THE ax AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. JAMES D. ann E. S. DANA, ann B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITO Prorrssors ASA GRAY, Gas P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Campriner, Prorressors H. A. NEWTON anv A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Prorgssor GEORGE F, BARKER, or Putiaperpnta. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XX.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXX.] Nos. 115—120. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1880. WITH NINE PLATES. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. S. DANA. 1880. MissouR! BoTANICAL GARDEN LISRARY ERRATA. Page 351, 19 lines from foot, for C. A. Scuort, read J. E. Hit@arp. Page 358, 8 lines from top, for Y read G. Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor, Printers, CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX. NUMBER CXYV. Page Art. L—Contributions to Meteorology; by Ex14s Loomis, (Wath Plates T, I), c2c. 1: 2. enzee 1 IL—Geological Relations of the Limestone ‘Belts of West- . chester County, New York; by J. D. D cieceh ts OE ‘vit 1T.—Observations on Mount Etna; by S. P. pee Teme v. hice of Certain RihorAinate Types of ee a Land Mollusca; by C. A. Wurrs,.....-...-...--- at Le June 18. Sunrise.) 69 |,, |19 42 1000 1852. 2 Pp. M./109 Jan. 7. Sunrise.| 59 41-4 10 18} 900 1.30 P. M.|100°4 These observations bear an obvious resemblance to those made in Arizona, and show that in a very dry climate the diurnal fluctuations of temperature are excessive, and seem to leave no doubt that this is the chief cause of the great changes of temperature shown in the table on page 2, and that at the more northern stations this cause is combined with the fluctua- 6 EK Loomis— Observations of the U. 8S. Signal Service. Stations. on: Stations. | Stations. L4 Pioche, Nev. 40°3 ||Dodge City, Kan. | 62°3|\Vicksburg, Miss. | 69:0 Santa Fe, N. Mex. | 42°4||St. Louis, Mo. 63°9 |\Shreveport, La. 69°3 Winnemucca, Nev.| 4274 ||Corsicana, Tex. 65°7 ||Davenport, Iowa | 69°5 Denver, Col. 44:0 || Bi k, Dak. 66°4 ||Omaha, Neb 69°6 Salt Lake City, Ut.| 45-1 ||/Denison, Tex. 6°7 || Yankton, Dak ‘sf ( ne, Wyo Ft. Gibson, Ind. T. | 67-5 ||Keokuk, Iowa 70°3 Boise City, Idaho | 54:1 ||Dubuque, Iowa 67°9 ||Pembina, Dak 72°] Virginia City, Mont.| 54°5 ||New Orleans, La. | 68°5 ||/Duluth, Minn 73°0 Red Bluff, Cal 54:7 ||Leavenworth, Kan.| 68°7 ||Indianola, Tex 13°3 Umatilla, Oregon 5 mphis, Tenn. 68°8 ||Galveston, _ TAT North Platte, Neb.} 61-6 |/St. Paul, Minn. 68 8 ||Breckenridge, Minn.| 76°0 Pike’s Peak, Col. | 62°0 ||LaCrosse, Wisc. 68°9 Plate I exhibits the curves of equal relative humidity for the stations east of the Rocky Mountains, showing that on the east side of these Mountains there is a narrow belt of territory where the mean relative humidity is less than one-half; an there is a belt at least 400 miles wide where the mean humidity is less than two-thirds; and in ae serio we find the humidity to increase still further. What is the cause of this dry atmosphere? Only one Bomiatca 6 seems possible. The westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean have their moisture mostly condensed in passing over the Sierra Nevadas, so that between these Mountains and the Rocky Mountains, the air is generally extrerhely dry. By passing over the Rocky Moun- tains there is a further condensation of vapor, so that when the air descends on the eastern side of these Mountains it is almost destitute of moisture. The vapor which comes up from the Gulf of Mexico is diffused over the Mississippi Valley, and mingles with the dry air which comes from beyond the Moun tains, so that the dryness of the air rapidly diminishes as we advance eastward from the Rocky Mountains. n order to determine whether the sudden changes of tempe- rature, sometimes experienced near the level of ne sea, ever re- sult from the sudden descent of cold air from a great height, I ave made an extensive comparison of the o pcrvations at h Peak is 30°8° below that at Denver, and the difference of eleva- tion is 8882 feet, showing a fall of temperature of 1° for an ele- vation of 288 feet, This represents nearly the Senliees of equilibrium of a vertical column of the atmosphere. If the air at Pike’s Peak should be 40° colder than at Denver it would tend to sink, and the air at Denver would ténd to rise. accordingly selected from the volumes of published _observa- tions (Nov. 1873 to Jan. 1875, and from me n. 1877 to © Peak 1877) all the cases in which the. temperature at Pike’s P was 40° lower than at Denver. The number of these cases in twenty months of observations was 843. Only thirty-nine of these ale Pea - E. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 7 cases occurred during the seven winter months of observations, and they occurred most frequently in the month o this table is too extensive to be published entire, I selected those cases in which the temperature at Pike’s Peak was at least 45° lower than at Denver. These cases are exhibited in the following table, where column first shows the number of refer- ence; column second shows the date of the observation. [The .80 A, M. observation is denoted by the figure 1 attached to the date ; the 4.35 Pp. M. observation by the figure 2, and the 11 P. M. observation by the figure 3.] Column third shows the tempera- ture on Pike’s Peak; column fourth the relative humidity, and column fifth the direction and force of the winds on Pike’s Peak ; column sixth shows the temperature at Denver; column seventh the difference between the temperature at Denver and that at Pike’s Peak; column eighth shows how much the pressure at Denver differed from the mean pressure for the month; column ninth shows the relative humidity; column tenth the direction and force of the winds; and column elev- enth shows the direction of the upper clouds at Denver, with the amount of cloudiness (estimated in fourths of the visible heavens.) The average humidity at Pike’s Peak at the time of these observations was sixty-two, which was exactly the average humidity for the entire year 1878. The winds on Pike’s Peak generally blew from a western quarter, and in only nineteen cases did they blow from any eastern quarter. The average velocity of these easterly winds was twelve miles per hour. The fluctuations of the barometer at Denver were generally small, being sometimes above and sometimes below the mean; but the average pressure was 0°10 inch below the mean. The easterly and westerly winds at Denver were almost exactly equal in frequency, but the velocity of the west winds was more than double that of the east winds. The upper clouds at Denver were almost invariably from the southwest or west, an were never from any easterly point, and the average cloudiness of the sky was more than one-half. The most noticeable cir- cumstance exhibited by this table is the dryness of the air at Denver, the average relative humidity being only fifteen per- cent. There appears to be only one possible explanation of the source of this dry air, viz: that it came from the west side of the Rocky Mountains. The facts thus stated appear to show that at the dates given in the preceding table there was seldom any extraordinary dis- turbance on Pike’s Peak. In two cases (Nos. 60 and 61) hail was reported ; in four cases (Nos. 23, 32, 43 and 59) sleet was reported, and in fifteen other cases there was either rain or snow. These facts seem to indicate an occasional uprising of Temperature on Pike’s Peak 45° lower than at Denver. > : ; pet eit: C ie EE pe EF . e FF EERBEE E EEE E EEEE EF. be A EEE o AAs A EF ood wh aoadia ob halter a ARadaakab of Ait a) ota ec ce cene ne naneet ine sand gases edna em ehl es ene caves Gena M138 Ow Hh 9) wooew wo @® oonrtter 2m OOM © Ceeonrtowle OVO TAIN NRI OMA DO wD © at wo ae rie - onl onl OO OS rt mo c] Coden tan! Lon! mA Ae Lol SAMA et Ss a . . . x Ps . é i = EE at “ae i 4 3 es .s es] e PE de? ar SE ae BEd si HEE . BE ae of ids: ig s - 2 Ral. ee At i amalele : E SS SRS iOS Be eee aR aa eee RAS ARPS Ae AST es A ah: Fis = ails aks kien is tira an up et Gi te sal peel te SS ae eS ea reed eee S | SRaFSASSRASSSRASHSRGSSSASSITSASSSSSSSSASSRSSSSARSSSSSSL SIA mrs Eee I LTP ite Pra Peli bee tetet Te +I dtd PLIFSFt++ EET ET isS =| . a HDAanrwmwnwwmnowe ODN Mw MoOnmaAILe 2m OE~ Mme S | eeweQmowranconnwmon 21l Om 1b IO 10 219 Q HSHtttdt dt todd dddt wont todd ttt Httotoeeosedtdt tot hdinndt#tdondeddsdanadedd oto ewan oS owieS @ bcs ed tien es deck Od Ok ek Po akg are a oe Page pe EE ee calle gk Ras a eee on 5 | SSSaSHOKSOSSH Oe KOM SESESEROr Oran DODD Oe Oe HOOK RAODAD SHAD ge <4 Se a oe AR eS ; A MSRLAE SAAN SRLS SERS SeRARRARES EOS LRA SE SR ESOR* Shoo Shs Fee EE EEE Ee. Eee 4 [ne J Tem./hum.| Winds. PIKE’s PEAK. 1874. | ot ee 4 ° 0 Sea ¢ ¢ ae MAN pa PIKE’s PEAK. DENVER. 1874. |Tem. hum.) Winds. hum.} Winds. | Clouds. 58 July 16.2 42°) 83 IS.E. 12 IN. 12} 3 N.W. 59 17.2) 42 -| 83-|8.B. 22 |S.B. 16) 4 60| Aug. 6.2} 40 | 82 |S.W. 26 {E. 4,4 S.W 61 8.2] 43 | 83 |S.E.. 11 JE. 8) 4 W. 62 16.2| 47 | 29 IN.E. 14 |W. 4,4 S.W. 63 16.2| 45 | 52 |W. 12 |N.E. 4) 4 64 23.2| 38 ! 55 |N.E. 17 IN. 2! 3 SW. 65|Sep. 18.3) 16 | 83 |W. 39 |E. 3 S.W. 66 23.2) 23 |100 Ee. 43 IN.E. 13 W. 67 24,2; 28 | 48 INE. 28 |Calm. 0 68 25.2) 31 | 69 ; 3 IN.W. 8] 1 W. 69 28.2) 35 | 52 EK. 10 |N.E. 2) 0 val 30.2) 36 | 31 Me 11 |E. 4| 3 W. -711Oct. 2.2) 341 79 IS.W. 21 |S. W. 6) 4 S.W. 2 a 29 |} 46 |N. 64 |N.E. 11) 0 Q3 24.2; 19 | 69 IS.W. 16 |N.E. 9} 0 74 28.1 2 |100 |W. 23 IN.W. 8) 2 N.W. 75|Nov. 1.2/ 19 | 29 |W. 0 IN. W. 18] 0 TEé 4.2; 12 | 61 IN.W. 14 |W. 26) 2 N.W. 7 5.2} 20 | 70 IS.W. 15 |S. 10} 0 Ts 6.2} 20 | 70 IS.W. 9 |S. 17) 4 S.W. 7s 7.3) 6 | 60 |W. 23 |N.E. Vil 8 13.2.1 21) Si (Siw. 10 |N.E. 11) 2 SW. 8] 20.2 9) 57 |W. 17 |IN.W. 18) 0 85 74.9 1 |100 |W. 24 |W. 241 1 SW. 8: 25.2| 23 | 60 |W. 21 |W. 19} 1 N.W. 84/Dec. 12.2) 15 | 13 |N.W. 18 IN. 15] 3 W. 1877. 85|Feb. 7.2|—5 1100 |N.E. 40 IN. 20) 0 86|Mar.11.2} 15 | 85 |W. 5 IN.W. 15) 0 87 lig 8 | 66 |W. 39 |E. 2) 0 88 13.2/ 18 | 61 |IN.W. 8 |N.W. 15) 0 89 15.2} 25 | 40 |W. - |W. 20) 2 W. 90 18.2} 22 | 27 |IN.W. 3 iIN.W. 22) 2 W. 91 20.2| 25 | 47 IN.W. 4 |N.W. 28] 2 N.W. 92 3i: 3 1100 |W. 13 |W. 4,4 93/ April 3.2| 12 | 61 |N.W. 15 |N.W. 15| 2 SW. 94 4, 0 | 55 |S.W. 6 |IN.W. 10) 0 95 5 20 + 70 |S.E. TW. 4| 2 W. 96} 13.2] 19 | 84 |S.W. 20 |S.E. 10} 2 W. 97) = -:15.2| 22 | 72 |W. 7 |N.E. 2 98 20.2; 21 | 70 |S.W. 6 |S.E. 28) 0 99 21. 5 |100 |S.W. 14 |S.W. 10) 0 100 21.2) 17 | 83 IS.W. — iS.W. 20) 2 101 30.2; 16 | 66 IN.W. 19 |IS.W. 2S.W. 102|May 4.2/ 16 / 83 IN.W. 10 |W. 16] 3 W. 103) - 8.2) 23 | 60 |W. 7 48. 4S.W. 104 9.2} 23 | 60 IW. 6 |S. 5) 2 105 14.2} 21 | 50 |S.W. 0 |W. 20;.2 S.W. 106} 15.2 29 | 67 Is. 5 \E. 4| 3 W. 107 17.2] 21 | 85 IS.W. 6 |S.E. 4, 4 108 19. 17 |100 iS.W. 14 |E. 3} 2 109 26. 32 | 64 |W. 11 |S. 8} 2 SW. 110 27.2) 33.) 74 |W. O INE. 42 S.W. lll 28.2} 30 | 63 IS.W. TIS.E: . 12)°3 SW. 112 29.2; 27 | 55 IS.W. 3 1S. 4; 2 113}. 29.3) 19 | 85 IS.W. 14 |jS.W. 12) 2 114| 31.2] 14 | 83 Iw. 19 |W. 20} 4 10 EE. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. the warm air, but it is remarkable that so few such cases occurred, and it will be noticed that a difference of temperature of at least 45° between Pike’s Peak and Denver often contin- ued from day to day for a long period. In May, 1874, it con- tinued for sixteen successive days, and in April, "1874, it con- tinued for nine successive days. Hence it may be inferred that during these periods there was no Seat uprising of the warm air, and descent of cold air. I think we may hence infer that dry air even when greatly heated, has but little ascensional Temperature on Pike’s Peak higher than at Denver. PrKE’s PEAK. DENVER. 1873. |Tem.jhum.| Winds. |Clouds./| Tem. | Diff.|Barom./hum.| Winds.|Clouds, 1|Noy.28.1 6°| T6/W. 40 4 0°} 6°|—"09 | 71 |Calm. | 0 2|Dec. 20.1 4 50 |W. 20\4 N.W. 2 2 ,+°06 | 74 |Calm. 1 3 28.1) 41 25 /W. 610 27 1.14 | —-07 | 63 |S. 3} 0 4\Jan. 4.3 1 12 18)0 —4 5 | +°20 | 4718S. 6) 0 5.1] 10 20 IN 30) 0 8 2} +°07 | 66/8. 6| 0 6|Feb. 26.3 | 22 39 |W 32/0 13 9 | +°16 | 62 {S. 4| 0 7 14.1 5 48 18) 2 14 1 | +°17 % 5| 0 8 1.3 0 70 40/0 5 6 | +°25 | 26 |S. 5) 0 9 19.1 6 52 |N. 6/0 5 1 | —03 © Bie | 10 29.1] 5 75 |W. 15|0 4 1 | +°05 | 74 |IN.E. 6) 0 1875 ; jljJan. 8.1/—2 |100|S.W. 22 Fog. —10 8 | +°1 [7% |N.E.12) 4 12 8.2} 0 |100/)W. 42) Fog. —14 | 14 | +°28 /100 |N.E. 5] 4 12 9.1/—18/ 100 /S.W. 38/2 —23 5 | +'29 |100 |Calm. | 0 14 12.1 |—5 | 100/S.W. 14 — 8 3 |—‘1l1l {100 |N. 6) 4 af. 12.2|—2 |100|S.W. 24/4 9 7 |—'04 |100 |N.E. 8} 4 le 12.3 |—12} 100 |W. 32) 4 —15 3 | +°04 |100 | E. 4| 2 Vl’ 13.1|—11}100/S.W. 36/4 —22 | 11 /4+-02 |100 |S.E. 4} 1 1§ 13.2 }—2-|100|S.W. 24) Fog. —Il11 9 | +-06 Y.E. 6; 4 1¢ 13.3 3 1100|S.W. 38/F 10 7 | +08 v.E. 5).3 N. 2 14.1 1 | 100 |S.W. 0 —14 | 15 | +°15 |100 |S.E. 2) 0 14.2 8 |100/S.W. 28) Fog. — 4]12|—-06 | 64 |N.E. 4] 1 W. 27 14.3 5 | 100|S.W. 45) Fog. 1 4 |—-21 | #1 |N.E. 3] 3 W. 2: 15.21 12 |100)8. 40) Fog. 10 2);—°07 | 17 |N.E. 8] 4 16.2] 15 | 100 |S.W. Fog. 10 6.440141 58:1 Ne.) 3) 2°. 26 16.3} 11 | 100/S.W. 55) Fog 7 41+°08 | 77 |Calm. | 2 2€ 17.1} 10 | 100/58. 20) Fog. 1 9 |—-02 | T1 IN 6} 2 27 17.2} 16 | 100/S. 42! Fog. 4/12 |—03 | 74 IN. 8 4 28 18.1] 11 00 |S.W. 20 Fog. 1.4510} 4°12 | TL. N 1, 0 29 18.2} 15 | 100/W. 35) Fog. 14 1 | +°03 | 63 IN. 214 W. 30 18:3} 13°} % V. 20) Fog. 12 1 | +°05 | 61 3] 3 W. 31 19.1} 10 | 100|W. 1 9 l 00 | 57 |S. 6| 0 1877 32\Jan. 11.3) 7 |100/|S.W. 15/4 2 5 | +:'05 |100 |N.E. 5) 4 12.1 2|100\N.W. 8 Fog. — 6 8 | +°0 81 |Calm. | 0 12.3} 8 |100|S.W. 8/Fog. 7] LL) +10} 77 5| 0 35 13.3 00 |S.W. Fog. i 6 |—02 | 72 iS. 1; 0 36 15.3/—5 | 100/S.W. 32)4 —10 5 |— 16 | 17 21 0 37 18.1 OIS.W. 46/2 S.W. 0 0} +°05 | 85 {Calm | 0 38 22.3} 11 | 76 |W. — 6} 16}+-19 | 8218S 56) 0 241% 41S.W. .26)3 0 Ti+: 85 |S. 4, 0 EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 11 force, and that the violent uprising of heated air, which is fre- quently witnessed in humid climates, especially during thunder storms, is mainly due to the presence of a large amount of aqueous vapor. I next made a comparison of the cases in which the tempe- rature at Denver was lower than at Pike’s Peak. These cases are thirty-nine in number, embraced in a period of twenty months’ observations, and they are shown in the preceding table which is arranged like that on pages 8 and 9. t will be noticed that thirty-one of these cases occurred in the month of January, and all occurred in the four months from November to February. The average relative humidity on Pike’s Peak at these dates was eighty-four, and at Denver seventy-one. On Pike’s Peak about half of the winds were from the southwest, and none of them were from any eastern point. - The average velocity of the winds was twenty-seven miles per hour. At Denver the wind never blew from any western point, and its average velocity was only four miles per hour. At Pike’s Peak the average cloudiness (counting fog as sky entirely overcast) was 0°71; and at Denver 0°36. The barometer at Denver was sometimes below the mean and some- imes above it, but the average was ‘06 inch above the mean. One of the most noticeable circumstances exhibited. by this table is the humidity of the air at Denver, showing that this air did not come from the west side of the Rocky Mountains, and the —_ fact is indicated by the observed direction of the winds. We thus learn that during periods of severe cold at Denver, the thermometer is frequently lower there than it is on Pike's Peak, and hence we must conclude that this cold did not result pet the subsidence of air from the upper regions of the atmos- ere. In order to test this conclusion more fully, I selected all those cases in which the thermometer at Denver sun ow as +5° from November, 1873, to June, 1878, and the lowest temperature at Pike’s Peak for the same date was entered in the same table. The number of these cases was ninety-nine. The average of these observations at Denver was —2°4°, and the average at Pike’s Peak was —9:0°, showing that it was only 6°6° colder at Pike’s Peak than at Denver. next made a similarcomparison for Mt. Washington and two neighboring stations. I selected all the cases from Novem- ber, 1878, to June, 1878, in which the thermometer at Burling- ton, Vt., sunk as low as +5° and determined the lowest tempe- rature on Mt. Washington for the same dates. The number of these cases was 145. The average of these observations at Bur- lington was —2-7°, and at Mt. Washington —18-9°, showing 12 E. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. a difference of 162°. The average difference of tempera- ture of these stations, as determined from six years’ observa- tions, is 19:0°. I next selected all the cases in which the thermometer at Portland, Me., during a period of five years sunk as low as +10°, and determined the lowest temperature on Mt. Washington for the same dates. The number of these cases was111. The average of these observations at Portland was +3:2°, and at Mt. Washington was —19-7°, showing a difference of 229°. The average difference of temperature of these stations for a period of six years has been 19°7°. If take the average of the results for Burlington and Portland, we shall find that during these cold periods the difference of temperature between Mt. Washington and the level of the sea was identically the same as shown by the daily observations of six years, ture at that station for the winter months, and may reasonably be ascribed to the heat developed during the winter months by the condensation of vapor on the Sierra Nevadas and the including the changes above mentioned. I have also added a second table showing the relative humidity for the same sta- tions at the same dates. Thermometer, January, 1875. ‘a a oe 3 ie | (ae ae = di f|4\2e|8 ele |e luletal4@ls 8 AlSia/s/slaliaie|ei/2/2/2/28 Pel-ae wee Ob eee eu ee ak: ; AIFIS/AlAlzalAlalalelaAlalo/é& 3.1] 27] 26] 22) 32)/— 4) 3) 1/—16/— 9|— 7/—20/—22] 1) 32 3.2] 41 |— 5) 2] 40/— 2) 4) 4/— 5j— 1) Oj}—12/— 9] 6] 33 3.3| 32 |— T|— 8} 3i— 6|— 3} 1]—12)— 2i— 1/—17/—14) 4! 29 4.1} 25 |—12/—12} o|— 8/— 8} 1/—15/—10/—10/—16/—1 1] 15 6.2| 28 |— 2/— 2} 4] 0] 5) 9g|— 5] 3} 4/—11/— 2] 10) 26 53/19 |— 6] 0} 3/— 7]— 7] 2]— 6/— 3} 6/—10/— 4) 8] 26 6.1] 14 |— 8]— 4|/—12/—13|/—18]— 9]—18|—10|—16/—24/—15)— 1] 22 6.2] 27 | 10) 21) 15|— 7] 5] 10} 2} 11} 2!—12/— 1] 16] 30 6.3] 23 | 2) 9} 6/—16)/—10/— 2}—15|/— 4|—11|—21/—16] 6] 29 7.1{ 23 | 16] 13] 10/—10/—17} 0|—21/—12)/—17)—17/—22] 5] 26 7.g| 34 j/— 8} 31) 44) 2] 15) 12/— 5) 1 7— 7] 0] 20] 32 7.3| 38 |—22|/— 3] 39/— 25] 22}—20/— 2] 13/—15/— 5] 19] 24 8.1 | 36 |—30|--23|/—10|— + 2|—27|—26|—22/—31|—30|—10} 27 8.2] 31 |—24)—16|—14! ¢ 2)—27/—21|—19/—30|—27/—15} 7 8.3 | 23 |—28/—37|— 4|/— 16] — 1¢ 31|—33|—29/—15|— 3 [3.1] 18 |—44|/—23|—22/—11|/—22|—19|—33|—26|—23)—28/—30|—17|} 8 3.2] 24 |—35|— 1}—11]— 2|/—13]—13|/—25|—21|—20|—19|—20|—11] 13 3.3| 21 |—40)—13/—10/— 8] —23|—24|—17/—28]—1 8 4.1] 34 |—35|—11/—1 30|—27|—25|—28/—30|/—13] 2 4.2] 43 |—29/— 1/— 4} 8/— 6|— 9|—15|/— 6|/—12/—15/—12/— 5] 16 4.3) 43 |—26| 24) 1) 5|—11/— 3|/—15/—10|/— 7}/—23/—26!— 6| 11 5.1] 32 |—23] 28) 43) 6/— 8| 6/—22/—10/—10/—14)—12/— 6| 9 15.2] 26 |—18} 5) 10} 12\— 1) 6/—12/— 7/— 4/—10|— 4} 9] 39 15.3 | 23 |—27/— 6| 13] 10/— 4|/— 2)/—22|/—10|— 8|—20)—23] 1] 29 Relative Humidity, January, 1875. S18 4 E 5 cee tee $isigigigi ers Pigee ei stella s SUSIEEIEIZIZ 21/2 1213/2128 2ielsiaglkle Slain lelaléla@ 3.1] 77 | 77 | 72 | 30 | 100) 73 | 71 | 68 | 56 | 59 {100 | 81 [100 | 89 3.2 | 30 | 66 |L00 | 28 | 100] 87 | 74 | 63 | 52 | 56 | 75 | 68 | 52 | 90 3.3} 60 | 63 |100 | 73 |100/ 69 | 71 | 75 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 82 |100 | 89 4.1 | 63 | 54 |100 | 69 | 100| 58 | 71 | 47 | 54 | 54 | 70 | 85 |100 | 83 5.2| 44 | 69 | 67 [100 | 100 |100 | 78 ; 26 | 46 | 73 | 77 | 68 | 68 | 63 5.3) 54 | 81 100 | 19 | 100] 63 | 72 | 61 | 66 | 76 | 77 | 83 |100 | 88 6.1] 64 | 61 50 | 73] 66 | 58 | 34 | 54 | 69 | 51 | 85 | __ | 95 6.2) 77 | 40 | 39 | 14] 59|/ 75 | 68 | 44 | 78 | 58 | 50 | 67 | 65 | 59 6.3| 73 | 72 | 57 | 52 | 70| 54 | 69 | 42] 65 | 72/| 61 | 85 | 76 | 68 - 1.1 | 13 | 66 | 61 |,38 1100] 68 | 69 | 0 | 50 | 68 | 69 | 80 | 87 | 82° 7.2] 69 | 61 | 48 | 9 |100/ 82 | 80 | 63 | 40 | 65 70 | 77 | 60 7.3| 46 | 24 /100 | 38 | 100] 75 | 72 |100 | 67 | 71 {100 | 91 | 84 | 74 8.1| 45 | 43 |100 | 77 | 100! 67 | 50 | 47 | -. | 59 |100 | 90 |100 | 88 8.2 59 | 73 |100 | 100] 42 | 50 | 48 | .. | 65 |100 | 85 | _. | 80 8.5) 60 | 49 1100 | 82 |100| 40 | 54] 0 | .. | 62 100 | 85 | .. | 52 3.1/ 68 | 0 | -. |100-}100| 60 | 30] 0} .. | 67 | .. | 82] .. | 78 3.2) 61 | 32 0 |100| 47 | 52 | 53 | .. | 64 | 65 | 64] .. | 46 3.3 -- | 47 | 54/100] 72 | 45 | 45} .. | 57 | 68 | 85 | .. | 68 4.1 30 | 76 {100 | 100) 74 | 72] Of ...| 63) .. | 83 | .. | 72 4.2/ 50 | 63 | 68 | 64 | 100/ 61 | 66 | 42 | 57 | 74] 72 | 67 | 82 | 33 4.3/ 50 | 54 | 60 | 71 |100| 76 | 66 |100 | 77 | 79 | 59 | 85 |100 | 60 5.1} 84 | 36 | 67 | 21 | 100/ 79 | 52 | 60 | 54 | 76] 72 | 85 | 88} 78 15.2| 52 | 39 | 75 | 17 | 100| 68 | 52 | 50 | 59 | 65 | 54 | 66 | 67 | 37 15.3 52 | 61 | 44 | 100| 64 | 67 | -. | 52 | 58 | 64 | 85 | 85 | 89 14. EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. & Signal Service. These observations show considerable changes of tempera- ture at Denver, but they do not show the entire range of the thermometer, and they give no adequate idea of the sudden- ness of the changes. We perceive that between 11 Pp. M., Jan- uary 14th, and 7 a. M., January 15th, the thermometer at Den- ver rose 42°. We also perceive that the relative humidity fell from 71 to 21. The wind, which had previously blown from the northeast with a velocity of 8 miles per hour, at 9 P. M. (Denver time) veered suddenly to southwest with a velocity of 12 miles per hour. These three circumstances, viz: the direc- tion of the wind, the dryness of the air and its high tempera- ture, prove beyond doubt that this air came from the west side of the Rocky Mountains. On the previous day the tempera- ture at Salt Lake City was 43°, and the relative humidity was 50°. An area of low pressure passed over San Francisco, Jan- uary 14th about 4p. mM. During the following night the center passed near Salt Lake City, and at 4 p. M., January 15th, the center was near Leavenworth, having traveled about 1, miles in twenty-four hours. It was this storm which brought tion of the vapor. This warm and dry air supplanted the cold air which previously prevailed at Denver, and which still pre- vailed at neighboring stations east and north of Denver. A similar change, but of less magnitude, occurred at Cheyenne a little before the change at Denver, while at Dodge City and Omaha the change was still less, and at stations further north the change was scarcely appreciable. After the center of low ressure had passed Denver, the northeast wind returned and rought back the cold air which had constantly prevailed at stations not very distant. A similar change occurred at Chey- enne, nid aectnba at about the same hour. Thus we see that in winter, during periods of extreme cold on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, when the temperature at Denver sometimes sinks more than 20° below zero, there prevails in the Salt Lake Basin an average temperature of about 80°; and when by changes of atmospheric pressure this air is carried over the mountains it may reach Denver with a temperature of 50°, resulting from a precipitation of its vapor on the mountains. We then find a mass of air having a temperature of +50°in close proximity to a mass of air having a temperature of —20°, and by the movements of the atmosphere attending te of agreat storm these different masses of air may be brought EF. Loomis-— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 15 successively over the same station, causing a change of tem- perature of 50° in a single hour. he other cases of sudden change above enumerated admit of similar explanation. During January 7th there was a great rise of the thermometer at Denver, accompanied by a dry wind from the southwest. The next morning the thermometer fell suddenly with a wind from the northeast, which brought back the cold air which steadily prevailed at stations in the north. This change also accompanied the progress of an area of low pressure, which was apparently central near Virginia City on the morning of. the 7th, and was central at St. Paul on the morning of the 8th. This storm was accompanied by similar changes of temperature at Virginia City, Cheyenne, and the other stations within the area of low pressure, but at none of them were the changes as great or as sudden as at Denver, for the reason that Denver is most favorably situated for feel- ing the influence of the mountains. The stations of the Signal Service which are nearest to the dividing ridge of the Rocky Mountains are Denver, Cheyenne and Virginia City. On the West of Denver, at the distance of only 40 miles, rises a con- tinuous mountain range of 12,000 feet elevation, while at Chey- enne the mountains are more distant and of less height, and near Virginia City the height of the mountains is still less. n the morning of January 3d the wind at Denver blew from the West with a velocity of 12 miles per hour. The air was warm and very dry. Between 3 and 5 p.m. the thermometer fell suddenly with a north wind. Similar changes were expe- rienced at Virginia City and Cheyenne, accompanied by an area of high pressure pursuing an area of moderately low pressure. The case of January 5th was more remarkable for the sudden- ness of the change of temperature than for the magnitude of the change, and resulted from the passage of an area of slight barometric depression. Barometric minima cross the Rocky Mountains. In former papers, particularly Nos. 8 and 9, I have shown the United States. In order to investigate this subject more fully, I selected from the published observations of the Signal Service (Sept., 1872, to Jan., 1875, and Jan. te May, 1877,) all those cases in which the barometer at Corinne or Salt Lake City was at least 0-4 inch below its mean height for that month. (‘The observations at Corinne ceased March 19, 1874, and those at Salt Lake City commenced the next day.] These cases are shown in the following table, in which column Ist gives the number of the storm; column 2d the date of the observation ; Barometer 0°40 inch below the mean at Corinne and Salt Lake City. i Reached the ; g as Atlantic Ocean. | wing on No. Date. S Wind. | 3 & | Lowcenter, | First appearance. a hy Ft © Date. | Lat.| ° °°" 1872. 2 Nov. 8.2/29°61/S, 19} 00 /350 E.N.E. |Portland, Or. Noy. 12) 45 8.3 30| ‘02 [600 E.N.E. 9.1) “T6)W. 14 1/750 E.N.E. 12.1] “72|N.W. 31} °08 |200 E. Portl., Or. &Virg. C.;Nov. 15) 47 1873. 3 Jan. 3 *62)S. 20) :00 1120 N. Portland, Or, Jan. 6} 48 4 | 26.2} °63/S. 16] 43 | 80 N. Portland, Or. ? ? 26.3} °59)N.W. 22] -03 |Corinne 30.1} °64/Calm 00 |300 W.N.W.|Portland, Or. Feb. 5) 45 5 30.5 521N. 00 (300 W.N.W. 30.: 60/E. 4)/Snow|530 W.N.W. 31. 65/S.W. = : Feb. 23.3} ‘52)N. 12] -00 |250 W. San Francisco. * |Feb. 28) 43 24.1} -49)N. Snow/300 6 24.5 41)S. 14 {120 W 24.é 38/S.W. 20} Rain|200 25. 53/8. 5] ‘24 | 50 W. ; 7 March 6.1] -68/8. 20} °00 |470 N.E. Portland, Or. March 9) 45 8 April 2.3] °47)S. 11] 00 |120 N. Portland, Or. ? Sept. 25.1} °59/S. 8; 00 |480 N. Portland, Or. ? 50+] - ; 25.2| -60/S.W. 22] -00 |680 EN 25 *63|N. 24) -00 |710 E.N.E. 0 26.3} “G2|N. 14) 00 |175 W. San Francisco. Sept. 29) 50 11 Oct. 7.1) “T1IN. 14] Rain/400 N. Portland, Or. Oct. 12] 44 e) { Dec. 7.1) °61/8. 5} "16 |100 W. Portland, Or. 9] 45 IS.W. 18 7.2} ‘61/IS.W. 6) -11 |Corinne. SW. 32 © 1874. 2. “62'S 12} 03 |700 N.E. Ft. Benton. Jan. 5) 45 /W. 40 13 2.2} 22/8. 20} 00 |700 E.N.E. |. S.W. 20 2.3} °58)S. 04 |700 E. S.W. 30 - : 16.2} -60/S. 10] -00 |350 N.W. | Portland, Or. Jan. 20) 45 |W. 18 sa 16.3| -67/E. 00 |560 N.E. W. 50 1 63/8. 2) 00 r W. 303 li 53/S.E. 2/Snow/700 E.N.E. S.W. 20 © 16 19.3] °64/S. 20] 00 | 70 N. Portland, Or. Jan, 23) 45 |S.W. 10 — 20. “59 W. 10} 00 |130 N, WwW. . 20 Feb. 11.3) ‘56/W. 12] 00 |770 E. Portland, Or. Feb. 14| 49 |S.W. 26 — 16 12 55/Calm. 00 |950 E. W. be 12.5 Ss. 20) 00 |250 WwW. 23 12 56|S 20|Snow/500 N.W. WwW. 22 7 18. 59/8 12|Snow|600 E.N.E. |Portl.,O. & Ft. Bent.|Feb. 20) 47 |S.W. | 18.2} -61/S 41 : S.W. 20 18 March 16. 45\Calm Snow|600 E.N.E. |Portl., O. & Virg. C.|March 20} 50 |W. 24 — 19 April 11, 51)S. 17| 00 |200 N.N.W.|San Francisco. April 15} 48 |S.W. 23 — Oct: 23. 58)S. 12} 00 |Salt Lake C.| Bismark. Oct. 28) 47. jS. : 20 24.21 “61/8 2| -05 |470 B.N.E. .W. 52 24. 8 4) 00 |700 N.E. ; a 21 Nov. 6. 50|N.W. 15) 02 |700 K.N.E. |Portland, Or. Nov. 10} 48 |S.W. 60 — 45/8. 2} ‘00 |700 K.N.E. | Bismark. Nov. 24| 50 |S.W. 32 — 22 21. 41/S.W. 8] 00 |700 E.N.E. .W. 28 © | 54/Calm 00 |840 E.N.E. N.W. 65 — 23 Dec. 26.2| -67/NAV. 10] -05 |Salt Lake O,|Portland, Or. Dec, 29) 47 a 12 24 Jan. tg *53|Calm. 22 |350 E. Portl., O. & Virg.C.\Jan. 14] 48 {S.W. 25 — 1877. 4 g5§ Jan. 10.2) -62)S. 4) -02 |580 KE. Ft. Sully. Jan, 13/43 |W. 24 f 10.3} -67|N.W. 12) 00 (600 E. N.W. 10 — 26 14.2} -59|S.E. 3] -01 [650 E. San Diego. Jan. 16] 45 |S.W. 7 16.2] -60/E 4} 00 |420 N.W. |Portland, Or. Jan. 21; 48 |W. 38 27 16.3} °56 8} 00 [500 N.W. WwW. 58° 17.1] °62 16) 00 |600 N.W, WwW. 64 28 Feb. 23.2; ‘63/S.E. 4! -00 |Salt Lake C.|Portland, Or. — |—/S.W. 29 March 2.2] 47 4| :23 |320 E. Portland, Or. March 6] 47 |W. 30 E. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 17 column 3d the height of the barometer; column 4th the direction and force of the wind; column 5th the rainfall during the pre- ceding 8 hours; column 6th the direction and distance of the low center from the place of observation; column 7th the station where the low center first made its appearance; column 8th the date at which the low center reached the Atlantic Ocean; col- umn 9th the latitude of that point; and column 10th the direc- tion and force of the wind on Pike’s Peak at the date given in column 2d. It will be noticed that the highest velocity of the wind at Corinne and Salt Lake City was 31 miles per hour, and the average velocity at the dates mentioned was less than 11 miles per hour. Southerly winds were three times as frequent as northerly winds. In only six of the cases did the wind blow from any eastern quarter, and its greatest velocity from this quarter was four miles per hour. e amount of rain or snow attending these storms was very small, the average during the eight hours preceding the dates of observation being less than 0°05 inch. In eight cases rain or snow is mentioned in the column headed “state of the copa when no entry is made in the column headed “ rain- In a few cases the low center appears to have passed directly over the station of observation, but generally it passed a little north of Salt Lake, and in no case did it pass south of it. the twenty-nine storms here enumerated, the stations at which a first indications of the low area are noticeable are as fol- OWS: Portland, Or., 17 cases. | San Diego, 1 case. Portland, Or., & Virginia City,. 3 cases. | Fort Benton, 1 case. Portland, Or., and Fort Benton, 1 case. | Bismark,..._..-- 2 cases. San Francisco, 3 cases. | Fort Sully, 1 case. appeared simultaneously at Portland, Or., and Virginia City or Fort Benton, and it is probable that these storms came from the Pacifie Ocean, but came from a latitude north of 50°, so that they appeared in the United States on both sides of the Rocky Mountains at about the same time. There remain only four cases, viz: Nos, 13, 20,22 and 25. In these cases the dis- turbance apparently originated on the east side of the Rocky Mountains and thence extended to Salt Lake and the Pacific coast. In none of the cases’ did the low appear to originate between the Sierra Nevadas and the Rocky Meastdinn n all but three of these storms the low area can traced to the Atlantic Ocean, which it reached in a latitude betwee Am. Jour. ‘aa mee Surizs, VoL, XX, No. 115.—Juty, 1880, 18 £. Loomis—Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 43° and 50°, averaging about 47°. No. 9 moved northward beyond our stations of observation, and probably reached the Atlantic Ocean somewhere north of lat. 50°. No. 4 apparently os. 8 and 1. No great barometric disturbances originate in the Salt Lake Basin. 