Jul B: ae THE : “AMERICAN JOURNAL SCLIHNCH AND ARTS EDITORS, JAMES D. ann E. S. DANA, ann B, SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorressors ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp J. P. COOKE, Jz., or CamprinGe, Prorsssors H. A. NEWTON, 8. W. JOHNSON, G. J. BRUSH anp A. KE. VERRILL, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PartiapELPHtIa THIRD SERIES. VOL. XVIT.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXVIII.1 Nos. 103—108. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1879 WITH THREE PLATES. NEW HAVEN: J. D. & E. S. DANA 1879: Misa0uUR! castes aoe ARDEN LiBR CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVIIL —_—_—_++4——___ NUMBER CIIL : Page Art. IL—Contiibutions to Meteorology; by Ex1as Looms. i Eleventh paper. Wit Wh plates F'and Ho 2505. 1 If.—Silurian Formation in Cen, Virginia; by J. L. Campse ELL, 16 IIIl.—New form of Spectrometer, and on the distribution - the intensity of Light in the Spectrum; by J. W. Dra ER, 30 VI.—Extinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono, and their ralion to the Glacial Drift; by J. LeConrx,.............__. 35 V.—Mineral Locality in "Fairfield County. Connecticut ; by G. J. Brusn and E. 8. Dana. Third pepper ces i io. 45 VI.—Note on the Progra! of Experiments for comparing a Wave-length with a Meter; by C. S. Petrcn, _.______. 51 VIL—Recent Additions to the Marine oe al the Eastern Coast of North America; by A. E. Verrimt,._.__. ____ 2 8 Per aie Sate 54 IX.—Method of ‘Prevencug ‘the too rapid. Combustion of the Carbons in the Electric Lamp; by TE W Winky, oe: 55 X.—Bernardinite, a new Mineral Resin ; by J. M. Stittman. XI.—Notice of a New Jurassic Mammal; by O. C. Marsu,-. 60 XII. “ter the Hudson River Age of the "Taconic Schists; by ~ or ~T s D. Dan eve Gia oe ee nes Bt 61 Pgs SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Action of Isomorphous salts in exciting the Crystalliza- . tion of Supersaturated Solutions of each other, Tompson: Ozone and the Silent Electric Discharge, 65.—Occlusion of Hydrogen by Copper, JoHNsON: Composi- of Charcoal from pure Cellulose, BERT “ S m derivativ: of Nitrogen trichloride, : Preparation of pure Cuprous c : - omposition of Wood, THo: . 67.—Dust Fi $s produced by Sound Waves, s . E EHM: Continuous Spec El Sparks, A ABT, 68.—A of Terre Magnetism, Perry and rimental researches in Pure, Applied and Physi stry, E. FRANKLAND, 69.—A Guide to the Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Urine, &c., Nrusa and Vi : es aoe to Hand- mical in EL gm aoebaee C. G. Wi ILLIAMS, ae on Hepa of the Vapors of Phospho- V. Mr (ee Geology and Natural History.—Die ae omit-Riffe von ef idtirol und Venetien, E. OJSISOVICS VON MossvAR, 71.—A Native gelatinous Silicate: Naturwissen- schaftliche Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Kaukasuslander auf Grund semer Sa melbeute, herausgegeben OQ. SCHNEIDER: Mémoire sur le Fer Natif du Greenland et sur la Dolerite qui le renferme, J. L. Surra, 72.—Jarosite (with gold): The cg Text book 4 of A. Gray, 73 .—Chronological History of Planis, C. PIcK- ERING, 7 iv CONTENTS. ——— sia Intelligence.—Fall of a ss on the 10th of fore hl in 8. F. 77.—The su Lovee dea rite of Chicago, E. S. B Nordenskidl Sw edish Arctic Expeditio: ; Beebe of Etna, 18 —Infiu oa f Coal-dust in Colliery Explosions, Ww. GALLOWAY : Elephant Remains of f Wishing Oo i Roathwe rm part ton Territory: Cudgegong Diamond-field, New South Wales, N. Taytor: Re of the New York State Survey for the year 1878, J. T. G ae —tTransactions of the Big ner Acade f Sciences, DAM and Letters: Ocean Wonders, W. E. : Paris Academy of Sciences : British Associatio on: American Association : Memoir of Joseph Henry, W. B. TAYLOR : Observatory on Mt. Etna: Early Man in Britain and His Place in the Tertiary Period, 80.— Obituary. —Professor Paolo Volpicelli. NUMBER CIV. Page . XITT.—Te Joe Pig Sass of the North American Ice- ze ‘Sheet ; by Warren Urn Ss ae 81 Vv. —Microphotography with “Polles's 8 ae inch ‘Objective ; by Ernraim CurTrTer, ae pete. Oe ee XVI—Magnetic Strains in Tro ; by Ao: Kamat So 99 XVIL.—The Loess of the Micsiesipg! Valley, and the AKolian Hypothesis; by KE. W. Hugann: .... cocea. -5-5---* 106 XVIIL—On a Method of swinging Pendulums for the deter- ng of Gravity, proposed by M. Faye; by 8. 112 XIX. anes SS. of hee woes as ar oo of | Section across the Appalachian Chain; by J. L. CAMPBELL, ---------- 119 XX. hana ery of a supposed new Planetoid ; hy CO. &. ct eee ae Rae ner ce cowl oe eee XXL Motes on the Laramie Group of Southern Colorado and Northern New age. east from the 2 Ranges ; by J. J. Stevenson, Beer eee ye L's XXII—On some points in 1 Lithology; ‘by James D. Dana, 134 XXUIL—On the size of Molecules; by N. D. C. Hopess,..- 135 XXIV.—Discovery of a — poe ot a Rocks wee ew ee ee ee eee eee ower ewww eee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics,—V apor-densities at very High oe V. Meyer and 0. ceneue Vapor-densities of Metallic Chlorides, V. and C. MEYER, 140.— Lead_tetrachlori ide, Fisoer: New element,. Scandium, 141.—Action of Bleach- ing Powder on Ethyl Alcohol, Scumirr and Gotppere: Heptane from Pinus Sabiniana THORPE, 142. — Synthesis of Chrysene, GRAEBE and BUNGENER: Se . 0. N. Roop, 143.—Color-blindness, B. J. Jerrrigs: Fric- tion and. Lubrication; R. 3, Taunaron: Neuere Appara' gel aaneres schaflicheSehule und Forachong von n M. T. EpELMANS, 14 CONTENTS. Vv — and Mineralogy.—Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California, D. Wuitney, 145.—Richthofen’s Theory of the Loess, J. E. Topp: Tertiary in Massachist Bay, W. O. Crossy: Pennsylvania, Geological Report of J. H. C Geology of Gibra LR Botany and Zoology.—Report upon ie U. 8. Geographical Surveys west of the 100th Meridian, vol. vi, Botany, 154.—The Flora of British India: Refugium Botanicum: bias ge and Proceedings of the Botanical i: of Edinburgh, 155.—The Journal of the Linnean Society, 156.—Flor: issections illustrative of the typical Genera - as British Natural Orders, G. HENSLOw, 157.—Decease of Botanists: Psy Miscellaneous acon "aig é. Bb ect A a on the Substances which produce the Chromospheric Lines, J. N. LocKYER, ae eee _ Scientific Journal: Builetino del Voluieee Italiano, 3 ML 8. DI NUMBER CV. Pag Arr. XXVI.--The Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds; yw Aga GRAY, : loose ee XXVII.—Possible cause of variation of the proportion. of Oxygen in the Air; by E. W. Morrny, ------ .------- XXVII.—Principal J. ’W Dawson’s criticism of my Memoir On the Structure of Hozoon a se compared with that of Foraminifera; by K. XIX. — Estherville, Emmet County, go "Meteorite of May 10th, 1879; by (. TBs XX. —Co “38 Correotan of ppqeee Telescopes; by W. 177 XXL. ~Teeriak Moraines of the North ‘American Ice-Sheet ; : 19 by PHAM, ae Secs SX WIL.Oheervations & on 1 Planetoids; by C. HE. F. » Perens, 209 XXXII — on the genus “Macropis 5 by W. H. Parr oak ee 211 XXXIV. — hadiional ‘Remains of Jurassic "Mammals; ‘by iene eo erect ek Oi: MARSH. oc os ye ness cambenene< SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Spectrum of Ytterbium, DE “Ageimue 216.—Nitrifi- — Warineron, 217.—Chemical ree of Alkali metal Amalgams, 19.—Action of Dehydrati ubstances upon Ch its amides, BALLO, — raat Synthesis of Methyl-violet, H ASSEN: ‘CAMP : Alka- loids of Japanese Aconite Roots, WrigHtT. 221.—Determination of 7 Den- sities, 222-—Compressibiity 0 of gasses at high pressure: Elements Modern Chasity, by A. Wurtz, 22 vi CONTENTS. ee vote Mineralogy.— Discovery of specimens of Maclurea cn) the a arnegat limesto Pe Sage Ne ke g, New Yo as R. P. WHI Sisne ‘aay of K Coa 32 227.—Recent Eruption of E Bin tna, Se Former ase nsion Seon of the South Aenea Contin ent, A. AGASSIZ, 230 —Footprin n the Mesozoic rocks of New Jersey: Footprints from the Anthra- te Coal ant ures of the caged ee ii at the Ellangowan Colliery, 232. annie rous Pech of the Sierra N and California, oe 7. D. WHITNEY in ae via. » 235. Geology of Kansas: Geological site ot oo. ‘for oN Genera of F The Mosasaur, Leiodon anceps, of the American criacous 236. Botany.—Origin of the Flora of the suepes aa by J. Bau, 236.—The Nati Plants of Victoria semaci te “ fined, by F. von MvELLER, 237.—Influence of » Light on the Motions of Desmids, E. ‘STAHL: een of the Prothallus of z ewe Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. ‘ibe of the Catskill teombescee by A. Guy J. L. Campbell’s “Geology of Virginia:” To Astro: : Explorations ape Surveys in the Department of sey Missouri, 239. Ore rigin ge History of the Smithsonian Institution: Mode of Growth of Scaisierne H. J. CARPENTER: Mobius on Eozoon Canadense, 240, NTMBER CVL. Art. XXXV.—On Radiant Matter; by Wu LLIAM CROOKES, 241 XXXVI.—Coincidence of the Bright Lines of the Oxygen + Baki be Oi coe Lines in the Solar Spectrum; by ee 262 XXXVI. Aas joi Densities of Peroxide of Nitrogen, Fo Formic Acid, Acetic Acid, and Perchloride of Phosphorus; by J. Wittarp Ginss, 277 XXXVIII—The Fault at Rondont; by T. N. Daxx, Jr... 293 XXXIX. or Composition of Amblygonite; by 8. L. MNP ee ree ee XL Superposiion of Glacial Drift upon Residuary ede Py W.d. MoGen,, 2 as Go os scas 2 Peo he sormnirtric INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Theory of Fractional Dis tillation, THorPE: Solidifying point of Bromine, Puttiep, 304.—Thermic formation of Hydrogen silicide = _ of Ethyl silicate, OateR, 305.—Organic Ultramarine - of cant Syctheeis ; ¢ Benzene Ring, Von RIcHTER, vise —Sulpho-ethers off the Polyatomie methyl- Alcohols een the Carbohydrates, CLAESSO parar ‘Dalz and SCHORLEMMER, 307. —taieaion Balance, 308. Geology and ace History.—V olcanic Phenomena and Eart hoe — 1878, 308.—Geology of the Diamantiferous Region of the Province of , Brazi i by 0. A. Derpy, Se fatvontine betas Gymnospermy of cena by L. Ssemng dco 31 L a American Botany, by 8. Watson, 313.— ni enezuelense: : Detieanaiie de Botanique, par M. H. Bat- 10s. *, 316 —Miscellanea, 317. a aS of the soe of Mars for Oct. and Nov.. 1879, 317, é ericar pasrcetion, 318. — British Associa- ae stile CK, 3 Kae 4.2. Be CONTENTS. Vil NUMBER CVILI. P: ART, spe —History ~— Methods of Paleontological Discov- ery; by MARSH sD ieicwu cw woes 323 XLIL L_Diamagnetie ‘Conmeaas . Bismuth and ‘Cale-spar it in he <8 ute Measure; by H. A. Rowtanp and W. W. ES, ee es Ee Fe Oo 360 XL. -VapokDesaaian of Peroxide of Nit itrogen, Form oe d, ee Acid, and Perchloride of Phosphorus; - J. Wir. Ss, EERE AS A ROSEN IE 371 XLIV. Beha: Inequality i in n the Moon’s Motion produced by the oblateness of the Earth; by J. N. SrockwEtt,.. 387 we steel: of two new ‘Anberoida by C. H. F. Pr ETERS, 389 Light; ; by A. A. Micuzxson, sone BOO XLVIL—The Kane Geyser Well; by CA. a . 894 XLVIII.—Resonant Tuning Fork; by TOA. Emon, 3.2323 395 XLIX.—New Jurassic Mammals; by 0,0, Mizes: Sry Sage 396 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ager ohet and Physics. —New method of preparing Hyponitrous acid, Zory, ise Direct union of Calcium oxide and Carbon dioxide, BrryBauM Novw. Element, Senidtsis, € CiEvE, 399.—New Elements, Thuliu Zi CLivE, otes on the two new Elements anno éve, Boni 401, —Introduction to the Practice “é Commercial Organic ec Analysis, : eat, ‘i. : Units and sy bie pee a J. D. Everett, 405.—Elementary Les- sons oe Soun d, W. H Geology and Mineralogy. erat us sani along the Cascade Mts. of Oregon, T. CONDON, ing .—U. 8. Geological and Geographical Survey of ee Territories, J. Car under F. V. HaypeEn, ae a matopora, H. RTER: Note on the Section by T. x elson cs s. ae RRETT: Geological is of the State of Ohi 0 0. 5. NEWBERRY, al Survey of Cana HITEAVES, : ac- ture and Afinitios of et Tabulate Corals of the ait Period, H. A. Nicu- oS. OLSON: Journal of ee ociety of Natural History: ee! Red Fone netics of Western Euro . GEIKIE: Outlines of Field Geology, A. Gerk and Awards, Gren L E aatslieiad Exhibition, 41 11.—Strueture et th ‘Ooncot tion Minéra ralogique du Coti ticule, A. RENARD: Minerals of some of the Apatite- bearing Veins of Ottawa County, Quebec, B. J. HARRINGTON, 412.—Die Pseudo- morphosen des —s oo. Th: ae 414. a be ¥ Maxi Flora ientalis, BoissieR, 415. Ha Di eaions fer Liquide Colorati ei Fiori, P. A. Sace. : Neue Beobach — tiber Zellbildung und Zelltheilung, E. SrraspuRGER: Arnold Arboretum, 41 —J. G. AGARDH: P. vAN TregHem: O. BEooaRI: Die Spongien des Sein von ico, LT. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. —Catalogue of of Scientific Serials, S. H. Scupp: Sketch of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., C. F. Hntes, 417.— = eehuieeric 6 of the Satellites of a comasmuan pion is} Luppock: Shell Mounds of Omo E. 8. Morse, 4 Viil CONTENTS. NUMBER CVIII. Arr. L.—Photographing the Spectra of the Stars and Planets; by Henry Draper, y RAPE LI.—Artificial Fertilization of Oyster Eggs, _ mies sass een We ee eee ee ee ee Be eee Hee eee tee of the American Oyster; by W. elon 425 LIl.— Origin of the Less; by G. C. Broapuerap, -_-------- 427 LUI. Say bares! on the planets Hersilia: cad Dido; Oe LIV. —Triple Cheever with ‘complete ‘Color Correction ; : by C. 5. Hastines, aig cah ws ese 6 een LV.—Geology of Virginia ; by J, Le, Capkn,5. 6 2 435 LVL. 26 lwtee! and Tatensity of the Rays emitted by Glow- ICHOLS, - 446 ing Platinum; by LVIL-—Reecent additions to the Marine Fauna of the Eastern Coast of North America; by A. E. Verr LVIUL— = eee of Galisteo Creek, New bt ae “by. ae fe er + LIX.— Scpcoloey "of Catoosa Co., Georgia ; by A. W. Voapzs, a LX.—New Jurassic Reptiles (PI. 3); by oO. C, Marsa, ..-- SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Electrolysis with Alternating Currents, DRECHSEL, 477. —Basicity of Dithionic or ee phuric Acid, KouBg, 478 8,—Non-existence + Pentathionic acid, Spring: Atomic Weight of T ellurium, WILL ration of aon elyeal & aged , a BELOHOUBEK: Skatol, BRIEGER: Syotieds. of Lactos and Natural yeni ak Survey of Canada, A. R. C. Senwyy, th Genaue Pepe lai der Epidot-K stalle aus der Knappenwand im oberen Sulzbachthal, N. von KoxscHarow: Canadian Apatite, C. Horrmann: Euca- ‘ M 48 ; sae lyptographia, F. v. -—Monographie Pha amaru mi, NDOLLE and ENGLER, 486.— Anatomie Comparé = Feuilles chez quelques oe Familles de Dicotylédones, DeCanpOLLE: Bentham a’ ooker’s Genera Plan- tarum, 487.—Chesapeake Paclaaical Laboratory, a Astronomy.—The Minor Planets, A. N. SKINNER, 488. —Annals of Astronomical | _ Observatory of Harvard College, 491. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. Geological Survey of the —_— Laepmyy: 492. than ical Time, : b ate Pye ‘ ae and gar W. K. Ciirrorp, 497.—The Mound Builders, ae. : Maps of the U. 8. Geological and Frecgenpkion, oe of the toten to ¥. HayYpen, 498.— Obituary: J. Clerk Maxwell, 4 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] e. > Art. 1.—Oontributions to Meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the Observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources ; LiAs Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Eleventh paper. With plates I and IL [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 15, 1879.] The Winds on Mt. Washington compared with the winds near the level co | In my last Article I gave some reasons for believing that areas of low pressure sometimes result from a circulation of the surface winds which does not extend to the height of 6,000 feet. In order to investigate this subject more fully, I selected from the published volumes of the Signal Service observations all those cases in which the direction of the wind on Mt. Wash- ington differed at least 90° from that at each of the stations, Burlington, Boston, and Portland, Me. The number of these cases was 507. Three-fifths of these cases occurred when the wind on Mt. Washington was from the west or northwest, and more than four-fifths of them occurred when the wind on Mt. Washington was from one of the points N., N.W., W. or S.W. ; and at the same time the wind at the neighboring surface sta- tions was generally from one of the points S., S.E., E. or N.E. As this Table, if accompanied with the details necessary to render it intelligible, is too large for publication, I have adopted a different standard of selection, and have taken all those cases in which the barometer at Portland, Me., fell as low as 29°6 inches, This list has already been given in my tenth paper, page 9, except that I have added the cases found in the volumes of observations since published for January, February and Am. Jour. eee Series, Vou. XVIII, No. 103.—Juny, 1879. sll 2 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Taste L— Winds on Mt. Washington compared with the surface winds, 1872. - Oct. |12.28.W. 512.3 W. 30/13.1S.W. 27/13.2 N.W.30/13.3N. 59114.1S.W. 22 i Ss. : S.E. 12 N.E. 8 ¥N. ? 9 25.3 N.W.15|26.1S.E. 24/26.2S.W. 29/26.3 S. 18)/27.1 N.E. 4/27.2 N.E. 29° : YE. 6 .E. 8) N. N. ; 4 3\Nov 6.1 N.W.20| 6.2 N.W.28| 6.3 N.W.30] 7.1S.B. 4! 7.2S.W. 38] 7.3 N.W.65 s. S. 9 8. 8 SE. 3 *W. W.. 4 ll.lcalm. {11.2 W. 13)11.38.E. 5012.18 28/12.2 S.W. 65]/12.3 N. 507 : Ss. 10 5 Ss. 8 i § *} 5 13.2 N.W. 5)13.3 8S. 1514.1 W. 55]14.28. 30/14.3 W. 32/15.1 1 : S.E. 4 E. 8. 5 TW. 4 W. 6 28.3 S.W. 22/29.1 N.E. 22/29.2 S.W. 35|29.3 S.W. 22/30.1 N.E. 45/30.2 ¢ ‘ Bi: Ss WwW. 9 10 Ww. Ss. 7|Dec. 1.3 W. 32) 2.1 36) 2.2 W. 35/238. 42) 3.18.8. 61} 3.28. 8. 4 8. 4 S.W. & *W. 1: W. 3.38.E. 42) 4.1 W. 58 9.3 8.E. 16/10.1 1 Ween Yee N.W.1E N. 8 7.3W. 8] 8.1S.E. 49] 8.2S.E. 54) 8.3 N.W.22| 9.1 calm. 9.2 § s. q 8. 9 8. 8 S. 5 s 2 9 26.1 N.W.16/26.2 N.E. 2/26.38. 5\27.1 calm. |27.2 N.W.24/27.3 1873. N.E. 6 N.E. 10 N. 8 N.W. 5 NW. 7 10\Jan.. 2.2 8.W. 38] 2.28. 36| 3.18.W. 48) 3.2W. 36 3.3W. 42] 4.1 N.E. 3 N.E.. 6 S. 5 S.W. 6 *Ww. 4 ll 43 W. 60) 5.1W. 36) 5.28. 64) 5.38. 601 6.1W. 32] 6.21 W. N.E. 2 N.E. 13 *N.E. 4 Weds 12 20.3 5.W 21.1 W. 16/21.2S.W. 28/21.3 S.W. 34/22.1 S.W. 26/22.2 N.W. s. 5 S. 1 S. ¢ EE <4 *NLW. 4 N.W. 7 ie 96.2 W. 10/26.3 N.W.28/27.1 N 10)27.2S.W. 6/27.3 S.W. 16/281 W. 28 wee 8 E. E. 1 N.E. 7 *N. y Sw. 14|Feb. 3.1W. 44! 3.25.W. 40] 3.3W. 32) 418.W.46) 42 WwW. 44) 4.3 W. S:W. 11 S.W. Ss. € 3 7 *S.W. € N.W. 15 63.W. 44). 71 W124 128. 30] 7.38. 34| 8.18.W.18) 8.25.W. 50° } S.W. 4 No.9 N.E. 6 N.E. 16 PW. fk WwW. et 16 21.1 W. 40/21.28. 38/21.3 8. 12/22.1S.E. 26/22.2$.E. 36)22.3 W. 52 N.E. 3 E. : *N_E. 12 cae yy N.W.13 N.W. 9: 17|March.| 2.3 W. 2| 3.1 W. 37 3.2 N.E. 30] 3.3 N.E. 42! 4.18.E. 48] 4.22 N.W. 3 N. *N. § ‘ee N. ¢ } 18 72W. 36) 7.3 W. 50) 8.1 W. 16) 8.28. 4618.3 N.W.126| 9.1N. ; 8. € s. ‘ 8. 9 § Ww. 7 19} 15.1 W. 12)15.28.W.17116.38. —38)16.1 38116.2 S.W. 52/16.3 1 | Ss. 5 8. 8 SE. 8 : f Wei 1, 20 20.1 N.W. 5)20.28.E. 2/20.3S.B. 84/21.1S.E. 50/21.2 W. 12/21.3 1 E. 6} E. q N.E. 14 *W.. 10 Agee 21 22.2 W. 32/22.3 W. 41/23.1 38\23.2 W. —/23.3 N.W.43/24.1 1 : We SD Woy 8. 4 2 8 Ww. § 22) 25.2 S.W. 24/25.3 S.W. 40/26.1 § 23/26.2 54:26.3 W. 35)27.1) ae N. 4 N.E. N.E. 16 N.E. 9 ¥*N, 8 } 23. 28.3 W. 76|29.1S.W. 34/29.2 17/29.3 S.W. 50/30.1 W. 18/30.2 1 s. 8 : 12 Ja *N, 7 \ 24 30.3 N.W.24/31.1 N.W.42/31.2 24/31.3 8. 82/32.1 § 20/32.2 } 8. W. i 4 *N. § Yost Wea 25) April. 11.3 N.W.10)12.1 S. 36}12.2 N.E. 7012.3 E. 96)13.1 N.E. 58/13.2 1 N. 3 N.E. 1 N.E. 1 N.E. 11 N.E. 11 26) 18.1N. 6€ 18.28.E. 20)18.38.E. 6/19.1 calm. {19.2 W. 36/19.3 1 N.E .1 N.E. § N.E. 4 N. 6 N. 5 vyé 24.3 N. 6125.1 W. 12/25.2S.E. 65/25.38.E. 5/26.1S.B. 10/26.2 1 . Wo A ae eee ee | } (28\May. |12.1.N. 22/12.2 N.W.40/12.3 N.W.56/13.1 W. 13.2 N.W.51/13.3 ME NW. 4 EW: 8. 7 “WwW. 8 j W. 40/242 W. 60/243 \ 8. y ow. 4 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service Winds on Mt. Washington compared with the surface winds. 1873. 30/June Sept. Noy. Feb, March. 26.1 N.W.20 WwW. 6.3 N.W.38 11.2 N.W.34 19.1 N.W.24 i ee 0.2 N.W.3¢ Wier a 6.2S5.W. § N.E. 4 11S. 20 me 26.2 N.W. § 7.1 N.W.38 ss. 4 11.3 N.W.1 3.2 W. 141 3.3 W. 10 7 < 15.3 N.W. 6 3 9 16.1 N.W.30 N.E ; 8 27.1 N.W.35 Ss. 8 9.35.W. 4 12.3S.W.2 f 32 5 5 15.28. I¢ 3.1 N.W.35 poet 8.2 N.W.5¢ Ww 18.2 W. 3¢ 4.1 N.W.24 19.3 W. 41 1.1 S.W. 20 TINE +: 4.2 \ f 20.1 1 . 128.W. *W, 7.2 N.E. 12.18.) V. 36} 4.31 * v.W.26|20.2 N. y.W.30 5 . ow bo ob Ps bat oy igre ea 16,1 3.3 he 9.1 22.2 W.23 28.1 calm. N.W.86 N.W.11 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Winds on Mt. Washington compared with the surface winds. 3 187. 4 61|May. | 4.2 N.W.28| 4.3 N.W.48) 5.1 — 19} 5.2 N.W.24| 5.3 N.W.36| 6.1 N.W.207 eal N.W. 6 "| *NE. 8 N.W. 5 N. & 62 94.2 N.W.18|24.3 W. 10/25.1 aw ~ 25.28. 88/25.3 W. 56/261 W. 427 s. € s. 3 S.E $.E. 13} *S.W.11 S.w.1 63 30.1 N.W.32/30.2 N.W.30/30.3 W. Mr 31,1 N.W.38/31.2 N.W.50/31.3 N.W.40 a S.E. aoe Ss. 9 *SW.20; N. &@ 64\June. | 6.2 N.W.20| 6.3 N.W.24| 7.1 N.W.20] 7.2 W. 36) 7.3.W. 68] 8.1 W. 907° i. ci Sais S.E. S.Ee 8. 7 *W. 8 65 16.1 W. 20/16.2S. 36/1638. 60/17.1 N.W.36/17.28. 20]17.3W. 247 s. 3 eee & Ss. a 24 SW. 7] *W. be 66 22.1N. 28/22.2N. 44/22.3 N.W.42/23.1 N.W.60|23.2 N.W.34/23.3 N.W.52) Ss. 8 Ss. 8 Ss. Ss. 1¢ *3.W. 9 N.W.12> 67 27.2 W. 18|27.3 W. 23/28.1 N.W.25/28.2.N. 36/28.3W. 54/29.1 N.W.24 s. 9 Sci 2 S Wi We §$.W. 11 S.W. Te 68|Aug. | 0.1 N.W.16] 0.2S.W. 50) 0.3. N.W.52) 1.1 N.W.60| 1.2 N.W.75| 1.3 N.W.70_ i the & S.W.11} S.W.10| *W. N.W. 55 69/Sept. [29.1 W. a6 29.2S.E. 1029.3 E. 54/30.1 N.W.30/30.2 N.W.84|30.3 N.W.64 _ Ww. N.E. 11 N.E. 8} *N.W.14 ..W.12 W. 1% 70|Oct. 1.1 NW. Ps 1.2 N.W.36| 1.3.N.W.40| 2.18.W. 38] 2.2 N.W.25 .W.567 W.-41 Ww. Ss. 8 8. 13). SAW: WwW. val 9.2 N.W.55| 9.3 N.W.55/10.1 S.W. 30/10.2 § 35|10.3 W. 4€ S.W. 8 5. 6 8. 10 a ae & S.W. 12 az 16.3N. 40117.1 W. 30/17.2W. 28/17.3N.W.18I18.1N. 24 S.W. 6 S.W. 6 S.W. 10 S.W. 7] *N.W. € 73INov. | 9.3N. 56/101 N. 74/102N. 70/10.3W. 46)/11.1N. 7 SW. 7 Ww. 9 W. 4 6| *W. 5 14 19.2N. 50/19.3N. 34/2018. 24/202 60/20.38. 40 Ww. 6 Ss. 4 s. 6 7 #8. 6 15 22.2N. 8122.3 et 23.18.E. 54/23.2 S.E. 35/23.3 N.W.32 Neg E. SB. 13 Wil: =*W.-- 8 "6 28.1 N.W.50/28.2 S.W. i 28.38. 70/29.15.W.60/29.2N. 84 : cw. 6 1B. 3 8. q Y.W.13 *W. 6 ii\Dec. |16.1.N. 25/16.2 N.W. - 16.3 N.W. 8]17.1 N.W.54/17.2 N.W.35 . EH. BiB 4 Be. 4 W. 7 22.2 W. 40/22.3 W ‘“ 23.LN. 40/23.2 N.W.48/23.3 N.W.24/2 1875. | B10 s. y 8. E SW. 5 Ss. § 79| Jan. 1.1 N.W.80| 1.2 N.W. at 1.3 N.W.48| 2.1 N.W.14| 2.2 S.W. 36 1877 ¢ 8. Ss. s. *wW. 10 golJan. | 1.1 N.W.5¢ 1.2 N.W. 2 1.3calm. | 21N. 17) 2.2N. 56 ‘ q N.W. N.E. ¥*N.- 1€ N.W.19 81 6.1 N.W.48] 6.2] LW. 43 6.3 oe W. a 7.1 N.E. 50) 7.2 N.W.96 ee : N.E. *W. 2 7.3 N.W.60| 8.11] N.W.60 8.2 x Ww. a 8.3 N.W.54| 9.1 N.W.96 ce ‘. 8 OW 7 N.W. 83) 19.1 N.W.46/19.2 Fs AE 20.1 W. 48/20.2 N.W.86 toe ae See * & 26 Ww et 84|Feb. |15.3 N.W.50/16.1 N.W.24/16.2 W. 36/163.W. 24/17.1N. 24 : S.W. S.W. § 7 Ww. 14 17.3 N.W.72/18.1 .W. 108 25.1 N.E. 24 W. 13) =*W. 21 gee 85] 23.1 N.W. 6)23.2 N.E. 12/23.3 N.E. 30/24.1 N.E. 54/24.2 N.E. 36 | NE. LE. 4| NE. 7 NEG) (NE. 86| March.) 1.2 N.W.60) 1.3 : 1.W. 6) 2.1 5.W. ©: 2.28. 60} 2.38. W. 48 e Sey 3 5 S.E. Ss. 13 *S, 87 7.3 N.W.6¢ 8. LW. 42| 8.2 W. ~ 8.3W. 721 9.1 W. 66 ae . 7 8. y Ss. S.E. 27 88} 12.2 N.W.72|12.3 calm. |13.1 N.E. 6/13.2N.E. 6/13.3N.E. 4 f N. 5 N.E. 8} oe 1428. Gt 143 W.. 15.1 N.W.18115.2 N.W.72 = 8B 1 ee N.W.10} *W. 18] 89) 25.2 W. 24/25.3S.W. 2426.1 S.B. % 26.2 BE. 48) — ie . oS 3 N. N.E. 11 27.2 SE. 60/27.3 SE. 6 28.180. 34 ae dons NE is 19. EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 5 March, 1877. The total number of these cases is 89, and the are shown in Table I, in which two lines are given for eac date; the first horizontal line shows the direction and force of observations. For each case, the date of minimum pressure at the neighboring surface stations is indicated by an asterisk. It will be noticed that for several observations preceding the minimum pressure, the surface winds generally blew from one of the points §., S.E., E. or N.E.; and that about the time of minimum pressure the wind changed to one of the points N., -W., W. or S.W. For convenience I call the semicircle in- cluding the four former directions the east quarter, and the semicircle including the four latter directions the west quarter. On the summit of Mt. Washington we sometimes notice a similar change of wind near the time of minimum pressure, but not invariably. ‘There are two cases in which the change of wind from one of the above mentioned quarters to the other did not occur in a decided manner either at the base or summit of Mt. Washington. These cases are Nos. 48 and 72. In each of these cases however there were a few of the surface stations at which the wind blew for a short time from the east quarter. Tn No. 48 at 9.2 the wind at Boston was east, while at Burling- ton and Portland it was south, but the velocity at all of the stations was so small that I have preferred to record it as a calm. ‘The center of this depression was on the southeast side of Mt. Washington. In No. 72 the winds preceding the min- imum pressure at several stations blew from the south, but the prevalent direction appeared to be S.W. This low center comparisons 87. There were 40 cases in which the change of wind from the west to the east quarter was felt at the base but not at the sum- mit of Mt. Washington, that is, 46 per cent of the whole number of cases ; and there were two cases in which this change occurred at the summit but did not occur ina decided manner at the base. These cases are Nos. 27 and 60. In No. 27 at 25.1 the wind at Burlington was south, and at Portland was northeast, but the prevalent direction of the surface winds in the vicinity of Mt. Washington appeared to be west. It will also be ob- served that the wind at this time on Mt. Washington was very 6 . Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. feeble. In No. 60 the wind at Boston at 28.3 blew from east, and at 29.1 from northeast, but there was no prevalent sur- face wind from the east quarter. The center of this low area passed on the south side of Mt. Washington. We thus see that occasionally when a low center passes near Mt. Washington base of Mt. Washington. In 87 of these cases the change occurred first at the base, and in 8 cases the change occurred simultaneously at the summit and the base; that is, at an interval of less than 8 hours; and taking the average of all the cases we find that the change of wind at the surface stations usually occurs eleven hours earlier than it does on Mt. Washington In 28 cases the change of the wind back from the east quarter to the west quarter occurred simultaneously on the summit of Mt. Washington and at the base; that is, with an interval less than 8 hours; in 16 cases the change occurred first at the base, and in 6 cases the change occurred first at the summit. These six cases were Nos. 4, 10, 48, 50, 86 and 88. In four of these cases the wind on Mt. Washington blew from the east quarter at but a single observation, while at the surface stations the east wind continued during a period of from three to five observa- tions, indicating that the influence of the movement of the lower stratum of the air was sensible on Mt. Washington for a few hours only, and then subsided. No. 88 is the only one of these cases in which the wind on Mt. Washington blew from the east quarter during more than two observations. Taking the aver- _ age of all the cases we find that the change of wind back from the east to the west quarter generally occurs at the base of Mt. ashington sooner than on the summit by five hours. If we take the average of the pressures at the center of those W areas in which the change of wind to the east quarter did the east quarter did occur on Mt. Washington we obtain 29-27 inches, which seems to indicate that the greater the depression a Sa ee a el 3 ite Li. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 7 87, no considerable change of wind occurred on Mt. Washington. In No. 23 the wind on Mt. Washington blew uninterruptedly from the west or southwest although the center of the low area passed south of that station. In Nos. 88 and 87 the wind on Mt. Washington was strong from the west or northwest, have also made a comparison of those cases in which an area of low pressure has passed over New En land, when the barometer at Portland, Me., did not fall to 29°6 inches, and in seven-eighths of these cases during the continuance of this low pressure the wind on Mt. Washington did not at any time blow circulating winds at the surface stations, this system of circu- on the summit of that mountain; and the change back from the east to the west quarter usually begins at the base of the mountain five hours sooner than on the summit. Abnormal storm paths. are shown in the two following tables, one containing those cases in which the direction of storm paths was most northerly, and the other containing those cases in which their direction was most southerly. Table I contains various particulars respecting eight storms whose course was nearly from south to north. Column 1st shows the number of the storm; column 2d shows the number of the observation; column 3d the date 8 FE. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. of the observation; and column 4th the station at which the observed height of the barometer was least. This station was not generally at the center of the low area, but is presumed to have been not far distant from the center; column 5th shows the height of the barometer at the station named in column 4th; column 6th shows how much the barometer at the given date was below its mean height for that month as deduced from the observations of six years; column 7th shows how much the thermometer on the north side of the low area was depressed below its mean height for the hour of observation; column 8th shows how much the thermometer on the south side of the low area rose above its mean height for the hour of observation ; column 9th shows the average humidity of the winds on the north side of the low area; column 10th the average humidity on the south side of the low area; column 11th shows the direc- tion and velocity of the highest wind reported at any station on the north or west side of the low area; column 12th the direction and velocity of the highest wind reported at any station on the south or east side of the low area; column ows the total rain-fall at all the stations east of the Rocky Moun- tains during the preceding eight hours; column 14th shows the total rain-fall at all the stations included within the same low area; and column 15th shows the direction of the center of the rain area from the center of low pressure for a time preceding the date of observation by four hours. en the center of low pressure is near the boundary of the United States it is generally impossible to determine from the observations where is the center of the rain area; and in such cases a blank is left in column 14th. When the center of the rain area coincided sensibly with the center of low pressure the syllable cent. is inserted. Table III contains similar particulars respecting six storms whose course was nearly from north to south. The last case in each of the tables was taken from the International series of observations in which the observations are given for only one hour of each day, and the rain-fall is the amount re- ported for the preceding twenty-four hours. On comparing these two tables we find important differences in several particulars. In each case of Table IT, with the excep- tion of the last, the barometer became more depressed as the storm moved northward, and at the last observation of each case the average depression of the barometer below the mean was 0°26 inch greater than at the first observation. In each case of Table III the depression of the barometer increased for 16 hours or more, and then decreased, with the exception per- haps of the last case where the storm is only followed to Dodge City. In the other cases, the average depression of the barom- eter at the last observation was somewhat less than at the first Taste II.—Storms Moving Northward. 3 Sa 1§ é 8 °| Date. | Lowest Barometer. | Za = ~ 11872. Dec. in | E 5 1} 19.1 | Indianola. |29°70} - 2| 19.2} Nashville.| -79 3} 19.3 | Louisville.| -62 4) 20.1| Buffalo. “43 5) 20.2 | Montreal. 50 1873. Jan. a. 6| 1.3] Indianola. 43 | 7] 2.1] St.Louis. | -53 : 8} 2.2 | Milwaukee 23 9} 2.3 |Milwaukee.} -07 10] 3.1 | Marquette. 09 Apr. Ill. /11}) 7.2] Indianola. | -6¢ 12} 17.3 | Memphis. “68 iat” Bod Cairo. “64 14) 8.2 uisville “b2 15} 8.3] Chicago. 54 16} 9.1} Eseanaba 42 17| 9.2| Marquette.| -42 18] IV. {18} 19.2 | Charleston 64 | 19} 19.3} Norfol 52 | 20} 20.1 | Cape May “45 : 21/ 20.2 | Phila’phia.| -26 : 22/ 20.3 | Pittsburgh.| -38 23| 21 Erie. 28 : 24|21.2| Alpena. | -36 4 1874, ‘ Jan. , V. |25] 5.3|Jacks’ville.| -95 3 26] 6.1 |Montgom’y 90 : 27| 6.2| Augusta. 74 28} 6.3] Augusta 61 ; 29) 7.1 |Lynchburg.| °57 . 30) 7.2 | Pittsb 46 31) 7.3 | Cleveland. 54 32; 8.1] Os “46 33) 8.2} Ottawa “aL ’ | Mar. . VI. {34} 6.1] Ft. Gibson 40 35] 6.2 eo) “23 | 36, 6.3 uque. | -16) - 3 37| %.1|Milwaukee.| -17 38} 7.2} Alpena. “24 1877. Feb. VII. |39) 28.2| Indianola. | -90 40) 28.3 | Galveston.} -88 Mar. 1.1 |Shreveport.} -73 1.2! M is.| “56 1.3| Cairo. "42 2.1| Chicago. 17 2.2| Saugeen. | °12 21.1} Concho. “56 -1 |Dodge City.; -37 48) 23.1, Bismark. 55 9 Temp. Hum.; Highest Wind. Rain Fall. £1 z¢isig E z E | North’ty.| South’ly.| Total.| Bla lala —| + i" A in. 25| 13/T7/98IN. 12/8 301 21] 16/81/87|N.W.17/S. 24) 6°77 15| 11/84/88IN. 20/S.B. 20) 67 19| 12|80/89/N.W.16|S.B, 24/1437 12| .8|79|/88|N.W. 24/S.B. 18) 5° 8| 12/81/87|/N.E. 8/S.E. 16) 0-64 4) 15/89/88. N.B. 11/8.B. 15! 6-29 1} 16/87/90. N.W.29/S.B. 24) 9°12 2| 11/82/90,\N.W.20/S. 20] 6-28 3} 19/82|90,N.W.35/S. 20) 7°84 | 17] 5/68 71/N. 25/8, 19] 3-20 10| 21/8275.N. 28/9.B. 16) 3-45 21) 14|75.80|N. 34/S.E. 20) 8-70 18| 19/89'80|N.E. 32/8. 35] 8 7] 18/83.82|N. 26K. 33) 4-48 17| 15/85'85|N. 16/S.K. 32) 3-75 12) 14 ae .W.23/8. 32] 3 “as eslicl owe 10} 8/77 94|N. 19) 16/82 95|N. 14] 11/56.93/N 15| 13/78'95|N 13] 11/78/83|N 14 9)65,78|N 8| 12/81/91 8| 17/86|95|N.E. 4| 11/79/89 0} 16/83/89, 1| 26|82/95|\N.E | 22/88|93|/N.W. 1 x 92\N. 1 3 1/97|N.W. 12/8. 2 29 7aletIN.W. 18/8. 17| 10/36/85|N 9} 16/74/83|N. 5} 21)77/87/N.W. 35) E. 13} 3/7 |g9IN. 11| 9|75\84|N-W. 2818. 115; 8|52/s2iN. 6| 7/49/93|N.E. 12 4/68|95|N.W. 12)S.E. 8} 2/69/93 'N. 4| 9'85/88\N.E. 16S 4) 16)84/87|\N.W.1 3) 12/78/90/N.W. 24/3. 7] 14/sais9iN. 12 | 35/88\93'\N.W. 32/S.B. 8! 37\s2i93\w. 9.5'14-7\78'88| 20 cs Se oO ‘ te Ly oe emai oe deed ad a E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. Taste II].—Storms Moving Southward. | Temp, |Hum.| Highest Wind. Rain Fall. Eg Ps ‘eo: bass Ss 3 Ss Lewes, St: Se 2 - . $ | Northly.| South’ly.|Total.| tow.| ‘side. z\|algila * i. in. | in . 2 in. in. 4 Pembina. |29°91|-20 2| |TOIN.W.16/S. 14! 0°82 | 0-00 : Ft. Sully. | -83/-27} 3] 5/82|79|N.W.28/S. 16] 0-99 0-22 y Ft. 67° o| 5l74l77|N.W.28/S. 13] 1°11 | 0-63 |E. -80}- 3| glsel72IN. 25/S. 10] 0°54| 0-48 |K. Ft. Gibson.| -80/-36) 2] 3/86/78/N.W.34/S. | 0°49 | 0-30 |S.S.E N. Orleans.| -90|°28} 6] 0/76 W. 20 -96 | 0-90 |S.E. Virginia C.| -46|"1 he s 18| 0°70 | 0°59 |E. Virginia 0.) °31\"34| 14 24| 0°80 | 0-72 |E.S.E. N. Platte. 07|-78) 20 “ ts * N.E. BF ees 18] 0°97 | 0-77 |E. N. Platte. | -03/-82| 22) 10/76\76|N.E. 24/S.E. 12] 1°24] 0-41 |Cent. Ft. Gibson.| °64/°52) 35] 22/83/81/N.W.25/S.E. 12] 2°03/ 1-74 |E.N.E. Denison. “76|-45| 29) 19)77|74|N.E. 32/8. 20} 6°88 | 0-20 |N. Corsi 95/25} 35] 20/71/84|N.E. 34/9. 12] 2°98 | 0-76 |N. Indianola. |30°05|09| 21) 24/82/91/N. 20/8. 10} 116 | 0-99 |N.N.E. Ft. Garry. |29°79|-39 20] 177 S. 12] 0°34/ 0-0 Brkenridge.| °73|"41 18/78|78|N.W.30/S. 16] 0°42 | 0-00 Milwaukee.| -55/*52 16|63/64|N.W. 26/S.E. 20] 1°55 | 0°99 |E.S.E Toledo. 58|°50 14\75\66|N. 26/8. 15] 1-02| 0-98 |E.N.E. Pittsburgh.| °59|°50| 11| 5/76/62|N.E. 24/S. — 4| 0-42 | 0-27 |N.E. orfolk. | °63|-47| 11 0|S.W. 14 0°46 | 0-39 |N-E. Wilm’gton.| -76|°37| 7 63 : “53 | 0- : 88/28) 6 72| |N.E. 30) 1:42 | 0-39 Pembina. | °64/° 26] |77 S. 10} 0-03 | 0-00 ; i “64° 27| |15 S. 12] 0-00] 0-00 : -35|-72 43|\63! IN.W.45/S. 25] 0°15 | 0-15 St. Paul. 38/-70 N. Ss. 21) 0°19 | 0-19 sse.| “46)°65 28/79|63\N.W.30/S. 21] 0-18 | 0-18 Davenport.| °53/60| 0| 21/61/56\N. 30/S. 13] 0-79 | 0-7 St. Louis. | °58/°53} 4] 20/71/57/N. 24/8, 8} 1:80 | 1-80 |S.S.E. N. Platte. | 19-45} 15] 24/78/58/W. 28'S. 14] 9-44| 0-00 Omaha. -46|55| 19] 21/76/63|N.W.20/S.B. 14| 8-59 | 0°13 City.| -07|"56| 13] 21/58/59|N. 44/S. 26] 5-21 | 0-27 |N.E. Ft. Gibson.| -66|°30) 19] 19/80/57|N.E. 40/S.E. 16] 1°30/| 0-19 |N.W. Ft. Gibson.| °73|'23} 19) 17/79\73/N. 24/S.E. 8) 3-811] 1-11 |N. Corsicana.| -67|'33| 14] 15/62/45|N.E. 30/S.E. 17| 4°81 | 1-31 |N. Indianola. | -83/'25] 10) 1 IN. 22/8. 1113-70] 2-93 |N. Virginia 44|-20} 6] 18 8. 16] 4-82 | 0-20 B’kenridge.| -38/76| 8] 21/71/72/N. 12/S.E. 17|1-56| 0-04 Dodge City.| -06|"74) 0} 28/86/76|N.W.19/S. 18] 3-46 | 2:89 |E. 12.0'17-1'74'71' 27-1} 148 0°57 3 EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 11 observation, oe less than half of what it was at an intermediate date. the average temperature of the winds on the north side of ca low area was 9°5 degrees below the mean for that time and place; and the average temperature of the winds on the south side of the low area was 14-7 degrees above the mean for that time and place. In table III the average tem- perature = the winds on the north side of the low area was 12 egrees below the mean, and on the south side was 17 degrees above a mean. The blanks in columns seven and eight of table IIT result from the center of least pressure being near the boundary of the United States, so that the signal service sta- tions do not furnish the required data. In both tables the average humidity of the north winds was nearly the same, but the humidity of the south winds was very much the greatest in — II. In table IT the average velocity of the south winds en per cent greater than that of the north winds. In eee III the average velocity of the north winds was about double that of the south winds. In table II the average rain- fall in eight hours within the low areas was 6°89 inches; in table ITI the average rain-fall was 0°57 inch, and in a majority of the cases Pe ~~ table the average rain-fall in eight hours was only 0-14 The most emarkable circumstance which characterizes these two classes of storms is the difference in the amount of rain-fall. In the cases shown in table II the rain-fall was enormously great, and this appears to be the general characteristic of those storms which originate near the Gulf of Mexico. In my seventh paper, I gave a list of all the cases contained in the volumes of the Signal Service observations which had then been ublished, showing a total rain-fall of eight inches in eight ase at all of the stations. More than two-thirds of all these storms originated on or near wots Gulf of Mexico, and a major- it of the remaining cases occurred in summer. One reason why these storms are attended ea a great fall of rain appears to be that the south wind is charged with a large amount of vapor from a warm sea. From table II it appears” a this south wind is warm, moist, and pushes northward with great force. The principal object which I had in view in preparing these tables was to discover, if possible, the reason why these storms pursued so unusual a path. The average course of the eight storms in table II was only 20 degrees east of north. One of them moved almost exactly north, and another deviated sensibly — to the west of north. Can any reason be assigned for this un- — course? I have endeavored to determine whether there connection between the course of the storm and the rere § which accompanied it. Plate I of my 7th Sept shone the curves of — rain-fall for the eight hours preceding 12 #. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 74 85™, Oct. 20, 1873, and corresponds to No. 20, table II of the present Article. At that date the center of low pressure was moving almost directly towards the center of the rain-area. Plate I accompanying the present Paper, shows the isobars for Oct. 21.1, 1873, and the dotted line shows the area over which the rain-fall for the preceding eight hours amounted to at least one-fifth of an inch. The rain-fall at Cleveland was °75 inch; Alpena 58 inch; Rochester ‘49 inch, and Saugeen 49 inch. It will be perceived that during these eight hours the storm center had been moving almost exactly towards the center of gravity of this rain-area. There was also a rain-area extending along the New England coast from Boston to Eastport which did not appear to exert any appreciable influence upon the progress of the storm. I have made a similar comparison for each date in table IT and find that in each case the storm center was moving nearly towards the center of the rain-area. In more than half of the cases the storm appeared to be moving exactly towards the center of the rain-area. In four of the cases the rain center appeared to be a little westward of the storm path, and in twelve cases it appeared to be a little eastward, but in only two or three cases did it deviate as much as 45° from the direction in which the storm center was moving. This coinci- dence seems to favor the conclusion that in a great storm the condensation of the aqueous vapor is an efficient cause which controls the movement of the winds. Table III shows results very different from table II. In six of these cases no rain was reported at any station within the area of low pressure during the preceding eight hours; in 23 of the cases the total rain-fall during the preceding eight hoursatall the | | stations within the low area was less than half an inch; and in only five of the cases did the total rain-fall in eight hours exceed one inch, and in each of these five cases there appears to have been a special reason for the greater rain-fall. In No. 11 the | rain center was about 600 miles northeast of the center of low pressure, and the succeeding observation shows that there was another low center in Canada which mainly controlled the movement of the winds throughout this rain-area. In No. 29 the character of storm No. IV had already changed, and ‘the 2 subsequent course of the storm was nearly east. In Nos. 34, 35 and 36 the greater rain-fall is partly explained by the prox- _ imity of the low center to the Gulf of Mexico. In No. 39 the — rain-fall is given for a period of 24 hours. Thus wesee thatan — area of low pressure may be formed with very little rain, and ap- parently with none at all. Moreover in these cases the storm cen- ter did not generally follow the rain-area but moved away from it. Plate II accompanying this paper shows the isobars for Jan. 4, 1877, at 4" 35™ P. M., indicating a low center near Ft. Sully. De RS Penge age ae ee eee a ea E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 18 | center, and the low center traveled southward apparently unin- fluenced by this rain-fall. There was asmaller rain area whic was nearly concentric with the area of low pressure, and there was a very slight fall of rain on the south side of the low center. I have madea similar comparison for each of the dates of obser- vation, and find the following results: In seven of these cases the principal rain center was about 350 miles north of the center of the low pressure; in four of the cases it was on the northeast side, and at a distance of about 500 miles; in eight of the cases it was on the east side, distant about 600 miles; in one case it was on the northwest side; in one case it was on the southeast side; and in only three cases was the center of the rain-area nearly south of the center of low pressure, viz: Nos. 5, 28 and 29. In the last case the storm, instead of following the rain towards the south, immediately changed its course and moved off towards the east. Thus, out of thirty-nine cases we find only one case in which the storm seemed to follow the rain- area, but in half of the cases the storm traveled almost directly away from the rain-area, and in nearly all of the remaining cases the course of the storm was nearly at right angles to the direction of the rain-area. These facts seem to show that in these cases the rain-fall exerted no appreciable influence upon the course of the storm, and therefore no appreciable influence upon the fall of the barometer. This conclusion is confirmed by the observation of the clouds. In all the cases given in table IH, the average cloudiness on the south side of the low area was less than one-half; and in several cases the sky was entirely cloudless at every station on the south side of the low area. This was true for Nos. 15, 16, 17, 23, 24, 30,31 and 32. This evidence appears to me to show that heavy and exten- sive precipitation does not invariably precede the first for- mation of depression areas and’ accompany their expansion, as has claimed. These depression areas increased in intensity when the rain-fall was nearly zero, and while the sky on the south side was not generally overcast with clouds, but in several cases was almost entirely clear. In 14. E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. 8 Signal } Service. the United States, depression areas do not generally begin with extensivé precipitation, but the rain-fall is a con- comitant after the system of circulating winds has become pretty well established. The depression of the epee raee is the result of a system of circulating winds, and t most frequent cause producing such a system appears i: ve two or more areas of high pressure at a considerable distance quently 1,400 miles) from each other. Differences of — ature and of humidity are also important agents in producing and sustaining such a system of winds. When a system of circulating winds has been —* over a large extent of coun- try, there almost invariably results a fall of rain; and if the rain-fall is abundant, and pp over a nice are: s, it becomes a very important agent in modifying the direction and force of the winds. The principal question still remains undecided, why did the storms in table II pursue a course so nearly from south to atmosphere near the earth’s surface, and occasional departures of storm paths from this average track appear to be mainly due to causes which render the general movement of the atmosphere at such times different from the average movement. In table II it is seen that the average velocity of the winds on the south side of the storm’s center was somewhat greater than on the north side. This seems to indicate that at these times a wind from the south or southeast pressed towards the storm- area with unusual force. This wind extended to a height greater than 6,000 feet, as is shown by the observations on Mt. Washington whenever a storm center came into the neighbor- hood of that station. The following observations show the direction and force of the wind on that mountain during the progress of storm No. IV. Oct. 20.1, wind S.E. 75 5 miles ; Oct. 20.2, wind S.E. 78 miles; Oct. 20.3, wind S. E. 50 miles; Oct. 21.1, wind 8S. E. 55 miles ; Oct. 21.2, wind S.E. 38 miles. The observations also show that this south current extended to the height of the upper clouds. This is seen from Plate I, where the arrows indicate (not the direction of the surface winds), but the direction of the upper clouds, according to the 2 ap of the Signal Service observations for Oct. 21.1, 1873. ese arrows conform in a remarkable degree to the direction of the surface winds, and seem to indicate that the system o: circulating winds which prevailed at the surface of the earth, extended to a height greater than 6,000 feet into the region of = Nps peu a C06 gd which is very uncertain and difficult important exception to the rule here E. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 15 stated is the observation at Davenport, which appears suspicious, since at the afternoon observation of the same day, the upper clouds were reported from the northwest. Generally through- out the eastern half of these low areas the lower clouds were dense and unbroken, so that there was no opportunity to obtain observations of the direction of the upper clouds, but in several cases observations were made which indicated a circulation of the winds at the height of the upper clouds similar to that de- scribed for Oct. 21.1. This is seen in the observations of Nos. 8, 24, 29, 30, 35 and 36. In table III the velocity of the wind on the north side of the low areas was nearly double that on the south side, and this northerly wind extended to a considerable height, as is shown by the observations on Pike’s Peak. The following observations show the direction and force of the wind on that a movement of the upper clouds from the west or northwest over nearly the whole of the United States from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic; and throughout the western half of this region the movement was mainly from the northwest. At no station were the upper clouds reported as moving from the south- east, east or northeast, and at only one station were they reported from the south. At the thirty-nine dates enumerated in table IH, there were only five cases in which the upper clouds were reported from the east at any station which could be regarded as included within the system of circulating winds here con- sidered ; there were five cases in which the clouds were reported from the southeast, and thirty-one cases in which the clouds were reported as moving from the south, and about half of these cases occurred Feb. 22d, when storm No. IV was losing its previous character and preparing to change its course from south to east. These facts seem to indicate that the surface winds which prevailed on the south and east sides of the low areas enumerated in table ITI, were not only dry and feeble, but extended to a less height than the southerly winds which attended the storms enumerated in table II. These facts seem to indicate that at the time of the observa- tions in table II, there was an unusually strong current from the south or southeast, which reached to a height of over 10,000 feet, and swept over a considerable portion of the United States ; 16 J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. while at the time of the observations in table III, there was an unusually strong current from the north or northwest, whic reached to a height of more than 10,000 feet, and swept over the United States from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic. The cases enumerated in table III are remarkable on account of the long continuance of the movement of storm centers from north to south, but the published volumes of the Signal Service observations show many other cases in which storms pursued a similar course for twenty-four hours or more. In preparing the materials for this article, I have been assisted by Mr. Henry A. Hazen, a graduate of Dartmouth College of the class of 1871. Art. Il.—Silurian Formation in Central Virginia ; by J. L. CAMPBELL, Washington and Lee University. Limits.—W hat is known as the “Great Valley of Virginia” occupies a belt of country extending entirely across the State from the Tennessee line on the southwest to the Potomac on the northeast—including Jefferson and part of Berkeley County, now a portion of West Virginia. It has mountain boundaries throughout its whole extent. On its southeastern margin it is separated from what is called “Piedmont Virginia,” by the : Blue Ridge and its southwest prolongations, Poplar-Camp and Iron Mountains. On the northwest side we find a somewhat irregular line of broken ridges bearing different names at differ- ent points. Through several of the southwest valley counties it is called “Walker's Mountain.” In Botetourt, Rockbridge © | and Augusta, it is called “North Mountain,” while through the remainder of the distance to the Potomac it is called “Little North Mountain.” The length of the Valley, from the Tennessee line to the Potomac, is about three hundred and thirty miles. Near its southwest extremity, in Washington County, it _ is about twelve or fifteen miles wide, and becoming gradually _ wider it extends towards the northeast. We find it in Rock- — bridge and Augusta varying in breadth from twenty to twenty- — five miles. Its total area, embracing the contiguous mountain 2 ts on each side, is not much short of 6,000 square miles. ts Ls iphy.—With the exception of a limited belt occupied by the Massanutton range in its northeast parts, and — some strips covered by outliers of North and Walker’s Moun- tains, this extensive zone has for its surface one continuous _ ia a oF SE ee ae dge on the — J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. 17 southeast rising to heights ranging generally between 2000 and 4000 feet above tide-level; and the North Mountain range on the northwest, almost equally high at many points. (2.) The axial line of the Blue Ridge (which consists chiefly of Archeean rocks) has but few gaps through which streams of water can ass. Not a single outlet of any considerable size is found for the waters of the valley through this ridge anywhere between Harper’s Ferry on the Potomac and Balcony Falls on the James—a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. The only other water-gaps are the one through which the Roanoke (afterwards the Staunton) River — towards the southeast, — 1 y which the waters of New and cherty ridges are ries erage of such dimensions that in t ry. (4) Any good map of Virginia will show that this valley is Am. Jour. ceetaeeee SERrEs, VoL. XVIII, No. 103,.—J ULY, 1879, 18 Ji. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. not single, whether viewed lengthwise or crosswise. From a few miles southwest of Winchester to a point nearly opposite Harrisonburg, it is divided into two subordinate valleys, by the Massanutton Mountains—a long belt of ridges of Upper Silu- rian and Devonian rocks that withstood the denuding agencies that uncovered so many hundreds of square miles of the wer Silurian limestones. Less extensive ridges also inter- (5.) Elevations.—At Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac leaves the Great Valley, the height above tide-level is only. about two hundred and forty feet; but when we reach the head waters of the Shenandoah, we have arrived at a water-shed having an average height of nearly 1800 feet. Then, in pass- ing on to the south corner of Rockbridge, we come to the “pass” of the James, at Balcony Falls, having an elevation of about 700 feet. The Roanoke Valley has about the same — : “f average elevation as that of the James Valley, 1200 feet; but on fising to the margin of New River Valley, near Christians- urg, in Montgomery County, we are about 2000 feet high; and on the southwest margin, at Mount Airy—the summit of _ the A. M. & O. Railroad—2600 feet. Many points on the Blue Ridge are not higher than this highest po of the great lime- or — At the Tennessee line the height is less than Bs ee) ‘ ; * This is often spoken of as if it were a single mountain—azd so it appears to reality, there are two short parallel ridges _ ; be as Ww in nearly a mile apart, cut off abruptly at both ends. WES AY ao she sft ee [ms Sue CED “ . ~ fs a Peet eer e enemy. ’ ge ice s § wr" ni ; Ye 7 r <_ fe *, ‘, * orn gocseoonstmenn. on oN ' i / ae ra gent. ‘% \ ip i / i / ‘ak at op $0: 'ae ty ap 404d’ sp la SECTION oF SILURIAN Formation, Rocksrmer Co., Va.—From 8. E. to N W. 20 Miles, srtcenlpmsibll ect ceca eS DESoRIPTION OF SECTION.—1. The leadin Pennsylvania Sortie Rogers), 2 Arch, (a) E. i sear Se te. 3 ight-hand end ee on), the Archaean rocks are marked, W Arch, (a), (b), @ ‘while an pA nae Ai. ruding near the of the Blue Ridge is _ rked, E. sai The beds of san dotted,—e bie m rv Me less conglomerate ; beds of shale have closely ruled lines ; limestone strata are bi @ having longitudinal and some cross-rulin ngs, to distingu si have double longitudinal | lines, 6. "Heights above tide tered a e eldspathic rocks east of Blue re indicated on the right of ay seer division of the secti 20 J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. Here, then, we have a plateau, rather than a valley, with an average elevation above the sea of about 1200 or 1300 feet. This is much above the average elevation of the Mississippi Valley. It is in reality a of the great belt of uplift that constitutes the Appalachian Range, but erosive agencies have ~ stripped it of the greater part of its mountain-making masses. The Blue Ridge, which now forms its southeast border, was once the shore-line of the great primal ocean that covered the Mississippi Valley (including “ Appalachia”) during the re- mote ages of geological histo At present the streams of water in the valley tend towards — the southeast margin all the way from the Potomac to Salem, © in Roanoke County. This is most strikingly the case in the — basins drained by the Roanoke and the James Rivers, thus indi- cating less elevation on that side than on the other. I think we shall learn hereafter that this is most probably the result of — same rocks forming subordinate limestone valleys, but they must be left out of our present discussion. —My purpose is to give in the first place a section — divisions and sub-divisions, and some leading peculiarities of each, will, I think, illustrate the geology of this middle part of — the State in a manner, and to an extent, not hitherto attempted — by any one. I am indebted to the partial survey of Virginia, made under — the direction of the venerable and distinguished geologist, Pro- fessor W. B. Rogers, for guidance and aid in my own investi-— : gations and for many of the facts contained in this communica- tion. The line of section here given has been carefully explored and re-explored throughout its whole extent, several times. crosses a portion of the valley not heretofore represented in section, so far as I know; and while it may be regarded, to a certain extent, as typical of this region of the State for some miles on each side of its’ line, it presents some peculiarities worthy of special notice. These will be discu in future. For the present a general description must suffice. ffi The southeast extremity is on the slope of the Blue Ridge _ beyond Robinson’s Gap, and extends one mile past the line _ ~onsoemommmm ee rr re er need J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formvtion in Virginia. 21 © between nee and Amherst Counties; while the north- west reaches about a mile beyond the crest of the North Mountain to the valley of rn Tockhbides Alum Springs, where it cuts the Devonian shales from which the waters of those springs flow. A subordinate ridge of Medina sandstones, however, rises in alle valley between the end of the section and the Springs. The first general division includes the metamorphic and eruptive rocks of the main Blue Ridge. The other general divisions are those adopted by eer Rogers in his surve of the State (1836-41). Only Nos. I to VII are includ The sub-divisions into which each ‘of Seooant is here divided are ‘ may be regarded as representative (with local modifications), not only of the limestones of the Great Valley, There is no natural ae or gap ae the es th Ridge, but the pens has it been metamor = osed. This, with the aria beds of like ee OE Rate an and dipping in the opposite cektiens. lake sey esr No. I of ¥; aleag gan sata It might be subdivided into very many alternations of sandstones and shales, but I have preferred to limit the number to seven, that are quite ogres in their general features for many miles along the N. of the range. At the grand natural section at Balcony alle where the James River passes through the mountain, about fifteen miles S.W. of my line, there is a very interesting expo- sure of all the divisions here given—similar in relative posi- tion, similar in lithological and fossil characters,~and having _ same general di bake e group, No. I, a, as a general rule, has a layer of feldspathic and siliceous conglomerate near the then 22 ‘J. L. Campbell— Silurian Formation in Virginia. dark shales alternating with sandstones more or less conglom- erate. The shales, however, predominate. Next comes a b (b) of very hard sandstone—quartzite; the upper and lower layers of which are more brittle than the main mass lying between them. This is succeeded by a much thicker mass of _ brown, cst and = shales (c), With: thin beds of brittle sandsto his mass is Soon disintegrated at the — River pass on eee hs ides, where its thickness is et tiies with numerous ps of mica disseminated ioe cher Up to this point we find only very faint indications of fossil — remains of either plant or animal, A few scolithus borings ~ (in. b and d) are found, but they are rare, in comparison with ” Such is Prcteste B Rae ers’s rs a of the given - this heavy bed - rock by the Seolithus line- s are so numerous that I recently counted at Baoas Falls tions 150 of ‘nals extéoutitive projecting on one quare ‘root of surface. This may yery properly be called the lithus bed” of this Primordial formation. The thinner beds at the top and bottom disintegrate rapidly. Between nie ) and the first limestone of the valley is a thick mass of ferrugi- nous shales generally much disintegrated and _— with the Sa Pee te ee Ome Er ee ye Renee eee ee ee J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. 23 debris of sandstone from the adjacent ridges just described. This is (g) on the section. It sometimes rises to a considerable height on the slope of the “scolithus bed,” especially where the dip is low; and in a few cases, as at Trish Creek, I have found it reaching the crest of the ridge. It is one of the rich- est repositories of iron ore in Virginia—especially brown hema- tite—and has valuable beds of manganese, one of which, near Waynesboro’, in Augusta county, is at present extensively worked. The ores ofthe Shenandoah Iron Works of Page county are obtained from this bed of shale. Although it abounds in iron ores, yet it has the peculiar feature of contain- ing a layer of ig so white as to be called “chalk” by the peo- ple of the region This brings us to the border of the limestones of the valley, and the plane of division between No. I and No. Thus we have passed over the Primordial Postal If it has here repre- ~~ of both the Acadian and Potsdam epochs (which I doubt) the lowest shales and sandstones must represent the former, and the upper — and sandstones the latter. For the present, at least, [ shall regard the whole as belonging to the Po tsdam. The total gir varies considerably as we ascend the ridges. This is especially conspicuous in the beds of shale, and causes such a decided variation in the dip of the sandstones as to make them present the appearance in many laces of segments of broken arches; the dip varying as it does ae re and at ‘Balcony Falls from 65° at the base to 30° near the upper margin, or outcrop of the beds. This peculiarity has been caused either by an original thinning out of the beds towards their margin before they were upheaved, or by a : yi nt out of a portion of their material by the resistance ressure of the more unyielding beds of sandstone above ai d Bato at the period of upheaval. thrust, which was doubtless from the Blue Ridge pene the valley, seems to have been more powerful near the base than it was near the summit. Hence the steeper dip. below, which has become reversed in the limestones for seve- ral miles from the foot of the mountain. No. IL—The first natural subdivision (a) of the valley lime- stones may with propriety be called the “Hydraulic Forma- tion,” inasmuch as it abounds in hydraulic limestones through- out its whole length. It Seema noe several layers of very siliceous and argillaceous limes mcg from one another by beds of ene = moe a hales, and some soft sandstones. The of hy Sate ain is near the =r we = — ogee a hele it has been quarried for is only about twelve to fifteen fost. thick, ee aii sips seni to the N.W. Whe ere our section 24 J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. — oa @ pee >] = a) < a) e 4 S 0g (4°) ee or oO ber} = ms = ay or = io) oy 0g. oO EE © fom Qu oe eB et 3 © a lic beds (a), as originally deposited on the ancient sea-bottom, — underlie those of 6, while these again were overlaid by the ed nly occasional fucoid plants, and brachiopod mol- this formation, gives a dark brown color to the soils produced by its disintegration. These are among the best and most tegrating agencies, as to be left as a covering on the faces of many of the limestone hills throughout a large extent of the | Great Valley. This chert bed varies in thickness from one to ten feet within the range of a few miles; but it and the brown sandstone lower down serve as well defined land-marks for this whole formation. ‘The brown sandstone has preserved imper- fect impressions of several species of ——Te shells, while in the chert bed are found in some localities large numbers | silicified shells of gasteropod and cephalopod mollusks. This division (c) by disintegration yields light clay and sandy or pebbly soils, according to the varying characters of the out- _ cropping strata. These soils are only moderately productive— __ some of them very poor. deposits of limonite ore in _ this formation have been mined in past years to supply some _ of the iron furnaces in Augusta county. | : a é J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. 25 The lithological and paleontological characters of this group of rocks, as well as its position seem to identify it with the ings that these lines indicate, for there are along the line many evidences of local warpings, fractures, dislocations, ete., that could not appear on such a section. Several trap-dykes are found protruded through the rocks of No. II, in Augusta and Rockingham counties, but none, so far as I know, in Rock- bridge. The Natural Bridge, from which this county takes its name, is in 6—being a portion of one of its upper strata span- ning a cajion or gorge, cut through its lower ale to a depth of more than 200 feet.* : —In some respects this group of rocks differs so widely here from its condition in Augusta and Rockingham counties, where Professor W. B. rs ee adopted it as typical e Lexington basin as a part of No. II, but I am equally confi- dent that he would, upon a more detailed eXamination, class JIL. (60) feet. It seems to run out somewhere beneath the syncli- nal fold that forms the Poplar Hills, but appears again on Buf- * T incline to the belief that this gorge was originally a crevice in the strata, and su by erosion—not the result of erosion alone; the arch having escaped fracture when the crevice was produced. 26 J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Vurginia. falo Creek, six miles to the 8.W. N.W. of Lexington the out- crop of this bed is finely displayed along some parts of the base _ of Brushy Hills, and especially on the North River, a mile — o. III, 4, crops out extensively on both sides of Poplar _ Hills, forms the whole of the synclinal over which Lexington — stands,* and is the foundation rock of the House Mountains, _ around the base of which it may be seen re out on all sides. The general position here is horizontal, or nearly so, with some local curves. Northwest of Kerr’s Creek valley it © disappears beneath the North Mountain. & The general structure of 6 differs very widely from all the _ lower limestones—the s here, except some of the lowest, being thin layers of argillaceous limestones, with interstratified shales. Near the base of J, especially along its S.E. portion, underlying the Poplar Hills, we find a bed of very compact blue limestone irregularly bedded and very full of infiltrated veins; but, as we ascend, the rocks become more and more argillaceous, with the beds of shale becoming more numerous; __ and finally, as may be seen on House Mountain, after passing - upward through a thickness of about 650 feet, the shale becomes predominant, but still contains some thin beds of limestone remarkable for the profusion of fossil shells, crinoids and coral found in them. There is no well-defined horizon here, between what is represented on the section as b and c, but — the former seems in general characters to be the equivalent of the Trenton limestone, and'the latter of the Cincinnati (Hud- son) shales. It is about 750 feet thick. ; Remark.—I have not seen any outcrop of the division, a, of No. Ifl in Augusta county northeast of Staunton, nor have Ll seen it at all in Rockingham. [If its equivalent appears in that se of the valley, itis under quite different lithological and ossil peculiarities. I might say almost as much in regard to 6; for limestone beds form a very inconspicuous part of UT, m Staunton (or rather a point S.E. of that place) to a point in Rockingham county, where it passes under iv in the Mas- sanutton range of mountains. - ““FAULT.”—This seems to be the proper place for directing attention to the ‘‘ Fault,” the line of which passes in front (S.E.) of the House Mountain. It is easily traced for several miles _ . * This synclinal is really dowble—having a line of uplift ranning through it, but | the scale of the section would not admit its insertion. There are also some local tetebulariicce 3 : : : J. L. Campbell—Silurian Formation in Virginia. 27 both ways from one line of section. The lower and older rocks of No. II are found = their own normal order) meee ing the newer of No. III }, which dip beneath them. At number of points between Kerr’s Creek — Collier’s Chalk two considerable streams that run out from the N. Mountain at the opposite extremities of the House Moosic ridges, this dipping of the newer under the older rocks may be seen along a line of very considerable regularity. Our general description has now extended to the horizon between the Lower and Upper Silurian. o. IV, the equivalent of the Medina group, is composed of very adnebe sandstones that are the chief mountain-making rocks along the northwest margin of the valley, and through- out a belt of twenty or twenty-five miles wide, parallel with it. It may be represented under three subdivisions. The lower one of which (a), is a very hard, light gray, sometimes white, , sandstone, distinctly conglomerate in many places, and so durable as to present long lines of precipices where the strata crop out on the faces of the mountains. The middle member (6).of this group is a dark brownish purple sandstone with beds of interstratified shales of the same color. Shells in the sand- stones, and fucoids in the shales, are conspicuous features of this division. A third member (c) is much lighter in color than 6, but darker than a. Some of the harder layers havea pinkish hue, while the softer and more brittle, especially near the top, where they border on No. V, are brown and yellowish brown in color. hile this group, as it appears on the two ridges of House Mountain, rests upon a nearly horizontal base, in the North Mountain its position is changed to that of a steep northwest dip. The general pressure that acted from the Blue Ridge side of the valley towards the northwest, seems to have lifted the House Mountain ridges somewhat above what was the original level of the surrounding region, and, at the same time, to have broken off and pushed back the edges that now form the crest _ of North Mountain. But while the section represents the gen- eral result, it will be found on examination, that there are a number of local and limited irregularities in the form of con- ‘tortions and fractures that codid not be exhibited on a scale representing so much space within so short alimit. So, also, it has here, apparently, a greater degree of symmetry on the sur- face, than e denuding praict to which it has been sub jected, have given it. Butin this regard, also, the irregularities are too numerous and limited to find a place on the section. The strata of this group all thin off as they extend farther towards the interior basin of the coal regions. They also vary — in thickness where they crop out along the margin of the 28 J. L. Campbelli—Silurian Formation in Virginia. valley. What now caps House Mountain is about three hun- | dred and sixty feet thick, while, at the highest point, it may have lost one hundred feet or more of its original height. On the Warm Springs Mountain, in Bath County, twenty miles farther towards the great Appalachian coal basin, the thickness is very perceptibly less. At Panther Gap, two or three miles — west of Goshen, where the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad _ asses through Mill Mountain, a very complete section of No. — is displayed as a folded and inverted anticlinal—inverted towards the northwest so that the higher strata of V, VI and VII, seem to underlie IV. o. V is in most places, in this part of the Appalachians, a — bed of shales and brittle, shaly sandstones. In the upper part — the shales predominate and have some thin bands of limestone. Valuable iron ores, some of them highly fossiliferous, abound in this formation. The development of this group is not — extensive where our line of section cuts it. This seems to be the only representative we have here of the Clinton and — Niagara epochs (5d, and 5c, Dan a). No. VI is not actually visible where the section passes, but — in some of its beds to make good lime, and firm enough to- make good building material for houses, railroad masonry, etc. In the prolongation of the same mountain valley, in — which our section terminates, this formation is largely devel- _ oped along the line of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, be- _ tween Goshen and Buffalo Gap. At Craigsville, nine miles northeast of Goshen, it affords an extensive quarry of beautiful encrinal marble. It is the Helderberg Limestone. (7 Dana.) No. VII is a singular bed of brownish and greenish-gray sandstone of coarse texture, easily broken, and in many places _ disintegrates readily under the weather. In other localities it _ is more durable, forms rather low flat arches, and when cut through by streams presents precipitous exposures. It is said _ to have valuable deposits of iron ore at several points in Vir- ginia. Great numbers of fossil brachiopods, especially Spiryer arenosus and Rensseleria ovoides, are found in it everywhere. This is a remarkably well defined formation, readily distin- guished by its lithological peculiarities and its fossil remains. It is cut by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad at several places __ between Buffalo Gap and Goshen. On the turnpike leading _ eo 2 faa % ] ’ ! J: Ia Campbell— Silurian Formation in Virginia. 29 from Millboro to the Warm Springs, about three miles from the station at which the stage coaches leave the railroad, this forma- tion ma seen as an anticlinal arch, spanning the lower lime- stone of VI, in which the famous “ Blowing Cave” of Bath County is situated. Here the Calfpasture River has cut through a ridge and given a natural section along the base of which the stage-road passes, and where the Oriskany and Hel- derberg formations are well exposed, and, together with the Blowing Cave, present points of considerable scientific interest. Here, also, the meeting of the Oriskany, the upper member of the Silurian, with the Marcellus (?) shales, at the base of the orca may be distinctly pernarite on both ‘sibs of the ri The following table exhibits a comparison of the subdivis- ions in —_ portion of the Virginia st with the periods and n Professor Dana’s Manu: Silurian rocks of the Great Valley of fk drtaie with their sub- divisions, compared wi with equivalent epochs of Danas Manual, p. 142. 3 , al 3 Periods. Epochs, Rogeet Stele ee Sub- _|Oriskany 8 |Oriskany, |No. VIL. | |Spirifer Sandsto a ike fsiorhay. : L. Helderberg. |No. VI. Encrinal — 'S Salina. Salina. c | Calcareous es. E 5c| Niagara. No. V. 6 | Ferriferous Shales. ss 5d) Clinton. a |Shaly Sandstones, 2, Niagara. ¢ | Upper Sand-rock, 5 5a! Medina. _|No, IV. | 6 | Purple Shale and Sandstone. a | Conglomerate. hip esa | | ¢ | House Mt. Shales. Trenton. dal Tebniel: No. TL at le P n Limest ale * , a pat g Chazy. c Limestones. "= |Canadian. 3b | Quebec. No. IL {|b |Dolomitic Limesto | |3a/ Calciferous. ai ic Li (| g |Tron-bearing Shales. s 2b| Potsdam. 7 Scolithus Sandstones. 3 ghee or a § cers) Spin ae eae Sal Acadian. | | /¢ | Middle Shales. || @ | Lower Shales. Meta- (| c | Slates and Syenite Gneiss. 2 mor- + |} | Bedded Syenite. § Archzan. Archean. phic. (| a| Lower Sla me {|Igneous. | #| Eruptive Syenite. 30» uo. W. Draper—New form of Spectrometer. Art. I11.—On a new form of Spectrometer, and on the distribu- tion of the intensity of Light in the Spectrum ; by JoHn WIL- LIAM Draper, M.D., President of the Faculty of. Scinscnt in @ the University of New York. I HAVE invented a “Soe: tities which I think will opena _ new and interesting field to those who are engaged in spectrum se Sa | e ordinary spectroscope is ne with the frequency of ether-vibrations or wave lengths. This, which Iam about to describe, has a different function. It deals with the intensity : or imme of light. epends on the well known optical principle that a light ices invisible when it is in presence of another light about sixty-four times more brilliant. In some researches, published by me in 1847, on the produc- tion of light by heat or the incandescence of bodies, I used this method as a photometer, wi became sensible of its value. — The memoir in which those experiments are related may be _ found in my recently published ‘Scientific Memoirs,” page 23. ~ Having also published in 1872 a memoir on the distribution of heat in the prismatic spectrum, and shown that the cause of its increasing intensity from the more to the less refrangible regions is due to the compression of the colored spaces that earn teers 8 takes place, owing to the action of the prism tself, but having failed to obtain satisfactory measures in the ane of the diffraction spectrum, in which such compressi ; condensation does not occur, I was led to reflect whether bettet success might not be secured by attempting to measure the relative intensity or distribution of the li Admitting what is commonly received as true, that the yel- low is the brightest of the colored spectrum spaces, and that — the luminous intensity diminishes from that in both directions, aga and below, I supposed that if such a spectrum was brought n presence of an extraneous light, the illuminating power of which could be varied at pleasure, that after the red and gee '4 orange on one side, and the green, blue, indigo and violet, on ~ the other, had been extinguished, the yellow would still sangre : n the midst of the surrounding illumination. On making the riment it turned out different or the sake of clearness of description I will call this extraneous light, from the function it has to discharge, the ex- tinguishing light. : There are — sen Les bys coe ree rinciple above — indicated may be carried Raver ral of these — LThave tried, ia have robere: d the folle ebeetig a oneaiiaat one. J. W. Draper—New form of Spectrometer. 81 Remove from the common three-tubed spectroscope its scale tube, and place against the aperture into which it was screwed a piece of glass, ground on both sides. In front of this arrange an ordinary gas light, attached to a flexible tube, so that its distance from the ground glass may be varied at pleasure. On looking through the telescope tube, the field of view will be uniformly illuminated, this being the use of the ground glass. The brilliancy of the field depends on the distance of the gas light, according to the ordinary photometric law. Ast. Case of the prismatic or dispersion spectrum.—If the extin- guishing light be for the moment put out, and 9 the proper lace before the slit tube the duminous flame of the Bunsen urner that accompanies the apparatus be arranged, on lookin through the telescope a spectrum of that luminous flame will | of course be seen. The slit itself should be very narrow, so . that the spectrum may not be too bright. Now let the extinguishing flame be placed before the ground glass, and a spectrum is seen in the midst of a field of light, the brilliancy of which can be varied at pleasure. If the extin- guishing flame be at a suitable distance, the whole —_ may be discerned. As that distance is shortened, first violet, and then the other more refrangible colors in their descending order disappear, and at length in the steadily in- creasing effulgence the red alone remains. The yellow never stands out conspicuously as might have been ex This is scarcely consistent with the assertion that the yellow is the brightest of the rays. The red is plainly perceptible long after the yellow has gone. There is a greenish tint emitted by gas-light that disappears a little previously to the extinction of the red. From these observations I think that the luminous —— y i : ; a : ing that, ecient considered, the intrinsic bia of re Ig “ is the same for all. In this we must s bear in mind the physiological peculiarities of the eye. The foregoing statement is apy 2 hil explicit to , enable any one to verify the facts. y, however, mention, some improvements in the apparatus, Bah L experience has led me to The intensity of the extinguishing ee may be pag to obliterate the spectrum, even though the slit be cl sae Se: rowed. How then may the intensity of the spectrum pe imin- ished, and that of the es light be simultaneously in- creased? I accomplished this by depositing on that face of the prism which acts as a reflector an excessively thin film of silver. This, though it was transparent to the transmitted r rays increased very greatly by its metallic reflection the ex- tinguishing ones. I could not see any difference between the spectrum of the light that had come through this film and that — ore the face was silvered, but the reflected light was incom- parably more brilliant. The complete obliteration of the entire — spectrum presented now no difficulty. 4 Nothing need be said about collateral contrivances, which would suggest themselves to any one: A strip of wood a metre long, and bearing divisions served to keep the extinguish- — ing lamp in the proper direction as regards the ground glass, _ and indicated its distance. I may add, however, that satisfac- _ tory observations can be made very conveniently by keeping the extinguishing flame at a constant distance, and varying its _ intensity by opening or closing its stop-cock. This avoids the — trouble arising from moving the flame. In one instrument 1 caused an index attached to the head of the stop-cock to move over a graduated scale, and so ascertained how much it was opened. This, though permitting of pleasant working, had not the exactness of the method of distances. q 32 J. W. Draper—New form of Spectrometer. gray light I had seen when a strip of platinum is ignited by ee pat 1 C rough one of them, by a suitable arrangemen of a heliostat, slit, direct-vision prism, and convex lens, a sola ‘spectrum was formed on the ground per: Through the se ond aperture, which was about an inch square, covered with J. W. Draper—New form of Spectrometer, 83 glass ground on both faces, an extinguishing beam of sunlight assed. This ground glass served to disseminate the extin- guishing light uniformly over the spectrum. I could regulate the power of this light by varying the ae of the aperture through which it came by means of a sli It is needless to give details of the ae obtained by this instrument. viet nee identical with those described in the maces paragra It might be sup past that the irrationality of ne of dif- ferent prisms Suppo d influence the results perce Accord- ingly, I tried prisms of different kinds of glass oa other trans- parent substances, but could not find that this was the case, In all, the extinction began in the violet and ended in the red. or did there seem to be any difference when the effect ps viewed by different eyes. To persons, irrespective of age o the condition of their sight, the extinction took place: in the same manner. I had not an opportunity of examination in a case of color-blindness, 2d. Case of the Grating or Diffraction Spectrum.—lf the cause of the increasing intensity of light in the prismatic spectrum from the more to the less refrangible Neca be i exercised by the prism on the colore reasing as the refrangibility is less, we ought not to find sod pene peculiarity in the diffraction spectrum. In this the colored re ces arranged uniformly and equably in the order of their wave- at the same moment. Having modified the common spectroscope by taking away its dark box so that the slit tube and telescope tube could be set in any required angular position, I put in the place of its prism a glass grating inclined at forty-five degrees to rays coming in through the slit. The ruled side of the grating was present the slit. Now when the extinguishing flame was properly placed before the ground glass, the plane side of the grating Tr its light down the telescope ih al In this, as in the former case, the spectrum was seen in the midst of a field of light, thei Ststalty of which could be varied by varying the distance of the extinguish - ing flame, or by varying the opening of its stop-cock. This light needs no reénforcement by increasing the reflecting power of the back face of the grating, these spectra being much more feeble than that given by a prism, and the Peeasited light being quite able to extinguish them. As the glass grating I was using gave its two series of spectra of unequal a eee I selected the most brilliant, and in it used the spectrum of the first order. I saw, not with- out pleasure, that as the force of the extinguishing illumin- ation increased, all the colored spaces yielded apparently in an equal manner, ‘and disappeared at the same moment. Some- Am, Jour. Sc1.—Tuir — Vou. XVIII, No. 103.—JuLyY, 1879. : 34 J. W. Draper—New form of Spectrometer. were, condenses the colored spaces more and more as we pass _ toward the red, increasing the intensity of the light as it does that of the heat. n the grating, or diffraction spectrum, the luminous 4 intensity is equal in all the visible regions, all the colors being — simultaneously obliterated by an extinguishing light. t must, however, be borne in mind that these conclusions should be taken in eonnection with the physiological action of the eye. Owing in part to the imperfect transparency of its media, and partly to the inability of its nervous mechanism _ to transmit waves of certain frequency to the brain, the spec- __ trum does not begin and end sharply, as to a perfect eye a perfect spectrum ought to do. There are, hence, two causes which must not be overlooked _ in these observations. 1st. The physiological peculiarity of © the eye, which gives to each end of the spectrum the aspect of gradually fading away. 2d. In the case of solar-light the absorptive action of the atmosphere, which is chiefly exert on the more refrangible rays. think, bearing in mind the correlation of light and heat, © both being corresponding manifestations of the same vibratory — movement in the ether, that these results substantiate those 1 . published in 1872, on the distribution of heat in the spectrum; and that as the different colored spaces are equally luminous, so they are equally warm I have sabi € some attempts to compare with each other the — Juminous intensity of the bright lines in various spectra, espe- cially those emitted by a strontium flame, but not being able to — 1 hes at present, I have postponed them to — continue these researe a more favorable opportunity. University of New York, May 5th, 1879. a ad a J. LeConte—Extinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. 85 Art. IV.—On the Extinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono, and their relation to the Glacial Drift; by JosepH LeConte. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 16, 1879.] In 1870, and again in 1872, in company with a party of stu- dents and graduates of the University of California, I visited the Mono region. But on both occasions my attention being specially directed to the study of the ancient glaciers, I exam- ined the volcanoes only somewhat cursorily. In 1875 with a similar party I again visited the same region, and this time remained longer and examined more carefully, though on ac- count of an unfortunate accident, not so long or so carefully as I desired. I have put off from year to year the publication of the results of my observations in the hope of again visiting the region and settling some doubtful points which still remained. There seems now, however, little likelihood that I shall ever be able to carry out my intention, for other questions of still greater interest have in the meantime engaged my attention. I will therefore no longer withhold my imperfect observations, hoping that they will be corrected and extended by others. General description of the region.— Eastern slope of the Sierra. —As already explained in previous papers,* the general form of the Sierra is that of a great wave ready to break on its east- ern side. It rises from the San Joaquin plains by a gentle slope which extends 50 to 60 miles, reaches a crest 13,000 feet high, then plunges downward by a slope so steep that it reaches the plains of Mono 6000 ft. above sea level, in five or six miles. In glacial times, long, complicated glaciers with many tributa- ries occupied the western slope, while on the east, comparatively short simple glaciers came down in parallel streams and ran far out on the level plain and into the swollen waters of Lake Mono, which, then nearly 700 feet above its present level and far beyond its present limits, washed against the base of the Sierra itself. There can be no doubt that these glaciers formed icebergs which floated on the surface of the great inland sea and dropped débris over its bottom. The Plains.—Surrounding Lake Mono and sloping imper- ceptibly to its surface, is a nearly level desert plain, covered with volcanic sand interspersed with fragments of pumice and obsidian, and overgrown with sage-brush (Artemisia tridentata). It is undoubtedly an old lake bottom, subsequently covered with voleanic ashes. -The dreary prospect of this desert is re- lieved by the magnificent irregular Sierra wall trenched with deep cafions; by long parallel moraine ridges stretching like arms from the mouth of each cafion, five or six miles out on * This Journal, III, v, 326, 1873; x, 126, 1875; xvi, 95, 1878. 36 J. LeConte—Extinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. former times. In any case, the lake waters are now but the concentrated residues of a much larger body of water, as plainly shown by the terraces to be presently described. During the process of concentration the less soluble lime carbonate has been deposited in strange irregular masses of calcareous tufa. These curious fungoid and coralloid masses, some of them six to ten feet in height, stand up thickly on the level shores and in the shallow marginal waters of the lake. Ata distance they 2 look like the half-submerged stumps of a forest of gigantic This carbonate of lime deposit is evidently identical a t fe : trees. With the thinolite deposit deseri tmmoende oo ed lL, yt Kingt as occurring in such i quantities about the residual lakes of the Nevada a basin farther north, and which as he shows is a —— h 3 itions under ever, slightly different from those in Nevada, and I believe quent paper. Farther east, near Columbus, Nevada, in the region of the dried-up lakes left at the extreme southern exten- * This Journal, IIT, v, 325. + Geol. Exploration 40th Parallel, i, 508, and seq. Re ee SL al ae ache RC er tT NT ee ee ee ts J. LeConte—Eatinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. “87 sion of King’s ancient lake Lahontan, occur remarkable depos- its of ulexite (soda-lime borate) which also deserve separate study. Lerraces.—I have already mentioned the terraces about Lake Mono. Several of these are very distinct and traceable all around the lake. But they are seen in greatest number an most distinctly on the west side, where the lake approaches the Sierra and the hills rise abruptly from the lake-leyel. Five or six may here be counted, rising one above the other like level benches, the highest being, according to Whitney, 680 ft. high, These terraces are undoubtedly the marks of old lake levels, and show not only a former greater depth but also a much greater extent of the lake waters. The highest level traced about the lake would reach the moraines at the foot of the Sierra, extend beyond the plains on every side, and enclose an same line of volcanic activity. The largest of these islands is about 24 miles long, a mile wide and about 300 feet high. It is composed mainly of extremely fine, whitish material, beauti- fully and very finely laminated, the differently colored laminze being very distinct and scarcely thicker than cardboard. is material 1s spoken of by Whitney* as volcanic ashes. Under the microscope it proves to be composed wholly of diatom shells with only an occasional grain of sharp sand. There is no doubt therefore that it was deposited very slowly in calm waters, in the middle of the lake and beyond the reach of detritus.) The stratification is mostly horizontal; only in two or three places where the deeper strata are exposed on the cliffs by the action _ of waves, I observed a slight dip, and in one place a gentle but distinct anticline, showing a quiet upheaval of the whole mass, as I think, by volcanic forces. In the highest parts of the island, the soft, horizontally-laminated earth is sculptured by erosion into sharp pinnacles and turrets like bad-land structure on a small scale. On the eastern portion of the island a con- siderable area of black basaltic rock is exposed, but this is no where more than 50 feet high. Where the diatomaceous earth comes in contact with the basalt, the former always overlies the latter in undisturbed horizontal layers. I conclude there- fore that the basalt preceded the formation of the diatomaceous mud, was once entirely covered by the latter, and was subse- quently exposed by erosion. * Geol. Survey of California, i, 453, ¥ 38 J. LeConte—Hextinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. Steam and boiling water issue in many places in this rocky rtion of the cereus and in the shallow water in the vicinity. visit, but according to Wiuteey, they are webolid sea and the largest of them is 300 feet high, and is a well-defined vol- canic cone. The general conclusion, at which I arrived from my examin- ation of the largest island, was that the basaltic portion was first formed at the bottom of the lake, or else subsequently submerged ; then the diatomaceous mud was deposited, cover- ing it up completely ; then the fine mud-bottom was raised into an anticline and exposed as an island by the fall of the lake level,and finally erosion sculptured the whole, and in part exposed the underlying basalt. Voleanoes on the Plains.