late researches tend to show that during past geological changes abyssal beds have never been exposed, and it seems highly probable that until comparatively recent geological periods such beds have not been formed. It appears now to be a very generally received opinion among geologists—an opinion which was first brought into prominence by Professor Dana—that the ‘“ massive” eruptions which originated the mountain chains which form the skeleton of our present continents, and the depressions occupied by our present seas date from the secular cooling and contraction of the crust of the earth—from a period much more remote than the deposition of the earliest of the fossiliferous rocks—and that during the period chronicled by the successive sedimentary systems, with many minor oscillations by which limited areas have been alternately elevated and depressed, the broad result has been the growth by successive steps of the original moun- tain chains and the extension of the continents by their denuda- tion, and the corresponding deepening of the original grooves. Tf this view be correct—and it certainly appears to me that the reasoning in its favor is very cogent—it is quite possible that until comparatively recent times no part of the ocean was suffi- ciently deep for the formation of a characteristic abyssal deposit. Time will not allow me even to allude to the interesting results which have been obtained from the determination o the density of sea water from different localities and different =a and from the analysis of sea water and its contained gases, an tory manner imaginable. year 1871 Count Wilezek, in the schooner Jsljérn, found the sea between Novaya Zemlya and Spitzbergen nearly free from ice, and that the same sea presented to Weyprecht and Payer in the following year a dangerous stretch of moving and im- ena pack. There can be no doubt that in the year 1861 r. Hayes gazed over an expanse of open water where, in 1875-76, Capt. Nares studied the conditions of paleocrystic ice. It is evident, therefore, that the Polar basin, or at all events Wyville Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. 355 hurling floe-bergs by a hurricane from another direction. It seems, however, that in certain seasons there is more open water in the direction of Grinnell’s Land and Smith’s Sound some progress might be made in this way if it were conceivable that the end to be gained was worth the expenditure of so much labor and treasure. The Antarctic Regions.—But little progress has been made during the last quarter of a century in the actual investigation of the conditions of that vast region which lies within the par- allel of 70°S. Some additional knowledge has been acquired, and the light which recent inquiries have thrown upon the general plan of ocean circulation and the physical properties of ice, have given a new direction to what must partake for some time to come of the nature of speculation. _ From information derived from all sources mp to the present time, it may be gathered that the unpenetrated area of about 700 uare miles surrounding the South Pole is by no 356 Wyville Thomson— General Ocean Circulation. the Great Island and Alexander Land, discovered by Billings- hausen in 1821, Graham Land and Adelaide Island, discovered by Biscol in 1832, and Louis Philippe Land by D’Urville in 1838, and at least one majestic modern volcanic range discovered by Ross in 1841 and 1842, stretching from Balleny Island to a latitude of 78°S., and rising to a height of 15,000 feet. It seems, so far as is at present known, that the whole of the antarctic land, low and high, as well as the ice-cap of which a portion of the continuous continent may consist, is bordered to some distance by a fringe of ice, which is bounded to seaward by a perpendicular ice-cliff, averaging 230 feet in height above the sea-level. Outside the cliff a floe, which attains near the barrier a thickness of about twenty feet, and in some places by piling a considerably greater thickness, extends northward in winter to a distance varying according to its position with reference to the southward trending branches of the equatorial current; and this floe is replaced in summer by a heavy drift- ing pack with scattered icebergs. Navigating the Antarctic ea in the southern summer, the only season when such navi- gation is possible, it has been the opinion of almost all explorers, that after forcing a passage through an outer belt of heavy pack and icebergs, moving as a rule to the northwestward, an thus fanning out from the ice-cliff in obedience to the prevailing southeasterly winds, a band of comparatively clear water is to be found within. Several considerations appear to me to be in favor of the view that the area round the South Pole is broken up and not continuous land. For example, if we look at a general ice- chart we find that the sea is comparatively free from icebergs, and that the deepest notches occur in the “Antarctic Continent’ at three points, each a little to the eastward of south of one of the great land masses. Opposite each of these notches a branch of the equatorial current is deflected southward by the land, and is almost merged in the great drift-current which sweeps round the world in the Southern Sea before the westerly antl- Wyville Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. 357 from no other source, and that it must be continually receiving new supplies, for it is overlaid by a band of colder water, tend- ing to mix with it by convection. It is, of course, possible that these warm currents may b ing; sometimes a group of very dark lines gives a marked ae Between the stronger blue lines m of closer lines ma Sheets of clear ice; the white intervening bands are the sections of layers of ice where the particles are not in such close contact —ice probably containing some air. € stratification in all these icebergs is, I believe, originally horizontal and conformable, or very nearly so. In many, while melting and beating about in the sea, the strata become inclined at various angles, or vertical or even reversed; in many peey are traversed by faults, or twisted, or contorted, or displaced ; 358 Wyville Thomson— General Ocean Circulation. but I believe that all deviations from a horizontal arrangement are due to changes taking place in the icebergs themselves. I think there can be no doubt, from their shape and form, and their remarkable uniformity of character, that these great table-topped icebergs are prismatic blocks riven from the edge of the great antarctic ice-sheet. I conclude, therefore, that the upper part of the iceberg, including by far the greater part of its bulk, and culminating in the portion exposed above the surface of the sea, was formed by the piling up of successive ayers of snow during the period, amounting perhaps to cen- turies, during which the ice-cap was slowly forcing its way over the low land, and out to sea over a long extent of gentle slope, until it reached a depth considerably beyond 200 fathoms, when the lower specific weight of the ice caused an upwar strain which at length overcame the cohesion of the mass, and portions were rent off and floated away. The icebergs when they are first dispersed float in from 200 to 250 fathoms; when, therefore, they have been drifted to latitudes of 65° or 64° south, the bottom of the berg, the surface which forced itself glacier-like over the land, just reaches the layer at which the temperature of the watcr distinctly rises; and is rapidly melted, and the pebbles and land débris with which it is more or less charged are precipitated. That this precipitation takes place all over the area where the icebergs are breaking up, constantly and to a considerable extent, is evident from the fact that the matter brought up by the sounding instrument and the dredge is entirely composed of such deposits from ice; for diatoms, foraminifera and radiolarians are present on the surface in large numbers, and unless the deposit from the ice were abundant 1t would soon be covered and masked by the skeletons of surface organisms, - The curious question now arises, what is the cause of the uniform height of the southern icebergs—that is to say, what 1s the cause of the restriction of the thickness of the free edge of the ice-cap to 1,400 fathoms? I have mentioned the gradual or so in thickness, although of a white color and thus indicating leila quantity of air, are very hard, rg. The upper layers have been manifestly produced by falls of snow after the berg has been detached. Wyville Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. 359 very bad conductor, so that the cold of winter cannot penetrate to any great depth into the mass. The normal temperature of the surface of the earth’s crust, at any point where it is unin- thickness—not much less than a quarter of a ton on the square Inch. It seems, therefore, probable that under the pressure to which the body of ice is subjected a constant system of melt- or submerged. I should think it probable that this process, or some modifi- Cation of it, may be the provision by which the indefinite accumulation of ice over the antarctic continent is preven and a certain uniformity in the thickness of the ice-sheet maintained—that in fact ice at the temperature at which it is i contact with the surface of the earth’s crust within the antarctic regions cannot support a column of itself more than 1.400 feet high without melting. It is suggested to me by Professor Tait that the thickness of the ice-sheet very probabl depends upon its area, as the amount of melting throug ueezing and the earth’s internal heat, will depend upon the facility of the escape of the water. The problem is, however, an exceédingly complex one, and we have perhaps scarcely sufficient data for working it out. ae e Fauna of the Deep Sea,—I can scarcely regret that it is Utterly impossible for me on this occasion to enter into any details with regard to the relations of the abyssal fauna, the department of the subject which has naturally had for me the Steatest interest. Recent investigations have shown that there 18 no depth limit to the distribution of any group of gill-bearing Marine animals. Fishes, which, from their structure and from What we know of the habits of their congeners, must certainly 360 Wyville Thomson—General Ocean Circulation. live on the bottom, have come up from all depths, and at all depths the whole of the marine invertebrate classes are more or less fully represented. The abyssal fauna is of a somewhat ial character, differing from the fauna of shallower water in the relative proportions in which the different invertebrate types are represented. It is very uniform over an enormously extended area, and in this respect it fully confirms the antici- pations of the great Scandinavian naturalist, Lovén, communi- cated to this Association in the year 1844. It is a rich fauna, including many special genera and an enormous number of special species, of which we, of course, know as yet only a fraction; but I do not think I am going too far in saying that from the results of the Challenger expedition alone the number of known species in certain classes will be doubled. The rela- tions of the abyssal fauna to the faunz of the older Tertiary and the newer Mesozoic periods are much closer than are those of the faune of shallow water; I must admit, however, that these relations are not so close as I expected them to be—that hitherto we have found living only a very few representatives of groups which had been supposed to be extinct. 1, however, that until the zoological results of these later voyages, and es lang those of the Challenger, shall have been fully worked out, it would be premature to commit myself to any generalizations. ‘ I have thus attempted to give a brief outline of certain defensible general conclusions, based upon the results of recent eare me years ago, certain commercial enterprises, involving the laying of telegraph cables over the bed of the sea, proved that the extreme depths of the ocean were not 1nac- cessible. This somewhat unexpected experience soon resulted in many attempts, on the part of those interested in the exten- sion of the boundaries of knowledge, to use what machinery they then possessed to determine the condition of the hitherto unknown region. This first step was naturally followed by a development of all appliances and methods bearing upon the special line of research ; and within the last decade the advance of knowledge of all matters bearing upon the physical goon phy of the sea has been confusingly rapid—so much so, that at this moment the accumulation of new material has far out- iad, the power of combining and digesting and methodizing . This difficulty is greatly increased by the extreme com- pea of the questions, both physical and geological, which ave arisen. Steady progress is, however, being made 12 both directions, and I trust that in a few years our ideas as to the condition of the depth of the sea may be as definite as they are with regard to regions to which we have long had ready access, Richards and Palmer—Antimony Tannate. 361 Art, XLITIL.—Notes on Antimony Tannate. No. 11; by ELLEN SwaLLow RicHArps and Atice W. PALMER. RS gr Rg ae eae Sra en Cag te ete ng eae 00 Sample of ground hemlock-bark from Vermont .-.-... -.----- 7-07 Pemore OF Satechu .... 5 i ee ee oe 29°70 mamiple Gf king... Tee Pi ea foe 41°50 Crushed quercitrow bark. .....5... .ic. fio si ee OO Rs tent SOIR Ge ee A, 4°60 eae ey ee ee eee hone ee ee 9°60 RO Clive ee a 7-03 Chestnut-oak from Careyville, Tenn......--------------- 3°00 We also prepared a quantity of antimony-tannate from each of these substances in the same manner as we had prepared it at commercial tannin and sumac. The composition is given ows: 53 oll Sb. Cc. H. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 5°09 3°40 Sweet-fern (May) 15°30 45°0 Sweet-fern (July) ...-..-.-.-- 15°06 44°90 3°90 Quercitron .__- 12-80 49°50 342 4 Sneitnitoak: 2. ee 15°50 A751 3°63 be OR i a oes ee 12°50 43°30 3°09 Hemlock-bark, No. I. ..--.--- 13°60 51°02 3°85 emlock-bark, No. IL. .--.--- 13°50 49°86 itech 2 eee. 13°70 51°13 3°84 ee 15-00 50°71 3°72 Simcha flava... foo 11°20 53°56 4°56 Coen teak ee 11-40 = 47°30 4:00 These analyses showed that the composition of the precipitate was influenced by one of two causes: either the formula of the So-called tannin which united with the antimony contained more C and H than di-gallic acid,—that is, it must be some- thing like SbOC,,H530;; or Sb(Cas5H_,012)s— or the antimony- nnate, which was formed in the solution, acted as a mordant, and carried down with it coloring matters which might or eh hee not affect the titration, but which did affect the com- ustion. ., lo determine how far this latter cause could be held respon- sible, we prepared antimony tannate from the sample of tannin 362 Richards and Palmer—Antimony Tannate. which we used for all our experiments, and having washed by decantation so as to keep the gelatinous precipitate in the best condition for absorbing color, we treated solutions of several of these substances with a quantity of antimony tannate corres- ponding to the estimated quantity of tannin contained in the solution, so as to have the conditions the same as in the pre- vious precipitations; in one case we increased the amount of antimony tannate. e composition of the antimony tannate thus treated in the different solutions, together with the average composition of antimony tannate as we have already obtained it from tannin, sumac and nut-galls is given as follows: Sb. C. H. Per cent. Percent. Per cent. Sweet-fern + antimony tannate -....-.. 15°70 46°21 3°73 Quercitron + antimony tannate -...---- 954 45°90 3°80 Hemlock + antimony tannate--...-.. - 63°30 3°60 Hemlock-five times the required amount of antimony tannate -_-_. .---..---.-- 13°40 43°40 3°90 ANtGDytanEate . 5. 26 2s 20°00 38°21 2°86 In the case of sweet-fern and quercitron, the results are very nearly those obtained by direct precipitation with tartar emetic. The possible reason for this will be considered later. We were greatly surprised by the behavior of the solution of hemlock-bark. In all cases after treating the solution with the previously prepared antimony-tannate, we precipitated the remaining tannin by tartar emetic as usual, and noted the quantity required as compared with that required for the pre- cipitation of tannin in the titration. The sweet-fern and quer- citron gave a precipitate about one-third less than that from the original solution. In the case of hemlock there was scarcely a trace of a precipitate, showing that the antimony tannate had dragged down or united with all the substance which had been supposed to be tannin. _ In order further to test the character of the supposed color- ing matter in these substances, we made a series of trials with mordanted yarn. - A brown-red color was obtained from hem- other giving on the iron stripe a faint brownish-black, corre Richards and Palmer—Antimony Tannate. 363 sponding in dullness to that produced by gallic acid, and on the alumina a dull reddish-brown. To the first class belong nut-galls, sumac, sweet-fern leaves, bark of quercitron, black oak, white oak and chestnut oak and bearberry leaves; to the other, hemlock, catechu, kino, fever bark, cinchona bark and congo tea. For our further investigation we took sweet-fern as the type of the former, and hemlock as that of the latter class. The yellow in sweet-fern seems closely allied to, if not iden- tical with the quercetin derived from oak-bark. A solution of sweet-fern guarancined (i. e., boiled with very dilute sul- lack gummy mass being formed, and the solution depositing yellow flakes which dye intensively. wo pieces of cloth of equal size, the one dyed with one gram of sweet-fern leaves, the other with one gram of quer- citron-bark, showed rather more tannin and less yellow for the sweet-fern, and more yellow and less tannin for the quercitron. A single trial of the amount of yellow in sweet-fern, by weighing the antimony-tannate which had carried down the yellow with it, and which had been added in known quantity gave 2°5 per cent, and the amount of tannin in the filtrate had decreased about three of the eight per cent. This indicates . treatment with the antimony tannate was C 44°9 per cent and 3°9 per cent. eppe (Die chemischen Reactionen) gives the formula of quercetin as CHO, and that of quercetin acid as C,;H,0,, which, corresponding to our formula of antimony tannate, would give respectively : Sb. Cc. H. Sb,(C,,H,,0.,),+6H,O .-.----- 12°52 pr.ct.50°00 3°08 SOTHO SOLO Siig neues’ 19°49 43°13 287 imony-tannate, Sb,(C,,H,0,),+6H,O...-.--.-. 18°59 38°41 274 . The result of this is that the process of titration with tartar metic, when applied to the class of substances holding this yellow coloring principle, would give too high results) W 364 W. T. Repper—Pseudomorph after Anorthite. have not yet succeeded in isolating this yellow coloring matter unchanged, in order to test its effect on the accuracy of the iodine process or Lowenthal’s method. As to rown-red obtained from the fresh hemlock, it seems to belong to a different class of substances. It is pre- cipitated by gelatine, is acted on by iodine, is precipitated by antimony, and on fusion with potassium hydrate it is decom- pene and a substance is formed which blackens the iron stripe ike tannin. We have not yet obtained a sufficient quantity to determine its composition or to deduce a theory for its relation to di-gallic acid. Our experiments go to show that the red- brown is decomposed in the slow process of fermentation, and the iron-blackening substance thus formed may possibly be the agent of the tanning. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Woman’s Laboratory, August, 1878. Art. XLIV.—On a Pseudomorph after Anorthite, from Franklin, New Jersey ; by Professor W. T. Ra@pPer. On the northern part of Mine Hill, at Franklin, New Jersey, there are found, partly in detached pieces scattered over the surface, or in the fences surrounding the fields of the miners, and in place in a stratum of white crystalline limestone, pseudo- morphs that have the form of anorthite, accompanied by a dark hornblende, and numerous small, very brilliant and highly modified, clove-brown crystals of sphene. The outside of the anorthite crystals, the larger of which are generally more or less cavernous, is invariably “candied” over by exceedingly small, brilliant prismatic crystals. ; e crystals, from one-eighth to two or three inches in size, are distinctly feldspathic in habit, the prevailing faces, in the rder of their dominancy, being: 0, 7-4, J 2-7,2-7and1. Owing to the above mentioned micro-crystalline character of the surface and consequent want of reflection, the angles can be measur only with the application-goniometer. The following angles are averages of a number of tolerably concordant measurements: OAt-i over 24 % 85°33’, — difference of extremes, 20’ OAT $114 32, “ é 12’ OAl $ 110 32, «“ «“ 5 OA24 % 98 56, s os) ge LAr 120 50 OA2'4 133 10, Onl 122 OAi+ however is in some crystals as high as 88°. Cleavage O and 7-7 easy and distinct, generally dull, but the basal cleav- age occasionally sub-pearly. ‘ | | W. T. Repper—Pseudomorph after Anorthite. 365 “ied G.=3-06-3°10. Color light bluish green to greenish Ww Fusible with some difficulty to a slightly vesicular glass. Partially attacked by hydrochloric acid without gelatinizing. Oxygen. Composition: Silica. ...........-.-- 39°73 21:19 4 A swe» 82°53. 15°46 Iron kenga sie cilia 2°80 aut rueaos Bs agnesia ...---.----- 144 57) : SES CS | RA 9 j Sod ee ee SS tes 43 “kL 5°80 1 Potash << ee "85 SRO oc 3°65 100°52 I have to remark that I have reason to consider the magnesia too high. There is probably only a trace. If so, the oxygen ae. would be 21°19: 16: 5-23, still nearer the anorthite ratio of 3:1, Though the crystalline form and the composition would make it a Setaeeee anorthite, the high specific gravity ae i which M awes was so kind as to make for When observed ander the microscope, it shows that the mineral 18 com a congeries of smal] itigeg which produce no the actual crystals of the new mineral, which on the’ surface Were able to ras of their form. What the latter actually are it is impossible to determine. ehem, Pa., Sept. 16, 1878. Tn the Report of Mr. G. W. Hawes on the “Mineralogy and gg. - New Ham a mh ” its — gives the dotiyving analysis of altered Snorthite of 4 “diabase,” at East Hanover, in that S$ tSilioa °252, alumina 3 iron aokicionh xide 1- 10, be pau 0-30, lime 2-20, ada S 77, Ree v3; ‘wee “ 67—99- 12: G.=2°96. It is a potash-bearing pseudomorph, ® that described by Roepper, with Sectenip high specific gravity; but instead of having the removed calcium replaced by an equivalent proportion of a included in the protoxides, 1 ag J.D. D. 366 W. H. Niles—Erosion of Valleys, Art. XLV.—Upon the Relative Agency of Glaciers and Sub- Glacial Streams in the Erosion of Valleys ;* by Professor W. H. NILEs. particularly upon the right side of the Great Aletsch Glacier where it way the inequalities of surface, has been made so well known that additional description is unnecessary here. Under these condi- tions the glacier does not act upon the lowest surfaces of rock beneath it, and these show by their roughness and irregularity that they were not shaped by its action. It, therefore, become evident that in such places some power must have acted or 18 now at work lower than the surfaces upon which the glacier oves. Under the edge of the Great Aletsch Glacier I observed in a few places, that pieces were being broken from the lee edges of Y the roches moutonnées by the pressure concentrated upon certain as the strike of the rock and nearly parallel with the direction of the motion of the glacier. A longitudinal section of one of these ridges gave an outline like that of an elongated roche moutonné, while a transverse section showed quite a regularly P See Societ , ol. xix, pp. 330-336, March 20, rs. ee sok Bact + Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xv, pp. 378-381. W. H. Niles—Krosion of Vaileys. 367 as it passed the lee end of a ridge, it preserved the mould of the profile so perfectly that for more than twenty feet the blue arch presented a series of parallel furrows, like the flutings of a Doric column.* I also observed many other examples of the same kind, though none so regularly and beautifully perfect. _ There was there at that time another highly interesting and instructive exhibition of glacial action. Within a few feet of the down-stream end of one of these elongated roches moutonnées down the glacier. From the lower end of the ridge of rock I looked at the bowlder through a tunnel of pure, blue ice, which was contin s ep furrow in the under surface of the glacier for fully thirty feet from its beginning. As this was ake y the ice moving over and beyond the bowlder, it Property of ice. It will be understood that these stones were suficiently below the upper surface of the glacier to be removed from the effects of the ordinary changes in the temperature of the atmosphere. Although stones which are exposed to such changes may be frozen into the ice at the edges of the glaciers, yet I believe these were so situated as to correctly represent the conditions and movements of those at still greater depths. If this is correct, and I believe it is, it follows that such frag- ments of rock are not rigidly held in fixed positions in the under surfaces of glaciers and carried irresistibly along at the Same rate, but that the constantly melting ice actually flows over them, and that their motion is one of extreme slowness, €ven when compared with the motion of the glacier itself.+ - lL see by quotations from the “ Nouvelles Excursions et Séjours dans les Gla- : q m . oe “lets et les hautes régions des Alpes,” by Professor E. Desor, that he e de imilar features which he observed in connection with the Aar Glacier in “lon, presenting as evi f by him in’ 1875, near the terminations of the Glacier des Bois and the Glacier 0 368 ' W. H. Niles—Krosion of Valleys. If this is granted, it must then be admitted that the abrading power of glaciers is much less than if the fragments of rock were usually firmly set in the ice. This is one of the many reasons which I have for believing that the erosive power of laciers is not sufficient, in itself alone, to account for the ex- cavation of those valleys in which they are found. mong the phenomena which attract the attention and ob- struct the progress of the explorer under a glacier, is the abundance of streams. A short distance below the edge of the glacier the ice is constantly melting, and in every place acces- sible to the observer the water falls, usually in large drops but sometimes in streamlets. Thus the surfaces not covered by the ice are exposed to a constant fall of water, which, first forming numerous rivulets, soon collects in small and rapid streams. The dropping of the water and the rushing of the torrents, the frequent slipping of smaller fragments of stone which have been started by the rivulets and the occasional tumbling or plunging of a larger mass, the incidental cracking of the glacier and the frequent crash of pieces of falling ice, all unite in impressing upon the listener that this is a busy place. Where the glaciers rest upon the upper portions of the roches moutonnées, the streams are formed in the hollows between them which the ice does not fill; therefore, under such conditions their erosive power 1s exercised upon those lower portions of the rock-surface which are not effected by the movements of the glacier. In estimating the erosive power ofa stream we must take into consideration, not only its volume and velocity, but also the more important factor of the materials with which it 1s charged. The importance of this is well illustrated by the modern appliance called the sand-blast, in which it is not the violence of the current of air or steam but the sand which it d’Argentiére. I do not learn from what he has written, however, that he saw the ice flowing over stones in the manner I have here described. It is, therefore, my pleasure to have witnessed what I consider to be a proof of the accuracy of the conclusion which Professor Bonney ably drew from other sources. a ae ele ae Na ee ee ee ee bet ee | an * W. H. Niles—Erosion of Valleys. 369 failed to notice the small fragments of stone which often darken and sometimes cover the surface. When these are examined they are found to be sharply angular; and if the examina- tion is extended to the medial and lateral moraines, they wi be found to contain immense quantities of similar materials. These small fragments, as well as large ones, find their way into the sub-glacial streams, in which by the sharpness of their angles they become most effective instruments in the work of erosion. The materials transported by ordinary streams, even when swollen by heavy rains, are of a different nature. The small stones and gravels which they receive are usually more or less rounded, while the finer materials are chiefly loam, clay, soil, or well-worn sand. The erosive power of a current carry- ing such old, worn, and often soft materials, is much less than that of one charged with the new and sharp instruments of the sub-glacial streams; hence the denuding agency of the latter should not be estimated by observations upon the former. The excavating power of these streams is shown in the num- ber of pot-holes which they produce. The steepness and irreg- ularity of their courses, the abundance of water with stones and sand, and in many places the presence of ice causing gyratory movements of the water, make these streams peculiarly efficient In this work. Sometimes these pot-holes succeed each other so closely in the course of the stream, that as they increase in size they unite and form a deep, narrow gorge, whose walls present a succession of their concave surfaces. _ furthermore, the ice of the glaciers often exercises a control- ling influence upon the positions and courses of these streams. It is not uncommon to find a stream flowing along the edge of the glacier considerably below its surface, in a channel one side of which is ice and the other side rock. In such instances the streams are often supported by the ice at a considerable eleva- tion above the bottom of the valley where they would otherwise The power which a glacier may have for preventing water from flowing directly into the lower portion of its valley, is well illustrated by the Marjelen See, a lake which owes its ex- istence to the ice-wall of the side of the Great Aletsch Glacier Which forms one end of the basin which it occupies. The lateral streams above described are abundantly supplied - with small and large pieces of stone from the lateral moraines, remembered that the ice is constantly renewed by the motion 370 W. H. Niles—FErosion of Valleys. of glacial valleys so often have. If it is objected that such water-worn surfaces are rarely met with upon the sides of val- leys from which the glaciers have retreated, it must be remem- bered that the ice above the streams and the atmospheric agencies modify these surfaces after they have been left by the streams, hence the rocks have the features which they received from the last agent which acted upon them. Still lower and quite underneath the side of the glacier there are larger and often much longer lateral streams, which are much more important agents in the excavation and formation of the valleys. These, flowing in channels of their own forma- tion in the rock and quite below the ice, tend to deepen the valley along its edges and to give it that cafion-like form so often seen. [I have not space in the narrow limits of this article to consider the valuable d dingl tributions of others to the subject of glacial action-] ~ A” A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna of North America. 