2. Nearly all the great barometric disturbances experienced in the Salt Lake Basin come from the Pacific Ocean, and they generally come from the northwest. .8. Nearly all the great barometric disturbances experienced in the Salt Lake Basin can be traced to the Atlantic Ocean. They generally meet it near lat. 47° and occupy from two to six days in the passage, making an average of 34 days, which cor- sears Ss toa movement of about 700 English statute miles per day. “There is a noticeable uniformity in the direction of the winds on Pike’s Peak at the date of the preceding observations. The winds were generally from the west or southwest, and in no case from north, northeast, east or southeast. The average direction of the winds on Pike’s Peak, as determined from the observations of five years, is N. 75° W. The average of the directions in the preceding table is S. 65° W., differing 40° from the mean direction. This result indicates that at the time of EE ee oe ee Pee eee ee Se ee EF. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service, 19 cated. One is by curves representing from day to day the fluc- tuations of the barometer at the various stations, as shown in Plates I and I, accompanying my ninth paper. These curves indicate distinctly the eastward progress of low areas, but they do not show the center of a low area, and therefore do not indicate the exact path of the low center. There are two methods by which the position of the center of a low area can be traced from day to day, viz: by isobaric lines or isabnormal lines. If we employ isobaric lines, it is requisite that the ob- servations at all the stations should be carefully reduced to sea level, and, in the case of the mountain stations, this in- noticeable in very violent storms. Plate II exhibits the isobars for April 11, 1874, at 4:35 p.m. This is a storm which was moved from Lake Superior to Norfolk, Va.; that is, from northwest to southeast, maintaining during the whole time nearly the same pressure. The direction of the winds, April 11th at 4:35 P. M., west of the Mississippi river, corresponded with what is usually ob- served about a low center, with the exception of Portland, r., and Virginia City. The latter observation seems to indi- eate that the center of the low area was further north than is represented upon the map; but we find frequent anomalies in the direction of the winds~at the mountain stations, as will be 20 =. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. is obstructed in the valleys between the mountain eae that here the direction of the wind may be opposite to that which prevails above the mountains. If we attempt to trace the progress of storms across a Rocky Mountains by curves of isabnormal besuvenegs we hav no occasion to reduce the observations to sea level ; cones less, when we aim at great precision we find a difficulty rae com- paring mountain stations with stations at a lower level, inas- much as the barometric fluctuations generally diminish as we rise above the level of the sea. In order to find what correc- tion is due to this cause I determined the mean monthly range of the barometer at all the stations of the Signal Service west of the Mississippi river according to the published observa- tions (now amounting to thirty-five months). The following Mean monthly range of the Barometer. BIBISIS)/elelelelals t=] a a) a 2 oe. ed ie Ben (mses at =a Be Me» ea Pk oo te Oe = Portland, Or. |1°15 |0°95 |0°82 |0°85 |0°62 |0°54 |0°3 5 04 m Francisco|0°81 | ‘70| 51] +54] -37)| -41 Chis San Diego 0°46] °56| -41| -42| -31| -29| -27] -25| -35| -37| -45| -44] -38 Virginia City |0°88 | *82] -66/ -61| °58| 51) °35/| -34] -66]| -66| -85| -86| °65 Corinne EI ft 93] °83} 96] 67] -47| 42] -35] 66] 60] -81] 77] “72 ry “I1| “16) -71| 64] -48| 42] -40| -69| -71] -79] -75| “65 Salt Lake City] ‘77 | “69] "75| -39]| -48| -53| -36| -32] -66| ‘79 /1°00| -84] °63 De TT] *81| 77] 69) -54| -46] -43] -76] “72| 84] -76] “70 nton 1°23] ‘92} -99/1-0 62| -68| -63|1-01| °87-/1-22 |1-00| 92 Bismark 1-17] -97 [1-14 |1-29| -8 30 [1°84 |1-44 t. Sully [50 |1-37 [1°45 [1-13 |1-11 | 90] -90} -82 [1-16 |1-24 |1-21 [1-31 Yankton 44 |1-38 |1-34|1-13 |1-03 | -80| -76| -69 {1-15 {1-13 |1-41 [1°15 [L-12 1-39 |1-37 |1-09} -91] -71| -71| -57| -87 |1-05 [1-39 [1-16 North Platte |1°41 1-30 {1°25 |1-10| -78 1-29 |1-65 [1-13 1-45 | °86 {1°29 |1-0 88 1-10 [1-33 |1-11 Pembina 1°45 1°27 1-25 |1°07 [1-08 | -80| -78| -73/1-06 |1-00 {1-36 [1-32 [1-10 Duluth 1°35 |1°38 |1°24 |1°12 | -95| -98| -67| -63| -88 1-11 1-44 [1-33 [1-09 Breckenridge |1°42 |1°32 |1°34| -99|1°11| -87| 76) -62/| -97 |1-18 |1-42 [1-32 |1-11 St. Paul 1-27 |1°39 |1-34| -92 80| °63| °61) 91/1712 [1-34 |1-29 |1-04 Crosse 20 {1-43 1-25 | -95| -87| -75| -63| -59| -84 {1-14 11-30 |1-34 [1-02 Dubuque 1714 }1°32 |1°24|1-06| -75| -66| -65 1 1 Davenport 14 |1-44|1-21 | -99| -77| 61 | 55} -55/ -73}1-00 [1-32 [1-17 Leavenworth |1°30 |1°34 [1°25 |1-07 | -77| -61| -61] -53/ -82| -97/1-29 l1-13| -97 St. Louis 1-17 |1°20|1°19| -94| -71| -56] -51| -55| -67| -84|1-22 |1-08| -89 Cairo [14 |1°02 {1°16 | -91 2| -45| -45/ -48| -70|1-07| -s9| -78 Ft. Gibson [1-28 {1°06 |1°04| -95| -77| -49| 54] -46| -63| -91 1-11 |1-02| -86 Memphis 105 | -97|1°01| -88| 58} -45] -43] -38| -43| -59/10 13 ae 23 yeaa * J. D. Dana—Lnmestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 21 situated near the Pacific coast; the next seven stat situated among the mountains; the next seven stations are table shows the results obtained. The first three stations are ions 1,000 and 8,000 feet; and the last twelve stations are elevated less than 1,000 feet above the sea. next proceeded in the manner described in my twelfth paper, page 90. I determined the mean annual range of the barometer at a point on the Pacific coast, and also the range at a point in the Mississippi valley, each having the same latitude as one of the mountain stations. Between the two results thus s the barometric fluctuations observed at Salt Lake City should be increased by 8 per cent, and those at the other mountain ceo viz: Virginia City, Cheyenne, Denver and Santa Fe, shoul i metrical than when no correction is applied. n preparing the materials for this article I have been assisted by Mr. Henry A. Hazen, a graduate of Dartmouth College of the class of 1871. Art. II.—On the Geological relations of the Limestone Belts of Westchester County, New York; by James D. DaNa. WESTCHESTER County is comprised within the Green Moun- tain region; and my studies of the County have been carried on with special reference to the subject of Green Mountain geology.’ In commencing my observations in Western New England, I had in view the following points : 1) To determine the limits of the series of rocks associated ' For my former papers, see this Journal, third Series, iv, 362, 450, 504; v, 47, 84; vi, 257, 1872, 1873; xiii, 332, 406; xiv, 36, 132, 202, 257, 1877; xvii, 375; and xviii, 61, 1879; xix, 191, 1880. ? 22 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the ting these Lower Silurian beds; and (4), to ascertain, conse- quently, how far the kinds o crystalline rocks found in the conformable series can be used as a test of geological age. 8 the fossils of the limestone had been discovered only in Vekiaoh, it was required, in order to extend the conclusions to the rest of the Green Mountain region, that the Vermont lime- stone should be proved to be the same stratigraphically with that of the region to the south; and this was done by ascer- taining (1) the essential I continuity of the limestone fon the north to the south and south-southwest, and (2) its association with similar rocks frola mdith to south, under similar strati- graphical relations; and finally (8), by the discovery of Lower Silurian fossils in the part of these belts of limestone that reach into and beyond Dutchess cone and also in the associated Taconic schists of that Coun By these means, it has back shown that the schists of die Taconic range, t the limestone belts on either side, and various oe schistose rocks and limestone belts farther east and west, are comprised within the Lower Silurian formation, and that the whole series was displaced together in the upturn- ne oe metamorphism by which the Green Mountains were made The demonstration in my former papers does not reach into the region south of the limits of Dutchess County and of the cag is a event . Connecticut. I present now observa- e points from this more southern region in the State of New York, avin the discussion of the facts from hppa As another paper. I have not am ag Saree to work In my paper “On the. Hudson River age of the Taconic Schists,” published in this Journal in 1879, the accompanying map exhibits the fact that the Lower Silurian schists and lime- stones of Dutchess County have their southern limit = git or among the Archean rocks of the Highland range. igh- land Archean area extends eastward from the BPadabe over Putnam County, to a distance less than twenty miles, falling short of the New Bngland boundary by four or five miles— the rocks at Brewster, west of and along the Havleen railroad being of the Highland character, even to ‘the existence of a great iron-ore bed, while those farther east are mostly distinct i kind and system. The extreme breadth of the area is about fifteen miles; but the outside rocks, just referred to, send prolonga- tions ‘through its supposed boundary, and cover part of its interior. a7. vars Dale, ae ae xvii, 57, 1879; the writer, ibid., xvii, 375, and xviii, 61, 1879; W. B. ne ibid., xvii, 389, and xix, 50, 451, 1886; R. FP. Whi itfield, ibid. " xviii, ies “1879 Inmestone Belts of Westchester County, New York. 23 f (1843), and that of Percival on the Geology of Connecticut (1842). Mather mentions the principal kinds of rocks, various localities for those that are of special or economical interest, and some stratigraphical facts. Many: localities of limestone are given, and I have thence derived much aid in the study of the region. On his map the positions of several of the areas In presenting my observations I will speak first, of the rocks; secondly, of the general distribution of the limestone areas or belts; thirdly, of the special positions and stratigraphy f the limestone areas; and /ourthly, of the relations of the rocks to one another and to the Green Mountain system. 1. Tue Rocks. The rocks are (1) the ordinary metamorphic rocks of the County, not caleareous; (2) Calcareous rocks or limestones; (8) Serpentine and other hydrous materials; (4) Augitic and Hornblendie rocks not included above. (1.) Ordinary metamorphic rocks of the County, not Calcareous. Of these metamorphic rocks, the prevalent kinds are mica- ceous gneiss, mica schist, ordinary gneiss, and hard felds- pathic and granitoid gneiss. Besides these, and subordinate to them, there are hornblendie varieties of mica schist and mica- ceous gneiss, and hornblende schist. Granulyte is also found, especially in the northeastern part of the County, and in some places metamorphic granite. _In the mica schist and gneiss, both of the two common kinds of mica, the black (biotite) and the light-colored (musco- vite) are usually present together ;* but the black greatly pre- dominates. True muscovite gneiss or muscovite mica-schist is * The black may be in part lepidomelane, a point not investigated, as it requires a series of chemical analyses. 24 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the of rare occurrence. Blackish gray beds, owing their dark color to the very large proportion of black mica, often alternate with whitish or light-colored beds in which muscovite is the most abundant mica. Frequently, also, mica schist graduates into gneiss in the direction of the be ding as well as transverse to The distinction of gneiss from mica schist is, therefore, made often with difficulty, and the restriction of the latter term to kinds consisting of mica and quartz without feldspar is im- practicable. The rocks of New York Island are good exam- ples of the ondanasy. rocks of Westchester County, both as to kinds and their transitions. Sagan qc varieties of the mica schist and gneiss are com- A variety of micaceous gneiss in Singsing, contains jai elliptical crystallizations of muscovite. A cyanitic mica schist is met with on New York Island, as announced by Pro- fessor D. S. Martin.* A dark gray fibrolitic enees containing some tourmaline has been described by Professor A. A. Julien, as occurring at New Rochelle.’ (The saiiafals cyanite and fibrolite are alike in composition, they being eo similar aluminum silicates, and differing only in crystallizatio Hydromica schist, of the slightly crystalline Taeey, resem- one ees a glossy roofing slate, occurs in the northwestern e County, north and northeast of Peekskill, on the a of the Archean of the emesis” It is called talcose found in the County. Across the Hudson Riv ver, in Roc Kkland County, 1 in the continuation of the same stratum, near Tomp- kins’ Cove, the slate is very carbonaceous, as Mather’s report states, and ‘much of it is still less me tamorphic in its aspect. Quartzyte constitutes a stratum several hundred feet thick in pointed out by Mather. But a large part of the rock in that region contains more or less feldspar, and often also mica in rather indistinct grains; looking either like an underdone mica- less granite or eranitoi id gn gneiss. It is usually much jointed aad without distinct bedding. The northern part of the mass, at the mouth of the river north of Peekskill, is a true siliceous quartz- yte, fine-grained, and even in bedding; while on the southern side it graduates into the slate. It thus varies greatly in consti- tution, but in a way to make it certain, that, although so feld- spathic in ortions, the whole of it is one quartzyte forma- tion. Further, it is evident, from the facts, that the quartzyte and slate are stratigraphically the sam e rock; 0 one changing to the other, and taking the same Sitios with reference to an associated stratum of limestone. In the Rockland County 4 Proc. Lyceum Nat. Hist. New ae i, and this Journal, IT, iv, 237. 5 Amer. Quart. Micr. J., Jan. 18 Limestone Belts of Westchester County, New York. 25 continuation of the formation (which extends for about two miles from Tompkins’ Cove to Stony Point village, where the Mesozoic Red sandstone appears in force), the slate changes in places to a massive quartzyte, often containing much blackish slate material, and looking as if it had been made out of a mix- ture of mud and quartz sand, with at times some feldspar. Re- membering that the making of beds of sand by moving waters involves the making of mud not far away, such transitions are no occasion for surprise ; and in view of the fact that the High- land Archean is close at hand—not three miles distant—the from the unchanged "bed. The looseness of texture shows that something has been removed, and this is probably, in part at least, calcareous material; and if so the bed should be classed with the limestone beds. This locality is by the west side of the eastern of two bridges, near the Spuyten Duyvil Iron Foundry, and stratigraphically but a short distance from the belt of limestone of the northern end of New York Island. intervening in the latitude of Singsing. No true unconforma- bility between the limestone and other strata has been ob- 26 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the The rock that adjoins a belt or stratum of limestone is com- monly a mica schist or micaceous gneiss in which black mica else hornblende schist; and the beds are not unfrequently pyri- tiferous. But the rock may also be ordinary gneiss, or a light- colored ésidebadiio gneiss; or it may consist of intercalations of these with the more micaceous kinds, and in the northeastern This association of the limestone with rocks containing much black mica or hornblende is, in fact, association with rocks con- taining much tron :—an association whiel exists in similar cases throughout the Green Mountain region; and corresponding re- gions in the State of Pennsylvania and others farther to the southwest ; as is indicated by the rusting tendency of the schists in the vicinity of limestone beds, and, still more, by the occur- rence of great limonite beds made from the iron of the lime- stones and adjoining schists. Furthermore, this quality of these metamorphic schists is a consequence of the ferruginous character of the original sedi- mentary beds underlying or overlying the limestone strata. — iron = those sediments went, for the most part, at the sometimes, garnet. The distinction between these schistose micaceous rocks and a hard thick-bedded feldspathic gneiss is, to a large degree, therefore, the equivalent of that in regions o sedimentary rocks between highly ferruginous and slightly fer- ruginous beds, and ong it is not necessarily of much geo- logical importance. This fact, which is abaladanity established by the frequent oe gradations im such rocks from extreme from the looks or composition alone, that the hard, gray feld- - Men ase Pee Tnmestone Belts of Westchester County, New York. 27 (2.) Caleareous Rocks. The limestone of the County is, in general, coarsely crystal- line, and of a white to grayish-white color, and in many places it is quarried for use as an architectural marble. But in the northwestern part of the County, in the vicinity of the Ar- chan, it is feebly crystalline, and in part has the gray color and texture of the unaltered rock. The absence of crystallization is so marked in the part of the northwestern belt which occurs on the west side of the Hudson River, at Tompkins’ Cove, that much of it, especially in the western beds toward the Archean, is like ordinary gray and unaltered limestone, so that if the rock is without fossils—a point yet to be made certain—the reason is not their obliteration by metamorphism. According to the few analyses that have been published, the rock is a magnesian limestone or dolomite. Iron replaces in some beds a portion of the magnesium ; and when so the blocks of “marble” show it by becoming rusty in color after exposure. Tron is not unfrequently present also in pyrite (FeS,) another source of rust and destruction, and less frequently in pyr- rhotite (Fe,S,); chalcopyrite (or copper pyrites) is of occasional occurrence. Scales of mica, mostly of the species muscovite, are often distributed through the beds, and such micaceous blende) is very common in bladed crystals and fibrous or and in the limestone of New York Island near 208th stree localities mentioned by Mather, and the latter from the obser- vations of Professor Gale. I have not succeeded in my at- tempts to verify the fact at either place. _ Chlorite in scales is distributed through some limestone beds in the southern part of the County, as, for example, at a locality a mile northeast of Central Bridge, over Harlem River, and in Eastern Morrisania. Graphite is sometimes sparingly present, and more rarely small crystals of sphene. Apatite is found only in an occasional minute erystal. Chondrodite has not been observed. Much of the limestone crumbles on exposure, making sandy hills of its outcrops; but this is true of the same rock in West- ern Connecticut and Massachusetts. e Westchester County limestone beds are much thinner 28 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the than those of Dutchess County or Western Connecticut. This may be a consequence of their having been subjected to hotter silicated solutions in the metamorphic process, that is, to in- tenser metamorphic conditions, such as the coarse crystallization of the rocks would have required. But while there may b doubt as to the thinning in particular cases by this means, there is none as to the dissolving power of such hot silicated waters, and the tendency of their action to substitute silicates for the carbonate. Tremolite and light- -colored pyroxene, as long since suggested by the writer,’ are among the products that would naturally come from this action—dolomite tahlg a cal- ium-magnesium carbonate, and the minerals mentioned being silicates of the same bases. The fact that experiment has ob- tained pyroxene in crystals by heating ee the ingredients favors the conclusion. The tremolite of the more southern -portion of the Singsing limestone area often makes a gir envelope about portions of limestone, showing that it formed between fragments out of their material. If the dole mite is a ferriferous variety, the action might, in the same way, roduce green hornblende or actinolite, or green pyroxene. The only other magnesian silicate often present, and abund- ant in the adjoining schists, is Pere and this could have been roduced only where iron also s at hand. Chlorite might sae been formed under nearly he same conditions as biotite. Whatever the limestone beds lost through the action 2 the silicated solutions must have gone either to the making of these silicates or of other more soluble silicates ; for muscovite contains but one per cent or less of calcium or magnesium, and orthoclase none of either of these elements. lines of marshes iy such valleys, and many a lake ‘as been located by them. The beds of this soft rock stand nearly ver- tical, thus favoring the ex- 1. cavation of deep channels. Zo Lise Mois 7. 7 > CAROLS OLELON wah = oo) ao :, usually have one side high, > WY GY 4 WYGG44, Yee precipitous and rocky, and Cll AZ £L2 the other gently sloping ; Be this is Bee due, in vr tn with the erosion, to the ag or dip of the beds. . The annexed figure illustrates the . D. Dana, on the Compson of Corals, and the Sher sing wear of the phos- ae, aluminates, silicates, and other minerals of crystalline limestones, by the orphic action of hot water, in this Journal, I, xlvii, 135, 1844. See also Bischof’s Lehrbuch Chem. Phys. Geol., 2nd edit., Engl. Transl., 1866, iii, 28. LInmestone Belts of Westchester County, New York. 29 ordinary facts. The underdipping side of the limestone area is the steep side of the valley, because of the undermining whic the position of the limestone stratum favored ; and, for the same reason, the river channel (7) is made to hug the same side, and leave the other for wide strips of marshy land, with sometimes ond-like broadenings of the stream. This point was observe y Percival in his survey of Western Connecticut and the adjoining portions of New York State. But the pitch of the beds has not been the only cause of this form of the valleys. The throw of the waters against the right bank of a stream (the western if flowing south, or north- ern if flowing west), in consequence of the earth’s rotation, must have had its effects, and may account for the cases in which the western side is the steep one, notwithstanding a ver- tical or even a high eastern pitch. During the progress of the Glacial era, the subglacial streams would have felt this throw and worked in accordance with it; and afterward, when the Glacial flood, from the melting, was at its height, the rushing waters would have swept the earth away from the same side, and transferred much of it to the opposite. Not unfrequently the profile of a valley and its marsh at bottom are, for long distances, all the evidence there is in sight to suggest the presence of limestone beneath; and hence come uncertainties as to the true limits of a limestone belt, which only deep diggings through the alluvium or stratified drift of the valley can remove. The mapping of the limestone areas has other difficulties in consequence of the frequent intercalations of beds of mica has come out to view through denudation. If the fold is one having a horizontal Axis, the denudation, if alike in all parts, would reduce it to two limestone bands and one of schist inter- mediate ; but if its axis is inclined—the common fact—the two limestone bands may be separated by schist only for part of its length. This point is illustrated by several of the belts, and is explained in connection. with the description of belt No. 1 beyond, and further exhibited on the map of Westchester limestone areas, accompanying this memoir. 30 J. D, Dana— Geological Relations of the (3.) Serpentine and other Hydrous Minerals. The limestone areas, at several widely distant points, are associated with or contain serpentine, with sometimes also tale and hydrous anthophyllite. It is embedded in small masses in the northwestern limestone area, or that of Canopus Hollow, at a quarry two and one-half miles north-northeast of Peeks- “is (as has eee been iia) the chief constituent of large beds near New Rochelle and Rye, at both of which places the area is embraced, like the or limestone belts, between conform- s of micaceous enei The Rew Rochelle serpin area is on Davenport’s Neck, a western portion of the peninsula, and near the middle of the northern shore. At the eastern end of the last mentioned expo- sure, the rock is mostly crystalline limestone ; but the thickness of the limestone portion of the belt is uncertain because earth covers the next two hundred yards, and then succeeds the gneiss. In Rye, the serpentine area commences one mile north of the i radivendl station at Rye, and extends northward for over a mile and a half. The rock contains some limestone dis- translucent, resembling retinalite and deweylite. The fibrous variety, ¢ rysotile, i is also met with. e rock is much rifted, and impure with disseminated magnetite, tale, “‘ hydrous antho- phyllite,” and other materials. The propriety of classing these serpentine areas with those of limestone is sustained by the following’ considerations : “) The pigs lena position accords with this view; presence of dolomite, disseminated through the ser oak ie rock or associated with it, favors it; and (8) the fact that the 7 Mather’s N. Y. Report, 8 For the facts 2 to the aieniinaoal opengl os the meg ge areas and the adjoining schists, see the ete eee on the areas, Nos. 5 spe er oor he in his N. Y. Report (p. 461), the occurre serpent three og four miles southeast of White Plains. I have Tooked’ "for Fie Prcality witho Limestone Belts of Westchester County, New York. 31 serpentine and other hydrous silicates originated from minerals that are common in the Westchester County limestone (dolo- mite) beds, and that this change has taken place in many beds that are still chiefly limestone, gives it support. The following are some examples under the last point: e hydrous anthophyllite (first known from New York Island) was long since shown to be altered tremolite, the most common of the limestone minerals; and limestone has often been observed in close association with this hydrous mineral, or as the adjoining or containing rock. At the most important locality—between 57th and 68d streets on the western side of New York Island—Dr. Gale describes it as associated with serpentine and limestone. eral, actinolite, under the same conditions. Some of the’ sil- icates are changed also to tale, making pearly plates distributed tparingly through the serpentine. The dolomite has also par- county, and, were it not for the tremolite and dolomite, would Suggest other relations for the beds. any disseminated grains and masses of serpentine in the New Rochelle serpentine have the yellow and brownish yellow * 32 J. D. Dana—Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. Oo ser- entine pseudomorphs at the Brewster (Tilly Foster) Iron Mine in Putnam County, New York.’ In view of the facts with regard to the character of the Jime- of Rye, limonite has resulted from the alteration of the serpen- tine rock, and the bed has been opened, though not with good prospects of profit. The limonite in this case has come chiefly from the oxidation of the iron of the ferriferous dolomite asso- ciated with the serpentine, and that of the disseminated mag- . netite. * See the author’s memoir on the serpentine pseudomorphs of the Tilly Foster Iron Mine, in this Journal, ILI, viii, pages 454, 455, 1874, [To be continued. ] S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. 33 Art. IIlT.—Observations on Mount Etna; by S. P. LANGLEY. Durine the winter of 1878, in the course of a visit to Europe, I spent some time upon Mount Etna, and at the request of Cap- tain Carlisle P. Patterson, the Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey, gave attention there to the character of the astronomical vision, in order to enable comparisons to be made with observations taken under similar conditions in our own territories. I have thought that in view of the present nearly in ee ede to the increase of optical power, ha to be so nearly a barrier to any rapid progress, that attention shores and islands of the Mediterranean, and particularly of Sicily, as being on the whole superior to that of Northe Europe, and in Sicily, Mount Etna has not only long been dis- pr a for the extraordinary extent of the prospect, undis- turbed by haze, but by its recent selection as a site for a mountain observatory by the Italian authorities guided by the Very concurrent testimony points to the atmosphere of the competent judgment of Professor Tacchini. This was the Am. Jour. orxsieeer Series, Vou. XX, No. 115.—Juxy, 1880, 34 S. P. Langley— Observations.on Mount Etna. residence, I was advised at Catania to make my stay at Nicolosi, the highest village on the mountain, and whose eleva- tion is a little over 2000 feet. It seemed, however, that a higher above Nicolosi, a cistern containing excellent water, near which is a hut built of lava, known as “Cas osco.” It is scarcely the “ house” its title denotes it to be, but it has walls, a roof, and even a kind of fire-place, while the chestnut planta- tion in the vicinity makes it possible to obtain fuel. had no hesitation in choosing this, then, and though the quarters were certainly not as comfortable as those I had left at Catania, I found them sufficient. The hut stands at an ele- S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. 35 vation of about 4,200 feet, on the southeast slope of the moun- tain. It is in lat. 37° 88’ 55’"5 N. and long. 6" 08™ 11°5 east of Washington.* After a preliminary visit, I ascended the mountain on Dee. 25th, 1878 (Christmas day), leaving Catania in the morning, and reaching the “Casa” after dark. I had no aid or assistant, but was accompanied by a native guide and by soldiers (Cara- binieri) sent by the Prefect of Catania, all of whom remained ith me. These soldiers were sent on the application of the Honorable Mr. Marsh, Minister of the United States at Rome, who kindly and effectually interested himself to procure me official introductions from the Italian ministry to the Prefect of Catania, and I was obliged in this as in other instances, by every attention which our own consular officers or the Sicilian author- ities could render. y instruments consisted of a telescope of 84 inches aper- ture, mounted equatorially (but without circles), and resting upon a tripod stand. It is the property of the United States Naval Observatory, and for its loan I am specially indebted to the kindness of Admiral John Rodgers, the Superintendent. With this was a spectroscope, belonging to the Allegheny Observatory, provided with a Rutherfurd speculum metal grat- ing of 17,296 lines to the inch, and with collimating and observ- ing telescopes of 1*1 inch aperture and 14 inches focal length. T had no chronometer, nor any means for observations of pre- cision. ‘ re am indebted for these determinations to the kindness of Professor ©. H. F, eters, 36 S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. vations, does not recognize steadily more than six stars in the Pleiades, and sees a seventh and eighth by glimpses, and on an ordinary clear night at Allegheny, I cannot steadily see the companion of Polaris with less than two inches aperture. I proceed to give some of the tests of light from observa- tions made on the nights of December 28th, 31st, 1878, and January Ist, 4th, 10th, 13th, 1879. The aperture employed is 34 inches, where not otherwise stated. Pleiades with naked eye, moon not set, nine stars steadily isibl Companion of Polaris (position previously unknown), recog- nized with 1°6 in. aperture. Companion of Rigel steadily seen with 1°6 in. aperture, not seen with 1:4 in. eporis. Companion (mag. 11) seen with full aperture. Tauri. Companion (mag. 11°2) an easy object with full December 31st. The nebula in Orion being about 40° high and moon half full, the 5th star in the trapezium was seen with full z Orionis. The 3d star (11th mag.) seen with 3}in, A little later, however, the definition being worse, could not discern the 11th mag. star preceding o Orionis. January 4th. 5th star in trapezium of Orion steadily seen, but could not be sure of 6th. 3d star of 2 Orionis (11th mag.) seen with 3} in. in spite of moonlight. January 10th, 11th mag. star preceding o Orionis, also 11th mag. star of z Orionis well seen in spite of moon and the tremor from wind. The observations for stars included many others, which were less satisfactory, and I select from them this small list, with the remark that in the five nights which were all that presented themselves for this work, the wind was an almost constant obstacle to steady vision, while I was compelled to observe in the moonlight, and while from the construction of the tripod stand, I was generally obliged to omit objects at an altitude of much over 60°. Considering the distinctness with which objects of 11 to 11°2 m aitade .were seen under these circum- stances, I think we shall be justified in stating that the limit, for an ordinary eye and the aperture employed (3°25 in.), at this altitude on Etna cannot be far from the 115 magnitude of the Bedford catalogue, or the 10:2 magnitude of Struve’s scale. I have employed the scale of the Bedford catalogue partly be- cause Mr. Webb, in his very excellent little manual, makes th (in England), and because in the absence of more exact data, cea S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. 