THE AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. EDITORS, JAMES D. ann E. 8. DANA, anp B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS, Prorressors ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp J. P. COOKE, Jr., or CamBrincE, Proressors H. A. NEWTON, 8. W. JOHNSON, G. J. BRUSH anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuriapELpHia. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XVII.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXVII.] Nos. 97—102. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1879. WITH TEN PLATES. NEW HAVEN: ppitons., Se 1879. Ny - Cee o, | Kee &o% | AUG 13 1941 s peat rnc yah ly he CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVIL. NUMBER XCVIL Art. L—Contributions to Pepi o# by Ex1as Loomts. Tenth Paper. With ele WO TA ee eee 1 Il._—Mesozoic Strata of Virginia ; by W. M. Fontaine, .... 25 - I.—Notices of fifty ge of east-coast Fishes; by G. B. moorr and 7. Baan ee, a 39 IV. Sy Sales and Stellar Magnitude of the third Saturn- - ; ian satellite, Tethys; by E. S. Hotpmn,_-...-.----:--- 49 __V.—Use of the Tasimeter for Moseutia the Heat of the Stars and of the Sun’s Corona; by T. A. Eptson, --..-----.- 2 - Dat VILL. = Blectsiviis Estimation of Cadmium; by E. F.Smira, 60 -—New Order of Extinct Reptiles SavRANODONTA) from the JaPassié of the Rocky Mountains; by O. C. Marsu, 85 X.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs ; : by O. C. Marsu. Part I. With Plates III to X,_----_.. 86 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. s.— Philippium, : Decipium, DELAFONTAINE, 61.—Mosandrum: Ytterbium, Marignac, 63.—Vapor density Method, Victor pibakon a Zine Nickel, BemsTzIn: Fo: ion of Purpureo: of the Chemical El N. Lockyer: Binaural Audition, THomsow, Economy and raierararaalg of the Electric Light, FARME wile Geology ng Mineralogy. —Geological Survey of the Fortieth tee CLARENCE Kine, 66. erat é Territories, F. V. Haypen, 67 —Bulletin of oneiee States Geologi pbaad ct the Terri- tories: one of ears E. = flog, : Bowlders in Cosles B Hicks, 68.— Oil-well Records in Pennsylvania, 69. Botany and Zoology.— Aig is, 69.— ora Ross & retica, HEER, 70.— Epping ‘coohge and Haw best to aca ‘with it, 4. R. WazLace: Die Algenflora des Wei, Meeres, ©. Gost: No rth. "aerican Fungi, 71.—Early Types of 8. SH ScuppEr, 72. stronomy. — Consta tants of th ‘orrestrial Spheroid: Failure of Meteors from Biela’s Comet in 1878, E. T. Sawyer: Abriss der Praktischen Astronomie, H, “TA, iscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. — International Geological Congress, 75.— National Academy o of eng 78. Fone York oes of cles Anales Me de cina rol ca : Sei cal Argen: ience N da ily inpge 83. eeseatiila of Chamistry: R. ALY Wikenite: s! Handbook of iv ‘CONTENTS. NUMBER XCVIII. Page Arr. XI.—Discussion of the Working Hypothesis that the = dice es Elements are Compound Bodies; by J. Norman SIO EUR ao catetce cece ete ee a ee eee 93 XI. SWelasity of very Loud Sounds; by W. W. Jacquzs, - 116 =: Rig ake Winnipeg discharged big the Minne- within the last two hundred years? by J. E. Topp, 120 XIV. sels of the Spectroscopic Observation - the Solar e of July 29th, 1878; by G. F. Barker, ---- .--- 121 XV. mes e of Measuring the Velocity of Sound in Wood; boa it MR EAE Foo Ce pgeaineg iene gene pecerammbeyrey ie, eae ge 125 XV1—The Rélation of Secular Rock- -disintegration to Less, Glacial Drift and Rock Basins . EUMPELLY, -...- XVIL—Method of pe pear the ‘Dip; by N. D.C. Hopous, 145 XVITII.—On a Group of dissimilar Eruptive Rocks in Camp- ton, New Hampshire; by G. W. Hawes, .--..-------- 147 XIX.—Mesozoic Strata of Virginia; by W. M. Fonrarne, - 151 | XX.—Recent American Earthquakes; by C. G. Rovio 158 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Note on J. C. Draper’s paper ‘‘ On the presence of Dark Lines in the Solar Ni aetes ose gota ese closely to the lines of the Spec- mn, 162.—Infiuence of Pressure on Chemical — BERTHELOT: pec at and the Heat a: Tilt of Galli BERTHELOT, 166.—Occurrence of Ytterbia i in Sipylite, DELAFONTAINE: Development of Electricity as the equiv- Geology and Mineralogy.—The Loess of Minnesota, N. H. WincHELL, 168.—Sys- tematic Geology of the 40th Parallel, C. Kine, 170.—An Elementary Geology, designed especially for the Interior States, E. B. ANDRE 75.—An Outline of General Geolo; Glimmergruppe , 176. Botany. Sin cag car alee as a Field for Geographical Research, W. T. THIS- ELTON-DYER, 176.—Conspectus Flore Europez, C. F. Nyman: Botanical Ne- ina of abT8, 177. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence ay inns ry Lad alge nga = —Chromo- metry: Soong Characters of the Sauropoda, O. C. Marsu, 181.—Protrait NUMBER XCIX. Arr. ers of the Ultimate Molecule; by W. A. MORTON ( cee RS a 183 —Mabins on Eozoon Canad ense; by J. W. Dawson,. 196 XXIII.—Magnetic Storm of May 14, 197 B.« a Se XIV.—Flocculation of Particles, and its Physical ‘and Tech- nical Bearings; by E. W. Hirearp,- oe ope tee —Jura-Trias of Western North “America ; "by Meh aaa Seat se ee ere we ene eee 214 XXXVI. sat ee of Lines of Molecular Pressure, and the Trajectory of Molecules; by W. Crooxzs, 218 a Page CONTENTS. Vv Page rca —Chemical Composition of Triphylite; by 8. L. Pzy- MLD, 5. oe Sick Sos os eck kom widiewe Oe aes olen 226 XXVIII —Mesozoic Strata of Virginia; by W. M. Fonrainz, 229 XXIX.—Recent additions to the Marine Fauna of the eastern coast of North America; by A. MORI oe 239 e of the Laramie Group or ihe Mountain Lig- nitie i cnnsGan: by H. MB Amsrer ig io a in aint cnn ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGEN OR, ee sind ited Bogemicia nu Silica, and on an Inorganic membrane formed it, ULLIK: Action o: ype rus Oxide on nnyiee, MULDER and BREMER, 24 46. 2 ecRnmatttd of B or: " Haeeme: n of af Sider acid on Ethylene dibromide, DEMoLE, 247.—Relative ABinities of et and th Haloid Blements, 248, —The Part | of Acids i in Etherifica geo 249.—P Lines Previn Nat of Spectra | of Mixed Gases, J. WIEDEMANN, “250,—The Law of the Tele. phon Geology and Natural Histor —-Reports upon the Specimens obtained from borings made in 1874, between the Missi yd River and Lake Borgne, at wo site proiined for an outlet for Flood Waters, E. W. = 252.—The Question of the Gonidia of Tina 4 4,—Etudes Phyoologigues, URET and E. BorNet, 256.—Note on the ETE. of the coi Rhynchonella, B. E. - Mons, 257.—Fauna Littoralis Norvegie, J. rebar and ped ath Plc met on cae E S. P. LANGLEY, 259. us Scientific Intell Earthquake of November 18, 1878, 260.— Pocativugen auf dem Gebieted pa ; erosieneah, E. WouLyy: The American Journal of Otology, 2 NUMBER C. Art. XXXI.—Dr. Jacob Bigelow; - 2: -s-s« ess t= 5-5 F o- 263 XXXII.—The Vertebrx of Recent Birds; 5 by O. C. Marsu,. 266 XXXIIL—Notice of Gaston de Saporta’s Work, The Plants ie ee ise, before the advent of Man; by Lzo Lzs- oak mass cet cae gh ON ESE clined ee a dial Balti Undergro man Temperatures on the Comstock Lode; wie ate chines te ‘Geoiouy of the Fortieth Par allel. Reviewed by R. PuMPELLY,------------------- XXXVIL—On a Method of Hecimatng wats = of Young’ 8 Revert Layer; FER, ---~- --- 303 XXXVIII—The Lo wer ioe of ’ Urolophoante by H. F. Osnorn and F. Spxtr, Jr., -- ~ << 4 804 XXXIX.—Notice of recent Additions to the “Marine Fauna of the Eastern coast of North America; by A. E. VERRILL, $98 XL.—The Presence of Chlorine in Scapolites ; y F. D. Apams, 31 vi CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. casa —The formation of Mountains and the Secular Cooling of the Earth, Dar IN, 320.—Binaural Audition, comes gomy 322.—The lage Lecture pefore the Fellows of the London Chemical Society, A. Wurtz, 323.—Experimental nation of the velocity of Light, A. A. MICHELSON, 324. Shae Sad Mineralogy.—Note on Mountain-making by the Contraction of the a d e 33 Geological Survey of Ohio, 331.—Journal of a Tour in Marocco and the Great — tlas, J. D. Hooker and J. Batt: Annual Report of the Siegen Geologist of New Jersey, for reed Geological ovord for 1876, 332 —The Study of Rocks, F. Rotier: Ui die Zusammensetzung der Hithicn gilboer: mes tali e HER The oompoeition of Spodumene and Petalite, 0. D@LTER: Cacoxenite from Lake | Superior, E. CLaassen, 333.—A emcage Srpaaiie, M. Damour: Thee e system of Pyrostilpnite, STRENG: eritansanmling rhe Univer- — sitat Gottingen, C. hee : Enstatite rock fe South Africa Botany and Zoology.— Polpembevons, true and Pei ae - seis to Partheno- — genesis, 334.—Notes on Euphorbiaces, G. BENTHAM —Journal of a Tour in Marocco and the Great samen ae ue rage ER and Aa LL: scares Ferns of ~ seat America, 338. Bor. Exsiccatze, Fartow, ANDERSON : The Black Mildew of Walls, Lury, 339.—T wo Bermuda dice mistak- sag danstibed as new, A. GUNTHER: Ala ska Chitons ei Limpets, DALL, kee evan eB. Scientific Trielligence. _The discove ery Se miner eral wax, Ozoce NEWBERRY, 340.—The American Antiquarian: Wanderings in south : America, the Northwest is the United States and the An a meas ke WATERTON, 341.—A Real T elegraph: The Soren et mies and phy! 1 ee a of Steel Rails, C. B. Duper: ‘The Mete ~~ ogist: The Paleontologist, 3 Obitu- ary.—Professor Gunes Leonhard, 3 NUMBER CL P Arr. XLL fickery; by WS. in “See Plants of the oe RR 3 ORTON, XLIL.—Mineral Locality in Fairfield County, with the de- = a: of two Es new species; by Guorer J. Hu and Epw . Dana. Second paper, - - 359 XIV. —Fox Hills Groep of Colorado; by STEVENSON, 369 J.J. —Spectrum of Brorsen’s Comet; by C. A. Youn 373 } n XLVIi—Explorations in the Wappinger Valley Limestaue of Dutchess County, New York; by W. B. Dw hele . 389 me IL. ne on the Planet discovered March 2 a ee ae pte ae iad CONTENTS. vii L.—Composition of the Cymatolite from Goshen, Mass. ; by OMEN ccc. na wenieiotemewe geiden ue cit Baty ance LL—Relations of the ae of Solutions of Hydrated Tad to their Water of Composition; by R. J. Souraworrn,. 399 LI.—Analysis of the Tetrahedrite from Huallanca, Peru; W. J. Comstocx, --.--- 401 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and P. nation of Fusing Points, Terre: Chromium, Maisgituahe. Soe ‘Nake he 1 Cobalt Amalgams, MOISSAN, 402.—Chromates and Dichromate: 3, SCHULERND : Purification of ee BRUAL, 403. Pampers aig eerie from the Paraffin of Brown coal, Lippmann and Hawnicz form Aromatic Compounds, WropLEvsKy: Phthalein of Orthocresol, AUDE, B Strontia, 406.— i f g Elect: discharges, WIEDE New current interrupter, F. N LLER upter, F. NremMo of Molecules, R. RUBLMANN, 407.—American Chemical Journal, 409 Geology and Natural History. fer ap a See of the Volcanic Tertiary Formations of the Yellowstone pee se W. H. Hotmes: Fruit-bearing branch of | Cordaites from Cann ig ttc 409.—Woodland Caribou or Reindeer from the Loess of Hg EIDY: Annua aN OE of Mi pi ig ar ogical Survey, for the year 1878, T. ©. CHAMBE RLIN : and A: tum from incenttown, New Jersey, E. GOLDSMITH: Guides os "Sconce Teaching, 410,— Function of the Sterile Filament of Pe ntstemon, L&o ERRERA. —Revue Mycologique : Meehan’s Native Flowers - Ferns of the U. States, ie _—Obser- vations on Seve: realaherieng' of Saprolegniex, F : Popular California Flora, or Manual of Donat or Beginners, V. Ra oa Halospheera, eine neue Gattung griner Algen aus ps Mittelmeer, Scumrrz, 413.—Dr. W. G. Farlow, 414. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Intra-Mercurial Planet : Geological Society of London, 414.—Geological Survey of the Territories of the United States: Gold Medal of the Astronomical ety: Academy iences £ Comparative port of the Observations of the total Solar Eclipse, July 29th, 1878, made at Fort Worth, Texas, L. W. 5 Obituary.—Frank Howe Bradley, 415: Dove: W. K. Olifford, 416. NUMBER CI Arr. LIIL—The Forests of Central Nevada, with some re- marks on those of adjacent regions; by C. 8. pe 417 —Ethylidenamine Silver Sulphate ; by W. G. Mrxrsr,. 427 LV.—Notes on the Satellites of Saturn; by M. Mrrcwett, -. 430 LVI.—Force of Effective Molecular Action; byW. A. Norton, 433 LVIL—Dark Lines of Oxygen in the Solar Spectrum on the less ia ae side of G; by J. C. Drapmr, .--------- 448 LVIIL—Genesis of Cinnabar Depos sits; by S. B. Cu HORIGTY» ~* 453 LIX.— Not aes of Recent Scientific Publications in B ci a gpa de on the Geology of the Lower ‘Amazonas; ia we ee ee eee -- Ser ee ee - ek ewe ee ee 468 North America, No. 5 by A. E. Radin Sie aa 472 LXIL—New Absolute Gaioaaars by N. D. C. ak 475 Lx Wang Horses, Recent and Extinct; by 0. C. a wee eee bees cheb ehe dhe eee eee ee vill CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. — and ge —New Series ni om cain . A. SmirH: Reciprocal displace- oge Tron, DEMEL: alos Method of Producing Ketoasa Vow Becut: Production of Aurin, CLERM oe and FROMMEL, 480.—Radiometer, CROOKEs, 481.—The Magic tires of sate 483. Mineralogy. —The Cincinnati Group, 484.—Atlas to the Coal Flora of Pennsylvania, and of Cooniiones Palen 1 aie throughout the hg 9 States, L. LEsQUEREUX, 485.—Materialien zur Mineralogie Russland, von Nikolai von Kokscharow: Neues ieee ‘buch fiir aca eralogie, ye ie and "Paleontolagite Brief notices of some recently described minerals, 4 Botany and Zoology.—Catalogue of the Dave oe stand of North — : T. —Can arly Am T.F. ALLEN, —Malesia: Raccolta di O interno alle Piante ett Atchipalago ee e Papuano, da O. BECCARI: Self-fertilization of 489.—Causes of the change in form of Etiolated Plants, tomas Astronomy.—Orbits of the binary systems, « Herculis and 298 Struve, BEEBE, 49 —Report of the Observations of the Total Solar Eclipse, July 29, 1878, — a ort Worth, Texas, L. WaLpo: Catalogue of the Stars ob served. at the States Naval Observatory, during the years 1845-1877, M. earn 49) A and Meteorolo: ical Observations made sone the year 1875 “at the United States Naval — tory, C. H. Davis: On the prec of Brorsen’s Comet, W. H. M. Curistin, 496, Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. ect on Pagosa Springs, Colorado, CO. A. H. MoCavLeY: Notes by a pees eo on the *eaiaampane H. N. Mosety, 497.— National Academy of Sciences, 49 InpEx, 507. ERRATA. Page 76, line 3 from top, after lines add, of faults; line 5 from top, for streets, rae straits ; line 2 from foot, for and, read one; line 3 from foot, for Velaine, Vélain; line 8 from foot, for Mont Alban, read Montalban ; ‘line foot heed or feldspar, read feldspars. Page 77, line 11 from foot, for von Hautken, parte 317, lines 25, 26 from top, transpose HO (comp.) and H.O (hygr.) N ve a Koes SA 30" adv? ic ot 20% 2 bd oSh 206 9SOt aL Id S69 % eu - 6? NV ¢dO AMOS NS AT f N¢ FLUCTUATIO MT WASHINGTON MAY TA LL BAROMETR N BREE SMS? ree > > ER. Saks hn baie é < SES oN ~ 7 i = Fr + a a au Sat me ee s GS J = a REIS < ee Sik ) ae a Se S. ae Pas 52 as BE f oe SC < Bisk | Bel VA ~ ; SEBS 6 rt = : Sea ae a we eer * aa 4 | | ine cope Shades ABH eT: a > — | Leg eae OR AS Bh a EP: a SRM eS a J | Ci | i SUSAR ee. PERE SRR: = To Fa ¢ oO” pe at : | mE ms mas ee an ee | see she 7 0 L | z : ae: <- abe oo" 4 f | ae 2a SRmaneGe : Bae s BE Se Ee = : me Be —4 f | i em Teer r ) a | ) oy aa | 7 ms i | ay Sle By Q i | | 3 A aie @ < [i a Seal T Tre = ee Cie ie | | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] e Art. I.— Contributions to Meteorology: being results derived from an examination of the observations of the United States Signal Service, and Jrom other sources; by Ex1as Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Tenth paper. With Plates I and IT. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, New York, Nov. 6, 1878.] Storms of the Atlantic Ocean. In a former paper, I have noticed some storms which could be traced across the Atlantic Ocean by means of the Paris Atlantic storms, I first provided myself with a large number of blank maps of the Atlantic Ocean, upon precisely the same : ffmeyer’s charts, so that observations could be read- Uy transferred from Hoffmeyer’s charts tomy own. I then wade a careful examination of all the charts in succession. For the first three months (December, 1878, to February, 1874), the isobars are not drawn beyond the meridian of 30° west o: Paris, So that these charts were not available for this investi- Mches), near the coast of the United States, and marked upon if € of my maps the position of the center of the lowest isobar. 1 the Same low area could be identified on the chart of the fol- “ving day, I marked upon my map the position of the center of the lowest isobar for that date, and I did the same foreach lowing day as long as the low area could be identified. The AM. Jour. 8c1,—Tarrp Serres, Vou. XVII, No. 97.—dan., 1879. , 1 2 E.. Loomis— Observations of the U. &. Signal Service. Storms of the Atlantic Ocean. First appearance.| Long. 60°. tone. Long. 0°. we pay Me er igs No,| Date. | rat. [tong £3} rat. | 24] ret. | 83] nat. | 83) sg a3 ee 0 e, . | Long. BS at. Be . BS at. a ays. 5S we Ee pF Pe wa re F} > |m | AS Ts pees ae 1 |Mar. 4] 46°5 | '75°5 |745| . : 2 8| 47-0 | 77-1 |750) 48-1 '745) 60-7 |740| 68-7 |735| 2°8| 36-4] 4 | S.W. 3 20| 47-0 | 61-3 |740| 49-2 |740/ 65-0 |730| 72-5 (745) 4°0| 24-8] 4 | WLW. 4 23} 53:5 | 55-0 |740) 51-4 740) 63-2 735) 61°8 750, 14°6| 6-5| 3 | SW. 5 | April 3] 48°6 | 70°6 |750) 52:3 |750/ 62-6 |745/ 48-5 740] 9-2) 12-0] 5 | WNW. 6 12| 46-4 | 63-5 |750 | t 15| 51°8 | 74-0 |750/ 50°0 750) 60-2 |745) 67-7745) 6-1| 15°83] 4 8. 8 21) 47:0 | 75-0 |7 | 9 26| 41°5 | 72-2 |745| 44-5 740 10 30| 46°5 | 71-3 |740| 44-0 750 11 |May 26] 47-0 | 76-7 |750| 55-0 |750) 59-4 |745| 66-4 755) 6-7|12°8| 3) W. 12 |June 1) 43-0 | 69-3 |745 13 8| 48-0 | 72-0 |750] 44-5 |750 14 13| 50°5 | 75-0 |750) 47-8 '755 15 18] 44:2 | 71-8 |750 : 16 23} 52-5 | 70-0 |750) 49-1 |750 17 29] 45-0 | 80-0 |75 18 |July 8| 47-8 | 71-8 |750 19 45°6 | 71:8 |750 20 |Aug. 1] 47°5 | 75-5 |745 21 |Sep. 11] 49-5 | 56-4 |750 22 30] 45:6 | 71-8 |740 23 |Oct. 11} 51°5 | 71-4 |745] 59-6 |750| 61-9 |'740| 68-5 |740! 78} 9:6] 5 24 18! 51-9 | 68-0 |745| 54°5 (750 64-6 |730| 69°6 |730| 5°7|13°8| 4 25 28| 37:0 | 62:0 |750) 38-2 (750 38-2 |755 26 30| 51°3 | 71°0 |750/ 54-4 '755| 64-0 |740| 68-0 740} 3-3] 22-6| 3 27 [Nov 10| 46-6 | 56°0 |745| 50°8 |745| 69 0 |745] 62-0 740) 51/1671] 4 28 21) 44°2 | 67°8 (745 43°3 |750 29 24| 48-0 | 70°0 |735 30} 29| 46-0 | 72°7 |7 31 /Deec. 9} 52-7 | 56-0 |750| 49-8 750 32 15] 50-0 | 59-0 |750) 49-3 750) 62-6 |745| 64-6 1755) 9°7110°2| 5 33 21} 40°0 | 65-5 |750) 39-2 |'755 34 25| 47-4 | 57-7 |740) 47-7 |740| 69-0 |735| 59-3 |740) 9°3} 1171] 4 1875. ; 36 |Jan. 3) 46°8 | 60 8 | 735) 47-4 |735| 59°5 |735] 61-4 |740' 13-3 | 7-7] 3 36] 8) 43°5 | 65-0 |740 BT 10) 45-4 | 58-0 |750} 45-8 |'750 + M1 1-601 176) 8 38 14; 43-4 | 66-0 |750| 47°6 |745/ 58-3 |740) 61:5 |735| 5°0| 2171| 4 39 23) 42 8 | 62-0 |750) 43-2 |750| 59-5 [740 68°6 |740| 9°0|12°6| 3 40 25| 44-5 | 68°T |750/ 49-7 (745) + | +] 4+ | +] 65/149] 3 41 30| 43°0 | 63°6 |750| 43-0 |750| 56°8 |745| 68-5 1750) 16-3} 6-9) 3 42|Feb. 1) 41°5 | 63-0 |745) 44-7 (745 41)19 -3 43 40°5 | 64°5 |740| 43-6 745 { | | 7-0 |16-0| 3 44 12) 47°6 | 66°3 |740} 59-0 |740 45 2 4°3 |'750 46 2 0 730 51:0 |735) 47-3 |725| 73°0 |740| 10-5 | 9-1] 5 47 |Mar. '7| 39-8 | 57-2 \750 41°5 750 48 8) 40 (745, 42°3°745] + | +] + | + 49 17| 46°0 | 68-0 | 745) 53-2 |740) 63-2 |720| 67°6 1745) 9-3} 9-5) 4 50 25| 42-4 | 68-4 |745) 60-4 |745) 64°8 In5| 63°% |740| 77,101] 4 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 3 Storms of the Atlantic Ocean. | First appearance.) Long. 60°. | Long. 30°. | Long.0°. eve. ee No.| Date. | Lat. | Long. g8 Lat. gs Lat. | $3) Lat. | 23/Days.| 2S | ac Se oo eo °° xe) <5 a8 ae HZ pee ag HZ > |EE! Aco 51 |April 6! 38:0 | 53°0 1750) 40-5 /750] 45-2 1740! 48°5 [755/ 16-4! 74/3! ZB. 723/750, 40°6 7501 + 1+ | + 4/163/3| EB 53 16) 45°0 | 77-3 |750| 45-3 |745| 50°2 |740) 72-8 (745) 14-1) 7-7] 3 8. 4} 25|39-7| 60-0 '750| 39-7 750 + |+| ¢ 1276/3] §. 30) 46°5 | 77-2 |745| 47-3 750! 47-0 |750 56 |May 2) 50-0 | 78-6 |740| 53-0 '750| 624/745 + | +/ 4 | 4 5) 42°5 | 57-5 1750 + st 8 58 7| 41-4 | 67-5 |'750| 41:0 |750| 54:0 1745! 67-7 |750! 7:0/17-0| 2 Ww. 83°5 | 750 4' 67-7 66 |Sept. 4) 47-4 | 77-6 [750 62°0 175 67 2°5 | 73-0 |750, 46°3 |745!| 44-6 |735! 58-7 |730; 8°8|12°01 5 | W. 68 26| 48-3 | 60-0 |750. 48°3 750 65-0 |740 69 |Oct. 2) 50-0 | 63-0 750, 51°8 750) 59°6 |740| 66-7 |735) 32/287) 3 | W. 6 | 66-2 |750) 56°8 |745| 53°4 |735| 47-8 |755) 9°9)} 105] 4 |E.toW. 71 21| 44-2 | 55-7 1745| 42-7 1750 +19 70/169] 4 |E.toW. 12 25! 40-0 | 64-4 |750. 40-0 |745| 49°6 |745| 64-4 |745'10°2/11-7) 3 | W. 73) 28) 48-6 | 63-5 |750| 48°3/750| + | +| + | +] 72/139] 3] W. 72-0 |740! 45°3 |740) 52-4 1750] 52-0 |725) 8-9} 12-4) 5 | N.W. 15 |Nov 11| 43-5 | 69-6 |735| 45-9 1740) 53°8 |745)| 56°8 (755) 60/17-9| 4| W. 6 q 41°5 |740 Means 746] 49°6 |746/ 58-0 |746] 63°3 |743; 8:5] 14:0 - This low area appeared to coalesce with No. 35. : t This low area appeared to coalesce with the low next preceding. points thus determined were connected by straight lines, and the probable track of the low area was thus obtained. e Same method was pursued with each of the charts to Novem- near the coast of the United States, and was able to follow thirty-six of them with considerable confidence entirely across im other storms before reaching the European coast, leaving only twenty-eight different low areas which reached the coast oaks he preceding table exhibits the most important ‘Particulars relating to these seventy-seven cases. Column Ist 4 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. column 4th the longitude of the center of the lowest isobar for the date mentioned in column 2d, and column Sth shows the — amount of the lowest isobar. As the isobars are drawn at intervals of five millimeters, it is probable that at the center of the low area the pressure was frequently as low as 745 m. (293 inches), and sometimes lower. Column 6th shows the latitude in which the central path of the low area crossed the meridian of 60° W. from Paris, and column 7th shows the lowest isobar umn 9th shows the lowest isobar for that position; column Paris; and column 13th shows the average velocity of the cen- ter in its course between these two meridians. This average is obtained by supposing the center to have followed the are of a great circle, and takes no account of the actual irregularities of its course. Column 14th shows the highest wind reported on the English coast at the time the low center was nearest. These winds are estimated upon a scale from 1 to 6, where 1 denotes a light breeze; 2 a fresh breeze; 8 very fresh; 4 a hard wind; 5 a gale, and 6 denotes a hurricane. The velocities given in column 14th are the highest velocities reported anywhere near — the coast of England, but do not include Scotland. If Scot- land had been included, the velocities in some cases would have been greater. Column 15th shows the direction of the wind — - corresponding to the velocity in column 14th. Sometimes at several stations the same velocity was reported, but with dit ferent directions, The direction given in column 15th is the one which occurs most frequently for the given date and velocity. We see from this table that in one year there are on an ave- rage ee eighteen different storms which can be traced by across the ocean, is shown by the means at the bottom of the table, where it is seen that the meridians of 60°, 30° and 0°, Hoffmeyer’s charts from the coast of the United — E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 5 were crossed in the latitudes 49°°6, 58°-0 and 638°°3. Since the storm centers generally passed 800 miles north of London, most of them did not exhibit much violence on the English coast. In half of the cases, the highest velocity reported was 8, denoting a very fresh breeze, and in only six of the cases was the velocity at any station on the English coast as high as 5, denoting a gale. e may hence conclude that when a center of low pressure (below 29°5 inches) leaves the coast of the United States, the probability that it will pass over any part of England is only one in nine; the probability that it will give rise to a gale any- where near the English coast is only one in six; and the prob- ability that it will give rise to a very fresh breeze is one in two. ne of the most noticeable circumstances connected with Atlantic storms is their slow rate of progress. This is due partly to the erratic course of the center of the low area, and partly to the frequent blending of two low areas into one, whence it generally results that the most eastern center appears to be pushed backward toward the west. In my eighth paper Thave described a remarkable example of this kind of move- ment. In like manner the storms numbered 85, 89, 41, 51, 53, 70 and 72 of the preceding table appeared to be pushed west- ward by blending with storms of a subsequent date. Aside from this cause of detention, there seems in the Atlantic Ocean to be a special cause which frequently holds storms nearly sta- tionary in position from day to day, and this cause is probably the abundance of warm vapor rising from the Gulf Stream, m close proximity to the cold dry air from the neighboring coast of North America. Hence we see that when American storms are predicted to appear upon the European coast, and it 18 assumed that they will cross the ocean at the same rate as they have crossed the United States, such predictions will sel- dom be verified ated in the preceding table and which have been traced across the Atlantic (Nos. 51 and 70), appear to have originated over the Atlantic Ocean; five of them (Nos. 46, 52, 54, 73 and 75), *ppear to have originated in Texas or its vicinity ; lour ot meat (Nos. 67, 69, 71 and 74), appeared to originate in the mid- ¢ latitudes, but considerably east of the Rocky Mountains; about half of the whole number appear to have originated 1 the neighborhood of the Rocky Mountains; that is, it 1s diffi- 6 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. diminishing intensity. On the morning of the 20th, the great- est depression was at Bismark, 29-48; on the morning of the 21st, at Keokuk, 29°75; on the 22d, at Alpena, 29°74; on the 23d, at Sydney, 29°54, and during the next two days the depres- sion still further increased. Another low area had now arrived at Nova Scotia, and on the 26th had approached so near the former that the two seemed inclined to coalesce. On the two following days this tendency became more decided, and on the 29th both were united in one great depression, the pressure near the center being 28°94. This low area advanced towa the northeast without any perceptible diminution of intensity ; but when it had nearly reached the North Cape, its course was — turned to the southeast. The center of this low area has thus — in or near the Gulf of Mexico. The following cases are not on the maps of the United States Signal Service: 1, 1874, Sept. 5- 7. 4, 1875, Sept. 14-19. 2, “. Sept. 9-11. rs | Oe ee 3. >) Sent, 27-80. 8. 8 Now 1k E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 7 vations in curve lines and find a general correspondence between the fluctuations of the barometer at the two stations, with some decided differences, among which the most noticeable is that the maxima and minima of pressure generally occur earlier at the base of the mountain than they do at the summit. The Barometer at base and summit of Mt. Washington. Date. Base. | Summit. Diff. Min. |May 3/12 m | 26-820] 2 p.m.| 23-390) +2). Max. 8! Ta.m.| 27°547|11 a.m.| 24°114; +4 Min. 13) 2 P.m.} 26°654) 6 3:147| +4 Max. 21} 8 a.m.| 27480] 9 a.m./ 24°055) +1 Min. 24! 1 p.m.| 26-822) 5 p.M.| 23°422) +4 Max. 26] 8am.| 27-346] 9 a.m.| 24°029 +1 Min. 28! 4 p.m.| 26°988| 9 P.M.| 23°631) +5 Max. 29110 a.m.| 27°187| 5 P.M.| 23°839, +7 Min, 30/12 pw.) 27°114| 5 a.m.! 23°607; +5 Max. 31! 9 a.m! 27-500) 4 P.m.| 24°021) +7 Min. |June 5| 2 a.m} 26-756) 5 A.M.| 23°406) +3 ie 8| 6 p.m.| 27°388) 6 P.M.| 24-040 et 9} 5 A.m.| 27°393/11 a.M.| 24°012; +6 Min. 11! 6 a.M.| 27°007| 9 a.m.) 23°670) +3 Max. 13) 4 a.m.| 27°430/10 a.m.| 24°043) +6 Min. 17| 2 a.m.| 26°952| 4 a.m.) 23°540) +2 Max, 18} Sa.m.| 27-138|12 mM. | 23-748) +4 Min. 20! 2 a.w.| 26-788} 4 a.m.| 23°468) +2 Max. 25 10 Am.| 27°582/12M. | 24°270) +2 Min. 28 4a.m.| 26°983| 5 P.m.| 23-708) +13 ; Several of these maxima and minima are represented on Plate » The upper curve represents the barometric fluctuations on 8 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. the summit of the mountain from May 12, 2 Pp. M., to May 16, 2. P. M., the interval between the horizontal lines representing a difference of one-fiftieth inch pressure, and the interval between the vertical lines representing two hours of time. The second curve represents the barometric fluctuations at the base of the mountain for the same dates. The third and fourth curves represent the fluctuations from May 22, 8 P. M., to May 26,8 © P. M.; and the fifth and sixth curves represent the fluctuations from May 28, 10 a. M., , 10 A. M. minimum of May 18th is pretty sharply defined, and occurred on the sum- mit four hours later than at the base. On the morning of May 15th occurred another minimum, which at the summit was sharply defined, but at the base was inconsiderable. The min- ‘imum of May 24th was pretty sharply defined at both stations, and the same is true of the maximum May 26th. From May 28th to June 1st occurred two minima and two maxima whic are not very sheen defined, but the critical points at the summit evidently lag behind the corresponding points at the base. The maximum of June 8th continued for twenty-four hours with but little change, and the highest reading occurr at the summit of the mountain earlier than at the base, which may be regarded as an exception to the general rule. If, how- maximum occurred six hours earliest at the base. The decided fall of the barometer began six hours earlier at the base than at the summit. The minimum of June 28th continued for eighteen hours without much change, but the absolute min- imum occurred thirteen hours earlier at the base than at the summit. These observations appear to me to prove that the maxima and minima of the barometer do not generally oceur simulta- neously at the top and bottom of Mt. Washington, but on an average occur more than three hours later at the summit than at the base, showing an average retardation of one hour for each 900 feet of elevation. In order to test this result by independent observations, I compared the observations made on the summit of Mt. Wash- ington with those made at Burlington, Vt, and Portland, Me, from September, 1872, to January, 1875. Burlington and Port- land are distant from each other about 150 miles, and Mt. Washington is about midway between them, and we might expect that the barometric minima at Mt. Washington would occur at dates intermediate between those at Burlington and Portland. I therefore selected all those cases in which the barometer at Portland fell as low as 29°6 inches, and deter- E.. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 9 mined the times of barometric minima at these three stations. The result is shown in the following table, where the numera 1 following a date denotes the 7.85 A. M. observation ; 2 denotes the 4.35 p. M. observation; and 8 denotes the 11 P. M. observa- tion. When the pressure at two successive observations was sensibly the same, I have taken the intermediate date as being ference between the date of minimum on Mt. Washington and the half sum of the dates at Burlington and Portland expressed in units of eight hours. Barometric paises ie Burlington, hes Portland, Me., and Mt. Washington, Burl’n. | Porti’d.| Mt. W.| Diff. Burl'n. | Portl’d.| Mt. W.| Diff. 1872. d. da. a. 1873. a. ad. d. Oct. | 14.14] 14.14] 14.2 | +05 |[Dec. | 26.3 | 26.3 | 26.3 0-0 27.1 | 27.1 | 27.1 0-0 28.1 | 28.1 | 28:2 | +10 Nov 71 2 | 7.3 | 415 || 1874 12.2 112.3 | 13.3 | +0°5 |Jan. 8 2 24} +0°5 14.3 | 34.33] 15.1 | 40-7 10.1 | 10.2 | 10.2 | +0 30.1 | 30.1 | 30.1 0-0 15.2 | 15.24| 161 | +1°7 Dec. $3.) 82>) 84-265 93.1 | 23.2 | 23.2 | +05 9.1 3 | 10.1 | +2°0 98.1 | 28. 15 27.2 | 27.2 | 98.1 | 42°0 Feb. | 10.24} 10.3 | 11.14] +17 1873. 13.8 | 141 1 | +05 an. S3° 33 1 -44-P es 69} 168 | 124 141 5.3 | 6.3 | 6.1 |+41°0 ||March| 41 | 42 +05 SES 1 23.) FEST Peon 1 | 10.14; 101 [| +12 27.2 | 27.3 | 27.3 | +06 19.2 | 19.3 | 20.14| +20 Feb. 42 | 42 | 4.24] +0-2 22.3 | 23.1 1 | +0% S14. 8b bb a: ee 96.2 | 26.3 | 26.3 | +0°5 21.24) 21.3 | 22.2 | 41-2 ||April | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.2 | +05 March} 3.2 | 3.2 | 3.3 | +10 15.2 | 15.2 | 161 2-0 8.24| 91 | 9.1 | +07 91.1 | 21.1 | 21.14] +05 16.1 | 16.14] 163 | 41:7 96.1 | 26.1 | 26.1 0-0 21.13) 21.14] 21.24| +1-0 30.2 | 30.1 | 30.2 | +0 23.2 | 23.3 | 941 15 ||May 5. 5.2 +12 26.2 | 26.3 | 27.1 | +15 25.24] 25.3 | 25.34 +0°% 29.3 | 30.1 | 30.1 | +0°5 31.23 | 31.2}; 32.1 | +1 111 315 | 93; +0°5 |June 7 8.1 8. +12 April | 1 14.2 | 14.1 |—1°0 17.24 | 17.34| 17.34 | +0°5 19.13} 19.2 | 19.3 | 41-2 9 | 23.3 | 241 | +1°5 25.34 | 26.14| 26.1 0-0 8.2 | 28.2 | 283 | +10 May | 13.1 | 13.2 | 13.2 | 40° |[Aug. | 12 | 1.2 | 1.2 4.14! 242 | 949 | 40-2 ISept. | 30.1 | 30.1 | 30.2 | +10 June | 4.93/ 4.93] 433/410 llOct. | 22 | 2.2 | 23 | +10 9.3 | 20.2 | 20.2 | 41-0 10.24 | 10.3 419 Sept. | 12 | 1.2 | 21 | +20 17.34| 18.2 | 18.34] +2°2 Oct. 1] 71 | 71 | 0-0 Nov, | 10.34] 11.1}| 113 | +20 12.1 | 12.2 | 498 | 416 0.3 | 20. | +10 7.1 | 27.2 | 27.2 | +05 3.9 | 93.3 | 23.34) +06 Noy. 8. 8:24 8f b410 29.14 | 29.13; 29.2 | +05 12.3 | 32.3 | 13.14] +1 ‘Dec. "2 | 17.3 | 18.1 | 415 18.2 | 18.2 | 18. 0-0 | 24.14| 24.2 | 24.2 | +0°2 Dec. | 4.1 | 42 | 4:23] 41-0 | 1875. 28 wu £oS.2 1.138 | 195 1408 Jem 23 $2 23.44% 10 £E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. = It will be seen that in one instance the minimum at Mt 2 Washington occurred earlier than it did at Burlington or Port — land; in eight cases the minima occurred simultaneously; in seventy cases the minimum on Mt. Washington occurred later _ than the half sum of the dates at Burlington and Portland, the average difference being 0°88, or seven hours. The height of Mt. Washington above Burlington and Portland is 6,148 feet, showing an average retardation of one hour for an elevation of 870 feet. I next compared the observations made at the summit of Mt. — Mitchell in North Carolina (elevation 6,691 feet) with those made at the base of the mountain (elevation 2,560 feet) from August 6th to September 5th, 1873, published in the Report of the United States Chief Signal Officer for 1878, but the fluctu- — ations of the barometer were too small to yield satisfactory — results. The following are the most noticeable coincidences of minimum pressure : Base. Summit. | Difference. 1873. Aug. 13} 3 P.M. 4p.M. |+1] hour. 15 A.M 5a.M. |+3 hours 25| 5 PM. TPM. }+2 27] 2 xe. 4aM. | +2 Sept. 4) 3PM. TPM, |+4 5} 3PM 6 P.M. +3 These results indicate an average retardation of one hour for an elevation of 1,600 feet, but the fluctuations are so small that no great importance can be attached to them except as they are taken in connection with other observations. I next compared the observations made on Pike’s Peak (ele- orado Springs and Pike’s Peak, and the last column shows the difference between the dates of the critical points at the two stations. E. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 11 Barometer at Colorado Springs and Pike's Peak. No. Date. Colorado Springs. Pike’s Peak. Diff. jh. m. barom. h. m. barom. h. m. 1} Max. |1873. Nov. 1610.25 a.m. | 30°15 4.25 p.m: | 30°12|+ 6.10 2) Min. 22) 7.35 a.m. | 29°69 1.35 a.M.| 29° 0.00 3| Min. Dec. 2] 3.52 p.m.| 2948| 3. 7.35 a.m.| 29°18] +15.43 4| Min. 7) 4.35 p.m. | 29°58 1.47 PM. | 29°47|+4 3.12 5 | Min. 11) 4,35 p.m. | 29°60 4.35 P.m.| 29°48| 0.00 6| Max. 13} 8,13 A.M. | 30°27 7.47 P.M. | 30°18 | +11.34 1) Max. 24, 813 aM.!/ 30°27! 11.00P.m.| 30°12| +14.47 8) Min. 25'11.00 p.m. | 29°80 26. 7.35 a.M.} 29°75|+ 8.35 9 Min. |1874. Jan. 3) 7.35 a.m.| 29 28 4.35PM. | 29°32|+ 9.00 10) Max. 6112.00M. | 30°] 1.47 pm. | 30°02|+ 7.47 Mi 26| 4.35 P.m.| 29°71 /27. 7.35 a.m.| 29°65 | +15.00 12| Max 2 13 a.m.| 30°1 11.00 p.m. | 30 +1447 13} Max 812 30°12| 9. 7.35 a.m.| 29°93 | +19.35 14} Min. 10,25 a.m. | 29°31 4.35 P.M. | 29°20}+4 6.10 15| Max. 1911.00pM.| 29°81} 11.00P.m./ 29°64] 0.00 16} Min. March 5 11.00 p.m. | 29°43 4.35 P.M. | 29°36|— 6,25 17| Min. 30) 4.13PM. | 29°65 4.35 P.M. | 29°58|+ 0,22 18} Max April 2) 8.52 a.m.| 30-19 4.35PM. | 29°95|+4 17.43 19 | Min. | 413 P.M. | 29°63 4.35 PM. | 29°60|+ 0.22 20| Min May 1 4.35PM. | 29°50| 2. 7.35 a.m.| 29°50 | +15.00 21) Min. 9) 3.52 p.m. | 29°39 4.35 P.M. | 29°46 22 | Max Oct. 2111,00 p.m. | 30°28 22. 12.00 0°27 | +13.00 23 | Min 29°64 7.35 A.M. | 29°63 4\M 26 12.00 M 30°21 4.35 P.M. | 30°11) + 4.35 25 | Min. 28| 7.354 29°59 3.17 a.m. | 29°63|— 4.1 26) Max 3011.00 P.M. | 30°31; 11.00P.m.| 29°98/ 0.00 27 Nov. 1212,00m. | 30-16 4.35 P.M. | 30°06|/+ 4.35 28 | Min. 9 735 amM.| 29°32 7.35 A.M. | 29°37 0.00 9) Max. 25° 1,25 a.m.| 29-98 1.35 am.| 29°95|+ 6.10 30| Min. Dec. 15 4.35 P.M.| 29°58 7.47 p.m. | 29°56|}+4+ 3.12 31| Max. 23 11.00P.M.| 30°08} 11.00P.M.| 29°79) 0.00 32| Max. |1875.Jan. 21 4.35 p.m. | 30-03 11.00 p.m. | 29°76|+ 6.25 33| Min. | 211.00 pM. | 29°75 (23. 7.35 a.m.! 2954/4 8.25 e Pike's Peak was lowest at 4.35 P.M, but at 7.35 a. M. of the both of these cases the minima occurred sensibly at the same of 1,880 feet, “ come the following conclusions: that over the United States, oth the maxima and minima of atmospheric pressure 12 E, Loomis—Cbservations of the U. S. Signal Service. generally occur first near the surface of the earth, and they occur later as we rise above the surface, the retardation amount at which this wind was observed. Comparison of winds at the base and summit of Mt. Washington. — On the summit of Mt. Washington. | Surface winds from the East. Wind. Duration. H’rs. | Began. Eade 1| S.toE. |May 2,2 P.M. to May 3, 6PM. | 29 1 h’rs earliest, 4 h’rs latest. 1 .to EB, |May 9,1 a.m. to May10,4 pm 40/111“ “ |2 “ earliest 3 8 May ll, 1laM.toMay12,5am/19 12" “ |g “ earliest. 4 8 y 21,11 a.M. to May 21,4P.m 104%. oS ae 5 as May 26, 10 to M. 26, M.| 2 |/Uncertain. n. 6 |S.E. to N.E. June 7, 7 P.M. to June 10, 11 a.m.) 46 Variable. Variable 7 N.E. ‘June 13,2a.m.toJune13,84.m.| 4 |/6 hr’s earliest.| Uncertain. 8 | S.toS.E. \Junel4,1p.m.toJunel5,1am)10}6 “ “ |2 b’rs late 9 |S.E. to N.E.'June 22, 9 pu. to June 25, 3 Px, 36 |\Simultaneous. | Variable. 10 S. June 29, 6 P.M. to June 29,9p.,| 4 | Simultaneous, |Variable. In the case of Nos. 6, 7, 8 and 9 the interval named in col- umn 3d exceeds the number of hours mentioned in column 4th, and includes several hours of calms, besides a few hours in — which there was a feeble wind from the N. or W. points. Col- umn 5th shows when the surface winds began to blow from S, S.E., E. or N.E.; and column 6th shows when these winds changed to north or west. The time here given for the change | 6th denotes that the surface winds were feeble, and fluctuated — for several hours between east and west. t will be noticed that during the entire period of the baro- ee er EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 18 metric oscillations represented on Plate II, the wind on Mt. Washington never blew from the S., 8.E., E. or N.E., and the same is true of the four minima in the months of May and June, 1873, mentioned on page 9. Thus we see that areas of low barometer frequently occur accompanied by surface winds from the south and east, while the winds on Mt. Washington blow uninterruptedly from the western quarter; and in those cases in which the wind on Mt. Washington blows from an eastern quarter, the change from west to east generally occurs first at the base of the mountain. It is also noticeable that the diurnal movements of the barom- eter exhibit a peculiarity similar to that found for the acci- dental fluctuations. This is shown by the following table, Mean height of the barometer at all hours of the day. Mount Washington, New Hampshire, ! i Cc, Month of June. Month of May.| May and June, August. Stat’n 1/Statn 2 *n 3 Stat’n 4!Stat’ 1 t’n 4) Sum’t | Base. || Sum’t.| Buse. 1A.M.]23-818)24-512/25-979|27-179| 23-702 27-152/23°760)27°165||23-720/27-355 2 815) °51 975| -173| °699| -°149] -75%| -161|| -714| °351 3 806} -508} -971 70} -696| -147| 751} °158}} -T11) °347 4 8 11} -976| -175| -690| -146| °746| °160|| -70 9 5 805} 513) 982! -181) -701| -150| °7 165|| 713] °357 6 513| -987| +189! -701| -158|~ °756) -173|| °720| -368 7 817} 520} -993| -196) -707 7 80|| 31] -373 8 821) +527; -996| -196| -714; 166: ‘767, -181|| -739| ‘378 9 8 532] -998) -196 718! 166| ‘773| °181|| -748| 379 10 838} 536} -999| -196| 725) -165| °781| °180|| -753) ‘374 1 83 33] -997/ -190| -731| -162 16|| °753| -363 noon | -841| -532| -992| +182) -733| -156| -787| °169)| -746 1PM) -839] +532) -985| -177| -731| -149| -785| 163 4} +345 : 2%| -985| -171| -732| -143| -783| -157|| -730| -333 3 830} +528} -976) -161| -725| -142| ‘777| °152|| -726) 330 4 825| 521) -973| 158! °726| -142| °775| °150/| °719| ‘321 5 817| 520} -973| +159! -794) -147| -771) 150!) -717) °323 6 822) 517] -973| +156! -721) °1 1] *155|| -717| -329 7 818} 523] -976| -165) 162} -772| *163|| -723| -345 8 818! -522/ -980| -166| “727; -166| ‘773| ‘L66|| “730! “360 9 826) 531) -984) +173 170] °779) 171) 137) | *361 id 823} -522| -983} 172) -727| -170) “775| *171/| -739) “861 il 821} -522/ -987 174| 720) -169| -770| -171|| -736| 360 midn’t| -815| 516] -978| -169, 716) -165| -765| -167||_-728| “365 Which gives the results derived from the hourly observation published in the Signal Service Report for 1873, Column = June. Column 8d shows the mean height of the barometer at Station 2 (5,558 feet above sea level); column 4th shows the barometer at station 8 (4,058 feet above the sea); and column 14. & Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 5th shows the barometer at station 4 (2,898 feet above the sea}. Columns 6th and 7th show the mean height of the barometer at stations 1 and 4 for the month of May: columns 8th and 9th show the mean height of the barometer at stations 1 and 4 for the months of May and June combined. Column 10th shows the mean height of the barometer at each hour of the day for the month of August, on the summit of Mt. Mitchell, N. GC (elevation 6,691 feet), and column ilth shows the barometer at the base of the mountain (elevation 2,560 feet). t the base of Mt. Washington the principal maximum — occurs at 85 A. M., but on the summit it does not occur until noon, being a retardation of 34 hours, which is almost identi cally the same as we have found on page 7 by a comparison of High Winds on Mount Washington. Tn order to stady the laws of the winds on Mount Washing: ton, I selected from the published volumes of the Signal Ser | vice observations (Sept., 1872 to Jan., 1875) all those cases im which the velocity of the wind was at least sixty miles per hout. The number of these cases was 484, of which 117 occurred at 35 7.85 A. M., 187 at 4.85 Pp. M. and 180 at ll p.m. Thus we see that at 11 P.M. the frequency of high winds is 42 per cent greater than at the other hours of observation. But near the level of the sea the force of the wind at 11 P. M. is ape bear its minimum, so that we conclude that the causes which | produce high winds on Mount Washington are mainly inde- pendent of the causes which determine the ordinary diurnal chanze in the force of the wind near the level of the sea. e following table shows the average number of cases of violent winds for each month of the year. . Winter. Dee. 22.7 Jan. 21.3 + 21.2 Feb. 19.5 Autumn. Sept.11.7 Oct. 9.7} 13.8 Nov. 2 Sp: Mar. 17.5 Apr. 15.5 } 14.0 May 9.0 0.0 Thus we see that during the winter months, high winds are twice as frequent as during the summer months, while near the level of the sea high winds are seven times as frequent during” the former period as during the latter period. ‘The following table shows the number of cases in which the wind blew from the different directions at the time of these high velocities. E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 15 North, 53 cases. South, 14 cases. Northwest, 260 “ Southeast, Sent est, 1 are ast, i Southwest, 27 “ Northeast, et Thus we see that. 60 per cent of all the high winds came from the northwest ; 75 per cent came from the west and northwest; 87 per cent came from the west, northwest and north; while only 4 per cent came from the northeast, east and southeast. In order to determine whether these high winds bear a con- stant relation to centers of low pressure as indicated by obser- vations near the level of the sea, I prepared a table showing for each date the position of the nearest center of low pressure. This table is so large that I have not thought it expedient to publish it entire, and I have endeavored to abridge it in such a of velocity for each direction of the wind. For the northwest winds I have employe only velocities a at one hun lre d miles per hour; for the west wind, I have employed velocities of Mount Washington there was generally a Jow center near Hali- fax, Sydney, Quebec, Father Point or Cape Rozier. In the case of No. 88 (which is the continuation of No. 11) the low “enter had already passed beyond our stations of observation. High Winds on Mt. Washington. No. Date. Wind. Low. No. Date. Wind. Direc.|Vel.| Ba Station Direc. 1/73. Jan. 11.3/N. Te 39" 95 Halifax. 62/74, Oct. 29.2/8.W. 2/74, rales 4 3|N. 96| -45 Sydney 63 e. 11.1/S.W. 3 1.3)N. {103} -69|Chatham 64/75. Jan. 9.1/8.W. é Sept. of 1\N. | 80] -68/Sydney. || 6 13.2/8.W. f Oct. 16.1/N. 80} -77/C. Rozier. || 66)'%3. Jan. 5.2/8. € my 3|N. 9 hatham. 6 5.3/S. ( 0.1/N. 9 56|Chatham 68 8.3/8. é Nov. 1, IN, 7§ 50|C. Rozier. } 13.3/8S. § 3IN. 8 *31/C. Rozier. TC Mar. 11.2/8. ( re N. 76| -50/C. Rozier. 7] 1.3/8. 1 29,2iN. 84 30|Chatha is April 9.3/8. 2 Dec. 12.2,N. {100} -95,/C. Rozier..|| 73/74. Apr. 20.2)S LZ 12.3\N. 8 7 May 16.18. [4 15.2|N. 7 5|Sydney. vfs 18, 5/75. Jan. 23.2\N. 96} -65\Sydney. 7¢ June 16,3)8. 26.3/N. 98 40\C. Rozier. 5h Nov. 20.2/8 27.2/N. 98 48 ' Halifax. TE 28 73, Feb. 10.2/N.W./103|} +56) Halifax 7975. Jan. 24.2)8. ar. 8.3)N.W.}126 jue 80/72. Dec. 3.2/S.E. Aug. 16,3)N.W.|100 63| Quebec. 8] 8-2|S.E. "4, Jan. 25.3/N.W.|126! 88) Halifax. 82/73. Mar. 20.3/S.E. | 84 eb. 5.2)/N.W.|100| -67|Sydney. f ug. 14,2|S.E. | 6¢ 8.1)N.W./108 2/Sydne § 14.3/S.E 0 11.2|N.W.|100/28-84|Sydney. 18.2/S.E. | 60 Mar. 20.3|N.W.|110/29°33|C. Rozier Oct. 20.1/S.E 5 23.3\N.W.|130| -49/Sydney. |! § 20.2'8. : ‘ 24.3/N.W.|102 8|Sydney. { 211 Apr. 30.2|N.W.|130/28° 97 Father Pt. Noy. 17.3/S. i 30.3)N.W./115|} -99|/Father Pt. 714. Jan. 8,1 June 12.3|N.W.|100)29°58/ Quebec. Sept. 17.3/S.E. 13.3|N.W.|108| °76)\Sydney. a fs 1|\S.E. Nov. 5.3|N.W./100| -64 93/72 1|E. 30.3 N.W./100 i E. 30.3/N.W.|100| -59/C. Rozier. 3, Apr. 12.3/E 5. Jan. 9.3/N.W.|100| -28| Halifax. ‘ ay 3.2\E ™2. Nov. 25.2) W. 85) -39|Quebec. 9.2\E. . 10.3) W. 84 13| Quebec. 18 Noy, 18.1/E. 3. Dec. 4.2/W. 80} -43)Quebec, 9 24.2). .3,W. | 96) -29\Chatham. |/100)"%4. Apr. 10.1/E. 40)'74. Jan. 23.2) W. 30} °32) Father Pt. |/101 25.3|E 4 ai ve. 4081-2 Rozier. ||102 26.1\E 4 1 W. 88} °‘77\C. Rozier. | 103 May od E 4 Feb. 25.3/W. | 90| -47/Father Pt.||104| July 4.3/E. 4 Mar. 24.2;W. {115} -67\Sydney. (||105 (on 28, 3\E. 4 June 8.1/W. | 90} -45\Quebec. ||10 3\E. 4 Oct. 29.3) W. 92; -°57|Montreal. ||107)72. oe si 2|N.E. 4 Nov. 5.2)W. 2 67\Father Pt. ||108 3|N.E. 4 Dec. 14.3) W. § 28/Sydney. 109 Dec. a N.E. 4 18.1|/W. é 8 Halifax. 110 20.1) N.E. "72. Nov. 12.2/S.W. | ¢ 72|Montreal. |/111 20.2\N. 21.3,8.W.| ¢ "88, Oswego. ||112 28.1\N. "3, Jan. 16.2|8.W. 74| -45/Buffalo. //113 28.2\N.E 16.315, W. , *36, Quebec. 114 28.3|N.E Sept. 25.3'S.W.| € 31/Son ~ {Ll 9.1/N. { Nov. 27.2/S.W. | ' 5) Father Pt. ||116)/'73. Feb. 17.1/N.E : Dec. 4.1/8.W.| 65/28: a1 Marquette ||117 24.1|N.E. 57)'%4, Jan. 4.3/S.W. e 29°55| Father Pt. ||118 Apr. 12.2|N.E E 1/S.W. 5 a 119 13,.1/N.E. § Feb. 23.1|S.W. bis 3s Rochester 120 Oct. 8.2/N.E € Mar. 3.3/8.W.| 96 121 8.3|N.E € S.W.| 74 ‘a Ones EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 17 In twelve of the cases the stations which show the lowest pres- sure are the same as reported above for the north winds, but in six of the cases the lowest pressure was farther to the west. The average direction of the low center from Mount Washing- ton was nearly at right angles to the direction of the winds. In all of these cases (except Nos. 28 and 29) the pressure was above thirty inches on the west side of Mount Washington and generally at a distance of about five hundred miles, but in a majority of the cases the center of high pressure was south- west of Mount Washington. With a west wind of eighty miles per hour, the low center was generally near some one of the stations already named. In six of the cases the low center was near one of the stations the station reporting the least pressure ranges from about zero to somewhat over 90°. On account of the small number of stations, it is generally impossible to assign exactly the position of the center of least pressure, but apparently the angle which the wind’s direction made with the direction of the low center was in some cases less than 45°. In all of these cases (except Nos. 45 and 47) the pressure was above thirty inches on the west side of Mount Washington and generally at a distance of about eight hundred miles; but in all cases the center of high pressure was somewhat south of west from Mount Washington. With a southwest wind of sixty-five miles per hour, the direction of the station reporting the lowest pressure ranges from N..25° E. to S. 75° W., the average direction of the low: center making an angle of about 90° with the direction of the wind. In the case of No. 58 there was a low center in Vir- remaining ten cases its direction was almost exactly west, and its distance about 1,300 miles. ith a south wind of sixty miles per hour on Mount Washington the low center is generally found nearly west from that station. The exceptions are Nos. 71, 75, 77 and 78. In the case of seventy-one we find the pressure at Montreal was less than at Burlington, so that it appears possible that at. the height of 6,000 feet the center of least pressure was not over Portland but northwest of Montreal. In the case of seventy- five the pressure at Ottawa was only -07 inch greater than at Am. Jour. ee Serres, Vou. XVI, No. 97.—Jan., 1879. 18 KE Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Quebec ; in the case of seventy-seven the pressure at Kings- ton was only ‘02 inch greater than at Portland ; and in seventy: eight the pressure at Albany was only ‘05 inch greater than at Atlantic City; so that it appears not improbable that at the height of 6,000 feet the center of least pressure at each these four dates was west of Mount Washington. In eachof | these cases there was a center of high pressure in a direction — west or southwest from Mount Washington and at an average — distance of 1,100 miles. It is presumed there was also an area of high pressure on the east side of Mount Washington, — but it had already passed beyond our stations of observation. _ With a southeast wind of fifty-four miles per hour on Mount Washington the low center falls between the directions south | and northwest. The only exception is No. 80 and this case | seems to indicate that at the height of 6,000 feet the low center | was nearly two hundred miles in arrears of the low center at the surface of the earth. In each of these cases there was an | area of high pressure west or southwest of Mount Washington. — Generally its direction was nearly west and its distance about — 1,200 miles. The center of high pressure on the east side had generally passed beyond our stations of observation, but in the ease of No. 91, the pressure at Cape Rozier was 30°67 inches, — and the distance of the center of low pressure was more than | exceptions are Nos. 93, 94, 97 and 103. In the case of Nos. 93 and 97, observations at other stations place the low center considerably south of Oswego and Grand Haven; and in the ease of No. 103, observations at other stations place the low — center west of Portland. The position of the areas of high pressure is nearly the same as for the southeast winds. With a northeast wind of fifty miles per hour the low center is generally found south or southeast of Mount Washington. | The exceptions are Nos. 109, 110, 111 and 117. In the case. | of Nos. 109 and 117 no observations were made near the [ Atlantic coast at any station east of Portland, and it is proba- F ble that at these dates the low center was not far from Halifax. | In the ease of Nos. 110 and 111 the low center came from the | station of observation. 4 he examination of these one hundred and twenty-one cases [| EF, Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 19 seems to warrant the following conclusions: 1. High winds on Mount Washington circulate about a low center as they do near the level of the sea. 2. The motion of the wind is nearly at right angles to the direction of the low center. 38. The low center at the height of Mount Washington sometimes lags behind the low center at the surface of the earth appar- ently as much as two hundred miles. High Winds on Pike's Peak. In order to study the laws of the winds on Pike’s Peak, I selected from the published volumes of the Signal Service | observations (November, 1873 to January, 1875) all those cases in which the velocity of the wind was as great as thirty miles per hour. The number of these cases was 363, of which 136 were reported at 7.35 A. M., 97 at 4.35 P. M., and 130 at 11 P.M. Hence it appears that at 4.35 Pp. M. high winds are twenty-five per cent less frequent than at the other two hours of observa- tion. But near the level of the sea the average force of the wind at 4 p. M. is double that at the other two hours, which results accord with the Mt. Washington observations in indicat- ing that these high winds are mainly independent of the causes which determine the diurnal change at the level of the sea. The average number of cases of violent winds for each month of the year is as follows: Spring. Summe Autumn, Winter. March 14 June 21 Sept. 17 Dec. 28.5 April 17 $15.7 July 2}>11.3 Oct. 24} 26.5 Jan. 42}31.2 May 16 Aug. 11 Nov. 38.5 Feb. 23 Thus we see that during the winter months high winds are nearly three times as frequent as during the summer months. The following table shows the number of cases in which the wind blew from the different directions at the time of these high velocities. North, 28 cases. South, 18 cases. Northwest, 47 * Southeast, 1 case. W ¥y 54 “ “ Southwest, lll ‘ Northeast, 4 cases. Thus we see that seventy-three per cent of these high winds come from the west and southwest, and only one per cent comes from any easterly poi In order to determine whether these high winds bear a con- stant relation to centers of low pressure near the level of the sea, I have prepared a table similar to that on page 16. For the west winds I have employed all velocities amounting to fifty-tive miles per hour; for the southwest winds I have employed velocities of fifty miles per hour; for the northwest winds velocities of forty-two miles per hour; for the north winds thirty-five miles per hour; for the south winds thirty- 20 #. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. two miles per hour; for the northeast winds twenty-two miles per hour; for the southeast winds ten miles per hour, and for the east winds I have employed all velocities amounting to seven miles per hour. The following table is arranged in the same manner as that on page 16. For No. 47 the velocity of the wind is given seventy-seven ie according to the published observations; but I am informed by General Myers that this ey should be thirty ni will be observed that with a north wind of thirty-five miles per fish on Pike’s Peak, there was apart bl an area of low pressure on the east side of that station. In the case of No. 11, throughout the = son States the Sasbeniies was above thirty inches, but a center was forming near Mobile which on the next es onsioned into a storm of considerable inten- sity. We also find that there was generally an area of high pressure in a panchaee west or northwest from Pike’s Peak. With a northwest wind of forty-two miles per hour, there was generally an area of low pressure on the sp eer side of Pike’s Peak. No. 23 is the same case as No. oticed above. We also find 00 Seam was generally an area Of high pressure on the Pacific co ith a west neti of fifty-five miles per hour, there was eaeraly an area of low pressure in a northeast direction from : Pike’s Peak, and an area of high pressure on the — coast. | No. 40 is mer same case as Nos. 11 and 23 noticed abov With a southwest wind of fifty miles per hour, thar was generally an area of low pressure in a northerly direction from — Pike’s Peak, and an area of high pressure on the Pacific coas or on the coast With a Pike’s Peak. Frequently the center of low pressure appea to be in a direction east of north. If there had been more — westerly stations of observation it is presumed that in some of © these cases the eee of bow pressure would have been found ~ bei of Bismark and Fort Sully. In the case of No. 73 an of low ogee a sea Ae near Pike’s Peak, which ; becaitie fully cscloped the next day. We also find that the i pressure was econ mewhat above the mean in a direction — southeast from Pike’s P With a lee ae "of not less than ten miles per hour, © there was generally an area of low pressure at no great distance, — but in hal of the cases the lowest observed pressure was on the — northeast side of Pike’s Peak. All but three of the cases occurred | in summer, and the average velocity of the wind was only sixteen — miles per hour. We also find that on the east side of Pike's _ Peak, the pressure was in each case a little above thirty inches. — of Texas j south wind of thirty-two miles per hour, there was — scdotay" an area of low pressure in a northerly direction from _ ee See ee ee ee en High Winds on Pike’s Peak. | No. Date. | Wind. Low. No. Date. | Wind. Low. = Direc,;Vel.| Bar. | Station. Direc.|Vel,| Bar. Py, Station. _ 1/78. Nov.17.3/N. | 35/29°27/St. Louis. || 62/74. Apr.12.1/8. | 32)29-49'Ft, Sully ee. 18.2|N. 3é °23| Augusta € May 27.3/S. 4 "24 ully. 3 Dec. 26.1|N. 0| *41/Eseanaba. |} € 3/8. 4 BIN, 40} °48|Detroit € 1S. 5/14. Jan. 6.1/N 40; -90|/Montgom. || ¢ 2318, May 2.3|N 40| °35|Leavenw. || € 3 3.1\N. 3E ss: pte: of € Aug. 3.3/N, 3€ Ft. Sully. || » : Noy. 24.3/N, 55 aE N.Orleans.|! 7 i 25.1'N. | 35] °74|Jacksonv. || 7] at 28.1iN. 36 73 : Dee. 17.3/N. 40} °85/Santa Fé. || 73 p 1a 21.3/N. 45) -62/St. Paul. 14 P 14 23.2/N, 45| °49|Marquette || 76 15)"13. Nov.17.1/N.W.| 65] °41/Duluth. 7€ —-:16)74. Jan. 7.1/N.W.| 42 3/Ft. Garry. || 77/'75. o] 8.1N.W.| 50| -42/Ft. Garry. || 7 a Apr. 13.1/N.W.| 44} °30|Ft. Garry. || 79/74. i Sept.16,2/N.W.| 50} -54/Ft. Sully. || 8¢ Nov. 4.2|N.W.| 44! -20/Bismark. ] 20.1)N.W.| 4 *64;Breckenr. ;| 82 22.11N.W.| € *21/Breckenr, || 83 28.2\N. 6 84 28.3IN.W.| 5 *85| Atlantic C.}| 8 Dec. 9.3/N.W.| 4 *74\Father Pt. || 8 28.1/N.W.| 60| °73/Alpe 8 27°15. Jan. 2.3/N.W.| 4 86/Cheyenne. || 8 28/14. Feb. 13.1) W. o troit. 8 2 Oct. 28.1 maha. 9 30 28. 55} -28|St. Paul. || 9 31 Noy. 4. 31/Bismark 9% 32 7. 56| °16/Duluth. 93/74. 33 8.1/W. | 70} -34\Duluth. +34 8.3/,W. | 65] °68|Marquette || 95 35 9. ~- 1-6 61|Bismark oF 36 13.1];W. | 62) °77|/Bismark. || 9° (3T 21.1/W. | 6¢ ismark. || 95 38 23.1/W. | 75/28°75| Alpena. 9s 39 24.1/W. | 65) -89/C. Rozier. ||10¢ 40 27.3/W. | 5é 10] 41) Dee. 22.2/w. | 5: 29° = fommers 102 42 24.1/W. | 6 0) Al 103 43 ree We op 6 “10 Cheyenne. 104 44 . | 60] -72\Quebec. || 105 a5 . | 55] °68\Cheyenne. ||106}"73. S.W.