371 Art. XLVI.—Notice of recent additions to the Marine Fauna of the eastern coast of North America, No.2; by A. E. VERRILL. Brief contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College. No. XXXIX. Durine the past summer Professor Baird established the headquarters of the U. S. Fish Commission at Gloucester, Mass. Numerous dredgings were made under the direction of pA, bo S Beardslee. Mr. Richard Rathbun, Mr. Sanderson Smith and very large and valuable collection, containing many additions to the fauna, was obtained by means of our dredges and trawls, more novelties, both among the fishes and invertebrates, were secured by inducing the fishermen engaged, in the fisheries of halibut and cod on the outer banks, to preserve and bring in the various things that become entangled in their trawl- lines. Many of the following species, some of them of great terest, were thus obtained by the fishermen, together with humerous specimens of many better known species, among which the most conspicuous and abundant are large and fine specimens of the corals, Paragorgia arborea and Primnoa reseda, while Acanella Normani has recently been brought in from many localities in considerable numbers. ECHINODERMATA. oe pulvillus Sars. Norges Ecinod., p. 62, Pl. 6, figs. 14-16, « 75.8. A well-developed specimen of this species was dredged in thirty-five fathoms, off the Isles of Shoals, N. H., by Dr. A. 8. Packard, on the “Bache,” in 1874. It may be distinguished from P. militaris by its more warty surface, more swollen form, With the rays narrower below and the transverse spines fewer, €Ss prominent and less acute. Porania grandis, sp. nov. "he greater radius of the larger one is 4°75 inches ; radius of disk, 2-70, The upper side, when fresh, was bright cherry-red ; lower surface pale yellow. Hasily ‘listeesabed hy Smooth, fleshy surface, without spines; buat with two regular broad bands of soft slender papillze along each ray on the upper Side, and with radiating grooves on the lower side, which extend 372 A. EF. Verrili—Marine Fauna of North America. also to the upper surface. Margin of disk without distinct spines, but with irregular rudimentary tubercles, covered by the skin. dambulacral spines forming an inner row, two, united by a basal web, on each plate, and an outer series arranged in oblique transverse groups of about three; these are shorter and covered by the skin, which is everywhere finely granulose. No interbrachial spines, except one or two rudi- mentary ones, close to the mouth. Two large and fine specimens of this species were taken on trawl-lines on the eastern slope of George’s Bank, in about 220 fathoms, and presented by Capt. Anderson and the crew of the schooner Alice G. Wonson, August, 1878. Asterina pygmca, sp. nov. A small species, perbaps young, with a rather flattened pen- tagonal disk, with edges concave, and very short obtuse rays. Upper surface covered with small, sub-acute, stoutish spines on Cashe’s Ledge, Gulf of Maine, fifty-two to ninety fathoms. Dredged by Dr. Packard and Mr. Cooke on the “ Bache,” in 1878. Archaster Flore, sp. nov. Five rays; greater radii, 85 to 88™: smaller, 15 to 18™; breadth of arms at base, about 20™; in middle, about "5 paxilligerous portion in middle, 7 to 9™, or about twice as wide as upper marginal plates. Disk moderately large, flat, with the central opening raised on a slight eminence. Arms elongated, flat above, regularly tapered to slender acute tips. Dorsal sur- face with the paxillze evenly and regularly arranged, mostly with A. E. Verrilli—Marine Fauna of North America. 373 about fourteen to eighteen small, short, round-tipped spinules at the summit; of these, ten to twelve are usually divergent and border the edge, and are a little longer and more slender than the four to six more rounded ones that form a central group. Marginal plates forty-five to forty-eight on each side; upper ones mostly higher than long, except toward the tips, even and regular, thickly covered with small spinules which are finer and more slender around the margins, where they are crowded and divergent, those over the central part being shorter, larger and more obtuse, with occasionally one or two, small, acute spines rising from the center of the plate, especially along the middle ofthe arm. Lower marginal plates opposite the upper and a little higher, covered with the same kinds of spinules, but mostly having a central, vertical row of two to four, slender, acute, spines, which are more or less appressed and scarcely on Oral S peas prominent, forming narrow gee “jaws” sur- rounded by two close rows of short spines, those of the inner row slightly divergent with enlarged rough tips, in close con- ct; those of the outer row shorter, with the tips flattened and closely prec against the inner ones, so as to support them externally. Color, in life, ight purplish red above, yellow beneath. ed in 1877, about thirty Ophiacantha sp. Related to O. cosmica (fide Lyman). Distinguished by having the disk thickly covered with Minute, three-pronged, slender spinules. Mouth-plates extend- ing into interbrachial spaces. Eastern slope of George’s Bank, 220 fathoms, (schooner ‘‘ Alice G. Wonson.”) Astrophyton eucnemis Mull. and Troschel. veral specimens of this species, not before known south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, were found clinging tu specimens of aragorgia arborea, from the eastern slope of George’s Bank, in about 220 fathoms, (schooner “ Alice G, Won) 374 A, E. Verrili—Marine Fauna of North America. Astrochele, gen. nov. Disk covered with small scales, above and below. Radial ribs well-developed. Genital openings small, oblique, close to base of arms, at each end of a depression in edge of disk. Teeth and tooth-papillz spiniform, mouth papille irregular, small or rudimentary, few or solitary. Arm-spines thorny and claw- like. Arms annulated, granulated, long, slender undivided. Astrochele Lymani, sp. nov. Disk strongly five-lobed, the interbrachial spaces, in the dried specimen, much incurved. Radial ribs extending to near the center, highest and rather angular at the outer end. Whole surface of disk, including ribs, closely covered with small, con- vex, rounded, warty scales, with a somewhat larger central scale, surrounded by a circle of similar ones near the inner ends of the ribs and a few others irregularly placed between the ribs. On the ribs some of the scales are conical. Under surface, except jaws, covered with small round scales or granules con- cealing the plates. Teeth slender, acute, rough, in a single row, except the under ones (or tooth-papillz), which are in pairs, but of same shape. On the side of jaws, near the tip, there 1s a very small acute conical mouth papilla, and sometimes another, still smaller, near the middle; a similar one is seen lower down on the lateral face of some of the jaws. Arms granulated like the disk, the annular ridges bearing also a row of small, strongly curved, acute, claw-like hooks, which become larger and more ark ye toward the tips of the arms, especially beneath. oward the base of the arms there are on the prominent, side arm-plates, beneath, about three spines having thickened bases nd narrowed, acute, thorny, claw-like, brown tips. : Diameter of disk, 7™™; length of arms four or five times as much. Found clinging to Acanella Normani, from south-eastern slope of Le Have Bank, 200 fathoms, Capt. Wm. McDonald, (schooner N. H. Phillips). HyYDROzOA. ; Blastothela, gen. nov. Hydroid allied to Myriothela and Acaulis. Body elongated, sessile, attached at base by slender, simple, root-like processes ; a circle of slender tentacles near the base; above these are many stout simple processes (blastostyles), which bear the small sexual zooids (gonophores) on their sides; upper portion of body elongated, covered with small capitate tentacles. Acaulhis differs in having no blastostyles, and in the mode of attachment; MMyriothela in having branched blastostyles, but no basal tentacles. Blastothela rosea, sp. nov. : Body elongated and rather slender in expansion, with the upper portion round and usually nearly cylindrical, obtuse, Se et ee A. HE. Verriti—Marine Fauna of North America. 875 covered everywhere with small crowded capitate tentacles, with short pedicels; tip obtuse; blastostyles numerous, clustere about the base, large, elongated, cylindrical, obtuse or tapered at the tip, the sides covered with many very small, short, obtuse or capitate papille (? undeveloped gonophores), and bearing, among them, the few rounded, more or less irregular gonophores. Basal tentacles slender, slightly capitate, not so long as the blastostyles, and not in a regular circle. Color light rosy red; the tentacles and gonophores whitish. Length, 24™"; diameter, 10™; length of tentaculiferous por- tion, 18"; its diameter, 3°5™™. Gloucester, Mass., outer harbor, attached to Ptilota serrata, in seven fathoms, sandy bottom. A specimen, apparently the young of,this species, was taken by us at Hastport, Me., in 1872, in about twenty fathoms. Dicoryne flecuosa G. O. Sars. Numerous specimens of this interesting hydroid were dredged both this year and last, in many localities, in the Gulf of Maine and off Nova Scotia, in 50 to 125 fathoms. It grows usually upon the shells of living Neptunea Stimpson and N. decemcos- lata, sometimes also on shells inhabited by Hupagurt. Often associated with Hudendrium rameum. ANTHOZOA. Pennatula borealis Sars. Pennatula grandis Ehrenberg (non Pallas). fathoms, was presented by Capt. J. W. Collins, of the schooner “Marion.” It was previously known only from northern Scandinavia. Its height, preserved in alcohol, is 20°5 inches; length of peduncle to first alee, 5°75; diameter of peduncle, in middle, 5; of swollen portion, 1:10; of rachis, ‘70; breadth across largest alse, 5; length of largest ale, 2°25; breadth, -75; length along dorsal edge, 1-90; distance between ale, ‘30 to ‘50. le 36 on one side, long, subtriangular, with the polyps in groups on the dorsal edge, forming two to four rows; polyp- cells large and prominent, with eight sharp, spiculose, projecting points. Middle of ventral surface naked, smooth, bordered on each side with a band of rudimentary zodids. Color, bright dark red, polyps paler. 376 A, FE. Verrill— Marine Fauna of North Aimerica. Urticina nodosa were attached, their basal margins having, in each case, united around the axis, which is small and round. The uninjured portion is 125 inches long; breadth across largest alee, 60; peduncle, to ale, 450; to first zodids, 3°20; breadth of largest alee, 50; height, without polyps, 33; length of their acute marginal lobes, ‘10; diameter of peduncle, ‘30; of rachis, ° Anthomastus, gen. nov. Aleyonarian forming a large rounded polypiferous mass, raised on a short, stout, barren peduncle, Polyps few, very large, spiculose, entirely retractile into 8-rayed cells. Rudi- Sids numerous, minute, scattered between the polyps. Ccoenenchyma abundant, firm, finely spiculose. Anthomastus grandiflorus, sp. nov. : Corallum broadly capitate, surface finely granulose ; polyp- cells not prominent. Peduncle, 50™ broad, 30 high ; polyp- iferous summit, 82 broad, 30 thick; expanded polyps, 36 long ; 8 in diameter; 25-28™™ (1-11 inch) across tentacles. Spicula of surface minute, rough stellate and capitate; beneath the sur- face are long slender spicula, and slender fusiform ones are abundant in the tentacles and pinnz. Color, deep cherry-red. Off Sable Island, N. S., in about 250 fathoms, schooner Marion (coll. Newcomb). Two specimens were obtained. Acanthogorgia armata, sp. nov. Corallum slender, flexible, much and irregularly branched, somewhat in a plane, the branches occasionally uniting. ce- -nenchyma thin, filled with conspicuous, white, rough, curved, fusiform spicula. Polyp-cells very much elongated, the length six to eight times the diameter, often curved, clavate, or capl- tate, smallest at base and suddenly enlarged near the summit, which is surmounted by eight groups of long, divergent, por? spicula; sides of polyp-cells with eight low ridges, covered wit elongated spicula, having an irregular chevroned arrangement. Height, about 8 inches; breadth, 6; length of cells, 5%™ to 8mm; their diameter at base, 8 to 1™™; at summit, 1 to 15" Color, ash-gray ; axis, yellowish-brown. : Off Nova Scotia, 300 fathoms, Capt. T. Goodwin (sch. Elisha Crowell). A second specimen from off George’s Bank, 10 about 220 fathoms, Capt. Anderson (schooner Alice G. W onson). Keratoisis ornata Verrill. Of this species, described in the last number of this Journal, another specimen, taken with the two preceding, has been re- ceived from Mr. Geo. K. Allen, of the schooner “ Marion.” This has the coonenchyma and polyps upon it, and is considerably taller, but the joints lack the golden color, and are plain rown. The polyp-cells are pale salmon, prominent, elongated, A, EH. Verrili—Marine Fauna of North America. 377 expanding toward the end, and are crowded equally over the whole surface; they are covered with large, conspicuous, acute spicula, which are grouped at summit into eight sharp project- ing points. The coenenchyma is thin, translucent, yellowish, filled with long, slender, fusiform, acute spicula. Height (base absent), 40 inches; diameter of trunk, without cells, ‘28; length of cells, ‘20; diameter, ‘08; calcareous joints of stem, 2 to 2°5; flexible ones, ‘15 to 18. One branch is 27 inches long, without dividing. With this, five additional speci- mens of Acanella Normani were taken. Flabellum Goode, sp. nov. : fine large species with a long, deep, compressed calicle, its longer diameter being nearly three times as great as the shorter. In a side view the summit is broadly rounded and the lateral edges form an angle of about 144°; they are formed © y prominent acute coste, while the principal lateral coste are large, elevated, obtuse and irregularly roughened by numerous, obliquely ascending, raised lines, arranged in chevrons. There are eleven principal costs on each side, making twenty-four in all, each of which corresponds to one large and two small septa; a small ridge, corresponding to the latter, is often seen on either side of the large costal ridges; alternating with the latter there are similar, but much smaller, secondary costz. All the costae become fainter toward the base, which terminates in a tapering subacute pedicle. Wall very thin, with a glossy and fourth cycles successively much narrower, those of the third with the summits much less elevated, while those of the ast cycle rise nearly as high as the primaries, but are very much narrowed. Lateral surfaces of septa are smooth, but show lines of growth. Height, 58™; along lateral edges, 42; length of calicle, 70; breadth, 26 ; space between inner edges of large septa, 5 to 8™™. Color, light yellowish brown when fresh. ._ Vne living specimen from the eastern slope of George’s Bank, in about 220 fathoms (schooner Alice G. Wonson). Lophohelia prolifera Edw. and Haime. A fragment of a large, dead, but nearly fresh, specimen of this coral, taken about t irty-nine miles S.S.W. from the N.W. 378 A. #. Verrili—Marine Fauna of North America. Light of Sable Island, in 160 fathoms, was presented by Dennis Thelneny (schooner Wm. Thompson.) MOoLLUsCca. Sepiola leucoptera, sp. nov. Species probably small, but the three specimens observed are probably not full grown. Body short, depressed, with the mantle smooth. Ventral surface, in middle, with a somewhat Length to base of arms, 14™™, in alcohol; of mantle above, 8™™ ; breadth, 7"; breadth across fins, 16™™. Gulf of Maine, 30 miles E. from Cape Ann, 110 fathoms, muddy bottom, associated with Rossia sublevis and Octopus Baird, Aug., 1878. Chiton (Acanthopleura) Hanleyi (Bean). A well-characterized living example of this species, new to America, was recently detected by Mr. Sanderson Smith, of our party, while dredging 8} miles S. by E. } KE. from Cape Ann, in thirty-eight fathoms, sand and gravel. Pecten vitreus (Chemnitz). This elegant little species, not before known from America, has been found in considerable numbers attached to Puragorgi4 arborea and Acanella Normani, from 220 fathoms, on the eastern slope of George’s Bank (from the “Alice G. Wonson”), and on Acanella, from Banquereau, 150 fathoms, from Capt. Morrisey (schooner ‘“‘ Alice M. Williams”). Easily distinguished by its delicate, white, translucent shell ; covered on both valves with very fine radiating striz, and w! bh delicate concentric lamelle, which rise into numerous, minute, delicate, vaulted seales. The largest specimens are about ‘5 of an inch in diameter, T. A. Fdison—The Sonorous Voltameter. 879 Art. XLVIL— Discovery of two more new Planets; by ©. H. F. Prrers. (From a letter to the Editors, dated “Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., October 5, 1878. September 9, I have named Phthia. The following observations have been obtained: [191] Jsmene; 11-5 magnitude: App. a. App. 6. bh. Sas 8 mop. 23, 16 =. PAG Cs +4° 567 —” (approx.) , AG 19.21 F116 96 32 12 ring micr. comp. 30, 13 21 51 1 5 37°53 +4 17 57-4 10 fil. micr. ie Oct. 2, 13 16 18 1 4 27°04 + 81 19-8 4 : Bs Jie Sept. 30, 14 2 46 23 45 4:56 —8° 87 35:3” 10 fil. micr. comp. Oct. 1, 10 20 20 23 44 33°66 —8 15 15°8 l2ring “ 2, 12 28 49 23 43 50°44 —8 23 368 10 filar “© 4, 13 10 48 23 42 35°61 —8 38 57-4 l2ring “ The strong motion of the last planet in declination discards the idea of its being identical with [162] Laurentia, which was observed only in one appearance, and has not been found, neither in the preceding nor in the present opposition. The numbers attributed to the last two planets therefore are upon the assumption, that the planet found by Professor Watson On Sept. 22d also is not identical with [162]. Ar?. XLVIIL—The Sonorous Voltameter ;* by. THOMAS A. Epison, Ph.D. are evolved by electrolysis. With a given current and a given resistance a bubble is obtained each second, which is seen at the moment of rising and which at the same a a sound when it reaches the air, The resistance may be reduced so as to give * Read at the St. Louis meeting of the American Association, ’ 380 Scientific Intelligence. one bubble in one, five, ten or fifty seconds, or in as many hours. I have compared this instrument with the ordinary voltameter and find it much more accurate. By the use of a very small insulated electrode and but one aperture, through which both the gas and water current must pass, great increase of resistance takes place at the moment when the bubble is forming; and just before it rises, a sounder magnet included within the battery circuit opens, closing again when the bubble escapes, thus allowing by means of a Morse register the time of recorder, it becomes a measurer not only of the current passing at the time, but also of that which has passed through a circuit from any source during a given interval. Menlo Park, N. J., July 13, 1878. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcs. oxygen and leave sodium hydrate. In closed vessels, the same decomposition takes place more slowly, requiring three months for completion. Absolute alcohol preserves it pretty well, if car- bon dioxide be excluded. On examining the efflorescence a ve * J. Chem. Soc., xxxi, 1, 125, 1877. + Id., xiv, 274, 1862, Chemistry and Physics. — 381 described and of another substance having the formula Na,H,O or Na,O,(H,O,) ' sodi i peroxide. To prepare it, a mixture of one molecule of sodium hydrate and about three and a half molecules of hydrogen per- oxide solution are mixed and evaporated in vacuo. The crystals are colorless and very minute; are at first transparent, very soluble in water, dissolve in this and in dilute acids without evolu- tion of gas, and effloresce in dry air. In vacuo over sulphuric acid they lose four molecules of water, leaving Na A (KOH+H,0).. the evaporation be conducted at a low temperature —10° C., a formula K or ), These facts the author uses to 2 . il nae explain the “catalytic” action, as follows: The decomposition of Chem. Ges., xi, 1512, Sept., 1878. G. F. B. 3. On the U ; ple and on Nascent Hydrogen.—In View of the fact that finely divided copper charged with hydrogen ©onverts niter into nitrite and ammonia and reduces potassium chlorate to chloride, GLapsronr and TriBe have been. led to study the reducing action of palladium and platinum-hydrogen and to * 382 Scientific Intelligence. compare it with that of the copper-zine couple. They also trieé copper-hydrogen and carbon-hydrogen. They find a close analogy a occluded hydrogen differs from that of ordinary hydrogen, or (3) that the increased power of the hydrogen is due to its condensed authors incline to the opinion that the activity of nascent hydro- gen is due only to its occluded condition.—/. Chem. Soc., xxxiil, 306, Aug., 1878. G. F. B. 4. On the Action of Nitrous acid on Unsaturated Hydrocar- and N,O.. Thus furfurbutylene gives a beautifully crysta!lized compound C,H,,O.N,O,, phenylbutylene gives C,,H,,.N,O,, an styrol, totylbutylene, anethol and amylene give similar bodies. n reduction, these bodies give bases which contain in the place of the N,O, group, an amido and an hydroxyl group. us the furfurbutylene compound affords a well crystallized hydrochlorate C,H,,O.OH.N H,.HCl, and the phenylbutylene compound gives HCL i i 8 1 0-¢ pound, and the nitrous ether into an aleohol.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Chemistry and Physies. 383 process to be accurate to 0°12 per cent.—J. prakt. Ch., Il, xvii, 390, July, 1878 G. F. B. 1. Vanillin in Gum Benzoin from Siam.—J ANNascH and Rump groups of long highly refracting prisms of considerable size.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., a 1634, September, 1878. G. F. B, 8. On the Alkaloids of the Aconites.—Wricur and Lurr, in Mn aconitine, aconine and pseudaconine, (4) the decomposition Products of pieraconitine, and (5) the alkaloid constituents of Aconite roots generally. As a result of their investigations they 878, 384 Scientific Intelligence. conclude: ist, that Aconitum ferox roots contain a characteristic erystallizable and highly active alkaloid, pseudaconitine C,,H,, . the aurochloride and nitrate crystallizing. 2d, A. napellus roots contain chiefly aconitine, C,,H,,NO,,, crystalli , fusing at 184°, and forming erystallizable salts. 3d, Pseudaconitine and derivative of it, and new bases, pseudaconine C,,H, NO, aconine : 10 ; 26°" 39, 1} i 24°" 41, 9° pe organic acids or anhydrides, aconitine and pseudaconitine lose the deriv aconine and pseudaconine into apo-derivatives. 8th, Since there is no particular difficulty in obtaining well crystallized salts and bases both from A. ferow and A. napellus, the use of the amorph- ous precipitated substances at present sold as aconitine should be discontinued and that of the crystallized alkaloids and their salts substituted.—J. Chem. Soc., xxxiii, 318, Aug., 1878. Mosandrum.—Dr. J. NCE MITH, in a recent article in the Comptes Rendus (July 22, 1878) i i e samarskite of Marignac suggested (C. R., Aug., 1878) that the supposed new e robably identical with terbia. Dr. Smith, while admitting the presence of the terbia in the mineral still claims that a distinct earth—the mosandra—is also present; he has the subject still under examination. and Petterson, and the results of their investigation are given In the Ann. de Chim. et Phys. for July. These chemists prepared Chemistry and Physics. 385 slowly. When heated in a current of dry chlorine, the metal burns with great brilliancy, yielding white crystals of its chloride besides a small red sublimate of ferric chloride and a residue of undecomposed glucin This reaction indicates the nature of the mpurities, and analysis showed that the crude metal contained Silica Tron 2°08 Glucina 9°99 Glucinum 86°94 \n accurate knowledge of the nature and amount of the impu- nities enabled the experimenters to deduce from the observed to exist. The specific heat of aluminum multiplied by its atomic weight gives the product 0:2143275=5'89, and if we assume e half that of aluminum, within the limit of uncertainty which still attaches to these values, 8 6. TR 11. Photometric Measurements of Electric Lights.—Mr. W. ABNEY uses for this purpose the two shadows of a metal rod which 18 lem. in diameter, 7°5 em. long. The shadows are 7-2 em. distant from one another and are thrown upon a screen d 386 Scientific Intelligence. tric lamp, provided with carbons of one-half inch square section and run at different by means of a or , was compared, under varied circumstances of work and resistance of circuit, with a parafine eflected light was carefully shut compared according to the method of Roscoe. It was found that the brightness, or intensity, as well as the actinic effect, increased in a greater ratio than the number of revolutions of the generator and the horse power consumed. ‘The increase was slower for the rays, quicker for the blue and quickest for the actinic effect. The following table exhibits this result: No. of Horse revolutions. power. Blue light. Red light. Actinic effect. 240 1°6 360 candles. 180 candles. .--.- 350 2°5 Zoo. oes 890 candles. 460 5°6 2500; © 860 750° = 540 sre 6500. “ 1670. ee 565 9°0 hoes 2100 $6 71020°"* 580 os See, ore aoa The resistance of the voltaic are was about 0°18 of an ohm with 375 to 3883 revolutions per minute; the electromotive power of the machine was 111 volts. The resistance of the cir- cuit was about 0°5 of an ohm.—Proc. Roy. Soc., xxvii, 157-166, 1878; Beiblitter Physik und Chemie, ii, 497. J. T. A new Electric Lamp.—M. G. Reynrer describes in the da lig to have produced several lights in the same circuit. J. T. 13. The strength of the Electric Telephonic Currents.— BosscHa microscope which permitted of a movement of a thousandth of a millimeter (mikron 4). Movements of 5°77 to 7°77 mikron indi- cated in one telephone (numbered 3) currents of 071627 and 0°2337 With three other telephones numbered 1, 2 and 4, ¢ had the values &=22°5u, é=8°74 and 35°94. In order to ascertain the a : Bon ee a he ee ee E 2 ee he es ae So ee Chemistry and Physics. 387 the resistances were varied. In all four telephones, tones were heard when the strength of the current and the values of ¢ were as follows: ; 1 ; 2 3 4 S 0:000100 0°000153. 0°000084 0°000066 € 0°00225 u 0°00133 0°00288 0°00237 ith a movement equivalent to 71, of the wave-length of membrane and the magnet was filled with a cork. Bosscha thus shows that Professor Bell’s hypothesis that the movement of the plate was molecular is unnecessary. The currents which were hecessary to produce the red excursions of the style d red by Weber’s multipli- the true cause may not be found in a change William Thomson,* Professor Haughton,} Mr. George Darwin,} the Rev. L F, Twisden§ and others, and the result arrived at * British Association Report, 1876, part IT, p. 11. + Proceedings of Royal Society, vol. xxvi, p. 51. 388 Scientific Intelligence. ought to convince every geologist how hopeless it is to expect aid in this direction latitude of Edinburgh, or Edinburgh to the latitude of London. e must be a sanguine geologist indeed who can expect to account .for the glaciation of this country, or for the former absence of ice around the poles by this means. We know perfectly well that since the glacial epoch there have been no changes in the physical geography of the earth sufficient to deflect the pole half a dozen f miles, far less half a dozen of degrees. It does not help the matter much to assume a distortion of the whole solid mass of the ; , it is true, would give a few degrees additional deflection of the pole, but that such a distortion actually took place is more opposed to geology and physics than even the ele- vation of a continent ten times the size of Europe to a height of two miles. Mr. Twisden, in his valuable memoir referred to, has shown even more convincingly how impossible it is to account for the great changes of geological climate on the hypothesis of a change in the axis of rotation. This conclusion has been further borne out by another mathematician, the Rev. E. Hill, in an article in the June number of the Geological Magazine. And Professor _ There is no geological evidence to show that since Silurian times the Atlantic and Pacific were ever in their broad features otherwise than they are now—two immense oceans separat by of a reason to conclude that the poles have ever shift from their present position. On this point I cannot do better than quote the opinion recently expressed by Sir William Thomson. Chemistry and Physies. 389 eg i called geological time, shown to be on purely geological grounds _4n_ the memoir from which the preceding paragraph is quoted, Sir William maintains that an increase in the amount of heat con- regions by a submergence of the cireumpolar land, whereas I attribute it to certain agencies brought into operation by an e result is that all the great equatorial waters of the ocean are * This has been proved to be the case by Professor Haughton, in his paper to the Royal Society ; “Nature,” July 4, 1878:-—s. ¢. 390 Scientific Intelligence. impelled into the northern whioe 1 are, which thus, in consequence e immense accumulation of warm water, has its temperature from the Arctic regions. When the precession of the equinoxes brings round the winter ablation to aphelion, the condition of great equatorial currents along with them. The warm water be- ing thus wholly withdrawn from the northern hemisphere its m "The final result to which we are, therefor os ted is thas those warm and cold veriods which have alternately prevailed cp past ages, are simply the great secular summers and winters of our globe, depending as truly as-the annual ones do upon ptandtiay ‘motions, and a them also fulfilling some important ends in the eco eee a wit na es ‘of New York etc. Largé’8vo, 473 pp. New York, 1878. radiant ener This action is fully justified not only by the ex- ceptional importance just now of this department of physics, but also becaus ican Acade oO nd Sciences at Boston has recently individualized Dr, Draper’s share in its evolu- tion by awarding him the Rumford gold medal, and thus placing him on the illustrious roll of those who have e importa discoveries relating to light or heat ; a roll on which are the names of Hare, Ericsson, Treadwell, Alvan Clark, and Corliss. To par- ticularize individual discoveries in a book, where there are 80 many and where all are so was determined and py be Ae laid for spectru analysis (1857, 1872); on phosphorescence and the effect of a on it Chemistry and Physics. 