37 we may be interested in observing what this will give as the relative transparency of the respective atmospheres. For this purpose, let the absolute light of the 11th magnitude star be unity and as that of the 10th is approximately 24 times, and that of the 12th 2 of this; that of the 11°2 (the smallest cer- tainly seen), is represented by the number whose logarithm is log. 2°5 3°25 \? x (1-8? )=83 and (=) °83= 64. This would appear to show that stars of about 3 the brightness of those visible in England under like telescopic power can be seen on Htna at the altitude of Casa del Bosco. e may obtain means for comparing the transparency of the atmosphere at any station on successive evenings, or at any number of different stations, by observing with the naked eye, two stars, one high and one low in altitude, which appear to have the same brightness at a given time; for the light of the lower one must have been diminished by a caleulably greater amount than that of the upper, and this difference will furnish a measure of the absorptive power of the atmosphere. Thus let a be the coefficient of transmission of our atmos- phere, so that a star in the zenith whose absolute light is L, appears with a light La, to an eye viewing it through the inter- vening vertical column of atmosphere (=1). A star L, at the zenith distance z, whose light is more absorbed by the longer column of air (=sec z,) will appear of the brightness L,a‘** * that of a lower star L, of the brightness L,a*°° * and if these two appear equally bright, L,a**° *=L,a®° *, whence Log L,—Log L, sec 2,—sec 2, log a= (We neglect the effects of refraction and of seleetive absorp- tion). We need the relative lights only, and these we obtain by assuming as before that the light of each magnitude is 24 times that of the next below, an assumption which is sufti- ciently close to fact for our present purpose. "he following stars were thus compared. The times of com- parison were taken from a common watch, and from these the zenith distances are found by subsequent computation, the magnitude being here taken from Heiss and Argelander re- uced to Peirce’s scale. any conclusion may be drawn from so very limited a number of comparisons, we may infer then, that at this station about nine-tenths of the light of a zenith star reaches us, and, that only one-tenth is absorbed by our atmosphere, but it is probably that this absorption is in reality somewhat greater. 38 S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. Station, Catania. Stars sec ¢, |Log L Matched. Date. ¢ | Mag. |Log L.) co¢ we Pig log a.} a. Y Te Mal Dec. 23d, 1878 |45° 12%; 3°55 |—1-4 ¢ Urs. M 8) 53" M. T. 184 52] 2°71. |—0- 84 +9°76 |—0°58 |—0-059) 0°87 6 Cassiop. | Dec. 23d, 1878 |28 49] 3°0 |—1-20 7 Draconis 95 06" M. T. [79 25} 2:8 |—1-12/+4:30 |—0-08 |—0-019! 0:96 y Cephei | Dec. 23d, 1878 |52 40| 3°55 |—1-4 7 Urs. Maj. | 115 08™ M. T. |79 45) 2°07 |—0- 83 +3°97 |—0°59 |—0°149) 0-71 B Cassiop. | Dec. 24th, 1878/21 27] 2°35 |—0-94 8B Urs. Maj. 6417" M. T. |83 27} 2:1 |—@-84|+ 7-69 |—0-10 |—0-013! 0°97 Mean | 0°88 Station, Casa del Bosco. Stars sec ¢./Log L Matched. Date. a Mag. |Log L.| .o¢ e: Logliy. log a.| a. y Geminorum] Jan. 4th, 1879 |38° 46’; 2°6 |—1°04 y Leonis S07 MT 119. 62) 21 0°84 | + 4°40 |—0°20 |—0°046| 0°90 Mean of 8&4) Jan. 4th, 1879 | (12°) | (3°15) |—1-26 urigae B Leonis 105 50™ M. T. [80° 10’) 2-1 |—0°84|+4-84 |—0-42 |—0-087]| 0°82 ¢ Tauri Jan. 4th, 1879 17 54) 3°55 |—1°42 @Can. Ven. | 115 05™ M. T. [75 30) 3-07 |—1-23 | + 2-94 |—0-19 |—0-065) 0-86 é Persei Jan. 10th, 1879}19 10) 3°25 |—1°3 8 Can. Min. 65 53" M.T. |74 44) 3°15 |—1:° 26 +2°74 |—0°08 |—0°029) 0°94 y Cassiop. Jan. 10th, 1879 |26 31) 2:1 |—0°84 8 Urs. Maj. | 7 00™M.T. |75 57| 21 |—0-84/43-00|+40-00| 0-000! 1-00 y Persei Jan. 13th, 1879 115 22) 3-07 |—1-2 Pe 5 Ute Min. | tom ais. ‘les ar1 98; |ade +1°76|—0-07 |—0-040| 0°91 Mean ' 0°90 These general conclusions as to the clearness of the atmos- phere must not lead us to think that it is uniformly olen or that the deGnition | is uniformly good at such a mountain sta- tion, or that we have not to exercise patience and wait for oppor- tunity as well there as below. Thus I find such entries as these ee aon? one at home, ‘with no good view of faint oe ee though with fair definition,” ete. S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. 39 Reviewing my experience, I should say that the gain on Etna over a lower station, as tried by the tests of a double-star observer, was more in clearness of the atmosphere than in that freedom from tremor which accompanies good definition. The latter was indeed upon the whole better than below, but not conspicuously so. had occasion in August, 1878, to notice the remarkable extent and brightness of the milky way, as seen from the Colo- rado plains, and still more from Pike’s Peak. The appearance of a nebula is perhaps indeed the best test to an experienced eye, of the quality of transparency in any atmosphere, and I was desirous of making a sketch of the nebula of Orion, as a useful measure of this transparency at my station. It was not easy to do this, however, as in most of the few clear hours which presented themselves, I was troubled by moon- light. The whole time I was thus able to give the sketch was hardly equal to more than two or perhaps three consec- utive hours, although something was done at it on every opportunity, when other work permitted. With undivided attention [ believe many more details might have been gathered. drawn ; but this is not the only cause. In observations of precision, we generally seek before everything an optically _* The drawings made are not reproduced here, but the originals are at the ser- vice of any one desiring to institute a comparison under like conditions.—-s. P. L. 40 S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. For all eye-studies of the photosphere, transparency is of so little value, that I have uniformly’ found direct telescopic study at Allegheny to be most successfully pursued on hazy ; the very finest detinition I have ever obtained of the minute features of the photosphere and spots, being at times culty seen by four inches aperture at Palermo. I shall best give an idea of what may be expected ona moun- tain site, by direct extracts from my journal, “December 28th, 1878, 10 a.m. The air perfectly tranquil to the naked eye, and a calm so absolute that the sound of voices in conversation is heard at a distance of half a mile. * This extremely simple test of transparency is the best I know. S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Hina. 41 observed in using the same test on Pike’s Peak, or from the sum- mit of the Lae of Gizeh. The transparency of the air is nevertheless such as is very rarely seen in the Eastern United States; but all this while, the Tone continues very bad— almost as bad as I ever saw it an ywhere. ecember 29th, 1878. Morning and calm with light cirrus clouds. Examined sun with re power (70). Definition only rye f yet caught glimpses of “ rice-grain” structure, such as could not have been seen at Allegheny under like definition e. the ackieeia transparency which would almost never be found ansocited with even ordinary definition at home here told in av December 31st, 1878. The sky of as aie ainag a blue as T have seen, and optically tranquil. The so-called “ rice-grain” structure of the solar surface is beautifully donned with the high- est telescopic power (212), and this is the best evidence of the pos- sibilities of vision ye as I have never before seen such defini- tion upon the s anywhere, and pee of all under a blue sky. ith the spectroscope using the small cha y sep grating, work is difficult, owing to the absence of clockwork and the presence of wind, Yet under Mess disadvantages, D, can he used for view- ing the forms of two adjacent protuberances, nearly as well as C, 1474 Kirchhoff is reversed, occasionally shining out nearly as sr ge as the “Helium” line, while }, is repeatedly seen bright occasions at Allegheny. I much regret not having a cyanometer but sae that this, an ordinary blue here, is deeper and purer Biante ny but the very best, of the skies of the Eastern United tate tela oe ef the E lines is made* 1474 K is doubled, and eight I remained upon my Bisied’ sadion said the 14th of Janu- ary, at which time the snow line had descended to some dis- tance below me, and the weather became so bad that there was no prospect of adding materially to the results already obtained. During my brief stay in Europe I had the pleasure of meet- ing .several distinguished continental observers, and learned * Not reduced here. 42 S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. from them as far as I could, their opinions as to the conditions of observation at their respective positions. I found during a few days’ stay in Egypt, a sky which appeared to give almost unequalled definition. I carried no instruments with me, but by the kindness of General Stone, of the Khedive’s staff, had the loan of a small telescope, which used on several nights, from the roof of my hotel in Cairo. Judging by this (if the nights were fairly typical, as they seemed to be), the winter cli- mate of Kgypt must be almost unequalled for astronomical pur- poses, the transparency and definition being alike admirable, and the freedom from tremor such that the discs of the stars I examined, seemed fixed in the center of interference rings, as sharp and motionless as engraved lines. The days were uni- formly fine, but a slight haziness appeared, I thought, in the lower atmosphere, due, perhaps, to dust; which was surmounted y a moderate elevation. : : t 4 a | F # a ees pes S. P. Langley— Observations on Mount Etna. 43 High elevations have undoubtedly the advantage of dimin- ishing the atmospheric absorption of the more refrangible rays, an absorption so important that it probably cuts off from us the larger portion of the ultra-violet spectrum. . Cornu, whose work on this portion is so well known, informed me that he found himself able to add about 1 em. (on the seale of his map) to this ultra-violet end, for each 500 m. of altitude, and that it was his intention in order to extend his work further, to make the Furca pass in the Alps his observing station during the present year; a testimony of importance to the gain in this direction to be expected from mountain observy- atories. may say without reserve that for rapid progress, such observa- station. At an altitude of 10 or 11,000 feet we may still enjoy all the conditions of health which fit us for labor, but if we tions increasing very fast. If I may be allowed to quote from my own experience of a stay of ten days upon Pike’s Peak, at __A dry climate and a table land at an elevation of something like 10,000 feet, sheltered on the side of the prevalent winds e the most promising conditions in our present knowledge. Upon the whole, then, though the ideal station, where 44 C. A. White—Fresh-water and Land Mollusca. orado or New Mexico, every condition which experience points out as favorable. We shall find in the same territory con- is dependent upon a judicious choice, the preceding observa- tions, I hope, may in spite of their incomplete ness, furnish use- ful material for a more exact qualitative comparison, than has heretofore been practicable. Art. IV.—On the Antiquity of Certain eg ele Types of Fresh-water and Land Mollusca ; by C. A. Watts, Paleon- tologist to the U. S. National Museum AMONG existing fresh-water and land Mollusca there are cer- tain comprehensive genera, which may be divided into a greater or less number of more or less distinctly definable groups, that are respectively recognizable by certain common characteris- tics, less conspicuous than those which separate the larger gen- era from each other. These minor groups have been treated as genera, sub-genera, or as still less important sections, by the various authors who have discussed them, according to the individual estimate that has been placed upon the relative value of the characters by which they are ene. It is my present purpose, not to discuss the value of these distine- tions as means of zoological classification, but to show that a considerable number, not only of the larger genera of living North American fresh-water and land Mollusca, but also a early as the Sepocka 6 epochs of the Cretaceous, or the imme- remarks, are those which have esti obtained by the different U. Government Surveys in the western portion of our na- tional domain. The strata which have furnished these fossils are, in the ascending order, those of the Fox Hills, Laramie, Wahsatch, Green River and Bridger groups. The first named of these groups is unquestionably Cretaceous, and the three last are as unquestionably Eocene Tertiary. The second I regard as representing a transitional epoch, but some penlogtita assign it to the Cretaceous period because of the presence of agg Iaees remains in its strata. Others refer it to the Ter- iary, because of the characteristics of its floral remains. It is scent for my present pu e to say that the molluscan here discussed are Sat gy strata which range from the emsects to the close of the Hocene, inclusive. CO. A. White—Fresh-water and Land Mollusca. 45 The comprehensive genera that embrace the minor types which are here more especially discussed or referred to are Inmnea, Planorbis, Physa, Helix, Pupa, Succinea and Unio . HELICINA. 1. Acelia Haldeman. 9. Aglaia Albers. 2. Leptolimnea Swainson. ~ 10. Arianta Leach. 3. Limnophysa Fitzinger. 11. Patula Haldeman. 12. Strobila Mo: NORBLN.Z. ; : 4. Planorbis (typical), Guettard. ene eee 5. Bathyomphalus Agassiz. . ; 14. Lucocheila Ath. & Mart 6. Gyraulus Agassiz. 15. Pupilla Leach. PHYSIN#. 16. Holospira? Albers.* 1. Physa (typical) Draparnaud. , . 8. Bulinus Adanson. 17. Brachyspira Pfeiffer. * It should be mentioned that these subordinate types were originally recognized among, and their names applied wholly to, living forms. The discovery of fossil forms of those types is a gratifying confirmation of their genuineness (time bein the crucial test of permanency), and proof of the sagacity of their authors. Acella is represented by A. Haldemani Whitet from the Lar- amie strata of Bear River Valley, Wyoming. With the prob- able exception of an undescribed form in the Green River and Hayden, from the Laramie strata of Montana, is a closely allied form. Limnea (Leptolimnea ?) minuscula White, from’ the * Holospira is placed here under the Pupine only conventionally. : ix patt : , in the follow- -) oi ee ee an Sur. west or the 100th Merid., vol. iv; U. S. Geol. Sur. 40th Parallel. vol. iv; mpson’s Rep. Great Basin Utah; and Proc. U. 8. National Museum, vol. iii. The in press). 46 C. A. White— Fresh-water and Land Mollusca. Planorbis proper is represented by P. aqualis White, in the Green River strata of Wyoming. Bathyomphalus has two rep- resentatives, namely, P. (B.) Revahensts “White, and P. (B) planoconvecus Meek & Hayden; both in the Laramie Group. Th er comes from Southera Utah, er the latter from Masha. Gyraulus — to have several representatives in both the Laramie and Green River strata; but G. militaris White, from strata probably of the Laramie period, is the only one Aes published. nsiderable number of species of the Physine are known in the Ay pean Wabhsatch and Green River groups, and the sub- family was well established before the first named period. It is an interesting fact, in confirmation of the latter statement, thata typical species of Physa, P. Carletoni Meek, has been found in est- uary strata at Coalville, Utah, which rest upon marine Cretaceous strata, and have more than 1 000 feet of similar marine Cretaceous strata resting upon them. This is the earliest Physa known in American strata. Physa pleromatis White, is a widely distribu- ted species in the Wahsatch group of Wyoming, Colorado and Utah, but true Physa is not common in the Laramie group, although that genus prevailed both before site after. In the last named group Bulinus is somewhat common; B. atavus White, and B. subelongatus Meck & Hayden, being published exam The Helicine appear to have been almost as diversely differ- —— pte the Laramie, Wabsatch and Green River ming, which crest at heey to the upper fie of the Laramie group, or the base of the Wahsatch, probably the former; and apparently also by an undescribed species in the Green River group of Wyoming. Triodopsis is represented by Helix Evan- stonensis White, which is associated with H. sepulta, just men- tioned. The Pupine have been recognized only in the Green River and Bridger groups; four species only having yet been discov- ered. The true character of the aperture has been ascertained only in one of these, and they are therefore assigned to the types mentioned, with some doubt. Their diverse forms, how- Bee res eee es aes he C. A. White—Fresh-water and Land Mollusca. 47 ever, indicate that a wide differentiation had taken place in the Pupine at that early time. Pupa arenula and P. atavuncula White, discovered in the Green River strata of Wyoming, are referred provisionally to Pupzlla, and an associated species Pupa encolata White, to Lucocheila. Mr. Meek referred his Pupa Leidyi doubtfully to Holospira. It is from the Bridger strata of Wyoming. Only one species of the Succinine has yet been discovered in any of the strata here considered, namely, Succinea papillispira of the Green River strata of Wyoming. This is plainly refera- ble to Brachyspira. The Unionide of the fossil molluscan faunz, herein dis- cussed, are found to have become differentiated to a remarka- ble extent, especially during the Laramie epoch. An exceed- ingly interesting and suggestive fact in connection with this differentiation is that the subordinate types are largely indenti- cal in character with some of those which are now living in the waters of the Mississippi River system, and which are recog- nized by malacologists as distinctively North American types. Illustrative of this relation of the fossil to the recent forms, the following parallel lists are presented, those of the left-hand col- umn being a part of the fossil species now known in the Lara- mie strata of Wyoming and Utah; and those of the right-hand column being the living species of the Mississippi River system which are selected as their respective type-congeners. Unio propheticus White. — - U. clavus Lamarck. U. proavitus W. U. ridibundus Say. U. ‘ U. multiplicatus Lea. U. holmesianus W. U. apiculatus Say U. Coue yplanatus Solander. U. Endli ‘ U. rnes. U. brachyopisthus W. U. circulus Lea. Still other examples might be given of close resemblances between fossil and recent forms of Unio, but these suffice to sug- gest, In a very forcible manner, that the Unione fauna of the Mississippi River system is genetically related to that of the Laramie period. It is true that in the Laramie fauna there are 48 C. A. White—Fresh-water and Land Mollusca. Reviewing the collections which represent the fossil faune herein discussed, so many familiar forms are seen that it is dif- ficult to realize the fact that a large proportion of them, includ- ing those especially which have been mentioned by name in this article, were living contemporaneously with the last of the Dinosaurs. Yet such is the fact, and the shells of the former are often found commingled with the bones of the latter. What were the successive steps in the history of the transmission of these types from that remote time to the present we are unfor- tunately without the means of knowing with certainty, because of the remarkable paucity of molluscan remains in all the de- posits of the great interior region later than the Kocene. All the mollusecan remains, which have been found in these later deposits, belong to familiar living types, although of extinct species. That the palustral and land pulmonates might have been, and perhaps were, preserved under immediate conditions differing from those which insured,the survival of the Unionide is evi- dent; but certain facts point to the conclusion that the peculiar “North American” types of Uniones which prevailed in the Laramie epoch were not transmitted through the Kocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs as denizens of the fresh-water lakes which succeeded the brackish water of the Laramie sea, and each ime The Eocene fresh-water deposits contain a plate ble number of species of Unio, it is true, but they are all, so tute a type which, although common among living Uniones, is exceedingly rare if not entirely wanting in ‘the Laramie group. The conclusion therefore seems necessary that those peculiar and varied forms of Unio which have been mentioned in the preceding list, with their faunal molluscan associates, escaped . from the Laramie lacustrine waters before the close of that epoch, into those pokes waters which formed the outlet to the ses deisins and which became a part of the Mississippi drainage system, as the shavalioa of the continent progressed.* he magnitude of the physical changes which have taken place upon the North American continent since the epochs in which the Mollusca lived, eae = discussed in this bere * This subject is discussed at some length in Bull. U.S. Geol. Sur. Terr., vol. iii, p. 615. orgs aan eau a aaa, a Lk L. Waldo—New Position Micrometer. 49 types have come down to us in unbroken lines some of which, to speak figuratively, were of remarkable tenuity. It is true there has been a dropping out of some of the earlier associated types and. an introduction of new ones as the epochs passed, but the lines of descent of the numerous types which have reached us unbroken, seem to be almost parallel, so little have. they changed with the lapse of time. So slightly divergent are these lines, considered as lines of differentiation, that i we bound them all by two imagivary straight lines, we shall have an evolutional parallax that would carry back the origin of these types to a period inconceivably remote. We must therefore conclude that their origin was, at least in some degree, saltatory ; but the real conditions under which they © originated must probably always remain ure. I have, however, elsewhere* suggested, that the differentiation of the Unionide took place under the influence of salt in the water in which they lived; but it is plain that this explanation will not apply to the case of the palustral and land mollusca. Art. V.—Description of a new Position Micrometer ; by LEonarp: WALDO. In the micrometer about to be described, both of these diffi- culties seem to be overcome. The screw bears, without any unguent, against an agate plane, and the pressure of both the Springs 1s practically constant in any position of the micrometer frame, which is liable to occur in actual use. In the sketches, / . . . _88 represents the screw which is 19 cm. long, and 8 mm. in diam- * Bull. U, 8. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. iii, p. 623. +I an principally indebted to Professors Lyman and Harkness, and the Messrs. Am. Jour. serie t Serizs, Vou, XX, No. 115.—Juxy, 1880. 50 L. Waldo—New Position Micrometer. webs, is cut its whole length as a matrix through which the screw works; and in order that this frame shall have no dead bis motion, there is a small matrix, n, about 1 mm. distant from it, at ia “s f ae noroeregay —— — ft t 2 The end of the screw at Sis held firmly against an adjustable ate plane at p, by means of a secon ing a which acts An adjustable agate jewel at J is the only point upon which the frame rests upon its box; and as pointed out by Lord L. Waldo—New Position Micrometer. 51 Lindsay* this form of mounting the frame is most likely to secure permanency in the errors of the screw, so that when once determined they may be assumed to remain constant for long intervals. The micrometer frame /f/'/’ may be moved in the grooved bearings 64 ’b’ by a screw, which is not shown in the sketch, wig ome the micrometer. he eye pieces also have a parallel motion by rack and pinion. The screw head may be read by two pointers d and d’, and the whole revolutions are registered by a toothed wheel which gears into the thread cut on the micrometer head and shown at cc. The milled head, mm, is larger than the disc carrying the graduations. The bright web illumination is effected in a manner similar to that adopted by Alvan Clark & Sons. There is an aperture at ¢ protected by a glass cover and a similar one at a’ which allows the light from a lamp to impinge on the webs in the frame. makers, Messrs. Fauth & Co. of Washington, D. C. The following observations on the revolutions of the screw between 22°50 rev. and 27°50 rev. were made with the micro- scope comparator I have previously described. i Il. iit, Iv. Rey. d. d. mm. ad 5-07 +0°02 +0°00031 23-000 4°95 —0°10 —0°00157 5°03 —0°02 —0 5°12 +0°07 +0°00110 5°10 +0°05 +9°00079 retin 5-00 —0°05 0-0 50 5°03 —0°02 0°00031 5°05 0°00 5°07 +0°02 +0°00031 . eh 5-08 +.0°03 0 5°16 +011 +0°00173 5°03 —0°02 +0°00031 25 5°06 +0°01 +0°00016 500 5°05 0°00 0°00000 ee 5-03 —0-02 —0-00031 27-500 5°07 + 0°02 +0°00031 * Dun. Echt. Obs. Pub., vol. ii, p. 53. + Proc. Am. Acad. ‘Arts and Sci. Bost., vol. xiii, for 1877-78, p. 352. 52 EF. H. Hall— Velocity of an Electric Current. olumn I gives the readings of the position micrometer. Column II, which is the mean of three readings, is the value in terms of the microscope micrometer scale of the interval 0250 rev. occurring between the two successive readings of the posi- tion micrometer. Column III is the deviation of these intervals from the mean in terms of the microscope micrometer. Column IV gives these deviations expressed in millimeters. The small residuals in column IV would apparently indicate that there are no greater errors to be apprehended from this form than from the ordinary construction, and it seems to pos- sess very marked advantages for use in all observations which are carried throughout the year, and where the micrometer will e used on the same objects under the diverse conditions of winter and summer. This would seem to be particularly de- sirable for researches upon the stellar parallaxes. Art. VL—On Boltzman’s Method for Determining the Velocity of ; an Electric Current; by E. H. Haut. In the June number of this Journal is mentioned a note current sent by “one or two Daniels’ cells” through his strip of gold the velocity 1-2 mm. per second. nless I have misunderstood Prof. Boltzman’s note, how- ever, there is a fatal objection to the fundamental assumption which he makes. I will give very briefly his method of rea- soning as I understand it. We know, as Prof. Boltzman says, that a conductor bearing a current is acted upon by a force tending to move it in a direc- tion at right angles to the direction of the magnetic force acting upon it. We know, moreover, from the new phenomenon that there is at the same time a difference of potential set up be- tween points on opposite sides of the conductor, and that the electromotive force thus arising is in the same line as the above force acting upon the conductor. Consider now any particle of electricity in the conductor. * March, 1880, p. 200, FE. H. Hall— Velocity of an Electric Current. 53 direction equal to 3,000 x 200 =600,000 dynes, a force equal to the weight of about 600 grams, acting upon each unit . length of the gold leaf strip. Thus in following out Prof. Boltzman’s assumption to what seems to me its necessary con- Sequences we are led to a manifest absurdity. Another objection to the above assumption, and a serious one appercally, is found in a fact not known to Prof. Boltzman when his note was written. eo 54 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices, e transverse electromotive force in iron is opposite in direction to that in gold. According to the theory proposed, therefore, an iron wire bearing a current should move across the lines of magnetic force in a direction contrary to that followed by wires of other materials, which it does not do. In view of these difficulties, it seems hardly possible at resent to accept Prof. Boltzman’s method of calculating the velocity of electricity. nyone desiring to see Prof. Boltzman’s note will find a translation of the same in the Philosophical Magazine of April, 1880, p. 308. A rather confusing inaccuracy in translation is, however, to be found about the middle of page 308 in the sentence, “ Hence, if the force above denoted by K atself acts upon, ete.” This should read, ‘Hence, if the force above denoted by K acts upon the movable electricity ztse/f in the gold leaf, etc.” The position of the pronoun is here a matter of considerable importance, as anyone will see who reads Prof. ltzman’s note with care. Art. VII.—WMineralogical Notices; by CHARLES UPHAM SHEP- ARD, Emeritus Professor of Natural History in Amherst College. 1, A peculiar mineral of the Scapolite family. THE substance here described was sent to me by that zealous mineralogist, Mr. John G. Miller, of East Templeton, Ottawa quadrangular, though in the larger individuals they are octangu- i Their length is the smallest are rarely below one-eighth of this size. They preserve the same diameter throughout their length, with the exception of a single example, where one of the larger size, shows a tendency to a regular acumination. The length of this crystal is 33 inches, its diameter at the larger extremity C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 55 being half an inch, and at the smaller, but one-third. All the crystals have much evenness of surface and considerable tion. They are without striation. The color is black, with a slight intermixture of gray and blue. In a few instances an ges. The vertical cleavages, parallel with the primary prism, are distinct, though effected with difficulty. They take place parallel with the narrower planes in the quadrangular prisms. Only traces of a transverse cleavage exist. A marked peculi- arity of the larger crystals is the regular interlamination of thin films of white calcite, parallel with the eight sides of the prism. These layers, to the number of two or three, are equi-distant, thus imparting to the fractured ends of the crystals a checke aspect, strongly suggesting the structure of chiastolite.* Luster, resinous to vitreous. Hardness=7-... 7°. Specific grav- ity, 2°608. glass. Owing to the variable presence of gra hite, calcite and quer, the chemical examination is atten ae: . E. S. Dana has kindly made a section of one of the crystals, and examined it in polarized light. He finds “ the black color to be due to foreign matter, pres- nt in the form of minute grains that may be metallic, making up no small part of the whole,” and is of the opinion that “its analysis is not a guide to the real @ mineral,’ : 56 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. vitreous arab a of Saleix oo analyzed by Pisani; though it must be t in mind that example analyzed by him had been so much altered as to “0K its hardness reduced to 8. Iam therefore led to regard the Galway crystals as the original, unaltered mineral, from which couseranite and dipyre have originated through hydration, * in the same manner as scapolite has given rise to wilsonite, antite, algerite and terénite. Should it prove a new species, I propose to call it Ontariolite. 2. Cassiterite at Coosa, Ala. Among the smaller fragments and grains of tantalite from this Se locality, I find numerous crystals of cassiterite, the largest — do not exceed the size of a pea. Some o narrow faces of the primary prism, between the pyramids. 3. Yttro-tantalite. A single small crystal supposed to be yttro-tantalite was weleds ed along with the cassiterite. Its form is that of a right mbic prism of about 122°, having its acute terminal angles th otaned by two grigta inclining to one another across the sbtaas lateral edge of the prism at an angle of very near 125° Specific gravity =6 001. 