—We have already alluded to a con- an group of volcanic cones situated on the level plain sout the lake. These are twenty or thirty in number, Seiendin | in a line from near the margin of the lake to a dis- tance of ten to fifteen miles, and vary in height from 200 to © * 700 feet above the plain. Partly from the recency of their In many cases I observed a very perfect ¢ one-and-ra mpart structure, such as is known to be Sate uce followed by smaller ones ; or haps in — cases by te “ ent of the crater in nae ! perfect es! of this Kind is foanad in . small and ane accessible =~ oe See the aiken Fig. 2 is an aes . J. LeConte—Extinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. 39 section and half perspective view of this cone. It consists of a low sand cone about 200 feet high, with a perfect cireu- lar crater one and a half to two miles in circumference, from the center of which rises a trachytic cone and crater of much smaller dimensions, to about the same height. From the shattered condition of the inner cone, Mr. Muir suggested to me the possibility of the engulfment of the upper je J portion into the lower sandy portion of a once much higher cone. But, in many other cases observed, this explanation is evidently untenable ; for in some cases we found several small cones sur- rounded by one rampart. Such could only be formed by sue- cessive eruptions, — plains of Mono are covered to a depth of many feet with a nearly white volcanic sand, mingled with fragments of pumice and obsidian ag’ that epoch, which must have entirely destroyed their form. The remarkable perfection of their conical forms and of their craters is therefore strongly presumptive if not demonstrative, : f the of the fact of their eruption since the disappearance o iers. 2. All the streams, which run from the Sierra into Lake Mono, cut into the level plains 100 to 150 feet deep. Fine sections of the materials of the plains are thus exposed. Fig. 3 is the upper portion of such a section about eighty feet perpen- 40 J. LeConte—Hxtinet Volcanoes about Lake Mono. dicular. The lower portion of the cliff, being covered up b talus, is not represented. It is seen that nearly the whole is an ordinary modified drift, composed of irregularly stratified sands and clays, cc, intermingled with layers of pebbles and _ gravel, bb ut there are other parts that deserve more special notice. The stratum e is a fine light-colored olay, through which runs ; 1, a deep chocolate- brown pO ae een lamina scrolled in the SEP S822 Oe MOTB BG ate acess, most complex and beau- sa: tiful pattern ; the stratum d is also strongly crum- led. Thi scrolling of the sisntis HO pr On Oe oO RO Oe ONS © B97 e e 20. ocala 4 ee "ox 10. bs Or, 10.4 O- Or. O29 Oe 009 wo oF 20. > PA —, a — s “— — —_ — ? So Sea ees - bean aptodnced: by So ee ier a ee ee aldernately advancing ee es ee and retreating glacier ; SNS NNN oe oat — drop- oe ee oes ; ing material, to be car- sce habtie ane ee ee m and deposited by cc = fine sand and clay stratified. the river which flow d = strata crumpled by moving strata. a its snout, now ad- on iiaeeem ice ing and crumpling the finer material of the lake botedins: "Tt may be difficult to explain the details of the process, but I think it will not be doubted that the whole is a distinctly marked drift-deposit. Many other similar sections were observed; some of which go sibs feet thick. thick, ut it is es sae thicker, as va thins off on ro mat- gin of the perpendicular cliff by falling, a thus contributes to the talus at its base. It is evident that the whole material of the section was deposited during Ts times, except 4, — which was drifted over the bared lake bottom since that time. But judging from the immense monetey of this loose material, covering as it does the whole plain many feet deep, it seems im- possible that it is the mere result of if disintegration o of the vol- ri ea Eee PNT ne Nh eye te ee J. LeConte—Extinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. 41 canic cones in recent times. I suppose, therefore, that it is the result of sand and ash eruptions since the recession of the lake waters. 8. We have already described the material of the largest | island as being composed wholly, except a portion of the eastern part, of a fine infusorial earth, horizontally stratified with lamine of slightly different colors, so thin as to give specimens an almost agate-like beauty. This material was evidently depos- ited in the middle and deepest part of the lake, beyond the reach of coarser sediments, at a time when the place of the island was still a lake bottom. Now, that this occurred during or after the epoch of great glaciers, is demonstrated by the fact that scattered sparsely through this fine laminated material, and lying on its surface, having been washed out by erosion, I found many bowlders, both worn and angular, of Sierra granite and slate, and also of obsidian. These could have been brought there only by the agency of floating ice, either as icebergs or as shore ice. If by icebergs, of course during the epoch of great glaciers; if by shore ice, either during that time or still later, for manifestly the bowlders were brought down to the shore rom the Sierra during that time. It is evident, therefore, that the stratified mud was formed and the bowlders were dro during the period of great glaciers or later. But still later the island itself was upheaved by volcanic action, as shown by the anticlinal position of the strata at the base, and by the solfa- taric action still going on. The formation of this island I sup- ose to have been coincident with the last eruptions of the volcanoes on the plains. ’ 4. Within the craters of several of the voleanic cones on the plains, I found pebbles and angular fragments of granite of a peculiar reddish color from the presence of a rose-colored feld- spar. Whitney observed the same, and accounts for them in the following manner: They could not, he thinks, have been brought by glaciers or by water, for this is inconsistent with the perfect shape of thecones. He rightly concludes therefore that they must have been ejected from the voleanoes. But if so, he says, “ they must have been torn off from the underlying granite, through which the eruptive matter has forced ws way, as is seen everywhere in the Sierra.”* On the contrary, I account for them in a wholly different way. The fragments which I saw were some of them angular—true; but most of them were well-worn pebbles. There is not the slightest doubt that these were pebbles of the drift-layer which everywhere underlies the loose sand of the plains. The eruptive forces broke through this drift-layer, and the ejected pebbles fell back into the crater. They demon- strate that the cones and craters, where they are found, not only * Geol. Survey of Cal. vol. i, p. 455. £3 J. LeConte—Eatinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. en Meee ete eae erupted, but were wholly formed, after the epoch of the pebble — dri I think, therefore, there can be no doubt that all of these — voleanoes erupted, and many of them were wholly formed after — the epoch of great glaciers (Champlain). Whether any of them preceded that epoch is doubtful. I have never seen any undoubted evidence that they did. If the bowlders found on _ the island were carried there by icebergs, then volcanic action preceded the epoch of icebergs, for many of the fragments are — voleanic; but they may have been carried by shore ice at a later time. Again, I believe the rocky part of the island is older than the sedimentary part, for the latter seems to have been deposited on the former. If the sedimentation was Cham- plain, then the rocky part was probably pre-glacial ; but the sedimentation may have been later. Sequence of Hvents—Assuming that the island strata belong to the epoch of great glaciers, then the order of events was something like this: 1. Volcanic eruptions on the plains producing obsidian, fragments of which were afterwards carried by ice anddropped ~ in mid-lake. At the same time also, the basaltic part of the islands was formed. 2. Then followed the period of great glaciers and flooded lakes, or Champlain epoch. The lake was nearly 700 feet higher — than now. Its waters covered the whole plains and washed against the Sierra; and glaciers from this range ran far into — the lake and formed icebergs, which floated over its surface and dropped rock-fragments over its fine mud bottom. 3. Volcanic forces, acting quietly like the solfataras and fuma- roles still existing, heaved up the stratified mud-bottom of the mid-lake into a gentle mound with quaquaversal dip of the strata, but not rising to the surface. Coincident with this were the eruptions of the plains volcanoes. 4. The lake then dried away gradually to its present level, leaving the terraces as its old flood-marks, and exposing the rounded mud-island ; and erosive agents then sculptured this into its present turreted form and cut away its margin to its present limits, and exposed the mud-covered older basaltic — ee ee fis ai Aa eee feat eae Sie es Se ee _ Lake rising again.—The existence of salt and alkaline lakes _ shows an extreme dryness of climate. But the climate of the — desert region has not always been dry. During the Champlain epoch the interior plains were covered with immense sheets of © water, of which the present saline lakes are the isolated resi- dues. Gilbert has shown that at that time Great Salt Lake con-— tained 400 times as much water as now, and that it drained — northward through the Snake and Columbia Rivers into the © ae J. LeConie—Hatinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono. 43 Pacific ocean. King has shown that the Nevada basin was at the same time occupied by a vast irregular sheet of nearly equal extent, stretching southward as faras Columbus, Nevada. Pyramid, Winnemucea, Carson, Humboldt, and Walker Lakes, are the concentrated residues of this great lake. Lake Mono also, we have seen, at the same time, was a great sheet of water, whether connected with the other or not is not known. There has been therefore an increasing dryness of climate in that re- gion since the Champlain. Is it still progressing, or has it eached its maximum? This is an important question for the ~~ States my observations on Lake Mono, I have no doubt that its Listed; at the time of my visit, was rising and had been —e for ten or fifteen years. The evidence is as follows: Aroun the margin of the lake I found everywhere old fences of sheep corrals and old trails submerged many feet deep. While visit- ing the island I found the vegetation of the island, sage brush Artemisia tridentata), and grease wood (Sarcobatus vermicu- latus), submerged in five feet of water, and of course killed. idents about the lake state that the waters have risen ten to twelve feet in ten or fifteen years. I might be disposed to doubt these observations if the same phonoaninn had not been observed in other lakes in the same dry region. Salt Lake is known to have risen ten to fourteen feet in twenty five years and submerged large tracts on its flat margins, and the water by analysis is far less salt than formerly. Pyramid Lake, accord- ing to King, has risen nine feet, and Winnemucca Lake twenty- two feet in only four years—1867-1871. The same is said ” be true of Walker Lake and of Owen Lake. The cause of this is evidently increase of rain-fall and snow- ae chiefly the latter. In this connection it may be well to ention an additional evidence of -ie snow-fall in the ign glacieret is not only — hard against the motaine but the * This Journal, II, v, 325. 44 J. LeConte—Extinct Volcanoes about LakeMono. outer slope of the moraine, when I saw it, in 1872, wasjust at the — limit of stabihty—the least disturbance caused the fragments to roll down. It would seem therefore that the moraine is being _ pushed slowly forward. Whether the same is true still I know _ not. feet vertical, on which for ages there has been too much winter snow to allow the growth of timber. In the timber region bor- dering the bare region there are many trees which have two — hundred and fifty annual rings. These trees have therefore — n growing securely for two hundred and fifty years. But — since 1860 the snow has so advanced upon the timber region | that these great trees are being destroyed by avalanches. It — would seem therefore that not only has there been recent ad- — vance, but that it is the first advance for two hundred and fifty _ ars. Se e The rise of the lakes in the desert region is therefore un- — seobtediy the result of a climatic cycle. But whether the cycle — x5 * King, in his recent volume on Systematic Geology of the 40th parallel, p. 477, says that all Mr. Muir’s living glaciers of the Sierra are only moving snow-fields well known to the California surveyors. He then quotes Agassiz defining the istinction between such moving névés or snow-fields and true glaciers. This dis- tinction according bosom and thus to form a moraine. Now, it is but justice to Mr. Muir to say — that the ice in the Lyell-Cirque does bear e rock fragments on its surface and accumulate at its lower limit as a ect terminal morai niz however, the fact that this ice mass does not emerge m “ Ancient Gla ff in from its native cirque, I the Sierra” (this Journal v, 325), ciers 0. Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals, 45 Art. V.—On the Mineral Locality in Fairfield County, Connee- ticul; by Grorce J. BrusH and EpwarpS. Dana. Third paper. past year, so far as ey relate to the manganesian sl ves almost is was quite indifferent ; we did, indeed, find the spot aimed at and took from it a small quantity of the minerals in which we were interested, but it was soon clear that this deposit was exhausted, and we must look farther for other and independent ones. Having but little — to guide us in our explorations, we extended them quite widely in the seemingly most probable directions ma a nded, in time and money, more than our final success w , perhaps, have warranted. We discovered, however, be haere ng points in regard to the minerals oceurring in : e vein as a whole, which we intend to describe in another manner. ‘These associated minerals are more parcealens feld- spar, usually albite, and spodumene. The latter mineral is very generally altered, and the various products of its alteration, of which cymatolite i is the most common, we shall describe in another place. The lithiophilite, however, though often coa black externally, is otherwise quite free from alteration ; the only exception to this was in the case of that first discovered, which was situated near the surface of the ledge and was much oxidized. It will be remembered that, in what we have allu- ded to as the original — a —* the lithiophilite occurred very sparingly and o an occasional nucleus o masses of the abundant Bick oie the product of its alter- ation. This is described in our Hiepirce paper, and analyses of these oxidation products are there give * This Journal, July and August, 1878, om 1879. 46 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. \ mineral which proved to be chabazi _ oceurrence of these minerals, we will now proceed to describe inutely. and, as far as tested, in composition, to that described in out The lithiophilite of which we are now speaking has, in al- most all cases, the salmon color of that first described. In one — specimen the amount of iron was determined by Mr. Penfield and found to be but 3°56 per cent. The lithiophilite some- times contains imbedded rhodochrosite. Other constantly asso- ciated minerals are: apatite, garnet, uraninite in_ brilliant slightly different composition as shown by the analysis given on p. 47. Closely associated with the lithiophilite was acon- siderable amount of a granular, often also cellular, mangane- sian carbonate, rhodochrosite. This was quite impure, often mmediately connected with the minerals described, was a LITHIOPHILITE. _We have already stated, that almost all of the lithiophilite discovered was similar in its salmon, and salmon-pink colo * Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. 47 first paper; in other words, it contains from three to four per cent of iron protoxide. The lithiophilite, associated with the green chloritic mineral, has a light clove-brown color. It has a brilliant luster and is clear and transparent. The specific gravity is 8482. An analysis* by Mr. S. L. Penfield, afforded the following results :— Th. Mean. Atomic relation, P,03 45°22 45°22 45:22 P << "6 FeO 13°10 12°92 13°01 Fe 180 ae MnO 31-93 32-12 32-02 Mn Mt Peg sod. Li,O ce 9-26 aicibe Na ,0 0°28 0:30 0°29 Na “010 aay H,O ‘tT ik oue OL? Gangue 0-31 0°28 0°29 100°26 The ratio, P: R:R=-686: 631: ‘628, corresponds very closely with the formula previously accepted, RRPO, or RPO, + BsP20.. It will be observed that the amount of iron in this variety of the mineral is considerably greater than in that first described and alluded to above, This result is not surprising, and indeed was anticipated from the color of the specimen. Mr. Penfield, in the article referred to, has brought together the analyses o: several varieties of triphylite and the two of lithiophilite, and thus shows the gradations between the two species. The one extreme is the Bodenmais triphylite with 36-21 p. c. FeO, and 8:96 p. c. MnO, and the other the original lithiophilite, ‘with 4:02 p.c. FeO, and 4086 p.c. MnO. The relation betw these two minerals, is closely analogous to that existing etic the iron and manganese carbonates, siderite (FeCO,), and ho dochrosite (MnCQ;), There is the same similarity in physic characters, the most pronounced difference being here as there in the color, so that the necessity of giving the two minerals of the triphylite group distinct names cannot be questioned. EOsSPHORITE. The eosphorite we have spoken of as meas nodules im- bedded in the massive green chloritic mineral. It occurs only ° massive, but shows the characteristic cleavage distinctly and is clear and sorted phe color is a beautiful pink, sometimes quite deep. ge: Enite Sette: is 3 ae = analysis by Mr. Horace L. Walle, ave ies the ollowing resul * This analysis has already been blished by Mr, Penfield in an article on the _ composition of x triphylite this Tinceak March, 1879. 48 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. Ratio. P,0,; 31°39 P.O; “231 1:06 #10; 21°34 AIO; "208 Le FeO 6°62 FeO 323 MnO 22°92 MnO 092 212 CaO 48 CaO 026 9 15°28 H,O0 849 4°04 100-49 The ratio of P,O;: AlO;: RO: H,O is very nearly 1:1:2:40 that given in our at eee paper, and upon which the formula — was based, viz : ike.08 4H.,0 or A1P,0, + 2H.(Mn,Fe)O, + 2aq. THE GREEN MINERAL. The larger part of this deposit consisted, as already stated, of a soft green compact ogee Rout te in tint from li grayish and yellowis the i ull to greasy. Hardness = b. “Specifie gravity of the sre 4 portions = 2°85 to 2°89. This material was exceedingly im-— pure, Sete bee imbedded in it, the felds = and mica of the vein, also quartz, apatite, chabazite, as well as the phosphates, © most conspiouously among these, the eosphorite. It was pos- ten thin sections was prepared from specimens which a el of piaesiee as pure as we were "able to obtain, has bees analyzed by Mr. Horace L. Rai with the istowing result :— Mean. Ratios Si0, an bis 20°72 "B45 Os 14°71 14°64 14°67 “158 FeO; 67 67 2°6 016 eO 19°48 19°65 19°56 272 MnO 2°21 ‘23 2°22 031 MgO 5°22 5°16 5°19 130 Na,O 0°51 eer 5 K,0 0°09 enue 09 001 Li,0 fr. Kee. CaO 12°40 = 12°27 12°34 220 P.O; t 8:87 622 5 3°94 3°89 A 8°83 8°84 “491 Brush and Dana—Fairfield Cownty Minerals. 49 It is evident from the above, independent of the micro- scopic examination, that the substance analyzed is nota simple mineral. If we assume the 8°84 per cent at phosphoric acid to be combined with sufficient lime to form the mineral apatite, and deduct this amount and also the insoluble matter, we have a remainder of 75°19 per cent, which when calculated to the orig- inal amount gives the following composition :— SiO, 27°43 M, 87 A10, 9°42 CaO 0°95 FeO, 3°54 Na,O 0°68: FeO 25°89 K,0 012 MnO 2°9. H,0 11-70 99°54 It is scarcely admissible to attempt a formula for a substance which is so evidently a mixture, but we believe the results indicate that the green mineral is unquestionably a variety of chlorite. The analysis, excluding apatite and the insoluble resi- due, brings the composition very near that of delessite and pro- chlorite. Its physical characters, also, confirm its claim to be referred to the chlorite group. The mineral gives water in the closed tube, and B. B. fuses to a black magnetic mass; with the fluxes it reacts for silica, credit its being this species, although the pyrognostic charac- ters, rhombohedral form (RA R=96 rtz. e chabazite has a vitreous to sub-resinous luster. The hardness is 45 and the specific gravity is 2°16. Am. Jour. ee Tne Serres, VoL, XVIII, No. 103.—Jury, 1879, 50 Brush and Dana—Fairfield County Minerals. An analysis of a carefully selected specimen by 8. L. Pen- field gave Silica 49°22 Alumina 17°58 Tron sesquioxide 1:99 Manganese protoxide 0°56 Lime 6°73 Potash 2°83 Soda 1°44 Water 17°83 Quartz ats 100-96 RHODOCHROSITE. It will be seen from what has been said in this and in our first paper, that rhodochrosite is a very common mineral in its association with the phosphates. In the first deposit it occurred sometimes in specimens of large size with the characteristic color and cleavage (RAR = 106° 49’), and again in granular aggregates interpenetrated with quartz, and often taking a greenish color from the dickinsonite. It also appears altered to a black, highly lustrous mineral, containing only the oxides of iron and manganese. _ In the deposits which form the special subject of this paper, the rhodochrosite occurs first of a pink color implanted in the S Mean. Ratio. CO, 37.78 37°80 37°8 *859 1 FeO 16°74 16°78 16 76 “233 MnO 44°68 44-50 44°59 *628 867 1 CaO 0°33 0°33 0°33 006 MgO tr. tr. tr. ” Insoluble 0-35 0°29 0°32 99°88 99°70 99°80 The variation in color of the mineral implies that the com- position varies widely, which would doubtless be shown, could analyses of different varieties be made. The interest connected with the subject is, however, small, although the large amount : Pages of iron present is worthy of no See Pee ret 8 a (Sem) ~ A Ren a ee ao C. S. Petrce—Wave-length Comparison. 51 Art. VI.—WNote on the Progress of Experiments for comparing a Wave-length with a Meter ; by C. S. Petrcz. “Communicated by the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. | To C. P. Patrerson, Superintendent U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey :— : Dear Sir—The following is the present state of the spec- trum meter business. The deviation of a spectral line (Van der Willigen’s No. 16) has had three complete measures using a certain gitter of 3403 lines to the millimeter. The double deviation (the angle measured) was found to be 1877. June 23, 89° 54’ 1975 June 29 and July 2, 19°25 Sep. 4 and Aug, 27, 19°65 Mean 89° 54’ 1975 An error of 0:4” in this would occasion an error of one mi- cron in the meter. These measures were previously commu- nicated to you, but owing to an erroneous value of the coeffi- cient of expansion of glass having been used (the value for iron having been inadvertently substituted) they did not seem to agree as well as they do. There were two other complete measures, but in regard to one of them there is a doubt about the thermometer used, and in regard to the other there isa doubt about the part of the line set on. This line seems on the whole to be a bad one for the purpose. Another line near it was therefore selected and another much finer gitter. The deviations obtained were on the different days: 1879. May 8, 90° 03’ 517-7 May 15, 90° 03! 50°35 May 9, 1°75 | May 21, 51°75 May 10, y 22, 51-2 Notwithstanding the bad result of May 15, which is unaccourt- abie, these measures are evidently good enough. One of these gitters has been compared with all the centimeters of a deci- meter scale of centimeters. The other is still to be compared with all the even two centimeters of the same scale. : r. Chapman is now comparing this decimeter scale with all the decimeters of a meter scale of decimeters. As soon as that is done a meter will have been compared with a wave-length. But shortly after, this will be improved by comparing the other gitter and also a third -which I propose to measure a deviation. It will remain, first, to find the coefficient of expan- sion of the glass meter. The apparatus is all ready for this and it will-not take a fortnight. Second, the glass meter will have be compared with a brass meter. This will be an operation of some difficulty but I think we shall ag oct it before long. Yours respectfully, C. 8S. Perrce, Assistani. ’ 52 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna of North America. Art. VII—WNotice of recent Additions to the Marine Fauna of the Eastern Coast of North America, No. 6; by A. E. VERRILL. ate Big Contributions to Zoology from the yeas of Yale College. _No. XLII PoLyzoa. Bugula decorata, sp. nov. Zoarium rather large with thick, much branched stems, pro- ducing densely branched, somewhat plumose tufts, two inches or more high. Branches unequally dichotomous, often some- what a sohernd arranged. Zocecia in two alternating rows, large, road, prolonged proximally. Frontal area, ee elongated, sunken and wrinkled in the dry state. The dis tal angles are — prolonged into a single stout, often short spine on each side, frequently absent on the inner angle. Avicularia on the mi dle of the front side of the zocecia, toward the base; they bave a short, broad, swollen head, with a short strongly curved a the pedicels are short and thick, rapidly enlarged from the base upward. Ocecia large, globose, brilhantly iridescent, elegantly sculptured, with a series of raised i eoewed: lines pass- ing up over each side and converging to the middle of front side, while their concave interspaces are covered with micro- scopic transverse lines. Dredged at Eastport, Me., by the wri- ter, and also in the Gulf of Maine, 110 fathoms, near George’s Ba nk, by Dr. A. 8S. Packard and Mr. C. Cooke, in 1872 (U.S. Fish Com. ). The other species of Bugula found on the New England coast are as snes Ws: ta cucullata, sp. Off Maine. Remarkable for the small, hood-like, cpaued coset widely open in front. Zoccia in two rows; usually two s a on each angle ; avieularia lateral. . Bugula turrita (Desor) Verrill. Florida to Case ay. _ Bugula avieularia (L.) Oken. Long L tsi 6 Regge Sonn nee Sastigiata L) Alder (= £. plumosa Busk). Mass Bay to Labrador; Europe. Perhaps a variety of. the last. ne, brid hereto (Lamx.) (= B. flabellata Gray). Long IL aine Bugula rrerie Busk. Long L $a. to Europe. B. Murrayana, var. fruticosa (Packard). Bugula is Verrill and Bugula umbella Smitt, belong to the genus Kinetoskias Dub. and Kor. Both occur in deep water off N Maine and N ova species still remain in the genus Céllularia. These belong to he —— groups, and herr “synonymy is very A. E. Verriti—Marine Fauna of North America. 53 complicated. Having had occasion to revise this family, I offer the following summary of the New England species. I. especie Pallas, 1766, (restricted), Zocecia unilateral, in two Iternating rows, mostly protected by lateral spines, either aeiple or dilated. Seo and lateral and median avic- ularia present. Type serupos a. Subgenus Cellularia. (ce devapocalian’ ia, pars, Gray, Busk). e, 6. Sub-genus Cellarina Van Ben. (incl. a Flem., 1828.) One of the lateral spines usually m or ap s dila ted, and often expanded in a shield-like ees in ay of the zoccia, wo New England species: C. scabra Van Ben.; and @. ternata (Sol.) with varieties gracilis and duplex (Smitt). The name Tricellaria (given to ternata), might have been cage for gate pees, but is very inapplicable to the oup, and e o the Ea tes as now known. Il, Reason Oken (ere), (= Serupoce ctrin pars, Gray; Canda Busk, non Lam Lateral avicularia and vibracula absent. A lateral Byitis "develo ops into a proteative (often frondose) shield. Type S. reptans (Linné), not yet found on the erican coast. IL Bugutopss Verrill (ast Cellularia, pars, Busk, non Pallas). Characterized by the — unarmed % eevee et in As no species of the last group was originally qcicabt in Cellu- laria, it is inadmissible to restrict oe t name to it. erefore sense, for the original group thus na ers mouroux is a valid and very distinct genus. Canda nat 1816), adopted by some for Cellularia reptans, cannot properly be so used, for the original type is a distinct genus. Porellina stellata, sp. nov. — A large, handsome species, forming radiating patches on shells, ete. — arranged in quincunx, large, broad, mod- n recorded from the Gulf of St. Lawrence by Packard * This species has and others, but I have sys seen no American examples. , name has rr ace eis anita co wok exit in accordance well as confusing, 54 C. H. F. Peters—Positions of two Planets. erately convex, white, shining, mostly imperforate and smooth, the marginal ones more or less perforate in front. Apertures » numerous, slender, convergent spinules, which nearly reach the center, giving the pore a stellate appearance. Avicularia of zocecia, ‘60 to ‘70™; breadth, 50 to -60™"- breadth of ap- ertures, ‘12 to ‘15™™; of median pore, ‘05 to 06™™, The zocecia are about twice as large as those of P. ciliata. Casco Bay, Maine. (U.S. Fish Comm., 18738). In the nearly circular form of the median pore this species approaches the genus Porina, as restricted by Smitt, (Florida ryozoa), but in all other respects, except size, it agrees so closely with P. ciliata, made the type of Porellina by Smitt, as to forbid a generic separation, although the latter has a crescent-shaped pore. It would belong to Microporella Hincks, if that name be adopted. ‘ Art. VIII.— Positions of the Planeis Philomela and Adcona ; by C. H. F. Perers. I COMMUNICATE a few observations on a planet discovered by me on the 14th of May. I have given to it the name Philomela, as the name Prokne is applied to the one discovered on March 21. The planet lately found (May 21) by Mr. Palisa | seems to be Adcona (145), which for several years had been searched for in vain, its elements having remained very uncer- ‘ tain, since my observations at its first appearance, the only ones made upon it, did not extend over more than about a month (from June 3 until July 7, 1875). I append the two n positions I succeeded in getting before the last moon. Observations on Philomela (196). 1879. Ham. Coll. m. t. App. a. pp. dé. log (p."A) No. of comp. ay 14. 11556™31* 1216™39%-02 +6°52’46"-9 0-682 0-736 12 3610 6 123 16° 91°21 48 57 0509 0-724 10 18 1225 36 1216 6%5 6 42 307 0-747 0-746 10 20, 51 4 12 15 68-20 6 36 57-0 0391 0-723 12 25. 10 22 18 12 15 57°02 619 57-8 0-572 0-731 10 June 5. 10 6 55 12 17 3714 +5 32 346 06340742 9 Observations on Adcona (145) (?). : 18' mt. App. a. log (p."A) No. of comp. May 28 14527" Js “15h 55™ 11-71 —15°30722"-8 0-677 0-851 7 _ Ss 64 5 18°81 —15 30 54:6 0°343 0-875 12 Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., June 6, 1879. phi ae aN H. W. Wiley—Carbons in the Electric Lamp. 55 Art. IX.—A Method of Preventing the too rapid Combustion of the Carbons in the Electric Lamp; by H. W. Wixky. In using the electric light for projections, two chief points are to be considered, viz: 1st, brilliancy of illumination, and 2d, steadiness of the light. When the source of electricity is sufficient, the first of these ends is easily obtained. The sec ond, however, is not so easy of accomplishment. The chief difficulty in the way of securing steadiness is found in the car- bons themselves. Some carbons, and I find these to be the most common, burn away so rapidly that, where no mechanism is present to produce alternating currents, the electric arc is constantly passing out of the focus. Often, too, I have found that when the current is quite strong with the softer carbons, the arc would extend itself momentarily between points as far as a centimeter from the end of the carbons. At other times it would revolve about the electrodes something like a spiral flame in a pyrotechnic display. This leaping and dancing of the arc is, of course, fatal to its employment for projection. In order, if possible, to remedy these defects in a lantern which I have in almost daily use, I made the following experi- ments. I first took the specific gravity of three specimens of carbon, obtained from different dealers, one in France and two in this country. The specific gravity of the French carbon, was 1:85; of No. 1, American, 153; of No. 2, American, 155. The French carbon is hard, of a grayish black color. The American carbon is soft, easily broken up, and no sign of a metallic luster. The light from the French carbon is quite steady and displays very little of that tendency to flicker, so troublesome in the American varieties. A positive French carbon, which had been used for several ' hours, until consumed nearly to the lamp, burned away at the point, but otherwise retaieoll its original shape. This carbon was used without any previous preparation. é A soft carbon, however, of the same size as the preceding, became red hot to a distance of four to six centimeters from the end, and rapidly wasted away ; after being in use for half an hour, it was reduced to a slender, tapering form. I first tried the plan so well known in France, but so seldom tried here, of coating the carbons with a film of copper. The precipitation of the copper should take place slowly, and with 56 H. W. Wiley—Carbons in the Electric Lamp. the purpose in view. But as the carbons, little by little, be- came heated, the copper film oxidized, and after half an hour the carbon was again reduced to the slender form above described. I next tried the expedient of setting a copper wire, -4™™ in diameter, into the center of the carbons. With a thin saw I copper from oxidation, the copper would prevent the carbon illumination. The points of both positive and negative _ carbons remained blunt, and there was no wasting away of the stem. A carbon prepared in this way will last at least ten times as long as one used in the ordinary way. But the chief advantage is found in the comparative steadiness of the light thus secured. Carbons of the above description work best when well plated. The following numbers give what I regard as a mini- mum amount of copper to secure satisfactory results. In all = J. M. Stillman—Bernardinite, a new Mineral Resin. 57 the experiments I have tried, the carbon has been of the soft American variety, with an average specific gravity of 1°55. Length of carbon, © S20 5i 24 SSS os et wee 17°5 em. Each side, - Py Pe ee Om i se Number an? of surface including ends, Sik 72 &m. Weight before coppering, ---.....---- -.- 21°1615 g. Weight after coppering, ..-......-....... 24°0410 “ Weighit:- of: ctpper,iigeic) sdolonlnceeicd 2°8795 “ Weight copper to each om. iy intl euneaease 4 0397 In order to hn with the use of a reflector, I arrange the carbons + above as described in the Journal of Franklin Institute for May and June, 1878. he peculiar cup- shaped appearance of the positive carbon — to concentrate the light on the condenser. It is under- I am inclined to think a kaolin paste would be better than plaster for coating the carbons. The mage force used in all the experiments has been furnished by the Gramme machine, described in the Journal of the Franklin Institute already cit The use of projections aa illustration in lectures on Chem- istry and Physics h as _beco so general that I hope the sug- gestions in this paper may rove of some benefit. Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, April 18, 1879. Arr. X.—Bernardinite: a new Mineral Resin from San Ber- nardino County, Cal.; by J. M. STILLMAN, Ph.B. TurovGH the kindness of Mr. B. B. Redding, o of Fran- cisco, I have been put in possession of some pee ns of a new and interesting mineral said to occur in co uan- tity in San Bernardino County, California, ee ex by excavations for a tunnel. The pieces in my possession were omogeneous masses of from one to five or six E cubic inches 58 J. M. Stiliman—Bernardinite, a new Mineral Resin. tissue. The specific gravity of the mineral freed from air was determined as 1-166 at 18° C. The mineral does not melt per- fectly at 140° C., but softens slightly at temperatures below 1 ° It is insoluble in water ;—entirely soluble in hot absolute alco- hol, about 86°6 per cent dissolving on boiling for some time. The soluble portion is quite soluble, remaining in solution in about 2} parts of hot alcohol. In cold absolute alcohol it is not so soluble, about one-third of that portion soluble in hot alcohol, not re-dissolving in cold. The alcoholic solutions are of a slightly yellow color, marked bitter taste, and acid reac- i Ether dissolves about one-third of the native mineral at ordinary temperatures. Carbon disulphide dissolves it but slightly. The residues from the solutions were in every case white and amorphous. The extract with hot alcohol melts at temperatures between 115° and 125° C., but has no constant melting point, and soft- ens somewhat at lower temperatures. On cooling after fusion it forms a brittle, translucent mass. Heated on platinum foil the mineral burns with smoky flame, with fixed carbon residue, :% : but with only a trace of ash. n ash determination gave "12 per cent of a white, infusible ash, evidently silica. With concentrated sulphuric acid it gives a red-brown color, which on warming becomes black; on dilution with water black kes are precipitated. The mineral, dried for several days over sulphuric acid, lost on heating to temperatures below its certainly, water. It contains no nitrogen. Elementary analy- sis of the mineral dried over sulphuric acid gave— Carbon = 64°53 per cent, Hydrogen = si a er Hence Oxygen = melting point 3°87 per cent in weight, probably, though not — TO 26°27 * 100°00 Admitting the loss in weight above quoted, of 3°87 per cent, as being due to loss of water, we should have as a complete analysis— Water 2. 2-7 SST per vent. Caron 3. ere Hydrogen (not in water) 8°75 “ xygen (notin water) 22°30 “ WON os was Select 0°12 — 100°00 In caustic potash the mineral dissolves very readily and almost completely (935 per cent). The solution when concen- trated is of a light, clear, brownish-yellow, and may be diluted % J. M. Stillman—Bernardinite, a new Mineral Resin. 59 on dilution, and gives a froth like soap-suds on agitation. The portion insoluble in caustic potash (65 per cent) is left as a glue-like mass of a brownish color. A quantity of the mineral was dissolved in caustic potash, precipitated with chlorhydric acid; the resin thus obtained was subjected after drying to elementary analysis. It gave— Carbon = 69°71 per cent. 959 Hydrogen 100°00 Oxygen ll Ul 20°70 The melting point of this purified resin was determined at 127°-129° for perfect fusion, though softening at lower tem- peratures, The acid character of the alcoholic solution, the oxygen con- tents, the behavior toward solvents, and especially toward caus- tic potash, as well as the temperature at which it melts, all indicate the resinous character of the new mineral. To con- firm this it was treated in alcoholic solution with alcoholic solu- tion of lead acetate, and a flocculent, white precipitate of the lead resinate was obtained. It is noticeable that the oxygen contents of this resin, as evidenced by both analyses, is much greater than is usually found in resins either of mineral origin or freshly obtained from plants. 5 The filtrate, obtained by dissolving in caustic potash and precipitating with chlorhydric acid, was evaporated to dryness and exhausted with alcohol, and a small quantity of a yellow- ish waxy substance ‘obtained of an intense bitter taste, evi- dently the substance to which the bitter taste of the mineral as well as of its alcoholic extract is due, as the purified resin pos- wert no bitter taste. i Aiea: = is new resin appears to ess entirely different proper- ties and (uipecition. from ae organic mineral heretofore described. The South American mineral Guyaquillite seems to resemble it in some properties, but differs very materi- ally in other essential properties as well as in composition. Berengelite, also from South America, possesses a somewhat Similar elementary composition (C, ,H,,O a) but differs in all other essential properties. At the suggestion of Mr. Redding, University of California, February, 1879. 60 O. C. Marsh— New Jurassic Mammal. Art. XI.—WNotice of a new Jurassic Mammal; by Professor . C. Marsa. Length of portion of jaw preserved... ___. 115, = Extent of five molar teeth..............- 4° Extent of entire molar series _...___.___- 5° Height of fifth true molar above jaw _.--. 2 Depth of jaw below fifth molar _-....___- 1°75 Depth of jaw below last premolar........ 1° Depth of jaw below first premolar. ....__- 1-4 In comparing this interesting fossil with the forms already known, it is at once evident that it differs widely from any liv- ing type. Its nearest affinities are clearly with the genus Stylodon of Owen, from the Purbeck beds of England,+ and in ag : many respects the correspondence is close. * This Journal, vol. xv, p. 459, June, 1878. + Geological Magazine, vol. ili, p. 199, 1866, and Paleontographical Society, _ Vol. xxiv, p. 45, 1871. J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. 61 This specimen clearly indicates a new genus, which may be called Sty/acodon, and the species represented, Stylacodon gracilis. With the genus Stylodon, this form evidently constitutes a distinct family, which may appropriately be termed the Stylodontide. The present specimen indicates an animal some- maller than a weasel, and probably insectivorous in habit. Yale College, New Haven, June 18th, 1879. Art. XIL— On the Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists ; James D. Dana. Supplement. In the preceding part of this paper, the courses of the bedding of the rocks are indicated only in a general way. In this supple- ment, I give the results observed in Dutchess County as to strike and dip, together with some other omitted details. eiss. At East Mills, 43m. S.E. of Poughkeepsie, es ne sation Wappi 3 trikes N. 39°-40° E., dip 75° E. (that is, e ppinger Creek, strikes _E., dip : = ob a bowed ' and at the quarry near the river, about 200 yards from the south- eastern limi, N. 24° E., dip 60° E. At Salt Point, according to Professor Dwight, N. 26° E., dip 70°-85° WwW. Southwest of Wil- low Brook 2 m., limestone N, 19° E., dip 50°-60° E.; a mile east 62 J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. of Willow Brook, S. side of oy od pea , schist N. 16° E., dip 60° E., and $m. N.E, of last, N. 14° E., dip 50°-60° EK. At Stan- . : Sh layer of grayish Sevag in the schist, 25 to 30 feet ‘thick, trike of slate and quartzyte, N. 16° E.; dip 60° E; ; just north of river — 4m. W. of Bangall, schist N. 28° E., dip 75° E., and here a fault the limestone adjoining being n nearly horizontal. Between Pine Plains and Stissingville, much of the limestone nearly horizontal, with small eastward dip, et aa to westerly. So : Stissingville near railroad, limestone N. 12° me E., di ° 'W., and : i 50° E. (average); 3 m. S. of Furnace, adjoining Taconic Mtn., limestone asp schist N. 15° E., dip 50° EL Shekomeko Limestone area.—The area ceuies the valley between Husted station and Pulver’s Corners. Thence it extends the road from Bangall enters the Mori In a cut just northeast of Husted station, limestone N. 25° E ay! 35° E.; 3 re in next ‘ so of the limestone area, slate, near road to Ban ngall, 'N. 20°-32° K., Sag in aim gan", 10°-50°W. , but $m. to the west, it is 40°-50° E. . Fis “Millerton belt Ee Hl & 28 i) =] ey re Ss © are 8 aie = +@ LE: Lana a = § Be: ros ae d, E., dip 70° to 80° Lae fine-grained, fissile rock, of little luster, fusing B. B. to a slightly magnetic age, and oe i s. sp ty) atteawan, at junction of schist and limestone, N. 52° E., dip 70° E.; $m. of Matteawan, Panag mag N, 42° E., 70° -80° E.; > J. D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. 68 tain in strike, becoming near the slate a gray Ore oe “smn ; north of Glenham station, on river, limestone N. 5 ° E.,d 25° W. East of Fishkill station $ m., limestone N. 52° h pic age), dip 55°-60° W, Between this and Brinkerhoff station, } m. rom re wide erenens ry strike and dip of ent, N, 28° a and e 55° W. to N.1 i ere in Sa 35° E.; E. of B., 4m limestone N. 16° EL ” ai ° E.; 1 m.,same N. 3°-14° E,. 50°60" ; 1} m. W. of adenesicyd limestone N. 40° E., dip 60° E. One mile southeast of pie Wee 200 yards west of quartzyte, lime- stone N. 32° E., dip 40 +m. 8. of P., limestone N. 32° E., dip 40° E.; 4m. W. of P. N. me E., 40°- 50° E.; ¢ at Beekman’s . 14m, W. of P., limestone N. ° E., dip 40°-50° E.; 33m. W. of P., north of Silver Lake, an eee stratum of contorted schist, N. 22° E., dip 65° E; and west of this, beyond another limestone stratum, schist N. 12°-22° E., dip 50° ee but contor- ted; at Arthursburg, schist and limestone N. 12°-22° E., dip 50° E. , but with undulations, At Clove Ore hed, limestone N, Clove and 8. Dover N. 52° to 60° E., dip E. varying in 1 m, eastward to N. 37° E., then on descent toward S. Dover on 2 29° =f E. se ge 5 2m. N.E. of eels, schist contorted, N. SW at 2° E., dip 50°-60° E. ; .N ‘E., i impure limestone, ic N. 22° E., ry assaic, schist N. 17°-22° E., dip roe: ; 24 m. W. of Mabbitsville, at Millbrook, schist N. 19° E., dip 70° E. At Millerton , limeston ne to 20° E., strike about N. 12° E.; $ to 14 m. west of Millerton, along R.R., N. 10°-20° E., _ A Spee E., to OIE and pong se 2 m. west of M., on R. R., another r large bed of lime- ;¢ to $m. W. of M. iia (a ise slivery, blackish slate) tie the limestone nearly horizontally (as seen in section on the west) ; 14 m. to 2 m. north of west of M., on R. fie the ae re appracimatey horizontal. 64 J D. Dana—Hudson River Age of the Taconic Schists. The quartzyte near Matteawan (see p. 385 of last volume) is sit- uated directly east of this place, and extends along for half a mile. Gr tr i, commencing at the North.—In North Salisbury, Conn., 4 m. south of Massachusetts boundary, just east of the road nearest to the foot of the m ountain, limestone N. 10°-12° E., dip 50°-60° W.; 1 m. to 2 wid darttiog south, N. 6°- 12° E., dip 45°-60° W.; 4 m. east of the: first of ome loc. , dip 50° E.; and 14m. E., N. 15°-25° E., dip 50°-55° E. ; t head of Wash-nee a Timestone N. 16° E,, ip 45°-55° E. ; - m. 8. 3° E., dip 4 ai of Millerton, mica schist N. 8°-22° W., dip mostly 40° E. In Shar ron, $ Ta. “6 of Sharon Post "Office, ‘limestone N. 20° E. °. dip E.; 2 m. to southward of Sharon, quartzyte, N. "26°-31° E., into granulyte, and the 28 — gneiss lying conformably East of Wassaic, N. Y., Riatostoid: N. 12°-22° E., dip 45°-50° E. ; 13 m.8., limestone cs 26°-27° E., dip 55° E.; east of last, quartz. yte (at quar ry) N. 4° W., 40° 45° W. East of Dover Plains, - Im, limestone N. 10 °-20° E., dip 50°-60° E.; 4 m. farther east, any just east of the limestone area, quart te N.. 10°-21° E., dip 50°-60° E.; $m. S.E., gneiss N. 10°-11° E., dip same. At South mica schist N. 7° dip 70°-80° E. , near Pawling Station, limestone N. 19° E., dip 60°-70° E m. = ] cumstances even when submitted to the action of the silent dis- arsenous oxide, iodine, and even nitrogen. Carbonous oxide on the other hand, mixed with half its volume of oxygen, left after twelve hours only eight per cent uncombined, mixed with t per cent of oxygen; i reury. part of the CO had formed a brown oxide C,0,. Carbon dioxide under the action of the silent discharge, in a space free from oxidable bodies gives results which lead the author to suspect the existence of a percarbonic oxide CO,. In one experiment, after twelve i vigor. This cannot be ozone since in that case from thirty to forty-one per cent of the oxygen set free would have been con- verted into this substance, an unheard of proportion. The new ody has not been isolated.—Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xvii, 142, May, 1849. which might cause serious error in organic analysis; this result having been questioned by Thudichum. The copper to be tested extraneous moisture. It was found that this occlusion actually took place, and that the pulverulent metal formed from the oxide becomes denser by successive heating. A carefully conducted experiment showed the occlusion of 0-035 gram of hydrogen by h, it appeared that the nely divided metal on © reduction, whic not occlude hydrogen. Moreover the author found that the copper thus hyd sium chlorate to chloride, and when ignited in CO, reduced it to JO. Heated in CO or in N, all its occluded hydrogen is given fon 3 5 m So my oO Me (ae) “4 od =| e 2 a | & oO 5 ft up. Heat author therefore concludes that it is unsafe to employ copper freshly reduced in hydrogen for the reduction of oxides of nitro- gen in organic analysis unless the metal be previously ignited in nitrogen gas.—J. Chow. Soc., xxxv, 232, May, 1879. @. F. B. 4. On the Composition of Charcoal from pure Cellulose.— Berruexor has examined the charcoal produced from the pith of the spindle tree (Hwonymus) in the process of earbonizing this ies Chemistry and Physics. 67 word for the manufacture of gunpowder. This charcoal therefore was ap ‘*e 5. On the Substitution derivatives of Nitrogen trichloride. — Konter has investigated the bodies discovered by Wurtz and considered by him derivatives of nitrogen trichloride. Tschermak first established the correctness of this supposition by acting on dichlorethylamine with zinc-ethyl and obtaining triethylamine. e author has confirmed these results and has produced the responding methyl compound, apconigpe ee agen N.CH,.C It is a gold-yellow liquid, irritating to the i boiling aire 59° and 60° , and quite permanent. Kohler hopes by its means to produce the azo-compounds of the fatty series, by a reaction analogous to that by which phosphobenzene is produced from phosphenyl chloride and .phenylphosphine.— Ber. ae fh stenen és., xii, 770, May, 1 On 't Prepar ation ‘of a9 Cuprous c. — _The dificul- acid, while the cuprous chloride itself is only di tly solu lein this liquid, has suggested a new method of orice aration. By passing SO, gas into a mixture of —_s molecules salt and copper — itat pera Thus made, it is ure white powder composed of boring” tetrahedrons upon isch strong sunlight has no action. Strong sulphuric acid scarcely acts on it. In the dark, dilute nitric acid is also without action ; but when suspended in nitric acid diluted with six parts of water, the euprous chloride is ana sensitive to light, the crystals becoming black Ges. sth 7. On the Donpeaniont "Wood. -Tnouses, sioticing ‘ies con- siderable quantity of extract yielded to dilute sodium hydrate solution by birch wood, which extract was precipitated again 68 Scientific Intelligence. either on neutralizing with an acid or on the addition of alcohol, has made a systematic examination of the substance thus obtained. brown solution on saturation with deposited a whitish oe ae ee Alcohol acted similarly but the filtration was easier. After washing with alcohol and dryin Soomicused fitteen per cent of the wood used. As it i like a ed with ammonia, and then with the soda. It afforded on scale carbon 44°6, hydrogen 6°4, corresponding to the forasalk C.H,,0.. Comparative examinations of the quantity of this substance in various woods were then made, and the kinds examined by oauitaae acid method arranged themselves in the following order in this respect: birch, ash, alder, cherry, white beech, oak, pea beech, ste willow, horse-chestnu t, maple and pine, the last. cere ing only traces. The quantity was greater the nearer to the center of the tree the specimen was taken. ood-gum is insoluble in Ch., IL, xix, 146, March G. F. B. 8. Dust Figures produced by Sound Waves —Her. K. H. Sa 8 BacH and E, E. Borum extend the work of Profsssara E. Mac oes Fischer on the reflexion and refraction of sound sentaiand o in sulphuric acid, does not reduce the rl ae test, and rotates to the lett.—J. prakt. a ous to those The latter seeder however, gives a much more interesting way of yin waves by actually illuminating, so to speak, the wave iteel ante a der Physik und Chemie, No. 5, 1879, p. 1. a 3s 9. Continuous Spectrum of Electric Sparke.—Professor ANTON Azr shows that she spectrum 0 of the electric spar ark between ~~ con spectrum to the particles of the metals of the electrodes to a white heat but not to tthe gaseous condition which po ~ Chemistry and Physics. 69 duces bands, when the spectrum of the spark in air is wigs _ ee der Physik mec Chemie, No. 5, 1879, P. 159 A New Theory of Terrestrial "Magnet ism. 3 Phomalees Piliey and AYRTON Nave proposed the following theory of ter- restrial magnetism, which is based upon the experiments of Pro- fessor Rowland, of Johns Hopkins Guiversity, Baltimore, carried out in Professor Helmholtz’s laboratory. In’ these ex periments Professor Rowland showed that a magnetic needle is deflected by he movement of a static charge of electricity. Professor Row- land detailed to the writer of this notice, two years ago, in Cam- ridge, the same theory which is now proposed by Professors Perry and Ayrton. The theory is that the revolution of the earth beneath the électrical charge originally and at all times present in the atmosphere may and is sufficient to account for the magnet- ism of the earth. Professors Perry and Ayrton have eee ae, bre matter to cal- culation, and find that the difference of potential between the earth and space necessary to produce a di seitacion sufficient to four million Daniell cells. They prove, according to this theory that “if the earth be electrified, it must, from its very rotation, quite independently of all other bodies in the universe, a netic; and if it consist of a shell of iron, thick or thin, then that the law of distribution of magnetism produced by this electrical charge in mechanical rotation, will = identically that given by ioohea and physical chemistry. The avid wind fundamental ges in chemical philosophy and notation, which have occurred during covered b . Fran *’s memoirs, changes ig -3 toward which his own researches have largely contributed, have required a thorough revision of the notation of his earlier papers The volume opens well therefore oe a reproduction of his “ Con- tributions to the Notation of O: and Inorganic Compounds” from the Journal of the Chemical nites (1866). The nine chapters devoted to pure chemistry contain — of the most important For example, the three memoirs on ithe “Isolation of the Alcohol Radicals,” the nine memoirs on the “Synthesis of Organo- metallic bodies,” the two synthetical researches on acids of the 70 Scientific Intelligence. lactic series, one on the acids of the acrylic series, and four on fatty acids. Each of these series of researches forms a continuous work and is prefaced by an analytical reswmée, prepared for this volume, giving the author’s mature views on reviewing the discussed in five memoirs. Every student of public hygiene as well as chemists will profit by the study of these chapters. he memoirs on the influence of atmospheric pressure on com- bustion, and on the spectra of gases and vapors form the opening chapters in the section on Physical Chemistry, which is continued lately made accessible) promote the progress of science not alone by the actual work done by them in original research, but possibly quite as much by the unconscious influence such collected memoirs exert by furnishing models of investigation worthy of imitation and stimulating others to a generous riva 12. : ry. B. S. ide to the Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of the Urine, &c.; by Drs, Neupaver and Voazt, with a Preface by Professor FRESENIUS; translated from the seventh enlarged and revised German edition by Dr. Elbridge G. Cutler of Massa- chusetts General Hospital and assistant in the Medical School of arvard University. Revised by Dr. Edward 8. Wood, Professor of Chemistry in the Medical School of Harvard University. 551 0.).—A new chem little to say that this translation will come into general use where- ever medical chemistry is taught as well as among chemists and physicians whose investigations demand a knowledge of the best methods of analysis and pathology in this direction. B.S 13. C. Grevitte Wits, F.R.S., of London, has just added a Supplement to his Hand-book of Chemical Mani, ion. 88 pp. Geology and Natural History. 71 8vo, London, 1879. (Van Voorst.)—This handbook, well known to chemists, contains notices of new methods of manipulation, with twenty-three figures of apparatus adapted for improved laboratory — and the supplement will be found useful in every working aborato 14, " Specific Gravity of the —— ow. Phosphoric Pentasulphide and Indium Chloride—Victor Meyer and Cart Meyer have determined the s specific aavisiin of =a vapors by the method of displacement which they devised and had previously described. ey have found, in two determinations for the vapor of phos- phoric pentasulphide, the specific gravities 110°1 and 110°7 when H,=1 and for that of indium chloride the value 113°6. As the half molecular weight of P. $ is 111, it is sore dar that this com- pound—unlike P,Cl,—is converted into vapor without disasso- ciation ; — since the specific gravity of ae vapor set ye Apu 1879, p. 6 ? IL GEoLogy AND NATURAL HIsTORY. eur Bidduanpspcchid e nm, vO seaiic VON Mogsvir, pp. 8vo. Sper 1878. " (Alfred Holder.)—The Dolomite region of the Southern Tyrol is well known as one 0 the most remarkable portions of the Alps, both in the unique beauty of its scenery, and in the variety and interest of its geo- logical structure. e ngely picturesque and wo ully pee forms of the dolomite mountains, sn agg in Poe ne ar and again as sharp jagged peaks, give the re ra charac < of i As : Mor v he - He interest region by one whose lon rience in the study of the Eastern Fe bas et thoroughly log = for his work. In addition to the special description of each section of the country, with the numerous cuts and profile views, the work also includes several chapters of more general interest, and one of these contains a i Permia: 72 Scientific Intelligence. i luster was greasy, and the touch unctuous. In the air it dried rapidly, and at the end of some weeks it was transformed into a soft, white, sectile mass, having some consistericy, and more or less plastic. If exposed still longer it became nearly solid, resem- bling steatite; in this condition it had about the hardness of tale and its specific gravity was found to be 2-08—2-10. An analysis by Prof. Bischoff, on material dried at 100° C., afforded the fol- Seine results : SiO, AIO; CaO MgO ¥,0O H,0 48°39 20°49 3°57 3°14 2°79 21°62—=100°00 This corresponds closely with the composition of chabazite, and Renevier refers it to this species, but calls it a “ mineral in an em- oe Se condition.” — Bull. Soc. Vaud. Se. Nat., xvi, 81. §. 8. D. ihsteeawar can 98! Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Kau- Perlite der auf Grund seiner a herausgegeben, von Dr. Oscar ScHNEIDER. 160 pp. 8vo, cine skeet 1878.—The exten- 1875, have been neue d over in part by himself and in part by a number of specialists, and the results are contained in the present olume. The minerals have been ines by Professor Frenzel ; among other points he describes a new species under the name of urusite, It was found with iron vitriol and other iron salts at Tscheleken. Its characters are as follows: it occurs in rounded lum easily crushed to a powder consisting of inate ort orthorhombic crystals. The specific gravity is 2°22; the colors is a yellow and the streak ochre ellow. An analysis gave: SO, 42°08, FeO, HL, ri a = 99°66. This ee ee "to the a, 4 + 5H 4. Mémoire sur le Fer “Notip du Greenland et sur la Dolerite qui le renfarne pe Lawrence Suiru. (Annales de Chimie et J. de Physique eat 1879). —The native iron of Ofivak, Green- land, was discovered by Professor Nordenskiéld in 1870, and by him described as of meteoric —" later writers, however, have Geology and Natural History. 73 microscopically, and all the points are discussed with admirable thoroughness. The remarkable disintegration which has reduced many of the seemingly solid masses of iron to a fine powder, Dr. Smith attributes first to the loss of moisture, which results in the production of cracks in the surface, and then to the fact that the Fe Ni Co Cu 1 C (combined). 93°16 2°01 0°80 0°12 0°32 0°41 0°02 2°34=—99°18 and t. sociated with the iron in the dolerite were the following minerals: niccoliferous pyrrhotite, graphite, hisingerite, magnetite, spinel a . Of these the graphite is the Smith for this extensive occurrence of native iron. He argues that the basaltic rocks of Northern Greenland at the time of their eruption must have forced their way through lignitic miocene beds, setting free by their heat vast amounts of gaseous hydro- carbons, which would have exerted a powerful reducing effect on gated some of the other so-called meteoric irons of Greenland, found at various localities for lat. N. 63° to 76°. He concludes that they are all similar to the Ofivak iron, and probably, like it, fills cavities formed from the oxidation of pyrite. Fine trans- re Scopic, are alternated with cryptoerystalline masses, In which, Occasionally, are seen small brilliant particles of gold. The Vulture vein is enclosed in walls of a schistose gneiss or mica schist, and the atmospheric spent seine of the sulphide has been so complete that at a depth of nearly 300 feet only cubical cavities and a curious structure due to t : te are observed, and the mine at that considerable depth is com- pletely dry. B.S. 6. The ‘Botanical Text-book. (Siath edition.) Part I. Strue- tural Botany, or Organography on the basis of Morphology. To 74 Scientific Intelligence. which is added the Principles of Taxonomy and Phytography, and a Glossary of Botanical Terms; by Asa Gray, D., ete., Fisher was adopted as the only safe one on which to build, and upon this a symmetrical superstructure was erected. It was no ordinary sagacity which led a young botanist, without experience in teaching, to select a method which has needed no essential change for forty years, and which is to-day generally accepted as best adapted to ele- mentary and advanced instruction. The “'Text-book,” which was developed from the earlier “Elements of Botany,” has passed through several editions, the last of which, published in 1852, is widely known under the title, “ Structural pats Systematic Botany.” A still further development of the plan selected at the outset, neces- sitated a division into separate volumes, and it is of this that men- tion must now be made. The present edition of the Text-book The sections devoted to the flower have undergone very great modifications, The deviations from the type-flower are discussed rp s been revised throughout and instructive to observe how little Geology and Natural History. 75 discovered and weighty evidence in s views He adheres to his well-known belief, now well established, that pla- cent belong to carpels and not to the cauline axis 8 or to outgrowths of a leaf, whether from its edges or surface. Under fruits and seeds, little new matter has been added, except a useful synopsis of simple fruits. Thus far the work has dealt with Morphology and adapta- tions: the last part of the volume is devoted to Taxonomy. tion and classification, by the individual is meant the herb, shrub, .” “Species in biological natu- ral history is a chain or series of organisms of which the links or ments of species are: 1, community of origin; and, 2, similarity foundation of species.” Variation within the species is next dis- i us each other within such limits interbreed freely, while those with wider differences do not. Hence are recognized Varieties, or dif- tions, in which the differences are more st denote degrees of likeness or difference ; but what is the explanation of the likeness between species themselves ? ith the accepted facts respecting variation, crossing and the like, before him, the author adopts the theory of descent and limitation by natural selection, to furnish an' answer to the question Just asked. On page 330, the author says, “ We have supposed -.+. that each plant has an internal tendency or predisposition to vary In some directions rather than in others; from which, under natural selection, the actual differentiations and adaptations have pro- one Under this assumption and taken as a working hypothe- 76 Geology and Natural History. sis, the doctrine of the derivation of species serves well for the co- ordination of all the facts in botany, and affords a probable and critically and at some length. been held to be in dispute, the law is pretty authoritatively laid down. The important but too much neglected subject of herbo- which, for the convenience of many, are given the Latin equiva- 1 : : G. L. G. 7. Chronological History of Plants: Man’s Record of his own existence illustrated through their names, uses, and companion- ship ; by Cuartus Pickertne, M. D. Boston, 1879. (Little, Brown & Co.)—This is a quarto velume of over twelve hundred closely printed pages, about half of which were already in type e e beginning of the first Great Year in the E yptian reckoning. The first plant mentioned by Dr. Pickering is Artemisia Judaica field of Genesis ii, 5, and the second is the tree which yields bdel- lium, probably a palm, Borassus dichotomus, though possibly a species of Balsamodendron, The remaining plants, animals, mu- sical instruments and metals of the antediluvians are next consid- : _ ) a primarily significant of natural objects. Other parts of the world, the names of kings, writers, animals, 1 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 77 year by year, or generation after generation, nearly everything spoken of being explained or interpreted by the ryan weer turning page after page, we do not know which to onder or Sstacahonita, and in it have drawn his own nama conclusions from so vast an array of facts, As it is, the work will remain, as Rev. Mr. Morrison says, a vast storehouse, from which other wri- ters may draw the treasures with which they may pronase their readers, or delight mankin . CE IIL MIscELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. in rey at a distance of two miles from the any smaller pieces, of a few ounces or pounds tin gh were Shasta in the vicinity. smaller mass fell u and Gontiakes the earth sagas to a depth of 44 feet. The fall was accompanied by a age scribed as a continuous roll of thunder accompanied. b Leckey © und. rough the efforts of Piofemol E. J. “hiini pia of our Faculty the smaller me has been obtained for the University cabinet. It is irregularl Cay in ssn about 15x18 inches and of an average thickness of six in A preli iminary chemical seater Fe shows the metallic portion to consist of a of iron, nickel and tin. Full half the mass consists of stony matter, which appears in dark-green crystal- line masses embedded in a light-gray matrix. When the whole is powdered, a violent reaction ensues on the addition of hydro- chloric acid, which is increased on boiling. The boiling acid appeared to dissolve all but the gray matrix, abundance of iron passing | me ot ae on. Some of the so aii masses are two properties of the minerals and matrix. he chemical examination was first attempted upon a very small quantity of material, but, now that we have an n ample quan- tity, a complete Paget of the several minerals and the alloy will’ be be made. mall Nec, of the metal Seine and etched 78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The larger mass is still in the hands of those who dug it from the ground, although their ownership is contested by. one who claims to have contracted for the land on which it fell. Their ideas regarding its value enlarge daily, the latest announcement being, that they should ee insulted at an offer of $5,000. We trust their feelings may be spared. he supposed ‘Meteorite “of Chicago; from a letter to pg editors from ght oressor E. 8. Bastin, dated Chicago, May 2 1879. * I have concluded that what was claimed to fi a meteorite could not have been anything of the kind. A heavy shower was in beige at the time (April 9th), ee Ss by thunder and lightning, eo according to all accounts at the very moment the fragments of the supposed tiene uee were seen to dwel that stood only a few yaaa: from the koe where most of the glowing fragments were seen to fall, were soci as if by light- ning, and more or less disturbance was caused in other wires and telephones about the neighborhood. Tt is is Peadonabtes I think, to conclude that the glowing fragments that were seen to fall to the side-walk and to rebound from the roofs of buildings were frag- ments of the melted wires heated to incandescence. The frag- ments that were picked up that evening and the next morning and were claimed to be portions of the meteorite, do not resemble any meteoric matter I have ever seen. They look very like the slag from an iron furnace, and many fragments very similar to them in appearance may be ‘picked up almost anywhere on our de and 15th of July, and often somewhat later. The position of the is one which is free from ice every year, and there is little doubt but that the Pfofeniot will be able to carry out his idea of ircumnavigating Europe and Asia in the Vega. The party at’ the date of writing were all well, and the letters had reached os via Kolymsk by the bands of traveling pottine . H. DALL. of Etna.—The new eruption begat on the 25th 2 May, and on the 28th, after two days of ejections of fiery cinders making clouds and rain of volcanic ashes of great extent, ¢ _ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79 the lava was seen flowing toward Randazzo, The new craters are situated near Monte Nero, sips feet: above the sea, and a fissure has been opened on that side (the northwest) "of the mountain. The lavas have devastated the wood of Collebasso, Pischiaro. The rate of flow on the 30th was one meter per minute. AES to epee the stream has nearly reached Alcantara,— Vc , Jun 5. Influence of liad iaae in Colliery Explosions.—An in gation, by LLOWAY, communicated to the Royal Fir § on experiments as ie the influence of coal-dust in colliery explo- sions, has led to the conclusion that: “ Piatt the apparatus 4 employe ed appears to be on too small a scale to solve the coal: dust question unequivocally, the results shiiads with it appear to be sufficiently conclusive to enab firm that an explo- to the presence of coal-dust in mines ea to be to carefully working plac 6. Ele aoe a a of Southwestern ay of Washington Ter- tory ie J. T. Donald, describes in the Canadian Naturalist, “bas ix, no. 1, the discovery of a ae ot bones, over 300, in a and 7. “On the re a Dia ees. New South Wales.” By Norman Taytor.—The diamonds of this sGeality occur in river- drift, associated with gold and other gems. The drifts in the dis- trict are at least six in number. The oldest is considered by the author to be Upper Miocene or Lower Pliocene; the next middle Pliocene; others Upper Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Ree ae Be- tween the Middle aud Upper Pliocene flows of basalt lava took place which have sealed up much of the older drifts. Diamonds x found in the oldest drift and, probably by derivation from it the newer. Gold, metallic iron, wood, tin, brookite (?), ooend, quartz, tourmaline, garnet, pleonast, gies; topaz, sapp ruby, and corundum are also found. The author then considers the igneous or sedimentary formations (from Upper r Silurian to Meso- z0ic) which have contributed to the drift; and concludes, from a variety of reasons, aye the diamonds have been formed én situ in the older drift.— Phil. May., June, p. 442, 1879. 8. Report of the New York State Survey for the year 1878, James T. Garpner, Director.—The = an nnual Report of Mr. 80 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of the Survey thus far have been most important; they haves revealed so great a degree of inaccuracy in existing maps of the . H. Day; on the extent and significance of the Wisconsin Kettle Moraine, by T. C. Chamber- lin; and papers on the Mound Builders, by E. Andrews, P. R. Hoy and J. N. de Hart. 10. Ocean Wonders, a Companion for the Seaside, fully illustra- ted from living subjects; by Wu. E. Damon. 230 pp. 12mo, with many illustrations. New York, 1879. (D. Appleton & Co. Many facts respecting the productions of the ocean are here pre- ented i beyond the actualities of nature. We think nature’s wonders wonderful enough when presented as they are without exaggera- tion from fiction. 11. Paris Academy of Sciences.—Professor Asaph Hall has been elected a corresponding member of the Astronomical Section of the Paris Academy, to fill the place made vacant by the death of M. Santini. 12. British Association—The 49th meeting will commence at Sheffield on Wednesday, Aug. 20,1879. The President elect is Professor G. J. Allman. 13. American Association.—The next meeting will be held at 7 commencing on the last Wednesday in August. Pro- fessor G. F. Barker is President. 14, A Memoir of Joseph Henry: a Sketch of his Scientific work ; by Witt1am B. Taytor. 140 pp. 8vo. Read before the Philo- r H ‘ ee tory on Mount a.—The plans of the Mount Etna Observatory, submitted to the Italian State Secretary for , OBITUARY, Prof. Paoto Vorrrcetxi, the eminent electrician of Rome, died on the 14th of April, Sion Gre CL. 2) 1e73. PLATE Tf. 15 Be hrs sate 3.5; siiesl A a. we ere Lg ROCHESTER oe aie GO ene eto Rod _ 40) CKSONVILLE —— See ee i a 0° Pur &Crésand. New Haver, Conan AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] *. > Art. XIII.—Terminal Moraines of the North American Ice-Sheet; WaRREN UPHAM. estes sand and clay, entirely unstratified ; elsewhere it has ew or no bowlders, and consists of rounded gravel and sand but not beyond it; while in Wisconsin these morainic hills are the glacial drift. The former series is thus shown to have been accumulated when the ice-sheet had its greatest extent; but + . of Wisconsin, vol. ii, 1877, pp. 205-215 and 608-635. of the State Geologist for the year 1877, pp. 9-22. + Annual Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuimp Series, VoL. XVIII, No. 104.—Aveust, 1879. : 6 82 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines the latter belongs to atime when it halted and probably reiad- vanced, after a period of warmer climate had caused it to make’ a considerable retreat. In Ohio a belt of irregular drift-hills, which appears to be the second moraine, lies about seventy-five milés north from the boundary of glacial action, indicating a convergence of the two series toward the east. In the region traversed by the writer for the exploration of these hills, including Long Island, southern Rhode Island and Block Island, and southeastern Massachusetts, with the adja- cent islands of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, both of these terminal moraines are finely developed, lying five to thirty miles apart. e New Jersey series, marking the farthest limit reached by the ice-sheet, continues across Staten Island to the Narrows, and thence extends in a prominent range through the middle of Long Island* and its southern branch to Mon- tauk Point. A second series, probably contemporaneous with that of Wisconsin and Ohio, is found on the north side of this island, from Port Jefferson eastward to Orient Point, the extremity of its north branch, beyond which it forms Plum and Fisher’s Islands, and enters the State of Rhode Island at its southwest corner. Thence it is well shown at a distance of oné or two miles north from the shore nearly to Point Judith, where it apparently turns southward into the ocean. Twelve miles to the south the first range is again lifted into view in Block Island, a knot of very irregular drift-hills, which resem- ble those of Montauk. The sea covers the next thirty miles in the line of continua- tion of these series of hills, beyond which both of them rise above its waves again, the nort orming the line of the Elizabeth Islands, and bending to the northeast and north on the peninsula of Cape Cod to near North Sandwich, where it turns at a right angle, and thence runs along the west-to-east dae of the Cape and extends into the ocean at its east shore. he southern moraine forms No Man’s Land, the crest of Gay Head and prominent ranges of hills in the northwest part of Martha’s Vineyard, extending northeast nearly to Vineyard vi ere this series apparently bends to the southeast, somewhat as the northern range turns at North Sandwich, but it is covered beneath plains or the sea for much of the way beyond this point. It ap unmistakably, however, on sie age and Tuckernuck Islands, and in Saul’s Hills and Sankaty Head on Nantucket. The length of the southern moraine in its course from San- katy Head to No Man’s Land is miles, and its whole extent as yet traced, to the west line of New Jersey, is about three * This series of hills on Long Island was well described by Mather, in 1843, in the Geological Report of the First District of New York, p. 161, etc. of the North American Ice-Sheet. 83 hundred miles. That of the northern moraine from the east shore of Cape Cod to the west end of the Elizabeth Islands is sixty-seven miles, while its total length to Port Jefferson is about one hundred and eighty miles. The distance between these series at Martha’s Vineyard and westward varies from five to fifteen miles, but increases eastward to thirty miles, where they disappear finally in the Atlantic. Extreme Terminal Moraine.—This series of drift-hills in New Jersey begins at the Delaware River, a few miles above Easton, and extends fifteen miles east-northeast to Townsbury ; then twenty miles east by Hackettstown to Dover; thence it turns to the south southeast fifteen miles, by Morristown; and next to the south-southwest five miles to the east part of Plain- field; where, and for ten miles southeast to Perth Amboy, it forms the well-known range called Short Hills. The contour of this series of deposits is in quite irregular hillocks, with frequent enclosed hollows and ponds. Its material is stated to be coarse unstratified drift, or clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders of large and small size, mixed indiscrifninately together. The profile of the country crossed by it rises from about 300 feet above sea at the west line of the State to a height of 900 feet at the mountain west of Townsbury, and to 1,200 feet on Schoo- ley’s Mountain, ten miles farther east; near Dover it has a height of 900 feet, from which it descends to sea-level at Perth mboy. The cntahdation of this moraine into Pennsylvania appears to extend southwestward, being represented by a similar series of drift-hills, lately traced by Pro essor Frederick Prime, Jr.,* in the Saucon valley, ten to twelve miles southwest from Easton. e also discovers at about the same distance north from Easton a second moraine, reaching some twelve miles from the Dela- ware River at Portland, west-southwest to Wind Gap in Kitta- tinny Mountain. The perpendicular distance between the lat- ter series and the west end of that which crosses New Jersey is about eight miles. ae Eastward the terminal moraine of New Jersey is distinctly continued across Staten Island, where its course is northeast twelve miles to Fort Tompkins, which is situated on its crest at the west side of the Narrows. On Long Island it forms the site of Fort Hamilton, and thence takes a quite direct east- northeast course for twenty-four miles to Roslyn; next it runs nearly due east about sixty miles to Canoe Place and the Shin- necock Hills; beyond which it bends northeast eight miles to near Sag Harbor; and thence continues, with some interrup- tions, in a course to the east and east-northeast twenty-five miles to Montauk Point. This moraine on Long Island consti- * Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. xviii, p. 85. 84 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines tutes a very conspicuous line of hills, bordered along most of its course by nearly level plains on both sides. So striking is its topographic effect that it long ago came to be commonly “backbone of the island.” This range is the southeast boundary of Brooklyn, Newtown, and part of Flushing; forms the heights of Greenwood Ceme- tery, Prospect Park, the Cemetery of the Evergreens, Ridge- wood Reservoir, and Cypress Hill Cemetery; runs close north Pond nearly at its top. Prospect Hill in Brooklyn is 194 feet ; Ridgewood Reservoir, 170; Richmond Hill, 188; Success Pond, about 200; and the highest hills near this pond and to the north and east, about 250 feet above the sea. From the Nar- rows to Roslyn this series of irregularly undulating hills is shown by many excavations, as for cellars, streets and railroads, to be composed of till, or unstratified glacial drift, full of bowl- ders, most of which are rough and angular, while some have their sides planed and striated. This is the true terminal moraine of the ice-sheet Hill, the highest of the West Hills, 354; the Dix and Comac Hills, about 250; Pine Hill and Mt. Pleasant, west of Ronkon- oma Lake, about 200; the Bald and Selden Hills, 200 to 300; Ruland’s, the highest of the Coram Hills, 8340; Homan’s Hill, north of Yaphank, about 250; Terry’s Hill, south of Manor- ville, about 175; Rock and Canada Hills, about 200; Spring * For man’ hes foregoing he’ Island, I am indebted to ‘Mr. Elias ethan ceaunre eimacans soeoe of jaaee in this Jour- nal, III, vol. xiii, p. 235. of the North American Ice-Sheet. 85 Hill, about 250, and Osborn’s or Bald Hill, 298, the last two being a few miles southwest from Riverhead; the East Hills, and the range onward to Canoe Place, 150 to 200 feet; Sugar- loaf, the highest of the Shinnecock Hills, 140; the Pine Hills, 150 to 250, reaching their highest elevation three miles south- west from Sag Harbor; Stony Hill, a mile northeast from Ama- gansett, 161; Napeague Hill, the highest of the Nommonock Hills, at the west end of Montauk, 185; the Hither Wood in the course of this series of hills. Its area is stated to be about 460 aeres; its height, fifty-four feet above sea; and its extreme depth, eighty-three feet. The only stream that crosses the line of this moraine on Long Island is Connecticut River, which rises on its north side and flows southward at the west base of Homan’s Hill, its valley being here about fifty feet above sea. A few miles farther east, between Yaphank and Manorville, the railroad crosses this line on par mer 3 about seventy-five feet above sea; as also does the Sag Harbor ranch a few miles southeast from Manorville. The isthmus of Canoe Place, which joins the south branch to the main island, is composed of gravel and sand, less than a quarter of a mile wide and rising only twenty feet above sea-level. The portion of this moraine which occupies the next three or four miles eastward is widely famous under the title of Shinnecock Hills. Though comparatively low, they have been more noticed than other portions of this range, because the traveler finds his road winding among their irregular hillocks, knolls, ridges and hol- - lows. They are better seen, also, use not covered by woods, which clothe the higher hills of this series extending from them to the west and northeast. Their material, as of the series generally from Harbor Hill to Amagansett, is irregu- larly stratified gravel and sand, with occasional bowlders, which here vary in size up to a diameter of fifteen feet. The roads from South Hampton to North Sea, from Sag Harbor to Kast Hampton, and thence to the ae cross the morainic line at depressions which are occupied by nearly level plains about forty feet above sea. The longest interruption in this series ~ i 86 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines hills on Long Island is at the low tract of recent beach-sand and marsh called Napeague, four or five miles in length and nearly two in width; beyond which are the pastured uplands of Montauk, extending ten miles, with depressions to sea-level at Fort and Great Ponds. The cliffs on the south shore of Montauk, twenty to one hun- dred feet high, are constantly undermined by the sea and pre- sent fine sections, composed of stratified gravel, sand and dag. the latter usually containing intermixed gravel, while in most portions of all these beds occasional and sometimes frequent bowlders, up to three or more rarely five to ten feet in diame- ter, are em ed. No unstratified deposits were found in an examination of these cliffs for nearly seven miles, from Fort Pond to the light-house. The contour of this peninsula is very irregular, with many small ponds and swamps. Its surface is everywhere strown with bowlders, often very abundantly, so that they nearly cover the ground. These, however, very rarely exceed ten feet in diameter, being of small size as com- pared with the enormous blocks which are found occasionally near the north side of the island. hese accumulations of drift, reaching in an essentially con- tinuous series of hills nearly 200 miles, from Delaware River to Montauk Point, and lying as already stated at the southern limit of glacial action, seem to be terminal deposits dumped at the margin of the ice-sheet during its period of greatest extent. The striated summits of all the mountains of New England, New York and northern New Jersey, show that the glacial mantle was at least a mile thick at a distance of 200 miles north from its southern edge. Its formation from the annual excess of snow-fall left unmelted would lead us to suppose that it would have a nearly level surface; and its motion south- ward, caused by the pressure of its much greater thickness far at the north, shows that these plains sloped toward their boun- dary. The Antarctic continent and the interior of Greenland are now covered by similar fields of ice. That of Greenland rises steeply at its edge, but after a few miles changes to a gently inclined plateau, elevated above the highest peaks of the land on which it lies, and apparently of immeasurable extent. Dr. Hayes found the angle of ascent on this plain to ‘filled with the material of the drift at least to the height of the peaks and ridges which it crossed. Differences of direction and angles of descent in the slopes of the surface of ice above, ; of the North American Ice-Sheet. 87 due apparently to inequalities in the amount of snow-fall and of melting upon adjacent regions, were sufficient to make angles and lobes at the termination of the ice-sheet, and also doubtless caused downward and upward currents, by which much of the drift gathered while crossing a nearly level area, would be dis- tributed throughout the lower part of the ice, probably to the eight of several hundred feet. The beds of loose material which had been produced by long-continued decomposition of the ledges or accumulated by previous glacial action, together with the thick fluviatile deposits that probably occupied the valleys, were ploughed up by this ice-sheet and thoroughly kneaded with each other. Very large amounts of detritus were added from erosion of the rock-surface. Fragments of all sizes and in great profusion were loosened and wrenched away, while the ledges were everywhere worn and striated by bowl- ders and pebbles, which were rolled and dragged along under the vast weight of ice, breaking up and grinding themselves - the underlying rock into gravel, sand, and even the finest clay. The material which was thus gathered, mingled and swept along in and beneath the moving ice, upon reaching its termin- ation was accumulated in heaps and ridges of unstratified drift, full of bowlders, and identical’with the till which generally overspreads the ledges and underlies the modified drift of gla- cla = The moraines of Long Island and southern ng and by the abundance and large size of its bowlders, which have seldom been worn or rounded except by the weather. _ The massive hills of gravel and sand which form so promi- nent'a part in this series of drift deposits heaped at the termi-. nal front of the ice-sheet, to have been brought by gla- cial rivers. The melting of the ice at and near its terminal er a change of climate, their melting was extended over a very wide area. Their sur- face was then hollowed into basins of drainage and channeled 88 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines ice-sheet was even more conspicuously than its unmodified terminal accumulations of till. The latter appear with scarcely any modified drift in this moraine from Fort Hamilton to Ros- lyn; but thence to Amagansett a remarkable contrast is pre: sented, the moraine of till being nearly everywhere buried by that of fluvial gravel and sand. Bowlders in these stratified deposits appear to have been brought by ice-floes or small bergs, borne on the glacial floods. Their abundance on Montauk may indicate a slight advance of the glacial sheet during or after the deposition of the stratified beds, carrying forward a multitude of bowlders which remained on the surface of the ice because they could not be removed by its streams. At its a retreat these would be dropped, forming a deposit of upper ti $ ill. Previous to the deposition of the series of hills of modified drift which we have described, it appears that the ice-sheet reached five miles south of this line, though perhaps only for a short time. This is shown by Manetto and Pine Hills, which extend in massive north-to-south ridges from the West Hills by Melville to Farmingdale. They are composed of stratified gravel and sand with rare bowlders, and have a height which declines from 300 feet above sea at the north to 150 at the south. Three miles farther east, and separated from the fore- going by a plain about 100 feet above sea, are the Halfway Hollow Hills, of similar character and nearly equal height, extending some three miles south from the west part of the Comac Hills. Opposite to these, on the north side of the west- to-east moraine series, are two spurs of the Dix Hills, which reach three or four miles north from this series, being likewise have been deposited like kames, in ice-walled river-channels ormed upon the surface of the glacial sheet when it was rap- idly melting. The southern ridges are thus of earlier date than the principal series of terminal deposits, while those on the north were probably formed immediately after this series dur- ing the retreat of the ice-margin. e part of Long Island south of this terminal moraine con- sists of nearly level plains of fine gravel and sand, five to ten miles in width and extending a hundred miles in length. The height of their north portion at the foot of the hills varies from of the North American Ice-Sheet. 89 fifty to one hundred and fifty feet above the sea. Thence the slope gradually to sea-level at the south side of the islan Heights upon these plains, determined by railroad surveys, are as follows: Jamaica, 40 feet above sea; Mineola, 108; Hicks- A very ach ry cng of these deposits has been pointed out r. Eli i these “plain valleys,” as they are locally called, oceur between Kast New York and Riverhead, a distance of about sixty-five miles. In some cases they continue below our present sea- level and may be traced nearly across the enclosed ae to the beach-ridge which divides them from the open ocean; a that when these valleys were formed the sea at this latitude di water-courses crossing them, app have been formed b. the same floods that r a height about 150 feet above sea. ; Gardiner’s Island shows a fine exposure of these pre-glacial * This Journal, III, vol. xiii, pp. 142-146 and 215. 90 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines formations overlain by drift in sea-cliffs, thirty to fifty feet high, at its southeast shore. Here in a distance of a sixth of a mile the lower strata rise in two anticlinals, which dip at angles varying from 10° to 45°. They consist of dull-red, brown, dark and black clays, and brown, yellow and white sands. These arched strata are overlain conformably by yellow sand and fine gravel, which farther east are interstratified with lay- ers of white and dark gray sand and dark clay. About 800 feet east from the northeast anticlinal, these later beds dip 5° underlain a little to the west by a compact ferruginous layer one foot thick, which separates it from white sand; overlain oy six feet of lighter colored sand, its upper portion filled wit shells* for two or three rods, at a height which varies with the slope from 12 to 20 feet above sea; next, 10 feet of dark clay, which thins out at 100 feet to the west, but increases in thick ess to the east; then, about 8 feet of coarse gravel, with angu- lar pebbles to 1} feet in size, becoming coarser 150 feet to the west, where it holds angular bowlders 4 feet in diameter, these covered by about 10 feet of sand; which also forms the top of this section, resting on the gravel to a thickness of about 8 feet. The coarse gravel and overlying sand appear to be glacial deposits, and these, frequently with numerous and large bowl- ders, form the surface of the island, rising in hills 125 feet high. The shell-bed belongs to a period immediately preced- ing the ice age, in which the sea here had about the same tem- perature as now. The variously colored anticlinal strata are older than this, but yield no fossils. They are probably of the same date with similar clays on the northeast side of the same island, on the south side of Montauk a mile west from the point, and at Bethpage; as also with the lower portion of the cliffs near Brown’s Point.