| 5 *59 Breckenr. |/107) S.W.| 7 75|Ft. Sully. ||108 8.W.| 55) °68) Yankton. 7.1/S.W.| 52! -50|/Yankton. |/110)74 S.W.| 55) 58) Ft. Sully. -215.W. 1 é *23| Bismark. ||112 27.2\8.W.| 54| -76\Cheyenne. ||113 S.w,| ¢ *30'Bismark. ||114 6.2/S.W.| € "28 Bismark, ||115 .218.W.| 60| °53/Ft. Sully. ||116 S.W.| € 68 Ft. Sully. |}117 Wii *bO/Ft. Sully. |/118 ci *59|Cheyenne. |/119 *76\Cheyenne. |/120 54) °50\Cheyenne. ||121 i "86 22 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. With an east wind of not less than seven miles per hour on Pike’s Peak, the pressure on the Pacific coast was generally ~ somewhat less than thirty inches, while on the east side of that station the pressure was a little greater than thirty inches, but at Santa Fé the pressure at these dates was not sensibly below the mean. The average velocity of the wind was only twelve miles per hour. The majority of these cases occurred in sum- mer, and none occurred during the colder half of the year. pressure less than thirty inches was generally found on the east side of Pike’s Peak, its average direction being about south- east. Also a pressure greater than thirty inches was generally — found on the north or northwest side of Pike’s Peak, butin | half of the cases ne difference teedanh these two pressures did | not exceed a quarter of a — Comparing the areedice aalie with those before found for — Mt. Washington, we see that with a high wind from the north, — northwest, west, or boa tiwact ‘he position of the areas of low i pressure is similar at both stations, but the centers of least — pressure are easuehtly more remote from Pike's s Peak, and are © more widely scattered This difference may be partly explained by the small number of stations east and north of Mt. Wash- — ington. With a high south or southeast wind on Pike’s Peak — the oF a of the low center is sometimes apparently east of — Similar anomalies are sometimes noticed on Mt. Wash- — engin, but they admit of a plausible explanation. We also — notice that with a low center at a given locality, the high winds ~ on Pike’s Peak may have a great variety of directions. Thus — when there is a low mies at Fort Sully, we find high winds ~ on Pike’s Peak from north, northwest, southwest, south, © and southeast. When there is a low at Bismark or Cheyenne q we find high winds on rhis fr northwest, west, — also on Pike’s Peak depends partly upon the poate of the areas | of high pressure, but a di 4 circumstances which cannot be clearly ibaa from the want — of observations at a silent number of stations. ’ With an east or northeast wind on Pike’s Peak, there is | generally no low center of much magnitude indicated at any of | the stations, and the average difference between the high on | one side and the low on the other is only one-third of an inch. | Hence we conclude that while high winds on Pike’s Peak — from the directions north, northwest, west and southwest indi- | cate a circulation about a low center according to the same law | Pe a eT ee EL, Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 28 as is observed near the level of the sea, the winds from the south, southeast, east and northeast give only obscure indica- tions of rene governed by this law s observed on Pike’s Peak from the east and south- east are very few in number, particularly during the colder portion of the year. The following table shows the total num- ber of easterly winds for each month during a period of three years from observations made three times a day. E N.E E. . E. N.E. Jan 2 0 A May} 6 6 19 || Sept.| 5 4 36 Feb. |} 1 0 3 June | 6 2 12 || Oct. 2 9 19 Mar.| 1 0. as July 9 | 12 49 || Nov.| 1 0 Apr.| 4 0 115 = 7 8 25 '! Dec | 2 2 19 of the sea the winds from these directions constitute twenty per cent of the whole number. — - also notice that on Pike’s si The only station of the Signal Service whose direction is nearly south from Pike’s Peak is Santa Fé have examin these observations to see what was the direction of the wind on Pike’s Peak at the time of low barometer at Santa Fé. The following table shows all the cases in which there was a consid: erable depress ession at Santa Fé during the period of the pub- lished observations at Pike’s Peak. lumn second shows the date of the minimum; column third shows the lowest observa- tion of the barometer: column fourth shows the direction and force of the wind at Santa Fé; column fifth shows the direction at the time of the last preceding observation; and column seventh shows the position of the center of the nearest low area as shown by the observations. 24 E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Low barometer at Santa Fe. Santa Fe. |wina on Pike’s Peak.| Date. 2 Bar. | Wind. At date. | Prev. ob. | 1 %3. Nov, 22.2/29°51/Calm. [|N.E. 20/Calm. (Ft. Gibson 2 Dec, 2. *31IS.W. 26/S.W. 15|S.W. 20|Leavenworth 3 q. “*b1S.E. 8iS.W. 32/8.W. 18/Corinne. 4.4. Jani:2, 59/S.W. 6|S.W. 20;W. 40/Ft. Sully. 5 21, 38/S.W. 12,;W. 10/W. 15)Cheyenne. € Feb. 12. 18;W. 24/W 25;W. 16)Dubuque D 18, 39/8, 8S.W. 20/Ft. Sully 8 21 28)S.E. 12/S.W. 20/S.E. 24/Santa Fé 9 E, 12\S.W 188.W. 16\Santa Fé 10 Mar, 5, "26S. W. 22/8. W, 128.W. 12'Cheyenne 16. 18/IS.W. 20|\S.W. 16-W. 24/Ft. Sully 30 ‘46/8. 16S. 14/S.W. 20/Salt Lake City 6|W. 15/Salt Lake City S 2 for) ie bo mn 4 wo =) mM : ; . 10/Santa Fé. ry Bat , . 20'Colorado Spr. 4 )'15. Jan. 5.2) -42\Calm. [S.W. 15|S.W. 22/Cheyenne. 5 12.1] °35/8. 4 S.W. 1/S.W, 10/Salt Lake City 6 28. ‘AlIN.E. 4;Calm. |W. = 15)Corsicana, We see that the center of low pressure generally passes north — of Pike’s Peak, and there are only six cases in which the low — was south of Pike’s Peak, viz: Nos. 1, 8, 9, 22, 23 and 26. In the case of Nos. 1 and 22 the wind on Pike’s Peak was © northeast; in No. 23 it was from the south; in No. 26 it was © calm ; in No. 8 it was southeast at the time of the last preced- _ ing observation ; in No. 9 it was southwest and had been blow- ing from some western quarter for a period of forty-eight hours. The first five cases accord tolerably well with the results found — for the winds on Mt. Washington, but No. 9 seems to indicate ee the system of circulating winds which prevailed at that te at lower stations did not extend as high as Pike’s Peak. We see that one reason why easterly winds are so rare on Pike's ~ Peak, particularly during the winter months, is that the low centers generally pass north of that mountain. receding investigation seems to warrant the following — conclusions, which are an extension of those stated on page 19. — 1. At the height of 6,000 feet the winds circulate about cen- — ters of low pressure as they do near the level of the sea, but frequently the position of the center of low pressure is sensibly _ different at the height of Mt. Washington from what it is at ia as wine f 5 RT eee a a W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoie Strata of Virginia. 25 lower stations, and we sometimes find low areas resulting from a circulation of the surface winds which does not extend to the height of 6,000 feet. 2. At the height of 14,000 feet the fluctuations of the barom- eter are quite large, but the centers of low pressure at this ele- vation differ in position from those at lower stations, so that frequently there appears to be but little correspondence between the movements of the wind on Pike’s Peak and the fluctuations of pressure at the lower stations, and we frequently find areas of low pressure resulting from a circulation of the surface winds which does not extend to the height of 14,000 feet. In preparing the materials for this article I have been assisted y Mr. Henry A. Hazen, a graduate of Dartmouth College of the class of 1871. Art. II.—Notes on the Mesozoic Strata of Virginia; by Wma. M. Fonraline. In this paper I present a summary of the results attained by a series of examinations, made in the Mesozoic strata of Vir- ginia. ese examinations have occupied the larger portion of my summer vacations for several years. Some of my conclu- sions were reached sometime ago, but as the field presents many difficulties in its study, and as I arrived at some unex- pected results, I was not willing to present them until I had made repeated observations, and at remote points. As I have been very slow myself to reach some of these conclusions, I must expect that others will require convincing evidence before accepting them. Such evidence perhaps cannot be presented in the limits of an article. To a fully with my material, whether stratigraphical, lithological, or derived from the fossil plants, will require an extended memoir. I hope soon to present this. he great denudation which the Mesozoic beds and the enclosing crystalline or Azoic rocks have undergone, the proneness of the former to fall into a loose incoherent mass, _ the covering of drift matter and clay which often conceals the outcrops, all unite to render the task of studying the Mesozoic of Virginia a very laborious and difficult one. : It is due to Professor Wm. B. Rogers to state that his care- ful and accurate observations, made in the early surveys of Virginia, have rendered my work very much easier than it would otherwise have been; much that I have observed is merely a confirmation of what he had already noted. He has _ given correctly the location, boundaries and general character 26 W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoie Strata of Virginia. of the several Mesozoic areas, but as the relations of some of these do not seem to be understood, it will be necessary for me to give here some of these features with explanations. It will be understood, as was shown by Professor Rogers, that in Vir- ginia the Cretaceous, if it exists, does not appear to view, hence the term Mesozoic includes only strata older than Cretaceous. In Virginia the Jurassic forms the youngest Mesozoic, and is The several Mesozoic Belts. —The largest and most important Mesozoic tae is that which enters the State from Maryland, west of shington, being the continuation of the tract so — cargely developed in New cs ersey. For the sake of tininaticn , it may be called the New Jersey Belt. It has all the features — seen a its exposures farther north, and I have no reason to | doubt its being of Triassic age. So. far as can be ascertained © from the scanty attainable evidence, it is in part, the oldest of — the Virginia Mesozoic. It extends unbroken to the Rapidan — River in Orange County, and has to the south, a few net dis- tant, a small outlier now separated from it owing to erosion. A second narrow belt, a mere remnant which has ait ero- sion, is found on James River, i in the northern part of Buckingham ~ County. This is now widely separated from the preceding — a but possibly, though not probably, it once formed a part — f it. y be called the Buckingham Belt. A third © narrow belt extends from the North Garhi: border, near the — Dan River, in a northeast direction through Pittsylvania into — Campbell County. It has a width of four to eight miles, and — a length of about thirty miles.) Though now separated by a — narrow interval from the Dan River Coal Field in North — Carolina, it no doubt was once connected with it. This may — be called the Pitisylvania Belt. : A fourth narrow belt extends northeast from Prince Edward into Cumberland County. It contains in its southern extremity — a coal bed which is rie locally, and is the only belt except — the Richmond Coal Field which contains any coal. This may — be called the Prince Baward Belt. All of these four belts have — to. have: been by narrow arms o r inlets. ae ‘ in very ste cases these belts, aid “the eabhening Azoic rocks, — have all been planed down to a uniform level. These four — belts may be grouped as interior belts. ‘ Passing to the east we find a fifth belt, nearly enclosed by — Azoic rocks, but at its northern end touching later forma: — tions. This, which we may call the Richmond Belt, begins 4 — ease re eT Ce Se ee ’ ; ‘ ; 7 _ : : : F .. j : W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoie Strata of Virginia. 27 short distance south of the Appomatox River in Amelia County, and extends in a direction a little east of north to the _ vicinity of Chesterfield Station, in Caroline County, on the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad, where it is overlapped by later formations. On the Chickahominy River, northwest of Richmond, this belt is broken by an interval of Azoic rocks three miles wide, which separates the northern from the southern portions. The southern portion alone yields coal, and as it differs somewhat from the northern portion, we may give it the distinctive name of the Richmond Coal Field, while the northern portion lying mainly in Hanover County, may be called the Hanover area. No doubt the two were once con- nected by at least their latest formed beds. Both sections of the belt bave suffered much from erosion, and we find here again the striking feature of the planing down of the yielding beds of the Mesozoic, to the same level with the most resistant Azoic strata. The coal field is separated from the Tertiary on the east by a belt of granite and gneissvid granite about twelve miles wide. This belt seems always to have formed the eastern border, cutting off the southern end of the coal field from com- munication with the open sea. It is by the sinking down of this granitic border to the north, that the Tertiary beds are enabled in that quarter to overlap the Mesozoic of the Hanover area. The northern end of the coal field proper sends finger- like projections into the Azoic, which are the deepest portions of troughs which have escaped erosion. Some of these are entirely isolated from the main field. They sometimes furnish very instructive sections, throwing light upon the geological history of the coal field. Still farther east, and differing in position from all the pre- ceding belts, we find two others geographically distinct, but geologically the same. These lie east of, and outside of the ic rocks, and are really a shore formation, which must have extended to the open sea, though the indications are that the — communication was very imperfect. Owing to their apparent Petersburg and extends along the eastern edge of the Azoic eastern side. In this quarter, the uppermost beds of the any rate, Professor Rogers states that a small patch of strata of the same character is exposed in the bed of the Nottaway River 28 W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoic Strata of Virginia. South of the Nottaway, no traces of the Mesozoic have been seen. — This belt may be called the Petersburg Belt. A seventh belt — similar to the last is found nearly in the prolongation of it ina — direction due north. This begins a little south of Fredericks- — burg and continues along the eastern border of the Azoic, ina — northerly direction. Its western margin passes several miles — west of Alexandria. As it passes out of the State it bends to — the northeast, so as still to hug the eastern margin of the Azoic. — So far as I have traced it, it extends at least as far north as — Baltimore. This may be called the Fredericksburg Belt. Both — to meet at an acute angle. e statement made in the revised q edition of Dana’s Manual gives the usually accepted opinion. — This statement is that the Richmond area begins on the Po- — tracts in the Azoic which have approximately the dieses of © the strike of the Azoic strata. The a areas is fixed by the previous establishment of lines of weak- — ness, by the processes producing the metamorphism of the — W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoie Strata of Virginia. 29 Azoic. The force producing the sinking along these lines was plainly a lateral thrust, which at least in the case of the Richmond belt, acted from east towest. The sinking seems _ to have commenced at or near the close of the Permian period, and to have continued till toward the close of the Jurassic. _ The depression was accompanied by, in many cases, extremely _ rapid sedimentation, and toward its end, produced a rupturing _ of the crust and an outpour of fused rock. Wherever I have had an opportunity to examine carefully | the Azoic rocks bordering the Mesozoic belts, I find them pen- _ etrated by dykes of true igneous matter, such as felsite, granite, diabase, ete., which are much older than the Mesozoic beds. _ These dykes run parallel with the Mesozoic belts, and are con- _ fined to their vicinity. Their presence indicates that in the _ general metamorphism of the country, fracturing of the crust _ took place, and the metamorphic action was excessive along _ certain lines. There is no doubt in my mind that this previous _ weakening of the crust in definite belts, has much to do with _ the subsequent emission of the Mesozoic trap rocks in such well defined areas as we find to exist. I find also here a good example of the application of Von Richthoven’s conclusions _ concerning the order of precedence, and the association of igne- _ ous rocks. Lcopography.—The topography of the Azoic, and the included _ Mesozoic areas, is very significant, and may be studied to great advantage in Virginia. What I shall say under this head is more particularly applicable to the district which is limited on _ the north by the Potomac, on the south by the Appomatox, on the east by the Tertiary, and on the west by the Catoctin _ Tange of mountains. I apply this, the Maryland name, to that _ more or less connected range which penetrates far into Virginia, under many different local appellations. It runs about fifteen . miles east of, and nearly parallel to, the Blue Ridge _ very gently undulating character of the surface, which is so a The first thing that strikes the observer in this district is the marked as to arrest the attention of the non-scientific, and to _ Induce speculation as to the causes producing it. The country _ from the Catoctin eastward to the Tertiary, is a gently undulat- _ ing plain, descending from about 500 feet in elevation to the _ level of tide. Unlike the country near the Blue Ridge, and _ farther west, the topography is almost uninfluenced by the _ Structure and composition of the underlying rocks. In the area In question we have strata showing all gradations of hardness, _ With all degrees of proneness to decomposition, and dipping at _ Various angles, often steeply, yet all are planed down to a uni- _ form level. The streams, except the smallest creeks, cross the - Strike of the strata nearly at right angles, and are hardly at all 380 W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoie Strata of Virginia. guided or controlled in their courses by variations in the rocks across which they flow. ey seem to be steadily deepening their channels, which work they “tig continued to perform, it would seem, without noteworthy pause since their courses were first marked out. The absence of any considerable inequality on the surface is — well shown along the line of the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad, © which runs between Richmond and Gordonsville, for fifty miles, directly across the strike of the various strata. In the area now — in question the grades of the road are gentle, yet it turns aside for no hill, and has only one or two cuts which reach the depth into the principal streams. ere are many evidences showing — that the level areas between the main streams are remnants of — the original plane to which the country was cut down, and that the topography is entirely due to the action of the present sys: tem of streams in cutting down from this initial plane. Thus we find in the hill tops, and over the broader levels, certain — clays and cobbles which occupy the same horizon always, an serve to fix the plane of this old surface. While peculiarities — of erosion are shown in the character of some of the strata of 4 of the deposit of the latest formed beds. The condition of the surface of the Azoic rocks is also in- 4 structive. Those which admit of the formation and retention — of smoothed and rounded forms, usually present such appeal: ances. This is notably true of the granites and gneisses in the 4 ort of Richm ond. ] epth to wns decay has penetrated here is far less than — in the southern and southwestern parts of the State. In the lat — ter we find strata not lly prone to decay, often decomposed, — +e even one hundred — feet. This loose matter is suggestive of the way in which some — of the later formed Mesozoic beds may have obtained their | — and its peculiar arrangement. This will be noticed 4 and changed to a loose earth, im fifty an late: ie the area of the Azoic with which we are now concerned however, the case is different. We rarely find the rocks decayed _ to as much as twenty feet in depth. Very often the suri : clays rest on sound rock, or on that which is decompo: a few feet below the surface, Again this decay has in nearly mall : cases taken place since the erosion above mentioned. We often | a ee ess SS ae eee, EL eee eee ey eae ae pe aa Te eS ee est pe ree es Sh adil cal ail bh aie ease ae ial aS ae ae ae a . 3 W. M. Fontaine—Mesozore Strata of Virginia. 31 this northern Azoic belt, the agent which produced such extensive general denudation found, it is true, the Azoic deeply decomposed, and having its surface in the condition now found in the southern and southwestern part of the State, but it swept off all this loose granitic matter, and even reached the sound rock in many places. e€ may now turn to the consideration _ of some of the special features shown in the different belts. The New Jersey Belt.—Ot this I shall have little to say, except to call attention to certain remarkable deposits of stones on its _ western margin. The deposits of similar matter in the north- ern exposures of this belt are called conglomerates, and some- times breccias. For the beds in Virginia these terms are inad- equate. They are rather beds of bowlders. The northwest dip of the Mesozoic beds with which they are associated, and their position on the western side of the belt, show that if these de- posits are contemporaneous with the other Mesozoic strata, they are the last formed. But in some cases at least it is not clear that the period of their deposition followed immediately that of the typical Mesozoic beds. These stones are found in uncon- associated. These latter consist of sandstones and shales, well sorted and bedded by water action, and with their mineral con- stituents too much decomposed to betray, except in rare cases, the parent rocks. The case is different with the stones in ques- tion. They are of such large size, and the material is so fresh, that there is no difficulty in determining the precise character of the rock from which they were derived. Indeed the material 1s often as sound as if it had been taken from a quarry ame or less argillaceous matrix, derived either from the erosion of the normal Mesozoic beds with which they are associated, or rom comminution of their own substance. These deposits are often sharply distinct from the associated normal Mesozoic beds, and appear as if deposited in depressions in them anenveiet Oe erosion. But again they appear sometimes alternating wi shales, and thus to form strata contemporaneous with the nor- 32 W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoic Strata of Virginia. mal ones. The most common matrix enclosing the stones is red shal The most important, and by far the longest uninterrupted bed of stones, is that known under the name of the “ Potomac Mar- ble,” or the “Limestone Breccia.” This enters the State near Point of Rocks, Maryland. At Point of Rocks it is well ex- posed by the — for the Metropolitan Branch of the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad. I examined the deposit at this place oniaares's to determine the character and origin of the stones. stones here are all limestone. After long and careful search I foaud only one fragment not limestone. This was a slab about — eighteen inches wide and four inches thick, of apparently Pots: — dam sandstone. In this vicinity the Azoic rocks are mica slates. Azoic limestone occurs some distance to the northeast, and may have furnished an impure pinkish limestone, which — ranks third in the abundance and size of the fragments it has afforded. These are rarely over six inches in diameter and — sometimes a foot in Parser — stones are when hel ! constantly diminishing amount of limestone. As this limestone must have come from Maryland and Pennsylvania, we see that some of — ina must have traveled long distances, viz: forty or fifty mi The predominance of limestone is marked for bur i some 5, ones south of A second deposit, not caneriall with the last, is well shown q near Gnipepper er Court House, where I made a careful examina ~ A One een EE ILS Ric eget at vee ay oe a Ae ere a W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoie Strata of Virginia. 33 acteristic rocks of the Blue Ridge, some twenty or twenty-five miles to the west, and northwest. ey are commonly com- posed of a tough epidotic schist, subangular blocks of which, - two feet by eighteen inches, and two feet by two and one-half, sometimes occur. The most abundant material is a compact _ humerous, more or less angular, D banter up to an inch or Zoic rocks, and commonly ition. here is humerous partly rounded and slightly decayed particles of a feldspar, with man erfectl h fragmen Showing brilliant cleavage faces. These are cemented by a_ a felsitic paste into a firm rock, which can only by close inspec-— tion be distinguished from granite. It is difficult to see how R. steer" Serres, VoL. XVII, No. 97.—Jan., 1879. 34 W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoic Strata of Virginia. such a rock could have been formed out of any of the Azoic rocks in the vicinity, for these contain a good deal of quartz, even when richest in feldspar, and this sandstone contains very little. The upper series contains a predominance of reddish and en bu i over the whole belt, varying from thirty to forty degrees. is constant high dip indicates a thickness for the formation which is not justified by the other indications. In the description of the Richmond coal field I she state what I think is the explana- tion of this apparent anom Deposits of bowlders pudlad to those above deco appear, according to the statements of Emmons and r, to be found associated with the Mesozoic of North Carcliaa Emmons mentions beds of large stones as found on the west side of the Dan River coal field. There the normal strata dip northwest. Kerr mentions similar beds as occurring on the — east side of the Deep River coal field, where the normal strata — dip southeast. He however thinks that these ater pane from | Professor Kerr thinks that these beds are pre-Triassic, as he ‘ does not indicate any change of dip in the associated normal — eds. This southeast dip and the position of the beds, would ba that they are, as in Virginia, post-Triassic. Professor Emmons mentions that the Egypt shaft after passing through ~ twenty-eight feet of soil (?) penetrated two feet of large stones, — resting on the coal sha ws This may be the same deposit with — that of Protease Kerr. It does not seem possible that water action alone could have deposited these stones in their present — position. For if we could conceive of a torrent of such power — as to be able to steer these masses, and which would at the — same time not remove the fine matrix in which they are imbed- — ded, we should still. be unable to understand how water could — reach and remove material which had never been ex 4 surface rock, to the decomposing action of atmospheric agencies q I will pass over the Buckingham Belt and the Prince Edward — Belt, pola I had no opportunity to study them, and will consider next t ’ Richmond Coal Field.—This portion of the Richmond Belt, 7 which, as previously defined, lies south of the Chickahominy — River. 3 is the only Mesozoic area in Virginia which shows the — structure of a basin. sea strata may be divided into two | series, which show, as a whole, very marked differences, but between which no distiget line of separation can be tra a W. M. Fontaine—-Mesozoie Strata of Virginia. 35 The lower series, from three hundred to five hundred feet thick, rests immediately on the granitoid gneiss, which forms the floor of the basin. It contains all the coal found in the field. The number of coal beds is variable, but the most important are usually two or three in number, all contained within the space of about one hundred feet, and the lowest lying near the floor. In placing this coal-bearing portion next rock to resemble granite. Subordinate beds of shale exist, This series shows less disturbance than the lower. The dip is _ that it is difficult to determine its depth, and determinations _ from shafts and borings cannot be relied upon absolutely. To 86 =—sO W. XW. Fontaine—Mesozoic Strata of Virginia. illustrate this, I may mention two cases. Lyell states that the Midlothian (old) shaft was sunk within the field to the west of the previous workings, and entered the coal three hundred feet higher than was expected from the dip, thus giving an upthrow of this amount. This is on the east side of the field. On the west side at the Dover Mines, the company owning the works attempted to develop a new portion of the field by sinking a shaft a few hundred yards to the east of their old workings. They penetrated the Sati¥e series of strata, and found nothing workable. : My examination of some of the finger-like remnants of the — Mesozoic, now found at the northern end of this field, thrust out in the Azo oic, put me in possession of what I think is the : Sy sere: of the peculiarities of the structure of this field, : the interior belts) The history of these areas, briefly j stated seems to be as follows :— ; The strata were laid down in depressions, which, originally _ shallow, were subsequently deepened by a more or less rapid _ subsidence. The subsidence was due , as previously stated, to the operation of a lateral thrust. It contintied until faults and overturned anticlinals were produced. In the interior belts — these operated to produce a constant seat wfat dip. This | resulted from the fact that the western sides of the severed earth prisms dropped, producing sometimes by a roll of the prisms _ an upthrow of the eastern side. This appears to occur in some _ of the faults of the Richmond coal field also. When the ~ strain did not result in producing rupture and faulting, it caused the development of an anticlinal, affecting but a nar- row belt, which was overturned to the eastward, thus produc- ing also a continuous northwest dip. here the strata have _ suffered enormously from erosion, and where almost Bostibl thickness of keg ae the Richmond oi field the faults and narrow overturned initenior belts, continuous di ips, but suffice only to‘render very variable and uncertain the dip and position of the strata toward the center of the field. The general result seems t of t the overturned antislindls are of extremely Hinited extent. have seen them only a few feet wide. W. M. Fontaine—Mesozoic Strata of Virginia. 37 The direction, in which the lateral thrust operated in this field, was from east to west, and it seems not yet to be exhausted, for this region is often affected by minor earth- quakes, and at intervals of ten or fifteen years, by very pow- erful ones, the last occurring a few years ago. The shocks pass from east to west. It is probable that the gradual depres- sion of the coast is connected with this westward thrust. fossil Plants.—So far as known to me, the only plants from _ this field which have been published and described, are those _ made known by Rogers and Bunbury. Both of these authors considered the plants to be of the age of the lower Oolite of England. Most geologists, however, seem to agree in consid- _ ering the beds yielding the plants, to be of the age of the _ Keuper, or Upper Trias. It must be borne in mind that only _ the lower, or coal-bearing portion, bas yielded these plants. . Among European authors, Heer and Schimper are the only _ ones who, so far as I know, express an opinion concerning the _ age of the beds, based on an examination of the plants. I have not seen Heer’s remarks, and hence do not know on. what grounds he concludes that the plants are Triassic. Schimper, on page 277, vol. i, of his Pal. Veg., founds his belief in the Triassic age of the beds yielding the plants, both on the ani- mal and plant life. I will consider only the latter. e says, in speaking of the characteristic Equisetum of this field, which he calls Hguisetum Rogersii, that it is nearer to E, arenaceum, the characteristic Equisetum of the Trias, than to &. columnare, the plant of the Lower Oolite with which Rogers and _ Bunbury thought it to be identical. He, however, only saw a _ cast of the interior of the Richmond plant. He says, farther, _ that this coal field has Pterophylla and Ferns, which have most _ affinity with the characteristic species of the Keuper. It does not appear from what source he derived this impression. _ He is mistaken both concerning the Equisetum, and the _ other plants from this field. This Equisetum is next to Macro- _ temopteris grandifolia, the most abundant and widely diffused _ plant of the field. I have beautifully preserved specimens, on 1 field, while he refers its constant companion, the Equiestum : above mentioned, to the Keuper of the Richmond field. The 38 W. M. Fontaine— Mesozoic Strata of Virginia. fact is, that when both of these plants occur at a locality, they — are so closely associated that they are confined to the same — layer, from which they seem to exclude nearly all other species. — imper also refers to the Oolite of the Richmond coal field, another plant often found associated with these two, viz: Neu-_ ropterts linneifola Bunb. . The Macroteniopteris is allied more closely to the Oolitic — Macroteniopterids of England and India, than to any older plants. The nearest to it, among older plants, is the Zenwp- teris gigantea Schenk, of the Rhetic. Nothing like it exists in — which is a characteristic Rheetic plant, as given by Schenk. e Ferns are either similar to Rhetic forms, or have aa — affinity with still later ones. I have fine specimens of a splem did Fern, which is allied to Cyclopteris pachyrachis Goepp, — though it is a smaller plant, and isa new species. From ifs © association with Neuropleris linnevfolia Bunb., and the resem: blance of the two, I think that it is the male form of Bunbury’s plant. They are both allied to Acrostichites Gaeppertianus Schenk, - which is a Rhetie plant. I have also specimens of a fine Fern, closely allied to, if not identical with, Asplenites Rissert: Schenk, — which is a characteristic plant of the Rhewtic. Others might be mentioned, which show either Rheetic or Liassic, and even Ooliti¢ _ affinities. { have not seen in this field a single Triassic plant In the revised edition of Dana’s Manual, Pecopteris Rein q teris) Stuttgartensis Brongt., is given as occurring in this field — This statement is probably based on the identification by Heer, | of this _ with Bunbury’s Pecopteris bullatu. I have seed * By this I do not mean that the beds containing this flora are the o the Mesozoic strata in Virginia. The lowest strata of the interior Goode and Bean—East-coast Fishes. 89 in the other belts. These plants all come from the lower series. As the result of my preliminary study of them, I conclude that the lower series is certainly not older than Rheetic, and if it be not Rheetic, then it is younger. Some may question the sepa- ration of the Rheetic from the Triassic. Whatever may be the evidence of the animal life of these two formations, the plants are different, and the Rhetic flora is rather to be reckoned with the Liassic than the Triassic flora. Schimper, Heer and Schenk, all show that the Rheetic flora contains no Triassic species. [To be continued. ] Art. ITI.—Discoveries of the United States Fish Commission : oS of fifty species of east-coast Fishes, many of which are w to the fauna; by G. Brown GOopE and TarueTon H. Snan. THE object of the present paper is to give a brief summary of the coast investigations 6f the United States Fish Commis- sion (Professor S. F. Baird, Commissioner) since the publica- tion of a eine paper in this J eaten for December, 1877, pp. 470-478. Certain species which should be ment tioned here have not yet been identified; these will be reserved for a future paper. Full descriptions of species and discussions of ques- tions hinted at in these notices have appeared or will appeat in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum 1. Chilomycterus fuliginosus (DeKay) Gill. This species had been dropped by oeians consent from se faunal list; but after careful study of a specimen seined o Watch Hill beach, Rhode Island, Laaubee 12, 1874, we feel compelled to restore it. 2. Hippocampus antiquorum Leach. Taken with a school of mackerel on George’s Bank, August, 1873.—An addition to the fauna of the Western Atlantic. 3. Glyptocephalus cynoglossus (Linné) Gill. The craig flounder abounds in deep water off the coast from Cape Ann to Halifax, occurring at a depth of thirty-five fathoms in Ipswich Bay, Massachusetts, and in Bedford Basin, Halifax Ha rise and seaward to a depth of 111 fathoms. Care- ful study of a large series of specimens has enabled us to unite with this species Glyptocephalus acadianus Gill and Pleuronectes elongatus Y arrell. 4, Hippoglossoides limandoides (Bloch) Giinther. Hippoglossoides dentatus (Storer) Giinther, is apparently cer tical with this European species. The genus Pomatopsetta Gill 40 Goode and Bean— East-coast Fishes. which was founded on Storer’s Pleuronectes dentaia, has no ‘characters by which it may be distinguished from Hippoglos- soides, and it should be set aside. Hippoglossoides limandoides is a deep water species found constantly with the preeeding, 5. Pleuronectes glaber (Storer) Gill. As arule, the female may be distinguished from the male — by its smooth scales, especially in the breeding season, and by | its greater size. Gravid females were received from Salem, — Massachusetts, January 10, 1878. The eggs are one-thirtieth — of an inch in diameter. (Bean.) 6. Ancylopsetta quadrocellata Gill. Of this species, which was described from Pensacola, Florida, — and not elsewhere recorded, Professor 8. F. Baird obtained two — specimens in Charleston Market, South Carolina, April, 1877. 7. Reinhardtius hippoglossoides (Walb.) Gill. The southern range of this Arctic species has been extended to latitude 42° N. Fishermen take them frequently in the | gully between Le Have and George’s Banks, at depths greater | than 200 fathoms. They appear to inhabit the abrupt oceanic | slopes of the banks beyond and below the range of the halibut; | this fact, together with the uniform dark coloration of the under — side of the body, seems to indicate that its habits differ from _ those of other pleuronectoid fishes. 8. Chenopsetta oblonga (Mitch.) Gill. One specimen was trawled August 15, 1878, in the harbor of a Gloucester. It has not previously been recorded in Massachu- 4 setts Bay except at Provincetown, where Captain Atwood observe obtained it in 1846, and where it has since been occasionally ‘ d. 7 9. Macrurus Bairdii Goode and Bean. The unique specimen of this species has been supplemented by three additional ones captured August 27, 1878, forty-two _ miles off Eastern Point Light (Cape Ann), E. 2S., in 175 fath-— oms, which is within two or three miles of the locality at which the type was secured. 10. Macrurus rupestris Bloch. Many specimens have been brought in by fishermen whose testimony is that it is abundant in the deep waters on George's | 8. and the more northern bank 11. Phycis Chesterit Goode and Bean. Three specimens of a new species of Phycis were caught in- the trawl-net thirty-three to forty-two miles E. by S. from _ Cape Ann in 110 to 140 fathoms. The largest measured — Goode and Bean— East-coast Fishes. 41 _ Height of body in length five times. Diameter of orbit in _ length of head three and a half times, length of maxillary twice. _ Barbel one-third diameter of orbit. Vent in vertical from _ twelfth ray of second dorsal, and equidistant from tip of snout _ and extremity of second dorsal. Distance of first dorsal from _ snout equal to twice the length of mandible. Third ray of _ dorsal extremely elongate, extending to the thirty-third ray of _ second dorsal and two-thirds of the distance from snout to tip _ of caudal, its length more than twice that of the he Anal _ inserted immediately behind the vent, at a distance from the _ ventrals equal to that of dorsal from snout. Ventral composed of three rays,* the first and second much prolonged, the first _ almost one-third as long as the body, the second three times as _ long as the head, extending to the fortieth ray of the anal fin _ and to a point three-fourths of the distance from snout to tip of _ caudal; the third shorter than the diameter of the orbit. Pec- _ toral four times as long as the operculum. Scales large and _ thin, easily wrinkling with the Sida of the thick flabby skin. Lateral line much broken on the posterior half of the body. Scales in ninety to ninety-one vertical rows and thirty-five _ horizontal rows, of which seven are above the lateral line. Radial formula: D., 9 or 10, 55 to 57. A. 56, C. 5, 18 to 21, 5. Flt or ts V.& _ The species has been named in honor of Captain H. C. Ches- _ ter, well known as an Arctic explorer, and for four years _ attached to the United States Fish Commission. F 12. Haloporphyrus viola Goode and Bean. 4 Wo specimens of an undescribed species of the genus Halo- _ porphyrus of Giinther were brought in August 24, agi: D. _ without caudal. The diameter of the orbit is one-fourth of the ] length of the head, or slightly more. The maxillary extends th k skin which envelopes the bases of the 4q to appear like “a singles ray bifid at the end.” 42 Goode and Bean—FEast-coast Fishes. to the vertical from the posterior margin of we hi The barbel scarcely equals half the diameter of the o The vent is situated under the et ray is the second dorsal, equidistant from snout and tip of ¢ The anal is inserted behind the vent at a t dlatahios equal to the length of the second anal ray; it has a considerable depres — sion in its riidalte and terminates in a line with the end of the second dorsal. : The pectoral is slightly more than four fifths as long as the — head and extends to the vertical from the ninth ray of the second dorsal. Its length equals greatest height of body. 4 he longest ray of the ventral is about seven- pene of the length of the head, and extends half way to the ve ‘| Radial formula: D. 4,53; A. 40; V. 6. Seales in late : line about 115; above lidsial line 11. 13. Hypsiptera argentea Ginther. a A single individual was taken at the surface, May, 1878, about forty miles off Cape May, New Jersey, by Captain Robert Hf. Hurlbert of Gloucester. This is an addition to elie | fauna of the Western Atlantic. 14, Lota maculosa (Le Sueur) Richardson. After close study of a large series of specimens een deserted every locality from which species of ne ta ot descri studied, shows sixty- one ver ener Dr. Giinther gives the number as sixty. On the basis of this difference in the num vation of the number of vertebrae is very desira The specific name iicutan, formed by Le Sueur in 18!%, seems to have pri ority. Walbaum’s Wade lacustris was evi dently a catfish.* : e name vulgaris, though attributed to Cuvier and Jurine was not used nor claimed until in 1835 by Jenyns in his Manual of the Vertebrate Animals. 15. Lycodes Verrillit Goode and Bean. Taken sparingly in from 73 to 114 fathoms off Cape Ann, a one time within seven miles of Thatcher’s Island. See the description and also ‘ Meieacone, | in Rich. Faun, Bor. Amer., p. 136; : Sa exten, Oudl x, U. S. Nat. Mus,, p. a Goode and Bean—FEast-coast Fishes. 43 Professor Robert Collet* bas considered this species identical _ with his Z. Sarsii ; but even the comparative tables which he _ introduces in support of this position show that the two species are clearly distinct. 16. Leptoblennius serpentinus (Storer) Gill. Taken occasionally in seventy fathoms or more. 17. Anarrhichas lupus L. Specimens of an Anarrhichas with brown cross bars instead of spots and which cannot in any way be distinguished from _ the European species, have been taken during the past season. _ We add this species to the faunal list without expressing an _ opinion as to the validity of the species A. vomerinus Agassiz. 18. Humicrotremus spinosus (Fabr.) Gill. Three specimens were secured, September 2, 1878, seventeen and three-quarter miles S. E. 4 E. from Eastern Point Light, Cape Ann, in twenty-three to twenty-eight fathoms. 19. Trichidion octonemus (Girard) Gill. Of this species, hitherto known only from Texas, the United States National Museum has lately received a specimen col- lected by Mr. Silas Stearns at Pensacola, Florida. 20. Oreynus pelamys (Linné) Poey. ___ A specimen of the oceanic bonito was taken in July or _ August, 1877, off Provincetown, Massachusetts, and presented 7 r. Jas. H. Blake to the Museum of Comparative Zoology. _ An addition to our fauna, _ 21. Caulolatilus microps Goode and Bean. _ _ A specimen two feet three inches in length, taken March 18, _ 1878, on the Snapper Bank, off Pensacola, Florida, in thirty- five fathoms of water, was received from Mr. Silas Stearns. ~ayih a full description see Proc. U. S. National Museum, 1878, p. 42. 22. Cynosecion regalis (Bloch) Gill. Three individuals have been taken during the summer in Capt. Webb’s trap near Thatcher's Island, off Cape Ann. It had not previously been recorded farther north than Province- town, Massachusetts. 23. Menticirrus nebulosus (Mitch.) Gill. : One specimen was secured in the summer of 1878 by Captain Webb in the trap just referred to. Provincetown has been heretofore its recorded northern limit. * Fiske fra den norske Nordhavs—Exped. 1876-77, Christiania Vidensk.— Selsk. Forhandl. 1878, No. 4. 44 Goode and Bean—East-coast Fishes. 24. Stenotomus argyrops (Linné) Gill. 4 The northern range of the scup is extended to Thatcher’ fiend off Cape Ann, where it has recently been taken in con- siderable Bee! by Captain Webb. : 25. Sargus Holbrookii Bean. a Six epeclmens of this new species, from Savannah Bank, were sent to the United States National Museum, March 29, 1878, by Mr. ee Numerous individuals apparently be: longing to the same species were collected at Beaufort, North i 1. The interorbital area is slightly less than one and 4 half times the long diameter of eye. The length of snout is one tenth of total length and about equals that of mandible. eye is contained nearly four and one-fifth times in length ea The longest dorsal spine is spe nee from eight and on half to ten times in total len bod The distance of anal from sn adit is contained one and fi eighth times in total length. Longest anal spine equals on twelfth 6 Besa length. e of middle caudal rays equals that of snout. The ee of pectoral from snout is contained three and one-half times, and its length about three times in total length. The distance of ventral from snout slightly exceeds the length of pectoral. Length of ventral averages nearly one fifth of total length. 3 Radi ~ tea B. vi; D. xii, 18-14; A. iii, 18-14; PB a 15-16; 2 Suse "5.60 to 62-16. Teeth: eight incisors in each jaw, their greatest width eqalll to half their length. Three rows of molars above, two below, with sometimes a tendency to increase the nu umber of rows, Wks a full description, see Proc. U. S. National ae 26. Ehomboplites aurorubens (Cuv. and Val.) Gill. a A specimen of this species, hitherto known only from the West Indies was secured in May from Mr. C. C. Lesley, of ' * This length is the basis of ison for all my t of this species. - Goode and Bean— East-coast Fishes. 45 Charleston, South Carolina, another was collected at Pensacola, Florida, by Mr, Silas Stearns a few days later. 27. Lutjanus Blackfordii Goode and Bean. _ The “red-snapper” of the Southern Atlantic and Gulf coasts _ proves to be distinct from the West Indian species with which ' it had previously been confused. It was named in honor of | Mr. E. G. Blackford of New York City, a gentleman who has 28, Lutjanus Stearnsiit Goode and Bean. __ The ‘mangrove snapper” of the Gulf of Mexico proved to _ be new and was named in honor of Mr. Silas Stearns of Pensa- 4 e “mangrove snapper,’ at Pensacola as the “ bastard _ snapper.” 29. Epinephelus Drummond-Hayi Goode and Bean. __ This magnificent species was first discovered at the Bermudas in 1851, by Col. H. M. Drummond Hay, C.M.Z.S., by whom a sketch and partial description were prepared. The National Museum has lately received two specimens from Florida, one from Mr. Blackford, collected at the Keys, the other from Mr. ‘Stearns at Pensacola. The species attains the weight of fifty _ pounds or more. 80. Epinephelus niveatus (Cuv. and Val.) Poey. Professor Gill. A comparison of Hyporthodus flavicauda Gil with Cuban specimens of Hpinephelus niveatus proves their identity. The second specimen was received from Newport in 1877. It has not been recorded elsewhere on the East coast. 31. Roceus lineatus (BI. Schn.) Gill. _. The “rock-fish” is taken in winter in the Altamaha River, In considerable numbers. South of this region its occurrence 1s extremely rare. Two were observed in the St. Johns River, ‘Florida, in 1874; and in May, 1878, a stray individual was sent by Mr, Stearns from Pensacola. 32. Remoropsis brachyptera (Lowe) Gill. Two specimens of this rare species have been obtained from fishing schooners. One was found clinging to the side of a ‘ * Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1861, pp. 98-99. . 46 Goode and Bean— East-coast Fishes. sword-fish harpooned in the channel southwest of George's Bank, another on the deck of a halibut-trawler fishing in the gully northeast of George’s Bank, at a time when sword fish were being taken on the trawls. This species may very proba- bly be a ‘parasite peculiar to Xiphias, as the allied sped Rhombochirus osteochir is to Tetrapturus albridus 33. Belone latimanus Poey. The occurrence of a single specimen of this West Indian form in Buzzard’s Bay, where it was obtained by the Commis — sion in 1875, has ay been recorded (Proc. U.S. National — Museum, i, 1878, 6.) Several additional specimens from — North Carolina or 'Gheasieakes Bay, were obtained in Fulton — market, New York, June 1, 1878. : 34. Belone hians Cuvier and Valenciennes. In company with the preceding were several specimens of this species hitherto oo only from Bahia, the West ups and the Berm 5. Fundiulus seminolis Lesueur. _ is species, long lost sight of, was eee in quantity by : Professor Baird on the upper St. Johns Rive 36. Lucania parva (Baird and Girard) Bean. Cyprinodon parvus of Baird and Girard should be ir ferred to the genus Lucania Girard. The species is recorded on] from Beesle 9 ’s Point, New Jersey, Sinepuxent Bay, Morya Greenport, Long Island and Noank, Connecticut. (Bean.) 37. uneoaeiterestye heft HOW’, eee 38. Salmo salar L. The salmon has been transported by the Commission of Fisheries to the rivers of the Middle States, to many points in the Mississippi valley and to the California coast. It may be regarded as acclimated in the Hudson, Delaware and Susque hanna _— and re-acclimated in the Connecticut. Goode and Bean—East-coast Fishes. 47 7 39. Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe) Goode. _ The common menhaden was described under the name _ Clupea tyrannus by Latrobe in 1802, and the specific name then _ proposed has priority over all others. An extended study of _ the species of this group indicates that the B. tyrannus occurs _on the coast of Brazil, as far south as Bahia, and that Spix’s _ Clupanodon aureus is specifically identical and should be in- _ cluded as a subspecies, B tyrannus subspecies aurea. 40, Brevoortia patronus Goode. the Gulf of Mexico, from the mouth of the Rio Grande to Pensacola, Florida, where Mr. Stearns observed it in great abundance. . | | A species occurring at several points on the north shore of | | 41, Alosa sapidissima (Wilson) Storer. Through the agency of the United States Commission of Fisheries the common shad has been introduced into most of the rivers flowing through the Southern States into the Gulf of Mexico, and may now be considered a member of the fauna of that region, its range south and west having been extended over at least twelve hundred additional miles of coast line. It is also acclimated in California. 42. Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson) Gill. ___ Abundant in Lake Ontario, Cayuga and Seneca Lakes, New York. The variety lacustris, founded on Cayuga Lake specimens _ by Professor Jordan, is precisely like the average coast alewife. After careful measurements of numerous lake and coast speci- mens I am unable to separate them. (Bean.) Oe Te ee EE I ee ES eT ee aN eS Fe eee Ae ng a ne ee ee eee eS eee Tee | the stomach of a cod fish caught on George tion of the Cape Ann Literary and Scientific Association at name Leptorhyncus Leuchtenbergii. Giinther considers it to be identical with N. scolopaceus. The American fish is at present assigned to the same species. The family Nemichthyide is new 48 Goode and Bean— East-coast Fishes. 44. Amia calva L, : The range of the mud-fish has not hitherto been recognized to extend south of Charleston, South Carolina, whence Garden sent specimens to Linneus. It occurs abundantly in the St Johns River, Florida, and Mr. 8. C. Clarke found it in Spruce | Creek, a tributary of "Halifax River, about lat. 28°. . 45. Chimaera plumbea Gill. j Within the past twelve months seven individuals have been — secured—one by the Boston Society of Natural History and — six by the United States National Museum The first specimen was taken by Captain D. C. Murphy of | the schooner Centennial in July, 1877, in 200 to 300 fathoms, lat. 48° 46’ N., long. 59° 19’ W. Others have since been taken within the latitudes 42° and 44° N. and in water from 200 to 350 fathoms deep. 46. Torpedo occidentalis Storer. Taken occasionally near Thatcher's Island, off Cape Ann iby. Captain Webb, in his trap. specimen was taken at Lanes ville, Massachusetts, July 13, 1878, the only — of its occurrence to the northward of the point of Cape : 47. Hypoprion longirostris Poey. A West Indian species; collected in the Gulf of Mexico, by Dr. J. W. Velie, of Chicago, and sent to Washington for id tification. 48. Centroseymnus ceeolepis Bocage and Capello. z This species was described from the coast of Portugal. It is recorded, also, from Madeira. Three specimens were presented to the United States National Museum, August 26, 1878, the crew of the schooner Marion, who captured them on the Nova Scotia banks, the first specimens known from the WW oter Atlantic. 49. Centroscyllium Fabricii (Reinh.) Miller and Henle. A Greenland “ shhen One individual was eee fro ie last. This —. is new ~ the fauna of the Westen “Adantie Both — an Dog cain. Mass., Septem 1878, q | ’ Ce as satellites, E.. §. Holden—Note on the satellite Tethys. 49 Art. [V.—Note on the Brightness and the Stellar Magnitude of the third Saturnian satellite—Tethys; by EDwarp S. Houpen. [Communicated by permission of Rear Admiral Jonn Ropgers, U. S. N., Super- intendent U. S. Naval Observatory. ] ON November 20, 1878, I was observing Saturn's satellites with the 26-inch refractor, using an eye-piece magnifying 400 _ diameters. Four satellites were nearly in the plane of the ring (position angle 94°-2). They were Tethys ; p=265°, s=35” ; (estimated.) Dione; p= 94, s=60" ; as Titan ; p= 944, s=over 150” (estimated.) Enceladus ; p=92 (est), s=81’’13 (measured.) At about 84 30™ as I had just completed the measure of the distance of Hnceladus, the sky became covered with flying As a cloud gradually (and as nearly as could be judged uni- j formly) darkened Satwrn as seen in the telescope, the appear- At this instant I endeavored to note the visibility of the * Annals Harv. Coll. Obs., vol. v, p. 164, etc. Aw. Jour, Scr.—Turrp Series, Vou. XVII, No. 97.—Jan,, 1879, 4 4 50 E. S. Holden—Note on the satellite Tethys. just before analy appeared to the naked eye; and that Tethys ost at the same time, or a very little after this. When Ssintin: was just appearing or Ss Titan was as bright in the telescope as Dione when no clouds were present. — Dione was always a little brighter shat Tethys. The southern edge of the belt in the southern hemisphere of Saturn vanished — about at the same time as Hnceladus. ‘This observation is, how- ever, not so precise as those on Ttthy : As many appearances and dita ppeupiiced as possible were — observed and the result of them all is that Zethys was as bright — to my eye in the telescope as Saturn was to Anderson’s unas: — sisted eye. It may be mentioned that Anderson under good — circumstances can see Uranus with the naked eye, and by — experience I have learned that my eye is weil suited to seeing — faint satellites like those of Uranus and Neptune. I believe that our he used as in this experiment were as nearly equal as any co The a became rina) cloudy before I could measure the the posttio of Tethys. From Prof. Ne ee MS. tables the ; both bail and rip rom the table given by Zéllner in Photometrische Unler- eas p. 200, it follows that if Saturn had been without his ring, the light from the ball alone would have been 0:9356 (log. 9°9711) of the light of ball and rings combined. Hence if H, is the light from the ball alone, the light received from ‘1 H, Tethys was 75 18,900 * 0-98 9356 = 000006323. H, (log. 58009 H,} H = aes 1s TPs At another time, H, = A.d?. (5 1 ‘) and i A: ee 3 = rt p2: rtp. * See Stampfer: Sitzungsber. der k. Acad. d. Wiss. Berlin, vol. vii, 1851, p. 760 OE SE Ee a LR ee et eS LOE EE ee We Me Ne ety eS ye OT ie eee Tea ee ee ee. Le eR ae ee ee eR ee eR RI ee E. S. Holden—Note on the satellite Tethys. 51 For November 20, 84.5 Wash. m. t., log. r, = 0°9787 and log. p, = 09554. The mean distance of Saturn is 953889 (log. +, = 0°9795) and the log. of its mean distance from the earth is log. p,=0°9789. Thus the brilliancy of Saturn was greater on November 20 than at its mean opposition in the ratio of 1118 to 1, or H, = 1118 H,. Thus Zethys = 0000071 H, or in words, Zethys in this particular part of its orbit has seventy-one millionths of the brilliancy of the ball of Saturn at mean opposition. Zollner has determired (op. cit. p. 145) the relative brilliancy of Saturn’s ball at mean opposition of Capella to be Saturn= 0-431 Capeila ; (log. 9°6345). Hence Tethys=0-000030 Capella ; (log. 5-440). ; From this we can determine the stellar magnitude of Tethys. If the light of a first magnitude star (as Capella) be assumed as 1-000 and if the light-ratio be 8 (0-40) and if m be the mag- nitude of the star on Argelander’s scale, then &"-'= the light of the star in terms of the light of the first magnitude star as unity. For us 6"-! = 0-000030 or m = 12°8 approximately. [On Struve’s scale m’ = 11°8. On Herschel’s scale m” = 12°. The resulting stellar magnitude of Tethys on Argelander’s scale being as we have seen 12°8 it should be just visible with a telescope of a little over four inches aperture.