4, Note upon the Paracolumbite. This ambiguous mineral, whose locality at Taunton, Mass., was lost sight of for many years, has been re-discovered ; and — continues to be met with in collections under the above he analysis of Pisani proved that it had no chemical oalasioni to columbite, but gave a result not altogether satisfac- tory for ilmenite, (menaccanite) to which he referred it. In view of its decided edly lower specific gravity than ilmenite, its fusibility before the blowpipe, and its large content of silicate of alumina, it remains undecided whether it properly belongs where Pisani has placed it; and I would therefore suggest that until farther information is obtained, the name paracolumbite be changed to para-ilmenite. 5. Hemihedral forms of Staurolite. Among the large and perfect crystals of this mineral, found loose at Morganton, emihedral forms are not unfrequent, both as single and com ase stals. The hemihedism relates to the alternate sexy seaitiint angles, which are re- placed by broad single plan * Possibly chiastolite may have been germ produced, though the origin must have been attended with a more radical metamorphism. O. N. Rood—Improvement in the Sprengel Pump. 57 6. Fergusonite _— Mitchell County, North Carolina, and dentical with Rutherfordite I ee signed along with the daitibgskeite of this locality a few very small crystals “of fergusonite poeey resembling those sHsihelly described by Haidinger as coming from Greenland, and nearly identical with those found in the sands from the gold washings of Rutherford, N. C., named by me as ruther- fordite, and ‘which I now consider as elortity to the species fergusonite. 7. Green Pagodite in Georgia. A very handsome green variety of this mineral is found on Beaver-dam creek, nine miles west of Washington. It first sahietous: with a pines fracture. Very tough. It is more often freckled and blotched with a.copper-red rutile ; the latter impurity sometimes imparting after polishing, a resemblance to blood-stone. Hardness =3. Gr.=2°86. Before the blow-pipe in thin fragments, turns white and suffers slight fusion. Colors borax, apple-green. Uniformity of composition bi rio ow- ing to presence of muscovite and rutile. The trials gav Si 48° to 52°, aie sete Fe 2°10, slab ate K 4-43, 13-5, nd Ti undetermin It probably forms a stratum of jokuidbeabis dimensions in a mica-slate formati New Haven, May 8, 1880. ART, VIL. —On an improvement in the Sprengel Pump ; by Professor O. N. Roop, of Columbia College. In this notice I propose to indicate very briefly the nature of an improvement that I have lately made in the form of the Sprengel pump, which enables the experimenter easily to obtain a vacuum as high*as 90,000,000 2° 190,000,000" reserving the details of manipulation, e etc., for more extended notice hereafter. 1.) The improvement consists, first, in an arrangement by means of which the mercury, instead of being at once introduced into the ws ce passes beforehand through an exhausted bulb gains ud in great measure from air and moisture. 58 Scientific Intelligence. (2.) The second part consists of what amounts to an almost theoretically perfect fluid valve, which prevents the air that has passed out of the fall-tube from returning into it; this is accom- plished by merely bending the fall- B tube as indicated at V. As for the rest, the pump is contrived so as to be free from stop-cocks and oo grease. és By inclining the pump somewhat, the bulb " can be exhausted once for all, as matters can ad easily be arranged so that when the atmo- sphere is allowed to enter the pump, the ex- haustion of the bulb remains intact. The action of this pump is very rapid, two hours or less sufficing to reduce the vacuum from 1 1S 20,000 £0 90,000,000" the total capacity of the pump being 100 cubic centimeters. The exhaustion in these experiments was always accom- plished by mechanical, not by chemical means; chemical sub- stances being introduced solely for the purpose of drying the air. In the total absence of all such substances I have ob- tained a vacuum as high as 30,000,000" The means of measur- ing thése vacua and other details will be given as soon as a set of experiments that are being made on the caliber of the fall-tube is finished. New York, June 10th, 1880. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysics. d be oroform, caused so copious an evolu- tion of carbon dioxide that the condensation of the carbonyl bro- mide by a freezing mixture was rendered well nigh impossible. Chemistry and Physics. 59 the free bromine produced in the reaction by means of antimony, it was allowed to condense in the receiver with the bromide, and a crude product colored by bromine, was obtained, which weighed grams, after repeating the operation fifteen to twent times. Subsequently by distilling this through a tube age rrees,2 antimony, a colorless heavy liquid was collected, Step the sam penetrating suffocating odor that carbonyl chloride has, an whose vapor caused a remarkable swelling up of thé vuleanized rubber CURTISCHONE. On fractioning, the thermometer rose from 12° to 30°; proving that the product was not pure. On analysis, it was found to ee carbonyl! chloride.—Ber. Berl. — I xiii, ee pee ay, l temperatures between 14° and 20° C. About 3} grams of the colorless crystals, prepared by mixing ice-cold solutions of am- monia and o rogen Fp a. ining barium chloride, ‘were placed in a flask with pure water, the progress of the deco om- ee bein sesecbe af collecting the evolved gas in a gradu- Dont rst seven days fifteen to thirty e.c. of on ‘vas rorutved in Settee hours. e crystal mass re bonate formed, they gave the formula BaO O), like the others ence this may be regarded as correct, corresponding os a does to the strontium and calcium co rO,. ne 0), and CaO, . (H,O),.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, i, Apr 1 ‘< F, Ne rfuran and Sylvan in Pine wood tar.—Arr ERBERG ee further examined the earlier fractions of the distillation of of characteristic odor, boiling at 30° and having a sp. 0° After distillation over sodium, it gave 72°71 C., 9 32 H, and 17°97 O, and had a vapor density of 69°5. It was evidently a mixture, but its behavior toward hydrochloric acid showed it to 60 Scientific Intelligence. ably a valerylene. The next and 65°. Distilled from sodium, the larger part of it boiled at 63° to 63°5°, gave on analysis C 73°50, H 8°78, and had a vapor density 81°4*to 81-7. The formula C,H,O requires 73°17 C and reagents only polymerize it giving resinous and tarry products. ermanganate oxidizes its methyl group to acetic acid.— Ber. On Crystallized anhydrous Oxaliec _— common oxalic acid, as is well known, is a crystallized hydrate CBOs , Which loses its crystal water on heatin Rs has of S oO al a; ° RD =] | @ oa ° a = @ ) be oe at oO CC = bo} a I — D m i) — es | SS) a DR 5 o = ) et oO ar] n Ch., I, xxxiii, 435, May, 1880, G. F. B. 5." On the Continuous Preparation of Ethyl Acetate.—Papst has devised a continuous process for the reparation of acetic ether, analogous to that by which ethyl ether is made. A mi el tube closed with a cock, equal molecules of alcohol and of glacial acetic acid—one liter of alcohol of 96 p. c., and one liter of acetic acid 8 p. c.—are allowed to run into it slowly as soon as the tem- perature has reached 140°. At first a little ethyl ether distills Chemistry and Physics. 61 the melted salt, and fractionated, In one operation 1350 gra of pure acetic ether w was obtained, being 90 per cent of the theoreti eal yield. l acetate is readily made in the same wa amyl acetate requires A high a.temperature.— Bull. Soe. Ch. TI, XXXili, pe April, 1 G. F. B. 4 Ateabohae of Belladonna, Datura, Sis jodkesjerail and Duboisia. Shiba ure has continued his researches on the mydri- atic—or pupil- ee ee ds. He finds that Atropa bella- donna pie at least two alkaloids, which, on account of their specitic gravities, he Jidenachen as heavy’ bi light atropine. The form mer 4 the alkaloid known commo y this name, itt gs NO, is characterized by a fapuleas: cia salt fusing at reece The latter fuses at 170°, forms a scarcely crystalline light powder, and gives a gold salt fusing at 159°. if must be y daturine fuses at 113 re an is a mixture of atropine and hyoscyamine, which may eparated by re-crystallizing the gold salts. Indeed, pester sews keris of daturine from ds ‘Hilts asic, yields ad atropine. Light daturine is identical wit ose ne. Hyoscyamus ‘contains two alka loids, dis- tinguished as crystalline 39a amorphous. The former gives a gold salt in brilliant plates fusing at 159°, and not fusing in boiling water like the atropine salt. ~ Hyoscyamine itself fuses at 108°5°, atropine at 113°5°-114'5°. The former separates from its solu- tions as a spectacle Lona, re crystallizes only in fine needles. Amorphous hyo ins a new alkaloid, which pean a beautiful gold salt, faving hithes than those of atropine hyos- cyamine. The aut or is now investigating it. Du sent yields allylailing He n finds that scealaiy andline affords chino- line fon? on dry distillation. The well-dried reddish-yellow aniline is formed and at once oxidized to chinoline. Skraup pre- fers a mixture of nitrobenzene and aniline, which affords 25 per cent of chinoline.—Ber, Berl. Chem . Ges., xiii, 910, abe! 1880. . BE. . 62 Scientific Intelligence. ‘4 ‘Oe Te Deatalliges in Sout yellow needles, is per- manent in the air, and fuses at about 100°. Very soluble in water and also in alcohol and ether. —-Liebig’s Annalen, ccii, a bie +d 1880. 9. Relation between the Velocity of ogee and the Density of Bodies.—Herr H. A. Lorentz refers to the fact that Max- well’s theory of light has been examine 4 chiefly in relation to the questions of velocity-and of reflection and refraction, and proposes rag himself to examine the relation between the index ae refraction and the density d of a body, under the supposition that Max- well's theory is true. He starts with the hypothesis that an ether 830% between the molecules of a body, and that in the immediate ighborhood of the molecule the state of this ether does not er from that which it possesses in a vacuum. He also sup- equation K= cha as ‘of saatieg ag eat eq. (1) in SR stot must hold. Under the supposition that all the molecules are not equal, one can obtain aera for the index of refraction of a mixture. It follows that —~— : TP dd also in this case must be equal’ to a constant, and also that ‘aren this value and the analogous constants af Monta me (n,’+2)d. (n, which result om the conditions of the mixture, the relation @2)d= oe eer ‘aa,t a7, saa irs s Br - hold. “ln this latter equation a,, a,, etc. are the units of of the portions in the unit of weight. ’ 'The constant & in n eq. a Geology and Mineralogy. 63 and fluid bodies must be ascribed to the samé cause, and are in conformity with the fact that in flint glass the increase of the with heating when great wave lengths are employed, and in- creases when small wave lengths are used. The author discusses 10. Aurora Borealis.—In a recent paper read before the Royal Society, Mr. Warren pe 1A Rue and Mr. Hueco W, Mirier stated their conviction that at the height of 37°67 miles above 9 Il. GroLtogy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Report on the Geology of the High Plateaus of Utah, with Atlas; by C. E. Durron, Captain of Ordnance, U. 8. A., U. S. 64 Scientific Intelligence. south valleys; a western, along the Sevier River, which here ows north to the westward bend. that takes it to Sevier Lake, “a and the Markagunt, “a true plateau,” about 11,000 feet in height. Between the Sevier and Grass Valleys there are two plateaus, the Sevier, 80 miles long, cut through near its middle by the east-and- west gorge of the Kast Fork ; and south of this the Paunsigunt plateau, “ bounded on three sides by lofty battlements of marvel- ous sculpture and glowing color.” East of Grass Valley, and its line to the south (along which commences the Paria River), three plateaus are distinguished: the Wahsatch, extending somewhat farther north than the Pavant (to the parallel of 40°), where it joins, in an en echelon way, the Wahsatch range proper; the Fish- Lake plateau east of Fish Lake, but 15 miles long, yet 11,400 feet high; the Awapa plateau, which almost blends with the preced- ing but is of less altitude, and is 30 miles long by 20 in breadth, its top a treeless, rolling prairie, sloping feebly to the eastward ; and the Aquarius, 11,600 feet high in its eastern part, 35 miles in length by 10 to 18 in breadth, the grandest of all the High Pla- teaus, its “three sides, the south, west and east, walled by dark battlements of volcanic rock,” and descending to “ the dismal des- ert in the heart of the Plateau country,” while its broad summit is clad with forests of spruce, and has its grassy parks and scores is gained the story of ‘Jack and the beanstalk,’ the finding of a strange and beautiful country somewhere up in the region of the sage, the prickly pear, and a few cedars that writhe and contort their stunted limbs under a scorching sun. ay we are among forests of rare beauty and luxuriance; the air is moist and cool, the grasses are green and rank, and hosts of flowers deck the turf like the hues of a Persian carpet. The forest opens in wide parks and winding avenues, which the fancy can easily people with fays Geology and Mineralogy. 65 and woodland nymphs. On either side the sylvan walls look impenetrable, and for the most part so thickly is the ground matter as forcing an adattis. The tall spruces (Abies subalpina) stand so close together, that even if the dead-wood were not there so the Engelmann spruc d great mountain firs (A. Engel- mannii, A. grandis), which are delightfully varied, graceful in orm, and rich in foliage. Rarely are these species found in such luxuriance and so variable in habit. In places where t ey are much exposed to the keen blasts of this altitude they do not grow into tall, majestic spires, but cower into the form of large bushes, von nee branchlets thatched tightly together like a great hay- rick, hese H h southern boundary of Utab, the parallel of 37°, Beyond, lies the Plateau country, described by Powell, the region of the Shiwits, Uinkaret, Kanab, Kaibab and Paria plateaus, on the north side of the “Grand Cafion” of the Colorado,—which here extends nearly east and west between the parallels of 36° and 36° 30’,—and of “Marble Cafion,” “Kanab Cafion,” “Hurricane Cli 8,” ‘* Echo Cliffs,” and other remarkable features.* he Henry Mountains, described by G. K. Gilbert, stand 30 miles to the east of the Aquarius plateau. In the geological account of these plateaus the author treats of ster ah, at the eastern base of the Awapa and Aquarius plateaus, and with it the Jurassic, and the latter also outcroppin narrow strips in the r River Valley; the * See Powell’s Report on the Uinta Mountains; also this Journal, III, xii, 420, and Dana’s Manual of Geology, edition of 1880, page 792. Am. Jour, ere Series, Vou. XX, No, 115.—Juxy, 1880. 66 Scientific Intelligence. west. ing from the authetn plateaus southward to the Colo- cigs a wide area of Eocene Tertiary is first passed ; then bands, n succession, of Cretace ait Jurassic, Upper Trias, ‘Lower Trias, (Shina aetiatis en p), and Carbon iferous The youngest group in he series clearly carne out (the rele nary excluded) is thus the Eocene; and it would be the formation generally were it not for the erosion that has taken ‘pikes and still more for the covering of igneous rocks. These Eocene beds are rae of an extended lacustrine formation—as first recog- nized b . They are described as 5,000 feet thick around the Blackie of of the Uintas and southern Wahsatch, and as thinning, outward from these mountains, to nearly or quite 2,000 feet Awapa and Fish-lake Plateaus on the the great central Sevier Plateau, ~ the Tu shar and Markit Plateaus on the oldest, and the dolerytes, but as in alternating beds in some places with the last. In the Awapa and Aquarius Plateaus, the trachyte shows a thickness, in some of the profound gorges, of 3,000 feet. The volcanic eruptions are stated to have begun in the middle Eocene, and a few of the foci are still distinguishable. The basaltic eruptions in some places look, “so far as appearance is concerned,” they “might have been erupted less than a century ago.” Beside es the eruptive beds, volcanic conglomerates are widely poate zee covering an area of 2,000 square miles, and e parts 2,500 feet thick. In some places they have den so vihunes d as to lose their fragmental character, and become in appearance closely like true eruptive rocks (a fact which has been observed also in the Andes and in Mexico). But o the voleanic rocks and volcanic action and its causes, the reader is referred to the Report. e disturbances in the plateau region have resulted in a gen- eral uplifting, and also in monoclinal flexures, and in fractures and faults; and the faults are mostly in the line of monoclinal uplifts, as brought out by Powell in his déacription of the Colo- o region on the South. The flexures and faults, as is well illustrated in the Atlas, have approximately a north-and-south course, and are, in part, a continuation of those of the Colorado region on the South. The “Hurricane fault” has its southern limit at some undetermined point in Arizona, south of the Colorado, and, at its crossing of the Grand Cafion, it is the line of a displacement of 1800 feet. It is the western bound- Geology and Mineralogy. 67 ary of the Markagunt uplift (the ee making at one place a displacement of 5,000 feet, and at the southwest base of the Markagunt elevation, mate up the Carboniferous to a level with the Tertiary, a displacement of 12,000 to 13,000 feet. It reaches north to the west side of the Tushar plateau and by the east side of the Pavant. Other faults have less extent, but there is great similarity among them in character and direction. The amount of throw is, in general, from a few hundred feet to 3,000 feet. The time when these displacements took place is not indicated by ne displaced beds, no beds occur later than ments. After that cow a ‘large part of the Roc iy Mountains e mononclinal flexures and nearly horizontal bedding of the Plateau mountain region and the hi h di s and numerous folds of the Appalachians. The contrast is ndt so striking when the compari- son is made with the Cumberland Table Land and its continuation southwestward into Tennessee and northward into Southern New York and the Catskills, which are parts of the results of the Appa- lachian revolution ; and may it not be that the High Plateaus are in a similar way the denuded outskirts of the Wahsatch, which after- ward became somewhat crumpled and poe while the uplift of the Rocky Mountain region was in The subject of erosion is treated ably ena with full appreciation of the grandeur and geological interest of the results in this Pla- teau region; and several areas a8 represent some of the won- derful scenes in the mountai author estimates that on an average, at at 6,000 feet of faite wnt “depth have been removed the dinioeies and subsequent time—from an area of 10,000 square i ra, say that the terms Miocene and Puck cad maine o de finitiot events occurring outside the province. We have only a vast stretch of time, Sith: an initial epoch near the vie of the local 68 Scientific Intelligence, Eocene. The greater part of the denudation is assigned to the Miocene, because the conditions appear to been more favor- able to a rapid rate of destruction in that age than subsequently. The climate appears to have been humid, while the elevation was e time gradually increasing, both conditions being i atio moval of the rocks. The cated by many evidences. They consist of remnants of a former topography, preserved in a few localities from the general wreck of the land, and which show the same general facies of cliffs and cafions as those of more recent formation. And as the more recent sculpture owes its peculiarities in great part to the aridity, so, we conclude, must these more anci i little change for an immense period of time. “And now the relation of the High Plateaus to the Plateau Province at large becomes evident. Th great masse i trict of High Plateaus. From the region east of the High Pla- teaus also very large areas of it have been removed. The Upper Geology and Mineralogy. 69 Trias has ae been ate denuded, and the Lower Trias nearl as much so. The erosion of the Carboniferous has bee n small, being sontnea ehiety to the cutting of cafions—most dotably- the Grand and Marble Cafions, which are sunk wholly in that series ; and in poe laces have ‘been cut through the entire Palmozoie series syste n the aaanaiia with regard to the nature of volcanic action re the origin of mountain disturbances, Captain Dutton rejects the idea of the earth’s interior liquidity, and holds that the theory of the earth’s contraction, as a cause of mov ys is inadequate to account for the facts. ” At the same time he a cknowledges erate tha of vith his remarks on the erosion in the Phaekd region, he queries whether the removal of 6,000 to 10,000 feet of rock material over so large an area would not “have disturbed the earth’s equili- u art of the loss by drawing upon its whole mass tic § further says that, to account fie ne uplifts as well, must almost necessarily oe to the operations of “ that item op plu- tonic force which seems to have been always at work and the ope- ce of which constitete the ‘aucckisnt and most momentous prob- m of dynamica geology ;” and also o “recognize the gL ayer of 1 that tendency, which indebitably exists within se sh maintain the statical equilibrium of its levels.” But t Fok during the very period of erosion, when feet in average depth was being removed (that is, after iden time), the moun- tain region ing an elevation of aye twice 6,000 feet. pei ylvania Geological Survey. The Geology of Mute County; by I. C. Wuire. Report No. QQQ. 234 pp. 8vo, with a colored geological map of the county and 119 vertical sections.—This Report is oceupied mostly with details respecting the strata and their coal beds, which pertain to the ‘‘ Productive Coal measures,’ the conglomerate measures underneath, and the sub-con lomerate, Th large bowlders over the top surface of the Drift, and also in the of it, leads the author to the conclusion that the transportation was not done by icebergs but by glacierice. The fact that these bowl- ders are limited in t their southward distribution in Western Pennsyl- 70 Scientific Intelligence. vania by the Ohio River, that they occur abundantly north of it, “covering the surfa ce like flocks of shee ep,” and not south of it, where there is nothing in the topography to give such a limit to transport by icebergs, is stated to be evidence on this point. The author observes that the rivers of the county, like those of the adjoining Beaver and Lawrence Counties, discussed in his former report (No. QQ), flow over a great thickness of stratified silt, sand and gravel, even 700 feet in some cases, showing that the original rocky bottom is thus dee 2 urie 3. Annual Report of the Wisconsin Bove baw Survey for the year 1879; by T. C, Cuampertin, Chief Geologist. 72 pp. 8vo. adison, Wisconsin, 1880.—Besides details respecting the distri- — of collections of fossils, this Report contains descriptions of new Paleozoic fossils by R. P. Whitfield, and descriptions of ee | species of Fungi by W. F. Bundy. Of the fossils the following gre from se Potsdam sandstone: Holopea Sweeti, Cono- cephalites? quadratus, C.? explanatus, Ptychaspis striata, Dicel- locephalus Lodensis, eee Aglaspis Hatoni. Myr. Whitfie 1d describes also new species from the Trenton, Hudson River group, an Niagara, and one, a Discina, from beds of the Hamilton period. 4, Report on the Florida Reefs; by Louis Acassiz. Accom- pees by illustrations of Florida Corals from drawings by A. oNREL, BurKHaARDT, A, Acassiz and Rarer. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, vol. bes 62 pp. 4to. Plates 1to xxu1. Cambridge, 1880.— aticcstat by the Museum of Comparative Zoology, of Pac iaaoe uis Agassiz’s Report on the Florida Coral Reefs, only extracts = which had appeared in the Coast Survey Report for 1851, is making accessible one of the most interesting of his memoirs, and iving it augmented value through the addition of plates of lorida Corals. These plates, which have great beauty and _per- fection, were drawn and lithographed for the original report, but were never published. To thesvolume Mr. Alexander Agassiz has added the sketch of Florida from Professor Agassiz’s “ * Methods of Study,” based upon his inyestigations of the reefs (all which were carried on under the auspices “of the Coast Survey), and, for the convenience of the reader, a sketch map of Southern Floris ar the Keys, Segoe from Coast Survey Maps. . Early Man in Britain, and his gar in ur Slear Period; y ow. ae ‘Dawass 8, M.A, E.R. 8 pp. 8vo, with London, 1880. "Giaemiian & Co.).— and moe pat from saa phaarretion. It follows a work on Cave Hunting by the same author, palente in 1874. While devoted especially to facts in Britain t gives a general review of those of Europe; and, besides heating of human Geology and Mineralogy. 71 include maps, copies of many sketches or drawings of the Stone age, anc i other objects throwing light on ancient human history. nary. The illustrations—over 160 in number—are excellent, and age, after the land connecting Britain with Greenland had been submerged and the Atlantic was united to the North Sea and the When the living species became abundant, he appears just in the might be expected to appear. The River-drift man first comes 6. . Coan, (From a letter to the editors, dated Hilo, Hawaii, May 3d to 6th, 1880).—Hilo is in a haze of sulphur smoke, and we see the sun as Mauna Loa. At 8 P.M. of the same day, my wife called my atten- tion to an unusual light in the direction of the mountain. At was clear. The clouds dispersed and the spectacle of a burning mountain opened to our sight. The action was intense. The as if a vast column of melted rock, a mile in diameter, was being poured out of the mountain with amazin force and vehement heat. Brilliant corruscations shot out in a directions, lighting up the clouds to the apparent height of 30° and spreading out for many miles along the summit of the eastern side of the mountain. The outbreak was in full view from the west side of our house, which was brilliantly lighted up by the fires, while the front part was in a deep shade, rendering the con- trast striking summit crater, Mokuaweoweo; and others that it was at a point few miles north of it. Since that night the mountain has been so veiled in clouds and smoke that we have not been able to see the fire. Yesterday flocks of Pele’s hair, and light particles of 72 Scientific Intelligence. volcanic dust and sand were dropped upon our houses and in our streets, over our walks and our -_ having been borne upon the winds for this great distan Ma Our mail leaves to-day, and I deeply regret that we have Bot seen the great fire since the night of the first and second inst. A dense cloud has rested upon the mountain by night and We hav tesa that no light shines through it. however, learned by people coming from Puna, and dicen via Kilauea, that the roaring furnace is still in fierce com and that its locality i is probably in the terminal crater, eruption upon the mountain, and that lava streams are flowing, but these reports are not fully reliable. Optical delusion and excited imagination often see unreal visions. During the terrific eruption and the rending earthquakes of 1868, men and women of entire veracity saw, as they thought, sea, within three miles of them, and all en in sa day, with nothing to obstruct their view, and yet, on going to the place where this lava flowed, as they asserted i in all honesty, there was no a or smell of fire. Since my former letter, dated June 20, 1879, Ailawea has re- » mitied.. great activity. Ra arely in its recorded history have the res. atera eke of liquid rock are bursting through the scoria- ceous sides alemaumau—the lake and cone in the southwest | part of the sashes: cal flowing down the declivities into the cen- tral depression, adding stratum to stratum, while t e great lake boils, and dashes its waves against its walls, and sends its burn- ing spray high into the air. The debris around the high walls of ciat is mee the Shetland Isles.—A paper on this subject, well illustrated by a geological eee showing the direction of the lacial striz, b B.N. Pracu and J. Horne, is ami in the Guarterly J TnL. of the Geological Society for 8. Relief Geolog a cal Map of New oth oe ea relief geo- chedler, a map engraver of New York Cit shecbt 9. Brief Notices of some guaaihes denwribed Min —Fredri- ite :—A mineral related to ter pe os but deuniaant by its containing lead and tin. It occurs only massive; the color is iron-black; hardness =3°5 ; specific rece =4°65. An analysis yielded : Geology and Mineralogy. 73 8 As Cu i SS) Fe Sb 2718. LTD: 42:23 BBA: 14) «6281 O08... = 10016 This corresponds to the general formula 4RS, As,S,, or that of an arsenical tetrahedrite. It is described by Hj. jogren as occur- ring with galenite and geocronite at the Faln a in Sweden. — Geol. For, Fi depen tne Stockholm, v, 82, March, 1880 Orizite :—Occurs in minute cryst tals and rystallisie grains, hav- ing the luster at ‘color of rice ies 8. spot: =6 ; specific ravity =2°245. T mposition is the same as that of heu- landite with which it is considere d tig the eciines G. Grattarola, as dimorphous. Locality: the tourmaline eranite of San Piero in Campo.— AZti Soe. Toscana, i es Pseudonatrolite :—Oceurs in minute colorless crystals, ay orthorhombic. Hardness =6 ; luster glassy to pearly. An analy- sis afforded : Sid. Al,0O; CaO MgO WNa,0,K,0 62°64 14-76 8°54 tr. 100 = 101-76 It is regarded as a new zeolite. Described by Grattarola Ne c.) clay like vein Mune with quartz and barite. When fresh it is colorless but ¢ isch rapidly i in the air, effloresces and becomes opaque. The composition is expressed by the formula MnSO,+ 7 aq, or the same as the artificial salt. Luckite is found in indistinct striated Seis of a bluish color, occurring in a black bituminous rock. It p tig A belongs to the monoclinic system, The con osition, as ie n_by the a sie es corresponds to the formula (Mn, Fe) sO ra pd It is consequently near to cr but contains 21°7 Guejarite :—Occurs with sidutite’? in ‘the copper veins in the dis- trite of Gaeer Andalousis, It is found in orthorhombic crystals of a steel gray color. Hardness =3°5; specific gravity =5-03. The chemical composition is given by hie rn Cu,S+258b,S, which places it near chalcostibite. Described by Cumenge and Friedel.— Bull. er mr sipehae epee Becearite:—A variety of zircon, di fferin ng from that mineral in Sher optically biaxial character, ana in composition, An analysis SiO, ZrO. Al,O; CaO gn 30°30 62°16 2°52 3°62 032 = 98°92 Brought by Dr. Beceari from Point de sere der and de- scribed by G. Grattarola.— Atti Soc. Tose., Mixite :—An emerald-to bluish-green aneeia’ s ss incrustation on lain ochre, and also in granular, and irregular massive par ticles, sometimes spherical i in form and in part orypto-crystalline. n analysis yielde ou Bi,O; CuO FeO Cad H,O 13°07 43°21 1°52 0°83 1I8b = oat - 74 Scientific Intelligence. The capes formula ae apna is Cu,,Bi,As,,H,,0,,. Described by Sch as h tor ae and bismutite at Joachims- thal. "Zeitsch. Kryst., iv, 5 27 751 10. Analysis of the "Meteoric tos from Cleberne Co., Alabama; by J. B. Macxintosu, E.M. (Communicated by W. E. Hidden.) —The followi ng is an "analysis of the meteoric iron from Chula- finnee, Cleberne Co., Ala., describe ‘ by W. E. Hidden, in the May number (p. 870) of this Journal; the analysis is by J. B. Mackint Yo 91.608, Ni 7368, Co 0°500, P 0°170=99°646 Thirtieth = say sien mu cap Seg of the New York State Museum of ‘Natural History. Alban —tThe first of these reports, ‘‘transmitted to the Legislature “Apel 13, 1877, : psa de Report of the Botanist, C. H. Peck, occupying 56 pages; a paper on the lithology of the Adirondacks, by A. R. Leeds, 32 pages; another on the structure of Astrewospongia meniscus, by ee J. W. Hall and R. Fritz-Geertner, 6 pages; and entomological contributions, No. IV, by J. A. Lintner, 130 pages. The second oe a ‘Report of the Botanist, ©. ‘HL. Peck ; notes 0 im eg and Trenton Limestone, by 0. D. Wolcott; and notes on Phlogopite, by R. Fritz- Geertner. Ill. Botany AND Zoonoey. 