+ Further exploration is needed to compare these with the lignitic beds of Block Island and the upturned Tertiary strata of Gay Head. North of the extreme terminal moraine on Long Island, another series of plains of gravel and sand, varying from one mile to five miles in width, and of similar height and south- ward slope with those on its opposite side, extends from Syos- set forty-five miles eastward to Riverhead, and thence con- tinues along the north branch of the island nearly thirty miles more to Orient Point. The description of these plains belongs *The fossils of this place were described by Mr. Sanderson Smith, in the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, vol. viii, p. 149. See I ve species are enumerated, all of which, excepting one or two of more northern range, are now found living in + Figured by Mather in the Geological Report of the First District of New York, Plate iv. of the North American Ice-Sheet. 91 with that of the second terminal moraine, which lies at their north side. The probable origin, relation and significance of the drift deposits in central and southern Long Island having been now pointed out, similar explanations will be found appli- cable to their continuation eastward and to the like series of deposits farther north, so that little more than a plain descrip- tion of them will be required. ; Block Island, six miles long and three and a half miles wide in its south portion, presents the next segment of the extreme moraine, which appears with the characteristic features already described for Montauk, from which it is distant about fifteen miles to the northeast. The first account of this island, b Verrazzano in 1524, says truthfully that it is “full of hills.” Approximate heights of some of these are as follows: Beacon Hill, the highest point on the island, 210 feet above sea; hill one-fourth mile south, 205; Pine Hill, one-third mile north- west, 150’; Sandy Hill, near Grace’s Point, 105; Cherry Tree Hill, 140; Pilot Hill, 185; base of the south light-house, 152; Bush Hill, the highest in the north part of the island, 140. These are irregularly grouped, with many hollows containing onds and deposits of peat. Sands’ Pond is about 125; and resh and Mitchell’s Ponds, about 90 feet above sea. Great Salt Pond, which lies at sea-level, contains some 1,000 acres; the contour of its bottom is found by soundings to be ve —— like that of the adjacent land, its greatest depth being eet. : ark, — and full of rock-fragments, twenty-five feet, reaching to the upper edge of the beach. At 200 to 400 feet southwest from this, gravel at top, with numerous bowlders; dark clay, fifteen feet ; yellow sand and coarse gravel with irony layers, twenty feet ; typical lower till, unstratified, about forty-five feet, to the beach. At the light-house the cliffs are 150 feet high, and consist of gravel and sand, -fourths of the whole. pebbles up to one foot in diameter, mostly angular, often occur in thick beds of this dark clay; and occasional bowlders, up to two or rarely five feet through, are embedded in all these 92 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines of the N. American Ice-Sheet. feet high, and consists mainly of the dark clay, dipping about: 0° ese and stratified sand, five feet, to the beach. The highest ee eet, and consists of gravel, sand and dark clay, irregularly bedded and inclined often 5° to 15° in different directions, with peb- bles up to one foot occurring at many places in the clayey strata. This part of Clay Head seems to be wholly of glacial origin; but earlier beds, among which are some of white clay, with clay in small amount, form the base of the bank a third of a mile to the south. Lignite is found abundantly for a quarter of a mile south from the breakwater in the lower part of the bank, twenty to thirty-five feet high, which forms the shore. It occurs, as at Gay Head and on Long Island, in fragments, which here vary from an inch to a foot in length, preserving the distinct grain of the wood and closely resembling charcoal; and also in lay- ers, which are here from three inches to two feet thick, gener- ally friable and earthy, and sometimes much like peat. These fragments and layers are found both in dark clay and in white sand; the same beds also enclose layers of gravel and thin seams of white and red clay. These beds are in some places folded and contorted, but mainly lie in anticlinals of gentle slope, capped by stratified gravel and sand with enclosed bow]l- ders. The surface of this island is partly of the same modified drift and partly till, both plentifully strown with bowlders up to ten and rarely twenty feet or more in diameter. [To be continued.] E. Cutter—Microphotography with Tolles’s Objective. 98 Art. XIV.—Microphotography with Tolles’s A, inch Objective ; by Epuramm Curtrer, M.D. In his admirable report to the Surgeon General of the U. 8. Army, on microphotography with sunlight in 1871, Surgeon J. J. Wendeart expressed the hope that others would carry out the idea he had inaugurated for demonstrating original work. The writer fully appreciates and acknowledges the great aid of his suggestions, and if I have ventured to modify is methods it has been from the force of circumstances and peculiar obstacles to be overcome. think that my modifications have made the way plainer and have removed obstructions which the gentleman in ques- tion did not have to contend with. I may here remark that I : . Sali ficially induced by yeast and verified it by autopsies in all the From my own knowledge the treatment based on this principle is successful beyond anything I have known ore. In privately making these things known I was met with the greatest incredulity as to the evidence which was mostly micrological. In order to sustain the position of my — I took Dr. Woodward’s advice and oe to a photography. In my labors I was warmly and generously at sad G. B. Horfietheh D.D.S., of ee Temple, and lower powers, but I desired to show those interested that in elucidating the views of one who in my opinion has come nearer to the real nature of tubercle than any one before him I had employed the best instruments of precision that modern has produced. Conditions that were to be met.—1. It was necessary that the patient, the sun and the apparatus with assistants, should all be: together, because the blood must be withdrawn from the life stream and transferred to the sensitive plate in the shortest 94 £. Cutter—Microphotography with Tolles’s Objective. space of time. 2. The work must be done at different locali- ties so as to have plenty of material to select from and to avoid disturbing elements. From these considerations it is easy to see that the Woodward plan of a dark chamber large enough to hold the operators and assistants could not be adopted, as it could not be carried about. igure 1, is a drawing of my best apparatus, Scale 1,5 inch to one foot; the base is a black walnut 14 inch thick been removed also. The camera is set up on a box in order to get the requisite height to bring the axis on a line with that of the microscope. The camera moves on the box and the box moves on the base. The three are connected as follows: a groove inch wide and ? inch deep is cut in the base exactly in the median line and at right angles to the length. This is filled by a piece of ebony 4 inch to 4 inch thick and 4 or more inches long. A brass plate is let into the ebony so that when it is secured by screws it forms the bar of the inverted + before alluded to. When in situ this T slides under the base board brass strips. This arrangement is good but dont stand travel by railroad. The same arrangement connects the mirror to the b , ' By the side of the camera is a rod 26 by # inches. Two screw eyes are let into the base board just at the ends of the rod. A screw runs through the eye into the right end of the a 95 E. Cutter—Microphotography with Tolles’s Objective. “AHAVAPOLOHAOUOIAY UOT SALVUVALY Smo Dogs oop Ey FES ae [a Bsn i 4 ( 96 = -E. Cutter—Microphotography with Tolles’s Objective. rod, and another screw with a milled head goes through the other eye into other end of the rod. The rod is thus secured and rotates by turning the milled head; 17 inches of the rod are covered with sand set like sand paper; in the cut this is covered by a sleeve of enameled cloth as the sand is detached by contact. When used the sleeve is pushed back and a braid or tape is run over the rod and around the milled head of the fine adjustment. A pin secures the ends of the tape when the proper tension is made by drawing them over each other. The delicate focussing is made by the hand of the operator while the eyes are on the ground glass plate of the camera; the tape is not shown in the cut. Remarks.—It will be noted that the peculiar features of this arrangement which differ from Col. Woodward's plain are, besides the portability ; 1, The size of the condenser; 2, The absence of the ammonio-sulphate copper or alum cell. as if this cell was a disturbing element still, though in the hands of the father of modern microphotography. s e have taken a large number of negatives, some of which have received honorable mention abroad: see Journal de Micrographie, Paris, October, 1877, and have used no device to cut off heat; hence we feel justified in saving ourselves the trouble of a, to us, unnecessary appliance. In our opinion this cell has stood in the way of the more general adoption of the reproduction of microscopic objects by photography. W think it is a good rule to use the simplest and fewest things to accomplish a purpose. ee For what precedes it is seen how the ,'; inch objective was used for photography. The object, for instance, enlarged white blood corpuscles, was displayed on a slide by the sudden dry- ing of a thin film of blood. The corpuscles were found b means of a low power and centered in the middle of the fiel E. Cutter—Microphotography with Tolles's Objective. 97 all ranged in one line. By means of the brass furrow in the base board the distances between them were changed without getting outof line. The sunlight, the chemicals, and all else had previously been found in working order by practical tests. Sunlight was thrown by the mirror through the condenser on the object which was placed just beyond the heat focus. We found that the brightest and clearest days, before 3 P. M., were the best. One observer, with his head and the camera covered with a black cloth, noted the projection of the image on the glass-ground plate. Another fingered the fine adjust- ment, or it was done by the focussing rod. When the image was satisfactory a card board cut off the light by interposition between the condenser and the object. The sensitized plate then replaced the glass plate and exposed, the regular exposure was made by lifting the card board and letting it fall in the course of half a second or more. The time varies and must be and instruct the printer how much exposure was need oe In photographing yeast with the 7, inch objective the object was wet and covered with a film of mica. The following facts Requires the aid of a powerful condenser. Usually it works best with a B eye-piece as a condenser under the stage, and with the thin edge of a common coal-oil flame shining “direct” a sort of awe. In our opinion the question is not settled, though we think something toward it has been done. As far as Am. Jour. Sct.—Tarrp Serres, Vou. XVIII. -No. 104, Aucust, 1879., 7 98 E. Cutter—Microphotography with Tolles’s Objective. our work has been concerned we know that we could not have attained our results with another objective like the ;!, for in- stance, with the ease and facility with which we did with the ,. While we feel sure that the practical clinical results of corrob- orating our study of consumptive blood can be attained with ob- jectives of 4 inch power—and it would be sad if it were not so— at the same time we are sure that no wrong has been done to any one by pressing the 4; into our service. Moreover, if by our simple arrangement we have been able to transfer images with the highest power objective ever thus used, those who pos- sess the low powers ought to be encouraged to use microphoto- graphy with the sunlight without condensing, or with the ordinary mirror, or with the B eye-piece. 2. a Figure 2 is a section of the writer’s device for such work ; it may be gotten up at a trifling expense. a is the tube of the microscope ; 6 is a paper tube 80 by 2 inches. A nicely turned plug of wood adapts the microscope to the paper tube. To save space, the tube is broken off in the cut; a deal 8 by 12 by 2 inches is seen in section, and fitted by a hole to the paper tube 6. c¢ is a section of the ground glass plate and holder, d is the clip to hold the plate holders. The artist has omitted the section of the lower cleat. This apparatus is adapted to a quarter plate and a two-inch photograph. An assistant should focus and adjust the light. With these simple arrangements it would seem that the hope expressed at the outset of this article should begin to be realized. Tremont Temple, Boston, April, 1879. Postscript.—The first microphotograph of this objective may be found in the Yale College Library. A. 8. Kimball—Magnetic Strains in Iron. 99 Art. XVL—WMagnetic Strains in Iron; by A. 8S. KIMBALL, Professor of Physics in the Worcester Free Institute of Industrial Science. ‘Tue object of this paper is to describe certain experiments made by inducing a magnetic state in bars of soft iron sub- jected to varying degrees of mechanical stress. As the result, we always have changes either in the form or dimensions of the bar, similar to those produced by the mechanical stress previ- ously applied, and therefore the term magnetic strain does not 4,000 pounds ; and on the removal of the small weight, the beam promptly returned to its normal position, The course o experiment was as follows: Several pieces of the same kind of iron, made as nearly as possible uniform in size, were broken in the machine. The alternate ones, in the order in which they were cut from the bar, were magnetized to saturation by a helix, through which a constant current was passing during the experiment. The heating effects of the helix were slight, and probably without influence. The tabulated results were then compared, and from thern the following conclusion was reached : A soft iron bar has its tenacity increased about nine-tenths of one per cen magnetizing it to saturation. The following table gives the results obtained by breaking a series of pieces of 100 A. S. Kimballi— Magnetic Strains in Fron. annealed iron wire, very uniformly drawn; approximate diameter, 1623”. Length between the jaws of the machine, 5”. Time required to break the magnetized pieces, sensibly con- stant at five and one-quarter minutes; for the unmagnetized pieces slightly less. TABLE I. No. Unmagnetized. Magnetized. Difference. 1 1201 5 2 1210 8 3 1202 UE 4 1213 ll 5 1202 14 6 1216 15 “i 1201 9 8 1210 T 9 1203 9 10 1212 9 EL 1203 Mean, 1202 1212 Minimum, 1201 1210 Maximum, 1203 1216 Difference between means, 10 Ibs. Maximum difference between magnetized pieces, 6 lbs. “ “ ‘ etized “ 2 “ =r =) 5 ® er ® a ye cess.” Now, what are the points in which the typical leess differs so far from other aqueous deposits, that in spite of this obvious correlation we hesitate to class it as such? Aside from Richt- hofen’s objections based upon the hypsometrical relations of the Chinese deposit (concerning the cogency of which I am unable to judge, not having seen his original publication), there are two principal ones, viz: Se E. W.. Hilgard —The Leess of the Mississippi Valley. 107 1. Absence of stratification. 2. Absence of fossils of aqueous origin. As to the absence of stratification, it is admitted on all hands that even the most typical loess, everywhere, often shows “ bed- ding planes;” which manifest themselves more or less by a tendency to terraces, or lines of more rapid erosion on the oth- erwise vertical walls. This occurs more rarely in the central regions of the loess masses; but on the peripheric ones it is not only quite frequent, but amounts in some cases to the most un- mistakable appearance of aqueous stratification. Such is the case in the leess bluffs of the Ohio in Southern Indiana, where my attention was called to it by Dr. David Dale Owen. It occurs also, though not quite so strikingly defined, along the edge of the “American Bottom” in Illinois, opposite and above St. Louis. Generally speaking, indications of stratifica- tion in the loess are more frequent as we advance from the axial and lower regions of a river valley toward the sides and eads. In the Sixth Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Minnesota, Prof. N. H. Winchell pointedly refers to the obvi- ous transition of the loess deposits into those of the newer Gla- cial period. Similarly, as stated in my Mississippi report (pp. 195, 298) and in a memoir on the Geology of Lower Louisiana (Smithson. Contr., No. 248, pp. 4 and 5), the loess of the Lower Is, then, the deposit of the Mississippi trough not a “true loess?”—I have compared it carefully, in every respect, with the descriptions given of the characteristics of the loess else- true that the drainage of the Mississippi “cane hills” has not, as a rule, cut cafions with vertical walls, but narrow V-shaped 108 =. W. Hilgard—The Leess of the Mississippi Valley. valleys between sharp-backed ridges.* But wherever vertical cuts have been made, they stand like stone walls, unaffected ut if it must be admitted that the loess of the Lower Missis- sippi is a true, typical loess, exhibiting all the lithological and structural characteristics by which that deposit is recogniz elsewhere; and that hypsometrical and stratigraphical data compel us to assume that it has here been formed under water: then the mainstay of the xolian hypothesis falls at once, for what has happened here can have happened elsewhere. Nor should it be forgotten that, if the loess does not exhibit the and the leeward regions. At least no such differences are re- ported in the United States; nor are they mentioned in the resumés of Richthofen’s views that have been published. As to the absence of almost all but terrestrial fossils, save locally where the materia] generally is more clayey, I cannot elp suspecting some connection between this fact and the so- lution and re-deposition of carbonate of lime, so constantly and rapidly going on in these deposits. The adherents of the zeolian hypothesis find no difficulty in accounting for the absence of every vestige of the vegetation which they consider as a more or less essential agent of its formation. According to them, this vegetation has left no mark but the tubes originally coat- * See Rep. on the Geology and Agriculture of Mississippi, 1860, pp. 194, 313, ff. E. W. Hilgard—The Loess of the Mississippi Valley. 109 ing the rootlets. Now it is not easy to see, how under such circumstances any shell consisting of calcic carbonate can remain undissolved. I here recall to mind my observations on the deposits of the later (Grand Gulf) Tertiary of the South- western States; where in a deposit evidently formed on the shores of the Gulf, consisting of fine-grained sandstones, clay- stones, and in some cases silts scarcely distinguishable from that of the loess period, we have such an absolute dearth of fossils that my most elaborate search in hundreds of localities, over an area nearly a hundred miles in width by two hundre sible clue to the distinction. The destructive processes are essentially dependent upon the presence and percolation of water; and this should be least in the marginal portion, where _ as a matter of fact most of the terrestrial fossils are found. Whether in addition, there is a difference as to destructibility * See my Memoir on the Geology of Lower Louisiana, and the Rock-salt De- posit of Petite Anse; Smithson. Contr., No. 248, 1872. 110 E. W. Hilgard—The Leess of the Mississippi Valley. of land- as compared with fresh-water shells, may be a question deserving investigation. That the phosphatic bones shoul always very much scattered, many bones belonging to the same individual being rarely found together, but seeming to have drifted widely apart. It is not easy to see how the cumbrous bones of the Mammoth could have been widely separated in a subaérial deposit. But I think that apart from its geological and other relations, there is intrinsic evidence in the nature of the material, contra- dictory of its xolian origin. In a paper lately published, I have drawn attention to a general distinctive feature of fine detrital aqueous deposits, viz: the necessary state of “floc- culation” in which they are deposited, so long as the water is not absolutely quiescent. Excepting only under conditions of such moisture as would preclude the possibility of conceiving the wind as an adequate cause, dust deposits cannot be in a flocculated condition, but in the very nature of the case must consist of single grains closely packed. It is true that this axiom does not seem to accord with our every-day experience; ly fixed by the calcareous incrustation, precisely as should b e case if it were an aqueous deposit; while if a wind-deposit we should expect it to be cemented bodily into a continuous, rock-like mass: I submit that this structural peculiarity ren- ders the aqueous origin of the loess extremely probable. It production of slaty cleavage by pressure impracticable; and on the other hand, I intend to ascertain by direct trial, in what manner the loess material will be deposited by an artific wind, after freeing it from the calcareous cement by digestion in weak acid ; and also, what will be the effect of pressure upo? the material so treated, in the tamped condition on the one hand, and in the floceulated on the other. 7 E. W. Hilgard—The Less of the Mississippi Valley. 111 it is from these very strata, moreover, that the largest part of the rived ormed ; as they are even in flowing water, and may be seen in 112 ©. S. Peirce—On a Method of swinging Pendulums. the “flow and plunge” structure is the rule. If it can be said (as I do not think it can) that no deposits similar to the loess are now in process of formation by lakes: neither have we at this time, any example of the accumulation of such deposits through the agency invoked by Richthofen, on any considera- le scale; although the postulated conditions exist in not a few regions. All dunes and drifted desert sands show wind- formly fine dust into the trough of the Lower Mississippi, leaving all the adjoining upland without a vestige for hundr of miles on either side: the sum-total of anomalous conditions required to sustain the eolian hypothesis partakes strongly of the marvellous. Art. X VITI.— On a method of swinging Pendulums for the deter- mination of Gravity, proposed by M. Faye; by ©. S. PEIRCE. [Read before the National Academy Academy of Sciences, April 17th, 1879, with authority of the Superintendent of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Surve: At the Stuttgart, 1878, meeting of the International Geodetic Association, M. Faye suggested a method of avoiding the flexure of a pendulum-support which promises important ad- vantages. The proposal was that two similar pendulums should be oscillated on the same support with equal amplitudes and ene phases. If the pendulums oan be made precisely ke, the amplitudes precisely equal, and the phases precisely opposite, it is obvious that the support would be continually solicited by two equal and opposite forces and would undergo no horizontal flexure, except from the distortion of the parts between the two edges. But since none of these three elements can be made equal, it is necessary to inquire what would be the effect of such slight imperfections in their equalization a5 would have to be expected in practice. bic C. &. Peirce—On a Method of swinging Pendulums. 115 I had the advantage many years ago of learning the main characteristics of the mutual influence of pendulums from Pro- fessor Benjamin Peirce. As my father’s studies of the subject were never, I believe, written out, I am unable to say definitely what I derive from that source. But the truth is the little T9,. €%. gs tT IP: d’s. 1, EP =I Pe These equations are exactly like what we have in the case of a single pendulum on a flexible support; an I have shown their correctness in my paper on that subject. There would be no difficulty in making the two pendulums so nearly alike that they might be ed as entirely so in their actions on the stand, the whole amount of which is small. Am. Jour. —— Serres, Vou. XVIIL—No. 104, Avavst, 1879. 114. C.S& Peirce—On a Method of swinging Pendulums. We may also consider the parts of the stand on which the a Pea rest as equally elastic. We may therefore take s ) as proportional to 4(g,+9,), and is, ane as pro- Social to $(9,—¢2). Denoting, then, by x and y two constants sae values will be easily détermitnble by experi- ments we hav 8,+8, geek! (P,+ ,) (2@—Y) (P,—P,) ; or 8, =LP,+YP, 8,==LD,+YP, Substitutin ng these values of s, and s, in the differential “seb a and also writing +01 for 1, and 7—al for l,, they & (-+a+ 61) 2 + yER=— 9 9, Ps (/-+-2— 61) sat y ae =—9P,. The solution of these equations is i B, ¢,, and ¢, being the arbitrary constants) iss REG OUP Jo. 50 { | g t pane) | (1) ane] | (¢ t) cestlgl katt) Ws a(S Ja +(F) onl a ied OE: dl\? g Suk eS mee F — ) oo = Vanry ot The condition that the pendulums are started by drawing them away from their positions of equilibrium and then letting them escape nearly at the same instant makes t, and ¢, nearly equal. We may reckon the time from the mean instant of Peas, Ove ee that instant we have very nearly rane @))-H( Ja) or if we write z for © batted P=—A (e+/1F2) — B (e—-/1+2). : And since the amplitudes are nearly equal and the phases nearly o * eae or Arba B= = (ty) A (24 142)+ B (e—/T 2) 8 “ : — nearl gi OO 7 z : 2 ae C. S. Peiree—On a Method of swinging Pendulums. 115 There would be no insuperable difficulty in making the pen- dulums so near alike that y should be less than y, even if the latter quantity were smaller than it would be likely to be. But it will be seen presently that care must be taken in the construction not to make y too small. + We shall have then dl 2 ft. Clay shale, blue and red, ---- - save ag na requiring 11°28. At higher temperatures, even at 697°, both “ferric and aluminum chlorides lose chlorine-—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xii, 1195, June, sige 3. On Lead tetrachloride.—Fisuer has given a eee mental evidence to prove the existence of a tetrachloride of lead. When lead dioxide is acted on by moderately strong ea paares ric acid, a yellow solution is obtained having a strong odor of chlorine, and easily decomposed by heat, evolving chlorine and depositing gobapoe lead chloride. Alkalies and alkali carbo- nates, as well as earthy oxides and ape gee a ghee ene Semneiae as also . weak acids as ones and b If no ess of hydrochloric acid is used, simple dilution with water ptente tates the dioxide. For the analysis, lead dioxide was cautiously added to twice its weight of hydrochloric acid previously diluted with an equal volume of water. After a few minutes, the yellow solution was poured off from the sak ay Hoag lead’ dichloride. Twenty c. c. of this solution was allowed to flow into a solution of sodium acetate, producing a Bat BP - lead Sosa Twenty c. ¢. was also poder buane a definite volume of ferrous sulphate of known strength, i The former mixture was then filtered into a Woulle 8 bottle, the lead dioxide on the filter washed, dried, ignited and weighed. The latter solution was titrated with per- manganate, the wee peing estimated from the amount of the ferrous salt oxidiz Assuming the analytical reactions to be PbCl,+ (H,0), PbO, + (HC), and PbCl—PbCl,+Cl,, it is evident that the lead obtained b y the first of the above processes stands to the chlorine obtained = abe second as 1:2 atoms. The exptmiontal ratios obtained were 1: 1°97, 1: 2°08, 1: 1°98, and 1:96, in several experiments; thus jee no doubt that the yellow solution examined contained a sy RR oF . ou and chlo- rine in the proportion of one lead to four chlori rine gas is passed through a solution containing lead ¢ ae in suspension. The facility of this conversion into peroxide in pres- ence of sodium acetate leads the author to propose it as a quan- titative method, using bromine in place of chlorine.— Sipe 0C., XXXV, 282, "June, 1879. G. F. B. 4, On the New Element, aes aE ak new Saas. scan- dium, discovered by Nilson, was obtained from a specimen of the yiterbia of Marignac, prepared from both LAER ES: and euxenite. order to ascertain BS tat Be pew, element exists in both minerals, or in only one of them, Cive, engaged in the investigation of the olinite Berg at the same time with Nilson, examined these especially for the new metal, and found, a 142 Scientific Intelligence. dium oxide ; hence he infers that gadolinite contains 0°02 per cent of this earth. In studying the yttric earths of rgb terse or keilhanite from Arendal, he found seandia ot plonron ere also, Three kilograms of this mineral gave him 1-2 grams of scandium — oxide, corresponding to 0°04 per cent. He is now engaged on larger quantities of the keilhauite and hopes to obtain enough material to enable him to determine the more important charac- ters of the new element, which he thinks does not ey. to the yttrium group.— Bull. Soc, Ch., Il, xxxi, 486, June, 18 5. On the Action of Bleaching Powder on Ethyl Alcohol —_ mr and GotpBEre have studied the action which goes on in the commercial process for the preparation of chloroform by dis- tilling together bleaching powder and ethyl alcohol. When a S to) i) hai “' 5 Qu ot o fa) ‘§ =. = pan "mm as mM pole $24 ~ eo ad (4°) i) Vail ie) i”) n = . al [- 5. a oe greenish yellow oil, which under the iadaence of light and hea’ decomposes almost explosively, evolving vapors of hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids. They have not succeeded in isolating this oil, but the believe it to be eth l hy ee formed by he reaction : aCl, +Ca (OCl),+(C, it OH), = +Ca(OH), 4(C.H ,(OCl)),. The residue of the distillate an aa epee consists anew 4 of alcohol and aldehyde, removable by water, and abou fa non-miscible oil, heavier than water. sei C.C. largest fraction yielded a cobethibt product polling at 154°-155°, which was monochloracetal. The highest fraction _ dichlora- cetal. The fraction from 80° to 150° gave a product constant at 77°-78° which gave the formula C,H,OCI, probably ” chlormethyl ethyl ether re i oJ. prak. Ch., Il, xix, 393, May, 1879. | ae | 6. On ane from Pinus Sabiniana,—Tuorre has submitted to iesngnation a hydrocarbon obtained by eae the exuda- tion of a Coniferous tree, Pinus sabiniana Dougl., or nut pine, tol he Sierras of California. This hydrocarbon was sribed: | in 1871 by pedi of San Francisco under the name Thro h D Dr. Squibb of — Thorpe obtained two gallons of this hysical properties fully con firmed the statements ‘of the latter. ‘It was colorless, had a sistent odor of oil of oranges, boiled slightly below 100° and a resin, which had the above odor very strongly. ote agitating the oil with ake vo anor = the acid became brown and the hydrocarbon lost boiling point, sunrected; was Chemistry and Physics. 143 found to be, 98°43° and 98°42° in two. portions. On analysis it ve 83°81 carbon, 16°05 hydrogen, while heptane C,H,, requires 114111. The specific gravity at this temperature is 0°61393 and its specific volume is 162-54, that calculated from Kopp’s values _ being 165. Its refractive index was found to be 13879 at 17°6° —1, £ > Fs 0°565; and its molecular refractive energy is 56°4, the value from for the sodium line. The specific refractive energy capl ty. 1s KnOV liquid. idee believes that this heptane is probably isomeric with that obtained from petroleum and probably identical with that fr ic acid.— J. Chem. S ma cussion of the different ways by which colors are produced ; the theory of color (that of Young); mixture of colors; comple- — colors; and an account of the many effects prod uced by 144 Scientific Intelligence. be of high value to the artist, from one who has himself the great advantage of a practical knowledge of both drawing and painting. The book is largely made up of the results of the author’s own investigations, which give it a character a. its own; and it con- tains a large number of original Spear tio 9. Color-blindness: its da gers and its eke by B. Joy Jerrries, A.M., M.D. 312 pp. 8vo. Boston, 1879. Hough Osgood & Co.).—The subject of Color-blindness is one of not only very general interest, but ofa high degree of practical. rtance, since many accidents on re and sea have resulted tions, and the eats ‘a are ontained in this volume. It contains also a Hachaddin of the whole subject, with particular instructions in regard to the use of Holmgren’s method of testing for color- blindness. In his general eh ae Dr. Jeffries states that :— one male in twenty ive is color-blind in a greater or less degree, though he may be self unconscious of the defect ; moreover, though sometimes cau diasll temporarily or permanen ntly by disease or injury, it is largely hereditary, and in that case 1s incurable, recommends that rigid and uniform proof of soundness of vision should be required of every employé in the railway or rvice. 0. Friction and Lubrication: determinations of the laws and coficients of friction by new methods and with new apparatus ; R, H. Tuurston, A.M., C.E. 212 pp. 8vo. New York, 1879. determination of the laws and coefficients of friction, The wor —, be of much value to the mechanical engineer. a. Apparate fir popes caine: gage Schule und Deracie g, gesammelt von M. Ta. EpEtmann Lieferung, 96 pp- aR “Stuttgart, 1879 (Meyer & Zeller’s Verlag). —This work is to be complete in three parts, of which the first is now issued. It contains descriptions of the newest and most a appa ratus, designed either for instruction in the lecture room, or for actual scientific investigations. The scope of the work is a wide one, and it will be found useful by physicists, chemists, physiolo- astronomers, and those working in a ah ot _ hapa of science. The cay ae are full and precise any cases are accompani - illustrations hich - - increase the value of af the work. ae . i m : Geology and Mineralogy. 145 II. GroLtoagy AND MINERALOGY. 1, Zhe Pte hel tea Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of Californ by J. D. Wartn Vol. vi, No. 1 (ist Part) of the Menoray of volume belongs strictly to the series of Reports of the Geological aa of California, of which Professor “ca was Director; his es necessary because these were made out ‘of the earlier rocks, and owe their Bron and wonderful extent to the considering the many peculiatitiel in the mountains an strata set forth, these pages have no less interest to the geologist than those which follow. Only the more prominent peculiarities of the Sierra Nevada are here cite (1) Its singleness of mass, unlike the Coast Range and Peal i which consist of many prominent ridges. 5) we above the sea-le vel, but none quite ee 15, 000 fet st oa ose between the parallels of 36° and 37° 30’. a gree idening southward, granite making nearly the whole of a mass north of the Tahichipi Pass almost to Mariposa Co aunty, but north of this narrowing, and the schists (clay-slate, mica schist, chloritic and diabase schists, with so: entine estone, mostly of Triassic and Jurassic age, id nothing alee than Carboniferous), constituting much of the range Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Serres, Vor. XVII.—No, 104, Aveust, 1879. 10 146 Scientific Intelligence. on the west side; while north of American River they constitute nearly the whole width, only occasional areas of granite occurrin along the crest and on the eastern slope; and little of the granite gneissoid. 7) Its outflow of igneous rocks, which spread over the gravel deposits of much of the western slope in the several counties from Mariposa to Plumas, increase in extent in Butte and Plumas Counties, and cover nearly the whole of the surface north of southward to that where granite is the chief rock. El Dorado, Placer and Nevada are the great mining counties. In the granitic and extensively worn away by erosion.” At present, the rivers and gorges are cut to a depth of many hundreds of feet below the surface either side. Starting from the foot-hills, the level of the surface between the streams rises much faster than the beds of the streams, so that when up 3,000 to 4,000 feet, the cuts are in many cases 1,000 to 2,000 feet deep. Further, there is a great difference between the level of the present beds and those of the era in which the gravels were deposited ; this difference being 1,800 feet in the Middle Fork of American River at Michigan Bluff, 1,300 feet at Iowa Hill, on the divide south of the North Fork of the American. These cafions increase in depth to the north of the South Yuba: the difference of level between the Middle Fork of Feather River at Nelson’s Point and the summit of the lava-bed of Pilot Peak which overlies the gravel being fully 3,650 feet; between the top of Mount Clermont, which is topped with gravel, and the valley at its base, 3,750 feet ; between the top of Spahish Peak, which is capped with lava and gravel, and the valley of American River, 3,800 feet. “An excellent idea of the topography of the hydraulic mining egion is got by the traveler passing over the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, in descending the slope of the Sierra. After passing Blue Cafion, the slates begin to be met with, and all along below this, especially in the neighborhood of Dutch Flat, and b t for several miles, the road passes through 2 region of hydraulic mines, keeping on what seems to be a broad Geology and Mineralogy. ae plateau, which has an elevation of a little over 3,000 feet above the sea-level. Suddenly, just before reaching Colfax, a sharp bend in the line, at a place called Cape Horn ened the road bed just on to the edge.o of the cafion of the North Fork of the Ameri- ean, down into and along which there is an ee rete view for eight o or ten miles, the bottom of the cafion being about 1,600 feet below the level of the road. The effect of the scene aye to e course of the old channels are pes partially Bony sc energy where it would cae nthe y olume gives a detailed account of observations on the gravel daposita and hit bed-rock made for ae ara maps of the areas of eee and d grave se of i ial interest we here one of the sections of the bac. or Tuolumne County, “Table coor aenenen from Plate mn Ty) A A A Alli ac _ a tl _ a a um . cn omnes a ( eer Me “rim” of the old channel; and a tunnel (¢) is represented hrough this rim to the gold-bearing gravels, a common m erg of search, though attended with large expense and not always successful. 148 Scientific Intelligence. A notice of the fossils of the — els, including its Human vere is deferred to another num 2. Richthofen’s Theory of the Some, in the light of the Deposits of th ri; by J. E. Topp, of Tabor, Iowa.—This memoir, read before the last —e of the American grin er se is a small size of the Limneas and absen of Papese in the latitude feet. Tertiary in Massachusetts Bay.—Many fossiliferous bowl- ders have sioch found by Mr. Warren Upnam, as reported by ir. W. O. Cro a, o bly A. actinchite Morton, a Plicatula near P. 2 aap osa Conrad, of the Alabama Eocene, ‘beans several other s see of shells, and remains inoderms and a = apa coral, Mr. Crosby concludes that the Tertiary formation, which was the source of these fossils, now forms the floor of our Bay somewhere to the northward of Cape Cod. These facts derive additional interest from a com n with those announced by Professor Verrill, in the number of eR Journal for ree last, with regard to submarine Tertiary along George’s and Grand Bank. The species found are rey different 4, Report of Progress in the Juniata District on the Fossil Tron Ore-beds of Middle Pennytoania, by Joun H. Dewees; d East hs cu Prof, L ey Director of the Survey ving a pole sketch -— the formations ia which iron-bearin a s occur, the Marcellus. reellus, Mr. Dewees presents pikes teams Aches el dowels of the stratification, Excellent sections of the folded rocks are given Geology and Mineralogy. 149 in an Appendix to the Report. The former is on a plan wo hy of imitation. Mr. Ashburner places on the labels of his speci- mens (besides the geographical position) the number of the stra- um, the distance in feet from the lower limit of the same, and also the dip of the beds; so that any future investigator will be of a grayish white bedded limestone, containing occasional | debris is now forming from such a cau any other, Besides these s breccias or conglomerates there are also bone-breccias In caves and fissures. The famous bone-brece occupies a vertical fissure of erosion in the above-described sur- i e cave. The promontory bears evidence of different sea-levels in terraces or platforms cut in the solid rock, surmounted sometimes by cal- on the southern portion of the promontory ; it extends from west to east for 1650 feet, and it averages 115 feet above the sea-level, though sloping up from 90 feet to 150 feet. It appears also at other points. The calcareous conglomerate over it contains some 150 Seventific Intelligence. 170 feet an oyster-bed was formerly visible. mong the species of Mammals identified by Messrs. Busk and given as follows: (1.) Great unfossiliferous limestone-agglomerate of Buena Vista, ete—Land o greater extent than now; winters very cold; Gibraltar apparently not tenanted by the Quaternary Mammalia, (2.) Caves and fissures with bone-breccia.—Land of greater extent than now; Europe and Africa united; climate genial; immigration of the African Mammalia. 3.) Platforms or terraces of marine erosion (in part), cal- 0 eet below present level; movement interrupted by pauses of longer or shorter duration; climate apparently much the same as now. (4.) Platforms of marine erosion (in part); Alameda Sands; Sormation of sand-slopes on east coast, as at Monkey’s Cave; mammalian remains under beach or later limestone-agglomerate (perhaps cave-deposits in 2 dams cag land of greater extent than now (Africa and Europe perhaps reunited) ; climate probably genial. (5.) dite limestone-agglomerates resting upon and obscuring erosion-terraces and sand-slopes, ete. — Geographical conditions probably same as during part of 4; winter considerably more severe than now. fi ha The present.—Characterized by the absence of the action ot frost. 6. iques de Géologie Expérimental, par A. Davsrk, Membre de L’Institut, Inspecteur Général des Mines, iére Partie, A these results in full, and, in addition, those Geology and Mineralogy. 151 of Roman coins at the Warm Springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains, and also of similar formations at some other localities; and, aft stating the facts, the chemistry of the phenomena and the geo- logical inferences from the facts are learnedly presented. rotessor Daubrée’s next subject is Experimental illustrations of d Und the origin of metamorphic and eruptive rocks. er this head , 8 with mechanical problems: (1) the making of sand-beds and rae ag of heat in rocks by mechanical methods. All the modes of experi- Science of ology ; moreover it is made highly attractive by its — _ publication and the beauty of its illustrations, — . Nov., had a total thickness of 6524 feet, the Upper Greensand 28 feet, the Gault 160 feet. Below this was a bed three to four feet thick of phosphatic nodules and quartz pebbles; and then a calcareous Stratum, more or less sandy, and part of it oolitic, sixty-four feet thick, which was shown by its fossils to represent the Lower 8, having a dip of 35 se five feet; they afforded the fossils Spirifer disjuncta, Khyn- chonella cuboides, and other Devonian species. The rocks \ 152 Scientific Intelligence. resemble those of Pernes, near Bethune, where the chalk rests on the upturned Devonian. Professor Prestwich attributes the calcareous character of the Lower Greensand to the Paleozoic limestones on which it rests. 8. Fossils of the Utica Slate and Metamorphoses of Triarthrus Becki, by C.D. Watcotr. Trans. Albany Institute, June, 1879. after remarks on the Hudson River Group, and then gives, with much detail, an account of the synonym and metamorphoses of 7riarthrus Becki which is illustrated by sixteen figures. The smallest individual of the species described and figured has only one thoracic segment and a length of but 1°125 mm., and the largest a length of 53 mm. In the former the ygidium is very nearly as long as the head segment, and in the latter it is one-third as long. The memoir closes with a table of Utica slate fossils showing their stratigraphical range. New Calciferous fossils from Saratoga County, New York. —Mr. C. D. Walcott has described as new the following species: Platyceras minutissimum, Metoptoma cornutiforme ; Condeepie alites caleiferus, C. Hartii, Ptychaspis speciosus. Bathyurus armatus of Billings (from the Quebee group), or a form closely related, also occurs in the beds.—32nd Ann. Rep. N. Y. Mus. Nat. Hist. 10. Fossil wood related to Cypress from Calistoga, California. —-H. Conwentz, of Breslau, has published in the Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie, ete., for 1878, a description, with microscopic sections, of a fossil wood from Calistoga, which he has named Cupressi- noxylon taxodioides. ll. Hr dbeben-Studien von R. Harnes.—After a general discus- great mountain chain, earthquakes take place along periphe lines of fracture which are shown by the progression of the points of shock. These disturbances seem to be produced by the sink- chain, radial lines, coinciding with c on which severe earthquakes often occur. These radial lines very probably are to 1 part as the boundaries of masses occasionally 1n- awn, since the Geology and Mineralogy. 153 boundary of a region of depression is very irregular; moreover the continuation of the cross-fracture not unfrequently coincides with the longitudinal fractures, and vice versa, (5) The connec- tion of the seismical lines of different dynamical value is most readily explained by the assumption that a portion of the earth’s crust gives its motion to another, and this makes itself felt by the shakings along the course of a fracture.—Jahrb. k. k. geol. Keich- D 87, 1878. E. S. D. 12. Examination of the North Carolina Uranium minerals ; by F. A. Gentu (American Chemical Journal, vol. i, p. 87).— Professor W. C. Kerr (this Journal, III, xiv, 496, Dec., 1877). As stated by him, occur as irregular nodules and rounded the minerals to a thorough chemical examination, and in the main h : surrounding this is an orange-colored mineral, gummite; an mineral, identified by Dr. Genth as _uranotil. Che uraninite in too small a quantity to allow of its being analyzed three analyses gave :— UO, AIO, PbO BaO SrO CaO Si0; P,0, H,0 nian pesseeneic? 75°20 053 657 1°08 9-05 4°63 0°12 10°54=99°72. Dr. Genth regards the gummite as a mechanical mixture of :— Uranium hydrate = H.(U02)02 4+H,0 = 4010 p.c Uranotil ~ = Cas(UO2)sSieO21 + 18H.O = 33°38 p. c. Lead ate = Pb(T02)20s + 6H,O = 22°66 p. ©. Barium uranate = Ba(UO,).0;+6H,0 = 4°26 p.c. 100°40. _._The pale yellow coating surrounding the gummite has been identified by Dr. Genth as prekolt a mineral originally described rolina it is amorphous, compact ; hardness = 2°5; specific gravity 3°834; color pale straw-yellow to lemon-yellow ; luster waxy to dull. The mean of two analyses gave :— SiO. Al10,(¥F10,) UO, PbO BaO SrO CaO P20s H,0 13°75 . ’ 66°67 0°60 0°28 O13 667 0°29 12°02=99-43 te rectangular scales with pearly luster were distinguls 154 Scientific Intelligence. Color deep . aoa analysis gave: P.O, 11°30, UO, 71°73, PbO 4:40, H,O 10°48=97°91. The lead is regarded as being present as soactone f Roth = deducted the result becomes: P.O; 12 a UO, 76°71, H.O1 =100. The formula obtained = (00), P “a 0, +6H1,0, wildy: Sauer! P,O, 12°75, sae. i 56, III. Borany anp Zoouoey. Report upon U. 8. Geographical Surveys mea of the 100th Meridien, in charge of First Lieut. Gzo. M. Wuxenter, Corps of Engineers, U.S. A., ete. Vol. vi ‘Botany > by J. : T. Roriro OCK, etc. 1878.—We have been prevented from ae an earlier indicate. The title gives the year 1878, but the volume, —- slowly through the press, was complete ted and issued in May, 1879, and it ‘should bear that date. The collections reported on were made during the years 1871 a 1875 inclusive, in Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona; also in the southern part of California. But the Californian portion of this report is reduced to a catalogue in an appendix. It furnishes, however, one of the most Pua of the figures, that of the curious Lower California. But th 5 mecctavias were not communicated to is Aes in any way made known, until after those of Dr. Palme d been received ae described. ge Pe volume contains 414 pages, 4to, and 30 plates, besides a es. onthe lee Ps color, giving a view of a “gro ove’ (if it may be e giant Cactus, Cereus giganteus. alo n the general report. This general report, of fifty pages, is 4 nicet interesting and important portion of the volume. From 1t, if space and time allowed, we should make ample extracts ; for it deals with attractive and practical questions in hic and ‘Gig w way. There is first, a sketch of the Colorado District, its character, climate and phytological features, also its agricul Dannie wh and its timber. Then, of New Mexico and the Arizona » which is te ee treated in a similar a bo way; Botany and Zoology. 155 worked up by special collaborators; as, the Zeguminose by Wat- son, the Cactacew ngelmann, who has also contributed other of his favorite orders, Asclepiadew, Gentianacew, Euphorbiacee, Cupulifere, Loranthacee and Conifere ; while Professor Porter has done the Scrophuluriace, Labiate, Polemoniacew, Polygona- cee, etc.; Dr. Vasey, the Grasses, Professor Eaton, the Ferns, which ography at variance with the rest of the volume; Mr. James, the Moses Mr. Austin, the a 3 * in some respects discouraging, but with excellent results. rgy and perseverance to carry on such work A. G. 2. The Flora of British India.—Part VI carries the second volume of this standard work from the Myrtacew a Bey 2 and edited by Reichenbach, having appe promised. The Orchids illustrated are all tropical. - Ge 4. Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiii, part 2. 1878.—The more interesting articles in this volume are: 1, Professor Balfour’s notes of a Continental 156 _ Scientific Intelligence. The Journal “ the Linnean Society: Botany, vol. x Fone parts of this volume have appeared, the latest = Fc in May, 1879. The more notable seca are the follow Exper net on ag Nutrition of Drosera none by Francis Darwin. The conclusions reached have become familiar through abietachs deittibea at the time of the experiments. The paper is preface a summary of the various and most diverse opinions se oe upon the question whether the leaves of Drosera and Dionca can absorb animal matter, and whether, if they do, ay advantage to the plant results. The affirmative is clearly made out by well-devised experiment; yet, “it may be pointed out that this advantage of ~ Sie Drosera i sag is one which would escape the notice of a casual obser A post- arg “oe refers to the full confirmation of his veacilte iy th he researches , Kellermann and Raumer, published in the Botanische Zeitang. Observations on the Genus Pandanus (the Screw-Pines), by Dr. Isaac Bayley Balfour. This paper is prefatory to a full mono- graph of Pandanew, which this m aa pr omising botanist has undertaken, after a study of ron of its isle bags tar in 4 living state and iv their habitats. We ma y hope that. his timely call to the botanical chair at the University of Glaagow will nals increased facilities for this kind of wor Professor Balfour (fil has examined at Paris the materials on which Gaudichaud founded thirteen new genera, and he reduces them all to Pandanus, along with two genera added b y DeVriese. Notes on the eh wa Tree (Bassia latifolia), by E. Lockwood. A tree of India, argely planted in Bengal, and which “may be called a fount o G Pod, wine and oil, to the inhabitants of the country in oe It is the corolla of this tree which is eaten as 3 food and Picex ver a spirit is distilled. h ssed. vytows oo of Hapoudicak. by Rs or a fifty-one species are characterized: the three related genera give a dozen more Observations on Hemileia vastatrix, the so-called Coffeeleaf Disease, by the Rev. R. Abbay. With two plates, containing five illustrations of the ee. Notes on Euphorbiacec, b George Bentham. An account of The si bea ice in sic the sag ama esas ou aged Botany and Zoology. 157 5 ® 4 jude oe Eh 5 Ru pac’ bee es = oO is 2] me S 10 |) ct ° ° on m fe") ™ eat Lae) co 2 fy oO = — tances. ote on Genus Oudneya Brown, by Dr. Henry Trimen. The accidental discovery of Brown had tucked away, has brought to light the plant upon ? 0 Superseded by the imperfectly and by implication erroneously described genus, which was = i confused phyton) would probably remain undisturbed. The question may be settled by enquiring what course the authors of the Genera PI tarum i 0 3 genus by finding his specimen. We suppose they would have adopted the ohige sie of Oudneya; and if so, it may claim to bea now. A. G. issections illustrative of the typical Genera of 6. Floral Diss the British Natural Orders, Lithographed by the Rev. GroreE Henstow, Lecturer on Botany at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, &c. 158 Miscellaneous Intelligence. classes in _ United States 7. Decease of Botanists.—The mortality among botanist pe ing the first half of ‘be: year 1879 is remarkable. Among the deceased are the venerable Reichenbach, Itzigsohn, ire Bueck a made the Calera index), Wes conten (ine : D * v= 1 st}. eeecy et =n pa siege saat of his life in Abysnia), uetlell Karl pom Moore of Glasnevin, besides our own Bigelow ow and Robbin 4 8. armen, es of Amblychila saphena Soy C. F. Gisster. This carefully prepared memoir is published in volume II of Psyche, the number for May-Jun 187 9. It is illus- trated by one plate, well executed on stone by ‘the author. IV. MIscELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Preliminary Note on the geese psd which produce the Chro- mospheric Lines; by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.—Hitherto, when observations have been ate of the lines visible in the sun’s chromosphere, by means of the method introduced by Janssen and myself in 1868, the idea has been that we witness in solar storms the ejection of vapors of metallic elements with which we are familiar from the photosphere A preliminary discussion of the vast store of observations recorded by the Italian astronomers (chief among them Professor Tacchini), Professor Young and myself, has shown me that this a almost all cases what I have elsewhere termed and ence as basic lines; of these I only need for the present refer t following :— 2 ascribed by Angstrm and Kirchoff to iron and nickel to magnesium and iron. nae by Angstrim to gated and iron. 5269 calcium and iron. 5235 2S abla and iron, 5017 “ ... *© nickel. 4215.“ * calcium, but to strontium by — 5416 an —— line. dissociation at the p sara thacoge level, and association at higher levels. In this way the vertical currents in the solar atmosphere, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 both ascending and eb agp intense absorption in sun-spot their sig arian ith the faculz, and the apparently pes spectrum of the corona and ite structure, find an easy solution. We are yet as far as ever from a demonstration of the cause of the variation in the ee Fankseh of the sun; but the excess of so-called calcium with minimum sun-spots, fe, excess of so-calle yre. f it be conceded that the far of these lines in ‘the chro- mosphere indicates the existence of basic molecules in the sun, it follows that as these lines are also seen generally in the spectra of two different metals in the electric arc, we must be dealing with the bases in the are also. rabie Scientific Journal.— The first number of a Scientific Monthly Journal in Arabic, has been recently issued at pert n Syria. It is published by Sh, Makarius & Company of that cit 3. Bulletino del Hulomnigns Italiano ; Professor M. 8. Roast. Roma, 1878, — years ago Cay. Michele Rout mi pietts vatories, including that of the Solfatara at Pazzuoli, and of the earthqu ake whi ch was felt at Fiulmalbo, Florence, and Rocea di apa. There are letters on the application of the peas to Seismological studies, from Professor di Rossi and Count G, Mo- cenigo; and the Umbrian earthquake of September, 1878, is de- scribed by Professor A, Ricci. Silvestri gives an account "of the mud eruption which er out on the sides of Etna near Paterno in December; and Palmieri continues his “ Cronaca Vesuviana” to the end of September, 1878, An exact account of the time of s e€ ne at a glance the daily distribution of earthquakes throughout - lat dy re — the fundamental fact of the microphone. He o t 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Rossi concludes that these unknown _pertur sseocen re arose from microseismic oscillations of the soil. He communicated his views to Count Mocenigo, who at once commenced ciperiniaidal in t ground, at a distance from habitations and from roads. It was which the seers had been the mi a © preparatio The microphone was afterward transported the observatory on Vesuvius, and it was then possible to trace the precise correspond- ence between the movements of the seismograph and the sounds of the microphone. The above is condensed from G. F. Rodwell, omer ee borane which become audible through the microphone db Thus, they might be produce mh) The explosion of bubbles made by the esca ing vapors, which in the case of viscid lavas would require considerable inter- nal pressure before rupture. 3) The sudden production or condensation of vapors. The more general condition of stress produced in the earth’s crust, resulting in more or less yielding along lines of least resis- tance, The premonitory sounds heard in the microphone ay with scp siege nates arent agp class. c. G. B AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XXVI.—The Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds ; by Asa GRAY. A WEED is defined by the dictionaries to be “ Any useless or troublesome plant.” ‘EH ent possession of soil used for man’s purposes, irrespective of his will; and, in accordance with usage, we may restrict the term to herbs. This excludes predominant indigenous plants occupying ground in a state oF nature. Such become weeds when the i ly intrude into cultivated fields, meadows, pastures, or the ground around dwellings. Many are unat- tractive, but not a few are ornamental; many are injurious, but some are truly useful. White Clover is an instance of the latter. Bur Clover (Medicago denticulata) is in California very valuable as food for cattle and sheep, and sir Pg Cece by € damage which the burs cause to wool. the United States, and perhaps in most parts of the world, a large majority of the weeds are introduced plants, brought into the country Am. Jour. ee panies, Vou. XVIIL—No. 105, Szpr., 1879. phe daies ec 162 A. Gray—Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds. directly or indirectly by man. Some—such as Dandelion, Yarrow, and probably the common Plantain and the common Purslane—are importations as weeds, although the species nat- urally occupy some part of the country. y weeds are so pertinacious and aggressive, is too large and loose a question: for any herb whatever when successfully aggressive becomes a weed; and the reasons of predominance may be almost as diverse as the weeds themselves. But we may enquire, whether weeds have any common characteristic which may give them advantage, and why the greater part of the weeds of the United States, and probably of similar tem- perate countries, should be foreigners. As to the second question, this is strikingly the case through- out the Atlantic side of temperate North America, in which the weeds have mainly come from Europe; but it is not so, or hardly so, west of the Mississippi in the region of prairies and plains. So that the answer we are accustomed to give Europe; and in the next place, we suppose that most of the herbs in question never were indigenous to the originally forest- covered regions of the Old World; but rather, as western and northern Europe became agricultural and pastoral, these plants came with the husbandmen and the flocks, or followed them, from the woodless or sparsely wooded regions farther east where they originated. This, however, will not hold for some of them, such as Dandelion, Yarrow, and Ox-eye Daisy. It may be said that our weeds might have come to a considerable extent from the bordering more open districts on the west and south. But there was little opportunity until recently, as the settle- ment of the country began on the eastern border; yet a certalp number of our weeds appear to have been thus derived: for instance, Mollugo verticillata, Erigeron Canadense, Xanthium, Ambrosia artemisvefolia, Verbena hastata, V. urticifolia, etc. ica peregrina, Solanum Carolinense, various species of a region and beyond—especially by rail-roads—other plants are 1e Eastern States as weeds, step by step, by a A. Gray—Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds. 163 ricaria discoidea, Artemisia biennis. Fifty years ago Rudbeckia hirta, which flourished from the Alleghanies westward, was unknown farther east. Now, since twent ars, it i changed conditions. These are some of the instances which may show that predominance is not in consequence of change 0 ently contributed to the Third Report of the Montreal Horcen tee a SB =~ — ow ~I - (es) _~ 2 B os’ | eg = lox | 7 er mee ar 0g fy ~n i) i} = 2) i=] oe o 3g ° o ° American weeds to invade Europe. e have offered a fairly good explanation.of the first. And Professor Claypole goes ie oa (or formerly was) main! brought from the Old World to the New, and the same may be said of cattle and other emigration ; that the cooler and shorter summer of the north of Europe renders the ripening of some seed recarious, etc. He does not mention the fact that American plants by chance reaching 164 A. Gray—Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds. Europe have to compete with a vegetable world in comparatively stable equilibrium of its species, while European weeds coming —or which formerly eame—to the United States found the course of nature disturbed by man and new-made fields for which they could compete with advantage. But his ingenious hypothesis is that weeds have a peculiarly “plastic nature, one capable of being moulded by and to the new surroundings,” by which the plant “ere long adapts itself, if the change is not too great or sudden, to its new situation, takes out a new lease of life, and continues in the strictest sense a weed ;” “that the plants of the European flora possess more of this plasticity, are less unyielding in their constitution, can adapt themselves oe more oft or aap it succeeds in the New World while the less adaptable American flora fails in the i World.” So far as we know, the greater plasticity of European as bora nes with sites ee plants is purely hypethetcal ‘More an h Hearvachs is hardly necessary for the probable bennantion of the Aeggreet oy of Old World weeds in the Atlantic Dnited Mr. Henlow, in his remarkable memoir, On the Self-Fertili- zation of Plants (which we reviewed in the June number 0 this Journal) — from different but equally thooreicel premises an opposite Bas seb —namely, that se > } intrusive and dominant plants in general, and of grea . grating capabilities, ave se a longer an neestral life. ifeears ne their less aggressive fekativiens” He also maintains that re and oop = ae for domination in the manner of wee possess a n characteristic to which this dominance may be suribated, ‘ately that they are in general self-fertilized - A. Gray—Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds. 165 advantageous unless cross-fertilization brings some compensa- tory advantage greater on the whole than that of immediate sureness to fertilize. 8 species in italic type, are probably indigenous to some portions of In’ some cases the introduced and the indigenous plants have come into contact. 166 A. Gray—Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds. oe ge 2s 8 Cirsium lanceolatum. Lappa officinalis. Cichorium In bus Leontodon autumnale, m Dens-leonis. erbascum Blattaria. inaria vulgaris. Mentha viridis. Mentha soit Polygonum aviculare. Polygonum Convolvulus. Penis crispus Rum sanguin ine Rumer asetonelta! m vineale. ies: pret: Phleum praten pede madgars Agros Dactyis flomersia Poa Poa hereme Calamintha Nepe a pratensis Genista tinctoria. falamintha Clinpodiam. Poa trivialis Trifolium arvens repeta Cata Eragrostis poseoides. Trifolium agrarium epeta Pe ce Festuca ovina. Trifolium repens ium re Festuca pratensis. Daucus Carota aleopsis Tetrahit. 3romus secalin Pastinaca sa ] urus Cardi olium perenne. Conium maculatum ium amplexicaule mr Tussilago Farfara. ichium vulgare. tt anin ula Helenium. mphytum officinale. Anthoxanthum odoratum. nag Bre Memes Echinospermum Lappu Panicum glabrum. Anthemi: ynoglossum officinale Panicum sanguinale eg ee Vile Solanum nigru tcum Crus-gall: F podium a Setaria glauca. Chenopodium hybridum. Setaria viridis. Tevesntienam n vulgare, Cirs Chenopodium Botrys. The plants of es list, I a as weeds, are of very various character; and sev such as White Clover and most of the e grasses, wher is most doniiniars do not fall under the ordi- as definition of weeds at all, but under that of" plants useful to the farmer. Some, like Purslane, are only garden-weeds; some belong to pastures ‘isa meadows; others affect road-sides. The fewness of European corn-weeds is remarkable. Chess and Corn-cockle (Lychnis Githago) are the only ones on the list. Corn Poppy, Blue-bottle and Knapweed (Centaurea Oyanus and C. nigra) and Larkspur are conspicuously wanting; but the last are not wholly unknown in some parts of the country. But the only aig before us is, whether these plants intro- duced com Europe or are not self-fertilized, or more habitually so than oitbietes so that this may be accounted an . of prey redominance. Apparently this “question t be answered in the negative. The question is not ghether they are self fertilizable. The great pr ohes A of plants are so, even of those specially adapted for intererossing. The its of this list appear to belong to the juste ilies Only one (Rumex Acetoseila) is completely dicecious ; a few are incom- at dicecious or polygamous ; ; the two species of Plantago are us to the extent of nt dioicism or monoicism ; a 0 lege number of the corolline species are either proterandrous ‘oterogynous, including two or three anemophilous species, A. Gray—Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds. 167 plexicaule, which also cross-fertilizes freely. n California the prevalent weeds are largely different from mostly of indigenous species or immigrants from South America; yet the common weeds of the Old World, especially of Southern Europe, are coming in. The well-established and aggressive ones, such as Brassica nigra, Silene Galliea, Hrodium cicutarium, Malva borealis, Medicago denivculata, Marrubium vul- gare and Avena sterilis, were perbaps introduced by way of Western South America. They are mostly plants capable of self-fertilization, but also with adaptations (of dichogamy and otherwise) which must secure occasional crossing. We cannot avoid the conclusion that self-fertilization is A cursory examination brings us to a similar conclusion as respects the indigenous weeds of the Atlantic States, those herbs which under new conditions, have propagated most abundantly and rapidly, and competed most successfully in — the strife for the possession of fields that have taken the place of forest. The most aggressive of these in the Northern Asters and Golden-rods, all insect-visited and dichogamous, and Verbena hastata, urticafolia, etc., the frequent natural hybrid- ization of which testifies to habitual intercrossing. pose that only conspicuous 0 odorous flowers ul how bees throng the blossoms of Ampelopsis or 168 E. W. Morley— Oxygen in the Air. Art, XXVII.—On a possible cause of variation in the proportion of Oxygen in the Air; by Epw. W. Mortey, M.D ., PH.D. Professor of Chemistry in Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio. Proressor Loomis has proposed the theory that certain great and sudden depressions of temperature at the surface o the earth are caused, not by the transfer of cold air from higher to lower latitudes, but by the vertical descent of air from cold elevated parts of the atmosphere. The evidence supporting this theory was published in this Journal in January and July, 1875. It occurred to the writer some time since that if this theory were true, as the evidence makes very probable, the air at the surface of the earth during such a great and sudden depression of temperature might well contain a smaller propor- tion of oxygen than the average. Dalton, reasoning from the fact that oxygen has a greater specific gravity than nitrogen, argued that the proportion of oxygen to nitrogen in the atmo- sphere should decrease with increasing altitude above the earth’s surface; whether he clearly enough recognized that such a regular decrease would be realized only in an atmo- sphere in a state of equilibrium undisturbed by convection currents, the writer does not know, not having seen Dalton’s memoir. Such a decrease of atmospheric oxygen with increas- ing altitude has not yet been detected by analysis, although the amount of decrease, on the theory that oxygen and nitrogen are distributed in the atmosphere according to the law which would prevail in case of equilibrium, is so rapid that it would be detected with ease, even in altitudes attained in every holi- day ascent of a balloon. This decrease may be calculated from the formula R=R,0-9832960 ®, where H denotes the height above the earth’s surface expressed in kilometers, Ry denotes the ratio of the tension of oxygen to that of nitrogen at the surface of the earth, and R denotes the same ratio for the height H. The constant. is computed from the determinations by Regnault of the weights of a litre of oxygen and of nitro- gen, and of the specific gravity of mercury. The following table gives in the second column the ratio of the tension of oxygen to that of nitrogen at the height in kilometers given 1n _the first column, and the per cent of oxygen at the same height in the third column. The per centage of oxygen at the _ earth’s surface assumed in the table is that used in the tables for gas analysis in Bunsen’s Gasometrische Methoden. _ It will be seen that the composition here calculated for a height of a single kilometer isso different from that at the sur- face that analysis of no very refined accuracy would detect the E. W. Morley— Oxygen in the Air. 169 variation with ease. But no such variation has been detected even in samples of air collected at the greatest elevations attainable. mph Bao of O | Per cent of O. Fr ivirye Beta Aad O | Per cent of O. 0 26°52 ¢ 20°96 % 10 22°41 g 18°31 ¢ 1 26°08 20°68 20 18°93 15°92 2 64 20°41 30 16°00 13°79 3 95°21 20°14 40 13°62 11°91 4 24°79 19°87 50 11°42 10°25 5 24°38 19°60 60 9°65 8-80 6 23°97 19°34 70 8:16 J 23°57 19°07 80 6°89 6°45 8 23°18 18°82 90 5°82 5°50 9 22-19 18°56 100 4°92 4°69 But although this is the case, it is certain that in the atmo- sphere of the same place at different times the oxygen varies by more than one-fortieth of its average amount. Variations so large as this are rare, but variations of the one-hundredth or two-hundredth part are common, It therefore seemed to the writer proper to examine whether facts bear out the conjecture that certain great and sudden local depressions of temperature are caused by the descent of cold air from the upper part of the atmosphere, and that such air may by its poverty in oxygen throw some light on a question in meteorology and a question concerning the physics of a mixture of different gases. the number of Wiedemann’s Annalen for April of the current year, Jolly has published the results of numerous and Very accurate analyses of atmospheric air. He asserts a con- On the writer's theory, a sample of air collected at the center an area covered by a descending current of cold air woul 170 E. W. Morley— Oxygen in the Air. The writer hopes to make arrangements for the regular col- lection of samples at points which Professor Loomis has indi- cated as regions of frequent descent of cold air from great the same purpose. The pressure and eudiometer tubes are surrounded by a stream of water entering at the top of the E. W. Morley—Oxygen in the Aw. 171 tube; these last meet the glass tubes and are connected wit them by short tubes of patent black rubber containing no free sulphur. The connectors are tied so as to endure the pressure of mercury having a head of several feet, and are surrounded with mercury so as to be absolutely air-tight. The plug of the iron stop-cock is also so surrounded with mercury that the. entrance of air is absolutely impossible, and the same precau- tion was taken at the junction of the two small iron tubes with the horizontal tube. The cast iron of this tube and stop-cock is well japanned, and no leakage through its pores has occurred. Such an adjustment can be accurately made by admitting fits the pressure tube and the rest of the apparatus. The mercury in the pressure tube is, by the use of this valve, always kept at such a height shinit any possible leakage 1S that of mercury Outward, and not of air inward. # 172 E. W. Morley— Oxygen in the Arr. therefore constant. When the writer planned to make analyses of air in order to detect if possible some law in its variations of composition, he expected to have to do with quantities but little larger than the errors of observations. Some thought was therefore given to the methods of keeping such errors as small as possible. puted the comparative accuracy of ana of air made with the long eudiometer of Bunsen’s experiments, and with the apparatus used in the present work. e first analysis by analysis quoted from Bunsen. E. W. Morley— Oxygen in the Air. 173 n urement with the apparatus. If we treat the second and third measurement in the same way, and compute the effect of these three probable errors on the final result, we get the numbers in the second column of the following table. Probable errors of measurements of gas, and of final results, occasioned by a probable error of the tenth of a miilimeter in each reading. In Analysis With Frankland cited from Bunsen. and Ward apparatus. 0-046 % Tn measurement of air taken ---- - pe In measurement of air and hydrogen 0°050 In measurement after explosion -- .- 0°039 0°031 Probable error of result _....-...-- 0-051 0-038 _ It is obvious that with the same error probable in each read- ing, the use of the rapidly working apparatus involves no ve sacrifice of accuracy to convenience, as far as the conditions of observation are concerned. ad ‘B fae) 4 & 5 (a9) o . 8 1 o 4. > Fe A far) @ sn times more accurate than Bunsen’s, five places of logarithms distinguish smaller differences t servation deals with ; five places permit instant interpolation for hundredths of a 174 E. W. Morley—Oxygen in the Air. degree, and a greater number waste time and possess no advan- tage whatever. The eudiometer was calibrated by filling it with air-free water, and weighing the quantity expelled as the mercury rose to each successive mark of the graduation. This was done most favorable conditions, and its tension determined ; it was then brought to the other division, and its tension again deter- mined. Two independent measurements thus obtained elimi- nated the chance of error in identifying divisions on the scale, and also affor the means of ascertaining the probable error of a measurement. In the analyses contained in this has been computed that the probable error of a single determ1- nation of volume is its 5800th part. Hence the probable error of a determination of oxygen in the air is the 7200th part, and the probable difference of two determinations on the same sam- ple is the 5100th part. A second analysis was always made when the first showed a deficiency of oxygen. A comparison of the results will show whether the accuracy indicated by computation was obtained.* The writer has in hand an entirely new construction of the pressure tube, and some modifications of the optical appliances for reading the level of the mercury in the eudiometer tube, by which he hopes considerably to lessen this probable error. The samples of air analyzed were collected in the open country in glass vessels with due care as to admixture with the air from the collector's lun _* The divergence of the second resule of February 26th from the first is due to the fact that in the second analysis the hydrogen used was not pure. —— _of the sample remained for a thi i e second It is given in con- firmation of the first. But this pair of results should not be used in computing ee eee E. W. Morley— Oxygen in the Ae. 175 some samples were collected in clean stoppered and ca bottles, and kept for a short time by inverting the bottle in the cap which had been filled with water. In this case the air was withdrawn for analysis with a Tcepler’s mercur The table gives in the first column the date, in the second, the mean temperature of the day at this place as determined | by three observations. In the third, on the days when analyses were made, the hour of collecting the sample is given, frac- tions of hours being disregarded. In the last two columns are through a capillary tube twelve or twenty times. All made between the first and last dates of the table are given without selection, except that some were rejected for obvious instru- mental errors. e remarkable deficiency of oxygen observed on the twenty-sixth of February seems affected with no reason for d On Sept. 16, 1878, two very careful analyses of the same sample gave 20°49 and 20°46 per cent of oxygen. On of air from the Bay of Bengal showing 20°46 per cent, one of air from near Calcutta, showing 20°39 per cent, and one of air from near Algiers, showing 20°41 per cent. That Jolly and the writer have found air almost as deficient in oxygen as the three last will lessen the probability that the air of the surface B W. Morley— Oxygen in the Atr. ANALYSES OF AIR, Showing deficiency of Oxygen attending sud WINTER OF 1878-1879. dei deprinion of innpnite Hour of taking sample. Date. 4 P.M. i KOO vpn REE 3 P. ey 10 aM. 4 P.M. 89 91 80 Feb. RS RS RS RO RS RS BO AS BAS 5 we OO BS em OD eT o> en a OOD ame mMmeli nn et a) cn aw - COO Pee REEF 2 Fe a 87 87 45 50 77 80 88 ’ as j n K. Mobius in reply to Dr. Dawson's Criticism. 177 an elevation mentioned by Loomis occurred in the warmer parts of thiscountry. If his theory finds favor, and the writer's conjecture is correct, it will be presumed that the three samples cited in the Handworterbuch from the still warmer regions 0 the earth were taken in the midst of such a mass of cold air descending from, and retaining the composition of, the upper parts of the earth’s atmosph all sources. Whether the writer’s conjecture is correct or not, it has enabled him to select times for taking samples of air varying widely from the average ; and to such times his analy- ave been commonly limited, only occasionally including a sample of presumably normal air to serve as a check on the abnormal. Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio, June 12, 1879. Art. XXVIII.—Principal J. W. Dawson's criticism of my Mem- oir On the Structure of Kozoon Canadense compared with that of Foraminifera; by K. Méstus, Professor of Zoology at Kiel.* * For Dr. Dawson’s paper see this Journal, xvii, 196, March, 1879. [Thinking that Drobence Mobius should have, if he desired, an 0 fe y to Dr. Dawson’s criticism, and that science would profit thereby, we offe ; him the pages of this Journal, and stated that we should be pleased if he would occupy them and give his views on the subject; informing him, a ee —_ (in order to remove any objections that might arise in his mind), that there wou be no rejoinder in this Journal. Professor Mébius has accordingly prepared for us the article now published. J. D. D.J Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turrp Serres, Vou. XVIII, No. 105,—SEPT., 1879. 12. 178 K. Mobius in reply to Dr. Dawson's Criticism. No one should be able to do so better than he. It was he who described the Hozoon Canadense as an organism; who has, e into error and where I had found the trut It is Mr. Dawson’s belief that few scientific men are in a position fully to appreciate the evidence respecting the organic character of Kozoon; that this is true of the geologists and mineralogists, because they do not yet agree with regard to the nature of the rocks in which it occurs; and of the biologists, because “they. are but little acquainted with the appearance of foraminiferal organisms when mineralized with silicates.” “Nor are they willing,” he says, ‘to admit the possibility that these ancient organisms may have presented a much more gen- eralized and less definite structure than their modern successors. Worse, perhaps, than all these, is the circumstance that dealers and injudicious amateurs have intervened and have circulated specimens of Hozoon, in which the structure is too imperfectly preserved to admit of its recognition.” These are the principal points in the introduction to Principal Dawson’s criticism on my paper. He continues: ‘‘The memoir of Professor Mobius hypothesis has influenced me in my conclusions. To bypoth- no means J ompelled me in advance to deny the organic nature of Hozoon. On the contrary, in the beginning of my studies I hoped to gai lusi id in favor of the organic character of Eozoon, as I have stated in my memoir, chapter VI: “It is to mea source of regret that I cannot say to Messrs. Dawson and Carpenter, who have so kindly aided me in my work, that Hozoon Canadense must be iss ay from my re- searches also, a fossil Foraminifer.” I quote these words here for the benefit of those readers of Principal Dawson's criticism who are not acquainted with my memoir. K. Mobius in reply to Dr, Dawson's Criticism. 179 I was familiar with the structure of fossilized Foraminifera, as can be seen from several notations and figures in my paper. Nor was I unwilling to admit that the structure of Eozoon might be different from that of modern Foraminifera, as is evi- dent from the following words in my memoir (p. 188): ‘Tf all the structures of Eozoon, in the same layers and forms that they have in the best specimens circulated by Dawson and Carpenter, were indeed produced by living beings, the living Kozoon must have had a nature totally different from that of all plants and animals we know. If it were possible to prove that Eozoon is a fossil and not a mineral, we must then make two divisions of organic bodies, viz: 1, organic bodies with protoplasmic nature (all plants and animals); 2, organic bodies with eozoonic nature (Hozoon Dawson). In the genealogical line, in which the theory of evolution or descent unites all protoplasmic beings, there is no place for Eozoon.” Further, not a single one of all the specimens of Eozoon, which I studied, came from the hands of “dealers or injudicious amateurs,” but all directly or indirectly from Messrs. Dawson and Carpenter. This I have said repeatedly in my paper. I am consequently much surprised at the words of Dr. Dawson: “The memoir of Professor Mébius affords illustrations of some of these difficulties in the study of Eozoon.” : _. Why should Principal Dawson write thus about my memoir if he has read it throughout with attention and understanding? It bears full evidence that I had not to struggle in the slightest degree with such difficulties. : But Principal Dawson has read my paper, and he points out errors in it, viz: 1, I have (on p. 180) taken as a figure of full natural size a very large specimen of Eozoon, which Prin- cipal Dawson on plate III of his “ Dawn of Life” has resented of half the natural size; 2, on the same page I say: “ We know Specimens of Eozoon which have more than fifty whitish and greenish lamin,” on which Mr. Dawson remarks, that they often have more than a hund For these corrections I offer my sincerest thanks. Other substantial errors he has not mentioned. If he will do so, I by the satisfaction of seeing the pure and certain truth come forth. No naturalist, in any branch of science, has ever dis- Covered and brought out at once the whole truth in all directions. It is evident that those two mistakes are of no significance in ding the question whether Hozoon Canadense 1s an organism no OF Hot, ; : But Dr. Dawson writes further (p. 197): ‘Mobius has 180 K. Mobius in reply to Dr. Dawson's Criticism. had access merely to a limited number of specimens min- eralized with serpentine. These he has elaborately studied, and has made careful drawings of portions of their structures, and has described these with some degree of accuracy; and his memoir has been profusely illustrated with figures on a large scale. This, and the fact of the memoir appearing where it does, convey the impression of an exhaustive study of the subject, and since the conclusion is adverse to the organic char- acter of Eozoon, this paper may be expected, in the opinion of many not fully acquainted with the evidence, to be regarded as a final decision against its animal nature. Yet, however commendable the researches of Mébius may be, when viewed on the evidence of the material he may have at command, they furnish only another illustration of partial and imperfect investi- gation, quite unreliable as a verdict on the questions in hand.” On reading these lines one cannot but be astonished and ask, whether they were written by the same author, who said a few ines before: ‘“ Professor Mébius is a good microscopist, fairly acquainted with the modern Foraminifera, and a conscientious observer.” This impression he must also have gained from my paper on Canadense. clusive judgment in regard to its real nature. It has often happened that biologists and paleontologists have had not more than one specimen in hand, or even not more than a part of a specimen, and notwithstanding they were in a position to determine surely its place in the organic kingdom. He says, further: ‘‘Mébius has made drawings of portions of the structure of Eozoon ;” he does not state what structures I have omitted. I have certainly made careful drawings and descriptions of all the Eozoon-structure, which according to Messrs. Dawson and Carpenter corresponds with the chambers, the communications between them, the tubuli of the proper wall of the chambers, an the canal-system in the intermediate skeleton of Foraminifera. rincipal Dawson says again: ‘“ Mébius has described these structures with some degree of accuracy.” It would have been more satisfactory if he had pointed out the imperfections of my descriptions, each one for itself and all without reserve. 1 should have been grateful for the aid in improving my descrip- tions of Eozoon. _ Principal Dawson evidently apprehends that my “profusely illustrated ” paper may convey the impression of an exhaustive study of the subject. That was indeed m he not read or understood my remarks (pp. 178 and 17 9) in regard to the necessity of many good drawings of all the structures of K. Mobius in reply to Dr. Dawson's Criticism. 181 Eozoon? Or, had he in writing his criticism the opinion that it would be read by those only who would never see my paper itself ? But how can he venture to say: “The fact of the memoir appearing where it does conveys the impression of an exhausting study of the subject?” A bad paper has never gained the con- tinued assent of the public through the fame of the Journal in which it appeared. In giving my paper to the editors of the illustrious “ Paleontographica” I had by no means the inten- tion of gaining for it any higher opinion than it deserves by itself. I wished to bring it before a disinterested and judicious public; besides, I knew that the publisher of the “ Palsonto- graphica” would take care to print my drawings very exactly, and he has done so. After having made these objections in general, Principal Dawson considers “a number of errors and omissions arising from want of study of the fossil im situ, and from want ot ac- quaintance with its various states of preservation.” Tf Principal Dawson demands that epee should venture to judge of the nature of Eozoon but those who have seen it 7 situ, he claims in favor of his Hozoon Canadense an exception over all productions of the accessible world. When writing these lines he overlooked the fact that Mineralogy, Paleontol- ogy, Botany and Zoology contain a very great number of uni- versally appreciated memoirs concerning objects which the For my purpose, the examination of Kozoon from a biological point of view, | was in’a very avorable situation, e p' them with my best thanks, study them very exactly, and will all I shall find conscientiously before the scientific public. — 182 K. Mobius in reply to Dr. Dawson’s Criticism, . 187 of my paper I say: ‘It is impossible to detect in sroceine of Eozoon any spot, from which there could have originated all the serpentine bodies of this specimen, and which therefore might agree with the primary chamber of Foraminif- era.” When Mr. Dawson, in alluding to these lines, writes (p. 198): “ Mobius objects to ‘the impossibility of detecting regular rimary chambers like those in modern Foraminifera,” he has interpolated the word, ‘‘regular,” for the sake of the argument; he adds: “ Mébius seems not to be aware that some Stroma- toporee.originate in a vesicular irregular mass of cells, and that in battasn the primary chamber is represented by a merely cancellated nucleus.” From this it is Beste that not J, but 7. Dawson has failed here Kozoon which had come from him and Dr. Foldacsen and that these were indeed very many in number. I beg him to read again the explanations of my drawings, and he will find in Cell-wall of Eozoon, when highly magnified; after J. W. Dawson. tubulation.” Both Eozoonists consider the chrysotile a ee the proper wall filled with fine cylinders of silicate. I coul not detect in any specimen of Eozoon the slightest traces of such tubuli as Principal Dawson has figured in “The Dawn of Poel (p. 106). Igive here a copy of this figure (1). If Hozoon _ did indeed contain tubuli of such organic regularity, we should lees reason enough to agree with him in considering it Foram- iniferal, as well as the specimen from Kempten, Bavaria, which rineipal Dawson adyises me to study (p. 199). I can assure him that I did so before I wrote my memoir, and from prepa _ ' K. Mobius in reply to Dr. Dawson's Criticism. 183 rations which were kindly forwarded to me by Dr. Hahn at Reutlingen. I add here a drawing of the tubuli in a slice (fig. 2). Principal Dawson remarks: “That some of Mébius’s speci- mens have contained the proper wall fairly preserved is obvious from his own figures, in which it is possible to recognize both this structure and the chrysotile veins, though confounded by him under the same designation.” Why does he not state what firures these are, and why has he neglected to give a copy of them in his review, since he has taken some other figures of mine as evidence of the foraminiferal character of Hozoon In the same paragraph Principal Dawson speaks in detail of the different difficulties met with in distinguishing the minute tubes. I quote his own words, viz: ‘‘When the proper wall is merely calcareous, its structure is ordinarily invisible, and it is the same when the calcareous skeleton has, from any cause, lost its transparency, or has been replaced by some other mineral substance. Even in thickish slices, the tubes, though filled with serpentine, may be so piled on one another as to be indistinct.” Principal Dawson speaks of my description of what he ealls specimens of Eozoon circulated by Dawson and Carpenter al- most only such flat and irregular branched stalk-like bodies as I have illustrated in my figures. It ought to be admitted that as soon as the first objections against the organic character of Eozoon were made, Messrs. Dawson and Carpenter distributed ond specimens of Eozoon; and it would be very strange, if just those of their specimens which came into my hands had not the genuine structure, but such qualities as speak against the organic nature of Eozoon. ein _ Principal Dawson brings before the readers of his criticism in the figures 1 and 2 (p. 201), two of my drawings of the stalk- like bodies traversing the associated limestone and regarded by e has chosen just those whic 184 K. Mobius in reply to Dr. Dawson’s Criticism. my methods. The two figures which he has chosen out of my plates can only serve as evidence for the foraminiferal nature oon to those readers of Mr. Dawson’s criticism, who have never had my memoir in their hands. In selecting these two figures, Mr. Dawson has plainly proved that his views as to the eanal nature of the stalk-like bodies are very weakly supported. ‘“ Another objection against the organic nature of Eozoon,” says Principal Dawson, p. 200, “ Mébius takes to the directions of the canals, as not being transverse to the laminae, but oblique.” Here Mr. Dawson did not understand me rightly. I say, chapter IV, p. 184, in regard to the fine tubes of Foramini- fera (which are regarded as resembling the chrysotile fibers), that they are usually directed transversely to the inner and outer sides of the chamber-wall, and I show this by figures of Foraminifera, for instance, by the figure of a slice of a Num- uline, which Dawson has copied, fig. 4, p. 201. My remark about the direction of the fine tubes Mr. Dawson refers to his “canal system,” to which it does not belong at all. It is there- fore not J, but Mr. Dawson, who makes a mistake. : Paragraph 4 of Principal Dawson’s criticism (p. 200), begins with the words: “A fatal defect in the mode of treatment pursued by Mobius is that he regards each of the structures separately and does not sufficiently consider their cumulative force when taken together.” Principal Dawson has either not read, or not understood, chapter VI of my memoir. In this chapter my only object was to compare the structures of Eozoon, as a whole, with the structures of Foraminifera. 