* This I tested on November 23d, and I find that with four inches aperture Tethys was just barely visible at elongation (Kast) with a power of 200 diameters when Saturn was in the field. When Saturn was put out of the field it was just steadily visible. With a power of 400 it was better seen, never totally disappearing. With an aperture of five inches on the finder and a power of thirty it was not seen. The appearances were the same to both Andeison and myself, These observations give a rough check on the preceding accurate ones, as the two methods agree better than could be expected. It also affords some evidence as to the eyes of the two observers. Tf the relative brilliancy of the various satellites among them- selves be measured, the foregoing observations afford a ready means of deducing their brilliancy in terms of a standard star like Capella and hence in terms of any standard star. U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, 1878, Nov. 26. . ogson: Mon. Not. R. A. S., vol. xxi, p. 34. It is important to remember that in the application of Pogson’s formula there is considerable uncertainty owing to the varying effects of different magnifying powers, and to o' ; 52 T. A. Edison— Use of the Tasimeter. tT. V.—On the use of the Tasimeter me meote : the Heat of the eet and of the Sun’s Corona ;* by THomas A. Epison, Ph.D. To Professor Henry Draper M.D., Director of the Draper Eclipse Expedition :— Dear Sir: The instrument which I used at Rawlins, Wyo- ming, during the solar eclipse of July 29, 1878, for the purpose of measuring the heat of the sun’s corona, was devised by me a to allow me to give it as thorough a test as was desirable to ascertain its full capabilities and characteristics. This instrument I have named the tasimeter, from the Greek words taozc, extension, and petpor, measure, because primarily the effect is to measure extension of any kind. The form of in- strument which I used is shown in the annexed wood-cut (fig. 1.) = — a — —— — — With this instrament was aed a Phossen's Selina galva: nometer, on a tripod, and having a resistance of three-fourths of an ohm. The galyanometer was placed in the bridge wire of 9 W heatstone balanee, two of the branches of which had constant resistances of t ms each, while of the other two one had 3 constant of stiles eee and the other contained the tasimete! which was adjusted by means of the screw to three ohms § When thus balanced if the strip of vulcanized rubber placed f between the fixed point and the carbon button (seen in fig. 2) 4 . * Read, by permission of Dr. Draper, at the St. Louis meeting of the Americal o sgociation. c a ee eet ee et fT. A. Etlison— Ose of the Tasimeter. 53 was exposed to heat from any source, it expanded, producing pressure upon the carbon button, decreasing its resistance and destroying the balance; a current was thus allowed to pass amount of this current of course being proportional to the expansion of the rubber and to the strength of the battery. e form of instrument here described was only finished two days before leaving for the west ; hence I was unable to test it. However, I set it up upon my arrival at Rawlins, but foun that it wasa very difficult matter to balance so delicate an instru- the result and also to increase the effect by using two cells in place of a single one his device consisted of a rheostat formed of two rows of . The rows were about one-half an en nometer was then shunted, a very feeble current passed through it. If the spot of light was not at zero it was brought there by either increasing or decreasing the pressure upon the vuleanite of the tasimeter by the adjusting nut. When thus brought to zero the copper wire of the shunt rheostat was taken off of one 54 T. A, Edison— Use of the Tasimeter. pin, thus increasing the resistance of the shunt perhaps to one- fiftieth of anohm. The spot of light was generally deflected nearly off of the scale. The light was again brought to zero by varying the resistance of the tasimeter, and another one-half inch of wire included in the shunt, another deflection and another balance’ was obtained by the tasimeter. Thus s by gradually increasing the delicacy id the ,galvanometer ate in- creasing the resistance of the shunt and ba alancing at eve increase, the whole of the ourieat was allowed to ae throug : the galvanometer and the shunt taken off. this point — was reached the damping magnet or director was in close prox: imity to the case of the galvanometer. To increase its delicacy | to the fullest a it became necessary to raise the director to — the top of the rod. This was done by raising it cautiously a_ quarter of an inde at a time, bringing the spot of light to zero ~ each time by the tasimeter. | In order to form some idea of the delicacy of the apparatus — when thus eee a SE experiment was made on the | evening of the 27th, with the star Arcturus. The tasimeter | poe sdabted to the Ean the image of the star was | ought on the vulcanized rubber. The spot of light from the — balesnanasesk moved to the side of beat. After some minor — adjustments, five uniform and _ successive deflections were obtained with the instrument, as the light of the star was allowed — to fall on the vulcanite to prod uce the deflection, or was screened — off to allow of a return to z It was in this condition Shen the eclipse occurred. The tasi meter was placed in a double tin case, with water at the tem peratone of the air Siena oe case. This case was secured towards heat, its velocity accelerating as it approached the e The time required for the light to leave the scale was from four to five seco I interposed he screen and endeavored to bring the light back to zero, but I was unsuccessful. Had I known that corona. Respectfully peu THomas A. EDISON. Menlo ie N. J., August 15, 1 D. Greene—Paper Dome for an Astronomical Observatory. 55 Art. VI.—Description of a Paper Dome for an Astronomical Observatory ; by Professor DAscom GREENE, Troy, N. Y. AN astronomical observatory has recently been erected for the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, through the liberality of Mr. E. Proudfit of this city. In maturing the plans, and super- vising the erection of the building, I have introduced an improved method of constructing revolving domes, a brief account of which may not be without interest. While making the preliminary inquiries, I ascertained that a dome of the dimensions required, constructed in any of the methods in common use, would weigh from five to ten tons, and require the aid of cumbersome machinery to revolve it. It therefore occurred to me to obviate this objection by mak- ing the frame-work of wood, of the greatest lightness consist- ent with the requisite strength, and covering it with paper of a quality similar to that used in the manufacture of paper boats; the principal advantages in the use of these materials being that they admit of great perfection of form and finish, and give extreme lightness, strength, and stiffness in the structure,— prime qualities ina movable dome. A contract was accord- ingly made with Messrs. E. Waters & Sons, of this city, the well-known builders of paper boats, for the construction of the dome, and they have carried out the undertaking with great skill and success. Spanning the entire d se are firmly attached to the sill and kept in a vertical position by means of knee-braces. The sill and girders are of season i ormer being ed pine, the 84 inches wide by 34 thick, and the latter each 4$ by 3 inches. The paper covering of the dome is made in sixteen equal sections, such that when set up side by side, their bases on the sill, and their extremities meeting at the top, they form a co e hemispherical surface. e e-work of each section consists of three vertical ribs of pine each 3} inches in wi nd 8 of an inch thick, one at each side and one midway between, and meeting at the apex. The paper was stretched over this frame-work as follows: 56 D. Greene—Paper Dome for an Astronomical Observatory. in its proper position on the model, so that its outer edges — formed part of the same spherical surface, and covered with — shellac where it was to be in contact with the paper. The sheet of paper cut in the proper form was then laid on the — model while moist, the edges turned down over the side ribs, and the whole placed in a hot chamber and left until thoroughly In this way the several sections were dried off in sion over the same model. The paper used is of a very supe- rior quality, manufactured expressly for the purpose by Messrs. _ Crane Brothers, of Westfield, Mass. Its thickness after dry- _ ing is about one-sixth of an inch, and it has a structure as com- succes: pact as that of the hardest wood, which it greatly excels in | strength, toughness and freedom from any liability to fracture. After being thoroughly painted, the several sections were ready to be set up side by side on the sill and connected | together by boiting through the adjacent ribs. The space | between the arch girders being left uncovered on one side from 7 the sill to a distance of two feet beyond the zenith, the upper | T. N. Dale—Clay-slates and Grits of Poughkeepsie. 57 Art. VII.—On the ws of the Clay-slates and Grits of Pough- keepsie ;* by 'T. NELSON DALE, Jr. In Mather’s geological sections of the Hudson River valleyt the alternating argillaceous schists, slates and grits, on both sides of the river, in the vicinity of Poughkeepsie are assigned to the Hudson River roup. This term was originally intended to include the series between the Utica Slate below and the Medina Sandstone above. These rocks would thus represent the uppermost North AtneTget. 3 HONE ilurian. In the geological map drawn by Logan and Hall, and appended to the Report of Fig eet Geological Survey, the rocks for some miles on both sides of the Hudson River, south of Rondout on the west side and of Rhinebeck on the east side, and extending southward beyond Poughkeepsie, are designated as Calciferous and Quebec. They are aig to the middle division of the North American Lower i pan Dana, referring to this subject, observes in his Manual of Geology, ed. 1874, on page 184: “ The gee of the Que- €c group southward, along the west side of the Green Moun- tain range, covers, according to Logan, a cihedarable part of New York east of the Hudson, the rock being part of the non- fossiliferous clay-slate (formerly called Hudson River slate) which outcrops near Poughkeepsie, ete. The area is divided _ Epoch: “In New Yor ie the Hudson River els include ainlee and sandstones. They are the Lorraine shales of Jefferson County (the Pulaski shales of the New York Annual Reports), containing some thin beds of limestone. The slates along the udson River, to which the name was especially applied, ‘have been prove to be in part Primordial, and part, probably of the Quebec se These cor have therefore been first assigned to the Trenton Period, then to the Canadian Period and afterwards declared paper tee ai the substance of this article, in a different form, and ted * “A contribution to the Paleontology of the vicinity of Ponghkedbele” a was read by the author before the Poughkeepsie Society of Natural Science on Decem- ber 4th, 1878, and is being published in the Proceedings of ty. ie t. Hist. oN. Y., Part [V, Geology, by William W. Mather; Plates 16, 18, 58 T. N. Dale—Clay-slates and Grits of Poughkeepsie. unfossiliferous, and thus a question has been raised as to their real age In the = ite 3 of 1878, I discovered in a ledge of argillaceous schist, back of the observatory of Vassar College, and a few rods bao the college fence, some fossil Brachiopoda. Shortly afterward I found others, together with Crinoid stems, at the first ledge of glaciated rock on the Stormville road, be- tween Casper Creek and the first limestone ridge. Again in — November and December of the same year, in ascending the | first range of high hills which rises about a mile west of the 4 Hudson* opposite Poughkeepsie, I came across a large outcrop — of argillaceous schist, containing an abundance of Brachiopoda a and Crinoid stems. After it had become known that fossils a were to be found in the vicinity of Vassar College, several of the students found some, and Mr. H. Booth of Poughkeepsie, — collected a number of Brachiopoda and Crinoid stems at the | ledge back of the observatory. On another visit to the locality | on the base of Marlborough Mountain, I found a univalve shell | and tees - ‘debt ed to Mr. James Hall, the State Palconta a 7 the pdentifioation of the fossils from these localities. The a : Orthis testudinaria Dalm. ; Orthis pectinella Con.; Lentil 3 sericea Sow. ; Strophomena altzrnata Con. ; Buthotrephis subno- dosa Hall. 4 The cast of the univalve hardly admits of perfect determina — tion, but it strongly resembles that of Bellerophon bilobatus. 4 and of the spaces between the joints are preserved, and might - = mistaken for stems with annular corrugations on the exter 4 ni some parts of the rock, Crinoids are very pei in others Orthis testudinaria forms a conglomerate. Leptena sert cea, Orthis testudinaria and the Crinoid stems are charac wed of both the Vassar College locality and of that on the west of the Hudson. The Brachiopoda are ‘represented by internal casts, impressions of both exterior and i alongs and by the shell itself in a greatly altered state. Sometimes the calcareous shell is preserved with but little pieiion The more minute striz Leptena sericea can be counted in some specimens. Nearly the fossils are more or less distorted. The general character the rock is the same on both sides of the river. There irregular alternations of grit, clay slate and shale, in some vlaeel be take this hill to be a continuation of what Mather calls Marlborough Mout des T. N. Dale—Clay-slates and Grits of Poughkeepsie. 59 with thin strata of limestone. The grit is sometimes slightly calcareous. The geological significance of these fossils is evident. I quote, however, from Hall :* ‘“ Orthis testwlinaria : This species rarely, or never, appears in the Utica slate, but reappears near the middle of the Hudson River shales, and continues nearly to their termination, being abundant at Turin, Lorraine, Pu- laski, and other places. It is more rarely found in the vicinity of the Hudson River and in the Mohawk valley.” p. 288. “Or- this pectinella: This species, though not usually abundant, occurs nevertheless in nearly every part of the Trenton li though unknown to me in the Hudson River group.” p. 128. ** Leplena sericea : The thin layers in the lower part of the Tren- ton limestone are often entirely covered with the perfect shells or separated valves of this species. -It occurs in all localities of the Trenton limestone. It also reappears in the Hudson River group, being in some localities very abundant.” p. 110. shells of this species.” p. 105. The occurrence of these fossils in these localities would then establish the fact that the clay-slates and shales in the vicinity of Poughkeepsie, on both sides of the river, are fossiliferous and that they very probably belong to the Hudson River group, as indicated by Mather in 1 48, certainly to some member of the Trenton Period. These facts also speak in favor of the retention of the term Hudson River group as advocated by Hall.t Poughkeepsie, N. Y., Dec. 12, 1878. Supplementary Note-—A visit to Marlborough on the west bank of the Hudson River, about eight miles south of Pough- keepsie, has just yielded the following results. In an outcrop of argillaceous schist near the river: Orthis testudinaria, Orthis pectinella, Leptena sericea and Crinoid stems In a slightly cal- - careous grit at the southern extremity of Marlborough Moun- a 5D A tain, there called Break-neck Hill, about three miles west of the river at this point: Orthis testudinaria. Poughkeepsie, N. Y., Dec. 16, 1878. * Nat. Hist. of N. Y. Paleontology, vol. i. : 3 + See Note upon the History and Value of the term Hudson River ag fog American Geological Nomenclature, by James Hatz, of Albany, N. Na ne me ings of the Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 187%. This Journal, vol. xvi, p. 482- 60 E. F. Smith— Electrolytic Estimation of Cadmium. Arr. VIIL.—On the ene i wee Cadmium ; by : Epe@ar F. Smits, Ph.D of cadmium by electrolysis, which, however, proved unsuccess- : ful—the cadmium being indeed thrown out of the solution, but — in such a form as to enclose impurities; yielding consequently — unsatisfactory results. 4 ut of curiosity to see what might be effected by substitut- — ing some other salt for the chloride, I employed an acetate solu. a tion and met with success, as the following experiments show: I. -1450 grams cadmium oxide were dissolved i in acetic acid, the excess of the latter evaporated upon a water bath an then ee pele crucible about half filled with ee and placed 7 a copper ring connected with the vipat) oe of a two - tinum crucible was sg and in a ndbfectly "eoyautline gray ish white layer. In about three hours the separation was com plete. The cadmium was first washed with distilled water, 3 age of metal in the oxide is I, -2046 grams cadmium side placed in a small, rather d experiment was perfectly crystalline and metallic in appearance. Not the slightest trace of spongy metal was visible. The sep aration was finis ae d in about the same time as in 16 metal was washed and ‘ried as above. Found ‘1790 grams metal, corresponding to 87-48 per cent Cd. : m various experiments made by me I find that good results may be obtained constantly by observing the gh 1st. Work with rather concentrated solutions of the ace 2d. Employ a sufficient number of cells of either adel give a rapid and rather energetic current. Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania, October 31, 1878. Chemistry and Physics, 61 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PnHysics. 1. On the New Element, Philippium.— De.arontaine has _ yttria and ba chia Adenittitrg it to be a proto male, the atomic _ weight of the metal would be between 90 and 95. Phili ippium _ formate crystallizes easily in small brilliant rhomboidal prisms less Soluble than yttrium f te. The oxalate is more soluble in bium and yttrium salts remain colorless. Concentrated solutions _ of philippium show a spectrum oe a magnific ents pele | Oct., 1878. GF. _ 2. Onthe New Element —- —DeELAFONTAINE has ana the discovery of a second n w element in the mineral samarskite es : ; decipiens, deceiving. The ae if the formula DpO be assigned to it, has a molecular weight of 122; it has not been obtained : sufficiently tree from didymium oxide to enable the author to say that it is white, though its salts are colorless, the acetate crystal- lizes easily, being less soluble than that of didymium but more so _ than that of terbium. Potassio-decipium sulphate is but slightly soluble in a ssaninttnd solution of eine det sulphate, though it dissolves easily in — The nitrate gives an absorption spec- _ trum consisting of at least three bene 3 in the blue and the in- _ digo, The most vefisagwila of these is a little less broad than length of 4780; nearly ‘a the same ian as one of the didymium bands, but far more intense. Finally a little to the right and 62 Scientific Intelligence. nearly to the limit of the blue and green is an appearance of the hird. The earths of samarskite as now known are given by the — author in the following tabular form: Name. Color. Molec. weight. ve length of RE: band. Yttria White YO ae (Peafontaine Erbia Rose KrO =130 (Bunsen-Cl Terbia Orange TbhO =114-115 (ielatoniaine-Marienac) 400 Donk Philippia Yellow PpO =90 about (Delafontaine) abou Decipia White ? pO =122 about (Delafontaine) Thoria hite ThO,=267- ( Non Didymia Brownish DiO =112-114 (Marignac-Cléve) 512-617 ria Pale yellow He also calls attention to the numerical relations betwee the ee weights, thus: Yttrium=58; Philippium = 74 or 58+2x8; Terbium 98 or 58+5X8; Decipium 106 ? or 38 L6X8 and Gabe: 114 or 58+-7X*8.— C. &., lxxxvii, 633, — 1878, nm the New Element, Mosandrum.*—At a recent mookiins of the French Academy (Nove mber 25th, 1878), a note by Dr Lawrence Smith was presented, in whi ch he claimed for himsel riority in having been the first to call attention to the absence 0 cerium oxide, and to the new characters of certain earths, in the North Carolina samarskite, and to have described one of these under the name Mosandr 4, Un the New Klement, Yiterbium.—Marienac has described some of the compounds of a new element, found in the Ytterb, ed treating the mass with boiling screed an insoluble senidine renmainal im n which the erbium was concen rited. By repeating the operation ptio weight which at first kept scettied, finally separated ; the ato weight slowly increasing, while the rose color and the bands dimi ished ; so that the last sae was — white, its salts wer and erbium saa peters its crystal water at 100°. These the Mecinuriiak “it from thorium, the only element of this kind know? * This Journal, xvi, 384, November, 1878. Chemistry and Physics. 63 whose ets weight is high. Its symbol is Yb.— C. = ee 578, Oct., 1878. 5. Ona Simple Vapor density Method.—Vicror Miargied ‘hse roposed a very simple mode of approximate vapor density de- is to be closed with a cork. Tou é, the. a minora is placed in the vapor of a liquid of suitteienithy’ high boiling point, or even in a metallic bath. “After the temperature has become constant and bath are needed in the daloutatiit This requires only the weight of the substance, the temperature of the room, the height the barometer and the volume of air expelled. ‘The results _ are close enough for randrnt weight determinations, as the fig- _ ures given show.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 1867, Nov., tbe F, : 6. On the Separation of Zine | from Nickel. —BEtsrein ex _ proposed the use of citric acid in the analytical separation of : On he formation of Purpureo-chromium salts. —JoRGENSEN ; te Baines by the oxidation of an ammoniacal solution of 64 Scientific Intelligence. ponding cobalt salt. The author has evidence of the existence of | roseo and luteo-chromium.—//. pr. Ch., II, xviii, 248, Nov., 1878 — Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 1767, Oct., 1878. G. F.- Be 9. Preliminary Note upon the nature of the Chemical He ments.—Mr. Norman Lockyer has addressed the following note easoni i 0 ward to the Academy the necessary proofs of his assertion.”—_ Comp. Rend., No. 19, p. 673, Nov., 1878. J. eng 10. Phenomena of Binaural Audition.—Professor THomson, of University College, Bristol, England, thus sums up the results of conveyed to a point of the parietal or occipital region of the sku! at one side, are apparently heard in the ear of the other side the head,” ee ee pe ee Pao ae eee ee a le Oger ia Salar tama ad ee Pe gee ane Se ee Cl eT SEO eT EMS See Eee Owe ee a ee ee er amen cee Se eye ee ee SE (ped eR PE ee eT EDS ARUN VED TO, Lame eae greene tee eae ee Sy eae aes Chemistry and Physics. 65 In his investigation the author made use of a telephone, which is thus seen to es place in acoustic researches. oe il. 383, n the Economy and Subdivision of the wie Light — Profesai Farmer of the Torpedo Station at Newport, has written the parlor of his house, No. 11 Pearl St., was lighted every even- ing during the month of July, 1859, by the electric light, a that this electric a a was subdivided, too. Since this was nine- teen years ago, s, he thinks, undoubtedly the first private dwelling house pe P lighted by electricity ; a fact which may be a source of pride to the city of Salem some of these days, As now of no one aa qualified to give an opinion on these important rT we give the latter portion of Professor Farmer’ s lett “A galvanic " battery of some three dozen six-gallon jars was placed i in the cellar of the house, and it furnished the electric cur- pleasure, or both at once, by simply turning a little button to the right for a light, to the left for a dark. No matches, no danger, no care to the household, nor to anyone except to the man who cored » the batte son that the acids and zinc consumed in ‘the attery made the different Viasohi es, putting a light into each branch. All these lamps were supplie ed with electricity from one machine, which did not weigh more than eight hundred pounds, and which was driven by a oe steam engine. word as to the cost of electric light as compared with light from gas. Perhaps on the bg one pound of illuminat- ing gas will, if burned in an hour in five different burners, give thousand to twenty-one thousand units of heat, or the OT teane _ of from thirteen to sixteen million foot-pounds ‘of work. Thi is, burned in an hour, would average from two hundred to two hun- dred and sixty thousand units of work per minute, or say from three thousand to thirty-five hundred foot-pounds per minute per candle light. Now a very large electric light, say ten — candles, Am. Jour. Sct an: auc VoL. XVIT , No, 97.—Jan. 66 Scientific Intelligence. much as two hundred foot pounds per minute per candle light. So it might not seem very extravagant to expect that one pound eh r_ hour — be b je in a suitable furnace under a known, each lamp consuming at the rate of one-fifth of a pound ~ of the best illuminating gas per hour; and this would not be half — so absurd an expectation as it would ‘have been thre e years ago, for some visionary to have e predicted that the talking Phonograph would succeed in embalming speech.” U. S. Naval Torpedo Station, Newport, R. I, Oct. 30, 1878. II. Grotocy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Report of the Geological Survey of the Fortieth Parallel, mae Kine, Geologist in charge: Volume I, Systematic — Geology, by Cia LARENCE Kinc, 804 pp. 4to, with 28 plates and 12 — analytical geological maps, and accompa anied Ls a geological and — topographical atlas. Submitted to the Chief o f Engineers, and — published by order of the Secretar , under authority of © Congress.—The field work of the jets Survey of the 40th — Parallel commenced in 1867, and continued until 1873; the no 7 mining Siatticks by Mr. a. D, Hague, and ‘of the are by Mr. 5. 4 Watson; the topography was in the hands +. Gardner ef. The area covered by their eae a a colt he country — 190 miles wide, from north to south, and extending from the — meridian 104° west in : neces a little south of west as far 3 — longitude 120° west; it partly encloses the 40th Parallel, but neat — the spp extremi ity eee a little No the north of the line — Of this tract of country Mr. King says, in the opening chapter 0 fo his ere “Tt has rarely fallen to the lot of one set of observers — to become intimate with so wide a range of horizons and products. (Rie within its area a pretty full exposure of the earth's E. crust from nearly the greatest known depths up through a see — tion of 125,000 feet, ere 8 in all the SEES aes of geologl : cal time—a section which has been subjected to a great sequence of mechanical violence, ae can hardly fail to become classic for its display of the products of peste li | Exploration bas 7 actually covered an epitome of geological history.” It should be added that, at the time when Mr. King’s party took the field, the . Geology and Mineralogy. 67 region was one which was unmapped, unstudied, and of which nothing but a few isolated details was known. The value of the work accomplished can be best appreciated when the difficulties which had to be overcome are underst tood. e pone te volumes in the series, now published, presents a systematic statement of the geological facts taken in order . geological time, collected by Mr. King and his associates, Mess ague and Emmons, with the conclusions which he himself hi drawn from them, The detailed presentation of these facts, in their geographical order, had already been given in sr meen " on De- scriptive Geology (noticed i in this Journal, vol. xvi, p. 234). I thus bringing together in a single volume the grand results of his Survey, Mr. King has given much greater and more permanent value to the labors of himself and his associates. The clear and ories advanced are presented, is worthy of high praise; Mr. King’s graceful pen never showed itself to better advantage. It is per- haps unnecessary to add that the appearance of the volume is all that could be desired ; the many plates are executed in the best conclusions reach ae Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological and Decpraphiaat Survey of the Territories. Being a Report of Pro- oo. of the Exploration for the year 1876, by F. V. Hayprn, U: Sides the opening letter of the geologist in charge, the following c. - White, On the geology of a portion of . M. Endli th 68 Scientific Intelligence. Part IV, On Cretaceous and Permery plants by Leo Lesquereux; On injurious Insects by A. 8. Packard, Jr. The Ar rheological reports contain ee descriptions of is ancient ruins in South- western Colorado and adjacent territori arge number of excellent plates, Busses both the distribution and character of the cliff houses, au also the remains of pottery and other implements found i nnection with them, besides admirable ; plans, sketches ae increase the value of the reports : eport contains als autiful colored geological maps of Colorado, and a third map giving the drainage of the Tervitory. — 8. Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey of the Ter- : ritories; F. V. Haypsn, Geologist-in-char ge Vol. iv, No. 4.48 This number of the Bulletin contains papers by 8. H. Scudder on : the fossil Insects of the Green River shales; by D. 58. Jordan on | Fishes of Dakota and Montana, seen a by ‘Dr. Coues ; ; by J. : Chickering on Plants of Dakota and Montana, collected by Dr. “ Coues; by F. M. Endlich on ae ee in Colorado ; ; by C. A. White — on the Laramie Group; by J. A. Allen on the American Sciuri or — arboreal squirrels. An index to volume iv closes the number. the Origin of Stylolites; by Epwarp T, NE zson. — Qeraminicated, )—During the past summer while spending a few — days at a Post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, called nee ides sit seri vertivally. pias top . gees the chase, at the time of van visit, was covered with stylolitic columns. In each case these cok umns reached from one stratum of clay to the next below, and hence varied in height from two inches to as many feet. During — the first afternoon it was yok? gently. The water falling ove Srom benea & thie way aa stratum of sa aoa presented the same projections ee crevices as es covering layer of clay. soon sun came ou sed edges of the stylolites perfectly preserved colum The inner face of the talus was, ’ of course, the exact eines of the stylolites. a Ohio Wesleyan a Oct. 22d 5. Bowlders in Coal. pater a recent geological excursio? with the netting class of Denison University, I found at New Straitsville, Perry County, ne a bowlder of hard gritty sand- i i m oal, i a Na El a ge) Botany and Zoology. 69 seam being the Nelsonville, or “ Great Vein,” which a two e three hundred feet above the base of the Coal-measu roof is a bluish gray shale containing the usual Carbonitenia t seems improbable that this bowlder was brought into the ancient marsh when the material for the lower seven feet of coal had accumulated, and was then covered with the several feet of eastern ‘Ohio and Kentu cky. It is the most reliable and persistent coal of the lower productive measures. This implies that the inate in which it accumulated was very widespread, and that it long retained its character as an area of sluggishly ita oF sank beneath a shallow sea, muddy with the sediment which is now hardened into the roof shales. Bont mes during this sub- mergence the bowlder was dropped upon the still soft and yield- ing mass of vegetation and sank into it to a considerable depth. By what agency it was transported from the shores of that ancient sea to its present resting place is uncertain, Two similar cases are on record, an o eminent Ohio geologists have speculated ps the causes of phenomena. Pro ndrews (Report of Progress, 1870, p. 78) mentions a lar e quartzite Newberry (Ohio Reports, vol. ii, p. 174 mentions one of taleose slate found by him in Coal No. 2,in Mahoning spe ty, ~e be eee winds, or carrie by currents, to where we now fin bie penetrated the material of the ect by virtue of thelr elanit and compactness, while the mud carried by the same waters spread over the coal a ress : fine vollhneit without poe raat it. Granville, Nov. 19th, 1 KS. shburner on Otte Records in McKean and "Blk ‘Conn: of the preceding volume, the sentence reading “‘ We are sure that the rocks maintain a constant foie: bateont these two points,” should read “ We are not sure,’ Ill. Botany AND ZooLoey. 1, Flora Brasiliensis—The publication has ma erent pro- gress during the year 1878. In February > es 75 and 76; Be a3 une Lana 77, in August fase. 78... The ie es va ite of publica Pigs. by Dr. J. Peyritsch, Curator of the Vienna 70 Scientific Intelligence. herbarium. While retaining the order, he . remarked that one isomerous genus makes a tra nsition to Celastracee. Meliacee, by Casimir laetende lle, who ia recently Paper a monograph of the whole order in the series which is tinue and supplement the Prodromus. This order is ane ee largely developed in Brazil. Hederacee, by EK. Marchal, Professor of Botany at Brussels. The Brazilian sPees belong to four genera, which are well illustrated. Lemnacee, by Professor Hegelmaier of Tiibingen, the mono- grapher of Oa order. e three genera, Wolffia, Lemna, and Q : i Spirodela are well illustrated in a single plate, and the anatomy — and pore ney are fully expounded. eu, by dae ssor Fosier, late of Munich, now translated to bia aes e about ninety Brazilian species out of 738 known to the paca er, stray arranges them under ara sub-orders, among the sub-orders are Pistiacew and Lemnacew. The whole is evidently worked out conscientiously, and is recaniery illus- trated by fifty-one plates, which abound in analyses. One them is a photograph of magnified stem-section Rafflesiacee, by Count Solms-Laubach, Peckoone at Strassburg. In Brazil are two known species of A odanthes ee our of Piloe — tyles. ae sig plate of illustrations is excelle of cee, by Professor Caspary 0 si a are tape 3 to and all ‘llnetrate d, Three folio plates are given One of the ten tropical American species of Vymp viz: Ve ampla, well marked by having the carpels di gree the 186 88 and cohering only dorsally, reaches Texas. curbitacee. are elaborated, with much detail, by A. Cogn aux, a ie cika botanist. Introductions included, there are twenty: nine Brazilian genera, and one hundred a nd eleven species, Hoo Genera Plantarum. Eichler is followed in an ee order next 1 Jussict to Campanulacer, a reversion to the ideas and Adanson. Cucurbita Pepo is thought to be of Asiatic origin; along with WVicotiand rustica, which is certainly an old-world species. chin ocystis 18 still mixed up with eee ied besser aa genns—an with two Brazilian plants which, we ven geners of the true Be See plates. Her : Flora Fossilis Aretica. Tome v. 1878. _phis new volume, ‘ike most of its predecessors, is composed of separate hinocystis, The a is haw ilustrated by aaa ed = SANE i ae e i ‘ 5 pe : a ‘ Dy aes pia ork Fe Siete oar he Oog OS, ER ae ee ea ae een as So atte Sin be aE A eee ial eee orale mea bat te aiken amar le a ae Ee ia 2 SNe ie ae | rt see aaa ais US So 6) Sa Sin eg erie ine RE te cg Sp A aa ae a rk i PT Ee ee Se RN oe Botany and Zoology. 71 memoirs, some here first printed, some extra issues from academic transactions and the like. The first paper, on the Miocene Flora ap rig rs, 0 Siberian and Eastern Asian fossil plants, are from the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg; the remaining two are from the Memoirs of the Royal Swedish Society at Stockholm, and illustrate the Miocene flora of Sachalin and the Cordaites of Nova Zembla. ere are numerous figures. The first named paper most interests us, by the announcement of the ee of the remains of a Miocene Spruce of the 7suga group, i. e., to our Prato yess k Spruce; also of the veritable Silver Fir. of Europe! A. G. ing Forest, and how best to deal with it, is an article in the Fortnightly Review for November last, and separately a ALFRED R. Wattacz. It urges—now w that the ground w this ancient forest in the neighborhood . London covered, and in part still covers, is consecr; or by act of Prop for the me are maintained in reusut articles of this Jo uinadi as ane ian of _ poverty of oe in sag trees, in in comparison America and Eastern Asia, and her own Tertiar j “Die Algenjiora des Weissen Meeres ; b ; Dr. yaar Gon (Extr. from Mem. Imp. Acad. Sciences, St. Petersburg, vol. xxvi, no. 1.).—-The above named paper is the first detailed account of d ; Ehodophyllis veprecula Ag. is referred to Ft. dichotoma Lepechin. “he paper contains valuable references - the species of — in = St. Petersburg Academy’s herbarium. Ww. G North American Fungi: Fungi ideeladal, Gatien I ca II; by H. W. Ravenet and M. C. Cooke. North Ameri- 72 Scientific Intelligence. an Fungi; by J. B. Evtis.—Since the: Fungi Caroliniani Several American species, to be sure, have been published in | Thiimen’s Meateliods Lpiaredlia, but, comparatively speaking, — the number is small. Fro m the nature of the plants themselves, — h 7 mi : authentic series of American fungi should be in the hands of — leading mycologists of Europe and this country. For this reason, — if for no other, we welcome the f aacauki: just issued by Messrs. — Ravenel and Cooke, and that by Ellis. : The first series named includes specimens collected in Georgia — cath Biaride by Mr. 5. W. Ravenel, whose Fungi Caroliniani have made his name a to all students of fungi. The deter ithaticn of the species and their arrangement has been under — taken by the well- nett British mycologist, Mr. M. C. Cooke: — The series will include about four hundred gies published in — se cep at the rate of twenty-one shillings each. American — order y be addressed to H. W. Ravenel, Aike ny SG q series ahaledeh a number of new + which: are being described 3 in the onrrens numbers of Grevi a by him in the vicinity of Ne new species described by Cooke Ellis and Von Thiimen in the Torrey Bulletin. practicable, an effort will be made find a large _ of related s es placed near together for com arison. Century II will contain principally Ascomycetes, sp “ llis, and —— Ill, Uredinei, by Ww. G. Farlow. The will inelu e common as well re rare magne? — it is to he opi aa pe. + form similar to that of Rabenhorst’s Fungi, and is sold at the rate of $7.00. Orders can be sent to J. B. Ellis, eae N. Je 6. The Early Types of Insects ; by Samue. H. (Abstract nes a he — 7 a the Mational proses rot Sci- ences, November 78).—The earliest remains of insects from the irate 8 a announced in 1835 by Audouin and Botany and Zoology. 73 Corda. Since then many authors, especially Germar and Golden- berg, have added to our knowledge, until now perhaps one hun- dred species are known. Yet insect remains in the older strata may still be looked upon as the greatest rarities, and by far larger part of them are known to us only by their wings. t is of course of prime importance that we should understand the relative subordination of the larger groups in insects before investigating their order of succession in time; for one of the and geological relations has been in the erroneous views which _ have been maintained of the relative rank of the suborders of Hexapods and of their division into series. The author con- ing the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera; the latter the _ bination of characteristics in Eugereon and other early insects and _ toaccept, but with somewhat different limits, the term Palzodicty- _ optera applied to this group by Goldenberg. He discussed the _ times of appearance and relative abundance of the different subor- _ ders of Hexapods and concluded with the following recapitulation: xapods known om Arachnids and Myriapods—appeared simultaneously in Carbonif- erous strata, (2.) All Carboniferous and Devonian insects are the Heterometabola; of Orthoptera and Neuroptera ; or of Neu- tera proper and Pseudoneuroptera. (4.) The ise is ects Ww e rop 8 either belong to comprehensive types related to the ower ous. (11.) The serics of facts presented to us by the progress of geological research leads to the conviction of the probable exist- ence and possible discovery, in the Devonian and even m the 4 ation, ‘ed insects, still more generalized in _ Structure than any yet detected in the Paleozoic roc 74 Scientific Intelligence. It may further be added that nearly all the earlier insects were large, many of them gigantic in size; and further, that there is a striking similarity between the Carboniferous insect fauna of Europe and North America, IV. Astronomy. a; strong of = Terrestrial Spheroid.—-In the Astron. Nach., r Li No. Professor Listine gives the oo , results of his repack of aoe constants of the earth’s figure a@ = 6,377,377" 1, == 990-9948™™- b = 6,355,270": [* = 993°5721™™ de == 6,377,000" Ff = 996-1405=™' Q, = 10,017,560": Jy = 9780728" = 9°806165™° i g' = 9°831603™"° Also in general, f = 990°9948 + 5°1547 sin?g, = 9°780728 + 0:050875 sin? g. In these expressions a = equatorial rad., 6 = polar rad.,. R= (a?d\4, - mean ra = = equatorial quadrant, Q= meri quadrant; w>a~+(a— 'b), 0 or eccentricity of merid. section; — BET) a y are the lengths of the second’s pendulum at the equa tor, 45°, and pole; g,, g* and g’, the force of gravity at the equa tor, 45° and seh and Z and g the corresponding — at any latitu @ « A. N. light also prevented the recording of faint meteors after N oven ber 29th. During the seventeen hours or more of watching, only translated from ssian by Dr. Gate j in 1850, has boon foe near thirty yea sipneer d work for the subjects passat in it. It is devoted eae to the instruments and processes _ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 75 employed in the determination of latitudes and longitudes. It does not describe the fixed instruments of the observatory, and is _ therefore more complete in respect to portable ones. The present edition has been quite fully revised, the changes in instruments and improvements of methods having required con- siderable changes in the matter. The Repsold vertical circle and _ the Ertel universal instrument are especially described. e more _ recent methods of utilizing solar eclipses for determination of _ longitude replace the older ones. H,\Ay N. V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. International Geological Congress,—The American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting in Buffalo, tions of Paris, which were thrown open to the members of the The Congress was opened on the day appointed in the palace _ of the Trocadero, the Minister of Public Instruction for c _ presiding on the oceasion, and six daily sessions were held, with _ Hébert for president, assisted by numerous vice-presidents selected _ from the various nationalities. The whole num f bers da. e first session was devoted to structural and dynamical geol- ogy and included among others, papers by Daubrée and Alphonse avre, both giving results of experiments relative to the origin of 76 Miscellaneous Intelligence. fractures and foldings of the earth’s crust. These were followed by Lory on the vee oh of the Alps, by de seuamen a on the sobrdination of t nes and veins, and by apparent on the foldings of the Chalk as disclosed by the etadhin ations for the tunnel beneath the streets of Dover. n the second session, James Hall discussed the sei! y of the rise and progress of the nomenclature of the Paleozoic rocks in North America, and of the various geological maps, whi le Renevier, de Chancourtois and Huguenin submitted their plans for the use of < colors and signs in mapping. Stephanesco and Rutot discussed | the value of geological subdivisions and the bases of a uniform gical nomenclature for all countries, while Vilanova set forth — a gS a arrande on the same or tone Von Maller then discussed the : In the fourth session, Cope discussed the relations of the hort zons of fossil verebrates in Europe and America, and was followed by Albert Gaudry and by Matheson on the same subject. De Mortillet Nagin his views on the Quaternary formations, and_ vre discussed the nypotiells of former glacial periods. Van dee: Broeck and Buviguier discussed the agency of meteori¢ ee giving rise to what have been called colonies is alike 1 Jurassic ‘and Devonian strata, was discussed a Choffat, Renevier ~ Giss Sterry Hunt, on the constitution of the plagioclase feldspar, w Jannetaz tented of the geological importance of the pr ope ait ; , : se rocks. Velaine contributed an account of the trachytes of the at island and Ribeiro and of the Tertiary basalts of Port: ugal Miscellaneous Intelligence. 17 . ber, a communication ‘by Boot was presented on eee supposed 4 phile per stated the vi of several fist Ae of the Co on _ gress on the system of saldinedl geological maps. The President "held at Bologna in Italy, in October, 1881, under the honorary _ presidence of Sella, president of the Accademia dei Lincei of Rome, _ and a local committee of ten Italian geologists has been named, . The gov _ ernment of the King of Italy, through the ambassador at Paris, at _ once promised its high patronage to the future Congress, and the _ municipality of Bologna sent a message of welcome e wo rk of the gs Pye is referred to two international _ committees; che fi f which will be charged with the unifica- _ tions “ des figures et ” that is to say, of all colors or signs _ employed on geological maps and plans. The second is charged _ with the unification of geolo deal nomenclature, under which will be considered all aneenet arc 4 o classification, as well as the _ value and significance of mineralogical, lithologica al and paleon- 4 asta characters hs v8 the most important problems in _ geology. For these two jemand committees one member is _ named for each country, whose duty it will be to organize eras local committees, and to make known the composition of these as "gress, and to the local committee of the future one. spe by f these several committees are to be sent before the first of 1881, to the Italian local committee of organization, who will cause them to be printed and distributed before the meeting of ; _ the shi ret “Hangary, yon acken: Russia, von Meller; Rudiaree ; Bes 4 Thei ittee ] is thus ae United States, James Hall; ER . Strey : Hunt ; Great Britain, T. McKenna Hughes; "France, Hébert; Bel- 4 De a Germany, Ferd. Rémer; Switzerland, Alph. bei Italy, Capellini; Spain and fil iene Hunga ary Zabdo 1 ET oe en Ee ee EMT RS AE ath ee ae See a PETE ME ee Ne mee eS Ree nae Cy — ° 4 mM =| = @ Qw TM oe oar) Bi . ao D ¢ ey oO D os ey << S © ~ Qu =] «TQ sated 2 te o z ir) eo e Bes e dg ___In addition to the above a local committee was named in _ France to diseuss for the next ‘Couigheed the rules to be observed. “ . i : 3 78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. in the nomenclature of species, consisting, for paleontology, of Cotteau, Douvillé, Gaudry, Pomel, Gosselet and d biological ope edit presented by Cope to the Congress, was referred to the above-named committee. The general language of in English were interprete . Barrois and T. Sterry Hunt, and will be duly translated for the published acts of the Congress. — +. 67% 2. National Academy of Sciences.—At the session of the Na tional Academy of Sciences in New York City, November 5-8, 1878, the following papers were presented. Henry Draper.—the Solar Eclipse of aay 29, 1878. 8. H. ScupprrR.—The early types of inse C. 8. Perrce.—tThe acceleration of gravity at initial stations W. P. TrowsBripGe.—The inapplicability of the old ——. of a turbine water- wheel to the newer peneneenns | instituted by Boyden & Fr A. The embryology of the gar-pike. “0. ) pee ofa zoological marine iabbratory. at Newpo E 1s.—Contributions to Meteor logy: the storms of the Atlantic Ocean. — H. L. Assort.—(1.) Biographical me shoe of Prof. D. H. Mahan.—(2.) Value of — photography | in the study of instantaneous phenomena, illustrated by Oy ahoteeall : torpedo explosions. : JAMIN ALVORD.—Continuation of paper cAstiost & at the April meeting, On — the intersection of circles and the intersection of s sphe STEPHEN a On the eleventh axiom 2 of Euclid and a proposed — demonstration of the ) "s views on the — origin of the forms poe presen nt state of many clusters of stars and of several % e 0 so : J.S.N to living forms — ai ) On some mooted p n American Geol O. N. Roop.—({1.) On a ‘naiititative’ aivtis of white light. hE _(2.) Note on Henry’s inert of color. E. D. Copz.—On the characters of the Theromorphous Reptilia and Stegocephi — i Batrachia (, B-Mepinres of the diameter of Mercury by a new method, made ab the transit vs May 6 ‘ be . Hyatr me r seis on an ci, on the laws of heridity under taken by the Board of Health of Massachus t the same session on November 6, the Acting President sw oidich the following Report of the Committee appointed to coW sider the Scientific Surveys of the Territories of the United States The Committee of the National ‘Abadann of Sciences, to whon has been referred the consideration of the following requirement of law contained in the Act making appropriations for pee f or the fiscal ye na ely: “And the National Academy of Sciences is hereby ee at their next meeting to take into consideration the methods and Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79 expenses of conducting all surveys of a scientific character under the War or Interior Department, and the surveys of the Land distribution of reports, maps, and documents, and other results of the said surveys,” organization surve d investigations, ever scientific in meth character, which apply solely to engineering works, such as the improv s of rivers, harbors, lakes ; the irri- : parcelling surveys, on which the Government can part title to _ portions of the public domain. (4. e economic classification _ and valuation of the public domain. To these should be added, 80 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ferent independent organizations: that of the Coast and Geodetic Survey; of the Geographical Surveys west of the one hundredth original determinations of position are independent; their systems — of survey discordant; their results show many contradictions involve unnecessary expenditure. The geographical reconnois- — sances carried on under the War and Interior es ee are of — ~~ PS) -o a The operations of t eC and Geodetic Survey in the interior — do not at present ete to ography and land parcelling. To attain th ble accu “ye and economy, it is absolutely essen- tial that there should one geodetic system, to on agit syst Aiter a careful consideration of the facilities at the disposal to be surveyed and sold. e administration of these lan consisting of 1,101,107,183 acres, is necessarily within the partment of the Interior, while the Coast and Geodetic Surv having been agg lly inaugurated to meet the wants of com merce, has been hitherto under the Treasury Department. In addition to its fo , a geodetic survey of the whole put domain, a topographical survey comprising detailed topographi¢ Ww id reconnoissance, and land parcelling surveys. ee ee a eee YEE te Fane Tee ee pee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 81 of intel igent ress a gine t atetae of its geo- logical dig apie ources, and produ The domain embraces a vast mineral rwaalthrt in its soils, metals, salines, stones, - clays, ete. To meet the requirements of existing laws in the dis- position of the agricultural, mineral, pastoral, timber, desert, and swamp lands, a thorough investigation and classification of the Officers of the Army and Navy, vheri not ee a might be detailed by the Secretary of War cr of the Navy to ith the inauguration of the two s mnt bt" above defined, the mittee recommend a discontinuance (1) of the present Geo- ‘< Com graphical and Geolo ical Surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, und e War De nt, except surveys necessary for military purposes and local internal improvements; (2) of the Geographical and Geological surveys now in progress under the Department of the Interior; and a the present Land surveys under the Land Office. 1 and Interior Survey, whose function will © embrace all questions of e and sale of the public lands, including all questions of title record. With this division should be secured a perfect + bodedinie tion and codperation between the three branches. The Land cation of lands, The results of all che mensurati revs, as soon as completed, should be immediately available “for he and Office, and for the Geological Survey, and for other branches of the Gov ernment as required, The Geological Garvey should be Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Series, Voz. XVII, No. 97.—Jan., 1879, 6 82 Miscellaneous Intelligence. authorized to execute local topographical surveys for special pur- poses, 8 such, for instance, as the subterraneous surveys of min ing districts and metallic deposits, om Each of the three organizations, thus defined, should make an annual report of its operations to the Secretary of the Interior, annual report of operations, geomuine and economic a illus- trating the resources and classification of the land, r s upon eneral and semneniea) pos ees in all its Gace ge the necessarily connected paleontolo All colle coe made ed the Coast and Interior, and the logical Surveys, when no longer needed for the investigations 7 . progress, should be Se, to the National Museum. af e Committee recommend that, upon the ag n of the United States Coast and Interior ee ey and the United States Geological Survey, a commission be formed, to consist of the Commissioner of the Land Office, Superintendent of the Coast and Interior Survey, Director of the United States Geological mill ~ Chief of Eugineers of the Army, and three other pers o be appointed by the President, who shall take im Consideration the codification “ad the pre i ' u reports of operations of the tieo 0 surveys accompany the report the Secretary of the Interior; that the special memoirs and rep? of both surveys be issued in uniform quarto series; that the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 83 j and scale of the cartographic publications be determined by the head of each organization, so as to express the scientific results in _ the most effective and economical manner. All of which is toi submitted : O. C. Mars ice President, and che President. James D. Dana, Wit11am B. Roeers, J. 8. WBERRY, W. = P. Pow enliens Simon NEWwcoms, Auxx. Naito Members of _ the Committee. [This Report was submitted to Congress at the opening of the q “eget session and referred to the Committee on Appropriations. | ork Academy of Sciences.—N os. 1 to 4 of the Annals of f the New, York Academy of Sciences ‘(late Lyceum of Natural His- _ tory), extending to 128 pages, 8vo, have been published. They con- _ tain papers by H. C. Bolton, on the application of organic acids to _ the examination of minerals; on prehistoric Bronze bells trom Japan, . 8. Munroe; on the variations in Lepidode sates and 8 a laria, by H. L. Fairchild; on new species of Birds, ns | rence; on the literature of titanium, by E. Hallock : on new fossils of the Upper Silurian of Port Jervis, by 8. F. Barrett ; on _ new fossil fishes of the Trias, by J. S. N ewberry ; and the ey are _ illustrated by nine plates, six of them by H. L. Fairchild. Dr. _ Newberry describes Diplurus longicaudaius, from Boonton, N. J., _ and Page holepis Marshii, from Durham, Conn. 4 ici | Director, B. A. Goutp. Tome Clima de Buenos ye 146, pp. 523, and 17 plat tes. eka “Ayres, 1878.—This first volume _ principal part of the computations were made by Dr. Guter jovi _ The results are very fully ge i in the plates. In the fu _ volumes of the Annals, Dr. Gould e ts to give the observa- _ tions made at numerous other ‘aintacs in the Republic, with discus- q ie of them 5. Science News,-- A new scientific periodical, under the editor- ship of Ernest laparats and W. C. Wirckoe, and published fort nightly by S. E. Cassino, at Salem, Mass. Each aan is to contain at least sixteen pages octavo of reading matter, and its peculiar feature i is stated to be “the prompt publication of scier tific news.” No. 1 (November ~~ contains short a s by Dr. C. ©; Abbott, Professor F, W. Clarke, Dr. Elliott Coun and others; Nos. 2 a nd 3 are chiefly occu bi ied with abstracts of papers ' read at the recent meeting of the National Academy of Sciences. 84 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 1879. (D. Appleton & Co.)—The scope and ie object of this work are well stated in the above title. It occupies a decidedly new place among handbooks of travel and sobtsias a great amount of intormation in a very condensed form. 7. Essentials of epraigaet Inorganic and Orgunie, for the use of Students in Medicine ; by R. A. Wirruaus. New York, 1879. 18mo, pp. 257. (Wi illiam Wood & Co o.)—-The author has skillfully : condensed the “ Essentials of Chemistry,” for the Medical student, into a vest-pocket catechism, which fulfills well the object for which his little volume has been prepared. : 8. Handbook of Alabama: - complete index to the State; with As ey map and an Appendix of useful tables, by — SarroLtp Berney.—This vaheine contains a valuable outline of | the aeclogy of Rehan, with a oo map of the State, by — Eugene A. Smith, Ph.D., State Geologist : The Amateur’s Handbook of practical posing we the before and the 4 metal, ete : Laboratory: containing directions for bronzing, lacquering, polishi 44 pp. 12mo. New York, 1878. (The Industrial fap ene Compa me wee ag core of the eee ride. A family of Hydroid Stony Co: Corals, b by H. N. Mca y; F.R.S., late Naturalist on board HL vf §. Challenger. (From the Phi : iiophicl “Transactions of the e Royal gene ant II, 1878. : Ann e Chief Signal Officer to the ntovies of hes for the year — 1877. on. 8v 9, wits 34 maps and 18 Sane. Washington, Dasctption of eight new species of ares from the Ni vtagar Sco by 8 4 A. er. The new species are: H. Brauni, etherbyt, i. globosus, H. pustulosus, H. plenus, H. elegans ; they are from Jebeceee and Ripley counties, Indiana. Remarks on some wilneater copgersn gt Shells of the Hudson River Pcie by R. P. Whitfield. The new Aa at at Cypricardites quadrangularis a curt, Orthodesma Mickleboroughi. ag teh ja, (?) ay locality, esti ae Ohio. A. Handbook a the Electric Teleareph, b A. E. Loring. 98 pp. 12mo. New York. 1878 (Van Nostrand’s Science Serie Statistical Srotch “of South — ey Josiah oe 86 pp. 8vo. London, 1876. Published bbe = hority of the Government. (Sampson Low, Marstot, = & nobler cs don.) G e American Ante uarian: a Quarterly Journal devoted ue Early Americal History, Ethnology, ps Archeology. Edited by Rev. Stephen D. Peet, of Union ville, Ohio. Published by oo Sais Schinkel & Co. Cleveland, Ohio,—Vol. i, No. July, August and Septembe A Monograph of the Silurian Forest of the — oe it in Ayrshire, by dos: ps oon! ag Robert Etheridge, Jr Rhizo ilobita. oe ore, with ix plates. aidinbursh and London, i818 (Wiliam Hisekwood & Sons. on the Meteorological Service of the Dominion of Canada, by the Super ispepmnge: to which is appended the Report of the Directors of the Magnetic other r Observatories, for the year ending December 31st, 1877. Ottawa, 1879. APPEN DEX. Arr. IX.