1. Action of Light on ae paste —It is well pth gee that, for a plant to complete its development and mature its seeds, though the latter enjoys a considerably higher temperature. A grain of wheat grown at near the sea-level in Norway, or in lower latitudes, when propagated at high elevations or in a high latitude will mature earlier, even although at a lower temperature ; and it is said that, within limits compatible with its cultivation, bk grain increases in size ay weight. Is this the case with Min days and of the higher altitude,—a natural explanation, since it is normally or mainly under light that nutritive matter is formed. ht d eed, that conditions is of greater size and w — but not - the produce to the acre, or the number of grains to the is increased. From the analogy of Indian corn in this pee the contrary Botany and Zoology. 75 a maize may be regarded as a tropical plant, inured to northern latitudes only by the development of precocious and dwarf varie- ties, and, requiring a longer season and a greater sum of heat Schiibeler is said to have shown that biennials and perennials under these conditions lay up a greater store of nutritive matter. Flahault has carried on a series of comparative experiments in this regard, simultaneously conducted at Upsal is. The mean temperature of the summer months differs only slightly, and the rain-fall is nearly the same in the two places. But the mean length of the day, between the 15th of May and the 30th of July is 17 hours 49 minutes at sal; at Paris, 15 hours and 38 minutes. These experiments are detailed at length in his paper in Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.) 6th Ser., ix, p. 159, ete., March, 1880,—to be concluded in the April number. The results, so far, favor the 0 it loses this precocity in a few generations, and the seeds gradually diminish to the former size and weight. Plants raised from seeds ripened in a high northern locality are hardier mere diurnal dimin has shown that electrically illuminated plants require no diurn rest, but can be forced on, at least for a considerable time, and 76 Scientific Intelligence. be grown, therefore, by electric light,— s aid snerg stored up in food and fuek = >witich is an interesting Younding of the cycle of transformation; and if the contemplated electro- horticulture fails to be catabliched, it will be because it cannot be made t to (pp. 171- iets is cunnicl + ith the investigation of the cases in which pore ab is formed in darkness. There are two kinds of cases. 1. The cotyledons of Pines, though colorless up to the moment of germination, then turn to bright green even when light has no access to them. Snalnth e green is certainly due to the formation of chlorophyll, and to its production without the intervention of light. This chlorophyll is here formed at the expense of nutritive matter of the albumen of the seed, ste into the we Seen i.e., is formed from reserve-material. Flahault finds that the young leaves of Onion and of Crocus, developing from Se bulb, fed by reserve-material, equally may form some aa toe in darkness. arious Ferns, growing almost in ne phyll is formed during the growth of the well-developed embryo. The peculiarity is, that this chlorophyll remains for a very long while unaltered in darkness, ready to perform its functions the moment that germination brings these green cotyledons to the erate et ania the pro peal itself being the true agent of assimilatio Apparent he — not raise the pertinent en- 2. Criticism of the accounts of the Brains of the tee Ver tebrates given in Packard’s Zoology ;* by Burr G. Wirvrr.—It is to be hoped that Dr. Packard may have the cordial codperation of zoologists in the effort to free the second edition of his text- * Zoology for Students and —— Peart by A.S. Packard, Jr., M.D. The American Balande Series, No. VI, 1 Botany and Zoology. 17 book from the ay Hs which have in some degree impaired the usefulness of t Notw Ghetandius the assistance of Professors Cope and Gill on the parts relating to the Batrachians and Fishes, perhaps no ctexiana of the work stand in mesases need of revision than the accounts of the brains of these There are inconsistent, incomplete, unintelligible and incorrect statements, and for convenience I mention the more important imper fections under these heads. A, Inconsistent statements. —(1) Page 407, the “nervous cord of age does not enlarge in the head to form the brain ;” B. Seriously incomplete statements.—(1 he description of the iniips of “ Pisces” (p. (2) Page 40% equally well to the Batra- 07, the ventricle on the dorsal si mentioned. (3) There is no allusion to size and complexity of the cerebellum of most sharks, or to t e apparent consolidation of the so-called “hemispheres” into a single median mass. Strictly speaking, and especially in view of the published opinion of the reviser as to the “taxonomic value of the brain and heart,” none of the brains of ce are Lae descri e he ing of the word “ fishes,” since in the section on Teleosts it is re- peatedly used as a synonym of the bony fishes alone: on page 405 It is equivalent to “ Pisces 5 while in the Preface it evidently de- notes all below Batrachians neorrect statements. — (1) In whatever way the word “fishes ” be interpreted, the intimations of any close resemblance between their brains and those of Marsipobranchs, Elasmo- (2) Page 409, the cerebellum of the a sin is *‘ appar- ently not differentiated from the medulla.” This may be true of the hag-fishes, but in lampreys the cerebellum is perfectly dis- tinct, and larger relatively than in Menobranchas, (3) Page 417, “the brain of Siedeubeasnua; is like that of fishes All investigators of fish-brains agree that the brains of the sharks, skates, and Chimera are difficult to homologize with those of 78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. (4) From the description and figure (pp. 440, 441) of what pur ports to be a typical Teleostean brain, the following inferences are inevitable: bony fishes have neither ‘thalami nor olfactory lobes ; the “ hemispheres” are the most anterior pair of lobes, and are similar to the true hemispheres of Batrachians. As to the optic brate against the more obvious signification of the following amis upon page 440, “In front arise the very large and conspicuous optic nerves. n view of the unsatisfactory nature of our knowledge of the brain of some eee employing as a basis the admirable paper of the late J effrie s Wyman upon “The Nervous System of ana pipiens.” Attention should be called to the = sete in frogs and toads the olfactory lobes, by a rare exceptio e in contact upon the middle line. The brains of Men a ata ‘and perry which especially adapt it for dissection as a typical ver- te. IV. MiIsceLLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Centennial sale the ope ges: Academy comparing, with extreme accuracy. If we reduce his coeffi- cient of sin 6(nt—n’t) to seconds of arc, we obtain 0/0490 for this coefficient, a value almost identical with my own. For the coefficient of sin 8(nt—n’t) I find 0’-00034, while according to © Prof. Adams it is 0’’00081. According to my development the coefficient of the paral- lactic inequality is composed of the following terms: 84"-523-+26"-801+4+10"-280-43"-872=125"°476, while Delaunay gives the following series of terms: 74”°023-+-347'330-+4-11"-885-+4-1"°428-+ 17°862+40"°712+407'381 ao 29" G21. The coefficient of this inequality is one of the most trouble- some to be determined by the theory, and the four terms more. The theoretical coefficient for the above value of the parallax would therefore be 123’"37. Were the exact value tion, we might, by comparing it with the theoretical coefficient, determine the correction to our assumed solar parallax. with each other. For those inequalities in which the eccen- tricity and inclination enter as factors, the value of the coeffi- cient depends, to a certain extent, on the manner in which the arguments of the different equations are measured. In most of the lunar theories the anomalies are measured on the plane of the orbit, while the longitudes are measured on the plane of the ecliptic ;—a needless complication, which I have carefully Am. Jour. Ss Serigs, Vor, XX, No. 116.—Auve., 1880. 98 J. N. Stockwell— Researches on the Lunar Theory. avoided. However, in order to show the rapid convergency of the series which determine the principal periodic inequalities depending on the eccentricity and inclination of the orbit, I here give the two terms of the coefficient of the evection pee I have computed. The first two terms laa: on the first power of the eccentricity are as follows 4280"-9-+4+122"°0, while Delaunay gives the following terms: 31767°4+-10417°54-297"°54+72"'3. It is evident that the first series converges about ten times as rapidly as the secon The gone comparison is sufficient to show the correct- ness bac value of th e method which I have employed in the problem of ant moon’s motion; and I shall now mention a few cases in which my results are wholly different from what other calculators have found for the same inequalities. Before doing so, however, I would observe that there are certain fundamental and axiomatic conditions which ou ught to be satisfied by the results arrived at, whatever be the method of analysis which we may employ. In the present case the condition to be satisfied is simply, That all the terms introduced into the expressions of the codrdinates by the disturbing function ought to disappear when the disturbing function is pul e equal to nothing. It is, however, a remarkable fact in connection with the lunar theory, that, among the four hundred and seventy-nine equations of the longitude given by Delaunay, there are /ive, arising from the sun’s attraction, which do not disappear when the disturbing function is put ‘equal to nothing. From this circumstance it is easy to conclude that there must be some- thing seriously wrong in his development, notwithstanding its intricacy and refinement. The same remark is also applicable to the lunar theories of LaPlace, Plana and Pontécoulant. The most important of these equations are those having the arguments, 2¥ — J, and D +’, in Delaunay’s theory ; or, twice > moon's distance Jrom the node minus the mean anomaly, an the moon's longitude minus the longitude of the sun’s perigee _ The first of these is an inequality of pure elliptic motion, with a coefficient of +45’-4, while the coefficient arising from per- turbation amounts to gd” 8, 28” only of which disappears when the disturbing function is put equal to nothing. Accord- ing to my analysis, the coefficient of this inequality arising from perturbation amounts to only 0’”"18, a quantity less than a four — part of Delaunay’s coefficient arising from the same ¢ he ‘qveticiett of the second equation, mentioned above, J. N. Stockwell— Researches on the Lunar Theory. 99 depends entirely on perturbation, and has a value of about 17” according to Delaunay, while I find a coefficient of — 0-08. ese two equations present the most remarkable differences which I have found among the equations of short period in the moon’s motion The inequalities of long period, or those which de wholly on the variation of the elements se elli teak motion are also very easily computed by my method lues of the inequalities of this kind are subject to very ies and precise laws; so that if we have computed the coeflicient of an inequality arising from a given force and having a given period, we may deduce the coefficient of any other inequality arising from a different force and having a different period, directly from it. For convenience we may divide the inequali- g period into two classes, according to the nature of the forces which gan: them. We shall ‘therefore desig- to obiads the re equality pine ts a parental Gack: 7 ; aving a period a’. If we call this second inequality m’, I find the following relation exists between the two inequalities : 3m <9 f ala —2m'fan. This gives m’= ~smi,* foe! here denoting the moon's period of revolution. If f=/’ née a =a’ = 1188n, which corres- ponds nearly to the period of the moon’s perigee, we find m'= —178m, whence it follows that for equal central and tangential forces having a period of about nine years, the tangential i would diminish the moon’s longitude one hundred and seventy- eight times as much as the central force paid increase it, and vice versa, ere are two inequalities of long period in the moon’s motion which have been much discussed by astronomers. They have for arguments, twice the difference of longitude of perigee 100 JS. N. Stockwell— Researches on the Lunar Theory. and node of the lunar orbit, and the difference of longitudes of perigee of sun and moon, respectively. Plana was the firs give a correct approximate solution of the problem of the first of these inequalities, which is produced wholly by the varia- tions of the central force. By means of a laborious investiga- tion, occupying about fifty pages of his Theory of the Moon’s Motion, he has obtained a tolerably scare approximation to the value of the inequality. He obtains +1/°405 for the sum or the elliptic and perturbed Goatiescnk: but the elliptic co- efficient is equal to —0/’-932; whence it follows that the coefii- cient due to perturbation amounts to about +2’34. I obtain, almost without labor, +2’54 for the value of this coefficient. The second inequality is produced by both classes of forces, and the determination of its coefficient is more complicated than that of the inequality just mentioned. The value of the force of class (A), which produces the inequality, is about one- jifth of the former, but it has a period about three times as long. The inequality produced by this force ought to be about three- Jijths of the former inequality, which would make it equal to 1’’52. But the tangential force is far more effective, since the inequalities produced are proportioaal to the squares of the pow of the arguments. I find, however, by an exact calcu- tion that the part of the coefficient of this inequality which arises from the central force amounts to +1/°45; while the part of it which arises from tangential seis amounts to +107’08; thus making the coefficient of the inequality equal to 108’’53. The solutions of Plana, Pontécoulant and Delaunay, all make the coefficient equal to about 0’”4, when quantities of the same order only are include It is remarkable that the inequalities of long period arising from the two classes of forces which produce them should follow the same law as the acquired velocity, ave space peer over, by falling bodies at the surface of the earth, the on being. De proportional to the time and the other the square of e t Tf we extend the comparison to the variation of the ele- ments, we shall find that the method which I have employed possesses the advantage of more rapid convergency. For example, I find for the first two terms of the mean motion of the perigee the following value 0°00419643 +- 0° 00395575 = 9°00815218, while the first three terms of Delaunay’s series are 0°00419643 + 0°00294279 + 0°00099570 = 000813492. This comparison shows that two terms of my series are con- siderably more accurate than three terms of Delaunay’s. The preceding comparisons are sufficient to databligh two J. N. Stockwell— Researches on the Lunar Theory. 101 t inequalities which do not disappear from the formulas of previous investigators by means of the same conditions. t might seem, however, that such large changes in the val- ues of the coefficients of some of the equations of the moon’s longitude, as my researches seem to indicate, would have a tendency to make the theory less accordant with observations than it is at present, since the present lunar tables represent the moon’s place within tolerably narrow limits. But a little con- sideration will show that such a conclusion would not neces- sarily follow. In order to illustrate this point, let us suppose that we have a perfect system of elements of the moon’s orbit together with a perfect theory of the perturbations. It would necessarily follow that the moon’s place could be perfectly pre- icted, and there would be no discordances between theory and observation. Suppose, now, that we omit a number of small though important equations from the computation of our ephem- eris, it would follow that there would be a series of residu- als between theory and observation. It is evident that these residuals would be perfectly represented by the omitted equa-° tions; but if the equations were considered as wholly lost, the theory would be in the same condition as though they had never been found; and we might seek to make up for the im- perfect theory by finding certain corrections to the elements by means of equations of condition between the variations of the elements and the observed residuals. In this way we might _ perhaps obtain a very good agreement between theory and ob- servations which extend over a limited interval of time,—the errors of the theory being partially compensated by the errors of the elements. But this close agreement between theory an but the residuals would furnish no information in regard to the nature of the equations to be applied in order to correct them, 102. J. N. Stockwell—Researches on the Lunar Theory. since the calculated places were based on imperfect elements and an imperfect theory of the perturbations. No theory indicates a passage through just such conditions and changes. It is true, however, that it has never possessed the The labors of Newton and Halley reduced the errors of the theory to about the eighth part of a degree; while Mayer, by the aid of theory and more accurate observations, succeeded in reducing the errors to less.than the thirtieth part of a degree. Later still, the researches of Mason and Burg, according to the authority of LaPlace, reduced the errors of the theory to less than one-quarter of a minute of arc! Tf this last degree of pre- unmistakably indicated a growing discordance, which has con- tinued till the present time; and notwithstanding the labori- ous investigations which have been made in order to detect the laws and the cause, no satisfactory explanation has yet been attained. If we consider the nature and magnitude of the dis- cordances which now pertain to the best tables of the moon’s J. Croll— Aqueous Vapor in Relation to Perpetual Snow. 108 motion, we can hardly avoid the conclusion that they are not due to the terms of a higher order of magnitude which have been neglected in the development of the theory. They must therefore result from some systematic error among terms of more importance in the lunar theory. In bringing to a close this account of my researches, I would repeat that my only object has been to discover if possible, by means of a new method of investigation, any false steps which may have been committed by previous investigators in the mathematical development of the lunar theory. The history of philosophy affords numerous examples of the advantages of independent methods of investigation over independent calcu- lations by the same method. It often happens that for particu- lar values of the known quantities of a problem some terms of the solution become infinite or indeterminate, when certain attention afford the means of a much needed improvement in the lunar theory. Cleveland, May 25, 1880. Arr. XTIL—Agqueous Vapor in Relation to Perpetual Snow; by JAMES CROLL, LL.D., F.R.S.* SOME twelve years ago I gave (Phil. Mag., March, 1867, Climate and Time, p. 548) what appears to be the true explana- tion of that apparently paradoxical fact observed by Mr. Glaisher that the difference of reading, between a thermometer exposed to direct sunshine and one shaded, diminishes instea of increases, as we ascend in the atmosphere. This le to _ an important conclusion in regard to the influence of aqueous vapor on the melting of snow, but recent objections to some of my views convince me that I have not given to that conclusion the prominence it deserves. I shall now state in a few words the conclusion to which I refer. € reason why snow at great elevations does not melt but remains permanent, is owing to the fact that the heat received from the sun is thrown off into stellar space so rapidly by radi- * Communicated to this Journal by the author. 104 J. Croll—Aqueous Vapor in Relation to Perpetual Snow. ation and reflection that the sun fails to raise the temperature of the snow to the melting point; the snow evaporates but it does not melt. ‘The summits of the Himalayas, for example, must receive more than ten times the amount of heat necessary to melt all the snow that falls on them, notwithstanding which the snow is not melted. And in spite of the strength of the sun and the dryness of the air at these altitudes, evaporation is insufficient to remove the snow. t low elevations, where the snow-fall is probably greater, and the amount of heat received even less than at the summits the snow melts and disappears. This, I believe, we must attribute to the influence of aqueous vapor. At high elevations the air is dry and allows the heat radiated from the snow to pass into space, but at low elevations a very considerable amount of the heat radiated from the snow is absorbed by the aqueous vapor which it encounters in pass- ing through the atmosphere. =" 4 oe ~—T a rr S —) bo bo ot or ow > } r= -~T re) ao) pad or) we iow Jk °o —) S or ow 8,083,000 ) 2-8. tos 39}0°0018 || 2,620,00 43 |127 78 3,080,000 + | 30 28) 0°0319| 5 34/0°0015|/2,610,000 {104 160-0136 |158 59/0-0592 3,079,000 )| .... | ..-. | 43 »6/0°0021|/2,600,000 [172 4 0°0221|190 3/0-0660 3,070,000 | 55 19) 0°0450/113 29/0°0115 |/2,590,000 {215 14/0°0342 |220 29)0-0666 3,060,000 82 45] 0°0524/153 41/0°0202 |/2.580,000 | 257 22/0-0383 |249 56/0-0609 3,040,000 [140 3) 0°0580/233 17/0°0 2,560,000 |339 17/0°0397 |299 44/0°033 3,030,000 168 16| 0°0523/274 50/0°0326 ||2,550,000 | 24 15,0-0369 }298 34/0°0167 3,020,000 49] 0°0427/316 55/0°0341 ||2,540,000 | 74 210-0323 |253 58/0 3,010,000 [218 35] 0-0302/3 0°0355 || 2,530, 78 17|0°0252 |259 260-0368 3, 0 [241 23) 0°0151| 39 29|0°0365 | 2,520,000 (18 321 |283 0535 2,990,000 {198 18] 0-0095] 77 59/0°03665 ||2.51 226 46/0°0344 |310 17/0-0657 2,980,000 [175 47/ 0°0181/114 16)0°0351 ||2,500,000 |268 54 0°0352 |338 37)0°0721 2,970,000» |167 19| 0°0295/148 37/0°0315 ||2,490,000 |307 39/0°0331| 7 722 2,960,000 {218 8/0-0387/181 1/0°0260|/2,480,000 [345 17,0°0275 46 0°0662 2,950,000 246 23) 0-0439)210 39/0-0170 |/2,470,000 | 23 59/0°0189] 63 26/0:0553 2,940,000 ) |277 31) 0:0467|247 45/0-0033 || 2,460,0 81 48/0°0083 | 88 42)0°0414 2,935,00 ---. | ---- |1T8 9]0°0027 |/2,450,000 [212 16/0-0091 |109 34/0°0252 2,930,000 ) /310 28) 0°0443]125 28/0°0067 || 2,440,000 266 21/0°0217| 97 19/0°0114 2,920,000 [345 49) 0°0386/142 5/0°0198 || 2,430,¢ 302 25/0-0343 | 57 27/0°0138 2,910,00 26 14] 0-0320|170 58/0-0343 2,420,000 |334 51/0°0455| 64 45/0°0253 2,900,00 80. 3) 0°0220)2 0443 || 2,410,000 (353 37,0°0537| 88 41/0°0351 2,890,000 [150 12) 0-0194 52/0-0529 || 2,400, 06 571 ae 40/0°0415 2,880,000 /214 49) 0-0219/263 28/0-0574 | 2,390,06 65 41/0:0560 147 430-0 2,870,000 |266 36! 0-0278]2 0599 ||2,380,000 | 95 31/0°0499 181 21/0°0431 ,860,00 13 3) 0°0317/327 37/0°0518 | 2.370.000 |128 320-0423 /218 32|/0°0388 2,850,000 {353 45| 0°0319 2,360,000 [143 3.0°0243 260 0/0°0334 ,840,000 | 38 42) 0°0293) 30 16/0-0265 ||2,350,000 |130 240-0106 |308 22)0-0281 2,830,000 4 16/ 0°0247| 71 24/0-0110 || 2,340, 78 260-0179} 2 30)0-0254 2,825,00 eng Be 24/0°0028 pete 95 38/0-°0342| 57 16/0-0257 2,824,000} |] .--. | -.-. |154 2010-0 2,3 21 : “0270 5 2, 0 0°026 OLT 85 }1 0 Pre, Gis 215 56/0-0033 150 25/0°0585 }151 18/0°0268 2,820,000 {154 24 0-0216 6}261 28/0-0065 23 300, 000 (179 52/0-0620 |195 27/0-0238 2,810,000 [217 32 fase 305 41'0°0226 2,290, 000 (201 24'0°0611 |295 49'0°0181 108 R. W. McFarland—Perthelion and Eccentricity. Table continued—Perihelion and Eccentricity. Year. Stockwell. LeVerrier. Year. Stockwell. | LeVerrier. Before 1850. | Long. | Ecc. Ecce. Before 1850. | Long. | Ecc. Long. | Ecc. ,280,000 |239 47| 0-0528/311 19/0-0126 |/1,730,000 |340 35 0-0140)110 js\o-0246 270,000 |269 45) 0°0401| 37 55|0°0142 |/1,720,000 (340 0/ 0°0180/128 20)0°0163 ,260,000 (306 38| 0°0187) 98 02 ,710,000 |352 37) 0°0250/126 440°0090 "250, 000 (308 17) 0°0093)141 18)/0°0328 |/1,700,000 13. 5) 070318] 94 40)0°0095 "240, 000 |220 25) 0°0088)178 3910-0406 |/1,690,000 36 31] 0°0366) 73 31/0°0132 "230, 000 |232 54) 0°0210/213 22|0°0448 |/1,680,000 60 33) 0°0383/114 59/0°0152 290, 000 |259 19) 0°0305/245 55/0°0457 |/1,670,000 87 53) 0°0365/138 51/0°0144 210,000 288 41) 0°0357/.277 20/0°0421 |/1,660,000 {101 41/ 0°0328/161 51/0°0099 ,200,000 (325 37) 0°0425/307 0°0352 |}1,650,000 |113 45) 0°0283)167 0°0034 ,190,000 (351 6) 0°0343/334 20/0°0259 |/1,640,000 |118 32) 0°0264| 67 45 0°0060 , 180,000 25 2| 0°0288/355 28/0°0163 |/1,630,000 [123 11) 0°0291) 94 30/0°0146 ,170,000 63 45) 0°0218 0°0067 ||1,620,000 34 45/ 0°0344/109 4/0°0223 ,160,000 (113 23) 0°0152)295 35/0°0096 |/1,610,000 52 16) 0°0397|134 23/0-0277 150,000 (180 38) 0°0126)305 22/0°0191 |/1,600,000 [172 52) 0°0430/158 42/0°0305 140,000 (296 41) 0°0155/331 51/0°0255 |/1,590,000 [194 36) 0°0438180 56)0°0305 ,130,000 {289 0-0200 5|0°0304 |/1,580,000 [216 0419/199 43)/0°0284 3120,000 (327 0°0227| 30 37/0°0329 |/1,570,000 |236 26] 0°0379|213 12/0°0256 110,000 2 0°0231) 61 37/0°0333 ||1,560,000 [254 20) 0°0325|/225 26 00217 , 100,000 37 42] 0°0199| 98 54/0°0298 ||1,550,000 [268 1 0269/225 47|0°0239 ,090,000 74 40) 0:0136/137 46/0°0266 |/1,540,000 j277 2/ 0°0197|/233 Wievae ,080,000 33 32) 0°0048 182 02 ,530,000 (278 26) 0°0203)245 34 0°0316 070,000 |282°13) 0°0081/232 10/0°0191 ||1,520,000 (281 28] 0°0216)262 9)0°0364 ,060,000 (326 55) 00190 “01765 |/1,510,000 |294 19] 0°0265/281 54/0°0399 ,950,0 2 0°0291/334 45/0°0169 ||1,500,000 |309 16] 0°0288'303 280-0430 2,040,000 | 34 8 0-0366) 20 “0156 ||1,490,000 {331 51| 0°0310326 52/0-0434 2,030,000 64 56/ 0°0405! 63 11/0°0116 |]/1,480,000 [348 5] 0°0314,351 32,0°0422 2,020,000 95 46) 0°0400)113 0/0°0066 |}1,470,000 29 6) 0°0277| 16 0°0361 2,013,000 ie Marta 4 46)0°0030 ||1,460,000 64 31] 0°0224] 39 23/0°0285 2,010,000 } |123 8] 0°0352)263 1/0°0045 ||1,450,000 [110 50/ 0°0152) 57 12)/0°0195 2,000,000 {147 16) 0°0273/323 44/0°013 440,000 |178 7| 0°0097| 56 58)0°0119 1,990,000 {162 0182} 1 30/0°0249 |/1,430,000 (264 46) 0°0117) 34 17/0°0130 1,980,000 |149 53] 0°0226) 34 44/0-03 420,000 (313 50| 0°0175| 41 32/0°0200 1,970,000 |135 1 165) 65 33/0°0363 ||1,410,000 (355 46] 0°0215) 64 12 070248 1,960,000 |146 236 0°0427 |/1,400,000 34 49] 0°0222) 97 35/0°0315 1,950,000 [167 23) 0°0299)/120 32'0°0427 |/1,390,000 82 31) 0°0188}130 43)0°0325 1,940,000 |196 46) 0°0331/144 21/0°0399 ||1,380,000 {124 10) 0°0134/171 11 070336 1,930,000 {216 49) 0°0326/161 18)/0°0356 |/1,370,0¢ 202 27| 0°0089)212 0)0°0323 1,920,000 (241 27) 0°0311/173 10,0°0320 ||1,360,000 [288 47| 0°0138|254 51|0°0309 1,910,000 [263 47) 0°0268/180 31/0°0311 |/1,350,000 /338 48) 0°0233|297 10)0-0283 1,900,00' 285 42) 0°0215)186 29/0°0335 |/1,340,000 16 58} 0°0322/338 37|0°0255 1,890,000 (303 0°0162)200 34/0°0381 |/1,330,000 51 10/ 0°0383| 17 42/0°0216 1,880,000 {314 34) 0°0114/216 11/0°0428 |/1,320,000 83 11) 0°0412| 53 59/0°0159 »870,0 315 24/ 0°0082/234 1/0°0465 ||1,310,000 [111 27/ 0°0434| 83 22/0-0082 1,860,000 {307 49) 0°0074/252 51/0°0490 ||1,300,000 (142 12) 0°0347| 0 37/0°002 1,850,000 |310 11) 0°0084/272 15/0°0500 290,000 |168 15) 0°0266/346 20/0°0123 ,840,000 {326 26) 0°0095)291 44)0°04 ,280,000 [187 17) 0°0164) 18 27)0°0226 1,830,000 |351 46) 0°0095/310 47,/0°0466 |/1,270,000 [171 4) 0°0069) 47 42 0°0327 1,820,000 28 24) 0°0082/328 36,0°042 260,000 /126 50) 0°0127] 76 550-041 1,810,000 90 35) 0°0069/343 38\0°0377 ||1,250,000 138 21) 0°0233/105 34\0°0474 ,800, 51 0) 0°0078/354 49,0°0334 |/1,240,000 [162 37| 0°0339)134 2 0:0508 1,790,000 |204 17/0°0110) 2 53/0°0314 |/1,230,000 {189 52) 0°0419)162 36 0°0508 1,780,000 (244 36) 0°0150) 11 37)0°0331 |/1,220,000 18 54) 0.0465)190 “0473 1,770,000 {278 57) 00179) 25 31/0°0346 10,000 /249 17| 0°0472/216 35/0°0395 760,000 (306 35) 00188) 43 37,0°0363 |/1,200,000 (281 5] 0:0439/239 34 070289 1,750,000 (329 29 00175) 65 25/0°0352 ||1,190,00 314 51) 0°0366)249 0168 1 740,000 342 17; 0°0149) 88 21/0°0312 111,180,00 352 16} 002571216 1)0°0121 R. W. McFarland—KEccentricity and Perthelion. 109 Table continued—Perihelion and Eccentricity. Year. Stockwell. | LeVerrier. Year. Stockwell. LeVerrier. Before 1880. | Long. | Ecc. | Long. | Ece. || Before 1850. | Long. | Ecc. | Long. | Hee. 1,170,000 | 42 34] 0-0145/204 24/0-0228 || 610,000 |359 20| 0-0224/348 éalo- 0353 1,160,000 |140 15] 0-0088/217 5/0°0325 || 600,000 | 44 9/0-0353! 3 430° -0418 1,150,000 |222 12/ 0-0167|250 27/0-0473 || 590,000 | 81 437 72 46/0°0451 1,140,000 |269 14] 0-0259/280 6/0°0541 || 580,000 |114 53| 0°05091109 42/0-0478 1,130,000 |310 0/ 0-0323/311 18/0-0558 || 570,000 |151 44| 0-0536145 470-0450 1,120,000 /350 23] 0°0376/343 52/0-0522 || 560,000 {185 16 0°0496179 9/0-0368 1,110,000 | 32 58/ 0-0342| 17 590-0434 || 550,000 |218 19/| 0-0409/216 47/0-0262 1,100,000 | 79 32/0-0315| 55 21/0°0311 || 540,000 (251 283/267 19|0:0126 1,090,000 |13L 24/ 0°0293/103 7/9°0177 || 531,500 | .... | --. |350 27\0-0019 1,080,000 |185 42| 0-0297|195 34/0-0099 || 531,000 | .__. | __--. | 18 21|0-0015 1,070,000 |236 27| 0°0326|279 5710°0173 || 530,800 | __.. | __.. | 29 39/0°001 1,060,000 {281 17| 0-0360/322 16{0-0243 || 530,500 é _.. | 37 3110-0018 1,050,000 |321 18] 0-0375| 4 10/0°0346|| 530,000 |283 0/0-0133| 61 33/0-0024 1,040,000 |358 41] 0-0366| 40 23/0-0340 || 520,000 [136 52/ 0-0023/126 41/0°0165 1,030,000 | 34 10| 0°0303| 76 40/0-0311 || 510,000 |167 44) 0-0169|162 49/0-0315 1,020,000 | 70 11] 0°0214/118 17/0°0246 || 500,000 |199 31) 0-0287/193 59/0-0388 1,010,000 111 41] 0°0096/171 42/0°0172 || 490,000 |228 9| 0-0395/226 1210-0446 1,000,000 271 11| 0°0056/248 26/0°0151 || 480,000 |266 20] 0-0425|257 5110-0470 990,000 |326 55/ 0-0197|313 42\0°0224 || 470,000 |294 4| 0-0437/290 35/0-°0443 980,00 14/ 0°0338|357 59/0°0330 || 460,600 |326 7| 0-0410/322 46/0-0387 970,000 | 32 19] 0-0461| 34 3/0°0424|| 450,000 |359 48] 0-0353/356 5]/0-0308 960,00 62 57| 0°0535| 66 4610-049 0, 5 21/0-0276| 34 44/0-0218 950,000 | 96 23! 0°0605| 97 47/0°0517 || 430,000 | 77 4/0-0191/101 31/0°0132 940,000 |125 | 0-0616/127 4210-0495 || 420,000 |134 45] 0-0119/164 17|0:0087 930,000 {152 67|0°0548/156 7/004 410,000 |215 12| 0-0103/240 38/0-0121 920,000 |181 54} 0°0440/181 41/0°0305 || 400,000 [279 21) 0-0145/289 3010-0167 910,000 |210 42| 0-0296/194 15|0°0156 || 390,000 (327 5| 0-01821332 14/0-0199 900,000 |218 35] 0-0115/135 7/0-0109 || 380,000 | 10 199} 14 11/0:0202 890,000 |134 27] 0-0124/129 3610-0277 || 370,000 | 55 29/0-0206) 62 2310-0185 880,000 |146 56) 0-0308]152 33]0-0457 || 360,000 |133 37/ 0-0188/120 14/0-0171 870,000 174 21] 0-°0472/180 23/0°0608 || 350,000 |164 15] 0-°0190/182 50/0-0195 860,000 [204 33] 0-0592|209 41\0-0709 || 340,000 |222 0222|236 22/0-0260 850,000 |234 52/ 0-0625\239 2810-0747 || 330,000 |272 -0278|279 56|0°0337 840,000 |267 33] 0-0649)269 15|0°0717 || 320,000 |314 55| 0°0334/317 3110-0399 830,000 299 43] 0-0582/298 27/0-0623 0 52 37 0-0430 820,000 333 10] 0°0464/325 45|0-0471 || 300,000 | 27 08| 0-0373/ 23 2610-0424 810,000 | 8 12] 0-0309|348 27|0-0297 || 290,000 | 58 14| 0-0337| 47 1610-0342 800,000 | 51 25] 0-0140/343 48/0-0132 || 280,000 | 86 44\ 0-0262/ 74 610-0286 790,000 |193 20] 0-0062/293 27\0°0171 || 270.000 |104 430-0163! 82 3510-0214 780,000 |261 50} 0-0196/303 43/0-0325 || 260,000 | 83 2! 0-0093! 63 27/0-0171 770,000 (299 45] 0-0310/3 070455 || 250,000 | 56 44! 0-0161| 58 4010-0260 uk Sates ote ce el oe 740,000 | 45 54| 0-0391| 58 3110-0562 0,000 {119 35) 0-0437/120 4310-05 730,000 | 84 47| 0-0350| 90 56|0°0505 || 210,000 |144 46| 0-0471/138 160-0567 720,000 127 6] 0-0290/125 5\0-0419|| 200:000 {169 470|168 180-0569 0.000 179 16] 0°0240/164 510:0342|| 190,000 |191 0442/187 3l0-0639 700,000 |238 3] 0-0232/208 26|0-0227!! 