1 am convinced that I could not better explain the structure of Eozoon than by describing first each structure particularly, before I compared them all together with the Foraminifera; and all disinterested biologists and paleontologists will agree that there is no better method of treating such an object. Next follows, in Dr. Dawson’s criticism, a resumé of his well- penteria and Polytrema.” No one who is minutely acquainted dron, and Polytrema miniaceum, closely with the structures of Kozoon, he would certainly not have made this statement. The dear old Polytrema! Ever since the celebrated Pro- fessor Max Schultze said that it resembled Kozoon, Polytrema has served ever and anon as evidence for the organic nature of K. Mobius in reply to. Dr. Dawson's Criticism. 185 Eozoon. If Max Schultze had been acquainted with the struct- ure of Kozoon as well as with the structure of Polytrema his histological genius would certainly have prevented him from making such an assertion. treatment of Eozoon, representing its structure in a somewhat idealized manner.” Where did I say this? On p. 188 I said O exceeded.” These are my words. I am convinced that every naturalist who is free from prejudice will agree with me in that organic nature sustained b Carpenter and himsel he will kindly send me such ceccamttanvs of his Hozoon Can- adense, I will willingly forgive him that he has disappointed me and other naturalists. I will examine those genuine speci- Mens with the same care and conscientiousness; and if I find a true organic structure, I will avow, without hesitation, that the genuine Hozoon Canadense was an animal. The aim of all My researches is this: not that I should be the one to find the truth, but that the truth should be found and brought to the light. No error will be changed into truth by constantly believing, nor by persistently declaring, it as truth. 186 C.U. Shepard—Estherville Meteorite. Art. XXIX.—On the Estherville, Emmet County. Iowa, Meteorite of May 10th, 1879; by CHARL PHAM SHEPARD, Emeritus Professor of Natural History in Amherst College. For the circumstances attending this third fall of aerolites in the State of lowa since the year 1847, I am indebted to a notice cadet? in the Chicago Times by Mr. 8. E. Bemis, and to etters from Mr. Howard Graves and Mr. Henry Barber of Es- therville.* The fall occurred at 5 Pp. M. on the 10th of May, attended by a terrible explosion, resembling the discharge of a cannon, mi louder. It seemed to proceed from a region high up in mid- Charles Ega, looking in the direction of the report, could see nothing on account of the sun’s rays; but following with his eye the direction of the roaring sound that succeeded, he saw dirt thrown high into the air at the edge of a ravine, one hun- dred rods northeast of where he was standing. At a like dis- tance, still farther away in the same direction, a similar disturb- ance of the ground was seen by Mr. Barber. Another witness, Mr. S. W. Brown, living three-quarters of a mile distant, being in the edge of a wood, and having his eyes directed upward at the moment for the inspection of some oak trees, saw a red streak in the heavens; and while looking at it, the explosion took place. It appeared to him, that the meteor was passing from west to east; and that when it burst, there was a cloud at the head of the red streak, which darted out of it like smoke from a cannon’s mouth, and then expanded in every direction. On examining the ravine where a body was seen to strike, a hole in the ground was discovered, twelve feet in diameter and six indepth. It was filled with water. Within this hole, at a depth of fourteen feet below the general surface of the ground, the large mass, weighing four hundred and thirty-one pounds, was found. It had penetrated a stratum of blue clay to the depth of six feet, before its progress had been arrested. The mass measured twenty-seven inches in length, by twenty-two and three-quarters in breadth, and fifteen in thickness. Its urtace is described as “fearfully rough,” with ragged projec- tions of metal. From one of these a portion was detached, and 1aped into a finger-ring. After much searching, there have * A short notice of this meteorite’s fall, by Professor §. F. Peckham, is given on page 77 of this volume.—Eps. 0. U. Shepard—Estherville Meteorite, 187 since been found in the immediate vicinity of the hole, several smaller masses, varying in weight from one to eight ounces; one mass of four pounds, and another of thirty-two. At the distance of two miles from this spot, in a westerly direction, a mass of one hundred and fifty-one pounds was also discovered. It was imbedded in a dry, gravelly soil, at the depth of four and a half feet. This specimen is in the posses- sion of the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis. Description of the Meteorite. iron, the former probably constituting two-thirds its bulk ; also by the size and distinctness of the chrysolitic individuals, together with their pretty uniform, yellowish-gray or greenish- black color; and by the ramose or branching structure of the meteoric iron. Nearly one-half of the chrysolite, however, 1s more massive, approaching fine granular, orcompact. Yet in this condition it is still highly crystalline, and difficultly frangible. This portion is of an ash-gray, flecked with specks of a dull greenish-yellow color. The luster is feebly shining, It is without any traces of decomposition; on the contrary, it is throughout a fresh, undecomposed crystalline aggregate. Especially is it ob- Sregate, cleared of the stony part, was 5°97; that of the large Specimen of 147-7 grams, was 44. The presence of schrei- 188 C. U. Shepard—Estherville Meteorite. stone. It appears to have been fused and is surrounded on all sides by the black crust, coming from the stony material. It will be interesting to know whether this character prevails over the main mass from which these fragments were separated. If such should be the fact, it would give usa second case in which meteoric iron seen to fall, reached the earth in the possession npg of a high metallic luster. The other instance is that ickson County meteorite, Tennessee, July 30, 1835, The chrysolite, in large distinct concretions and highly _ talline individuals, deserves a particular notice. Som show imperfect crystalline facets, and nearly all the ‘ber ones possess eminent cleavages. Ina few instances they are nearly transparent and gem-like. Specific gravity (on 0°77 grams) = 3°50. The next most conspicuous species present is troilite. This also is in distinct individuals, pane et as large asa pea. It is highly crystalline, rarely presenting splendent crystalline facets, whose color approaches silver-white. The proportion in which it exists is apparently large, and may equal two per cent. xt in importance comes the feldspathic mineral, presuma- bly doorthite It is highly g rreoey white, lustrous and nearly transparent, resembling in these particulars the similar mineral found among the see of Vesuvius. e specimens are two very distinct examples of an opal-like mineral of a yellowish rows color, which I take to be chassignite. Its luster is resinous, structure imperfectly slaty, to massive and conchoidal. A small granule of chromite curs in one of the fragments of the massive sak solite Such are the minerals thus far distinguished in the Ksther- ville meteorite. As a whole, it differs widely from the norma meteoric stones. These differences consist, in the first place, in the unusual prevalence of a chrysolite similar to that found in the meteoric irons; secondly, in the large proportion of mete- oric iron — t, a and i n the manner in — it is involved rolled sate oolitic shapes, so common in meteoric stones, is vnie rocks The _— portions much more drt ete the oli- pouaily fica a are in the paeeitie group of the Tevet in _ which case it would form an aed itself. = ~ New Haven, —— 1879. ' W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. 189 Art, XXX.—On the Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes ; by Wm. HARKNESS. ALTHOUGH much has been written on the. theory of the are usually composed of two lenses, rarely of three, and hardly ever of a greater number; it has been thought sufficient to Our fundamental equations are I 1 1 | Fau-n{5+s} (1) poatdy?+ey (2) in which J =the principal focal distance of any lens. f= the refractive index of the lens. r =the radius of curvature of the first surface of the lens. p =the radius of curvature of the second surface of the lens. A = the wave length of the light. — l “ek y=1-A, a, b, c= certain coefficients, determined from not less than three properly situated values of y. Equation (2) is Cauchy’s dispersion formula. Now put 2 ae (3) + i and suppose a series of lenses, such that 1 1 He ef —" (4, 1)A, > J, tis (Hy ) L These lenses being very thin, let them. be placed in contact with - each other; and Tet de equivalent focal distance of the whole 190 W. Harkness—COolor Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. combination bef Then, by a well known optical theorem, 1 - — (H,—1)A, — (#,—1)A, + (u,—1)A, (5) Substituting the values of yw, w,, “4, from equation (2), putting C= A,(a,— 1) - A,(a,— 1) sa A,(a@,—1) Ab, D=A6,+A,,+ (8) E=Ave,+ A,e, + A,e, and arranging the terms according to the powers of 7, we have 1 This equation expresses the relation between the focal dis- tance of the combination, and the wave length of the light. It shows that when white light enters an objective there will generally be an infinite number of foci, situated one behind the other, and all contained between the two values of f which correspond to the limiting values of 7. For our purpose, how- ever, it will be more convenient to consider / as the ordinate, and 7 as the abscissa, of a curve which we will designate as the focal curve. To investigate its properties, we differentiate with respect to fand y, and obtain d So = — 2yf"(D + Ey) () Putting the left hand member of this expression equal to zero, we fin D Ae 9 ed (9) Differentiating (8) a second time a. in = 2f*y(2D + 4Ey’)? —f7(2D + 12Ey’) (10) Substituting the value of 7* from (9), this becomes aft 2 ‘ a= or (11) which shows that, so long as D remains positive, the curve is convex toward the objective, and the value of 7 given by equa- (9) corresponds to the minimum focal distance. An achromatic objective, or more accurately, and with greater Se: a corrected objective, is one in which all rays of the nd for which the correction is made are brought to as nearly as possible the same focus. For example; if an objective 1s corrected for visual purposes, then the rays which produce the greatest effect — the human eye must all be brought as nearly as po to the same focus; or, if the objective 1s corrected. 20t¢ hic purposes, then the rays which act W, Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. 191 most energetically upon silver bromo-iodide must all be brought as nearly as possible to the same focus. This condition will evidently be fulfilled when the rays in question have the min- imum focal distance; or in other words, when they satisfy equation (9). Thus it appears that this equation determines the correction of the objective, and for that reason it will be called the achromatic equation, and the particular value of 7 which satisfies it will be designated as 7, To find the relative values of A,, A,, A,, in a corrected objective, we substitute in (9) the values of D and E from (6). The resulting expression for the middle lens is pate A, (3, + 2¢,¥,) 422 A, (4, aA 2¢,y,') ka @, £22.) (2) which shows that this lens must be of the opposite kind from the other two,—that is, if the first and third lenses are convex, the middle one must be concave; or vice versa. ; _ To find the equivalent focal distance of the whole combina- tion for the ray 4,, (9) gives | ‘ D=— 2Ey,’ (13) | Substituting this in (7) % Se Ci 14 Fi — C a Fy: Py ( ) Replacing C and E by their values from (6) : 1 = 7 ‘15 I A(a,— 1%. —1) +A,(a,—- Vo, —1) +A,(a,-¢,7, —1) ( ) Substituting the value of A, from (12), and putting a= —* 16) i= (4,— 1) (6,+2¢, “ At 1) (b,+2¢,7," +7, (6 ¢,—6,¢,) M= (4, = 1) (anna Se WE 1) TEL, +Y¥,. (b,¢, ee 6.£,) % _ We obtain finally b, + 2¢,7," (17) { ee A,(L + nM) The ordinate of the focal curve for the ray A,, is the difference tween the focal lengths of the objective for the rays A, and 4 To find it we have a FA (CHD y+ 8y,.)—(04Dy,)+ By, )=DUI-1.)* (P11) (18) But ys ] J. = (19) —_— —_ = 1 ke AOD and putting f—~,=J/, this becomes 1 1 A. =S545 ~ zt (20) 1 192 W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. Substituting for the quantity within the brackets, its value from (18); and replacing D and E by their equivalents from (6) Bak paws we (A,d, - A,d, + A,O,)(7, -1,') + (A,¢, +A i a A,¢,)(7,"-7,') (21) Substituting the values of A, and A,+A, from (12) and (16), and putting P =b.c,—b.c, (22) we obtain the important expression . a2 N+nP Af, = MSL 1 5 oes (23) If a star is viewed through a carefully focused achromatic telescope, and if the surface in the focus of the eye-piece is designated as the focal plane: then, of the infinite number of images which equation (7) shows will be formed, some will be situated before, and some behind the focal plane, but only one will coincide exactly with it. The cones of rays which form the images situated before and behind the focal plane will necessarily have a sensible diameter at their intersection with that plane, and their combined effect will be to produce a ringe of colored light around the image of the star, as seen through the eye-piece. This fringe is the secondary spectrum, and its magnitude, for light of any given wave length, wil evidently depend upon the value of df. Hence, to destroy the secondary spectrum, 4f, must be made equal to zero. Equation (23) shows that this will be the case for a triple objective when N+n”P=—0 (24) or for a double objective when N=6 (25) As yet no materials have been discovered whose physical properties are such as to satisfy these conditions. We there- fore proceed to investigate what form an objective constructed of any given materials must have in order to render the sec- ondary spectrum a minimum. ; Substituting in (23) the value of A, from (17), we find Any 2 2 (N - nP) 6 AF =F". —¥;) (L + nM) (2 ) In the right hand member of this equation, n is the only quantity which depends upon the form of the objective. Con- _ sidering it as variable, and differentiating, we obtain d(4p) ice a toy MP) — f(y, =) (i +nM* (27) To make 4f a minimum, such a yalue must be attributed to n as will reduce the right hand member of (27) to zero. This : ‘ | aberration to be perfectly corrected for light of all degrees of refrangibility ; then the image of a star formed upon the focal plane by light of wave length 4, will be a point, and the linear semi-diameter of the image of the same star formed by light of wave length A, will be the semi-diameter of the cone of rays of that wave length at the point where it cuts the foeal plane. Therefore we have : i Aa ep) fit Be (28) in which a is the semi-aperture of the objective, and s,# is the required semi-diameter of the cone of rays of wave length 4. Combining (28) with (26), we find i 2 a\2 N+nP (29) 8, Se, —y,) L+nM This is the expression for a tri le objective. In the case of a double one, » becomes zero, ait (29) reduces to a2? = aly, i VEY 3 F (30) which shows that in a double objective properly corrected for any given purpose, the linear gemi-diameter of the secondar to the focal curve, but places it somewhat further from the objective, in such wise that the plane cuts the curve in two points, which or these points we must have 1 (31) 1 Bo Oe | C+ Dy + Bye C+ Dye + Ryn Am. Joor. 8c1.—Tutrp Serres, Vou. XVII, No. 105.— Sept., 1879. 13 194 W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. which gives ea : : — HH Ve + Yn (32) _ But by (9) we have eae (33) Yo ame Ay Combining this with (82), we find Vo =4(¥m + Yn) (34) which gives the relation between 7, and any pair of points at which the focal plane may cut the focal curve. e have next to consider how the value of ,, can be found; and for that purpose a method partly arithmetical, and partly graphical, seems most convenient, The data required are, the values of Jf for a number of different values of 7, and the relative intensity of the light at each of these values of 7. The values of 4f must be computed by means of equation (26); and the relative intensity of the light may either determined experimentally, or taken from published tables. or visual intensity, the table given by Fraunhofer may be employed; and for photographic intensity, the curves pub- lished by Captain Abney contain all that is required. For the sake of definiteness, let us suppose that the value of 7, is to be determined for an objective corrected for visual purposes. We begin by laying down an axis of abscissas, and graduating it into a scale of wave lengths. Here, however, it must be observed that the brightness of any part of a spectrum depends not only upon the inherent brightness of the light at that point, but also upon the degree of dispersion employed. As Fraunhofer’s determinations of the relative brightness of dif ferent parts of the spectrum were made with a flint glass prism having a refractive index of 1°63 for the ray D; and as such an instrument produces much greater dispersion at the violet end of the spectrum than at the red end; it follows that our seale of wave lengths must be, not a scale of equal parts, but such a scale as existed in the spectrum employed by Fraunhofer. The wave length of the brightest ray is approximately 5688, and through that point in the scale, and at right angles to the axis of abscissas, the axis of ordinates must be drawn. Then, from the computed values of Jf, a sufficient number of points must be laid down to determine the focal curve, and that curve ust t the points whose wave lengths correspond _ to the principal Fraunhofer lines, lines must be drawn through the focal curve, parallel to the axis of ordinates; the length of each line being proportional to the relative brightness of the spectrum at the point where it is situated, and the center of each line coinciding accurately with the focal curve. Through W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. 195 the extremities of these lines a closed curve must be drawn. © The figure thus obtained will be termed the illumination dia- ram, because it exhibits the amount and distribution of the e.), of the diagram. Hence, to find the position of the ocal plane, we have only to cut out the diagram (which should the same telescope when used for different purposes. example, if it were required to find the interval between the — is proportional to the distance between that plane and the febt of the focal curve corresponding to the wave length o the ight. me | snl ally —n') — Ge — eb T nee in which 7,, is the reciprocal of the wave length corresponding to either of the two points in which the focal plane cuts the 196 W. Harkness—Color Correction of Achromatic Telescopes. focal curve; and s, is the semi-diameter, at the point where it cuts the focal plane, of the cone of rays whose wave length is 4,. The exact nature of the color correction of a telescope can be determined by placing the focal plane in a number of different positions, and observing the corresponding values of 7,, and 7» These values being substituted in equation (34), several inde- pendent values of 7, can be deduced, the mean of which will probably be very near the truth. e conclusions reached in the preceding pages may be summed up as follows: - Ist. From any three pieces of glass suitable for making a corrected objective, but not fulfilling the conditions necessary for the complete destruction of the secondary spectrum, it will always be possible to select two pieces from which a double ~ objective can be made that will be superior to any triple objective made from all three of the pieces. 2 e color correction of an objective is completely defined by stating the wave length of the light for which it gives the minimum focal distance. 3d. An objective is properly corrected for any given purpose when its minimum focal distance corresponds to rays of the wave length which is most efficient for that purpose. For example, in an objective corrected for visual purposes the rays _ which seem brightest to the human eye should have the mini- mum focal distance; while in an objective intended for photo- graphic purposes the rays which act most intensely upon silver bromo-iodide should have the minimum focal distance. 4th. In double achromatic objectives the secondary spectrum (or in other words, the diameter, at its intersection with the focal plane, of the cone of rays having the maximum distance), is absolutely independent both of the focal length of the combination, and of the curves of its lenses; and depends solely upon the aperture of the combination, and the physical properties of the materials compdosing it. 5th. When the focal curve of an objective is known; and the relative intensity, for the purpose for which the objective is corrected, of light of every wave length is also known; then the exact position which the focal plane should occupy caa readily be calculated. ; 6th. It may be remarked incidentally that in an objective corrected for photographic purposes, the interval between the maximum and minimum focal distances is less than in one _ corrected for visual purposes. Hence, a photographic objective has less secondary spectrum, and is better adapted to spectro- scopic work, than a visual objective. Washington, May 24, 1879. W. Upham—Terminal Moraines of N. American Ice-Sheet. 197 ArT. XXXIL—Terminal Moraines of the North American Iee- Sheet; by WARREN UPHAM. [Continued from page 92.] Beyond Block Island the extreme terminal moraine does \ ay Head. ; side of Prospect and Peaked Hills they extend to heights 225 drift without bo ing i tensive level plains, twenty- widers, lying in extensiv el p five to fifty or sixty feet above sea. Along the south shore * Described in Hitchcock’s Geology of Massachusetts, 1833 and 1841; in Lyell’s Travels in North America in 1841-2, vol. i, pp. 203-206; and in this Journal, I, Vol. xlvi, pp, 318-320. ; 198 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines these plains are indented by numerous ponds, which are only separated from the ocean by a beach, and the shores of the ponds are again indented by long and narrow arms or coves, from the head of which dry channels, similar to those described on Long Island, extend across the plains in a northerly course. The road from West Tisbury to Edgartown crosses several of these depressions, one of which, known as Quampachy Hollow, may be taken as an example. This starts from the head of Oyster Pond, a narrow arm of the sea, which stretches two miles north from the beach by which it is now shut in. The dry hollow, diminishing from twenty-five to ten feet in depth, and from 300 to 100 feet in width, prolongs this valley at least three miles to the north. Near Vineyard Haven and Oak Bluffs, north of these plains, and on Chappaquiddick Island, the modified drift, sometimes sprinkled with bowlders, is heaped in gently sloping hills, 50 to 100 feet high, which appear to have been formed at the margin of the ice-sheet. Thence the line of terminal moraine is continued in Muske- get and Gravelly Islands, which however are only low banks of gravel and sand. On 'luckernuck Island it appears again in small hills, which in part are unstratified, with plenty of bow!- ders, the remainder being modified drift. Nantucket is com- posed almost wholly of stratified gravel and sand. The line at which the ice-sheet appears to have terminated is marked in the west part of this island by gently undulating hills, forty to fiftv feet high, composed of stratified drift, which, however, differs from that of the plains on the south in having here and there bowlders up to ten feet in diameter embedded in it or lying on the surface. The course of this line is from Eel Point, north of Maddequet Harbor, by Trot's Hills to the town. Eastward it continues on the same course in the Shawkemo and Saul’s Hills to Sankaty Head.. The portion of this series called Saul’s Hills, two miles long and a half mile wide, is of very irregular contour, with steep and abruptly changing slopes, forming hills, ridges, outs and small enclosed basins, some: of which contain ponds. The material is stratified gravel an sand, upon and in which are scattered bowlders, varying up to ten feet in diameter. ous gravel and sand, with abundant shells, two feet; a of _*The Post-pliocene beds at the base of this section, and their fossils, are described by Professor A. E. Verrill and Mr. §. H. Scudder, in this Journal, IU, vol. x, pp. 364-375, ; : « of the North American Ice-Sheet. 199 serpula, mixed with sand, about two feet; gravel and sand again, thickly filled with shells, two feet; fine white sand, about ten feet; the common yellow sand and fine gravel of the modi- fied drift, about forty-five feet, its top being at ninety feet; coarse gravel, three feet; ferruginous sand, one foot ; changing above into a former surface soil, one foot thick; overlain by three feet of dune sand, which forms the present surface, ninety-eight feet above sea. The highest part of the bank is midway between this and the light-house. From a compari- son of the species contained in these two shell-beds, Professor Verrill estimates that the temperature of the sea at this place - was lowered 15° between the times in which they lived. The layer of coarse gravel which occurs here at the height of ninety feet, is continuous for a half-mile from this point both to the north and south, varying from three to eight feet in thickness. About half of its rock-fragments are rounded, these being of all sizes up to one foot through; the rest, which are rough and angular, range up to two feet, and rarely to four feet, in diame- ter. This bed has its greatest thickness and is coarsest at the highest portion of the bluff, where it closely resembles till. The old surface of black soil and the present surface of dune sand are also continuous along the same distance. An eighth of a mile south from the shell-beds, the bluff falls to a hollow height falls from 105 feet at the middle to about 35 feet at each - end. Below the rocky layer it consists of fine modified drift much colder; sand and fine gravel are accumulated to a depth of more than fifty feet, probably brought by rivers from the ests sprang up, as the climate became mild again ; and, lastly, the sea has eaten away the east portion of these deposits, while = sand of its shore has been swept by the wind over their p- The whole south side of Nantucket Island consists of nearly level plains of gravel and sand, twenty to sixty feet above the ea. This expanse, reaching more than es frot east, with a width varying from one to three miles, is broken by frequent hollows which extend approximately from north to south, like those already noticed on the similar plains of Long 200 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines Island and Martha’s Vineyard. Narrow ponds, to the number of a dozen or more, having the same height with the ocean, fill the entire course of these depressions, or occupy their lower end next to the south shore. The Second Terminal Moraine.—A. later series of morainic hills extends along the north shore of Long Island for forty- five miles eastward from Port Jefferson to its extremity at Orient Point. Their heights are approximately as follows: Mount Sinai, at school-house, and Miller’s Place, each about 150; Noah Jones’ Hill, 1} miles east from Miller’s Place, 200; Pine Hill, one mile farther east, 175; Blue Point Hills, one mile southeast from last, 150; hills near Wading River vil- lage, 150 to 200, the highest of which, at Mr. D. M. Tuthill’s, a mile east from the village, commands a very fine view; hills, . partly of dune sand, north of Baiting Hollow, known by the names of “Horse in the Bank,” Horton’s Bluff, and Friar’s Head, about 150; at Northville, 125; Jacob’s, Cooper’s and Mattituck Hills, 125 to 150; Manor Hills, extending east from Mattituck Inlet, 100 to 150; Horton’s Point, 70; highest points for the next seven miles, extending by Greenport, about, 0; Brown’s Hills, north of Orient, 110 and 160. East from the light-house on Horton’s Point, these deposits, though not rising in prominent hills except at Orient, are in man aces unstratified, with an abundance of large angular bowlders, which are of all sizes up to twenty-five feet in diameter. This terminal moraine overlies stratified gravel, sand and clay, which contain no bowlders; as is well shown in the bluffs, 00 to 100 feet high at the north side of Brown’s Hills, where the very coarse morainic till is five to twenty feet thick, and forms the entire surface of these hills) The last two miles of this on the south, of obliquely stratified sand and coarse gravel, Si 2 which are sometimes of enormous of the North American Ice-Sheet. ‘201 others of equal size are seen close to the road in Setauket vil- lage. The largest block yet found on Long Island lies much farther west, at about a mile southeast from Manhassett, and is, according to measurement by Mr. Lewis, fifty-four feet long, forty feet wide, and sixteen feet high. — is later moraine is separated six to ten miles, on Long Isl. and, from that formed at the extreme line reached by the ice- sheet, and the area between them is occupied by extensive plains, the Peconic Bays, and Shelter Island. This series of plains resembles that of southern Long Island, in that both slope southward from terminal moraines on their north side, ate vary. from one to two or three miles in width, having a eight from 100 to about 150 feet above sea. Their greatest altitude appears to be at East Northport station. Here they pass beyond the north spur of the Dix Hills and expand to the south, attaining a width of five miles, which continues without much variation to Riverhead. In Smithtown considerable por- tions of these plains have been removed by the erosion of Streams since the Glacial period. Their height along their north side here and in Brookhaven is 150 to 100 feet above sea, from which the general slope southward is about ten feet to the mile. Near the east line of Brookhaven is a notable Series of ponds, reaching four miles, and lying in depressions of one of the old lines of drainage. These are called the West Row Ponds, and are known in their order from north to south as Long Pond, Big and Little: Tar-kiln, Pease’s, Duck, Sandy, Grass, and Jones’ Bote. extending to the Peconic River at a mile west from Manorville. Two miles eastward in Riverhead are the East Row Ponds, a similar series, including in the same order the two Jackson Ponds, Ice, Worthington and Fox Ponds. Northeast from Fox Pond isa tributary series, including Sand, Mud and Cranberry Ponds. Several other valleys, not con- taining ponds and of similar character with those of the south- ern plains, extend southward from the vicinity of Baiting Hol- low and Northville. On the north branch o the island these Plains diminish from four miles to about one mile in width, their height being sixty to thirty feet at the north, from which 1ey slope to the shores of Peconic and Gardiner’s Bays. The hilly character of Shelter Island, which varies from 50 to about 180 feet in height, being composed of stratified sand and gravel 202 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines ae with occasional bowlders, indicates that it was of similar origin with the hills of modified drift in the two moraines between which it lies. During the retreat of the ice-sheet it would appear that exceptionally large deposits were accumulated by its rivers here and at Gardiner’s Island. The continuation of the second moraine beyond Orient Point is to the east-northeast in Plum and Fisher's Islands, and from Watch Hill through the south part of Westerly, Charlestown and South Kingstown in Rhode Island, to near Point Judith. On Plum Island it forms hills about 100 feet high, abundantly covered with bowlders; but a considerable tract on the south side of this island is a low plain of modified drift, free from bowlders and sloping southward. Gull Island is a remnant of _ this plain which was formed in front of the terminal moraine. Fisher's Island, about seven miles long, is a conspicuous rem- nant of the moraine, being composed of the same coarse glacial ° drift with Brown’s Hills and Plum Island. Its elevations vary from 100 to nearly 200 feet in height, the most prominent being - Mount Prospect, North Hill, and Chocomount. Portions of the low plains are preserved on its south side for a mile from its west end, and again fora third of a mile between two ponds near the middle of the island. east and east from Perryville, several ponds occur among the hills, ridges and knolls of the moraine. At this part of its of the North American Ice-Sheet. 203 course it appears to turn to the southeast, passing into the sea two miles west of Point Judith. This angle corresponds to a similar one which was probably formed in the extreme moraine at Block Island, whence it also seems to have extended first to the southeast, in which direction very rocky fishing-ground is found at a distance of ten miles from that island. The next appearance of the northern moraine is in the Eliza- beth Islands, where the position of Cuttyhunk, Penikese and - Nashawena Islands corresponds to that of No Man’s Land, Gay Head and the hills of Chilmark in the southern moraine, indi- cating that angles occur again in them both, respectively at Penikese and at Gay Head. Heights of the later moraine on the Elizabeth Islands and Cape Cod, are as follows: highest portion of Penikese, about 100 feet; of Cuttyhunk, Nasha- wena, Pasque and Naushon Islands, about 175; the Quisset Hills, west of Falmouth village, about 150; station of the Uni- ted States Coast Survey, a mile east of West Falmouth, 198 ; the Ridge Hills, extending thence to the angle of this series near North Sandwich, 150 to 200 feet; southwest from Sand- wich village, about 225; Bourne’s Hill, a Coast Survey station, two miles south-southeast from Sandwich, the highest point of the whole series, 297; the Discovery Hills, including the last and extending eastward, 250 to 150; Shoot Flying Hill in Barnstable, about 200; German’s Hill in Yarmouth, 138; This moraine forms the entire chain of the Elizabeth Islands, fifteen miles long, with an average width of one mile. Their n hold small ponds. Their on the peninsula of Cape Cod the same belt of hills, continuing With its width, contour and material unchanged, bends within a few miles to a course nearly due north. A railroad cutting thirty feet deep in these deposits near Wood's Hole, and shal- lower sections on the Quisset Hills, 1 yellowish till at top succeeded below by light gray till, equally 204 W. Upham— Terminal Moraines coarse but apparently more compact, with some of its frag- ments planed and striated. The latter was probably accumu- lated beneath the ice-margin, while the former was dropped by its melting. After holding its way northward ten or twelve miles, reaching to a point about a mile south of North Sand- wich, the range turns at a right angle to a course a few degrees south of east. Some portions of it in this vicinity are strown with bowlders, but mainly, as shown on the roads which cross these hills southwest and south from Sandwich village, at the highest portion of the entire series, they consist of stratified gravel and sand, with bowlders rare or entirely wanting. There is also a change to a more simple contour, with fewer irregular hills and hollows. -From its angle the range extends about thirty-five miles to the east shore of the cape. Through Sand- wich and Barnstable it lies about a mile south of the railroad, consisting in the latter town of hills 100 to 200 feet high, appa- rently formed of modified drift, with frequent bowlders embed- ded in it and scattered upon its surface. In Yarmouth the series is somewhat broken, and the railroad crosses it upon 4 sand plain a little west of German’s Hill. South of Dennis Pond and for one and a half miles northeast from German’s Hill to ter. Its further course is mostly modified drift with occa- sional bowlders, passing east-northeast to Mill Hill, Orleans » ‘village, and the southeast side of Town Cove, beyond which it is concealed beneath the ocean. produced where their slopes came together north from the angle of their terminal line, is presented in Rocky, Manomet at Pine Hills, which form a gigantic ridge in the east part of Ply- mouth, four miles long from north to south, with a continuous height 300 to 400 feet above the sea. Abundant angular bowlders of all sizes up.to twenty feet in diameter strow its surface. At the north end of this ridge the sea has under- mined its base, forming a steep slope sixty feet in height. | section here showed twenty feet of upper till, yellowish, with abundant large and small bowlders, nearly all of them angular, underlain by lower till, dark blyish gray, with small glaciated of the North American Ice-Sheet. 205 stones, exposed for twenty feet vertically but concealed below. e bed of bowlders which forms the shore at this point came mostly from the upper stratum, and their sharp corners and ges have since been worn away by the waves. On Cape Cod, as on Long Island, Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, we find south of the line of morainic hills an area of stratified gravel and sand without bowlders, forming exten- sive plains which slope very gently southward. These are fully ten miles wide from north to south in Sandwich, Fal- mouth and Mashpee, and thence to the east they have an aver- age width of five miles. From the southwest limit of this area at Falmouth village, the traveler who follows the road along the south side of the cape for thirty miles sees only level — twenty-five to forty feet above the sea, with occasional ollows and valleys, most of which are occupied by ponds and brooks. The north edge of this area, next to the terminal moraine, consists of more elevated plateaus, 50 or 75 to 200 feet in height. From this line there is a continuous slope southward, scarcely perceptible, but declining in the five to ten miles of its extent to within twenty-five to forty feet above sea. This north portion of the plains is marked by frequent hollows of large extent, which contain ponds 50 to 100 feet below the general surface. A fine idea of the slope of this deposit of modified drift is obtained in a journey from Sandwich to Green- ville, Ashunet Pond and Falmouth. " The ascent of 200 feet or Point it crosses numerous depressions that are or have been water-courses; but there is no break in the continuity of the plains, which in about twelve miles descend by a gradual slope from the height of 200 feet to sea-level. ; These plains of Cape Cod are also like those previously described in being indented by narrow arms of the sea whi h Teach one to two miles inland, filling the lower end of long depressions that continue across the plains to the north, being either dry or occupied by small streams. These channels are best shown on Cape Cod in Falmouth and eastward to Cotuit t, being in the’ region directly south from the angle of the terminal moraine and from its highest hills, which in this Portion of its course are composed mainly of modified drift ; » 206 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines - in other words, they occur most abundantly where the drainage from the melting ice-sheet must have been greatest, including all the floods poured down from the ice-fields along the line | ' between Falmouth village and North Sandwich, those that con- verged toward the angle of the ice-margin, and those which brought down its vast frontal hills of gravel and sand along several miles eastward. Extensive portions of the terminal moraines were deposited, as we have seen, by rivers which flowed from the su co} the melting ice when a warmer climate returned. On the south side of these the plains have their greatest width and height, while on the north we also find extended areas of modi drift, which show that the glacial floods continued to be poured down to the same portions of the ice-margin during its retreat. Thus on Long Island the area north of the extensive moraine from the Narrows to Roslyn consists almost wholly of undulat- ing unmodified drift with abundant bowlders, while farther eastward it is stratified gravel and sand with few bowlders. Wherever angles occurred in the terminal front of the ice its surface had converging slopes, which would be likely to pro- duce extraordinary fluvial deposits. This may explain the origin of the thick beds of stratified drift which form nearly the whole of Block Island, and of the plains in South Kings- town, R. I, which extend six miles north from the angle of the second moraine, reaching from Tucker's and Worden’s Ponds to the north line of the township. The plains south of the moraines at their angles near Vineyard Haven and North Sand- wich are notably due to the debouchure of glacial rivers at these points; and when the ice-sheet retreated from its second moraine, the floods which it discharged formed a most irregu- lar belt of gravel and sand in ridges, hills, plateaus and hol- lows of every shape, but generally with a north-to-south trend, through a distance of nearly twenty miles to the north and north-northwest, reaching from its angle at North Sandwich through Plymouth to Kingston. West and north from these kames, the greater part of Plymouth County consists of nearly level or moderately undulating deposits of modified drift, 50 to _ 150 feet above sea, which reach continuously from the angle of the terminal moraine on Cape Cod more than thirty-five miles to Hingham, on the south shore of Massachusetts Bay. Another and perhaps more remarkable series of fluvial deposits was SUp- plied from the melting ice-sheet to form Nantucket, the hills which rise 75 to 125 feet above sea in Chatham, the southeast townsbip of Cape Cod, and the north portion of this peninsula beyond Orleans, which consists entirely of modified drift from 50 to 175 feet above sea. ‘The first recognition of the terminal moraines of southeastern of the North American Ice-Sheet. 207 Massachusetts was by Mr. Clarence King,* who examined Naushon Island and pronounced it, with the similar formation continuing on Cape Cod, to be a series of deposits accumulated at the margin of the continental ice-sheet. The same conclu- sion has been announced by the geologists of Wisconsin and Jersey respecting the series which cross those States. At nearly stationary through a long period, in which the materials that it contained were being continually brought forward and deposited.t In many places these would be pushed into very irregular heaps and ridges by slight retreats and advances of the ice-margin. At the same time we should also expect that thick beds of ground-moraine would be gathered beneath the ice Near its termination, The withdrawal of the glacial sheet u many parts of these series, however, the materials brought by the ice have been covered by modified drift brought by glacial rivers; so that the three divisions of the drift join to form the terminal moraines. No similar series of drift deposits seems to have been discovered north of the second here described, and we may conclude that in general the retreat of the ice-sheet did not admit sufficient pauses for their formation. * Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xix, p. 62 ase In Long Island an ern end, adjoining the city of New York, we find serpentine, red sandstone, an Various erevtiio snd setae rocks, which have come frem the district lying Mamediately to the north.” were Excepting the pre-gilacial deposits which _ been mentioned, and a small area oe ms c consist of drift deposits which owe their accumu- lation, as has been aie eh to the action of the ice-sheet and its rivers in amassing them at its termination. 208 W. Upham—Terminal Moraines of N. American Ice-Sheet. _It remains for us to notice briefly the probable extent and equivalency of these terminal accumulations of the ice-sheet, both to the east and west. Agassiz believed that the fishing banks or submarine table-lands, which lie at a distance of 100 to 200 miles east and southeast from Cape Cod, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, are such glacial isan On the other hand, it has been recently learned that fragments of fossilife- rous rock,* as tied of Miocene age, are brought up from the = -bottom on George’s Bank, Banquereau and the Grand Bank, by mn coralline growths attached to them becoming entangled with fishermen’s lines. These indicate that this coast, 1,000 miles in extent, is bordered by submerged Tertiary formations. similar to those that occur above sea-level in the Southern States, as had been already suggested by Professor ©. H. Hitchcock,+ before this - discovery. Although it now seems likely that these older deposits form the principal basis of the fishing banks, it is clear that the opinion of Agassiz was part of the truth ; for besides the fossiliferous fragments many of granites and ‘schists are also obtained by the fishermen. Furthermore, the course of the extreme terminal moraine that crosses New J ersey, Long Island, Block Island, Martha's Vine- ard and Nantucket, has its ts line of continuation in these remarkable submarine banks, — It is probable, therefore, that they consist, somewhat like Gay Head, of Tertiary strata cov- ered with their own and foreign detritus brought by the ice- The later moraine of Cape Cod, the Elizabeth Islands, south- ern Rhode Island and the north shore of Long Island, was formed after the ice had retreated from its farthest limit, but in southern Michigan, in the Kettle Moraine of Wisconsin, and the Leaf Hills of Minnesota; while its farther continuation as ee r Verrill in this Sic TH vol. xvi, p. 3: - Appalachia, vol. i, p. oe and Geology of New ag preite vol. i i pe 2 ‘On the Extent cane re of the Wisconsin K e Moraine,” in ‘Trans: i of Saience. ournal of Geological Society, vol. bi ee rg14-623, wi with map. | C. H. F. Peters—New Observations on Planetoids. 209 this entire series of terminal moraine varies from sea-level in the region that has been here described to 2,000 feet above it at the north line of Dakota. In the Western States the front of the ice-sheet is shown by Professor Chamberlin to have been lobed, producing acute angles in its terminal moraine, with medial moraines extend- dary, probably coinciding nearly with the course of the Colum- ‘bia, Missouri and Ohio Rivers, and the south coast of New England, while a part of Wisconsin and adjacent States was an d, when it had yielded a portion of its ground, but rallied again to a sturdy resistance before being fully put to flight. Art. XXXII.—New Observations on Planetoids; by C. H. F. Peters, (Communication to the Editors, dated Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., August 10, 1879.) I take pleasure in communicating the following planet observations : : (77) Frigga. : é. app. 1879. Ham.Coll.m.t a. app pas preg 68 0 July 17. 14hgom 5s gih3am 738 —17°44"43"9 —(O'1 «19 12 51 10 30 4957 17 61 17 0°160, 0884 10 7 45 30 864 17 54 99 OBTn 0980 10 7 81 614 a9 2122 1 ces 47-0 R- 918 2113 244 —19 5 482 ct.—Tarrp Sgrizs, Vou. XVIII.—No. 105, SzPT., 14 1879. 210 C.4A.F. Peters—New Observations on Planetoids. (200) [discovered July 27.] 1879. Ham. Coll. m. t. . ap dé. app. (log. p.”A.) No. comp. July 27. 14551™44s - 21542™46"78 —15°37758""8 0-417 0°869 * 14 15 31 41 59°83 15 39 36°7 0°239 0:874 10 28; “ 30. 13 55 43 40 21°57 1642595 0-159 0875 10 Aug. 9. 112141 21 31 3022 —16 0453 0:218, 0°876 10! To the planet (199), found on July 9th, as mentioned in the ast number of the Journal, I have given the name Byblis. gga, as is known, had been searched for in vain for many years, though it had come twelve times in opposition since its discovery, Nov. 12, 1862. There existed nine observations of reflecting power, be it atmospheric or arising from the shape. And I find, that, in communicating my observations in 1863 to the Astron. Nachr. (No. 1428), I added then the following note: “From the mean of the estimates the magnitude of the planet in the mean opposition results 18:0, Remarkable is the whiteness of the light with which it was shining, and though but a luminous point, the image presented a certain neatness. This was very striking in comparing it on the same evenings, therefore independently of the state of the air, with Ferona, which was not far off.” Moreover, in 1864 Professor Tietjen, e orally communicated to me, estimated the magnitude - much larger than the computation had given it. Frigga, there- fore, needs watching, as perhaps it may give us some insight ite the physical structure of the planetoids and their atmos- eres. When it was re-discovered, on J uly 16th, its position differed about 6° in right-ascension and 2° in declination from the place Q=45,. t= 2°28, log a=—0-4425, while for Frigga we have QHeA, 1=2°28', log r= 0431, therefore quite the same, the apparently larger difference in the longitude of the node arising only from the small inclination. W. H. Pation— Observations on the genus Macropis. 211 Arr. XXXIII.— Observations on the genus Macropis; by W. H. PATTON. only, while the males occurred also upon the flowers o: the flowers with the ligula for the juices with which to moisten the pollen. This act of the bee seems to me both impossible and unnecessary. The ligula is too weak, and, if we are to look to the Lystmachia for a solution of the problem, it Is well * Die Befrnchtung der Blumen durch Insecten, pp. 348 and 463 (1873). Belfast Address, 1874; Nature, vol. x, p. 426, and British Wild Flowers be oes e to Insects, p. 21. The ae pron pp Son ag SPP opemiens ns ritish Wild Flowers, p. 126 - coreg SM and the question arises in the mind of the reader: where do the bees get the honey upon which they must live? ewman’s Entomologist, Aug., 187 6, p. 158. can contain i ¢ apart 2s group of Lysimachias containing L. ciliata has recently been se as a distinct Stetronema fessor Gray (Proc. Am. Acad., vol. xii, mie of eget! oedsees of the Asie ef but for oo present purposes, Tridynia (containing stricta and quadrifolia), Lyeimachia (containing vulgaris) and Siclvousmna tan to: Goad together under the name Lysimachta. (212 ~=«~W. EZ. Patton— Observations on the genus Macropis. to ask whether the glands with which the filaments and base of the corolla are beset may not furnish the nectar. In the American 2. etlata, LZ. quadrifolia and ZL. stricta, and on the filaments at least of the European JZ. vulgaris the glands are very numerous. But upon the flowers of stricta and quadriolia the Macropis has not yet been found, although the flowers have been often watched ; it seems, therefore, that the glands afford no attraction. We must conclude that it is with nectar that the pollen is moistened ; and as it has been my good fortune to distinctly observe a female Macropis sucking nectar from the flowers of Rhus glabra, it is, evidently, from these and other flowers that the Macropis obtains the honey for the food both of itself and its young. But why does the Macropis moisten the pollen as it is col- lected? This is an unusual habit. The social bees moisten it in order that it may be retained on the pollen plates. The Scopulipede and Gastrilege bees retain the dry pollen with the hairs forming the pollen brushes. The Zysimachia pollen is not of so dry a nature that hairs would not hold it. An alto- gether new interest was given to the genus Macropis by Hermann Miiller’s observation that it alone of all the solitary bees of Germany moistened the pollen as collected, thus econ- omizing in the expanse of hairs upon the legs.* The retaining +x c., p. 47, and Anw. d. Nature, vol. x, p. 103. These observations Cont : ‘ : ? In is, aS in our native W. H. Patton— Observations on the genus Macropis. 218 Up to the present time no French* or English author has questioned the validity and naturalness of the two groups, Abeille and Pro-abeiile, into which Réaumur divided all the ees. Kirby adopted this classification, employing the names Apis and Melitta; Latreille adopted it under the names Apiarie and Andrenete; and all subsequent authors have employed the same classification, either under these names or under Leach’s family names Apide and Andrenide. Yet the only characters given for separating the Apide and Andrenide which are not entirely erroneous are: Apide ; labium longer than mentum, basal joints of labial palpi elongate, labium slender and not flattened. Andrenide ; labium shorter than mentum, basal joints of labial palpi not unlike the following joints, labium flattened. But in the gents Scrapter (placed among the Andrenide) the palpi are precisely as in Callropsis (placed among the Apide), and, as I have observed, the labium in repose is of precisely the same length—in both extending to the tip of the basal posterior Wings and in general appearance. In the form of the basal a of the posterior tarsi of the female it agrees with none but . e social bees, which also have the habit of moistening the pollen as collected. * As Lepeletier failed to recognize the Bees as a natural group, said to have presented any classification of them. he cannot be 214 W. H. Patton— Observations on the genus Macropis. Macroris Panz. (1809). Ocelli in a slight curve; face slightly narrowed beneath; clypens not elevated, yellow in the male; labium transverse, entire; mandibles stout, obtusely bidentate; maxillary palpi 6-jointed, the sixth and one-half of the fifth joints extending beyond the apical lobe of the maxillz ; labium lanceolate, one- third the length of the mentum, the latter narrowing toward the base, the paraglosse small; joints of the labial palpi decreasing in length successively, the basal joint equal in length to the second and third taken together. The flagellum in the female sub-clavate, the first joint ovate, the second nar- rowed toward the base and one-third longer than the first joint, the third and fourth joints equal and when taken together shorter than the second joint, the apical joint obliquely tran- cate; in the male the first joint of the flagellum is globose, the second scarcely longer than the first, the third scarcely one-half as long as the second, the fourth about equal in length to eac of the following joints, the flagellum not clavate but longer than in the female. The anterior wings have two submarginal cells, the second receiving both recurrent nervures, the origin of the first recurrent nervure far beyond the origin of the cubital nervure; the stigma of good size; submarginal bulle six, two on the first transverse nervure, one on the second, one on the first recurrent nervure, two on the second; basal lobe of the posterior wings extending beyond the middle of the submedial cell. Both sexes have the tarsal claws cleft and a distinct enclosure at the base of the posterior tibize. Posterior femora of the male swollen; posterior tibise in both sexes robust; basal joint of the posterior tarsi of the female quadrate, flattened, the upper angle not produced, the second joint attached at the lower angle; the posterior tibize and the joint of the posterior tarsi of the female clothed with a short, dense probescence upon which the pollen is collected in moist masses; basal joint of the posterior tarsi of the male arm with a regular comb of long teeth projecting from the inner margin of the lower face. Sixth segment of the abdomen of the female with a smooth enclosure on the disk. The seventh segment in the male with a triangular pyramidal projection on the disk, the apex of the projection obtuse, the anterior and longest side polished. 0. C. Marsh—Jurassic Mammals. 215 Art. XXXIV.—Additional Remains of Jurassic Mammals; by O. C. Marsa, This specimen differs from the jaws of Dryolestes priscus, in being more slender, less curved, and less compressed. symphysial surface is long, and only moderately roughened. The fourth lower premolar is in perfect preservation. It bas two fangs, and the crown is very sharp, and much compressed. There is a slight tubercle on the front margin, and a low distinct heel on the posterior border. he following measurements are from this specimen: of jaw below first premolar, -...-.------- 2°5 Depth of jaw below fourth premolar, ---.------- r Width of jaw below fourth premolar, ..-.-.--.-- 2° Height of crown of fourth lower premolar,.... -- 2 The species represented by this specimen may be called Dryolestes vorax. The animal appears to have been rather Smaller than D. priscus. The only known remains are in the Yale Museum. Yale College, New Haven, August 8, 1879. * This Journal, vol. 459, 1878, and vol. xviii, p. 60, 1879. + From Phascolothertasa. with which it agrees more closely, the present genus may be distinguished by the greater number of teeth. 216 Screntific Intelligence. A striking feature in this jaw is the coronoid process, the anterior margin of which forms a right angle with the ramus, immediately behind the last molar. The angle of this jaw is much extended backward, but not perceptibly inflected. The condyle is low, and but slightly above the dental series. he figure below gives the outline and general features of this specimen. eee Ley sone — Right lower jaw of Tinodon bellus, Marsh. Twice natural size. The principal dimensions of this specimen are as follows: Space occupied by eight posterior teeth, 5 scar Space occupied by four posterior molars, ....:-. 6° Distance from last molar to posterior end of jaw, 9° Height of coronoid process above base of jaw,--- 7° Depth of jaw below last lower molar, -...-.-.-- 2°5 Depth of jaw below last premolar, 2° a This specimen indicates a new genus, which may be called Tinodon, and the species Tinodon bellus, The animal thus represented was apparently an insectivorous marsupial,* and in size somewhat smaller than those above noticed. Yale College, August 16, 1879. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. 1. On the Spectrum of Ytterbium.—Lxrcog pE BoisBaUDRAN having received from Marignac a portion of his new earth ytter- Chemistry and Physics. 217 nebulous beginning of a band with two maxima, of intensity 6,, the whole being well-marked, the principal brightness beginning at about 118, the first and strongest maximum about 119, and the middle of the second maximum at 1214. Near 1224 is the very ill-defined right edge of this band, which is united to the one next following by.a slightly luminous background. (6) Band a little more feeble than that at 1074} and notably shaded; its left edge, somewhat nebulous, being at 1234, its middle about 1244, and its very nebulous right edge near 126. (7) Well marked band a _ little stronger than 6, at 1144 and strongly shaded from left to right, of intensity y; left edge sharp at 1264, the middle being at 127.1, and the right edge, ill-defined, at 129. (8) Bend sensibly ita (10) Band very nebulous on both borders, about two Ivisions broad, notably more marked than 134, and a litile g and may be this metal, especially in the absence of more precise knowledge of its chemical properties.— C, R., lxxxviii, 1342, June,1879. 6G. F. B. a, On ‘Ne } 218 Scientific Intelligence. very anys the salifiable base eames sai 4 Caton by the dec “ic on of the tart gradual tion takes | place speedily only when an excess of “Saliffable base, such as cal cium carbonate, is cola 6. Nitrification ag occur in solutions in which calcium salts are appar ently abse y ae: Few of orapnie carbon (as tartrate) to nitrogen ati as NH,Cl) equal :10 by weight suffices for the purposes of nitrification, and pod dee say less would be suffic me 8. Solutions containing as muc 640 milligrams NH,Cl per liter can be completely nitrified, though the limit of concentration up to which nitrifica- n a active work of the ferment. Whether this is due to the necessity of Cag A the germ to p roduce the effect or to the existence of th a passive senation, us an yet settled. 14. Increase in the cone Sedcniin n of the ammoniacal solution lengthens the riod of iecatauen, 15. sien of temperature within certain imits greatly reduces the —_ of the period of incubation, It being shorter at 30° than at 20°. 16, The period of actual nitri- fication, which succeeds the period of incubation, increases wi the concentration of the ammoniacal solution, and if the tempera- ture its length varies nearly as the degree of concentra- tion. Strong solutions require rather less time in proportion to their strength than weak ones. 17. The period of actual nitrifica- tion diminishes greatly in length by rise in temperature ; thoug' it is not yet proved to be shorter at 30° than at 20°. 18. Fro 16 and 17, it follows that the average rate of oxidation increases up to a certain point with rise of temperature and is also somewhat increased with increasing concentration of the solution. 19. The rate ot oxidation is not uniform throughout, the process of nitrifi- eation beginning slowly, then scsouning in rapidity and after reaching a the nti ation i 8 again toward the close. 20. The Chemistry and Physics. 219 in the dark. With strong solutions, or at elevated temperatures, or kept in the light, the nitrification is wholly or chiefly nitrous. Cold dilute solutions, in which nitrification is long checked by the absence of a salifiable base, also assume the nitrous fermentation on introducing such a base, 21. It does not appear that the pro- xxxv, 429, July, 1879, G. F. B, On the Chemical Constitution of Alkali-metal Amalgams.— Berrue or has investigated the question of the chemical compo- A series of these amalgams was prepared, some liquid, some solid, and treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, the heat evolved bein meas At the such that the variation of temperature In the calorimeter was between 1°5° and 4°. Beginnin with a liquid amalgam contain- ing 0°335 parts K to 100 parts Hg, or Hg,,:K,, t & pasty amalgam, the numbers are 27°8 and f (Hg. k ), 27°25 and 34:2, the cima oF being solid. With 2 per — K (H aaK,), 26°7 and 34°8. 29°7, ith bo ith about 8 41-2 and 203. With r cent (Hg..K,), 40°7 and eae With 11°85 K (Hg,,,K. , 46°2 and 15°3. ence it ap ars that the heat of formation of these am increases at first to a maximum and then diminishes again. 220 Scientific Intelligence. Chemistry and Physics. 221 nium camphoramate was the result. Distilled alone, it gave camphorimide O,H,,4 09 NH. This body, distilled with zine alcohol c} CH)”, the carbinol of the trivalent radical C,H,,; (C,H,,)” in which case borneol is the secondary alcohol C4 H and (C,H,,)’ 2 menthol the primary alcohol C “ .—Liebig’s Ann., exevii, OH . 321, June, 1879, G. F. B, 5. A new Synthesis of Methyl-violet.—Hasse has described & new synthesis of methyl-violet. When a mixture of one part of proven. Since the maximum yield is from one molecule of the sulphochloride and three of dimethyl-aniline, the reaction must take place as follows: (CH,),NC,H, C,H, C+ | +HCl+ oa (C ae Geng, | gs (HO), +C,H,SH.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xii, 1275, July, 1st. $ G. th : t both, especially the former. (3) Only one crystallized alkaloid could be isolated from each of three different batches of roots. This has the formula C,,H,,N,O,, (4) This alkaloid, to which ee = 222 Scientific Intelligence. the alkaloids are easily extracted thus. (7) The relation of japa- conitine to its derivatives and to aconitine is conveniently ex- method demands more than a passing notice. It is so simple 10 its theory and manipulation, so universal in its application, and it avoids in such a remarkable way the main difficulties and sources of inaccuracy, which are inherent in all the methods hitherto employed for the same purpose, that it promises to become one 0! the most important aids in the investigation of chemical science. nee theory of the method may be stated thus. a known Pate +43 ‘gs : De | 1 dropped the weight of the air expelled. The problem is thus reduced to of the temperature or volume of the vesse which may in unknown quantities. All the uncertainties, therefore, coD- nected with the measurements of high te tures, or of the have only to collect the air over a common water pneumatic trough and measure its volume, at the ordinary temperature - pressure of the air in easily calculate the weight required; or, if the material undeF examination is liable to oxidation, the vessel may be previously filled with nitrogen or some other inert gas, since the volume of such gas will be the same as the volume of the air under the Chemistry and Physics. 223 The only apparatus required in most cases is represented in the accompanying figure, which is drawn to scale, The bulb } has a capacity of about 100 cm.’ and is about 20 c.m., long, and the glass tube to which it is attached is about 60 ¢c.m. long and 6mm. wide. The upper end of this tube is closed by a rubber stopper d, while to its side is united the very narrow delivery tube a, which conducts the expelled air to a ' pneumatic trough. By means of a wire guard the bulb is prevented. from touching the sides of the iron bath in which it is heated, and a small amount of asbestos at the bottom of the bulb serves to break the fall of the small to be obtained. For comparatively low tem- peratures the most convenient bath is the vapor of some high boiling liquid, whose ebul- lition is so regulated that the vapor condenses before reaching the open mouth of the long i an g, bo ° : S S o @ B + =e 7 | & © & i] constant (a condition which is indicated by the fact that bubbles of gas cease to escape rom the open mouth of the tube, while at the Same time there is no teridency in the water to recede) the necessary observations are Made in a very simple way. The stopper at d is removed, the small tube containing the — substance is dropped in, and the stopper instantly replaced. The few bubbles of air displaced by the stopper are of 224 . Scientific Intelligence. course neglected; but the air, which soon begins to stream over in consequence of volatilization of the materia) introduced, is col- lected over water in an ordinary graduated tube. e experiment is soon finished, and the stopper @d must then be removed, to pre- vent any recession of the water in the trough. It remains only to measure the volume of the air in the gradu- ated tube with the usual precautions. For this purpose the tube with its contents is transferred to a tall cylindrical glass vessel of water, and held by a clamp in a vertical position, so that the water is at the same level within and without the tube, and, 0 t, from which we can caicu- moisture, and therefore, that in order to find the true tension of the confined air, we must subtract from the reduced height of the barometer the maximum tension of the vapor of water at the tem- perature ¢. Representing by / this tension (which will be found in Regnault’s tables), we have for the weight of the air displaced by the vapor ' H-A 273 W’=0'001293——_—_ ,. —____ : 76 273+¢ and if W represents the weight of the substance used V; Sp. Gr. = a For convenience of logarithmic calculation these formule are easily combined into the following form: log (Sp. Gr.) = 2°3330 + ar. co. log (H~A) + log (273+) + 47. 0 log V + log W. In these perectiantions it is important that the amount of sub- have separately. In the case of a heavy vapor, no considerable vessel—might reasonably be expected i with sur been Pp . ence it was prise that thie tnetbod was found to be applicable to light, vapoF* a > , Chemistry and Physics. 225 Constant log 2°3330 h=10°97 or. co. log 81490 273 + t=289°1 lo ; 24611 =14°6 ar. co. log 8°3356 W=0°0102 log 70086 Sp. gr. 0°613 9°7873 Theory H,0 0-623 Two other independent determinations of the same value gave 0°63 and 0°64 respectively. of molten cast iron have been found to be 13°8 and 19°8 respec- In the Berichte der Deutsch. Chem. Gessell. of July 28th, re- Theory for Cl, 2.45 At about 808° the density found was 221 2°19 ac 1028° tt ac 1°8 1°89 “ 1242° tb “ 165 1°66 74 1392° “u “ce ] y 1°69 “ 1567° 160 1°62 ot ‘“ Theory for } Cl. 1°63 ; Am. Jour. Scr.—Turtrp Szrtes, Vou. XVII, No. 105.—Seprr., 1879. 15 meee, 226 Scientific Intelligence. Hence between 1242° and 1567° the density of chlorine gas is constant at two-thirds of its normal value, and its molecular Pv : Beas P P Py Po. 127°223 51594 Jiee 128-296 168-684 52860 09760 158-563 208°622 54214 0°9516 190°855 251°127 55850 0°9238 221-103 290-924 57796 0°8927 252-353 332-039 59921 0°8613 283-710 373°302 62708 0°8297 327-388 430-773 65428 0°7885 w.— C. R., lxxxviii, 1879, p. 336; Beiblatter Annalen der Physik, No. 6, 1879, p. 414. niga : ments of Modern Chemistry ; by Apvotene WURT%, Professor of Chemistry of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, ete. Translated, with the Author’s approval, b M.D. k y Wm. H. Green, M1 687 PP. 12mo, with 132 illustrations, Philadelphia, 1879. (Lippi- cott & Co.).—In a preface to this American edition of Professor Wurtz’s Chemistry, the author states that his friend and former pupil, Dr. Green, presents in this translation “a faithful, or even improved, representation of the original work.” The hand of er ™ ¥ Geology and Mineralogy. 227 facts of discovery are clearly stated, and, as far as possible, in his- torical order, with a severe exclusion of extraneous matters, t usefulness would be increased by a synoptical table of contents and a fuller index of proper names and subjects: e. g., one looks in 0, volu m French work has rarely a good index; but an English translation need not repeat this fault. In these days, when gas has com- pletely replaced the old-time charcoal furnaces as a source of heat in the laboratory, it looks strange to see these historic things re- produced from old cuts in the newest French book. B, 8. II. GEoLOGY AND MINERALOGY. the Chazy, Newburg, N ky: by Re Ps Wuitrietp. (From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated American Mu- “ Little Pond Road” one and three quarter miles southwest of New- burg Ferry, where I obtained from the thin shaly layers of the limestone, remains of three specimens of Maclurea magna Les., one of which is sufficiently well preserved to be unmistakable. . Coan does not mention the precise time of this eruption; but, Statements j ; i ‘ Ga ues Fe Islan Tanea; and, though large, is small compared with the area of the bottom of the pit, the longest diameter of miles. ; 3. D. D. 228 Scientifie Intelligence. a few days before been filled to overflowing with boiling lava, raging, rolling in fiery waves from side to side of the glowing pit, dashing against its heated walls and throwing up its sheets and spouts of liquid fire 20, 40 and 50 feet into the air, while the sur- rounding deposits of solidified scoria formed a smoking mountain. Out of the northern and northwest sides of this accumulated mass of voleanic products streams of liquid lava burst from time to _ time, flowing down into the central region of the crater, and thus raising it, foot by foot, for months and years. Added to these subaerial outflows, there were oft-repeated, upward or. vertic gushings of lava through seams and crevices; and thus, by these twofold actions, the great central depression, caused by the subsi- dence of a very large area of this part of the crater, was gradu ally filled up. One feature of this last eruption of Kilauea is the fact that the amps and sending out fiery glances from her red eye-balls. the old process of replenishment has begun and after another us eruptions also. the recent eruption as a sequel to that of August rift opened upon the northeastern side of the Geology and Mineralogy. 229 of 1874 has become extended, reaching across the main crater in a north-northeast and south-southwest direction, to a length of ten kilometers. And from its extremities the lava has poured forth, beginning on the evening of May 26th. On the southwest it took the direction of the old lava flow toward the town of Aderné, but its course was arrested after flowing about two kilo- meters. From the northeastern extremity of the rift the flow ex- 80" depth).’ : e report of U.S. Consul Owen to the State Department is dated Messina, June 20, and in it he says: “The eruption was pre- ceded by a slight shock of earthquake that was felt throughout the island and at Reggio on the continent. rs were opened, one near the summit on the south-southwest side of the Mountain and the other on the north-northeast lower down the ct oO r In Messina the pavements north as ¢ rovince of Naples. emen and balconies were covered with this black dust, and during its a was of ten hours tion, it was disagree to go of stones in a state of incandescence, for mas as each successive discharge would expel the melted condition, it would accumulate at the mouth of the crater, ing, i i il pressed forward by the dis- e ages caused by the eruption have bee x 1,000,000 of liras. The property damaged consisted of vineyards 230 Scientific Intelligence. and nut groves. Fortunately no lives were lost or villages the undermining of the soil owing to the recent eruptions.” c. G. RB, 4, Former extension northward of the South American Conti- nent.—The following paragraphs close a paper by A. AGassiZ, : ; : S from A. Agassiz to C. P. Patterson, Sup’t Coast Suryey. (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass., vol. v, No. 14, June, nes instructive. : One of the most interesting results reached by this year’s cruise is the light thrown upon the er extension of the South Amer- America ; the Caribbean Islands show in part the same relation- ship, though the affinity to the Venezuelan and Brazilian fauna ora is much more ma Tn attempting to reconstruct, from the soundings, the state of things existing in a former period, we are at once struck by the the whole of Porto Rico, and extend some way into the Mon Passage. The 100-fathom line similarly forms a large plateau, uniting Anguilla, St. Martin and St. olomew. It also unites Barbuda and An , forms the Saba Bank, unites St. Eustatius, St. Christopher, Nevis and Redonda. It forms an elongated pla- teau, extending from Bequia to the southwest of Grenada, and Tuns more or less parallel to the South American coast from the Margarita dslands, leaving a comparatively narrow channel between it and the 100-fathom line south of Grenada, so 28 t° A Trinidad and Tobago with in i limits 7 and runs oft to the Geology and Mineralogy. 231 southeast in a direction also about parallel to the shore line. At the western end of the Caribbean Sea, the 100-fathom line forms a gigantic bank off the Mosquito coast, extending over one-third n Jamaica has a depth of 3,000 fathoms, and that between Hayti and Cuba is not less than 873 fathoms, the latter being probably an arm of the Atlantic. The 500-fathom line connects, as a gigan- leaving Barbadoes to the east, and a narrow passage between Martinique and the islands of Dominica and St cia. must, of course. d north, have swept round the on peaangee yg 3 Virgin Islands, Porto Rico and Hayti, and 232 Scientific Intelligence. uniting into one large spit, as a part of South America, all the islands to the south of it. Thus the bulk of the water forced into the Caribbean Sea has a comparatively high temperature,—an average, probably, of the temperature of the 300-fathom line. e co t : with this huge mass of water pouring into the Gulf of Mexico, there should be anything like a cold current forcing its way up- hill into the Straits of Florida, as has been asserted on theoreti- cal grounds. The channel at Gun Key can only discharge the ee having a great velocity. T; t arman, w ‘companied West Indies, after we left the “ Blake” at Barbadoes, for the pur- pose of making collections of Reptiles and Fishes, with a view . . t rd av 2 rscid gta, the Reptiles we collected is a gigantic land tortoise, found at Porto Rico, differing only in size from the land turtle It is closely allied to the gigantic turtles of the Gallopagos, and to the fossil land turtles, of which fragments have been described by the late Professor Wyman. These were collected by Mr. A. Julien at Sombrero, in the phosphate beds of the island. ,, 2: Mootprint in the Mesozoie rocks of New Jersey.—Mr. J. C. Russ LL has obtained at Boonton, New Jersey, a fine three-toed hoi rack, in the Mesozoic rock of the region. It meas- length, and 5°5 in width. Jrom the Anthracite Coal Measures, of the Maha- a the Ellangowan Colliery.—A slab, having upot Geology and Mineralogy. 233 it ripple-marks and seven footprints, has been obtained at this locality by Mr. W. Lorenz. The tracks, according to Dr. Leidy, have a breadth of about an inch, widely divergent toes, and the four on the right occupy a line of six inches and are about an inch 7. The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada and Califor- nia; by J. D. Wurrney (continued from page 147.)-—The follow- ing are the more important facts with regard to the fossils of the auriferous gravels, The plants were submitted to Professor Les- quereux ; and he has reported the absence of Coniferous remains, that the species of deciduous trees, seventeen of which are fr the Table Mountain deposit, are different from those now existing the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Weste erritories, 1873 € species reported from the gravels underneath basalt, come from Douglass Flat, Chili Gulch, and t m able M ? ? lama, Auchenia Californica L., besides a metacarpal “ probably a ofa some bones of a small horse, perhaps a Hipparion ; fro . Alameda County, Auchenia hesterna m the gravels near hora, two teeth of the living American Ta ifferent ato points, Mastodon Americanus, “up to an elevation little if at all exceeding 3,000 feet,” with also M. obseurus L.; at several locali- og River; HLguus caballus, E. excelsus oe E. poy’ sa tone implements (including tools, pestles, mo’ 3 an ob etc.), a reported, from the gravels at the wing localities, and if some are doubtful, miles northeast, and Princeton; in Merced County, near Snellin : ; at Dry Creek; in Tuolumne County, at Table Mountain, 234 Scientific Intelligence. Creek, Coloma, Georgetown, Brownsville; in Placer poem near Gold Hill, Forest Hill, Byrd’s Valley, Missouri Tunnel; in Nevada County, at Grass Valley, Myer’s Ravine, Brush Creek; in Butt County, at Cherokee ; also in Siskiyou and Trinity Counties, locali- ties not mentioned. Human bones are reported from Tuolumne and Calaveras Counties. (1.) Under Table Mountain, Tuolumne County, 3 ton Society of Natural History, for October 7, 1857, the same locality affording also a Mastodon’s tooth and a “large —_ i Ww pt. D. D. Akey related to him a discovery of a complete human skeleton Messrs. Mattison & Co., on Bald Mountain, near Altaville and feet. Professor Whitney brings forward the testimony of Mr Scribner and also of Dr. Jones; and says, “ We have the inde- pendent testimony of three witnesses, two of whom were prev ously known to the writer as men of intelligence and veracity, while in regard my the third there is no reason for doubting bis genuineness of the find. No motive for deception on the part of Mr. Mattison can be discovered, while the appearance of the skull smasteamae strong, though silent, testimony to the correctness of ~ Dr. Wyman’s report, _— now well known, stated that oo |; snull presents no signs of having belonged to an inferior tace- Tn its breadth it a: with the ae crania from California, Sehs) Sate 5 tie Ye a Sin Vik g RGN Soe ae by ee tw mae A WR ie a Sas, bee Geologyand Mineralogy. 235 ity of its chamber. In so far as it differs in dimensions from the other crania from California, it sepsenches the peat oii 3 The hot ” Frontal Length of Heightof Zygomatic Arch. Frontal. Cranium, Diameter. 22 oh ag ececes featee saat ary 2965 1266 135 137°6 5 from Alaska. 2s. 2.0222.. 133°5 92°38 285°5 1218 1295 132 11 rom afore so ale of Cal. 150°5 93°5 260 117 120°8 134 3 Digger Indians ________- 136°6 88-3 280 119 1203» -141°5 The Fos cay skull ee 150 101 300 128 134 145 Professor Te regards the gravels as Pre-Glacial, eH Plio- cene, on the basis of the evidence from the fossils fou nd in them. cin origin of tbe gravels remains to be discussed by oy in the ond part of the volume, ete, Or to a prefatory note, will be published i in a few m 8. : ‘tii iY y 23, Ay, sth sent to rey Imperial en torius putorius, F. erminea ees go serotinas, Arvicola pte tus, A. sp., Lepus variabilis (timidus ?), Cricetus Srumentarius, wT 9 OLUS qlss, and Sciurus vulgaris. Besides these seventeen spe- cles, von Hochstetter found remains of Hlephas primigentus, Rhi- noceros pees, Equus fossilis, Bos priscus, Cervus tarandus, U. elaph us, C. capreolus, C. euryceros (7), srr WS ibex, pipes spe- spelea, and Hycna number of species found in the Vypustek Cave being therefore twenty-nine. The evidence proves that this cave was of beasts of prey, long ten : families of hyenas and b and oce ally vis- ears ited by lions, lynxes and wolves; while many side galleries, some Opening today gave shelter to martens, weasels and other small carnivores. w animals may have been carried into the Cave after os by streams and floods; but by far the greater’ ele of the {poy aps are re She of tenants of the cave, or of their environs were covered with woods, and had a forest climate, at _* This is the breadth of the frontal at its narrowest part when the skull is Viewed from aboy. + Measured from the anterior edge of the foramen magnum to the level of the _ of the frontal, and an inch behind it on aba inside, (These measurements can, urse, be considered only as approximations; the fragmen condition sul nis connection : + must be taken into consideration in this a _ Scientific Intelligence. i the time when northern and middle Germany had the features : and climate of a steppe. Hence too the mountains and hills of } South Bohemia and Moravia may be supposed to have been the center from which forests advanced gradually in every direction over the great Diluvial Steppe of Europe north of the Alpine 9. Geology of Kansas; by Professor B. F. Mupex. — The Report of the State Board of Agriculture of Kansas, for the the Drift (some of whose bowlders are of large size), Tertiary beds, Cretaceous of the Niobrara, Benton and Dakota divisions, and the Carboniferous, Sub-carboniferous and Permian. Professor Mudge collected a large part of the fossil plants from the Dakota group 10. Geological Report of Indiana for 1878; by E. T. Cox, a sisted by Professor J. Cotrerr and Dr G. M. Leverre.—This new volume contains special reports on the geology of bile be County, Harrison County, and Crawford County, besides a genera r Cements, Glacial Drift, Archeolo , witha list of the Ferns, Mosses, Hepatice and Lichens of WayaeU i ae ora R. Owen bas a paper on ‘the “Restoration of Leiodon pte te *in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, July, Ill. Borany. : , June 9, printed in its y issued as a pamphlet of 25 pages. Botany. 237 one knows more than Mr. Ball of the Alpine flora, and in this lec- 0 I Ing species), so he contends that it could not have been e out of the Alps even re the maximum cold of the glacial period, ave lowered the zones of vegetation only that “ those humble plants that dwell in the chy ap region of lone anet. . G 2. The Native Plants of Victoria succinctly defined; by Bazon it ER, ‘S., ete. Part I, pp. 190, 8vo. Mel- urne, 1879.—No sooner is the great Flora Australiensis com- pleted, than the indefatigable Mueller sets himself to the preparation of an easy manual for the most populous colony of Victoria, and this is the first installment. It begins with the Polypetalous (Cho- Tipetalous) orders, intercalating the apetalous ones in a manner n t uncommon ; it illustrates them by good wood-cut figures, e, omits synonymy and also references, 0 i d in short supplies Just what is needed for educational and popular er Let us hope co ‘ at. the introduced plants are rigidly left out, even those which are overpowering the 238 Scientific Intelligence. native species. These weeds are a nuisance in every sense, to the botanist no less than to the colonist, and glad should we be every- where to ignore them if we could. But, as a classical English poetess sings 0 “Tall Buttercups that will be seen Whether we will or no,” the botanist cannot well shut his eyes to the intruders, although they do spoil the symmetry and purity of a flora. A. G. 8. The Influence of Light on the Motions of Desmids ; by E. pos- property which swarm-spores possess of placing their long axes parallel to the direction of the light. it i spores of Botrydium, Stahl, however, maintains that the spores ot Botrydium act like other swarm-spores, and he doubts the validity of the two forms of phototaxis as described by Stras w. G: the Provinz Brandenburg, Dr. Bauke showed that the early stages of the Het ge or of Platycerium grande differed from that of ros, TY e growth of the terminal cell of the germinal fila- ¢ r e etion. Spor tay as Eran ana *» i a ee ee ee 3 pay _ of New Mexico, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 239 IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Map of the Catskill Mountains, by A. Guyot.—Professor Guyot gives in this map the results of several summers’ work in stract of his results will appear in another number of this Journal. € map measures 14 X 20 inches, is complete in all the topog- raphy and in geographical details, and will be of great service to tourists. It may be had in New York of Scribner’s Sons and B. Westerman & Co the system found in Professor Dana’s Manual of Geology. ; 0 Astronomers.— U. 8. Naval Observatory, Washing- _ ton, will gratefully receive for its library, separate copies or reprints of memoirs published in the Transactions of Societies or rres- pects relating to them may be addressed to “The Library, h: n,. WU. 8A. ” Agents of the Smithsonian Institution abroad will receive large parcels for transmission. The smaller ones will be received more quickly if they are sent by mail. i As far as feasible, the pablcatioas of the Observatory will be distributed to all working astronom ‘ Jo ers. Ropa@ers, Hess Admiral, U. S. N., Superintendent. Washington, Aug. 18, 1879. 4. Annual Report upon Explorations and Surveys in the Depart- ment of the Missouri; by E. H. Rurryer, First Lieut. Eng. U. S. A.—This Report is Appendix SS (pp. 1749-1 868) of the : Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1878. It contains a Report on the San Juan region, in Western Colorado and part from a reconnoissance made in 1877, by Lieut. C. 240 Miscellaneous Intelligence. with by T. S. Brandegee; and an atanatottsal report by Professor Cyrus Thomas, which is illustrated by two plates of butterflies. 5. Documents relative to the Origin and History of the Smith- y Wm. J. Rezves. 1013 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1879. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 328. > : e Dartington, near Totnes,” published in the Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc. for February, 1879, I lost no time in putting myself in com- muncation with him on this subject, and, having received, in reply, a kind invitation to visit the “Pit-Park Quarry” (whence his Specimens had been taken), I availed myself of the opportunity on the 8th of May last. y general inference from our visit to the Quarry was that Stromatopora was essentially a “reef building” organism, and partial 1ecomposition, now yields up its contents even more sepa- om ea prehebly they have ever been since they were beats Ann. co ate Ubiquitous Stromatopora.—From a paper in the Ann, . Nat. Hist. for August. oe ps Et hoe on Eozoon Canadense.—A full abstract of Professor contained ei uss paper on Eozoon, with illustrations copied from it, 18 Be ‘duly 17, and 24, AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] Art. XXXV.—On Radiant Matter: A Lecture delivered to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Sheffield, Friday, August 22, 1879; by WILLIAM Crooxgs, F.R.S. To throw light on the title of this lecture I must go back more than sixty years—to 1816. Faraday, then a mere stu- dent and ardent experimentalist, was 24 years old, and at this early period of his career he delivered a series of lectures on the General Properties of Matter, and one of them bore the remarkable title, On Radiant Matter. The great philosopher's notes of this lecture are to be found in Dr. Bence Jones's “Life and Letters of Faraday,” and I will here quote a poe in which he first employs the expression Radiant “If we conceive a change as far beyond v as as that is = ra 80 et also many a would disa Faraday was evidently engrossed with this far-reaching speculation, for three omg later—in 1819—we find bps od ne h evidence and argument to strengthen hypot thesis. His notes are now more extended, cad ee Aas that in the intervening three years he had thought much and deeply on this higher form of matter. He first ~ out that matter may be classed into four states—solid, hi anid, tse and radiant—these modifications depending ——- Am. Jour. Sct.—Tarrp Serres, Vou. XVIIL—No. 106, Oct., 1879. 16 242 W. Crookes— Radiant Matter. ence of Radiant Matter is as yet unproved, and then press e proba- *“T may now notice a curious progression in physical properties accompany- ing changes of form, and which is perhaps sufficient to induce, in the inveenye onc’ Sanguine philosopher, a considerable degree of belief in the association the radiant form with the others in the set of cha i “ As we ascend from the solid to the fluid and gaseous states, physical proper ties diminish in number ety, each state losing some of those which belonged the p: So! parency, and a general mobility of particles is “ Passing onw to t us ste g onward state, still more of the evident characters of bodies are annihilated, e differen eight almost disap- : pear; the remains of diffe: | color that were left, are } Trans 5 universal, and they are all elastic. They now form but one set of sub- stan d , hardness, opacity, color and form, which render the number of solids and fluids almost infinite, are now supplied by a few slight in wei; d some unimporta color. * _ “To those, therefore, who admit the tadiant form of matter, no difficulty exists ai avor, persons show you a gradual resignation of prope oo ity the mabe We can appreciate as the matter ascends in le of forms, and they would Surprised if that effect were to cease at the gaseous state. They point isirtere ntly, if oarpct Nature makes at each step of the change, Oe ee a consistently, i ought to be greatest in the passage from the gaseous to th form.” —Life and Letters of Faraday, vol. i, p. 308. W. Crookes— Radiant Matter. 243 a Fourth state or condition, a condition as far removed from the state of gas as a gas is from a liquid. Mean Free Path. Radiant Matter. ing through an exhausted tube, a dark space is seen to sur- round it. This dark space is found to increase and diminish p rally infer that the dark space is the mean free path of the Molecules of the residual gas, an inference confirmed by experiment. 