391 (1851); on the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants, in which the luminous rays were proved to be the active ones, and not the In other cases only in abstract; though the fullest references to iven. Although we have in this to him, since they now have these most important memoirs in form convenient for constant reference and consultation. In his Seen in the title, namely the dropping of the final s in the words Dynamics, Kinematics, Statics, &c. There is a free use with tech- nical definitions of Saxon words, as step, spin, twist, squirt, whirl, &e. To the following extent quaternions are tacitly introduced. Vectors with their sums and fluxes are defined and used. The scalar and vector products of two vectors are treated as separate products, not as parts of a single one. The quotient of vectors is hot used at all. The following is the definition of force (p. 2). “It is found that the change of motion of any body depends partly on the position Is and partly on the strain of contiguous bodies. Considered as so de ending, the rate of change of motion is called Force.” TI deftoition does not fairly express the meaning of the word as good writers have heretofore properly used it may ¢ seen by trying to put rate of change of motion for force in their sentences, For instance, Newton’s first two laws of motion 392 Scientific Intelligence. ssume a strange form with such treatment. It may be desira- ie, especially in pure Kinematics, to have a term to express that change of motion whieh measures force. But if so, is it not a fair demand that some new word be taken or coined for the pur- pose? ‘The word force has fees already used in too many differ- nses, This book i is pe a ENN and it is really elementary, even though in some par wing to its terseness, it is not very raped reading. It j is ea. the most suggestive book we know of the subject. H. A. N, 18. Sound: a series of simple, entertaining and inexpensive — in the Phenomena pit Sound, for the use of students of every age; by AtFrep M. May r, Profess or of Physics in the satel Institute of ernest vane a "179 pp-,12mo. New Yor 1878. (D. Appleton & Co.)—This is number two of the “ Experi- mental Science Series for Beginners,” of which the first volume, 0 re ingenious student can construct for himself. To present the ele- ments of an abstruse subject in such a way as to make the exposi- tion easily Pong nepaaiee by a mind not specially trained in it, and at the e correct and satisfactory from a scientific point of view, is one He the most difficult undertakings i in the work of an instructor. Add to sao the oer a bringing the expert yle @ ex riments, ate of which are novel, unite extreme simplicity with elegance of conception and scientific precision, and cannot fail to interest and stimulate the minds of the students me whose hands the volume may fall. The illustrations, which a numerous, are excellently done, and give the book a pee atric we Pas arin A Contribution to the History of Spectrum Ana nays ; by Geology and Mineralogy. 393 Aug. 7, 1844, The Swedish chemist reported it to the Stockholm Academy (CEfversigt af kongl. Vet. Akad. Férh., (1844) i, 144,) and reprinted his report in his well-known “ Jahresbericht tiber die Fortschritte der Chemie,” (1845) xxv, 20. Translated the report reads as follows:—“ Bunsen states, that the electric discharge between copper poles is blue, and that it shows the Fraunhofer lines beautifully, when observed by help of a tube through a prism en other metals are employed, these lines are exhib- ited very differently and in marvellous variety. By throwing the Image on a white wall by means of a camera obscura, the phe- nomena can be followed with the greatest exactness.” There is certainly no lack of clearness in this description, yet every one whom the subject interests will be glad to read the ey ae a and true Fraunhofer lines. This is sufficient to show that, in the observations made at that time, I had as little idea as any one else at the period, of the fundamental constancy of the lines of glowing gases, to say nothing of any suspicion of the transforma- tion of bright lines into dark ones.” It is superfluous to predict that others will ascribe to this research a very different degree of importance from that indicated by the investigator who made i II. Grotocy AND MINERALOGY. kept by Mr. Arthur Hale, aid to J. F. Carll, ist in the Geological Survey, is the longest de- 394 Scientific Intelligence. tailed and accurately measured record of any oil-well in the United Stat The oil C ates. e oil-producing sand (sandstone) belongs to the Che- mung period, or the upper part of No. . in Pennsylvania e A letter to the editors from Mr. Ashburner contains below the bottom of the Second Mountain sand, which is probably the equivalent of the Olean conglomerate in my records. The ord producing sand is 1,780 feet, more or less, below this latter horizon, so that if the measures neither increase nor diminish ness between these two points. The paper of Mr. Ashburner gives the records also of the Kin- Wileox Well, No. 2, or Schultz Gas 1,760 feet. : It states, concerning the Schultz Gas Well, that gas issued in immense quantities from a depth of 1,776 feet. An inch pipe was inserted to a depth of 2,000 feet, and the mouth of the well closed with the hope of causing the gas to force out the oil from the lat- ter depth. Two or th i if, as Mr. Schultz believes, the tube was entirely filled with the 2. Region of the Great - Bakes.—Mr. Grorce Maw, F.L5., mentions (Geol. Mag., Oct., 1878) facts connected with the level Ontario is 365 feet below the sea-level and 600 feet below its ow? outlet into the St. Lawrence; of Erie, 462 feet above the same; of Huron, 145 feet above; of Lake Superior, 65 feet below the Geology and Mineralogy. 395 sea-level); and concludes that the idea of the excavation of Ontario to a depth of 600 feet by glacier action is wholly unten- able, and that the theory of glacial elapse for the chain of m the occurrence in North America iY. rare Extinct Verte- eh pron Sragmentarily in ‘Bnsfnil —Professor R. Owen has a paper with this title in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for September, 1878. It treats first of the “ Restoration of Chondrosteosaurus,” to which he refers Cope’s Camarosaurus, and secondly of the Restoration of Coryphodon. In the remarks on the latter rt Aaa first pers ae by Professor Owen, the anther many points of interest, and gives credit to Professor Marsh’s discoveries for the chief part of the facts upon which they are based. ‘he paper has the following concluding sentence. “To the close and careful comparisons of the conscientious palzon- tologist of Yale College, we are indebted for the above interesting and unexpected additions to our knowledge of the rare and ancient Tertiary mammal, fragmentarily indicated in the ‘ plastic clay’ of England (1845) and in the ‘conglomérate de largile plastique’ at Mendon, France (Hébert, 1856), of the elements toward a res- toration of. which we might have long remained in doubt had they continued to be made known to us as parts of a Bathmodon or Loxolophodon, On the EHrupted Rocks of Colorado ; by J. M. Enpuicn. 2 pp., 8vo. From the 10th Annual Report of the United Stakes Geokegiol Survey under Dr. F. V. Hayden, United States Geolo- gist-in-charge.—Mr. Endlich classifies and describes the eruptive tocks of Colorado, their relation to the veins of ore, their age and origin, I pr Che 1863; 3, Hivrin & Prarrius, Verh. Ges. Freib. im Br., ii, 1861; 4, Dexxssz, Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, I, vi, 547, 1849; 5, of a Specimen from Neurode, Silesia, Vom "Rava, om : 955, 1855; 6, C. F. Cuanpier, Inaug. Dissert. Gott., 1856 (from Zobten, Silesia); 7, 8, of a lavender-blue variety, in euphotide of the Isle of Unst, M. Foster Heppwe, Min. ag., Truro an n- don, April, 1878; 9, De.essx, Ann. d. Mines, LV, a 116, 1850; _ th peared im the Ann, des Mins III, viii, a 1835; he eaten Si0, . — —— 320, MgO 2-4, CaO 21-0, K,0 1°6=100°6 analyzed a saussurite from Mt. per obtaining SiO, ek #1O, 30-4, MgO 2°5, CaO 15°5, Na,O 75 5=100°6, showing an approximation to Delesse’s results and a composition near that of 396 Scientific Intelligence. labradorite; but G.=2°65; it was therefore in the feldspar, and e saussurite, state. The occurrence of labradorite and saus- surite ina euphotide, and transitions from one to the other, appear to be not unc An analysis oe a saussurite from euphotide in Norway near Bergen, afforded Th. Hjortdahl (Nyt. Mag. Nat. Christiania, and Groth’s Zeitschr., 1878, 305), SiO, 42°91, AlO, 31°98, FeO ‘019, MgO 0°81, CaO 20°94, Na,O 2°32 2, Ke O 0-18=99" 33, with G.=319. It differs — =~ other analyses of saussurite of the Jirst_kind, or true sau exceptin é Alt ough jadette i is not yet known to be one of the euphotide minerals, the specimens being thus far only polished implements or ornaments, its analyses are of interest in this connection, and the following | are here added: . Morbihan. 2. Emerald-green. 8. Thibet, 4, Red, China. sid, 58°62 59°66 58°28 60°22 AIO, 21°77 22°86 23-00 22°58 €r0, 3 0714 sy : FeO 1°86 0-42 4°94 1:59 MnO 0°28 acet trace 0°65 M 23 2°41 1°04 1:15 CaO 3°85 2:37 3°06 3 Na,O 11°64 12°87 9°23 12°60 K,0 soe Sil trace pT Ign. ee, es ae 0-11 100°25 100°63 99°55 100°70 G.=3°344 G.=3.330 G.=3°25 ee Nos. 1 and 2 are by Damour, C. Rend., 1xi, 1865, P. 361; 3, by Fellenberp, Verh. d. schweiz. Ges. Solothurn, 1870 4, Eckstein, in H. sage r’s work entitled “ Nephrit und Jadeit, i," "Stuttgart, 1875, p. 3 Th. de A aussure’ s paper in which he gave the name Saussurite to the “Jade” which his father had described (in his Voyages dans les siete $112 and v, $1313) is contained in vo Journales es Mines , 206 , 1806. Further study will probably result in dividing up ‘eaphotie according to the kind of uaiigsieeti = en 6. On Leucoxene in the New Hampshire Diorites ; e G Hawes’s Report on the “Mineralogy 34, sc certain reticulated appearances In the reenstones” of New Hampshire, as probably of organic origin the result of a ies of decomposition to which titanic iron is peculiarly subject, and the structure was produced by the cleavage or lamination of the mineral, e product of the decomposition is a grayish white substance, the composition of which is not well established. It was called leu- coxene by Giimbel. Sandberger and von Lasaulx regard it as a lime titanate, which results from a reaction between the titanic acid and the lim e of the hornblende and feldspars. Cohen sug- gests that it is pure titanic acid, which view is favored by Rosen- busch. But if atever the sabutune may be pro oved to be, the forms observed are the result of the decomposition of titanic acid. Geology and Mineralogy. 397 stances, chemical composition must determine the species. This Intimate association of the two minerals is frequent in certain and some New shire diorites furnish very llized. amp marked examples in which both species are well crysta can be obtained for analysis, were made for the purpose of dis- covering what chemical differences had affected the crystalliza- tion. The following were the results: Hornblende. Pyroxene. ee ee ee ee 42°97 51°05 mluimit 22S 2 11°90 2°02 Tron sesquioxide_.__..... 3°08 1°30 Iron protoxide. 2... ....._ 13°84 12°18 Manganese protoxide. ._-- “48 “12 aghuas 23 i a 10°02 RMBE. So oe es cg 2 22°07 POON an ee 2°73 === 2 Olas S22 Ly eee gs Seek Sentient oo 98 OF eg 38 “34 99°38 99°10 398 Scientific Intelligence. 9. “ara geste und Petrographische San heraus- gegeben von G. TscuERMAK. New series, i, Vienna, 1878.— The “ Siicninskepiocke Mittheilungen,” which, wee the editorship of Professor Tsche rmak, have appeared since 1871 in connection with the publications of the Austrian “ “ Geologische Reichsanstalt, have occupied an important — mong mineralogical publica- tions. With the present year a new series has been commence and in future the Journal will be published independently in yearly volumes of six numbers each, Its scope is at the same time enlarged both as regards original articles, and in the — given of mineralogical work published elsewhere, which form important part of each number. Its usefulness will be seis in- aime by the change. E. 8. D, 0. Brief notices of some recently described minerals : . Occurs in dark-brown orthorhombic orystals.w with per- fect basal cleavage; translucent and sectile. 11.=2-3, G.=4:217. An analysis gave 8 3774, Ag 29-1, Fe 33:°0=99°5, for which the foci la Ag, Fe 8. is obtained. It is very closely related to ; at = propriety of giving 1 name well be questioned. Locality, J Seasonal; in £ oteliia: Oy fle, Zeitschrift fiir Kry tallographie, ii, 153). Hibbertite. Occurs as a loose powder of a lemon yellow color imbedded in purple kammererite. The percentage composition obtained for it after the deduction of the kammererite, — which it could not be entirely EN is as follows:—CaO 2 ‘46, MgO 3° InO given only provisionally, as the ai of the mineral is not yet established. Locality, Soothe of Unst (Shetland Tsles). —(Heddle, ineralogical Magazine, i ullite. A soft vabeeut backs menor with a dull waxy ee It occurs filling crebioote: in the t of Carnmoney Hill, n Belfast, Ireland. An analysis afforded Si0, 39°43, — 10° 35, FeO, 20° 72, FeO 3°69, MgO 7-47, CaO 4 8, H,O 1 61, CO, MnO, ?r. tr, 99°77. It seems to be allied to oe (ieee an, Nature, Sept. 5, 1878). Stitzite. Observed | in lead-gray highly modified crystals on a — of gold from Transylvania (probably Nagyag). e stals are referred to the monoclinic system, though the sym- ra re is Ses that = the nnghee system. © Contains tellurium thinnest orsly brown Pa a ome ucent. Luster saainanal An analysis afforded TiO, 52 74, FeO 3(Al0, tr.) 42°29, CaO and MgO 4-28, ignition 0°70; according to this “the mineral has the Geology and Mineralogy. 399 Same composition with menaccanite, from which it differs in crys- talline form.—(Koch, Min. u. Petr. Mitth, i, 1877.) aboite. Occurs in minute, exceedingly thin, triclinic crystals, which approach the form of pyroxene quite closely. H.=6 an above. G.=3°505. Color hair-brown, in some crystals brownish to hyacinth red; opaque to translucent. An analysis afforded :— Si0, 52°35, FeO, 44°70, (AIO, tr.), CaO 3-12, MgO, Na,O tr., ignition 0°40. The mineral is more or less closely related to babingtonite.—(Ibid.) E. 8. D. 11. Geology of New Hampshire.—The third volume of this Re- port, recently issued, contains the reports of W. Upham on drift, awes on mineralogy and lithology, already noticed, and also chapters on Glacial Drift and on Economic Geology, by C. H. Hitchcock. rnardston—the semi-metamorphic beds of which contain large erinoidal remains. € writer’s observations prove that the Bernardston limestone group * embraces, within a few miles northeast of Bernardston, Pg * See this Journal, III, xiv, 379, 1877. AM. Jour. oe Vou. XVI, No. 95,—Nov., 1878. 400 Scientific Intelligence. mica and hornblende wg staurolitic schist, quartzyte and other rocks, all lying confor y and alternating with one another; and that these rocks are ger ae in eee ON character to the mica and hornblende schists and quartzyte of the valley to the north; and, that part of them, as Pacieaeat Hitchcock asserts, are identical with his Cods slates, ‘indeed, so closely ar cage that the Bernardston mica schist is s made by him sara The r has Upper Silurian on its northeastern, northern, and all its western borders; and that the White Mountain region occupies the space between, Mt. Was ashington being not twenty miles east of Little- _ These conclusions are those of Sir William Logan’s a cal map.* latter to the Calciferous mica schist. = ain, 1 4 peotion between the parallels 43° 40’ and 43° 50’ the Montalvan chine and Beth- lehem gneiss are conformable, and the latter is made conformable in Moose Mountain with the staurolite schists of the Coos; and east of Hanover, this conformability is repeated, and the Coas is made conformable with the Hornblende schist, Lisbon group, clay slate; Calciferous mica schist, and the Cois farther west. Thus there is no evidence in the str atification, according to these sections, that the so-called Laurentian and Huronian are any older than the Cods and Calciferous mica schist of the panera valley ; * The statement on some of the maps—“Sillery, La s: Logan’s ar- rangement of the ii goions Huronian in Canada and Vermont” is sending to tines not familiar with the since Logan made these form “ Lower Silurian, and not ‘‘Upper ieocamen om and Mr. Hi —-* meant reese ce Leen subdivisions of what he himself refers to — ® Upper Huron + This Journal, III, xiv, Botany and Zoology. 401 fessor Hitchcock’s Report. e evidence, as it stands, is strongly Laurentian or Huronian rocks in New Hampshire. .D. Dz 12. Manual of Mineralogy, by James D. Dana.—A new, and mostly rewritten, edition of this small Manual of Mineralogy will be gt be published by Wiley & Sons, New York, in November. Ill Botany anp ZooLoey. _ 1. Ueber apogame Farne und die Erscheinung der Apogamie wm allgemeinen; by A. pe Bary. Botanische Zeitung, July 19th, 1878, et seq.—The article bearing the above title contains the other groups of the vegetable kingdom. He found, on the Spores of Pteris Cretica, obtained both from cultivated plants of 402 Scientific Intelligence. eee baht Pteris Cretica in the distribution of antheridia chegonia, “Aes in Aspidium faleatum archegonia occurred in at a 25 or 30 per cent of the sie Although in the Bary t The buddi tion ea a ie eta on the under surface of the © protballus, from rst leaf, root, and stem-bud, as in the normal embryo formation, although their relative position and date of de- chet “oe varies. The protuberance is generally found just back of the sinus, where the fertilized archegonium normally occurs. Variations were seen in which the first leaf grew from the upper surface of the prothallus and, at times, two leaves were pops: one on the upper and one on ’ the lower Surface. Secondary form ularly with one another, we must consider that: "instead of having acquired a new power, the ferns which reproduce by budding anit | isa gdod ix instance of apandry with gener se n unfertilized at The female of this species is alone sinsivai in northern tei tse it fruits abundantl y- _It has been a by De wile To the same cate belong some of the mosses usually called sterile, that is, destitute of capsular growths. In the mosses, however, it is a question not yet settled whether there is a total loss or only a partial suppression of sexual reproduction. Botany and Zoology. 403 In Funkia and Allium fragrans, in the seeds in which Strass- burger discovered adventive embryos, we have something similiar to the apogamous ferns; first, in the presence of apparently regu- larly formed but functionless female organs ; secondly, in the presence of apparently active pollen, and thirdly, in the substitu- tion of adventive embryos for the regular embryo-formation. Citrus aud Coelebogyne, in which Strassburger also found adven- tive embryos, probably belong to the same class as AWiwm and Funkia, as may, also, species like Huonynuss latifolius, many Ardisiw, ete., in which polyembryony often occurs to be added the numerous species, varieties, and races of culti- 1s produced in surpassing profusion. W. GF. 2. Loparo, Relazione sulla Cultura dei Cotoni in Italia, sequita una Monograpia del Genere Gossypium. Rome and Palermo, describes fifty-two species and mentions two other uncertain ones, under four sections, that he includes Zhurberia under Hu e€ g ‘um, and part of Fugosia as well as Sturtia under other sections. e former, under the name of Gossypium Thurberi Tod., is asso- IT ‘ral bracts. The author, indefatigable as he has been in compila- ton, was not aware of the identification of Zhurberia with the 3. The Native Flowers and Ferns of the United States in their Botanical, Horticultural, and Popular Aspects; by Tomas Mur- HAN, Professor of Vegetable Physiology to Pennsylvania Board of Agriculture, ete. v I. Illustrated by pedir 2 3” ton: Prang & Co., 1878. 192 pp., plates 1-48.—The volume of this work being now completed and the second doubt- -M progress according toe the programme, the success of the large undertaking apparently warranting further continuation, it Seems due and proper to supplement our notice of the beginning 404 Scientific Intelligence. of the work (in vol. xv, p. 72 of this Journal) with a remark or two upon the completed volume. hile congratulating the enterprizing publishers and the ardent editor upon their success, which ensures a full continuance of the publication, we shall, o this very account, freely offer any criticisms that may conduce to its improvement. “ Flowers and Ferns in their horticultural and popular aspects” do not here concern us. We dismiss their con- sideration to the horticultural and the literary press. There is point of view, and the same may be said of some of the botanico- etymological researches. While most may pass without grave of philology in one number (the sixth) which it would be wrong to pass over, being very characteristic for a tendency to be “ wise above what is written.” the root of the name, Linneus and the rest to the contrary not- i I To be sure “the name is a very old one and was merely adopted by Linnzus, “ who may be all wrong in philology. Still we botanists are not likely to know much better. Tourne- fort had indeed given his readers the choice of these two deriva- tions ; but he did not decide the question. Prof. Meehan decides ly here who have first adopted the notion that dacunosum (ft lacune or pits, as in the lower face of the leaf) is an adjective of lacus. _ Botany and Zoology. 405 -paprgenigs of the Zoological Record for 1876, of the Bericht of to see. And certainly the writer of the notice in Nature hardly expected zoologists to.obtain their first information of its publi- © meet the case. ! Professor Carus the title of any paper they publish, the moment \t 18 printed, giving in a few words also the table of contents and ‘ t giving up the Meera notices, but with the large nu a zoological periodicals now issued it would not lessen the value of the Anzeiger. A. AG. 406 Scientific Intelligence. 6. wikis on Borings of a Sponge in Italian Marble ; by A. E. VERRILL.—Some very interesting specimens were recently pre- sented - the Peabody Museum of Yale College, by Dr rimble, of New These are fragments of white Italian marble, from a cargo wrecked off Long Island in 1871, and taken up this year. The exposed — of the slabs are thoroughly penetrated to the depth of one to two inches by the crooked and regular borings or galeries of the sponge, Cliona sulphurea V., so as to reduce it to a complete honey-comb, readily crumbling 1 in the fingers. Beyond the borings the marble is perfectly sound and unalterd. The rapid destruction of the shells of oysters, ete., by the borings of this sponge has long been familiar to me, of its effects upon marble or aac I have not before seen do no our coast which it inhabits. Its ability to rapidly destroy such rocks might have a practical bearing in ah of submarine struc- tures of limestone or other similar materi 7. Ophiuride one Astrophytide of the ‘Challenger EZepedition, Part I By Tuxopore Lyman. Bulletin of the Museum of meee Zoology, es v, No. .7.. Gamnbridpe. 104 pp. 8vo. se! part. “This shows, very - eonelusively, that se Saaecaite as a group, are largely "deep-water forms, The new species are wel illustrated and . ibed at length. The | new ‘genera are © Opises h SU Ophtochi MN, Ophiova x, ios iasma, O, geron, each with one species ; Ophioptinhs, Ophiopyren, pra iolebes, each with two speci f genera, there are deseribed of Ophiocten, 4 ‘suieat Ophioglypha, 35; Ophiomu- Bate 12; Ophioceramis, 1; Ophiozona,4; Ophioscoler 2. V. 8. Synopsis of the Pycnogonidaof New England ; by EpmunD B. WIson, Trans. Connecticut eet ares of Arts and Sciences, vol. v, Aug. 1878. 26 pp. by vo, lates.—The North American gonum, 1 species; Tanystylum, 1; Achelia, 1; Pseudopallene, 2; Pallene, 1; Phoxichilidium,2; Anoplodactylus, 1; Ameathen 1; Nympthon, 4. The species are all illustrated. 9. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1378. Vol. I. 8vo. Washington, D. C.—We have received the first seven signatures of this new serial, which, in general character, resembles the Proceedings of the various ‘learn ed societies, and contains both brief and somewhat lengthy articles on a variety of sion — subjects. —— the oe are several by Mr. W- Report on Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound and — waters, in ony Report of U. 8. feta scr of Fish bee Fisheries, 1873, p. 4 Lich EE See ae Miscellaneous Intelligence. 407 H. Dall, on shells, recent and fossil, mostly of the Pacific coast; several by Mr. G. Brown Goode, and 'T. H. Bean on Fishes, includ- ing anumber of additions to the United States fauna; one on the S. Jordan ; on the the Crustacea, by G. Brown Go Pourtales ; by Guo. J. Auiman. . V, No. 2. 66 pp. 4to, with 34 lithographic plates.—In this work a large number of V. MisceLLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Report on Bridging of the River Mississippi between Saint Paul, Minn., and St. Louis, Mo. ; by Brevet Major General G. K. Warren, Major of Engineers. 232 pp. 8vo, with many maps. form of the curve of subsurface velocities, The maximum pppaney between the requirements of the Humphreys and Abbot °rmula and the observations is only seven-hundredths of a foot fai ent The observations are given in detail in General 5 Report, which follows; and as they were made with great 408 Miscellaneous Intelligence. care, and without prejudice in favor of the conclusion reached, they are of the highest importance in the department of hydraulics. General Ellis also gives the observations made with reference to the monthly and annual discharge of the Connecticut. Thes over forty miles from Long Island Sound, is reached by the tides, the amount of tide at the lowest water being about ten inches in range. This discharge for the year 1876 and 1877 was as follows: POMUREY © ii uceesic cu: - MOUSPURIY:..ocuei dune... 64,400 18,491 March . 93,866 95,253 (ADE: wi eeweg el ee 21 60,766 110,247 TORY cs ues 155,521 45,374 WUDE Aidan kinases its 41,008 10,907 ee aoe 22,016 25,475 August goccSi eens se . 16,674 22,146 Septem Very 5. wus 6 vce» 17,186 18,089 oto ler 1:52 bisoy eo aunsuks 6830 31,772 November . 2.2... 22.2: 26,822 75,825 December... 0c oc ss 17,156 46,382 700,291 516,261 The highest known freshet on the Connecticut below Holyoke is stated to have occurred in May, 1854, when the water at Hartford gauge stood twenty-nine feet ten inches above low- water mark. The next highest on record—that of 1801—carried the waters up to twenty-seven feet six inches. : e report contains also the results cf borings near the Connecti cut River Channel at Hartford and to the north up to twenty-five miles, At Hartford and two-thirds of a mile north the depth reached was fifty feet below low water and in the latter case hard red marl” was struck; at a point 1°56 miles north of Hart- ford, a boring of 90 feet ended in clay; 2°39 miles north, one of 123-4 feet reached, probably, rock; at 3°37 miles north, rock was estes in 21°11 feet; and at 44 miles north, rock was reached in 34°8 feet. 3. Translation of Weishach’s Mechanics.—The second part of Vol. II of this translation by Professor DuBois (8vo, viii and 559 pp.) contains a full discussion of the important subjects of Heat, Engines. The first part on Hydraulics and Hy- _ The third and final volume of Professor Weisbach’s great work is now undergoing thorough revision in Germany by Professor Hermann, and its translation will be issued by the publishers Miscellaneous Intelligence. 409 (Wiley & Sons) about the time of the completion of the German he progress of the Survey during the year 1875 p- 4to, with thirty charts.—Among the twenty Appendices may be men- tioned: Report on Mount Saint Elias, Alaska, b T. Dall; ol. II, No. 2. 458 pp. 8vo. Cambridge, 1878.—This Report contains several memoirs of special value. The first is a Second terest. 6. A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine; by R. H. Tuursron, A.M., C.E. 490 8vo. New York, 1878. ( 1. Elementary Quantitative Analysis ; by ALEXANDER C1as- SEN, Professor in the Royal Polytechnic School, Aix la Chapelle. Translated with additions by Evear F. Surru, A.M., Ph.D. 328 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1878. (Henry ©. Lea.)—In this work the methods of separation required in quantitative analysis are ples. The directions for the sgt 8. The American Quarterly Microscopical Journal, containing the Transactions of the New York Microscopical Society. Vol. . eries, Memoirs, Science to which it is devoted. It contains papers by J. D. Hyatt, oe Smira, F. B. Hue, SEAMAN, W. , Be ELD, W Liauron, E. Percivat Wricut, besides miscellaneous notices and reviews, and is illustrated by seven excellent plates. e com- mend the Journal strongly to all who are interested in scientific discovery and progress. A very large part of this progress in 410 Miscellaneous Intelligence. recent years has come through microscopic investigation and the same source still continues to be prolific in the profoundest of discoveries. Mémoires sur ors Terrains ae et Tertiaires preparés par feu ANDRE DuMONT, sad servir 4 la description de la Carte Géologique de la Belgique. edités par ICHEL ‘Mo URLON, “Co teamhestns au Museé d’Hist. Nat. Tome Terrrains teseaiven: Premiare Patrie. 440 pp., 8vo. Bruxelles, 1878. OBITUA Tuomas Bett.—Mr. Thomas Bet, ¥ .G.S., of London, England, died in Sse City, Missouri, on Saturday, September 28. Mr. Belt een for some time ‘past actively at work in Colorado, t e American Association at the St. Louis meeting, subject of the above-named skull, but did not complete his study mn ritten many valuable papers on geolog e Naturalist in Nicaragua,” continued the result of his obser- vations of over two years in that country. One of his papers is on the retrocession of Niagara Falls. bout two weeks previous to his death he had shown signs of insanity, and it was thought best to remove him to New York. Mr. Silas Lloyd, Dea had been fora short time associated with him, accompanied him. Just before arriving at Kansas City, Mr. Lloyd had occasion to leave him for a few minutes. On returning, he found the door locked. Mr. Belt refused to let him in, an ommenced a furious onslau et heron re and car. Parties an G. C, BROADHEAD. Dr. E. v. Asten; M. E. QuereLer; THomas Garam. —Astron- omy has recently lost several able men by death, One of these was Dr. E. von Asten, who was attached to the Pulkowa Obser- vatory, and who has carried on the discussion of the observations d M. E. Quetelet on ‘the 6th of Sept e was assistant at the Brussels Observatory for more than twenty years, the ition of which practically fell on him. One of his many important contributions A science was on the proper motions of certain stars. Mr. Thomas Grubb, the maker of the large Melbourne reflector, and of numerous other large reflectors sad refractors, died Sept. ‘19, in the 78th year of his age. Dr. Aveust Herricn Prrerman.—Dr. A. H. PererM mann te learned geographer, and editor or the “ Mittheilungen,” died Gotha, Germany, on the 27th of September, at the age of fifty-s ais | | anil ei gn ae gy APPENDIX. Art. XLIV.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs ; by Professor O. C. MARSH. Part I. With seven Plates. ON the flanks of the Rocky Mountains, a narrow belt of Strata can be traced for several hundred miles, marked always by the bones of gigantic Dinosaurs. Tts position is above the characteristic red Triassic beds, and immediately below the hard sandstone of the Dakota group. Hayden, Cope and others have regarded this horizon as Cretaceous, but the abundant verte- rate remains now known from it prove its Jurassic age beyond a reasonable doubt. The writer examined a typical outcrop of this series, on the western slope of the mountains in yoming, in 1868, and determined it to be Jurassic; and he has recently named the series the Atlantosaurus beds, from the most striking vertebrates they contain. e strata consist mainly of estuary deposits of shale and sandstone, and the hori- Zon 18 clearly upper Jurassic, as shown in the accompanying section (Plate [V.)