—A new Order of Extinct Reptiles (SAURANODONTA), rom the Jurassic aes of the Rocky Mountains; by Professor O. C. Mar THE absence of the genus Jchthyosaurus in the extinct fauna of this country has long been a noteworthy feature, for up to the present time no traces of it have been detected, although its remains are especially abundant in Europe. An interesting specimen recently discovered in the Rocky Mountain region _ presents, in most of its skeleton, the characteristics of that _ genus, but is without teeth. The vertebree, ribs, and other por- _ tions of the skeleton preserved, cannot be distinguished from _ the corresponding parts of Ichihyosaurus, and many features _ of the skull show a strong resemblance. The general form of _ the skull is the same. The great development of the premax- ilaries; the reduced maxillaries; the huge orbit defended by a ring of bony plates, a = present, but the jaws Lees en- wis edentulous, and destitute even of a dentary groove | e proportions of oe reptile were very similar to those of q So tenes The skull is about two feet (600) in length, _ and the facial portion especially produced. The orbits are very large, and the space between them is 140™. The sclerotic ring _ is composed of only eight plates. Its diameter at the base is — 106™, and at the apex 58". These plates are not arranged _ in a nearly flat ring, as in Jchthyosaurus, tae form the basal seg- ment of an elongated cone, as in the eyes of some birds. The _ vertebree are short, and deeply bi-concaye. The neural arch is articulated to the centrum. One trunk vertebra measures 85™ in width, 88™" in length on the floor of the neural canal, and = 21>" between the centers of the two rib articular faces of the _ same side. The len ngth of the entire animal was about eight or nine feet. The remains at present known are all in the Museum of Yale College. Am. Jour. Sc1.—TuHIRD p Santee, Vor. XVI, No. 97.—Jan., 1879. 86 0. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. This reptile may be called Sauranodon natans, and the order it represents Sauranodonta is genus bears a similar relation to the Ichthyosaurs that Pteranodon does to the true Pterodae- tyls, and it is interesting to find the two highly specialized forms preserved in the same region. The geological horizon of the Sauranodontide, so far as now known, is in the Ju rassic, immediately below the Atlantosaurus beds. The accompanying fossils are Ammonites and Belem- — nites, showing more distinctly marine deposits, which may be called the Sauranodon beds. Yale College, New Haven, December 27, 1878. Art. X.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs; by Professor O. C. MarsH. Part II. With eight Plates. — In a previous article Moe xvi, p. 411, Nov., 1878), the writer gave a short account of the geological ‘horizon’ and : accompan ying! scone of the a urassic Dinosaurs recently foundin — untains ; and also state : is illustrated by new reguiipled and tne the neler parts in some recent birds. Apatosaurus Marsh, 1877.* The genus Apatosaurus may be readily distinguished from Morosaurus by the sacrum, which consists of only three verte bree instead ot four (Plates V and VI, figures 1 and 2. ischium, also, has its distal end ‘expande d. The scapula, like wise, is quite ‘different, its superior extremity, being without the. anterior extension seen in Morosaurus (Plate + So far as at * This Journal, vol. xiv, p. 514. O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 87 ankylosed to the centra. Those on each side are united distally into a solid mass, which rests on the short ilium. The articular faces of the sacral vertebre are nearly plane. That of the ante- rior centrum is a transverse oval in outline, and the posterior face is more nearly round. The centra and their processes are somewhat lightened by cavities, as in the sacra of Adlantosaurus and Morosaurus. The sacrum of the latter genus, shown in fig- ure 2 of Plate V, is built upon the same general plan, character- ess are found in the same localities. The sacra show the genera to be quite distinct, and the abundant material now in the Yale _ Museum, when carefully collated, will enable other parts of the _ structure to be compared. The teeth in all the herbivorous genera of the Sauropoda from the Atlantosaurus beds, so far as now known, appear to be very similar, and hence do not afford generic characters. — ; e type species of the present genus is Apatosaurus ajax Marsh, and the known remains indicate a reptile at least fifty feet in length. A much larger species is indicated by various remains from the same locality in Colorado, among which 1s the huge cervical vertebra represented in Plate III, figures 1 and 2. This species had a short massive neck, and hence may be * This Journal, vol. xvi, Plate VI. 88 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. called Apatosaurus laticollis. The size of the entire animal may be judged from this vertebra, which measures over three and a half feet (1:07 M) in width. This would imply a neck at this point not less than five or six feet wide,—a marked contrast to the long and slender neck of Morosaurus grandis, a verte- bra of which is figured in the same plate for comparison. All the cervical vertebre of the present species now known are e ing. With the exception of the articular faces of the centra, — the resemblance of these cervicals to those in some birds is — very striking. The limb bones at present referred to this species havea — general resemblance to those of Morosaurus, described by the — writer in the previous article. The pelvic bones appear to be more like those of Adlaniosaurus. The more important remains of this genus now known were © found in the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, by Mr. Arthur Lakes, — of the Yale Museum, to whom science is indebted for other — interesting discoveries. Atlantosaurus Marsh, 1877.* | es. bre are deeply excavated below on each side, leaving a com — salah narrow keel on the median line. From each opening — tween the transverse processes, a large cavity extends 1 ward and backward into the centra, greatly lessening the weight — of the sacrum. These important characters were mentioned in — the original description, (vol. xiv, p. 87, July, 1877), in which the discovery of these large reptiles was first announced. The ilium in Atlantosaurus is comparatively short and massiv®_ but its exact outline has not been fully determined. Its articu- lations resemble those in the ilium of Morosaurus, and in t the ischiadic union, a post pubic projection indicated in the diagram by p’. The distal end is expanded, and rugose for union with its fellow on the median line, as shown in the pel¥ * This Journal, vol. xiv, p. 514, Also p. 87. _ Morosaurus. O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 89 ] arch of Morosaurus, in Plate V, figure 1. The ischium is less _ what more twisted in its distal half than the artist has drawn it in figure 1, where the three bones are represented nearly in the _ same plane. _ . The vertebrz referred to Adlantosaurus are opisthoccelian in _ the cervical region, and the caudals preserved resemble those in ’ e limb bones, so far as known, are similar in _ their more important characters to those in that genus. The two species now placed in the genus Adlantosaurus are _ the type, A. montanus, and A. immanis, which contain the largest land animals yet discovered. The latter species may possibly belong to the genus Apatosaurus. _ other genera. The pelvic bones of this species, he says, do not _ resemble those of Dinosauria, when, on the contrary, the pubis _ he figures is typical in the group. Conclusions based on such work will naturally be received with distrust by anatomists. Allosauride. In addition to the huge Sawropoda, and the small species of _ the genus Laosaurus, described in the previous article, numerous Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. ii, p. 201, Sept., 1878. Am. Naturalist, vol. xii, p. 77. 90 O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. is briefly discussed, and both will be more fully described ina future communication. The genus Allosaurus is typical of the family, which also includes Creosaurus, and Labrosaurus. The first named genus presents some very interesting features in the vertebra, and pelvic arch. The vertebrae first described are remarkable nearly vertical, or somewhat divergent above. The exa form of the ilium is not known with certainty, and in the d position solve many difficulties in the structure of the Din rian pelvis, especially in the Carnivorous types. At its pro mal end, this bone has four well-marked articular faces; one in front for the ilium; next the acetabular face; an obliq figure (Plate VIII, figure 2, p’). The shaft of the pubis slender, and the distal end is expanded longitudinally, and firmly codssified with its fellow. he two seen from the ir ei remarkably narrow one. ene SPT RE Ce Lee Ree SE ee ae sn, ESAT ey ec eaten ee Eee ee Ree eS ST O. C. Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 91 The large bones in Al/osaurus are hollow, and the metatar- 'sals slender. The termina phalanges were armed with sharp claws. With the remains described above, a large spine was found, similar in general form to that of Omosaurus armatus described by Owen. The type of Adlosaurus is A. fragilis,* the remains of which indicate a reptile probably twenty-five feet in length, and of slender proportions. e genus Creosaurus appears to be most nearly related in its vertebre and ilium to Megalosaurus. It has apparently one less vertebra in its sacrum, and the ilium has in front of its pu- bic process an articular face which has not been observed in the latter genus. The position of this surface is indicated in Plate X, figure 1, 4, and it may have supported a prepubic bone. The sacral vertebra are elongated, and the transverse processes are placed higher up on the centra than those in Ad/o- saurus. The teeth in both genera are of the Megalosaurus type, and in the whole group are so similar as to be of little value for the determination of species. The type of Creosaurus, is C. atrox,t a reptile about twenty feet in length. A third genus of carnivorous Dinosaurs contains individuals of somewhat smaller size, and of this group the species named Allosaurus lucarist is the type. The cervical vertebre are short and strongly opisthoccelian, and the dorsals moderately so. ll these vertebrae have very large cavities in the centra, which connect with the exterior by a comparatively small foramen on each side. The neural spines of the dorsal vertebre are elevated and transverse, and the vertebrae now known do not show the diplosphenal articulation. The fore limbs in this genus are quite small, and the humerus is curved, and has a large radia crest. This genus is distinct fron Allosaurus, and may be called Labrosaurus, the type being Labrosaurus lucaris. ll of the carnivorous Dinosaurs known from the Atlanto- saurus beds appear to have moved mainly on the posterior limbs. The large bones were hollow, and many of the vertebre, as wel as some of the feet bones, contained cavities, or were otherwise lightened to facilitate rapid movement. specimens, from the same localities and horizon, some of which pertain to the same skeletons as those here illustrated. e _ careful investigation of this entire series will require much time, _ but promises important results. * This Journal, vol. xiv, p.515. + Ibid., vol. xv, p. 243. } Ibid., vol. xv, p. 242. 92 0. C, Marsh—American Jurassic Dinosaurs. ceding article make clear the general structure of the Dinosau- rian pelvic arch, which has so long been in doubt. perfect coéssification. Yale College, New Haven, December 27, 1878. [To be continued.] _AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVII, 1879. ae Plate Ill. | | Figure < faeries vertebra of Apatosaurus laticollis Marsh; back view. Figure 2.—The same; side view. Both one-sixteenth na tural size. s Figure 3 Hoe s st vertebra of Morosaurus grandis Marsh; side view, ck vi The signification of the saeibinng! is the same in all the figures, viz: 5. ball; ¢. cup; d.d pris vee: p. parapophysis; A. hatchet bone; yy foramen in centrum ; i $ pea iit z. anterior zygapophysis; 2’. posterior zy gapophysis AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVII, 1879. Plate IV. Left scapula and coracoid of Apatosaurus ajax Marsh; one-fourteenth natural size. a. scapular face of glenoid cavity ; 6. rugose su for union with coracoid; a’ coracoidean part of glenoid cavity ; 7 foramen in coracol AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVII, 1879. Plate V. Pe ee Figure 1 1.—Pelvie arch of reciente grandis Marsh; seen from in front. -sixte Figure ah baa of pe grandis; seen from below. One-tenth al 81Z a. first sacral vertebra; 6. transverse process of first sacral vertebra; of . oe process of second vertebra; d. transverse process third ve é. tra —— Base: of last sacral vertebra; /. foramen between n ge h bra: ne. neural canal; i. ilium; 7s. ischium; pb. AM. JOUR. SC scl. Vol. XVII, 1879. Plate VI. re, ®, %e, big “eenesernrey, * steen aowoceee Sane eeseesee Sheteukeoes ceneenene™ SHeeereveenee, ” * Be . | Figure 1 BR vere of i carne jax Marsh ; seen from below. oo 2.—Sa of Marsh; seen from below; both c one-tenth natu rae siz | 4, first sacral vertebra; 2 transverse Sse of first bane ger c. transv' processes of second vertebra; . transverse process hird v vertebra | J. foramen hates een tel and second resets onde com f . for: between second and third romain: p. last sacral vertebra; g. for union with ilium AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVII, 1879. Plate VII. ie . o .. *, *s, ‘ , . . 4 . . . * . : . = . : : ; : : ettnwene = . - Z si oe, 2 ? bras : ? we, - Plate VIII. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVII, 1879. Figure 1. Pony of Laosaurus altus Marsh; seen from the left, natural siz Figure 2.—Pelvis of Allosawrus fragilis Marsh; seen from the bithcoipis tural size. The outline of the ilium is taken from atrox ery oe The si eat _ the letters is the or in both figures, viz: a. ace fine’ a ilium; is. ischium; p. pubis; p’. post-pubis; /. articular - front of pubic’ cae of ilium. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVII, 1879. oe Plate IX. ——, : .—Pelvis of Geococcyx Californianus Baird; seen from the left, natu-— ral s Fi igure 2. —Pelvis of Emeu, Dromaius nove hollandie Lath; one-fifth natural — size. Figure 3.—Pelvis of Apteryx australis Owen; three-fourths pores size. a. acetabulum ; il. ilium; 7s. ischium; p. pubis; p’. post-pu Se ee eee te Figure 1.—Left — of Creosaurus atrox Marsh; seen from the left. Fi a. anterior, or ae a wrtioulation’ b. — ior, or ischiadic, articulation; I articular facet on front of pubic pr Figure 3.—Lumbar vertebra of Allosa on ss frapske inert front view. agi 1 _—The same; side view, from the left. 7. th one-sixth natural size. ’ Bi _ AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XVII, 1879. Plate X. gure 2.—The same; seen from below. Both one-tenth natural size. anterior articular face posterior articu agi hinelers . neural § spine ; d diapophyai: z, anterior : eygapophysin; 2’. posterior zygapophysis. | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] e + | Arr. XI —Discussion of the Working Hypothesis that the so-called : megs are Compound Bodies ;* by J. Norman LocKYEr, | ERS. __ Iv is known to many Fellows of the Society that I have for the last four years been engaged upon the preparation of a ma of the solar spectrum on a large scale, the work including a comparison of the Fraunhofer lines with those visible in the Spectrum of the vapor of each of the metallic elements in the -€lectric are. * Paper read at the Royal Society, December 12, 1878. _ AM. Jour. $c1.—Turep Series, Vou. XVIL—No, 98, Fes., 1879, J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound TaBLeE I.—FINAL REDUCTION—IRON. Intensity in Sun. Wave-length and length of line. 8+ [B>|fe Sus i ° il 5 oo ie nN 3 uw a Coincidences with Short Lines. 2 Se erat 3 5 4 Va Va Ba 2 3 yet . 3 Go , Mn Ce 4 ae 1 Oe 2 Va 2 Mo 3 Ce vu : Ba Rh 2 2 sees Lael twa 3 Co Va , M Mo Yt ‘ ._Th ; 8 koe 2 Ce Reem oe 3 Seas ONG Cah ee eames A ee Or Sos fag cca bese 3 : : Yt Ce noc es BE 5 3 ‘5 Pe HE Th I Os 2 epee eae . Di 2 Va 4 oe Ru 3 Mo Nature of the so-called Elements. 95 TaBLe Il.—FINAL REDUCTION—TITANIUM. s|/s 39 roan ss & . i=] ai Sa) ous oe . F 25/7 Coincidences with Short Lines, o”}] 2 3 = ~ > be f=] a ra] 39 Zr I — 3 4 Pad Bn 3 Th 3 ek 4 5 1049 Mn Ce Di 5 rah eae 2 1360 { Va 3 4 5 1915 Ce 8 = : a | Se ; ete ia 3 3 3 | = 2 | 3 3 3718 Pail UR. Th Cae its! Ce 4 4 2 42775 dane Zz 2 2 5722 (A Pes ee oe et Ee See Rha I ne composes. Pei ra t ceux qui résistent, méme 4 la température des étoiles es ” Bi miques, dont les poids atomiques sont les moindres, son pr men i a plus chaudes. Hottest Stars S bs +Mg Be pase g H+Ca+Mg+Na+Fe Cooler Stars 5 (— — Mg+Na+Fe+Bi+Hg 33 . Coolest ..... 22 i sa i tte we * This referred to the old numbers in which Mg=12, Na=23. Nature of the so-called Elements. 97 Following out these views, I some time since communicated a paper to the Society on the spectrum of calcium, to which I shall refer more expressly in the sequel. Differentiation of the Phenomena to be observed on the two Hypotheses. When the reductions of the observations made on metallic mentary, had landed me in the state of utter confusion to which I have already referred, I at once made up my mind to Spectroscopic result ? : A in both cases will have a spectrum of its own ; as an impurity will add its lines according to the amount _ of impurity, as I have shown in previous paper 4 an element will add its lines according to the amount ular groupings, then the longest lines at one temperature will not be the longest at another, the whole fabric of “impurity elimination,” based upon the assumed single molecular group- ng, falls to pieces, and the origin of the basic lines is at once evident, This may be rendered clearer by some general considerations of another order. General Considerations. Let us assume a series of furnaces A A is the hottest. : Let us further assume that in A there exists a substance a D, of which 98 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound by itself competent to form a compound body f by union with — itself or with something else when the temperature is lowe | Then we may imagine a furnace B in which this compound — body exists alone. The spectrum of the compound f would be — the only one visible in B, as the spectrum of the assumed elementary body a would be the only one visible in A. sss | Mic os Se | iim iii = — “ : Fig. : A lower temperature furnace C will provide us with a more — Sapa substance 7, and the same considerations will hold — 00 ‘ Now if into the furnace A we throw some of this doubly — compound body 7 we shall get at first an integration of the — three spectra to which T have drawn attention; the lines of 7 will first be thickest, then those of 8, and finally a would exist alone, and the spectrum would be reduced to one of the utmost simplicity. Gunn Queue Wows & This is not the only conclusion to be drawn from these con: siderations. Although we have by hypothesis f, 7 and a, all : higher, that is, more compound forms of a, and although th strong lines in the diagram may represent the true spectl™ Nature of the so-called Elements. 99 hypothesis. Let us suppose, for instance, that manganese is a compound of the form of iron represented in furnace B, with something else; and suppose again that the photograph of iron Impurity of iron in manganese, as I have eliminated it, we ganese taken under the same conditions. I | t fine lines say, therefore, that there is no impurity of iron in man- ganese, but although the longest iron lines are not there, some of the faintest basic ones are. This I hold to be the explana- tion of the apparent confusion in which we are landed on t supposition that the elements are elementary. 100 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound Application of these Considerations to Known Compounds, Now to apply this reasoning to the dissociation of a known compound body into its elements.— A compound body, such as a salt of calcium, has as definite a spectrum as a simple one; but while the spectrum of the metal itself consists of lines, the number and thickness of some of which increase with increased quantity, the spectrum of the compound consists in the main of channelled spaces and bands, which increase in like manner. In short, the molecules of a simple body and a compound one are affected in the same manner by quantity in so faras their spectra are concerned ; zn other words, both spectra have ther ng and short lines, the lines in the spectrum of the element being represented by bands or fluted lines in the spectrum of the compound ; and in each case the greatest simplicity of the spectrum depends upon the smallest quantity, and the greatest complexity (a continuous spectrum) upon the greatest. The heat required to act upon such a compound as a salt of calcium so as to render its spectrum visible, dissociates the compound according to its volatility; the number of true me- tallic lines which thus appear is a measure of the quantity of the metal resulting from the dissociation, and as the metal lines increase in number, the compound bands thin out. . ave shown in previous papers how we have been led to — the conclusion that binary compounds have spectra of their own, and how this idea has been established by considerations having for a basis the observations of the long and short lines It is absolutely similar observations and similar ante a which I have to bring forward in discussing the compouné — nature of the chemical elements themselves. In a paper communicated to the Royal Society in 1874, refer _ ring, among other matters, to the reversal of some lines in the _ solar spectrum, I remarked,*— : “It 1s obvious that greater attention will have to be give? — to the precise character as well as to the position of each of the Fraunhofer lines, in the thickness of which I have already ob served several anomalies. I may refer more particularly a trum (I might have added that they were by far the thicket! lines in the solar spectrum] than the largest calcium line of this region (4226°3), this latter being invariably thicker than he H | oto: of th i od remaining, moreover, visible in the spectrum of substances 000 taining calcium in such small quantities as not to show ay — traces of the H lines, a 7 * Phil. Trans., vol. clxiv, part 2, p. 807. 3 Nature of the so-called Elements. 101 ‘How far this and similar variations between photographic records and the solar spectrum are due to causes incident to the photographic record itself, or to variations in the intensi- ties of the various molecular vibrations under solar and terres- tial conditions, are questions which up to the present time I have been unable to discuss.” An Objection Discussed. reply would be that it proves too much. If it demonstrates known compounds of calcium to calcium itself. There is a perfect continuity of phenomena from one end of the scale of temperature to the other. Inquiry into the Probuble Arrangement of the Basic Molecules. As the results obtained from the above considerations seemed to be so far satisfactory, inasmuch as they at once furnished an explanation of the basic lines actually observed, the inquiry was thought worthy of being carried to a further stage. 102 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound The next point I considered was to obtain a clear mental view of the manner in which, on the principle of evolution, various a might now be formed, and then become basic themselves, id not seem unnatural that the bases should increase their sentgildxity by a process of continual multiplication, the factor being 1, 2, or even 8, if conditions were available under which the temperature of their environment should decrease, as we imagined it to do from the furnace A down to furnace D. is would bring about a condition of molecular complexity in which the proportion of the molecular weight of a substance so pro- duced in a combination with another substance would go on continually increasing. Another method of increasing molecular complexity would be represented by the addition of molecules of different origins. ccna t the Se method by A+A, we could represent due to calcium, others to iron, and so forth. The inquiry ne this form, granting that these lines are special to such and such a substance, does each become basic in turn as the temperature is change d? I therefore began the inquiry by reviewing the evidence concerning calcium and seeing if hydrogen, iron and lithium behaved in the same way. Application of the above Views to Iron, Lithium, and Hydroge Calcium.—It was in a communication to the Roya made some time ago (Proceedings, vol. xxii, p. 380, 1874), that I first referred to the possibility that the well-known line-spect!@ of the elementary bodies might not result from the vib: bration of similar molecules. I was led to make the remark in conse quence of the differences to which I have.already drawn atte n in the spectra of certain elements as observed in the spectrum of the sun “a” in those obtained with the ordinary instrumental appliances : Later (Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 168, 1876) I produced Ts e that the molecular grouping of calcium ft with om induction-coil and small jar, gives a spectrum ‘with its chiet line in the blue, is nearly broken up in the sun, and quite — roken up in the ischarge from a ane coil and jar, another or others with lines in the viole Nature of the so-called Elements. 103 I said “another,” or “others,” because I was not then able to determine whether the last named lines proceeded from the same or different molecules; and I added that it was possible we might have to wait for photographs of the spectra of the brighter stars before this point could be determined. I also remarked that this result enabled us to fix with very considerable accuracy the electric dissociating conditions which are equivalent to that degree of dissociation at present at work in cells. e@ sam h . a when a coil and small jar are employed. 6. The spectrum when a large coil and large jar are used. 7%. The absorption of the calcium vapor in the Sun. Hon In fig. 3 I have collected several spectra copied from photo- graphs in order that the line of argument may be irst we see what happens to the non-dissociated and the dissociated chloride. Next we have the lines with a wea voltaic arc, the single line to the right (W. L. 4226-3) is much thicker than the two lines (W. L. 3983 and 3968) to the left, and reverses itself. We have next calcium exposed to a current of higher ten- sion. It will be seen that here the three lines are almost equally thick, and all reverse themselves. ow it will be recollected, that in the case of known com- pounds the band structure of the true compounds is reduced as dissociation works its way, and the spectrum of each consti- tuent element makes its appearance. If in 3 we take the wide line as representing the banded spectrum of the compound, and the thinner ones as representing the longest elemental lines 104 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound making their appearance as the result of partial dissociation, we have, by hypothesis, an element behaving like a compound If the hypothesis be true, we ought to be able not only to obtain, with lower temperatures, a still greater preponderance of the single line, as we do; but with higher temperatures, a still greater preponderance of the double ones, as we do. I tested this in the following manner: Employing photogra- phy, because the visibility of the more refrangible lines is small, and because a permanent record of an experiment, free as it must be from all bias, is a very precious thing. nduced currents of electricity were employed in order that all the photographic results might be comparable. ‘o represent the lowest temperature I used a small induction coii and a Leyden jar only just large enough to secure the requsite amount of photographic effect. To represent : lower one cup-shaped, and charged with a salt of calcium. n the figure I give exact copies of the results obtained. It will be seen that with the lowest temperature only the single line (2) and with the highest temperature only the two more refrangible lines (6) are recorded on the plate. ; This proved that the intensity of the vibrations was quite changed in the two experiments. Perhaps it may not be superfluous here to state the reasons which induced me to search for further evidence in the stars. more atomic condition of the same thing, or whether we actually break it up into X+y, because neither x nor ¥ will ever vay sg a Ss its han pia 3 i aka ee RL i eli iE a tai hd Race Ea a Nee iy i ae ae Mh aR a A iS Nature of the so-called Elements. 105 But if calcium be a product of a condition of relatively lower temperature, then in the stars, hot enough to enable its consti- tuents to exist uncompounded, we may expect these constitu- ents to vary in quantity ; there may be more of X in one star and more of Y in another; and if this be so, then the H and K lines will vary in thickness, and the extremest limit of varia- tion will be that we shall only have H representing, say X in one star, and only have K representing, say Y in another. Intermediately between these extreme conditions we may have cases in which, though both H and K are visible, H is thicker in some and K is thicker in others. Professor Stokes was good enough to add largely to the value of my paper as it appeared in the Proceedings, by append- ing a note pointing out that “ When a solid body such as a platinum wire, traversed by a voltaic current, is heated to incandescence, we know that as the temperature increases not d oe tke a. = Ss ™m _ th oO or om =} ° ot fe) ie) ° =) m ~~ bale ie) S ° =) m o mI ele) oS” A os B ig) wm 5 uggins. oe ; The result of that appeal is that the line which, according to 106 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound In the sun, where it is as thick as H, the hydrogen lines have vastly thinned. While this paper has been in preparation, Dr. Huggins has been good enough to communicate to me the results of his most important observations, and I have also had an oppor: tunity of inspecting several of the photographs which he has recently taken. The result of the recent work has been to show that H and fare of about the same breadth in Sirius. In a Aquilz while the relation of H toh is not greatly changed, a distinct approach to the solar condition is observed, K being now unmistakably present, although its breadth is small as com- a with that of H. I must express my obligations to Dr. uggins for granting me permission to enrich my paper b' reference to these unpublished observations. His letter, which I have permission to quote, is as follows :— “Tt may be gratifying to you to learn that in a photograph I have recently taken of the spectrum of a Aquile there is 4 line corresponding to the more refrangible of the solar H lines [that is K], but about half the breadth of the line correspond- ing to the first H lines. ‘ In the spectra of a Lyre and Sirius the second line is absent. K H Blue line. Red line. | Sirius. ! | Sun. | : are. | Flame. Fig. 4.—The Molecular Groupings of Calcium. - Professor Young’s observations of the chromospheric line, t0 which I shall afterward refer, give important evidence regarding the presence of calcium in the chromosphere of the sun. He finds that the H and K lines of calcium are aoonely reversed in every important spot, and that in solar storms H has been observed injected into the chromosphere seventy-five times, and K fifty times, while the blue line at W. L. 4226°, the all- important line at the arc-temperature, was only injected thrice. urther, in the eclipse observed in Siam in 1875, the H and K lines left the strongest record in the spectrum of the chromo sphere, while the line near G in a photographic hay of much greater intensity was not recorded at all. In the America? eclipse of the present year the H and K lines of calcium were distinctly visible at the base of the corona, in which for the time the observer could scarcely trace the existence of aDy Nature of the so-called Elements. 107 To sum up, then, the facts regarding calcium, we have first of all the H-line differentiated from the others by its almost solitary existence in Sirius) We have the K-line differentiated from the rest by its birth, so to speak, in a Aquilx, and the thickness of its line in the sun, as compared to that in the are. We have the blue line differentiated from H and K by its thin- ness in the solar spectrum while they are thick, and by its thickness in the are while they are thin. We have it again differentiated from them by its absence in solar storms in which they are almost universally seen, and finally, by its absence during eclipses, while the H and K lines have been the bright- est seen or photographed. Last stage of all, we have calcium, distinguished from its salts by the fact that the blue line is only visible when a high temperature is employed, each salt having a definite spectrum of its own, in which none of the lines to which I have drawn attention appear, so long as the tempera- ture is kept below a certain point. Tron. 108 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound very faintly visible, while dimmer still are seen the lines of the triplet between H and A. here is another series of facts in another line of work. In solar storms, as is well known, the iron lines sometimes make records his observation of the chromospheric lines, made on behalf of the United States Government, at Shumar, in the ow two very faint and short lines close to the triplet near G were observed to be injected thirty times, while one of the lines of the triplet was only injected twice. € question next arises, are the triplets produced by one molecular grouping or by two? This question I also think the facts help us to answer. I will first state by way of re minder that in the spark photograph the more refrangible tnp- let is barely visible, while the one near G is very strong. Now if one molecular grouping alone were in question this relative intensity would always be preserved however much the abso- lute intensity of the compound system might vary, but if it 1s a question of two molecules we might expect that in some of the regions open to our observation we should get evidence of cases in which the relative intensity is reserved or the two intensities are assimilated. What might happen does happet: the relative intensity of the two triplets in the spark photograph is grandly reversed in the spectrum of the sun. The lines barely visible in the spark photograph are among the mo: prominent in the solar spectrum, while the triplet which 18 strong in that photograph is represented by Fraunhofer lines not half so thick. Indeed, while the hypothesis that the 10? lines in the region I have indicated are produced by the vibra- tion of one molecule does not include all the facts, the hyp thesis that the vibrations are produced by at least three distinct molecules includes all the phenomena in a most satisfactory manner. beatae Poni ti ale ae Nature of the so-called Elements. 109 Lithium. ve Before the maps of the long and short lines of some of the chemical elements compared with the solar spectra, which were published in the Phil. Trans. for 1878, “ Plate IX,” were com- municated to the Society, I very carefully tested the work of prior observers on the non-coincidence of the red and orange lines of that metal with the Fraunhofer lines, and found that neither of them were strongly if at all represented in the sun, and this remark also applies to a line in the blue at wave- length 4603. The photographic lithium line, however, in the violet, has a strong representative among the Fraunhofer lines. Applying, therefore, the previous method of stating the facts, the presence of this line in the sun differentiates it from all the others. For the differentiation of the red and yellow lines I need only refer to Bunsen’s spectral analytical researches, which were translated in the Philosophical Magazine, December, 1875. In Plate IV, two spectra of the lithium chloride are given, one of them showing the red’ line strong and the yellow one feeble, the other showing merely a trace of the red line, while the intensity of the yellow one is much increased, and a line in the blue is indicated. Another notice of the blue line of lithium occurs in a discourse by Professor Tyndall, reprinted in the Chemical News, and a letter of Dr. Frankland’s to Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxii, p. — “On throwing the spectrum of lithium on the screen yore, hence does this blue line arise? Does it really belong to the lithium, or are the cone points or ignited air guilty of its production? I find there blue bands with common salt, but they have neither the definiteness nor the brilliancy of the lithium band. When lithium wire burns in air it emits a somewhat crimson light; plunge it into oxygen, and the light changes to bluish white. This seems to indicate that a high temperature is necessary to bring out the blue ray.” Postscript, Nov. 22, 1861.—I have just made some further experiments on the lithium spectrum, and they conclusively prove that the appearance of the blue line depends entirely on the temperature. The spectrum of lithium chloride, ignited in a Bunsen’s burner flame, does not disclose the faintest trace of Am. Joor. Beige Series, Vou. XVII, No. 98.—Fes., 1879. 110 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound the blue line; replace the Bunsen’s burner by a jet of hydro- gen (the temperature of which is higher than that of the Bun- sen’s burner) and the blue line appears, faint, it is true, but sharp and quite unmistakable. If oxygen now be solely turned into the jet, the brilliancy of the blue line increases until the temperature of the flame rises high enough to fuse the platinum, and thus put an end to the experiment.” These observations of Professors Tyndall and Frankland differentiate this blue line from those which are observed at low temperatures. The line in the violet to which I have already referred, is again differentiated from all the rest by the fact that it is the only line in the spectrum of the sun which is strongly reversed, so far as our present knowledge extends. The various forms of lithium, therefore, may be shown in the following manner. EF SUN | { ae i ‘ ARC oT | a ee I | Fig. 5.—The Molecular Groupings of Lithium. It is remarkable that in the case of this body which at rela- tively low temperature goes through its changes, its compounds are broken up at the temperature of the Bunsen burner. The spectrum, e. g. of the chloride, so far as I know, has never beet seen. Hydrogen. All the phenomena of variability and inversion in the ordet of intensity presented to us in the case of calcium can be par alleled by reference to the knowledge already acquired regard: ing the spectrum of hydrogen. r. Frankland and myself were working together on the subject in 1869. In that year (Proc., No. 112) we pointed out — that the behavior of the A line was hors ligne, and that the whole spectrum could be reduced to one line, F. “1, The Fraunhofer line on the solar spectrum, named h by tr6m, which is due to the absorption of hydrogen, pe { Hiniis visible in the tubes we employ with low battery and Leya@ jar power ; it may be looked upon, therefore, as an indication — of relatively high temperature. As the line in question has been reversed by one of us in the spectrum of the chrome sphere, it follows that the chromosphere, when cool enough ! absorb, is still of a relatively high temperature. “2. Under certain conditions of temperature and pressur® drt ache ieee all are CN Re Sas AM Ss Nag a a ee a al oy Nature of the so-called Elements. 111 ear :— “ During the first part of the eclipse two strong protuber- ances close together are noticed ; on the limb towards the end these are partially covered, while a series of protuberances came out at the other edge. The strongest of these protuber- ances are repeated three times, an effect of course of the prism, and we shall have to decide if possible the wave-lengths corre- sponding to the images. We expect a priori to find the hydro- gen lines represented. We know three photographic hydrogen Jines: F, a line near G, and A. F is just at the limit of the photographic part of the spectrum, and we find indeed images of protuberances towards the less refrangible part at the limit of photographic effect. For, as we shall show, a continuous Spectrum in the lower parts of the corona has been recorded, and the extent of this continuous spectrum gives us an idea of the part of the spectrum in which each protuberance line is placed. We are justified in assuming, therefore, as a prelimin- ary hypothesis, that the least refrangible line in the protuber- ance shown on the photograph is due to F, and we shail find support of this view in the other lines. In order to determine the position of the next line the dispersive power of the prism was investigated. The prism was placed on a goniometer table In minimum deviation for F, and the angular distance between F and the hydrogen line near G, i. e. Hy, was found, as a mean of several measurements to be 3’. The goniometer was gradu- ated to 15”, and owing to the small dispersive power, and therefore relatively great breadth of the slit, the measurement can only be regarded as a first approximation. ‘Turning now again to our photographs, and calculating the angular distance between the first atid second ring of protuberances, we find that distance to be 3’ 15”. We conclude, therefore, that this second ring is due to hydrogen. We, therefore, naturally looked for the third photographie hydrogen line, which is gen- erally called A, but we found no protuberance on our pho graphs corresponding to that wave-length. Although this line 1s always weaker than Hy, its absence on the photograph is rather surprising, if it be not due to the fact that the line is one which only comes out at a high temperature. This is ren- dered likely by the researches of Frankland and Lockyer (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xvii, p. 453). 112 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound “We now turn to the jast and strongest series of protuber- ances pane on our photographs. The distance between this series and the one we have found reason for ere with y is very little greater than that between Hf and Hy. Assuming the distances equal, we conclude that the squares of the inverse wave- na apes of the three series are in arithmetical progression. This is true as a first approximation. We then calculated the patalesath of this unknown line, and found it to be approximately somewhat smaller than 3,957 tenth-meters. No great reliance can be placed, of course, on the number, but it appenr that the line must be close to the end of the visible (a) rX) <4 ° oF roo) et SS = iq?) a (a) a] er co] e) 5 @ co Be; i) So Ne 2. 4) Eh, E or fa?) © ° i=} ° ne ij 2 °) =] vacuum tubes prepared by Geissler containing hydrogen, 4 strong line more refrangible than H is seen, but these same tubes show between Hy and H6, other lines known not to belong to hydrogen, and - Loree of the ultra-violet line is therefore difficult to make We have taken the pie in a part of ie svn and prevents any observation as point. “Should it turn out that the line is not due to hydrogen, the question will arise what substance it is due to. It is4 ceo fact that the calculated wave-length comes vely oung has found that these calcium lines are always sgt erie in the penumbra and immediate neighborhood of every important sun-spot, and calcium must therefore go ™P high into the chromosphere. We draw attention to this coinel dence, a our as Pantgrepys do not allow us to draw any cer tain conclus “Ata ge te, it seems made out by our photographs that the photographic Tight of the protuberances is in great part due t an ultra-violet line which does not slag « fas ng to to hydro- gen. The protuberances as photographed by this ultra- violet seem to go up higher a the ydrogen protuberance; ast but this may be due to the relative wisp length of the jine.” | In my remarks upon calcium I have already referred to fact that the line which our checrtgtion led us to believe was due to wae in 1875, was traced to that element in this otha 8 eclipse. he observations also show the curious connection that at the leg when the hydrogen lines were most brilliant in the corona, the calcium lines ‘were not detected ; next, when eae ee ee ee HSU ES ESE TEE MURS SF SNENNO Soe se om ME EN Maan SEUSS ER FEE Re ae On ae ee gee ay ee ere ey ee Pe eee ee eee tree eee oa ead Ve ee ee a ee eee See Nature of the so-called Elements. 1138 hydrogen lines, being still brilliant, the h line was not present (a condition of things which, in all probability, indicated a reduction of temperature), calcium began to make itself unmis- takably visible; and finally, when the hydrogen lines are absent, they become striking objects in the spectrum of the corona. To come back to A, then, I have shown that Dr. Frankland and myself, in 1869, found that it only made its appearance when a high tension was employed. We have seen that it was ya from among the hydrogen lines during the eclipse of 1875. I have now to strengthen this evidence by the remark that it is always the shortest line of hydrogen in the chromosphere. now pass to another line of evidence. I submit to the Society a photograph of the spectrum of indium, in which, as already recorded by Thalén, the strongest line is one of the lines of hydrogen (A), the other line of hydro- gen (near G) being absent. I have observed the C line in the spark produced by the passage of an induced current between indium poles in dry air. As I am aware how almost impossible it is to render air per- fectly dry, I made the following differential experiment. A glass tube with two platinum poles about half an inch apart was employed. Through this tube a slow current of air was driven after passing through a U tube one foot high, containing calcium chloride, and then through sulphuric acid in a Wolff’s bottle. The spectrum of the spark passing between the plati- num electrodes was then observed, a coil with five Grove cells and a medium sized jar being employed. Careful notes were made of the brilliancy and thickness of the hydrogen lines as compared with those of air. This done, a piece of metallic indium which was placed loose in the tube, was shaken so that one part of it rested against the base of one of the poles, and one of its ends at a distance of little less than half an inch from the base of the other pole. The spark then passed between the indium and the platinum, The red and blue lines of hydrogen were then observed both by my friend, Mr. G. W. Hemming, Q.C., and myself. Their brilliancy was most mark- edly increased. This unmistakable indication of the presence of hydrogen, or rather of that form of hydrogen which gives us the / line alone associated into that form which gives us the blue and red lines, showed us that in the photograpb we were not dealing with a physical coincidence, but that in the are this Special form of hydrogen had really been present ; that it had come from the indium, and that it had registered itself on the photographie plate, although ordinary nyuronen persistently refuses to do so, Although I was satisfied from former experi- 114 J. N. Lockyer on the supposed Compound ordinary hydrogen, I begged my friend, Mr. F.RS., chemist to the Mint, to charge a piece of palladium with hydrogen for me. This he at once did, and I take this present opportunity to express my obligation to him. I exhibit to the Society a photograph of this palladium and of indium side by side. It will be seen that one form of hydrogen in indium has distinctly recorded itself on the plate, while that in palladium has not left a trace. I should add that the pal- ladium was kept in a sealed tube till the moment of making the experiment, and that special precautions were taken to pre- vent the two pieces between which the arc was taken becoming unduly heated. To sum up, then, the facts with regard to hydrogen: we have h differentiated from the other lines by its appearance alone in indium, by its absence during the eclipse in 1875, when the other lines were photographed by its existence as a short line only in the chromosphere of the sun, and by the fact that im the experiments of 1869 a very high temperature was need to cause it to make its appearance. Fig. 6. A @ 2 c Aes de With regard to the isolation of the F line I have already referred to other experiments in 1869, in which Dr. Frankland and myself got it alone. I exhibit to the Society a globe com taining hydrogen which gives us the F line without either the red or the blue one. : The accompanying drawing (Fig. 6) shows how these lines are integrated in the spectra of the sun. ments that occluded hydrogen behaves in this respect like Mr. W. C. Roberts, Fig. 7 hk G F 1474 Ds C | Sun. ’ Chromosphere: Jar Spark. Spark without Jar Feeblest spark at lowest pressure. 7] Cooler still. I have other evidence which leads to the conclusion that the substance which gives us the non-reversed line in the chromo sphere and the line 1474 of Kirchoff’s scale, termed the coronal line, are really other forms of hydrogen. One of these js more Nature of the so-called Elements. 115 simple than that which gives us / alone, the other more com- plex than that which gives us F alone. The evidence on this point is of such extreme importance to solar physics and throws so much light on star structure generally, that I shall reserve it for a special communication. | In the meantime I content myself by giving a diagram (Fig. 7) in which I have arranged the various groupings of hydrogen as they appear to exist, from the regions of highest to those of lowest temperature in our central luminary. Summation of the above Series of Facts. I submit that the facts above recorded are easily grouped together, and a perfect continuity of phenomena established on the hypothesis of successive dissociations analogous to those observed in the cases of undoubted compounds. The other Branches of the Inquiry. When we pass to the other possible evolutionary processes to which I have before referred, an i hope to discuss on a future occasion, the inquiry becomes much more compli- cated by the extreme difficulty of obtaining pure specimens to work with, although I should remark that in the working hypothesis now under discussion’,the cause of the constant occurrence of the same substance as an impurity in the same pieces of palladium; Dr. Hugo Miiller, who has furnished me the effects of impurities. I am therefore aware of the great necessity for caution in the spectroscopic examination of yarious 116 W. W. Jacques— Velocity of very Loud Sounds. substances. There is, however, a number of bodies which permit of the inquiry into their simple or complex nature being made in such a manner that the presence of impurities will be to a certain extent negligable. I have brought this subject before the Royal Society at its present stage, in the hope that possibly others may be induced to aid inquiry in a region im which the work of one individual is as a drop in the ocean. If there is anything in what I have said, the spectra of all the elementary substances will require to be re-map and re- mapped from a new standpoint; further, the are must replace the spark, and photography must replace the eye. A glance at the red end of the spectrum of almost any substance incan- descent in a voltaic arc in a spectroscope of large dispersion, and a glance at the maps prepared by such eminent observers as Huggins and Thalen, who have used the coil, will give an idea of the mass of facts which have yet to be recorded and reduced before much further progress can be made In conclusion I would state that only a small part of the work to which I have drawn attention is my own. ‘In some eases I have merely, as it were, codified the work done by other observers in other countries. With reference to that done in my own laboratory, I may here repeat what I have said before on other occasions, that it is largely due to the skill, atience, and untiring zeal of those who have assisted mé. he burthen of the final reduction, to which I have before referred, has fallen to Mr. Miller, my present assistant ; while the mapping of the positions and intensities of the lines was done by Messrs. Friswell, Meldola, Ord, and Starling, who have successively filled that post. I have to thank Corporal Ewings, R.E., for preparing the various diagrams which I have submitted to the notice of this Society. Art. XII.—On the Velocity of very Loud Sounds; by W1LLIAM W. Jacques, Fellow of the Johns Hopkins University. Ir is very well known that the velocity of a musical sound is, within very wide limits. sensibly independent of its intensity and of its pitch. The experimental proof of this is that a piece of music, played by a military band at a considerable distance comes to the ear of the observer with its harmony entirely undisturbed. ii, A consideration of the theory of the propagation of a musical sound too, shows that for sounds such as we ordinarily hear, im which the change of density from the rarified to the com W. W. Jacques— Velocity of very Loud Sounds. 117 densed portion of the wave is small compared with the density of the undisturbed air, the velocity should be independent both of the intensity and the pitch. 1en, however, we come to the consideration of a loud and sharp shock or explosion, in which the disturbances are very violent and abrupt, we cannot be at all sure that the changes of density are negligibly small, and hence that the velocity of sound for such cases would be a constant. So little is known of the conditions in the case of the forma- tion and propagation of sound from a center of explosion, and the mathematical considerations of such conditions as we ma errors are due to the character of the sound or to other causes. The very short interval between the flash and the — of a stroke of lightning, even when it takes place at a considerable The following paper contains an account of some automatic measurements of the velocity of sound in the immediate vicinity of a cannon. The results show that the velocity near acannon is considerably different from that at a distance and point out a considerable error that has been introduced into the most important measurement of this quantity. : The experiments were made at the United States Arsenal in Watertown, Mass. The method used was an automatic measurement of the velocity at different distances, varying from ten to one hundred and ten feet, from the mouth of the cannon, by means of a Series of membranest electrically connected with a chronogr aph. In the midst of a large level field was placed a six-pound brass field piece. In the rear of this, at distances of 10, 30, 50, * Earnsha i ; ‘ Regnault's Memoirs. t Rognault u aca ideation sig unlike dest in his water-pipe experiments. 118 W. W. Sacques— Velocity of very Loud Sounds. 70, 90 and 110 feet from the mouth of the cannon, were placed e membranes, elevated about three feet above the ground. These membranes consisted each of a hoop nine inches in diameter over which was stretched a sheet of thin rubber. To the center of the membrane, and on the side toward the can- non, was attached a very small shelf of polished brass. U this rested one end of a delicate steel spring, the other end being fixed to an independent support. e wire that brought the current of electricity from the chronograph house was connected with the spring, and from the helf a second wire returned to the chronograph. When the spring rested upon the shelf the circuit was closed. The pass- sound wave, however, would move the membrane and break the circuit, causing a register on the chronograph. When the spring fell it rested upon a contact point from which a wire ran to the next membrane of the series, so that the cir- cuit, immediately after being broken at the first membrane, was made again through the second, before the sound wave reached it. In this way the current could be transferred to all the membranes of the series and the successive breakings and mak- ings of contact, as the sound wave passed each’ one, could be pleted at the membranes, a spark passed between the metal ge and the cylinder and made a fine dot in the lamp black. y the side of the point was an electrical tuning-fork which traced a sinuous curve of times on the lamp-blacked surteee of a possible errors, a esult. found that immediately in the rear of the cannon the eRe eg ee W. W. JSacques— Velocity of very Loud Sounds. 119 velocity of sound was less than at a distance, but that going further and further from the cannon, the velocity of sound rosé lo a maximum considerably above the ordinary velocity and then fell gradually to about the velocity usually received. In order to determine whether the first low velocities were ue, as was supposed, to the retarding influence of the bodily motion of the air around the cannon, it was pointed at right angles to its first position, when it was found that the maximum velocity came nearer to the cannon. Had the cannon been turned in the direction of the line of membranes the retardation would probably have become an acceleration. The experiment was, owever, of course impracticable. That this apparent retarda- tion was not due to the difference in time of action of the mem- branes, due to a variation of the force of the wave, is evident both from the very slight force required in either case and from the fact that the variation noticed is in the wrong direction. The charge of powder was considerably varied and the heaviest charges, of course, caused the greatest deviation from the ordinary velocity. : he successive series of experiments, owing to differences in the charge and in the loading, gave different values of the velocity at any one place, but the facts above stated always remained the same. ; : Accordingly each series represents the condition of things better than the mean of several, and I have here given a table of three of the best series. The first column represents the distance from the mouth of the cannon; the second the values of the corresponding veloci- ties in the rear of the cannon, when the charge was one and a half pounds; the third when the charge was reduced to half a pound, and the last when the cannon was pointed at right angles to the line of membranes. Velocities reduced to 0° C. Rear of of cannon. Side of cannon. Interval. 14 lbs. Ib. 10— 30 feet. 1076 feet. teas Hine 30— 50 1187 1032 1067 50— 70 1240 1091 1162 70- 90 1267 1120 1201 90-110 1262 1114 1188 0 low intensity must be used for a correct determination of the velocity of sound. 120 J. FE. Todd—Discharge of Lake Winnipeg. Art. XIIL— Has Lake Winnipeg discharged through the Minne- sota within the last two hundred years? by J. E. Topp. s map. Captain Stansbury gives a map drawn in 1710 by John Senex, F.R.S., on which the discoveries of La Hontan are given. This represents the ‘ Long River” as being like a long lake toward its source, and flowing nearly due east through 25° of longitude. Another curious point, it is represented as having a continuous water connection through the “ Moin correspond to the Blue Earth and Des Moines, whose sources were formerly connected by “ Union Slough,” as shown by Dr. C. A. White, in his report on the Geology of Iowa. The curious eastward direction of the Long River ma of his statements and conclusions, but perhaps not more 5° than was customary in those days. Tabor, Iowa, Dec., 1878. G. F. Barker—Spectroscopic Observation of the Solar Eclipse. 