244 W. Crookes—Radiant Matter. the lines of molecular pressure caused by the excitement 0 the negative pole. The thickness of this dark space is the measure of the mean free path between successive collisions of the molecules of the residual gas. The extra velocity with which the negatively electrified molecules rebound from the excited pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are advancing toward that pole. A conflict occurs at the boundary of the dark space, where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of the discharge. ‘ Therefore the residual gas—or, as I prefer to call it, the aseous residue—within the dark space is in an entirely differ- ent state to that of the residual gas in vessels at a lower degree of exhaustion. To quote the words of our last years President, in his Address at Dublin :— “In the exhausted column we have a vehicle for electricity not constant like an ordinary conductor, but itself modified by the passage of the discharge, and perhaps subject to laws differing materially from those which it ebeys at atmospheric pressure. In the vessels with the lower degree of exhaustion, the length of the mean free path of the molecules is exceedingly small as compared with the dimensions of the bulb, and the space around the negative pole has widened out till it entirely fills the tube. By great rarefaction the mean free path has become so long that the hits in a given time in comparison to the misses may be disregard and the average molecule is now allowed to obey its ow? motions or laws without interference. The mean free path, 2 fact, is comparable to the dimensions of the vessel, and wé have no longer to deal with a continuous portion of matter, 8 would be the case were the tubes less highly exhausted, but we must here contemplate the molecules individually. In these W. Crookes—Radiant Matter. 245 entirely justify the application of the term borrowed from Faraday, that of Radzant Matter. Radiant Matter exerts powerful phosphorogenic action where it strikes. have mentioned that the Radiant Matter within the dark space excites luminosity where its velocity is arrested by resid- ual gas outside the dark space. But if no residual gas is left, the molecules will have their velocity arrested by the sides of the glass; and here we come to the first and one of the most noteworthy properties of Radiant Matter discharged from the negative pole—its power of exciting phosphorescence when it strikes against solid matter. The number of bodies which My earlier experiments were almost entirely carried on by the aid of the phosphorescence which glass takes up when it lumin i aie, fe ous sulphide of calcium prep ide is exposed to = far) it was at first, unchanged in position or intensity. W. Crookes— Radiant Matter. 251 If, instead of a flat disk, a hemi-cylinder is used for the neg- ative pole, the Matter still radiates normal to its surface. The (tube before you fig. 6) illustrates this property. It contains, as a negative pole, a hemi-cylinder (a) of polished aluminium. is is connected with a fine copper wire, b, ending at the platinum terminal, c. At the upper end of the tube is another terminal, d. e induction- pole positive, and when exhausted to a sufficient extent the projection hemi-cylinder in a direction normal to its surface, come to a focus and then diverge, tracing their path in brilliant green phosphorescence on 252 W. Crookes— Radiant Matter. aluminium cross to produce the shadow ; the glass has been hammered and bombarded till it is appreciably warm, and at the same time another effect has been produced on the glass— its sensibility has been deadened. The glass has got tired, if Matter. It is projected with great velocity from the negative pole, and not only strikes the glass in such a way as to cause it to vibrate and become temporarily luminous while the discharge is going on, but the molecules hammer away with oa energy to produce a permanent impression upon the Radiant Matter exerts strong mechanical action where it strikes. se have seen from the sharpness of the molecular shadows, at Radiant Matter is arrested by solid matter placed in its path. If this solid body is easily moved the impact of the molecules will reveal itself in strong mechanical action. Mr W. Crookes—Radiant Matter. 253 ever pole is made negative the stream of Radiant Matter darts 8. | from it along the tube, and striking the apne vanes of the little paddle-wheel causes it to turn round and travel along the railway. By reversing the poles I can arrest the wheel and send it the reverse way, and if I gently incline the tube the force of impact is observed to be sufficient even to drive the wheel up-hill. This experiment therefore shows that the molecular stream from the negative pole is able to move any light object in front it OT 1t. The molecules being driven violently from the pole there should be a recoil of the pole from the molecules, and by arranging an apparatus so as to have the negative pole mova ble and the body receiving the impact of the Radiant Matter xed, this recoil can be rendered sensible. In appearance the apparatus (fig. 9) is not unlike an ordinary radiometer with aluminium disks for vanes, each disk coated on one side with a film of mica. The fly is supported by a hard steel instead of glass cup, and the needle point on which it works is connected by means of a wire with a platinum terminal sealed into the glass. At the top of the radiometer bulb a second terminal is sealed in. The radiometer therefore can be connected with an induction-coil, the movable fly being made the negative pole. For these mechanical effects the exhaustion need not be 80 high as when phosphorescence is produced. The best pres- sure for this electrical radiometer is a little beyond that at which the dark space round the negative pole extends to the 254 W. Orookes—Radiant Matter. sides of the glass bulb. When the pressure is only a few mil- lims. of mercury, on passing the induction current a halo o velvety violet light forms on the metallic side of the vanes, the mica side remaining dark. As the pressure diminishes, a dark space is seen to separate the violet halo from the metal. At a pressure of half a millimeter this dark space extends to the glass, and rotation commences. On continuing the exhaustion the dark space further widens out and appears to flatten itself against the glass, when the rotation becomes very rapid. Here is another piece of apparatus (fig. 10) which illustrates the mechanical force of the Radiant Matter from the negative a: ‘ : t aluminium terminal (e) is sealed in at the top of the tube, and vanes on the screen. attached, so that the platin W. Crookes— Radiant Matter. 255 the aluminium wire (e) being positive. Instantly, owing to the projection of Radiant Matter from the platinum ring, the vanes rotate with extreme velocity. Thus far the apparatus has shown nothing more than the previous experiments have prepared us to expect; but observe what now happens. I dis- connect the induction-coil altogether, and connect the two ends of the platinum wire with a small galvanic battery ; this makes the ring ec red-hot, and under this influence you see that the ee spin as fast as they did when the induction-coil was at wo rk. _ Here, then, is another most important fact. Radiant Matter in these high vacua is not only excited by the negative pole of an induction-coil, but a hot wire will set it in motion with force sufficient to drive round the sloping vanes. Radiant Matter is deflected by a Magnet. I now pass to another property of Radiant Matter. This long glass tube is very highly exhausted ; it has a negative pole at one end and a long phosphorescent screen down the center of the tube. In front of the negative pole is a plate of mica with a hole in it, and the result is, when I turn on the current, a line of phosphorescent light is projected along the whole length of the tube. I now place beneath the tube a powerful horse-shoe magnet: observe how the line of light becomes curved under the magnetic influence waving about like a flexible wand as I move the magnet to and fro. This action of the magnet is very curious, and if carefully followed up will elucidate other properties of Radiant Matter. Here (fig. 11) isan exactly similar tube, but having at one enda small potash tube, which if heated will slightly injure the vacuum. T turn on the induction current, and you see the ray of Radiant Matter tracing its trajectory in a curved line along the screen, under the influence of the horse-shoe magnet beneath. Ob- serve the shape of the curve. The molecules shot from the 256 W. Crookes—Radiant Matter. negative pole may be likened to a discharge of iron bullets from a mitrailleuse, and the magnet beneath will represent the earth curving the trajectory of the shot by gravitation. Here on this luminous screen you see the curved trajectory of the shot accurately traced. Now suppose the deflecting force to remain constant, the curve traced by the projectile varies with the velocity. If I put more powder in the gun the velocity will be greater and the trajectory flatter, and if I interpose a denser resisting medium between the gun and the target, I diminish the velocity of the shot, and thereby cause it tomove in a greater curve and come to the ground sooner. I cannot well increase before you the velocity of my stream of radiant molecules by putting more powder in my battery, but I will try and make them suffer greater resistance in their flight from one end of the tube to the other. T heat the caustic potash with a spirit-lamp and so throw in a trace more gas. Instantly the stream of Radiant Matter responds. Its velocity is 1m- peded, the magnetism has longer time on which to act on the individual molecules, the trajectory gets more and more curved, until, instead of shooting nearly to the end of the tube, my molecular bullets fall to the bottom before they have got more than half-way. It is of great interest to ascertain whether the law governing the magnetic deflection of the trajectory of Radiant Matter Is the same as has been found to hold good at a lower vacuum. The experiments I have just shown you were with a very high vacuum. Here is a tube witha low vacuum. When I turn on the induction spark, it passes as a narrow line of violet light joining the two poles. Underneath I have a powerfu electro-magnet. I make contact with the magnet, and the line of light dips in the center toward the magnet. I reverse the poles, and the line is driven up to the top of the tube. Notice the difference between the two phenomena. Here’ the action is temporary. The ne takes place under the magnetic influ- ence; the line of discharge then rises and pursues its th to the positive pole. In the high exhaustion, however, alter the stream of Radiant Matter bad dipped to the magnet it did not recover itself, but continued its path in the altered direction. By means of this little wheel, skillfully constructed by Mr. — ogham I am able to show the magnetic deflection in the 1 Pip: ose _ The ratus is shown in this diagram (fig- ‘). “he negative pole (a, b) is in the form of a very shallow cup. In front of the cup is a mica screen (c, d), wide enow h ne tie the Radiant Matter coming from the negative pore . re 13 screen is a mica wheel (e, f) with a series of vanes, making a sort of paddle-wheel. So arranged, the molecular ys from the pole a 6 will be cut off from the wheel, and will — W.. Crookes Radiant Matter. 257 not produce. any movement. I now put a magnet, g, over the tube, so as to deflect the stream over or under the obstacle ¢ d, magnet. I have mentioned that the molecules of the Radiant Matter discharged from the negative pole are negatively electrified. It is probable that their velocity is owing to the mutual repul- sion between the similarly electrified pole and the molecules. In less high vacua, such as you saw a few minutes ago, the discharge passes from one pole to another, carrying an electric current, as if it were a flexible wire. Now it is of great inter- est to ascertain if the stream of Radiant Matter from the nega- tive pole also carries a current. Here (fig. 18) is an apparatus which will decide the question at once. The tube contains two negative terminals (a,'b) close together at one end, om one positive terminal (c) at the other. This enables me to sen two streams of Radiant Matter side by side along the hosphores- cent screen,—or by disconnecting one negative pote, only one stream. If the streams of Radiant Matter carry an electric current they will act like two parallel conducting wires and attract one Am. Jour. Sct,—Turep Szrtes, VoL. XVIII, No. 106,—Ocrt., 1879. 17 258 W. Crookes— Radiant Matter. another; but if they are simply built up of negatively electri- fied molecules they will repel each other. I will first connect the upper negative pole (a) with the coil, and you see the ray shooting along the line d,/ I now bring the lower negative pole (b) into play, and another line (¢, h) darts along the screen. But notice the way the first lien behaves; it jumps up from its first position, df, to dg, showing that it is repelled, and if time permitted I could show you that the lower ray is also deflected from its normal direction: therefore the two parallel streams of Radiant Matter exert mutual repulsion, acting not ‘like current carriers, but merely as similarly electrified bodies. Radiant Matter produces heat when its motion is arrested. During these experiments another property of Radiant Mat- ter has made itself evident, although I have not yet drawn mee non: to: a6 ass gets very warm where the green phosphorescence is strongest. The molecular focus on the tube, which we saw earlier in the evening (fig. 6) is intensely hot, and I have prepared an apparatus by which this heat at the focus can be rendered apparent to all present. have here a small tube (fig. 14, a) with a cup-shaped negaisve. pole, -Thie.cup projects the rays to a focus in the middle of the tube. At the side of the tube is a small electro- magnet, which I can set in action by touching a key, and the focus is then drawn to the side of the glass. tube (fig. 14, 0). show the first action of the heat I have coated the tube ns to disintegra and cracks are shooting starwisé¢ from the * : g h center of heat. The glass is softening. Now the ey de eee, Lr ee W. Crookes—Radiant Matter. 259 atmospheric pressure forces it in, and now it melts. A hole is perforated in the middle, the air rushes in, and the experiment Is at an end. I can render this focal heat more evident if I allow it to play on a piece of metal. This bulb (fig. 15) is furnished with a 15. hegative pole in the form of a cup (a). The rays will there- ore be projected to a focus on a piece of iridio-platinum (6) Supported in the center of the bulb. , I first turn on the induction-coil slightly, so as not to bring out its full power. The focus is now playing on the metal. raising it to a white-heat. I bring a small magnet near, and you see I can deflect the focus of heat just as I did the lumin- ous focus in the other tube. By shifting the magnet I can drive the focus up and down, or draw it completely away from the metal, and leave it non-luminous. I with raw the magnet, and let the molecules have full play again; the metal is now white-hot. I increase the intensity of the spark. The neg platinum glows with almost insupportable brilliancy, and at last melts. The Chemistry of Radiant Matter. As might be expected, the chemical distinctions between one kind of Radiant Matter and another at these high exhaustions are difficult to recognize. The physical properties I have been elucidating seem to be common to all matter at this low density. 260 W. Crookes— Radiant Matter. Whether the gas originally under experiment be hydrogen, carbonic acid, or atmospheric air, the phenomena of phosphor- escence, shadows, magnetic deflection, etc., are identical, only they commence at different pressures. Other facts however, show that at this low density the molecules retain their chemi- cal characteristics. Thus by introducing into the tubes appro- priate absorbents of residual gas, I can see that chemical attraction goes on long after the attenuation has reached the best stage for showing the phenomena now under illustration, and I am able by this means to carry the exhaustion to muc OAOOAAANA AAARAAH number quite sufficient to justi ; ing of the °F ee ‘O Suggest some idea of this vast number I take the ex = bulb, and perforate it by a spark from the induction po spark produces a hole of microscopical fineness, yet to allow molecules to penetrate and to destroy the W. Crookes—Radiant Matter. 261 vacuum. The inrush of air impinges against the vanes and sets them rotating after the manner of a windmill. Let us suppose the molecules to be of such a size that at every second of time a hundred millions could enter. How long, think you, would it take for this small yessel to get full of air? An hour? A day? A year? A century? Nay, almost an eternity! A time so enormous that imagination itself cannot grasp the reality. Supposing this exhausted glass bulb, indued with indestructibility, had been pierced at the birth of the solar system ; mppeneg it to have been present when the earth was without form and void; supposing it to have borne witness to all the stupendous changes evolved during the full eycles of geologic time, to have seen the first living creature appear, and the last man disappear; supposing it to survive until the fulfilment of the mathematicians’ prediction that the sun, the source of energy, four million centuries from its forma- tion will ultimately become a burnt-out cinder ;* supposing all this,—at the rate of filling I have just described, 100 million molecules a second—this little bulb even then would scarcely apparent paradox can only be explained by again supposing the size of the molecules to be diminished almost infinitely— so that instead of entering at the rate of 100 millions ev second, they troop in at a rate of something like 300 millions a second. I have done the sum, but figures when they mount so high cease to have any meaning, and such calculations are as futile as trying to count the drops in the ocean. In studying this Fourth state of Matter we seem at length to have within our grasp and obedient to our control the little indivisible particles which with good warrant are supposed to has been ously estimated by different authorities, at from 18 million years to 400 million years. For the purpose of this illustration I have taken the highest estimate. _t According to Mr. Johnstone Stoney (Phil. : .c air contains about 1000,000000,000000,000000 molecules. Therefore a bulb 13°5 centimeters diameter contains 13°5%x 0°5236 x 1000,000000,000000,000000 or 1,288252,350000,000000,000000 molecules of air at the ordinary pressure. There- ; e bulb whe u the million an atmosphere contains 1,288252,350000,000000 molecules, leaving 1,288251,061747,650000,000000 mole- ion. At the rate of 100,000000 molecules a , the time required for them all to enter will 12882,510617,476500 seconds, or 214,708510,291275 minutes, Or 3.578475, 171521 hours, or 149103,132147 days, or 408,501731 years. = ® SS —" ar ta ° Q ° > 262 H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. constitute the physical basis of the universe. We have seen that in some of its properties Radiant Matter is as material as this table, whilst in other properties it almost assumes the character of Radiant Energy. We have actually touched the border land where Matter and Force seem to merge into one another, the shadowy realm between Known and Unknown which for me bas always had peculiar temptations. I venture to think that the greatest scientific problems of the future will find their solution in this Border Land, and even beyond ; here, it seems to me, lie Ultimate Realities, subtle, far-reaching, won- erful. “ Yet all these were, when no Man did them know, Yet have from wisest Ages hidden beene ; That nothing is, but that which he hath seene ?” Arr. XXXVL—On the Coincidence of the Bright Lines of the gen Spectrum with Bright Lines in the Solar Spectrum ; by Henry Draper, M.D.* I INTEND in this paper to speak of the steps that led to the _ In 1857, after the meeting of the British Association at Dub- lin, some of the members, by the kindness of the Earl of Rosse, Society, June 13th, 1879, and reprinted “nia Journal is indebted for the ical Society. T il H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. 263 in 1871, though it has been much modified since. It was ob- vious that increased light-collecting power and precise equatoreal movements were necessary for the modern applications of physics to astronomy. More recently still there has been at- tached to the same equatoreal stand an achromatic telescope of twelve inches aperture made by Alvan Clark & Sons, this being particularly intended for solar spectroscopic work. oon after the 28-inch Reflector was turned to stellar and Pee cue lines at the more refrangible end of the spectrum. ch proc , the 2-inch induction coil being succeeded by one of six inches, and that in turn by a Ruhmkorff coil capable of giving a ge of seventeen inches. e battery was eventually superseded by a Gramme dynamo- 264 H. Draper—Oaxygen in the Sun. electric machine which can produce a current powerful enough to give, between carbon points, a light equal to 500 standard candles. Whén'this machine is properly applied to the 17-inch induction coil; it will readily give 1,000 10-inch sparks per minute. ese, being condensed by fourteen Leyden jars, com- municate an intense incandescence to air, and light enough is produced to permit of the use of a narrow slit, and of a colli- mator and telescope of long focus. Since 1877, when the first publication of the discovery of oxygen in the Sun was made, still further improvements, es- pecially in the optical parts, have been completed, so that Iam now enabled to photograph the oxygen spectrum with four times the dispersion then employed. For the sake of clearness, it is best to give a brief description: Ist, of the electrical part; and 2nd, of the optical part. : he electrical part consists of the Gramme machine and its driving engine, the induction coil, the Leyden jars, and the terminal or spark compressor. An advantage the Gramme has over a battery is'in the uniformity of the current it gives when an uniform rate of rotation of its bobbin is kept up. Of course this implies the use of a prime mover that is well regulated. The petroleum engine of one and a half horse-power I have employed’ is convenient and safe and does this duty well. As to the Gramme itself, it is only needful to call attention to a modification of the interior connections. In one form the bobbin of wire which revolves between the magnets is double, so that the current produced may be divided into two. Under ordinary circumstances, where the machine is used to produce light, both sides of the bobbin send their currents through the electro-magnets. But if the whole current be sent through a quick-working break circuit into an induction coil, the electro- magnets do not become sufficiently magnetised to produce any appreciable effect. It is expedient, therefore, to arrange the connections so that one-half of the bobbin gives a continuous current through the electro-magnets and keeps up the intensity of the magnetic field, and then the current from the other half of the bobbin may be used for exterior work, whether contin: uous or interrup! nged to make and break the current passing into the primary circuit of Hf. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. 265 As to the induction coil, it is only needful to say that it gives a good thick spark, which is limited to twelve inches to avoid the risk of injuring the insulation. The Leyden jars are four- teen in number, having altogether seven square feet of coating on each surface. The arrangement of the terminals from the Leyden jars to get the steadiest and brightest effect has offered great difficulties. The condensed spark taken in the open air or ina gas under atmospheric pressure pursues, if unconfined, a zigzag course, and this is apt to produce a widening of the lines in the photo- graphed spectrum. But, after many experiments, it turned out that the spark might be compressed between two plates of thick glass, or, better yet, between two plates of soapstone. If the interval between the plates was directed toward the slit of the spectroscope the lateral flickering of the spark was prevented, and yet at the same time the spark was freely exposed to the slit without the intervention of glass or any substanee on which the volatilized metal from the terminals could deposit. Very took place in the capillary portion, and partly because the ter- minals became so hot as to melt and crack the glass. More- I have tried the effect of warming the air by passing it through a coil of brass tube maintained at a bright red heat, but this pressor. The optical part of my apparatus has undergone many modi- - first a Hofmann direct-vision prism was combined With aléns of six inches focus; this was soon after replaced by a Browning direct-vision prism and a lens of eighteen inches er x inches focus were employed. nea d this winter, consists of a collimator of two inches a ye 0 twenty-six inches focus, succeeded by two bisulp ogi haemt hotograph- prisms of two inches aperture and an observing or ing lens of six feet six inches focal length. These prisms belong to Mr. Rutherfurd and are the same he made for produ- cing his celebrated solar prismatic spectrum. This gives a dispersion of about eight inches between G and H and enables 266 H. Draper—Oxygen in the Sun. ahs ese 1, front —s 2, section in plane of narrow opening ; ems? i teenies: ¢ c, aperture for rere gases; d, narrow opening res ‘spark ; . gee nate prism ; /, slit of spectrosco ae JAgs p A () “ve a (2) 6 DIAGRAM OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PE: a, heliostat mirror; >, spark com- SPECTROSCOPE parce: ¢, right-angled prism ; a, slit; ¢ collimator; f J, tro bisnphide primes g, photographic objective; h, camera; 4, window H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. 267 me to get original negatives on a scale about half the size of Angstrém’s charts in the Spectre Normal du Soleil. m with iron in the e to the original from which it was produced and, in order to study the matter faithfully, the negetihe must be examined carefully with a Magnifier. Beside this, ones ae to the fact that the solar 268 H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. under which the oxygen spectrum is seen when compared with the spark spectrum are modified. In fact, a critical study of the two spectra demands that each line of oxygen should be separately photographed with the corresponding region of the Sun’s spectrum, so as to reproduce as nearly as possible the same conditions for each. As an instance of the modifications continuation of this research is in that direction. But the sub- of the photosphere. The fact that oxygen, within a certaim range of variation, suffers less change than others of the nou- metals has been the secret of its rs in the Sun. 2 a to have a greater stability of constitution, ‘hone Schuster has shown that its spectrum may be made to vary- have already begun an extended series of experiments on non-metals; but the results exhibit such confusion that thelr H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. 269 bearing cannot at present be distinctly seen. In the case of nitrogen the broad bands between G and H exhibit, under the most intense incandescence, a tendency to condense into narrow bands or lines, and indeed there are some sharp lines of nitro- gen in the photographs now presented. It does not follow, therefore, that the bright bands of oxygen are necessarily the brightest parts of the solar spectrum. Other substances may produce lines or bands of greater brilliancy. There is also another cause for a difference of appearance in a bright-line spectrum produced in a laboratory and bright | lines in the Sun. While the edges of a band in the Ho spec- trum may be nebulous or shaded off, the corresponding band in the solar spectrum may have its edges sharpened by the action of adjacent dark lines due to one or another of the metal- lic substances in the Sun. On the whole, it does not seem improper for me to take the ground that, having shown by photographs that the bright lines of the oxygen spark spectrum all fall opposite bright por- tions of the solar spectrum, I have established the probabilit of the existence of oxygen in the Sun. Causes that can mod- | ify in some measure the character of the bright bands of the \ solar spectrum obviously exist in the Sun, and these, it may be inferred, exert influence enough to account for such minor dif- | ferences as may be detected. In closing, it may be well to give some idea of the amount of labor and time this research has already consumed, and this cannot be better done than by a statement of the production of electrical action that has been necessary. Each photograph demands an exposure of 15 minutes, and, with preparation and onde teat at least half an hour is needed. The making of ) the Gramme has made 20 millions of revolutions. The petro- leum engine only consumes a couple of drops of > stroke, and yet it has used up about 150 gallons. Each drop . of oil produces two or three 10-inch sparks. It must also be borne in mind that comparison spectra can only be made when the Sun is shining, and clouds therefore are a fertile source of Oss of time. APPENDIX. [We find in the Astronomical Register a Report. of the Dis- cussion which followed the reading of Dr. Draper's paper. this is the expression of the opinion of the best English author- ities upon the conclusions reached in the memoir and as it will be'seen, we suppose, by but few of our readers, we present it ’ in-pretty full Ren Fh as a matter of general interest.—Eps. } 270 H. Draper—Oxygen in the Sun. After the reading of the paper, Dr. Draper showed some exquisitely sharp negatives of the solar and oxygen spectra, which he had obtained, and handed round some paper enlarge- ments, some two feet long, for inspection by the meeting. Mr. Raayard: After the reception that has been given to Dr. Draper, I do not think I need say anything about the impor- tance of the research he has undertaken. When a couple of years ago he sent over copies from his former photographs on a much smaller scale, I then ventured to say that I thought the probability of the proposition which he laid down was very great indeed, amounting to some thousands to one, and I should like now to point out how enormously the probability has been increased by these more recent experiments. If Dr. Draper has increased his dispersion four times he has not merely increased the probability of his case four times, but he has increased the value of every coincidence he shows four times. On looking at the original photographs (which show the coincidences more sharply than the paper prints) I counted eighteen oxygen lines, and, therefore, the increase of probability on the present occa- sion, as compared with the former occasion, is as four to the power of eighteen to one, a very enormous number. There in the solar spectrum. Ifa line were thrown at random best bright part of the solar spectrum would be as the total breadth of the bright part of the solar spectrum to the total breadth of gen line being on one side and coinciding with one edge of the Bee oR ; but this is accounted for by the fact that there are ably other bright lines in the solar spectrum besides oXY- Hf. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. 271 gen lines, and two such bright lines happen, in some instances to fall together. Then, also, it must be remembered that the light of the bright lines of the solar spectrum has suffered absorption in the solar atmosphere, and in the earth’s atmos- re . very kind in explaining to me his views, and he did not at all we had to deal wit , Was a continuous spectrum with dark lines, but when you superpose on this bright lines, so faint that you cannot distinguish their brightness from the general back- ground of the spectrum, it is evident that the problem becomes more complicated. I do not want to express any Opinion one Way or the other. I am in the position of a sceptic; 1t may be 272 H.. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. an unfortunate position, but I think it is a truly scientific posi- tion, Now, taking the position of a sceptic, one has to exam- ine these photographs and look to whether Dr. Draper has own the coincidences as Mr. Ranyard asserts; if not, his probabilities fall to the ground. In more than one instance I find an oxygen line opposite a broader bright space in the solar spectrum, which appears of identically the same brightness in its whole breadth. If the broader space consists of two or more bright lines, as has been suggested, we have two difficulties to contend with; in the first place we have to show that there are other substances which would give lines corresponding to the unoceupied breadth of the interspace, and in the second place we have the fact that these lines are undistinguishable in bright- ness from the oxygen lines. Again, each of the oxygen lines is fuzzy at the edges, and as there is nothing analogous in the solar spectrum, we have to suppose that the fuzzy edges are cut off by adjacent dark lines. Now, if we are to make use of probabilities, I would ask what is the probability of a pair of dark lines falling in every case exactly at the edges of an oxy- gen line? We must also take into account the fact that former physicists have failed to identify any of the bright lines of oxy- gen with dark lines in the solar spectrum, and therefore we start with the fact that none of the oxygen lines can fall oppo- Ste, to dark lines. earth affords evidence that the solar system has been in exist- ence for more than 20,000,000 of years, whereas, if the Sun 2 giving out energy as at present for 20,000,000 years, we know that it cannot have derived it from shrinking from Stars, but rather think that it points to. the fact that the real mass of the Sun lies very much within the photosphere, and that if there.is any solid or liquid nucleus, it is only at a depth of many thousands of miles below the photosphere. If that is ‘ 4 a : i 2 cnet iat ba H. Draper—Ozxygen in the Sun. «278 the case, I would ask whether it is antecedently probable that there should be any continuous background in the solar _spec- trum. If the photosphere is purely gaseous, we should only ae bright bands interfered with and modified by absorption ines. Dr. Gladstone: I have listened with the greatest attention to Dr. Draper. When the photographs first came over I was not convinced, but certainly he has produced results, which, as Mr. Ranyard has shown, have largely increased the evidence of there being real coincidences between the oxygen lines and bright spaces in the solar spectrum. There seems to be still a great question as to whether the solar spectrum is made up only of bright and dark lines, or whether thers is a background of continuous spectrum. Iam not disposed to give up the idea that we have a continuous spectrum underlying these dark lines, but think that it is certain that we have also bright lines mixed with the dark. We know that when we look at the edge of the Sun there are bright lines corresponding to hydrogen, and some other elements to be seen, but there are no oxygen lines. Now, I would suggest that this shows that the oxygen never rises to the level of the chromosphere, so as to be seen at the limb of the Sun, and probably thas is just the reason why we . see its lines as bright lines and not as dark lines, for it never upon the investigation. Dr. Draper had made out a primd facie case, which entitled him to demand a careful examination of the evidence he had brought forward; but for his own part he should like to suspend his judgment until he had had an oppor- tunity to reéxamine that part of the spectrum. He preferred to wait for a little light, a little sunlight, on the subject, but he Wished now to state how thoroughly impressed he was with the cautious and careful experimental arrangements which Dr. Dra- per had adopted. _ Capt. Noble: It seems to me, looking at the photographs impartially, that if we are to deny the evidence supplied by some of these coincidences, and notably by this group of four lines, and accept Mr. Christie’s dicta, we literally should have . tangible evidence as to the existence of any element in the un at all. Mr. Ranyard: I should like to refer to one or two of the objections raised by Mr. Christie. I understood him to urge as Am, Jour. ee eames Vou. XVI, No. 106.—Oct., 1879, 274 H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. that oxygen gives brighter lines than wee other element in the un. But I would ask what reason we ground of brightness in the solar spectrum, it should be remem- -bered that there are theoretical considerations which Satie probable that there is always such a continuous backgroun during which the jar of the collision lasts. In the free path between the impacts they give out the characteristic wave gen lines above the photosphere, it will not, I think, follow ar there is no oxygen there, for there seems to be evidence tha . level of the reversing layer, and D, is a very bright line in the lower hror spl re Sethe de Ds 2. 4° ry a ding to it. VY H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. 275 Mr. Christie: I should not have risen except that reference had been made to my remarks. I do not know that I should say very much, but I think I may remark with reference to this question of coincidence, that everything turns upon the exactness of the coincidence, and whether these are actually coincidences or not. am not quite prepared to admit that these coincidences are perfect; in fact, I should say there are even coincidences of dark lines with some of the oxygen lines. I admit that it is a matter of judgment, and I should be sorr to say positively that there are such coincidences with dar lines. But there is considerable uncertainty in the matter. As Dr. Draper has explained there is a great difficulty in establish- ing coincidences, and you have to adjust your apparatus until you match coincidences by the known lines of iron. It seems some of these do not coincide exactly with the dark lines in the sun. I only alluded to that as being one of the difficulties we have to contend with. With regard to Mr. Ranyard’s remarks as to the eye perceiving differences of brightness which the photographs do not show, I would merely wish to ask whether e has examined with his eye different parts of the spectrum, for there is a certain part in the neighborhood of the G lines which I have examined and find the photograph gives grr y spectrum of hydrogen and the air spark spectrum at ordinary pressures, The cuba spectrum of dedesgen showed four hy- drogen lines perfect throughout, but only one of these lines was represented in the spectrum of air at ordinary pressure, so that It is possible certain oxygen lines present in the sun may be absent in the spark spectrum. Dr. Draper : I have taken the oxygen spectrum under a great many different circumstances. n with tubes containing oxygen and compounds of oxygen, but the difficluty is that you are limited to rather small dispersion, because you cannot get 276 H. Draper— Oxygen in the Sun. brightness enough for a larger apparatus. Then the difficulty of having iron terminals so as to show a good coincidence is a serious one. So when I made the spark-compressor I arranged a contrivance at the back which would enable me to let in oxy- gen and the other gases between the terminals, and after various experiments with oxygen I find that it seems to suffer less change with altered conditions than a great many of the other elements I have experimented on. I have fairly shown that the bright lines coincide with bright spaces in the solar spectrum. The minor differences may be fairly attributed to such changes of condition as Mr. Rand Capron has referred to. With regard to Dr. Gladstone’s remark, which was that probably we should not find in the chromosphere the lines of the oxygen spectrum. That is precisely what I hope will be the case, although I am going to look as hard as I can for them. I should like to see them if they are there, but I shall be better satisfied if they are not. A cordial vote of thanks was then passed to Dr. Draper. [The photographs of the oxygen spectrum and juxtaposed | solar spectrum, were also presented to the French Academy of | Sciences in Paris, at the meeting of June 23, 1879, by M. A. Cornu. M. Faye made the following remarks, which we trans- late from the Comptes Rendus.—Eps. ] OM raper has, however, succeeded in discovering the oxygen, not in the chromosphere, but in the photosphere, where it discloses itself by bright lines. It is obvious that if this gas J. W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. 277 will not delay in being universally accepted by competent judges,” Art. XXXVII.— On the Vapor- Densities of Peroxide of Nitrogen, Formic Acid, Acetic Acid, and Perchloride of Phosphorus ; by J. WILLARD GIBBS. THE relation between temperature, pressure, and volume, for the vapor of each of these substances differs widely from that expressed by the usual laws for the gaseous state,—the laws nown most widely by the names of Mariotte, Gay-Lussac, and Avogadro. The density of each vapor, in the sense in which the term is usually employed in chemical treatises, i. e., its den- sity taken relatively to air of the same temperature and pres- sure,* has not a constant value, but varies nearly in the ratio of one to two. And these variations are exhibited at pressures not exceeding that of the atmosphere and at temperatures com- prised between zero and 200° or 800° of the centigrade scale. Such anomalies have been explained by the supposition that the vapor consists of a mixture of two or three di erent kinds of gas or vapor, which have different densities. Thus it is sup- posed that the vapor of peroxide of nitrogen is a gas-mixture, the components of which are represented (in the newer chemical notation) by NO, and N,O, respectively. The densities cor- responding to these formulz are 1589 and 3°178. The density of the mixture should have a value intermediate between these numbers, which is substantially the case with the actual vapor. The case is similar with respect to the vapor of formic acid, eects may regard as a gets CH,O, epee 1589) and ©,H,O, (density 3-178), and the vapor of acetic acid, which we hh re a as a Mane of C,H,O, (density 2°073) and C,H,O, (density 4-146). In the case of perchloride of phosphorus, we must suppose the a to consist of three parts ; PCI, (the proper perchloride, density 7-20), PCls (the aces aed density 4-98), and Cl, (chlorine, density 2-22). ince the chlorine and protochloride arise from the decom- * The language of this paper will be conformed to this usage. 278 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. position of the perchloride, there must be as many mole- ‘cules of the type Cl, as of the type PC], Now a gas-mix- ture containing an equal number of molecules of PCI; and Ch are in this case dissimilar, they may be partially separated by diffusion through a neutral gas, the lighter chlorine diffusing more rapidly than the heavier protochloride. The fact of dis- dence than the variations of the densities in support. of the hypothesis of the compound nature of the vapor, yet if these variations shall appear to follow the same law as those of the roxide of nitrogen and the perchloride of phosphorus, 1t will difficult to refer them to a different cause can deduce a general law determining the proportions of an * Salet, “Sur la coloration du peroxyde d’azote.” Comptes Rendus, t. Ixvii, 1 . ir : ille, “Sur les densités de vapeur.” Comptes Rendus, ¢- : $ Wanklyn and Robinson. ‘On Diffusion of Vapours: a means of distinguish- between apour-densities of Chemical Compounds. Proc. J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities, 279 component gases necessary for the equilibrium of such a mix- ture under any given conditions, these substances afford an that paper, new determinations of the density have been pub- lished in different quarters, which render it possible to compare . similar comparison of theory and experiment is made with respect to each of the other substances which have been men- tioned. The considerations from which these formuls were deduced may be briefly stated as follows. It will be observed that they are based rather upon an extension of generally acknowledged principles to a new class of cases than upon the introduction of any new principle. e energy of a gas-mixture may be represented by an ex- pression of the form m, (¢, t 3.3 E,) 2 m, (c,¢ + E,) LE etc., with as many terms as there are different kinds of gas in the mixture, m,, ms, etc., denoting the quantities (by weight) of the several component gases, ¢, C, etc., their several spec he at constant volume, E,, E,, etc., other constants, and ¢ the abso- lute temperature. In like manner the entropy of the gas-mix- ture is expressed by mM. a (H, + ¢, logy t — a, logy =) m So m, (H, + e, logs t— 4, logx sn) +. etc., * “On the els eous Substances.” Transactions of the Con- indie Aaa a = a Tb The equations referred to are (313), (317), (319) and (326), on pages 233 and 234. The applicability of these equations to such cases no idering is discussed under the heading “ Gas-mix- tures with Convertible Components,” page 234. 280 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. where v denotes the volume, and Hy, a;, Hy, aa, etc., denote constants relating to the component gases, aj, a2, etc., being in- The condition that the energy does not vary, gives (m,¢, + m,¢, + etc.) dt + (c,t + E,) dm, + (c,¢+ E,) dm, + etc. = 0. (1) The condition that the entropy is a maximum implies that its variation vanishes, when the energy and volume are constant: this gives ¢, +m, c, + ete. t dt + (H, — a, +e, logy t — a, logy =) dm, 2 (4, ah a, + ec, logy t 46 a, logy =) dm, + etc. = 0. (2) Eliminating di, we have (H, ~d,—¢,— = +c, logy t — a, logy =) dm, © (H, on ee =! + ¢, logy t — a, logs =) dm, + etc. = 0. (8) _ If the case is like that of the peroxide of nitrogen, this ease tion will have two terms, of which the second may refer to the denser component of the gas-mixture. We shall then so f @ = 2a,, and dm, = — dma, and the equation will reduce to the , form m,v C 4 log M7 = — A Bloge +5, (4) where common logarithms have been substituted for Neapera and A, B and C are constants. If, in place of the quantities 3 _ the components, we introduce the partial pressures, Pr» . to these components, and measured in millimeters of mercury, by means of the relations * For certain @ priori considerations which give a degree of probability 1 these assumptions, the reader is referred to the paper already cited. ¥ SW. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. 281 PF.” v rn. == n= == 1 > oo" > at sa,t where a, denotes a constant, we have log i= — (A + log 2 a,) — (1+ B) logt + < = - A’— Blog +<, (5) where A’ and B’ are new constants. Now if we denote by p the total pressure of the gas-mixture (in millimeters of mer- cury), by D its density (relative to air of the same temperature and pressure), and by D, the theoretical density of the rarer component, we shall have p:p+p,::D,:D. This appears from the consideration that p+p2 Di hey what the pressure would become, if without change of temperature or volume all the matter in the gas-mixture could take the form of the rarer component. Hence, 2 Pi Pee D2) “D, (D—D,) and P, = 1 ae : yp; p(2D,—D) By substitution in (5) we obtain Di(D—D) __ 4r_Brtoge + S + logy. (6) CE AMEON eae peri tes MRE Pao By this formula, when the values of the constants are deter- mined, we may calculate the density of the gas-mixture from its temperature and pressure. The value of D, may be obtained from the molecular formula of the rarer component, If we compare equations (8), (4) and (5), we see that C; — Cy B=B+1, B= 56 ‘ log Now ¢,—cy is the difference of the specific heats at constant vol- ume of NO, and NO, The general rule that ming ah ee of a gas at constant volume and per unit of weight is Pret e- endent of its condensation, would make ¢,=¢, B=0, er a t may easily be shown, with respect to any of the su stances considered in this paper,* that u ith - value of B’ greatly exceeds unity, the term B’ log ¢ may Ps neglected without serious error, if its omission 1s compensate * For the case of peroxide of nitrogen, see pp. 243, 244 in the paper cited above. 282 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. in the values given to A’ and C. We may therefore cancel this term, and then determine the remaining constants by com- parison of the formula with the results of experiment. In the case of a mixture of Cl,, PC], and PCl,, equation (8) will have three terms distinguished by different suffixes. To fix our ideas, we may make these suffixes », , and ,, referring to Cl,, PCls and PCI, respectively. Since the constants a, a and a, are inversely proportional to the densities of these gases, a,dm, = a,dm, = — a, dm, i 11 —1 : and we may substitute —, —, — for dm,, dm,and dm, in equa- tion (8), which is thus reduced to the form m,v C wh ce oe A ott 7 log gs A Blogt+-—- (7) If we eliminate m, ms, ms by means of the partial pressures, Pa Ps; Ps We obtain ies . PP; when A’, B’, like A, B and ©, are constants. If the chlorine and the protochloride are in such proportions as arise from t . decomposition of the perchloride, p,=p, and 4p ps= (Pats) In this case, therefore, we have =—A'—B'logt+<, (8) =~ A'—B’logt + <. (9) applying to the vapor of perchloride of phosp : values of the constants are properly determined. This result might have been anticipated, but the longer course which we have taken has given us the more general equations, (7) and (8), which will apply to cases in hick there is an excess of chlorine or of the protochloride. If the gas-mixture considered, in addition to the components capable of chemical action, contains a neutral gas, the expres: sions for the energy and entropy of the gas-mixture should properly each contain a term relating to this neutral gas. 12 would make it necessary to add c,m, to the coefficient of dt ™ (1), and = to the coefficient of dt in (2), the suffix , being J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 283 used to mark the quantities relating to the neutral gas. But these quantities would disappear with the elimination of di, and equation (8) and all the subsequent equations would require no modification, if only p and D are estimated (in accordance with usage) with exclusion of the pressure and weight due to the neutral gas. This result, which may be extended to any oe of neutral gases, is simply an expression of Dalton’s aw. now proceed to the comparison of the oe especially of equation (6), with the results of experimen TABLE rules ovis oF NITROGEN. Experiments at Atmospheric Pressure. MITSCHERLICH,—R. MULLER,—DEVILLE and TRoosT. Denaity observed. Excess of observed de Temper- | Press- Density Deville & Troost. Deville & Troost. ature. ure. oa. ¢ 10. pa epee DeraarncneserNise Stan GPa Mey OY TR Ts 1 eee UU. 183°2 | (760) | 1-592 1°57 —*022 154-0 | (760) ‘597 1°58 —017 518 | (760) | 1°598 1:50 eel cud 35°0 | (760) “607 1°60 —"007 21°8 | (760) "622 1°64 +702 21°5 | (760) 622 162 —'002 11°3 | (760) | 1-641 1°65 +7009 00-2 “61T 1°72 +04 100-1 | (760) 616 1°68 +°004 100-0 | (760) L677 1-71 +°03 90°0 | (760) | 1-728 1-72 —-008 84-4 | (760) | 1-768 1:83 +06 80°6 | (760) | 1-801 1:80 —001 79 8 [814 | 1:84 +°03 77-4 | (760) 1-833 1°85 +02 70-0 | (760) -920 1-92 000 545) 1919 | 1°95 +°03 68-8 | (760) 937 1-99 +05 66-0 | (760) ‘976 2-03 +°05 60°2 | (760) | 2-067 2-08 +°013 55°0 | (760) | 2-157 2°20 +04 157 2-211 | 2:26 +05 49-7 | (760) | 2-255 2°34 +09 49°6 | (760) | 2-256 2-27 +014 45-1 | (760) 342 +06 39°8 | (760) “443 2°46 +017 35-4 | (760) 524 2°53 +006 35-2 | (760) | 2°528 2-66 +13 34°6 | (760) 539 2°62 +08 32 748 ‘582 | 2°65 +°07 28-7 | (760)| 2 2°80 +16 751 2°6 2°70 +°05 27°6 | (760) 2-661 2°70 +04 26-7 | (760) | 2-676 2°65 —026 284 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. Peroxide of nitrogen.—If we take the constants of the equa- tion for this substance from the paper already cited,* we have 15°89 (D — 1°589) 3118°6 log = —— — 12°451 10 ©. (3178 — D)" to + 278 + log p — 12°451, (10) each series the experiments were made with increasing temper” atures, and with the same vessel, without refilling. Tt should e observed that the results of the three series are not rega what larger values, with a single exception, as is best seen. i the columns which give the excess of the observed density. ular to be attributed to the accidental errors of the individual observations, except in the case of the experiment at 1518; * See equation (336) on page 339, loc. cit.,—also the following equations 1 which "3 density is given in terms of the temperature and pressure. In — ti se measured in atmospheres, but in this paper in millimeters of mercury. nm assumed as the pressure of the atmosphere in all cases = difference of 13 millimeters in the pressure would in nO ~ reg a difference of -005 in the calculated Pte In this series, the ‘i due to this circumstance are not very serious. ogg. Ann., vol. xxix (1833), p. 220. Lieb. Ann., vol. cxxii (1862), p. 15. Comptes Rendus, vol. lxiv (1867), p. 237. J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 285 approaches a constant value. In some cases such results may elle a été maintenue pendant dix minutes 4 cette température. 4 po différents, (The numbers were 4-69 and 8°68 respectively. ] 286 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. 7 s fournies instantaném It is not difficult to form an estimate of the quantities of heat which come into play in such cases. With respect to peroxide of nitrogen, it was estimated in the paper already cited that the heat absorbed in the conversion of a unit of N,O, into NO, under constant pressure is represented by 7181 a. (The heat is supposed to be measured in units of mechanical work). Now the external work done by the conversion of a unit o N,0, into NO, under constant pressure is a,¢. Therefore, the ratio of the heat absorbed to the external work done by the conversion of N,O, into NO, is 7181+¢, or 23 at the tempera- ture of 40° centigrade. Let us next consider how much more rapidly this vapor expands with increase of temperature at con- stant pressure than air. From the necessary relation kmt =?pDd’ duire et la dilatation et la décomposition ne sauraient étre ent.””* v where m denotes the weight of the vapor, and & a constant, we obtain (F en Mtn ® (2) dt}/p t D\dt/,’ where the suffix p indicates that the differential coefficients are ] . for constant pressure. The last term of this expression evi- dently denotes the part of the expansion which is due to the volume of air under the same circumstances. e ratio of the : t/d | 2 two terms is -(> , the numerical value of which for the Pp temperature of 40° is 2°42, as may be found by differentiating equation (10), or, with less precision, from the numbers in the third column of Table L oS 40° and the pressure of one atmosphere receive equal sage * Comptes Rendus, t. lx, p. 730. eS “be: ieee ache Pea siraeiics a J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 287. whole heat absorbed by the vapor we must add that which would be required if no conversion took place. At 40° the vapor of peroxide of nitrogen contains about 54 molecules of N,0, to 46 of NO,, as may easily be calculated from its density. The specific heat for constant pressure of a mixture in such proportions of gases of such molecular formule, if no chemi- eal action could take place, would be about twice that of the same volume of air. Adding this to the heat absorbed by the chemical action we obtain the final result,—that at 40° and the pressure of the atmosphere the specific heat of peroxide of nitrogen at constant pressure is about eighteen times that of the same volume of air.* increased liability to error in cases of this kind. e expan- sion of peroxide of nitrogen for increase of temperature under constant pressure at 40° is 3°42 times that of air. If then, ina determination of density, the vapor fails to reach the tempera- ture of the bath, the error due to the difference of the tempera- ture of the vapor and the bath, will be 3°42 times as great as would be caused by the same difference of temperatures in the e of any vapor or gas having a constant density. When we consider that we are liable not only to the same, but to a much greater difference of temperatures in a case like that of perox- ide of nitrogen, when the exposure to the heat is of the same uration, it is evident that the common test of the exactness of a process for the determination of vapor-densities, by applying it to a case in which the density is nearly constant, is entirely Insufficient. _ That the experiments of the III* series of Deville and Troost give numbers so regular and so much lower than the other experiments is probably to be attributed in part to the length of time of exposure to the heat of the experiment, which was half an hour in this series,—for the other series, the time is not given. nother point should be considered in this connection. During the heating of the vapor in the bath, it is not immate- rial whether the flask is open or closed. This will appear, if dD : , we compare the values of (>) and (2) , the differential p ° coefficients of the density with respect to the temperature on the suppositions, respectively, of constant pressure, and of con- stant volume. For 40°, we have dD 7) 168, -: (=) 70189, ( dt ee ? 288 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities, the first number being obtained immediately from equation (10) by differentiation, and the second by differentiation after substitution of =D for p. The ratio of these numbers evi- after the opening. The errors due to this source may evidently be diminished by diminishing the intervals of temperature ’ [2°85], [2:94], Naumann’s paper has 2:57, 2°65, 2°84, 30! respectively. In some cases the temperatures and pressures of two experiments are so nearly the same that it would be allow- able to average the results, at least in the column of excess of ferences are almost uniformly positive and increase as the tem fae diminishes, it is evident that they might be consider imin (10), without seriously impairing the agreement of that eq!* J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities, 289 action between the vapor and the mercury diminished the vol- ume of the vapor, and thus increased the numbers obtained for the density. : TasLEe II.—PrroxipE or NITROGEN. Experiments at less than Atmospheric Pressure. PLAYFAIR and WANKLYN,—TROOST,.—NAUMANN, Tempera- Présbia: tec ped Density observed. | Excess of obs. density. : byeq.0)-Ipew. T NN. (Pew. N 7°5 (301) 1631 | 1-783 +°152 7 35 1:90 16 ~.*§ 7 1°77 1°59 —'18 (323) 2°524 | 2°52 ie 22°5 1365 2°34 2°35 +701 25 101 2-26 2-28 +°02 15 1 9-41 2°38 —°03 i 0°8 153°5 2-41 2-46 +°05 301 2°59 2°70 +11 18-5 136 2-43 2°45 +°02 18 279 2°61 2°71 +10 15 172 2°51 2°52 +01 6°8 172 2°53 2" + 65 224 59 2°66 +07 16 228-5 2°61 2°62 +01 } 175 5 2°63 +°05 11°3 (159) 2°620 | 2°645 +°025 ll 190 2-76 +:10 105 163 2°64 2°73 +09 42 (129) 2-710 | 2°588 —"122 4 | 1725 2-77 2 +°08 25 145 2-76 [2°85] +09 1 138 2-78 2° +06 —1 153 2°83 2°87 +°04 3 84 26 2°92 +16 —5 123 2°85 2°98 +°13 t =6 1255 | 2-87 [2-94] +07 The same table includes two experiments of Troost,* by Dumas’ method, but at the very low pressures of and 16™". Insuch experiments we cannot expect a close agree- ment with the formula, for the same error in the determination of the weight of the vapor, which would make a difference of * Com: Rendus, t. lxxxvi (1878), p. 1395. Am. Jour. bd hae Scie: Vou. XVIIL—No. 106, Ocr., 1879, 19 290 an W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. ‘01 in the density in experiments at atmospheric pressure, would make a difference of ‘21 or ‘47 in the circumstances of . In fact, the numbers obtained differ con- siderably from those demanded by the formula. There remain four experiments by Playfair and Wanklyn* in which Dumas’ method was varied by diluting the vapor with nitrogen. The numbers in the column of pressures represent the total pressure diminished by the pressure which the nitro- gen alone would have exerted. They are not quite accurate, since the data given to the memoir cited only enable us to experiment, equal to760™". The effect of this inaccuracy upo the calculated densities would be small. Two of these obser- vations agree closely with the formula; and two show considera ble divergence, but in opposite directions, and these are the two in which the quantities of peroxide of nitrogen were the small- est. The differences appear to be attributable rather to the difficulty of a precise determination of the quantities of nitro- gen and of vapor, than to any effect of the one upon the other. Special interest attaches to experiments at the same or nearly the same temperature but different pressures. For with exper iments at the same temperature, the constants of the formwa which are determined by observation are reduced to one, 80 that the verification of the formula by experiment cannot poe sibly be regarded as a case of interpolation. It is not nect sary that the temperatures should be exactly the same, for it will be conceded that the formula represents the actual func: tion well enough to answer for adjusting slight differences 0 temperature; but itis necessary that the range of p : should be considerable in order that the differences of density should be large in proportion to the probable errors of observ tion, But the pressures must not be so low that accurate as is evidently allowable, the observed values follow a closely the fluctuations of the calculated, extending from 22 * Trans. Roy. Soe, Edinb., vol. xxii (1861), p. 463. J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 291 increase with the pressures more rapidly than the formula allows; but the differences are not too large to be ascribed to errors of observation, and the experiment at the lowest pres- sure (8£"™) also shows a large excess of observed density. much more critical test may be found in the comparison of Naumann’s experiments with those of Deville and Troost, are compared with the densities calculated by the formula 1589(D —1:589) 3800 = — 12°641. 11 loo of the third series of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique and the higher pressures employed at this peas cannot ith res pressure of saturated vapor is about 19™™ at 13°, 20°5™™ at 15°, 33:57™ at 22°, and 585™ at 82°. By interpolation between the logarithms of these pressures, (in a single case, extrapolation), we obtain the following result. ~ 292 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. Temperature.....------ 10°5 12°5 16 18°5 Pressure of sat. vapor... 16° 18°5 22 26°2 Pressure of experiment.. 14°69 15°20 15°97 23°53 Taste III.—Formic Acip. Experiments of Brneav. Eee Densit f observed Temperature. Pressure. ca eg “ib. v observed. . density. 216°0 690 1-60 1°61 +01 1840 750 1:64 1°68 +04 125°5 687 2°03 2°05 +02 1255 645 2°02 2°03 +01 1245 670 2-04 2-06 +02 124°5 640 2°03 04 118-0 655 2°13 (2°14) (+01) 118-0 650 2°13 13 00 1175 688 215 2°13 —"02 115° 649 217 2-20 +03 115-5 640 2-16 2°16 1 655 2-18 (2°13) (—"05) 1115 690 2°25 3°92 03 1115 90 2°25 2°25 ll 2-22 (2°13) (—*09) [687] 2-30 2°31 re 105-0 691 2°35 35 00 105°0 650 2°34 2°33 —0l 1050 630 2°33 2°32 —01 101°0 693 2°42 2°44 +02 1010 650 2-40 2°41 + 99°5 690 2°44 Se a + 08* 2°44 2°49 7 99°5 676 2-44 2°46 a3 5 662 2-43 2-44 + 99 2-42 2°42 e | 99°5 619 2-41 2°41 a | 602 2°41 2:40 en 99°5 55 2-39 234 ¥ 34:5 28-94 2°89 277 ee 315 3-04 2°40 2°60 +°20 4 8:83 2°67 2°69 +702 - 18-28 2-81 2°76 —2e : 7-40 2:88 2°83 a 24°5 17°39 2:88 2°86 . 0 25-17 2°95 3°05 +°10* 20-0 16-67 2-93 2°94 1 ‘ 20-0 ‘99 2°84 2°85 +01 20-0 2°72 2-64 2°80 +16 18°5 2 3°23 + ae 16-0 15-97 2-97 3°13 i? 15° 2°61 2-72 2°86 +14 y 2-90 2°93 22 15°20 3-00 3°14 +14* 110 7-26 2-95 3°02 +°07 105 14-69 Ss ee eee ee Whether the large excess of observed density in these cane’ represents a property of the vapor, or an incipient condensatiop T. N. Dale, Jr.—The Fault at Rondout. 293 on the walls of the vessel which contains it, as has been op tee by eminent physicists in similar cases, we need not here discuss. If we reject these cases of nearly saturated vapor, as well as the three earlier determinations, there remain 25 experiments at pressures somewhat less than one atmosphere in which the maximum difference between the observed and calculated densi- ties is 05, and the average difference ‘016 ; nine experiments at pressures ranging from 29™™" to 7™™, in which the maximum difference is ‘07 and the average ‘035; and three experiments at ressures of about 8™, in which the average difference is ‘17. he extraordinary precision of the determinations at low pres- sures is doubtless dws to the large scale on which the experi- [To be continued.] Art. XXXVIII.—The Fault at Rondout ; by T. NELson DALE, Jr. "Ny, i 843. at. Hist. of N. Y., Part IV, Geology, by W. W. Mather. PI. 7, fig. 9, 1 1 tage Study of the Rocks,” by Si Lindsley, in the forthcoming Part I, Vol. ii, of Proceedings of the Poughkeepsie Society of Natural Science. he OAR ae 294 T. N. Dale, Jr.—The Fault at Rondout. the hill consists of grit dipping east-northeast at an angle of about 45°. These grits form part of the series of clay-slates and grits of the Hudson River group.* Unconformably resting upon these grits is a series of limestones, dipping at about the same angle, but toward the northwest. e grits are non-fos- siliferous at this point. The limestones are abundantly fossil- iferous. T am indebted to Mr. Lindsley for the following measurements of the latter. ginning above: No. 9, 20 feet or more, Upper Pentamerus limestone. No. 8, 20 feet, Encrinal limestone. No. 7, 15-20 feet, Delthyris limestone. No. 6, 20 feet Lower Pentamerus limestone with chert, Pentamerus galeatus, Crinoids. No. 5, feet, Ribbon limestone with Stromatopora concentrica.. No. 4 15 feet, Tentaculite limestone with Tentaculites trregularis, Le- perditia alta. No. 8, 4 feet, limestone with prismatic mud cracks. No. 2, 80 feet, Water-lime with Leperditia alta. No. 1, 6 feet, Encrinal limestone. _ Whatever may be thought as to the presence in No. 1 and 2 of N iagara beds, we certainly have to do with Lower Helderberg in part of No. 2 and in No. 8 and The relative position of the rocks is shown in the accom- anying sections. For Section No. 8, I am indebted to Mr. Lindsley. The excavations represented in figure 1 were made in ne the rock being a hydraulic limestone or “ cement rock,” ON KK j \ \S\\ . Y RAIN SVX iw‘ Figs. 1 to 3, Lowe Helderberg beds resting unconformably on the Hudson River group (fine-lined portion in the figures); West, of H. R. east-northeast, AN \ \ A WS It has been supposed, I believe by Sir William Logan, that the great fault which begins near eo. crosses the Hudson were powerfully folded and metamorphosed. A period of ay. lift and erosion followed ; then a depression and the depositio® *See this Journal, III, vol. xvii, 1979 page 57, “On the Age of the Clay-slate> " Ba 8 Wee, Ughkeepsic,” by T. Nelson Dale. Jr. > ___ tPana, Manual of Geology, page 184, 2d edition, 1876. S. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Amblygonite. 295 of the Upper Silurian series. At some later time, probably at the period of the Appalachian revolution, the whole series, 1. e. the Hudson River an wer Helderberg formations, were uplifted, folded, fractured, faulted and tilted. he complicated stratification of Section 3, may perhaps be accounted for as follows. First, unconformable deposition of Lower Helderberg upon Hudson River beds; then the formation of an anticlinal, and at the same time, closely adjoining it, a treble fold. The folds by the continued pressure were broken off from the anticlinal and thrown into an erect position. The same force has also compressed the lowest fold between the edges of the anticlinal on one side, and the surface of other Lower Helderberg strata on the other. The uppermost layers of this fold were by this action ruptured. This is not shown in the cut. As the upper portion of the base of the hill has been quarried away, the segments of three folds are now in view, one above another. The thickness of the contorted strata has been much reduced by pressure. Art. XXXIX.—On the Chemical Composition of Amblygonite ; by SamuEeL L. PENFIELD. THE new mineral species triploidite described by Messrs. Brush and Dana* is shown by them to be isomorphous with wagnerite and closely related in composition to triplite. These three minerals have respectively the formulas (Mn,Fe), P,O,+ (Mn,Fe) (OH),, Mg, P,O,+MgF, and (Fe,Mn), P,O,+(Fe,Mn) F,. rom a comparison of these formulas it is argued (l. c., p. 45) that the relation between the minerals requires the assumption that the hydroxy] in triploidite must play the same part as the fluorine in the other two. : i In this paper I wish to show that in amblygonite the hydroxyl group is also isomorphous with fluorine, and that in chemical composition the original amblygonite does not differ m the American and Montebras varieties which have been called hebronite. I shall also show that the results of m analyses require the adoption of a new formula for the mineral, more simple than that previously accepted. For analysis I have selected specimens from the three localities in Maine, has bee lately discovered by Messrs. Brush and Dana, also two varieties from Montebras and one from Penig, Saxony, from a specimen in the Yale College collection. — e analyses are arranged so as to form a series, beginning with the one which contains the smallest amount of water. * This Journal, III, xvi, 42, July, 1878. I. Penig, Saxony. > Mean. 296 iS. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Amblygonite. & sag an. Relative number of atoms. P.O, 4835 4813 48°24 P ‘678 1° AiO, 3850 33°60 3355 Al ‘651 96 Ti. .BOy.,. OPE 807 ..Li BOS) gos gh Na,O 206 203 204 Na ‘066 MnO, ‘12 15 18 1°75 1°75 OH Si: FE 11-26 tag at tsi 105°94 O equivalent of F 4°74 101°20 IL. ee aes variety A. G,=3°088. Me Relative number of atoms. P.O, “ir 10 47-07 4709 P_ ‘664 1 ALO, 33°20 38°25. 83°22 Al °646 97 Li, 793 790 792 Li 528 Na,O 3°48 rie 3°48 Na ‘112 > 649 ‘98 CaQ “25 24 24 Ca ‘009 H,O 2°25 2°29 2°27 OH ei y 1900 one” sis OP , bs eles ; 10415 O equivalent of F 4°02 100°13 atthe nme tke nae G.=3°059. Relative number of atoms. P.O Pr 56 is-26 ewe “48 fr Gee x, Al,O, 33°67 33°90 33-78 Al ‘656 96 Li,O 9-49 9°42 9°46 Li 630) g¢9 -97 Na,O "96 1°02 “99 Na 2 oe 6°26 615 6°20 F 6 : 102-48 O equivalent of F 2°61 99°87 ‘Iv. Hebron, Maine, poriety A, : lative number “ sie P.O, By difference [48°53] "682 ie 34°12 Al -662 "91 9°54 Li +636). 1) 34 Na ° 10 ¢ -cgeeois F = “ae 493 ot 19 1°18 deer aa was accidentally lost before a phosphoric ee frp mane g9 It is inserted because it 1s regarded good an d it varies somewhat from the other sam ris from Gaan which was obtained to Pai it. S. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Amblygonite. 297 V. Paris, Maine. G.=3°-035 i. Il. Mean. Relative number of atoms. PO, 4828 4835 48°31 “680 1° Al, 33°87 33°50 33°68 Al “654 96 Li,O —- 9°83 9°80 982 Li 654) 94, oy Na,O 43 24 34 Na ‘010 e 03 me "03 | 4°96 4°82 4:89 OH es F 482 4829 482 F fat cds cee : 101°89 O equivalent of F 2°03 99°86 Ni: aerthet Maine, variety B. G.=3°032. ; ean. Relative number of atoms. P.O, a 44 47°44 47:44 P ‘668 1° Al,O, | 33°79 34°01 33°90 Al -658 “98 Li,O 9°24 924 Li 616) p59 .95 NaO oie 66 66 Na ‘022 : 5°00 510 5°05 OH‘561), 5 F 553° 688 4b 087 Hess Fath aos 101°74 O equivalent of F 2°29 99°45 sie oe Connecticut. G.—=3°032. Mean. Relative number of atoms. re. 46: 80 iat 48°30 P ‘686 1: set 3426 34:26 Al “665 ‘97 1, 9°69 9:90 930 Li °653 Na,O 15 “24 19 Na 006 3 ¢ 859 see Fe.0, 29 "29 "29 Mn,O, -10 "10 10 H,0 5°93 5°90 591 OH et 750 109 F 1°75 1°75 175° CF 101710 O equivalent of F “74 ¥ 100°36 e VII. Montebras, France, variety B. G.=3°007. Mean. Relative number of atoms. P.O, ... 48°31... 49°38. . 4834. PB 681 1 Al.O, 33-78 3838. 33°55. Al “651 "96 LiO 953 950 952 Li NaO 34 ‘33 33 Na 010/°654 96 CaO 40 30 Ca “0 HO 661 661 £661 £QOH-734 t see Ars ¥ 1°76 1°74 75 *-F 100°45 O equivalent of F “Th 298 SS. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Amblygonite. For more easy comparison the ratios from the above analyses I are collected in the following table by themselves, where R a. equa I P Al R (O8,F) i Penig, Saxony 1°00 "96 "98 1°16 Ii. Montebras, France, A 1°00 97 98 1:17 Ill. Auburn, Maine 00 96 97 1°06 IV. Hebron, Maine, A 1:00 97 95 1°13 Paris, e 1°00 96 97 147% VI. Hebron, Maine,B 1:00 98 ‘95 1°27 VIL. Branchville, Conn. 1:00 "97 "96 1°09 VIIL Montebras, France, B 1:00 96 "96 1°21 It will be seen that all of these approach closely to the ratio : rit 1, hence I propose the formula Al,P,O,+2R (OH, F) — ae + oR On, Fe as the true formula for all oe hes varieties of this mineral. (hebronite of von Kobell), including analyses II to v. above. The mineral from Branchville has not been examined t will be seen in comparing the above ratios that in every case the ratio of P to (OH, F) is in excess of that of the Al te R. Two theories suggest themselves to account for this, the first of which seems the most plausible. First: most miner which are ordinaril counties. as anhydrous contain a § amount of water, which is not calculated in the ratios, i? 8, a that when added to the Al and R it will make the ratio w! equal 1:1: 1, then the ratio of (OH, F) will be: Penig; S. L. Penfield— Chemical Composition of Amblygonite. 299 Montebras, A, 1°06: Auburn, 0°91; Hebron, A, 0:99; Paris, 1:02; Hebron, B, 1:18; Branchville, 0°97; Montebras, B, 1:05. Thi relation seems rather striking, and although it is not as simple as we should like to have it, or perhaps as plausible as the first theory, yet it may possibly be the correct one. hichever of these explanations is accepted, it will not materially alter the formula above made out for the minerals, the variation from which is too slight and not constant enough to be expressed by any different formula, It will be seen from analyses I and II that water is found in the Penig and Montebras varieties which thought it best to give my method of analysis in full, which and titrating the liberated hydrochloric acid with a standard alkali solution.* The varieties from Penig and Montebras are nitric acid, nearly neutralizing the excess of acid with ammonia, precipitating a way. To determine the bases, one gram was weighed into a large Platinum crucible, mixed into a paste with from two to three cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid, and heated, with the cruci- ble covered, over a low gas flame till not over a cubic centime- ter of sulphuric acid remained. The contents of the crucible . Were then rinsed into a platinum evaporating dish and treat * See Remsen’s American Chemical Journal, vol. i, No. 1. 300 SS. L. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Amblygonite. undissolved portion after incinerating the filter paper was treated with hydrofluoric acid, then with a drop of sulphuric acid; the hydrofluoric acid expelled by evaporation and the solution added to the other solution of the bases. To obtain the bases as chlorides the sulphuric acid was precipitated from the solution with barium chloride, and the barium sulphate filtered off. The solution was then heated to boiling and a hot solution of barium hydroxide added; this precipitated all the phosphoric acid and part of the alumina. The solution con- tained all the lithia and most of the alumina which went into sulphuric acid, and the alumina precipitated wit from lithia. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness, the ammo nia salts expelled by ignition, traces of barium separated a 56 ond or third time when necessary, evaporated to ey un, lithia separated from soda and potash by means a absolute alcohol and ether, the lithia weighed as sulphate — the soda and potash as chlorides. The chlorides were t@& carefully for potash by evaporating with excess of platinum a Ps - W. J. McGee—Superposition of Glacial Drift. 301 “a and taking up in alcohol. The y ammonium carbonate was dissolved in evaporated to dryness and weighed, the lithia found amounted to from one-quarter to one per cent. The solutions were kept as far as possible from all contact with glass, the evaporations being carried on in large platinum ishes. The reagents were carefully selected and purified. Sodium hydroxide free from aluminium and silica was obtained, prepared from metallic sodium. Owing to the limited amount of material from Penig only three-quarters of a gram was used in the determinations, and duplicates of the water and fluorine determination were not obtained. For the occurrence and associations of amblygonite at Branchville, Connecticut, see the papers by Messrs. Brush an n closing I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Pro- fessor Geo. J. Brush, who has most liberally furnished me with the material needed for this examination. Sheffield Laboratory, June 18, 1879. , Agr. XL.—On the fs a ee of Glacial Drift upon Resid- uary Clays; by W. J. McGEE. THE accompanying actual section is exposed in a cut on the Delaware & St, Paul Railroad, a mile north of Delaware, Delaware County, Iowa. No. 1 is glacial drift, somewhat light 2 oe and sandy, but containing erratics and continuous with the mantle of “sround moraine” deposits covering the greater por- * This Journal, July and August, 1878, and May, 1879. 302 W. J. McGee—Superposition of Glacial Drift. . removed by the glacier. an a ; contains a greater number of erratics ; and many silicified Ni- studied the formation at many 8 es that these clays Ltn | 1 to 4 feet. _ 2. Clays of the Hamilton shales, about ___..---- 50 feet. the Rockford shales. For the relations of the forma a description of some of its fossils, see Prof. S. Calvin’s papers x ‘ih Journal, vol. xv, p. 460, and in Bull. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., vol. 1, va Lo W. J. McGee—Superposition of Glacial Drift. 303 The ice here moved S. 20° or 80° E., and must have been of y- obliquely the steep slope of the bluff. A ground and striated specimen of Orthis Vanuxemz, and an O. Jowensis with a to justify may be briefly stated: (1) That residuary assumption that residuary clays may sometimes be smooth and furrowed Farley, Iowa, July 30, 1879. * See Lyell, “ Student's Elements,” 1872, p. 179, and Antiq. Man, 1873, p. 262; Croll, “Climate and Time,” Am. Ed., p. 465; Geiki . Ed Pp. 144-5; Chamberlin, Geol. Wis, 1877, vol: ii, p. 219; Foster and Whitney, l. Lake Superior Dist., 1851, pt. ii, p. 245; Logan, Geol. .. 1863, pp. 898, 902, 906; ‘ é xviii, » 40; Hir a oe a eer ee ee ee ey MS ee ee Nt ge ry re S| Lm aS gee Ve ed 8 2 4 ae tu ao “: dH Ol. <4 bo 2S ao ae Oo es < Ss by ES So + a8) as oP co oo ey —_ » © as 4 o 4 se o &. + 5 g* os a = “<5 ao jt ™M ol = © oo Ss Ho Sw Reid, Geol. Mag., vol. vi., p. Hinde, Canadian Journal, April, 1877; McGee, Proc. Am. Assoc., 1878 4 é w, 1863, vol. i, pt. ii, p. 68, and Drift of Scotland,” p. 67; Read, Geol. Ohio, 1878, vol. ili, pt. i, p. 312; serbia cit. (striated pavements also occur near Toronto and are here de- Ean ee ee cited by Logan, loe. cit., p. 919; Reid, loc. cit.; Chambers’, n. New Phil. Jour., vol. liv, p. 272; and Smith, “Newer Pliocene Geology,” p. 129. The last two authorities are cited by Croll, loc. cit. p.256. 304 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCER. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. liquids of different boiling points are mixed together in equal with that obtained b multiplying the vapor-tensions of the two point of the —— of CH,O and 5 c.c. of CCl, in the third. In the first tube the mer* cury wi depressed about 80 mm. and in the second 70 mm.; while in the third the depression will be 130 mm.—J. Chem. Soe, Xxxv, 544, Aug, 1879, wer 2 2. On the Solidifying point of Bromine.—Because of the Widely differing values given for the point at which bromine solid- TLIPP, at the suggestion of Rammelsberg, has under taken to redetermine it, In order to purify the bromine, it was Chemistry and Physics. : 305 dissolved in caustic payee water, the washed barium bromat converted into bromide b ——s — this distilled with aides ric acid and potassium dichro e distillate was washed and dried; a part by —- with cae ated sulphuric acid and distillation and a part by distillation from calcium chloride. ° Thus purified, the bromine solidified between —7°2° and —7:3 with that obtained by Regnault — 7-3 The non-pu ro- mine solidified at —9° to —10°. To rai the psa ms foreign admixture, the author made direct experimen und that ile 2 per cent of iodine di sa materially raise the siping es , 3 or 4 per cent of chlorine lowered it eve romine has a ape dea color and a conchoidal fracture; ‘thos -h after exposure to the it takes a gray color recalling that of ape and perl pene ibieniag Berl. Chem. Ges., xii, eee u 3. On tz Thermic formation of Hydrogen silicide a ey of Ethyl silicate—Oaiex has studied, in Berthelot’s fe pesboe the heat-relations attending the formation of hydrogen silicide and of ethyl silicate. The hydrogen silicide was prepared by the action of sodium on tribasic siliciformic ether, and was free from hydro- 4 = 24: 8 ealoriek: He ene a nitin ia d H. evolve ae ; get, ries, a number very near ‘that which the rsaiee of marsh gas gives, +22. The heat of formation of silicic ether was determined in two Ways: first, analytically, by decomposing it by means of a large quantity of water, into silicic acid and alcohol, at the ordinary method ave +-21°6 edias as the heat evolved in the decompo- ‘Taken with the contrary sign, it expresses the hea id, Sn cting from this the heat corresponding to the solution of the alcohol in water, there is left — 1144 calories, the true heat 26 equivalents of alcohol was 42°3 calories at 10°. Making the hecessary corrections, the heat of formation of silicic ether ob- — ~ nike way, is —11°56 calories, a close accordance with the ohisined analytically, 11-44. Referred to a single ae of alcohol instead of four, it becomes —2°9.— Bull. Soe. pre Il, xxxii, 116, 118, Aug., 1879, G. F. B. oun. Sor —Tup Sent, VoL oL. XVIII, No, 106.—Ocr., 1879. 306 Scientific Intelligence. 4, On Organic Uliramarines.—DeEForcranpd has succeeded in roducing an ultramarine containing ethyl. Though Unger first succeeded in replacing half of the sodium in ultramarine by silver, Heumann first produced an ultramarine in which this replacement was complete, This yellow silver-ultramarine served as the start- ing point in the new researches. When heated, dry, with a metallic or an organic chloride, silver chloride and a new ultra- marine result. Silver ultramarine was prepared by heating in sealed tubes for 15 to 16 hours, four or five grams of blue ultra- the inverse one; or by heating the two without water to a hig he i formation is a maximum. e potassium and rubidium ultrama- clear gray pow ‘ ethyl sulphide. If, however, this powder be intimately mix with sodium chloride before heating it, only a trifling evolution mix zene nhuc. 1 Von Ricutr h ‘ a 4 direc’ synthesis of the benz EE has sought for and discovere benzene ring which strongly confirms the hypot Chemistry and Physics. 307 esis of Kekulé. Exactly as monobasic acids yield common ketones, so the diabasic acids should give double ketones having the car- bon atoms in a ring form. ‘Thus from succinic acid, di-ethylene- di-ketone is formed : C HOOC CO ‘CH, no” © CH, i ; CH, HC, ovo H, Aa \cooH ~H,0,=C,H,O, +H, and C,H,O, + Zn,=C,H, +(ZnO), +H,, it may be considered a8 proved that the benzene nucleus has the constitution assigned sulphuric acid, so, | oe , acted on the monatomic alcohols to OSO0,0H. (CHOSO,O MSS wine drates have an increased rotatory power to the right. Milk sugar ives dextrose and galactose.—J. pr. Ch., Il, xx, 1, Aug., 1879. B. G. F, _1. On the Conversion of Aurin into Trimethylpararosani- line—Darx and Scuortemmer, by acting on aurin with ammo- nia, have sought to obtain the intermediate products between this substance and para-rosaniline. As ammonia gave so much trouble, they tried methylamine and found that in aqueous solution, this ie ated readily on aurin at 125 hos re amabee it Bs fntirely into a le bod ssessiD the properties of a tri- methybrosaniline : C,H, (CH,NH,),=C,H, (CH,),N, + (H,0), ethylamine acts similarly, converting the aurin into purple coloring matters—J. Chem. Soc., xxxv, 562, Aug., 1879. G. F. B 308 Scientific Intelligence. the principle that the induced current in a secondary coil depends with a telephone. If the primary coils are exactly equal, and are traversed by the same electric current, one will hear no sound by the introduction of metals on one side or the other, the tele- hone announces the inequality and the secondary coil has to be i he num metals. The extreme sensitiveness of this balance is shown by It is of use as a coin detector—any Professor Hughes’ balance, and gives a number of curves produced by different alloys, and shows that the balance can detect smaller quantities of metals in the composition of alloys than the methods hitherto used. He suggests also “that the balance ma afford a simple means of detecting variations in the molecular structure of alloys and for detecting allotropy in metals with greater acct — than has hitherto been possible.”— Fil. Mag., July, 1879, p. 50. am ’ IL Grotogy anp NaruraL History. of South America. On the same day a great eruption occ in the island of Tanna, one of the New Hebrides, followed by # ‘second outbreak on February 4. Simultaneously yet another Ph, 4 erupt : ry volcano Isluga in South America (lat. 19° 10’ S.), where several villages were destroyed by the lava streams and accompauy!™g Geology and Natural History. 309 volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands and in the Society Islands. Dr. Fuchs also records the great mud eruption near Paterno in days or even weeks in the same locality. If every shock were counted the total would be many times greater. The earthquakes were most frequent in winter and autumn— thirty-nine occurring in winter, twenty-six in autumn, and nine- teen each in summer and spring. The most violent and destructive earthquakes occurred on January 23 in Peru and Boilvia, and on October 2 in San Salvador. (Also on April 12 in Venezuela. This Journal, Feb., 1879, pp. 158, 159, 161.) Of European earth- quakes the following deserve notice. On January 28, about noon 10, 11, Feb. 2, Aug. 9), Gross Geran (Jan. 2, Mi : (Jan. 26, 27, June 8), Constantinople and vicinity (April 19 to a im many places the houses showed cracks, At the end of the oscillations a dull subterranean noise was heard, and a second d ; Offenbach on the Main and Michelstadt in the Odenwald on the southeast Strasburg, Paris and Charelville in the south, Liége the ground, while miners working at a depth of 300 meters did not feel it at all, - 310 Scientific Intelligence. A similar fact has been noticed in regard to some recent earth- eR in our Rocky Mountain region, which, though quite severe the surface veer not felt in the mines below.— Condensed aad 2 ican Phi L Soe oc., bea 16, 187 9.) This apie i se the results of region; and it sind asst us for the first time an accurate idea of the ara the Sao Paulo and ‘Santa Catharina ao reaches pe the Atlantic to o Mar, coast a low belt, from er twenty miles broad. e remainder region, coven ng the central and western parts 0 of the prov vince. rst region is entirely composed of metamorphic rocks, high? lined nd with a general strike east-northeast. These, in the coast belt, and in the Serra do Mar proper, are “mostly sranites and gneisses, representing the Archean of Rio de Janeiro an northern Brazil; but further west they consist principally of met- amorphic schists, quartzites, marbles, ete., and represent the Lower Silurian or Cambrian of Bahia, Minas Geraes and northern is) discovered species of enaule, i Spirifera, ie a Streptor identical with, aoe of the I fies of the Amazonas. pies Deissle ne of N. orth Ameri ___ The diamonds are found principally in the valley of the river Tibagy, and vate pyarely} in other river valleys, as they cTos® e Geology and Natural History. 311 in more elevated gravel banks, called “dry washings.” =k. k 3. Serpentine Marble—A beautiful variety of mottled serpen- tine marble is worked at a point on Broad Creek in Harford of the region. The chief bed is about 500 feet thick, and is traceable by its outcrop for about 1500 feet. 4. Gymnospermy of Conifere ; by Dr. L. CELaKovsxry. a here specified, and becomes a leafy branch. Dr. Engelmann, in this Journal, three years ago, gave a confirmatory account of an partially united, next forming a seal cleft or notched apex, then an entire carpellary scale, in the axil of a normal bract. _ Celakovs avi Spruce monstrosity for him- ky ing now seen the Spruce monstr self, adopts the inevitable conclusion, and are it well to the i e eclares that the 312 Scientific Intelligence. of Conifere follows of course ; that Braun has seen similar prolif- ication in the catkins of Zaxodinew, in which the carpel-scale was replaced by a bud; that, although the carpel-scale in Abietinew that Van Tieghem and Strassburger have proved the seemingly —— scale of Cupressinee and Taxodinew to be composed of ra appear. e anatomical organogenist may argue ovules and carpels are independent productions, but Celakovsky © insists that he will argue wrongly. is brings our author to the consideration of the structure of Taxinew, This is environed with difficulties, and explanation Is only conjectural. Here the disc, arillus, cupula, or whatever it be called, is to be seen, Celakovsky inclines to the view that this orga”, ogous with that of Taxus, but oblique. Cephalotazus has no scale mma he will not concede that the ovule can be wholly destitute a carpellary organ. Yet he might do so, in one sense; for if the carpel may develope very late and very imperfectly or very a it May sometimes not visibly appear at all, and so t reduced tothe ovular outgrowth Geology and Natural History. 318 of the leaf; which would distinguish Taxinew from all true Conifere,—a view which would not be destitute of important support. For both Braun and Mohl have seen apparently androgynous scales in some Abietinee. In a monstrous Larch- and figures an androgynous inflorescence of White Spruce, with pollen-sacs on the outer face, and on the other a pair of knobs which from their form and position might be taken for imper- fectly developed ovules. But this latter case seems most am- biguous. If it was in a male catkin, the upper part of which had become female by the development of carpel-scales in the axil of stamens partially transformed into bracts (which is the case we have before in a monstrosity of Hemlock Spruce), then the quasi-androgynous scale in question may have n the normal abietineous carpel-scale itself, with the oblbeatclos bract behind ith It and connate with it. G. BE. & A. G. 5. Contributions to American Botany, IX; by Sereno Wat- m Acade e the genera and higher groups should be disposed. This led to a wide study of the order and a strict scrutiny of the American Species ; oan “teins re yea é diversified forms, cash interlaced affinities, has been a problem of no small difficulty. Mr. Baker, in England, has attempted the 314 Scientific Intelligence. characters of the leading groups are not to be had, even when North American forms only are considered. Those who imagine they could do better than Mr. Watson has done should make h defined as destitute of style, but with “ the slightly lobed stigms sessile upon the attenuated apex of the ovary.” This 18 really The division of Uvularia gives a gratifying opportunity of dedi cating a New England genus to the memory of one of the 7. of New oy Ange age the late Wm. Oakes — ae f fota, with its relative of the southern mountains, 0. puverv’? > but he would not have relished the dismemberment of the Linnwam My Geology and Natural History. 815 — Hastingsia, p. 217, nor under the species, H. alba, p. 242 ut an appropriate reference is made on p. 286. __ eucocrinum, Nutt., was conjectured by Endlicher to be the great painstaking, are thirty-six in number, exclusive of the intro- duced A. vineale. living plants, such especially as those furnished by the so-called “crests of the ovary.” In A. stellatum these crests are remarka- tive to bees. The flowers are proterandrous. Separating the two species of Maianthemum we should have unhesitatingly referred the large Pacific coast form to Mf bifoli: We should not have distinguished Lilium Gray? as more than a form of Z. Canadense, one which extends northward to the central parts of New York. In view of geographical of fe size, and general appearance, we should never have thought of Uvularia flava as a synon of U. grandifiora. Mr. Watson finds good characters in the s ape and markings of the capsule to . grandiflora from U. perfoliata, Has auy one ripe » fruit of the small, yellow-flowered, U. flava ? Chamelirium Carolinanum, Willd. 7 m idl 4 A trum luteum of Linneus), the blossoms being white without a tinge of yellow, duller white in the female plant, pure white in the male, the pedicels equally of this color. 316 Scientific Intelligence. No space is left in which to notice the Notes upon the Affinities and geographical Distribution of Ziliacew, nor the Descriptions of Some ne ecies of North American Plants, about fifty in number, which make up the second part of this important “ Con- tribution.” Among them is a new Bolandra and a new Sulli- Ohioensis. We know of no law against genetive names of geo- uc The interesting new Erigoneous genus Hollisteria, discovered by the enthusiastic Mr. Lemmon (in San Luis Obispo Co., east of one, an take the two small stipulelike leaves to be real : stipules,—a point which the published character does not decide, though it is implied in describing the leaves as alternate. — Being one of the most important of recent contributions to North American Botany, this publication deserves even a fuller notice than we can here give i el 6. Musci Fendleriani Venezuelenses.