180.000 |215 35/ 0-0395/209 30/0-0477 690,000 292 26] 0-0268/269 18/0-0150|| 170,000 |227 28] 0-0334 810-0413 sous [ie eloaparad woot] legac. et i conan one 660,000 | 57 28) 0-0348 0221 || 140,000 |245 45| 0-0266 0 6|0°0341 650,000 | 96 8] 0-0310\141 41/0-0227 '000 |254 23) 0°0307/259 25/0-0385 640,000 |138 28) 0:0237/192 38|0-0233 || 120,000 |269 35) 0-03561274 31/0-0426 630,000 |195 30/0-0147/247 9/9-0249|| 110.0 89 28] 0-0394/294 7/0-0462 - 620,000 |289 44] 0-0127/301 210-0287 || 1 0°0408'316 1810-0473 312 6 110 R. W. McFarland—Perthelion and Kecentricity. Table continued—Perihelion and Eccentricity. Year, Stockwell. LeVerrier. Year. Stockwell. LeVerrier. Before 1850, | Long. | Ecc. | Long. | Ecc. || After 1950. | Long. | Ecc. | Long. | Ecce. 90,000 |336 15] 0-°0392/340 '3/0°0452|| 380,000 [299 29) 0-0232/306 9/0°0346 80,000 0 41) 0:0343| 4 13/0°0398 || 390,000 (336 54| 0°0271/336 57/0-0403 70,000 | 23 360-0269) 27 22/0°0316 || 400,000 | 11 57) 0-02 7}0°0 60,000 | 40 43| 0-01 0°0218 |} 410,000 | 43 58/ 0°0289) 33 100-0439 50,000 | 38 42) 0-°0110| 51 44/0°0129|) 420,000 1 8] 070259) 58 13/0°0395 40,000 | 16 31) 0-0 8 36/0-0109 || 430,000 | 93 25) 0°0200) 79 17/0°0341 30,000 | 20 56) 0-0157| 25 50/0°0151|) 440,000 /102 25/0°0129| 94 00-0278 20,000 | 41 57) 00192) 44 0/0°0188|| 450, 7 9/00101) 98 28/0°0231 10,000 | 69 28/ 0-0195| 69 47/0-0195 460,000 | 63 40! 0°0172) 95 510-0235 70,600 | 77 23} 0°0275| 99 50-0293 A. D. 1850 !100 7 0°0168/100 21|0-0168 || 480,000 | 98 48| 0°0377)121 2/0°0383 0,00 36 1/ 0°0115/131 43/0°0149 || 490,000 [124 0] 0°0462)133 3/0°0460 20,000) |191 53) 0-0055/192 13/0-0059 || 500,000 |150 10] 0-0518)156 26 0°0523 24,000 | | ---- | ---. |247 180-0034 || 510,000 [176 536/181 52)/0°0553 25,00 -- 63 25/0°0035 || 520,000 |203 46) 0°0510 208 31/0°0543 30,000 | |305 49 0-0049/318 38/0-0059 || 530,000 229 47) 0°0438/235 46)0°0488 40,00 5 25 0°0077| 6 24/0°0124 || 540,000 |253 6! 0°0326'262 49/0°0390 50,000 | 37 22|0°0134) 38 3|0°0173|| 550,000 |264 17| 0-0247/287 31|0°0259 60,000 | 64 38/ 0°0145 a 30/0°0199 || 560,000 |234 6] 0-0133/293 9)0°0134 70,000 | 84 58/ 0-01 40-020 70,000 (186 186/229 400 0093 80,000 | 93 40! 0-0113 101 41/0°0188 |} 580,000 |239 48 0-0376/232 38/0°0221 ,00 88 0110/109 31|0-0181 || 590,000 |264 497/258 21/0°0332 100,000 | 87 58) 0-0143)114 45:0-0192 || 600,000 |293 13 0-0566|288 23/0°0401 110,000 |106 26/ 0°0197|/123 30|0-0225 || 610,000 (323 42 0-0577/322 49,0°043 0,000 {117 11/ 0°0237/137 400-0264 || 620,000 |355 2 0-0532| 10 54,0°03 130,000 |135 23) 0°0261/154 44/0-02 630,000 | 27 9 0-0439) 40 390-0272 140,000 [156 54/ 0°0285/175 350-0333 0,0 0 45'0°0311| 80 5/0°0230 160,000 |176 0) 0°0288/192 27.0°0336 || 650,000 ) | 98 42 0°0157|145 19/0°0167 160,000 {194 6| 0°0280/211 44/0-0336 || 655,000 \. 126 280-0083) _... | ---- 170.000 |209 47) 0°0264/230 4/0-0325 || 660,000 ) /204 53) 0°0038/217 58/0°0192 180,00 23 31) 0-°0243/248 21/0°0304 || 670,000 (315 52 0°0142/270 43/0°0265 190,000 |233 48) 0°0226)265 310-0279 || 680,000 [354 26 0-0248|310 37,0°0330 200,000 /241 21| 0°0219/280 28/0°0248 || 690,000 | 29 10 0-0320)345 14,0°0364 210,000 248 39] 0°0232/289 46/0°0223 |} 700,000 | 63 50, 0-0349; 17 8/0°0357 220,000 |260 14/ 0°0264|297 39,0°0219 || 710,000 | 99 50) 0:0343) 45 43/0°0316 230,000 [277 29/ 0°0300|307 56/0°0235 || 720,000 |138 30) 0:0306| 74 52/0°0223 240,000 |299 19) 0°0323|326 47|0-0266 || 730,000 ) |181 1) 0°0257| 94 48)0°0105 250,000 /334 18) 0°0325/350 37/0°0286 || 737,500 | --.. | --.. | 36 6)0°0033 260,000 |351 20/ 0-0297| 19 40/0°029 40,000 |236 30) 0-0220/359 44/0°0053 270,000 | 20 21) 0°0238) 51 39/0°0275 || 750,000 |295 6) 0-0225, 0 52,0-0197 280,000 | 50 11) 0-0159) 90 10/0-0242 || 760,000 /347 37| 0:0262) 26 21)0:0335 290,000 | 79 5% 0-0066 128 0/0°0200 || 770,000 | 32 18/0 0321] 53 47/0°0476 295,000 ) | 88 0018) ..-. | .... || 780,000 | 71 53) 0-0358) 81 26,0-0 296,000 § | 81 6) 0°0009} __.. | ___. || 790,000 |109 25) 0-0364/111 29|0°0635 297,000 O - FeO 0008) so ot es 0 146 0-0330/137 4/0°0 300,000 ¢ 301 25) 0-0028/172 32/0°0162 |) 810,000 [189 1) 0-:0261/169 27/0°0588 310,000 0 0| 0°0108/219 47/0°0120 || 820,000 [231 53) 00148204 32/0°0506 320,000 4 17) 0°0163/244 50/0-0092 || 830,000 (330 17) 0-0106/221 14/0°0329 330,000 | 41 18) 0°0188 = Bi 8 oe 840,000 | 52 47| 0°0202)228 10\/0°0164 335,00 Re Bh 8/0°0 850,000 | 99 36) 0-0335,176 21/0°0145 $37,000 | case | cue a 540.0% 860,000 |138 0) 0:0454/177 30-0307 337,500 ss 0-0009 |} 870,000 |173 46) 0-0535/201 11,0°0467 340,000 | 82 35| 0-0188 166 5 0°0023 |} 880,000 [208 28) 0-0568/229 31)0°0589 350,000 {131 1) 0°0167|202 47/0-0097 || 890,000 |242 44 0-0545/260 2/0-0654 360,000 |189 5) 0°0158/239 17\0°0184 0,000 |277 0} 0°0469/291 17/0°0659 370,000 [247 35) 0°01811273 45|0-0270 || 910,000 1/310 13| 0°0350'323 10,0-0608 Brush and Dana—Danburite from Russell, N. Y. 111 Table continued—Perihelion and Eccentricity. Year. Stockwell. | LeVerrier. Year. Stockwell. LeVerrier. After 1850. Long. Ecc. | Long. Ecc. After 1850. | Long. | Ecc. Long. | Ecc. 920,000 |351 31/ 0-0200|355 44/0°0513 ||1,120,000 [322 21/ 0°0355/337 ‘10-0201 930,000 0 16) 0°0038} 28 55/0-0376 ||1,130,000 6 46, 0-:0429| 19 11)0°0342 940,000 [154 55) 0-0134| 65 22/0-0230 |/1,140,000 | 46 32) 0-0484) 55 440-0462 950,000 ) |248 33) 0°0232/114 16/0-0086 ||1,150,000 | 83 26) 0°0502) 90 29)0-0543 955,00 ---- | ---. |184 44/0°0040 |/1,160,000 {118 47/ 0°0472|124 24/0-0575 956,00 --. | --.- |208 11/0°0034 |{1,170,000 [152 38) 0-°0392)157 52/0°0554 960,000 } |282 15] 0-0378/267 21/0-0070 ||1,180,000 5 0269|191 13/0°0484 970,000 |316 11) 0°0447/322 11/0-0174 |/1,190,000 {213 22) 0°0113/224 49)0-0373 980,000 |350 4) 0:0478 6/0°0255 ||1,195,000 ) |210 32/ 0°0032) -... | _.-- 90, 24 85| 0-0461| 38 32/0-0307 |/1,196,500 | |160 32) 0-0014| _... | __.- 1,000,000 | 60 20) 0-0414| 77 27/0-0334 ||1,197,500 ) [104 16/0°0021| -... | _..- 1,010,000 | 99 10) 0-0345/118 450-0341 |/1,200,000 | 86 7, 0-0060/259 51/0-0236 1,020,000 |144 0268/161 53/0-0350 ||1,210,000 ) |107 35) 0 0229/301 7/0-0100 1,030,000 |199 0) 0-0209/206 14/0-0360 8000s ees 8 34 040,000 |262 6) 0-0195)254 13/0-0371 |/1,220,000 } |138 6 0°0374| 85 15/0°0061 1,050,000 [320 33) 0-0220|292 29/0-0397 ||1,230,000 (166 56| 0°0500)157 52/0-0184 60,000 | 10 11) 0°0254/332 48/0-0403 ||1,240,000 [196 24) 0°0576)193 14/0°0274 1,070,000 6 18/ 0°0272| 11 43/0:0384 |/1,250,000 {225 21) 0:0604/221 49/0-0368 1,080,000 /|103 14| 0°0267| 50 13/0°0331 ||1,260,000 {253 36| 0°0583/260 54/0°0367 1,090,000 /|153 50] 0°0253 180-02 : 1,100,000 ) |212 48) 0°0248/140 43/0-0132 1,105,000 || -... | .... |185 14/0-0080 1,107,500 {| .... | .... |222 19/0-0068 1,110,000 } 271 9! 0-0285/270 16'0-0075 Art. XV. — On Orystallized Danburite from Russell, St. Law- Be County, New York ; by Gro. J. BrusH and Epwarp S. Dana. Historical Note.—In December last (1879) we received a box of minerals from Mr. lector of Northern New labelled eG. “unknown.” by Mr. Nims . Nims, the well-known mineral col- York, containing several specimens an 112 = Brush and Dana—Danburite from Russell, N. Y. realized, and the material which he has forwarded to us, as the result of his recent active explorations, is all that could be de- sired both as to quantity and quality. We take pleasure in acknowledging ae our indebtedness to him for his prompt- ness and liber Method of occurrence.—The mineral occurs both crystallized and massive, imbedded in what Mr. Nims calls a granitic roc the points at which it is found extend along the brow ofa hill for a considerable distance, say half a mile. The crystals line cavities or seams, sometimes of very considerable size, in the massive mineral or the enclosing rock. The associated miner- als are a pale green pyroxene, a dark brown tourfnaline, and also some mica, quartz and pyrite. Of these species, the dan- burite often encloses the crystals of pyroxene and tourmaline and is itself imbedded in the quartz, which is a point of inter- est in connection with its time of formation. These cavities were doubtless all filled srigwnely with calcite, as the facts ob- served conclusively pro ew perfectly fresh specimens were found with the ile imbedded in pink calcite and Mr. Nims believes that when the explorations are carried deeper that larger quantities may be obtained. is is much to be desired, for the perfectly ne and transparent crystals found in the calcite are of rare bea eauty. The specimens here spoken of ai ed actually obtained from some loose bowlders found on the The most of the specimens are now nearly or quite free from calcite, that mineral evidently having been removed by slow solution. The crystals are thus left in their original position projecting into me cavities. This natural removal of the cal- cite is in some aspects of the case an advantage, and in thas quite the reverse. In no other way could the crystals have been freed from the ae so perfectly and with so little injury to themselves ; for the mechanical removal is out of the ques- tion owing td. ‘the brittleness of the mineral, and the removal chemical means in the laboratory would not leave the erys- tals so nearly in their original condition. On the other hand, the specimens as found are somewhat destitute of a go of aspect, the crystals being much rifted internally and m moved. It is to be stated, however, that, while the mineral thus lost something of its original beauty, it is, in most ¢ sas very little if at all altered chemically, even the luster of the crystalline faces having suffered but little. On some few of ’ the specimens, on the other hand, the aaah are quite opaque and have little luster. General crystallographic and physical characters.—The dan bnrite from Russell, as has been stated, is in part ceusieiliaed Brush and Dana—Danburite from Russell, N.Y. 118 and in part massive. The crystals vary from those which are very minute to others which are of considerable size. The largest isolated crystal has a length of 4 and a width (macrodiagonal) of 24 inches ; some of the groups are really grand in their propor- tions. The massive mineral can be obtained in large blocks ; it shows brilliant luster, is quite unaltered, and almost entirely free from admixed species. The most striking point in rega to the crystals is their similarity to crystals of topaz; so close is this resemblance that the specimens, if not examined too critically, might be handled many times without a suspicion that they did not belong to that species. It will be shown below that this resemblance extends beyond the mere external Description of crystalline form.—The crystals are uniformly prismatic in habit. They are commonly attached by one ex- tremity of the prism so that only the other end is terminated ; occasional crystals, however, have been observed with termina- tions alike at both extremities, and hence it is not hemimorphic. The general range of form in the crystals will be gather from the accompanying figures; figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 show some of the more common and simple forms, and figures 5, 6 and 7 are others more highly modified. It will be noticed that proved by the so examination, since the three axes of elas- 114 ~=Brush and Dana—Danburite from Russell, N. Y. casional exception of hry domes d and w, uniformly unpolished and They show, moreover, many par- tially developed laine which do not admit of determination. In these latter respects they resemble crystals of other species found in a similar situation (e. g. pyroxene in ee. The determination of the symbols of the various planes was accom- plished without difficulty with the aid of the zonal delationt Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. and with 2 Sie Tag angles, but only re few exact measure- ments were possib hp rismatic ae T and /, are, how- a nape commo ay tlh and highly polished. As fund- angles* the following, as the mean of many single mse Ras i were accepted : LAR 110,110 = 57° 4754" a 101.101 = 82°53’18" From these the following nea ratio is obtained = — c pene 1: aa6t 1-000 The prac ty sieves are, as follows:— 0 001 8 3-3 321 a ia 100 b ix 010 0 1 111 e 2 221 k i} 320 I 110 u $2 124 m if 230 v 1-2 122 1 4-2 120 r 2-3 121 n 4 140 * The angles given are all the supplement angles. Brush and Dana—Danburite from Russell, N.Y. 115 Zz $7 103 A 2-4 142 d 1-7 101 é 4-4 141 x 3-7 301 t 2-% 021 w 4-% 041 yp 8- 081 qg 16-% 0161 The following is a list of the most important angles for these planes, calculated from the axial ratio given above :— on c (001) on a (100) on 8 (010) k 320 90° 0” 19° 57” 10° 3° i 110 er 28° 34’ 61° 267 _m 230 6 39° 14’ 50° 46” I 120 + A4T° 267 42° 34’ n 140 . 65° 20’ 24° 40’ 2 103 16° 24” 42°36, 90° 07 d 101 41° 27” a3" ; x 301 69° 197 20° 41” Ee t 021 43° 52” 90° 07 46° 8’ w 041 62° 317 27° 2 P 081 45°) 25” 14° 35’ qd 0161 82° 36” ws T 26 8 321 70° 28” 27°38" 71" 36" 0 lll 45° 9/ 61° 397 70° 11’ e 221 63° 337 8° 97 ° 39’ u 124 bE: gee” tg 77° 64” 76° 487 v 122 a8) 68° 18” 66° 16’ r 121 52° 337 57° 31’ 54° 13” a 142 46° 37’ i > tae 8 be 2 6 141 4° 42° 67° 50” 34° 457 The angle of the fundamental rism (J, J’) as measured on several crystals was 57° 7, 57 of A comparison of the angles of the two g cca shows i his will be 5 Danburite. ‘opaz. ° LF 110.110 5T° 8” 55° 43° tAl 021,021 = 94°52 93° 11’ d.d’ 101,101 = 82°63’ 83° 54’ wa w’ 041.041 = 125° 2’ 124° 40’ cao 001,111 = 46° 9 45° 35’ cane 001.221 = 63°33’ 63° 54’ 116 Brush and Dana—Danburite from Russell, N. Y. The axial ratios for the two species are :— ~ (vert b Danburite 0°8830 1°8367 1:0000 Topaz 0°9024 1:8920 10000 The above values show that the two species are closely homceo- morphous. peter ry to measure both of them in oil. By this measure- ment the interesting result was reached that the acute bisectrix for the lower end of the spectrum (red and yellow rays) is normal to the brachypinacoid, and for the Oppet end of the spectrum (blue rays) normal to the macropinacoid. rom a section cut parallel to the ehstiy pinacktdl the follow- ing angles were obtained, each being the mean of a large num- ber of measurements : Red (Lithia flame). Yellow (Sodium flame). Blue (CuSOx solution). 100° 33” 101° 30” 104° 36” From a section parallel to the — oo the angles ob- tained in the same manner were Red (Li). Yellow (Na). Blne (CuSQ4). 106° 35” 05° 36 02° 13” From these angles the true — axial angle was calcula- ted by the usual method; the res Bisectrix normal to } (010). Bisectrix normal to a (100). Red (Li) 87° 37” 92° 23” Yellow (Na) 88° 23” 91° i Blue (CuSO,) 90° 56’ 89° The cs pul mae to the ee ee} is series and that normal to the macropinacoid is positiv The index of refraction of the oil pared was found to be for Red (Li) = 14706; Yellow (Na) = 1°4735; Blue (CuSO,) = 1-483 For obvious reasons the last value is less accurate than the other two. Making use of these values in the usual formulas, the mean index of we (8) for ae is obtained, viz: B= 1-634, Red (Li <7 oer Yellow tifa) = 1°646, Blue (CuSO,) It is obvious from the values of the axial angles for the differ- ent colors given above, that for certain rays, those falling in Brush and Dana—Danburite from Russell, N.Y. 117 the lower end of the blue, the axial angle must be for the ordi- nary temperature exactly 90°. It would be easy to calculate the wave-length of the rays answering this condition, but since the sections employed were not faultless the angles are not bse at accurate and hence the calculation would have but little va Oviically danburite does not agree very closely with topaz, for with the latter species the axes lie in the brachydiagonal, the vertical axis coinciding with the acute bisectrix ; the axial angle is also quite different. It is interesting to note, owever, that the mean indices of refraction are not far apart; thus for the D line in the spectrum, we have B, ton sae = 1637 Topaz = 16138 Chemical composition.—The quantitative ee examina- tion of the mineral was made by Mr. W. J. Comstock, of the Sheffield Laboratory, to whom we wish here to yen our grateful acknowledgments for the following analyses: : Il. Mea: 48:16 48°30 pact ee 48°23 Boron trioxide is AF ras 26°67 27718 26°93 i 23-26 98-92... one pren 23°24 Alumina* 0°48 0°46 pean aca 36° AT Ignition 0°64 0°63 speeds eae 63 * With trace Fe.Qs, 99°50 The mineral was decomposed by fusion with sodium carbon- ate for the silica and bases in Nos. I and II, and the boric acid in Nos. III and IV was obtained by Stromeyer’s method as potassium boro-fluoride. A further decomposition was effec- ted with fluohydric acid to make special examination for alkalies, which gave a negative result. In view of the close homceomorphism of our mineral with topaz, we requested Mr. Comstock to make special examina- tion for shang but the result proved the absence of this and allied elem Mr. CothanX analyses offer a remarkable confirmation of the analyses of Smith and Brush* of the Danbury mineral, the mean of whic ve SiO, BO; AlO;, Fe,0; Mn,0, CaO MgO ign. 48°15 = 27-15 0-30 056 2237 040 050 = 9943 The quantivalents ratio from the mean of Comstock’s analy- ses gives for SiO,: B,O,: CaO = 8-04::38°88::4°14 and that from the analyses of ‘Smith and Brush is 8-02: 73°89: fl There can be no question that the true theo retical ratio 2:1:1, This leads to the formula reread accepted, that * This Journal, I, xvi, 365, 1853, 118 H. Draper—Photograph of Jupiter’s Spectrum. is, CaB,Si,O,, or Ca,Si0,+B,Si,0,,... The formula requires: Silica, 48-78, boron trioxide, 28°46, lime, 22°76=100. These results set at rest any further question as to the chemical com- position of danburite. It does not appear, however, that there is any immediate relation between danburite and topaz in chem- ical composition, which, considering the similarity in crystal- line form, is rather remarkable. ognostic characters.—The pyrognostic characters of this species are sufficiently important to be here repeated. B. B the mineral glows, fuses gently at 3°5 to a colorless glass, im- parting to the flame the characteristic green color due to boron. On cooling, the assay loses its transparency and becomes milk- white. In the closed tube it phosphoresces brilliantly with a reddish yellow light. The mineral is slightly acted upon by hydrochloric acid, sufficiently so to give the reaction for boric acid with turmeric paper. When previously ignited to the point of fusion the mineral gelatinizes with acid. Comparison with the original danburite.—A comparison be- tween the characters of the danburite from Russell, N. Y., and those of the same species from the original ipee iy is there apparent divergence. In regard to this there is only to be said that the earlier determinations upon the Danbury mineral were made on imbedded fragments in feldspar where apparent planes, at best of a problematical nature, certainly did not rep- resent the true crystalline form of the species Art. XVI.—On a Photograph of Jupiter's Spectrum, showing Evidence of Intrinsic Light from that Planet; by Professor Henry Draper, M.D. [Read before the Royal Astronomical Society, May 14th, 1880, and extracted from the Monthly Notices. ] THERE has been for some years a discussion as to whether the planet Jupiter shone to any perceptible extent by his own intrinsic light, or whether the illumination was altogether derived from the sun. Some facts seem to point to the con- clusion that it is not improbable that Jupiter is still hot enough to give out light, though perhaps only in a periodic or eruptive manner. It is obvious that spectroscopic investigation may be usefully employed in the examination of this question and I have inci- dentally, in the progress of an allied inquiry,* made a photo- * See paper “On Photographing the Spectra of the Stars and Planets,” read before the National Academy of Sciences, Oct. 28, 1879, and published in this Journal, Dec., 1879, and in Nature, Nov. 27, 1879. H. Draper—Photograph of Jupiter's Spectrum. 119 graph which has sufficient interest to be submitted to the inspection of the Astronomical Society. If the light of Jupiter be in large part the result of his own incandescence, it is certain that the spectrum must differ from that of the sun, unless the improbable hypothesis be advanced that the same elements, in the same proportions and under the same physical conditions, are present in both bodies. Most of the photographs I have made of the spectrum of Jupiter, answer this question decidedly, and from their close resem- blance to the spectrum of the sun indicate that, under the average circumstances of observation, almost all the light com- ing to the earth from Jupiter must be merely reflected light originating in the sun. For this reason I have used the spec- trum of Jupiter as a reference spectrum on many of my stellar spectrum photographs. ut on one occasion, viz: on September 27, 1879, a spectrum of Jupiter with a comparison spectrum of the moon was obtained which shows a different state of things. Fortunately, owing to the assiduous assistance of my wife, I have a good record of the circumstances under which this photograph was taken, and this will make it possible to connect the aspect of J apa at the time, with the spectrum photograph, though I did not examine Jupiter with any care through the telescope that night, and indeed did not have my attention attracted to this photograph till some time afterwards. 4 __ I send herewith to the Astronomical Society for examination, the original negative which is just as it was produced, except that it has been cemented with Canada balsam to another piece of glass for protection. Attached to the photograph is an explanatory diagram, intended to point out the peculiarities which are of interest. It will be noticed at once that the main difference is not due to a change in the number or arrangement of the Fraunhofer lines, but rather to a variation in the strength of the background. In the case of ‘the moon the background is uniform across the width of the spectrum in any region, but in the case of Jupiter the background is fainter in the middle of the width of the spectrum in the region above the line h, and stronger in the middle in the region below A, especiall toward F. The observer must not be confused by the dar portion where the two spectra overlap along the middle of the combined photograph In order to interpret this photograph it must be understood that the spectrum of Jupiter was produced from an image of the planet thrown upon the slit of the spectroscope, by a telescope of 183 inches focal length, the slit being placed approximately in the direction of a line joining the poles of the planet. | spectroscope did not, therefore, integrate the light of the whole . 120 H. Draper— Photograph of Jupiter's Spectrum. disk, but analyzed a band at right angles to the equator and extending across the disk. If either absorption or production of light were taking place on that portion of Jupiter’s surface there might be a modification in the intensity of the general background of the photographed spectrum. A casual inspection will satisfy any one that such modifica- tions in the intensity of the background are readily perceptible in the original negative. They seem to me to point out two things that are occurring: first, an absorption of solar light in the equatorial regions of the planet; and second, a production of intrinsic light at the same place. We can reconcile these apparently opposing statements by the hypothesis that the temperature of the incandescent substances producing light at the equatorial regions of Jupiter did not suffice for the emission of the more refrangible rays, and that there were present materials which absorbed those rays from the sunlight falling on the planet. If the spectrum photograph exhibited only the absorption phenomenon above 4, the interest attached to it would not be ' great because a physicist will readily admit from theoretical considerations that such might be the case owing to the colored belts of the planet. But the strengthening of the spectrum between / and F in the portions answering to the vicinity of the equatorial regions of Jupiter bears so directly on the prob- lem of the physical condition of the planet as to incandescence that its importance cannot be overrated. he circumstances under which this photograph was taken were as follows: Longitude of observatory 4" 55" 29*-7 west of Greenwich. Night not very steady. Jupiter and the moon differed but little in altitude. Jupiter’s spectrum was exposed uous from its tint to the eye might readily modify the spectrum in the manner spoken of above. W. Huggins—Spectrum of the Flame of Hydrogen. 121 Art. XVII.—On the Spectrum of the Flame of Hydrogen ; by WituiaAM Huaerns, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. Received June 16, 1880. Messrs. Liveing and Dewar state, in a paper read before the Royal Society on June 10, that théy have obtained a photo- graph of the ultra-violet part of the spectrum of coal gas burn- ing in oxygen, and in a note dated June 8th they add that they have reason to believe that this remarkable spectrum is not due to any carbon compound but to water. Under these circumstances I think it is desirable that I should give an account of some experiments which I made on this subject some months since, without waiting until the inves- tigation is more complete. On December 27, 1879, I took a photograph of the flame of hydrogen burning in air. As is well known, the flame of hy- drogen possesses but little luminosity, and shows no lines or bands in the visible part of the spectrum, except that due to sodium as an impurity. rofessor Stokes, in his paper ‘ On the Change of Refrangi- bility of Light,”’* has stated that ‘the flame of hydrogen pro- uces a very strong effect. The invisible rays in which it so much abounds, taken as a whole, appear to be even more re- frangible than those which come from the flame of a spirit amp.” I was not, however, prepared for the strong group of dines in the ultra-violet which, after an exposure of one minute and a half, came out upon the plate. wo or three weeks later, about the middle of January, 1880, I showed this spectrum to Professor Stokes, and we con- sidered it probable that this remarkable group was the spectrum of water. Professor Stokes permits me to mention that, in a letter addressed to me on January 80, he speaks of “ this novel and interesting result,” and makes some suggestions as to the ote question of the carbon spectrum. have since that date taken a large number of photographs of the spectra of different flames, in the hope of being able to pre- . Sent the results to the Royal Society, when the research was more complete. I think now that it is desirable that I should de- seribe the spectrum of the flame of hydrogen, but I shall reserve for the present the experiments which alae to the presence of carbon and its compounds, The spectrum of the flame of hydrogen burning in air (No. 1) consists of a group of lines which terminates at the more re- frangible limit in a pair of strong lines, 4 3062 and A 3068. At a short distance, in the less refrangible direction, what may * Phil. Trans, 1852, p. 539. 122. W. Huggins—Spectrum of the Flame of Hydrogen. arranged in very close pairs. There is a pair of fine, but very 3100 3200 it rer errs IM ae ee Spectrum of Water. I then introduced oxygen into the flame, leaving a small ex- cess of hydrogen. A spectrum in all respects similar came out upon the plate. I repeated the experiment, taking both spectra on the same plate. Through one-half of the slit the spectrum of the oxyhydrogen flame was taken. This flame was about seven inches long, and the spectrum taken of a part of the flame twoinches from the jet. The oxygen was then turned off, and the quantity of hydrogen allowed to remain unaltered. A second spectrum with an exposure of the same duration was then taken through the second half of the slit. On the plate the two spectra are in every respect similar, and have so exactly the same intensity, that they appear as one broad spectrum. these experiments a platinum jet which had been carefully cleaned was use n these experiments the two gases met within the blowpipe and issued in a mixed state. The jet was removed, and a flame of hydrogen was sur- rounded with oxygen. The spectrum (No. 2) shows some addi- tional lines, In this case the jet was brass, and ix this or some other way impurities may have been introduced ; and I should, at present, incline to the view that the additional lines about 43429 and 43473, and the groups more refrangible than 4 3062, do not belong to the water spectrum, but to impurities. oal-gas was substituted for hydrogen in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, and oxygen admitted in as large a proportion as pos- sible. The inner blue flame rising about two inches above the jet showed in the visible part of the spectrum the usual “ five- fingered spectrum.” The light from this part of the flame was projected upon the slit. The ce (No. 3), contains the water groupalready described, and in addition a very strong line close to G, and two lines, A 3872 and A 3890; this latter W. Bagge Apeote nie of the Flame of Hydrogen. 1238 line is seen to be the more refrangible limit of a group of fine lines shading off towards K. e ultra-violet group when carefully compared with the group.in the spectrum of pure drogen, shows several small differences. I am inclined to believe that there is the superposition of a second fainter group. There is strong evidence of this in some spectra of hydrogen taken under other conditions. There is also a broad band less refrangible than the strong line at G, and the light extends from this line on its more refrangible side. A double Bunsen burner eines form) with a strong blast of air was oa fitted up. The spectrum was taken of the intense blue flame. It resembles t e one last described. All the Merced features are intensified and a continuous spectrum and groupings of very fine lines fill up all the in- tervals between the groups already described, so that there is an unbroken strong spectrum throughout the whole re- gion meine falls upon the plate. irit lamp was arranged before the slit. The spec- fae is eibatts the same as No. 38, but as it is less in- tense only the strongest lines are seen. The water group, the strong line at G, and the pair of lines rather more re- frangible than K, are seen. Probably with a songe r expo- sure the finer lines would also show eit The distinctive features of peeing No. 3 appear to be connected with the presence of carbon Table of Wave-lengths of the Principal Lines of the Spectrum of Water.—No, 1. 3062 3090 3117 3142°5 3167 3198 3232 3068 3094 3122°5 3145 3171 3201 32425 3073 3095 3127 31495 3175 3207°5 3252.5 3074 3099 - 3130 3152°5 3180 3211 3256 3077°5 3102 3133 3156 3184 8217°5 3262 3080 3105 3135 3159°5 3189 3223 3266 3082 3111 3139 3163 3192°5 3228 3276 2869°5 2897 29299 2959 2994 3029 3271 2872.5 2904 2932°5 2966 2999 3081 3429°5 2876 2907°5 29355 2967°5 3002 3039 3473 2880 2910 2940 2970°5 3005 3042 2883 2913 2943 2975°5 3010 3046 2887°5 2917°5 29447 2981 3013 3051 2892 2922°5 2951 2989 3017 3057°5 2895 2925°5 2955 2991 3019°5 | 3246 Wave-lengths of other Lines in Spectrum.—No. 3. 3872 3890 4310 124 7. C. Mendenhall—Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. Arr. X VII.— Determination of the Acceleration due to the Force of Gravity, at Tokio, Japan ; by T. C. MENDENHALL. THE following series of determinations of the value of the acceleration due to the force of gravity at this place was begun in the month of February of the present year and continued throughout the succeeding two or three months. A considera- ble time was devoted to preliminary experiments, and there was some delay on account of the non-arrival of one of the pendu- lums used, from the maker in Europe. Throughout the whole series and in all of the labor connected with it I have had the intelligent and faithful assistance of Messrs. Tanaka and Tan- akadate, two special students in the department of Physics of the Imperial University of Japan. here is probably nothing new in the method employed, except, perhaps, the mode of determining the time of vibration of the pendulum. As far as I am aware this method has not been previously described, and it seems to possess many advan- tages over the ordinary method of coincidences. It simply involves the use of a good chronograph and a break-circuit clock or chronometer, together with an arrangement by means of which the experimental pendulum can be made to record its own beats upon the chronograph at any time. In the be- ginning the whole number of vibrations which the pendulum will make in a given time may be determined by letting it * break the circuit at every vibration, or, better, at every sixtieth | or hundredth vibration, which can easily be accomplished by counting and raising the break-circuit apparatus to its proper position underneath the pendulum at the right moment. In our arrangement this apparatus consisted of a very small and light ‘“‘trip-hammer ” made of fine wire, which was so adjusted that by pressing upon a button it was brought up to such a point that it would be just “thrown” by the pendulum in its passage through the lowest point of its are. Although the resistance offered to the pendulum can be made extremely small, yet it is so great as to interfere quite perceptibly with its motion if the pendulum is obliged to operate the break-cireuit at each beat, as experiment has proved. But it may be rejected after the first two or three trials, not only on account of the resistance which it introduces but also because it is not necessary to continue its use. The whole number of seconds required for a given number of vibrations being known, it only remains to determine the fractional part of a second as accurately as possible. It is therefore only necessary to cause the pendulum to break the circuit twice, once at the beginning of the period and once again at the end, By this means all T. C. Mendenhall—Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. 