* Besides the Dinosaurs, which are especially abundant, num- crous remains of Crocodilia (Diplosaurus), as well as Tortoises known from these beds are of special interest, and represent two distinct groups, the more important characters of which This section was especially designed to illustrate an Address by the writer, on The Introduction and Pema Pz of Vertebrate Life in America. This Journal, Vol. xiv, p. 337, Nov., 1877. ¢ This Journal, yol. xv, p. 233, Sept., 1878. $ This Journal, vol. xv, p. 412, June, 1878. 412 0. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. SAUROPODA. A well marked group of gigantic Dinosaurs from the above horizon has been characterized by the writer as a distinct family, Atlantosauride, but they differ so widely from typical Dinosauria, that they belong rather in a suborder, which may be called Sauropoda, from the general character of the feet. They are the least specialized of the order, and in some charac- ters show such approach to the Mesozoic Crocodiles, as to sug- gest a common ancestry at no very remote period. The most marked characters of this group are as follows: 1. The fore and hind limbs are nearly equal in size. 2. The carpal and tarsal bones are distinct. 3. The feet are plantigrade, with five toes on each foot. 4. The precaudal vertebrz contain large cavities, apparently pneumatic. 5. The neural arches are united to the centra by suture. 6. The sacral vertebrze do not exceed four, and each supports its own transverse process. 7. The chevrons have free articular extremities. nearly complete skeleton, and hence, in the present communl- cation, this genus will be mainly used to illustrate the group. Morosaurus, Marsh, 1878. : The head in this genus was very small. The skull shows in its fixed quadrates and some other features a resemblance to eral form is shown in Plate V, figures 1 and 2. The neck was elongated, and, except the atlas, all the cervical vertebre have eep cavities in the sides of the centra, similar to those in birds of flight. (Plate V, figures 3 and 5). They are also strongly opisthoccelous. The atlas and axis are not ankylosed together, and the elements of the atlas are distinct. The supero-lateral pieces unite with the axis by zygapophyses, (Plate V, figure 4, Z). * This Journal, xiv, pp. 87, 514; xv, pp. 241. ; 4 i i ‘ O. C. Marsh—American Jurassie Dinosaurs. 413 The dorsal vertebrae have elongated neural spines, and deep cavities in the sides. They are distinctly opisthoccelous. There are four vertebree in the sacrum, all with cavities in the centra. Their transverse processes are vertical plates, with expanded ends. The anterior caudal vertebre are plano-concave, and nearly or quite solid. The tail was elongated, and the chevrons are similar to those in Crocodiles. position in which they were found. e humerus is very arge and massive, and its radial crest prominent. This bone with hoofs. In Plate VII, figure 1, the restoration of the scapular arch and entire fore limb of one species of Morosaurus, sacrum. The ilium is short and massive, and shows on its SF oO rs ® pened < hee ie) oo re) +23 oO wn 9 by oO e. eal ap 5 re) * er > © 5 o s re) opal <4 os Oo a i) 3 Qs = 2) 8 co ae = o pie below the head. The ridge 514 0. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. The largest species of this genus at present known may be called Morosaurus robustus. It can readily be distinguished from those already described by its short, helmet-shaped, ilium, which is represented in Plate VIII, figures 1 and 2. One species of this genus, Morosaurus grandis,* is now known by a nearly complete skeleton, and the remains here figured are mainly portions of this individual. They were found together in nearly as perfect preservation as in life, and many of them were in their natural position. The locality was in peg and the bones were taken out with great care by Mr. 8. W. Williston of the Yale Museum. This animal when alive was about forty feet in length. It walked on all four feet, and in many other respects was very unlike the typical Dinosaur. It must have been very sluggish in all its movements. Its brain was proportionately smaller than in any known vertebrate. Diplodocus longus, gen. et sp. nov. removal, measured from the head of the femur to the end of the toes over thirteen feet (4:1™). The femur was 16450™ In length, and the tibia 1090™™, Four of the median caudal ver- tebrae measured together thirty-four inches (760™). The first of these, or the fourteenth in the series, was eight and one-half inches (217™) long, and five and one-half inches (140) across the anterior end. The peculiar chevron represented in Plate VILL, figure 3, was found attached to the eleventh caudal, and all the remaining chevrons observed were of this character. Figure 4 represen a specimen found at another locality, and perhaps belonging to a different genus. The above remains indicate a reptile about fifty feet in length. They were found in the upper Jurassic, near Cafion City, Col- orado, in 1877, by Mr. 8S. W. Williston. * This species, when described by the writer, was referred provisionally to the genus Apaiosaurus. This Journal, vol. xiv, p. 515. O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 415 Laosaurus Marsh, 1878. comparison of the three pelves.represented together in Plate X (Hesper ornis, Laosaurus and Morosaurus), will make clear the intimate relation existing between the pubic bones of Birds and has caused } had already suggested solution of one difficulty. (Journal Geological Society of London, vol. xxxii, p. 334.) Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XVI, No. 95.—Nov., 1878. 26a 416 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. the pelves of some existing birds (for example Geococeyx), and - of a few other reptiles, it will become still more evident that the bone called ‘‘ pubis” in a bird, is a different bone from the pubis of a crocodile. The ischium in Zaosaurus is a slender bone, extending backward parallel with the post-pubic. It has a distinct obturator process, which laps over the latter bone. The limb bones in this genus have a distinct medullary cavity. The femur has a prominent great: trochanter, the extremity of which is separated from the neck by a fissure. The third trochanter is long, and curved outward. The tibia slightly exceeds the femur in length, the proportions in Lao- saurus altus being 393 to 360™" (Plate IX, figure 3). The fibula is slender, and the distal smaller than the proximal end. The astragalus is distinct from the tibia, and the caleaneum supports the fibula. There are but two tarsals in the second ro pointed. (Plate IX, figure 3.) The remains of this genus at present known are all from the Atlantosaurus beds of Colorado and Wyoming. Those here described were found in Wyoming by Mr. S. W. Williston. They represent an animal of slender proportions, and about ten feet in length. Yale College, New Haven, October, 1878. [To be continued. ] i> ee AM. “ee ia Vol. XVI, 1878. . Plate IV. v Padiat Ke == Post Tertiary. Pliocene. Tapir, ein geo —, — heri Myli uus Beds, sani Beds. Equ Elep. { pean pet omens iakiiol. Protohippus, Aceratherium, Bos, Miocene. Eocene. aoe Cretaceous. —————————— —— — ———ssso SSanTeeT ————————— = Carboniferous. es. = - >, be ae Se a SSS MELE ET OOS ————— Devonian. ——— asa ee Miohippus Beds. Oreodon Beds. Brontotherium B Miohippus, Diceratherium, cinta { Edentates (Moropus), Hywnod Eporeodon, Hyracodon, Mesohippus, Menodus, Elotherium Diplacodon Beds. Dinoceras Beds. (Green River B.) Lignite Series. Coryphodon Beds. Pteranodon Beds. Dakota Group. Epihippus, Amynodon { Tinoceras, Tisdahieiniens Limnohyus, Orohippus, Helaletes, Colonoceras. Eohippus, Monkeys, Carnivores, Ungu- { lates, Tillodonts, Rodents, Serpents. Hadrosaurus, Dryptosaurus, rds with Teeth ( Odontornithes), Hesper- eres Ichthyornis, Mosasaurs, Edestosaurus, Lestosau seh adestenn Uurus, Pterodactyls, Plesiosaurs. Atlantosaurus B. Dinosaurs, Apatosaurus, Gy sonatas? Nanosaurus. Turtles. Diplosauru Pte tyls. Dryolestes. Conn. River Beds, First Mammals (Marsupials), (Droma- therium). Dinosaur Footprints, Amphisaurus. Crocodiles ( belodon). Permian. Reptiles, Nothodon, Sphenacodon. Coal Measures. . First Reptiles (?) First known Amphibians (Labyrinth- — Silurian. PaLEvzoic, Subcarboniferous. pe Corniferous. Schoharie Grit. First known Fishes. * ‘ Upper Silurian. Lower Silurian. a 5 = 4 Primordial. 3 = 2 2 Huronian. -& > ° Zz Laurentian. SECTION oF THE Eartu’s Crust. TO ILLUSTRATE VERTEBRATE LIFE IN AMERICA. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVI, 1878. Plate V. Figure 1.—Tooth of Morosaurus grandis Marsh ; side v Figure 2.—The same; f view. Botho ne-half aba ee 1 same; front : Figure 3.—Axis and part of sane of ies grandis ; ae view, 0 <7 natural size. a. odontoi ss, or centrum 0: atlas ; rum of axis; /. foram m; gee 8 J en in centrum; 8. a Figure 4.—The same; front view. 4. d physi z. zygapophy r. grandis ; ars tg or one- pre scoel a f, foramen in centrum; 2. anterior sveapophss aw, poster or zygapophysis re 6.—The ; back v Cc. terior end of ‘centrum ; d. ysis igure nm pos diapophysis ; : ere ae a comet zy gapophysi a8 ee EF oS “l wm im ge 8 a oe ® 2 3 i] ge Plate VI. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVI, 1878. one tenth | of . cavity. b. rugose surface id Morosaurus grandis Marsh; side view ; Left scapula and coracoid of natural size. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVI, 1878. Plate VII. Figure 1.—Bones of left fore leg of Morosawrus grandis Marsh; one-twentieth natural size; s. scapula; c. coracoid; . humerus; 7. radius; w. ulna; ue. ulnar carpal; J. first metacarpal ; Vice. fifth metacarpal. oS eu grandis ; one-twentieth nat- femur ; ¢. tibia; /’. fibula; AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVI, 1878. Plate VIII. Figure 1.—Left ilium of Morosaurus robustus Marsh ; ge view. 4. satin, or pubic, ~~ urface < — or ischiadic, rticular s Figure 2. a, anterior, or Puig articulation ; a Dosterior, or chine avtentation. Both oe tenth natural size, e 3,.—Che <= roc docus oe arsh ; a ane side views. os a tho b. rior process ; c. posterior process. Figure 4.—Chevron . aeareint individual ; letters the same as in figure 3. All the Piemed are one-tenth natura] size. eae encarnetiacnneininaicnioey AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVI, 1878. Plate IX. q Be a ee es 4 B a, mig: a Me q = Me Pi Se = 2 a t, a L ie " r tl ---+%, . ! s a . . = : ~ oes ZS 4 4 b Br: 4 ’ : : : : , ; : H ’ : : : : : 2 ' - : : ; : £ ; : : H H : : : ; i : : ; : : ; , . : ; H H . ‘ : : % : ' : eae H E ee : E & 4 . . ee ve Sar Mo * r "wer or Figure 1.—Tooth of Laosawrus altus Marsh ; Pies view. a cS re 2.—The same, side view. Both twice natural size A Figure 3.—Bones of the left hind leg of Laosauras altus tus Marsh ; —— natural si 1. tibia; 7”. fibula ; astragalus a cabhaien £ fourth metatarsal. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVI, 1878. Plate X. Figure 1.—Pelvis of — regalis Marsh (Cretaceous); seen from the : left, on deen vagaeg 1 size. Figure 2. of Laosaurus altus Marsh; seen from the left, one-sixth — natural s ; ' Figure 3 Pelvis as Morosaurus grandis Marsh; seen from the left, one-six- natural siz The edge of ‘the letters is the same in all the figures, viz: a. acetab- ulum; i. ilium; is. ischium; Zs pubis; p’. post-pubis. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] > Arr. L.—Valley of the Minnesota River and of the Mississippi River to the junction of the Ohio: its origin considered; b Gen. G. K. WarREN, Major of Engineers. With Diagrams A, B, C, C’, D, E, F and G@ (making plates 11 to 18 of the volume). Definition of the term “valley,” prominent natural features and length.—The valley to be considered is the part included between the high banks, commonly called bluffs. Whenever it becomes necessary in this article to refer to the whole area drained by the river, the word basin will be used to designate it. Between these high banks the greater portion is subject to overflow at time of floods, forming what is sometimes called the flood plain; the smaller part above overflow is generally com- posed of alluvial terraces of sand and gravel. In some cases a Stele between the terraces and the bluffs is difficult oO make. these are natural landings for steamboats and sites for towns. course of time the convenience of the people living there makes them desirable locations for bridges. i is very rare, however, that both banks of the river are above submergence ; Where one bank is, the opposite one is generally low, and cov- ered many feet deep at extreme high-water, making it difficult to construct bridges sufficiently elevated for steamboats to pass under them. The distance along the general course of this valley from St. Louis to St. Paul is about 620 miles, but steamboatmen, by the course they take along the navigable channels, make the distance Am. Jour, Sct.—TuirD pas Vou. XVI, No, 96.—Dec., 1878. 418 G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. about 800 miles. This was the only part specified in the law authorizing this investigation, but it was necessary in order to present the subject itself properly to include the whole distance from the mouth of the Minnesota to the Ohio; this is an extent of about 760 miles along the general course of this valley, and we have prepared a map of it in twenty-two sheets on a scale of two inches to a mile. The mannef in which this is done is described in Chapter VI of this report. General map and profile prepared for publication.— Although we have, in constructing the map, exhausted all means of obtain- ing knowledge in regard to this part of the Mississippi Valley, there are some parts of it too little determined to make its pub- lication as a whole, advisable, and therefore we have only pre- pared for publication the index map of those twenty-two sheets, on a scale of six miles to an inch. (lf photo-lithographed it may vary from this scale.) Here, again, generalizations have led us to make this index map include the Minnesota River Valley. That valley, under another clause of the law, was also made a part of my investigation, and a map in twenty sheets on a scale of two inches to the mile was made for it. The map rt of Arkansas, and northward to include a part of the basin of the Red River of the North. It is designated as Diagram 1, in five sheets. The two systems of the United States land surveys, one on each side of the river, are so checked upon each other in its construction and by special surveys by ourselves, that the val- ley on this small scale is probably as correct as it can be repre- sented. The whole of the flood-plain is shaded with light ruled lines, except the principal Jakes and water-courses, which are shaded with heavy lines. The alluvial terraces above overflow are shaded with dots. The high banks or bluffs are without shading. On sheet five there are some overflowed lands that are above the Mississippi floods, which have special shading. In order to complete a presentation of the Mississippi g plain to the Gulf of Mexico, the page Diagram A is added, red from Plate II of the report of Humphreys and Abbot on the physics and hydraulics of the Mississippi. a ee eneral considerations as to the formation of the Missiesthys Valley have caused me to present also the page Diagram 5, showing the Mississippi basin as it is, and extending northward to include the Lake Winnepeg basin with the ancient extension of the lake southward and outflow through the valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers. G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. 419 Profiles prepared for publication.— Accompanying this chapter are two sheets of longitudinal profiles of the valley from the junction of the Minnesota River to the junction of the Ohio. The horizontal scale is about eight miles to an inch, and the vertical 200 feet to an inch, reduced in publication. The datum is the sea-level according to the best determinations, and both sides of the valley are given side by side. e parts of the banks above low-water are shaded to indicate the strata of dif- ferent geological periods, but it must be borne in mind that this low-water line does not represent the low-water slope of the winding river, but is drawn from point to point along the general course of the valley, so as to bring the rocks into their proper relative positions. These longitudinal profiles are desig- nated as Diagram 2, in two sheets. Another sheet, designated as Diagram 8, gives twenty trans- verse valley sections, on a larger scale than the profiles: three of them on the Minnesota Valley; one on the Mississippi, above the junction with the Minnesota; fourteen of them in the valley between the Minnesota and the Ohio; one at the mouth of the Missouri River, and one at the mouth of the Illinois River. These sections are designed to show the extent of our positive knowledge of the depth of the bed-rock, and will be described in detail in the latter part of this chapter. We are mainly indebted for the geological data in these pro- files and sections to the report of David Dale Owen, October, 1851, on the Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minne- Sota ; to the report on the Geological Survey of Iowa, by Prof. James Hall, Prof. J. D. Whitney and Mr. A. H. Worthen, pub- lished in 1858, and the report of Mr. A. H. Worthen, director of the Geological Survey of Illinois, published in 1866. Method of treating question of depth of bed-rock.—The question of depth of the bed-rock beneath the sand that usually forms the bed of the river will occupy the remainder of this chapter. In presenting my ideas in regard to it, I have thought the best order in which I could arrange them would be that in which they arose in the rogress of the investigation. It was from the first obvious that means and time would not allow of my covering such an extended field by actual borings, and that the most that could be done was to draw such probable inferences as could be done by a study of the rocks visible in the bluffs and by an effort to comprehend the manner in which the valley was formed. 5 The consideration of the anomaly presented by Lake Pepin lying in the course of the river, and said to have a depth of sixty feet near its lower end, was the beginning of thiseffort. If the valley in this portion had once been all of this depen. and since filled in, then the bed-rock could not be less than sixty feet 420 G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. below the water surface. Explanations of the cause of this lake had been attempted by Long and by Featherstonhaugh, which did not seem to me satisfactory. Explanation of the cause of Lake Pepin and similar lukes.—The results of the levelings on the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers made by me showed that just below the entrance of any consid- erable affluent there was an accumulation of deposit in the main stream brought by the tributary; that over this deposit the slope of the water was greater than the average slope, and that it was shoal and impeded navigation; that just above the afflu- ent the slope was less than the average, and the water deeper. So Zar, this was in seria with conditions which generally exist in rivers, and might be so even where the main stream was gradually wearing away and deepening its bed. But a marked peculiarity was exhibited at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers. Regarding the Mississippi as the affluent (which we might do from the comparative sizes of the two valleys), the rule here would be as it is elsewhere, steep slope and shoal water below the affluent and almost no slope and very deep water above. In this instance the effect is felt above for at least thirty miles. On the other hand, taking the Mississippi as the main stream (as the volume of its water has always caused it to be regarded), then we have the anomaly of the main stream filling up the valley and damming back the affluent so that the latter brings no coarse material whatever into the main valley or has any part in forming the shoal below the junction of the two streams. I called attention to this in my report published in 1867, and again made the anomalous condition a feature in my re ort on the Minnesota River,* where diagrams were given of the streams and valleys at the junction and of the Minnesota at its source in es Big-Sto e and Travers, which I here repeat as Dia- the Fe on : tie Minneso sp ee to, showed that the valley of the Misucosta River Tad i in 5 period sub- — to the glacial-drift e n og a much its volume were as ere in proportion to area as that of the ef of Engineers, 1875, Part I, page 387. + Ibid, 1868, pp. 37 Sik. G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. 421 Niagara in volume, and would have been sufficient to prevent the formation of such excessive accumulation of débris in its course, such as the Mississippi is now making below the Min- nesota River, although it is probable that the material brought | into it from the near proximity of the Falls of St. Anthony 7 would have had the usual effect of somewhat increasing the slope and shoalness just below its junction, and decreasing the j Mississippi above the Falls of St. Anthony, probably equaled Be d . thus moved by feebler currents. The resu ting material is % 422 G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. restored ; then deposition continues immediately in front of the last deposit. Such deposition, therefore, does not extend lat- erally from the course of the current into any contiguous dead water, as depositions from water holding a clayey or vegetable matter would. Thus in the valley of the Mississippi, the lakes alongside the river’s course are deeper than the river, which has continued to raise its bed by deposits of sand after the lakes were cut off rom its current. From the Falls of St. Anthony down to the St. Croix River the Mississippi Valley receives no considerable tributary. The St. Croix comes from a region of trap rock now furnishing little or no large and heavy sedimentary matter. The result has been that the Mississippi deposit of sand and gravel has been thrown across its mouth, holding back its water and forming the St. Croix Lake. At low water, while the depth of the Mississippi at the junction is two and one-half feet, the depth in Lake St. Croix is twenty-five feet. It is not probable that twenty-five feet depth represents the amount of filling of the ancient valley at this point, because the lake itself must have been somewhat shoaled with fine deposits of clay and vegetable matter. he next considerable tributary to the Mississippi Valley is the Chippewa River. This, entering at right angles wit steep river slope and a probable high-water volume of at least 40,000 cubic feet per second, comes from a region inexhaustibly supplied with siliceous sand and gravel containing a considera- ble of the heavy magnetic sand, whose oxidation often cements the other sand deposits.* It brings quantities of these materials which, spread out below, give a very steep slope to the Missis- sippi River, and very bad shoals for navigation. pete Lying just above this deposit is Lake Pepin, which it com- pletely accounts for. The reason this lake has not been filled pee the Mississippi above is that the supply of sand from the Chippewa is so great as to raise the level more rapidly than the filling above can keep pace with. The Chippewa from the left bank pushes its sand-bar out, so as to confine the outlet of the lake to the opposite shore. There is an observable relation between the condition of the lake and the deposits of the Chip- pewa. The deepening of the waters by the deposit of Chippewa sands is felt at low water sometimes as far up as the mouth of the St. Croix, when floods in the Chippewa make these deposits large, and on the other hand, in times of droughts the waters of the lake cut the outlet deeper, and lower its level, so that the shoal water is moved down the river two to three miles below the St. Croix. _ * “The analysis i hi ippewa River (the Yellow Banks) gives Seetiees sa bomeger NS an ak is chiefly white sand, with only two per cent of organic matter, less than four per cent of soluble saline matter, consisting chiefly of oxide of iron and alumina with only a trace 3 earth.”—Owen’s Report, p. 56. G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. 423 If we follow the Mississippi down we find similar conditions produced by the Wisconsin River as by the Chippewa; that is, a great increase of the slope and shoaling of the river below the junction, with gentler slopes, deep water, and Jake-like aspect above. There would probably have been a large lake here, if the affluents above had not silted it up. Another instance is afforded by the damming-back effect of the Mississippi deposit at the mouth of the Illinois River, mak- ing it at low water almost like a lake up to La Salle. : ke Pepin must therefore be regarded as due to the deposit by the Chippewa of heavy coarse sediment into the valley of an ancient and larger river. This view may be strengthened further by the following considerations: It lies immediately in the course of the main valley above an important tributary. In this respect it agrees with Lac-qui-parle, on the Minnesota, just above the Lac-qui-parle River; with another lake on the same valley just above Yellow Earth River; with Big Stone Lake In the same valley, just above Whetstone River; with Lake Traverse, which is formed by deposits from a stream at each end, and thus empties sometimes in both directions. It agrees In this relation with the lakes on the Qu’Appelle, which all le just above a considerable tributary, and with like lakes on the Upper Fox of Lake Winnebago. This constant relation Seems unmistakably one of cause and effect. ake Winnipeg southward.— As I have stated in previous reports, I regard the ancient river draining Valiey formed since the glaciers began to retire.—It also seems Most probable that the ancient valley itself, as a whole, was formed in the region of glacial deposits, part! y during the period this great field of ice was receding, and partly since it left the ancient Mississippi basin, for the following reasons: When this 1cé-period was on the increase, its southern margin must have been gradually advancing in this region, crushing down and planing off the ridges and filling the ravines and water-courses with the débris not only of the neighboring rocks, but with 424 G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. the great mass of hard rocks and other material brought from regions far to the north. There seems a probability that much of the present Upper Mississippi basin had previously been for long ages exposed only to erosions of streams and of the atmos- phere, so that it was probably much cut up and fissured, as we see in regions farther west, where no glacial action has occurred. t must have been an easy matter then for the glacier to have thoroughly filled up all the valleys and ravines, leaving the surface everywhere of the well-known rounded hill and basin forms of the drift regions. Wherever the glacial scratchings are preserved, their uniform directions indicate a massive move- ment to the southwest quite independent of all influence o underlying inequalities. The water which flowed from them would seek the first lowest line and excavate its course without regard to the nature of the older stratified rocks buried beneath the glacial deposits, and such seems to have been the case, for the valley takes a great variety of courses, running about north- east at St. Paul, due west at Rock Island, and its direction’ fill every azimuth in different parts from northeast around by sout to west. To the old stratified rocks its course seems to have no relation, now cutting across an anticlinal, then following the strike in one direction and again in the opposite one. wee How the valley was formed.—At St. Paul, on the Mississipp!, and in the Minnesota above, are the banks of an ancient water- course when at such higher level than now that the river-bed was the magnesian limestone rock, the same as that of the Mis- sissippi, just above the Falls of St. Anthony. The existing channel of the ancient valley has probably been formed by a cataract in the great river, similar to that at St. Anthony. This view is sustained by the high islands of rock in the valley of the Minnesota, being remains of strata once continuous across it. These high islands also exist below in the Mississippi, such as Barn Bluff, at the head of Lake Pepin, and the Trempeleau hills. Some of these detached bluffs may have been formed by bends approaching each other by erosions gradually forming a neck and cutting it off. One such, nearly completed, is seen in the Dalles of the Chippewa River. The period which must have elapsed in doing this work was long, but it is probable that the volume of water, during the melting of the glaciers north of it, was tly in excess over that of the present drain- age of the Winnipeg basin. The period may have been some- what shortened by the new watercourse regaining in places some ancient one, filled only with glacial débris. If we look at the valley shown on the map from Lake Trav- erse to Rock Island, we see that it gradually widens and con- tracts along its course, but, as a whole, widens as we descend. It widens where the rocks on the banks are soft, and narrows where they are harder and capable of resisting atmospheric ero- ~@. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. 