—Among the collections made by Mr. Augustus Fendler in Venezuela, in 1854-5, was @ very fine one of the Mosses of the region which he explored. It was purchased by the late Mr. Sullivant and in part studied by by sale among the bryologists. But, as a very large pro ortion of the species were new, it wa desirable that they shoul all be is has now been satisfactorily and most oblig- (xlii, parts 5 and 6), tion. Schrad . of e early application should be made to Mr. Schrader. 7. Dietionnai occupied by two articl it were a Bs ise Astronomy. - 317 8. Miscellanea.—The following are the more important botanical publications which have accumulated _— our table Transactions of the Linnean Society of pz Second Series, parts 5 and 6, of vol. i—These fe ntain Casimir DeCan- dolle’s paper -on the geographical distribution of the Meliacea, with a map; New British Lichenes by Leighton, with a fine witch’s Angolan Herbarium, by Baker; New Zealand Lichenes, a Knight; the fine paper on the morphology of Primulacee, by Masters; a new genus of parasitic Algw tr conidial fructifica- tion in the Mucorini, by D. D. Cunningham; Fungi from Queens- land, by Berkeley and Browne e, and the Rev. George Henslow’s memoir on self-fertilization in plants, which has been reviewed in this Journal at some length. Nouvelles Archives du Museum.—The first volume of the aN species of so al spe eleven of Syri nga, includ- ing a r. Ann, Sclentition ealisne, Ann. xv.—A general review of botanical publications of 1878, Signor Delpino, now Professor of Botany in the University of Genoa, sends us also continua- tions of his valuable wet on dichogamy of sgh and some A. & Ill. Astronomy. 1. Ephemeris of the Satellites of Mars for Oct. and Nov., . On — ction 0 ag srr caustic alkaline — on glass, A. — a TE A mination of black ozokerite, C, G. WHEEL: ried Beit of ea pe cos of say eka —— the gem beds fa Ceylon, with £ Ill. Geology, a ia ag succession of glacial deposits in New England, W. U the thinning and absence of Upper Silurian and avant formation 13 7 Blue Hill, Me., C. H. Hirowcock. vered cupreous veins the histology of insects, C. 8. aces te banaue w vee ae : coors of life, id. —On the anatomy of Plathelminths, id. i a Oe iam ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 321 A short biography of the dome: - BROWNE GOODE. On the fertilization o a, T. MEE - Philosophy of the picasa of uttertites, and particularly of the Nymphalide, 0. V. Rinpy.—The cotton worm in the United States, explanation of its pore and mooted points in its cage ae up, id. Homologies Ne he Lau , L. F. Warp.—Sexual differentiation in Epigaa , id.—Note on the savenient of the stamens of Sabbatia angularis, i On a et ec crinoidal form recently discovered in Tennessee, with exhibi- tion of specimens, J. M. SAFFORD. The fauna of the Lower Helderber Tg sin mo Aageerrent = Corals, fears and ermata, JAMES Hatt.—Notes e gene nestella, Hemitrypa, i 8 id. —— the present condi of ne rik upon "the ec mir Pr of New ork, i wee some pre-Cambrian rocks in goes and Europe, T. Sterry Hunt.—On @ geology 0 Ae Sip 6 The newly bogie cave a uray, Page Co., Va., J. W. CHICKERING, Jr. Gypsum sand, A. P. 8. Srv The thderoctenic canal pr aati, E. P. Luu. On the progress of ~~ second geolo gical survey of Pennsylvania, J. P. LEsiqe. Notice of the occurrence of rocks representing the Marcellus shales of New specimens, W. i HounAD ADAY. € occurrence of microscopic bem: in the vertebra of the toad (Bufo Americanus). [With a note by A. A. Julien.] H. C. Bouton. P On the anthracite coal fields of benmmivaite po their rapid exhaustion, P. W. _ The rb aye of the a in the wings of insects, as illustrated in the Scup S. H. Gagz.—A m of demonstrating bee moor ¢ — in animals, id.—The coy ede ligaments of the form of sepckaghaitie dechrodes for phy eiobogion’ research, H. P. cessful moth-trap, W pag, Colors and defective visior Some new or little known intone and physiological instruments and _. atus, B. ER.—Notes of the cat’s brain, id—On brain with e On the geology of Bermuda, W. Norra The geological weg = sci Acid of eel I. On unconsolidated deposits. II. On solid rocks, A ae genesis of the ‘Serpentine of caer ap RoR: etc., R. B. HARE. er n the surface limits of thickness tinental glacier, in New Jersey, J. IV. Anthropology. The ethnical y iatincnies of physical geography, D. Wirson. Archeological notes from Japan, E. 8. Deseription of of a i polished stone implement rere in Monkton, Vt., J. M. ober a The substances amber and jade, illustrated by remarkable specimens, Mrs BA. On the explanation of hereditary transmission, Lovis ELsBERG. 20a. 822 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The Ethnology of the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans; illustrated by a large colored map, A. S. BIcKMORE. The sign language of the North American Indians, GARRICK MALLERY. On some large and remarkable stone implements of the southern mound build- ers, F, W. PutNaM.—On the pottery of the southern mound builders, id Superstitions among the ancient inhabitants of the Mississippi valley relative to the owl, to the rabbit, to serpents, to thunder, J. G. HENDERSON.—Lake Erie and the Hries, id. Exhibition of archeological objects, S. S. HALDEMAN. . “ Ateulery of Champlain valley, giving a general account of recent discoveries, E Consonantal expression of emotion, C. J. BLAKE. xt meeting of the Association is to be held at Swansea, 8 ams following year, 1881, is appointed for York. 3. A Treatise on Sapiens and Public Health: edited by Avsert H. Buck, M.D, 2 vols. 8vo. pp. 792, 657. New York, 1879. (William Wood & Co.)-—This treatise consists of a series of twenty-five essays specially prepared by nearly as many Col tributors, most of whom are already known as specialists ™ Adulterations, Water and Water Supply, Ventilation, Drainage : 1 ene 0 occupa tions, of camps an e service, Hospital Constraction, Public Health, Vital Statistics, Public Nuisances, Disinfectants, As would be inferred the essays are of different degrees of ex- cellence and com leteness, and the treatise in a measure coma the characters of a hand-book of hygiene and a cyclopedia 0 Sanitary science. As a whole, the work is well done. Some ° adapted to pular oy well as professional "readers. The treatise is = valuab € contribution to sanitary literature in that it 8 9) | esentation of the subjects i ; t knowledge; Spo Be Sot gl a of our presen the THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] [Correction, by the Author, for the table on page 393.] Results of Observations. Each number is the mean of ten observations. : 299830 0 299860 2 299870 9720 299920 299860 299790 299880 40 2998 7 299760 299920 299840 299800 299910 299860 299700 299780 299740 299830 780 299700 299750 299 299930 299830 299600 299740 299770 299960 299860 299840 299720 P 299960 299880 9950 299730 299920 299860 299820 299930 299950 299980 299810 9860 299890 299970 299960 299770 299890 29990 299910 97 299830 299870 299790 299630 299860 299850 299840 299740 299860 299820 2998 299890 299790 299810 299820 299700 299920 9980, 299780 9830 299820 299930 299980 299770 299820 299830 299780 299940 740 2998 299830 2 , 299780 299820 299760 299850 Mean =299838 Cor. for temp. = +12 (of steel tape, etc.) = Vel. of light in air 299850 Yo Cor. for vacuo = +80 Vel. of light in vacuo =299930 ¢ 324 O. C. Marsh—History and Methods of In the short time now at my command, I can only attempt to present a rapid sketch of the principal steps in the progress of this science. The literature of the subject, especially in connection withthe discussions it provoked, is voluminous, and an outline of the history itself must suffice for my present purpose. to the nature o ao remains. Were they mere “sports 0 a them seem to have appreciated in some instances their true @ Vidi ego quod fuerat solidissima tellus, Esse fretum: vidi factas ex equore terras ; Et procul a pelago conche jacuere marine. * Metamorphoses, Liber XV, 262. ~~ 5 ES ae ase OO A en) as Ae ee Paleontological Discovery. 325 Aristotle (884-322 B. C.) was not only aware of the exist- ence of fossils in the rocks, but has also placed on record saga- cious views as to the changes in the earth’s surface necessary to account for them. In the second book of his Meteories, he says: “The changes of the earth are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes and their removal of all other rivers ; they spring up, and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others. The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not, some always sea, and others always continents, but everything changes in the course of time.” Aristotle’s views on the subject of spontaneous generation were less sound, and his doctrines on this subject exerted a powerful influence for the succeeding twenty centuries. required to explain their presence. Aristotle’s opinion was in accordance with the Biblical account of the creation of Man out of the dust of the earth, and hence more readily obtained credence. Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle, alludes to fossil fishes found near Heraclea, in Pontus, and in Paphlagonia, and says : “They were either developed from fish spawn left behind in venso like fishes, sprang from heated water and earth, and from these alimals be considered as anticipating the modern idea of evolution, as Some authors have imagined. 526 O. C. Marsh—History and Methods of The Romans added but little to the knowledge possessed by the Greeks in regard to fossil remains. Pliny (23-79 A. D), however, seems to have examined such —— with interest, and in his renowned work on Natural History gave names to several forms. He doubtless borrowed largely from Theo- hrastus, who wrote about three hundred years before. Among the objects named by Pliny were, “ Bucardia, like to an ox’s he “ Brontia, resembling the head of a tortoise, —— to fall in thunder storms 3” “Glossoptra, similar to a human tongue, which does not grow in the earth, but falls from ent while the moon is eclipsed ;” “the Tora of Ammon, ssessing, with a golden color,’ the figure of a ram’s horn ;” Daas unia and Ombria, supposed to be thunderbolts ; Ostra- cites, resembling the oyster shell ; Spongites, having the form of sponge ; Phycites, s imilar to sea-weed or rushes. He also figure of bones. eee (160 A. D.) mentions instances of the remains of sea animals on the mountains, far from the sea, but uses desi as a proof of the general deluge recorded in Scie During the next thirteen or fourteen centuries, fossil r of animals and plants seemed to have attracted so little per tion, that few references are made to them by the writers of this peri uring these ages of darkness, all departments of knowledge suffered alike, and feeble repetitions of ideas de- rived from the ancients seem to have been about the only contributions of that period to Natural Science. Albert the Great (1205-1280 A. D.), the pte learned = of his ae mentions that a branch of a tree was foun , obj op Tas ab nies , of Naples, ais that he saw, in the mountains of Calabria, a considerable distance from the tittle a variegated hard marble, in which many Teme A With the Sapien of the sixteenth century, a grea Teens angen of ost ome where this stu began. The discovery © 3 which abo ee aise he or at The ideas 0: f Aristotle ™ in Paleontological Discovery. 327 who was born in 1452, strongly opposed the commonly accepte opinions as to the origin of organized fossils. He claimed that e fossil shells under discussion were what they seemed, and had once lived at the bottom of the sea. ‘You tell me,” he says, “that Nature and the influence of the stars have formed these shells in the mountains; then show me a place in the of different ages, and of different species in the same place gain, he says, “In what manner can such a cause account for the petrifactions in the same place of various leaves, sea weeds, and marine crabs ?” _In 1517, excavations in the vicinity of Verona brought to light many curious petrifactions, which led to much specu- lation as to their nature and origin. Among the various authors who wrote on this subject was Fracastoro, who declared that the fossils once belonged to living animals, which had lived and multiplied where Feand. He ridiculed the prevailing ‘Mountains where the stars at the present day make shelly forms ideas that the plastic foree of the ancients could fashion stones into organic forms. Some writers claimed that these shells € said, was too transient ; it consisted mainly of fresh water ; and if it had transported shells to great distances, must have scattered them over the surface, not buried them in the interior of mountains. : Conrad Gesner CSTE Lee), whose history of animals has been considered the basis of modern zoology, published at ch in 1565 a small but important work entitled “De omne rerum fossilium genere.”” It contained a ee of the collection of fossils made by John Kentmann. is the oldest catalogue of fossils with which I am acquainted. Europe. In his great 1546, he mentions vario ateria pinguis, in fermentation by heat. Some years later, Bauhin published a descriptive cataloge of the fossils he had collected in the neighborhood of Boll, in Wurtemberg.* * Historia novi et admirabilis Fontis Balneique Bollensis, in Ducatu Wirtem- . bergico, Montbéliard, 1598. 328 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of by a “lapidifying juice.” Falloppio, the eminent professor of anatomy at Padua, believed that fossil shells were generated by fermentation where they were found ; and that the tusks of elephants, dug up near Apulia, were merely earthy concretions. Mercati, in 1574, published figures of the fossil shells preserved in the Museum of the Vatican, but expressed the opinion that they were only stones, that owed their peculiar shapes to the heavenly bodies. Olivi, of Cremona, described the fossils in the Museum at Verona, and considered them all “sports of | nature.” Palissy, a French anthor, in 1580, opposed these views, and is said to have been the first to assert in Paris that fossil shells and fishes had once belonged to marine animals. Fabio Colonna appears to have first pointed out that some of the fossil shells found in Italy were marine, and some terrestrial. Another peculiar theory discussed in the sixteenth century deserves mention. This was the vegetation theory, especially advocated by Tournefort and Camerarius, both eminent as bot ese writers believed that the seeds of .mine moulds?” The stalactites which formed in caverns in various parts of the world were also supposed to be proofs of this vegetative growth. os Still another theory has been held at various times, and 18 not entirely forgotten, namely: that the Creator made fossil animals and plants just as they are found in the rocks, theory has never prevailed among those f. h scientific facts, and hence needs here o further consideratio: An ‘inter arose in England later than 0” opinions as to their origin were not less ra vo oe FOLOrreds Plot, in his “N atural History of Oxf 4 published in a F Paleontological Discovery. 329 logue of English fossils contained in the Ashmolean Museum. He opposed the vis plastica theory, and expressed the opinion that the spawn of fishes and other marine animals had been raised with the vapors from the sea, conveyed inland by clouds, and deposited by rain, had permeated into the interior of the earth, and thus produced the fossil remains we find in the rocks. About this time several important works were pub- lished in England by Dr. Martin Lister, which did much to infuse a true knowledge of fossil remains. He gave figures of recent shells side by side with some of the fossil forms, so that the resemblance became at once apparent. .The fossi species of shells he called “turbinated and bivalve stones,” and adds, “either these were terriginous, or, if otherwise, the animals which they so exactly represent have become extinct.” During the seventeenth century there was a considerable advance in the study of fossil remains. The discussions in entury, too, an description of fossils from particular localities and regions, in distinction from = collections of curiosities logue was published in 1652; Spener’s in 1663; and Septala’s im 1666. A description of the Mr 2 mark was issued in 1669 ; Cottorp’s catalogue in 1674; and that of the renowned Kirscher in 1678. Dr. Grew gave an account in 1687 of the specimens in the Museum of Gresham’s College in England; and in 1695, Petiver of London published a cata- logue of his very extensive collection. A catalogue by Fred. Lauchmund, on‘the fossils of Hildeshein, appeared in 1669, and the fossils of Switzerland were described by John Jacob Wagner in 1689 Among similar works, were the dissertations riod.* He entered earnestly into the controv as to the origin of fossil remains, an ‘Ly dissecting a asks fetes the * De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento. 330 0. 0, Marsh— History and Methods of Mediterranean, proved that its teeth were identical with some found fossil in Tuscany. He also compared the fossil shells found in Italy with existing species, and pointed out their Seerher een In the same work, Steno expressed some very mportant views in regard to the different kinds of strata, and their origin, and first placed on record the important fact that the oldest rocks contain no fossils. Scilla, the Sicilian painter, published in 1670 a work on the fossils of Calabria, well illustrated. He is very severe against. those who doubted the organic origin of fossils, but is inclined to consider them relies of the wae: deluge. Another instance of the power of the ara nature theory, at Saree” near Gotha, in _.: and was described by m Ernest Tentzel, a. cee in the Gotha Gymnasium. He Spelared the bones to be the remains of an print that had lived ee before. The Medical Faculty in Gotha, however, considered the subject, and decided officially that this specimen was only a freak o: ur Beside the authors I have mentioned, there were many others who wrote about peas remains before the close of the goer century, and took part in the general discussion as e pcilelictiet th ror sates the scholastic tendency to dspe tation, so prevalent uring the middle ages, had ¢ tributed se to the retardation of see: ons and yet a real advance in knowledge had been mad lon contest in regard to the nature of fossil nehaasty was ori over, for the more intelligent opinion at the time now acknow ledged that these objects were not mere “sports of nature,” but a once been endowed with life. At this point, therefore, the first period in the oS of Paleontology, as I have ‘dicated it, may apy tely + is true that later still, the old exploded errors about the plastic force and fermentation were from time to time revi as the x have enon almost to the present day ; but lear? men, hteenth history of ithe agent beg 5 { i —— Paleontological Discovery. 331 The main characteristic of this period was the general ws that fossil remains were dep futsal by the Mosaic deluge. We have seen that this view had ena been advanced, but it was not till the an of the eighteenth century that it became the prevailing view. This doctrine was strongly opposed by some courageous men, and the discussion on the subject soon became even more bitter than the previous one, as to the nature of fossils. In this diluvial discussion theologians and laymen alike took art. For nearly a century the former had it all their own way, for the general public, then as now, believed what the were taught. Svosk’s Ko od was thought to have been univers and was the only general catastrophe of which the people of that day had any knowledge or conception. The scholars among them were of course familiar with the accounts of Deucalion and his ark, in a previous deluge, as we are to-day with similar traditions held by various races of men. The firm belief that the earth and all it contains was created in six days; that all life on the globe toe re by the deluge, except alone what Noah saved; and that the earth and its inhabitants were to be destroyed by ee = the foun- dation on which all knowledge of the earth was based. With such fixed opinions, the fossil remains of animals and plants Were naturally regarded as relics left by the flood described in Holy Writ. “The dominant nature of this belief is seen in nearly all the literature in regard to fossils published at this time, and some . — — which then ee have become famous on this ac the Flood. The most psec Ae ies however, ‘of this time, was publish 26, b Scheuchzer, a physician oe ed at Zurich, in 17 ry deoe It naturalist, and professor in the University of bore the title Sg Diluwii Testis.” The specimen upon which this work was based was s found at ton and was ese, also, he carefull deseribed pee ra in his + haste nan published at Ulm in 1731. Engravings of both were subsequently given in the “ Copper-Bible. " vier afterward eresting ees and pronounced the skeleton d to be the remains of a gigantic 332 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of : Salamander, and the two vertebre to be those of an Ichthyosaurus ! Another famous book appeared in Germany in the same year in which Scheuchzer’s first volume was published. The author was John Bartholomew Adam Beringer, professor at the Uni- versity of Wiirtzburg, and his great work* indirectly had an important influence upon the investigation of fossil remains The history of the work is instructive, if only as an indication of the state of knowledge at that date. Professor Beringer, in accordance with views of his time, had taught his pupils that fossil remains, or “ figured stones,” as they were called, were mere “sports of nature.” Some of his fun-loving students reasoned among themselves, “If Nature can make stones in sport, why cannot we?’ Accordingly, from the soft limestone in the neighboring hills, they eet 4 out eat of i ocalities was published, the deception practiced upon the credulous Professor became known; and, in place of the glory he ex pected from his great undertaking, he received only ridicule aD chase destroy the volumes already issued, and succeeded so far that se SY Bey of the first edition remain. His small fortune, whic work, was exhausted in the effort to regain what was already ‘Assued, as the price rapidly advanced in proportion as few e Copies remained; and, mortified at the failure of his life’s Lin poverty. It is said that some of his family, issatisfied with the misfortune brought upon them by this and the loss of their atrimony, used a remaining Copy for the production of a secon edition, which met with a large sale, sufficient to repair the previous loss, and restore the family fortune. This work of seringer, in the end, exerted _ excellent influence upon the dawning science of fossil ns. Observers i — pposed discoveries, and careful study of natural objects — replaced vague hypotheses. eee * Lithographia Wirceburgensis, ducentis lapi: , @ potions, ins alia ina ec Wines ae.” wait IL. Beane ee ee ne eee ee #3 ™ i nl as ena a armen een area ieee a ae Paleontological Discovery. 833 e ab literature on fossils during this part of the eighteenth century. own “Oo sea and land. He estimates that, at the observed rate of reces- an oltaire (1694-1778), discuss logical questions and the ture of at in area of js works; but his published Finding, however, that theologians used these objects to confirm the Scriptural account of the deluge, he changed his views, and accounted for fossil shells found in the Alps, by suggesting that they were Eastern — dropped by the pilgrims on their return from d! Buffon, in 1749, published his important work on N atural ory, and included in it his “ theory of the Earth,” in was as follows: “The waters of the sea have produce mountains and valleys of the land,—the waters the heavens 384 O. ©. Marsh—History and Methods of — reducing all to a level, will at last deliver the whole land over to the sea, and the sea successively prevailing over the land, will leave dry new continents like po we inhabit.” Buffon was politely requested by the college to recant, and having no particular desire to: be a martyr to science, submitted the following declaration, which he was required to publish in his next work: “I declare that I had no intention to contra- dict the text of Scripture ; that I believe most firmly all therein related about the creation, both as to order of time and matter of fact; and I abandon park kee in my book respect- ing the formation of the earth, and, generally, all which may be contrary to the narration of Moses.” land” appeared in 1729. This work ‘was based on a systematie — collection of fossils which he had brought together, and which subsequently bequeathed to the University of Cambride® where it is still preserved, with his arrangement carefully . This descriptive part of this work is interesting, but usions are made to coincide strictly with the Scripture He had previously stated, In anc “the whole terrestrial globe to have been taken to pieces and dissolved at the flood, and the strata to have settled down from this promiscuous mass.” In support “Marine bodies are lodged Se ee aan ET eM e ee Paleontological Discovery. 335 in the strata according to the order of oe Sptlnctd = heavier shells in stones, the lighter in chalk, and so of the The most — work on fossils ential in > Geraial at this time, was that of George Wolfgang Knorr, which was continued after his death by Walch. This work consisted of four folio bspeere with many plates, and was printed at Nuremberg, 1755-73. A tizye number of fossils were accu- rately figured and described, and the work is one of armen value.t A French translation of this work a appeare ared in 1107-78, rence Pe sie hie de meen “ibe: con- d descriptions of fossils found in Be Abr am Gottlieb erner we 50- 1817), sprotesseroat Min- rding ae upil, Prof fessor Jameson, first made the highly important observation “that different formations can be discriminated by the Ae games they contain.” Moreover, “that the petri- factions ained in the oldest rocks are very different from any of bt aren of the present time ; that the newer the formation, the more do the remains appr roach in form to the en bein ngs of the present creation.” Tadsvionatily; erner ee little, and his doctrines were eee dis- seminate the igneous theory was hiro cadet by Hutton of Edin. burgh, and his illustrator, Playfair. This ssion ted in the cv hier ginar se wears geology, but the study of by. * Essay tow: tural History of the Earth. 1695. } Lapides o> schter. cee tie cascanc dail universalis testes, quos in ordines ac species disirtbais, was 6 suis coloribus expremit, og a1) Tab, 1755-73. 336 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of them in his system of plants and animals, but kept them sepa- rate, with the minerals; hence he did little directly to advance During the last quarter of the eighteenth century, the belief that fossil remains were deposited by the Deluge sensibly us pause for a moment here, a been made ;- what foundation had been laid on which to estab- lish a science of fossil remains. e true nature of these objects had now been clearly deter- mined. They were the remains of animals and plants. Most of them certainly were not the relics of the Mosaic Deluge, art in th lan} mM oO po] ° 5 oO i=s = © = Qu po) LE. Q ic} s & re) =| Qu g 5 Ss of fossils. Steno, long before, had observed that the lowest life. Lehmann had sho erner, as we have seeD, together, as the “overflowed is, if we give him the credit his pupils 0 had done more than this, if e illiam Smith had worked out the same thing in England, and should equally divide the honor of this important discovery. ~ us preparation for future rogress, the second period in the history of Paleontology, mat : me be considered at an end. ; F oe have said nothing in regard to one branch © ‘my subject, the methods of Paleontological research, for up? | Paleontological Discovery. : 337 this time, of method there was none. We have seen that those of the ancients who noticed marine shells in the solid rock, Subterranean spirits were supposed to guard faithfully the mysteries of the earth; while above the earth, Authority guarded with still greater power the secrets men in advance’ of their age sought to know. The dominant idea of the first sixteen centuries of the present era was, that the universe was made for Man. This was the great obstacle to the correct determination of the position of the earth in the universe, and, later, of the a e earth. The contest of Astronomy against authority was long and severe, but the victory was at last with science. The contest of Geology against the same power followed, and continued almost to our day. The result is still the same. In the early stages of this contest, there was no strife, for science was benumbed by the embrace of super- two thousand years was long to wait. : With the opening of the present century, be anew era in Paleontology, which ae here distinguish as the third period in its history. This branch of knowledge became now the general belief that, every species, recent and extinct, was a x aeiee creation. : a es the ve beginning f the epoch we are now to consider, * bold Diet : Cuvier, Lamarck, and 838 O. C. Marsh—History and Methods of work, and the results were now given to the world. Cuvier laid the foundation of the paleontology of Vertebrate animals ; - Lamarck, of the Invertebrates ; and Smith established the prin- ciples of “caer ERATE Paleontology. The investigator of fossils to-day seldom needs to consult earlier authors of the species. “This idea,” he says later, “which I announced to” the Institute in the month of January 1796, opened to me views entirely new respecting the theory of the earth, and determined me to devote myself to the long researches and to the assiduous labors which have now occupied me for twenty- e years. It is interesting to note here that in this first investigation of fossil vertebrates, Cuvier employed the same method that a distant ocean ; but the two species of ee elope for the study of the remains of animals was far in advance of Whole kingdom with care, and roposed a new classification. founded on the plan of structure, which in its main features the one in use to-day. The first volume of his Comparative _ Anatomy appeared in 1800, and the work was completed five volumes in 1805. _ Previous to Cuvier, the only general catalogue of animals Was contained in Linnesus’ “Systema Natura.” In this work, as we have seen, fossil remains were placed with the Miner's, = their appropriate places among the animals and plants. -— ® Ossemens Fossiles, Second Edition, Vol. I, p. 178. SI i eer 5 Paleontological Discovery. 339. les Ossemens Fossiles,” in four volumes, appeared in 1812-13. Of this work, it is but just to say that it could only have been written by aman of genius, profound knowledge, the greatest industry, and with the most favorable opportunities. he introduction to this work was the famous “ Discourse on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe,” which has perhaps been as widely read as any other scientific essay. The discovery of fossil bones in the gypsum quarries of Paris, by the workmen, who considered them human remains; the care- ful study of these relics by Cuvier, and his restorations from them of strange beasts that had lived long before, is a story with which you are all familiar. Cuvier was the first to prove that the earth had been inhabited by a succession of different series of animals, and he believed that those of each period were peculiar to the age in which they lived. In looking over his work after a lapse of three-quarters of a century, we can now see that Cuvier was wrong on some ares to admit the evidence brought — guished colleagues against the permanence oi species, and u all his great 5 a to pe Sa the doctrine of evolution, then first proposed. COuvier’s definition of a species, the domi- nant one for half a century, was as follows: “A species comprehends all the individuals which descend from each other, or from a common parentage, and those which resemble bears his name; and yet, although founded in truth, and useful within certain limits, it would certainly lead to serious error if applied widely in the way he proposed. is Discourse, he sums this law as follows: “A claw, a Separately considered, enables us to discover the description of ° us, commencing our investigation by a careful survey of any one bone by itself, a person who is sufficiently master of the AM. Jour, Sc1.—Turrp Series, Vou. XVIII, No. 107,__Nov., 1879. ; 99 | 840 O. C. Marsh—History and Methods of discoveries. Jean Lamarck (1744-1829), the philosopher and naturalist, cal i arck’s conclusions, in comparison with those 3 acct otres sur rt ed des environs de Paris. 1802-6. sous 2d edi : 4 animaux _ y . J i. be ii ‘ ‘ Win Sime pis | | Paleontological Discovery. 341 by others. Both pursued the same methods, and had an abun- dance of material on which to work, yet the facts observed induced Cuvier to believe in catastrophes; and Lamarck, in the uniform course of nature. vier declared species to be annantel Lamarck, that they were descended from others. oth men stand in the first rank in science; but Lamarck was the prophetic genius, half a century in advance of his time. published in 1808.* This was the first systematic investigation of Tertiary strata. Three years later, the work was issued in which for this purpose being distinctly recognized. This advance was not accepted without some opposition, and it is an ions and investigations.” + William Smith (1769-1839), “the father of English Geology,” had previously published a “Tabular View of the British Strata.” € appears to have arrived independently at essentially the same view as Werner in regard to the relative position of strat- ified rocks. He had determined that the order of succession -* Essai sur la Géographie Mineralogique des environs de Paris. Ato, 1808. + Translation of Cuvier’s Discourse. Note K. (B.), p. 103, 1817. 342 O. C. Marsh—History and Methods of tainty of finding the characteristic Fossils of the respective bP] England, also, and was prosecuted with considerable zeal, although with less important results than in France. An ex- tensive work on this subject, by James Parkinson, entitled “ Organic Remains of a kormer World,” was begun in 1804, and completed in three volumes in 1811. A second edition appeared in 1833. This work was far in advance of previous u esum William Buckland (1784—1856), published in 1823 his cele- brated “Reliquia Diluviane,” in which he gave the results of his own observations in regard to the animal remains found in the caves, fissures and alluvial gravels of England. The facts presented are of great value, and the work was long a model ior similar researches. Buckland’s conclusions were, that none of the human remains discovered in the caves were as old as the extinct mammals found with them, and that the Deluge was universal. In speaking of fossil bones found in the The foundation of the « Geological Society of London,” in 1807, marks an important point in the history of paleontology. wed : in fo f of the sciences within its field. The Geological ipo ewe b) ted largely to geological investigations in these countries, aC Pavceontological Discovery. 343 to some extent in other parts of the world. In the publications of these three societies, the student of paleontology will find a mine of valuable materials for his work. the comparison of fossils with living forms, and his results were of great importance. In his “Tableau des genres végetauc Fossiles,” etc., published in Paris in 1849, he gives the classifica = : ture of fossil plants. “ Antediluvian Phytology,” by Artis, was * este in London in 1838.. Bowerbank’s of lished in 1848, was an important contribution to the science. Bunbury, Williamson, and others, also published various papers on fossil plants. This branch of Paleontology, how- ever, attracted much less attention in England, than on the ontinent. In Germany, the study of fossil plants dates back to the inning of the century. Von Schlotheim, a pupil of Wer- ae, published in 1804 an illustrated volume on this subject. A more important work was that of Count Sternberg, issue in 1820-38, and illustrated with excellent plates. Cotta in 1882 published a book with the title, “Die Dendrolithen,” in localities in Germany. Corda’s “Beitrage 2ur Flora Vorwelt,” issued at Prague, in 1845, was essentially a continu- * Prodrome d'une histoire des végétaux fossiles. Svo. Paris, 1828. sis a 344 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of Pp Pp plants of the Vosges,” 1845, was well illustrated, and contained noteworthy results, Géppert, in 1836, published a valuable memoir stb in solution. After a slow saturation, the substances were dried, and exposed to heat until the organic matters were burned. In this way Géppert successfully imitated various processes of a and explained many things in regard to fossils clear up the doubts about the formation of that substance. In 1841, Géppert published an important work in which he com- pared the genera of fossil plants with those now living. ndre, Braun, Dunker, Ettinsghausen, Geinitz, and Golden- berg, all made notable contributions to fossil Botany m Germany, during the period we are now considering. erussac’s various memoirs on land and fresh water fossl ells, were valuable additions to the subject. A later work of great importance was D’Orbigny’s Pal : : +4, which described the mollusca and radiates in detail, ‘according to formations. The other publications of this author both numerous and valuable. Brongniart and Desmarest § _ Histoire naturelle fvbioneer work on this subject. Michelins’ memoir on the fossil corals of France, 1841-46, was another important contre bution to paleontology. A gassiz’s works on fossil Echinoderms =— Mollusks are valuable contributions to the science. T2@ * Description des coquilles fossiles des environs de Paris, 3 vols. Paris, 182437 Paleontological Discovery. 345 works of d’Archiac, Coquand, Cotteau, Desor, Edwards, Haime, and De Verneuil, are likewise of permanent value. In Italy, Bellardi, Merian, Michellotti, Phillipi, Zigno, and others, contributed important results to Paleontology. Belgium, Bosquet, Nyst, Koninck, Ryckholt, Van Ben- a others, have all aided materially in the progress of In England, also, invertebrate fossils were studied with care, and continued progress was made. Sowerby’s “ Mineral Conch- ology of Great Britain,” in six volumes, a systematic work of great value, was published in 1812-30, and soon after was trans- lated into French and German. Its figures of fossil shells are excellent, and it is still a standard work. Miller’s “ Natural useful to the working paleontologist. The memoirs of David- son on the Brachiopoda, Edwards, Forbes, Morris, Lycett, the period we are reviewing. In Germany, Schlotheim’s treatise, “Die Petrifactenkunde,” this subject was ‘the “Petrifacta Germanica,” by Goldfuss, in three’ folio volumes, 1826 to 1844, which has lost little of 346 O. 0. Marsh— History and Methods of meister’s on the same subject, 1843. Giebel’s well known “Fauna der Vorwelt,’ 1847-1856, gave lists of all the fossils described up to that time, and hence is a very useful work. fe Geognostica”” by Bronn, 1834-38, and the second edition by Bronn and Roemer, 1846-56, is a compre- hensive general treatise on Paleontology, and the most valuable work of the kind yet published. e researches of Ehrenberg, in regard to the lowest forms of animals and plants, threw much light on various points in Paleontology, and showed the origin of extensive deposits, the nature of which had before been in doubt. Von Buch, Barrande, Beyrich, Berendt, Dunker, Geinitz, Heer, Homes, The impetus ever by Cuvier to the study of vertebrate fossils extended over the development. This is now thought to ‘be one of the strongest points in favor of evolution, although its discoverer interpreted Paleontological Discovery. 347 valuable results in regard to fossil mammals. Geoffroy St. Hilaire’s researches on fossil Reptiles, published in 1831, were an important advance. De Serres and De Christol’s explora- tions in the caverns in the South of France, published between memoirs are well known. e brilliant discoveries of Cuvier in the Paris Basin, excited great interest in England, and when it was found that the same Tertiary strata existed in the south of England, care- ful search was made for vertebrate fossils. mains of some of the same genera described by Cuvier were soon discovered, and other extinct animals new to science were found in various ‘parts of the kingdom. Kénig, to whom we owe the name pe ea and Conybeare, who gave the generic designation Plesiosaurus, and also Mosasaurus, were among es. pried in which they lived soon became known as the “age of ptiles.” The subsequent researches of these authors added largely to the existing knowledge of various extinct forms, ~ their writings did much to arouse public interest in the subject. 2 ichard Owen, a pupil of Cuvier, followed, and brought to bear upon the subject an extensive knowledge . y, he has been, since Cuvier, the chief historian. e fossil reptiles of * “ Traité élémentaire de paléontologie,” etc., Genéve. 4 vols. 1844-46. Second Edition. Paris, 1853-55. 348 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of Great Britain, the extinct Edentates of South America, and — the ancient Marsupials of Australia, each forms an important chapter in the history of our science. e personal researches of Falconer and Cautley in the Sewalik Hills of India brought to light a marvelous vertebrate fauna of Pliocene age. e remains thus secured were made known in their great work, “Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis,” published at London in 1845. The important contributions of Egerton to our knowledge of fossil fishes, and Jardine’s well thet work, “Ichnology of Annandale,” also belong to this period. e fossil vertebrates from the Caves of Germany, published in 1820-23, made known the more important facts of that hoa fauna. His later publications on extinct Amphibians tiles were also noteworthy. Jiiger’s pies on researches in the same region, 183444, we owe the discovery of the first Triassic mammal (Microlestes), as well as important information in regard to Labyrinthodonts. Kaup’s research on fossil mammals, 1839-41, brought to light many interest forms, and to him we are indebted for the generic name | f otherium, and excellent descriptions of the remains then | own | : Count Miinster’s “ Beitrage zur Ba Aten ie pub- : : lished 1843-46, contained several valuable papers on foss vertebrates ; and the separate papers by the same author are of | interest. Andreas Wagner ft et on YP tevosaaiviuiié in 1837, {| a Paleontological Discovery. 349 investigations on Bhi subject were continuous for nearly forty val Ti years, and his various publications are a : “Beitr zur Patrifuctenbounie? 1831-33, contains a series of valuable memoirs is awologica,” issued in 1832, includes a synopsis of the fossil vertebrates then known, with much original matter. His oe work, “Zur Fauna der Vorwelt,” 1845-60, includes a of monographs invaluable to the student of veltebitate faleunbilogy. This work, as well as his other chief onenteleg ag was illustrated with admirable plates om his own drawings. Other memoirs by this author will be found in the “ Paisonioc aphica,” of which he was one of the editors. In the many volumes of this publication, which began in 1851, and is still continued, will be found much to interest the investigator i in any bran ch of paleontology. The “ Palssontographical Society of London,” established in ib has also issued a series of volumes containin be si moirs in various branches of Palsonto logy: tw publications together are a shinee bolas of know to extinct forms of animal and vegetable life. in regard It may be interesting here to note briefly the use of general terms in Paleontology, as the gradual a serie of a science was indicated to some extent in ita termin for a long time, the name “fossiZ” was spbeieriataly om for objects dug from the earth, both seo segs and organic remains. e term “ Oryctology,” having args i, the same meaning, was also used for this branch of stu or a long period, too, the termination ites (4édo¢, a vor was bs Ra to pews = distinguish them from the corres seopee pth forms ; by Pliny br a wed date, the guish fossils from minerals, when the ni difference became known, although the name “ Religuiw” was sometimes em- ployed. The term “petrifactions’” (Petrificata ) was defined John “Sie gear in his work on fossils in 1758, and was erwards extensively used. Paleontology i is comparatively a modern term, having come into use only within the last half century. It was introduced about 1830, and soon was eoeian adopted in France and England ; but i in Germany it met wi less fete, though used to some extent. It would be interesting, too, did time permit, to trace the various opinions and a vas at different eg in 300 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of ' origin; of their use as medicine by the ancients, and in the East to-day; of their marvellous power as ¢ Romans, and still among the American Indians. It would be go =} foot =a & ic wee student as having little connection with Geo _. uring the later half of the third period, greater gs was made, and before its close Geology was to a hd now bee gee eee __ ™ Essai géognostique sur le gisement des Roches, p. 41. n covered many times by a ~ Paleontological Discovery. 551 the sea, with alternations of fresh water and of land; that the than 30,000 new species of extinct animals and plants had now been described. It had been found, too, that from the oldest separate species still held sway, almost as completely as when “There are as many different species as Infinite Being.” But the dawn of a new era was already ing, and the third period of paleontology we may consider now at an end. Just twenty years ago, science had reached a point when the belief in « eat seat ” was undermined by well estab- , lished facts, slowly accumulated. The time was ripe. y naturalists were working at the problem, convinced that Evo- lution was the key to the present and the past. But how had Nature brought this change about? While others pondered, Darwin spoke the magie word —“ Natural Selection,” and a | new epoch in science began 352 O. C. Marsh—History and Methods of The fourth period in the history of Paleontology dates from this time, and is the period of to-day. One of the main char- acteristics of this epoch is the belief that al life, living and extinct, has been evolved from simple forms. ‘Another prom- inent feature is the accepted fact of the great antiquity of the human race. ese are quite sufficient to distinguish this . period sharply from those that preceded it. h gf Coa he difference between Lamarck and Darwin is essentially = this: Lamarck proposed the theory of Evolution; Darwin changed this into a doctrine, which is now guiding the inyesti- gations in all departments of biology. Lamarck failed to real ize the importance of time, and the interaction of life on life. Darwin, by combining these influences with those also suggested by Lamarck, has shown how the existing forms on the earth may have been derived from those of the past. This revolution has influenced Paleontology as extensively as any other department of science, and hence the new period are discussing, sented independently, by parallel lines; in the present perl they are indicated by dependent, branching lines. The former was the analytic, the latter is the synthetic, period. To-day, cond Imais and plants now living are believed to be genetically lees glpase grt ce: hele sede ee = ee Pa at longer deems species of the first im rtance, but seeks for pa and genealogies, eoanicsting the past with the Present. Working in this spirit, and with such a method, the advance during the last decade has been great, and is an earnest of what is yet to come. | The progress of Palxontology in Great Britain during the Present period has been great, and the general interest in the sucnee much extended. The views of Darwin soon found acceptance here. Next to his discovery of “ Natural Selectio?, Paleontological Discovery. 353 Darwin was fortunate in having so able and bold an expounder as Huxley ; who was one of the first to oe his theory, and been of great benefit to all departments of Biology, and his 1 ong the latter, his original investigations on the relations of Birds and time. He has added largely to his previous publications on the British fossil Reptiles, Bi , and Mammals; the extinct reptiles of South Africa, and the Post-Tertiary birds of New Zealand. His description of the Archewopteryzx near the begin- ning of the period was a most welcome contribution. e investigations of Egerton on Fossil Fishes have likewise been continued with important results. Busk, Dawkins, Flower and Sanford have made valuable contributions to the history of fossil Mammals. Bell, Giinther, Hulke, Lankester, Powrie, Miall, and Seely, have made notable additions to our knowledge ae ang Amphibians, and Fishes. Among Invertebrates, the st i i On the Continent, the advance in Paleontology has, during the last two decades, been equally great. In France, Gervais continued his memoirs on extinct vertebrates noe to the present date; while Gaudry has published several volumes on the subject that are models for all students of the science. His Lartet’s various works are of permanent value, and his applica- tion of Paleontology to Archeology brought notable results. The volume of Tikose Milne-Edwards on fossil Crustacea Was a fit supplement to Brongniart and Desmarest’s well known work; while his grand memoir on fossil Birds deserves to rank with the classic volumes of Cuvier. Duvernoy, Filhol, Hébert, Sanvage and others have also published interesting results on fan . Van Beneden’s researches on the fossil vertebrates of Bel- gium have produced results of t value. Pictet, Riitimeyer, and Wedersheim in Switzerland, Bianconi, Forsyth-Major, and 354 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of y- The | invertebrates have been investigated with care by D’Archiac, D’Orbigny, Bayle, Fromentel, Oustalet, and others in France; Desor, Loriol and Roux in Switzerland ; Cappellini, Massalongo, Michellotti, Meneghini, and Sismonda in Italy, Barrande, Benecke, Beyrich, Dames, Dorn, Ehlers, Geinitz, Giebel, Giimbel, Feistmantel, Hagen, von Hauer, von Heyden, von Fritsch, Laube, Oppel, Quenstedt, Roemer, Schliiter, Suess, Speyer, and Zittel in Germany. The fossil Plants have been studied in these countries by Massalongo, Saporta, Zigno, Fiedler, Goldenberg, Gehler, Heer, Goeppert, Ludwig, Schim- per, Schenk, and many others. Among the recent researches in Palontol in other regions may be mentioned those of Blanford, Feistmantel, Lydekker, and Stoliezka, in India; Haast and Hector in New Zealand, and Krefft and McCoy in Australia; all of whom have published valuable results. fossi iac, Of the progress of paleontology in America, I have thus far said nothing, and I need now say but little, as many of you are doubtless familiar with its main features. During the first and second periods in the history of paleontology, as I have defined them, America, for most excellent reasons, took no part. In the present century, during the third period, appea the names of Bigsby, Green, Morton, Mitchell, Rafinesque, Say, and Troost, ail of whom deserve mention. More recently, the researches of Conrad, D D Gibbes, omer Holmes, Lea, McChesney, Owen, Redfield, sora portant ; a Hartt, James, Miller, Shaler, Rathburn, and Winchell, are also of value. To Dawson, Lesquereux, e . and wherry, We a ; Y Owe our present knowledge of the fossil plants of this tye Wee et 3 Saat i ee, ee ee ee ee Paleontological Discovery. 355 — of our oa I have already laid before you on a In this rapid sketch of the history of Palsontology, I have vote it best to speak of the earlier periods more in detail, as are less generally known, and especially as they indicate ned growth of the science, and ats obstacles it had to surmount. With the present work in paleontology, moreover, you are e all more or less familiar, as the results are now part of the current literature. To assi ign every important discovery to its author, would have led me far beyond my present plan. I have only endeavored to indicate the growth of the science by citing the more prominent works that mark its progress, or illustrate the prevai rie SS and state of knowledge at the time they In mebaiaciog what has been accomplished, directly or indi- rectly, it is well to bear in mind that without paleontology there would have been no science of geology. The latter science — from the study of fossils, and not the reverse, hi nrg y supposed. Paleontology, therefore, is not a mere h of me sate but the foundation on which that science na ly rests. This fact is a sufficient excuse, if “ te — » for noting the'early opinions in regard .to the changes 0 the earth’s a as diene ak hanges were first studied to explain the position of fossils. The investigation of the latter first led to theories of the earth’s formation, and thus to geology. When speculation replaced observation, fossils were discarded, and for a time the mineral characters of strata were thought to be the the key to their position and age. For some time after this, ts, as we have seen, aplenene for using fossils to deter- tine formations, but for the last half century their value for purpose has been full ized. The services which Poets has rendered to Botany and Zoology are less easy to estimate, but are very extensive. The classification of these seiences has been rendered much extinct types; while aphical a ae. of animals and 356° 0. C. Marsh—History and Methods of ae ao ee lants at the present day has been greatly improved by the acts brought out in regard to the former distribution of life on the globe . orders, among the different classes, is interesting, as they are mainly confined to the higher groups. Among the fossil ' h orms three new orders: the Saurure, represented by Arche opteryz; the Odontotorme, with Jchthyornis as the type; and the Odontolez, based upon Hesperornis; all ic being included in the sub-class Odontornithes, or toothed birds. Among Mammals, the new groups regarded as orders are the Toxodontia, and the Dinocerata, among the Ungulates; and the Tillodontia, including strange Eocene Mammals whose Among the important results in vertebrate palseontology, at the genealogies, made out with considerable probability, for various existing animals. Many of the larger mammals have been traced back through allied forms in a closely connected series to early Te times. In several cases the series af@ example, is to-day demonstrated by the specimens now know? The demonstration in one case stands for all. The evidence _ favor of the Paleontological Discovery. 857 The extinct Marsupials of Australia, and the Edentates of outh America, are well known examples. The Pliocene hip- popotami of Asia and the South of Europe point directly to migrations from Africa. Other similar examples are numerous. The fossil plants of the Arctic region prove the existence of a climate there far milder than at present, and recent researches at least render more probable the s stion, made me ago by Buffon, in his “Epochs of N tare? Ge life b in t regions, and by successive migrations from them the conti- nents were peopled. One of the important results of recent paleontological research, is the law of brain-growth, found to exist amon. extinct mamm , and to some extent in other vertebrates. According to this law, as I have briefly stated it elsewhere: “All Tertiary mammals had small brains. There was, also, a oe increase in the size of the brain during this period. shed in size.” More recent researches render it probable that the same general law of brain-growth holds good an birds _ and reptiles from the Mesozoic to the present time. 358 0. 0. Marsh—History and Methods of taceous birds, that have been investigated with reference to this point, had brains only about one-third as large in proportion as those nearest allied among living species. The Dinosaurs from — our Western Jurassic follow the same law, and had brain cay- ities vastly smaller than any existing reptiles. Many other facts point in the same direction, and indicate that the general w will hold good for all extinct vertebrates. and Tournal, in France, and Se merling in Belgium, h found human remains in caves, associated closely with those of various ments in the gravels of the valley of the Somme, and, in 1847, published the first volume of his “Antiguités Celtiques.” p Paleontological Discovery. 359 existence in the Tertiary, both in Europe and America. The this record, America, I believe, will do her full share, and thus aid in the solution of the great problems now before us. ll. Buti imagination the rapidly converging lines of research pursued to-day, they seem to meet at the point where oe. and organic nature become one. That this point yet be ched, I cannot doubt. * Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California. 1879. 360 H.. A. Rowland—Diamagnetic Constants of Art. XLIL—On the Diamagnetic Constants of Bismuth and Cale-spar in Absolute Measure. Part I.—By H. A. Rowiann, Professor of Physics in the Johns Hopki oO pkins University. SINCE my experiments on the magnetic constants of iron, nickel and cobalt, I have sought the means of determining those of some diamagnetic substances, and to that end have page 357). As Mr. Jacques, Fellow of the University, was t a As, however, the relative results of these experiments and those of Faraday can be accepted as reasonably exact for diamagnetic substances and weak paramagnetic ones, it is only necessary 10 make a determination of one substance such as bismuth, and in counting the number of vibrations made by a bar hung in the usual manner between the poles of an ee atti 2" The nown, we can then calculate the force acting on the body, and the com more exact description to be given by Mr. Jacques in experimental part. The first operation to be performed is to find a formula © express the force of the field at any point, and an eget Bismuth and Cale-spar in Absolute Measure. 361 The proper expansion of the magnetic potential for this case is therefore a series of zonal spherical harmonies, including only the uneven powers. Hence, if V is the potential, (1) V=A,Q,r+A,,Q,,,7° + Ay Qy7* + ete. dV dV dV Pf (eG thE) : which is simply the surface integral of V over any surface whose edge is in the wire. ae ee In the present case, take the axis of x in the direction of the axis of the poles and the surface, S, parallel to the plane YZ, and let p be the distance in this plane from the center of the coil we are calculating. Then dv GN x) : Paonf pdp=xf 7 ar’) for a single circle, From (1) TV = 1+ 1) Au r'Q and == @” canes ; f== & Gi ) = : #Q:dyu P= — 220? FE+DAnf oral r Qi: i+2 P=2x97 ma. Au : 362 H. A. Rowland—Diamagnetic Constants of For a circle of rectangular section we must obtain the mean value of this quantity throughout the section of the coil. ao Lo+7 ptt a 16 % —$n” po— 4té Where &, and p, are the values of x and p at the center of sec- tion and 7 and & are the width and depth of the groove in which the coil is wound. We can calculate this quantity best by the formula of Maxwell (Electricity, Art. 700), & rp, , M =P, + ae (Ghee + Se) + ete, Thus we finally ‘find lems: 2 = 1 2 & Ui pay ) (2) M= 7 fp A (tres +44,77(Q wt (Se St H) +4A,Q'yr"*,+ ete. } M’—M’ ; R where R is the resistance of the circuit. If an earth inductor 1s included in the circuit whose integral area is EH, when it 1s reversed the current is — Where H is the component of the earth’s magnetism perpendicular to the plane of the inductor. The current as measured by the galvanometer in the first case M’..} n = Csind (1 + 4) . , 2H I 2 ee = Csin gD (144) sin¢d sing D ; «. M’-M" = 2HE ee ee ee ee ee Bismuth and Cale-spar in Absolute Measure. 368 The next process is to consider the action of this field upon any body which we may hang in i Crystalline Body in Magnetic Field. Let the body have such feeble magnetic action that the mag- netic field is not very much influenced by its presence. In all crystalline substances we know there exist in general three axes at right angles to each other, along which the magnetic induction is in the direction of the magnetic force. Let k,, k, and &, be the coefficients of magnetization in the directions of these axes-and let a set of codrdinate axes be drawn parallel to these crystalline axes, the codrdinates referred to which are designated by 2’, y’ and 2’, and the magnetic components of the force parallel to which are X’, Y’ and Z’, The energy of the crystalline body will then be E=—43f// (kX? +h, Y?+k,Z") de'dy'dz In most cases it is more convenient to refer the equation to axes in some other direction through the crystal. Let these axes be X, Y, Z Then 22a ’"B +2 yaaa pg ey exava’t+y'p’+Zy" ‘ X= Xa4+ VYa'+ Za" Y’=X6+Vf'+ Zp’ Z’ =Xy+Yy’+Zy’ where a, 8, 7; a’ , 8, 7’; and @”, P”, 7” are the direction cosines of the new axes with reference to the old. We then find . BS -4 {Xk +h O+ky) $Y (ha? +h fo +k y") +2 (ka 4k, B+ ky”) + IXY (kaa +h Bp phyy)+2XZ Cyaal +h Bp" +kyy")+2VZ (ka a! hf phy y')\dedy de The most simple and in many respects the most interesting Cases are when the crystal has only one optic or magnetic axis. In this case k,= k,. : ce. * : E=-4/f {(X°4V?4Z)k,+ (Ka+ Ya! + Za’)'(k,—,)} de dy de Where a, a’ and @” are the direction cosines of the magnetic — axis with respect to the codrdinate axes. ; 364 H, A. Rowland—Diamagnetic Constants of The first case to consider is that of a mass of crystal in a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic forces which enter the equation are those due to the magnetic action of the body as well as to the field in which the body is placed. In the case of very weak magnetic or diamagnetic bodies the forces are almost entirely those of the field alone. Hence in the case under consideration we may put Y=0 and Z=0. ence E=— 3 If X"((k,— k,) a + k,) dady dz, and if v is the volume of the body E=—3X*((k—-4,) a’ +h,)v As this expression is the same at all points of the field there is no force acting to translate the body from one part of the field to another. The moment of the force tending to inerease ¢, where gy = cos “a, is get Sk bY = ion” (4,—k,) sin p cos p By observing the moment of the force which acts on 8 crystal placed in a uniform magnetic field we can thus find the value of k,—k, or the difference of the magnetic constant along the axis and at right angles to it. The differences of the con- stants can also be found in the case of crystals with three axes by a similar process, ; _ The next case which I shall consider is that of a bar hanging in a magnetic field. Let the field be symmetrical around an horizontal axis, and also with reference to a plane perpendicular to that axis at the center. If the bar is very long with refer- ence to its section and a plane can be passed through it and the axis we must have Z=0, and the equation becomes E=—3 Uf \(X'+Y)k,+ (Xa+Ya')' (k,—h,)} dedy de Let the axis of X coincide with the long axis of the bar, as this x=— i a a ee also let the section of the bar be 8 a= dy dz ‘oh and let the axis of the bar pass through the origin from whic2 We have developed the potential in terms of spherical har- ag e can then wri VSA,Q,r+ A,,Q,,r° + Ay Que’ + ete. Bismuth and Cale-spar in Absolute Measure. 365 where Q, 2 ; “ ete. are zonal spherical harmonies with reference to the angle X= - 4A, Q,+3A,,,Q,,,7° + 5Ay Qyr* + ete. } Y=+ {A, Q', ce A,,, Q',, r” + Ay Q'yr* + ete. sin 0 from which we have the following : =A’, Q'+ 94", nA +25 A*,Q*yr+6A,A,,Q,Q,,7 +10A, Ay Q, Qyr* + 380A, Ay Q,,, Qyr’ + ete. = {A’, ne e : "at tAyQ*y r+ 2A, A, Q',Q' 7 Ay Q’, Qi, r+ 2A), Ay Q’ - ‘Qyr" + ete. { sin’ 6 XY=-— {A’ a a, + 32, Q,, Q,1-+5A%y Qr Ver’ + (3Q’,Q,, + Q, Q’,,) AA, r + (5Q’, Qy + Q,Q’y) A, Avrt + (5Q’,, Qy + 3Q,,,Q'y) A, Ayr® + ete.} sind — The moment of the force tending to increase @ is Pe Sado Bae whence we may write O=~4a{A((k,—k,a*+k,) +B((k, kak) —O(k, —h,)aa’} where sal, met ore B=- +f teak d SE a oe g : vf Y dr C= Del, Sar Fike xX where / is half the length of the bar and p = cos 0. A=4isin {A*, QQ) + £A%,,Q,,Q 048M QQ TAA (QQ, *Q,Q/,)P+A, Ay(Q’Qv+ Q,Qy)P+H48A,, Av(Q',,Qv+@,,Qe)F3 B= 4lsin 6 { A? (Q’, Q’ sin? 6 — Q” cos 4) + A’, (Q',,, Q’,,, sin’ 9 — Q” cos oy tay (Q’,Q’, sin’?@—Q’y cos af +A, A.,( (Q’,Q";, +Q’,Q,,)sin’é—2Q’,Q’,, cos) + AAr((Q,Q'r + QQ’) sin’? — 2Q’, Q’y cos 6 < +A, Ay ((@., Q’y + Q’,,,.Q'v) sin’ 6 — 2Q’ ,, Wy cos a) t C= +41{ A+, ((Q,Q", + Q?) sin’6-Q, Q,c084) +34’, (Q,, 2, + Q",,) sin*— Q,,, Q’,,c086) = + 5A’ ((r Q's — Q"») sin’ —QWQreoss) +-8,A,,((90,0, +39',Q,,+@,@,, +2, Q,,,) sin’ 366 ' H, A, Rowland—Diamagnetic Constants of = (80%, Qi, +. Y,,) 0080) 5 + A, Ay ((5Q", Wr + 5Q%,Q) +Q'Q'y+Q,Q’,)sin’6—(5Q’ Qy + Q,Q’y)cosé s + A, Ad(@Q, Qy + 5Q,,, Vv + 8Q’,,, Vy + 3Q,,, Q"v) sin? 6 — (5Q’,,, Wr + 3Q,,, Q’y) cos oe 9 Where Q, = cosd Qi, = 4 (5 cos’ 0 — 3 cos 8) Q =+4 (63 cos* 0 — 70 cos* 6 + 15 cos 6) Q’, ob ’ Sr (5 cos’ 6 — 1) Q’y = 15 (21 costd—14 cos’ 6+ 1) Q", aa O Q’ 4, == 15 cos 6 "y sole lie apa f= cos A= 4isin 6{(A*,+ $4 A*, 041918 A) P—3A,A,,P+42A,Ayl ae oe Aves Ay a) M+ (— 27 PS ity Pm sg 7 ANE + 10A, Ay! — 385A, Avi + 4875 A) ALD) uo 4 (1g8.A%, + 8028 AYE TAA AvP A888 A AyD) io 4+(—24z8 AYE SZ8A,,Ayl) PARLE AME ptt.’ , : B= 4lsin 6{(—A",— 2 A* P3725A°4 6A, A,,,0—S2A, Art as SPEA,, yl) POA f —HPAP—10A,A,, 0+ APA Al aS Be Any A,i’) e+ (— 135 err Borie: : weet ik dimes i. i . mea; Ayl’) y! + (TPEA SISA Ayl’) uw * Be Basie c= 41} (—A’,— FEAT —3 A, Ave f+ zo A, Ay —#3 Aya Ay?) = (— $A, By ’) M+ Sree on TLS a 6A, Ay? a pA, Ar? + 438 A,,, Ay?) w+ 9A, A Py + (45 A’), 0 + 2¢e A aa aR $A, A, ,, P+ a1 A, Ay c— ee a oe Ay P)— + A, Aw id iy mt geo BP So 177s A? 441A, Ayl* + 2484 Aya Ay * ($534 Aly 0 — $28 A,,, Av?) By Or we can write A= 4/sin0{Lu+L/ py? +L’ u'+ ete.} B= 4/sin6{Myu+M’u'+ ete.} : C=2{N +N’u +N" ete.} where the values of L, M, ete. are apparent. a Sum up we may then write as before at Alh,—k)a*+k,] + BU(k,— ka’? k] — Oe, Bae Bismuth and Cale-spar in Absolute Measure. ~ 867 where A, B and C are the quantities we have found, a is the cosine of the angle made by the axis of the crystal with the axis of the bar, and a’ is the cosine of the angle made by the same axis with a horizontal line at right angles to the bar. he equation O=0 gives equilibrium at some angle depending on a@ and a’, and if either of these is zero the angle can be either = 0 or 42, one of which will be stable and the other unstable according as the y is para- or dia-magnetic. For a diamagnetic crystal like bismuth with the axis at right angles to the bar we can pu éM=cos O= sin} and a=0, and we can write O=—}a{ 41k,(Lu+Lu"+ete.) +47[(k,-k,)a +k] [Mu+M’u'+ete.]} or for very small values of # we can write in terms 0 © =—2alp {kL + ((k,-k,) a+k,) M} If I is the moment of inertia of the bar and ¢ is the time of a Single vibration, we may write 0= 15 tp. Tf we hang up the bar so that a’=0 we have I k (ie Wess 2Qal ¢? and if we hang it up so that a’=4z we have again : 7 i ‘ AUPh ES tale whence — wl 2" Galt, L+M" oe dg k= — 5 (Gr t 42) where 2 L=A"—sA, A PH(gtA?, +18 A Ayo — S38 A,, Ay + ab Ay! M=—A*, - 6A A, P per (354°, 48 SSA, Ay)P+ 222 -8,,Ay Agi i ote L+M= 3A, A, P— (8, At, 446A, Ay) P+ ASA, Aol — Ff AVE For a cleavage bar of calc spar we must use the general ©quation. For equilibrium we have K,jAa*+ Ba” — Caa’} +h,{A (1 — a’) + B(I-a”) + Caa’}= 0 Which gives us the ratio of &, to #, For this experiment it is st to hang up the bar so that the axis is in the horizontal plane and we should then have | 868 ° W. W. Jacques—Diamagnetic Constants of a=1— a” For obtaining another relation it is best to suspend the bar with a’=0 and we then have the position of stable equilibrium at the point 0=$z, which gives @=—2alpiL[(k,—k,) a? +kJ+ Mk =p, whence x aI ra oer R\ >, ie ww Egle tn PME 1 these various equations give the complete solution of the problem of finding the various coefficients of magnetization. Part IL.—By Winuiam W. Jacquzs, Fellow in Physics of the Johns Hopkins University. . In the foregoing part of this paper there have been deduced mathematical expressions for the constants & and ’ both for bismuth and for cale-spar crystals. In these expressions 161 necessary to substitute certain quantities obtained by a series of experiments, and it is the purpose of the remaining portion of the paper to describe briefly the way in which these quant ties were obtained. of the time of swing and certain other constants relating little bars of the substances experimented upon when suspended in this field. brass | to slide. To this rod were fixed two little set-screws to TT Starting now always from ce tae through distances a, b and ¢, and the ies © .were noted. To each of these deflections was addec sal lection due to quickly pulling the coil away from the cen’ [Pe eT a lee iit mall. ; % Bismuth and Calc-spar in Absolute Measure. 369 to a distance such that the magnetic potential was negligably small. course, experiments were made on both sides of the center of the field in order to eliminate any want of symmetry, and the distances through which the coil moved were all care- fully measured with a dividing engine. In order to reduce the deflections of the galvanometer to absolute measure, an earth inductor was included in the circuit with the little coil and galvanometer and the deflections pro- duced by this were Compared with those produced by moving the little coil. These deflections were taken between every two observations with the little coil. The deflections due to moving the little coil, those due to the earth inductor and that due to pulling the coil away from the center are given in the following table: Distance 6. Distance ¢. ROM .00 eu ci 4407 9°655™ 6°363™ Earth inductor_.. 33°138°™ 33°137™ 33°162™ Drawing coil away from center....-------.-- 57°416™ In order to determine the proper quantities for substitution in the expression for the magnetic ieee of the field, it was necessary to measure, besides the deflections due to the little coil when moved through various distances and those due to _ the earth inductor. The mean radius of the small coil. .--.-- .--- == 3918" Namber of tum 2. oe ee Wain BEG ee ee = °18240" Depth of coil Oo oo acuaes te eee Integral area of earth inductor - --- -- Bees se = 20716-2™ Horizontal intensity of earth’s magnetism .--. = *1984°=* The remaining part of the experiment and the part that was attended with greatest difficulty, was to prepare little bars of 370 =W. W. Jacques—Diamagnetie Constants of Bismuth. Bismuth and cale-spar were the two crystals experimented upon; quite a number of other substances were tried but failed to give good results because of the iron contained in them as an impurity. e bars were each about 15™™ long and about 2™™" in cross section. The force to be measured being only about ‘00000001 of that exerted in the case of iron it was necessary to carry out the experiments with the very greatest _ In order to reduce to a minimum the causes that might interfere with the accurate determination of the times of vibra- and suspended by this, Outside the glass case was a micro- ees a rt? oO Os my rs) tags iz) Pe ° =) ot a las) fon 2 S ~ =e @ 2» oO i oe oa = ms ° ny td > (a) 5 3 3 S Sietetiod sphed. The time of swing was ; 2 mined first with the axis vertical and then with it horizontal = | essary in m lay in J. W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. 871 Bismuth. Time of Moment of Half Area of swing. inertia, length. section. Axis, vertical. ___. 1 oe "109768" : rin Be Soe NV Axis, horizontal, .. 5°76°°° "10943°8* 4208 BOTTE Cale-Spar. Time of Momentof Half Area of wi inerti length. section. - Axis, vertical .__.- 46°35°°* = -0303°8° ‘+ r? ° ' xis, horizontal ... 43-39% -osoo%s. S018" "08007" 50° 80 The linear measurements were made with a dividing engine, the moments of inertia were calculated from the dimensions of the bars. The angle at which the cale-spar stood was meas- ured by projecting the linear axis on a scale placed at a distance. The above quantities being all determined and properly sub- stituted, the solution of the equations gave for SOG oe ee k, =— *000 000 012 554 | = — 000 000 014 824 Csiowat 4522 se k, =—°000 000 037 930 k,,=— "000 000 040 330 Art. XLIIL—On the Vapor-Densities of Peroxide of Nitrogen, Formic Acid, Acetic Acid, and Perchloride of Phosphorus ; by ILLARD GIBBS. [Continued from page 293.] Acetic acid.—F or this substance the densities have been cal- culated by the formula 2°073(D—2°073) 3520 (F146 =D) mp o738t log p—11°349, (12) log ond column are taken from his Legons de chimie générale élémentaire, 1856. These numbers seem to be based in part * Lieb, Ann., Suppl. VI, p. 65. Am. Jour, Sc1.—Tamp SERizs, Vou, XVIII, No. 107.—Nov., 1879, 24 4 TaBLE 1V.—AceETic AcIpD. Experiments of CAHOURS,—HORSTMANN,—BINEAU,—TROOST. | | | Density observed. Excess of observed density. Temper- | Press- Lancet Cahours. Cahours. ature. ure. eq. (2). | <> «SsHorst- | ——~—-____.__ Horst- C.R. Legons. maun. Cc. R. Legons. mann, 338 760) 2077 2°08 ‘00 336 biE0h 2077 82 +°005 327 (760) 78 2°08 2°085 00 +7007 321 (760) 2079 2°08 2°083 00 +7004 308 (760) 2°081 2°085 +004 300 (760) 2°082 2°08 00 295 (760) 2°084 2°083 —'001 280 (760) 2°089 2°08 —"0l 272 (760) 2°093 2°088 —°005 254°6 T4T'2 27106 ‘ 2°1365 +°030 262 (760) 27108 2°090 —‘01 250 (760) 2111 2°08 —'03 240 (760) 2°122 2°090 —'032 233°5 | 752°8) 27132 2°195 + 063 60) 2°137 (212) 2-101 (—°02) —°036 230 (760) 2°139 2°09 —‘05 219 (760) 2°165 ait 3132 +°01 —'033 200 (760) 2'239 2°22 2°248 —"02 +:°009 190 (760) 2°298 2°30: 2°378 00 +080 181-7 | 749-7] 2-359 2°419 +060 180 (760) 2°376 2°438 +062 171 (760) 2°466 242 —'05 : : 2°480 +°003 2°647 +113 : 2°583 +°008 ; 2°649 +7055 (2°72) 2-727 (0G}) oF oll 5 (2°75) (—-08) 2°90 2°907 —'O1 —°003 3:1 08 + +107 3-070 +015 3°12. 3°106 +04 +7023 3°079 — 024 3°20 +°03 3°194 +°009 Bineau. ‘Troost. Bineau. Troost. (2°86) (19) | 2°12 — 2°10 oe (2°88) 3°62 3°64 3°60 3°15 3°10 3°85 3°56 3°72 3°95 3°88 3-7" 3°15 3°66 92 3°80 3°88 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 373 upon new experiments and in part upon a revision of the ob- servations recorded in the Comptes Rendus, the calculations being carried out to another figure of decimals. They are therefore entitled to a greater weight than the numbers of the preceding column. e agreement of the formula with the numbers given in the Legons de chimie is very good, the greatest divergences being 080 at 190° and -062 at 180°. But at 190° the table in the 1 Horstmann and those of Cahours may be due in part to the different methods of observation, especially to the entirely dif- Saturated vapor at this temperature being about 12:7™".* In the remaining fifteen observations of this series, notwithstand- ing the very low pressures employed (from 2°44 to 11°32), the Steatest difference between the observations and the formula is ‘04, and the average difference ‘02. € two observations by Troost+ were made by the method of Dumas, but at pressures very low for this method. The Tesults obtained differ considerably from the formula, but not S© much as in the case of his experiments at low pressure with Peroxide of nitrogen. * This number is i iven by Bineau by the same kind of in- terpolation which was used for formic ach : + Comptes Rendus, vol. Lexxvi (1878), p. 1395. 374 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. Table V contains the experiments of Naumann* on acetic acid. ‘These consist of ten series (distinguished by the letters TABLE V.—Acertic Acip. Experiments of NauMANN. TEMPERATURE. 78° | 100° | 110° | 120° | 130° | 140° | 150° | 160° | 185° f Pressure. 393°5| 411 | 432 | 455 | 477 | 498°5 565 AJ D. cale. 3°39| 3°23] 3:06| 2:90| 2°75] 2°61 2°28 D. obs. 3°44] 3°31} 3:14] 2°97) 2°82) 2°68 2°36 | Exe. of D. obs. +°05} +°08| +°08| +-07] +-07| +°07 a ( Pressure. 342°3| 369°3| 377-5 | 398°5| 417-5 | 436°5 495 pi D. calc. 3°35] 3°18} 3°02| 2°85] 2°70} 2°57 2:26 D. obs. 3°37| 3°22) 3°06| 2°89] 2°75] 2°63 2°31 | Exe. of D. obs. +02] +-04| +°04] +-04] 4-05! 4-06 +05 f Pressure. 258 382 C D. cale. 3°26 9°22 1 D. obs. 317 2:25 faxes, of D. obs. —09 +03 ( Pressure 232 252 | 274 | 287°5| 300 335 pd D. eale. 3°23 2:87| 2°72) 2°58] 2°46 221 . obs. 3°12 2°94| 268] 2:54} 2-44 2:23 | Exe. of D. obs. —"11 +°07| —-04] —-04|} —-02 +702 ( ure. 1 186 | 197 | 209 | 221 | 232 | 243 | 253 | 269 pJ D. cale. 3°53| 315) 2-97] 2°81] 265] 2°52) 241] 232] 218 D. obs. 3-41| 3°06] 2-91| 2°75| 2°61] 2°50} 2-40] 2-31] 222 | Exe. of D. obs,| —-1 09| —-0 06} —-04| —-02| —-01| —-01| +74 ( Pressure. 149 | 168 201 rd D. eale. 350| 3°12 2°62 D.o 334| 3-01 2°56 | Exe. of D. obs.) —-16 2s —06 Pressure 137 | 156 | 1665} 180 | 188 | 199 | 208-2 — gd D. cale. 3-48| 309) 2-92} 2°75| 2-60) 2-47| 2°37 aa D.o 3-26| 298] 9-81] 2°61] 2:50| 2-40] 2-29 ge | Exe. of D. obs) —-22| —-11] —-11| —-14] —-10] —-07] —-08 a 113 | 130 | 1386] 149 | 107-5| 168°2| 175 a H4 D. cale. 3°42} 303) 285| 2°69} 2°55] 2-43| 2°33 ane D. obs. -25| 2°94} 2-78! 2°60| 2-47] 2°32] 2°26 2 — . Exe. of D. obs.| —-17; —-09! —-o7| —-09| —-og| —-11| —-07 ee. Pressure. 80 | 92 98°5| 106 | 112°5| 117°3 129°2 yd D. calc. 3°32| 2°91! 9-73] 2°58! 9-45| 2°35 2°21 . obs. 3°06| 2°76] 2°61} 2°46| 2-34] 2°27 211 Exe. of D. obs.| —-26| —-15| —-12| —-12} —-11| —-08 esti | : 66 | 777| 84 | 89°5| 93 8 | 103 ee KJ D. cale. 3°26 | 2°85) 2°68| 2°53] 2-40] 2°31} 2°24 dl ~~ | D. obs. 304| 2°66) 2-49| 2°37] 2-32/ 2°24] 2:16 ol _ (Exe. of D. obs.) —-22 | —-19| —-19| —-16| —-o8| —-07| —-08 Be A, B, ©, ete.) of observations by Hoffmann’s method.t The temperatures of the observations in the different series are for * Lieb. Ann, yol. cly, 8. 325. + This isa ra method of Gay-Lussac, in which the heat is S4P- | | | J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 375 — is ‘26 and the average ‘085), are not large in view of the act that the experiments were undertaken rather with the de- sire of obtaining a great number of observations with moderate labor, than with the intention of attaining the greatest possible accuracy. The quantity of acid diminishes somewhat regularly from ‘2084 grams in series A to ‘0185 in series K. The volume, be accounted for by an insufficient exposure to the temperature of the experiment. The observations, except those at 78°, hegative excess.) In-the observations at 78°, which were the last of each series, and therefore followed a fall of temperature we Sick § : : minations of the same series, and which appears to be referable this circumstance. 876 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. n Table VI are exhibited the results of experiments by Playfair and Wanklyn,* in which the vapor of the acid was diluted with hydrogen or, in a single case (the experiment at 5°5°), by air. Columns I and II of the observed densities relate each to a series of observations by the method of Gay- Lussae, column III contains four independent determinations by the method of Dumas. The numbers in the column of TasLre VI.—Acertic Acip. Experiments of PLAYPaIR and WANKLYN. Temper. Prese- og Density observed. Excess of observed density. eq. (12). : hn LE, 212°5 | 322°8| 2-194 2-060 — "064 194 326°0| 2-168 2-055 mn LES 186 | 254-4|} 2-173 | 1-936 —-237 182 319-4 | 2-213 2-108 —"105 166°5 | 289°5 | 2-293 2°350 +°057 163 45°38 | 2-290 | 2-017 —-273 132 127°5 | 2-628 | 9-299 —*336 130°5 | 285-7 | 2-799 2-426 — 303 119 690 | 2914 2-623 —‘291 1165 | 211-3} 2-876 | 2-371 —-505 95°5 |(123-8)| 3-105 2°594 — bil 86°5 |(200-4)| 3-432 3°172 a 79°9 | (83-3)| 3-297 3°340 ah 62°5 | (46-2)! 3-473 3-950 +47 peer of positive values for the excess of observed density, _ but rather the opposite _ On the whole, these experiments furnish no decisive indica tion of any influence of the hydrogen or air upon the vapo! *Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxii, p. 455. Poses pes SE ae a te ee ay J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 377 They may be thought to corroborate slightly the tendency observed in the experiments of Naumann a roost toward rature and pressure, gives a trifling excess of observed this single temperature, as having only two constants, of whi one is determined so as to make the formula give the theo- retical value for infinitesimal pressures, and the other so as to make it agree with the experiments of Cahours at the pressure of one atmosphere. An entirely different method has been employed by Horst- Maan* to determine the vapor-density of this substance. A cur- rent of dried air is forced through the liquid acid, which is heated to promote evaporation, and the mixture of air and vapor is chemischen Gesellschaft, Jahrg. iii (1870), S. 78’ * Berichte der deutschen and Jahrg. xi (1878), $. 1287 378 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. cooled to any desired temperature, with deposition of the excess of acid, by passing upward through a spiral tube in a suitable bath. The acid is then separated from the air, and the quantity of each determined. It is assumed that the air is exactly satu- find a very marked disagreement, as may be seen by the ol- lowing numbers, which relate to the highest temperatures of Temperature ________ 631 629 599 Sil 490 487 446 414 ure (Land.)..-..110°0 1092 97:0 690 634 63°0 531 466 Density calc. eq. (12). 367 367 369 375 377 37% 379 3 Ps Density obs.____._.__ 319 311 312 316 2:89 298 275 26 It will be observed that while the values obtained from equation (12) pling with diminishing temperatures, the values ob- ne i 5 Dear every mark of a very exceptional precision. (Compare Tables VII and IV.) The explanation of this disagreement © in the calculations, and it will be interesting to see how the its may be modified by the adoption of different pressures: _ In determinations of the pressure of saturated vapors, great values are so much more easily accounted for than errors direction, especially when the pressures #° especial interest attaches to the lowest figures which * Lieb. Ann., Suppl. vi (1868), p. 157. J. W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. 379 preparation are given in the following table with their loga- rithms, and the differences of the logarithms for one degree of temperature. Temperature. Pressure. log. pressure. diff. per 1°. O71 6°42 “8075 : 12°12 7:33 .8651 pe : 14°33 8°42 "9253 ney 14°87 8:59 "9340 0259 q 22°37 5 1/1189 0232 i 25°28 15°36 1°1864 used for the comparison of Horstmann’s experiments with the formula (12) which is given in table VIL Unfortunately this culated by equation 12) from these pressures and the tempera- tures of the first column, and the densities obtained by com- noe Horstmann’s Spe mens with Regnault’s pressures. i 880 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. evidently represented by ae The numbers of the fifth L column, which are represented in the same way by ed R where p, denotes the pressure as determined by Regnault’s experiments, have been calculated by the present writer by eee : P- multiplying the numbers of the third column by Pit =P =) Pr(P—Px) TaspLte VII.—AceEtic Acip. Determinations of Vapor-density by Distillation. Density Density Densit || Pressure | observed, || Pressure | calc, from ¥ Excess of "MOF || dae | miotta||bgeant,| NOEARUIN | opnimant | observed dents Landolt. by eq. (12). = hemes I Il. 25-0 235 2°42 15°13 3°86 3°80 —-06 23°8 22°4 2°23 14°19 3°86 3°56 —*30 22°6 21-6 2°29 13°31 3°87 3°16 Ba & | 21°5 20°4 2°24 12°54 3:87 3°68 —19 20°4 19°2 2-05 11°81 3°88 3°37 — "51 20-2 19:0 2-28 11°68 3°88 3°75 pS 20°0 18°9 213 11°56 3°88 3°52 —"36 17-4 16°8 2°09 9°95 3°89 3°56 45 15°6 15°6 1-98 8°96 390 3°48 —42 15°3 153 1:95 8°81 3°90 3°42 — "48 15°3 15°3 1°85 8°8 3°90 3°24 —"66 14:7 1571 1-78 8°54 3-91 3°18 — 13 12°7 137 1:96 7-60 3°91 3°56 —'35 12-4 13°5 1:89 7-46 3°92 3°45 — het As the height of the barometer in Horstmann’s experiments is not given, it has been necessary to assume P=760. The imac: curacy due to this circumstance is evidently trifling. The last obtained from Horstmann’s and Regnault’s experiments above the values calculated from equation (12) with the use of Re The densities obtained by experiment are without exception less than those obtained from equation (12). At the highest temperatures, where the liability to error is the least, both 1 respect to the measurement of the pressure of saturatec vapo and in respect to the analysis of the product of distillation, the results of experiment are most uniform, and most nearly approach the numbers required by the formula. At the lowest temperatures, the greatest observed density is about one _ eleventh less than that required by the formula, the differ- ence being about the same as between the highest and lowest observed values for the same temperature. si mae 7 EEEE——z—-—S—:srt tr rt a J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 381 Since each successive purification of the substance employed by Regnault diminished the pressure of its vapor, it is not picion of being too high, and it is quite possible that more Taspie VIII.—PrrRcHitoRIDE OF PHOSPHORUS. Experiments of MrtscHERLICH, CAHOURS, WuRTZ, and Troost and HAUTEFEUILLE. Feo mage Press- aa Density observed. | Excess of observed density. pe a ae Mitseb. Cahours. | Mitsch. Cahours. 336 | (760) | 3°610 3°656 +046 327 154 3°614 3°656 +042 300 165 3°637 3°654 +°017 289 | (760) | 3°656 3°69 +034 288 763 3°659 3°6T +011 274 155 3°T01 3°84 +°139 250 751 3-862 3°991 +129 230 146 4°159 4°302 +142 222 5 "B44 4°85 +506 208 | (760) | 4°752 4-73 —021 200 158 5-018 4°851 167 190 15 5-368 4987 —-381 182 45 5°646 5078 5 # T.& HH. Wurtz. 1785 | 29721 5-053 | 5-150 +097 1758 | 253-7] 5-223 5°235 +012 76 | 221-8] 5°456 5-415 _ 54-7 | 997 5-926 5°619 —30T 501 | 225 6086 5°886 —'200 244 6°169 —"205 391 6°45 6°55 +°10 45 311 7 6°70 +°33 45 07 6°36 633. —'03 144% | 247 | 6-287 614 “TAT 137 281 6°53 6°48 —"05 137 269 6°51 6°54 +03 137 243 6.46 —02 137 234 64T 6°42 —05 : 137 148 6°31 647 +16 129 191 6°59 618 —41 129 170 6°56 6°63 +07 165 6°55 6°31 — 34 * Pogg. Ann., vol. xxix (1833), p. 221. pi Ormpten Rendus, vol. oe (1845), p. 625; and Annales de Chimie et de Phy- 48, Ser. 3, vol. xx (1847), p. 369. ee: + Comptes Beaton. v0k fies (1873), p. 601. § Ibid., vol. Ixxxiii (1876), p. 977. 382 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor-Densities. pene was reduced by mixing the vapor with air. In Table ITI all these determinations are compared with the formula 1... 3°6 (D—3°6) 5441 Sy kee > bet 978 The differences between the calculated and observed values are often large, in six cases exceeding ‘80; but they exhibit in general that irregularity which is characteristic of errors 0 observation. We should expect large errors in the observed densities, on account of the difficulty of obtaining the substance in a state of purity, and because the large value of the density renders it very sensitive to the effect of impurities which diminish the density,—also because the specific heat of the vapor is great, as shown by the numerator of the fraction in the second member of (18),* and because the density varies very rapidly with the temperature as seen by the numbers in the third column of Table VIII. + log p — 14°353, (13) t withstanding the abrupt change of pressure. Yet it is difficult unequivocal evidence. Now it is worthy of notice that the nea raniene meee i ose ANE itia — J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 383 error, we en experiments will be necessary to confirm the form vaonvetill have also been made by M. Wurtz in which the vapor of the perchloride of phbophoras was diluted with that of the protochloride.t These experiments may be used to test equation (8), which, when the values of its constants are determined by equation (18), reduces to the form ' Be is 4 ai es i 273 13°751, (14) where p,, p,, and p, denote the partial pressures due respect- ively to the PCI,, the Cl,, and the PCl,, existing as such in the once Since these quantities cannot be the sake of mmediate observation, a farther transformation of the equation will be convenient. Let M,, M, denote the quantities of the protochloride and of chlorine of which the mixture ma y be formed, and P,, P, the pressure which would belong to sig of these if existing by itself with the same volume and tempera- ure. These quantities will be connected by the equations kt M, kt = 5 Bie sogh . ee pase (9) where & denotes the same constant as on page 286. From the evident relations P.=p,+p,, P,=P, + Pos P=P.TPst Ps we ove emt —P; ts tas -P,, aes A —P,; and by sibdevii: of these ides in dated (14), P : P,—p 5441 : lox p t 4073 » 16 log ie PET 13°751 (16) Th view of the eoge. (15), this may be regarded as an equa- tion between the pressure, the temperature, the volume, and ov quantities of protochloride of phosphorus and chlorine into Ich the gas-mixture is resolvable. "Tt is in Shs form that we shall apply the equation to the Table IX of M. Wurtz, the results of which are exhibited in The first column gives the number verge ona ach experiment in the original memoir; the second, the Cale, the nae the observed pressure (p) of the saisctare * Adina ts on the de: nsity of this vapor have been made by M rg which he says in 1866; “Les déterminations qui je viens effectuer & 170 et 172 de bout vers 160 4 165 degrés) m’ont nom qui, bien que notablement plus forts que ceux que J ai obtenus oe reheat 4 182 et 185 degrés, re - ry el A gps corres- vi ; i Mh bate: abi. tr aac nents cee carainshioa hase 40% been. poblishod. rtain, rmina af a gives 6-025 for 170° ot 6-973 for 3535 at atmospheric pressure. The ; et Tresponding to four volumes is ptes Rendus, vol. lxxvi (1873), p. ae 384 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. of PC],, PCl,, and Cl,, which is the barometric pressure cor- rected for the small quantity of air remaining in the flask; the the temperature and volume. The numbers of these five 2 Taste [X.—PrRcHLoripe anp ProrocHiorRIpE OF PHosPHoRvs. | Experiments on the mixed vapors by WuRTz. 4 4 Excess of No. of P Dp Be bine ch Oibibanhchsed cabs? [ots] Sad ee an z XIT | 17329 | 756-1 | 423 668 | 3924 | 7255 | 7607 | —46 748°4 | 413 6°80 390°1 | 7255 | 747 5 VII | 17624) 7510} 411 6°88 392° | 739-7 | TI31 | —22°1 VIII} 169°35 | 724-1 394 716 391°8 | 721-9 | 750° | —26-4 Vv 75°26 | 743-3 343 7-03 3349 | 735-2 64 2171 Ir 64:9 58:5 338 7-38 346°4 766-9 782°9 | —24°4 XI | 175°75 | 7600 | 318 7-00 309°2 | 751-2 | 776°8 168 IV 176°26 | 766-3 27Tt 7-06 265-7 751-0 "710°9 | —14°6 | Ix 160-47 | 753-5 214 44, 221°1 760-6 166°8 | —13°3 I 165-4 760°0 94 7-25 195-3 | 761°3 | 768 — 85 VI | 17034 | 751-2 174 8-30 200°6 | 777-8 | 7876 | —364 Tit | 17428 | 742-4 168 4 180°6 | 755°3 | 7665 | —23°8 columns are taken from the memoir cited, except that the cor rection of the barometric pressures has been applied by the present writer in accordance with the data furnished in that : memoir. The two next columns contain the values of P, and P,. These would naturally be calculated from M, and M, by M, n given explicitly, those of P, and P, have been calculated from the recorded values of z and 8, Since the weight of the pL fae possible perchloride is 9-99 My we have Pst? Beka | 222un = 2 sig Moreover, PprazeP or. since both members of the equation express the pressure due to the excess of the protochloride. The values of P, and Ps were obtained by these equations, _ The eighth column of the table gives the values of p caleu- _ lated from the preceding values of f,, P,, and P,, by equation (16); and the last column, the difference of the observed _ Salculated values of p. The ave difference is 18"™, OF little more than two per cent, ae observed pressure being J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. 385 almost uniformly less than the calculated value. This defi- ciency of pressure is doubtless to be accounted for by a fact ich MM nection. The protochloride of phosphorus deviates quite appre- one-half an atmosphere.* Now we may assume as a genera rule that when the product of volume and pressure of a gas is slightly less than the theoretical number (calculated by the laws of Mariotte, Gay-Lussac, and Avogadro) the difference for any same temperature is nearly proportional to the pressure,+ It is therefore probable that between 160° and 180°, at press- : peri ments of Wurtz, as exhibited in Table LX, show that the pres- sure, and therefore the product of volume and pressure, (we may evidently give the volume any constant value as unity,) in a mixture consisting principally of the protochloride is on the average a little more than two per cent less than is demanded y theory, the differences being greater when the proportion of the protochloride is greater. The deviation from the calculate values is therefore in the same direction and about such in . a + minishes, The experiments of MM. "roost and Hautefeuille show that the bites remarked by M. Wurtz is due to the t that on the average in these experiments the deficiency of the density of the possible perchloride (compared with the = Troost and Hautefeuille, Comptes Rendus, vol. lxxxiii (1876), p. 334. p. t Andrews, . Oh Os Ganesan Hate ae "Matier.” Phil. Trans., vol. clxvi (1876), =~ Geviation of th ide of phosphorus from the laws of ideal gases sh . of the protochloride of phosphorus Ween dens *nposibility of any very close agreement between such equations as have es as occur in the org “2@ protochloride alone, it would be rash to attempt to anticipate the _ “Suit of experiment, 386 J. W. Gibbs — Vapor- Densities. theoretical value) is counterbalanced by the excess of densi of the protochloride. When z> 400, the effect of the deficiency in the density of the possible perchloride distinctly preponder- ates; when z <250, the effect of the excess of density in the protochloride distinctly preponderates. But the magnitude of the differences concerned is not such as to invalidate the general conclusion established by the experiments of M. Wurtz, that the dissociation of the perchloride may be prevented (at least penly) by mixing it with a large quantity of the proto- chloride. Table for Jacilitating caleulation.