125 objection to the process on account of resistance is removed. Indeed it is in the possibility of determining these fractional parts of a second at the beginning and at the end, that the merit of this method consists. The chronograph used in these determinations is by Alvan Clark and Sons, and for uniformity of speed it is everything that could be desired. The line made by the pen is sharp and clear. The length of one second on the sheet is about 8 mm., so that it can be easily measured with rom either knife edges equal to each other, is a matter of con- siderable difficulty and involves much labor. In the present instance no attempt was made to secure a closer agreement between the two periods than that of those recorded below, for the reason that the difficulties in the way of obtaining the exact length of the pendulum were such as to make any greater degree of accuracy as far as time is concerned unneces ‘ There being at that time no standard of length in the posses- sion of the University, recourse was had toa standard bar three meters in length, made by Troughton, belonging to the Depart- ment of Public works. “As the pendulum was approximately 126 7. C. Mendenhall—Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. one meter long it was necessary to “triplicate” it in order to compare it oink ig bar. The latter is provided with reading microscopes, and by repeating the sat cdeaes two t times the result given below was obtained and it is believed to be not more than a few hundredths of a millimeter from the truth. The results of six determinations of the time of vibra- ye one of the knife edges, and the second upon the ckher: he values of “g” “corresponding to these are also given. Length of pendulum ast 100069 meters. ‘5 (vibrating temp.) 1700090 0 of vibration, corrected for arc and chronometer. 1 ais 1 00412 1°00412 1:00417 1°00410 1°00417 Values ‘ g.” 9°7980 9°7976 9°7976 9°7966 © 9°7980 9°7966 These give a mean value of 9 as anything more than a first approximation, and, wesc = cause I am by no means certain as to just what it ought to be. There is no doubt but the correction must be different in the two cases of suspension, when the heavy ball of the pendulum is above the knife edge and when it is below, as was experi- mentally demonstrated by Sabine Altes years ago. I believe Sabine also investigated the actual correction to be applied to Kater’s pendulum, but owing to the very limited library facili- ties afforded residents of this country I am unable to refer to his results. When corrected, the above mean will undoubtedly somewhat exceed the true value, but no great d of accu- racy was attempted either in the adjustment of the pendulum or In the measurement of its lengt A “Borda’s Pendulum,” made by Salleron, was received pity after the conclusion of the above experiments, and as it as accompanied by a standard measuring apparatus it was : determined to undertake a more accurate and a more extended series of observations for the determination of the value of “g.” The pendulum was of the well known form used by Borda and by many others since his tima The ball was of brass, T. C. Mendenhall—Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. 127 and upon examination was found to be very closely spherical and homogeneous. It could be suspended by means of a small concave cup to which the ball would cling when it was rubbed with a little tallow. To this cup a suspending wire was fas- tened, the other end of which was secured to the end of a small eylinder projecting down from the knife edge. In a line with this and above the knife edge was a set of adjusting screws, by means of which this part of the apparatus, independent of the wire and ball, was made to vibrate in approximately the same period as that of the pendulum. Experiment proved that this adjustment might be very considerably disturbed without sen- sibly affecting the time of vibration of the pendulum, but it was, nevertheless, carefully attended to. After a number of trials the cup was rejected as a useless and somewhat uncertain part of the apparatus, and in its stead, in the final series of experiments, the wire was securely fastened to the ball by means of a small drop of solder which was fused on the end of the wire and after- _ secured to it was a strong wooden beam, upon which cou the small circular plane table which was elevated by means of 128 7. C. Mendenhall—Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. Deleuil, both of which ought to be correct at 0°. The result of these comparisons was such that a correction of —-04 mm. was made upon the length of the measuring rod at 0°. The pendulum was suspended in a small room favorably situated as regards all disturbances from air currents and sudden changes in temperature. From this room wires were carried to the chronograph, which was ina room near by. The time was taken from a break-circuit chronometer in the transit room of the observations recorded below. The results given are the periods of vibration in mean solar time, corrected for chronom- eter rate and also for are of vibration, the latter being observed by means of a scale and a telescope about fifteen feet away. The mean arcs varied, in the different experiments, from 40’ to 70 : After having found the total length of the pendulum, as well as the dimensions and masses of its various , the “reduced length,” or the length of the equivalent simple pen- dulum, is computed by means of a well-known formula. Mis with the time of vibration gives the value of “g” in air, and to this must be added the correction for “buoyancy,” In most of the earlier determinations by this method this correction was found by simply comparing the density of the pendulum with that of the air in which it vibrated. Although it was shown, before Borda made his experiments, that this correction was too small, he seems to have been ignorant of the fact, and not T. C. Mendenhall— Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. 129 until Bessel again investigated the question a good many years later, was general attention called to the fact. About the year 1830, Baily made an extensive series of experiments with a variety of pendulums, for the purpose of determining the true value of this correction. Unfortunately I am unable to refer to his results directly, but I believe that his conclusion was that for such a pendulum as was used in these determinations the ordinary correction should be multiplied by 1, and this factor has been used in correcting the results given. Below will be found the results of eleven different deter- minations, the first five of which were made on May 26, an the others on May 27. On both days during the time of vibra- tion, all of the conditions were sensibly constant and the same, and in addition to this the nights were favorable for the deter- mination of the chronometer rate. Each of the results is based pendent measurements of the chronograph record made by dif- ferent persons. ~The value of “g” is calculated for each time of vibration determined, and each is corrected for buoyancy. These include all of the determinations made upon those two days, none hav- ing been rejected. Determination of the value of “g’” at Tokio, Japan. Latitude N, 35° 41’, long. E. 139° 44”. Ht. above sea level, 5 meters. Total length of pendulum, . ‘ 1014°18 mm. istance from knife edge to wire, 46°50 “ Length of wire, . ; : ; 93162. * Radius of ball, . : a : ; 18°03 “ Weight of ball, . . cea 198°951 grm. “wire, ‘ : . rOlS ° Density of ball, DT Me ES eee Length of equivalent simple pendulum, 994°59 mm. Time of vibration. Corresponding value of “g.” 1°00103 ‘i F ‘ Z ‘ 9°7982 meters. 100100 , ‘ ; . é . 9°7988 in 1°00103 : : : ‘ ‘ 9°7982 " 1°00104 , é ; & : . 9°7980 a 1:00103 ‘ ; : = 9°7982 ite 1°00101 . ‘ o ‘ . 9°7986 o 1700102 y ‘ ‘ Fe 9°7984 = 1700101 . “| ; - é . 9°7986 x4 1°00103 fs > : $ ; 9°7982 ¥ 100101 , n ‘ ri é - 9.7986 : .1:00100 - 9°7988 Mean of all results, g=9°7984. Am. Jour. Sct.--Tup Szrres, Vou. XX, No. 116.—Ave., 1880. 9 130 7. C. Mendenhall—Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. This result is slightly greater than that given by many of the formulas for computing the value of “g” in any latitude. An excellent opportunity is offered in Japan for measuring the force of gravity at a considerable height above the sea level, in the great extinct voleano, Fujiyama, which reaches a height of between 12,000 and 18,000 feet. An excursion is being arranged for the purpose of making this determination during the coming summer. For this purpose what may be called an ‘invariable’ pendulum is now being vibrated in the place at which the above result was obtained. Its period will be care- fully ascertained here before carrying it to the mountain, then on the top of the mountain, and again here after it has been brought back. Nearly all of the labor of the above determination had been The data furnished in the paper are by no means as complete as would be desirable for a thorough discussion of its value, but much may be learned by an examination of what it does contain. dulum has been almost universally made use of since. The great objection to the use of a long pendulum is the difficulty . of measuring it im place. Messrs. Ayrton and Perry measured their pendulum by placing it in a horizontal position, and stretching it by allowing the end near the ball sy hd over a wheel with very little friction. The length was obtained by comparison with a bar one meter long, and as this bar must be T. C. Mendenhall—Acceleration of Gravity at Tokio, Japan. 131 placed ten times to cover the whole length, it is plain that an great degree of accuracy must have been difficult to obtain, and this is especially true when the measurement of that por- tion of the wire which hangs over the wheel is considered. Their 26th experiment was made on the 25th of January, and the 58d on the 21st of February, from which we may infer that the entire time of suspension was at least two months. As only one measurement is spoken of, it is probable that it was measured at the conclusion of the series of experiments, an it seems hardly likely that its length would have remained con- stant during that length of time. In getting the time of vibra- tion the first method used was what might be termed the method of coincidences by electricity, and which, so far as I know, was first described by Professor Pickering, in his excel- lent “ Physical Manipulations.” This was afterward rejected, however, and the vibrations were counted by means of a Morse instrument. The authors speak of measuring the frac- tion of a vibration, but evidently this could not be done with accuracy by the use of such an arrangement, and there is also the objection that the pendulum was obliged to do the work of breaking the circuit at every vibration. Messrs. Ayrton and Perry give the time of vibration of their pendulum for only three experiments, and it is a little difficult to understand exactly how these were obtained. The time, taken from the chronométer, is given and also the number of vibrations. Any one who will take the trouble to divide one by the other, will obtain results differing very materially from those given in the paper. The only way out of this difficulty that occurs to me, is to consider the times given as the apparent times corrected for clock error, and this I shall do, alth corrected for buoyancy, but the same wide range would exist 132 J. F. Whiteaves—New Species of Ptericthys. after that correction is made. But as nothing is known con- cerning the experiments not quoted, the most favorable case imaginable may be assumed. Suppose that in addition to the three results given, they were in possession of an infinite num- ber of others, all agreeing exactly with that which is used in their computation. The extreme results would still cover a wide range, from 9°7997 to 9°7952. Instead of the latter num- ber they give 9°7958, but they have made a miscalculation in reducing the formula, the true value being as given above. though making some elaborate calculations concerning corrections which may be rejected, they reject, apparently with- out calculation, the correction for the arc of vibration. The are through which their pendulum swung was nearly 2°, and if a correction for this be applied it will materially alter the last figure of their result. In applying the correction for buoyancy they seem to have corrected only for the ordinary density of the ball and not for its “vibrating density.” The correction which they apply is 0016 meters, and if this be multiplied by 15 and the correction for are also made, their result will be Tokio, Japan, June 2, 1880.* aon Art. XIX.—On a new species of Ptericthys, allied to Bothriolepis ornata Kichwald, from the Devonian rocks of the North side of the Baie des Chaleurs ; by J. F. WHITEAVES. THE nomenclature of some of the Devonian Placoderms of the sub-order Ostracostei of Huxley is still in a state of great confusion. Thus, Ptericthys Agassiz and Bothriolepis Wich- wald, are both quoted by Pander as synonyms of Asierolepis Kichwald, while the Asterolepis of Agassiz and Hugh Miller is regarded by the same authority as synonymous in part with * Received at New Haven, Ct., June 29, 1880. = st le J. F. Whiteaves—New Species of Ptericthys. - 188 Homostius Asmuss, and in part with Heterostius. On the other hand, Prof. R. Owen claims* that Piericthys should be retained in preference to Asterolepis and Bothriolepis Hichwald, on the ground that “‘no recognizable generic characters were associa- ted” with the latter names; and, as this view has been very generally accepted by paleontologists, it will be adopted pro- visionally in these notes. e only remains of fossil fishes yet recorded as occurring in the Paleozoic rocks of North America which may prove to be referable to the genus Ptericthys, are some isolated scales from the Catskill group of Tioga County, Pennsylvania, de- scribed by Prof. Hall in 1848 as Sauripteris Taylort, but which Dr. Newberry thinks have the characteristic sculpture of Both- riolepis. The name Ptericthys Norwoodensis, although inadver- tently cited by Mr. 8S. A. Miller, on page 288 of his ‘Ameri- can Paleozoic Fossils,” should have been rejected long ago, for in the first volume of the Second Series of this Journal, dated 1846, Drs. Norwood and Owen showed that the specimen or which it was suggested is the type of their genus Macropeta- ss and of a species which they described as J. rapheido- abis In the summer of 1879, Mr. R. W. Ells, M.A., of the Geo- logical Survey of Canada, had the good fortune to find, in a concretionary nodule of argillite from the north side of the Baie des Chaleurs immediately opposite Dalhousie, a mould of the plastron or ventral surface of a true Plericthys (as defined by Prof. Owen) with one of the pectoral spines in situ. At the earliest practicable opportunity, Mr. Ells revisited the locality, and in the first week of June last obtained three ex- quisitely preserved specimens of the buckler of the same spe- cles and several fragments; also some isolated scales of a Glyptolepis. The finest example of the Canadian Ptericthys collected by Mr. Ells had a large piece broken off the left mar- n when it was found, but with this exception the whole of the upper surface of the helmet and buckler is finely exposed (the plastron being partly covered by the matrix), and the out- ine of the orbital opening is clearly defined. A few weeks later, Mr. T. C. Weston, also of the Canadian Survey, collected an additional number of fine specimens of the Plericthys from this locality, some of which illustrate admirably the shape, sculpture and mode of articulation of the pectoral spines. Associated with these there are, in Mr. Weston’s collection, a nearly perfect but badly distorted specimen of a @lyptolepis fully seven inches in length, some fragments of Psilophyton, and a spore case of a idodendron. Taken collectively, the specimens thus far obtained of the * Paleontology, Second Edition, page 141, 134 J. F. Whiteaves—New Species of Plericthys. scribed by Agassiz :* “Les ornemens de cette espéce consistent en petits enfoncemens circulaires placés les uns a cété d autres et séparés par des carénes qui, par leur juxta-position, x paraissent hexagonales, 4-peu-prés comme les vitraux ronds des ui montaient 4 travers l’écaille pour se ramifier dans Vepiderme qui couvrait la plaque.” All the markings so care- fully described in the above passage, even to the minute perfo- rations through the plate in the center of each pit, can be made out with perfect ease in most of the specimens collected by Messrs. Ells and Weston. The Canadian Ptericthys is so closely allied to the Bothrio- lepis ornata that it is by no means certain whether the two are specifically distinct or not. Apart from its peculiar sculpture, the specific characters of B. ornata are very imperfectly ascer- tained, the species having been founded exclusively on a few large isolated plates of a placoderm, from the Devonian rocks of Russia and Scotland. Until more perfect examples of B. * Monographie des Poissons Fossiles du Vieux Gras Rouge, &c., page 99. J. F. Whiteaves—New Species of Ptericthys. 135 ornata shall have been described and figured, it will be impos- sible to institute an accurate comparison between it and the nearly related Canadian form. There are, however, good rea- sons for supposing that the European species attained a much larger size than the Canadian, for Agassiz says that the plates of B. ornata are from three to six inches in length, and, judging by this, the approximate length of its helmet and buckler together may be roughly estimated at from six Under the circumstances, the writer thinks it most prudent to give to the Canadian Péericthys a local and provisional name, with a brief diagnosis of its most salient characters, as follows: premising that a more detailed description of the species, accqm- panied with figures, will appear at an early date in one of the publications of the Canadian Geological Survey. Prericruys (Bornriotepis) CanapEnsts, Nov. Sp.—Plastron nearly flat. Helmet moderately arched above, most prominent im- mediately behind the orbital cavity where it rises into a ridge or blunt keel, which is continued, at intervals, with greater or less distinctness, along the median line of the buckler. Buckler slightly arched, median keel strongest in the center of the dorso- median plate, and in the posterior half of the post-dorsomedian. General outline of the helmet and buckler combined elliptic-ovate, their united length being Rae 4 but not quite, twice the maxi- concave on both sides and somewhat pointed in the middle, its lower margin being concave. Orbital cavity situated nearly in the center of the helmet, transversely reniform or bean-shaped in out- line, much wider than high. Upper margin of the orbital cavity broadly, regularly and very shallowly concave, the lower bein correspondingly convex, while the two lateral extremities are symmetrically and rather narrowly rounded. ectoral spines extending nearly to the posterior end of the buckler, thin and compressed vertically; moderately broad laterally where they are articulated to the ventro-lateral plate, and widen- 1ey an The two segments are divided, nearly transversely, by a ball and socket 136 J. L. Smith —New Meteoric Mineral. or terminal segment. The anterior end of each spine seems also _ to be furnished with a ball and socket joint, as there is a strongl l Montreal, July 6, 1880. Art. XX.—A new Meteoric Mineral ( Peckhamite), and some addi- tional facts in connection with the fall of Meteorites in Iowa, May @0th, 1879; by J. Lawrence Smiru, Louisville, Ky. THE mineral now named Peckhamite was referred to in a for- mer paper on the Emmet Co. Meteorite.* Having since been fur- nished with additional material, I have been enabled to make a more positive determination as to its distinctive characters. It is decidedly different from any mineral I have seen associated with meteorites. In two or three specimens it projected above the outer surface, having a dingy yellow color and a fused sur- face. When broken it has a greasy aspect with a more or less Oxygen ratio 1 2 from No. 2. Silica 49°50 49°59 25°73 Ferrous oxide 15°88 17°01 3°77 Magnesia 33°01 32°51 12°76 98°29 99°11 No. 1 was made with 100 et ie detached by myself; and No. 2 with 350, sent to me by a friend. The oxygen ratio gives very closely the formula Si®+3(SiR.) or perhaps more correctly * This Journal, June, 1880, . oie J. L. Smith—New Meteorite Mineral. 137 28iR+SiR., being two atoms of enstatite or bronzite plus one atom of olivine. There was a slight inaccuracy in the state- ment of the formula in the former paper. I have thought proper to call the mineral Peckhamite in honor of Professor Peckham, who has been industrious in collecting the minerals of our Lake region, and to whom I am indebted for every facility in prosecuting my researches in connection with this meteorite. where the larger masses fell, of evidence that the fall of the meteorite was attended by a shower of fragments, as of hail- stones, falling upon the water of a lake near by. The search which stones that were collected after the Pultusk fall, have but to imagine these stones to be all metal, and some idea may be formed of what these fragments are like; they are, however, more irregular than the Pultusk stones, These lumps of iron were on the wet prairie for nearly one year, and yet they are not in the least rusted, many parts being bright, some looking like nuggets of platinum. It may be that they are protected by an invisible coat of melted silicate. _It is clear that the rapid passage of the meteorite through the air disintegrated the surface very rapidly, pulverizing the stony part completely ; and the nodules of iron not undergoing this disintegration fell in the track of the meteorite for many miles, and the greater number of them will never be found. I must state that we are indebted to Mr. Charles F. Birge, of Keokuk, Iowa, for collecting these facts, as well as many others in connection with this most remarkable meteoric shower. In conclusion, I would state that this last discovery enables us to fix more positively the direction of the meteorite. In former descriptions, including my own, the course of the mete- orite is given as from northwest to southeast. But its general direction was from south-of-west to north-of-east; the meteor- ite came from south of an easterly course in Davidson County, and going north of that line in Emmet County, dropped the smaller fragments over the surface of the latter. 138 J. Trowbridge—The Earth as a Conductor of Electricity. Art. XXI.—The Earth as a Conductor of Electricity ; by JOHN TROWBRIDGE. THE Observatory of Harvard University transmits time sig- nals from Cambridge to Boston, a distance of about four miles. The regular recurrence of the beats of the clock affords a good means of studying the spreading of the electrical current from the terminal of the battery, which is grounded at the observa- tory; and the establishment of the Telephone Dispatch Com- panies in Cambridge, with their various ground connections, gave me a means of studying this spreading. In all the tele- phone circuits between Boston and Cambridge, in the neighbor- hood of the direct line between these places, the ticking of the observatory clock could be heard. The ticking heard in the telephones at the various stations has been attributed to the proximity of the telephone circuit wires to the time wires from the observatory. This is evidently an erroneous conclusion, as will be evident from a short mathematical consideration : expression for the induction produced in one wire by making and breaking a current in a parallel wire, is R, y,==—M y,,* in which y, represents the induced current, R, the resistance of the circuit which conveys this induced current, M the coeffi- cient of induction between the parallel circuits, and y, the cur- rent in the primary circuit; the interruption of which pro- U duces the induced currents. Now M=/) = in which ds and ds’ are elements of the parallel wires, and 7 is the perpen- dicular distance between them. The value of M in the case we are considering is ere in which R, represents the length of the paraliel wires along which the induction takes place and r is the distance between the wires. 2 We shall therefore have R, yaa Y,, eq. (1). Now the electromotive force in the induced current y, is very much greater than that of the inducing current y,, and in order that the current strength y, should be able to develop even a small electro magnetic effect in the receiving telephone, the co- efficient of induction must be increased, or the distance along employed, no inductive effect will be perceived by the employ- * Maxwell’s Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii, p. 209. J. Trowbridge—The Earth as a Conductor of Electricity. 189 ment of even ten-quart Bunsen cells between’wires which run parallel to each other a foot apart for the distance of thirty or forty feet. In order to detect an inductive effect under these conditions, a telephone of three or four units of resistance must be employed. The ordinary Bell Telephone has a resist- ance from thirty to sixty units. For still stronger reasons it is impossible to hear telephonic messages by induction from one wire to another, unless the two wires between which induction is produced run parallel to each and very near to each other a long distance. This distance generally exceeds the distance at which the ordinary Bell Telephone ceases to transmit articu- late speech. e effects which have usually been attributed to induction on telephone circuits are due to the earth con- nections and to imperfect insulation. There wonld be no trouble from induction if telephone wires were enclosed in a heard in a field an eighth of a mile from the observatory, where one ground of the time circuit is located. The method tory and not in the direct line between the observatory and the Boston office, the time signals were obtained by tapping the earth at points only fifty feet apart. Ata distance of Ave h dred feet directly behind the observatory, no points five hun- tory and the Boston office, the time signals could not be heard on the trial wire of six hundred feet. This was to be expected, since the trial wire should have its length increased as the dis- 140) J. Trowbridge—The Earth as a Conductor of Electricity. tance from the grounds of the battery increases, in order to per- mit of one end of the wire touching a point of higher potential than the other. The theoretical possibility of telegraphing across the Aflan- tic without a cable is evident from this survey which I have undertaken. The practical arales ge is another question. At no point in our survey did we find an absence of earth currents. The peculiar crackling noises heard in telephones are due to earth currents and not to fluctuations in the batteries employed on acevo circuits; for they were Ye acmpanletig of the circuits employed by us in ‘which the earth was used as a part of the circuit, and were absent when a baibery ernie was closed without the intervention of the earth. e tick pro- to polarization between the copper wire and the moisture of the ground, for it was many hundred times stronger than the polar- ization effect produced by dipping the copper terminals of the telephone wire in acidulated water. This crackling noise pro- duced by the earth si ony in a telephone is a curious phe- _ nomenon, and shows that the earth currents have a satin’ earth currents, is much to be here. In some cases the igo satory effect of these earth currents was very marked. At no point which we explored, were evidences of earth currents absent. They cod to be more pronounced along water courses. In a discussion of the earth as a conductor, Steinheil says: “We cannot conjure up gnomes at will, to convey our thoughts through the earth. Nature has prevented this. The the earth without ys pots con uctors. ut it is not pro ble that we shall ever attain this end.” Theoretically, however, it is iti to-day to ssenrapy across the Atlantic Ocean without a cable. Powerful dynam electric machines could be placed at some point in Nova Sco. tia, having one end of their circuit grounded near them and the other end grounded in Florida, the conducting wire con- * Die Anwendung des Elektromagnetismus, p. 172, 2d ed., 1873. Chemistry and Physics. 141 sisting of a wire of great conductivity and carefully insulated from the earth, except at the two grounds. By exploring the coast of France, two points on two surface lines not at the same potential could be found; and by means of a telephone of low resisterice, the Morse signals sent from Nova Scotia to Florida could be heard in France. Theoretically this is possible; but eked dklty: with the light of our present knowledge, the expen- diture of energy on the dynamo-electric engines would seem to be enormous. The points made in this paper are as follow 1. Disturbances in telephonic circuits anally attributed to effects of induction are, in general, due to contiguous grounds of battery side A return wire is the only way to obviate these disturbance well- defined equipotential surfaces in the neighbor- hood of battery grounds shows the theoretical possibility of sat re hon across large bodies of water without the employ- ent and leads us to greatly extend the practical limit set by Stoinhel l. 3. Earth currents have an intermittent character, with peri- ods of maxima and minima which may occur several times a minute during the entire day. This intermittent character is got absent. ysical Laboratory, Harvard University. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. On Chemical Curves as Lecture-Illustrations.—The gro ing importance of chemical dynamics renders it very desirable to use the graphical method in class instruction. In order to make clear the significance of these curves, especially to those who grasp se aa methods difficultly, Mrs has contrived an appa- glass cylinders, filled with water and inverted each in a circular glass trough, also containing water. Behind these + pears: is a corresponding series of glass tubulated retorts, of 100 c. c. capac- ity, each beak sa beneath the mouth of a cylinder. Provis- ion is made for mem off the overflowed water.. The frame of the author’s apparatus is 289 cm. long and 51 high, the capacity of each cylinder being about 270 ¢.c. To show the effect of dilu- tion upon the action of hydrogen sulphate upon zine, the sheet metal 0°55 mm. thick was cut into pieces 14 mm. square pre es and rolled into a T— The sulphuric acid, of specific gravity 1843, was diluted to strengths varying progressively a 3 per 142 Scientific Intelligence. cent in volume and 50c. c. of each portion was placed in each retort in order. The retorts and the pieces of zinc must be care- fully cleansed. The experiment may be conduc rey to give either the effect of mass of the acid, or of the time of contact; yielding in the first place a quantity-curve and in the second a time-curve ; the quantity of hydrogen gas collected in the successive Nbr giving the required curve, the height of the water column being the ordinate in each case. e time-curve is seat a cigs curve, usually of a logarithmic form. The quantity-curve has points of inflection and consists generally of one or more consecutive hyper- bolas, showing (1) that the pe ee of the reaction is not propor- tional to the acid-strength; (2) that there is a maximum with 27 per cent H,SO,, a minimum with 33 per cent and mum with per bros effect; (3) that the effect of weakening the solution is re rapid than an equal Aebe dosas ba of it; (4) that the entire rocess is accomplished in three stages repre sented by three es; and (5) that, if the aahe-o of zinc has been such as pa a ~ fill the cylinder with ihccn "she water remaining represents the remaining chemical energy of zinc. e e simultaneous use of blackboard or lantern curves exactl y drawn the significance of the method may be clearly proved. For the time-curve, the author prefers the action of acid on zinc and for the arp an eurve of the action of agers hydrate upon keris te m. Soc., xxxvii, 453, June G. F. 2. on the Estimation of Zine eid Zinc-dust,—BEItsTEIN te AWEIN have suggested a new and simple apparatus for the deter- cork through which passes a delivery tube. To this a rubber tube is attached ona ee it with a similar tube just passing through the cork of a larger bottle of two liters or more capacity. S as to deliver the water clear of the bottle. At the bottom of the large bottle is an opening by which the water may be drawn with the zinc by in lining ie small bottle. Immediatel e hydrogen evolved forces the water out of the rs bottle hen Chemistry and Physics. 