425 sion, as they are near Dubuque. This is in accordance with usually received ideas, that where the stream is confined by hard banks its increased velocity, due to such contractions, may have caused the streams to abrade deeper. It is improb- able that the ancient river, where it cut its way either as a cataract or in any other manner of river erosion, made the val- ley as wide as we now see it. It most probably underwent subsequent widening from the impinging of the currents against the foot of the high banks, thus removing the débris falling from the cliffs above, as well as scouring away the unbroken strata against which it washed. Even now, although the great river has disappeared, we see that the valley is still widening in some places where the river flows at the foot of the high bluffs, although, in the great majority of cases, the atmospheric ero- sions have covered the steep, rocky scarps with detritus, which, clothed with vegetation, preserves them from the influence of the air. Where the river now impinges against the banks com- posed of soft strata, we sometimes see its effect in the fresh-cut appearance of the cliff, and are led to give greater weight to similar operations in the past, when like forces were probably more intense, I have selected one (Diagram D) such cliff in the wide part of the valley below La Crosse, which part indicates much wid- ening since the first cutting out of the river's course. It is apparent that no stream of water could have cut down from to AB while the opening D was available. But if we allow that cataract on the right of the diagram represents the condi- tions when the stream began to flow which cut the valley, then- its present course is natural, the subsequent widening bringing it to the state we see on the left of the diagram. e recent geological times, although antedating the historical era. In a similar way the time required by the Mississippi to cut the gorge from Fort Snelling to the Falls of St. Anthony has been caleulated by Professor N. H. Wincbell,* on data that makes it vary from 6,000 to 12,000 years, by assuming that the forces in producing this result have remained uniform during this period. _ That any date in geological time, capable of being expressed in definite numbers of years, can be deduced from existing ob- Servations, seems highly improbable; but whenever a condition 18 observed which may be referred properly to the causes now at work, whether of greater intensity or less, it is reasonable to regard the work done as of recent geological origin. We cannot heglect this uncertain method of drawing inferences, since it is the best we have, and we should endeavor, by continued inves- * Report Geological Survey Minnesota, 1876. though the result is uncertain, it indicates the origin to b 426 G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. tigation, to make more definite this method of finding the unknown factor, time. Since the Falls of St. Anthony were at the junction of Min- nehaha Creek, they have receded six and a quarter miles. Minnehaha Falls, since that time, have receded three-fifths of a mile. Both streams have cut into the same formation, starting with the same height of fall. These relative rates have been as about 1 to 10. The proportion of the volumes of the two streams, judging by their present drainage areas, is about as 72 square miles is to 21,600 square miles, or about as 1 to 300. That is to say, the recession of the Minnehaha Falls has been thirty times faster than it would have been if proportioned to the volume. This may be accounted for by the greater atmos- heric influence of the smaller falls, which, examination shows, eeps ahead of the effect of the water, forming a cave under the fall by the dropping down of material which the water then washes away. At the greater falls the volume of water almost constantly protects the rocks from the action of the atmosphere. Hence we must give, as said before, a very considerable influ- ence to the operations of the atmosphere in aiding the erosions of small streams, and in demolishing cliffs where the water can remove the débris. a he I attribute a more recent origin of the gorge of the Mississipp1 from Fort Snelling to the Falls of St. Anthony than to that o the Minnesota above the junction. The general map indicates that the same force which formed the valley below the junction formed that of the Minnesota above. ward, made this upper part of the Misstenp pe When we note the great extent of the eroded valley of the Minneso work, Regarding the Mississippi Valley as originating as a whole by the action of a stream since the glacial ice oceupied its basin, would note that as far down as the island of Rock Island there is no decided indication of other than successive changes attending such action, and the gradual filling up of the valley * G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. 427 by tributary sediment after the great volume of water from the innipeg basin had disappeared. Anomalies of Rock Island Rapids and Des Moines Rapids.—At Rock Island the river has left the ancient valley, which just below Rock River seems to be lost. e might have supposed that it ended here but for finding it again below Muscatine and continuous down to the Des Moines Rapids, where it is lost again. Just below, however, we find it again, and it then is continuous until it widens out into the broad expanse below the junction of the Ohio, although the river again leaves the main valley, without sufficient apparent cause, at Fountain Bluff and at the Grand Chain. e had not time to study out where the course of the ancient valley was between Rock Island and Muscatine, but at the Des Moines Rapids we were more fortunate. The following description of this vicinity and Diagram E will present the points that appear deserving of consideration. The river, as it passes the town of Madison on its right bank, which is there 150 feet high, washes against a bluff composed of clay and sand arranged in a manner resembling “the ebb and flow structure.” Mr. Worthen gives a good description of this formation in the Iowa Geological Report, volume i, part 1, page 187. This kind of bluff is seen only on the right bank, and extends continuously a distance of about twenty-five miles from the mouth of Skunk River down to the point D (see Dia- gram K), where it joins the Keokuk limestone rock just back of Montrose. In descending the river from Madison, the river gradually recedes from this bluff, and a few miles above D the bluff is three miles from the river. A large portion of the intervening Space is occupied by a sand terrace, varying from twenty to fifty feet in height above the high water; the other portion is bottom land, subject to overflow. ieee The river, before reaching Montrose, has a width within its banks at ordinary stages of about balf a mile, and the depth of water in the pools at low stage is from fifteen to twenty feet, bed being of sand, with no rock in place ; nor is there any rock in the right-bank bluffs till just below Montrose, where it ins also in the river-bed. On the left bank or Illinois side the bluffs are of rock, the same as at the rapids, where they ave been cat through by the river. This cut begins at Mon- trose, where the river makes a turn at a right angle to the east- ward, but the depth at low water is only two to three feet, and he width at ordinary stages has widened to one mile. On both sides of the rapids the rock bluffs rise almost immediately from the water. The river on the rapids continues easterly about two miles, then turns southward and maintains this direction until all the rapids are passed and for a mile beyond; then . 428 G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. turns southwest until the mouth of the Des Moines River is passed, and then turns southward again. The rock disappears in the bed on passing Keokuk; the water then deepens, flowing on a sandy bed, and resumes its width of about half a mile between its ordinary banks. On tne rapids there are no considerable or permanent islands, but as you go above or below, you find them as soon as the rock- bed is left. arsaw, three miles below the foot of the rapids, the Car- boniferous rocks show in the bluffs, and so does the unmodified glacial drift, covered with the loess. (See Diagram F.) The Mississippi Valley at Warsaw is about eight miles wide; part of it a sand terrace, but most of it subject to overflow. Proceeding up the Des Moines from the mouth, we leave the limestone strata at the point H (Diagram E), and do not meet with it again, either in the river bed or bluffs, till we reach the int C, where we find it in both places, and thence all along up this valley. In this distance between H and C the bluffs are only on the left bank or north side, and the material appears similar to that at Madison or to the loess at Warsaw, shown in Diagram F. If we examine the valley of Sugar Creek, we find the bluffs cut down as low as on the Des Moines between H and C, and all of similar material, clay and sand, but no rock in place. Nor could we find on any of the branches between ABC and DEH any rock in place or learn of any. ithin these limiting lines sese who have dug wells for water find it without reaching roc At the place marked K on the sand terrace a well fifty feet deep encountered no rock, although this was as far down as the level of low water in the river. : The width of the main valley above Fort Madison is nearly the same as below Keokuk, and if we prolong the line of bluff between these two places, it will ‘scale a space between them where there is no known rock in situ, a which it appears recent. It has a thickness of many feet in places. It is ; Ing ee quiet, through which ‘the fine silt dropped. Such conditions would exist in salt water, and the silt would prevent the exist- * * G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. 429 ence of many kinds of marine life, and would contain the animal remains brought from the fresh-water streams. The margins of the loess deposits are not well defined, and do not appear to have been investigated as they should be. deposit is well shown near Rock Island, but does not appear as high up as Dubuque (so farasI know). It extends up the Missouri as far as Sioux City, and the Missouri River made immense deposits into the body of water in which the loess was laid down. From the absence of marine fossils, this body of water has been regarded as fresh and without connection with the Gulf of Mexico except through an outlet. Judging by what I know of the deposits, I should think it did not connect with our present Great Lakes, and that a tongue of land or promontory separated the arms extending up the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. The streams which brought this fine loess material which has been so spread out must have brought down heavier material along the bottom that fell as soon as it reached the enlarged section, just as rivers make their deposits of heavy material loess period, and not to glacial times. These deposits are where streams would bring them from the northwest, while the Cannot be accounted for by any special hardness of the rocks, is i d beca but their resistance is increase *€ 480 G. K. Warren— Valley of the Minnesota and Mississippi. been required there to have carried the river back again to its ancient channel during some extraordinary flood, and yet it might have been that the new channel would even after this remain the permanent one for ordinary stages. Such an explanation as this may be applicable to the cases at Fountain Bluff and at the Grand Chain on the Mississippi just above the mouth of the Ohio, and to the almost incompre- hensible changes of course in the Lower Ohio itself, shown on the general map. nother interesting supposition may be made that the Missis- sippi in the last terrace period might have succeeded in washing down the bluffs, separating it near Burlington from the Crooked Creek flowing into the Illinois. (See Diagram 1, sheet 4.) The new channel would have double the descent to the mouth of the Illinois of the existing one, and we might have gained a new course for the river, leaving a larger ancient channel occupied by a smaller stream, and there would have been set at work a new cause to modify all the valley of the Illinois River and all the Mississippi above. Summary of principal points presented.—I will summarize the principal facts that seem to be made out along the course of the Minnesota and Mississippi : . That the Minnesota Valley and the Mississippi Valley above the Ohio have been, asa rule, formed since the deposition of the glacial drift, for this exists in unmodified and modified forms in the banks of the river; and that the Winnipeg basin drained out southward along it. . . Rivers, and in the first instance considered what the results southern elevation and northern depression now going on. — I explains, by one widely exerted influence, many effects which; on the grounds of glacial action alone, requires many specl@ g- : I think this change of relative carson south and depression — north has been probably reversed at some periods, and repeated. This is important, for, if we can show that any movement 0 J. D. Dana on the characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 431 the earth’s crust is a recurrent phenomenon, it may help us to trace out its cause. Approximate practical conclusions.—The only practical con- clusion which can be drawn from the preceding discussion seems to be that the origin of the excavation of the valley is compara- tively modern, and that it was from the operation of forces producing probably uniform results, and in a way that we have some approximate comprehension of it in general, from our knowledge of special localities. Note.—Descriptions of the best known sections of the valley follow in the report. Art. LI.—On some points in Lithology; by James D. Dana. [Continued from page 343.] his term “ hornblende-granite” is at variance also with the fundamental idea and nature of granite. Granite is eminently Presence of a little iron in the original material having appar- ently determined the formation of the latter where it occurs. the contrary the hornblende of such rocks contains usually 432 J. D. Dana on some points in Lithology. these and other rocks. They are throughout lithology a source of difficulty in characterizing kinds of rocks, as already s ut they do not set aside the fact that the division between the mica and potash-feldspar series and the hornblende and potash-feldspar series is the most reasonable on mineral- ogical and chemical grounds. ecies through isomorphous substitutions of the tions of these % tersilicate and bisilicate (the amount of sodium present deter- because, in several cases, mechanical mixtures of one species with another had been ascertained to exist in crystals. Now that Des Cloizeaux has proved, by optical investigations, that several of the species of triclinic feldspars are really species, other departments of chemistry, and that there are not indefinite blendings, the term “ plagioclase” has become merely a synonym for ‘triclinic feldspar.” J. D. Dana on the Characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 488 e consequences to lithology of this introduction of the term “plagioclase” were unfortunately great. It was made a sufficient definition of a rock to say that it consisted of “ plagio- clase and hornblende,” “ plagioclase and augite,” and so on; and this is now common in recent memoirs on rocks. It was a con- rately stated and described, the account might have been satis- factory. But, under both diabase and dioryte, the term “ pla- ioclase” is used as if sufficiently defined in itself, and under loryte it is given with its aggregate signification alone, no mention being made of the particular feldspar the dioryte of different localities contains. If a dioryte happens to be porphyritic, it is at once put into *It should be here acknowledged that Rosenbusch’s very valuable work bears the title “ Mikroskopische Physiographie der massigen Gesteine” so that it does hot claim to cover the subject of the chemical or mineralogical constitution of Am. Jour. Sor.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XVI, No. 96.—Dec., 1878. 28 434 J. D. Dana on some points in Lithology. In geology, it is essential to a thorough study of the ques- tions it has before it that the kinds of feldspars should not be massed under a common name; and that in every case the investigation should be considered unfinished unti] not merely the amount of silica in the rock is accurately ascertained, but also the particular species of feldspar is correctly and fully determined, however great the labor required to reach a conclu- sion. The use of the term plagioclase in such a case is an acknowledgment of incomplete work, and should be so treated. But the objection to the use of the term “plagioclase” is still stronger than has been stated. It now includes not only the soda-lime feldspars from anorthite to albite inclusive, but also part of potash-feldspar. The establishment, on an unques- tionable basis, of Breithaupt’s microcline by Des Cloizeaux, and his further observations that this triclinic potash-feldspar is a common mineral, much of what was supposed to be ortho- clase belonging to it, has extended the range of “ plagioclase,” until it is now almost an equivalent of the general term feldspar, so that “ plagioclase and hornblende” has, as to chemical consti- tution, the same signification now with feldspar and hornblende. 6. Rocks consisting of a triclinic feldspar and mica.—The term dioryte, formerly defined as a rock consisting of oligoclase or albite and hornblende, has been introduced into the name ot a The remarks made respecting syenyte apply equally here; and also those respecting “ plagioclase.” A mica-dioryte is, like granite, eminently an alkali-yielding rock, the mica (biotite) affording usually ten per cent of potash ; and as granites often contain oligoclase as well as orthoclase, the amount of potash and soda in a “mica-dioryte” and a granite may not be very wade shaped Dioryte, on the contrary, is prominently a orn : to the mineralogical and chemical constitution of the rocks, we are naturally led to recognize along side of a mica and potash-feldspar series, which is headed by granite, also a mica and soda-lime feldspar series, and to include in the latter the so-called mica-diorytes. 7. Hornblendie or Augitic—Hornblendie and augitic rocks stand apart as a general thing in all systems of lithology. Yet J, D. Dana on the Characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 485 the minerals are essentially identical in chemical composition, and related in crystallization, though different in their occurring crystalline forms and in the angle of the cleavage prism. identity in composition is so close that chemical analysis is not able to distinguish them. Hence the related eruptive rocks of the hornblendic and augitic series (or those containing the same species of feldspar in like proportions) must have originated in material of essentially the same chemical composition. The relation between the two minerals is thus far closer than between the triclinic species of feldspars. evertheless, too much importance is not given them when each is made distinctive of an independent series of rocks; for the very wide extent to which augitic rocks retain unvaryingly their augitic characters—such rocks constituting full two-thirds of the earth’s eruptive masses—shows that the special conditions producing augite, instead of hornblende, whatever they are, have often acted on a vast scale in the earth’s history. And So, also, the very wide distribution of hornblendic rocks, espe- cially among the metamorphic kinds, is evidence of a like com- peraneive influence of the conditions needed to make horn- lende in place of augite. The geological importance of the distinction is reason enough for recognizing it in lithological Systems. : 8. Massive or Schistose.—Massive structure is often made prima facie evidence of igneous origin. Granite, with hardly a ques- tioning thought, has usually been placed solely among eruptive rocks. The igneous origin of dioryte even now is hardly left Open to investigation by some lithologists, Serpentine has been In the same category, though at present there are advocates of its metamorphic origin. And so other massive rocks are too likely to be set down as eruptive without a fair investigation. No two rocks are put farther apart in some lithological systems than granite and gneiss; and yet, none are more closely related in constitution and all essential characteristics. me The following are reasons for disregarding this distinction of Massive or schistose in classifying rocks, and for allowing a _ Massive structure little weight in deciding the question as to eruptive or metamorphic origin. : (1.) Massive rocks may be both metamorphic and eruptive. Granite, syenyte, with dioryte and other hornblendic rocks, are examples of massive rocks that are of both modes of origin. Many localities where kinds of these rocks occur metamorphic ave been described. I will mention two or three from the of granite, having a small northward dip, changes gradually to gneiss, and then to gneiss with some very micaceous mica 436 J. D. Dana on some points in Lathology. an a part of the general gneissic formation of the region. (8) The labradorite-dioryte two miles west of New Haven graduates often and variously, that there is no reason for questioning its metamorphic origin. (ce) A hornblende (or actinolite) rock, just northeast of Bernardston, of a massive kind, occurs among thin schistose beds of mica schist and hornblendic schist and is are massive wherever hornblende is the chief ingredient. It explains also the existence of the massive labradorite-dioryte among tne syte, quartz-felsyte, granulyte), is almost sure, under the circum- stances mentioned, to make a rock, with the bedding obliter- structure that favors any other condition. (8.) Pressure may be a source of schistosity or foliation, and it may also obliterate bedding. On the first of these points illustration is not necessary. As to the second, there are many examples 10 the crystalline limestone region of Western New ae , both in Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut. At West Rutland, Vermont, as first observed by Prof. Edward Hitchcock, many limestone beds have been cemented by the pressure which gave them their high dip into a bed of great thickness, so that masses as large as a moderate-sized house could be cut out if needed. complete enongh to obliterate the fossils—shells, corals and — crinoids being distinguishable; so that there could have been J. D. Dana on the Characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 487 no fusion to produce the coalescence. As this welding of beds is so perfect in the limestone, it is reasonable to believe that a similar cause may have acted in the case of feldspathic, horn- blendic and augitie rocks, without even the aid of incipient usion. (4.) The sedimentary beds which have been converted into crystal- line rocks were often originally massive.—This is the condition of most conglomerates, and often of coarse sandstones. In suc cases there would be no bedding to obliterate ; and the produc- tion of a massive rock would be a natural result of the meta- morphism, whether the heat attending it were great or small. Part of the metamorphic granite of the world may therefore uever have been in a pasty state ; and so also part of the meta- morphic hornblende rocks ; some metamorphic felsyte beds, cer- tainly those that are of conglomerate origin, were originally massive, ; There is hence reason enough for neglecting the distinction of massive and schistose in drawing out a system or classifica- tion of rocks, and for making the question of origin in the case of either kind, the massive no less than the schistose, a subject for careful investigation. 9, Metamorphic or Eruptive-—The question whether a crystal- line rock is metamorphic and in place, or eruptive, is of the high- est geological interest ; for it is a question as to origin. At the same time, no subject, if we exclude the part of metamorphism relating to the obviously schistose rocks, is in so unsatisfactory a state. With some authors, as above intimated, the question so far as it relates to massive crystalline rock is not an open one. On the other hand, when investigation has taken place, Opposite opinions have generally been reached. The remedy of this is to be found in more thorough study from a wider basis of facts. greater completeness and higher geological value to the descrip- tions of rocks, Applying different names to the like rocks in metamorphic under any kind of rock by ing to the name the prefix meta; for example, dioryte for the eruptive and metadioryte for the metamorphic part. But meta is usec simply as an abbreviation of the word metamorphic, not to indi- cate a difference of kind in the rock. 2 438 J. D. Dana on some points in Lithology. CONCLUSIONS. The principal points with regard to rocks which have been brought out in this paper, are the following. 1. The necessities of the science of Geology constitute the most prominent motive for distinguishing Ainds of rocks; and they should determine to a large extent upon what charac- ters distinctions should be based. 2. In determining the rocks to be grouped as one in kind under a common name, near identity in the chemical and min- eral composition of the chief constituents is the main point to be considered ; not near identity in their crystalline forms, for isomorphism presupposes diversity of composition. 8. Distinction of kind should be based on difference in chem- ical and mineral constitution as regards the chief constituents. When such difference exists, rocks are different in ind, an need, for the purposes of geology, distinct names. If it does not exist, the distinction is only that of variety; unless (as in the case of trachyte and felsyte), the very wide extension of the rock under persistent characters makes a distinction of name important to geology. 4. It follows from the preceding, that differences in texture: as coarse, or fine, or aphanitic ; porphyritic, or non-porphyritic ; stoney throughout, or having unindividualized portions among 6. Since “plagioclase” is not the name of a mineral species, ——several minerals, of widely different compositions penis microcline, a large part of potash feldspar, which had been sup- posed to be orthoclase, it has become almost synonymous with the term feldspar. The “ simplicity” its adoption has been J. D. Dana on the Characters distinguishing Kinds of Rocks. 439 supposed to give to lithological system would be greater if “ feld- spar” were substituted, and with its present range of constitu- tion, the evil would be hardly less. 7. Rocks differing mineralogically, and not chemically, like related hornblendic and augitic rocks (the minerals hornblende and augite being dimorphous), are rightly made distinct rocks, since the difference has depended, to a large extent, on wide- reaching geological operations or conditions, and is, therefore, ° of great geological signficance. Since quartz is the most widely distributed and therefore the least distinctive of the minerals of rocks, it may rightly be regarded as of subordinate importance in the distinguishing of rocks, and hence not only such names as dioryte and quartz-dio- ryle, trachyle and quartz-trachyle, etc., are acceptable, but also eing, constitution and formula, the rocks in which biotite is a chief Constituent cannot rightly be put in the same group with hornblende rocks; or those in which hornblende is a chief Constitution. Lithology is to receive hereafter its greatest advances through chemical analyses; for chemistry alone can clear away the doubts the microscope leaves, and so give that completeness to the Science of Rocks which geology requires for right and comprehensive conclusion Moreover the researches made in the laboratory to be of real Seological value should be, if possible, supplemented by inves- tigations in the field as to transitions among the rocks, and as to other kinds of relations. This field work has often been well done, but not so by all lithological investigators. — _ The principles presented lead to. the following subdivisions in an arrangement of crystalline rocks, exclusive of the Calca- reous and Quartzose kinds. Since leucite is a potash-alumina Silicate, like orthoclase and microcline (it affording twenty per cent or more of potash), it is here referred to the same grou with the potash feldspars; and nephelite, sodalite and the Saussurites being eminently soda-bearing species, they are 440 J. D. Dana on some points in Lithology. hence to be understood as covering orthoclase, microcline and leucite ; and soda-lime feldspar, as including the triclinic feld- = from anorthite to albite, and also nephelite, sodalite and the saussurites, The arrangement is as follows. In the first series, the rocks graduate into kinds which are all feldspar, and into others that are all mica; and yet the amount of potash present is approxl- mately the same. j I. Toe Mica anp Potash FeLpsPaAR SERIES: including Granite, Granulyte, Gneiss, Protogine, Mica schist, etc., Fel- syte, Trachyte, etc., and the Leucite rock of Wyoming. © IL Tae Mica anp Sopa-Lime Fexpspar Series: includ- ing Kersantite, Kinzigite; and the nephelitic kinds Miascyte, Ditroyte, Phonolyte, ete. (These nephelitic kinds belong almost as well in the preceding series . THe HoRNBLENDE AND PoTasH FELDSPAR SERIES: including Syenyte (with Quartz-syenyte), Syenyte-gneiss, Horn- lende schist, Amphibolyte, Unakyte (this last containing epl- dote in place of hornblende); and the nephelitic species Zircon- Syenyte, Foyayte. IV. THe HornBLeNpdE AND Sopa-Limz FELDSPAR SERIES: including Dioryte (with Propylyte), Andesyte, Labradioryte (or Labrador-dioryte), etc., and the saussurite rock, Euphotide. » V. Tue PyRoxene AND Porasu FELDSPAR SERI&S: includ- ep eae I. Tae PyroxENE AND Sopa-Lime FELpspAR SERIES: including Augite-Andesyte, Noryte(Hypersthenyte and Gabbro in part), Hypersthenyte (containing true hypersthene), Doleryte nek gee Basalt and Diabase), Nephelinyte, ete. VII. Prroxene, GARNET, EPrpoTE AND CHRYSOLITE ROCKS, CONTAINING LITTLE OR NO FeLpspar: including Pyroxenyte, Lherzolyte, Garnetyte (Garnet rock), Eclogyte, Epidosyte, Chrysolyte or Dunyte (Chrysolite rock), ete. I. Hyprovs MaGnestan AND ALUMINOUS Rocks, CON- TAINING LITTLE OR NO FetpspaR: including Chlorite schist, Talcose schist, Serpentine, Ophiolyte, Pyrophyllite schist, etc. CGC te. oe J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. 441 Arr. LIL—On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances ; by J. WILLARD Giszs.* Abstract by the author. The following form, which is easily shown to be equivalent to the preceding, is often more convenient in application : IL. For the equilibrium of any isolated system tt is necessary and sufficient that in all possible variations of the state of the system which do not alter its entropy, the variation of its energy shall ether vanish or be positive. If we denote the energy and entropy of the system by ¢ and 7 respectively, the criterion of equilibrium may be expressed by either of the formule (077). 50, (1) 2 Again, if we assume that the temperature of the system is uniform, and denote its absolute temperature by ¢, and set pan € — tf 7, the remaining conditions of equilibrium may be expressed by the formula (di),=0, : the suffixed letter, as in the preceding cases, indicating that the quantity which it represents is constant. is condition, in Connection with that of uniform temperature, may be shown to equivalent to (1) or (2). The difference of the values of » for two different states of the system which have the same temperature represents the work which would be expended in bringing the system from one state to the other by a reversible Process and without change of temperature. * Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. iii, pp. 108-248 and 343-524. 442 J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. If the system is incapable of thermal changes, like the sys- tems considered in theoretical mechanics, we may regard the entropy as having the constant value zero. Conditions (2) and (4) may then be written dé=0, dp=0, and are obviously identical in signification, since in this case namic system. In fact, each of the quantities —e and —¢ (relating to a system without sensible motion) may be regarded as a kind of force-function for the system,—the former as the force-function for constant entropy, (i. e., when only such states of the system are considered as have the same entropy,) and the latter as the force-function for constant temperature, (i. &, when only such states of the system are considered as have the same uniform temperature). ue In the deduction of the particular conditions of equilibrium ( Notwithstanding these considerations, the author has pre- ferred in general to use condition (2) as the criterion of equl- portant : he slightly different form in which the subject would develop itself, if condition (4) had been chosen as a point of departure instead of (2), is occasion- ally indicated. ' SN ee a ee a a eel er J. W. Gibbs—Equitibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, 448 Equilibrium of masses in contact—The first problem to which the criterion is applied is the determination of the conditions of equilibrium for different masses in contact, when uninflu- enced by gravity, electricity, distortion of the solid masses, or capillary tensions. The statement of the result is facilitated by the following definition. : In addition to equality of temperature and pressure in the Masses in contact, it is necessary for equilibrium that the tential for every substance which is an independently varia- le component of any of the different masses shall have the imal variations in the composition and thermodynamic state of the different masses in contact. There are certain other Anything which restricts the free movement of the compo- nent substances, or of the masses as such, may diminish the number of conditions which are necessary for equilibrium. Equilibrium of osmotic forces.