—The numerical solution of equations (10), (11), (12) and (18) for given values of ¢ and p may be facilitated by the use of a table. If we set D << 17 4=5> (17) 1 1000 D, (D—D,) 1000 (4—1) re 1 or pete gaer SH ass 20 18 = 8 —Gp —Dy Mee a we have for peroxide of nitrogen, ae pee i 9-451; (19) Tigge- G78 2 ee , for formic acid, 3800 Pe ee a —9 : 20 = prpoyy t loge —9e4 ; (20) for acetic acid, 3520 a | Oe 21) =F o75 t logp—ssso; ( and for perchloride of phosphorus, 5441 2 Be re 22 = e278 + log p— 11353. (22) By these as the values of L are easily calculated. The values of 4 may t value of D may be obtained by multi lying by D,, viz, by 1589 for peroxide of nitrog: , 2 pe of the number of the the more complex type to the whole number of molecules. Thus, i nitrogen there are 20 molecules of the typ? J. N. Stockweil—Inequality of the Moon’s Motion. 387 TABLE Be ° . 4 Sg For the solution of the equation: log se « ay it gh L A Diff. L A Diff. L A Diff. 7 1:005 1 3°70 1°382 39 5°3 1:932 - 8 1-006 3 31 421 40 5-4 1:939 ‘ 9 1-008 3-2 461 39 55 1°945 8 L-0 1-010 F 3-3 1-500 Pts 56 1-951 5 fg § 1:012 3 3-4 537 37 sat f 1956 5 1-2 1-015 ; 3-5 ‘B14 | oon 58 1-961 4 3 1-019 5 3°6 “609 | 59 5:9 1°965 4 4 1-024 - 3-7 “642 21 6-0 1-969 3 5 1-030 7 3°8 613 30 61 1-972 6 103% 9 ao 1-703 27 6:2 1975 3 UT 046 10 4 730 25 63 1-978 2 8 1°056 13 4-1 755 93 674 1-980 2 9 1-069 as 4:2 ‘178 99 65 1-982 2 20 L084 | 35 4:3 800 — 6-6 1-984 Ps aa | T*102 20 4-4 “819 18 67 1°986 l 2 1-122 34 4°5 1°837 17 68 1°987 3 “3 17146 $4 4:6 1°854 14 6:9 1-989 4 £173 | 35 AT 1°868 id 7-0 1-990 5 1-202 | 35 4:8 1882 | 49 72 1-992 6 1-234) 34 49 1-894 ri 14 1-994 4 1-268 37 5-0 1°905 10 7-6 1°995 @} 1205 1.3) |. 5i-).19e 479 g | 1:996 9 1968 | to 5-2 1-924 8 8-0 1:997 _ 30 1-382 5°3 1°932 9°0 and with what degree of approximation, the actual relations can be expressed by equations of such form. In the case of perchloride of Herge Soret especially, the formula pena requires confirmation Art. XLIV.—On a secular inequality in the Moon's Motion pro- duced by the BY tae of the karth; by J. N. SrocK WELL. Havine been engaged, during a number of years past, ina Pen and systematic examination of the physical theory of € moon’ S$ motion, it seems proper to make Known to astrono- mers, in advance of the publication of my researches which are now essentially completed, one of the most curious and interest- ing results at which I have arrived relative to the motion of our satellite. a has been known, since the time of Newton, that the attrac- n of a spheroidal body on a point ey its surface is ies from that of a eet having the sa ass the : abi be one of revolution, like the ABR "th attraction ga not only’on the distance of the attracted point from Sct.—TuIrD .—— Vou. XVIIL.—No. 107, Nov., 1879. 888 = J. N. Stockwell—Inequality of the Moon's Motion. the earth’s center, but also on its distance from the equator. If the attracted point were situated in the plane of the earth’s equator the attraction of the earth upon it would be greater at a given distance than if the earth were spherical. The attraction would also be greater either north or south of the equator until we reached the paralled of about 35° 16’, at which points the attraction of the earth would be nearly inde- pendent of its spheroidal form. For all points situated beyond the parallels of 35° 16’ the attraction of the earth is less than it ] uniform, on account of the redundancy or deficiency of matter beneath the different parts of its course. It is evident that the motion in an orbit perpendicular to the equator would suffer greater variations from the unequal distribution of matter, than it would for any other inclination. ! We shall now apply the preceding considerations to the motion of the moon around the earth, supposing for greater simplicity that her orbit is circular. : ince the inclination of the moon’s orbit to the equator 1s spherical. But since the inclination varies between the limits of about 18° 19’ and 28° 35’ during a period of about nineteen years, it follows that the earth’s attraction undergoes sensible variations ; and hence the moon’s place at an iven time requires to be corrected on account of the varying inclination of its orbit to the equator. The corrections to the moon’ longitude and latitude arising from this cause have been calcu- lated, and applied to the moon’s place during the whole of the becoming less, it follows that the plane of the moon’s orbit is gradually app mean motion must b Increasing. All thes are fully =r aggen by mathematical analysis, and were O. H. F. Peters—Asteroids. 889 Having thus shown the existence of a secular inequality in the moon’s motion depending on the oblateness of the earth, it only remains to determine its amount. But asa mathematical analysis of the problem is not within the scope of the present paper, I shall be content with a mere statement of the semi- general formula together with its numerical value If we put ¢, for the obliquity of the acini in 1 1850, a for its value at any time ¢, and also suppose that the ellipticity of the earth is z4,, I find the following value for the secular inequality depending on the earth’s oblateness, namely : dv=+24"'827 / (sin*e, —sin’e)de. If we develop the integral into a series and retain only the first term we shall have J/(sin’e, — sin*e) dt=+-0°008675 7, in which ¢ denotes the number of pesca counting from 1850 Hence the secular inequality becom dv=0"'1981 7 This term, though small, is of satiateat importance to be used in computing ancient eclipses In conclusion I would state that I have found several ine- qualities in the moon’s motion which are not recognized by existing theories, of even greater practical interest and impor- tance than the one to which I have called attention in this paper. Cleveland, Oct. 2, 1879. ART. aaa —Discovery of two new Asteroids; by Professor C. ETERS. Communication t o the Editors dated Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton ie Clinton, N. Y., October 6, 1879. Two more planets of the asteroid group were found by me in the month of September, respectively on the 11th and 25th. communicate the observations hitherto obtained. (202) Chryseis, 1879, Ham. Coll. m. t. App. -R. App. Decl. No. of comp. Sept. 11, 12h gm os 93h 51™ 16* — 8° 535 [rough estimate.] Sept. 21 13 18 22 41698 0 = 8 8 4 10 Sept. 23. 12 23 49 53°47. —-10° 9 35-0 9 Sept..26. 12 46 49 23 40 4842 —10 26 552 10 Oct. 4, 8 66 13 93 36 3919 —ll 6 565 6 peel Pompeja. 1879. Ham. Coll.m.t App. &. App. Decl. No. of comp. Sept. 25, 14h 48m 21° oh ay ge je +: 8° 16; 304 12 Sept. 26. 13 41 15 0 19°5 +8 12 109 10 Gee as eo 1g er ae OD is 31 a ceca ae" va Pe magnitude of the first is now 11™-0, that of the laiter 5. 390 A. A. Michelson — Velocity of Light. Art. XLVI. — Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light; by AuBerT A. MIcHELSON, Master, U. S. Navy.* [Abstract of paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science. ] Ler §, fig. 1, be a slit through which light passes, falling on R, a mirror free to rotate about an axis at right angles to the plane of the paper; L, a lens of great focal length, upon which the light falls, which is reflected from R. Let M be a plane mirror, whose surface is perpendicular to the line RM, passing through the centers of R, L and M, respectively. If L be so placed that an image of S is formed on the surface of M, then, this image acting as the object, its image will be formed at 8, and will coincide point for point with S. L 3 Ee eR SR | EEE RROD etc rencevacremnememeereeme fae U < 4 | s image at M. This result, namely, the production of a station- ary Image of an image in motion, is aeaolatcly essential. It was first acco! meg by Foucault, and in a manner differing pe 0 Serves but little from the foregoing. In this case, L, fig. 2, served simply to form an image of S at M; and M, the returning mirror, was spherical, the center of _ Curvature coinciding with the axis of ik The lens, L, was Placed as near as possible to R. The light forming the return ss * Prepared for this place by the Author. A. A. Michelson — Velocity of Lnght. 391 image lasts, in this case, while the first image is sweeping over the face of the mirror, M. Hence, the greater the distance, RM, the larger must be the mirror, in order that the same quantity of light may be preserved, and its dimensions would soon be- come inordinate. The difficulty was partly met by Foucault, by using five concave reflectors instead of one; but even then the greatest distance he found it practicable to use was only _ for light to travel twice the distance between the mirrors. his displacement is measured by its arc, or rather, by its make thi mirror to the slit, and the speed of rotation should be made as great as possible. Se e second condition conflicts with the first, for the “radius the “distance,” therefore, the smaller will be the “radius.” There are two ways of solving the difficulty: first, by using a lens of great focal length, and, secondly, by placing the revoly- ing mirror within the principal focus of the lens. Both means h of the lens was 150 feet, and the mirror was placed fifteen feet within the principal focus. A limit is soon reached, however, for the quantity of light received diminishes very rapidly as the revolving murror ap- The chief objection urged in reference to the experiments tions of lenses and be relied upon within less than one per cent. fol riments the distance between the % 392 A. A. Michelson — Velocity of Light. feet, and the speed of the mirror ‘was about 257 revolutions per second. The deflection exceeded 183 millimeters, being about 200 times as great as that obtained by Foucault. If it were necessary it could be still further increased. This deflec- tion was measured within three or four hundredths of a milli- meter in each observation ; and it is safe to say that the result, so far as it is affected by this measurement, is correct to within one ten-thousandth part. . The revolving mirror was actuated by a current of air which escaped through a turbine wheel on the same axle as the i and measure the speed of rotation a tuning-fork, bearing on Hence, to make the mirror revolve at a given uniform speed, the cord attached to the valve, which leads to the observer's table, is pulled right or left, till the images of the revolving mirror come to rest. The electric fork made about 128 vibrations per second. No dependence was placed upon this rate, however, but at each set of observations it was compared with a standard Ut, fork, the temperature being noted at the time. The rate of the Ut, fork was found to be 256°072 at 65° F. The result obtained by Prof. Mayer and myself, at the Stevens Institute, was 256-068. apparatus for measuring the deflection consists of an accurate screw with divided circle. To the frame is attached an adjustable slit. On the screw travels a carriage which supports the eye-piece, which consists of an achromatic lens, _ having in its focus a single vertical silk fiber. The slit which _ 38 very nearly in the same focal plane as the silk fiber, 18 bisected by the latter, and reading of scale and circle taken. _ Then the screw is turned till the silk fiber bisects the deflect _ Image of the slit, and reading taken again. The difference veen the two readings gives the deflection. A, A. Michelson — Velocity of Light. 393 The direction of rotation was right-handed. te eliminate h making the rotation left-handed, and the deflection was meas- ured in the opposite direction. The results agreed well with those previously obtained with the mirror erect. o eliminate errors due to a regular variation in speed during every revolution, if any such could exist, the position of the frame was changed in several experiments. The results were the same as before. To test the question as to whether or not the vortex of air about the mirror had any effect on the deflection, the spe was lowered to 192, 128, 96, and 64 turns per second. If the vortex had any effect, it should have decreased with the lower speed, but no such effect could be detected. This also hohe that any error due to distortion of the mirror must be excess- ively small, otherwise it also would have been dintinighed with the smaller speed, thus giving different results. Finally, to test if there were any bias in making the obser- vations, the readings in several sets were taken by another, and ya ne down, without divulging them. The separate readings as consistent as when made by myself, and the results still agreed with those of the other observations. Results of Observations. Every number is the mean of ten separate observations. 299710 299820 299740 299790 289790 299600 299800 2997 299710 299740 299760 299820 299740 299710 299680 2998%0 299800 299720 299720 299710 299740 299740 299580 299700 299660 299710 299660 299580 299670 299710 299810 299710 299480 299660 299690 299840 299740 299720 299640 10 299840 299760 299830 299650 299770 299740 299700 299810 299660 ‘ 299860 299690 299740 299810 820 299840 299650 299770 299820 299820 299790 670 299710 ae 299710 2995 99740 299730 ci ; the 9740 299780 299810 299670 299690 299740 299620 2999840 299860 299660 299750 299740 299780 299860 299650 299710 299750 299580 99820 299620 299740 7 299560 299820 299660 299740 - 299680 299610 Mean result 29972 Cor. for temp. ~ bed (of steel tape, scale and screw). ie of esi air 299740 Cor. for v +80 Vel. of light in vacuo 299820 kilometers per second. 394 | C. A. Ashburner—The Kane Geyser Well. Art. XLVII.—The Kane Geyser Well; by Cuartes A. Asn: BURNER, Assistant Second Geological Survey of Penn.* THE Kane Geyser or Spouting Water-well, which during the past year has attracted such general attention from the “sight-seeing” public, is no novelty to the oil man. The cause of the action has been so erroneously represented, that a correct explanation seems to be demanded. is well is situated in the valley of Wilson’s Run, near the line of the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad, four miles south- east from Kane. It wa of 2,000 feet. No petro- leum was found in paying quantities and the casing was drawn and the hole of water and gas to heights varying from 100 to 15 feet. the operation feet, which was the limit of the casing. Ata depth of 1415 feet a very heavy “oas vein” was struck. This gas was permitted a free escape during the time the drilling was continued conflict between the water and gas commenced, rendering the well an object of great interest. The water flows into the well * The above notice of this remarkable water-and-gas geyser is from Stowell’s i . 15th. The view of the Geyser 18 Petroleum Reporter (Pittsburgh, Pa.) for Se 3 - 5 pt. oped from a photograp the editors by M burner. A fuller de- a ie of a adjoining well by Mr. Ashburner appeared in 1877 in the -ransactions of the American Philosophical Society, and is noticed in this Jou im volume xvi, at page 140, 1878. . xf Gn = eG! Bees pe a [ag ae ee ae ee etamertemien weet T. A, Edison—Resonant Tuning Fork. 395 on top of the gas, until the pressure of the confined gas becomes following heights: 108, 132, 120 and 188 feet. The columns are composed of mingled water and gas, the latter being readily ignited. After night-fall the spectacle is grand. The antago- nistic elements of fire and water are so promiscuously blended, that each seems to be fighting for the mastery. At one moment the flame is almost entirely extinguished, only to burst forth at the next instant with increased energy and greater brilliancy. During sunshine the sprays form an artificial rain- w, and in winter the columns became incased in huge trans- parent ice chimneys. A number of wells in the oil regions have thrown water geysers similar to the Kane well, but none have ever attracted such attention. As early as 1838 a salt well, drilled in the valley of the Ohio, threw columns of water and gas, at intervals of ten to twelve hours, to heights varying from fifty to one hundred feet. This well is possibly the first of the ‘ water and gas geyser wells. Arr. XLVIII.—On a Resonant Tuning Fork; by THomMas A. Epison, Ph.D., Menlo Park, N. J. [Read at the Saratoga meeting of the American Association.] lan, by which the box is dispensed with, the resonant cham- er, as is shown in the cut, being formed by the prongs them- selves. To make the fork, a thick tube of bell-metal, one end of which is closed, has a slit sawed longitudinally through its 396 0. C. Marsh—New Jurassic Mammals. center, the slit being nearly to the closed end. This slit divides the tube equally and gives two vibrating prongs, analogous to those of a fork. To bring the prongs into unison with the column of air between them, the tube is put in a lathe and turned thinner until the desired point is reached and the two are in unison. Thereupon the sound of the fork is powerfully reinforced. Art. XLIX.—Notice of New Jurassic Mammals ; by Prof. O. C. MaRsH. ADDITIONAL remains of mammals from the Jurassic of the ky Mountains indicate that this class constituted an impor- tant element in the Mesozoic fauna of this country. The forms already described,* as well as those noticed below, show more- over, such a resemblance to known types from the Purbeck of England, that some connection between the two faune is clearly implied, and future discoveries will be awaited with interest. lent preservation. This specimen differs widely from the Right lower jaw of Ctenacodon serratus, Marsh ; about four times natural size. a. incisor; 6. condyle; c. coronoid process. _ This lower jaw is short and massive. Its outer surface 15 marked by a strong ridge, which begins below the first pre Molar, and is continued to the base of the coronoid process. ____- * This Journal, vol. xv, p. 459, 1878; vol. xviii, pp. 60 and 215, 1879. Journal Geological of London, vol. xiii, p. 261. 1857. ———— EE SE a | pie alli SS Bes, ete La O. C. Marsh—New Jurassic Mammals. 397 The symphysis is short, and the two rami were not firmly codssified. The lower dental series is as follows: Incisors 1-1; premolars 4-4; molars 2-2. The incisor was large, and had a compressed base. The pre- molars are wedge-shaped, and all have sharp trenchant crowns. The summit of each is very thin, and the last is distinctly serrated. The first lower molar had a low crown, very similar to that of Plagiaulaz. The following are the principal dimensions of this specimen : Length of portion preserved ....--.------------ blue Space occupied by lower teeth ..-..------.----- 8°5 Space occupied by four premolars ....--.------- 45 Depth of jaw below first premolar. ----.-------- 2°5 Depth of jaw below last premolar .--. ---------- 3°5 Height of crown of last premolar ---- ----------- 15 A second specimen, also a right lower jaw, agrees essentially with the one here described. Both are from the same locality, in the Atlantosaurus beds of Wyoming. These fossils, with those of the genus Plagiaulax, belong to a well marked family, which may appropriately be termed Plagiaulacide. Dryolestes arcuatus, sp. nov. A third species of Dryolestes is at present represented by five Specimens, two upper, and three lower jaws. This species appear to have been arranged on a curve opposite to that of the upper molars. : The principal measurements of the type specimen are as follows: Space occupied by teeth in maxillary -- --------- es Space occupied by six posterior molars ---- ----- ig Height of maxillary above second premolar- .---- 5 Space occupied by first three upper molars------- 3°5 Tinodon robustus, sp. nov. A species of this genus, about twice as large as the one previously described (7. bellus), is indicated by a lower Jaw with 398 Scientific Intelligence. several teeth in good preservation. The lower molars have a strong basal ridge on the inner surface of their crowns. The ramus of the lower jaw is compressed. The mylo-hyoid groove is well marked, and is continued forward much further than in the smaller species. The main dimensions of this specimen are as follows: . This specimen pertained to an animal about the size of the preceding species. Linodon lepidus, sp. nov. Another species of Tinodon, the smallest yet found, is repre- | sented by a left lower jaw, in fair preservation. This specimen differs from the type of 7. bellus, which it most resembles in size, in having smaller teeth, the inner margin of the jaw somewhat inflected, and the angle extending downward below the condyle, instead of being emarginate at this point. The condyle, moreover, is on a level with the base of the teeth, and not above their crowns, as in the type species. The present specimen measures as follows: Pr ae ne ee ee — Distance from first molar to end of condyle ----- LBS re Space occupied by four molar teeth _...__-..---- 6° Depth of jaw below first lower molar.____.____-- 2°5 Depth of jaw below con 2° ; . _ All the specimens here described are from the same locality, in the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming, and are now preserved 1n the Yale Museum. Yale College, New Haven, October 22d, 1879. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. 1. On a new method of preparing Hyponitrous acid.—Since the method of preparing sodium hyponitrite by nitrite with s 1 : small, Zorn has devised an electrolytic method for producing 1t, which works well At first he used platinum electrodes in a con- _ A pretty active evolution of gas ns in a short time, the ga8, — Bo . », containing no‘ammonia. If the current be broken after _ S short time, the liquid neutralized with acetic acid, and t Te oh eee eee eee jee wis a Se ee eee 4 Chemistry and Physics. 399 with silver nitrate, an abundant precipitate of silver hyponitrite, AgNO, is thrown down hyponitrite is good and the author recommends this process as much preferable to that by sodium.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xii, 1509, Sept., 1879. G. F. B. On the Direct Union of Calcium oxide and Carbon dioxide. is well known that at a high temperature, calcium oxide unites directly with carbon dioxide, while they have no action at BAU d weight was constant. Pure dry carbon dioxide was passed over lain tube, and afterward in a bulb of Bohemian glass, the heat being that of a paraffin bath heated from 160° to 320° C. five to eight hours, 100 parts of lime absorbed 4"1 per cent coO,, after thirteen hours 15:2 per cent, after forty hours 31-6 per cent i 1 0011 grams; but farther heating did not increase this quantity. e temperature of union and of dissociation of calcium carbonate the new Element, Scandium.—CiBvE has studied the : : . . . AY? 7 new earth scandia, discovered by him, a few weeks after Nilson’s announcement of it, in gadolinite and yttrotitanite, t Sc,O,, ammonio- and po : sulphates, and also the oxalates and selenites, establishing it. From eight to ten grams of scandia, by repeated decom ositions of the nitrate, one gram of a white earth was obtained. is was Converted into sulphate and calcined; 1451 grams gave 0°5293 of Scandia, which gives for the atomic weight of scandium 44°01, Scandia i ndi Weight 45°94; differing essentially from 105°83 the minimum 400 Scientifie Intelligence. value given by Nilson. Careful examination by Thalén with the spectroscope, proved Cléve’s scandia to be pure; hence he infers gamit a é e re dest of the fractions (RO mol. wt., 126-127) were united and sub- _ mitted to a long series of decompositions, one fraction being treated for ytterbia, another for yttria, and a third, intermediate, c 2 the concen * ie concentrated erbia. At the same time, he to concentrate the coloring matter in residues A, rich Chemistry and Physics. 401 in ytterbia, and B in yttria. After pushing the treatment as far as possible with the amount of material in hand, he submitted the five fractions to Thalén, who found bands common to all the frac- tions and hence due probably to erbia. These had the following wavelengths: 6660-6680 (weak), 6515-6545 (strong), 6475- 6515 (quite strong), 5400-5415 (quite strong), 5225-5235 (very strong), 5185-5225 (strong), 4865-4877 (strong), 4475-4515 (quite strong). The following bands varied markedly from one fraction to another: Fraction A. Erbium ? Fraction B. Extr. from Extr. from Mean Extr. from Extr. from Wave-length. ytterbia residues. erbia 126-7. fractions 126-7. erbia 126-7. phot og quite strong y 6400-6425 Teor trace weak weak x 6480 strong fails fails fails , fails or quite F 5360 fails Hea trace feeble strong are rich in yttria minerals. —C. R., lxxxix, 478, Sept., 1879. G. F. B 5. Notes on the two new Elements announced by Cléve.—Soret has called attention to the fact that he pointed out in the spring of 1878, the two bands which characterize holmium, as not belonging to erbia, but to a new earth which he called provisionally X an which is perhaps identical with philippium since discovered by Delafontaine, side these two eee 23 Soret recognized. three other absorption bands; one less refrangible than A, a second overlapping the band of erbia in the indigo, and a third, faint, in the violet a little beyond A. In the ultra violet-spectrum six absorption-maxima exist from H to R. In samarskite, the earth Xis, relatively to erbia much more abundant than in gadolinite. As to the red ray which characterizes thulium, Soret had already observed that also in some ytterbia products which had been sent to him for examination by Marignac. Lxecog DE BotsBavDRAN confirms Soret’s statement in regard to the red thulium ray, hav- 402 Scientific Intelligence. ing observed it in a sample of impure ytterbia which he had received from the latter some months ago. He inclined to the b LFRED LLEN, F.C.S., h Sheffield School of Medicine, etc. VolumeI. Philadelphia, 1879. — & Blackiston.)—In preparing this book, Mr. Allen has oO ed eir commercial utilization. Exe however, in th oirs where they were described, the properties and reactions of many of these compounds have remaine i el own, and hence their adulteration has been an easy » mode of : and chemical properties, reactions, and adulterations, being dis- ; is portion of the work appears to be entirely reliable, and leads us to hope that the second volume may soon be forthcoming. In reproducing it here, the American publishers have strengthened the cause of sanitary chemistry in this country. G. F. B. i. Laboratory Teaching: or Progressive Exercises in Practical Chemistry ; by Cuartes Lonpon zal Professor of Chem- istry in King’s College, London, ete. Fourth Edition, with eighty-nine ilk Bla- Chemistry and Physics. 408 those which teach Chemistry as a science and aim to make chemists, and those which teach it as an art and aim to make analysts. Professor Bloxam’s book, to judge from the somewhat extraordinary preface to the fourth edition, belongs evidently to the latter class. He says: ‘The most important alteration in the present edition is the introduction of the formule representing the aa chemical compounds described in the notes to the tables. , do ‘ acid (H.NO,); but both these substances are obtainable from salt- peter by very simple chemical operations, and saltpeter may be produced by causing them to act upon each other. It is true that Similar reasoning would justify the statement that common salt contained soda and hydrochloric acid instead of sodium and chlo- rine, but the author feels that an endeavor to be absolutely con- ' ysics. — On the occasion of the partial eclipse observed at Marseilles on the 19th of July, 1879, M. Janssen poses to take, by means of a revolver, a number of solar images of 0"-06 to 0-10 in diameter, at intervals of one second, By opti- cal methods the contacts cannot be observed with precision, on Am. Jour. Sct.—Turep Serres, Vou. XVIII, No. 107.—Nov., 1879. 26 404 Scientific Intelligence. account of the small deformation of the solar disc, when the moon encroaches upon it. With the revolver one can obtain a series of negatives can be examined at leisu graphs also can be used to determine the relative position of the two heavenly bodies at the different intervals of time, by this means check ecul however, a gaseous envelope of considerable size interposes itself, it will act under the most favorable condi- The exist- tion was employed on the occasion of the late eclipse at Marseilles. Some solar photographs 0™-°30 in diameter were taken. These and allo measurements of the heights of these inequalities.— Comptes Rendus, No. 6, 1879, p. 340. 3% 9. Density of the light Ether.—Herr P. Guan criticizes the con- clusions of Sir William Thomson that the mass M of a cubic foot of ether is greater than a pounds, where g is the gravitation constant, V the velocity of light, and » the ratio of the greatest velocity of a rotating ether particle to the velocity of light. re value of » taken by Thomson is ;1, and the resulting value of M <4 } 5 3 ® & oO ° all =, et. ® =a a Oo 5 a] sions Pp through the ether of space must tend to separate the et Chemistry and Physics. 405 sage of these bodies, it is concluded that very little energy is needed to-effect any separation of ether particles which may take place, and the greatest possible dilatation of this ether must be much smaller than is the case with glass or water. In comparing authorities, Herr Glan finds that taking the greatest possible dila- tation of glass before disruption at +z, the value of n=, which is twice the value taken by Thomson. For the greatest possible dilatation of water under the same conditions, the value of g+.455 is taken, This gives the value n= zz), if the dilatation of the ether before disruption is as great as in the case of water. This The unit of work taken is that which will lift one cubic centimeter of water one meter high. This unit is 1000 kilogrammeters. The Sceurred at the early age und Chemie, No. 8, 1879, p. 584. aR 11. Units and Physical Constants; by Professor J. D. Evererr. Second edition. It appears, however, in a much enlarged form, ae Se ee he ferred t iform series - .& the many physical constants referred to a un of fundamental oe can hardly be over-estimated, and hence the Sreat value of Professor Everett’s book, in which this end is plished, 406 Scientific Intelligence. \ 12. Elementary Lessons on Sound ; by Dr. W. H. Stone. 191 pp. 12mo. London, 1879. (Macmillan & Co.).—The fundamental principles of Acoustics are fully and clearly stated and illustrated with numerous figures and practical examples. author passes to the development of the theory of music, and explains it, so far as space permits, in a very clear and satisfactory manner. He makes use of the results of the more recent investi- gations in this field, and thus puts within the reach of the student much that would otherwise be inaccessible to him. Il. GEoLoagy AND MINERALOGY. 1. On some points connected with the igneous eruptions along the Cascade Mountains of Oregon ; by Tuomas Conpon. (From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Eugene City, Oregon, July 1, 1879.)—[The letter was written in reply to an inquiry respect- ing the continuity of the lavas of Mt. Hood and the Cascade Region with those of Mt. Adams and Mt. St. Helens, and relating to other points bearing on the extent of the eruptions southward along the Cascade range.—z. D. D. : The Cascade range trom Klamath River, south of the Columbia, to Mt. Rainier, on the north, has somewhat of the outline of a pr trate tree, far gone to decay. The main trunk is well represented by the main range; and at almost regular intervals along the whole line, we find, lying by its side, the remnants of its former limbs; not entire limbs now, but the knots that survive to represent them. Beginning at the north we find in the Simcoe Mountains, directly east of Mt. Adams, an evident outflow of eruptive material from that center; tilted and broken, yet in line. Twenty-five or thirty miles south of Simcoe Mountain, we find another such in the n Klikitat Mountain; at the foot ot which flows the Columbia 5 fers eee at ioe ert Shee i tesla aaa ere Geology and Mineralogy. 407 ay take the one nearly east of Mt. Hood. The Des Chutes Hill, one of these offshoots already described, is its northern bar- ered surfaces a pustulated appearance. ? The undisturbed basalts that have filled up those vast excava- tions constitute a second series of operations In the region. 408 Screntific In telligence. 2 materials, and a vast increase in showers of ashes, and outflows of volcanic mud. e limited amount of examination I have myself given the summit line of the Cascade Range hardly entitles me to state how far the interval between Mt. Hood and Mt. Shasta is covered with eruptive rocks. But if I should judge from the materials he roc vents, and not even half of these. Many older vents have been covered up. Valley. Around Mt. Adams it is almost entirely absent. It ash, upon the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains, is enormous, and helps conceal from the observer the rocks below. It has in it nt to prevent its subsequent drifting. the U. 8. Geological and Geographical Sur- F H v charge.) Vol. V, Bulletin contains the following papers: on the Coatis, by J-. A. ALLEN ; on the pr t state ot Passer domesticus in America, ia Iment of American Ornithological Bibliography, ours, U.S. A.; on the Laramie Group of Weste BiVis, Geology and Mineralogy. 409 hane and new Noctuidez, by A. R. Grorg; on certain Carbonif- h , and Cretaceous corals from Colorado, together with descriptions of new forms, b i ag HITE; on the so-called Two-ocean pass (Plates 3 and 4), by F. V. HaypEN; on the extinct species of Rhinoceratide of N. America and their allies, by E. D, Cops. Mr. White here illustrates anew the fact that in the ne Territories the Subcarboniferous, Carboniferous and Perm odes a and Upper pans are absent in all that great, region ;’ and when all evidence of the prese f the rs el fails, it is probable that this division on likewise “absent and from one imi n Stromatopora, b arTER (Ann. ist., V, iv, 253, 1 r, Carter, in this third article on Stromato- pora, points out the close relation of these corals in structure to the coralla of Hydractinia and Millepora, and thus sustains the Hydroid affinities of the s roup. The paper is illustrated by a plate rine section 4. Note on the Section en Mr. T. Nelson Dale on page 293 of this volume; is Dr. 8. T. Barrerr. (Communication dated Port edly the. i Th a or, more prope rly speaking, the continuation of Hall’s Coralline limestone, which I think I have made out to be the equivalent of = Niagara limestone; at least, Whitfield 5 tg in it, at Nearpass Quar . Halysites agglomeratus, Fay es pyrifor mis, Cladopora seriata, Cyathophylium Shu- mardi, ond Rhynchonella pisa, along ee several Coralline lime- ecg species. See this Journal, vol. xv, 1878. Sees cal Atlas of the State of Ohio. Eespes Ee New , Chief Geologist, and E. ANDREW ETON, M. C. Fas pb, G. ILBERT, N. WINcHELL, oe Assistant 7 Published by authority of the bs of Ohio. 1879.—This aes published as embodying the results the recent Geological Survey, is in six large sheets, and presents the distatbetien of the formations in colors. It is a very handsome 410 Scientific Intelligence. map in its style of publication, and of great interest geologically. Like the Wisconsin m i made necessary ; and, therefore, those having to consult it might well say, too large. Still the science of the land is greatly : s, in the preparation of the map, his proposed corrections, recently received for this Journal, the map crosses the paths of Professor Orton in Pike County, _ two Coal-fields, the Comox and the Nanaimo. _ thickness of the whole series is 4,912 feet, and that of the produc ; while in the latter, the whole a iN @ a 3 Geology and Mineralogy. 411 — is 5,266 feet, and that of the productive measures, 1,316 eet. 1. On the Structure and Affinities of the Tabulate Corals of the Andrews. 338 pp. 8vo, with 15 plates. Edinburgh and L n. 1879. (William Blackwood & Sons.)—Professor Nicholson has had opportunities in America as well as in his own land for the study of fossil corals, and has devoted much of his time for several 9.— f Is. - The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, vol. ii, No. 1, April, 1879.—Contai ILLER; d Mr. Wetherby. The price of the number is only 60 cents; of the volume $2.00. ‘ 9. On the Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe, by Arcut- BaLD Gerxre, F.R.S., Director of H. M. Geological Survey of Scotland, ete. Part I, 108 pp. 4to. From vol. xxviii, Trans. Roy. i 78,—-This memoir contains a general review of the i Red the Carboniferous period. 10. ines of Vela Geology, by AncurBaLD GEIKIE. 216 pp. @ convenient manual. Professor Geikie’s own labors in the field enable him to give instruction of much value on all points connected With the subject. me will wish that it were more exten ed. 1]. Reports and Awards, Group I, International Exhibition, 1876, edited by Francis A. Walker, Chief of the Bureau of 412 Scientific Intelligence. “sneer: _— pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, snag (J. B. Lippincott & Co.).—Group I was that including ores and mineral products, building pn marbles and other la and ornamental stones ; also implements and machinery used in eone cree with the same, and various statistics aa to the e_ volume contains by J..8. re. Mémoire sur la ene et la composition Minéralogique - Cotioute e, par A, Renarp, §. J., Conservateur au Musée Royal d’Histoire Naturelle ds Belgigen 44 pp. 4to. Brussels, 1877. (Mém. Cour. Acad. Roy. Sci., Be elgique, vol. xli.)}-The author of this memoir proves by his investigations, that the fine yellowish whetstone, making the best of hones for razors, which is quarried at Salm-Chateau, Lierneux, Sart, Bihain and Recht, in Belgium, composition of the whetstone of Recht, according to Dr. von hes, Mark (1) and M. Pufal (2), is as follows: Bia TiO, AlO; FeO; FeO MnO MgO Ke fee K,0 1. 48°73 tr. 19°38 2°42 _ rh et 2 Ba 0-2 ‘bt SOL oth ae Ftr=99°88 2. ives 117 23°54 1°05 0-71 17°54 1-13 wos oentt 2°69 HO 3-28, CO, 0°04, P20; 0°16, 8 0°18, Doaeenes a Pee 13 The slate, which is feebly metamorphi c, is a damourite slate or appears to consist of very minute nules—more than 100,000 in a millimetereube, and they show sometimes the form of the rhom- bohedro n view of the form and the cient the nae Zirkel. ] enard eit Pieter whetstones of other localities without tan most nnection with rocks, which con- a t exclusively 0 of prints though quartz and orthoclase Geology and Mineralogy. 413 appearance of massive eruptive rock. Other rocks of same phosphate region are gneisses, quartzites, and crystalline lime- stones. The apatite occurs in man in connecti green crystal affor i i G.=3-385 138 rey reg ore os ook Te $17=100°03 Other varieties also occur, sometimes in crystals of large dimensions. The pyroxene is often partially or wholly altered to uralite. The change appears to have begun at the surface of the erystal and gradually extended inward; at the surface the hornblende prisms are mostly parallel to the vertical axis, within bey run in all direc- tions and are sometimes in radiating groups. One erystal had a center of glassy pyroxene (A), surrounded by a dull pale material (B), and thi by an aggregation of hornblende (uralite) prisms (C). Analyses of these three portions afforded :— SiO. Al,0, Fe.0,; FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O Na,O ign. A. 50°87 : . : 0°22 1°44: 1:96 O15 2444 15°37 0°50 : x 5090 4°82 144 1:36 O15 2439 15°27 015 0-08 1:20=10006 | 6282 3-21 207 2-71 028 16°39 1904 0-69 090 240= 99°51 C € specific gravity was for A=3°181, for B=3'205, and for -=3°003. The change in composition from A to C is seen to in i though there is also a loss of alumina and slight gain in alkalies. "e , ght gain ina Dr. Harrrington also discusses the relations of the phosphate 414 Scientific Intelligence. 14. Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs; vierter Nachtrag J 1 von Dr. J. : ; (Carl Winter).—Sixteen years have passed since the preceding the appearance of the last appendix. The 200 pages devoted to them is a proof of their number and the care with which the author discusses them. E. 8. D, Ill. Botany AND ZOoOLoGY. 1. Electrical Currents in Plants.—In a notice of the action of Dionea and other irritable plants, p he 0 U ity by Pro } : Trowbridge, which were never published, there being an intention m curvature, are due to movements of the li by mere contact with the electrodes, or _ Movements of the organs. ~ * Ueber er electromotorische Wirkungen an unverletzen lebenden Pflanztheilen. Botany and Zoology. 415 a ° c Lal o 5B ie fh @ Dp a t< a rc) ee < al ae Ss = a oO 4 ad me © oe eg 77) a 7 | ) tt co < Q o =] So ) a oO 4 —— = & ao ao intermediate between Rosacew and Saxifragacee. The Lin Spirea, which must be allowed to be composite and which inclu- ded four Tournefortian genera, is distributed among the tribes of . is Exochorda. To Rosacee, as here limited, Maximowicz refers and the Andine S. argentea), which is referred to the Potentille along with Cercoca : it is that its biovulate achenia ally it to the Rubee. ot Mievi said that the seeds are distinctly albuminous, slabetes the second fasciculus (of almost a thousand pages), contains the 416 Seventific Intelligence. the indefatigable author will ere long complete this laborious and noble work. These fifteen or twenty years will then be distin- guished by the production of the Flora Australiensis and the Flora Orientalis. Would that the Flora of North America were added to the number. A. G. 4, Sulla Diffusione dei Liquide Colorati nei Fiori ; by Pro- ing cuttings : coloring fluids, and concludes by saying that aniline-green is especially favorable for staining not only the vessels but the 8 W. G. F. 5. Neue Beobachtungen tiber Zellbildung und Zelltheilung; by Professor Ep. SrraspurcEr.—Nos. 17 and 18 of the Botanische Zeitung contain an important article b Strasburger. It ha generally been admitted by botanists, including Strasburger him- : i b antipodes do not arise by a free-cell furmation 8 ase of the two last named structures, the endosperm-cells are formed by a division of the nucleus of the embryo-sack minimus accumulations in the cells. He does not deny, however, that free nuclei may be formed in some instances, but only that it does not accompany cell-forma: pirogyra, for instance, the spore h first no nucleus but one is formed at th of germina- tion. ‘The same is true of the s arm-spores of Tr Girectorship of the Arnold Arboretum at the Bussey Institution. He now devotes himself entirely to the arboretum, resigning the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 417 charge of the Botanic Garden at Cambridge, which is assumed by ee Goodale. 7. Prof. J. G. Acarnpu has resigned the chair of Botany at the University of Lund. Dr. & W. U. Areschoug has been appointed is successor, 8. P. van Tineuen is appointed Professor of Vegetable aye and Physiology at the Jardin des Plants, ni aris, in the ¢ vacated by the — of Brongniart some year . Dr. Opoarpo Brccarr succeeds to the Inte Prof. orton as Professor of “Botany and Director of the Gardens at Flore ongien des Meerbusen von Mexico,. von Oeaiak Scuspr. 4to, ist Heft, with four plates. Jena, 1879.—This memoir relates to sponges ae by the dredging expedition of the steamer Blake, under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz. The ye opane sin ‘leetate the forms and pidals of man species IV. MisceLLANeous ScreNnTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Catalogue of Scientific Serials, from 1633 to 1876, by _— EL H. ScuppEr. 358 pp 8vo. Cambridge, Poe of as been pre . 2 auspices of the Harvard College Library, by Mr. Scudder, assistant Librarian; and Be is a result of a vast amount ‘of jabor and en : ns interested in the progress of science will find an invaluable vompall ion. The titles are arranged alphabetically under the heads of each of the States or Countries from which they no disappointment. 2. A Sketch of Dickinson College, papers igen Adee by Cuartzs F, Hires, Ph.D., Professor of Nat Science. 156 pp. 12mo, illustrated by engravings, oo ene amas executed in the Lab oratory. Harrisburg, 1 he History of Dickinson ubjec f. ‘Bua s Sketch, * contains, sae its * photographie ne - Re with figures of the air-gun and urning glass w | Miscellaneous Intelligence. with a telescope, Dr. Cooper purchased of Priestley for the college, by authority of its Board of Trustees, and which are now among its physical apparatus. It appears further from the sketch that it was while in this position that Dr. Cooper revived the “ Emporium of Arts and Sciences,” one of the earliest of American Scientific Journals, and gave it “a high scientific character,’ and issued also an edition of Accum’s Chemistry in two volumes. Thus the scientific department of Dickinson was one of the earliest estab- lished in the country, and behind no other in the learning and _ 4 Scéentific Lectures ; by Sir Joux Lupsoc, Bart., Vice Pres- ident of the Royal Society, etc. : ; : i Co.).—This volume contains six lectures by Sir horn, bone and pottery, but there are no arrow-heads or speal- points of flint or other material, and few of the relies are of stone Report of Work of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Middletown, Cou» 1877-8. 174 pp. 8vo. Hartford, 1879, ons oe AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. L.—On Photographing the Spectra of the Stars and Planets ; by Henry Draper, M.D. 4 [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Oct. 28th, 1879.] For many years it has seemed probable that great interest would be attached to photographs of the spectra of the enly bodies, because they offer to us conditions of temperature sed, are formed. The recent publications of Lockyer have attracted particular 420 Hi. Draper— Photographing the and interpret these results, and this is the direction I have sought to pursue. There is but one mode of investigation that can add materi- ally to the knowledge Astronomy has given us of the.heavenly bodies; that is the spectroscopic. This in its turn is capable of a subdivision into two methods, one by the eye, the other by photography. Each of these has its special advantages and each its defects. The eye sees most easily the middle regions of the spectrum, and can appreciate exceedingly faint spectra ; by the aid of micrometers it can map with precision the posi- tion of the Fraunhofer lines, and by estimation it can with tol- erable accuracy approximate to the relative strength, breadth and character of these lines. The character of the spectrum star at the focus of the telescope has changed place ty of a0 inch the light no longer falls on the’ slit of v; spectroscope. The changes of the earth’s atmosphere in regard to photo condition of the air, which may increase the length of expo* ure required forty times or more. : It will, from what has been said above, be readily perceived that a research such as this consumes a great deal of time, 1? fact these experiments and the preparations for them have has also some 2s tk advanta ie ney eee lel 3 ies. et aac sa A |e already constructed a silvered glass reflector Z a | Spectra of the Stars and Planets. 491 the aid of a quartz prism. At this time I did not happen to and accurate researches on the visible dBase of the spectra of e some attempts in this might be determined with precision. SOI the spring of 1873 I published a paper on the diffraction Pectrum of the Sun, illustrated by a photograph seas ue region from wave length 4350 near G to 3440 near O, an 1 the fall of the same year took photographs of the spectra OF keveral non-metals, notably nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen. 422 H. Draper—Photographing the The experiments were interrupted, in the spring of 1874, by going to Washington to superintend the photographic prepara- tions for the United States observations on the Transit of enus. Since that time my experiments have been divided into two shes i an work on the spectra of the elements and particu- ’ arly the non-metals, and has led to the discovery of oxygen in the sun. : In 1876, Dr. Huggins published a note in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, accompanied by a wood-cut of the spec- trum of Vega, with a comparison solar spectrum. Seven lines were observed in the spectrum of Vega. In the summer and autumn of 1876 I made several photographs of the spectra of Vega, a Aquile and Venus, and sent a note concerning them to this Journal. Since that time Dr. Huggins has pursued the subject actively in spite of the London atmosphere, and has attained very fine results, which I had the pleasure of seeing at his observatory ’ light of stellar — rolonged exposures of the sensitive plate are required. bag od rciea made by Wratten & Wainwright of London ; Spectre of the Stars and Planets. 423 It is not worth while to describe the various forms of spec- troscope that have been employed in the last ten years, quartz, Iceland spar, hollow prisms and flint glass have been the materials, and they have been sometimes direct vision and sometimes on the usual angular plan. Gratings on glass and speculum metal given to me by Mr. Rutherfurd have been Which are devoid of yellow color; the an Saaee 0 e plate in fron poses that a reflector which brings all the rays from the star, no matter what their refrangibility, to a focug in one plane, plane of the rays in the middle of the spectrum, and in observ- lens for the ultra violet rays. It is easy therefore with a refractor so to adjust the position of the slit that you may have 4 Spectrum tolerably wide at F and G, and which gradually diminishes in width toward H, and finally becomes almost linear at M. Now as the effect of atmospheric absorption on 424 H. Draper— Photographing the Spectra. the spectrum increases as you pass from G toward H and above H, by diminishing the width of the spectrum you can in some measure neutralize the effect, and at one exposure obtain a photograph of nearly uniform intensity from end to end, though it is of variable width. If it were not for this it would be necessary to have the spectrum over-exposed at G in order to be visible above H, or else to resort to an elaborate dia- But on the other hand, the spectra of Vega and 4 Aquile are totally different, and it is not easy without prolonged study and the assistance of laboratory experiments to interpret the results, and even then it will be necessary to speak with fi essary to photograph the spectrum above H, 18 In the case of the spectrum of Vega when examined by the eye, the lines C, F, near G and A, are readily visible, ts lines f these corresponds in position and characte® and seems to coincide with a iehous line. It appears ust as conspicuou the hydrogen lines, are picuous as the hydrog' mer * { : W. K. Brooks—Embryology of the American Oyster. 425 . to me, however, that the evidence of this coincidence is not complete. In attempting to reason from these photographs as the matter now stands, it is necessary to try at every step farther experi- ments in order to find out whether the facts agree with hypoth- esis, and it is this very condition of affairs that gives hopes of results valuable in their bearing on terrestrial chemistry and physics. In the photographs of the spectrum of Vega there are eleven lines, only two of which are certainly accounted for, two more may be calcium, the remaining seven, though bear- ing a most suspicious resemblance to the hydrogen lines in their general characters, are as yet not identified. It would be worth while to subject hydrogen to a more intense incandes- cence than any yet attained, to see whether in photographs of its spectrum under those circumstances any trace of these lines, which extend to wave length 8700, could be found. : It is to be hoped that before long we may be able to investi- gate photographically the spectra of the gaseous nebule, for in them the most elementary condition of matter and the simplest Spectra are doubtless found. Art. L1.—Abstract of Observations upon the Artificial Fertiliz- ation of Oyster Eggs, and on the Embryology of the Amerian Oyster ; by W. K. Brooks, Associate in Biology, Jobns Hop- kins University. (Notes from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University). ALL the writers upon the development of the oyster, from Home (Phil. Trans., 1827), to Mébius (Austern und Austern- wirtschaft, 1877), state that the eggs are fertilized inside the ing season, and be pi: Same time to try to raise young for myself by the artificial fer- tilization of cans taken be the ovaries. I had complete.suc- entirely empty, and others at all the intermediate stages, and I therefore feel sure that my examinations were made upon spawning oysters. P While this evidence is for only one season and one bed, I think that until it is shown to be exceptional, we must ot clude that there is an important difference in the breeding ha F its of American and European oysters, and that the “ers the American oyster are fertilized outside the body of te parent; that during the period which the European oyste? passes inside the mantle-cavity of the parent, the young Ameri can oyster swims at large in the open ocean. he more important points in the development of the oyster are : j reed: 1. The oyster is practically unisexual, since at the b ing season each individual contains either eggs or spermatozoa exclusively. ‘a 2. Segmentation takes place very rapidly and follows me stantially the course described for other Lamellibranchs ?Y Lovén and Flemming. Ae 3. Segmentation is completed in about two hours, and aa rise to a gastrula, with ectoderm, endoderm, digestive CAV’ y and blastopore, and a circlet of cilia or velum. At this a of development the embryos crowd to the surface of eich ie rm a dense layer less than a quarter of an inch thi ae 4. The blastopore closes up; the endoderm separates from the ectoderm, and the two valves of the shell are re separate from each other, at the edges of the furrow form the closure of the blastopore. “1oted, and 5. The digestive cavity enlarges, and becomes ciliated, at 3 the mouth pushes in as an invagination of the ectoderm i 4 . directly opposite that which the blastopore had occup ea a G. C. Broadhead— Origin of the Less. 427 captured by the dip net at the surface of the ocean that it is not possible to identify them as oysters without tracing them from the egg. The oldest ones which I succeeded in raising in aquaria were almost exactly like the embryos of Cardium, figured by Lovén. 7. The ovaries of oysters less than 14 inches in length, and probably not more than one year old, were fertilized with semen from males of the same size, and developed normally. An illustrated paper on the embryology of the oyster, with a detailed account of my obseryations, will be published, only, in the Report of the Maryland Fish Commission for Baltimore, Nov. 5, 1879. Art. LIL— Origin of the Less; by G. C. BROADHEAD. Waar facts Baron yon Richthofen may have observed in Eastern Asia tending to form his opinion of the origin of the loss I have not had the opportunity to examine; but from careful observations of the loess in many places along and adjacent to the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, I cannot refer these deposits to wolian or wind-drift agency. Professor Hilgard, in his article in this Journal for August, conveys to times be traced for several hundred feet horizontally, forming beds from a few inches to more than a foot in thickness. 1 be concretions are either united to each other or often sepa- rate Seventy feet height. When not quite as cohesive, time will Wear off the fot oe points, and produce rounded mammillated 428 0. H. F. Peters—Observations on Hersilia and Dido. hills covered with a thin soil, and sloping at about an an °; for example, the “ Mamelles” below St. Charles, and the a sediment in the ss waters when the rivers were blocked up below by ice; when the barrier melted away a channel was particles held in suspension. Its waters appear to be whirling continually, the channel is daily changing, sands are deposited : : : Art. LITI.—Observations on the planets Hersilia and Dido; by Professor C. H. F. Prrers, (From a letter to the Editors, dated Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., November 8, 1879.) In the month of October, two planets were added by me to the group between Mars and J upiter. I take pleasure in com- municating the following observations on their positions. € dates of discovery were respectively Oct. 13 and Oct. 2 (206) Hersilia. . App. a, App. ¢. No. of comp. Got 13. 14h 35.52 1h om ggug3 es 1 9 106 9 0 48 111 10 (209) Dido. 1879. Ham. Coil. m. t. App. a. App. é. No. of comp. Oct. 14h _m + 12 23m 49s +13° 23°1 — Oct. 1k 19 “Be I 91 “39-04 «= 418 14 274 10 Oct. 26. 10 49 55 b: 90: 47°08. 413: 4) 204 10 ta ee: er ey tte P08 418 33 id 4 hse magnitude of Hersilia was 1lth; that of Dido about ia ney re : 4 ie C. 8. Hastings—Triple Objectives with Color Correction. 429 Art. LIV.—On Triple Objectives with complete Color Correction ; by CHarues S. Hastines. THE prime defect in the large refractors of the present day is the secondary spectrum. This, arising from the irrationality in the spectra produced by the crown and flint glass, hardly noticeable in small apertures, detrimental in telescopes of medium power, is positively obnoxious in the large instruments and will speedily put an end to farther increase in dimensions. On this account there have been many efforts to produce two kinds of glass differing sufficiently in dispersive power, which would still yield mutually rational spectra. As far as I know we are © nearer success in this direction than when Brewster curvatures shall be moderate, the conclusion is not so ready : On entering the discussion we will assume three as the limit- ing number of lenses and +, the focal length as the minimum radius of curvature. : The formula for the focal length F of three thin lenses in contact is, if we set =>: ' 1 4 A r= (+ te or—n(irg) to” —0(r+7) Where n’, n”, n’”” are the indices of refraction for the three materials used, and r,, r,, r, are the radii of curvature for the six surfaces successively. We may write this more Concisely for our end, as follows: p=(n'—1)A +(n"—1)B +(n’””—1)G, calling A,B and C the curvature sums of the first, second and third lens respectively. . The problem then, succinctly stated, is to find values of A, and C, no one of which shall be more than thirty when g=1 ae Which shall make gy independent of the wave length of ight transmitted. : n can be expressed as a function of any variable « of the form | ae n= A+ Be) +172) the problem has its mathematical expression in the equations: 430 C. S. Hastings—Triple Objectives Pi=(n," ae 1)A +(n,"—1 )B+(n,/"”—1)C= I LBL ATL) (BYR (@) TF (a) BA (BMF) +1" F'(#))C=0; but since the latter must hold true for all values of the variable « the final conditions for perfect color correction are: (n,/—1)A+(n,"—1)B+ (2,1? —1)0=1 B’A+ BB+ B’"C=0 IV”A+I"C+1"”"C=0 the only practical limitation being that neither A, B or C sur- um. (2) pass thirty as a maxim Cauchy’s well-known formula as an expression for 7; there are two objections to such a course, the first and most important being that three terms of this series will not express the values within the necessary limits of accuracy, and the that of any other light glass. The form of the function isa trinomial of the second degree, thus | N=A+ Bn+In (3) Doubtless by not restricting it to the first and second powels ot ma formula might be shaped which would make the differ- of glass the optical constants of which I have been able to _ Siven with the requisite accuracy. Unfortunately there 4 " w. Besides the five which I have determined an cited above, viz: Feil’s Crown 12] 9, ee B i. Win 1260 oo, ree a with complete Color Correction. 431 are included the seven of Fraunhofer,* viz: Flint 23,. -- six of Van der Willigent (one closely resembles my A above, while two others are almost exactly alike), viz: srt Merz No. III, and finally one of Ditscheiner,t There are Sones measurements of 18 ‘iferent prisms by Dutiron,§ but so inaccurate as to be worthless for our purpose. n the order in which the glasses are named are entered in table I, the values of the constants for (8). TABLE I. . A, gi8 i a a + 0 +r + 0 B 22°3186075 —29°1759937 10°2399102 Y 14-0097123 —17°9513549 . 6°4320057 6 5679958 + 2172063 2631091 e 21-026827 —27-430617 ¢ 5749543 + 2333290 259890 2 9025943 — 2110704 411148 t 52924649 — 6°1318968 2°4193199 t 19°6074744 —25-7440377T 91597811 ik 20°7768050 —27-0625275 9°5093547 A 24-6152640 —32°2820439 112916241 ra 25-4950932 —33°4611946 11°688423 v 2-250818 — 1°973145 0°983738 iy 2°737385 — 2679993. 1:241673 ° 19°541685 —25°438209 8976709 7 27°444400 —36°035067 12°537277 p 43623628 —57°822556 19°899438 o 69°141334 —91°827575 31°313410 T 19°960275 — 26041640 9°196286 * Schumache s Astronomische Abhandlung fiir 1823. + Archives = (F2 usée Teyler. Coo sledel der = k Akad. d. Wissenschaften in Wien. Oct., Comptes Rend us, ee Poggend. Annal., ix, oe 335-336, de Ch himie, eae i bes 176-21 These incredible values, which are extensively pore in prominent text oer on optics, have given me a deal of trouble, used as th fu sev 3 to discuss the defects Aa poate inibeovoment of the double objective. Only by the me ance I found on the eg ! himie, nis, PP. e 502, a set of corrections 4382 C. & Hastings—Triple Objectives If we tabulate the differences between the observed values and those derived by substitution in the formula, we have the following expressed in units of the sixth place: TaBLeE II. n—N. eh 84D E F GiA);H 5614 4548 a 0| (0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Obs tebe B | +26] — 4| —12| —31] ~ 6] + 3} +23] + 4| +12) — 4) —10 Y +24! —10) —10) —21/ — 4) + 6 +19} + 44 + 44-1) —17 56 | — 9 — O| + 2] — 1] +16] 416) —14, —| —20) 0) +12 1s a 8 3} —10/} + 4 +13; + 5) —| —10) — 9) +12 4 —~ +46—-1) —| 44 -h. -|—4 +3 2 —i—10 + 4) +16 — — 3 +14 —| —34 —| +16 8 Ape at + Bl 3B) ee et ep a ae ee ‘ —|— — 7 —21 _ + 3€ +16 —| —24 —| + 2 k —| 43) 90 BB) th aot + 8 ae a —| — 1) +45) --27) — y y —| +19) —| —36 # —| 10} 430) 84) cl 5 80 ot | 480] ee y |} +23) +19) —23) —42) —| 44:14) $90) «=~ —} +18) +19 € | +21| — 3! —16) —16] —| +16) +11} —| —10| +22 o | +38} —27) —13} —25) -—|] + 2) +28) —| +15) —19 © | +64, —16) —a7] —34) —| “— 9} +28! —] +29) +17 oo 1440) +20) 80) —19] ¢ 1 425} —| +4 l o | —60) —47] —26] +25; —| +119) +116] —| —32| —92 T — 8 +26! —10| —341 —0| +43} —| + 8] —26 The systematic distribution of the differences in the first group shows, not only the short-coming of the formula, but also that the extreme accuracy, indicated by the probable errors attached to the indices, is not imaginary. The accuracy of the second group is also great but much inferior to the first. Occasional abrupt changes as in that of at. The indices of the following groups are only given to five places of decimals and are evidently made with much less : t values for the curvature sums, but uces eight out of the nineteen glasses which are most useful. with complete Color Correction. 433 Oase I. a B t siete 8 v 7 0 LEE. v T * mare 2S & w 0 giving values for the curvature sums: : B. 0. Yr 3°47026 1-20807 — 835472 IL. 9°47513 1428004 21°23685 ITI. 158585 1157425 —16°59076 IV. 11°67459 18°10299 —27°22301. Substituting these values in the general formula (1) we derive or F the following, the first column giving the Fraunhofer ray for which the focal length is computed : TasBLE III. X: IL. Til. A —- 1°00002 Hae Ss Ee 100000 B 1°00000 99949 -99989 “99 U 99999 1:00043 1:00102 1:00053 D 99999 1:00026 1-00052 1°00005 E 1:00024 99992 99942 99993 F 99999 99988 “99951 99999 G -99999 1°00002 1:00030 100000 To exhibit more distinctly the improvement in this form over the double objective, I arrange the differences in the above values between each and the true focal length of that system in a table, supplementing it with a sixth column in which are entered the corresponding differences for a double objective of song a and f with its best color correction, and having a ocal length of unity. TABLE IV. L rea lil. IV. ¥; A ie fe ae 3 +135 B +1 —53 9% —35 + 66 Cc 0 +41 +91 +50 + 41 D 0 +28 +41 ~ 0 E +25 pe ~— 67 —10 + 13 F 0 — —60 Ets G 0 +2 +21 = 3 +287 The large difference in F, is owing to an erroneous value of ng in Fraunhofer’s Flint 13. be they are multiplied by large That these differences A not 434 C. S. Hastings—Triple Objectives Of course in its practical application this process should be used to yield a first approximation only, since the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are neglected ; but having this there is no difficulty, other than the laborious character of the compu- tations involved, in determining by successive approximations the values of all the radii requisite to secure complete color correction and at the same time eliminate spherical aberration. As in the case of a double objective, after satisfying the condi- tions of given focal length, of color correction, and elimination of spherical aberration, we have one arbitrary condition to impose, so in a triple objective we have two arbitrary condi- tions to impose. In my opinion, were we using materials that required large curvature sums, it would be advantageous to utilize these two conditions in making two of the lenses respec- tively biconvex and biconcave, thus rendering the necessary thickness of the materials a minimum These results are directly opposed to those of a recent writer in this Journal.* B is conclusions arise from erroneous calculation. Not only does his interpretation of his equation (12) imply the manifest absurdity that in a system of infinitely thin lenses in contact its properties are determined by the order of the lenses, but the interpretation is impossible. True A, should have an opposite sign to A,+A,, but that asserts nothing as to likeness of the latter symbols in sign. Thus ” in equation (16) may be negative and consequently his subsequent reasoning is fallacious, for in that case n does no have to be infinite to cause equation (27) to vanish. I may add that the origin of the confusion is in making the ratio i in equation (9) constant ; it may be, and if course should be, indeterminate. inadequate experiment, which has so important a bearing on not correspon thing greater. The source of error is the introduction of & * Professor Harkness, in the September number, pp. 191-193. i : | ; J. L. Campbell—Geology of Virginia. 485 board) before the objective, instead of by a prism between the ocular and eye, he could not have been misled, since the uncolored image would serve to control the eye. Finally, the fourth conclusion (p. 196) is strictly true, ei as offensive. Johns Hopkins University, Sept. 20th, 1879. telescope the secondary spectrum becomes much less than half e Art. LV.—Geology of Virginia :—Baleony Falls. The Blue Ridge and its geological connections. Some theoretical considera- lions ; by J. L. CAMPBELL, Washington and Lee University. Blue Ridge at Balcony Falls, where the James River passes from the Valley to Piedmont Virginia. The canal from Lynch- Inspection. Reference was made to this point in a former paper (July No. of this Journal, pp. 22, 28), by way of illustration. T now propose to discuss some of its interesting features more Topography.—The accompanying map and section will serve to throw light upon both the topographical and the geological features of the locality. Leaving out of view a number of Irregular foot-ridges on the southeast side, we may regard the Am. Jour. Scr.—Tatrp Serres, Vor, XVIII, No. 108.—Dec., 1879. 28 436 J. L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. line both ways, this ridge is flanked by Archzan rocks on the southeast and Primordial rocks on the northwest—the latter resting unconformably upon the former. (2) Skirting the north- west side of this leading ridge, and parallel with it, are two well defined lines of broken ridges that have evidently been once continuous, but now consist of short, abruptly terminating mountains, of rounded dome-like hills, and of rugged conical peaks. ese all have a frame-work of Primordial sandstones, with the less durable shales of the same period lying along their flanks or filling the depressions between them. Of these lines of ridges the one bordering on the great limestone valley, heretofore described, (see July No.), is by far the most con- spicuous, and the most uniform in its physical features. It consists essentially of the durable masses of the Upper Pots- dam sandstones, so durable that many parts of it have main- tained a height almost equal to that of the main ridge, the ave- rage height of which, in this region, somewhat exceeds 2500 fect. The mean bearing of this portion of the range is about a ee os Salling’s Mountain, seen on the left of the map, is an out- lying ridge of Primordial sandstones and slates, cut off at its northeastern end by the North River, and at its southwestern end by James River. It is separated from the principal chain by a narrow synclinal valley of limestone (Lower Silurian), most of which is concealed from view by an extensive bed 0 alluvium, accumulated by the two rivers that meet here; but accumulated originally in a Y-shaped lake, through which they seem to have flowed at some former period of their history. two rivers above mentioned, traverse the little valley obliquely, and meet ata very obtuse angle just where their waters, as one united stream, enter the deep gorge or cafion by which they pass through the mountain range. Just below their junction are mills for grinding hydraulic lime burnt from the ledges that crop out a little higher up the James River. “Balcony Falls” is the name given to a succession of “ rapids, beginning about half-a-mile below the Cement Mills, and con- tinuing to the southeast limit of the gorge. The river here 1s ve feet —? tide level. He Feology.— The foregoing outline of the topography of the .Tegion will enable A, mina to understand more clearly 1ts geological peculiarities, and to interpret more readily than he otherwise could, the ideal section accompanying the map. o = I el J. L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. a gl Ab: M Bi a ¥\ : = \. Sey WSs ES WF; a7 = Z| Wi 1 Vy, Ni Mi cA , = = Sui iia i) \ Pyny N “i = MaP OF CARON AT Bie FALLS, VIRGINIA, 1 mile. 2000 Bl Ridge Range &. ach Gab 437 SECTION aT BaLcony Fatis, James River, 438 J, L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. Conceive a vertical plane with its edge resting on a line rep- resented by the broken line of the map, marked “S.E.,” and “N.W.,” and having a height of 1500 feet above the bed of the river. Then imagine all the outcropping faces and edges of all the eroded rocks of the gorge, and al] that the plane itself would cut (including those of Salling’s Mountain), to be pic- tured on the plane, and you will have a mental conception of what the section is designed to represent. The student of geology will find here a somewhat ag ) > but a very interesting problem for solution. By careful observations along the canal and bed of the river, and also by the turnpike that crosses the mountain near the canal, very satisfactory conclusions may be reached. In the gorge we have the rocks of two distinct eras so meeting as to enable us to study not only their composition and structure, but also their relative positions, and some of the metamorphic influences they have exerted upon one another. These two eras are, (1 the Archean, represented on the accompanying section by the rocks on the right marked G, S, and 1 a, 6; (2) a portion of the Lower Silurian covering the remainder of the section. Let us begin at the base of the Archean. Here we find two J. L. Campbell—Geology of Virginia. 439 Besides these constituents we find the mass at Balcony Falls containing, in some places, considerable quantities of epidote, both crystalline and amorphous, giving the rock a green color, and in others numerous crystals of garnet. The bedded rocks (1, a, 6,) that rest upon the syenite, are very much metamorphosed, are gneissoid in character, and di toward the southeast. These are succeeded by beds of r and brown slates. Then follows a bed of forty or fifty feet of conglomerate quartzite, bearing some resemblance to the con- Over this again we find another bed of slate. These beds all dip towards the southeast, while their upper margins reac are entirely unconformable. Such are the Archean roc Starting again on the northwest side of the granulite, let us briefly sketch the remarkable beds that make up the remainder of this massive range. In the Archzean rocks we have just described there are no traces of fossil remains, nor do we ni any in the lowest beds of what we call Primordial. If organic mains have ever been imbedded in them here, they have (July No.), the classification of Professor Rogers in his reports was employed, and subdivisions of my own introduced. In a my main object—the Silurian limestones—a very brief descrip- tion of them was deemed sufficient; but now they become = prime importance in our discussion, and demand a more ful and detailed examination. * Professor Rogers himself has partially adopted this system in his “ee the Geology of Virginia, ia, in Macfarlane’s Geol. R. R. Guide. 440 J. L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. dip in the heavy beds of sandstone as they rise toward the crests of the ridges, are, however, common throughout the whole range. The limited irregularities may, with much plau- sibility, be referred to the undermining action of the river; for there are abundant indications that the water once st affected by heat throughout. Its position, too, has protected it against the erosive action of the river which has been far less here than it has been among the slates higher up in the series. Number 2 is a heavy mass of sandstone fully 350 feet thick, and so hard that we may call it “quartzite.” It consists of three tolerably distinct beds varying in hardness and color; the lowest being very hard and of a light gray, sometimes pinkis color; the middle one of coarser texture, partly conglomerate and mostly of a greenish gray color; the upper bed is more brittle than either of the other two, and of darker color. These heavy beds of hard sandstone seem to have presented one of was constructed the steep rugged outcrop of this massive ledge projected considerably over the left margin of the river, and ‘Balcony Rock”—hence the name of the falls. etre 3. Number 3 consists of two heavy beds of slates separated by stratum of hard conglomeritic sandstone about sixty feet J. L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. 441 undermining the harder strata. The most conspicuous irregu- larity has been caused by the undermining of the interstrati- sometimes wavin , and to cause a mass of it to slip from its normal position and modify both dip and strike, as seen just above the margin o canal. This seems to me the only stone, but the aggregate must be at least six hundred feet. Number 4 is not well defined below, since 3 becomes more part of it is a bed of brownish gray sandstone with a we defined upper surface. It crosses the river at the Cement Mills, and its highest ledge forms the abutment of the dam on the opposite side of the river. Where a deep channel was washed out by a freshet a few years ago, this rock is well exposed on the lower margin of the turnpike, and its upturned edges may be conveniently examined. A considerable exposure of it also crops out above the turnpike between the houses of Messrs. Locker and Campbell, while the corresponding ledge may be seen on the cliff beyond the river. It has a very regularly jointed structure—the cleavage planes being so distinct as to ave been mistaken by an unpracticed observer for planes of stratification dipping to the southeast, while the true planes of stratification dip with considerable uniformity and great con- stancy toward the N.W. n _ In this and some of the lower beds of sandstone, very faint impressions of fucoids and occasional Scolithus borings are found; but the conglomerate structure is much less prominent here than in the older 442 J. L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. been found in them. In the portion near the river their dip varies from 25° to 50°. Lestimate their thickness at 180 feet. umber 6 is, in some respects, the most interesting of all the subdivisions of this Primal group. Itis the sandstone that “constitutes the type of this formation.” It differs from the beds already described in both its lithological and fossil pecu- liarities, (see July No., p. 22). It may well be called the “ Scolithus sandstone,” if we call the primal worms (?) that had their millions of habitations in this rock the “ Scohithus linearis.” Its entire thickness (including some quite brittle beds that underlie and overlie the more massive portion), is about 34 feet. The dip at the base of the ridge, where the two rivers meet at the entrance of the gorge, is fully 65°, while it falls gradually to 40° before it reaches the summit—looking as if it mizht once have been one leg of a grand natural arch, which still stands up with one exposed face forming an almost perpen- dicular cliff nearly 800 feet in height. There is, however, 00 point in this portion of the range where I have found it reach- ing beyond the northwestern line of ridges, of which it gener- ally forms the crest and the greater part of the western slope, as represented on the accompanying section. A part of this sandstone, with the next beds of slate and sandstone below 1t, has broken loose from the upper outcrop of the ledges on the S.W. side of the river, and slipped down the eastern face of the ridge without any great change of dip. This displaced mass may een as a ver conspicuous object ate opposite, though a little below the Cement Mills. It is apparently one ; he next is the Canadian Period (3)—sometimes called, _ Middle Cambrian”—and, like the Primordial, belongs to the Lower Silurian Age. It has three epochs, Calciferous ioe be | : y charac ized by the b BroPence of one or more beds of hydraulic pet sechh stone. Where our section crosses, this limestone 1s quart a eS hULlULlmUmlUlUlmlmLlULLULlUllee J. L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. 443 from a bed twelve or thirteen feet thick, interstratified with shales and other beds of impure limestone. It dips steeply to the northwest, and again crops out at the base of Salling’s Mountain, on the west side of the little valley in which the two rivers meet. Over it lies a part of the Quebec (80), that has escaped the denuding agencies that have operated so exten- sively over the whole of the Great Valley. It crops out at a number of points along the James River near the cement quar- ries, and along the base of Salling’s Mountain. We have thus asynclinal trough of limestone resting upon the Primordial X shales and sandstones, which we find rising again on the west side and forming the mass of the bordering mountain. na depression of Salling’s Mountain, about half-a-mile to the right of the point cut by the section, and where the turn- pike leading from Balcony Falls to the Natural Bridge crosses, we find the shales-and thin beds of sandstone of 2ad, 7, extend- ing to the top of the ridge, but where the mountain is more elevated, the heavy y beds of Scolithus sandstones (2ab, 6), form the core of the ridge, all dipping steeply to the southeast: while beyond, the mountain shales of 7 again appear, dipping toward the mountain and apparently beneath the sandstone which elsewhere underlies them. Then as we descend into the ing been pressed out and subsequently swept off. This part of the section will be readily understood from simple inspection. Salling’s Mountain will serve as a type of a considerable number of nearly parallel outliers of the main Blue Ridge t4t J. L. Campbell—Geology of Virginia. Ridges of this class generally lie off from one to several miles from the main range, and seem to have been thrust up beneath the limestones of the Canadian Period, the folds of which were probably much shattered at the time, and subse- quently worn or swept away, so as to leave the ridges of more durable sandstone naked for some distance down their steep sides, and flanked along both bases by slates and limestones— the latter often occupying narrow vaileys or troughs, like the one above described, or like Buford’s Valley in Bedford —_— traversed by the A. M. and O. RB. R., in going from Lynch- burg to Salem. | find fragments of metamorphosed slate, with both fragments tions I have given—especially on the first—have been sub- Jected to bending and pressure, and consequent friction, ought, according to the mechanical theory of metamorphism, to b ig strata. _ But no such effect has followed. The limestones have their fossils beautifully preserved. The sandstones have ee ee OO me ¢ ee PF —— ae J. L. Campbell— Geology of Virginia. 445 not been changed to quartzite. The shales are still nothin but fragile shales (with a few exceptions); while the embedde limonite iron ores still retain their water of crystallization. There has been metamorphism, but only limited, not general, except so far as it has been produced through other agencies than heat, or even super-heated water under pressure, _ 4, Such closed folds as we find in Salling’s Mountain, and in many localities among the lower Silurian limestones, seem to have been great wrinkles in the strata, pushed upward (or downward in the case of synclines), and then pressed together by mechanical force acting from a southeasterly direction and in a horizontal plane. This is the only way we can plausibly account for the numerous troughs and arches and folds found along the lines of the several sections we have had under dis- cussion. ee changes of surface that have given this valley its wonder- ul fertility. ‘here are indications throughout this whole region of two great flood periods, since the close of Paleozoic time, when the great Appalachian revolution left the vast accumulations of Stratified rocks of that remote age in essentially the same rela- tive position they now occupy. But further notice of these must be postponed for the present. a 446 £. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the Art. LVL—On the Character and Intensity of the Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum ; by E. L. Nicwoxs, Ph.D. (Géttingen.) In 1860, Kirchhoff* issued his well-known paper on the rela- tion between the capacity of bodies for emitting and for absorbing rays. That essay made a new epoch in the science of Radiation. It offered the first complete proof and the first universal expression of a principle which had existed in the minds of scientists, more or less dimly, since the days of Euler.t Although the results of that treatise have been repeatedly confirmed by the experience of investigators in Optical Science and in the domain of Radiant Heat, there have been, so far as know, in spite of the interesting character of Kirchhoff’s Function I,¢ no attempts to measure its values. * Kirchhoff, Poggendorff’s Annalen, cix; also, “Untersuchungen iber das Sonnenspectrum— Anhang.” + For earlier attempts to hhoff’s Law Euler, Opuscula Varii Argumenti, Berol. 1746 (Nova Theoria Lucis et Colorum, Cap... Vio... Fu i Warme, Halle, 1798. Angstrom, Poggendorff’s Annalen, xciy. Balfour Stewart, oceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1857-58. _} In the above-mentioned treatise Kirchhoff gives for I the following formula: W, Wa ei 3 where (fig. 1) w, and w, are the projections of the openings (1) and (2) in the screens 8, , upon planes perpendicul he axis of a pencil of rays, hich, going out from the black body C, passes through both of these ope: ‘Where urther, t stance between the two ings. and e the emissive capacity of a blac lack body according irchhoff, and the sa ~ applies to the term when used in this paper. is a even when infinitesimal thickness absorbs all the rays falling upon it. The following sho t y the terms emissive capacity, absorptive capacity, ete. nlite “Before a body C (fig. 1) let us suppos? d to be placed, in 1 t : : of which are the openings (1) and (2), ® Sein al size when compared with the { center. uppose the i): a pencil of rays throu ok 6 . Of this pencil of é sider that portion the wave lengths of which lie between / and 2+dA, and let : imagine the same resolved into two components, polarized in the planes 4 and | Let the p i i 8, ane _ be perpendicular to one another. Let, further, Ed’ be the intensity of the com- ponent . Ma Poh one ‘the same thi ane a # _ energy (lebendige Kraft) of the ether behind the screen 8, suffers in age? time by the acti this component. The quantity E is called the emissi0? ($2 of Kirchhoff’s treatise.) ey eral to be black. For its emissive capacity, which in genet ” e3 eae a lh — ad Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. 447 Es It is the purpose of this paper to describe a series of such researches, made in the Physical laboratory of Professor Helmholtz, at Berlin. The quantity I is (see preceding foot-note) a function of the wave lengths of the ray and the temperature of the radiating body. Its study, therefore, involves the measurement of the intensity of all wave lengths emitted by the source of light in question, at all temperatures for which the rays are of per- ceptible energy. _ The nature of the subject demands different methods of investigation for the study of the visible and of the invisible rays. The measurements to be described in this paper are confined to the visible rays, and the lowest temperature under consideration is that at which bodies begin to glow. wo platinum wires 100™ long and about 0-4™™ in thickness, served as sources of radiation. ach formed part of a powerful galvanic circuit, in which the current was produced by a Bunsen’s battery. The resistance of each circuit could be varied by introducing or withdrawing copper wire, after the ore of the Wheatstone’s bridge. One of these bridges Showed by the motion of a spot of light upon a screen, and a half meters distant, every change in the intensity of the current and, of course, in the temperature of the wire. ‘The galvanometer, when properly adjusted, was sufficiently delicate smaller changes of temperature than could be detected either by observing with the eye changes of color in the wire, or by studying with any known instrument the changes in the character of the light emitted. Quite as essential to success as the constant temperature of the wires during a single experiment, is the ability to reproduce in the es WW; Ws He casas dy to the Jere A denotes the ratio of the intensity of rays absorbed by the body to Whole intensity of the rays falling upon it. In other words, A is the capacity absorption of the body. 448 EL. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the To lessen the chances of error I used, in addition to the gal- vanometer, Kitao’s* ‘‘ Leucoscope,” an instrumentt admirably adapted for showing qualitative differences in the character of heterogeneous rays. I used the original instrument described in Kitao’s treatise. The leucoscope is essentially a polarizer, resembling in some respects Soleil’s saccharometer. “N, N, (fig. 2) are two Nicol’s prisms, &, &, denote two 2. Qs exactly similar rhombohedra of calcareous spar, g is a plate of mica, thin enough to show colors of the first order, is a slit, the width of which can be altered at pleasure by means of an such as to give a sharp enlarged image of the slit, and of dis- oh so observer rotates the ocular Nicol N,, the action of the mica lamina and of the quartz plates gives to the two halves of the double image different tints, alternating between red and green. What ever be the character of the ray, a thickness of quartz can be found such that at four positions of the ocular Nicol, distant 90 m one another, the two halves assume the same neutral tint. _ Kitao calls this the point of maximum paleness. This thick ness of the quartz plates varies with the composition of the ray, and a means is thus afforded of detecting minute quali- tative differences in its light. When the experimenter, having adjusted the instrument for a particular kind of heterogeneous light, turns—without changing the quartz plate—to the observa" tion of rays which differ from those of the first source, he fin that the position of the ocular Nicol corresponding to the ma*- imum of paleness differs for each new kind of light. * A series of experiments were made to test the adaptability i * Diro Kitao, “ Zur F. ee ai * ane 1878. ee or Mew eaey ap nne pte ge ET ion is not so widely known as it deserves to be, I must refer for lack of spac? '0 Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. 449 of the leucoscope to this purpose. Its sensitiveness is best shown by the final test, the comparison of two parts of the same petroleum flame. These portions, a cooler and a warmer, were so similar in color that with the unaided eye no difference could be detected. The mean of twenty observations with the leucoscope gave for the position of the ocular Nicol, Tasie I. For the upper part of the flame 64° 4’ For the lower part of the flame 62 16 Difference E48 to determine whether, during the twelve to fifteen minutes course of a single experiment, any important change was caused by the loss of energy in the battery. Experience showed that the loss of intensity during a single experiment was so sm that it could be left out of account. II. The experiments to be described in this paper were simply Spectro-photometrie comparisons of the light emitted by the two 3. Ww: \ set INS = Wires. One of the wires was given successively various tem- peratures between 1200° and 1900° of the platinum thermom- eter,* and all visible wave lengths radiated by this wire were Compared with the corresponding rays from the other. * See page 451. 450 E. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the glowing platinum wire w, upon the lower half of the slit The rays of the other wire, w,, after total reflection in the prism p,, passage through the convex lens J, and a second total reflection in the small prism » form a similar image ocular Nicol, reach the eye in form of two spectra, lying side I = 06s" a, (3) where ais the angle between the planes of polarization of the Nicols. : it was made fast, and not moved again during the whole = of the Investigations, These positions, according to the mea Taser I Lines, Scale-divisions, - Lines. Scale-divisions. A 135 b 12°84 ee 8-05 F 14°63 0 8°74 G 19°03 D 9-96 Ht 23°28 E 12-37 : Peas : sss IIl. * : The accurate determination of the temperature of a gloves ee platinum wire, presents serious difficulties. Repeated ae Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. 4651 to use Matthiesen’s formula for the change of electric resistance with the temperature, only showed the impracticability of this method. Only the middle portion of a glowing wire can be said to be of equal temperature throughout. If we measure the resistance of the wire when hot and cold (in itself no easy task), the change corresponds to a difference of temperature which gives, so to speak, the mean temperature of the whole wire; a quantity which must then be used, together with A and & (inner and outer conductivity of the metal), and with the dimensions of the wire, in the calculation of the distribution of temperature throughout its various parts. Aside from the difficulty of find- Ing an applicable expression for this distribution, our imper- fect knowledge of the quantities A and & for platinum, as fune- tions “3 the temperature, would render the calcuiation of doubt- ul value. The method finaliy adopted was to measure directly the expansion of the wire. By observing it from end to end with the leucoscope, while glowing, it was found that for a portion in the middle, about 60™ long, the light radiated was, for the Whole distance, of like character. This then was the greatest admissible length of the piece to be measured. In reality the Section chosen was much shorter (45™), so that certainly within its limits, only imperceptible differences of temperature occurred. degree of the platinum thermometer may be de ned as that change of temperature which causes in a platinum wire a linear variation of 1:1-00000866. Then for a wire 45™" long, one degree corresponds to an expansion of about 0004", and it was desirable in determining the temperature to be able to Measure its length to within a few ten-thousandths of a milli- meter. For this purpose I used a finely constructed Helm- holtz’s Opthalmometer; the following description of which is taken from Helmholtz’s “Handbuch der physiologischen Optik,” (p. 8). “The opthalmometer is essentially a teles- Cope arranged for short distances, before the objective lens of which two glass plates stand side b ide, sO that one-half of the lens looks through the one, the other half through the other Plate. When both plates are in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the telescope, there appears a single image of the object In view. Let them be turned a little, however, toward opposite sides, and the single image divides into two halves of a double Image; the distance between which increases with the angle between the plates. This distance can also be calculated from the angle which the plates make with the axis of the telescope.” f a ray pass obliquely through a glass plate its displace- Ment S will be, (fig. 4), : Am. Jour. Sct.