121 Art. X1V.—On the Results of the Spectroscopic Observation of the Solar Eclipse of July 29th, 1878;* by GrorGE F. BARKER. To Professor Henry Draper, M.D., Director of the Draper Eclipse Expedition :— Dear Sir : I beg leave to submit to you herewith my Report on the spectroscopic observations made, and on the results obtained at Rawlins, Wyoming Territory, during the solar eclipse of July 29th, 1878, that portion of the work having been allotted to me by yourself in the organization of the expedition. : ison, and a Savart, a Senarmont, and an ct oO oe tf o>) (=) v2) ot O ~ oO ct bo) i. eS ¢ & (2) vj © go bax | ba] SS or — QO i) es 5 o < @ 5 oO ean. ; From the date of this movement no marine waters have ever invaded the middle Cordilleras, and the subsequent strata are all covering the whole lapse of Eocene time. e Fortieth Parallel region was a period of four lakes superposed, the unconformity of their deposits due to four orographical dis- bances. Geology and Mineralogy. 175 the drainage of the surrounding countries, forming two extended Miocene lakes. The deposits of the westernmost lake are chiefly the tuffs and rearranged ejecta of volcanic eruption. The deposits of the Plains are the simple detritus from the surrounding lands. The series on the west are over 4,000 feet thick; in the east they are not proved to be over 300 or 400 feet. Both contain abundant and typical Miocene vertebrate life. The close of the pieces was ee by a powerful oro- graphical movement over the area of the western Miocene lake, which threw the beds scotmmulated “sp its bottom into folds. Con- The Pliocene opened, therefore, with two enormous lakes, one covering y the basin country of Utah, Nevada, Idaho, and eastern regon; the other occupying the province of the Plains. The area of Miocene sediment. oth o ae Plioe cen la es — as the Miocene — contain the remains of rich faune. The to how “Tt wie pen m8 course, to be expected that ice ing eon of t elta lain, Yet, = pr rn as Se aero of the present investigation 254 Scientifie Intelligence. corroborate the steady and rapid increase of the marine character as we descend, as well as an appreciable difference of the fauna from that now ordinarily thrown ashore on ne elta beaches, they tend 3 inconsiderable iaekness: and sv t this anomalous structure of of the great river is in direct causal con nection with the idan nig phenomenon of the mud-lumps.’ The memoir contains, besides a map and sections, three plates Prof. Hilgard names, as proba ly new salen a boeaght Cardium aquilaterale, and C. ineguila er The Question of’ the Gonidia of icles. —The discussion 4 by the well-known Alternative of De Bary (Morph. and Phys. d. Pilze, etc., p. 291), to which Schwendener gave such aetna and which Bornet has especially illustrated, has been rought at agcuae to what looks vane a conclusion by the obser- vations of Dr. Arthur Minks, of Ste The early dictum of F ries, t that, owever related the Lichens may be to the Alge by their vegetation, they are Fungi as regards their fruit, was brought to mind again, more than fifty eae iPr by the just cited pregnant remarks of Professor e Bary, o the relation of the Nostochaceew and Chrooe ats * certain cases even the probability of it, can no loepes be mete: the inquiry forces | Geology and Natural History. 255 itself upon us whether it be not possible that all Lichens arise in . i i der Gonidien-frage, 1872, since which he has not returned to the inquiry in print. It has been continued, however, with great interest by others, and if lichenologists have generally looked askance at it, physiologists have done their best, we may say, to show it favor. Known already among lichenologists by studies of the most sincere and thorough kind—of which I will refer only to his Beitrige z. Kenntniss des Baues u. Lebens der Flechten dener. It had sometimes seemed as if the general, more or less harsh and subjective criticism which makes so large a part of even scientific controversy had been all on one side in this debate, could well expect any satisfactory proof. ? Most interesting was it therefore to every student of the Lichens that the keen observer to whom we have referred should buckle to the contest in the most weighty dispute that ever arose in this humble realm of vegetable nature. The long-promised second part of Dr. Minks’s Beitrige, with full illustrative plates, has not yet however made its appearance here and we have only an abstract 256 Scientifie Intelligence. their real character and history, to the sufficient microscope, and the patient skill of Dr. Minks; who has thus shown that the lich- enologists are quite right, and that the gonidium is plainly a modification of the one (ideal) lichen-cell, in the distinction of these two appears, except in size or color; and they in their earliest conditions, we have finally to say, every modifica- tion whatever of the lichen-cell, which thus bears witness every- where (to the sufficiently armed and instructed eye) to its natural autonomy. Owing in part to the peculiar texture of the lichen he had in. hand, Dr. Minks, whose observations were made with a power of about 1250 diameters, laid much stress on the preparation of his material with liquor potasse and sulphuric acid ; but Dr. Miller of Geneva, who has repeated the observations of Minks, and with nd side, in the cortical cells, in the medullary cells, in the paraphyses, the young thekes, the spores, the basidia, and the sperma _ After many unsatisfactory attempts, with dry objectives, and inferior powers, but with some attention to chemical preparation S. P I need not say, best of all in Tolles’s admirable ;'; and 3',- ae observations have all been repeated by my friend Mr. Stodder, with similar results, and I owe entirely to him the manipulation of the two objectives of highest power. . I have only then most heartily to commend to botanists iter ested, the forthcoming treatise of Dr. Minks, which may 000 _ expected to a , H, TUCKERMAN: 3. Etudes Phycologiques, by M. Gusrave THuret k ovARD Borner. Fol. Paris, 1878.—This magnificent Wr surpasses anything which has ever been published relating to Pr eee ae NT ee ane eel en Geology and Natural Histury. - 257 and several appeared in a reduced form in the Annales des Sciences of 1851 as illustrations of his article “ Recherches sur les Zods- of fifty plates, but, at the time of his premature death, ten of the plates had not been engraved. These were finished under the direction of his friend and co-worker, Dr. Bornet. Never before t is, however, : ver} exposition of the structure and reproduction of the different groups of alge. The principal part of the observations on the Fucacewe reproduction in the Corallinee throws a new light on the struc- ture of that order; and for the first time a detailed account is given of the antheridia and cystocorpic spores. ; a. F roe ie) ~~ od S 3 S any a = ® ~ imo} 3 S =, = fant s ~, Sy ~ Q e : >» 3 = a 3 es =~ =) = a > Ne Tokio, Japan, November 26, 1878. 258. Scientifie Intelligence. 5. Fauna Littoralis Norvegie ; edited by J. Koren and Dr, 7 D. C. Dante LSSEN. Part I], with 16 plates. Bergen, 1877.— — parallel columns, The A treated are as follows: N little known Coelenterates, by M. Sars; New Echinoderms, ars; Descriptions of some new Norwegian Ceelenterates, by 4 Koren and Danielssen; Contributions to the natural history of — ve 4 sapnenagr living | on the Norwegian Coast; Descriptions of B oast; ew Bryoz oe to the natural history of the Nor-_ y a. ay: hes we; a New species of the genus Pennella (P. i ecsesoas. "The last four ar he ips are ony Koren and Danielssen. — A * Ptilelia franiss Ponta ons teh ‘Foan peda, aculeata ; Pavonaria (=Balticina) Finmarchica. The Alcyonium Sruti- cosum Sars paar pe bei ey with our common A. carneuin Agassiz, of earlier date. he Corymorpha glacialis Sars is apparently the same as C. see a Agassiz, of later date. ‘Two very different forms, figured as Myriothela phrygia, are supposed to represent different stages of growth. The form with gono- those here ates: i with th brician fiero ecimen Halifax, N.S ,in 52 fathoms, 1877, i t three inches (75™™ ; maid in alcoho e tentaculiferous portion is long and slender, densely covered with a (when mature 2™™ jn diameter) and are borne in clusters of three to ten, on the sides of lateral blastostyles, of different lengths, cach of which bears, at its tapering group of capitate tentacles, unequal in size. These blastostyles les, with gonophores near the bases of the blastostyles are much ler, there being usually only two ar; The mature gonophores contain embryos, covered with tentacles, like those described by Sars. ( . tes . rosea V. are of the same kind, but smaller). The base gives rise to cluster of short, slender processes, enlarged at the ends, with atineies “disks fo attachment. I believe that this is the genuine phrygia of Fabricius, and bn od ores oan y Sars (originally as M. arctica) will prove to be distinct, it ths gures ths ace ces 4 RT ee dR ee eee es ae Fee eer Astronomy. 259 (1864). Of the Echinoderms, Oligotrochus vitreus Sars has been recorded by me, in this Journal, as from deep water, off our coast, and I have also dredged it off Nova Scotia (1877). The genus Kinetoskias is established for two very remarkable forms of Polyzoa, both of which have been dredged by us, off the New England coast. One of these (K. Smittii) is identical with Bugula flexilis, described and figured by me in this Journal, (vol. ix, p. 415, pl. vii, f. 1, 2, 1875) and probably, also, with the Naresia cyathus, figured and partially described by Thompson in he Voyage of the Challenger (vol. i, p. 142). The specimens numerous specimens dredged by me are, also, for the most part, attached to a stem of the same sort, but varying much in size and condition. They occur chiefly on muddy bottoms, in 50 to 430 athoms, in many localities, associated with Corymorpha pendula, and their “stems” appear to be identical with the dead stems of the Sertularia and the supposed Corymorpha-stem! Therefore I am led to conclude that the “stem” does not form an integral part of the Polyzoan. Nevertheless its structure is, in other re- Spects, so peculiar as to justify its separation from Bugula, asa distinct genus. The second species (K. arborescens = Bugula umbella Smitt) was dredged by us in 1877, off Halifax, N.5., in 110 fathoms, sandy mud. The article on Gephyree is a useful monograph of the Norwegian species, several of which are also found on the New England coast. A, E, VERRILL. III. Astronomy. 1. Observatory on Mt. Etna. Letter to the Editors from Pro- Professor Tacchini of Palermo; and it will have a situation unequalled by any site at present so occupied in the world. 260 Miscellaneous Intelligence. results (which will probably appear in a report presented to the . 8. Coast Survey) are not as yet complete; but I may say, in perhaps even as regards work on double stars, and like measures), the gain is less than might een expected, to the corona, concededly, our only h (with our present means) of materially extending our knowledge of it, lies in the prospect that we may yet be able to see it without an eclipse, if the observer be in an exceptionally transparent atmosphere. will add that, after a recent expedition to Colorado, and with the sca If we or § é event as the completion of the Lick Observatory, we shall find ro ONE a a ee ae ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 261 of greatest Pan ape agi was along the Mississippi, from Cairo to his. Her 8 were Pag ipsa felt. The walls of a wind storm was in progress, Tt appears that the shock was first felt at Ulnagear 11° 23™ p.m. (St. Louis time). The shock traveled rapidly down the axis of the ellipse, reaching Cairo at 11" 48™ and Memphis at 11°50". The velocity of transmission is a pit yet under consideration, and will receive attention in a futu bulletin, At Little Rock, Ark., the shock was also felt, although not observed at Clarksville, 35 miles farther up the rive e bulletin is accompanied by a map of the pala on which and within the ellipse referred to above, there are marked tw enty- three stations where the shock was felt and eleven Missouri ease where it was no ieee rom this map the dire ee 4 appears to have been N W. o §.E. instead of N. to S. as ei in our previous notice . G. A ered Bulletin in i iit to this earthquake has Ges issued by Pro f. Nipher. In it he says :— “ Accordi ing to the few determinations of time made, there were two distinct centers of ove ep 8 es shock beginning at the one, near Glasgow, Missouri, at 11" 23" p.m.; at the other near Paducah, Kentue cky, at 11" 34™ Pp. Mw. (6 Louis time). The fol lowing times are deemed relia Glasgow Region. Intermediate. Paducah Region. Glasgow _._._.... 11523m | St, Louis....-. --!1857™| Paducah, Ky. -.-.11534™ Leavenworth ____- 11-34 11-45 Gharleston, Mo. .-11-45 Lexington___._._. 11-38: | irobten to air Ne fot oo pesee 11-38 its 11-50 Memphis, Tenn. --11-49 Lebanon ._.------ 12-19 | Little Rock....-.- 12-13 With so few data, it is only possible to give aap rig sae deter- minations of velocity, a as 2 wave fronts can not be determined with precision. Thea rage velocity was probably less shih 200 miles per hour. In some Rape the velocity was as low as 160 miles per hour Direction of vibrations: Paducah, N.W.-S.E. ee EW Cairo, W.N.W.-ES.E., Charleston, N.-S., Little Rock, E.-W., Glasgow, N.-S,, by some, N.W.-S.E. b y others. At Ironton the S. to N. A similar sound was heard at Gayoso, Missouri, and Memphis, Tennessee. The shock seems to have been more violent in the New Madrid region as far south as Memphis, than in the Glasgow region.” e Bulletin is accompanied by @ map, showing the regions affected as above, and also the neighboring field of me earth- uake of Noy. 15, 1877. , G. B 262 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Agrikulturphysik. Heraus-_ gegeben von Dr. E. Woxtyy, Professor der Landwirthschaft in — Biineheti. Band i i, 482 pp., an nd Band i ii, 1 and 2 Hefte. Heidel- — berg: C. Winter—This excellent journal of agricultural physics, — which has entered on its second year, fills a very necessary place in scientific literature. Some of the more important questions in_ J e, M.D., i pmenei hi Prof. Mayer, Dr. Albert H. Buck, Dr, Samuel Sexton, .H. Burnett, Dr. J.O reen a neer. Vol. i, 1, Janua e York (William Wood & Co.).—This new journal proposes to fill a new and highly important place among American scien periodicals. The first number ers an article -ontain th on the graphic and photographic illustration of Sound-waves, by Dr. C. J. Blake. The following books have been received but cannot be noticed — in this num Journal of a Tour in Morocco and the Great — by Foush Dalton Hooker and John Ball; with an Appendix by George Maw. 499 pp. 8vo. London, 1878 (Macmillan & Co. The Study of Rocks: an elementary Text-book of Petrology, by Frank Rutley, ra Bile te ects London, 1879 (Longmans, Green & Co.) 0. xc. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambri bridge, Mass, Vol. v, Nos. 8, 9 and 1 10. Reports sn Operations of the Echini, b: d Crinoids, by L. F. de Pourtalés. by T. Te eee pp. 181-238. Hydioida, by 8. F. Clark; pp. 239-252. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] *. ArT. XXXI.—Dr. Jacosp BIGELOW. Dr. JacosB BigELow died, at his residence in Boston, on the “tii of January last, near the close of the ninety-second year of is age. While we would pay the tribute due to his memory as by far the most venerable of American botanists, the last survivor of a school in this country which culminated half a century ago, it should also be remembered that he was even at that time dis- tinguished in other scientific avocations, and that from middle to old age he was among the most eminent of physicians. It is not often that we can contemplate a life so long, so ric various, and so well-rounded as his. He was born in Sudbury, Mass., on the 27th of February, 1787; and his father was the minister of the town. That almost goes without saying, most of our distinguished professional men of his and the preced- ing generations in New England having been the sons of coun- try ministers. He was graduated at Harvard College in the year 1806, Alexander H. Everett and the late Dr. J. G. Cogswell being among the most notable of his class-mates, all of whom e long survived. He directly took up the study of medicine, was licensed as a practitioner in 1809, and after attending one Course of lectures in Philadelphia, took his degree of M.D. at Harvard in the year 1810, and established himself in Boston. There he was a practicing physician for about sixty years, and Since the death of his senior, Dr. James Jackson, probably the Most eminent one. What turned his attention to botany we know not. He early showed an abiding taste for poetry. His commencement part was a poem, and he delivered a @ B. K. Am. Jour. 8c1.—TurrpD tae Vou. XVIL—No. 100, Apriz, 1879. 264 Dr. Jacob Bigelow. poem not long after. At about the same time, however, he — gave a course of popular botanical lectures in Boston, in connec- — tion with Professor Peck, who must have been installed as — Natural History professor at Cambridge while Dr. Bigelow was — a medical student. The latter possessed the gift of exposition which Dr. Peck lacked ; and it naturally came to pass that Dr. — Bigelow repeated this course of lectures alone for a year or two © afterward. : In the spring of 1814 he brought out the first edition of his — Florula Bostoniensis, the book which, mainly in its second edi- | tion, has been the manual for New England herborization own to a recent day, or rather to a day which seems to us recent. The original volume, of 268 octavo pages, describes — the plants which “have been collected during the two last — seasons in the vicinity of Boston, within a circuit of from five to ten miles,” exceeding those limits only in the case of Magno- lia (from Manchester) and one or two more remarkable plants. We know of uo other Flora of the kind which was prepared so quickly and so well. The characters are short diagnoses, and in good part compiled. But the descriptive matter must have ‘been original ; and it shows that aptitude for seizing the best points of character or most available distinctions, and of indi- cating them in few and clear words, which has made this manual so deservedly popular. Similar merits distinguish, on tion of Sir James Edward Smith’s Introduction to Botany; and his botanical knowledge, along with that of the materia medica génerally and his classical scholarship, placed him at the head, or at the laboring oar, of the committee which in 182! formed the American Pharmacopeeia. The writer used this volume in his medical-student days, and remembers dimly how the account of minor preparations, coming down to jams and conserves, ended with the classical ‘Jam satis est mibi.” he second edition of the Florula Bostoniensis, published in 1824, while retaining its modest title, was nearly doubled in size and in the number of plants contained, the whole area of New England being included; and it became the Manual of Botany for the region. What a popular and satisfactory work it was, especially to hundreds of amateur botanists, some still living may testify. The third and last edition, issued in 1840, was a reprint, with various additions and corrections, furnished mainly by those who had learned their botany from the preced- ing one. This is the last Flora or Manual of this and perbaps a ia Dr. Jacob Bigelow. 265 any other country, arranged upon the Linnean artificial system. Much later in life the author contemplated a revision of the work, brought up to the time, and illustrated by chromo-litho- graphic plates, such as we have lately seen turned to good account. But after some consideration the project was aban- doned. He did not propose himself to undertake the editorial work: for he had long since passed from actual service into the emeritus or honorary rank of botanists ; and his active pro- fessional life, already verging to its close, was diversified or relieved by other avocations. Indeed some of these were taken up very early. He became Rumford Professor of the Applications at Cambridge in 1816, and delivered annual courses of lectures until 1827, when he published the sub- stance of them in a volume entitled Elements of Technology, here coining this apt word. During all this time, and muc longer, he was Professor of Materia Medica in the medical school of Harvard University, namely, from 1815 to 1855; for many of these years one of the physicians of the Massa- chusetts General Hospital; through al] of them, and until old age disabled him, a leading physician of Boston. From the year 1847 to 1863 he was President of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which body he was a mem- ber for sixty-seven years! We cannot here refer to Dr. Bigelow’s various professional and literary writings. They are not numerous, but are weighty. His treatise on “ Nature in Disease,” which contains the famous discourse “ On Self-limited Disease,” is the most important of them; and an address “On the Limits of Education,” delivered in the year 1865 before the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, is notable. It has been said of the latter, that never before was the depreciation of classical study or general culture, as a preparation for technical scientific education, undertaken by so ripe a classical scholar or so wide-cultured a man. His many essays in English and Latin verse, some of which have been privately printed, ought to be collected. Dr. Bigelow lived, honored and trusted, to a good old age before infirmities touched his frame, and only toward the close was the brightness of his acute mind dimmed. e candle at length burnt down, the flame flickered awhile in the socket, and the light went out. : The name will abide in botanical nomenclature. First ap- peared in Rees’ Cyclopedia the Bigelowia of Smith, founded on the Adelia of Michaux. But that is Forestiera. Then Sprengel, in 1821, founded a genus Bigelovia on a Brazilian plant which he took to be a Rhamnacea; but it is a species of Casearia. Again, in 1824, Sprengel gave the name to a part of Spermacoce, the Borreria of G. Meyer. Then DeCandolle, in 1824, was 266 O. C. Marsh —Vertebree of Recent Birds. proposing a Bigelowia on Solea concolor, of our own New Eng- land, as the Prodromus records, when he found that he had to refer it to Noisettia. ra in 1836, DeCandolle bestowed the name of Bigelowia upon some golden- rare Composite of the Southern United St et, which had borne the name of an Old World genus, Chrysocoma (Anglice, Golden tuft), and he added the complimentary ‘phrase: “ hrysocoma sepa- ratum dicavi cl. J. Bigelow qui florea Americane auream coronam flora Bostoniensi et medica addidit.” Although this genus was founded upon*only two or three species, it has been vastly extended by the exploration of the western regions 0 our country, where it forms a conspicuous and characteristic portion of the low shrubby vegetation. More than_ thirty North American species of wg besides one of Mexico and two of the Andes of South America, now commemorate our venerable late associate. Most of them were scab hin to the genus by the present writer. . G Art. XXXIIL—The Vertebree of Recent Birds ; by Professor O.C, MarsH. One of the most marked features in the skeleton of modern birds is the form of their vertebrae. This is so peculiar and so constant that it is considered by many anatomists to be the best distinctive character for the class. In no other group of animals known is there an approach to the paddies nore articulation of the centra seen in the vertebra o Not only do the presacral vertebre of all existing birds exhibit this structure, but the many extinct forms now known from the whole series of Tertiary deposits have the same articulation. If we ms gute these fossil forms, in addition fortunately, however, a few Cretaceous birds have been die covered which throw much light on this point, ae virtually explain the difficulty. In the toothed birds Ichthyornis and ee. rnis, we have articulation in these tw © genera is seen in the figures below, which show a characteristic cervical vertebra in each form. 0. C. Marsh —Vertebree of Recent Birds. 267 In the vertebra of Jchthyornis shown in figures 1 and 2, it will be seen that the articulation of the centrum is cup-shaped ; while in the corresponding vertebra of Hesperornis, the ends of the centrum are saddle-shaped, as in ordinary birds. Thus the distinction between the two types in this part of the skeleton is as wide as between Jchthyornis and any living bird. 0 the evolutionist, who believes that birds are all closely connected genetically, this difference in structure, at first sight, offers a most serious difficulty ; since hitherto we have bad no hint of a transformation from the one form to the other, and no explanation of the origin of the modern vertebre of birds. L. 2. 3. Figure 1.—Twelfth (?) cervical vertebra of Ichthyornis dispar, Marsh; front view; twice natural size. FiguRE 2.—The same vertebra; seen from the left side. : Figure 3.—Third cervical vertebra of Ichthyornis victor, Marsh; front view; twice natural size. Figure 4.—Thirteenth cervical vertebra of Hesperornis regalis, Marsh ; front view ; natural size, GURE 5._-The same vertebra; posterior view. _ : a. anterior articulation ; d, diapophysis; p. parapophysis ; o lateral foramen; ne. neural canal; s. neural spine; 2 pre-zygapophysis; 2’. post- zygapophysis. In the third cervical vertebra of Jchthyornis, however, we catch nature in the act, as it were, of forming a new type; 268 O. C. Marsh—Vertebree of Recent Birds. moderately convex, while transversely it is strongly concave; thus presenting a near approach to the saddle-like articulation. None of the other known vertebrae of Ichthyornis possess this character. This highly specialized feature occurs at the first bend of the neck, and greatly facilitates motion in a vertical plane. f, now, we consider for a moment that the dominant motion the sacrum, if the same flexure was continued. Behind the axis, or where the vertical motion prevails, we find in modern birds no exception to the saddle articulation 10 the whole cervical series. lateral flexure; or several vertebree ror be codssified, as in Accipiter and some other Raptores, in which a stiff back 1s 4 positive advantage. ’ O. C. Marsh —Vertebre of Recent Birds. 269 since these vertebrae are really dorsals, and have evidently gradually coalesced with the true sacral vertebra. In the caudal vertebrae of recent birds we have, in a essentially the same, and in the fossil species the articulations at least appear to follow the general rule. In Pavoand Geoccocyx, the caudal vertebre exhibit a tendency to a proccelian union. Some other forms also show unimportant modifications of the normal type of caudal articulation, but nothing to suggest a real objection to the explanation now proposed of the origin of the vertebree characteristic of Birds. In bringing together the above facts, and others suggested by them, the classification and development of the various forms of vertebrze appear to be somewhat as follows: (1.) Biconcave vertebre (Fishes and ba the primi- tive type; a weak articulation, admitting free, but limited motion. From this form, have been directly derived the other varieties, namel Plane pened mee affording a stronger joint, with motion still restricted. 8.) Cup-and-ball eee (Reptiles); a strong and flexible joint, well fitted for general motion, and evidently produced by it. e vertebrae are proccelian when lateral motion is dominant (Serpents); opisthocoelian with varied motion (Dinosaur cervicals (4.) Saddle iehicbte (Birds) ; the highest type; a very strong and free articulation, especially adapted to motion in a vertical plane, and mainly due or riginally to its predominance. This subject will be more fully discussed and illustrated by the writer in a future communication Yale College, New Haven, Conn., Feb. 25th, 1879. 270 Review of Saporta’s Work ’ Art, XX XIII.—WNotice of Gaston de Saporta’s Work: The Plants” of the World b-fore the Advent of Man; by Leo LesquEREuX. — Count Saporta’s new work entitled “ Le Monde des Plantes — avant l’apparition de l’Homme,” is one of importance, not only — for phyto-paleontologists and geologists, but for all who are in- — terested in the history of our planet, in its physical laws, its — gradual march of development, and its different phases until it — became a fit habitation for the human race. The first part of the book considers the birth or origin of | life and the successive and progressive changes which have — modified its forms. The phenomena relating to the existence — of living creatures are examined in their applications to organ- isms from the lowest to the highest in degree of development. The second chapter reviews the theory of evolution. e% author calls it transformism. On this subject he rightly re- — marks, that the theory of evolution does not date from this — century; that its origin and history are already old; that the system has been under the critical examination of great minds, — who have rightly disparaged some of its extreme tendencies. — I quote, in passing, some of the statements of the distinguished — author, though they may appear disconnected, in order to show ~ his mode of reasoning on the subject. 3 ‘Geology admits great divisions or distinct epochs, and suc- — cessive formations. But when it comes to the determination — of the precise limits of each, to the understanding of the num- — ber, the value, or the extent of the stages or subdivisions, the | difficulties become inextricable; for generally between two — epochs, there appear strata of mixed characters which forcibly excludes all idea of a marked separation between them.” ith reference to the remains of plants, he says: ‘‘ When the details of structure and of geographical distribution, which are recognized in a plant of our time, are in exact analogy with what is known of one or more fossil species of the same genus, it is legitimate to disregard some variations of detail, and to consider the more recent of the two species as a direct continua- tion of the other. To do otherwise would be to put aside all resources obtained from analogy and induction, or the method itself. Now accepting these premises we may say that there 1s no tree or shrub in Europe, in North America and in the Canary — Islands, which is not found fossil under a specific form more or less intimately allied to one of ourtime. Nearly alwaysa very _ ancient type 1s now represented in its decline, while the more recent appearance of a plant in geological time generally marks _ its wider extension now.” ; In the third chapter we have an exposition of the ancient — On the Plants of the World before Man. 271 displacement of the axis of the planet; the internal heat of of the primitive and secondary epochs. In treating the subject, Saporta adopts the natural plan of considering the plants, so far as they are known by their re- . Yor Primordial, Paleozoic and Mesozoic times, the examina- ton is limited to what is generally known.t The Primordial * See on this subject an article of J. S. Gardner, in Nature, Dec. 12, 1878. h tSaporta divides the whole fossil vegetable world in four great epochs, the fame as those recognized by Geolo i : . 6 ambrian, Silurian); 2. Paleozoic (Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian); 3. Meso- Zoic (Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous), and 4. Neozoic for the Tertiary. 272 Review of Saporia’s Work plants are merely Fucoids. The Silurian are marine species, — h a especially. The author records as terrestrial plants those evonian is mostly illustrated by species from Canada, — some of which are figured, from Dawson, in Dana's Manual of © Geolo The Carboniferous has its illustrations from European plants, — sures. lar to those of the present Gingko of Japa pan. : : In the Mesozoic (Mesophytic for the plants), the Trias has — few typical forms, and these are merely Ferns and Conifers, — contribution. No species are mentioned fro this country, where the Jurassic is not yet satisfactorily known by its plants. In this flora the Cycadew, Protophyllum, Zamites and Protozamiles, — are predominant, along with Ferns and Conifers of the Gingko type, Barera and Salisburia. For the Cretaceous the more important documents are taken — from North America and Greenland. Europe has few Cretace- Scie Sat ye 3 dil ote ci ala Sa me a A i i ky On the Plants of the World before Man. 273 referred by Saporta to Magnolia. The Bohemian Ceno- manian has leaves of Aralia, Hymenea and Hedera, of types re- cognized, by analogy of characters, in the flora of the Dakota our zone, while the Coal period is that of the whole vege- table kingdom. ‘From the Cenomanian begins an evolution from which the new tribes progress by multiplication and vari- ation in a constantly increasing proportion.” I shall now consider in more detail some of the points estab- lished in the examination of the Tertiary flora, the more im- portant and original part of the book. For I fin ere a Symplocos and a Hedera (a species of ay scarcely ro Upper Paleocene strata have been obtained : and Araucarie, a Bambusa, and Palms with flabellate fronds. In the examination of the remains of plants obtained from O74 Review of Saporta’s Work the lower Lignitic strata of the Western territories, the essential characters of a number of species have been recognized as intimately related to, even identical with, those of some species _ ora of Sezanne, and from this referred to the Eocene. — Count Saporta considers this question, on p. 221 of his book, as follows: “The Ligoitic flora of a vast Tertiary formation of — North America, rich in combustible mineral, which occupies — an immense area in the new Territories in the West, Colorado, : ming, ete., is not yet sufficiently known. From the — materials collected under the direction of the Geological Sur- — veys of the United States, the plants appear referable to three — different groups of the Tertiary, the lowest evidently corres- — nding to our Eocene. The relation of this group with the — Paleocene of Europe is evident, notwithstanding the great geo- — graphical distance of the localities. This relation is manifested to a species of the Paleocene of Gelinden. But it has also an Ottelia (tropical type), which is closely allied to another species of this genus, O. Parisiensis, of the Eocene of Paris (roca dero). This local formation corresponds by its fruits, Nipadiles: to that of the Sheppey beds of the Eocene of England. Along with Sequoia longifolia, which, according to Saporta, recalls & On the Plants of the World before Man. 275 out marked geological affinity, we have Ficus asarifolia and Ficus Daimatica, as positively identified so far as identity may b ascertained from fossil leaves, with two species of d’ Hitingshau- sena, the first from Bilin, the second from Mount Promina, two localities now referred to the Oligocene (Zongrian); Ficus tiliefolia, a Miocene type, easily recognized, and found in the flora of the whole thickness of the Western Tertiary strata, even in the Pliocene of California ; a Diospyros ; a fine Laurus ; a Sabal anda Fucus, all of recent types. A Salvinia also should be mentioned, as all the species of this genus have as yet been referred to the Miocene. et it is not merely from the identification of a few plants that_a relation between the floras of two epochs should be fixed or admitted, but from the general characters of the vege- tation representing the climate, and from the general facies resulting from the progress of the vegetation, in passing from types admittedly inferior to others of a more advanced degree of perfection becoming more predominant. Considered in from separate groups of plants, like those which in Europe are referred to the Paleocene and the Eocene. This idea seems con- i o * This Greenland flora, in the opinion of Saporta, Gardner, and other European authors, is closely related to the Eocene flora of Europe. 276 Review of Saporta’s Work New Mexico near Trinidad are still more intimately related by — a preponderance of Palms, of Ferns of true Kocene character, able, in their lower part at least, to the Eocene. His cele- brated work (Les Etudes), on the vegetation of the Tertiary in the southwest of France, especially considers the fosst remains of that formation. They were discovered, in a very good state of preservation, along the borders of what was once an Eocene lake, whose duration was continued through the Oligocene to the lower Miocene, or Aquitanian. The genera characters of this formation are remarkably similar to those of a ble to many genera, one of which, Zebias, still inhabits fresh water in Sardinia and Northern Africa. Evyeu insects were illed in immense numbers; small and scarcely perceptible flies, mosquitoes, butterflies, libellules, winged ants, bees, gave there to the winds their delicate remains, to be strewn along the shores and buried in the deposit that was soon to be hard- ened, some of the specimens still preserving traces of their col- On the Plants of the World before Man. 277 ors. During all this time the flowing water, springs and rivu- lets, uniting their action to that of the wind and rain, carried to the bottom of the lake fragments of plants of various kinds, especially leaves, branches, flowers and fruits, indeed all the parts naturally torn from the trees and the shrubs growing in the neighborhood along the shore.” For those who have seen specimens of shale of the deposits of Florissant in Colorado, thin laming covered with small frag- ments of plants (their branches, leaves, seeds, flowers, even or- those of the Green River station, Elko, the mouth of White River, etc. It is right to remark, however, before looking to ~ upon the shrubs until the end of the spring. The leaves of species are extremely numerous, none of them crumpled, is observed. One of the richest deposits, eight to ten feet thick, is formed of alternate sandy layers three to five mil- limeters thick, and it is between the layers that the fishes are found petrified sometimes in prodigious numbers. This evi- dently shows that under the influence of summer heat, by 278 Review of Saporta’s Work evaporation and gradual drainage, the area of the lakes or a swamps being gradually diminished by shrinkage, the fishes were driven into deeper places, where finally enclosed they perished in masses. eir remains were later covered by the muddy water of the next overflow in the rainy season. In that immense formation of the Green River group, no trace of effects of voleanic agency is seen. It has been through its whole thickness a series of quiet, lacustrine deposits of calcare- ous clays, during an incalculable period of time River station, for example, from the bottom of the river to the top of the highest red buttes, about six hundred feet in thickness, the whole series is a succession of those laminated shales, vary- ing only in their constituent beds, there being white calcareous clay, greenish, sandy, red ferruginous clay, in an uninterrupted succession of thin layers. Considering the data furnished by the plants in reference to the synchronism of the Green River formation, it is only re- found there in connection with or upon the same specimens with a Pterospermites, a Hedera, and Sequoia Langsdorffi. It 1s ne TRE ee a ee ee On the Plants of the World before Man. 279 identifiable with P. Heertt Sap., of the beds of Aix, where it is very rare. The predominance of Salvinia, related to European Miocene types, is also marked in the Green River group, while one species only is described from the beds of Aix, there also very rare. We have also from Florissant a large specimen of a Sabal, which, like Sabalites major of the beds of Aix, seems related to the Miocene Sabal major of Europe. , therefore, we consider the relation of the flora of the Green River group to that of the Gypseous beds of Aix, merely from the number of identical species, it seems to be distant indeed, and more evidently marked with the Miocene. But then, there is against this conclusion the remarkable affinity in the dispersion and fragmentary state of the vegetable remains, and a similar facies of the flora apparent in the predominance of species of Myrica and other Southern types, like the leaves described as Callicoma microphylla, which, as remarked in the Tertiary Flora, cannot be referred to this Australian genus, but perhaps belong to some peculiar form of Myrica. We have also among the vegetable fragments of Florissant, Diospyros, Catalpa, Fraxinus, Atlanthus, Paleocarya Engelhardtia, Ulmus, Acer, mostly fruits and flowers, as mentioned by Saporta from the flora of Aix, leaves of peculiar forms of Quercus, referable to Q. salicina and Q. antecedens Sap., and flowers with long stamens, which, lacerated though they are, have some likeness to those of Bombaz, all from the same flora of Aix. But it is useless now to look to points of relation. Not only are the specimens from Florissant not yet positively determined, but the locality has, in the whole thickness of its shale, merely vegetable remains of plants growing around a shallow inlet of small area, that of a lake apparently, surrounded for a long period of time by the same kind of shrubs and trees, whose debris, annually strewn and preserved upon the muddy layer of the bottom, does not give a true representation of the general vegetation of the land. The American Planera aquatica in- habits only some river swamps of Florida and North Carolina. Its remains, if found in a fossil state, though they might be abundant in a peculiar locality, could not give us the slightest idea as to the facies of the land-flora of these regions. The great difference and variety in the characters of the plants found at other localities of the Green River group, in the deposits of Alkali station, of Elko, the mouth of White River and the cut- off of Green River, show how little we know as yet of the plants of the mighty group, which, like the Gypseous formation of Aix, may represent different geological periods at its lower and its upper parts. ; Passing from the lower beds of Aix to the Oligocene (Tongrian for its upper part), Saporta sees in its flora the expo- Au aetna < Series, VoL. XVII, No. 100.—Arrit, 1879. 280 Review of Saporta’s Work sition of a more equable and more generally humid climate. The essential types of vegetation recognized in Europe during this period are, for the Conifers, Libocedrus salicornioides ; Oha- mecyparis in two species ; some Seguoie, among them S. Tour- malu and S. Coutsie; Taxodium distichum miocenicum, and Glyptostrobus Europeus. With these Conifers the author men- tions and figures species of Comptonia, some of them of typical affinity to the North American C. asplenifolia, others to Austro- Asiatic forms; oaks with coriaceous lobate leaves, a Palm, bal major; Aralia Hercules, species of Myrica, Celastrus, Andromeda, Diospyros, Myrtus, Mimosa, and, as related to , Acer, already mentioned in the examination of the Gypseous forma- Gypseous of Gargas in Provence, of Alais, Armissan and Speeback ; then Haering in Tyrol, Sotska in Styria, Sagor in Carinthia, and Mont Promina in Dalmatia. The floras of some of these localities were formerly referred either to the Miocene or to the vee Eocene. The Flysch and Nummulite beds are Oligocene. From all these deposits eight to nine hundred species have been obtained. he Miocene period is subdivided into two sections or subpe- riods. The lowest, the Aquitanian, begins with the regression of the Tongrian Sea, and terminates at the invasion of the Molassic, a period which ends with the more recent strata Mio- pliocene. The Aquitanian has beds of lignite sometimes very thick. The more important localities where plants of this formation have been discovered are Manosque in Provence; Cadibona, Piedmont; Thorens, Savoy; Paudeze and Monod in Switzer- land ; Bovey Tracy in England ; Coumi in Eubzea; Rhadoboy in Croatia, ete. The flora of both periods of the Miocene is well known, and has been so admirably well studied and described, especially by Heer, that every phytopaleontologist has become acquainted with its essential types. A large number of them are figured in Saporta’s book. : The Oligocene types of Conifers, as also those of the dicoty- ledons, still remaining in the present flora, pass of course through the Miocene. But the climate of this period has a far less degree of uniformity, or the zones a less degree of expan- sion, and therefore the floras become more diversified, accord- ing to the latitude of the localities in which they are observed. Thus the flora of Coumi is marked by a large profusion of merl- pe eae —— On the Plants of the World before Man. 281 dron, Vitis, are the predominant plants of the Upper Miocene iod. They are most of them, if not all, recognized in the present vegetation of North America, to which that of the Mio- Guillielme, aud Acer trilobatum, abound, together with species described by Heer from the molasse of Switzerland. That pecu- Pliocene period is the pPiegecse age of the Huropean flora, the time when the climatic conditions are definitively altered, when the vegetation becomes gradually poor and ceases to gain ture in European conservatories, were until then inhabitants, of Kurope, but left it forever. One by one the ostracised plants take their departure, lingering here and there on the road to 282 On the Plants of the World before Man. exile. It is this exodus that we should have to describe if we could follow, step by step the march of retrogression, and indi- cate species by species, the progress and the result of this abandonment of our soil.” he decline in the richness of the vegetation of the Miocene ent American types. The Conifers are still those of the Molasse, to which Salisburia adianioides is added. Sassafras, [artoden- ica. rugosum, an Ilex, a Juglans, and among the ferns, Woodwardia radicans and Adiantum reniforme. As remarked by Saporta, the Poplar (Populus alba plocenica), the Button Wood, Plata- nus, the Magnolia and the Tulip tree in the Mio-pliocene of urope were about the same as the species now inhabiting North America; are specifically recognizable, though mark with slight differences. The relation of these species and others named by the author to some of the present time is examine by an exposition of the gradations which have given them their present characters, The last chapter, entitled “a general insight into the ensem- ble of the period,” cannot be summed up in a few sentences. It relates especially to the phenomena which have contributed, as causative agents or as elements, to the gradual modification Hedera, Nerium, as the PI r in successive periods from the Eocene to the end of the Pliocene. Ee ee en Oe, ne BS ne uk be | Double-Stars discovered by Alvan G. Clark. 283 The remarks on this subject are rendered more interesting and conclusive by their correlative application to the animal kingdom. There is between the modifications of animal and at the end of the Eocene, and there also have been found the bones of Xiphodon, prototype of the Giraffe, which in its pres- ent form appears later in the Miocene in its migrating pro- gress from France to Africa. It is at this epoch of the Upper ocene that mammals make their first appearance in Europe, an advent prepared and predicted by the luxuriance of the vegetation of the Lower Eocene. Columbus, 0., January 23, 1879. ArT. XXXIV.—Double Stars discovered by Mr. Alvan G. Clark ; by S. W. BurnHamM. bowski and myself. All of the latter measures have been made at the Dearborn Observatory, Chicago. 284. Double- Stars discovered by Alvan G. Clark. The names and places of the stars are as follows: No, Star R. A. 1880. Decl. 1880. Magnitudes 1_ |Sirius. 65 39™ 53*| —16° 337 nO 3 TW VIL. List, 7 40 20 | +28 59 BS xccke 3 |p Hydre. ean. Ot 6 Tt S215 4° | 23271 12° 20:. 37 + 0 29 74_.10 5 |46 Virginis. 12 54 25 | — 2 43 | 5-6._8-9 6 |Arg. (30) 2534.|14 28 45 | +30 21 94._10 7 |e Corone. 15 62 37 | +27 14 ee 8 {102 Herculis. 18 8 38 | +20 48 5 ..12-13 9 yree. 18 54 27 +32 31 3 2.42 10... |P XTX, 257. 19:39 15 +10 29 74. 74 1 itte. 19 43 39 | +18 51 6 6 12 |a? Capricorni. 20 11 24 | —12 55 ees 13. |r Cygni. 2)310 2 0:4 37: 32 54.. 8 14 |78 Pegasi. 23 37 57 | +28 42 Dae No. 1. Sirius. The history of this interesting system is too well known to require more than a brief mention. From periodical irregu- the place assigned by theory. Once discovered, it was readily and measured with the same instruments with which it had The companion has been measured every year since 1862, and during the latter portion of the time the observations are very numerous. The last orbit of the theoretical satellite, computed by Auwers, based upon all the available observations of proper motion, gives a period of 49-40 years. From these elements an ephemeris has been calculated for every second or J : . a y i ; : q a j Double-Stars discovered by Alvan G. Clark. + 285 Calculated. Observed. 1862°0 | 85°:4 | 107-10] 1862-2] 84°°6 | 10"-7 |Bon 62°2| 85-0 | 10°09 |Rutherfurd 63°2| 82°5 ‘ . 8 1865°0| 79-9 | 10-78 || 1865-2) 77-2 | 10°60 |O. Struve. 65: 76°8 | 10°77 |Forster. 65- 50 | 10°0 ecchi. 1868°0| 75-0 | 11°15 || 1868- 70°2 ) 11°25 | Vogel. 68° 69°5 | 11°35 |Bruhns. 68 71°6 | 10°95 |Engelmann. 69° 8°6 | 11°26 |Dunér. 1871°0} 70°3 | 11°20 || 1871: 64° 11°21 |Dunér, 72:2) 59-8 | 11-14 |Dunér. 72-2) 67-7 | 11°55 |Newcomb. 1874°0} 65-5 | 10°95 |} 1873- 65°8 | 11°12 |Hall. 73°2| 60°9 | 10°65 |Dunér. 73 59-4 | 12-27 |Hall. 74: 59°0 | 11°46 New 44:9) 58-7 | 10°99 | Holden. 74: 57°9 | 11°10 |Hall. 75°2| 57-1 | 10°8 unér, 75°2| 56°6 | 11°41 |Newcomb. 75° 56°3 | 11-08 |Hall. 1876-0} 62:1 | 10°59 || 1876- 54°9 | 11°82 |Holden. 16 5-2 | 11°19 |Hall. 7 53°1 | 11°20 |Stone. 77-2) 52:8 1°35 | Holden. 77°3| 53:4 | 10°95 |Hall. 1878-0} 58-4 | 10°05 78-0| 52-4 | 10°83 |Bu 78-1} 50°5 | 11°07 |Holden. 78°2| 651°7 | 10°76 |Hall. 79°] 50°7 10°44 Burnham. 1880°0; 54:2 9°33 The last observed position is the mean result of ten nights’ onthe made at the Dearborn Observatory in the past two mont istence of another satellite has been suggested as explanations of the variation shown above, but all attempts re find any other body have thus far been unsuccessful. No. 2. Discovered in May, 1876, with the 12-inch a: glass now at the Vienna Observatory. This very u 3 9g pair is in neighborhood of Pollux, about 40’ south, and a little following. The only measure is the following: Burnham. --- —114°9 D=0"81 18790 In 286 Double-Stars discovered by Alvan G. Clark. No. 3. po Hydre. The very minute attendant to this star was detected with the Washington 26-inch refractor. The only measures I am ac- quainted with are those made with the 184-inch of the Dearborn Observatory. A mean of three observations is as follows: Burnham ..-.P=144°-9 D=12"-40 1878-0 3n No. 4. L 23271. A close and unequal pair discovered May 19, 1876, with the Vienna 12-inch object glass. The following are all the measures: Ur P=233°°6 D=0"-85 1876-4 3n Dembowski - 234°1 0°87 18774 2n No. 5. 46 Virginis. Discovered on the same evening as the preceding, and with the same glass. It is a fine pair, and just within the reach of a 6-inch aperture. It has been measured as follows: POs oa P=158°: D=—1"'32 1876°4 37 Dembowski - - 148°5 1°21 1877°4 2n Soe a 145°7 Id 1878°2 1m Burnham ---. 151°5 1°48 1878°3 2n The magnitude of the small star is rated 8 by Dembowski, 9°5 by Stone, and 11 by Hall. In measuring this pair, a very faint companion, about 13th magnitude, was detected. Feeiie’s D=33"°86 1878°3 No. 6. A difficult pair of small stars in a low-power field with o Bootis, np. It has been measured by Dembowski only, and the following is a mean of two observations : Dembowski...P=139°8 D=0"76 18770 2n This was also found with the Vienna glass. No. 7. & Corone. A very difficult and unequal pair discovered May, 1876, with the Washington 26-inch. The companion is an exceed- ingly minute point of light, even with a large a . Edgecomb, of Hartford, sees it with a 9-4-inch Clark refractor, but this must be regarded as a very remarkable test of acute vision. The following are all the measures all nna 2s hetb) Spee 14 1876-4 4” Burnham ..-- 360°2 1°86 18783 2n No. 8. 102 Herculis. A faint companion detected with the 12-inch Clark object glass now in the possession of Dr. Draper. The only measures: Burnham .... P=46°°9 D=23"-42 18784 In Double-Stars discovered by Alvan G. Clark. 287 No. 9. y Lyre. (OZ 544.) This pair, discovered a number of years since with the 12-inch glass now at the Vienna Observatory, is one of the recently published additions to the Pulkowa Catalogue. It has been measured as follows: Otto Struve ..P=296°-9 D=137°79 1868°6 3n 97° 12°48 18745 1-4n Burnham .__- 301°1 12-76 1878°4 2n No. 10, P XIX, 257. (AC=22570=m 1. 91=S 723.) This has been known as a wide pair nearly a century. _ With the Draper 12-inch, the large star in August, 1875, was found to be an excessively close pair. I have measured this _ with Dearborn Observatory refractor on four nights, as follows: =126°°1 fesgoes 147°4 bogs 187772 147°0 D=0"'26 1878°62 142°0 0°32 1878°70 There is no evidence of change in the 95 magnitude star, as will appear from the following observations : Herschel 1._..._....P=278°°2 ae 1783°6 In SuuVve 0 276°2 D=—4”"-08 1827°0 3n Miche Q75°7 3°95 1847°7 n Bevchi <2 o 42 ee 275°3 4°10 1857°6 In Wilson and Seabroke_ 279°9 3°87 1874°1 2n Wilson and Seabroke. 277°8 4°30 1876°7 In urnham. 76°6 4°16 1878°7 ln No. 11. € Sagitte, (AC=22585= g II. 30=SA 307.) __ Discovered as a wide pair in 1781 by Herschel I. It was meas- ured by many observers down to 1875, when the duplicity of _ the principal star was detected with the same instrument with _ which the two preceding discoveries were made. My measures _ of this at the Dearborn Observatory indicate an increase in the distance. I found it obviously less difficult in 1878 than the _ previous year. The individual measures are as follows: P=158°3 —0"-22 1877°72 157°6 0°24 1877°73 ‘ 158°1 0°27 1877°77 158°7 0°35 1878°64 155°4 0°35 1878°70 ___Struve gives the magnitutes, 5°7 and 8°7, of the wide pair. _ These stars appear to be relatively fixed. Struve ... Fe, P—312°3 D=—s°-49 1831°1 In O: Strave foe 311°2 8°71 1846°9 In Wr 311°8 8-77 18546 8” eee ee ee oe rottesley Wilson and Seabroke - 311°2 8°8 1873°6 In 288 Double-Stars discovered by Alvan G. Clark. No. 12. a® Capricorni. (AB=H 608.) Herschel IT discovered a 16-magnitude companion to this star and entered it in his second catalogue of double stars. Since that time it has received but little attention from double-star observers. Under favorable conditions a 6-inch refractor will show it fairly. The following are all the measures: Herschel IT __... -. ar 2 D6" + 1830+ ln Pn ee 44-1 6°36 1846°7 18” PROIGOR Bg OL inchs te oe 1874°6 20 Seva oo 150°2 741 1878°5 3n In November, 1862, with the 184-inch object glass now at the Dearborn Observatory, Mr. Clark found that this minute companion was itself a close, equal pair. Professor Young was able to see it with the 9-4-inch refractor of me Dartmouth College Observatory when observing at Sher Colorado, att an altitude of more than 8,000 feet ive Me sea level. , to anyone who has seen this minute pair, is a striking iteverntion of the importance of getting above the lower atmo- sphere. The following are all the measures > Holden -_.-.. ..-.. P=57°@ D=1"-72 1874°6 ln eens 58°6 1°24 1874°6 In moe 65°2 1°14 1875 ln | Siecle Alen HS 63°2 oe 1876°7 In Sarina 61°2 1°06 1878°5 2n No. 13. +t Cygni. This fine pair was discovered in October, 1874, with the tae object glass manufactured for Mr. L. JM McCormick of Chicago. It has already shown a sa angular motion, and is caccole tedly a binary system. It has been carefully and regularly observed by Baron oo ened The individual measures are as follows: P=174:8 D=1:06 1874°90 174°3 1°43 1875°33 171°0 1°33 187551 171°5 1°37 1875°67 168°9 1°26 1875°89 163°2 1°26 1876°76 159°8 1°23 1876°82 157°0 1°47 1877°39 157°7 1°25 1877743 1575 1°33 1877°59 155°8 1°37 1877-70 155°0 1°21 1877°79 152°5 115 1877°84 154°2 1°14 1877°92 152-9 1:17 1877794 ’ | Church — Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode. 289 _ Other measures, with the mean results of Dembowski’s obser- vations, are: Newcomb _-........P=162° D=1"-10 1874°8 Qn Dembowski.._. ._..- 174°5 1°24 1875°1 37 Dembowski.._.-___- 170°5 1°32 1875°7 2n Dembowski.._. ..__. 161°5 1°24 1876°8 Qn ME ee ee 166°9 1°62 1876°9 27 LO" Set acta co 160°2 1°03 1776°9 2n Dembowski.-__. .___. 155°3 1°26 1877°7 8n a. Durnham- -...... .-- 150°0 1:06 1878°4 In There is a third extremely faint star: Newcomb __.. 222... P=261°°7 D==15"'10 §=1874°7 In BAT Oc. Sti Sea 260°3 1568 18769 In No. 14. 78 Pegasi. . n unequal, but not very difficult pair, discovered in Nov., 1875, with the 12-inch glass now at the Morrison Observatory, Glasgow, Missouri. Dembowski gives its magnitudes: 5°0 yellow, 8-1 olive. The only measures are: Dembowski..._._...P==192°-0 D=1"-45 18766 4n Purnhat .... ..