—I£ we suppose two fluid masses to be separated by a diaphragm which is permeable to some of the component substances and not to others, of the conditions of equilibrium which have just been mentioned, those will still subsist which relate to temperature and the potentials for € substances to which the diaphragm is permeable, but those relating to the potentials for the substances to which the dia- phragm is impermeable will no longer be necessary. Whether the pressure must be the same in the two fluids will depend upon the rigidity of the diaphragm. Even when the dia- phragm is permeable to all the components without restriction, equality of pressure in the two fluids is not always necessary for equilibrium. : 444 J. W. Gibbs—EKquilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. y May ee ly pendently variable components, and p,, fa, - he poten- tials for these components. It is easily shown that ¢ is a 1) M,,. . m,, and that the complete value of de is given by the equation de=tdn—pdv + y,dm,+ yu,dm,... + p,dm,. (5) Now if ¢ is known in terms of 7, v, m -. mM, We can obtain by differentiation ¢, p, w#,, ... #, in terms of the same variables. This will make n + 8 independent known relations between the 2n +5 variables, ¢, 4, v,m,,™m,,.-- My 4 P; ese are all that exist, for of these varia- require consideration. A single equation from which all these relations may be deduced may be called a fundamental equa- tion. An equation between ¢, 7,v,m,,m,, .. - mM, isa funda- mental equation. But there are other equations which possess the same property. If we suppose the quantity ¢ to be determined for such a lass as we are considering by equation (3), we may obtain by differentiation and comparison with (5) dp =—ndt—pdv + w,dm,+m,dm,... + 1,dm,. (6) If, then, ¢ is known as a function of ¢, v, m,, Mg, - + + Mn We can Hnd %, p, ft, #,,... pw, in terms of the same variables. Tf we then substitute for ¢ in our original equation its value taken from equation (3) we shall have again n + 8 independent Pe between the same 2n + 5 variables as before. et Cet v (7) then, by (5), Ue ed = —ndt+vdp+p,dm,+ y,dm,...+Hadm, (8) ea a Ben alee Sener wen ae Se aD eae J. W. Gibbs—Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. 445 If, then, ¢ is known as a function of 4, p, m we can find 7, v, #,, fo, - + + My in terms of the | tite ‘uration By eliminating r we may obtain again n + 8 0 tage rela- tions between the same 2n +5 variables as at If we integrate (5), (6) and (8), supposes the quantity of the compound substance considered to vary from zero to any ne value, its nature and state remaining unchanged, we tai é=tyn—pv+ um, + Mm, ... MM, (9) po=-—prvt+um+um,... ot (10) c= wm, + wm, ... + f,m (11) If we differentiate (9) in the a general manner, and com- pare the result with (5), we obtai -vdp+ndt+m,du, MS oot im, OS 0, (12) or dp = dt dy, + "du, ane + dy,=0. (13) Hence, there is a relation between the n + 2 seta = t, P, Pay fay» - - fw Which, if known, will enable us to terms of these quantities a all the ratios of the n + 2 quasi av With (9), this will make n+ 38 inde- fenton! Siar between the same 2n + 5 variables as at first. ny equation, therefore, between the quantities &, 1; v, wey My + +» May = y, t, Vv; m,, Ma, seals! Mny or ¢; Zt, Ps mM, Migs ss Why nis t, Ps By, By +2 > Muy is a poracagees equation, and any such is kote; equivalent to any o — hases.—In considering the different Leaaoegians bodies which can be formed out of any set of co Stances, it is convenient to have a term which shall refer solely to the composition and thermodynamic state of any such body Without regard to its size or form. The word phase has been chosen for this purpose. Such bodies as differ in composition or state are called different phases of the matter considered, all sini The properties of the quantities —y and —¢ regarded as functions of the ed in a memoir entitled Sur les factions caractéristiques des divers fiuic r la théorie des vapeurs Apes Savants Etrang.,t xxii.) A brief sketch of his method in a form slightly different voy that uutmately adopted i is given in Comptes Rendus, t. xix, (1 oem) pe Ean 7, and by M. Bertrand in Comptes Ren —- t. kxxi, p. 257. of Massiou appears to have been the first to Solve the shang? of representing all th Ai hes of a body ‘of invariable com- 446 J. W. Gibbs—Hquilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. bodies which differ only in size and form being regarded as ifferent examples of the same phase. Phases which can exist together, the dividing surfaces being plain, in an equi- librium which does not depend upon passive resistances to ni, change, are called coéaxiste d, : : such as —> may be expressed in terms of the entropies and EE, Bet RO SS dt v'—v" t(v’—v’')’ in which v’, v’, 7’, 7’, denote the volumes and entropies of a given quantity of the substance in the two phases, and Q the two pairs of coéxistent phases. If the temperature of three coéxistent phases of three compo- fe 25 Nid SARs Na I ge i a. hin ee lee: a eC. ae PO a Tam a a Banh ha tt a a tS i hte ka J. W. Gibbs—Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. 447 nents is maintained constant, the pressure is in general a maxi- mum or minimum when the composition of one of the phases is such as can be produced by combining the other two. If the pressure is maintaitied constant, the temperature is in gen- eral a maximum or minimum when the same condition in regard to the composition of the phases is fulfilled. Stability of fluids.—A criterion of the stability of a homoge- neous fluid, or of a system of coéxistent fluid phases, is afforded by the expression e—tntpvo—pum—p/m, . . . —U,'m, (14) in which the values of the accented letters are to be determined by the phase or system of phases of which the stability is in question, and the values of the unaccented letters by any other phase of the same components, the possible formation of which is in question. We may call the former constants, and the lat- of change, and unstable with respect to the latter. In this case, It may be capable of continued existence in virtue of proper- 448 J. W. Gibbs—Hquilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. ties which prevent the commencement of discontinuous changes. But a phase which is unstable with respect to continuous changes is evidently incapable of permanent existence on a large scale except in consequence of passive resistances to change. To obtain the conditions of stability with respect to continuous changes, we have only to limit the application of the variables in (14) to phases adjacent to the given phase. _ The equation of the limits of stability with respect to con- tinuous changes may be written 2 (7) = Oo (<2 =o, (15) dy t fy, ee oe fa—1 d,? t, Fay cee Se -n—1i where 7, denotes the density of the component specified or M,~v i suffix , is regarded as relating. Hn ey (++) BY alt yy. pany | yg? ]8 yy. . pants pecan po St. ae ee J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. 449 respect to discontinuous changes. These limits are in general distinct, but touch each other at critical phases. Geometrical tllustrations,—In an earlier paper,* the author has described a method of representing the thermodynamic equation cannot be completely represented by any surface or finite number of surfaces. In the case of three components, if e—Em 1 ton ™: 1" ¢ log — = H+a og |? (17) that in ¢, ¢, v, and m is ip = Bm mt(c—H-clogt+alog™): (18) that in p, ¢ and pis Hne-a cha p—R c p=ae Sapling = ; ets) where e denotes the base of the Naperian system of logarithms. As for the other constants, c denotes the specific heat of the * Transactions of the cademy, vol. ii, part 2. Am. Joon. Scr.—Tuirp> — Vou. XVI, No, 96.—Dec., 1878. 450 J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. gas at constant volume, a denotes the constant value of pu~mt, end upon the zeros of energy and entropy. The found convenient to give the law the following form: € pressure in a mixture of different gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of the different gases as existing each by itself at the same temperature and with the same value of its potential. A mixture of ideal gases which satisfies this law is called an ideal gas-mixture. Its fundamental equation in p, t, #4, #2, ete. is evidently of the form ; unig et SENN. ree, Peete me (20) where 2’, denotes summation with respect to the different com- nents of the mixture. From this may be deduced other fundamental equations for ideal gas-mixtures. That in ¢, ¢, v, M,.,M™,, etc. is ~= >,(Eym, +m,t (e.— H,—-c, logi+a, log s))- (21) Phases of dissipated energy of ideal gas-:nixtures.—When the t proximate components of a gas-mixture are so related that reduce any other phase of the gas-mixture to a phase of dissi- ted energy Th ont wl 3 ees SSRORREE SNe re eee ie ee ee — — J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. 451 Gas-mixtures with convertible components.—The theory of the phases of dissipated energy of an ideal gas-mixture derives an especial interest from its possible application to the case of those gas-mixtures in which the chemical composition and resolution of the components can take place in the gas-mixture itself, and actually does take place, so that the quantities of the proximate components are entirely determined by the essure. se all mixtues with convertible components. If the general laws of f as-mixtures apply in any such case, it may easily be dissipated energy are the only phases the equation in p, ¢, #,, #2, ete. for the gas-mixture, regarding The validity of the results thus obtained depends upon the applicability of the laws of ideal gas-mixtures to cases in which chemical action takes place. Some of these laws are generally regarded as capable of such application, others are not so regarded. But it may be shown that in the very important case in which the components of a gas are convertible at certain temperatures, and not at others, the theory proposed may be established without other assumptions than such as are gen- erally admitted. = It is, however, only by experiments upon gas-mixtures with convertible components, that the validity of any theory con- cerning them can be satisfactorily established. : The vapor of the peroxide of nitrogen appears to be a mixture of two different vapors, of one of which the molecular formula is double that of the other. If we suppose that the vapor con- forms to the laws of an ideal gas-mixture in a state of dissipated energy, we may obtain an equation between the temperature, pressure, and density of the vapor, which exhibits a somewhat Striking agreement with the results of experiment Equilibrium of stressed solids.—The second paper commences With a discussion of the conditions of internal and external equilibrium for solids in contact with fluids with regard to all ssible states of strain of the solids. Tk . le ditions are uced by analytical processes from the general condition of 452 J. W. Gibbs—Hquilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. equilibrium (2). The condition of equilibrium which relates to the dissolving of the solid at a surface where it meets a fluid may be expressed by the equation Ps See AL be Et (22) nt Ky The fundamental equations which have been described above of strain, or by an equation between ¢ [see (3)] as determined for a given quantity of the solid, the temperature, and the quantities which express the state of strain. Capillarity.—The solution of the problems which precede may be regarded as a first approximation, in which the peculiar state of thermodynamic equilibrium about the surfaces of dis- continuity is neglected. To take account of the condition of things at these surfaces, the following method is used. Let us suppose that two homogeneous fluid masses are separated by 8 surface of discontinuity, i. e., by a very thin non-homogeneous film. Now we may imagine a state of things in which each of the homogeneous masses extends without variation of the densi- ties of its several components, or of the densities of energy and entropy, quite up to a geometrical surface (to be called the divid- — a Boned is called the surface of tension. J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. 458 6&=t dnf6+o b3s+ 4, dmi+ u, dm}+ ete. (23) in which s denotes the area of the surface considered, / the tem- perature, 4;, f, etc. the potentials for the various components in the adjacent masses. It may be, however, that some of the components are found only at the surface of discontinuity, in which case the letter # with the suffix relating to such a sub- Stance denotes, as the equation shows, the rate of increase of energy at the surface per unit of the substance added, when the entropy, the area of the surface, and the quantities of the other components are unchanged. The quantity o we may regard as defined by the equation itself, or by the following, which is obtained by integration : = t B+ 8+ py mi+ fl, m+ ete. (24) i o(a+e)=p'—p", (85) where p’, p’” denote the pressures in the two masses, and Cy Co the principal curvatures of the surface. Since this equation 1a8 the same form as if a tension equal to @ resided at the sur- face, the quantity @ is called (as is usual) the superficial tension, d the dividing surface in the particular position above men- 454 J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. By differentiation of (24) and comparison with (23), we obtain d o=— 7 dt—I, du,—I, du, — ete., (26) : 7& me m3 where 7s, Ij, I, ete. are written for +, —, s ete., and de- note the superficial densities of entropy and of the various sub- stances. We may regard a as a function of 4, 4, f, ete., from which if known 9s, I}, Ij, etc. may be determined in terms of the same variables. An equation between a, ¢, 44, / etc. may therefore be called a fundamental equation for the surface of dis- continuity. The same may be said of an equation between é*, wf, 8, m8, m§, etc. It is necessary for the stability of a surface of discontinuity that its tension shall be as small as that of any other surface which can exist between the same homogeneous masses with the same temperature and potentials. Beside this condition, which relates to the nature of the surface of discontinuity, there are other conditions of stability, which relate to the possible motion of such surfaces. One of these is that the tension shall be posi- stability or instability of the system are easily found, when the temperature and potentials of th as well as the fundamental equations for the interior mass an 2=(p'-p)n (2) would be in equilibrium with a surrounding mass of the first phase. This equilibrium, as we have just seen, is instable, when the surrounding mass is indefinitely extended. A spherical J. W. Gibbs— Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, 455 mass a little larger would tend to increase indefinitely. The work required to form such a spherical mass, by a reversible process, in the interior of an infinite mass of the other phase, is given by the equation W=os—(p"— p')v’. (28) The term gs represents the work spent in forming the surface, and the term (p”’— p’)v” the work gained in forming the inte- rior mass. The second of these quantities is always equal to two-thirds of the first. The value of W is therefore positive, and the phase is in strictness stable, the quantity W afford- ing a kind of measure of its stability. We may easily express the value of W in a form which does not involve any geo- metrical magnitudes, viz: : 16z0° = SS 29 3( p" —p' y ? ( ) where p”’, p’ and o may be regarded as functions of the tempe- rature and potentials. It will be seen that the stability, thus measured, is infinite for an infinitesimal difference of pressures, but decreases very rapidly as the difference of pressures increases, These conclusions are all, however, practically lim- ited to the case in which the value of 7, as determined by equation (27) is of sensible magnitude. ; _ With respect to the somewhat similar problem of the stabil- ity of the surface of contact of two phases with respect to the formation of a new, phase, the following results are obtained. Let the phases (supposed to have the same temperature and potentials) be denbund be A, B, and C; their pressures by pa, Pz and pc; and the tensions of the three possible surfaces o,s, %Bc, Fac. If pe is less than Oxc Pat FacPs Ope + Fac there will be no tendency toward the formation of the new phase at the surface between A and B. the temperature or potentials are now varied until p¢ is equal to the above expres- sion, there are two cases to be distinguished. The tension @,4, will be either equal to @4¢ + gc or less. (A greater value could only relate to an unstable and therefore unusual surface. FxB = Gx¢ + Ggo, a farther variation of the temperature or potentials, making p, greater than the above expression, would cause the phase C to be formed at the surface between A and B. Butif os, < xc + Oxo. the surface between A and B would remain stable, but with rapidly diminishing stability, after pg has passed the limit mentioned. hades tua ? The conditions of stability for a line where several surfaces _ of discontinuity meet, with respect to the possible formation of 456 J. W. Gibbs—Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. a new surface, are capable of a very simple expression. If the surfaces A-B, B-C, C-D, D-A, separating the masses A, B, QO, D, meet along a line, it is necessary for equilibrium that their tensions and directions at any point of the line should be such that a quadrilateral a, 8, 7, d may be formed with sides repre- senting in direction and length the normals and tensions of the successive surfaces. For the stability of the system with reference to the possible formation of surfaces between A and C, or between B and D, it is farther necessary that the tensions Gxc and ogp should be greater than the diagonals ay and f respectively. The conditions of stability are entirely analo- gous in the case of a greater number of surfaces. For the conditions of stability relating to the formation of a new phase at a line in which three surfaces of discontinuity meet, or at a point where four different phases meet, the reader is referred to the original paper. : Liquid films.—When a fluid exists in the form of a very thin film between other fluids, the great inequality of its exten- sion in different directions will give rise to certain peculiar properties, even when its thickness is sufficient for its interior The elasticity of a film (i. e., the increase of its tension when extended,) is easily accounted for. It follows from the general J. AW. Gibbs—Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. 457 elations given above that, when a film has more than one com- ponent those components which diminish the tension will be found in greater proportion on the surfaces. When the film is extended, there will not be enough of these substances to keep up the same volume- and surface-densities as before, and the deficieney will cause a certain increase of tension. It does not follow that a thinner film has always a greater tension than a thicker formed of the same liquid. When the phases within the films as well as without are the same, and the surfaces of the films are also the same, there will be no difference of ten- sion. Nor will the tension of the same film be altered, if a part of the interior drains away in the course of time, without affecting the surfaces. If the thickness of the film is reaiaiaict evaporation, its tension may be either increased or diminish according to the relative volatility of its different components. Let us now suppose that the thickness of the film is reduced until the limit is reached at which the interior ceases to have the properties of matter in mass The elasticity of the film, Which determines its stability with respect to extension and contraction, does not vanish at this limit. But a certain kind of instability will generally arise, in virtue of which inequali- ties in the thickness of the film will tend to increase through currents in the interior of the film. This probably leads to the destruction of the film, in the case of most liquids. In a film of soap-water, the kind of sorta described seems to be manifested in the breaking out of the black spots. But the sudden diminution in thickness which takes place in parts o the film is arrested by some unknown cause, possibly by vis- cous or gelatinous properties, so that the rupture of the film does not necessarily follow. Hlectromotive force.—The conditions of equilibrium may be modified by electromotive force. Of such cases a galvanic or eectrolytic vell may be regarded as the type. With respect to € potentials for the ae ene the electrical potential the fol- lowing relation may be n When all the conditions « e atheiais are fulfilled in a galvanic r electrolytic cell, the eectromotive force is equal to the difference in the values of the potential for any ton at the surfaces of the electrodes Multiplied by the depo Haack equivalent of that 10n, the greater potential of an anion bang at the same electrode as uh elec- trical potential, and the reverse being true of a The relation which exists between the decisis force of a perfect electro- chemical apparatus (i, €., & ga alvanic or electrolytic cell which satisfies the condition at reversibility,) and the changes in oe cell which accompany the passage of electricity, May be expressed by the equation dex (VV) de tay taWet BW (80) 458 W. J. McGee—Crania of the Mound-builders. in which de denotes the increment of the intrinsic energy in the apparatus, 77 the increment of entropy, de the quantity of electricity which passes through it, V’ and V” the electrical potentials in pieces of the same kind of metal connected wit the anode and cathode respectively, dW, the work done by gravity, and dW, the work done by the pressures which act on the external surface of the apparatus. The term dW, ma of heat which M. Favre has in many cases observed in a gal- vanic or electrolytic cell, and by the fact that the solid or liquid state of an electrode (at its temperature of fusion) does not affect the electromotive force. Art. LIIL—On an Anatomical Peculiarity by which Crania of the Mound builders may be distinguished from those of the Modern Indians ; * by W. J. McGus, Farley, Iowa. * Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at St. ae a ‘ W. J. MeGee—Crania of the Mound-builders. 459 disagree ;” as when Col. Foster, at one time president of this Association, declared that the only cranium figured by Squier and Davis in their great work on the “ Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley” as representative of the cranial struc- ture of the Mound-builders, did not belong to that race at all. Any observations throwing light on the question of the rela- tions of these crania will therefore be of practical value. The writer has made a pretty thorough study of the arche- ology of northeastern Towa, and has examined several skulls unearthed in that region, as well as some from Wisconsin, IIli- nois and Kentucky. The total number of Mound-builders’ crania examined will not, however, exceed fifty or seventy-five; and a part uf these were fragmentary. Hence the observations cannot be considered to afford a perfectly reliable guide in the determination of crania, and too great weight should not be attached to them until verified by authentic cases of a similar nature from other quarters. At present they have but a pro- visional significance. The structural peculiarity which has n found to be a more trustworthy distinguishing feature than differences in the capacity or general contour of the skulls, relative length and breadth, thickness of walls, or condition and state of preservation of the bone, is.the greater relative size of the posterior molars or “ wisdom teeth” in both maxil- laries of the Mound-builders’ crania than in those of the recent red race. Measurements have not been made to illustrate this difference in relative size, principally because the preparation of this paper was occasioned by the discussion following the reading on yesterday morning of an archeological paper in this section, since which time specimens from which dimensions could be taken have not been accessible. Aside from the simple difference in relative size of the pos- terior and anterior molars, it seems that the ‘‘ wisdom teeth” equally some a from ested ylosis of the sutures permitting frac- 460 W. J. Mc Gee—Crania of the Mound-builders. teeth have been found fully developed and the grinding sur- face nearly or quite as far worn down as in their anterior neighbors. n more mature crania the surface of the pos- terior molar is usually the largest and apparently the most worn down. Hence in the Mound-builder this tooth was not by any means rudimentary, but was a useful organ throughout nearly the whole of the lifetime of its possessor. odors Indian oecupies—if —an intermediate stage in development between that of the Mound-builder on the one hand and that of the Caucassian on the other. As to the period at which the tooth makes its appearance and when it reaches its full development, the writer has been able to learn nothing thus far. This point seems to have escaped the notice of ethnologists heretofore. The dif- ference in relative size and in the comparative maturity of these teeth is sufficient, however, in nearly all the specimens examined, to allow of their ready determination. Neverthe- less this rule could not be indiscriminately applied, as due allowance must be made for differences in age, etc., of the individual; but bilioth care and judgment the writer is con- vinced that it is competent. The greater enaegaet of the posterior molars seems to be common to the lower and earlier races. This peculiarity has been observed in several of the fossil skulls of paleolithic man exhumed in Europe, as in the jaw-bone from the cave of Naulette, Belgium, in which, as reported by the Belgian geolo- gists, the molar teeth increased in size backward. Dr. E. mbert, of Brussels, bas recently made an extensive collection of crania of various races, and has found that the posterior molar is relatively reer not only in the red but in the black races than in the Caucassian. The dentation of the e races. This morphological variation in the different stocks of ma kind is probably a concomitant of the principle of cchalinas tion if not directly codrdinated therewith. It has been shown all mammals since early cenozoic time; and Professor Marsh has shown that this i foe is manifested in a striking degree * Scientific aout. = ee BS Journal, IIT, Ooo, “iets p. 245. References to Professor 5 dpunsane sivas ebdiaeniens Sia AAT soil Neaeilin as Dip no a ee H. Hennessy on the Interior of the Earth. 461 in the Eocene Dinoceras and Coryphodon, in the Miocene Brontotherium, and in the Pliocene Mastodon. But the May examine. The tendene ty ia just as plainly marked as that toward increase in cranial capacity or toward compactness and abbreviation of the anterior organs,—indeed it is undoubtedly correlated with the shortening and compacting of the jaws. nd it is probable that the ‘degree of development of any mammal, as the horse or pig, can be just as ania and relia- bly measured by the relative size of its molars y the size of its brain-case or by the presence or absence of ‘eprath bones of manus or pes. Casual statements to the effect that the rela- tive size of. the posterior molar varies inversely as the volume of the brain have indeed been met with, but no critical we cussion of the true significance of such relations; and the practical bearing on the work of the determination of perce American crania seems to have been wholly overlooked, as it certainly was in the discussion of yesterday. Planters’ Hotel, St. Louis, Aug. 23, 1878. Art. LIV.—On the Limits of Hypotheses gs ming the Properties of the ig, composing the laterior of the Harth; by HENRY Hennessy, F.R.S, Professor of Ap lied Riot in the Royal pale of Science for Ireland. 1. From direct observation we are able to obtain only a very bebderdts knowledge of the materials existing below the solid crust of the earth. The depth te which we can penetrate by mining and boring operations into this crust is comparatively insignificant ; and these operations give us little knowledge of — earth’s interior in comparison with what is afforded by the rings of voleanoes. Two hundred active volcanoes are to still exist, while geologists have established that many Ecos of such deep apertures in the earth’s crust have existed during remote epochs of its physical history. The source or sources of supply for all these voleanoes ha ve poared out a predominating mass of matter in a state of liquidity from fusion. Evidence is thus furnished that matter in a state of fluidity exists very widely distributed through the earth. The 1878. Read before the Mathematical and Sintoad cal jersiage dogma a regret for the Advancement of Science, Dublin, 16. 462 H. Hennessy— Properties of the matter supposition that this fluid fills the whole interior, and that the solid crust is a mere exterior envelope, is usually designated as the hypothesis of internal fluidity. From this hypothesis mechanical and physical results of primary importance in terres- trial physics may be deduced. Newton, Clairaut, Laplace, Airy, and other illustrious mathe- maticians have used an extension of this hypothesis in discuss- ing the earth’s figure. They supposed the particles composing the earth to retain the same positions after solidification as that which they held before it. I ventured, for the first time, to discard the latter portion of the hypothesis as useless and con- trary to physical laws. I now venture to say that, in framing any hypotheses as to the physical character of the matter of the earth, we should not affix any property to the supposed matter which is opposed to the properties observed in similar kinds of matter coming under our direct observation. Observation has disclosed that liquids are in general viscid, and that they pos- compressible than copper or . If these general comparative properties of liquids and solids are admitted, it follows that in the hypotheses regarding the earth’s internal structure we should most carefully guard against any assumption directly in contradiction to such pro- erti assuming that the earth contained a fluid totally evoid of viscidity and internal friction, the late Mr. Hopkins attempted to prove the earth’s entire solidity. He only proved that it did not contain any of this imaginary fluid; but he by no means proved the non-existence of a liquid possessing the es eg of viscidity and internal friction common to all iquids. In the Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences of Paris for 1871 is a paper in which I have given a résumé 0: the arguments against Mr. Hopkins’s conclusions as to the earth’s complete solidity; and in the subsequent discussions . 