—Tarrp p Sanne, Vou. XVIII.—No. 108, Dzc., 1879, eee 452 E. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the Ss osin(¢ —7r) (4) where @ denotes the thickness of the plates, ¢ denotes the angle of incidence, r denotes the angle of refraction. Eliminating r the equation becomes, sin*é Sites sin?¢ cos? 8/1 = asin (4/1 SE 88) (5) where n is the index of refraction. : The use of the opthalmometer offers great practical advan- tages over other micrometric methods, in that the angles corres- ponding to any given distances are independent of the distance of the object measured, and in that any slight unsteadiness of the object does not affect the accuracy of the determination. The two end-points a and } (fig. 5) of the bit of wire to e measured, were, as already stated, about 45™ apart ; and $0 “it especial contrivance was therefore necessary to bring both them at once into the field of the opthal mometer. A system cacy “made use of a biconvex lens of as great mag? awe er as the case permitted. There was a limit to the poss a Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. 453 \ ox ea when the lens is used. The a P entes distance i this scale. The scale was of boxwood and the half millimeters were marked by fine lines. The following table gives the angles corresponding to linear displacements of , 4, ete. milli- meters. Hach result is the mean of six readings. Tasie IDL. Ss a 0-°125mm 1 0-250 32 24 0°375 44 64 0 0°500 55 22 12 0°625 64 46 12 0-750 72 28 12 If in formula (5) ¢ is substituted for ¢ and values from the ie table for S and 7, we obtain, » being known, from the nation, Q sin*z dhe! sin’z cos?\ 80/1 — 88 = esini (4/1 . ) (6) the numerical solution, € = 1030977". All the data necessary to the measurement of the distance a, 4, Were thus at hand. The distance a), (fig. 5) is. however, 4,5,-+mm,. Now the points m and m, are coincident in the field of the opthalmometer, appearing to lie at m,; and their real distance can be measured by simply observing the double mages of the above-mentioned seale as they appeared in the 454 E. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the field of sight. Images of two parts of the scale were brought by total reflections in the set of prisms into the field (see fig. 6), the portion lying between divisions 194 and 204, and overlapp- ing this the portion from division 64 to 65.’ Now turning the plates of the opthalmometer until the lines 20 and 64°5 coincided, which occurred when the angle was, according to three suc- cessive readings, 29°-12’, 29°-18’, 29°-12’, sufficed to show how much the distance m m, exceeded 44°5™™. From formula (6) we find, mm, = 44°55748™™, to which quantity it was only necessary to add for any state of the wire the directly obtainable value a, 4,, in order to know a, the length of the piece of wire in question. i S UO ie | tH Cold wire. Hot wire. fused upon the wire in the desired places. This plan served ; _on the contrary, answered admirably. At the prope? points simple loops of exceedingly thin platinum vie e ee e latt the current, — Set mS pn seoe iat i ie Dyes» hy no ee Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. 455 small wire, fine as a fiber of raw silk, and scarcely visible to the naked eye, melted on touching the hot metal and became fixed upon its surface. The whole, seen through the micro- desired accuracy. The opthalmometer is free from many errors which by cathetometric and micrometric measurements are unavoidab] ; the platinum suffered a change of condition. not melt; but the wire lost its stiffness, hung down limp, scarcely holding together, and quivered when jarred like jelly nder these circumstances measurements became unreliable very weakest place. The conducting power being thus diminished, the temperature would rise very rapidly until after glowing brilliantly for a moment, the platinum would melt and the wire break. : g : investigation. The opthalmometer also, having been placed in the position most advantageous for the measurement of the expansion of the platinum wire, remained undisturbed through- out all the experiments. The leucoscope was set up two meters distant from the two wires. lvanic circuits of which the wires formed a part wire be made to , th suffices to move “PH center considerably from its original position. To avoid disturbance from this cause I serge gare ath 8 inse e lower ends into short Th of mercury. To prevent heating, | 456 E. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the the last paragraph, and then the spectro-photometrie comparison ; : an experiment pointed to a change of temperature in either wire, the experiment was set aside as imperfect. readings given in the following table will suffice to show the general character of the measurements. Taste IV.+ Scale-divisions. Readings. Mean. 90°—a. Intensity. 37°-0) 8 36 8} 37°-00 20° 36’ 0” "1238 37-2 36 0 9 36 “34 36 “10 19 42 0 “1136 36 0 32 “5 10 33 5h 32° 97 16 34 12 "08133 32 -9 30 -0 i 30 0} 30 °33 13 56 0 "05798 31-0) : 29 -0 12 28 -9 | 28 -97 12 34 12 04736 29 -0 21 Bb) 13 27 -4} 27 -30 10 54 0 0°3576 27 -0 * For the lower temperatures used, the trum was not visible eveu t0 ise G, and measurements could only be carried oe oe to the scale-division nearest the limit of the visible rays. f the } The figures in the column marked “Readings” denote the position ert gs pointer attached to the ocular Nicol, Subtracting frost: the of the spectrum the position of the pointer when th quantity 90°— a is obtained. 90°— a being the angle betwee? of the two Nicols. He or =r Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. Seale-divisions. Readings. Mean. 90°—a. Intensity. 25 °9 l4 26.°7 26 °33 9 56 0 02976 26 °4 24 °0 15 23 °3 23 °8T 7 28 12 "01696 24 °3 24 -0 16 23 °5 23 °83 7:25 48 “01600 24 -0 17 Ne aes AG ee 18 19 os ae pe cast rom the 17th division onward the intensities were too small to allow of further measurements. he other readings in the above experiment were as follows: Before. Leucoscope-rea' BOR se il ee iy ke 40°°6 40°°3 Opthalmometer-readings (for the hot wire, .--. ---------------- 56°°5 Leucosco preninee Se oo ee ee cee ts ee 40°°5 40°°4 Opthalmometer-readings (for the hot wire)... ..--------------- 6 5 5 ometer-readings (for the cold wire)_-------- -- 99°-4 «=«.29°5 =~ 29°" Movement of the galvanometer during the experiment* - -------- = = 0: Wilh 0 Oe rere Pe oe ae ee 90°*1 ©. TABLE Region 8 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 609°1. 2 Temp. (°), Observed. Calc. 0-2: 13583 9 0-026 +015 | 17596 0623 0°623 -000 1264 60-020 «= 9-087 «= 4-007 | 190LT «= 4ak aT + 008 16395 9193 «= 0-145 = 008 | 19327 1760 1959 +7001 16185 = 9-988 3=— 0-257 = +037 * of An Movement of the spot of light over 1-25 meters corresponded to a change de: mperature in the wire sufficient to be detected by the leucoscope. 4°™ + Dra @ negligible decrease in temperature. See : ’ Per (Philosophical Magazine, xxx, 345) gives 525° U. as the point of tempera ible rays begin to r. Granting the accuracy of this oS Tement, we tind a long interval of at least 600° within which the intensity lhe far the red rays is ex dingly small compared to their intensity at 1900°, So 8 as the present method i urably small : 458 Temp. (°) E. L. Nichols— Character and Intensity of the Observed. 0 . — 9 g: ga a Seale 813 Temp. Gnetrred. nee + eal 1653°0 0°295 0°004 “000 1689° 0°341 0°020 0165 | 1759°6 0°580 0'033 —-015 1901°7 1-411 0°105 +008 1932°7 1°740 0-230 ‘01 Region 10 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 1007 0°0028 0012 | 1628- 0°207 070035 —-0005! 1653°6 0°249 0018 "005 1759°6 0°572 0-025 —°0088} 1901°7 1395 0-086 — 005 1932°7 1°698 07198 +°001 Region 11 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 1221. 0°0025 =+°0005| 1628-8 0°204 003 “00 1653°6 0°241 070125 +-0056| 1689 0°307 0°0189 0038 | 1759°6 0°545 047 +001 1901°7 O09 0-076 “018 1932°7 1668 0-170 “000 Region 12 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 1422. 07002 +°001 1618°5 0°130 070025 —-0005!| 1653°6 0°220 0-010 +°004 | 1689°7 0-267 0-012 +001 1759°6 0°523 070136 = +:0003) 1901-7 1375 0°063 1932°7 1666 egion 13 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 1629. 0°0015 +°0005 | 1628°8 0°154 007 +001 1653°6 07161 0-008 +001 1689°7 0°236 0-020 +°015 1901°7 1°225 0-038 —°002 19327 1°620 0°125 016 Region 14 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 1833. 001 “000 653°6 07154 0-005 +°001 1689°7 0°208 0-00 “000 17 0-409 0-022 q 1901-7 1180 0-101 O10 119807 1°595 0118 +4015 | Region 15 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 2037. 0°005 “000 1628°5 07114 0-006 000 | 1653- 0°153 0°013 +°006 | 1759°6 0°351 0-015 +°003 1901-7 17150 "080 007 ' 1932-7 1550 Region 16 on Kirchhoff’s Seale 2241. 0-004 000 | 1628-8 0-074 0-00: +°001 1689- 0°132 0-010 +°003 | 1759°6 0°304 17 “000 | 1901°7 0°959 0-059 1932-7 e RE RES? © Miia as eee Lal eae Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. 459 Region 17 on Kirchhoff’s Seale 2445. Calc. Diff. Temp. (°) Observed, Calc. : 0:009 +°001 1759°6 0-290 0°280 +7010 1539°5 0-017 0-015 +002 1901°7 0-891 0891 “000 1618°5 0°054 0-056 — 002 1932°; 1:320 1°321 —'001 Temp. (°) Observed. 0-010 Region 18 on Kirchhoff’s Scale 2648. 1653°6 0°067 0-050 +°017 | 1901°7 0-795 0-799 —"004 1689°7 0112 0-080 +°032 | 1932°7 1-249 1°'249 000 1689-7 0060 0°059 +001 | 19017 0750 0-750 000 17596 0-207 0:202 +7005 ' 19327 1203 1200 +7003 The size of the above differences bears witness to the difficul- ties which, aside from those which are unavoidable, even in the study of the most favorable colors at intensities best adapted to the eye, stand in the way of accurate results. t the lowest yellow and green ray The position of the ocular Nicol, at which each ray of the spectrum disappears, 1s given In the column mark °—a@” of The corresponding Taste VI Optical Region. (90—a)° sin” (—a) onion. Region. (9—a)° sin ? (90—a) action. 7 ; 001719 01782 14 354 0°04620 0°0662 8 1°45 0°00932 0°3284 15 50 007592 0°0432 9 16 0°00363 0°6601 16 724 0°16! 070184 10 1-0 0°00306 10000 17 830 021600 00142 i es 0°01340 0°2281 18 9°36 027801 0-01117 12 2-718 001611 0°1900 19 12°36 0°44662 0-0068 13 2°42 002221 0°1380 20 15°36 0772320 070023 visible spectrum. However valuable such researches might prove to show remarkable — of = eye = regard to its perceptive power for various colors, these very changes ren ihe catenins ts useless in the investigation of the real energy of the rays themselves. 460 E. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the In table V the intensities of the various wave lengths for all the temperatures in question are expressed in terms of the intensities of corresponding wave lengths of a similar spectrum of constant but unknown temperature. For each individual ray, the meastirements give the change of intensity resulting rom a given change of temperature; but since the relative intensity of the various wave lengths of the spectrum of con- stant temperature are unknown, it is impossible to compare rays of different wave length with each other. Before describing the way in which all the above results were reduced to a common basis for the purpose of comparison, a clear definition of the expression ‘intensity of ray” as us in this paper is desirable. : It is first of all essential to distinguish between the intensity of the ray itself and the intensity of its various effects upon bodies upon which it may fall. It is usual to define as the intensity of the ray itself, its energy of vibration or the square of the amplitude of vibration. Kirchhoff however (§ 2 of his above mentioned treatise), defines as the energy of the ray pass- ing the openings of the screens S, and S, (fig. 1) the increase 10 a unit of time of the vis viva of the ether behind the second screen. This definition is the more appropriate to the case at hand. Suppose that for the opening 8, a black body be sub- stituted. In accordance with the principle of the Conservation of Energy, as expressed in the usual equation, T,-T,=/">(X de} Vdy+Zde) =U, (7) to where T, and T, are the energy (lebendige Kraft) betore and after the interval of time, and U, denotes the work performe@; the increase in energy in the body equals in the unit of time, consider this work as the measure of the intensity of the we itself. Suppose further, the body be molecularly so constitute produced may in this case be taken as the measure of the pose sity of the ray itself. This heat, as denoted by the change © temperature of the body, is the result of what is termed the intensity of the thermal action, or the thermal intensity of the ee" : The chemical* and optical intensities of the ray stand in as ye _ * Clerk Maxwell, Theory of Heat, i p. 240, offers a very in a —— ature of the chemical action of light. “It is probable thet a produces the photographic effect, it is not by its energy _ the chemical compound, but rather by a well-timed vibration of the molecules Rays emitled by Glowing Platinum. 461 unknown relation to the mechanical intensity. They are only known in connection with a small class of substances, the opti- eal action seeming to affect a single body only (the retina of the eye). They occur only in certain limited sets of rays, an depend largely for their effect upon the nature and condition of the body acted on. They are therefore useless as measures of the mechanical intensity. The intensities given in Table V are, however, simply expressions for the square of the amplitudes, and therefore directly proportional to the thermal actions of the respective thermal intensities of these rays being, at the tem- peratures available, too small for direct measurement, the easiest way of determining their values is by making a spectrophoto- metric comparison with the corresponding rays of the sun’s Taste VIL. . On Kirchhoff’s Thermal SS Cea Regen: See ols. 8 609°1 0°826 14 1832 0°302 9 813 0-703 15 2037 0°245 10 1017 0°605 16 2241 0-200 11 1221 0°530 17 12 1422 0°453 18 2628 0°130 13 1629 0°375 19 2853 0-099 The unit in this table is the intensity at the point of maxi- mum heat for the whole spectrum, which lies bey ond the last of the visible red rays. g Tke comparison of the sun’s spectrum with that of the pla- tinum wire was made in this way. Diffuse daylight—as reflected from white clouds was used instead of the direct rays of the sun, repeated trials with the leucoscope having shown these to be of identical composition. The pencil of this light was substituted for the rays from the platinum wire of pe eppnie temperature. The other wire was given a temperature of 1607 (platinum thermometer), and the measurements were made ina manner precisely similar to that already described. Table vul contains the readings and results of this comparison. lodging them from the almost indifferent equilibrium into which they had been thro ipula’ ng previous chemical action, and therefore not all ascribable to the energy of the ray. * Lamansky, P rff i en, i 462 E. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the TasLe VIII, Comparison of the sun’s spectrum with that of glowing pla- tinum. Region. Reading. Mean. 9°—a, Intensity. 106°3 l 8 1065 106°-4 90° 0” 1-000 106-4 J 99-0 ) 9 98-4 | 99-0 72 36 091057 99°6 | 67-0 ) 10 68-0 | 67-5 51 6 060570 675 ) 45°0 3 0-22185 11 vid 44:5 28 6 31-0 0°12380 12 aot 37-0 20 36 ae 07600 13 ot 32-4 16 0 0 20°0 0-05529 14 eg 30-0 13 36 275 J 0°03457 15 27-0 27°25 10 43 ag’? : 002781 - 25°8 26-0 9 36 23-9 : 0-01300 WW 24-0 ¢ 23°95 6 33 42° 0-00951 18 21:9 ¢ 22°0 5 36 20-0 2 . 000394 19 aos 20-0 3 36 rature. Jsing the values, in the column marked “calculated (Table V), I have constructed a table which gives for Interv: of 25°, from 1200° to 1900° (platinum thermometer), the inten” sities corresponding to the wave lengths between scale-divis- ions 8 to 19 in terms of the intensity of the spectral-region co? _ Tesponding to division 10 when the platinum was at 1900°. f _,, This value was chosen as the unit becanse the position OF oS division 10 could be simply and accurately defined. bie _ Tegion corresponds so nearly with line D, that it may be defined as the region ering on line D, on the side nearest the vine = This table (IX) which may be, not inaptly, termed Jsothermi = 1s arranged i ae ed according to temperatures. Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum. 463 4 FY 17 2445 0:0037 0°0005 0:0009 0:0009 0:0007 0:0007 0-0005 0-0004 18 2648 00029 0-0006 00-0005 00004 0°00025 000022 0-0020 09-0001 19 2853 O-0017 * 00004 42 ous ane el ee Taste IX: (Isothermic). Regions. tensity. 1900° 950° 1825° 1800° 1775° 1750° 1725° 8 or 609:1™™ 17071 : ee : 234 1:078 0°9470 0830 0°732 0°637 9 i 2 1026 0°874 0748 0°6322 0°52 0480 0416 10 1017 10000 0-852 0°721 0°606 0°5147 0-436 0°379 0°322 ee 1291 03665 0 0°257 0150 07123 0°096 12° 1493 01975 0-163 0149 O°115 070946 0°076 0°064 0°055 13. 1629 01086 0°089 0°076 0°063 070512 0°042 0°034 0°027 14-1833 00758 0058 0°052 0°046 0351 0°030 0°025 019 15 2037 00445 6°036 0°033 0°027 070216 0-018 0016 0013 1¢ 9941 00391 0:027 0°024 0°020 0°0176 0°013 0-010 0:008 17 244 00282 0°019 0°015 0.013 0°0123 0:006 0°005 0-004 18 2648 00256 0-014 0-011 0009 0°0108 0003 00 002 19 2853 00160 0°008 0°005 0°004 0:0071 0°0015 0-0012 0-0007 1700° 1675° P 600° 1575 1550° 595° 8 or 609'1™™ 0:5512 0°472 0°395 0°326 02719 0214 0169 0-131 9 8 0°3667 304 0°256 0°210 0°1694 0128 0-100 0076 10 «1017 02774 0-228 0°187 0°155 0°1221 0:092 0-068 0°052 1991 0-0668 0°052 0°042 0°033 0°0277 023 «0020 «=0°016 147° 450° Fe 1325° | 8 or 609°1™™ 90-0922 0°067 0°056 0-047 0°0388 0°032 “027 0°022 9 813 00576 0°046 0-037 0-028 0°0227 0°0170 0-01 9 00113 Oe = 1017 00382 0 26 0020 0°0176 0°0121 0°01 008 i 1221 0120 00113 0-011 0-009 0°0043 0-004 0°004 0-003 12-1492 0°0046 0-003 0°0025 0-002 0°0018 0°0015 0 0012 0:0003 13 1629 00019 0°00 0008 0-000 ):00035 0700021 14-1833 00009 0:0007 0-0005 002 0-00019 0-00017 ) 0015 0700010 15 203% 00005 0:0004 0:0003 0-00015 0-00007 0:00006 0°0005— ---- i sen Gone oe ee ee Se ee 53 e ; 19:98 wees ei ks ae | a | 8 or 609-1™™ 09-0182 0-017 0-015 9°012 OO09T ---- ---- --"" 1 0-008 0-006 07005 00043 2-0 ---. 0 ---- | 10 101% 6 0-0 0-002 0°0018 oo oe ees 00 ae ; es 11 1221 90009 _0°0007 0°0006 00005 0°00038 -.-- ---- = -==~ | 12 14220-0002 0°00015 00001 ---- === ane | ie 4605: 90000 - 000009. 0 ee ee 14 1833 es ous ee is ie oi ats ios The two sets of curves ine from beam ate serve to render the character of these results m evide In Diagram A, are drawn Tsothermals, curves vot equal tem- perature, in which the regs are wave lengths, the ordinates intensities. Diag gives the ee or curves of equal wave fengths with temperatures as ab- Scissee and intensities as ordin The first set shows the Diagram A. -————--— piel SUE es ee = by ' jt nih Pid oar $s " qe, e ne a ? PG 4693 cf sept & ras tg Hf L2e4 Pe Sean Ce ety yi A P, ae of Pf / eh pe Z é flaw if CR de eS ee 4 rae 4 27 . , oe or ~ |? i as tg in Pe Goh aie RAP iS ite ae Te ee SS a / ie a hu _ a > 7L7 7 ‘9 oe ie 2 cg 7 f oe [4 cae we ee ‘. ¥ of i fe 7 ott et. ok Fi gen Medea oil sse-E sorry : : A ; * . a i ~ an o 43 | 2S ~“_ 80. 40- 202 a 061 - = ! : =I- . é ioe Ree BS SS é xe Haas os pes ee a es Liga de ia es pee ao 33 — se Ets or” —< =e ee aeqene” - Fd ~ Lone = pe es ere Ld os eae a ss ee a et gre ee? eet”. ce Tl — on * t-* RS of > ‘ Z : Pa es “id ee weet , or - 5 fa " . ‘i ra # 3 a rs @ aa rae j , a Et x er a ca - a2 , - 4 4 a Zs it ao A ; p> * r se 2 . a r “~ * 7) _ “ : Jf Je o 7 7 ' 2 7 7 oe - AWE : : F > ae 7 : a ae 7 “. é 7 Wi f an i / fom / . / : | 4 4 : cad ‘ a bap --< p x ‘| . 00T E 7 f é / / if ; 67 | fi | WET Ls 5 t ’ 4 : | OOT i 466 #. L. Nichols—Character and Intensity of the comparative intensities of the various parts of the visible spectrum by constant temperature, the latter denotes the influence of variations of temperature upon the intensity of each individual series of rays. ow exceedingly small the intensity of the more refrangible rays is, even at 1900°, compared with that of the spectral regions between line D and the red end of the spectrum, is equally evident in both sets of curves. A striking peculiarity of the isothermals is the too large value of the intensity of region (10). This unlooked-for feature can scarcely be due to a corresponding irregularity in the platinum spectrum, and at the same time it is in all probability no accidental error. Such an error, in order to produce such an effect in all the isothermic curves, must be looked for either in my comparison of the sun’s spectrum with that of the platinum wire, or in Laman- sky’s measurements of the sun’s heat. As to the former, we find by reference to the table, that the result in question is cal- culated from the mean of three readings of fair agreement. An error of several degrees in these determinations would be necessary to bring about any such irregularity as exists in the cur amansky’s results are also the mean of numerous the surrounding atmosphere contained a trace of sodium, appears in the curves on Diagrams A and B. ee Kirchhoff, in his treatise ($15), draws the following @ prort ion : ce _ conclusions from his discussio 2 “Ifa body, a platinum wire for example, is gradually heated, _ emits until attaining a certain temperature, only rays the _ Wavelengths of which are greater than those of the visible : spectru At a certain temperature, rays of wave lengths cor- | * Vierordt, Poggendorff’s Annalen, 151. es Rays emitted by Glowing Platinum, 467 responding to the extreme red begin to appear. As the bod becomes hotter and hotter, rays of shorter and shorter wave lengths show themselves, so that for each temperature a new set of rays first makes its appearance, while at the same time, the intensity of those already at hand continues to increase. Applying the principle we have already proved to this case, we see that the function I for any given wave length is equal to 0 for all points below a certain temperature corresponding to this wave length; and that for all temperatures above this point, the function I increases with the temperature.” Strictly speaking, however, the temperature at which each individual wavelength becomes visible depends solely upon the sensitiveness of the observer's eye. We are furthermore In view of the present ignorance of the law of expansion for stead of try- scale for the platinum thermometer, which should be quite independent of other standards, and which could easily be expressed in terms of the existing scales so soon as the neces- coat investigations of the expansion of platinum had been made Theal ready existi ng resear che tend onl J -m.- peratures, and the empirical formule based upon them being _ only strictly applicable to the interval covered by actual experi- ment, a reduction obtained by use of them for an interval between the red heat and melting point would be at best of doubtful value. I give, nevertheless, such a reduction, founded _ Am. Jour. Scr.—Tump ge wabcoe XVII, No. 108.—Dec., 1879. 468 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna of North America. , upon Matthiessen’s* formula for the expansion of platinum between 0° C. and 200° C. This formula reads, Z=1, (1 + 0°00000851 ¢ + 0-0000000035 2’) and the reductions are given in the following table: TasLe X. Platinum. Celsius, Platinum. Celsius. 1900° 1294° 1500° 1081° 1 238 1400 1025 1700 1188 1300 1600 1129 1200 910 Of the accuracy of this comparison there are at present no means of deciding. Taking into consideration, however, the attempts already frequently made, to estimate the temperature of flames, glowing metal, etc., it seems likely that the above values, in degrees Celsius, are considerably too sm Rosetti of Venice gives, for example, for the hottest portion of a Bunsen’s burner flame, 1350°. ESCORTS, e Pouillet,t the melting points of various metals are as follo bole eiade 600! C. Cast-iron _... 1200 re Pelee te cucun ce 1400 C. 1300°C. Gold (pure) .. 1200 C., asd N..Y., nae 28, 1879. Art. LVIL.—Notice of recent Additions to the Marine eats of the Eastern Coast of North America, No. 7; by A. E. VERRILL. frre Contributions to Zoology from the pi nese 7 Yale College. . No. XLIV. oe NG the numerous additions Angie io to the marine : Swati gen. no | Oiroeuha but with the mantle united to the head all Cont and to the dorsal side of the slender eehote: — asta like a close collar, leaving only a very narrow ypening sronnd e base of the siphon, pany and a ventral : A. E. Verriil—Marine Fauna of North America. 469 Fins triangular, in advance of the middle of the body. Dorsal cartilage forming a median angle directed backward. Body flattened, soft, bordered bya membrane. Eyes covered by the integument. Web not reaching the tips of the arms, the edge concave in the intervals. Suckersin one row. Cirri absent be- tween the basal and terminal suckers. Right arm of second pair is altered, in the male, at the tip. Stauroteuthis syrtensis, sp. nov. 8. Head broad, depressed, not very distinct from the body. Eyes large. Body elongated, flattened, soft or gelatinous, widest in the middle, narrowed but little forward, but decidedly tapered, back of the fins, to the flat, obtuse, or subtruncate tail. The sides of the head and of the body, forward of the fins, are bordered by a thin soft membrane, about half an inch wide. The fins are elongated, triangular, obtusely pointed, placed in advance of the middle of the body. Siphon elongated, slender, round, with a small terminal opening. Mantle edge so con- tracted and thickened around its base as to show scarcely any opening, and united to it dorsally. Arms long, slender, sub- equal, each united to the great web by a broad membrane devel- oped on its outer side, widest (about 15 inch) in the middle of the arm, while the edge of the web unites directly to the sides of the arms and runs along the free portion toward the very slender tip, as a border. This arrangement gives a swollen or campanulate form to the extended web. Edges of the web incurved between the arms, widest between the two lateral pairs of arms. The arms bear each fifty-five or more suckers, in a single row. Those in the middle region are wide apart (5 inch or more) with a pair of slender, thread-like cirri, about 1 inch ong, midway between them. ‘The cirri commence, in a rudi- mentary form, between the 5th and 6th suckers, on the dorsal arms, and between the 7th and 8th, on the ventral ones. They cease before the 23d sucker on the dorsal and lateral arms, and before the 22d on the ventral ones. Near the mouth, and tlings and streaks of dull brownish; inner surface of arms and web, toward the base, and membrane around the mouth, deep cluding lateral membrane); across eyes, 1°75; ac tail, 1:20; diameter of se 1; width of fins, at base, 120; _ Upper arms, about 4 inches; 3 > be | al _ Inches; entire circumference of web, about 48 inc 470 =A. FE. Verrill— Marine Fauna of North America. Taken by Capt. Melvin Gilpatrick and crew, schooner “Polar Wave,” N. lat. 48° 54’; W. long. 58° 44’, on Banque- reau, about 30 miles E. of Sable L, in 250 fathoms. Pre- sented to the U.S. Fish Commission, Sept., 1879. Octopus piscatorum, sp. nov. Body of female is smooth, depressed, about as broad as long. Obtusely rounded posteriorly, not showing any lateral ridges, nor dorsal papilla. No cirrus above the eyes. Arms long, rather slender, tapering to long, slender, acute tips, the upper ones a little (‘1 of an inch) shorter than those of the second pair, which are the longest; the third pair are about one-half inch shorter than the second ; the ventral pair about one-fourth inch shorter than the third. In our specimen all the arms on the right side are somewhat shorter than those on the left, and the web between the Ist and 2d arms is narrower, due perhaps to recovery from an injury. The suckers are moderately large, alternating in two regular rows, except close to the mouth, where a few stand nearly in a single line; about fourteen to sixteen are situated on the part of the arms included within the interbrachial web. The whole number of suckers on one arm is upwards of seventy. The web between the arms, except ventrally, is of about equal width, and scarcely more than one-fourth the length of the arms, measuring from the beak. Between the ventral arms the web is about half as wide as between the lateral. | Color of alcoholic specimen, deep purplish brown, due to very numerous crowded, minute, specks; eye-lids whitish. The front border of mantle, beneath, with base of siphon and adja- cent parts, is white; end of siphon brown. Lower side of head and arms lighter than the dorsal side. Total length, from poste- rior end of body to tip of arms, of 1st pair, 6°20 inches; 2d pair, 6°30; 3d pair, 5°75; 4th pair, 5-25; to web between dor- sal arms, 3°25; between ventral arms, 2°50; to edge of mantle, beneath, 1:20; to center of eye, 1:55. Breadth of body, 1°20; of head across eyes, 1°20; breadth of arms, at base, 22; diam- eter of largest suckers, ‘10; length of arms, beyond web, 1st pair, 3°00; 2d pair, 3-25; 3d pair, 2°80; 4th pair, 2°75. Taken by Capt. John McInnis and crew of the schooner “ M. H. Perkins,” from the western part of Le Have Bank, off Nova Scotia, in 120 fathoms. Presented to the U. S. Fish Commission, Oct. 1879. : _. This species is easily distinguished from 0. Bairdii, by its _ more elongated body, its much longer and more tapered arms, with shorter web; by the absence of the large, rough, pointed papilla, or cirrus, above the eyes, and by its general smooth- ess. The white color of the underside of the neck, siphot tle-border also appears to be characteristic. J. J. Stevenson— Geology of Galisteo Creek. 471 Art. LVITI.—Noies on the Geology of Galisteo Creek, New Mex- ico; by JoHn J. STEVENSON, Professor of Geology in the University of the City of New York. GALISTEO CREEK rises near the southern end of the Santa Fe mountains and flows southward for nearly fifteen miles to Galisteo; where, being increased by the Arroyo San Cristobal, coming from the east, it turns westward and flows in that direc- tion to the Rio Grande. Its area is divided by a narrow dike, which forms a distinct ridge and separates the portion drained by the creek in its southward flow, from that drained by the Arroyo San Cristobal and the creek in its westward flow. These divisions may be distinguished as the upper and the lower area of the Galisteo. The region is not wholly unknown to geologists, for it has been visited by Dr. Newberry, Dr. Hayden and Professor Cope, whose views respecting the age of the coal beds and of the peculiar Galisteo sandstone are not in accord, The details of my observations there will be given in my report to Captain Wheeler; here, by consent of the Chief of the Engineer corps, U. S. A., a brief résumé of the results will be given, in so far as they bear upon the matters in dispute. The shales of the Fort Pierre group (No. 4 of Mr. Meek’s general section) are shown at barely sixteen miles below Gal- isteo dipping gently eastward in mesas on both sides of the creek. They have all the characteristic features of that group and yield its peculiar fossils at many localities. The Laramie group rests on them, and its western outcrop is reached on the South side of the creek at somewhat less than sixteen miles below Galisteo. There the rocks dip toward the east-northeast and at a low angle; this is the northern termination of an ex- tensive area of Laramie, reaching southward for many miles and surrounding the Placer and Sandia mountains. The eastern Outerop of the Laramie beds passes rudely north and south through Galisteo, and there the dip is westward. The width of the area from east to west along the creek is not far from fif- teen miles. A detailed section of 440 feet, taken on the western outcrop, bears no resemblance in detail to sections from the same horizon in the Trinidad coal field, and correlation of the beds in the two fields is not possible. The coal beds in the Galisteo area are thin and variable, and little of economic interest exists aside from the anthracite beds, which contain coal altered by the in- fluence of a gigantic dike passing between the Placer mountains and Galisteo creek. But there is much material of scientific interest, for the Laramie beds show an unexpected intimacy with the underlying Fort Pierre. 472 J. J. Stevenson— Geology of Galisteo Creek. Passing the eastern outcrop of the Laramie, one comes at once to a wide park, lying mostly on the south side of the Ar- royo San Cristobal and eroded amid the Colorado shales. The Fort Pierre sub-group occupies the western side of this park and, as usual, is much thicker than are the Niobrara and Fort concretions, and the succession of dark, gray and yellow shales with abundance of selenite crystals. The concretions, except (Cretaceous No. 2) are ill-exposed at the base of the Dakota mesa, which forms the eastern boundary of the park, south from the Arroyo. The Dakota is well exposed, the three provisional groups, which will be proposed in my report, being shown along the east wall of the park and consists of light gray and yellow sand- stones; the Middle Dakota consists of blue, white and red sandy to clayey shales, with a bed of limestone, a conglomerate of limestone and iron ore and streaks of gypsum; while the Lower Dakota, made up of gray and yellow sandstones like those of the Upper Dakota, reaches eastward and becomes the Bpper part of a great mesa, the southwest wall of the Pecos valley. The succession in the lower Galisteo area is absolutely clear, showing the Dakota, Fort Benton, Niobrara, Fort Pierre an _ Laramie groups in their proper order. All of these dip west- _ ward until perhaps eight miles below Galisteo, where the dip _ Is reversed so that the Laramie beds run out at sixteen miles _ below Galisteo and the Fort Pierre shales come again to the _ surface. Each of these groups is perfectly characterized and iffic ey encountered in the attempt to identify them. al features and the fossils are not materially different elsewhere in the same groups within J. J. Stevenson— Geology of Galisteo Creek. 473 whole region south from Denver, except that Halymenites major, so common at the base of the Laramie group in the Trinidad coal field, is absent here. But impressions of dicotyledonous plants occur in the Galisteo region, which are closely allied to those found in the Trinidad coal field. The coal beds on the northeast slope of the Placer mountains are as clearly Laramie as are those of the Trinidad or the Cafion City coal field. But the geology of the upper Galisteo area is far from being so simple as that observed along the south side of the creek within the lower area. No reference has been made to the north side of the creek within the lower area; that can be considered more conven- iently in connection with the upperarea. A broad uneven park, designated on the Engineer map.as the Arroyo de Los Angeles, opens into the lower area at perhaps five miles below Galisteo, and the dike, previously referred to, forms its southeast bound- arv for several miles. If a section be carried across the area of the upper Galisteo near its southern edge, the conditions will be found such as are represented in the following diagram. 5 t Cross SECTION ON THE UPPER GALISTEO. 1. Dakota. 2. Colorado. 3. Laramie. 4. Galisteo. 5. Alluvium, The Upper Dakota sandstone is in the bluff on the east side, where the dip is very rapid; behind it are the shales and lime- stones of the Middle Dakota, and the sandstones of the Lower low insignificant roll, separating the Arroyo de los Angeles from the Galisteo, is reached, the Laramie rocks are dipping But on the opposite side of this low divide, the Lower Da- kota sandstones are exposed and dip westward at 65°; at but a the Arroyo and the side of the Arroyo, — 474 J. J. Stevenson— Geology of Galisteo Creek. whereby this fragment of Dakota has been thrust through the Laramie rocks. The two faults come together on the north side of lower Galisteo at the mouth of the Arroyo and the Dakota rocks do not cross the creek. The Colorado shales do not ap- pear on either side of the faulted area. ut on the west side of this arroyo there appears a series, newer than any yet noticed. It covers the mesa stretching west and north from the Galisteo, and is continuous from the Santa Fe and Placer road on the lower Galisteo almost to the end of the Archean area on the upper Galisteo. This is the > Galisteo group. As far as exposed within the area examined, | which extends to but a little distance west and north from Ga- listeo creek, this group is 1. Breccia of trachyte-____-- 150 feet. 2. Soft, light gray sandstone__ 40 feet. The breccia is well shown on the lower Galisteo from the Santa Fe and Old Placer road to the mouth of the Arroyo de los An- geles. It is exceedingly dark gray or even lead-colored and is composed altogether, where examined, of trachyte in angular fragments, cemented by ‘finer material apparently of similar nature. This breccia was followed up the Arroyo to the Galisteo and Santa Fe road ; but there it practically ends, and the evi- the underlying sandstone are ex posed here and are conformable. __ The Galisteo beds are not affected by the faults found in the from Los the north A. W. Vogdes— Geology of Catoosa Co., Ga. 475 the outburst of trachyte, forming those hills, caused frightful distortion of the Laramie beds. It is clear, then, that the Ga- listeo group can not be conformable to the Laramie. The for- mer group does not cross the Galisteo creek at any point. The lower sandstone of the Galisteo group was followed up the creek for more than seven miles above Galisteo, and its ashen color gives a strange appearance to the deeply eroded face of the mesa. The vertical yellow and almost white sand- stones of the Lower Dakota yield readily to the weather and the debris from the light gray Galisteo sandstone mingles with that from these; so that, to one ascending the creek and follow- ing the line of the eastern fault, the Galisteo sandstone seems to be triple, white, yellow and gray, whereas the white and yellow belong to the Lower Dakota, on which the Galisteo sandstone rests unconformably. The coal beds of the Placer mountains, oceupying the pla- teau between those mountains and Galisteo creek are synchro- nous with those of the Trinidad coal field and belong to what is known as the Laramie group. which, however, is synony- mous, in part at least, with Fox Hills. : The Galisteo group rests unconformably on the Laramie and Dakota; and contains a great bed composed wholly of the later lavas; it is therefore Tertiary. Art. LIX.—Short Notes upon the Geology of Catoosa County, Georgia; by A. W. VOGDES, U. S. Army. A snort distance west of Catoosa Station, on the Western and Atlantic Railroad, we find a small cut which exposes the rocks of the Niagara period. This formation 1s composed in descending of the following strata: reer 1. Thin bed of limestone made up of crinoidal joints. 2. Cherty bed containing the columns of Caryocrinus. 3. Shaley beds with concretions. peg a 4. Black slate containing about fifty per cent of bituminous matter. asses through a cut of about 100 feet. On the map of the county this is known as section 28, lot no. 204, or ‘Taylor's Ridge. This section exposes an outcropping forma- tion of the Upper Silurian Age which belongs to the Clinton 476 A. W. Vogdes— Geology of Catoosa Co., Ga. Epoch. The upper beds are thin and composed of an are- naceous limestone, containing fragments of Crinoids and shells more or less wave-broken, as if this stratum marked the line of the Clinton sea. Immediately beneath the limestone we find a laminated sandy bed intermixed with sandstone of different degrees of hardness, which is well exposed in the railroad cut and along the banks of the Chickamauga River. The total thickness of these beds is about 150 feet, the strata having a general dip 15° east. The geological formation of Taylor's Ridge is more clearly defined with regard to the Upper Silurian age about ten miles southeast from Catoosa station, at Dug Gap in Whitfield county. This section exhibits the Lower Silurian black shales out- cropping along the base of the gap, dipping about twenty-five degrees to the east, and known in Dalton as the “coal beds; immediately above these shales the Medina sandstones appear or a sandstone which stratigraphically may be assigned to this group; as far as examined it contains no fossils. Superim- posed upon these sandstones along the second bench of the Gap we find the Clinton, which is composed in descending order of the following strata : 1. Arenaceous layers and sandstone. ; 2. Hematitic layers containing Calymene Clintoni, OC. rostrata, ilobitic. 4. Sandstone containing Streptorhynchus subplana. 5. Hard sandstone containing hematite. 6. Light sandy beds of the Medina. Chemistry and Physics. 477 - Between Ringgold and Catoosa Station the Chickamauga river divides the ridge; the hills to the northwest are called Oak Mountains, and those on the southeast Taylor’s Ridge. ee Se : << Lex § i] Tjm ra) st < @ — i) = Qu ° ° 5 Se i) cr gg fo) o oO s a) = ° Fh ie] 2 wa ew - re 3 2 = o = Ler} ° (2) — © re) ae — ° =] elegantula, a species common to the Clinton and Niagara group ; Cheetetes Lycoperdon, cast from the lower beds : Zaphrentis bilater- , There is also a new trilobite, oreo rostrata V odges, from the upper arenaceous limestone beds of the Clinton group, Ca- toosa Station, Georgia, which will be fully described hereafter. It differs from all other species of this genus in having a distinct projecting process in front of the glabella. The facial lines cut the anterior border at the apex, giving to the frontal limb a triangular form; at their juncture the marginal border is raised and forms the triangular process which supports the projection. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Ouemisrry AND PHYSICS. 1. On Electrolysis with Alternating Currents.—Supposing that = : - in the living organism are due, 478 Serentifie Intelligence. first solution experimented with was one of ammonium carbonate, the same as is used asareagent. The electrodes were of platinum. Gas was actively evolved, the temperature rose, and after eight electrolysis, using ged) ale electrodes of large size, contact being prevented by a disk of filter paper between them. At the close of e experiment, there was formed on the latinum, at the place e where the paper had rested against it, a brownish, transpare i hi n & experiments upon this new method. fs ‘ n a note to this paper, KoiBe says that the bighly interesting observations of Drechsel raise the question of the behavior of salts ganic and organ powerful and alternating voltaic currents; as, for example, whether an aqueous solution of potassium acetate suffers decompo urpose to extend his studies in this direction, Kolbe intends to examine the action of a series of salts under these conditions— J. pr. Ch., xx, 378, Oct., 1879. a2. 2. On the Basicity of Dithionic or Hyposulphuric Acid.—it has been generally assumed that hyposulphurice acid is dibasic and hence that its formula is H,S.O, Kose has written OOH he or di-sulphoxy]l, as oxalic acid is | COOH i oxalic acid, Kolbe comes to the conclusion that uric acid is monobasic and contains but one hydroxy: Chemistry and Physics. 479 oep- Hence the formula of it should be HSO, or (SO,)OH. e importance of this conclusion lies in this, that, if it be con- ceded, the equivalence of sulphur is five in this compound and it becomes a perissad instead of an artiad as it is in all other com- binations —/. pr. Ch., xix, 485, June, 1879 amalgam. But instead of the result expected a very different one odi : . cid, ex with tetrathionate, KOSS . SSO, K+4-Na,=KOSSNa+NaSs0,K ; with trithionate, KO,S. SSO,K+Na,=KO,SNa+NaSSO,K; with dithionate KO,S.SO,K+Na,=KO,sNa+NaSO,K. Precisely as HO,C H+H,=HO,C.H+H.CO,H. In order to test this reaction in the case of pentathionic acid, the author attempted the preparation of this body; but after five months of work he was unable to obtain it. This result raised the question of the exist- acid, therefure, appears to’ be as yet unknown.—Liebig’s Ann., excix, 97, Oct., 1879. en 4. On the Atomic Weight of Tellurium.—W 111s has undertaken from the experiments of Berzelius and von Hauer, or the value and sulphur, o _ that the glucose molecules of both 480 Scientific Intelligence. antimony.—J. Ch. Soe., xxxv, 704, Oct., 1879. G. F. B, 5. On the Preparation of Propylene glycol from Glycerin. — A very convenient method has been proposed by BELonousEK, for the direct preparation of propylene-glycol from glycerin. When glycerin is mixed with sodi i of one molecule of glycerine to one atom of sodium, and gradually ; ; : P = theoretical yield was obtained.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xii, 1872, Oct., 1879. . F. B. 6. On Skatol—tIn his researches on the volatile re rine! es glucose of Schutzenberger, which is isomeri¢ and not identical with octacetyl-saccharose, the author, assuming hig D sace dg emmemereyec senate ferent, sought, by combining levulose and dextrose to prod saccharose and by uniti uC charose and by u iting galactose with lactoglucose to produce lact ws Con atin ne re ee >. & aes r ha _Vomparing octacetyl-diglucose with y rose; were found to have some points of difference, in solubility, Sted a é 3 Geology and Natural History. 481 G. F. B, Il Grotogy AND NATURAL HIsTory. 1. Report of the Geological _— of Canada, for 1877-78, A.rrep R. C. Setwyn, Directo Montreal, 1879, (Daw- son Brothers 3).—This volume poorer a wide range of geo- logic al observations, and is a very valuable contribution to the science, It includes a Report on the Quebec group by Mr. Setwyn; on Southern British Columbia (173 pages) by G. M. Dawson ; Baniaer, rer G. F. Marsew; on FLetcuer ; on minerals of the Apatite- Nanton veins of Dunne with notes on miscellaneous rocks and minerals, by B. J. RINGTON ; on Canadian Apatite, by C. as ¥FFMANN ; and is illus- trated by many sketches, sections and m Mr. ra oe divides Quebec in of Logan into three groups : “(1.) The Lower Silurian group,” containing fossils ; *(2.). The anys. group, probably Lower Cambrian.” * (3) The Crystalline Schist group (Huronian ?).” The evidence o: ow Joldanin origin of the nd group is not stated. The nds of rocks cece :—* eo Vieldspathi, chloritic, and greenish sili- epidotic and ser- es, dolerites, and. rs serpentinws “elites , and some ks. the Sillery sandstone formation by —_ Quebee g troup is followed by the statement chee “in view of the = Usual anascinaioleg of Labrador feldspars,” (referring here to their 482 Scientific Intelligence. occurring as a constituent of some igneous rocks) “the labrado- rite or anorthosite” rocks of the Adirondacks and British ries pi: probably “ represent the volcanic and intrusive rocks of the Lau rentian period.” These conclusions as a ee rocks make the mineral labra- ould be set- tled by geological pieamtigntion ; for we rightly ask that volcanic origin should be proved by the presence of obvious volcanic or eruptive conditions, What there is in a lime-and-soda feldspar to make its presence proof of eruptive origin, or of the existence of great volcanoes in a region that shows no other evidence of it, no one has pointed out. Lime is an exceedingly common material in sediments; and soda or sodium is present. in other feldspars, and, in the state of chloride, abounds in sea water and occurs in salines some metamorphic rocks that have nothing of volcanic origin in their constitution, as the writer has shown to be true in the vicin- ity of New Haven, Connecticut. So with felsyte, a rock made up of common feldspar or orthoclase, with often quartz-—its compost sketches, ous beds of the Quevee up. The a soap by the Green ain region to the south in Verm d Massachusetts, ae out by Mr. Wing and the writer, a on the latter ques epoch in widely ated regions.” “No better instances of such difference couid be cited than the Mesozoic and Carbonifer- ous formations of British Columbia, and those of the same a riods in Eastern America and od Siluria n and Cambrian formations contains a large amount of im- ical and economical, With re- wy Geology and Natural History. 483 with that of the coast, covered probably the interior of the Province, which may have been 2 ,000 feet thick; that the regions of gre reatest precipitation and height of the ice was north of the 54th parallel; that it is “ highly probable ” that that part of the Pacific coast stood at an elevation greater than at present in times immediately preceding the Glacial, and “ may have retained this altitude ” during the era of the great ¢ confluent glacier. He adds, with an expressed questioning, “ I m right in attributing the flooding of the interior to the sea, we are a rapid subside nee of the land coincident with the decay of these vast glaciers;” and then speaks of a second short advance of the glaciers on the plateau from the mountains. No evidence of the presence of the sea in fossils or other decisive facts is presente ell states, that on the east coast of Hudson Bay there is “abundant evidence that the sea-level is falling at a compara- tively rapid rate ;” that since the Posts of the Hudson Bay Com- tury. Mr. Bell states that this sinking is apparent also on the west coast of the bay at the mouth of the ee and Haye’s i ral feet a uth. To the of Lake Winnipeg, a region of lakes, the glacial stistchiek in te eneral run southwestward, and the direction is mostly between 35° W.a d 8. 1% W. orts on New Brunswick have great interest from the re- lation of the rocks ve Fanaa of Maine, and Mr. Mathew’s, on the owed. D. 2. The Geokogtet and Natural History Survey of Bonaessta, under N. H. Wincuett, State Geologist. 7th Annual Report for the year 1878. 193 ages, 8vo. Minneapolis, 1879.—The re- et ir ae as to the work of the air as brief i cordance with the action of the Board of Regents, of two abs one on the Nort hern part of t other on the Southern. The chief part of the procbete is occupi with a paper by C. L. Herrick, on the Entomostraca of the State, ea - illustrated by 20 gonanne The writer recommended the D. D. 3. Brief Notices of some recently described Minerals.—Eggonite. Observed by Schrauf in minute crystals, of a light brown color, Am. Jour. oe a Vor. XVII, No. 108.—Dec., 1879, 484 Serentific Intelligence. implanted upon pceanials of calamine from Altenberg, near Aachen. The crystals rsome resemblance to certain simple forms of barite, but are in fact triclinic, though with a pseudo- aiucehade symmetry due to twinning. H=45. In composition probabiy a silicate containing cadmium.—(Zeitsch. Kryst., iii, rrengrundite. Described by Brezina as a basic copper sul- phate. It occurs in six-sided tabular crystals, belonging to the monoclinic or eee) SN et with perfect basal cleavage. re o's: rdark emerald green. Associated with gypsum, malachite aid deta hota ee (Urvolgy), Hungary (Zeitsch. Kryst., iii, 35 e same mineral was escribed Louisite. A ° B ats, — & be) ww mde 5 ay oC oO g i) S ° mS oO io] $ =| rote S re) ae 3 — — o oe ? %. ° ° =| 3. c o ba | ot i he 77) « aU tts coun ne & o : erately magnified. 4. G. 488 Scientific Intelligence. volume of this important work is passing through the press. We are informed that this part, which will complete the Dicotyledones, will be published in London at the close of the year. It is known to many of his correspondents that the present writer has arranged, by taking a considerable number of copies to secure this work for American botanists, or the public libraries with which some of them are connected, at a reduced price. s his own lists of those who have hitherto received the work through his mediation A. 11. Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory ; Johns Hopkins Uni- 5 a wn : ~ Rs 8 < S = eo a te —_ - rx a] val co) ) = pa 2 — i} — i) e hes) ee Qu sce > ee Mes III. Astronomy. 1. The Minor Planets, arranged in the order of their numbers; by Aaron N. Sxinner. (Communication to the Editors, dated Naval Observatory, Washington, October 4.) No. Name. Discoverer. og No. Name. Discoverer. tee 1|C 20 |Massalia |DeGasparis | 6 - _ 1} 21 |Lutetia Goldschmidt} 1 , 22 |Calliope ind ae . 2 || 23 |Thalia Hind: - 13 5 1 || 24 Themis (DeGasparis | 7 6 iH 2 || 25 |Phocea Chacornac | } 7 1 || 26 |Proserpina |Luther 2 8 2 || 27 |Kute ind 9 9 28 |Bellona Luther 3 1 || 29 |Amphitrite |Marth 2 || 30 |Urania ‘Hind 10 3 || 31 |Euphrosyne |Ferguson — 1 4 3 || 32 [Pomona Goldschmidt} 2 y 4 || 33 |Polyhymnia |Chacornae | 2 4 4 || 34 |Circe Chacornac 3 5; 35 |Leucothea {Luther | sd 1/|| 36/Atalante |Goldschmidt) % 5 || 37 |Fides , Luther — a 6 || 38 |Leda Chacornac | * Name. 39 Leetitia 0 Harmonia Daphne Melete 57 Mnemosyne 58 Concordia Elpis 489 Astronomy. Discoverer. — No. Name Chacornac 5 85 'Goldschmidt) 4 || 86/Semele Goldschmidt} 5 || 87/Sylvia Sleite J 88|Thisbe Pog 2\| 89\Julia Goldschmidt 6 || 90|Antiope Goldschmidt} 7 || 91)/Aegina Pogson 3 || 92\Undina uther 6 || 93|Minerva ‘Goldschmidt| 8 |; 94|/Aurora Goldschmidt) 9 || 95 Arethusa ts oat 2 || 96|Aegle Lau 97|Clotho acronis 10 |; 98\Ianthe Luther 7 || 99\Dike Gone 11 || 100| Hecate Sea 101|Helena Goldschmidt 12 || 102|Miriam Luther 8 || 103|Hera Luther 9 || 104 Clymene Seay a 6 || 105| Artemis Ferguson 3 || 106'Dion Goldschmidt! 13 || 107|\Camilla Forster 108|Hecuba DeGasparis | 8 109\Felicitas Tempel 1 || 110/Lydia Tempel 2 || 111).Ate H. P. Tuttle | 1/|| 112Iphigemia son 4 || 113 Amalt Luther 10 || 114, Cassandra Schiaparelli 115|Thyr Goldschmidt) 14 || 116/Sirona Luther 11 || 1t7|/Lom C.HLF.Peters| 1 || 118|Peitho Tuttle 2 || 119) Althea Tempel 3 || 120 Lachesis Peters 2 || 121/Hermione D’ Arrest 122 Gerda Peters 3 || 123| Brunhild Luther 12 || 124) Alceste Watson 1 || 125 Liberatrix ogson 5 || 126 Velleda Tempel 4 || 127 Johanna uther 13 || 128| Nemes DeGasparis | 9 || 129 Antigone Luther 14 |! 130|Electra Discoverer. Peters Prosp.Henry Paul sree: Peters Dise. No. 4 _ bt Sm Or on iT WO TT OO WAT DO Or tO AT Ore St 490 Scientific Intelligence. No. Name. Discoverer. ee No. Name. Discoverer. 131)/Vala Peters 19 || 171/Ophelia Borrelly 132) Aethra Watson 14 |} 172) Baucis Borrelly 133 Cyrene atson 15 || 173)Ino Borrelly 134 Sophrosyne {Luther 20 || 174|Phaedra atson 135 Hertha ters 20 || 175 Andromache! Watson 136 Austri Palisa 1 || 176 Idunna ters 137 Meliboea Palisa 2 || 177\Irma Paul Henry 138 Tolosa Perrotin 1 || 178 Belisana alisa 139 Juewa Watson 16 || 179\Clytemnestra | Watson 140 Siwa Palisa 3 || 180 Garumna errotin 141 Lumen Paul Henry | 2 || 181 |Eucharis Cottenot 142 Polana Palisa 4 || 182|Elsbeth Palisa 143 Adria Palisa 5 || 183 |Istria alisa 144 Vibilia Peters 21 || 184/Dejopeia Palisa 145 Adeona Peters 22 || 185 Eunike eters 146 Lucina orrelly 6 || 186|Celuta Prosp.Henry 147 Protogeneia |Schulhof 187\Lamberta ~ |Coggia 148 Gallia Prosp.Henry| 3 || 188|Menippe Peters 149 Medusa Perrotin 2 || 189|Phthia Peters 150 Nu Watson 17 || 190|Ismene Peters 151|Abundantia |Palisa 6 | 191\Kolga eters 152 Atala Paul Henry | 3 || 192|Nausicaéi [Palisa Palisa 7 ||193|Ambrosia |Coggia Prosp.Henry| 4 || 194|Prokne eters Palisa 8 || 195|Eurykleia Palisa Palisa 9 || 196|Philomela Peters Borrelly 7 || 197|Arete lisa Knorre 198|Ampella Borrelly Paul Henry | 4 || 199|Byblis eters Peters 3 || 200/Dynamene_ |Pete atson 18 || 201|Penelope Palisa. -rosp.Henry| 5 || 202\Chryseis eters ?errotin 3 || 203|Pompeia eters Paul Henry | 5 || 204 Palisa Peters 24 || 205 Palisa Peters 25 || 206/Hersilia Peters Peters 26 || 207 alisa W atson 19 || 208 Pali Prosp Hen 6 || 209| Dido Peters Perrotin 4 ; Astronomy. . 491 ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF THE MINOR PLANETS. 2. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. Vol. xi, Part I, Photometric Observations made principally with Name, No. Name. No. Name. No.| Name. No. Name. oheremag 53|Calypso 79|Kurynome 3 Juno 201| Penelope Adeo 107|Camilla 27| Euterpe 191 Kolga 174|Phaedra Nei 114/Cassandra ||164/Eva 120 Lachesis 196) Philomela Aegina 186)|Celuta 109) Felicitas 39 Laetitia 25|Phoceea Aegle 1\Ceres 72\Feronia 187 Lamberta §||189 Phthia Aemilia 202|Chryseis 37|Fides 162 Laurentia _|/142|Polana Aethra 34|Circe 8|Flora 38 Leda 33|Polyhymnia Aglaja 84/Clio 19| Fortuna 68 Leto 32|Po Alceste 97;Clotho 76\Freia ucothea ||203 Senate emene 104/Clymene 77|Frigga 125 Liberatrix x 5 Alexandra ||1'79'Clytemnestra 74|\Galatea 117 Lomia oserpin na Althea 3|Clytia 148 Gallia 65|Lorele is Prog 113|Am Conco 180/Garumna__‘(||146/Lucina 16|Ps: 93|Ambrosia __|/158}Coronis 122|Gerda 141 en 166 ri gaat 198] Ampella Cybele 40|Harmonia 21|Lutetia 80\Sappho | te ||133/Cyrene Hebe 110|Lydia 155/Seylla 175|Andromache| 61|Danaé 100| Hecate 66| Maja 86 Semele gelina 1/Daphne 108| Hecuba 170| Maria 168|SibyHa 129) Antigone 157|Dejanira 101|Helena 20| Massalia 116 Sirona 0|/ Antiope 184|Dejopeia 103|Hera 149| Medusa 140/Siwa 197| Arete 78|Diana 121\Hermione ||137|Meliboea _||134|Sophrosyne 95|Arethusa 99|Dike 206| Hersilia 56| Melete sylvia 9} Dido 135) Hertha 18|Melpomene || 81)Terpsichore _-:105)Artemis _|/106|Dione 69|Hesperia _||188| Me | halia 67) Asia 48|Doris 46) Hestia 9|Met 4 Themis Astrea ae Proanene 153/Hilda 93|Mi 17\Thetis 152| Atala 10|Hygeia 102) Miriam 36) Atalante ie Egeria 98jlanthe 57|Mnemosyne |/115|Thyra 11]/ Ate 130|Electra 85\Io 192|Nausicad /138'Tolosa 161|Athor 59] Elpis 176|Idunna 51|Nemausa |160)Una 94! Auro 182] Elsbeth 173|1no 128|Nemesis 92)Undina 63| Ausonia 62|Erato 112 Iphigenia iobe Urania . . 136) Austria 163] Erigone 14|Trene 150|Nuwa 167|Urda ——«*172|Baucis 181|Eucharis Iris 44|Nysa__ 131/ Vala ri 45| Eugenia 177| Irma 171|Ophelia 126 Velleda -:178/Belisana —_//185|Kunike 42\ Isis 49\Pales A Vee | 28\Bellona |} 15|Eunomia 190|Ismene 2| Pallas 144 Vibilia | 154 Bertha 31 panties 183/Istria 55| Pandora 12 Victoria 123/Brunhild = soo 127| Johanna 4. Panopeea 50 Virginia 199/Byblis aries 139|Juewa 1|Parthenope /|156/Xanthippe < _23\Cattiope [hassle Burykleia || 89|Julia 118{Peitho _|/169\Zelia 5 n »p. 4to. Cambridge 1879. (Universi ty Press: on).—The subject of Photometry is that to which the large equa- torial of the Harvard Observatory has been devoted since the sum- mer of 1877. — sages mee ni dege ated the gee — — ction of a class of instruments, whic * tl is devoted to stru in the first ean of the volume. Chapter 492 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the journal containing the photometric observations made from August, 1877, to September, 1878, and in part those of October, 1878, to March, 1879; these are numbered from 1 to 5037. Chapter III contains the reduction of the observations of Saturn and Mars, and of Jupiter and Venus at their conjunctions in 1877; and chapter IV contains the discussion of the observations made on the more conspicuous double stars visible in the latitude of Cambridge. This work is one of especial importance because it is the first time that so large an instrument has been entirely devoted to Photometry. IV. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Geological Survey of the Public Domain.—In volume xvii of this Journal, at page 78 (January number, 1879), the Report of the Committee of the National Academy of Sciences “ appointed to consider the Scientific Surveys of the United States” which had been required of the Academy by an act of Congress, is published at length. e Report recommended two distinct departments with reference to such surveys, under separate heads—one fo Surveys of Mensuration (to include the Coast and Geodetic sur- veys, and the topograpical work of the Land Survey office, an the other, for “the determination of all questions relating to the Geological structure and Natural Resources of the Public Domain.” embraces vast mineral wealth in its soils, metals, salines, stones, ays, etc. To meet the requirements of existing laws in the dis- position of the agricultural, mine toral, swamp lands, a thorough investigation and classification of - t ing a " Civil a which has reference on tere cited (pp. 20, 21). a For salary of the Director of the Geological Survey, which Office is hereby established, under the Interior Department, who Shall be appointed by the President by and with the advice and ent of the Senate, six thousand dollars: Provided, That this Miscellaneous Intelligence. - 493 officer shall have the direction of the Geological Survey, and the classification of the public lands and examination of the Geo- logical Structure, mineral resources and products of the National n a omain, And that the Director a surveys or examinations for private parties or corporations; and the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, and the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, under the Department of the Interior, and the Geo- graphical Surveys West of the One hundredth Meridian, under the War Department, are hereby discontinued, to take effect on the thirtieth day of June, eighteen hundred and seventy-nine. And all collections of rocks, minerals, soils, fossils, and objects of natural history, archeology, and ethnology, made by the Coast and Interior Survey, the Geological Survey, or by any other parties for the Government of the United States, when no longer needed for investigations in progress, shall be deposited in the National Museum. : “For the expenses of the Geological Survey and the classification of the public lands and examination of the Geological structure ; Tuineral resources an roducts of the National Domain, to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, one hundred thousand dollars ; ; oye “For the expense of a commission on the ee doe existing Survey, shall receive other compensation for their services upo Said commission than their salaries, respectively, except their traveling expenses, while engaged on said duties; and it shall be the duty of this commission to report to Congress within one year from the time of its organization ; first, a codification of the present laws relating to the survey and disposition of the public domain ; second, a system and standard of classification of public lands ; as arable, irrigable, timber, pasturage, swamp, coal, mineral lands and such other classes as may be deemed proper, having = Tegard to humidity of climate, supply of water for eerscation, = other physical characteristics; third, a system of land parcelling omic uses of the several classes of may deem ern portion of the United States to actual settlers. publications of the Geological Survey shall consist of the 494 Miscellaneous Intelligence. annual report of operations, geological and economic maps illus- trating the resources and classification of the lands, and reports i The maps and illustrations, twenty thousand dollars; to be Immedr ately available. ; “For the preparation of reports, maps and such other illustra- tions as may be necessary for completing the office work of the Ww O resources and products of the ational Domain,” was thus estab- lished; and soon after, the position of Director of the sae iy was given to Mr. Clarence King, who by long work in the fiel ad ed he ors of the Committee of the Academy, is thought to be @ nar reg of the subject for the time, and not a rejection of the scheme. . _ Another move with regard to the department of the Geologiea! Survey has been made since Mr. King received his appointment, a : one which has not yet been laid before a Committee of the Nationa _. The session of See wen in which the Department of the Geo- Domain was established, was followed ‘ - a - Miscellaneous Intelitgence. 495 words “ National Domain” in the first paragraph of the former ith the words “and the States” inserted, the area geologi- i i ’s supervision becomes methods and expenses of iting, Son surveys of a scientific character under the War or Interior of the Land Office, and to report to Congress, as soon thereafter National Domain” “and the States. The writer is not informed as to the character of the discussion over the proposed amendment in the House of Representatives. But it seems to be plain, from the change of wording, that the ing inte ved by it was that the Director ng intended to be convey y Se “may extend his examinations into States” 20, 496 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Territories, There is an evident absurdity in an expression t m ° 3 fe) i] ct ie 3 ct ir @ i) a E. =| me ie 2 i . _S ao &. ° =) ° aes] ec = ® r~) Ey fae = 7) ° —* ot a oO eee Re NT OT ee i=} Qu Cad ms ol mM =} © i=} es i= | ey ae =} Ltie} oO 5 fa) 3B er ° =) TD ° ct a] eo @D S og o oo ww i) So Qu = ie) m Ss 5 ig, e pal i=) =} oe OU Ps et 5 2 = 0g f= ® 3 ie) " i) = e) o B © 5 e wD io) 5 S ee < = or ® « gg oa CF DP 2 =) = & > ® et © 5 " ot © 2. g wa ot ° favor private enterprises. The General Government, unlike many in foreign lands, has no ownership in the mines of California or of n any other of the States, and hence o need to establish a | Mining Bureau for the country at large , . The States, for the most part, have carried forward geological 8 e great need, previous to undertaking new surveys, in order that they may be correct complete, is, for each, an accurate topographical surve efore New England, or any his or of the other sections of the Union, has again its corps of geological surveyors, it should have in t for a survey might be a possibility. It was manifest that without such a preparation the work would be half a waste of expenditure, and have to be done over again. Topographical surveys are needed in every State as well as oe Territory ; and for this purpose there is manifestly required the ! y mes D. Dana. _ 2. Chemical Denudation in relation to Geological Time ; by T. Mettarp Reape. 62 pp. 8vo. London, 1879. (David Bogue.) —Mr. T. Mellard Reade gives, in his memoir, the results of bis comparisons of the amount of denudation in various regions over Miscellaneous Lntelligence. 497 ntains (Macmillan & Co.).—The sketch, which opens this work, was written by a personal friend of the late Professor Clifford, and a complete bio hy, it brings out clearly the prominent points in the mental character and the attainments of the gifted mathe- Matician, whos k was so suddenly interrupted. The lectures author. It is well both for his sake and for that of the public that they have been preserved and presented in this form. 5. Seeing and Thinking ; by the late Witt1aM K. CurrrorD, F.R.S. 156 pp. 8vo. London, (Nature Series: Macmillan & Co.). —Four lectures delivered by Professor Clifford at Shoreditch ; they bear the titles: the Eye and the Brain; the Eye and seeing; the Brain and thinking; of omecamo - aggetene They contain Many important scientific facts presented In so simp! and Hen odes fullness of iiieaeration as to be intelligible even to those who have had no scientific training. oo colder Peseta by Latnmrtahs “Als n, LL.D. 241 PP 498 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The Mound Builders; Archeology of Butler Coynty, mis ee J.P. MacLran. 234 pp- eta ee with over 10 0 fig- res. emesis (Robert Clar Co.)—Two-thirds of this volume are devoted to the wen abe of the mound builders, ancient earth-works and Indian relics of Butler County, in south- western Ohio, a region containing more of such earth-works than any other county in the State; their number is seventeen, and one of them covers an area of 95 acres. Many figures are given rep- resenting stone arrow-heads, implements and ornaments, and also saaed of the earth-works, besides an Archeological map of the on nty. 7. Maps of the U. 8. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, F, AYDEN, Geologist- beer —Five m eee ot for beauty of execution, while of great interest for the region they illustrate. The Primary triangulation in the survey was carried forward by A. D. Witson, and thé topography by H. Gannett, G. B. Currrenpen, G. R. Becuter and F. A. Ciark. These maps include a drainage map, a map of the Yellowstone National Park on a scale of two miles to an inch, and maps of other por- tions of the Territories oo giving he aa of neers the various pisces nat and plateaus, reas rt the “Wind River Mountains, the Bear River Range, the Teton eee med Snake River Range, and others. The engraving is i J. Bien ' Notices of the following new works are deferred to another num Report on the Geology of the Henry pommerther rang by G. K. ee GREK 160 pp. 4to. U.S. Geograph ical and en Survey . Rocky Mountain Region, J. W. Powell, in charge. Department of the Inte Pennsylvania Second Geological Survey. Hacrebess. 1879, (1.) Second Re- port of Progress in the Laboratory of the Survey at Harrisburgh, by Andrew S. McCreath. 438 pp. 8vo.—(2.) Report, Part first, on the Northern townships n of Butler County; Part second, on a Special Survey along the Beaver @ d She- 'v Martyn ivers, by H. ance. 248 pp. 8vo, with 6 maps, 1 profile sec tion and 154 vertical sections A Manual of P; for the use of students, with a general eae on the i Univ. St. Andrews. Second e and greatly enlarged. “9 votumes a 8) rous ilustrations. sere, ‘Réinborgh and London. (Wm. Blackman ns. Geological Survey of Alabama, Report of Progress for 1877, 1878, by Eugen? A. Smith, Ph.D., State pecs 140 pp. 8vo. a ery, "Alabama, 1879. ‘Solar Light and Hea Foe ghee and the Supply. a with 6 explana- callow ered 1879. ©. Appleton & Co.) s vi ii ae Calli a IRS Mae aaln eS = Rada ae ee tees ee Ser a a i Obituary. 499 OBITUARY. James CuerK Maxwett, F.R.S.—By the early death of Professor idge has of 1854, He became a fellow of his es in 1855, and accepted i ege, Aberdeen, in 1856, College, London, where he remained till 1865. But he was not in his element as a lecturer, and it was not until his appointment in 1871 to the professorship of Experimental Physics in Cam- bridge, with the direction of the laboratory which the munificence of the Duke of Devonshire shortly afterwards presented to the University, that he found himself in a position thoroughly suited to his tastes and abilities. of colors on the retina, with especial reference to the phenomena of color blindness. His classical paper on Saturn’s rings was of the most important scientific measurements that have been made in recent times, the formation, namely, of the stan known as the British Association Unit of Electrical Resistance, an account of which appears in the British Association Report for 1864 But the subject which had most attraction for him was the inquiry into the ultimate constitution of matter and the mechan- ism which produces the phenomena of force, whether electrical or gravitational. Masterly expositions by him of th theory of gases are to be found in the British Association Report for 1859, the Philosophical Magazine for 1860, the Philosophical Transactions for 1867, the article on “ Atoms ” of the new Ency- clopedia Britannica, and in his only too concise and pregnan Theory of Heat. It is, however, with his attempts at a mechan- ical theory of electricity, magnetism and light that his name will Am. Jour. Sct.—THIRD — Vou. XVII.—No. 108, Dzc., 1879. ane 500 | Olituary. r Magnetism, the student will not willingly pass over his papers olecular Vortices, in vols. xxi and xxii of the Philosophical , or his Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1864. Such luminous imagination together with originality of conception is shown in. no less in his own inability to follow them out to their conclusion than in his certainty that the guide we have lost could have knit them together into a magnificent induction if only the full term of life had been allotted to him. : APPENDIX. Art. LIX.—WNotice of New Jurassic Reptiles ; by Professor 0. C. M Plate IT. ARSH, With Plate IIT Yale Museum, and some of the more interesting Dinosaurs are here briefly described. These pertain to several distinct groups, and throw considerable light on the forms already described from the same horizon.* Camptonotus dispar, gen. et sp. nov. The present genus is most nearly allied to Laosaurus, but differs in several points. The cervical vertebre are all opis- thoccelous, while those known in Zaosaurus are nearly plane. The pubis, moreover, is broad and thin in front of the acetab- ulum, and directed well forward. It has a deep, well marked articular face for the support of the femur. The ischium is expanded at its distal end, and has an extensive surface for union with its fellow. The femur is longer than the tibia. This genus agrees with Laosaurus in one important character, namely, the sacral vertebree are not codssified. That this is not merely a character of immaturity is shown by some of the other vertebrae in the type specimen, which have their neural arches so completely united to the centra that the suture is nearly or quite obliterated. To this character of the sacral ver- tebrae, the name of the present genus refers). With Laosaurus, this genus forms a distinct family, which may be called Laosauride. The teeth in Camptonotus resemble those of Laosawrus, and are in a single row in close-set sockets. The rami of the lower jaws were united in front only by cartilage. There are nine cer- vical vertebree, all of which bear short ribs, as in the Crocodiles. The dorsal vertebree have their articular faces nearly plane. The sacral vertebree in all the known specimens are separate, and their transverse processes are each supported by two centra. (Plate III, figure 3). The chevrons have their articular faces joined together. The fore limb is much a in size. acts - < digits in the manus, supported by nine carpal bones, three o: . ek are united +7 ae os the yaikial ets The number of phalanges, beginning with the first digit, was 2, 3, 3, 3,2. The * This Journal, vol. xvi, p. 411; and vol. xvii, pp. 85 and 181. 502 0. C. Marsh—New Jurassic Reptiles. form and proportions of the various elements of the fore limb are shown in Plate III, figure 1. The pelvic arch is quite unlike any hitherto described. In its general form the ilium resembles that of Morosaurus, but the proportions are reversed. The massive portion in the present genus is not in front, but behind, as the ischium is larger than the pubis. The relative position and form of the elements of the pelvic arch are shown in the figure below. Pelvic arch of Camptonotus dispar, Marsh; side view, one twelfth natural size. a. aceta i ; um; @. ilium; 7s. ischium; p. pubis; p’. postpubis. slender, and shorter than the tibia. The astragalus and calca- neum are distinct. The second row of tarsals contains but two bones. The first digit in the pes was rudimentary, and id not reach the ground. The second, third and fourth were well developed. The fifth was entirely wanting. The number of phalanges, beginning with the first digit, was 2, 8, 4,5. The structure of the hind limb and foot is well shown in Plate II, figure 2, which is taken from the same skeleton as figure 1. _ Some of the principal measurements of the present species - are as follows: ane 4° eter of posterior articular face... 41° cervical vertebra 64. ee ad O. C. Marsh—New Jurassic Reptiles, 503 _ The known remains of this species indicate an animal about eight or ten feet in height, and herbivorous in habit. All the a discovered are from the Atlantosaurus beds of the pper Jurassic. Camptonotus amplus, sp. nov. of this foot are as follow Length of second metatarsal - - - - 6a SOG Greatest diameter of proximal end.-..--.-.-.-.-- 13 Length of third metatarsal .......-...-...-..--. 345° Greatest diameter of proximal end--.-.-..--.---.-.-- 150° Transverse diameter of distal end OF Li : ength of fourth metatarsal ..---..-...-.--..---- 305° Length of first phalanx of third digit _.....------ 140° Length of first phalanx of second digit --..-_.-. -- 120° The remains of the present species are from a lower horizon in the Jurassic than those described above, but within the limits of the Atlantosaurus beds. Brontosaurus excelsus, gen. et sp. nov. One of the largest reptiles yet discovered has been recently brought to light, and a portion of the remains are now in the Yale collection. This monster apparently belongs in the Sauropoda, but differs from any of the known genera in the sacrum, which is composed of five thoroughly codssified verte- bre. In some other respects it resembles Morosaurus. The ilium is of that type, and could hardly be distinguished from walls of which are very thin. The lumbar vertebrx have their centra constricted, and also contain large cavities. The caudals are nearly or quite solid. The chevrons have their articular heads separate. The sacrum of this animal is, approximately, 50 inches (1-27) in length. © The last sacral vertebra is 292™ in length, and 330" in transverse diameter across the articular face. 504 0. C. Marsh—New Jurassic Reptiles. A detailed description of these remains will be given in a subsequent communication. They are from the Atlantosaurus beds of Wyoming. The animal was probably seventy or eighty feet in length. Stegosaurus ungulatus, sp. nov. without a third trochanter, and the ridge between the tibia and fibula is only faintly indicated. The tibia is of moderate length, and the astragalus is firmly codssified with it. The fibula is slender, and united firmly with the calcaneum and lower end of the tibia. The present species may prove to be generically distinct from the type species, Stegosaurus armatus, described by the writer from a different locality. In one specimen of the present species, some of the more important dimensions are as follows: Transverse diameter of occipital condyle -.--. --- an Nergeal dumeter.. 3. nec use 25° Transverse diameter of foramen magnum . __._. 4-+< 31° Greatest transverse diameter of brain cavity...--. 33° Length of third cervical vertebra..____.....-.--- 85° ewligeh of nhmerds 2.0 590° Length of tibia with astragalus ._...._......--.- 750° Length of terminal phalanx___.___._._..._.-_--- 85° RpvOmtee WAN a Se ak, Celurus fragilis, gen. et sp. nov. : _, A-very small reptile, apparently a Dinosaur, left its remains In the same | i , . O. C. Marsh—New Jurassic Reptiles. 505 the walls are reduced to a thin shell. There are apparently no partitions across their cavity, and the inner surface of the walls is quite smooth. The anterior caudal vertebra, at least, have essentially the same character. The trunk vertebree preserved are elongate, biconcave, with high neural arches, united to the centra by suture. The sides of the vertebrae are somewhat excavated, and the openings into the cavity are allsmall. The cup at each end of the centra is unusually smooth, and regular. The zygapophyses are near together, and stand nearly vertical. The following measurements will indicate the size of this anim Leneoth of centrum of lumbar vertebra ..-- -------- 35mm Transverse diameter of anterior face of centrum.-.- 19° ertical diameter o.oo ee en cee tenes 21° Least transverse diameter of centrum --.-..---.--- 10° Least thickness of walls of centram ....-....------ 1? Length of anterior caudal -----.----------------- 33° Transverse diameter of anterior face -------------- 5 be Thickness of walls of centrum, near middle ---.---- 1° Least transverse diameter of centrum ---.------.-- 10° The known remains of this species indicate an animal about as large as a wolf, and probably carnivorous. Yale College, New Haven, November 18, 1879. iw see AM. JOUR. SCl., Vol. XVIII, 1879. Plate III. s. scapula ; ¢. id; A. h s; r. radius; uv. ulna; I. first digit; V. fifth digit. Figure 2.—Bones of loft “hind leg of Camptonotus dispar ; as ilium ; is. ischium ; p. pubis; p’. age: f. femur; ¢. tibia ; f’ fibula; a. astragalus ; &. Soyer I. firs Hee tatarsal; TV mt. fourth Sheet Both figures Figure 1.—Bones ns - bee leg of Camptonotus dispar Marsh ; twelfth natural s : F igure 3. ok en al vert ibee: of same individual, seen from the left. a. anterior ‘ace for transverse process; }. posterio r face. —The same vertebra, dont view. ‘Both one sixth natural size. St ae. . INDEX TO VOLUME® XVIIL* A Abbay, R., The Coffee-leaf Disease, 156. Abt, petra aes lag! No sparks, Aca Ss of Sci Pein wie nsin, rates Acid, action of deh, parating hides upon taag et hyponi Aconite roots, aikaistis of, 221. northwa erican continent, 230. oe fn of the poly- Alkali motal | amalgams Allen, A. H., Organic inate 402. Andrews, ‘ r Carboniferous rocks in Ohio, 1 Arabic scientific ate Ashburner, 0. A Soto report, 148. the Kane ¢ geyser w well, 39 Association, Pome rae 80, 318, 323. British, 80, 318. Asteroids, see PLANETS Aurin, ces ainges of "into trimethyl- TO pararosa: Ayrton, new Gury of terrestrial mag- netism, 69. B Baillon, H., Dictionnaire de Botanique, Baker, J. fos Pe ida _ ypoxidaces, 1 ifour, ne servations 0 on ‘the ge- nus J Seem Bail, F., origin of ‘ae flora of the Euro- 236. pean Alps, Batlo, action of dehydrating substances u camphorie acid, 2 , GF, che aot ones 65, 140, ‘216, 304, 398, 477: note on section by T. N Dale, 409 sd Bastin, e of Chicago, 78. S., Whi Ba, it, dorelopment of oe prothal- f Platyceri 238, Bro m gr Blheot del po me in boracite, "485. B a propylene glycol from gly- cerin, Beane, rs W., Cleistogamic siwiainine same foes ee an 156. a Planta 487. Bes ne ring, sa a esis of, 3 Berthelot, ozone and the silent electric discharge, 65. charcoal from pure cellulose, 66. alkali-metal%a er 219. eo dire m of calcium oxide carbon dioxide, 399. Bismuth, tamagmetic constants of, Row- Bloxam, C. i, cee Teaching, 402. Blum, J. R., Pseudomorphs, 4 Hoihen dust fi gures produced = sound waves, Botsbaudran de,’spectrum®of ytterbium, Bossier Flora stage a 415. Botanists, decease Padogntis Revista, ee tanical Society of Edinburgh, Trans- ane Botany, Contributions to, Watson, 313. OTA ,. ‘bsorption of nee by leaves, aee A ) of, Ball, 2 Bassia latifo Bri : ( , gymnospermy of, 311. esmids, influence of cht o on, 238. Drosera rotun tundifolia, , nutrition of, 156. -andanus, observations on, 156. latycerium brea Petes of, 238. J Re. m Staining Faces 6. Tenezuela, mosses of, 316. Viola, cleis ic flowers of, 156. Veeds, pertinacity and predominance of. Gray, 161. ‘heelér’s survey, 154 Brieger, skatol, 480. G. 0., origin of the Loess, 427. romine, solidifying point of, 304. Brooks, W. E., embry of oyster. 425. ALOGY, ZOOLOGY. and armas ai relecring tnare 508 Dana um eee union of with carbon Cale-spar, Nese constants of, 8, 368. » 16. geology of Virginia, 119, 239, 436. Canada, minerals of, Ha arrington, ar Carbons in ie electric lamp, Wiley ‘arnot, echanical e eahivaion: er heat, 405. Carter, H. J., mode of growth of Strom- atopora, 240, 409. 8 ea ves gymnospermy of Coni- — 311. Charco: sg see n of cellulose poms Zoological Tebcracie, a ee lines, ee Ss which produc , 158 Ginucax ‘synthesis of, 1 Cincinnati, _ al o of Society of Natural History, 4 Cléve, the new element, scandium, 399. thulium olmi Cliff W.l ing and Thinking, an, T., recent silent discharge o Kilauea, 2277. Color-blindness, Jeffries. ‘, igneous eruptions ex the Cascade Mountain gon, 4! Conwentz, H., fossil wood from Califor- 152. O., Tertiary in Wieackcosits Oupi 8 ‘chlorids, preparation of pure, - 6 Cutter, Tolles’ objective Dale, conversion of aurin into trimethyl- Dale, 2 N. Jr., the fault at Rondout, 293. : Dall W. H,, Nordenskiéld’s expedition, Damon, W. E., Ocean phon ac 80. Case cant seeeed Op a nerals, 45 cal notes, 71, 152, 412, : tere D. Hudson River age of the “Tae a some Soe eee is clay, 104 EF, "eS pala ad with E INDEX. , J. D., geological notices, 481. geological survey of the Public oe Darw =a ae cae riments ee rs nutrition of Drosera rotundifolia, Daubrée, A. ee gg in Experi- mental Geology, 150. Dawkins, B., Early Man in Britain, 80. ae dolle, A. Hea C., Monographiz s,| Deano A Y Asiabiens Comparée des a Forer c ultramarines, 306. Decale Sree: of lactose, 480. ony 0. A., geology of the sere , 310. Diffusi uids, 416. Distillation, theory of Cactieds 304. ithioni icity of, 478. oe 71. de 2, elephant remains of Wash- 79. itory, aper, H., oxygen in the sun, 262. photogr: sphing the spectra of the stars and plane 19, Draper, J. W., v w spectrometer, 30. _| Dreehsel sleckrolviine 477 E Eaton, D. C., v —s net 76. Earthquakes, Hern ae and lane phenomena Pulte, Le Scientific Apparatus, 144. | Edinburgh, Transactions of Botanical cie Edison 2 a... resonant om fork, 395. Electric sparks, continuous spectrum of, Electrolysis with alternating currents, ATT. Engelmann, G., gymnospermy of Conif- Er hyl te aun ro bleaching pow- ro Everett. J. D., Units and Physical Con- stants, 4 05. Explosions, influence of coal-dust in, 79. + Farlow, és forid Fisher, le tetrach e, 141. Fraukiand, E., Experime oe researches in Chemistry, 69. hs, €. W. 6, voleanie = enomena F G., botanical see 238, 416. INDEX. 509 G GroLogy— Galloway, influence of coal-dust in col- Mississippi valley, less of, Hilgard, Gardner, J. Surv: rvey of of New York, 79. Moraines, terminal of og American ice-s ey — . high pressures, compressibility Moravia, pee cave in, ‘ Geikie = Old Bot Sandstone of West-| New Jersey, footprints in ‘the Meso- zOi 4 Saar of, 232. ern Europe, Outlines of Field Geology, 411. New co, Stevenson, 41. Geike, J., geology of Gibraltar, 149. Ohio, ats oe] Newberry, 409. Genth, F. or oe rth Carolina uranium “aor rocks in, erred Po GEOLOG sees OR Soarpee lower wares f, Orton, 138 he a 410, 412, 481. Oregon, igneous lon Re in, Condon, _ Departmen t of the Missouri, 239. Quebec Group, Sel Indiana, 236 Rondout, the fault at, ‘Dale, 293, — Kansas, 236, South America, former extensio innesota, 483 northward of, A } New York, 79 Stromatopora, of growth of, 240, 409 Ohio, 409. Taconic schists, Pennsylvania, a Triarthrus Bec Public Domain Utica slate, fossils o: 162. Territories os (nydon’ ’s), 408, 498. Virginia, rad of, Campbell, 16, West of 100th meridian (Wheeler), 154. 119, 239, 4 GroLogy— Volcanoes, extn about Lake Mono, i ‘onte, 3 , Giamantiferous region of, , 330 fo aa 152. Calciferous fossils, new, Walcott, 152. ps bes water and gas, Ashburner, California, shtick gravels of, Wy be pr mice pry He 277, wi Giselon ©. F., Anatomy of Am blychila, : Whitney, 145, 233 atoosa County, Geor wl gy atin Colorado, Larehic grosp of, Stevenson, | Glacial drift, McGee, 3 facts of Columbia, ae Diamond-field, ior rt of Lake Winnipeg, 482. Delomite 6f the Steel, Ti as to terminal moraines, Upham, eee su sos f glacial, Me 81, 197. oe on ‘ - cee, Glan. P.. density of the light ether, 404 Elephant remains in Washington idberg, action of bleaching powder _ Terri ethyl alcohol, 142 Teg Canadense, — on, 240, Goodale, G. L., botanical notice, 73. = Reply to Dawson on, Mobius, 17 cebe, synthesis of ae e, | hee Etna, recent pation 298. Gray, A., Structural Botan, Footprints coal meas botanical notes, 154, 336, 311, 414, ure, 232. 486... =. ; Galisteo Creek, Stevenson, 471. nacity and mie of ‘ weeds, 161. Gibraltar, Glacial, see Glacial beyond. electrical currents in plants, 41 ro River age af ths -.| Guyot, A., Map of Catskill Mts., oo teak 60, 215, 396. tacos: J mals, ee reptiles Marsh, 501. Harkness, W., color correction of achro- a i telesco are and Richthofen’s| matic pes, 189. aa 8 rrington, B. J., minerals of Ottawa uae pid Bee of, Broadhead, 421. County, Quebec, 412. London, rocks under, 151. mS new synthesis of methyl- Maclurea arnegat lime- ee Whitfield, 22 Hastings, triple objectives, 429. Mammals, new Jurassic, Marsh, 60, spree Vv. "Survey of the Territories, 215, 396. Mascachusetia Bay, Tertiary in, 148. | Heat, mechanical equivalent of, 405. 510 enslov, G., absorption of moisture by eres aves, ¥loral Dissections, 157. Heptane from Pinus sabinian Herrick, - L., Entomostraca = wen. sota, 4 Hilgard, z W,, leess of the Mississippi = valley, 1 Himes, C. r. ’ Dickinson College, 417. Hodges, N. D. ae size of cee 135. uake CG. Canatien aie 485. Plantarum, Nae balance, Hygiene and Public H Health, ag 322. Hyposulphuric acid, basi city o of, 478, Indium chloride, Ae 3 1a ae Induction balance Tron, magnetic wos tg in, Kimball, 99. amagnetic constants of | eg Jacques, W. W., dia bismuth and sens, Ae ' Janssen, solar physi Johnson, mar i of Sas by cop- per, 66. Jeffries, B. J., Color-blindness, 144. K varie silent Se mm, of, 227. Kimball, ma ¢ strains in iron, 99. yi sabettion derivatives of nitro- n tri de, 67. Koken yd! N.- von, epidote crystalli- zation, Kolbe, basicity of dithionice or hyposul- phuric acid, 478. L Lactose, synthesis of, 480. Lead 4 £24 tetrachloride, 141. te, J., extinct vol ono, 35.° Libbey, bade Princeton Scientific Expedi- Light, velocity of, Michelson, 3 ean Soci a i ee lines, 158. : osha se the Meiaatpol 106, 148, 427. ; a aeen reins meteor orology, INDEX. MacDon: na ye pda Princeton Scientific Expediti MacLean, J. ", ‘Mound Builders, 498. te Marbl e, 311 rai a of satellite $, 317. Marsh, O. sae w Jurassic mammals, 60. a io 8 ua methods of palzonto- 323. ee, W. Meteorite in Iow: gg heer 71; Shep- sin sed, of Chicago, 78. : Metsorcioey, contributions to, Loomis, 1 Methyl-violet, new synthesis 0. of, e, TL. acre Miche —. c igh 390. Microphone and dibocon tear a ded with Toles objective, Cutter, A " a 5. Bernardinite, StéUman, 57 Bhreckite, 484. Boracite, 485 vA Eggonite, 483. Bosphorit, Brush and Dana, 47. Epidote, 485. Gummite, 153. Hanghtonite, 484, errengrundite, at messi rea 72. Jarozite (with os Leucom: is ie Lithtophilite, Brush and Dana, 45, 46. Louisite, Phosphuranylite, 153. ocitrite, 4 te, 484. Relat, and D 50. Silicate, native gelatinous, 72. Uran otil, 163. Urusite, ’ Frenzel, 72. Vreckite, 484. isi Lat Wave art INDEX. Ss ttevillite, 484. Whetstone, composition of, 412. Xantholite, 484. Minerals in Fairfield County, Brush and Dana, Mobius, EK, ‘Dawson on Eozoon, TTT. rE M. v., oe dolomite region of sou n Tyrol, Sic size of, Hodges, Moon’ s motion, inequality z= * oclanels 87. Morley, E. oxygen in the air, 168. Morse, E. S., Pao mounds of Omori, 418. Mudge, B. F., Geolo; Kansas, 236. Mueller, F. v., Plants of Tce 237. Atlas of Eucalypts, N Neubauer, Analysis of Urine Newberry, geologing’ atlas of ie. 409. Nichols, E. L., character of the rays emit- | ted by slowing platinum, Nicholson, H. A., Tabulate Corals of the aaa 411 Nitrificatio: Nouvelles Archives du Museum, 31 0 urvhan Sg axwell, J. ae 499. Valpicsti ee . Objectives, Soe Rage ings, 429. rvai Mount Etna, 80. Harvard, 491. , thermic formation of hydrogen silicide and of 1 silicate, 305. Orton, E., lower Waverly of Ohio, 138 Owen, R., aur, Leiodon an ceps, il eogeee iam 8, 236. Oxygen in Morley, 1 Ozone and alent de ni Ma aies: 65. P Paleontology, — of, Marsh, 323. Paleontol wos afey Abani Macropis, ahi. Peckham, Ss “Er, fall of a meteorite in lowa, 77. Peirce, method of phe gryh aeons 112. ery aay method of swinging, Peirce, Ponjii SE. Te 295. Pentathionic acid, 4 Perry, terrestri Peters, O. H. F,, postuons of planes 54. supposed new planet, 12 C. S., wave-length comparison, | Salts, 511 Peters, C. H. F., planetoids, 2 discovery of to now asteroid 389. Hersilia and Dido, 4 shes —! pg ee of bromine, Piskcorin, C., Chronological History of Plants, 76. Pickering, E. C., Photometric Observa- ions Planets, list of m inor, Skinner, 488. new, observations on, Peters, 54, 128, 209, 389, 4 Platinum, hag besiedad by glowing, Nichols. Prestwich, caine der London, 151. Pritchett, H. S., ephemeris of ‘satellites of Mars, 418. Radiant matter, Crookes. Ramsay, A. C., rely Gra, 149. — Ry diamantif on of Reade, T. M., Chemical ting? ra in relation = ‘Geological cal Time, Reeves, W. J., History of the Setheo- nian Institution, 240. Renard, A., structure and composition peceetenl native gelatinous silicate, 72. Rivista Botanica, 1878, C. 6, ia te volcanoes, 159, 228, 308. _N,, Moder atics, 143. ~ Rosenfeld, preparation of pure ecuprous — chlori Rossi, - 's. di, Bulletino del Vulean- ismo Italiano, othrock, J. T., Botany of Wheeler’s 154. nad, H. A., ra ea BE mp mere “of bismuth and cale-spar, 36 Ruffner, E. H., lorati ee oe rtment uri, 2 Russell, J. C., footprints in the Mesozoic rocks of New Jersey, 232. ety! parse 142. Schneider, 0., Natural History of the 3 72. par pecnritde conversion of aurin into — 307. 512 fei none S.-H., Catalogue of Scientific Serials, 417. Sel See ads ogy of Canada, 4 : Shelibach, dust figures produced by - gound waves, sips ae i Estherville, ‘Towa, me- seco Silliman, B. rae te with gold, 73. cal notices, 69, 226. Skatol, “480. Skinner, A. N., minor planets, list, 488. grea J. L., native i iron of Greenland, Solar ee SUN Soret, sloitieutt announced by Cléve, 401. Sound waves, pais produced by, - Spectrometer, new form of, Draper, Spring, non-existence of scapanirais acid, tah R, ‘Se Soar a light on the motions of Desm ag Photographing ‘te spectra of, Putco: ia. Laramie group of South- ern Colorado, 129, logy of, Galisteo Creek, New Bernardinite, 5 well, JZ J inequ Ds tbe aout Stone, W. i. re 3 on Sound, 406. Strasburger, E,, on Cel — Sun, oxygen in, - photographic suai of, 403. SS w South Wales, 79. os Friction and Lubrica- ‘Ra J. E, Richthofen’s theory, and de- posits of the Missouri, 148. po he idge, > physical notices, 68, 226, ‘Tuning forks, resonant, Edison, 395. z gegong diamond-field, INDEX. 371. Ric gimmie ye 27, high te 140. mpe ratures, seri nation of, 222. tally hI, sa 8, 140. Verrill, A. E., marine fauna of North i 2 468. hs ’ geology of Catoosa Co., 4 Voleanie rocks, fusion of and fusibility of, J. D. Dana, Volcanic atop Dk gt 1878, es Volcano ‘Kes Etna, inde ote of, 2 Kilauea, silent are ne of “at. Voleanoes pee beds of felsyte and labrador not smiiect evidence Von ger “4 + ayathoss pe the benzene ring, 3 WwW Walcott, C. — fossils of the Utica slate and the m tamorphoses of Triarthrus signe i, 152. S Caieess pions from Sara- — d awards, Whitfield, R Pa ¥ Maclures mégns in the lam: : Wills atomic — ie tellurium, 479. emical Manipulation, 70. Winchell, Geology of Minnseota, 483. Wood, composition of, 67. Wri ght, alkaloids at Japanese aconite rook 221, “ Wurtz, "A, Modern Chemistry, 226. a Yiterbium, spectrum of, 216. pes is, Patton, 211. : a North America, ic