- ao. 190°8 154 18788 In Chicago, March 1, 1879. RT. XO Views Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode ; by Jonn A. Cuurca, Professor of Mining, Ohio State Uni- versity, Columbus, Ohio. ottest water reported in a Welsh mine had a temperature of 125° F. (J. A. Philli ps). All of these observations are su by the extraordinary conditions of the Comstock. is examinati de in connection with the United States Survey of the Territories west othe: 4000 taatiliet in charge of Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U. 8. A. 290 Church—Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode. The rock in the lower levels (1900-2000 feet) of the Com- stock mines appears to have a pretty uniform temperature of 130° F. This was the reading obtained for me on several occa- sions by Mr. Comstock, foreman of the Ophir mine, and about the same temperature was found by Mr. Perrin, foreman of the Chollar Potosi, by Mr. Cosgrove, foreman of the Yellow Jacket (1894° F. and 136° F., 2200 foot level), and by myself in the Crown Point and other mines. ese readings were obtain by placing a thermometer in a drill-hole immediately after the hole was finished, and leaving it there for periods varying from ten minutes to half an hour. Mining on the Comstock proceeds with extraordinary ae ve, eep. The surface of the rock exposed to the air of the drift was found on one occasion to be about 123° F., the experiment being made near the “header” or end of the drift. The alr itself was found to show considerable uniformity when its tem- perature was taken under circumstances that were at all similar. n freshly opened ground it varied from 108° to 116° F., and higher temperatures are reported at various points, reaching 1 fact as high as 123° F. in the 1900 level of the Gould & Curry. The temperature of the air is subject to more fluctuations than that of the rock, for the simple reason that it is artificially supplied to the mine, and varies according to the istance which it is carried, the quantity, velocity in the pipe, 1ts rea temperature, and moisture in the drift. The most importap j PE PING aoe Oke OO ae re™ Coe ee ee hee og me Church — Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode. 291 112° F. in temperature and often they are below this. But when from the lode rocks. That approaches more nearly 150° F. The vast body of water which has filled the Savage and Hale & Norcross mines for two years, and from which it is safe to say a million tons of water have been pumped within twelve months, gave me a temperature of 154° F. Even after being pumped to the surface through an iron pipe exposed, in the shaft of the Hale & Norcross, to a descending current of fresh air for more than a thousand feet, and then flowing for one or two hundred feet through an open sluice in a drain-tunnel which discharges into a measuring-box, the water in this box was found to have a temperature of no less than 145° F. But the water varies in temperature in different parts of the lode like the rock and the air. In the Hast crosscut 2000 foot level, of the Crown Point Mine, which is noted for its extreme eat, a small stream of water, after flowing for nearly one hun- dred and fifty feet over the bottom of the drift, was found to ave a temperature of 157° F. Here the drift was closed so that the water was but little exposed to evaporation. On the contrary, in other places the water is much less hot, but I be- lieve it is always hotter than the air, and in many cases it ap- pears to be hotter than the rock is found to be, except in branch dyke. This proved to be a very hot spot indeed. k, air and water were all so much above the usual limits of 292 Church—Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode. temperature even in these hot mines that the work of cutting the drift must have been extremely severe. It might not have been accomplished had not the expedient been adopted of board- ing or “lagging” up the sides of the drift with a double thick- ness of plank, breaking joints. This confined the water, which poured down the walls, to a tight chamber, and left the main part of the drift for the men to work in comparative comfort. The lagging remains, and has been carried around into the main drift, which is still in active use. Its joints are calked “with tow, and, one of these being stripped for me, the steam from the water immediately poured out and proved to be scald- ing-hot when tested the finger. id not, however, suc- ceed in getting a fair reading of the thermometer, because the crack was too small to admit more than the end of the bulb. distances ; others east of it. These inclines do not all exhibit unusual heat and it will be shown farther on that there is 4 special cause for the exceptions. Belts of excessively hot ground are not the only noticeable phenomena in these mines. Mo m. Other cold belts are found in the mines which are not s0 cool as that in the Justice, but are perceptibly cooler than the rock at a short distance from them. They complete a well- Church — Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode. 293 linked chain of heat phenomena, extending from rocks that are sensibly cold to the touch, and may not have a temperature above 50° or 60° F., through rocks that have the average atmospheric temperature, and those which are as hot as sur- face rocks ever become in Nevada, to those which have a tem- perature of 157° F. There is no reason to doubt that the gradation is quite regular, and the transition from the lower to the higher temperature is made through a much larger series of intermediate steps than the accidental thermometer readings taken show. he rock is usually dry. Wet portions exist, but these are os tain in comparatively narrow bands parallel with the lode and separated by thick masses of rock; the lode is usually per- fectly dry, and never exhibits more than the average leakage of mines. Wet rock is the exception, and dry rock the rule, through the whole lode. In the drifts cut through this hot, dry rock, the walls of the freshly exposed surfaces are painful to the hand, and the air is often filled with dust. The rock is both hard and tough, but, in spite of its strength, it gives an impression of fine porosity to the touch, due erg | to its trachytic character. It often has the odor of clay, but not ways. It may be slightly adherent, or the impression of dryness upon the tongue may be due to its heat. The plan of the Yellow Jacket mine is simple and such as to eliminate complications from the single problem of heat absorp- tion by moving currents of air from rock surfaces. From the 1,531 level two parallel winzes are sunk on the lode, inclining with it. They are four hundred and thirteen feet apart, and connected on every lower level by the main north and south drift. The Yellow Jacket is a downcast mine, and the air cur- rent passes down the vertical shaft to the 1,119-foot level, thence down the incline to the 1,531 level, through a dri the south winze, and thence down tbis winze to the 2,200 level, the bottom of the mine. On its way from the 1,531 it sends a current through the 1,732, 1,935 and 2,040 levels, these currents being reunited in the north winze, which is the upcast. he north winze does not reach to the surface, and no air rises ‘to day” in the mine, the entire current flowing into the Im- aarp and Bullion mines, both north of the Yellow Jacket, and th of them exclusively upcast. i _ Captain Taylor has placed Fahrenheit thermometers of the _ common kind, with japanned tin cases, at the surface, foot of the vertical shaft (1,119 level), 1,782 south and north winzes, 1,935 north winze, and 2,040 south and north winzes. The _ south winze is downcast, and the thermometers placed here on _ the different levels measure the increase of heat in the winze : itself, while those which are hung at the north winze measure 294 Church—Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode. “split” or secondary air-current was found to contain 7200 cubic feet, and for the purpose of illustrating the steady flow of heat from the rock, we may reasonably assume that 18,00 cubic feet of air enter the mine every minute, and that this current is divided into three splits of 6000 cubic feet each, which pass from the south winze 418 feet to the north winze, on each of the three levels, 1732, 19385, and 2040. The sec- ond of these is out of consideration, from the fact that there 1s only one thermometer on it, so that no comparison of the initial and final temperatures can be made. e following tables contain a summary of all the observa tions which I have been able to obtain. ‘The record is imper- ect on account of the destruction of some tally boards, and this has compelled me to omit some records that are preserved, because the corresponding observations in the same drift are wanting. ere the omission takes place, the figures are . n brackets. | Only the observations on the 1732 and 2040 foot levels will 1732 foot level _ (89°39° —78-06°) 11°33° F. oer Fs = (92°30° — 85°35°) 695° F. This difference represents the heat which the air current has absorbed in passing a distance of 413 feet on these levels. In: my report made to Lieutenant Wheeler, and also in a paper 0? this subject presented to the American Institute of Mining ie SaaS eees Church —Underground Temperatures on the Comstock Lode. 295 Engineers, these a are given as 10°56° F. and 7-87° F the fact that they were the average the difference e being du of seven instead of nine io as observations. Yellow Jacket Mine.—Morning Temperature, 6 A. M. Surface. | 1119 feet. 1782 feet. 1900 feet. 2040. 8S. Winze.|N. Winz Winze,|S. Winze.|N. Winze. , 1876, ..-. 59°27° | 80°23° | 92°99° January, 1877,._- 52°55 | 73°42 | 86°90 85°35° | 93°22° ebru iad es 49°75 | 76°99 | 83°71 6°59 | 93°99 March, cee 53°81 | 78°13 | 89-20 | 90°29°| 83-68 | 94-99 April, rhe 49°87 | 77-40 | 88°13 | 89-97 ‘90 | 93°77 May, __.|(44-48°)] 53°77 | 83-42 | 90-45 | 90°99 | 83°39 | 93°61 June, « ___.| 56°07 | 57-40 | 79°39 | 91-47 | 93°27 | 88-26 | 93°63 po : oie (84-00 94-0 ugust, a NE (83°23) 94-5 September, “ ____] 56°67 | 60°80 | 81°86 | 91°67 | 96°60 | 88°37 | 92°13 ber, “ ____| 46°10 | 55°13 | 73°65 | 90-44 | 92°07 | 83-23 | 88°36 treme « .---} 39°90 (76°53) 88°50 | 81:27 | 87°23 mber, 4 5°84 January, | 1878,___-| 33°39 Februa Lamers 3°93 Mare Dre era ey. April, ee pat one ST hbk. Sc eee 43°52 | 64°71 | 78°28 “48 | 92°25 | 85°11 | 92°33 he taken, 22 5,1 10 mo’s.} 9 mo’s.| 9 mo’s.| 9 mo’s.| 9 mo’s.| 9 mo’s.! 9 mo’s. Yellow Jacket Mine.—Hvening Temperatures, 6 P. M. Surface. | 1119 feet 1782 feet. 1932 feet. 2040 feet. S. Winze.|N. Winze.|N. Winze.|S. Winze.|N. Winze. deste TG SA ed aloe od December, dE hoy. 59°20° | 80°84° | 90-92° ry 1877, 50°77 | 77°82 | 86°10 83-23° | 93°36° Febru he 76°71 | 84:03 86°82 | 93°43 March, Be ae 55°52 ie 07 | 88°58 | 90°29°| 86-68 | 95-00 April, ae a ae 52°83 | 77°57 | 88°33 | 89°93 | 85°87 | 93°80 ay, & __ | 10°4%° | 61°50 it 91°77 03 | 87-16 | 93°48 June, « """"| 70-33 | 61°50 | 79°40 | 91°77 | 93°03 | 88:20 ; 93°73 red : Ue ee 84°16) 94°29 us coent 42 94:2 September, “ ____| 69°13 | 62°76 | 81°82 | 91°11 | 96°67 | 87-90 | 92°00 October, « ____| 54°55 | 57°30 Cs 99 | 91°00 | 92°10 | 83°32 | 88°58 ee, | 45°43 (17°40) 89°50 | 81-13 | 87-23 Decem “ ____| 39°58 January, 1878,.___| 38°84 Heh & = 37°61 April, er pre May, Mean SOE | cheep oe ee 53°09 | 57°67 | 77°85 | 89°30 | 92°57 | 85-60 | 92°28 Time taken,..______ 11 mo’s.| 8 mo’s., 9 mo’s.| 9 mo’s.; 9 mo’s.| 9 mo’s.| 9 mo’s. verage, morning bral. 2 48°30 | 5619 | 78°06 | 89°39 | 92°41 | 85°35 | 92°30 No. 100.—APRIL, 1879, Am. Jour. Scz. Sicha waar Vou. XVII, } 296 King’s Systematic Geology of the 40th Parallel. The 17382 level affords us the best evidence that the inces- sant drain of heat cannot be maintained by supply from a store accumulated in the rock. This drift was probably completed by January 1, 1876, or perhaps some months earlier. It has been constantly in use as an air way, but after this long exposure no diminution in its heating power has been noticed. It has lost the intense heat it had when first opened, but remains at an average temperature of about 90° F. Art. XXXVI.— United States Geological Survey of the Fortieth Parallel. Vol. I. Systematic Geology ; by CLARENCE KING. Reviewed by RAPHAEL PUMPELLY. THe February number of this Journal contained, in_the form of citations, a summary of the results of the Fortieth Par- allel Survey in the department of Stratigraphical Geology. 3 k : 4 King’s Systematic Geology of the 40th Parallel. 297 e plains at the mouths of the mountain valleys. An immense amount of erosion was accomplished during the Gla- cial epoch and there is evidence, to be given below, that it was done during two periods of glacier extension in the Quaternary ; during the first and greater the floods cut the deep V-shaped cafions, and during the second the glaciers transformed the upper part of these into U-shaped cafions, and we may add that the second floods deepened the V cafions below the foot of the lacier. 4 The Great Plains are underlaid by beds which were depos- ited in a great fresh-water lake. In the southeast these beds dip under the Gulf of Mexico, while near the Rocky Moun- tains they are 7,000 feet above the Ocean. It is therefore evi- dent that they have been tilted, for otherwise we should have to suppose that there existed a lake whose surface was 7,000 feet above the sea, and for which there was no eastern enclos- ing wall. Both General G. K. Warren and Mr. King have shown that after the Pliocene such a tilting really took place, so that during Quaternary time this declivity had, as now, free | drainage to the Ocean, and was traversed by the rivers flooded from the glaciers. ee n the Great Basin the Pliocene—Shoshone—lake was dis- were swept by hill-wash and river-floods far out from the parent mountains. During their prime, these inland fresh-water seas were filled to their outlets, Lake Bonneville, over 1,000 feet deep, drained through Red Rock Pass into the Snake and Columbia Rivers. The outlet of Lake Lahontan may have wea southward, and the lake must have been over 500 feet eep. 298 King’s Systematic Geology of the 40th Parallel. From the fact that the sediments of these lakes are under- laid and overlaid by subaerial gravels, both King and Gilbert infer that there was a very wet period between two dry peri- ods. But our author goes much further, and from the results of a study of the chemistry of the waters, as expressed in the soluble contents of the remaining lakes, and in the natural evaporation products, constructs an ingenious and it would eem a well-founded hypothetical climatic bistory of the Qua- ternary period. The argument may be briefly outlined. The now dry shores of the ancient Lake Lahontan are in many places covered, sometimes twenty to sixty feet deep, with a tufaceous deposit,.which is often distinctly crystaliized and then shows the very characteristic forms of gaylussite—a hydrated earbonate of soda and lime. But chemical analyses show that the soda and water are gone, and that the mineral is now calcite—only the external form being that of gaylussite. In short, we have here an instance of pseudomorphism on a large scale. This pseudomorphous material King calls Thinolvte. Near Ragtown, Nevada, in a lake which is one of the remnants of Lahontan, and which is presumably fed by springs, the forming of gaylussite can now be seen in operation. It is a dense water very rich in soda carbonate, and when the lake shrinks during the dry season, gaylussite crystals are deposited on the beach and on floating organic substances. Both the facts at this lake and Fritsche’s experiments show that gaylus- site can form only in the presence of a large excess of carbon- ate of soda. When the saline water of this lake is diluted dur- ing the wet season, the gaylussite is dissolved again. The thinolite tufa occurs up to an altitude of 470 feet above Pyramid Lake, or within thirty feet of the highest known level of the extinct Lahontan Lake. The inference from this is that the lake must have been long exposed, without an outlet, to concentration by evaporation, and perhaps by contributions from alkaline springs, in order to deposit gaylussite at such an altitude ; and, in order to have formed the vast deposits of tufa —originally gaylussite—the lake must have almost wholly evaporated. Now the evaporation of a sea, which, with a depth — of 470 feet, was sufficiently saline to deposit gaylussite, would leave its residuary lakes in the condition of saturated solutions ; but the fact is that the larger relics of Lahontan, viz: Pyramid and Winnemucca Lakes are sufficiently fresh to support numerous fishes, including one or two of the Salmonide. It 1s evident, therefore, that the residuary water of the evaporation of Lahontan, that produced these tufas, must have wholly dis- appeared. This could only take place by the basin filling to its outlet and remaining at that altitude long enough for its dissolved salts to drain off and for the water to become King’s Systematic Geology of the 40th Parallel, 299 _ great ice epoch and the Reindeer ice epoch of Europe; the _ intermediate dry period corresponds with Newberry’s Forest- horizon; and the last dry period still continues. During the intermediate dry time there was probably less vegetation even than now in the Cordilleras and on the Great _ Plains, and it was probably then, that the greater portion of the loess of the Missouri and Mississippi valleys was transported _ to its present position by the west winds as the present writer _ has shown elsewhere. __ The well known fact that the surface of Great Salt Lake is rising—it has risen 11 feet since 1867—has been generally ascribed to the cultivation of the surrounding region. Mr. _ King shows this to be a wrong inference, for a similar increase _ has affected all the lakes of the Great Basin. He shows partly _ from observations connected with the growth of trees on the Sierra, that this is due toa climatic oscillation that began about 1860 and which was the first of its kind and extent that has _ occurred within at least 250 years. This question of oscillation of climate is full of importance to the populations that are _ pouring into the regions of the Great Plains during the present moist extreme. : Origin of erystalline schists and granite—Some space is de- _ voted in this volume to the presentation of original hypotheses t 300 King’s Systematic Geology of the 40th Parallel. although it is possible that the temperature of fusion existed ut was prevented by the counteracting pressure from produc- ing liquefaction. The hypothesis is summarized thus: Conditions of metamorphism.—1. There is a horizon below the surface, at a depth which increases with the secular cooling of the globe, at which the heat and pressure are sufficient to produce the chemical activity needed to effect metamorphism. 2. This horizon sinks deeper with the secular cooling. 3. So fusion must be near the surface. The observed rate of increase would indicate that at a depth of about fifty miles the tempera ture would produce fusion of rock if not prevented by the pressure. Now if by removal of the superincumbent material King’s Systematic Geology of the 40th Parailel. 801 the pressure on any given point is diminished at a more rapid rate than that of the cooling of the couches below, and if this removal of pressure proceed far enough, fusion must take place; and, being localized, it will form subterranean lakes of molten rock. This couche of possible fusion, like all the iso- thermal and isobaric couches, must be parallel to the surface ing hundreds or thousands of square miles—which have formed during single geological epochs. During the Cretaceous there accumulated from one to one and one-half miles in thick- ness of detrital sediment which probably occupies now a larger area than that from which it was eroded, and the follow- ing Eocene and Miocene epochs witnessed the enormous out- pourings of lava. In these subterranean lakes of fused rock, are differentiated s. Baron Richthofen, after a the varieties of volcanic rock Separation, by specific gravity, into a basic, lower couche and an acid, ae Lae pe re-solidification by the reéstablish- 802 King’s Systematic Geology of the 40th Parallel. ment of the ante-fusion relation between pressure and tem- | position, and eruption at this period forces up the basic lava rom the couche. This is the sequence for King’ of the different genera; the observed sequence of the genera themselves, i. e. of Richthofen’ i posing them—if we understand him rightly—to represent, from propylite to neolite, each a lower horizon, the depths being determined by the time-intervals; and the differences in char- — acter and mean constitution being expressions of the varying — The argument of which this sketch gives only the salient points is undoubtedly, in the writer’s opinion, the most con- est deposits overlying and adjacent to the greatest Archaean Mountain ranges.” The instances of paroxysmal depression are found to have affected areas immediately after the remov from them of immense thicknesses of material: while the 1- stances of gradual depression occur over areas that were being very heavily loaded with sediment. ee ee ne W. H. Pulsifer—Thickness of Young's Reversing Layer. 303 Art. XXXVII—On a Method of Estimating the Thickness of Young’s Reversing Layer ; by W. H. Putstrer. A part of my duties, asa member of the Fort Worth Eclipse party, consisted of the spectroscopic observation of the con- tacts. I used a telespectroscope combining a four-inch Clark telescope of four feet ten inches focal length, and a ten-prism Browning solar spectroscope. The field included the lines between W. L. 6600 and 6300. At second contact I observed the reversal of the Fraunhofer lines, and was surprised to find the reversed lines shortened at each end, and occupying but about one-third of the width of the spectrum, while the C line was not shortened and remained in view after the other lines had disappeared. At the moment no explanation of the phenomenon presented itself, but after- ward it occurred to me that it was occasioned by the extension of the slit of my spectroscope beyond the reversion layer on each side, and that a measurement of the image of the sun formed on the slit, and of the length of the slit itself, would enable me to estimate the thickness of the reversing layer. Careful measurement showed the diameter of the sun's image on the slit to be 0°54, and the length of the slit 0-08". : _ In the diagram, C represents the chromosphere, R the revers- ing layer, S the slit, a b ¢ the shortened lines, and dé the radius of the sun. The difference in the length’ of the lines dband de represents the minimum thickness of the layer, as Indicated by the reversed lines observed. Assuming the sun's diameter to be 860,000 miles, and accepting the measurement e sun’s image and of the slit, and the statement that the reversed lines occupied but one-third of the width of the spec- trum, the difference in the length of the lines d 6 anddcis found to be 524 miles. 304 Osborn and Speir—Lower Jaw of Loxolophodon. Art. XXX VITL—The Lower Jaw of Loxolophodon ;* by HENRY F. OsBoRN and FRANCIS SPEIR, Jr. With a Plate. : LirTLeE has been known hitherto of the real character of the — lower jaw of Loxolophodon, a genus which together with Uin- vol. xi, page 163), a description of a specimen of Uintatherium (Dinoceras) laticeps lacking only the canine-incisor series, and female of the same species; together they give basis for a com- — lete study, save of the coronoid process which is lost in both. The accompanying plate figures the former specimen, the — incisor-canine series have been placed in position from the lat- ter specimen, in which the alveoli are preserved. reneral character of the jaw.—One of the most surprising fea- — tures of the Dinocerata is the disparity existing between the size and strength of the lower jaw, and the large and formida-— ble head. This is even more marked in Loxolophodon than in — Uintatherium, for in general contour the lower jaw is neither — long nor deep. In Z. cornutus, the species in hand, it extends — from the well-advanced glenoid cavity barely to the tips of the slender premaxillaries, where it is wholly overhung by the © broad aud projecting nasals, giving it at once an undersized — appearance. ‘T'he rami are shallow and of equal depth through- a out; forward they are wholly in the vertical plane, but behind © the molar series they diverge considerably below. The angle — of the ramus is not prominent; nearly in a vertical line above — this is the condyle. The symphysis is long and narrow. The — * This article is the first of the second series of Paleontological Bulletins upon — pf rome Wyoming, to be issued from the E. M. Museum of Prince- — Osborn and Speir—Lower Jaw of Loxolophodon. 305 downward processes below the canine-molar diastema are not Pp strongly marked. The molar series are nearly parallel. the robust process of the lower jaw of U. Leidianum in the E. . Museum, they show a disparity in size, that seems unac- Countable in genera so closely allied. . The dental foramen is large and is situated on a line with the molar series. The mental foramen is double and placed toed beneath the canine. J The processes, as seen from below, have a more outward than downward direction, forming at the posterior half of the symphysis a broad, slightly concave floor, about six inches in Width ; below the lateral incisor they disappear, and the chin Narrows into a prow-shaped keel. The inner margin of the canine-incisor alveolus is well raised, giving the series the ap- Pearance of being placed on the side of the jaw. The alveolus 's highest at the canine, and dips downward in front; this Would throw the teeth greatly out of the horizontal line, were it not that the dental series increase rapidly in size forward. -He teeth are arranged not in a semicircle, but in converging lines two and a half inches apart at the canine and in contact at the median incisor; thus the chin is contracted towards its extremity above as well as below. Between the dental series 'n front and the high thin borders of the diastema behind is the deeply concave floor of the mouth. 806 Osborn and Speir—Lower Jaw of Loxolophodon. Measurements of the lower jaw. Extreme length from infra-condylar depression to symphysis 295 BPG OG AS UNE DOOM as oe as sees bane average pitch of 15° eastward in the eastern sandstone and 10° to 15° in the Sint For a width in the Connecticut Valle se fifteen miles rea ght twenty), the dip produced by the alleged up- lifting if only 14 °—supposing no faults—would put the western side of the Connecticut Valley 20,000 feet above its eastern; and the site of New York City, on the eastern 15,000 or 20,000 feet present — are mall i in compari (3) se Apa are asks tor an ‘Anatediiile amount of denuda- tion; crystalline rocks of great depth as well as sandstone, over n area more than fifty miles wide having to be removed, and the surface brought down to its present level. (4) The southern Kimit of the parece Valley sandstone area is north of the northern limit of perv w Jersey. The a Jersey area cannot, therefore, be on oppeeise margin of t Sandstone region to that of the Conaestanes Valley. That tees Should have been an opposite side to the Connecticut ewe anti- clinal, the New Jers rsey ‘Trias tees have extended up the Hud- son River to Albany, N. Y., 120. miles north of its most northern western Massachusetts as well as of Connecticut, and all of Eastern New -—_ south of Albany, — the Green Mountain region, must have been raised to the enormous altitude referred to; and, besides, the sandstone must ave since been removed from the whole inca no trace was left, with the exception of the South- bury a“ asin. Further, the opposite side of the New Jersey part of the arch ise have been somewhere out in the Atlantic south of 330 Scientific Intelligence. Long Island; and this island must have participated in the up- d It is however to be admitted that, with the suggested method of accounting for the dip in the Connecticut Valley eae pire there was no need of any sandstone in the son River Valley; and, no need, in fact, of any sandstone over the intermediate region of crystalline rocks between that valley and the New Jersey are ae ) No avideues of such an anticlinal, or of the supposed ount of erosion, exists excepting this—that the sandstone of the Comhoetiout Valle dips eastward, and that of New Jersey, situ- ated wholly to the south of the southern limit of the Connecticut area in Triassico-Jurassic times was a Connecticut Valley estuary, at the termination of the Connecticut River, and had its violent floods, which may have been for part of the time enlarged by the waters and ice of a semi-glacial era—quite as well as by that of its i the eastern part of a much larger estuary; and even bet The features ‘of the Connecticut Valley beds afford _— argu- ments; but it is not necessary to bring them up at this an Geological Survey of ans. —The fo oaine vol- umes containing Reports of Progress of this survey, have been recently issued, in addition to had by Mr. C. A. AsHBURNER mentioned on a former page of this volume. They show great activity in the Surve ey. Lteport of Progress of Bradford te Tioga Counties (G), 272 pp- 8vo, with maps and sections; including: 1. on the Limits pas the Catskill and Chemung formations, by A. SHerwoop; 2. tions of Coal fields, by F. Pirarr; and 3, on the Coking of Bitu- minous Coal, by . Furr Il. Report are Progress in Indiana County (HHH), by W. G. Pratt, 316 pp. 8vo, with a colored map of the County. 1878. Ill. Catalogue of the Geological Museum, Part I, Rock speci- mens. 218 8vo. 78. EN: n Hematite Deposits of the Siluro-Cambrian limestones of Lehigh County, lying between Shimersville, Millers- town, Schnecksville, Balli — and the Lehigh River (DD), by Freperick Prme, Jr.; 100 pp. 8vo » With 5 m see we and 5 direct continuation of the ma once — the beds affording encrinital stems identical with those found in Northampton Geology and Mineralogy. 831 County overlying characteristic Trenton fossils; and (5) Hudson River slates, also conformably continuous with the precedin Professor Prime treats also of the origin of limonite beds associated with the damourite slates, and of other points in the geology of the region. His method of determin ning the age of the crystalline schists by means of oe fossils in the conformably associated strata Sts positive re Special Report on hee Tr ap-Dykes and Azoie Rocks of Seeithancerss Pennsylvania (E), by T. Srerry Hunt. Part I. His- torical Introduction. 254 pp. 8vo. 1878.—This Historical Intro- duction is a general exposition and re-statement of the author’s views on the “ Azoic,” Cambrian and Silurian rocks, of this and eruptive rocks, along with a historical account of former views on these and other subjects, wi a statement of the observations from various sources that appear to favor the views set forth. It is valuable as a definite exhibition of the present state of such views in the science, and of the arguments—not always just to the observations of others—by which they are sustained. The prog- ress of the science will show how much of truth there is in — ENsoN, M. $9 5 5 ps] 24 S Te 8 S fe) o ° Pr bed Se ® Qu ° 5 wR = alt 4 is) Ss ® ‘ > a tham concludes that this small group, however well defined, ought not in a general view to be regarded as of higher grade than one of the primary divisions, or tribes, of Huphorbiacee. We are not the less pleased with this that we quite expected it. wider interest will be felt in Mr. Bentham’s eaxcursus 7 ies, or other groups for study or reference, not the glorification of bot- anists; and secondly, that changing an established name 18 very n now frequently ignored. . . . . The law of priority 1s an excellent one; and when a genus or species has been well defined sequently been neglected, and the plant became known undet other names, it is well that the original one should be restored. . . . . On the other hand, it creates nothing but confusion to suppress a generic name, well-characterized and universally adopted by long custom, in favor of a long-forgotten one, vaguely eo te Botany and Zoology. 337 designated in an obscure work, out - the reach of the great majority of botanists. . ; a: slows ater number of Neck- Mieuticyion. them, and caerscen their cha ponent but even then it is doubtful whether these names should not bear the date, of the correction, ratber than of the original work. Adanson’s “ Fam illés,” with all the inconveniences of its form and sce orthine raphy, is much more scientific, and many of his genera are well a5 te nada have therefore been nese adopted.” é ere interject a practical application. There is an old and seolk established genus Smilacina o Desfontaines. Thereisa much older gen us Zovaria of Ruiz and Pavon, — in 1794, ew, fin oe that Necker has a Zovaria, cubliched 4 in 1790, and therefore four —— earlier sha that of Ruiz and Pavon, takes up this name in na, and e new name to be pla aves a made for the long-established homonymous genus. It will be said that the rule of priority demands the sacrifice, and that the iden- i et ree ean species of Convallaria which properly constitute ne Smilacina are referred to it pun name; and that, though it of summum jus summa injur the injurious consequence is a necessity. But Mr. Bentham’s Ob aiadisrienon of Necker’s work applies even to this instance, wice over Necker’s Zovaria is described as having a perianth of five sepals, and the berry is said to be one-celled. Desfontaines’ Smélacina, on the other hand, is correctly characterized. Moreover, if we do not neaates this na into this Ee oes Bu — remain nice seeiienk to caste with regard to the names and extent of the liliaceous genus. et ing an A was generally neglected by early botanists; but now, ever since DeCandolle a Elichr: i Helich a "S ue | e © B. ct Er oO iss) oom a <= = = al fo) has the effect of r ing so many generic names to a distant rt of all indexes, “alphabetical aaadanveh, etc. Admitting the propriety of adding the aspirate in new names, I had long declined 338 Scientific Intelligence. to alter old names on this aecount; now, however, I find myself compelled to follow the current.” Which i is, on the inte: pes 0 able, expecially as Alph. DeCandolle would hold out with him See the latter’s — - his Article 66, in which ae remark is dropped aon “we don see why we should be more rigorous than the Greeks iontinaes es.” Oddly e — Se same writers who must supply the aspirate to the e omit it from the r, and write rachis and raphe, instead of rhachis and vhenpiee —which is exas- perating to lovers oo ea mit It is unnecessar cite Mr. Bentham’s Sister illus- th rde * Tor Josep Darton Hooker, K. SI, etc., and Joun Bay E.R. ete. rief notice of the geological appendix in this work is given on page 332. We add here a few words on the botanical ro sults. Sir Joseph Hooker contributes an article on some of th scientific apie = the comparison of the Canarian flora with the n Grenada, — = cea Europe So far as is yet known, a 4 turn back without reaching the higher crests so near at Mr. Ball has worked _up the botanical results sar ie a sys- a . a upon it, not to. speak of the beauty an rfection of ver epecr of botanis ts. n’s Ferns of North America.—We are not sure t that we have somaed the later issues of this work, so important to all fern ; people and botanists. But, in any case, we must make a note 0 ls — a fe feet ae OS Ie Ps a aE + i ieee ao NED J AEA pe GY Te Pee, RE a ae 7 mg ee Oe ae a eT ee) ae oar i eee ee ee eae Gt yee se e ee 3 ee é Botany and Zoology. 339 , ame wo e said not that the frond looks diminutive. The three Asplenia make a fine plate. But the figure of A. parvulum is stiff: we never saw it growing bolt upright, and the difference in size between this and the other two is not made antes manifest. A somewhat mer. , ANDE ATON, Fase. III. The eed: Fascieuls of. this asbatien of North American Algz has just been issued. It consists of only thirty specimens, covering Fea Bal fe ee and one variety. But as most of the species are large plants, the paper used is of the folio size of most American herbariums. Twenty of the Al e he 23 Callophyllis laciniata on the coast of Madero but then . 129 j 6. On the Black Mildew of Walls.—Professor Lemmy remarked that in the number of “ Hardwicke’s Science Gossip” for August, gs this evening, — of er article by Professor Paley en- ae “Is the Blackness . Paul’s merely the effect of ly du flourish on limestone and in situations unaffected by the direct rays of the sun. Professor Leidy continued, that his attention had been called a number of years ago to a similar black appear- ance on the brick walls and granite work of houses in narrow Shaded streets, especially in the egies of the Delaware River. oticing a similar blackness on the bricks above the windows of . brewery, from er there en a constant escape of watery vapor, in a more central portion of the city, he was led to suspect that it was of a nS, nature, On examination, the black 840 Miscellaneous Intelligence. mildew proved to be an alga, closely allied to what he supposed to be the Protococcus viridis, which gives the bright green color to the trunks of trees, fences, and walls, mostly on the more shaded and northern side, everywhere in our vicinity. It probably may be the same plant in a different state, but, until proved to be so, may be Snriipeiahiod by the name of Protococeus lug gubris. It tinther, F.R Ss n two new ne cies of Fishes the siaseaten ie The species which “ names Gerres Jonesii, wil described by me in this Journal, vol. vii, August, 1874, p. 123, under the name Diapterus Lefro yt > that called by him Belone Jonesii, was also described by me, under the same name, an dedicated to the same worthy naturalist, in this J ournal, vol. xiv, my o escriptions were drawn up from other specimens col- lected by myself at nearly the same time and localit Smithsonian Institution, Feb. 17, 1879. G. BRO OWNE GOODE. 8. Alaska Chitons and Limpets. —aA paper on this evi gan by = H. Dall, giving a synopsis of the genera an the arious species with their synonymy, makes a vuhibiee of the Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum. “Tt is illustrated by four IV. MisceLLaANeous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. On the discovery of mineral wax, Ozocerite, in Utah ; by Professor J. 8, Newsrrry. (From a letter to the Editors. pa ace and m f oce e. He writes me as fol “The eographical position of the ozocerite deposits is in the Wahsatch ch on the head waters of the ——_ —_ e m Siok Sr ee ea Miscellaneous Intelligence. 341 ae sed brown ~- bluish a Prova 2 Tertiary age, and in of v s dimensi or less mingled with clay. These ‘ahaies attend from the Bait Pete e valley | ina north-northeast direction for a distance of fifty or sixty miles, and the width of : saw the wax-like exudation in several places, but only in small - quantity. Other jis in Salt Lake informed me that the parafiine itself is sometimes twenty feet thick, and that the quantity is enormous ; — but A var aa Clayton says that such statements are not t authorized by any facts which have come under his observation In the above remarks I have called the earth wax of Utah ozocerite. As it has been stated to be zietrisikite, I may say that Co.).—The third ceed & this new cima published in . Wanderings in South Amer t é United States and the Antilles, in aes pee 1812, a8t6. 1890. ist by Cuartes Waterton, Esq. New edition, ‘edited with ood, 520 pp. 8vo. London, 1879. "(Macmillan & Ber 8. _ Volume of “ Waterton’s Wanderings” was first published in 1825, number of readers. In the present edition the original account is - unaltered, but to this are added a full and appreciative biog- y of the "author, by the Rev. B. G. Wood, and a valuable Hoclnsacoe: Index, covering 150 pages, in which information is given in regard to the many unusual animals, birds and trees, mentioned in the body of the work. 342 Miscellaneous Intelligence. A Reai Telegraph. —A new invention of a really practical oe not a mere “paulo post futurum” invention like many we have heard of lately, has just been made by Mr. E. A. Cewnat writer writes in London, the ink marks in Brighton. We have seen this instrument at work, and its marvels are quite as startling as those of the telephone. "The pen at the receiving end has all the — of being guided by a spirit hand. The apparatus is shortly to ae — ea before the Society of Telegraph ean tae d wear, a vi of the nae his results cannot fail to have a nie value. Some Inst. Min. Engineer. ‘6. The Si acealener, published monthly in the a of the Science of Meteorology. Vol. i, No. 1, March, 1 Stump, editor, Greensburg, Pa. An eight-page prone devoted to meteoro ogy. . The Paleontologiat No. 3, Jan, 15, 1879, Cincinnati. Con- tains description of new species of fossils from the Lower and Upper Silurian oe of Ohio, by U. P. Jam OBITU Professor Gustav Lxonnarp, of ‘Heidelberg, died December 27, 1878. He was well known as the a a of works on Mineralogy and Geognosy, he as editor with Professer H. B. Geinitz, of the Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, acre und Paleontologie. extent significance of the Wisconsin Kettle Moraine, by T. C. Cham- hoewg A.M., a Geologist and Professor of Geology in Beloit wees (Trans. Wise. Sar wy of Sciences.) weaaeue e Annelida Chzetopoda of the Virginian ang: by H. E. Webster ( tions of the Albany Institute, vol. ix, rementlee puntes relativos alos Huracanes de las [Roti en ves omen ee y Octubre de a y a Se leido en rea Academia de Ciencias y Naturales de la Habana en Reaion Se del 9 de Septiembre de 1877 y ssiguents par el socio de morte, P to Vifies, S. J., Director del Observatorio. 253 pp. 8vo. unas ca 187 The Local Geology oo Davenport, Iowa; by Rev. W. H. Barris ran, 08 Academy Natural Sciences, Sept., 1876). New Fossils from the Corniferous For- mation at Davenport (ibid., Oct., 1878). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. ; [THIRD SERIES,] 4 + Art XLI.—Ezperiments in Cross-Breeding Plants of the same variety ; by Professor W. J. BEAL. EARLY in the spring of 1877, the writer received the first _ review of Darwin’s book on “The Effects of Cross and Self- _ fertilization of Plants.” The book seemed to be a most in- Cross on those stalks. Seed from this cross was saved an planted to compare with corn not so crossed. The yield from the crossed seed exceeded the yield of that not crossed, as one hundred and fifty-three (153) exceeds one hundred (100). Crossing black wax beans.—There were, as shown in the plat below, eight short rows two feet apart with the plants finally thinned on J uly 10th, to five plants about fifteen inches apart Am. Jour. Sct.—TairpD ge Vou. XVIIL—No. 101, May, 1879. °844 W. J. Beal—Cross-lreeding Plants of the same variety. in the row. The seed for half the rows (alternating) is called “old stock,” and was raised in the garden the previous year from seeds which descended from those raised on the place for nine years or more. The “crossed stock” was obtained as follows: in 1877, some seeds of the same variety of beans were purchased of James Vick. These were planted in a drill evenly mixed with seeds of the old stock. These grew and looked alike, but the flowers were inter-crossed by bees. Seeds of this crop are termed “‘erossed stock.” On May 81, 1878, fifteen seeds were planted in each of the eight rows. The plants from the crossed seeds were generally much the largest and as will be seen kept green the longest. In ten days after planting, seeds of the old stock came up in MRO ON TOHOWE Se oc ce eek At 1 eee In ten days the crossed stock came as follows: 12,10, 6, 11=39 In seventeen days the old stock came as follows: 7, 11, 10, 10=38 :- ‘ crossed “ 4 12, 13, 10, 14-49 Old stock . 36 1 dead 7-19-57 Crossed stock dead 0 0 1 8 41 Old stock ~ 0 0 O° 41 = 18 Crossed stock 6 22 34 7 = 79 Old stock 30 0 0 0 0== 30 Crossed stock 41 37 21 si OS 130 Old stock 0 0 0 0 2= 2 Crossed stock 16 29 30 2° 2s 103 Total old stock == 106 Total crossed stock = 353 This variety is greatly raised for the purpose of supplying an early crop of beans to eat pods and all while young. The difference will be seen to be over three to one in favor of the crossed stock. : On August 9, the pods fit for cooking or past that condition were as follows: Old stock 52 60 dead 43 45 = 200 k 16 Crossed stock dead 24 51 88= 174 Old stock $8 46 44 71 37 = 236 rossed stock 35 52 se a8 OG = 276 Old stock 39 34 30 47 87 = 237 Crossed stock 63 48 1. 6G Ot = C249 stock 38 46 54 Ss 39 = 210 Crossed stock 38 52 ss 8i= 340 90 Total old stock — 883 Total crossed stock — 1048 W. J. Beal—Cross-breeding Plants of the same variety. 345, On or before September 16, all were harvested. The pods on each plant numbered as follows: Old stock 60 62 dead 45 39 = 206 ‘ Crossed stock dead 160 54 29 139 = 382 Old stock 45 48 $e; Vi $7 = 287 Crossed stock 36 145 91 42 61 395 45 35 87 38 35> 190 Crossed stock 103 68 55 cP he wea Ba gare 429 Old stock 30 39 48 28 40— 185 Crossed stock 136 9 58 172 128= 653 Total old stock = 818 Total cross stock = 1859 On comparing the table for August 9th, with that for Sep- tember 16, it will be seen that some plants of the old stock had lost part of their fruit. This was on account of the decay of 101 pods. The table also shows that two branches were broken and had died before maturing. These contained 73 pods. Adding 101 and 73 to 818, we have 992 pods of the old, against 1859 of the crossed. In harvesting, all those pods badly damaged were rejected. The beans of the old stock weighed 29°77 ounces avoirdupois, those of the crossed stock weighed 70°33 ounces ayoirdupois, or nearly in the proportion of 100 to 236. The difference would be a little less, if we allow for the broken plants and decayed pods on the old stock. One plant of the old and one plant of the crossed stock died early and produced no fruit. Six lots of 50 beans each, were taken at random from the old stock and weighed as follows: 50 seeds 281 grains. 50 seeds 260 grains. 50 seeds 262 grains. 50 seeds 259 grains. 50 seeds 270 grains. 50 seeds 284 grains. Total, 1,616 grains. Average, 2693 grains, The same number of seeds were taken from the crossed stock and weighed as follows: 50 seeds 220 grains, 50 seeds 210 grains. 50 seeds 219 grains. 50 seeds 210 grains. 50 seeds 200 grains. 50 seeds 220 grains. Total, 1,279 grains. Average, 2134 grains, The average weights of an equal number of beans from each stock were nearly as 100 to 79 in favor of the old stock. Agricultural College, Lansing, Michigan. * This plant contained a dead branch with 21 immature pods. + This plant contained a dead branch with 52 immature pods. 346 W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. FART. XLIL—On the Force of Effective Molecular Action ; by Professor W. A. Norton. [An abstract of this paper was read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 18, 1878.] In my paper on the variability of the ultimate molecule, pub- lished in the March number of this Journal, I gave the follow- ing theoretical expression for the force of effective action of one ultimate molecule of a body on another contiguous to it, deduced from certain fundamental conceptions which were succinctly stated : a n(3r’+-2re) _ m (1) (r2)(2rfay 2 in which x denotes the distance between the electric envelopes of the contiguous molecules; r the distance between the center of emanation of the attractive force, f, represented by the first term, and that of the repulsion /’, represented by the second term; n the coefficient of the attraction /, and m that of the repul- sion /’. The expression has been simplified by making one or two assumptions that do not strictly accord with fact, but which can occasion no material error in the general discussion now proposed ; as will be shown on another occasion. If we put e=ur, — =k, and =P; it becomes k(3+-2u) 1 F= peraeotiy Fy 2 (appara — x If this be a true theoretical expression for the force of effec- tive molecular action, it should comprise the essential mechani- eal theory of solids, liquids, and gases, as well as the special mechanical features of individual substances; and should suc- cessfully withstand all the quantitative and qualitative tests that ean be applied to it. I propose now to give the result of the application of a number of such tests ; and to show that the char- acteristic features and laws of the three different states of aggre- gation are deducible from it. : Theory indicates that in the comparison of different solids, liquids, or gases, among themselves, at the same temperature, P (= “) may be regarded asconstant. In fact we shall for the resent assume that both m and r, as well as p, are constant for substances in the same state of aggregation, when the tempera ture is the same. Upon this assumption one substance will dif- fer from another, in its essential molecular condition, only in the value of &, that is of the ratio — of the coefficients of the W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. 847 attractive and repulsive —_— fand /. I have made a series of calculations of the values of F for various assigned values of curve that may be termed a curve of ¢ e molecular action. 4. Fig. 1 is such a curve answering to k= 5-428. In F curve c, the same curve is shown on a smaller scale has horizontal and vertic eal). Curve a in this figure answers to k=1 ive , and curve 6 answers to k= 9-44. Fig. ge force obtaining at other distances z. The distance » is that which obtains when no extern _ force of stress is in as Oe, that may gh e when a pressive stress is aie to the body, effective Lo. er, is repulsive. When a tensile stress is in Seiten increasin distance , the effective force, as 2s, becomes attractive, and increases in in- tensity to the maximum value bm, at the moment of rupture. At greater distances, as 08, the ‘effective attraction falls off ; and passes into a repulsion when the distance becomes greater than Oc. This repulsion increases with the distance to a maxi- mum dn, and then diminishes continually to an indefinite dis- 848 W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. tance. This effective repulsion, operating beyond the sphere of the effective attraction, manifests itself as a force of resist- ance in the contact of bodies. A glance at the curves, (a), (0), (c) in fig. 2, will show that the neutral distance, Oa, (see type gt k increases. The maximum attractive ordinate increases, in terms of p, as & increases, but the maximum repulsive ordi- nate augments as & diminishes. 2. The special calculations I have made answer to various as- sumed values of the ratio k, ranging from 0 to 20, _I find that when this ratio exceeds 4-934, the effective force will be attrac- tive over a certain range of distance, and thus that a portion ©. the representative curve will lie above the axis z, as in the curves shown in fig. 2; and that when this ratio is less than 4934, the effective action will be repulsive at all molecular distances, and therefore that the curve will lie wholly below the axis, x, as 1n fig. 3. We must, therefore, conclude that for all solids and liquids, & must exceed 4-934. The ig oe of the pulses of heat by the pees oie’ envel- curve of effective molecular action. When by access of heat, this ratio is brought to a certain small value SS SS ee ee ea 2 : : a "a q : W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. 849 inci greater than 4°934, the molecules are in general brought into a certain condition answerin g to the liquid state, and liquefaction ensues. When, by a still further rise of tem- perature k equals 4°934, the liquid has reached the boiling point in vacuo. The curve of effective molecular action is now that shown in fig. 8 for £=4-93, and the distance between the molecular envelopes, is 2°84 r All special curves, answering to particular solids or liquids, ie state. a) 0 of these is that the curves differ little from a right line at the neutral i a (fig. 1). This corresponds, graphically, to the well known law of molecular displacement, noe the effective resistance developed is, for small displace- ents, porportional to the displacement. The ratio of the effective force 2s, to the displacement a2, may be taken as the measure of the coefficient of elasticity, in considering the is a conspicuous result of the fiiecwisitien of the equation—that as the tensile stress increases, the coefficient of elasticity . measured by the ratio just stated, should diminish slowly a rst and then more rapidly. Baporiaient has established tna in general the coefficient of elasticity of a material varies after is manner. But to make the test more decisive, I have made a series of detailed comparisons of the theoretical with ex- perimental results. It appears that for all values of & rang- ing from 7-576 to 20 (which, as will hereafter appear, ma be regarded as including all the more tenacious solids) the law of variation of the molecular ratio, zp (fig. 1); from the point @ to m (i. e. from zero of stress to the point of rupture) is sensibly the same. Thus at the point m, answering to rupture, this ratio becomes reduced to 0°303 of its value at the neutral point, a, when k=20; to 0°301 when 4=12-41; and to 0°316, when k=7576; and. the correspondence is equally close at points intermediate between a and m, ave computed the = comparative values of the ratio —s, for eighteen supposed val- ues of the displacement, a2, atid ‘aac this scale of com- puted values,—which, as we have j just seen, should answer to any 850 W..A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. of the more tenacious materials—with a corresponding series of experimental values of the coefficient of elasticity for bars of cast iron, wrought iron, steel and oak; with the following results, For a bar of cast iron, experimented on by Captain Rodman (U. 8. Army), the correspondence is very close. The greatest ratio of error does not exceed ;'5. For five bars of wrought iron taken for comparison, the correspondence proves tolerably close up to a stress equal to half the tenacity ; but at the higher ratios of stress, the coefficient of elasticity diminishes much more rapid- ly than the theory calls for. For the cast steel bar taken, the stead of »;. Four bars of blister steel examined present a case with it by admitting that some m ing causes are in opera- tion which tend to produce abnormal deviations from the theo- retical results obtained from our formul ow, as a matter of fact, such modifying causes are k exist. We have dimensions and its forces, under the operation of varying forces of stress; that & is liable to variation, and hence that the values of #’ for the same values of « may change, and the mo- lecular curve shift its position and rise or fall according as & increases under the stress or diminishes. As for the actual stress are adequate forces 0 to the production of all the deviations, under consideration, represent stress amounted to a large fraction of the breaking weight, which may be reasonably ascribed to a flow of the molecules. : ’ W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. 851 (3.) The distance ab, (fig. 1) between the neutral point and the point of rupture increases from 0°302r for k=20, to 0-60r for k=5°428. This is about its maximum value. From this value of & to the ratio 4°934 it decreases from 0°60r to zero. Now r is the distance between the centers of attraction and contiguous molecules. We should then expect, on theoretical grounds, that when a bar suffers rupture under a tensile stress, the elongation would be a small fraction of its lengt is ] well known to be generally true for the more tenacious mate- rials (e. g. the metals and different varieties of wood). India rub- ris a striking exception. Its great extensibility is probably due to a great expansibility of its molecular envelopes, under a tensile stress. The unequal extensibility of different quali- ties of wrought iron, also finds its theoretical explanation in an unequal expansibility of molecular envelopes, with the attend- ant variations in the molecular curve. (4.) The ordinates of the portion ra of the molecular curve represent the molecular resistance developed by a compressive stress. These increase (as they should do) without limit, as the distance Oe between the molecules diminishes. en rup- ture occurs under a compressive stress, it is because the molec- ular actions developed in directions oblique to the line of thrust induce a tensile strain at right angles to this line, and a shear- Ing strain in oblique directions, the resistance to one or the other of which is overcome. The distance Oa is not the limit to the possible diminution in the distance between the centers of contiguous molecules, since the act of compression will com- press their envelopes, and so diminish the size of the effective molecules. (5.) The ordinates of the portion me of the molecular curve represent the effective attractions that come into operation dur- and the separation becomes complete. : Beyond d the curve represents the force of contact resist- ance. To test this portion of the curve, I undertook in 1876, to determine experimentally the laws of variation of this force. For this purpose the diminutions of contact distance produced by varying increments of pressure, under varying condition with regard to the nature, condition, and extent of the surfaces 352 W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. in contact, were determined. The following are the general results obtained.* (1.) The diminutions of contact distance are very nearly the same, for the same increments of pressure, whatever is the nature or condition of the surfaces in contact. (2.) They are very nearly independent of the extent of the surface of contact. (8.) The diminution of distance for a given increment of pressure (say 1 oz.), is nearly inversely proportional to the pres- sure. of the maximum repulsion the curves answering to different values of &, and therefore to different materials, approach very near to each other, and beyond 1007 are very nearly coinci- dent, and have nearly the same inclination to the axis of x. This results from the fact that the attractive term in the formula for the effective foree becomes at such distances very small, in comparison with the repulsive term which has the same value for different materials when the temperature is the same. To the same small diminution of distance should then correspond very nearly the same increment of the repulsive ordinate, for the molecular curve of each substance. The second law follows as a consequence from the third. As for the third law, it is to be observed that at the contact distances that obtained in the experiments, which must have been much greater than that, Od, answering to the maximum repulsive ordinate dn, the first term in equation (1), (p- 346) nearly vanishes, and so the effective repulsion (2) expressed by R=, is nearly inversely proportional to the square of «. Theoretically then, the diminution of distance (dz) for small increments of the repulsion (dR) should be inversely propor- tional to R*, or nearly so, instead of inversely proportional to R, as experiment showed. Here, as in previous cases, the dis- such compression should increase the value of &, bring the repul- sive portion en, etc., (fig. 1) of the curve of effective molecular action nearer the axis Ocd, and so cause dx to decrease according to a less rapid law than would obtain if & and the corresponding curve remained constantly the same (which is represented by z In confirmation of this explanation it may be added that a change in the mechanical condition of the contact molecules, * See this Journal, June, 1876. : , ; 4 y 4 ; : i W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. 58 during contact pressure, correspondent to this ie ge inter- pre etation, was directly revealed by the experimen The experiments ziinded to, besides revealing ‘the laws of variation of the contact repulsion, showed that it was a force in operation beyond the range, Oc, of the effective molecular at- body in accordance with the indications of the molecular curv It “will robably occur to the reader that our formula and curve of effective eee action, afford no indication of a possible force of adhesive attraction, such as often manifests itself in the contact of aha This defect results from the fact that the formula involves a supposition which is not strictly true in cases of contact. The more comprehensive formula is: , FOES are eT eT em, dba dpa 2 (2r+2)? ag? and equation (1) is obtained by supposingn’=n. This pce! may not strictly exist in the contact of bodies, and n’ may be Pieces of plate glass in contact may be separated by the continu- Ous exertion of a force ever so small. ave now examined the general features of the typical molec- ular curve for solids, and shown that they represent diverse general mechanical properties of solids that have been experi- miolocats ascertained. Let us now endeavor to thera the tatio k for each material, and so obtain a series of definite ex- pressions, or corresponding molecular curves, answering to the Materials considered. But the value of & for a given sub- Stance is, from the nature of the case, incapable of direct deter- 854 W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. as a standard of comparison ; then the ratio which the coefficient — of elasticity of any other material bears to that of wrought iron, ‘ . i will make known the value of its molecular ratio a (fig. 1) at Some eee n=number of atoms (ultimate mole- cules) in unit of length =%/N; KH= coefficient of elasticity; T'=tenacity ; f=intensity of effective attraction between two contiguous molecules at the neutral distance, developed by an increment of distance, equal to ;47. This, in fig. 1, is repre- sented by the ordinate 2s corresponding to the small displace- ment a2. 