55 t “ Remarques 4 propos d’une Communication de M. Delaunay sur fournis par l’Astronomie concernant l’épaisseur de la crofite solide Comptes Rendns de 0 Inst. France, Mars 6, 187}, p. 250. les résultats du Globe,” alae A aioe 3 1 SO ag, Scie etal a nn Renee ee etre composing the Interior of the Barth. ; 463 Geology, Pfaff’s Grundriss der Geologie, the author gives a brief account of the bearing of astronomical and mathematical investigations on the internal structure of the earth; and he very justly says that the results of observation compel us to regard the earth as for the ‘most part fluid, in order to bring these results into harmony with calculation. Professor Pfaff attributes this conclusion to Hopkins, whereas it is precisely that which I had long since enunciated, and is entirely opposed to the views of Mr. Hopkins. More recently Sir William Thomson and Mr. Darwin have investigated the tidal action of an internal fluid nucleus upon its containing solid shell. They have both supposed the liquid to be totally incompressible, and the containing vessel to be elastic and therefore compressible. They have thus given the liquid a property which no liquid in existence possesses, and the solid a property which solids pos- sess in a much less degree than liquids. Their hypothesis is thus totally inadmissible as a part of the problem of inquiry into the earth’s structure. I at once admit that a thin elastic spheroidal envelope filled with incompressible liquid and sub- jected to the attraction of exterior bodies would present period- ical deformations, owing to tidal action far surpassing the tides of the ocean. But I do not admit that such impossible sub- Pressible than its solid envelope. A highly ne pop lors a ferent from what is performed in the less-compressible water of the ocean. Observation has fully verified this result. : 3. It is admitted that the earth’s density increases from its Surface toward its center. If its interior is oceupied by a compressible fluid, the law of density of this fluid would result rom the compression of its own strata; just as the law of den- sity of the atmosphere is produced by the pressure of the upper atmospheric layers upon those below. But instead of suppo- Sing the interior of the earth to be filled by a fluid thus con- 464 et Hetbiessy on the Interior of the Earth. forming to the observed properties of fluids, both Sir William Thomson and Mr. Darwin have applied their great powers as accomplished mathematicians to the tides of an incompressible and homogeneous spheroid, such as I admit to have no real existence whatsoever. 4. The labor bestowed on the problem investigated could scarcely be considered at all necessary or fruitful, except as affording an admirable illustration of the results flowing from the employment of hypotheses framed in direct contradiction to the fundamental conditions to which every truly philosophi- cal hypothesis must conform. It is scarcely necessary to add, that the conclusions of Mr. Darwin, as well as those of Sir Wil- liam Thomson, cannot be considered as having invalidated the carefully framed hypothesis that the earth consists of a solid crust physically similar to the rocks we are enabled to observe, and a contained spheroid of liquids and physically similar to the liquid rock poured out by volcanic openings. . It is with much satisfaction that I can trace a gradual growth of more correct physical views on the questions referred to in this paper. In Nature, vol. v, p. 288, a paper appeared in which I ventured to criticise Sir William Thomson's memoir on the Rigidity of the Earth, in the Philosophical Transactions. At the Meeting of the British Association in Glasgow, Sir Wil- liam Thomson acknowledged the invalidity of many of his of the earth. He forgot that an idea may not be the less true because it is sensational. The idea of antipodes was at one time regarded as highly sensational. Those who witness @ great earthquake or volcanic eruption are usually impressed with the sensational character of the phenomena. _6. A traveller who was in Portugal more than forty years since, met a woman over one hundred years of age, an asked H. C. Hovey—-Discoveries in Western Caves. 465 her if she recollected the great earthquake of Lisbon. She replied, that it was the event of all others in her long life which she ought to vividly recollect, on account of its impres- sive sensations. History also records the sensational character of the destruction of Pompeii. If Mr. Scrope’s innuendo re- garding the internal fluidity of the earth as “a sensational hypo- thesis” has any value, we should regard the events referred to as highly improbable; yet they have been as well authenti- cated as the most positive facts in science, and no person has ever expressed the smallest shadow of a doubt as to their occur- rence, ' —, Art. LV.—Discoveries in Western Caves; by Rev. Horace ovEY, MA E following notes are selected from a large mass of descrip- tive material, collected by the writer during recent under- ground explorations in some of the States of the Mississippi Valley. Upper Silurian, while the excavation itself is in the softer rocks of the Lower. Two miles west of Hanover, Indiana, is a stream * Geological Survey of Kentucky (Shaler), vol. i, p. 4. Am. Jour. 8c1.—Tuirp eo Vou. XVI, No. 96.—Dzc., 1878. 466 H.. C. Hovey—Discoveries in Western Caves. it again recedes by a second opening. We followed its course through roomy halls rich in stalactites to a waterfall fifteen feet high, where the exploration terminated. The entire distance traversed was, by estimate, one mile and a half—a greater length than that of Wever's Cave. The credit * aeeet this Silwrian cavern belongs to Messrs. Monfort and Thom and as it is now for the first time described, it may ie phirees ately named the Hanover Cave. 2. Sub-Carboniferous Caves.—The procedure of the brook described above is reversed in the case of Lost River, which, after receiving tributaries ee increasing in volume, flows into Orangeville, Indiana. These “rises” as they are called, are generally svahae by oe denoting the fall of superincumbent rocks ; at of them a small boat has been n put upon the stream, it bavieg been an d to be navigable for a long distance under ground. Lost River flows amid bluffs of the Saint Louis group, carved by erosion into numerous ravines and sink-holes, and the latter so thoroughly underdrain the Ha as to cause a remarkable absence of springs, brooks and pon These phenomena are instructive as to the aniscoe of ae aaa caves that honey-comb the Sub-carboniferous roc Kentucky and Southern Indiana. A compact and hom get ous ane varying from 25 feet to 440 feet in measured thickness, lies between the surface and the level of natural drainage, ‘subjec t to the dissolving and eroding action of run- ning water. The result, in time, is a succession of arches, galleries and avenues, presenting wonderful and grotesque combinations to the explorer when the stream that has caused them is withdrawn to some other channel. The slow trickling of limewater furnishes materials for the growth of stalactites that tend to gradually close up and obliterate these deserte halls. Should Lost River find another channel, the cave which would remain might equal in proportions any hitherto dis- covered. There are no doubt numerous unexplored and name- less caves that would richly reward those whose love 0 adventure should lead them to follow out their ramifications. Professor Shaler estimates that, in Kentucky, “there are at the conclusion that there are thousands of miles of such sub- terranean avenues beneath the same formation in Indiana. Yet the public should be cautious in yielding credence to cave stories. Articles appeared in Louisville papers less than @ year ago, and were copied and believed in this country, and Sop ey Sear ee a Sieg eM oh SR OE Rls pag ebay ge a pa ee eich She NR hee ee rc ce sae ' - Boas eens ae H. C. Hovey—Discoveries in Western Caves, 467 even found their way into foreign periodicals, that purported to describe the “Grand Crystal Cave near Glasgow, Kentucky” giving thrilling particulars of a perilous voyage on its mysteri- ous waters. e ascertained by inquiry on the spot that no such cave exists; and have learned by experience that cave- streams are generally very safe and placid bodies of water, by reason of the fact that they are not of navigable size until the level of adjacent streams is nearly reached. 3. Mammoth Cave is visited by more than 2,000 persons day. We, however, were favored with a special guide, and devoted many successive days to localities not often visited. After eighty miles of underground travel, our curiosity was satiated ; and yet we had entered only 54 of the 225 avenues reported by Professor D. D. Owen as actually enumerated. he comparatively recent discovery of a pit-like passage called “the Corkscrew,” is of importance, not only because it enables the visitors to cut off two miles between the Rotunda and River all by an abrupt descent of 150 feet ; but also because it proves the theory that the cave crosses its own track, so that a change 1S required in the entire map. It is now believed that the cascade falling over the mouth and instantly sinking through the rocks is identical with that at the head of the River Styx, and is a feeder of that stream. It isalso proved that these deep and navigable rivers, instead of being fed by Green River, flow into it. Chaff thrown upon the surface of Lake Lethe ig dase after some time in the waters of what is known as the Upper Ing the cave, the subterranean rivers must be at a little less than that number of feet beneath the surface, and must also be the lowest localities possible. Hence no dome in Mammoth ave could exceed 312 feet in height without cutting through to the open air; by which test may be corrected the statements of those imaginative writers whose estimates are nearly double what they should be. The grandest of these vertical cavities, pebsing from some sink-hole above through all the galleries own to the water-level, is called, by way of eminence, the Mammoth Dome. Beyond it lies a stately hall, so like the ruins of Karnak and Luxor that we had permission to name it the Egyptian Temple. Here stand six columns of odlitic lime- Stone encrusted with a stalagmitic coating but an inch or two 468 Hi. C. Hovey—Discoveries in Western Caves. in thickness and as yellow as jasper. We measured one that arose eighty feet from what we regarded as its base to the ceil- ing, and found it twenty-six feet in its longest diameter Descending into a pit, we found what we named the Catacombs, _ o ps) ~ ° D oO = —s (a?) ra i=) o Ss GQ La = ig 2 fae! Qu ot 8, oy i4) o ed | co) a ch ee + <_ o a>) er o qe) @ rs a") in height from three to thirty feet. The echo is a musical pro- longation of sound, rather than a distinct repetition of words, although this also may beobtained. Harmonics were produced in reponse to certain key-notes. A strong vocal impulse was prolonged with sustained vigor for fifteen seconds, and in the opinion of others for a longer time; the duration depending much on our location on the water, the purity of tone, the pitch and the energy of the original aérial vibrations. By silently but forcibly pushing the water to and fro with a broad paddle, successive wavelets were sent into numerous marginal cavities, awakening chimes that continued for from three to ten highest in the Rotunda, where it reached 58°. The lowest in Lucy’ , namely, 54°. It was 57° in three places; but in forty-two observations the mercur, stood at 56°. The water in all the rivers was also at 56, instead of at 54°, as often stated. In three springs the mercury fell to 58°, and in one, Richardson’s Spring, to 52°, which was the lowest degree marked anywhere. The temperature of the rivers is identical with that of the atmosphere over them; the Crawford County, Indiana, half a mile from Blue River and five miles from the Ohio. A map of the cave was prepared by Dr. Talbot in 1852, revised by me in 1854, and published in Owen's Indiana Geological Report, in 1860. A new map is shortly to appear noting corrections and recent discoveries. The length Sea H. C. Hovey—Discoveries in Western Caves. 469 of the cave is twenty-three miles, including all the avenues. It has many fine halls and domes, the largest of which has a cir- cumference of 1,000 feet, and is said to be 205 feet high. The name has hitherto been Mammoth Hall; but it is now re-named Rothrock’s Cathedral, to avoid confusion, and also as a tardy recognition of the worthy man who originally purchased the lace from the government and left it as a heritage to his sons. yandot Cave should be visited even by those who have already explored the greater cavern of Kentucky; for it is far richer in stalactitic ornamentation, although less abounding in gypsum rosettes or “ oulopholites.” The stalactites are of the fine-grained translucent kind often called alabaster, and much resembling the Mexican onyx. hermometrical observations, made by the same instrument and methods used in Mammoth Cave, showed that, while the temperature of the outer air was 76°, that of Wyandot Cave averaged 554°. The highest temperature was found in the Pillared Palace, 57°; the lowest in the Wyandot’s Council-room, 54°; elsewhere, out of twenty-two observations, an equal num- ber indicated 55° and 56°. In two springs the water was found to have a temperature of 52°, and in one of 54°. Thus, instead of being, as has often been said, 6° colder than Mammoth Cave, we found it only half a degree colder. n important discovery was made last April by a party of students from Wabash College, led by Mr. C. E. Milroy. Fore- ing their way through a low, narrow passage for fifty feet from a locality marked on the map as the Rugged Pass, they entered a realm of chaos, named, after its discoverer, Milroy’s Temple. Pits, miry banks, huge rocks, are overhung by galleries of creamy stalactites, vermicular tubes intertwined, frozen cata- racts and all in short that nature could do in her wildest and torches long extinct were sticking in a crevice in the low ceil- ing. The tracks of some wild beast were also found which led us to name the place the Wolf's Lair. The roof seems to have fallen in since the torches were left here; and our compa tol us that the closed avenue must have led to Banditti Hall, within 1,200 feet of the mouth. Animals of various kinds are known to have frequented this cave in former days. We saw the skeleton of an opossum and also of a wild cat, besides pate Stout poles from five to eight feet long, marked by sharp teet iM some ancient contest. “ Bear-slides” are shown in several 470 HT. C. Hovey—Discoveries in Western Caves. places, where the rocks are blackened and polished as if by the rubbing of fu ar-wallows,” are also pointed out; but on our recent visit we discovered this to be a misnomer. Bands of black flint are found in the limestones of the south arm of the cave, sometimes in continuous belts, but oftener in rows of nodules varying in size from one to ten inches. Occa- sionally they have a geodic form and a crystalline center, show- ing that the siliceous particles had collected about a fossil nucleus. Between these belts, or rows, is usually a chalky substance easily cut with the knife or even by the finger nail. The so-called ‘ bear-wallows” are where the flint is most abun- rewarded by the discovery of quantities of flint chips and also a number of finished arrow heads. Indian foot-prints were visible in all parts of the new cave when first explored; and I saw them in 1854, although now they are obliterated. The cane torches, so abundant at ‘‘ Chief City” in Mammoth Cave, which were supposed to be filled with bear’s fat when ready for use, are rarely found in Wyandot Cave, which seems to have been lighted by bundles of hickory bark ignited by splinters of various kinds of wood. What is known as the “Old Cave” was worked by salt- peter miners in 1812, and sundry acts of vandalism have been charged on them, which it is more probable were done by the aborigines. The finest stalacto-stalagmitic column probably in the world is the Pillar of the Constitution at the aa of the Old Cave, three miles from the mouth. It is 40 feet high, and 25 feet in diameter, and it rests on a base 300 feet in circumference. The weight of this immense mass of alabaster caused the sub- jJacent rocks to settle, and this in turn cracked the base, opening crevices many yards long, and varying in width from two inches to one foot. A large segment has been cut from the base of this column. Starting from the crevices, an excavation was made cutting a mass from the base having an are of thirty feet, and making a cavity into the pillar itself ten feet wide, seven feet high and five feet deep. This excavation has hitherto been at ciliata Se Pin SEG eee ae H. C. Hovey—Discoveries in Western Caves, 471 that, and it cannot be much less. white stones that have rolled down under the ledges of black ation above given. Further search enabled us to discover the tools with which the ancient workmen wrought, whoever they ened by use as pounders. No manufactured articles were found f alabaster have been repeatedly exhumed among Indian relics in the Southern States; and more careful research may find similar objects amid the tumuli of Indiana, though perhaps not abundantly. For alabaster, though a very durable material, when not exposed to the elements, is fibrous in its nature, and would be liable to decay amid the frosts and sunshine of ten centuries; as we know from the crumbling specimens found outside in the vicinity of the cave. * Dr. Binkerd’s estimate of stalagmitic growth in Mammoth Cave fixed it at one inch in 7,500 ; which makes Rothrock’s estimate seem yery mode indeed! (See Binkerd's Mammoth Cave, p. 54.) 472 M. Harrington—Chinese Official Almanac. Art. LVI.—The Chinese Official Almanac ; by Professor MARK ARRINGTON. prepared the Board of Astronomy, an important body, imperially appointed, presided over by a prince of the royal ; in dignity to any other government body in representative of the highest state of astronomical science reached by them, and it is therefore worth our while to ex- amine it carefully. ; n examining one of these books we find it to consist of two distinct parts, the astronomical and the astrological, the latter being much more fully represented than the former. Taking up first the astronomical part, we find that eclipses of the sun and moon are not mentioned. These are not printe in the Almanac, but, as the writer was informed by an nce. foreigners resident in China that the predictions are never rising and setting that is repeated, and as the Chinese month is the lunar one, the dates are changed each year. Were it not for typographical errors the arrangement would appear + ra eat. m e eccurate an y examining the Almanacs for seve ears we are able to eliminate the blunders in the plates, and we then make out that the figures are the semi- diurnal ares of a star having a declination equal to that of the sun on the given date. This is easily seen from the accom- panying table (A). The third year of Kuang Hsii began with e ear. t will be observed that in the rising and setting of the sun as given in this table the corrections are altogether absent. M. Harrington—Chinese Official Almanac. 473 A.— Times of Sunrise and Sunset at Peking, as given in the Chi- nese Almanac, with the corresponding semi-diurnal ares. YEARS 3D AND 4TH OF KuaNnG Hst, 1877-79. Chinese Month and Day. Chinese Time of Corresponding — se 3d Year, 4th Year. Sunrise. Sunset, At Vv 21 4°35 7:25 7°25 EV... 24. Vv 6 27 VI 8 4°38 7°22 Hay A Se es © LV 23 VI 10 VI 21 4-46 7-14 714 IV 3 LV vate 19 Ml 2 30 4°54 7-06 1:07 Hit” 25 LV: 7 yi 26-1 VE oe 5-00 7-00 7:00 LE 19 IV 1 Valo 2 Vil 38 5°06 6°54 6754 we. 1S. Tr 24 Vit 9 VIL 3s 5°13 647 6°47 I (i aa 2 ea i 2 Oe 8 Me On 5°21 G39 6°40 II it i 38 Vit = 3 VILE: 2 5°28 6°32 6°33 It 25 10 6 ye Vi 98 5°36 6°24 6°25 if 18 It 30 12 5:44 6-16 6-16 Ir 12 24 VIEL. 11. 21 6°52 6°08 6 08 6 18 17 27 6°00 6°00 6 00 30 12 23 4 6°08 5°52 24 6 29 10 6°16 5-44 18 30 5 16 6°24 5°36 12 24 6 18 iG 28 6°39 5-21 12 RRRHEM WH HOHMR EMEA Rae Rah ‘a A tS ior) re or % REMEMBER RBO RS ma 474 M. Harrington—Chinese Official Almanac. The equation of time is disregarded as is common to most oriental nations. This custom takes its origin in the use of sale Is and is natural when the use of time-keepers is not common. We are not quite justified therefore 1 ms ieee nal on the sence of om correction as a fault in the Chinese Alm But the corrections for semi- yhanlite and for retenctiil are also oer and for their absence we can find no excuse. ‘T'hese corrections at Peking may amount to more that is only twice each year for sunrise or sunset we find that eae about four ite cent of these predictions are correct in the A B.— Times of Moon’s oe at Peking, as given in the nese Almanac. 3p YEAR or Kuane Hst, 1877-78. Foreten Chinese| Foreign Chinese | pif, ||Foreign| Chinese, Foreign Chinese | DPD iff. | date. time. time. . date. date. time. time. wel i 4°45 p.M.| 4°38 p.M.|— 7||Aug. 9 1 1:03 p.M.| 1:09 P.M.|+ 6 | 9 {12°01 p.m. j11°51 a.m. |—10 16 8 6l4p.m.| 613 am. |— 1 28 16 3°00 a.m.| 2°56 a.mM.|— 4 24) 16 6°57 a.M. | 6°54 A.M. | — 3 Mar. 7} 23 | 5-47 a.m.| 2°58 a.m.|+11||Sept.1| 24 | 50la.m.| 509am.|/+ 8 aay VIII. 15 1 {10°40 a.m. |10°40 a.m. 0 1 8-46 p.u.| 9°00 p.M.|+14 22 8 8°55 p.mM.| 901 P.M./+ 6 14 8 6°45 p.u.| 7°01 pM. | +16 29, 15 1°35 p.M.| 1°39 p.M.j|+ 4 22\| 16 |11°21 p.m.j11°29 P.M | + 8 April 6 23 41716 aw. 113-18 a.m. (+ 2 30| 24 2-06 p.M.| 2°22 P.M. +16 UL = 14 rE 1°36 am. | 1°47 A.M. 1+11 |\Oct. 7 l 5-44 a.M.| 6°07 A.M.) + 23 2) 8 23 AM. | 3°2 +15 14 8 111-28 am. 11°47 A.M. | + 19 28 B 112-93 am, 129-314. M. + 9 22|. 16 3°17 p.M.| 3°34 P.M. +17 May 5 = 7-05 p.M.| 7713 pM.}+ 8 29} 23 (10-07 p.m. |10°31 P.M. | +24 13) 1 | 115 pM.| 1:26p.m./+11||Nov. 5| 1 | 4:34 P.m.| 4°59 P.M. |+25 20; 8 | 842 4.M.| 859 4.m./417 13 9 7-30 a.m.| 7°51 A.M.|+21 27; 15 |11°51 a.m. |12°04 pw. 1413 Ol 19 6°05 a.M.| 6°28 a.M.|+23 June 4 - 12°57 03 P.M.j|+ 6 28) 24 5°51 a.M.| 6°13 A.M. +22 . XI. 11) 1 /10°18 p.m. 10-29 pw. |+11|\Dec. 5| 1 | 5°50 4.m.| 6-06 a.m. |/+16 18; 8 | 2:10 pM.| 2:20 p.m. 1+10 9 | 5-20 a.M.| 5°30 a.m. |+10 26 16 |12°39 am. |12-41au}4+ 2 20| 16 | 7-37 p.M.| 7°50 P. 3 July 4 no 4°48 4 ere 3 27; 23 | 206 pM.| 218 pM.|+12 11) 1 | 552aM.| 556a../+ 4|lJan. 3] 1 | 9-49PM.| 9°51 PM/+ 2 2 8 P.M.| 8-57 pw.|— 1 12} 10 | 2:33 a.m.| 2304.8. |— 3 25, 15 | 3-05 pm.| 3-02 pmji— 3 19) 17 | 757am.| 755 4M |— 2 Aug.2 23 | G07 PM} 609PmM/+ 2 25) 23 111°35P.mM.{11-35Pm.| 9 The times of the moon’s quarters and of the twonty- teat Chinese seasons are also given, and as they are given to M. Harrington—Chinese Official Almanac. 475 The Chinese year is divided into twenty-four seasons, about fifteen days apart and depending on the sun’s right ascension. The most of these, such as “little cold,” “oreat eld,” “rain- water,” “excited insects,” ete., are not recognized by western science, but four of them, viz., the equinoxes and solstices are common to astronomy universal, and can fairly be criticised by foreigners. According to the Chinese the sun is at the vernal equinox at 7 h. 483 m. Pp. M. According to foreign calculation the Peking time for the same phenomenon is 7 h. m. P. M..—making the Chinese 17 m. slow. Their summer solstice is 29 m. slow; autumn equinox 49 m. slow; winter solstice 85 m. slow. The preceding quotations are for Peking; the accompanying foreign times are computed from the British Nautical Almanac and reduced to Peking local time. The position taken for Peking was, longitude 116° 26’ east, latitude 39° 55’ north. The Imperial Almanac also gives predictions for several other points scattered over the empire, but the predictions are more complete and probably quite as accurate for Peking as for the other points. We come now to the part of the Almanac which the Chinese consult much oftener and consider much more important, viz. the astrological portion. Much of this is made intentionally obscure ; for the full comprehension of it a prolonged study o: Chinese philosophy and astrology would be necessary,—and a more barren field for scientific research could hardly be con- ceived. The remainder which makes up the body of the Almanac is intended to be a practical guide in the common affairs of life. The following is a translation of this part for the first few days of the current Chinese year. as The first day is favorable for sacrifice and for entering school ; - at noon it is allowable to bathe. It is unfavorable for starting on a journey or changing residence. : : second day is favorable for sacritice and bathing. It is unfavorable for starting on a journey, removing or practising acv puncture. . 476 M. Harrington—Chinese Official Almanac. The third day ; there are no indications. The fourth day; may receive or make visits and cut out clothes; at 7 A. M. may draw up contracts, barter and make presents. May not go on a journey nor break ground. The fifth day; may visit, bathe, shave and clean up. May not plant and sow. The sixth day is favorable for sacrifice, conjugal union, visit- ing, taking on a new servant, starting on a journey, removing, marrying, repairing, building, breaking ground ; at 3 A. M. may draw up contracts, open shop, barter, send presents, seal, test the soil and bur The seventh day; may level roads but must not start ona The eighth; may sacrifice, memorialize, enter office, assume ceremonial clothes; at 5 A. M. may sit toward the southeast ; also favorable for conjugal union, visits, weddings, taking on a new servant, starting on a journey, erecting uprights and put- ting on crossbeams, building, removing soil and burying. And so it goes on for nearly every day in the year. Enough has been translated to show the excessive childishness and the intervals between the bath-days are unequal, an the Journey nor enter office except on favorable days, though it is to be hoped they bathe, shave and clean oftener. eae a — Rr Chemistry and Physics. 477 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics. On the Determination of Carbonic Acid in Mineral waters, P coaceens has proposed a new method for determining both the free and the combined carbonic acid of a mineral water. He uses in general the apparatus devised for this purpose by Classen but modified in its details to suit the new method. It consists of which two tubes pass; one a safety tube, ending near the bottom, through which hydrochloric acid can be pou ured and air aspiacat? the other attached to an upright condenser surrounded by a co oling cylinder. From the top of this condenser passes a rubber tube se a lapicating bottle. With this abparates three dain oi pies ments were made. In the first, hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1-06, was boiled in the flask for an hour, and then air free from CO, aspirated through it; the potash apparatus lost 0°0120 gram an d the soda-tube gained 0 00115 gram; thus proving the perfection of the apparatus. In the second, a measured volume of cold water Saturated with carbonic acid, was placed in the flask and gradu- ally heated to boiling, air being drawn through afterward. The increase of weight of the potash bulb and soda-lime ‘aha, ee ) the side ge measure the quantity introduced. After connecting it with the apparatus the liquid is heated gradually to boiling, Sivbonts acid, reece the Selters Sate in this way, a liter of water gave free carbonic acid 2°4911 grams, combined 0°5699, total 3°0610 grams, against 3°0934 found by Fresenius. Ems 478 Scientific Intelligence. Kranchen gave free CO, 1:5277, combined 0°6782, total 2°2059 grams. Carlsbad Gudviibehatie 14122 free CO, 0°7966 com- bined CO,, total 2°2088 grams. Marienbad Kreuzbrunnen 2° 6355, combined 0°9055, total 35408 grams.—J. pr. Ch., II, xvii, oe July, 1878 © A ; On Tleminiins ines of various hing alae production fois the blue ultramarine containing so of a yellow ultramarine in which the sodium is replaced. by algae was aceon plistod some time ago by Heumann by heating the former substance, mixed with a Suse cnted solution of silver nitrate, to 120° in a sealed ws The attempt to form other analogous “ultramarines in. this way was a failure, DeForcranp and Battin have now suc- ceeded in devising a general method of preparing ultramarines agate different metals, and by which they have already Ng . e process consists in arti g the yeilow silver ultramarine by the above method and then in heating an intimate mixture of this with the metallic chloride desired. To produce the silver product, the authors heated, for fifteen hours, ten sealed tubes, a pertectly homogeneous mass of transparent yellow grains. contained silicon, -alumin um, sulphur, silver and oxygen; is insol- uble in water. ,and w ndecomposable by strong acids, Heated with an intimate admixture of sodium an repeatedly, the sodium replaces again the silver and a blue ultramarine is obtained, of a 2 = e, = as ve | & 5 _2 a 3 @ a el S Q ® . = oO e ° “oe ® ma bo ie c — io) iv) is 5) ° — ~ RR ae If potassium chloride be used, a a bluish-green ultramarine is produced. Barium chloride gives a yellowish-brown, zinc chlo- ride a violet, and magnesium chloride a gray compound, here all the properties of ultramarine.— Bull. Soc. Ch., Il, xxx, 112, August, 3. On Che e Steel— BoussInGauLT has made an investigation into the pridaction, the constitution and the properties of the so-called chrome steel. This steel is prepared by mixing in the erucible the required proportions of any suitable steel “and an alloy of iron and chromium called f hr This alloy 1s but only seven to ten when made in a high furnace. The covery of this steel, the author attributes to Berthier in 1 1820, and gives extracts from his memoir describing his experiments. be were Chemistry and Physics. 479 of carbon, the other 0°0124 of chromium and 0°0031 of carbon. property of hardening. He points out the fact that in 1867 in Antioquia in Central America, a cast iron was made g from two to four per cent of chromium, and concludes with a . descrip- tion of the process of making ferro-chromium and chrome steel in the works at Unieux.—Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xv, 91, nee: 1878. . B. 4, On the Pera ear © of the Primary Alcohols. pea. sear Kin has studied the influence of the isomerism of the alcohols and acids upon te formation of their compound ethers, and in the ent paper gives a table showing the percentage of acetic acid velocity of this etherification, the first place is taken by methyl alcohol; then follow the primary saturated and then the primary unsaturated alcohols, The author calls the velocity of the reaction ri e first hour, expressed in percentages of the ether formed, the starting-velocity. By absolute velocity he distinguishes the ratio between the quantity of the acid or alcohol etheritied and the whole quantity taken; by relative velocity the ratio of the portion etherified a the first hour to she whole quantity finally eae disiioct in the — of ea pe is more marked in case of relative starting velocity. The velocity of ahadaredes is less in the unsaturated phis roe Si ope, To estimate the limit of the Rereat wy. numbers are ree oat With the final per- Ber. Ber i Chow: Ges., X1, 1507, Sept., 187 tg 5. On the Preparation of Allyl Bromide.