4=max. ordinate of the molecular curve. ¢, ¢, an ce” are constants. of volume= 2 ve E=c—=<0fn. Tae! Fr’. n r 7576, its value is 0°05. Its maximum value is ae and ob- tains when /=o, in which case k=4-934, and the molecular curve falls entirely below the axis x. / is expressed in te of ao or p, considered as unity (see page 346). For the more 2 : 7 ee ae ee W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. 355 tenacious materials we may take, with but little error, r “Tog 1007" For calculating the maximum ordinate we have the formula, a = With these formule I have calculated the theoreti- by experiment ith most of the materials the experimen determinations of coefficients of elasticity and tenacity used, are known, or the ood rez believe, answer to Same specimen; but in the cases of zinc, brass, and tin, the coef- ficient of elasticity and the tenacity may have been obtained with different specimens. Tenacity. Material. Coeff. of Elas., E. aaaee a. Culeukaiads? a. Wrought Iron 25,000,000 Ibs. | 55,000 Ibs. Teak 2,214,000 “ | 15,000 “ | 14,600 Ibs. Locust 1,tob Get age TCL sa © 0: 1,311,100 “ 8,500 “ 8,170 * Scotch Fir 800 © 3.520 * 3,586 + ppe 16,447,400 “ | 36,180 “ | 36,460 “ Zinc Wire 13,680,000 “ | 22.551 “ |-2%,950 “ Brass, cast 9,170,000 18,000 “ | 20,300 Tin, cast ise a 00R Ce 650 * 7,820 “ ree 720,000 “ 1,824; + 1,870 * _ It seems from these results that our molecular formula (equa- tion 2) enables us to compute the comparative tenacities of ma- close approximation to the truth; also that a scale of mo- lecular curves may be deduced from it which serves to repre- molecular curve for wrought iron is that answering to k= 12-41 (fig. 2) curve (a). But the laws of variation of the neu- tral distance, d, and the maximum ordinate, /, are so nearly Constant over a wide range of variation in the value of &, and thus of the corresponding molecular curve, that the assumed Curve for wrought iron might be considerably changed without materially impairing the correspondence between the computed and observed tenacities. The exponent of d in the expres- en 3°2, varies only from 3:1 to 3-4 over the entire range of values of & from 20 to 5-4; and the value of wu in the expres- * Each molecule is subject to the action of : veral stead of the Rearest one only, but the entire force taking effect on it is equal to the effective ie i G | he action of the nearest molecule multiplied by a factor which should be nearly con- Stant for different materials. 856 W. $ 8 S, & = = wm Bt 3 fas) =} M 16 of his New York Geological Report (1843), across the “mountains fifteen miles farther south, represents the limestone of Salisbury as dipping westward beneath the slates while those of the west dip eastward, as they do elsewhere on that side of the mountains. Further; my own recent observations in Nor- isbury, within three miles of the Massachusetts line, confirm those which I made just north in Western Sheffield; J. D. Dana— Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. 377 that the limestone along the eastern foot of the mountains (near or west of the nearest road to them) dips westward—the dip being found to be 45° to 60° to the west, with the strike between N. 3° E. and N. 8° W. (true). (2.) The recent discovery, by T. Nelson Dale, Jr., of fossils of the Hudson River group in the slates or argillaceous schists of Poughkeepsie, on the Hudson River, (sustaining the early views of the New York geologists, Professor W. W. Mather and Professor James Hall,) affords another line of approach to the Taconic Mountains of Massachusetts, and presents further evi- dence of their Hudson River age. In the first place, the lime- stone belt which lies, as above remarked, at the western foot of these mountains along through Hillsdale and Copake, and which is the western side of the mountain synclinal, branches off from Copake south-southwest through middle and western Ancram, and extends along the whole course of the valley of Wappinger Creek to'the Hudson River, which it reaches only four miles below Poughkeepsie, with a single interruption of less than three miles; and it is everywhere conformable to the argillaceous schists which border it on the east, including those of Poughkeepsie; and also with those on the west, except along a region of faulting near Bangall and Stissing Mountain (a range bordering the limestone area on the west between Stissingville and Pine Plains.) This continuation of the slates and limestone northeastward, from the Poughkeepsie region to the Copake, renders it highly probable that the same lime- ‘stone formation which adjoins, and is con ormable to, the Hudson River slates or schists of Poughkeepsie, adjoins, is con- formable to, and underlies the schists of the Taconic Mountains. The limestone of Wappinger Valley is the Barnegat lime- stone of Mather—so named from a locality on the Hudson, river northeastward to Copake (not noting the break in it) ;* one mile of Newburgh, into the town of New Windsor, in Which it ends, not far from the Archean of the New Jersey Highlands, in a small body of water called Little Pond. ‘The Writer has examined the limestone at various points along the valley ; and he has found the conformability to the slates, stated by Mather, to be very generally true. The limestone area is ’ d 437. In the h on p. 437 here daterred "Ma bias Ge aba we we die conrién Ul Go cane Duicbamn limestone areas, to, 378 J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. similar to the limestone region east of the Taconic Mountains in having large limonite beds, not only in Copake and farther north, but also in Central Ancram and beyond to the south ; among them the Reynold’s ore-pit, three to four miles south- west of the Weed ore-pit of Southern Copake, and the Morgan, a mile and a half farther south. Thus the observations accord well with the view that the limestone belt which borders conformably the Hudson River argillaceous schist of Pough- stone formation that outcrops around Dorset, Rutland and Middlebury, Vermont. The occurrence of limonite beds along the junction between the schists and limestone, as a result of their alteration, in both the eastern and western belts, is an additional mark of general identity. Copake limestone belt, west of the area of the Taconic Moun- tains. The map also gives the position of the southern part of the “Great Central” limestone belt of the Green Moun-— eight miles south of Pawling, and just east and f the Archean Highlan These areas, where broadest, include some intercalated beds of schist and isolated schist e map also ig : that of Kent and Cornwall, and that of Brookfield and New Milford. The T-like symbols over the map, indicate the strike and dip from my observations. | (8.) Besides this stratigraphical evidence we now have more positive evidence from the occurrence of Trenton fossils in the lime- stone of some parts of Wappinger Valley. Professor Mather makes the statement in his quarto New York ne (repeating it from his Annual Report of 1838), that in a of slaty limestone existing in the slates one-and-a-fourt to one-and-a-half miles north of Barnegat, “a few fossils were J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. 379 Map w, Dutchess and the adjoining g bing std of Eastern New ork, with a portion of Weste fonnecticut and Southwestern Mabdskiel ts. re fineram og ~/ oul ~iw A. Pen ee ~)y pr ss I “(i Ti ~| = ee)! ay i vv vv . CARMELO Dutchess eo is — between the vcgeests lines AB B.C. on the north, tal CD on the m the nort Jolum unty, and on the south, Put- e Ar ia ands of P tnam Cow snd are & ceaiicasieoai of those o Orange Coat: mew ve rk, and Susse gy New Jersey. The light area: rese mane my ‘i west is the Connect- C., m Corners ; = mat Valen: Sh., ee two streams k. Seale, 1 Oth, of an inch to a 880 J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. found that have been recognized as belonging to the Trenton limestone.”* The names of the species are not given. e Barnegat limestone is not far distant to the south and is the next adjoining stratum. The Poughkeepsie slates dip beneath the limestone, the dip being southeastward. But if the rocks are in folds and the limestone makes an anticlinal, it is an inferior bed notwithstanding the position.t In the Barnegat or Wappinger Valley limestone, which is a dark gray, semi- crystalline rock, Professor Mather found no distinct fossils. He states that his assistant, Professor C. Briggs, “in making his section from Poughkeepsie to Canaan in Connecticut, dis- covered faint traces of shells at a quarry a little south of Pleasant Valley on the bank of Wappinger’s Creek; but they were too imperfect for determination. They were sit- uated between the slaty layers, which have a dip to the south-southeast of 35° to 40°.” Mather quotes also Professor riggs as reporting that Mr. William Thorn of this place (Pleasant Valley) had informed him that “he had often seen shells in the lime rock, although they are rare.” rofessor Mather himself visited that quarry half a mile southwest of Pleasant Valley (about seven miles north- east of Poughkeepsie), he would not have left the fossiliferous character of the limestone in doubt, and inserted discrediting remarks in his Report. Besides, Logan’s unfortunate idea of the Quebee group extending over the region, and some other wrong geological inferences, would never have had birth. At a visit to the locality this spring, in order to ascertain the facts in the case (in which I was accompanied by Professor Wm. B. Dwight of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie) I found fossils abund- ant and distinct. Among them we observed at the time of our visit, remains of two or three species of Crinoids, Cyathophyl- lowd corals, Lepteena sericea, Orthis tricenaria, O. testudinaria, Orthoceras junceum,§ forms suggesting Strophomena alternata pebbles of a conglomerate layer, proved to be worn specimens of a Cheetetes ? with col inch in diameter. The snow was deep over the country (so as n since either “on foot” or “on wheels” would have been attended with some difficulty), and hence a full examination of the locality could not then be made. It cannot be, for the * Page 401. + Professor Mather calls the Barnegat limestone Calciferous, apparently because he had proved a limestone bed above it—that above referred to—to contain Trenton fossils; he could have had no other reason for it, for he says that he had no fossils from it. 3 Page 410. The form, size, and distance between the septa, are the same as in this species. J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. 381 same reason, at pes sis a time (March 21), and I a left the region to be reported on further by Professor Dwig Another locality af. fossils in the Wappinger Valley limestone at nuvi four miles east of crete sie, had bee tion to join me in the excursion—-and it is not less prolific. Great surfaces are covered with the Crinoidal remains, and all inches wide at its larger end, and remains of large specimens of Receptaculites. I refer to the article ee this for Professor Dwight’s preliminary account of t Previously, early in December file ps tine the first snow- storm of the late snowy winter), I made a search for fossils at the northern end of the Wappinger Valley limestone, in eastern Ancram, just west of the extremity of Winchell’s Mountain and not three miles distant from the Taconic Mountains, and found what I then and now believe to be the common Trenton species, Orthis occidentalis ;* and with it there is another kind, d thickness indicated in the accompanying figure. The thin shell is con- verted into white calcite (through the espaol sm) ex- cepting in some parts an extremely thin exterior layer; and over a portion of the exterior (at c) there are sections of a few of the “igus The hinge side of the shell wanting in the specimen. Sige section made through the more convex (or ventral) valve was found to have the form which it should have if of the species here ; supposed ; and so for the other alee: The evidence is therefore ae strong in favor of its being this common Trenton Brachi- 1. ec The forms referred doubtingly to Strophomena allernata have the arcuated outline, shape and thickness, that would belong to sections of this arcuate shell. They are of white cal- cite and correspond to individuals one to two inches broad and diminishing mostly from a fourth to a sixteenth of an inch in thickness. Besides the sections, there are ae broad concave surfaces like the inner surface of valves. ppearance 0: Striation can be detected in connection with oa of the forms. * The specimens were from a large freshly broken = of limestone by the road side that was evidently derived froin an outcrop near by. 882 J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. I have been again over the Ancram region, but without finding other specimens—the limestone being much: more crystalline than it is toward Poughkeepsie. The fossils of Pleasant Valley and Rochdale, prove that the limestone of Wappinger Creek Valley contains a stratum of the age of the Trenton; and that of Ancram has the same bearing. The width of the part of the belt at the two former places is two-thirds to three-fourths of a mile; and since the be containing the fossils is, at each of these localities, within 200 to 230 yards of the eastern margin of the limestone belt, it is probably one and the same bed. The lithological character of the rock sustains this. The western margin lies conformably against the Poughkeepsie ‘Hudson River” slate; and hence the a. western portion also must bé Trenton. It follows then: first, that the belt is an anticlinal of limestone (as represented in the figure, f, toward the east side, being _. the observed fossiliferous bed); and, sec- \ ondly, that the slate on the east of it is of \\Y Hudson River age, as well as that west. Further: these facts, and the concurring evidence from Ancram, where the lime- stone is essentially the Copake limestone, leave little doubt that Trenton beds continue northward to the very foot of the Taconic Mountains; and that the schists of the Taconic Mountains, like those of either side of the Wappinger Valley, including Winchell’s Mountain, are Hudson River in age. The Wappinger Valley belt may have at centre a Chazy or other subjacent limestone stratum; and if so, the fact would only make more complete the identity of the Poughkeepsie and Vermont formations. n the vicinity of Stissing Mountain there are quartzyte out- crops ; and, if the rock is of the age of the Potsdam sandstone, the portion of the limestone next adjoining may be Calciferous. The mountain consists of fine-grained, gray gneiss, along with slate on the west, and at the southern end the gneiss contains minute zircons; I reserve the discussion of the age of the gneiss for another paper—the first draught of which was made nearly eight years since. (4.) But this Wappinger Valley limestone is not the only south- extension of the e limestone. Another (see Map) extends from it southward by the western foot of the Taconic Mountains through Boston Corners and Millerton; and in the vicinity of the latter place it has its limonite beds. Thence it takes a south-by-west course through Western Amenia, and J. D. Dana— Hudson River Age of the Taconie Schists. 888 Eastern Washington. It stops in the latter town just east of Mabbitsville. But six miles south, in the next town, Unionvale, it appears again in the valley of the Clove, and follows Fishkill Creek to its junction with the Hudson. At Poughquag, it has the extraordinary breadth of three miles, and it continues to have great width past the village of Old Fishkill; but it then narrows, becomes confined to “the south side of the Fishkill of she borders of the oe: River region and the schists of the Taconic Mountain e limestone is chroughiad as decidedly crystalline as in the northern half of the . ae belt (though never coarsely so); and hence fossils e uncommon if occ ring in it at all. In many slaske. pees suggesting a fousil origin are to be met with. Wherever the limestone contains seams of quartz such indi- cations rarely occur, the most suggestive appearances being small and thin isolated oe of quartz, arcuate in section. Since carried forward by hot siliceous waters (not cold, as in the case of silicified shells in an unaltered limestone) during a time of m where the limestone is without quartz, and the seams and spots it contains are of white calcite. One of this kind, which I the base of the Taconic Mountains, seemed to be part of a valve of a ribbed Brachiopod, and others of like cage ahh ness were met with in some of the limestone cuts betw Hopewell and Fishkill. Such appearances favor the ex tion that digfingt fossils sie ee * ioe in am belt. tia ri i small in the limestone evidently concealed beneath. The limestone reappears where ag valley opens again, along Clove Brook, and is thence continuous to the Hu 384 J. D. Dana—Audson River Age of the Taconic Schists. miles west of Hopewell I obtained specimens looking closely like the Wappinger Valley Chetetes, but with its structure lost. — Between the Wappinger-Valley and Fishkill-and-Millerton belts, there are other outcrops of limestone. ne area, nearly six miles long, lies between the northern ends of these belts, in the Shekomeko Valley. (See the map.) Winchell’s Mountain bounds it on the east, and Husted station is toward its northern extremity. The limestone is similar to that of the Fishkill-and-Millerton belt, but has in many parts 3. a delicate bedding that companying figure (from a photograph) represents, natural size, figures on @ stone, from a ledge near Shekomeko Station (.Sh.), which are of white calcite and similar to those al- ed t ‘ ee Another specimen con- tains a group of black curving surfaces, which are unques- tionably of organic origin, and look like impressions of a obi I road. nother area exists just below the Verbank railroad station, where two small hills of a badly rifted, quartz-seamed, gnarle limestone occur, which is various in strike, but mostly nearly north and south, and is without continuation at surface either north orsouth. A third occurs at Arthursburg, hardly eight miles south of Verbank. I learn from Professor Dwight, that a ledge, 1,800 feet wide occurs two miles southeast of Pleasant Valley. Mather mentions one between Redhook and Milan. Over the country between the two Dutchess County limestone belts, the dip, excluding some local exceptions, is eastwa (mostly between east-by-south and east-southeast) and the beds, as has been stated, are all conformable. It is true that the cleavage of slates is not always conformable to the stratification ; but since over this region the lamination in them corresponds in all cases with the bedding of the many intervening limestone strata, the uncertainties which are thus introduced do not affect the above general statement as to conformability and eastward dip. Ina ink a to this paper, the actual dips and courses observed, will be given. Rocks.—The schists and limestone east of the Taconic Moun- tains are more crystalline than those west, and the crystalline J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. 385 character diminishes from these mountains westward toward the udson, just as it diminishes along their line northward toward Central Vermont. The rocks are mica schist and hydromica schist, and to the south micaceous gneiss, over the eastern part of Dutchess County; but, approaching Poughkeepsie, the schist in part fails even of the glossy luster, and becomes dull argil- laceous and partly carbonaceous schist. orth of Dutchess its extremity, south of Towner's, where, in a dry portion of a large marsh, north of Croton Lake, the limestone is ex view, alternating with coarse oneiss. In the slate ridge next est, the northern extremity of which is called Winchell’s Mou stad (west of Boston Corners and Millerton), the rock is argillyte, and hydromica schist, partly chloritic; but to the south, it becomes gradually coarser, being a mica schist on its eastern or more crystalline side, at Wassaic ; and ten miles farther south, a decided mica schist on its western side and still coarser on the east; and even gneissoid south of this.* Mather recog- nized the same changes, in this range of alata, stating it thus (Rep. N. Y. Geol., p. 433) : “in its northern part, of slate and talcose and chloritic slates; the middle part, of mica slate; and the southern portion, of gneiss.” The extremity of the “Great ntral” limestone belt is in the area of Croton lake.+ ‘Taconian,” are here of one and the same age, a and they leave udson River Group. Quartzyte occurs adjoiaing the mea cea southwest of Mat- Satan, three miles from the Hudson River—a locality pointed out tome ie Mr. vege M. Woleott. of Pishkill The quartzyte * Acco section by Prof. N > Nalco (received by the author from him in eva) hes the top a yWinchell’s eg re n eastward to Lakeville, seven miles, along a ie is m. north of Millerton, the sk of Winchell’s Mountain west of the summit yte, and east of it mica schist; next east is the Millerton limestone aceite pei miles wide; next, mica schist, of the same width, having, on the West a thin stratum of “ beep. 29, brows hornblende schist, some cps mica- ceous” (as seen in a section on the Connecticut R. og egpe en, the Ramstons of Lakeville. tee ap is stated to obs north of east, cons age : Lakeville where there is a low anticlin _t It is rather peabable, that an anoles £33 exists two miles er south, in the Site of another pond south of Dykeman’s, though none is in a There is here a final termination of Se tlhe oe heh Archzean hills. 386 J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. was jointed and obscure in its bedding; but since a limonite deposit (usually situated in these regions, between conformable strata of schist or quartzyte and limestone) adjoins it, and the proprietor, Mr. Wolcott, found this one resting on beds approaching the quartzyte in character, it is very probable that the stratum is conformable with the limestone, whose outcrops are not far distant, and that it is of the age of the Potsdam sandstone. The adjoining portion of the limestone may hence prove to be Calciferous or Chazy. Quartzyte rests on the Archean also at Poughquag, but in nearly horizontal beds (see this Journal, III, 111, 250, 1872) indicating a fault between it and the adjoining limestone. Mather mentions its occurrence also at Shenandoah. At Glenham near Fishkill, a flesh-red, coarse granite-like stratum (or “ bastard granite,” as it has been called) hes between the limestone and the slate, conformable to both; and it is evi- dently one of the stratified deposits, as is shown by its conform- able position, and its taking the color of the slate near the junction. The adjacent Archean Highlands were the source of the coarse granitic sand of which it was made. 2, DepenpENT RELATIONS OF THE Two DutcuEss CouNTY LIME- STONE BELTS AND Two EasTERN BELTS IN CONNECTICUT. The preceding map also represents, from Percival, two east- ern belts of limestone in Connecticut, the Kent belt and_ the New Milford belt; and I may add that I have been over these regions pretty thoroughly, and can attest to Percival’s correct- ness. Viewing these belts and the three to the west Pm gee wi stone belts—the strike about N. 20° E. along the southern half and on the eastern side of the northern half, and with N, 50° . as the average near the Housatonic River, as if from a J. D. Dana— Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. 387 wrench in the mass. On the southern portion of the east side both north and south of Kent, and also along a large part o the west side, the rock adjoining the limestone is quartzyte ; and next follows gneiss; the quartzyle in several places is gneis- probably the Potsdam sandstone; and in that case the con- formable gneiss will correspond to inferior beds of the Primor- dial, and the adjoining portion of the limestone belts may be Calciferous; further, the strata make an anticlinal over the intervening area of gneiss. This area includes some uncon- formable ledges, both in the northern and southern half, in which occur chondroditic limestone, syenyte, beds of titan- iferous magnetite, and hard gneisses, which may be Archean ; and if so, they are outliers of the large Archzean area of the Highlands which exists to the southwest. : 3. INFLUENCE OF THE LIMESTONE BELTS ON THE FEATURES OF THE SURFACE. Limestone being a brittle rock, the region of flexures, whatever the thickness of the overlying mass, would have been profoundly fractured, especially in anticlinals; and being also a soft rock, it would have been easily carried away by denuding agencies. The limestone belts are the chief courses, as Percival pointed 4, CONCLUSIONS. 1. The Taconic schists are, according to the evidence, of the _ age of the Hudson River group. _ _ 2. The conformability in the rocks between the eastern of the _ Connecticut belts and the Hudson, being established by obser- _ Vation, the five limestone belts are sop! as above sugg __ but five outcropping bands of the Lower Silurian limestone for- mations, brought to the surface by a series of flexures. 8. The.disturbance which upturned and crystallized the lime- _ Stones and other conformable Eanations in the Green Mountain _ area, through Vermont and Massachusetts, extended south over 388 J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. certainly a large part of Western Connecticut, and over Hastern New York at least to the Hudson. That hard gneisses and mica schists are among the included formations does not, in any way, affect the evidence or the con- clusions here deduced. These conclusions coincide partly with those reached by Professor Mather, as stated on pages 438, 464, and 628 of his Report, namely: (1) That the limestone of Hastern New York and the Green Mountain region, including that of West- chester County down to New York Island, is of the Trenton or Calciferous (Canadian) periods; (2) that the slates, gneiss, mica schist and other rocks, directly associated with the lime- stone in Massachusetts and elsewhere, are of the Hudson River age; (8) that the quartzyte is of the age of the Potsdam; (4) that the making of the Green Mountains and the metamorphism of Western New England, took place at the close of the Lower Silurian. Proposition (1) appears to me to be established, if we admit, in addition, that the limestone may in some places be in part Primordial, and leave out of consideration, for the present, that of Westchester County. Proposition (2) is pretty well demonstrated as far as the slates or schists of the Taconic il are concerned ; but,—as I present in the second of my a : region. Professor Mather has a separate chapter on “ Primary rocks” under which head he includes the rocks of the Highlands, and, with these, the gneisses and mica schists of Westchester County and New York Island. The distribution of the limestone areas of Westchester County with reference to one another and those of Connecticut, and their stratigraphical relations to the gneisses and mica schists associated with them, are a basis of evidenceon this question of age, and the facts I have observed and mapped I shall present in a following number of this Journal. The nature and stratification of the schistose rocks interven- ing between the Connecticut limestone belts I have studied — with some detail, and I propose, after further investigations, — and the removal of some doubts as to the limits of the included — Archean, to make these also the subject of another paper. NA yas os CERN ESE ANS ee Saee es peg tk Me eee et Beg Sted ee Bee = W. B. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley Limestone. 389 ‘Art. XLVII.—On some recent Explorations in the Wappinger k Valley Limestone of Dutchess County, New York; by Professor M. B. Dwieut, of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, WY; it attention was called to the — a character he Wappinger Valley limestone oe Dana to join him in deeaibathink a Poagan Valley, ofa reported locality of fossils doubtingly mentioned by Professor Mather.* In order to further the object in view, I made enquiries with regard to another reputed locality, at Boolian and the next day I was gratified to find the limestone pee abcunding in fossils. Since the excursion to this Pleasant Valley with Professor Dana, which took planes a few days later, I have continued my search in the Barnegat or Wappinger Creek dimedtane, he leaving the field to me, and have discovered still other localities ; and it is the object of this iy ¥8 to mention the facts thus far ascertained. my rp emi with this part of the country has been 4 vege a brief one, and as my researches have been conducted in the scanty hours that could be snatched from my collegiate work during the last four weeks, the results which I here put on record should be regarded as merely preliminary to the _ more careful ee of this interesting formation which ope to The first ‘leoatity which I examined was one at Rochdale, _ above alluded to, where objects of peculiar forms had been _ reported to have been found, though there is no evidence of any scientific examination. It is situated four miles northeast _ of Poughkeepsie, on the premises of Mr. Henry Titus The _ limestone here has a dip of 60° southeasterly, with a strike of . 86° E. (true). The examination, though short, afforded me abundant evidence of fossils, and some determinable species, as _ follows :—Leptena sericea, an internal cast of the ventral valve, _ Showing the characteristic form mh an TS for visceral _ attachment, and the strize in reverse; two specimens it rite tricenaria ; small encrinal columns in aueed iva: shell, two and a half centimeters in diameter, exbikiied 6 oO 4 A section, imbedded in es these, there are ma ny specimens of a species of Recep- laculites. Groups of ipa or club-shaped columns, half an inch or so long, pro nward, somewhat radially, from a hollow but rather firm chell of irregular form which varies much A Se & Report, 184 iT ce day oe mage knowledge my i mapaniermnggell poiirwest cil: J. _ Backus, of Vassar Cells foe for information of this locality, and ass ing out fossils, and to essrs. Henry an 36, Jan 1879. 7 4, On the Purification of Mercury.—Briut has propored to use alsa acid for the purpose of purifying mercury, and has freed twenty-five kilograms of mereury from Wood's fusible metal with which it was contaminated, in two hours by its means. Five into small globules, a little red chromate being form agi- tation is a until this red powder has OE and the Solution has becom n. By: a strong current of water, a gray powder of metallic pede is washed away, and the process is re- 404 Scientific Intelligence. peated if necessary. The accumulated mercury of five years of the author’s laboratory, some of which had been used to amalga- mate zincs and was semi-solid, was completely purified in an after- poon in this way. The loss is small, two kilograms of mercury, after three treatinents with 100 c.c. of the acid solution, washing heating to 150° and weighing, lost only 10 grams. —Ber 879 G. F. B 5. ikosyle me, a Seplibscunrbab Jrom the Paraffin of Brown 1 iat Sean and Haw WLICZEK have examined the chlor-deriva- produce the chloride it was at first treated with ree its weight of phosphoric chloride diluted with carbon tetrachloride, and heated in a sealed tube to 215°. But subsequently it was ae the Sraien was liquid. ter washing with water, it was sepa- rated from the unacted-on paraftin aby cooling to —15° C, and fractionated in vacuo. An oily liquid was obtained in this way which boiled at 225° to 230° and afforded on analysis the formula C,,H,,Cl, having evidently been produced from the body C,,H,,Cl, by loss of ae Distillation at the ordinary pressure decomposed it further, C,H,,CI=C,,H,+HCl The hydrocarbon thus ob- tained boiled at 314°— 315°, and the authors propose for it the name eikosylene. Its specific gravity is ‘O-8181, but its vapor. den- sity could not be determined, since it totally decomposed at 440°. It acts like an olefine, combining actively with halogens, forming a chloride C,,H,,Cl, and a corresponding bromide. It belongs | ~ the san gues series, being homologous with cetylene ©,,H,, it ighest member. The evidence that the hydrocarbon C,,H, mixed nara with others of higher boiling point, constitutes the paraffin of brown coal, seems well established.—Ber. Be se _— xil, 69, Jan. 1879, 6. On the Teuigocontion of Starch into Dextrose in ie ‘Cold. —It is known that starch is slowly transformed into dextrose when boiled for a long time with water. Rrean has made some obser- vations which seem to show that the same result may take place in the cold, though much more graduall A solution made by boiling one part of finely divided starch in 100 of water saturated with salt, and oe is imputrescible and may be preserved for along time. After a year the author’s solution appeared less sen- sitive to iodine, and after three or four years, it was not colored ba this reagent. It was neutral, limpid, contained no trace of any organized terment, reduced energetically the copper test and was browned by alkalies. Determined by the copper test, every 100 ¢.c. contained 0°111 gram dextrose; but using ferricyanide of potas- Pat ae Gee ae ee eee Chemistry and Physics. 405 sium which is not affected by dextrin, 100¢.c. contained 0°102 gram. ence a mixture of nine-tenths dextrose and one-tenth dextrin was formed from the starch. The solution, in a tube 200 mm. lon ferment, in the i of vegetable growth.— Bull. Soe. se i “a 10, Jan On the pene at pe of Aromatic Compounds, ~The stein method of representing aromatic isomers is either graphic, by the 8 i the letters . , or o, standing for para, meta or rtho, sing figures to represent the positions. Thus the Bbiotats os the pf tert Cc a ,-lBrI may be represented by Empirical. Symmetrical. Unsymmetrical. Neighboring. C,H,Cl, C,H,C1H,Cl C,H,ClIHC1 C.H,Cl1,H C,H,Cl, C,HCIHCIHCl] C,H,CIHC] C,H,Cl.H CHCl, CHCl we C.HOIHC], C.HCIH So if the positions 1, 2, 8, see benzene ring be filled by chlo- rine, bromine, iodine a pe rogen, the formulas will be C,H,ClBr I, ‘BrClHL,c, H ‘TcuBr, C,H,BrIHCl, —— C oH, BrCllH, etc. In the first of these formulas the Cl is symm rical with the I, is in the neighboring position seers the Br, while the Br and I are 0 situated. So th e naphthalene derivative which has I in the ope 4 and Cl in 6, may be writ- ten C,HCIH (C, TH.) or C, u ,ClH(C,H,I).— Ber. Berl. — sm xii, 161, Feb., n the ‘Phihalein of Orthoeresol.—FRAUvDE has sicandeast the production of Baeyer’s phthaleins by producing the phthalein of CO---CH,} HT, orthocresol C,H, on HH” For this purpose two parts CO-.--C,H, cresol, three of phthalic oxide a two pee of stannic chloride were heated together to 120° for 8 to 10 hou The cresol un- on was removed by a current of s cgierhs eated steam, the Mass was dissolved in solution of soda, and precipitated by hydro- chloric acid, this process being repeated once or twice. Solution in alcohol, * desblorixasion with bone black, and dilution with 406 Scientific Intelligence. water, gave the phthalein in flesh-red crusts. The diacetyl, diben- zoyl, dinitro, and dibrom derivatives are described, as also mono- orthobromcresol-phthalein and its barium compound, By heating cresol and phthalic oxide with sulphuric acid, methyloxyanthra- quinone is produced; and this heated to 20 0°C. with excess of potash Een Pape methylalizarin. The phthalins, pbthalidins and phthalideins corresponding to the phthaleins of orthocresol are sa te in the same memoir.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xii, bee Feb. 1 9. Sey and Strontia.—The fact that the Siapcunis ‘of baryta and strontia occur in nature in very different associations has long been recognized by mineralogists, and in the December No. of the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., M. Dieulafait has published an in- teresting paper which pg a plausible explanation of this differ- ence of occurrence. In the first place the author pace ee the fact numerous | ais none, besides ee specimens of Seale in referred, giving rise first to an insoluble cettonade and a saitihds of a polysulphide and then to a sulphate and free sulpbur. Thus are explained the facts that celestine is found almost always in beds of gypsum and associated with crystals of sulphur. It is argued in conclusion that if the circumstances of the occurrence of celestine and barite at the present day differ so widely that this arises solely from the fact that the strontium compounds found in salt-beds are in a the second stage of their development, while the corresponding A eas ae Sas ee ae ee Chemistry and Physics. 407 compounds of baryta left in the veins of crystalline rocks are in a first stage; and that in spite of all present differences of occur- ence pe association, the baryta and strontia minerals may be ae d to the same origin in the old crystalline rocks of 7 earth’s 11. The illumination of gases by Electric discharges. aie fes- sor K. WiEDEMANN continues sh _ on the nature - aoe Ree ing at be illuminated by electrical aeiasase y means of a at calorimeter, in connection with a peculiarly — exhaustion tube, Professor Wiedemann was enabled to arrive at the amount of heat communicated to the gas under examination at different pressures. The t temperature o f the gas in the beginning was in the neighborhood of 20° C. and reached a maximum of from 80° 90° b ans of the discharges from a Ruhmkorf coil, even at this temperature the gas was bri inatiy illuminated; and the temperatures of 62°-70° was not found to be the lowest at which The illumination of the gas at such low temperatures is produced, Professor Wiedemann thinks, by an exaltation of the living force of the oscillatory movements of the ether envelopes. The electrical discharge calls pe - action spr aeyrey: of the increase of molecular moveme ich results from the increase of tempera- ture, git Page der "Phys sikund Chemie, No. 2, 1879, p. 298. 3.7. A new current interrupter.— Dr. F, Nremouier describes an extremely simple and efficacious form of paar ide Speke l'o the mid- without the inte of parents means. This 5 sate when the fundamental note of the string is in unison with t pitch of oe interrupter.— Annalen fi Physik und Chemie, No. 2, 1879, p. 3 13. The dimensions of Molecules.—R. R@HLMANN, by means of the formula action, calculates the sum of the molecular sections. Since N if I ee np the number of molecules in the unit of volume, we Le ae | ~ 4a/Qh Am. Jour. 8co1.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XVII, No. 101.—May, 1879. 28 408 Serentific Intelligence. According to Avogadro’s law equal volumes of different gases under the same pressure and temperature contain the same num- ix of molecules, the ratio of the sum of the sections is the are of the section of the molecules themselves. Bearing this in mind, one is justified, since the mean accuracy of the numbers found ean be depended upon within eight per cent, in regarding, in the follow- ing tables, the numbers found for the two-atom molec ules, with the exception of chlorine, hydrogen and hydrochlorine, as ‘equal among themselves, and the section of t e hydrogen sist ean as one-half and that of Sorel as twice as great. The three-atom molecules of CQ,, N,O, of H,O and of H,S have the same molecular sections mae stand in relation to the large number of two-atom gases as 3:2 or as the number of atoms. To this law SO, is an exception, since its molecular section is the same as that of chlorine. H,N and HCl take a decided position. Possibly , can be eee pe with them, since the mean of nage three numbers is related to the molecular section of the two-atom molecule nearly as 4:3. One is also tempted to regard the molec- ular sections of C,H,, of SO,, of haaiaee and CH,Cl as equal and as double that of the two-atom molecule. e following table includes the sum of the molecular sections of each gas in a cubic centimeter, expressed in square centimeters 9100 approximately 9000 =1 X 9000 90 = 18000 » 16900 0 N 18000 . 18000 Two-atom cd 18200 MS 18000 f = 2 X 2000 N 18700 eg 18000 wa 26700 . 27000 r N 26800 " 27000 Three-ntom + sy ohaon . grove f2 7 " H,S 28600 u 27000 J CH, 21600 = 2400 H,N 23400 ss 24000 } = § x 9000 HCl 24200 . 24 C,H, 31600 at 36000 SO, 36700 * 36000 "3670 “ ee Eeaeee ared Nis CH,Cl 39300 “ 36000 Professor Riihlmann also gives the following values of p. For nitrogen molecule = 34°10-® cm. For carbonic dioxide molecule = 16°107® em, For hydrogen molecule == 41°10-* om. At 0° and 760 mm. pressure a cubic centimeter holds nearly 100 trillions of gas molecules. Under these conditions the mole- cules themselves fill nearly the three-thousandth part of the space occupied by the gas. The absolute weight of a hydrogen mole- cule is represented by 15-107? f and the specific weight as 360.— Beiblitier Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1879, No. 2, th 57. Geology and Natural History. 409 American Chemical Jour set edited, with the aid of Chem- te = home and abroad, by Ira Remsen, Professor of Chemistry in the Johns Hopkins ebveniay. Vol. yn O. p- 8vo. Baltimore, April, 1879.—The ctubliohian of this beanies Chemical Journal is an event of great importance to the science not be i tte are para ba b dies, ts C. S. Hastings; a New Volumetric method of determining Poste ‘by ae Penfield ; on the Oxida- ti ra Remsen and M. W. Iles. The Journal is to be —— — other month; the subscription price is ‘tees dollars a yea IL GroLtocy AND Naturat History. Fossil Forests of the Volcanic Tertiary ~ siggy ve es elloumsbets National Park; by jen H. Hot (Bull Geol. and Geogr. Survey, Vol. ¥ . 1.)—The rae Tertiary deposits (tufas, “ete. ) of the Yelirweona region have a thickness of more than 5,000 feet. They contain silicified trunks of trees in many places. Mr. Holmes describes particularly a section on the north face of Amethyst Mountain, in which upright trunks occur at many levels, along with o thers oe from near the foot to the highest stratum. On the steeper part “rows of upright trunks stand out like the columns of a ruined temple,” and on the slopes lower down, the petrified trunks fairly cover the surface. Some of the prostrate trunks are fifty to sixty feet long and many are five to six feet in diameter. The upright trunks are occasion- diameter, and its baie was four inches in thickness. There are also leaves and stems, and Lesquereux has identified among them Aralia Whitneyi, Magnolia lanceolata, Laurus Canariensis, and new species of Tilia, Fraxinus, Diospyros, Cornus, Pteris and Alnus. 2. Fruit-bearing branch dees Cordaites from Cannelton, Penn- sylvania.—In the Proceed of - American Philosophical eaters It is a bent or pendent es one centimeters long and nearly one and a halt broad, having the fruit arranged spirally in a loose strobile-like way. e winged nut or fruit is , 410 Scientific Intelligence. 3. Annual Report of the Wisconsin Geological Survey, for the year 1878; by I. C. Cuamperiin, Chief Geologist. 52 pp. 8vo. recent glacial drift of the Alps, and on the evantond e the facts on a surface geology, by Professor Chamber! Th dland Caribou or Reindeer eRinpiter Caribou) rom the of Iowa.—Dr. Letpy announces the discovery by ‘Professor Witter, in the less of Muscatine, Iowa, of fragments of the upper and lower jaws and some other bones of this species. From the same locality Professor sige collected the shells Heliz striatella, H. fulva, H. pulchella, H. lineata, Pupa mus- corum, P. Bla nii, P. simplex, caine. obliqua, 8. ‘avara, Lim- nea pum milis? and Helicina occulta.—Proc. Acad, Nat. Sei. Philad., 1879, 5. Amber and aapiadioen Srom Vincenttown, New Jersey.—Mr. EK. Goxpsmiru reports these minerals from the Ash Mari of the Cretaceous, a layer above the Green-sand. The mass of asphaltum weighed 100 pounds. The amber is stated to be related to the variety of succinite called Krantzite by C. Bergemann. Unlike ordinary amber its specific gravity is less than 1, and it fuses to a mobile liquid. ee amber is of occasional occurrence in the New Jersey Cretaceous; “sometimes hundreds of tons may be looked over Gallet finding a single piece; and at other times oe has been found to fill a barrel within a day.”—Ibid. ides for Science-Teaching. — This is the title of a few ae published by the Boston N atural napacrn Society, and meant to supplement and enforce lecture ven by members Pp. of that Society to Teachers of the Public : Ebooks if Boston. These teachers are all required to give to their pupils a certain number of object lectures. But who shall teach the teachers, and wherewithal shall they be tanght? Well, a few public-spirited ladies supplied the material means for a free course of instruction to five or six hundred teachers, and two or three individuals con- tributed their knowledge and experience, and carried into execu- tion an admirable plan. The substance of the lessons of this on to something else; but each hearer was supplied with a whole suite of the objects lectured on, to examine at the moment and to take — for farther pag easier and review aches, in quarries and stone-yards, and along g brooks and sna pe the lesson paces. and the elemental f Geology and Natural History. 411 taught rather by oe asked and by observations incited than by didactic lectur The second primer pend Nak the ser at and displays the method of Professor Gooda le’s course of lessons “Concerning a Few Common Pants,” For the first ies on a seedling, each * the child-pupil, had aah him a bean freshly soaked, another the sprouting of which in germination had barely commenced, a third with germination more advanced, a fourth which had ‘de- cotyledons. The discourse opens the asking of some simple questions, every one of which must be epee by an examina- om of these o objects. The second lesson compares two seedlings, the pea with the bean; the third somupee still other and different seedlings ; and b this time the upils have made out the leading facts and ideas of ¥ vegetable morphology as it were for themselves. This knowledge is extended in a similar way, an way in which plants feed and grow is rice : phen wood is — which each pupil has a set ; and the structure poe sateen ae of the blossom is brought o out y similar methods. Teachers so taught should be able to give “object — ” to their young pupils with some success. Those who have not the advantage of such training should send for these primers ome ten and twenty ot apiece) study them thoroughly, and follow the directions the The tt hird primer, about Commercial and other Sponges, is very good, but different. It begins aright with a bath sponge, and some common reef-sponges to be had cheaply of the wholesale druggists, But it departs from the normal plan bd entering into sponge-gathering by divers in the tae on the ad of preg Function of the Sterile — of f fetdenen- ts L& Rabe, in Belgium, has been investigating two allied Mexican artweg their varieties, now common in cultivation. Noting the fact ‘that the ste terile filament, which belongs to the upper side of the flower, is from near its base, declined upon the lower side of the corolla-tube or throat, he comes to the conclusion that its princi- pal function is to obstruct the access of unwelcome insects to the nectar at the base of the flower. The size of the corolla and dis- position of the genitalia is such that only large insects, such as pphle lowe which fill the whole cavity, can effect fecundation. at smaller ones, which would rifle the flower of its: Rieacte. eehont rendering any service, are excluded from the nectar by this bar across the base of the tube. Professor Kerner, 412 Scientific Intelligence, who of late has especially studied the arrangements in flowers for the exclusion of unbidden guests, as he terms them, appears to have anticipated this —— in respect to Peat While making observations upon the five forms of these two species which were in cultivation at Deasacts Dr. Errera was firal SFa2 to find that only one of _ was freely visited by hym Siege insects : this was a form . Hartwegi, with maiivecolore « rolla. The others, though Samendlhy tried, were, on the ale. pegiicteds and he found that this remarkable preference daisetihes not at all upon the abundance or quality of the nectar, nor upon the per- fume, nor upon the color of the corolla, exce spt by a coincidence as to the latter; but in the fact, that in all but the mauve-colored form, the cur vature of the sterile filament, which obstructed further entrance, was so high in the tube that ‘the tongue of these insects could not reach the nectar at the bottom of the tube. A difference of a millimeter or two in the ature of the sterile filament or the length of the tube below, determined whether or not the flowers should be fertilized in Belgium irrera’s paper is pc gers ed in the 17th volume of the Bulletin de la —— Royale de Botanique de Belgique, shane , 1879, evaert, wal ne 140 pages, 8vo. The motto of the paper is taken from Darwin—* Whoever is Ted to believe that species are eee will do good service by conscientiously expressing his conviction.” The authors have expressed theirs, and the py of it, with great fullnes 8. Revue Mycologique, is the title of a new periodical, devowed to the study of Fungi, under the editorship of M. Roumeguére of Toulouse, published at that city and at Paris ( ep OK the first number, of 44 pages, 8vo, issued in January last. Price franes ayear. The leading article is upon the Lichen pila in the light of the recent investigations of Dr. Minks, confirmed by Mueller of Geneva. Half of this first fasciculus is devoted to notices of recent publications and to mycological news. ‘The editor takes notice of Professor Hitchcock’s recent proposition to the sonia sven in the convention at ec eH) to adopt the sy Of a millimeter as the micrometric unit, and regrets it, on e proposition of Suringar of Leyden) of the oo. of a pat re Les by the Greek 41) as the micrometric w viliana, and Etchinocatus Geology and Natural History. 413 fastidious. Perhaps we should have added Gaillardia amblyodon to the list, if we had not placed by the side of it Sprague’s figure in the Chloris Bor -Am., which belongs to some of this artist’s early work. We could wish that Meadow Beauty (Rhexia Vir- ginica) had a better opportunity to display her charms. We learn be dir i that the work will ectly continued in a second series, in which we hope that the success of the enterprise will stimulate — further improvement in the drawings A. G. 0. Observations on Several Forms of "pauih oleyniee; by FRANK B. INE, B.S.—This is a thesis, submitted for the degree of BS., at Cornell University, and "the pamphlet is an article ex- tracted fr he American Quarterly Microscopic Journal, vol. i. It is illustrated by pasion excellent plates, dra y the author from 1e figures and the letter press (20 pages) give a very favorable ‘ene aac of the author’s ability, judgment, and taste. The two latter qualities are shown in his forbearance to give new specific names to forms of which the sexual reproduction is not made out, notwithstanding their apparent difference from described species; and he refrains from proposing a new genus in another case upon a new point of structure which he observed, but which may not require or justify this distinction. An indisposi- tion to introduce new n ames which may be needless, and therefore er ee is a hopeful sign. . G lar Ca aiornia ge or Manual of Botan ao Sor Beginn we Votney Ratr x, Teacher of Natural Sciences in the Girls? “High aor "Ban Wareaes (S. Francisco: Bancroft & Co. 1879).—The schools o alifornia have long been needing an ne iors this by which they may study the flowers whieli abound them, and which in spring make gay the whole face of the coutry. This book, of 103 pages, in the form bi “ How yikes petalee, and a second part will cpt ah work. Itis very well Monterey, and west to ~~ foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada. e Sh ep and Composite are omitted because “too difficult for beginn In cond edition these might be added, and rend- ered alidut as ene as the rest, with askillful popular veagacssattn, for which we could give the worthy author some 12. hera, eine neue ptenin graner ae aloes aus dem Mittelmeer ; by Dr. fos Scumitz.—The ea paper, taken from he ° 414 Miscellaneous Intelligence. by secondary division. The latter are of unusual form, being conical, with the two long cilia attached to the base instead of to the apex of the cone. The rseescronater of the zodspores is In this connection we may mention a arg ee paper by the same author on The Green Alge of the Bay of Athens. He considers the little known mentioned, which, from their beauty, are especially worthy of introduction to cul- tivation,— Cowani exicana Don., a large ceous shru nearly allied to Cercocarpus, with elegant pinnatifidly-lobed leaves and large and very abundant yellow flowers; and a large shrubby Spirea, S. Millefolium Torr., with the foliage of Chamebatia, but a larger and more striking plant, and perhaps the most elegant of the genus. oe It will have been seen that the forests of Nevada, consisting of their remaining wooded to serve as reservoirs of moisture, on the existence of which the future of this region must de- pend, it would seem wise and not perhaps altogether impracti- cable, to check, or at least to regulate, the terrible destruction of 422 C. S. Sargent—The Forests of Central Nevada. forest, which follows, both on public and private domain, every relation of moisture to forest distribution, especially with refer- ence to the multiplication of species, which will be found to increase or diminish as the rain-fall is more or less abundant and more or less equally distributed. In the territory between the 41st and 37th parallels of lati- tude, and extending from the eastern base of the Rocky Mts. to the foot of the western slope of the Sierra Nevada are three distinct belts of arborescent vegetation.* Beginning at the east there is: 1. The Rocky Mountain Region including, besides the main range, the Uinta and the Wahsatch, and embracing Colo- rado and the eastern half of Utah; 2. The Nevada Region, ex- tending from the western base of the Wahsatch, to the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, and embracing the western half of Utah and the whole of Nevada with the exception of the ex- treme northern and southern portions of the State; 3. The Sierra Nevada Region. _ In the Rocky Mountain Region, to which in spite of its mid- continental position considerable moisture is attracted by the high peaks which everywhere dominate it, there are twenty-five trees and forty-eight shrubs, in all seventy-three species. In the Nevada Region, where, owing to its isolated position be- tween high mountain ranges, the rain-fall is small and very un- equally distributed, the number of species is reduced nearly one-half—to thirty-eight; ten trees and twenty-eight shrubs. In the Sierra Nevada Region, to which the Pacific contributes a large although unequally distributed, snow and rain fall, the number of species is increased to eighty-nine; of these thirty- five are trees,+ or three and a half times more than occur in the adjoining Nevada Region, and a third more than are found in the y Mountain Region ; and fifty-four are shrubs, or double the number of the Nevada Region. he following table shows the arborescent ¢ and frutescent species, so far as they are now known, which occur in these three Regions. __* For the purpose of the present comparison not only all frutescent — which may be expected to exceed four feet in height, and therefore as un- dergrowth to form an important element in the forest, will be included. _ + Pinus monophylla Torr., although it has found a foothold on the eastern flank of the Siecra Nevadas, is not included among the trees of this region. This species, as well as Artemesia tri hae Berens tape ieoene bag y cannot be | ly considered a part of the Flora of the Sierra Nevada. : Species which become large enough to be of economic value as timber trees, are designated bya *. C. S. Sargent—The Forests of Central Nevada. 423 The Rocky Mt. Region. The Nevada Region. The Sierra Nevada Region. Berberis Fendleri. Berberis Fremontii. Calycanthus occidentalis. Fremontia Californica. Ptelea angustifolia, Rhamnus Californica, Rhamnus soa At ate thamnus alnifolia, amnus crocea. YB th BS ety = Ceanothus integerrimus. isculus Californica. Acer ane = ; Acer macrophyllum.* Acer glabrum. Acer glabrum. Acer glabrum, Negundo aceroides. Rhus glabra. [bat [bata, Ph Ae: os Ita [bata. us aromatica, en til Rhus aromatica, var. trilo- | Rhus aromatica, var. trilo- Fomner Neo-Mexie Cercis occidentalis. Prunus Pennsylvanica. Prunus subcordata Prunus Virginiana, | Mere Andersonii. nus emarginata. Prunus demissa. [mosa. us demissa. mosa, | Prunus demissa, Spirea discolor, var. du- Bpira rea discolor, var. du-| Spirceadiscolor,var.dumosa. Neitli uli folia, ai tr asta Neillia opulifoli ia i ia ifolia, Rubus pte a ‘- Rubtis Nutkanus. Purshia tridentata. Purshia tridentata. Coleogyne ramossisima. coca rvifolius, gt Cercocarpus vedi folius.* Cercocarpus ledifolius,* abit ste cocarpus intricatus, ia Mexicana. Cowania Mexicana. tramontana, | Adenostoma fasciculatum, Rosa blanda, Rosa Californica, var. ul- | Rosa Californica. Rosa blanda, var. Rosa blanda, var. Heteromeles arbutifolia. olia. sambucifolia. Crategus et Sr et boo Amelanchier alni ifolia, Amelanchier alnifolia, Amelanchier alnifolia. Peraphyllum ramosissimum. pL gees ee ae Philadelphus Lewisii. | Carpenteria Californica. ‘ibes cereum. Ribes cereum, Ribes cereum. Ribes aureum. Ribes aureum, aureum, Ribes eis leptanthum br [guum. Ribes Menziesii. Rides Gioaviestens, yar. irvi- oxyacanth Ribes 2aceweny- var. va- Cornus pubescens. Cornus pubescens. Cornus pubescens. Cornus sessilis. Cornus Nuttaltii. Garrya Fremontii. Sambucus glauca. Sambucus glauca. glauca. Sambucus racemosa. ra Lonicera involucrata, Lonicera involucrata, Lonicera involucrata, 4 Cephalanthus occidentali. rlemisia tridentata, Artemisia tridentata, Leucothe Davisic. Arctostaphylos friatyphita By Gaiforn : yrax ica. Fraximus anomala. Fraxin dipetala. - Forestiera Neo-Mexicana. 424. C. 8. Sargent—The Forests of Central Nevada. The Rocky Mt. Region. The Nevada Region. The Sierra Nevada Region. Eriodictyon glutinosum. eege rw Pi rsa Shepherdia Canadensis. “~e smoherd sehion Californ Shepherdia argentea. Shepher ‘Shepherdia rotundifolia, anodes ‘Us. Sarcobatus vermiculatus te ate confertifolia, Atriplex confertifolia, 5 Celtis occidentalis. [mila.| — 7 Celtis poctaanaalts var, pu- Quercus undulata.* Cus cus eat. var. pene wercus cones is.* rst var, co cus Sonomensis.* pies eee ve 8 densifior ‘lastanopsis ch oh a. * Betula occidentalis, rnp . Betula glandulosa, Lfornica. Corylus ata Corylus rostrata, var. Cali- z Myrica Hartwegi. Alnus incana. Alnus ineana. Alnus viridis. Alnus rhombifolia. Saliz longifolia. Salix, species. Salix cordata. Salix cordata. Salix, species. us tremuloide: Populus trem’ Populus tremuloides.