—The pre resent te of ah an berg allyl bromide, ites dropping ace ones ual dry allyl alcohol, is tedious and possibly dangerous. Gros has shown that this ether si be readily prepared by siting a grey a ae alcohol, ae sium bromide and sulphuric s to add to the potassium bromide the sulphuric nai dilated swith = volume of water, and to heat the mixture in a distilling appara When the hydrobromic acid begins to be evolved, the allyl cparery is allowed to fall drop by drop into the liquid. ’The ail yl bromide, which distils over with the vapor of 480 Scientific Intelligence. water, is washed with water slightly alkaline and dried over calcium chloride.— Bull. Soe. Ch., Ul, xxx, 98, August, sr On a New Method of hss Aldehydines. his Feet awed some time ago that the orthodiamines could be eudile 8 a a long time on standin ng, or more quickly on adding alcohol, patos into a colorless crystalline hydrochlorate of the new base. Re ecrystallization gives it pure. The yield is from eh to seventy per cent.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, a Sept., ee. B. m the Vonstituents of Corallin.—ZvuLKowsKyY wg reéxam- ined se substance known as corallin and has succeeded in obtain- methane. The first of these rosolic acids vertu in needle masses, dark r saad by ome seated light, with a magnificent metallic-green reflection. It has the formula C,,H,,0,.- e sec- ond is garnet-red, gid eto in right rhombic prisms, has a blue metallic reflection and affords on eae the formula C,,H,,0,. iebig’s Annalen, cxciv, 109, Sept., 1 8. Ona New Organic Base in the Animal Organism. _-ScHREINER hi examined a crystalline substance found under various condi- tions in the animal organism. It was prepared from the spermatic fluid by boiling with alcohol, filtering, drying the residue at 100°, and extracting with warm water containing a few drops of ammo- nia. vaporation monoclinic crystals are obtained, which proved to ss the phosphate of a new base, whose a bic had the formula C,H,NHCL—Liebig’s Annalen, CXclv, . Pe ze " 1878. 9. Persulphurie Oxide 8,0,.—Since a aires a on spf noticed in our March number , BerTHELor he vublished us M. ‘Bert helot has furnished us with another ee of the general principle which his investigations have served 80 Chemistry and Physics, 481 ‘greatly to illustrate. Persulphuric oxide is an example of a remarkable class of compounds Se formation is attended with the absorption of heat, and whose production can only be deter- mined by the expenditure of some mode of energy. Correspond- ing to these circumstances of their genesis are the facts that these compounds are very unstable, and that when they decompose into more stable products the heat previously rendered latent becomes ree. Now in accordance with the mechanical theory of heat we are forced to the assumption that the expenditure of energy attend- ing the production of such unstable compounds gives to the parts of their molecules a certain energy of position, which energy investigation. We find it therefore difficult to understand why it is that M. Berthelot, while furnishing chemistry with some of the most important facts on which the modern theories of molecular structure are based, should so ae, el gop al the results of those who are investigating t he same subject f a different point of view, and whose conclusions are, at ibasts as ; tantworhey as his own, In the present series of Peper, Ann, de Chem. et Phys., July, 1878, Dammes theory of types i a perayeu nd advoca- ted as more philosophical than the peiaoiy os ved doctrine of atomicities, on the ground that it is not so much the nature of the radicals as the so-called type of combination which determines the qualities and chemical relations of the reqntang Bi hn But in the present state of science what conception can we form doctrines Berthelot condemns, are ct engaged on the one aia’ ical types, and it must be admitted that the value of a working theory ies solely on its power of correlating — 10, Acous n a recent number of the ‘Philosop ical Magazin a ha tember, 1878, p. 225.) The scien is a rene that the reson- the area of its aperture an Am. Jour. 8c01.—THirD — Vou. XVI, No, 96.—Dzc., 1878, 482 Scientific Intelligence. 11. Note by W. Gootp Levison, on the Sand Filter described in American Journal of Science, September, 1870, page 241.* (Com- municated.)—A glass rod of a litt arger diameter than the aperture in the neck of the funnel is chet out to a slender thread as shown below. \ pips of —< fe | sp This is —— cut off by the file at the points a, 6 and e, forming two pieces. The large end of such a piece being held in | the tenes soon Dinaiiean globular etext forming a pear of glass. When this is dropped in the funnel the long stem rests against its side. If the funnel be of very thin glass, so as to weigh but little, and the end of the stem be fused fast to its rim, no jar will loosen the sand or precipitate, and it forms, probably, the most convenient filter for drying precipitates at a temperature that would char paper. Il. GEoLoGY AND MINERALOGY. 1. Note upon the history and value of the term “Hudson ese in American Geological Nomenclature; by ES Hart. (Proc. Amer. Assoc., Nashville meeting, aR ie: 187 1. oat The term Hudson River Gr roup was employed in the Reports of the New York Geological Survey for the shales and slates over- pins the Trenton limestone. Later it was urged by Sir William ha = partially admitted by Mr. Hall, that the slates of the Riv <5 = B ey a. o oa © =] 2 B ® © 5 g e © e ~— cd * a ° ° = "SS 5a i) nm ™ JQ dQ ia) oa ta") om) Fe ow through the counties of Washington, Rensselaer, and Columbia, | its eastern limit approaching the river near Rhinebec k; and he rightly says, that there is no goo od reason for abandoning the old ooh “ Hudson River Grou 2. Paleontological Report of ci Princeton Scientific Expedi- tion of 1877; by Henry F. Osnorn, Wm. B. Scorr and Francis Sperr, Jr. 146 Sriepe the Re here 10 meee 1878.—The expedition from Princeton summer to Colorado and Wyoming returned with large Sear valuable collections of fossils as this Report abundantly shows. The Colorado collections were made in the beds near Florissant, supposed to be Miocene, and in a near the Garden of the Gods “referred to the Dakota and title of the article, here referred to, Mr. Goold Levison’s name is Fibre” seats in two of its letters. Botany and Zoology. 483 Wealden groups,” and those of Wyoming, i in a pine of Fort Bridger, near Smith’s Fork, Henry’s Fork and Dry Cre The species embrace Mammals, Reptiles and Fishes. One of the plates represents a magnificent specimen of the skull of a new species of Uintatherium, named JU. wrecker) and a second species of the genus is named UW. prince A pa er on the geo- logical work of the oxipediicials will aepear in another number of oe Journal. The Ancient Life-History of the Earth ; a comprehensive = Sa of the a and arene / Jacts of Paleontological Science ; by Professor H. Attnyne Nicuorson, M.D., ete. pp. 8vo. New Fok 1878. (D. Ah eton & Co.)— —A very 6b venient sarees for the geological student. ual of prea ih ds and Lithology ; oa the ele- ments of one science of minerals and rocks, for of the practical mineralogist tees geologist, and for ho in schools and colleges; by James D. Dana. —— edition rear- ranged and rewritten, 474 pp. 12mo, with many wood cuts. New York. 1878. (John Wiley & Son a} The second edition of this manual co more than twenty years since. e new rominent metal ti contain. In addition, the chapter on rocks as been expanded into a general but brief treatise on the subject containing descriptions of the kinds and their prominent varieties.* Till Botany AND ZooLoey. tia galacifolia re-discovered. —A hundred years ago the elder Michadr collected, somewhere in the mountains of North Carolina, a specimen of a Pyrola olaceous-looking plant, out of flower, persistent style. It was not noticed in the Flora Boreali-Ameri- a, which hoe prepared by L. C. Richard from Michaux’s col- lections. Early in the year 1839, I found and examined t La . ee ium, of M. Decaisne a drawing and some fragments of it. In a paper treating of the botany of these mountains, igapnica to this rnal in January, 1842, I ventured to found a genus upon this plant, under the above name, trusting that the ailigent search prosecuted by myself and by all botanists visiting the ion would duly bring it to light. The protracted failure of ciates in the search, as to the actual existence of any such pia 2 poe I had the pleasure of announcing in this Journal (Ser. IL i) the discovery of this genus, not indeed aie we were at students may not be led astray, it is proper here to say that copies of ia urea have been printed by the former publisher of the wor k, Mr. H. H. Peck, bearing a recent date on the title page, although unrevised since 1857. 484 Scientific Intelligence. looking for it, but where experience had led me to expect that any or every peculiar Atlantic States type gy oa recur, namely in Japan. That is, I identified the genus with the Schizocodon uni- aa of Maximowicz, which, singularly enough, W was known _ by apemens in the same oe i. e. with ca alyx and gyne Bt a Ecce restoration of the missing organs; and I ven- tured the opinion that Shortia (of 1842) and Schizocodon beets whether of one genus or two, were most related to pensia. ibe, the genera Gal, oats Shortia, and adopted the idea of a sa identity of PA aE with the latter. The next year Maxi- mowicz decided that the two genera should be distinct, founding this conclusion upon the sone: seed-coat (confirmed in "the apa- nese Shortia uniflora) and the campanulate sain with lobes m. r I now received, at first indirectly from Mr. a a Congilon, and at length directly ree Mr. M. E. Hyams, of States- ville, Carolina, a floweri ecimen of the long-sought . imen o Shortia giacifolia Mr. Heya or more strictly his son, George i Quee ar bea collected it on a hill-side in McDowell County, unless other species afford transitions; and that the squam are like those of igetanasions and fully as large, but broader, nar- rowed or almost unguiculate at base, and attached to the very base of the corolla, while er filaments (said by Maximowicz to be “libera,” p robably in the sense of free from the corolla, as they are represented in the oo fee are adnate to the corolla for most of their length. is, the phrase “ filamentis Botany and Zoology. 485 tubo corolle adnatis,” in Benth. and Hook. Gen. Pl. is correct, but I know erect, didymez loculis oblique pega ” derived by aximowicz from the Japanese figures, and the “ antherw breves lo divergentibus” of the Genera Plantauths the culis anthers being longer than in any other genus of the order, and the cells in a just sense longitudinally dehiscent. But the anther is,—as in all its relatives except the anomalous Galax,—inflexed or incumbent on the apex of the filament, in this genus about hori- zontal, as are consequently the m marginal sutures which run the spits oe 2. On the Amount of cons contained in the Nectar of vs various Flowers ; by A. S. Wi A paper read before the Dublin meeting of the British Anneiation: hagistst 1878. nthe interest clover, : — 000 flowers must be sucked. There are about sixty flowe a head: and 2,500,000 visits must be made to collect a pound of hide, ’ (Abstr. from Jour, Botany, London, Oct., 1878.) G. . Absorption compared with transpiration.—In closing a recent article i in Ann. d. a eis ser. 6, vi, Vesque presents the follow- ing abstract of his (1.) Of all the sficevsan advanced to explain the movement of water in plants, that of Boehm is most nearly in harmony with observed facts. ces to Boehm, “the water-movement ma} When a plant taken from mean conditions is exposed to dry air, transpiration is more rapid than absorption. It can reach @ point at which the plant becomes irreparably injured. (5.) When a plant taken from mean conditions is exposed to a saturated a red emer is more rapid than transpiration, but in oportion as the want of water in the plant is su plied, the transpiration diminishes, sa at last the plant is filled to repletion. “e .) When a plant lacks water, the suction caused by transpira- 486 Scientific Intelligence. tion is not lost; it accumulates to act at once on the roots when water can be had. Then there is observed an absorption more energetic than the transpiration; the absorption diminishes as the want of water is supplied, and finally is governed wholly by the transpiration. G. L. G . On the causes of the abnormal shapes of plants grown in the epidermal cells under such conditions have thinner walls than usual, Rauwenhoff, in Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 6,5, v. and vi. has reviewed the studies of Kraus and others, and comes to the fol- lowing conclusions: The longer internodes have, in most instances a longer pith than the others, but that the growth of this cannot eenac este oe eo about the other cryptogamic g Fe epee ae ms Ghaby Pes Pe. / Peet ee AE ya Botany and Zoology. 487 Schizosporec, the Diatomes preceding the latter order, contrary to the usual mode of arrangement. In classifying the Diatomes the author has followed Grunow and in the Wostoes he has adopted Thuret’s classification. It is refreshing to see how the species of Kuetzing and others are united into more rational and comprehen- sible species. The second part of vol. ii, including the po by Stein and the third volume including the Fungi by Dr. Schreeter, are announced for 1879, 7. G 1876: Report of the Botanist, Cuartes H. Prox; made to the Regents of the University, Jan., 1877. Published in Sept., 1878, these either new or previously undescribed. At the close of the Cookei Berkl., ZL. Crategi, L. proxima, possibly L. Klotzschii, Dedalea confragosa, and Trametes rubescens, are all forms of one Species, A sad account is given of the ravages of a beetle, Hylurgus rufipennis, among the Spruces in the Adirondack region. effective plate. Equally handsome and well executed is the next plate containing Aspidium fragrans and Phegopteris alpestris. The latter is one of the few subalpine species which are wanting in eastern North America and in the Rocky Mountains, but ex- tend on the western side far down the Sierra Nevada, California. Among others, Sir J. D. Hooker collected it on Mt. Shasta. One would hope that its “ fugitive indusium” might be fixed and the plant associated with Athyrium Filia-feemina, which it resembles inhabit. The next plate is devoted to delicate or pygmy subjects, Trichomanes radicans of Alabama, ete. (said to accord well with the original West Indian species even though the larger Irish 7 speciosum may be different), and the lilliputian 7. Petersii. The latter would have made a good show if a fair tuft had been de- picted, in addition to the three or four frondlets. Schizwa pusilla (misspelled on the plate) is added, ina good figure, with faint and obscure analyses. An entire plate is well given to the Californian Aspidium munitum, of which the first figure represents a small form, and the second and third, varieties so peculiar that they would pass for distinct species. ‘Three marked species of Poly- podium fill the next plate, on which the noble P. takes ulgare. Tt must be that the 488 Scientific Intelligence. form axis having merely a very narrow membranous border. A. &. Professor Alexander Agassizs Zoological Laboratory at the museum, I have been able in my new laboratory at Newport to give facilities for work to half a dozen teachers (three ladies and d ny soit height. The tables for microscope work are three- brick walls of the building, which form at the same time the base- ment of the building. The rest of the floor is supported entirely upon the outside walls and upon columns with stretchers extending under the crown of the arches reaching to the northern wall. This gives to the microscopic work the great advantage of com- 965 isolation from all disturbance caused by walking over the floor. This will be duly appreciated by those who have worked in a building with a wooden floor, where every step caused a ces- I boratory, and drawn up at a horizontal distance of sixty feet from the shore in a depth of some four fathoms, the en epi Miscellaneous Intelligence. 489 or four jars. The overflow runs into gutters laid alongside the tables, leading into the main drain pi To aerate the salt water, pe. | : use an injector invented by Professor Richards of the Institute led to the jar. This latter course is the only practical one fo to be obtained at Newport is abundant. The dredging is fair, and not difficult, as the depth in the immediate neighborhood does not exceed twenty to thirty fathoms. The pelagic fauna, however, rocky di in; southward from Cape Cod,—an oasis, as it were, for the abundant development of marine life along its shores. z V. MisceLnaneous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. Report on the Arid Region of the United States ; with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah; by J. W. Powstt. 490 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 196 pp. 4to. With Maps. Ex. Doc., No. 73. Made under ue direction of the Interior Department. - Washington, 1878.—Pro supply, and important subjects euned with irrigation. The report also presents a detailed description of the irrigable lands of the various basins, and their present condition, and treats of the government land system needed for the arid region. Mr. e Government auspices, have made him familiar with the pa eeoneds and have well fitted him for the preparation of such 2 United States ee eenmasen ee abe Fortieth Parallel, Crarence Kine, geologist in charge. Systematic geology, by CLARENCE Kiva. dl ; sea with 28 dae and 12 analytical of Western America, by Mr. Clarence King, which closes the author’s Rocky Mountain vay of the Fortieth Parallel. Anales de tienes Cientifica Argentina, entrega ii. Tomo vi. Agoste de ease Serge Aires, 1878 rt of the Metoorological Service of the Dominion ts cams for the year ending Dow 31, 1877; by Booed ion a t. Ottawa, 1 _ Monographie der P ropteriden, von C. Brunner von Wate enwyl; apiece 2a von “ag k. k. sistas Aickaa inches. Gesellschaft in Wien. 401 pp. 8 ienna, 1 Science News. Published fortnightly, by 8. E. Cassino, at Salem, Mass. First number appeared in November. a year. Science Observer, Boston. Vol. II. No. 3, appeared in Octo Anales del Ministerio de Fomento de la Repiblica poten “Vol. III. No- vember to December, 1877. This volume is farsily occupied with the meteoro- logical bulletin of ey Central Observatory of Mexico. oo Oe to Paleontology, No. 2, by S. A. Miller a C. ke Dyer, tae 22, ns notices of Silurian fossils of OBITUARY. : M. Detarosse, Professor of Mineralogy in the Paris Museum of pense History and the Faculty of Science, died on the 13th of t INDEX TO VOLUME XVL* A Abney, eee measurements of elec- tric lights, 38 Academy, oe scticut, transactions, 159. Acid, ca deg C; =~ ineral waters ATT, aa eee <3 fluorescein-carhonic, 319. hippuric in urine, nitrous, action on unsaturated hyde: carbon a sulphuri At 3 of, 63. Acpaitss, Shsihixs got ustic. repulsion, Drorkk 22; Rayleigh, Agassiz, A., Yucatan coral reefs, 70. you ng | stages of Sear fishes, 2415 ZOO igh Pee secede. Alcohols, ctherfeatio of primary, 479. Aldehydines, 6 ies Allantoin in rule bromide preperation of, 4 Alm Chine official, (Sees eal Allman, G. J., a on Hydroida, 407. Anthrarufi fin, 3 oe, anak Richards and Palmer, Ashburner C. A., Wileox spouting water- well, 1 cords in Penn’a, 93. erican, SI. uis egy 329. British, m Austen, Rsciicpatieinrtahecin 46. B Baeyer, synthesis of oxindo ws synthesis of deg Ate s, 2 239. _Smnopsis of the genus peor. es tical abstra "2 chemical analysis, 2 _ history of er analysis, ue Pavertics “en the correction tek vacuum in Beebe, W., observations of comets at Sheffield observato Bentham, G., Flora A Australiensis, 237, Benton, E. R., Richmond bowlder trains, 70. Berthetot, rae o of ozone, ete., by electrolys per: ante oxide, 4 Bigsby, y. J., Thesaurus Deri Gas Blake, EF. W., method of recording articulate Viredone Bohnensieg, G., Annual ‘of Periodical Boiling and melting points, 315. Boisbaudran, atomic weight of gallium, Borchers, carbonic acid in mineral waters, Rossa, electric telephonic currents, 386. BOTANY Absorption and transpiration. 485. Flowers, amount of sugar in, 485. Forest geography and archeology, Gray, Forests, reéstablishment of, 328. , germination of, 76. —— beparnieeg re-discovered, 483. milax, 325 er Crergetr further a chrome steel, 4 Brush, G. J., Fairfield ni ‘minerals, 33, 114 Bose Institution, Bulletin of, 163. Cc Carnelley, melti ng ae ae points, 315. Caves, discoveries in Western, Hovey, 26 465. ace, 66. Ches cial crystals of gold 29. Chioral perry vapor ae, 321. Chrome steel, 4 mician, of gum- elemi by ieee 317. GroLoGy, MINERALOGY, ZooLoGy, and under a 492 Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. Journal, 163. Clarke, F. W.. sige niocyanates; electro- lytic ‘ene of mercury; specific gravi y determiuation s, 1 entary Quantitative Clifford, W. KE, Elements - ng mre Coast Survey, report Her Coloring matters Comet, pe tan ‘of Swift's, Peters, 215. Comets, observations hie oy ind of, Newton, Connecticut River, ee a of, 4 07. ‘ooke, J. P., Jr., che mical notes, 320, 384, mien vapor of chloral hydrate, Copper-zine couple and nose ‘hydro- n, 381. Corallin fps ps of, 4 roe J Spe ogical climat cod of Glacial pra 389. Gaon 37. D Dana, FE. S., Fairfield county minerals, 33, 114 mineralogical notes, 397. Dana, J. D., “indurated ars ars in trap of Connecticut valley, 13 some points in litho ology, 386, 431. neralo cial ne of British Columbia, 147. . By . W., str romatopora, 149. DeBary, A., apogamy in ferns, 401. Detiendoile: A. and se Delesse, Révue de ee Rance, C. ae of van ex- pedition, 13 Peition 190, , Austen, 4 Dinosaurs, characters of Marsh, 411, Doebner, coloring matters, 320. Draper, H., lar eclipse, 227 of Belgiu Dupré, cubstiation of ‘sulphur for ares gen in the fatty series, Dvorik, V., acoustic bowtie 22. E Earth, interior of, _——— 461. rthquake, South A as 83. Earthquakes, Japanese, INDEX. Eaton, D.C., Ferns of N. America, 240,487. milines solar, of td 1878, Draper, 224, Be 42, ‘ison, T. A., sonorous bon ante te 319: Egg-shells, coloring matter of, 66. ichler, A. W., flower aiapiahib 326. Blectri¢ aaa lights pnetedinisle measurements of, Elec ectricity, eer Goldmark, 52. Electrolysis, determi baton of metals iy A: es, H. - graph of Lili a "6. Emerton, J. H C Biever re and Habits of mace 24 ns, S. r, geology of 40th parallel, Bailie, F. M., Erupted rocks of Colo- sietoantegioal Com., report of, 2 Equilibrium of heterogeneous Se Etheridge, R, A apcmienticn 4 of Polar ex- pedition, 1 Europe, mean h eight 0 of, 1 Explosion of flouring mills, Pobion. 301. F i te H. L., Sigillaria lepidodendri- fol fi eben iv G., botanical notices, 76, 409, Flame temperatures, 1 Feilden, H. W., g ey of Polar expe- dition, 139. paleontology 0 of Polar expetitss 140. Fendler, A., Ferns of gees Fe ermentation, aisobolic c, 3 Forest geography and cehvechies, Gray, 5, 183. Fossil, s ee GEO! Fownes’ iicoamacy Chemistry, 163. G Gallium, atomic er of, 1 GEOLOGICAL REPORTS OR faders Fortieth Parallel, 234, 490. New Hampshire, 152, 399. Pennasivati ae 332 Rie West oe ce meridian (Wheeler), 161. GEOLOGY— i section of, 1 caer — 142. British Colum, Dawson 147. Caves, haoriake in Western, Hovey, 465. *: igeusale tee epee Te INDEX. Charleston, 8. C., Cretaceous and Ter- n, 387. Dinosaurs, characters of, Marsh, 411. Earth, interior of me Hennessy 461. = Beanie aa 366. Fishe m Trias ae of New Jersey 9 acial era, cause of cold of, & we ee Glaciers oe basing n Himalay Ss r Gee Ha l, 332. Hydrocarbons i in Hoy, 112, itish Gola ah 71. Lake perce Bekins copper bearin ng f, 143. Lakes, etc of the _ 394. Minnesota valley Li. re and origin of, New Hainehite Oil wells of Peniey ania S02. olar Expedition, 139, 140. i er gee fossils from New Found- aves, Pterodactyl new acta Marsh, 2 = characters distingui ishing, eee of moisture on strength of, of Quin incy and Rockport, 153. Siilaria lepidodendrifolia, 151. 9. a5, topora, sya, liquid carbonic acid in, Hawes, 324, Terrace wig in pg elon 68, 142. Terraces in British Columbia, 148. Tertiary rocks on the eis oud Bank and rge’s , Verril Ligeia group in Cosa “Ohio, Hicks, Yucatan coral reefs, 7 J. W., equilibrium ‘of heterogene- ous igsorse” 441. ortia galacifolia re-discovered,483. botanical notices, 72, 155, 237, 325, 403, 483, 487. 493 Groth, P., para oe of the Univer ersity of Strassburg, é Gum elemi, reduction er of, an H Hague, A., betas Geology of 40th ceesttd el, 2 Hall, J., ( edson River Group,” 482. Harrington M., Chinese official almanac, Z.,, Japanese earthquakes, 80. Firs 'P, crystallization of silica, Hawes, G. Sly liquid carbonic acid in syenite, 3 lenxene in the New Hampshire diorites association of pyroxene and horn- blend ak Min logy oo Spegepreet of New Hampahbee not. Hazen, H. A., cservations of comets at Sheffield observatory, 77 ; Hecht, hexoylene, 138. Heer, ig ossilis Arctica, 152 ayflot® F cioeiiia Helvetia, 152. messy, L., neato m2 the earth, 461. esse, phytoste Henpeus 138. Hicks, L. = Ba A Ainge shale in Delaware coun aver en nee central Ohio, 216. —s production of methy] aldehyde, olden, E. 8, — forms of the sun’s Die aeeng ae a hai’s Flora of the . B., Report upon Forestry, ca Hovey, H. C, discoveries in Western Hughes, microphone of, 60. Huxle Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals, 240. Hydrogen peroxide and alkalies, 380. I eno ages'g synthesis of, 318. Invertin, J Jackson, CO. L., chemistry in space, 66. ‘iron pops 8 on Jordan, D. Sy Manual of the Vertebrates, 494 K = vA “sarees Geology, 40th Paral- Kirahner, gir — of Silesia, 486. Konig, G. A: “ar ae minerals, 152. Koninck, L. a re fossils of New Sout h Wa a S., Forest ty =" British Burma, L Ladenburg, aldehydines, 64, popes, pee hes Slog, "180. Lasau Le Conte, z, yy as ue of moun- Leipold ., mean height of Europe, 150. Lesley, J. P, gia: - els in Penn’a, 68. Levison, W. f 3 n sand filter, 482. Liebermann, oleae iaetae of egg-shells Lime, solubility in sds 322 Lindber, che Be “Monogra ert 5 <5 ‘Mapetlogial Contribu- tion List, ras = magnetic compounds, 381. ithology, some points in, Dana, 335, 431. Lockyer, J. N., Spectrum Analysis, 68. Long, acti — of steam on ted char coal . oe Loomis. tributions to a =. alkaloids of the aconites, 383. she sulphuric acid, 63. ze and Astrophy- tidze of lemaae weston! ion, 406. M oo rock salt at Wyoming, New York, Macoun, T., Catalogue of Canadian Plants, 156, er, 2417. eee from Huitzuco, let, Mexico, Marsh, 0. c. new Pterodactyl from the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains, 233. _Prineipal of American ¢ Dinosau Nee of os, a ne 394, Hay rye Seating 0 magnets, 24 b winds McCoy, abe Geol. pat rvey Victo: Gee, builders, Menan Ae Native Viowera and Dae of the Uni ited States, 72, 157, 403, INDEX. Meldola, R., oan for the die of bright lines in the solar spectrum, 290. pind & electrolyte eetimation of, ‘Clarke, eardechign: nena rm to, Loomis, 1 Meteo teors, Saw Methyl ashy production of, 382. Microphone of Hughes Microsco — con gress, 1 ri, he nal, American, 409. Miers, S. America, 239. sors Ei Society - France, 155. MINERA ee Analei Pers a Rasen Repper, 364. Bareen nite, Ma — , 306, Brava Daubrélit, pore Dick Brush and Dana, 114. ocphorte, Brush and Dana, 35. er epcemegeoe Brush and Donk 123. Graphite in Canada, 1 Gypsum of aed rae Hibbertite, 3 ornbl ende, ms 7. Hullite. Tonite, fo Lithio phili te, Brush and Dana, 118. Leucoxene, Niccoli eg ee 152. Pseudobr nines 398, Pyroxene Basdingies: — ush and ne 120. Rensselzerite in Canada, 148. awa and Dana. ico in Y Waraela county, aa and na, 33, 114. Mosa ndru rum, Smith. nie go tie rah Me Gee, £58. Mo sora ortheastern Iowa, McGee, Mints, Segue egg 320. constitution of starch, Sit. nea ’ Nation nal, pe ings of, 406. Pe: eabody, report of, 409. N Naturalists’ tp ne for 1878, 163. Newberry, J. S., fossil fishes from the Trias of New Soa and Conn., 149. | Newton, H. A., the origin of com comets, 165. Ste. ONE re a eR Mee eI INDEX. N. Y. State ee Report, 328, 482. Nicholson, H. = cient Life- -history of the = rth, 4 Niles, W. H., Saal erosion of valleys,366. Nilson, specific heat of glucinum, 384. Quetelet Observatory, Narcad College, Annals Si en Thomson, 349. Oil-well Sepia Osborn fae , Princeton Scientific Expe- dition, 4 2. wen, > he occurrence in America of rare and fragmentary British vertebrate sils, 395, Oxindol, 'synthes 8 of, 64. Oxygen in ‘ostedlie silver, 323. Palmer, A. W., antimony tannate, 196, 361. ser 6. Hy Repo rt N. Y. State Museum, wel ham, = - mill explosion at Minne- apolis, 3 Perci — ia durated pcm of Grable valley, 480, BY ue discovery of new planets, 79. positio of Swift’s observations on the pase va fo (189), bari specific heat of ji tecig 384. ia volum og estimation of, 383. 138 Planets, intra-mercurial, Watson, 230, 310; Swi new, Pei 129, 329, 379. , Re eport on the Arid Region of te United States, Pre; Bs Speaking Telephone, etc., R., eruptive copper-bearing | Tocks of Lake Superior, 143. -, lonite, a new mineral, 153. 495 R — ly Poh eames Geography of United hale cigh ulsio Renevier, sec ction nae the eer 160. Reynier, a new electric lamp, 3 ice, N., animal of Milkepore, alcicor- nis, 180. Richards, Ez. S., antimony tannate, 196, 361. Riche, a methods of determin- ing m River hii buried in Louisiana, 142. cee ser of iach ns Connecticut, and borings in ge ey, 1 Robinson, J., Ferns in ees Homes and Rictioows C. G., Japanese earthquakes, Reepper, Bi T., pseudomorph after anor- thite, Rood, 0. x, suggestions for a telephonic relay. Ro ascoe, tae density of orig te 316. droc hoi in the ruptive rocks of New Jersey, 112. s Salkowski, allantoin and hippuric acid in i d e urine of a dog, 66. Salt, discovery of at Wyoming, New or 3 Sampson, W. T., spectrum of the corona, Sand filter, ras on, pov sme Setiast notice, 7 E ‘4, observations i bright meteors — onus peroxide and alkalies, Siren growin acid, 319. Schreiner, new 0: Schréder, the ip fie os sli Urolumes 135. Schunck, ‘anthraru juster, tri dymite. Sclater, P. L, rece distribution, 157. oe » Princeton Scientific Expedi- tion, 4 lorestegg Bs H., Catalogue of Scientific Serials, Sea, see 5 Se Seleniocranates, Clarke, 199.” Selwyn, — C; Geological Survey of Gina: see 48. — J. L., composition of Daubréelite, 2 ,asupposed new element mosandrum, Smith, S. I, zoological notes, 328. 496 INDEX. oe kgeng a irae _Rep., 490. Solar, see Sun and Ect Solid Soleasse, sat of 1 Bite gravity cmteaiikie, Clarke, Spectrum analysis, history 0: of, 3 the ps Spier, F. te Princeton Seientifie ‘Expedi- ‘Starch, constitution of, 3 team, mH AT = 3 Peel a8 sa as ae kh cn ° & ior) ulated forms of, Hoi- ogee P jicaiteies planets, 313. - Lows arias = * aie 84. Belephonie ths NY “oh : ‘ ee S4 MM i Ps | ‘ wf | 2 fa ~ me Tigh ccc me a a eh year Warren's Rept. Bridging Miss. Diagram D eee eo oe Saige Shs Pe ~ = =e een Kile x | | ! ae : i | Warrens Rept. Bridging Miss. R. Diagram & ; BECr Sores CU 10u. it. 4 a 7 pitt oe ob? BRM BR <1 sz SS 0721F00 axe MAP a7 eee” 9 Fox OSE pe iearde elie ss Jectton of Mississippt River Blutts at Warsaw Llttiarw YI isa very Sine yellow sand and clay widely cevelopec. Bis a dluish olay urrct Ft72e sand) C zs rounctecdt hard bowicders trom siatl gravel up te 400055, mexed weth werk BD ts compnosect of angiutar Blocks 77o7t ove? ct fore weight clowwre Co srradl stores, meerged wetout orcle?} wet coarse anc sine sand cenel clay, sowing 720 selectiost o7 Sor ti7ty. Lhe rocks cre EPL PQ, POMPEY IY, GTUIRETE Vr7tetss or stertlre, Aarce brecetated linrestorze &0, Lhe womer| hcarborecrerous sleaces ev vecciity exetbel loc’ displacererts ot hey ie : scp saeuaeeparenee Soeene” sistas : ew Seem a Warrers Rept Bridging Miss Rh. SLhagran G eo of the Contour Map the Mis. Sources . SLISLIIE Stale of miles oo fo o | ae { | |