* Populus angustifol: Populus angustifolia,* Populus Fremontii.* Populus a var. | Populus trichoca Populus trichocarpa.* Epheda trifurca. hedra trifurea, Pinus contorta.* _{ folia.* me ht Pinus contorta.* Pinus contorta, yar. i Pinus ponderosa.* Pinus ponderosa.* ree — edulis.* Pinus monophylla,.* ek moment br us flexili. Pinus fiexilis, Pinus flexilis.* Pinus Balfouriana.* Pinus Balfouriana.* Pinus Balfouriana,* Pinus Sabiniana.* Pinus tuberculata., af Pinus monticola.* a. Picea oct tomers . Picea Engelmanni.* Picea pungens ziesit of tne Col Golenses Abies ree cies Abies poor sar Abies raga = Abies — : T: Hookeri abies We “ Suga Pseudotsuga Douglasii.* otsus gq! 99 x Tens trifle Juniperus occidentalis,var.* | ; re is.* | Juniperus occidentalis.* Juniperus var. names Virginiana.* Juniperus * 78 apecte species. 89 species. ae — pe enera, 51 genera. 19 timber trees. 10 one trees, 81 timber trees. 6 small trees. 4 small trees. 48 shrubs. C. S. Sargent—The Forests of Central Nevada. 425 The following species, fourteen in number, are common to the three Regions: Acer glabrum. Ribes aureum. Rhus aromatica, var. Cornus pubescens. Prunus demissa. Sambucus glauca. Spirea discolor, var. icera involucrata. Cercocarpus ledifolius. Populus tremuloides. Amelanchier alnifolia, Pinus flexilis. Fibes cereum. Pinus Balfouriana. The following species, twelve in number, are, in addition to those named above, common to the Rocky Mt. and Sierra Ne- vada Regions: Rhamnus Californica. Alnus incana, Neillia opulifolia. Pinus contorta Cercocarpus parvifolius Pinus ponderosa ifolia. Abies concolor Ribes leptanthum Pseudotsuga Douglasit Juniperus occidentalis _ _ All the species of the Nevada Region extend into the Rocky _ Mt. Region with the exception of the following ten species: Berberis Fremontit. Shepherdia rotundifolia. Prunus Andersonti. rrostachys occidentalis. Spirea Millefolium. Populus trichocarpa. Rosa Californica, var. Pinus monophylia. axinus anomala. Juniperus Californica, var. lantic Forests, have no representatives in the mid-continental Flora: Calycanthus. Leucothoé. Tsuga. Aisculus. 5 Torreya. Cercis. Styrax. Cephalanthus. Myrica. The following genera of the Sierra Nevada Region have no Eastern representatives : . Garrya. Castanopsis. Adenostoma. jodictyon. ia. Heteromeles. Umbellaria. Libocedrus. Carpenteria. The absence of arborescent and frutescent Leguminose from the three ions, where herbaceous genera of this order are So largely represented, is remarkable, especially as they abound 426 C. S. Sargent—The Forests of Central Nevada. farther south in New Mexico and Arizona. In the Rocky Mt. with twenty-eight species. In all the United States east of the Mississippi River there are but ten woody Rosaceous genera, all represented in our three Regions with the exception of the Southern Chrysobalanus and Neviusia. e comparison of these three Regions with reference to the distribution of the oaks will show how dependent these are on moisture. Oaks abound in both the Atlantic and Pacific for- ests, while in the Rocky Mt. Region there is but a single, ex- ceedingly polymorphous species, which does not reach the Ne- vada Region, where no oak is known; nor has this genus, so far as I know, any foot-hold on the dry eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada. A few insignificant species extend, however, along the mountains of Arizona and New Mexico, where the precipitation of moisture is more regularly distributed than far- ther north, and serve to connect the oaks of the Pacific with those of the Atlantic forests, been seen. Pseudotsuga Douglasii, which also abounds in the Rocky Mt. Region, and on the higher mountains of New Mexico and Ari- zona, does not enter the Nevada Region. This is less remark- able, perhaps, than the absence of Pinus ponderosa, as this tree does not appear, in any numbers at least, on the eastern were of the Sierras, and only reaches its noblest development in t humid climate of the northwest coast. Juniperus Virginiana, the most widely distributed of North American trees, ranges from the Saint Lawrence River to Flor- ida, and from the Atlantic to the Northern Pacific. It does not, & however, enter the Sierra Nevada Region, and is extremely ea ee ee a ee ee Ne ee a ee ee ee W. G. Mixter—Ethylidenamine Silver Sulphate. 427 Art. LIV. — On Biigiolencansne Silver Sulphate ; by W. G. MIxTER. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College, No. LVI. ALDEHYDE AMMONIA precipitates metallic silver from many of its salts almost as readily as from the nitrate. A mixture of solutions of silver sulphate and aldehyde ammonia produces a mirror when Way and at common Miwa aie te evapo- Eb a er. s 3 We ° ax) iS i mM cr 9 ae fA wm o ° 4 © a 3 oO o ee cS sk iad gS o are} bo ™M e oe oO left to spontaneous spratichlibion: few or no crystals of the ammo- nio sulphate form, but colorless transparent crystals separate, which react strongly for aldehyde. At summer temperatures tabular crystals, and at from 10° to 15° C. elongated crystals, predominate. he following analyses were made of carefully selected _ well-defined tabular crystals, which were from 2 to 5m™ diameter, and which were freed as much as possible from the mother liquor by blotting paper, then washed with alcohol and finally with ether. They were considered dry when they did-not lose weight on the balance in five or ten minutes. alculated Calcula Ag,80, (0st NED i IL. III. AS SO.(0,ILNF), 8 661 6°68 NH; Ag 44-64 45555 > 4 2 4008 2 aT -I0 C 19°83. 1813 74 15°90 59 1627 62 15°72 H 4°13 4°62 4°14 4°31 3°95 11°57 11°28 12-20 * 428 W. G. Mixter—Ethylidenamine Silver Sulphate. Calculated for Ag,SO,(C,H,NH);NH;3H,O v. A 42°20 42°08 2 41°08 2 41°07 2 C 14-06 13°92 59 14°78 64 14°77 674 H 4°69 4°91 4°88 N 10:90 10°64 * * kK *REK KK Ee KR kRK K * 3H,O0 10°15 10°20 ! The following results were obtained from crystals of an — entirely different habit from those used in the preceding analy- — ses, many of the crystals were one or two centimeters long, 4or 5mm wide, and 1 to 8™™ in thickness. They were freed from — the mother liquor in the manner already described. Calculated for Caleula Ag,SO,(C,H,NH),6H,O VI. Ag,S0,(C,H,NH), VIl. Ss b* 526 1 —_—_— Ag 36°48 36°12 2 44°64 44°70. 2 43°89 2 4 © 16°21 15°66 7°8 19°83 18°72 76 18°79 7°6 q H 5°41 56 4°13 4°43 . 4 * * * * *K * * *K * * * RRR KR N 9°46 9°06 3°9 6H,O 18°24 17°29 17°67 The atomic relations between the silver and carbon found are expressed by the figures following the percentages. om- oxide, lead chromate and metallic copper. The silver in ad VI was weighed as chloride, and the other silver estimations were from weighing the residue left in the tray after the com- bustions, a method necessitated by the small quantity of mate- rial available. The duplicate VII shows the possibility of a mechanical loss, An error of 1 per cent in the silver found makes but a small difference in the atomic ratio between the silver and carbon, since the atomic weight of the former is high. he sulphur was precipitated as barium sulphate, and the nitrogen as ammonium platinic chloride, after separating the irying over oil of vitriol or caustic potash. A drop of sulphu- ric acid on a watch glass in the potash desiccator showed that i Th anterior half was red hot; 0-438 gram was next put into water for { 4 _ the nitrogen estimation, and finally 0533 gram of crystals, which — W. G. Mixter—Ethylidenamine Silver Sulphate. 429 had become opaque white on edge, were dried to a constant weight for the water determination, and then used to find the sulphur content. The 17-67 per cent of water in VII was from drying 2°37 grams of crystals which had also become opaque while on edges. Analysis VI corresponds with the theory, and the anhy- drous material used in VII was from the same kind of crystals. The deficiency in the amount of carbon found may be ascribed either to impurities or a slight decomposition. I after losing water of crystallization, has essentially the same composition as VII. BothIand VI are hydrates of a compound analogous to ammonio silver sulphate, thus, Ag,SO,(NH Ae Sot tCH CH—NH),. 3H,0 Ag,SO,(CH,CH=NH),, 6H,O The name ethylidenamine silver sulphate is proposed for the resent. Analysis IV was made with hydrous crystals, and II with anhydrous substance from the same crop of crystals which were apparently of the same form as the crystals which gave results L If and IV, give the formula, Ag,SO,(CH,CH=NH),NH,, 3H,0. Leaving out the 3H,O we see that the substance has the same composition as a mixture of 3 molecules of Ag,SO,(C,H,N1 and one molecule Ag,SO,(NH,),. But if we suppose it a mixture of Ag,SO,(C,H,NH),, 8H,O and Ag,SO,(NH,), we find that the water is 8:1 per cent and does not accord with _ the water found, and the conclusion is that the substance anal- yzed was not a mixture, but a compound containing three ethyliden groups, and answering to the formula already given. III and V of two different crops of crystals appear to be mix- tures of Ag,SO,(C,H,NH),, 3H,O and Ag,SO,(C,H,NH), NH,, 3H,O. Ethylidenamine silver sulphate is soluble in water and yields aldehyde when treated with acids. The hex- Find ay salt loses water more readily in dry air than the trihy- rated. 430 M. Mitcheli—Satellites of Saturn. Art. LV.—WNotes on the Satellites of Saturn ; by MARIA MITCHELL. THE object glass of the telescope used in the observations - which follow is of twelve and one-third inches diameter. Its definition is good. The telescope is used in such observations as its very imper- fect mechanism will allow; these are observations of the con- recording the time of passage of the satellites over a fixed wire. n the course of these observations such different relative mag- aitides have been given to the small satellites, on different even- ings, as to lead to the suspicion that some of them are variable. he sparkle of Tethys and the grayish blue color of Rhea make it seem unlikely that small stars can have been taken for _ these two satellites; in the case of Enceladus and Dione mis- takes are more easily made; but the rapid motion of Enceladus a its identity. The most noticeable changes are in Rhea. In 1877, Rhea is recorded as small on Nov. 30th; as dull on Dec. 3d; as blurry and large, Dec. 14th; and as ruddy, Dec 18th. In 1878 Rhea is recorded as faint Oct. 3d and Oct. 16th ; as bright on Oct. 25th, and on Dec. 3d it is called nearly as bright as Titan. 1877, Oct. 5.—Rhea was in ee with the preceding edge of the ring at 8" 58" 295 p.m. Two small satellites follow- ing the planet were in éinifahetioh at the same time; the smaller one sangha ti ag | ee the ball. 1877, O —Two small satellites were rennet in conjunction with the acta of the preecding ring at 9" 28" p.m. The smaller of ann was gees Dione; the — may have been a sa 877, Oct. 9.—10" 8™ Pp, u. Tethys is movin away from th ball and bas as passed soujeaction: with the ring. Another tatige; probably Enceladus, is coming in, and is nearly up to conjunction with the following edge of the rin 1877, Oct. 13.—At 10 P. M., two small satellites were seen to be nearly together following Saturn, the space between them being bide sie 10" 53™ 31%, the two satellites could not be composer with a power of 400. The two were of the same size. At 11" 20” 31%, the staliises could be seen separated. These may be Tethys near greatest elongation, and Enceladus approaching the planet. 1877, Oct. 14.—Rhea was in conjunction with the preceding _ of the ring and above the ring at 9° 9™ 30°, 1877, Oct. 23.—Rhea was again in i poe with the preced- ing edge of the rin g and above it, at 10" 2 M. Mitchell—Satellites of Saturn. 431 1877, Nov. 6. sping bs pen in conjunction with the preceding edge of the ring at 9° 3 1877, Nov. 7.—Tet sigs a in conjunction with the following edge of the ies and above the ring at 9" 22™ 50°, 1877, . 13.—Dione was in conjunction with the following edge of Thee ring at 8" 44™ 6, 1877, Nov. 14.—Titan re in conjunction with the preceding wise of the rae at 8° 7™ 1877, Nov. 16.—Ene ae was in oe with the follow- ing ot de of ring and beneath it at 9° 51" 877, Nov. 17.—The seein g was si eh Two satellites, Srobetis Tethys and Enceladus, were seen as one at 6" 29™ 248, In twenty minutes they had separated 3”. Rhea was in conjune- tion with the following edge of rin g at 6 45" 21° and 3” below the ring. Dione was nearly at conjunction with the preceding edge of ring at 7 P.M. 1877 , Nov. 30. —Titan was in conjunction with the preceding edge of the ring at 77> 17" 1%. A - nypcng (Tethys ?) a little past conjunction and above the ring at 8" 1877, Dec. 12.—Tethys was in Scania ‘with the preceding se of the ring and below it at 6" 48™ 498, 1877, Dec. 14.—A small satellite preceded the rmg by one —_ three-fifths the measurement of the preceding ansa. Was this Mimas? The time was 7" 34". 1877, Dec. 16.—Titan was in conjunction with the preceding edge of the ring at 6" 19™ 368, 1878, Jan. 12.—5" 50" to6 p.m. The ring of a appeared asaline, Titan preceded the planet and three small satellites followed, bie of them estimated to be a second of are only asunder, distance from the following edge of the ring to the two satellites so closely Se cateaaes was nearly twice that from the ball to the e fg of the rin Spot was seen 1878, Jan. 29,—At 5" 25™ p.m, the ring could be seen as a right line across the planet. Titan preceded the planet and four Marines followed. At 6° 40" a — = satellite was seen g a 1878, Feb, 7.—6" 30" p.m. Points of light could be seen pre- ceding Saturn, but the continuity of the rmg could not be kept. A small point of light, possibly : satellite preceded the ring. Rhea and Titan followed he planet. 1878, Oct. ae 40™ P. Two satellites, supposed to be Rhea and Dio ne, nearl in conjunction and preceding the bee Two others follow; Tethys moving out and Enceladus (?) nearly 432 MM. Mitcheil—Satellites of Saturn. at conjunction with the ring. Of the four satellites, Tethys is the brightest. 1878, Oct. 16.—Titan was in sap ritnate with the edge of the a ing ring at 7° 38"; above the 1878, Oct. 24. oo was seen potas from the ball of Saturn at 9° 16" 30%. 7° p.mM.—A very faint satellite was seen by glimpses, following, nearly in — with the ri 1878, Oct. 25, 7 Pp. mM.—Titan and another satellite “supposed to be Rhea were sseatiys in sonjinetion Separated by 7". A very axeall satellite precedes the tip of the ring. 1878, Oct. 25.—Tethys was in i rea with the edge of the following ring and below at 7" 37" P 1878, Oct. 29.—Tethys was nearly “ conjunction with the pre- ceding - ring and above : at 7 P 1878, Nov. 9.—At 82 18™ 3° Tit an was seen to emerge from the planet. It was wholly detached from the planet in twenty minutes. At 9" 25" Pp. M., a small satellite was seen, nearly at con- junction with the following rin 1878, Nov. 13.—Six small bodies SS Saturn. Of these, Titan, Rhea, Tethys and Dione could be identified. At 7° 48™ p, M. the satellite supposed to be Rhea i is fst from the preced- ing ring 6”, Tethys.is distant 1", 1878, Nov. 14—7" 30™p.m, A very small satellite follows Saturn, distant about 3”, 187 8, Nov. 26.—Titan and a satellite supposed to be oe were asunder 6” 3’ at 7° 22™, If this satellite was Rhea, it was un- usually bright. Tethys and a — faint satellite precede ‘Satara, the latter is probably Encela 1878, Nov. 29.—At 6° ro P.M. a small satellite preceded Saturn and three others followed. Of idions following, that which was nearest to Saturn could not be found at 9 p. m., and the second in di aa from Saturn had moved in; the latter was probably et 187 3, Dec. 3.—Dione was in ye ova with the following edge and above the = at 7> 46™ 34° A's mall satellite was seen by glimpses, following at a dis ac nee war 6” rok the ring. 1878, Dec. 6.—At 6" 25™ a small satellite followed Saturn distant 7” from the edge of the ring. This ——. could not be found at 7" 55™ although the seeing was much better. At 7* 55" a small satellite having the peculiar sparkle of Tethys, was seen a little beyond the following edge of the ring, and moving away from the ball. 1878, Deo. 13.—Titan and three small satellites ee planet, "probably Rhea, bc and Dione. Of the th c, Tethys is the brightest at 6"57™. It moves away from the pall 8* 57™ two of these satellites could not be se a with a power here Dec. 16.—9" 5" p.m. Tethys was weil up to _— with the Ting 5 moving toward the ball. Rhea was large ad Gall § in color. : Observatory o ot: Vanuat Longitude from Greenwich, wy 33°98, ; W. A. Norton—Force of Effective Molecular Action. 488 Art. LVL—On the Force of ptt ee Action ; by Professor W. A [Continued from page 358.] For the eritical curve the molecular repulsion has very m nearly the constant value, 000524, from a=8r to e=7%r; and according to Dr. Andrews, the pressure of condensation at the critical point for carbonic acid gas was seventy-five atmospheres. These data give for the molecular repulsion 0-0052~ m answering to one atmosphere, 7 =000006938—. This 5 phase then be the value Ag the minimum repulsive ordinate, obtains when x=38r, in the curve for water at the point of ebullition (212° F.). This result gives for this curve k=4‘931. distance. “Haier the effective molecules of he steam, 115r, and putting y= distance of the inner surface of the effective aavilail from the center of the molecule, I have 1157r+2r+2y : : ar aa 8/1581; which gives y=2°76r. This calculation proceeds on the sup- position that the effective molecules have the same size in the va ane rous as in the liquid state, but theoretically they should e larger ; and we shall see in the sequel that _ probable value of the diameter of the molecules of steam is 42-257. If we adopt this estimate, the ratio of expansion by ‘oluie 1581 Hy 1, gives for the diameter of the liquid molecule at 212° F., 0-5r. Let us now see how far the well known laws of gases may be deduced from our molecular formula. (1). Avogadro's Law, relative to the simple posed) that all Simple gases contain in the same volume, at the sa and temperature, the same number of ultimate gps ja This law follows from the fact that for the large distances between contiguous molecules, that obtain in gases, the effec- together with the large size of the effective gaseous molecules The entire possible range of value for &, for gases and vapors, is from 0 to 4984; since it is only between these limits that the effective molecular force is repulsive at all a We Am. Joor. ee Series, Vou. XVII, No. 102.—Junz, 434 W. ate EO ds wn ec i? Ss a ek the cnn traces.” Careee NO oa ee an ows 4 460 S. B. Christy— Genesis of Cinnabar Deposits. This amount was contained in a bottle of two pounds. Sulphydric acid was passed into this water for half an hour, an equal amount of mineral water, and some black mercuric sulphide were added to it, and the mixture was treated in the digester, while a similar experiment was carried on at the ordi- nary pressure of the atmosphere and a temperature of 100° C. The temperature of the digester was not more than 180° C., and the pressure 140 to 150 lbs. The time in both cases was two hours. The sulphide which was treated in the open air was unchanged even when examined with the microscope, while that treated in the digester was brownish red even to the naked eye, while under the microscope it showed itself to be nine of a small amount of as yet unchanged amorphous ide, and a larger amount that was completely transformed to cinnabar. Orystals were not visible with the powers used. This mineral water, therefore, when the single ingredient of sulphydric acid is added to it is capable of dissolving mercuric sulphide, and of depositing it from solution in the crystalline orm when it is slowly cooled. Fourtu.—Tue Rrvat THEORIES. more probably by bringing it from lower In support of this position are the following facts: In the first — place, cinnabar volatilizes only at just below a red heat (500° C.), when exposed to the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. Now, if we take the increase of temperature as 1° C. for each 100 feet below the surface, it would take a depth of nearly S. B. Christy— Genesis of Cinnabar Deposits. 461 50,000 feet to give this temperature. At New Almaden, for example, which is certainly not in the immediate vicinity of volcanic rocks, since the cinnabar outcrops upon the summit o the hills, we should have to assume an erosion to have taken times as great as at present, it would still require a depth steam except by the presence of local igneous rocks. Pfaff, in his Geologie als Exacte Wissenschaft, p. 112, shows this by the following table. Temperature. Pressure of water | Tension of steam Depth in feet. Centigrade. in atmospheres, in atmospheres. 10,000 100 300 20,000 200 600 80,000 800 2400 1416- 100,000 1000 3000 1877" 200,000 2000 6000 2403° The third column gives the weight in atmospheres of a col- umn ae water of a height equal to the depth; this is the mini- mum pressure to which it can be e ess we suppose an extensive fissure filled only with air and extending far up- ward. The fourth column gives tension of steam at the temperatures corresponding to the depths calculated according to Regnault’s formula. Itis evident that under these condi- tions the water will never boil at any depth except in cases of local eruptions of volcanic rocks. Although there have not 462 S. B. Christy— Genesis of Cinnabar Deposits. In the third place, the formation of many of the ore bodies cannot be explained upon the sublimation hypothesis. Many of them, notably that of New Al maden, contain carbonates so intimately mixed with cinnabar that the py Rew is inev- itable that they were formed in the same, i. e. in the wet way. he occurrence of quartz and bitumen iaclanatobe mixed shows the same thing. Again M. Kuss* himself, though evidently a toward the volatilization theory, admits that: “The erial of the quartzite which is lacking to-day in the soaks Nenegnen with cinnabar, certainly could not have been missing either at the time of the first deposit of the beds or after the strong pres- sure which compressed and straightened them. How could this sappearance of siliceous matter be effected, matter —_ inattackable by all the reagents which we can imagine to intervened during the epoch of the formation of the veins pat cinnabar?” This disappearance of siliceous matter is certainly cumin hypothesis; but by the suppo- par of the paper as accompanying Caines all, with the possi- le exception of magnetic iron pyrites, have been produced in the wet way by various experimenters as the following refer- ences will show. Daubrée ibid. Quartz, De Sénarmont, Ann. Ch. Phys., xxxii, 129. Heavy spar, De Sénarmont, Ann. Ch. Phys., Xxxii, 129. Dolomite, Hunt, Am. Jour. Science, II, xxviii, 170, 365; xlii, 49. Spathic iron, De Sénarmont, Ann. Ch. Phys, +ex, 153. Gypsum, as Compt. Rend., xlviii, 100. Seager Compt. Rend., stv 29, xx 207. Cale spar, {Re se, Pogg. Ann., xii, 533 ? sides The production of bituminous inaterial similar to idrialite has been accomplished in the same way, by heating ed scree matter with water in closed tubes at high temperatures. _ fact this transformation is invariably regarded not as the palk ene Ot at Mien ot Uininae @ Almaden, p. 44. Translation of same by writer, p. * Epona Metamorphism, Annales des — 5th series, vol. xvi, II, end of S. B. Christy— Genesis of Cinnabar Deposits. 463 of dry distillation, ee as the effect of heat in presence of d if t h water. And if the temperature were great enough to have volatilized ne it is probable that these much more vola- tile hydrocarbons of the original organic matter would have disappeared, and we should have anthracite or — instead of bitumen, as we do in most of the cinnabar deposit In addition to this we have shown that the ‘oulphide of mer- cury at comparatively moderate temperatures is soluble in solu- tions of the alkaline sulphides, that increase of pressure aids rather than retards this solution, and that cinnabar is deposited ‘from such solutions in the crystallized form when the tem- perature and pressure are slowly lowered. We have shown that by adding sulphydric acid to the mineral spring water, now existing in the neighborhood of one of the most noted of dap deposits, = were enabled to produce the same effects. arious reasons, which it is unnecessary to state here, it is woth: that this 8 se once —_— sulphydric as well as carbonic acid, and we have, consequently, in the case of the New Alm aden mine, sufficient cause at least for the | gad gases. Such a mixture of geen sotihiaes with min- i rib easily reproduced by any o of these methods. No other theory so well accounts for the intimate mixture of the two varieties ; for the amorphous product produpos by suddenly cooling the vapor presents an pai 9 appearance. inally, the almost universal peat eh of these deposits in metamorphic rather feast in - ipieous rocks, vipa well with the theory that these deposits as they exist in situ result of the action of solutions of alkaline parabens containing also alkaline su There are still many other points of interest in this connec- tion which are difficult to understand. Such, for sap are inexplicable upon either hypothe University of California, Berkeley, Dec., fe > 464 R. Rathbun— Geology of the Lower Amazonas. Art. LIX.— Notice of Recent Scientific Publications in Brazil.— O. A. Derby on the Geology of the Lower Amazonas; by Ricu- ARD RATHBUN. THE Archivos of the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro, which were started in 1876, and of which only a single volume | was published regularly, have again made their appearance.’ The numbers recently received, and issued only in the early part of this year, comprise volume II complete, for 1877, and the first half of volume III, for 1878. They are accompanied by numerous plates, some of which seem to have been carefully executed. The cause of the delay in the publication of this annual, the only one devoted to natural history memoirs in Brazil, is not given, but the high character of several of the articles contained in the present volumes, partially compen- sates for their late issue. of the versicolored flowers of a species of Latana, of Santa Catharina, and the insects which fertilize them. Dr. Lacerda, of the Museum, gives the results of his experiments with the ison of Bothrops jararaca and Bufo ictericus on several domes- tic animals. The second volume also contains “Notes on the Localities of Antiquities (Ceramios) of Para,” by S. Ferreira Penna, and an extended memoir, entitled “ Notes on the Stone Lip-ornaments of the Archzological Collection of the National Museum,” by Dr. Ladislau Netto, the director of that institu- tion. In the third volume are two short geological and min- eralogical studies of small sections in the province of Minas Geraes, by members of the School of Mines of Ouro Preto. _ The paper of greatest interest to North Americans, however, is “A Contribution to the Geology of the Lower Amazonas,”* by Mr. Orville A. Derby, formerly of the Geological Commis- sion of Brazil, but recently appointed geologist in the National useum at Rio de Janeiro. nit his memoir, which occupies, consid- erable space in volume II, is a résumé of the principal results of the explorations of the late Prof. Ch. Fred. Hartt, Mr. Derby and others, in the Amazonian valley, and adds man important facts and generalizations to those hitherto seubbahed: The first portion of the — is devoted to a discussion of the _ topography and hydrography of the basin of the Amazonas, and of the relations of the great river and its many large tributaries a ee ish version of this was published in the Pr ings of the American n Philosophical Society of Philedeiphia, for February, 1870. R. Rathbun— Geology of the Lower Amazonas. 465 — to the surrounding table-lands and mountain chains, which direct their courses. Mr. Derby endeavors to show that between the three sections of the Rio Amazonas, popularly called the Mara- fion, Solimdes and Baixo Amazonas, or upper, median an lower courses, there exist not only topographical differences, but also very marked differences in ol ical bie te si Atter been discovered in the lower valley, the immediate subject of him _ his article. The most important ionalusians recorded by are the followin The peers ee asc composing the plateau and moun- tain range between Guayana and Brazil, and the central Bra- zilian a and thus Taciaie the Lower Amazonian basin on the north, and forming its higher lands on the south, may be lyelen into two series—a lower one, consisting of highly crystalline rocks, and an upper one, of generally non-crystalline rocks, The former, constitutes the most of the Guay- anian plateau, and forms the base of that of Brazil, consists of gneiss, gneiss-granite ad syenite, and has been referred by Prof. Hartt to the Laurentian. The Serra do Mar and the Serra do papa ee farther south in Brazil, are se up of the same formatio The sack or upper series, composed mostly of quartzites, metamorphic schists and crystalline Section probably repre- sents both the Huronian and Lower Silurian, as an apparent difference in age is exhibited in the exposures of these rocks. To the Lower Bilurian are — as before, the itacolumites and — schists of Minas Ger The metamorphic rocks deira, between ge be gi g regions, thus defined, me approximately t the borders of the ancient channel, which existed between the geet be islands of Brazil, and in which were laid down, without great changes of level, or disturbances, the newer Eecmations from the Upper Silurian to the Cretaceous inclusi sive. There is a certain concordance in “Seow amet between the Am. Jour. So1.—Tutrp Serres, Vou. XVII, No. 102,—Jcyz, 1 32 466 R. Rathbun— Geology of the Lower Amazonas. beds of the two series of the metamorphic deposits, but the evi- dence goes to prove that the older, or Laurentian; had been more or less disturbed and metamorphosed, before the deposi- tion of the newer, although the great general movement of up- heayal, that affected, and gave character to, the entire meta- morphic region of Brazil, was posterior to both. The formations above the metamorphic, so far observed in the Lower Amazonian valley, are the Upper Silurian, Devo- nian, Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Tertiary. The Upper Silu- rian immediately follows the metamorphic series, on the nort side of the valley, but has not yet been recognized to the south | of the Amazonas. On the Rios Trombetas, Curua and Mae- curt, where they were examined by Mr. Derby and his party, the rocks of this formation are exposed over an area of only a few miles in width, have an estimated thickness of about 1,000 feet, and rest upon felsite and syenite; they are very gently in- clined, and consist mostly of thin-bedded, argillaceous and _ micaceous sandstones, with some massive beds of pure sand- stone. In the lower part of the series, on the Trombetas, are fossiliferous beds, containing in addition to other species, Ar- throphycus Harlani Hall, Lingula cuneata Con., Orthis hybrida Sow. and Bucania trilobata Con., which indicate an horizon cor- responding to the Medina Sandstone of the Niagara group of orth America. The Devonian rocks occupy a broader superficial area than entirely of black and yellowish shales, passing at times into 2 shaly sandstones. The only recognizable fossils discov Rh. Rathbun— Geology of the Lower Amazonas. 467 were Spirophytons, apparently belonging to the same species as those described from the Hamilton group of New York. e Devonian rocks in the Ereré region have suffered greatly by denudation, and are much dislocated and divided by trap dykes, making their study very difficult. Beds apparently of Devonian age have been found as far west as the Rio Uatuma, and, to the south of the Amazonas, on the Tapajos and Xingu. Of all the Paleozoic deposits of the Amazonian valley, the Carboniferous is exposed over the largest area, but, at the same time, presents the greatest difficulties to study. Being com- posed for the most part of soft rocks, it has been much denuded only widely-separated exposures remaining, of which it is difficult to determine the correlation of the several beds. It is, therefore, also impossible to estimate with certainty the thick- ness of the series, which probably exceeds 1,800 feet. The rocks are soft sandstones, shales and limestones, of which the remains. The fossiliferous beds, originally studied by Prof. Hartt and Mr. Derby on the Tapajos, were traced to the north of the Amazonas, on the Rios Maecurt, Curua, etc. The differ- quer, partially covering up the Devonian between Hreré and Maecurti locality, and has been found to the west, on the Rio Uatumé, and to the east, on the Rio Jauary near Prainha. There can be no doubt but that the Carboniferous really ex- -tends much farther west, and eastward, to near the Atlantic. From what has been said before, however, it will be under- stood that this formation is not exposed over the entire region above defined, although at one time it must have been con- tinuous there. It was observed on the principal rivers men- tioned, generally in the vicinity of the lower falls or rapids, and also at many intermediate localities, but is mostly covered up by more recent formations, or by dense forest growths, and over large tracts has been completely swept away. Notwith- standing the fact that the fossils of this group indicate an hori- zon, equivalent to the Coal Measures of North America, no - seams of coal have yet been found on the Amazonas. The beds lie as a rule nearly horizontal. 468 E. F. Sawyer—Radiant Points of Meteors. Mr. Derby refers the sandstone hills of the Ereré series, which. surround the Devonian plain of the same name, to the Cretaceous, from a study of the leaves of dicotyledonous plants, contained in some of the beds. These hills, which are com- posed of inclined strata, were elevated during, or at the close of, the Cretaceous age, as a broad anticlinal ridge, afterwards denuded away in the central portion, so as to uncover the De- vonian plain, and leave the present series of monoclinal ridges, disposed in the shape of an ellipse. Much of Mr. Derby’s paper is also devoted to the extensive Tertiary deposits and the varzea of the Amazonian valley, sub- jects already treated of at some length by Prof. Hartt. : Art. LX.— First Catalogue of Radiant Points of Meteors ; by Epwin F. SawYeEr. Tue following meteoric radiant points have been deduced from my observations, embracing the recorded paths of nearly 600 shooting stars, seen during the last two years (1877-8) at Cambridge, Mass. Among the number may possibly be found one or two doubtful positions, and a few strongly suspected and probably new showers requiring confirmation, The other sitions either confirm those deduced by other observers, and eretofore considered rather doubtful, or are those of old and well established meteor systems. The limits of duration of the several showers are naturally uncertain; the results show- ing only the observed duration, and not the true period, which important element should receive the closest attention of ob- servers in the future. Considerable complication has arisen from the large number of known radiants, and more attention should be given to establishing and identifying beyond a doubt the true positions of those already catalogued, with their limits of duration, than to the discovery of new and in many cases no doubt pseudo-meteor streams. The theoretical shifting of the radiant point of a shower from day to day as the earth changes its position, should also, it seems (in the majority of cases), be practically shown in deduc- ing the results; although the approximate character of this class of observations, renders it difficult to notice any shifting of position at intervals of less than a week. This important point should engage the attention of all observers, as going far _to demonstrate the period of long enduring showers. goin goinome my results, great care has not only been exer- _ eised in regarding the peculiarities of each individual meteor _ Mapped, such as length of path, velocity, magnitude, ete, but List of Radiant Points. = So a Dates of bats ns c ; Observations. ant point. 3 ‘Suiiicks Z R.A. Dees 1878. Phe ales 1|Dec. 31-Jan. 7. 974+17 | 8)Meteors faint and rapid, possibly : Loel : shower. Radiant, Me! near fi mings 2|Jan. 29-Feb. 3. 167+42 | 7/| Quite hae bce and rapid m “Gon firms Heis (M. 2), 169° Ayr ie, 16~ 1878. Feb. 3 Feb. 24-26. 145+ 8 | 5|Meteors very faint, with medium velocity and length of path; one stationa: eteor. nning, from Italian Met. Asso. Obs., 1878. 1872, at 147°+4°, Feb. 1-Mar. 4 March 26-31. 204434 | 4|Meteors quite brilliant and slow, with me- dium length of path. Evidently confirms Gre oe tacaas at 198° +32°, Mar. 25 1877. —Apr. 5|May 3-7. 223421 | 4 apart fain short and rapid. Denning, +21, April 21, 1874. Radiant ay; igtoors generally faint, short and 1877. 6|June 24—July 3. 287 +25 qui Radiant near 6 Cygni. Denning, at 7308 Tu I 15-17, 1877. Tupman, at 1878, 280° +29°, “pe 20-3 0, 1870. T)July 28. 337—33 | 4 ieee. brig. zht very slow, h long a. “Terchel, a 3390-34", “uly 20- ; Seen by A. S. H erschel, 1878. July 48 1868, 8|July 21-23. 291427 17% epee faint ane | quick, with medium eee path. ing, from Italian Met. Asso Obs, 1872, at "O87? +27°, July 15—Aug. 2. 1878, mpare 9/July 23. 285+49 | 5 Meteors quite ‘righ ced and slow. , from sso. Obs., ced 1877. a 285° spa cake eines 10) Aug. 10. 43-56 |41|Perseids. Meteors brilliant, with quite long aths. Duration he observ £ of an 1877, hour. as Aug. a 43457 |12/Observ: in Face 9.30 io 10.30. Meteors 1878, _b ; Aug. 10. 44456} |58/ Meteors ver se alge short and rapid. Dura- tion of observation 12 hours. Horary : No. 33. Position deduced from ‘one sta- come 4 yay and several short tracks 1878. ear the 1l|Aug. 10. 8+55 | 8 een bright, *hoel and rapid. Confirm mning, at 8°+53°, oy, 3-16, 1877. 1878, be 12|Aug. 23-Sept. 1. }, 282442 |21|Active shower; ene bright ‘nd rapid, ; with a long 5 posi- tions fro a eons "Table, 16, ea 281° + 1878, . 38°, Jul y 29-Sep 13 Aug. 25-Sept. 1.| 335464 | 6)Meteors siasseeily bright, short and rapid. Greg and Herschel, at 335° +67°, Aug. 6 -31. Schiaparelli and Zezioli, at 340° + 1878. 65°, Aug. 2 : 14| Aug. 25-30. 237+65 {11} Position well d ; meteors bright, short and rapid. Den nning, from Italian Met. Asso. aes 1872, at 235°+65°, Aug. 24— 1878, Pe 15) Aug. 20-27. 274+20 | 7|Short, dot mning, from Italian Met. — “Obs 1 eta 1 at at 76° 4 50, Aug. 24-Sep 1878. ‘, 16 Sept. 30-Oct. 2. 23+17 | 7|Strongly etek te 5 a new shower. Meteors bo bright, short and rapid. List of Radiant Points. f re me. F : 5 ie 3 meee Radiant point 2 “| Observations. = Remarks. > ) Zi R.A. Dee. 1878. xsi 17|Sept. 27-30. 3421 | 7) Exact. ue bright, short and swift. A . n 18/Sept. 18-27. 333+23 | 5|Rather Sanita Bi esi bright, short and slow. Denning, from Italian Met. aie. Obs., 1872, se 333° +27°, Aug. 24— 1877. pt. i 19 Oct. 28. 356+40 | 8 press exact. Active saris ok Pi —— g £ of an hour; ea taint and regina "Schlsperell ink Zio, 1878. ‘ at 2 20,Oct. 17-22. 28+33 | 6 ‘eabeore Pela auite bright, short and rapid. Confirmed by H. Corder, Oct. 22- 31,7 1878, at 39° 4 34° Radiant near € 1878. Triangulorum. Possibly ne 21/Oct. 21-22. 47+27 | 4)Faint, short and are poder Greg an Herschel, at nad es Oct. Petia 7 Denning, at 4 , Oct. and from Italian Met. Aso. Obi, 1872, de 45° + 26°, 1878. Oct. 29-Nov. 22 Oct. 20-29. 24+19 | 9| Meteors bright, irk and generally rapid. Radiant near 8 Arietis. Gruber, at 21°+ 1877. 22°, Oct. 17-24. 23|Oct. 30-Nov.1].| 30+21 | 7| Meteors faint, ae short gps Radiant near a Arietis. Evidently s Tup- man (94), 4 30°+-22°, Toe. 3, 1869. 1877. Compare No. = 24/Nov. 4-11, 60+18 | 5/TauridsI. Meteo brilliant, bce medium ae of pi oe 8 Denni nning, verage position at 60° 4 20°,” Oct. 17- 1877. Nov. 13,, 1877. 25 Nov. 30—Dec. 9. ~80+22 |10| Tauri ds IL. Meteors generally quite bright and quick, with medium len 1878. , Nov. 25—Dec. 13, at 80° + 25° Nov. 26-29. 82+21 | 9/ Meteors “ite bright, generally slow, with m length of path. Principally seen 1878. n Nov. 26|Noy. 24. 330+63 | 4 Strongly. suspected. Meteors faint, quick sae Pies recorded inleg. 1 hour’s mela m Met. 1978 Ass. Obs, ” 1872, at 330° +66", Nor. 25- 27|Nov. 23-29. 76+46 | 8 Rapid, short and faint m ion 8g ae 24th. Position ne onfirms t deduced at 1878. Pola, Nov. 2%. 1872, at 76°.5+46°. * 28'Nov. 24-29. 25+26 | 5| Meteors qui te bright, sh ort and slow. Den- ning, from Italian ioe: Asso. Obs., 1872, 1877. at 24°+27°, Nov. 25-Dec. 29\Dec. 1-9, 97+16 | 6|Meteors gene faint, with very rapid motion. Possibly new. Radiant center 1877. very near y orum. pare No. 1. 7-9, 54+35 | 4/Strongly suspected. Meteors quite faint and 1877. quick, with quite long pa 1Dee. 2 104433 | 5 Geminids, Meteors faint, short and quick. \1878, eas 22-26, 102+35 | 5 Geminids. Meteors faint, short and quick. 187 as Dec. 25. | 114+18 | 5/Meteors generally bright, short and rapid; . Bae hak ac, ee good on. Schmidt, Ji = BA, 118" + 15°. E. F. Sawyer— Radiant Points of Meteors. 471 during the past year a certain weight has been attached to each meteor mapper showing the accuracy of the path recorded, on a scale of one to four, and its corresponding value used in deduc- ing the centers of radiation and the results are believed to be as “nearly correct as the number of meteors recorded and the nature of the estore wil allow. Observations were taken nearly every fair night in the absence of the moonlight, but were confined principally to the evening hours, between 6 and LisP. M. e exceptions were morning watches in April, 1878, August, 1877-8, and November, 1877-8, for the appear- ance ‘of the Lyraids, Perseidg, and Leonids. With the excep- evening’s observations, or those of a few open at most), has been used. The positions deduced from less than four meteors (of which there were a large number), have been rejected. In giving were to the different positions deduced by me, observ- uld bear in mind that the small number of meteors, Fesékdod | in many of the cases, result from one or more of the following causes : The shortness of the period from which each shower is deduced, averaging about five days, the average period of most observers being from twenty to thirty days. IL To the gen- erally unfavorable hours, between which the observations were taken, before midnight, when meteors are much less abundant, than during the morning hours. IIL To the small number of Corresponding Sonera se of the 6 same meteors are doubt- less of great value in determining the heights, etce., of the meteors, as well as “thede radiant points, and during the latter part of last August, the writer together with Mr. Seth C. Chand- ler, Jr., made a series of observations at stations some seventy miles apart ; the reduction of the same is now being done by Mr. Chandler. Another series has been partly arranged and carried out by the writer and Mr. Oliver C. Wendell of Lowell, Mass., and hoped that other observers will, during the coming year, be found willing to engage in this important work. \ 472 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna of North America. Art. LXI.—WNotice of recent Additions to the Marine Fauna of the Hastern coast of North America, No. 5; by A. EB. VERRILL. Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College. No. XLIL Or Polyzoa about 140 species have been identified by the writer from the coast between Cape Cod and Labrador. Nearly all these are Arctic or European species, already known. They are mostly described in Smitt’s papers on Arctic Bryozoa. They are also mostly enumerated by the writer, in a Check-list of the Marine Invertebrata of this coast, now in type. The following is one of the more interesting new forms. e recent determination of so large a number of American Polyzoa, confirms the decision already arrived at, several years ago, from the study of other classes, that the fauna of northern ew England is remarkably arctic and chiefly of northern ori- gin, and that the fauna of Greenland is more allied to that of Northeastern America than to that of Northern Europe. Ina valuable paper* on the Podophthalmous Crustacea of our northern coast, just published, Professor S. L Smith has arrived at the same results for that group. Bugulella, gen. nov. Stems slender, dichotomously branched, consisting of single series of cells (zocecia), which are connected by short tubular joints that. arise medially, from the back and near the distal end of the preceding cell, either singly or two together. Zocecia elongated, expanded distally, with a large, sunken, elliptical frontal area on the front side, close to the end; gradually area surrounded by spines. Ocecia subglobular, at- tached to the distal end of the zocecia. Avicularia median, at the distal end of the zocecia, shaped as in Bugula, Allied to Bicellaria and perhaps to Brettia. Bugulella fragilis, sp. nov. of these the two nearest the distal end are much shorter than the other three, which are as long as the breadth of the aper- _ ture, and arch over it. Sometimes a median spine is also _ present at the proximal edge. Ovicells globose, prominent, _,,* The Stalk-eyed Crustaceans of the Atlantic Coast of North America north of _ Cape Cod. Trans. Connecticut Acad., vol. v, Part I, May, 1879. pes A. #. Verrill~Marine Fauna of North America. 473 nearly as wide as the zocecial apertures, smooth, shining, some- times sculptured with raised lines, or with rounded sunken areas on the sides. A small oval disk on the lateral surfaces of the zocecia. Avicularia small, with a rather short, thic swollen head, the pedicel shorter than the Mn dating diameter of the head, attached to the distal end of the ZOOe East of George’s Bank, 220 fathoms, on Anais Normant. Presented to the U. S. Fish Commission by the captain and crew of the schooner “ Alice G. Wunso EcuInoDERMATA. Solaster Earllii, sp. nov. A large, handsome species. Arms nine in our specimen, elongated, tapering. Upper surface thickly covered with clus- ters of divergent spinules, mostly six to eight, much smaller and shorter than in C. papposus. Marginal plates large, prom- inent, the largest bearing about twenty spinules, in two trans- verse rows. Ventral plates with about seven or eight long acute spines in one transverse row. Adambulacral plates with about ve shorter, more slender spines. pen diameter 180™™; lesser 50™™. Taken in lat. 48° 24’; lon ~ 46, in 200 to 250 fathoms, by the schooner “ Bessie W. om >and presented to the U. §. Fish Com. b by Capt. Thomas F. ‘Hay ie: Dedicated to Mr. R. E. "Parll of the U.S. Fish Commission. Molpadia turgida, sp. nov. oie Ga calcareous grains, of various sizes, less numerous than in M. odlitica, but far more numerous and more regular than in AZ. borealis. These grains have a concentric structure, either around one, or, when oval, around two nuclei. perforated plates are rather large and irregular, og varied formed, much less irregular and larger ete . borealis. They usually have a central circle of thre pom foramina, then a circle of ten or more, larger, oval nay separated by a thin framework, which runs out into irregular projections beyond the border ; the central spinule is elongated, acute, consisting of three or four columns. The ae est specimens are Fiske 125™ long, and 25 to 80™™ in dia Bay of Fundy,—A. E. Verrill and S$. I. Smith, 1865. Massa- _ chusetts Bay, 40-100 fath., soft mud, 1877, ’78; "Gulf of Maine, 1874; Casco Bay, 1873; off Nova Scotia, 18 77, —U. §. Fish Commission. Gulf of St. Lawrence, Whiteaves. Av4 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna of North America. ANTHOZOA. Actinernus, gen. nov. Off Sable L, N. S., 200-250 fathoms, Aug., and Banquereau, about 200 fathoms, Sept. 9, 1878,—Capt. J. W. Collins, sch. “Marion.” Eastern slope of George’s Bank, in about 220 fath- oms,—Capt. and crew of the sch. “ Alice G. Wunson,” ee es 1878. Lat. 42’ 31°; long. 64° 20’, 300 fathoms,—Capt. Wm. H. Greenleaf, sch. “ Chester R. Lawrence.” __ Synanthus, gen. nov. Actiniz which have a broadly expanded, thin base from which new zodids arise by’ budding, so as to constitute a small colony, connected together by a common base. Inategument thin and smooth. Tentacles numerous, retractile. Synanthus mirabilis, sp, nov. - Colonies often consist of five or six, or.more, zooids, which are generally parasitic upon the branches of Primnoa reseda and Paragorgia arborea, often surrounding them like a ligature, __and in the case of Paragorgia often forming deep constrictions _ so as to seriously weaken the branches. Column low and but- ton-like in contraction, the integument so translucent as to _ show the numerous internal radiating lamellae. Same localities _ as for the preceding species. __ : N. D. C. Hodges—Absolute Galvanometer, 475 Art. LXII.—On a new Absolute Galvanometer ; by N. D. C. Hope@Es. In the ordinary form of galvanometer the current is measured by the ratio of the force it exerts on the needle to the directive force of the earth, the ratio being determined by a measure- ment of the angle ‘of deflection. The moment of the force with which a unit weeds acts on the needle may be expressed in a series of the for. G, g, sin? + G, g, sin? Q,'(9) + ete. re G,, G, are constants depending on the dimensions of sy ao and g,,g, on those of the Or 0. apparatus, coil increasing the number of coils and suitably placing them, the magnetic field may be rendered more uniform. In reading the deflection either a divided circle or a telescope and scale may be used. With the divided circle the deflection may be as great as 45°, but not more, or else the instrument would not be sensitive to changes in the current. The use of telescope and scale necessitates much aie deflections. To regulate the strength of the current shunts of small resist- ance often have to be used ; and the ep of the current through the instrument is rendered dou If, instead of placing the plane of the ae parallel with the magnetic meridian, they are placed perpendicular to it, the sum of the force of the current poo of the directive force of the earth would —— the m sana The formula ee (+5) expresses the relation between the time of vibration of a hori- zontal, swinging magnet, its moment of inertia K, its magnetic moment M, and the horizontal component of the earth’s mag- netic force If this time, the time of vibration without the current, is first taken and then the time ¢, with the current, we get the relation between oa ive, x M(T+F) (1+ 9) ¢ T4+F ee et EF é 476 N. D. C. Hodges—Absolute Galvanometer. when F is the directive force of the current on a magnet of unit magnetic moment. The moment of the force F on the magnet is C (G, g, sin6 + G, g, sin? Q’ (8) + ete.) = sind C (G9, + G,g, Q! (0) + ete.) #=the angle between the axis of the coil and of the magnet. Hence C (G,9,+ Gg, Q,' (®+ ete.) = F. For the small angles through which the magnet need vibrate, this factor may be considered constant and equals the constant of the instrument, used as a tangent galvanometer, when the deflection is supposed equal to 90°. Let G,g, + G, g, Q,’ (0°) + ete. =K,,. ‘Then F = CK,,. The value of C is obtained in the form ont) T "hesgea: . Se i 90 To find the value of Kyo. the same current, if passed through the instrument used as a tangent galvanometer, will give of te ’ C= Ko tan p H T 2 e—t? Tt = = t* tan p _ if the value of Ky is known for any value of g, the deflec- tion, the constant of the instrument used in this other way is given by this formula. It is evident that the relative values of Ko for different values of the deflection of a tangent galvanometer may be found by repeated application of this process. vanometer would also apply. | Physical Laboratory, Harvard College, Feb. 12, 1879. Se Pe tee ee een Chemistry and Physies. 477 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysics. 1. On a New Series of I —In 1868, Aneus bib and ga it would throw s ae on chemical ena. The resul nitrogen monoxide 12:90, sulphurous oxide 36°95, and nitrogen 427. The author has now taken up the subject anew and finds orti se hemical union. Moreover, ae oxygen is 16 times heavier than hydrogen, charcoal absorbs 128 times more oxygen than hydrogen by weight. Now this ates is exactly equal to the density of oxygen squared and divided by two, _ , or it is half the pro- duct of the density of this gas and its atomic weight. Again, the most probable value for ni arog is 4°66 volu sages oe ~. hence the weight absorbed is 14 4°66 or 65 This number i oe since nitrogen is trivalent. Carbon dioxide is not divided but is simply 227. The carbonous oxide absorbed is 6 volumes, the to the author to suggest a new series 0 es, whose weights are produced by squaring the atomic “weight and by certain divisions peculiar to the gases in ques It may se moken tp 8 has given him the howd Cana numbers : H+Cl =HOl gas +22°0 HCl dissolved +39°3 nbs gas =HBr gas Age % HBr dissolved +33°5 gas. g HI dissolved +186 Hts gas =HS gas ioe HS dissolved + 5:8 +0 gas =HO gas +29°5 HO liquid +34°5 478 Scientific Intelligence. From these numbers it follows: Ist, that Cl should displace Br and I, and Br should displace I, in the hydracids both when gas- ; this is co eous and in solution; this mon knowledge; 2d, that Cl hydrogen sulphide. These facts were experimentally established by placing hydrogen sulphide in a sealed tube containing I, and heating to 500°; no reaction took place. But HI gas on the con- trary reacts on S even in the cold, and if the tube be opened under water, the latter rises in the tube, remaining transparent till the inverse reaction takes place in solution, the iodine decomposing now the hydrogen sulphide again, with deposition of sulphur. 4th, that oxygen should displace 5 from hydrogen sulphide, a common reaction; 5th, that between chlorine and oxygen, an equilibrium should be produced, since on the one side gaseous chlorine should ‘decompose water to form HCl in solution, and on the other gas- eous oxygen should decompose dry HCl gas, to form water and chlorine. In proof of this, Berthelot mixed HCl and O in a sealed tube and passed sparks through the tube for several hours with the result, that nine-tenths of the HCl was decomposed, burns with a red flame, a good lecture po gc aoe The inverse at does not take place.— Bull. Soe. Ch., I, xxxi, 309, April, 1879, ara is therefore not far from zero.— @. R., 1xxxviii, 236, Feb. G. F. B, 4. On the Yiterbia of Marignac, and on a New Element, Seandium.—N ison, who was on the point of commencing an in- vestigation of the gadolinite and euxenite earths when Marignac’s go ig anger ee has p ded with it since this chemist has given it up for want of material. Having 63 grams of erbia, the Chemistry and Physics. 479 molecular — of which was 129°25, he sought at first to sepa- rate the ytterbia by a modification of Marignac’ 8 process, ceasing to heat the melted mass so soon as red fumes appeared. But it roved too tedious and he returned to the unmodified me tod, After thirteen series of decompositions of the nitrates by he there remained a basic nitrate which showed only feeble pie tion bands in the green and red. The solution, precipitated with oxalic acid, was evaporated and gave 3°5 grams of a white earth nitrate, a suitable quantity of sulphuric acid was added, the solu- tion was evaporated, finally over a naked fire, but “age such a tem- perature that the residue dissolved perfec etly_ in molecular weight of the earth dian shed gradually betes it enced 105°83; and yet traces of ytter ia were present. xamined again spectroscopically y Thalén, it gave twenty-nine lines, the strong- est of which had wave lengths of 6078°5, 6054, 6019, 5736, 5729, 5719, 5710°5, 5700, 5686, 5671, 5657°5, 5526, 5089, 5084°5, 5082°3, 4739, 4736°5, 4733. ‘To the element thus established, Nilson gives the name Scandium, since the two minerals gadolinite and euxenite in which it ea te are of Scandinavian origin. Its oxide is a ae ac earth, solutions of which give no absorption bands. It is after elton attacked with difficulty by dilute nitric acid, more readily by hydrochloric. Oxalic acid precipitates it comple he nitrate is com decompo a te perature at which ytterbium nitrate is only partially converted into a basic salt. Its sulphate is not changed at hig era- the ytterbia Fp pure, its nitrate 1 a an The erbia of previous authors then is nearly all ytterbia and only a few per cent erbia. The author hopes = pes — 480 Scientific Intelligence. 5. On an eae Sawer ie owes of Iron.—DrmxEt has repeated the experiment of a upon a ferrous solution with potassium nitrite and a sociiaaa reatitade; first noticed by Roussin, in order to — more carefully the product. To prepare the compound, s potassium nitrite is prado im 300 ¢. ¢. water, the solution is added, and the Leste tinea for a few minutes, A solution of 33 grams crystallized ferrous det in 200 c.c. water is then added gradually with shaking and the liquid boiled for ten minutes. It is then filtered and the filtrate deposits black — Fe) snit above given the rational formula must be |! SNH" Similar Fe compounds with nickel, cobalt or manganese have not yet been obtained.— Ber. Berl, Chem. Ges., xii, 461, March, 1879. by Fr using zinc ar he fe iodides ot the alcohol radicals in eo . of sodi In a dilute etherial solution of 1 ecules of ethyl iodide and benzoyl chloride, is extracted with ether and the ether evaporated. A brown liquid is left, which washed with water and fractionated, distills between 205° and 210°, is a light yellow refractive oil of a agreeable odor se da the composition of phenylethylketone. The reaction is as COCcl The method appears general.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., i, me March, 1879. 7. On the Production of Aurin.—CteRmMont and F ft have succeeded in producing aurin directly by acting ae i penal by a mixture of carbonous oxide and oxygen in sealed tubes. (CHOH),+00= 651-54 tC CoH, The co, te be nascent to produce the effect.—C. R., Jexxviti, 655, Mareh, 18 .B 1G O,H, +47" + Na, = Nal + NaCl + C0} Gr On: 4 | : : ) | | | Chemistry and Physics. 481 Radiometer.—in recent numbers of Mature (April 3rd and April 10th, 1879), Mr. W. Crookes gives an abstract of his later researches on the “ Repulsion aisles from Radiation.” He Interposed, and also when a cell of water was inserted in the path of the rays; and the difference in Ane relative effects under these conditions is very striking. These phenomena, which are similar to those seep saris wae Melloni. under the name of “ ene the water-screen was inte eit was only one-twelfth of that ex- erted by the standard candle flame when no screen in the way, the distance of the candle and other things being of course equal. With the effect on the standard lamp-blacked disk the other repulsions were compared and hence if the direct effect of . the source employed on this disk is arbitrarily expressed by the number 100, the effect of the same source on the same disk through r pressed by the number 8°3. The other numbers of the following table have a similar meaning. eee screen Per ego ict biog No screen. rposed. water Lampblack Jogpeceat Bs alee 100° “8 3 100° Chromic oxide (pale green), --.-- 715 17 20°74 Coppe’ ALG. ig cna ees 51:2 6°4 76°8 Prosulphocyanogen, -..--.----- 43°9 1-0 12°0 Sa Soc 41-0 43 51°6 Hydrated zinc oxide, 40°5 1°2 14:4 Barium sulphate. 2.