143 The barometer is now noted, the temperature of the water sur- rounding the receiving-bott tle is observed and the overflowed water is weighed, The water contained in the graduated tube between its first and second level, must be subtracted from that collected in the flask. A sample ‘of commercial zine which gave 99°80 per cent zinc by Fresenius’s method, gave 99" 39 per cent by this. A lot of pepo which gave by this method 80°59 per cent of aw yielded 80°10 i ser method of Fresenius. Lape’ rig Chem xiii, pets Ma Myo Efe —Baytey showed in 1871 8 hag the light acai by cilnte paces of cupric salts is deficient in those rays which the spectrum of light reflected from ey copper has in excess, and hence that if we look at a copper sur- face through a sufficient thickness of copper sulphate solution, the metal appears silver white, the solution absorbing the exces- sive rays which make the copper red. He has now perfected an instrument for the ee of copper, founded ees this prin- ciple, which he calls ection-cuprimeter. copper mirror movable about a aeatatioke axis reflects the direct light of the sky settidally upward through ret signe of glass closed at bottom by glass plates and having at top convex lenses by which the light is concentrated upon two paper ise made translucent by acid and diluting to a liter at 15° C. Cov Pee one-half the mir- ror with silver, the other half was looked at through a varying depth of the nia until both disks were equally white. The length of the column requi wa ted, the tubes ears graduated for this purpose. In the author’s instrument it wa cm. Since the esa of aa column re to shane solution, With a solution containing 0°801 gram of copper per liter six readings of the oa meter gave °806, 803, 800, 793, 793 and “813; or ‘803 as am Iron, in the ferrous condition, is not injurious, The anberatiog $5 be analyzed, in such quantity as is supposed to give a gram of copper, is dissolved in nitric acid, 144 Scientific Intelligence. treated with sulphurous acid in excess, boiled, cooled, made up to a liter, and examined in the cuprimeter.—/J. Chem. Soc., xxxvii, 418, June, 1880. SS 4. On a Method of producing Acetal_—tIn the hope of produc- ing in larger quantity, a crystalline substance which they had observed, ENerr and Dx Grrarp dissolved aldehyde in about its own volume of absolute alcohol and passed into it a current of hydrogen phosphide gas for three days, the mixture being at first cooled to — 40°, then to — 21°. o erystals were formed; but on adding water a liquid separated, which gave on fractioning a liquid boiling at 104°, having an ethereal odor, a specific gravity of 0°829 at 13°, and a vapor density of 4:3. Moreover, it pos- sessed in other respects the characters of acetal. The yield is considerable. The authors are now investigating the conditions of maximum production.— Bull, Soe. Ch., Ul, xxxiii, 457, May, 1880 G F. B 5. On Phlobaphen and Oak-red, and their Relation to Tan- in.—B6TTINGER has proved that, under the influence of sulphu- tan. tera second extraction with ether, the lumpy residue consisted essentially of two constituents — tannin, soluble in water and phlobaphen, insoluble in it. Their complete separation was sulphuric ecomes a thick mass which liquefies on gentle heating. At higher temperatures decomposition takes place, @ compact brownish mass of oak-red is deposited and’ r remains in solution ak-red and phlobaphen are identical in their physi- cal properties and in their behavior to oxidizing agents, zinc dust, fused potash, acetic oxide, benzoyl chloride, fuming hydrochloric As purified i i i Chemistry and Physics. 145 Occurrence of Globulin in Potatoes.—Z6i.LER has called attention to the existence in potatoes of one of the albu- minoid substances called globulins by Hoppe Seyler. The finel dly w * .- drops of a one per cent solution of Na,CO, hung, and the globulin separates in white flocks. It contains 14-2 per cent of nitrogen and its properties prove it to be quite similar to one of the myosins of muscular tissue.—Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, 1064, June, 1880. G. F. B. 7. On the behavior of Carbonic Acid in relation to Pressure, Volume and Temperature.—Professor R. Cuausius discusses the In a perfect gaseous state the molecules rush together and separate completely after the collision. When the gas is con- ment in common. On the above assumption the mean strength the mutual attraction of the molecules would be increased since bodies the above ideas and finds a satisfactory agreement between the values calculated from the formula and those obtained by ex- riment. At the close of his paper Clausius discusses the pres- on for the te June, 1880. et 8. Kerr’s iments on the relation between Light and Elec- tricity.—_H. W. C. RénreEn repeats the experiments of Dr. Kerr Am. Jour. ee Vox, XX, No, 116.—Ave., 1880, 146 Scientific Intelligence. ith more perfect apparatus than that used by the latter and em- ioe Nichols’ prisms, which gave a much larger field than those used by Dr. Kerr. The results of “the latter are confirmed and eats when the fiat. under Detatnoiion is experimented upon. The liquid was also set in movement and the author states that the movement of the particles of the fluid have a marked influence upon the Erg of the directions of the vibrations of the light.— Wied. Ann., No. 5, p. 77, 1880 Fu Me 9. Contributions to Moles ular Physics in ‘High Vacua.—In a which is a continuation of the Bakerian Lecture on the illumination of lines of molecular Lpeorsig. read before the Royal Society, December 5, 1878, Mr. Crookers describes some new and remarkable experiments which confirm the aback, that the phe- nomena described by him are due to the repulsion of the we molecules, an exhausted tube was ses with two negative oles and one positive pole. The two molecular streams, instead of gt a strongly — 6) Lr pole under the influence exhaustions. The m RITA rotations are Ginter in low vacua and depend as much upon the direction of the induction spark as upon the pole of the ma saa presented to the discharge. The phosphorescent e of the molecular impacts — the most beautiful effects obtained by Mr. ecu- lar rays in high vacua possess remarkable powers of ¢ sop bodies upon which they fall to phosphoresoe. < deadening effect hae ee upon glass by one continued phosphorescence is con- rmed by various “onus ents. e image of a cross was sten- cilled by phosphorescence on the end of a large bulb and the bulb was afterward melted and drawn out at the end and after- Chemistry and Physics. 147 10. On the law of een: in the work done by men or anim —The Rev. Dr. Haughton, of Trinity College, Dublin, has raat brought to a ater bat a series of papers on Animal Mechanics published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. The ninth of these papers was oe the Croonian Lecture for the present year, and the t paper closes the series. The most Paek se subject involved in these papers is the greatest usefulness to the science of me has upon which i depends, how to one ys to the greatest eee advantage, o force of animal a r. Haughton believe that he has found the proper form of this function, by means of experiments, and sums it Bu in what he calls the Law of Fatigue, which he thus expresses : é product of the total work done sis the rate of if work is con- stant, at the time when fatigue stops the w If W denote the total work done, the tite of fatigue gives us— dw ible ry = const. Ww? or — = 7 = const. (1) The experiments made by Dr. Haughton from 1875 to 1880 consisted chiefly in lifting or holding various weights by means the arms; the law of fatigue giving, in each case, an appropri- ate equation, with which the results of the experiments were compared. en the experiments consisted in raising weights on the outstretched — at fixed rates, the law of fatigue gave ~ the ineiae | expressi ge +a)nr= (2) where w, n, are the weight held in the hand, and the eco - times it is lifte , A is a constant to be determined by experi and @ another constant aaaedine + on the weight of the limb and its appendages. The equation (2) represents a cubical hyperbo The useful work done is delerers: by the cation — 0 7 = wether “hae Fh): (3) This denotes a cuspidal cubic, and the wseful work is a maximum, 148 Serentific Intelligence. when w= a, or the weight used is equal to the grees depend- ing on the weight of the limb and its appendage en the weights were lowered as well as aaaed at fixed rates, and no rest at all permitted, the law of fatigue becam oe ee (4) where n, ¢, are the shina and time of lift, A is a constant depending on experiment, and f is a a ais involving the time of lift (7) at which the maximum work is don Equation (4) denotes a cuspidal cubic. yhen the weights are held on the palms of the Sear hands, until the experiment is stopped zt fatigue, the law becom (w+ a)’t= | 6 where ¢ is the whole time of holding o a equation denotes a cubical Re arols. aw of Fatigue seems, in itself, probable enough, but of course ois real value depends on its agreement with the results of erime ex nt. te W denote the total work done and FR the rate of work, the law becomes, simply W x R= const. bi If different limbs, or animals were used, each working in net way, and under its own conditions, the Law of Fatig gue ‘would become— WR=W.R, + WR, + WR, + &e. (7) and the problem for the engineer would be, so to arrange the work and rate of work of each agent emplo ed, as to make the of i rk b equation (7 \. n using equation Lo?) in ar concluding paper, detailing the results of experiments made on Dr, Alexander Macalister, Haughton treats a as an witkti own quantity, and finds from all the observations its most probable value to be— ‘ ‘a@ = 5°68 lbs. This result was compared with that of direct measurements made on Dr. Macalister himself, and indirect measurements made on the dead i sila from all of which Dr. Haughton enalided the value of a t a = 5°56 lbs. + 0°125 (possible error). This result agrees closely with that calculated from the law of fat om should be added that a Sie aes was ciclo by Dr. Haughton Dr. Macalister to make the experiment conclusive by direct Genputattont of his scapula, a course ne ich he, unreasonably, objected to, as he draws the line of “vivisection” at frogs.— Nature, xxii, 554. Geology and Natural History. 149 11. Acceleration of eal at Tokio, Japan.—The paper by Messrs. shined and Perry on a “De termination of the Accelera- tion of Gravity for Tokio, is apan,” published in the April number of the Piloponiacal Magazine and alluded to on page 130 of this number, has been severely criticized by Major Herschel (I. c. June, 1880, p. 446). A reply to this criticism is giv en by the ter Observatory. The former is designed to encourage the higher development of the horological industries, and to pursue researches calculated to aid in the construction of refined apparatus for the measurement of time. This circular fen detailed information in regard to the teh to which time pieces are subjected ; the regulations of the distribution of the time service from the observator y, a list of the standard instruments employed in rating h standards. The circular also contains a synopsis of the ants ard carefully considered and ably carried out. A field of great use- fulness is open to this department of the Winchester Observatory. Physical Science in America, also, cannot fai e indebted to it. The late report of the Astronomer Royal, nee speaks of observatory of which he is director, and the French Astronomers im many recent articles have directed public attention to the importance of work similar to that undertaken by the Horological Bureau of Yale College. e thermometrical bureau promises to afford valuable assistance to the United States Bigaal Service and - to meteorology in general, also to meio DH YEIONOE eer tions and to many departments in the a II. Grotoay anp Natura HIsTorY. 1. Odontornithes; a lee er on the Extinct Toothed Birds of North America; by Professor O. C. Marsu, pp. i-x, 201, 4to, prin ted plates, with Appendix prem 2 a Synopsi is of Ameri- ith t 150 Scientific Intelligence. Mucorini oe as the chief source aS Mineral Coal. Ge Re ae P. F. Rewuscu, of Erlangen, Bavaria, has announced, i b means of thin transparent slices, the view that in the formation of coal only certain ~— forms of plant-life took part ; and that these forms are so well preserved in some cases that almost no difference can be abeuresil in their most intimate structure from similar forms still living. They are long sg a forms of cellular structure, united to strong stems; and in the fibrous net-work, with the net-work. The fibers in the coal, which, according to the author’s conclusions, constitute the chief part of it, consist, as a general rule, of opake coaly material, but in the finer ramifications a micro-granular structure can .be distinguished. The spherical bodies, which sometimes adhere together with flat- tened sides, sor a diameter of from 0°13 to 0°24 millimeter. The structur e is somewhat more Ry defined eee heating = is generally at the center a rhombohedral kernel of a somewhat more nedicgaboat substance than the rest; and the substance in them which becomes somewhat more trans parent on treatment with caustic potash has a radiated structure. The forms are declared to be gigantic Mucorin ese sobidlandions of Brodeaior Reinsch are wholly opposed to those of other investigators, and to the tm presented by all the ordinary kinds of mineral coal. The author has evidently mis- understood the objects under poeadoesics wid his supposed facts are Ge likely to find acceptance in science. Pre New American locality of Fergusonite; by W. E, Hiv- N (communicated). Besides other results of my search for plationta, in the auriferous gravels of the Southern States, is the discovery, i in July, 1879, of the mineral fergusonite at Brindletown, pre Co., N.C. with & me observations, varied fro om 1°7 mm. to “4 or 5 wi ean of 2°9 m the bob of a long pendulum may be assumed to be sensibly sta- tionary during most shocks. Tw wo levers at right angles to each very massive bob of endulum twenty feet lon are joined to their och so that each is affected si abe component of the movement resolved in its own direction. They are also unaffected by torsion of the pendulum or any other kind of relative motion of its parts. The long ends of the levers press gently against two smoked glass plates which are kept a continuously and uniformly by clockwork. So long as no earth- ach ley ver again on its revolving plate. The earthquake causes the * Professor Milne has given some 2 of his results in a letter to Natwre, vol. ced p. 208, say 1, 1880. 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. lever to move across this line, and so records an undulating line on each plate. These lines enable the movements to be measured and their relation to the time, from which the amplitude, velocity ? rth’s house but from a epatuke rigid frame; and the levers with their eis ye! are attached firmly to a woods post stuck in the ground and cut off a few inches above the surface The new knives is sin ow for effective work, as earth- quake shocks seem to occ apan almost daily. A letter ei Prof. Milne (June 12) patil: of “ over Hiy — the a months,” one night five, and haa r night t 2, Science: A weekly Record of Madensife Progress ; mx pe MicuEts, editor. Vol. I, No. Ve nd 2, New York, July 3 and 10, 1880. The aim of this new Journal is stated to be “to affor d scientific workers in the United States the opportunity of promptly recording the fruits of their researches an soegy s for commu- nication between one another,” etc. It aspires “ to take the position which ‘Nature’ so ably occupies in \ Engl and.” The could maintain the position oes in the prospectus, which it certainly has not done thus The author of the angekious ee about the “diaphote” will be amused to see a column in “ Science” cysts to the subject, in which the remarkable invention of the supposed “Dr. H. E. Licks” (= helix) is described in full detail. The original account, from which this quotation was made, is so clearly worked out in all the minor points and so ingeniously plausible that it is, perhaps, not strange that so many have been deceived. bec serves to take a ae erry the famous “ moon hoax” of) Sei This Journal promises to fill luable place as a medium of Serene be of scientific observation in the western part of the nited S OBITUARY, Count Louis Frangois gy Sido ir the well-known pupil and rigs sere os of hitbantk: Keeper of the Museum of Com rath at Cambridge, ak - died July 18, in the fifty- oe uate, A notice will be given in a subsequent Professor ees gen of Breslau, died June 23, 1880, at the age of sixty-eight years. eT ee PE, ee oseal tazyv oa0'0S2Z'l 1850. aa. Put ao 000°006'2 and 1,260,000 years after A. D. f peior h 7 * full curve 90.000 pe Ww) ke ot ov sy ° ) ) ° w N 9 ke =) Se = 2 dee (©) x) | ~ be (x) o0000¢ “ila i ~ 000-d00'e ae L— gr owins QN000Ss sh =) Char 1000002 | Ppspeceng org oF 8! jrajeg boo'0S ee} AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] —_———— @ § ¢ —__—. Art. XXII. — On the New Action of Magnetism on a Perma- nent Electric Current ;* by E. H. HAut, Assistant in Physics at the Johns Hopkins University. In the early part of last winter there was published in the American Journal of Mathematicst an account of some exper- iments which prove that an electric current, as distinguished * In its original form this article was a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Phi- losophy. Some alterations have been made in preparing it for publication. t Vol. IT, page 287, 1879; republished in this Journal, March, 1880. Am. Jour, — ms VoL. XX, No, 117.—Sepr., 1880. 162 E. H. Hall—New Action of Magnetism along the radii of the disk, but if a strong magnetic force were made to act perpendicularly to the face of the disk a new electromotive force would be set up, which would be always perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic force and to the In fig. 1, which is about one-half the actual size of an ordi- nary plate, g g g g represents the plate of glass upon which the metal strip m m mm is mounted. Contact with this strip is made at the ends by the two thick blocks of brass b, b, which are held firmly in place by the four brass clamps worked by means of the screws S, 8, 8, S. The main current of electricity on a Permanent Electric Current. 163 enters and leaves the metal strip by means of the binding screws e, e. Running out from the middle of this strip are two projections which make contact with the clamps C,, C,, worke by the screws S, S,. From the screws 7, 7, wires lead to the Thomson galvanometer. The projections from the metal strip just alluded to make the apparatus very easy to adjust, for by scraping off little particles from the proper part of the projec- tions, while the current is allowed to run through the metal strip, the current through the Thomson galvanometer may be reduced to the extent desired. In ordinary experiments such a plate as that just described is placed between the poles of the magnet in such a position that the direction of magnetic force would be represented by a perpendicular to the plane of the paper in the above drawing. In the variation upon the main experiment a plate was em- ployed similar to the above, but narrower and with very short side clamps. This plate was first placed between the poles of wiecnes a in the usual position as shown by the heavy lines in fig. 2. With this arrangement a permanent deflection of about 30° cm. on the scale before the Thomson galvanometer could be obtained by reversal of the magnet current. Leaving now the distance between the poles very nearly the same as before and using, both in the magnet and the gold strip, as nearly as possible the same strength of current which had just been em- ployed in the previous trial, the plate was turned into the position indicated by the dotted lines in fig. 2. With this — second arrangement no action of the kind previously seen was detected, or at least none that could with certainty be distin- guished from the direct action of the magnet on the Thomson 164 E. H, Hali—New Action of Magnetism galvanometer. This latter effect produced a deflection of only a few mm. and could not have masked any considerable action of the kind looked for. e first part of this experiment then shows our main fact, viz: that in a conductor subjected to the given conditions a per- manent electromotive force is at once established which has a direction of the magnetic force, or at least none of the same order of magnitude as that described above. e third experiment to be described was made at the sug- gestion and desire of Professor Rowland. It was to test for an action of the magnet on the lines of static induction in glass. A thick piece of plate glass about four cm. square was taken and a hole about four mm. in diameter was drilled through each of the four lateral faces. These four holes were all directed to- on a Permanent Electric Current. 165 very slight effect of the kind looked for would not have been detected, though it is probable that if a reversal of the magnet had caused a change of four mm. in the position of the spot of light, this effect would have been apparent. e may therefore conclude that any change of relative po- tential on the quadrants of the electrometer caused by reversal of the magnet was probably less than 4 of that caused by reversing the connections of the electrometer with a Bunsen cell, as mentioned above. If now we estimate the difference of potential between the plugs A and B, connected with the eyden jars, to have been, as indicated by the length of the spark, equal to that which would be produced by 10,000 Bun- sen cells in series, we may conclude that any difference of potential between the other plugs C and D which was caused by the action of the magnet, must have been less than go4og5 of the difference of potential between A and B. We must remember, however, that any change of potential on C and D had to be extended as well over the comparatively large area of the electrometer quadrants. Professor Rowland has roughly estimated the capacity of the quadrants as twenty times that of the plugs C ae D. If, therefore, these plugs had not been attached to the electrometer, any difference of potential between them due to the action of the magnet would have been twenty times as great as in the actual case, so that instead of we have of the difference of potential of A and B as the superior limit of the difference of potential of C and D which the magnet might possibly have produced, if C and D had not been connected with the electrometer. Representing the for- mer difference of potential by E, the latter by E’, and the strength of the magnetic field, about 4000 (cm.-grm.-sec.), by M, we have for this case of static induction in glass Ee’ if not zero, is less than +g5g400007" Turning to the analogous case of current electricity in the various metals and representing now by E the difference of potential of two points a centimeter apart in the direction of the current, and by EK’ the difference of potential of two points a centimeter apart in a direction at right angles to that of the current, while M has the same signification as before, ps may write, as a very rough estimate for the case of iron, ExM ~tovb00m While for tin the value of this ratio may be as small as popoboane: We may therefore conclude that the equipotential lines in the case of static induction in glass, if affected at_all by the magnet, are affected much less than the equipotential lines in the case of a current in iron, but we can not say that any such possible action in glass has been shown 166 EF. H. Hali—New Action of Magnetism to be smaller than the analogous action in the case of a current in tin. I now go on with an account of further investigation of the henomenon actually discovered and already in some measure described in my previous article. When writing that article it 2, of the differ ence of potential per cm. on the longitudinal axis of the gold leaf strip to that per cm. on the transverse axis. There were seemed to me instructive to deduce the ratio thus obtained for the experiments made values of Ez ranging from 3,000 to 6,500 according to the strength of the magnetic field.* M * would prove to be a constant, not only for different strips of one metal, but for all conductors. Subsequent experiments showed that this was not the case, and in this article the results obtained will be At that time I supposed that the ratio - expressed by the ratio - , where HK’ has the same significa- tion as before, while M now expresses the strength of the mag- netic field in cm.-grm.-sec. units and V= Ss t the strength of the primary current divided by the area of section of the con- ductor. This ratio does not prove to be the same constant for different metals but for any particular metal it seems much more nearly a constant than the ratio be FE’ given above would force in obedience to the perfectly well known laws o *In obtaining this latter quantity, which was called M, a serious error was made and the value given was probably not much more than half what it should have been. This fact was mentioned in a note when the article in question was republished in this Journal, Mar., 1880, p. 200, and p. 235. be tity V may be said to bear an intimate relation to the absolute ve- locity of the electricity, for if we were to take as the unit velocity of electricity that of a unit current flowing through a conductor of unit cross-section, the ve- locity in any particular case would be a quantity > on a Permanent Electric Current. 167 a action of magnets on conductors bearing currents. This being the case, it seemed desirable to make experiments with several strips of the same metal and determine whether the ratio am prove to be a constant for all. The dimensions of Mx EK many of the strips used, of whatever metal, are given below, and in order that the conditions to which they were variously arrows in fig. 2 show the direction of the transverse current relatively to the direct current in gold, the magnet ole, 5, being a south pole, i. e., the pole attracting the north pointing : : ih ; two currents and the magnetic force is the same in all of the four gold plates which have been examined in’ this particular. he same uniformity is observed in the four silver plates, and the three iron plates, which have been tested in the same way. With the two plates of tin which have been examined there has been a trifle of uncertainty upon this point, as the effect in this metal is at best very small, but this uncertainty is hardly sufficient to cast doubt upon the correctness of the rule that, so far as observation has gone, the relative direction of the trans- _verse current is always the same for any particular metal. This uniformity in so many cases could hardly be accidental. This matter of direction is evidently one of fundamental im- portance. ‘The direction was found to be the same for silver same as in gold. This fact will be discussed further on. The conductors which have, up to this date, been subjected to ex- * Am. Journ. Math., vol. ii, p. 355. 168 E.. H. Hall—New Action of Magnetism . . . . . . - periment are gold, silver, iron, tin, nickel and platinum. The direction is the same in all except iron. e extreme irregularity in the results obtained in the early n usin liability to error from this source, as a low resistance gal- vanometer must then be employed, which may easily change r curately. Even if the specific gravity were the same for all the strips, and it probably is not, the value thus obtained for the thickness would give only the average thickness, and this is by no means the effective thickness. It will be remembered that the connections leading to the Thomson galvanometer are placed opposite to each other with the width of the metal strip between them. e effective thickness is the average thick- ness along the line joining these two side connections. Gol foil is obtained in sheets ten or twelve cm. square. It will be seen further on, that in one case two strips cut from similar po- sitions in the same sheet differed in average thickness about seven per cent. This being the case it seemed quite possible that the effective thickness of any strip, as defined above, may on a Permanent Klectric Current. 169 differ many per cent from the mean thickness indicated by the weight All these sources of error being considered, the discrep- -ancies which will be observed in the results to be given, will not be surprising. A single complete series of observations consisted of ‘the following parts: Ist. A determination of the extent to which the indicator of ence of the magnet and the magnetizing current.—All that it one or two mm. and subsequent readings of the Thomson galvanometer were, when it was necessary, corrected accord- ingly. 2nd. A determination of the strength of the magnetic field.— This was done by withdrawing suddenly from the field a small coil consisting of a few turns of wire and observing the effect of this action on a delicate galvanometer placed in circuit with the coil.* The galyanometer was used with a mirror and scale and the readings actually obtained were reduced by the formula : ee ; 11 my! ee aye ae where v is the actual reading and r the distance from the mir- ror to the scale. The constant of the galvanometer not being known, its sensitiveness, that is the significance of its readings in absolute measure, was determined whenever the strength of the magnetic field was to be found. This was effected by means of an earth inductor placed in circuit with the galvanometer and the test coil used with the magnet. he determination of the strength of the magnetic field therefore involves two series of Std bdeacca one with the earth inductor and one with the test coil, 3d. A determination of the sensitiveness of the Thomson galvanometer.—This was done by sending through it a current of known strength obtained by shunting the current from a Bunsen cell, the main current being measured with a tangent galvanometer. 4th. The main experiment.—The primary current through the metal strip measured with the tangent galvanometer just spoken of, and the effect of reversing the magnet observed on the scale of the Thomson galvanometer. 5th. Another determination of the sensitiveness of the Thom- son galvanometer.—Method as described above. * Rowland, “On a Magnetic Proof Plane,” this Journal, vol. x, p. 14, 1875. 170 FE. H. Hall—New Action of Magnetism 6th. Another series of observations with the test coil. 7th. Another series of observations with the earth inductor. 8th. Another determination of the direct action of the mag- ed on the Thomson galvanom as was usually the case, several series were to be hele: a the same plate in one day, for the purpose of using pri- mary currents of various strengths, the sensitiveness of the Thomson galvanometer was tested before each main series of observations and after the last. e mean of two values found for the sensitiveness of the Thomson galvanometer was of course taken to bé the sensi- tiveness during the series of observations fn eke a not found necessary to determine the strength of . — field more than twice during a half day’s iasevesio n working up these observations the tellowings “formula applies : 2 2 ktana rao o a? ae MV eS | eee Bre M, V, and E’ have been already ve me 7460 — twice the in tegral area of the earth inductor divided by the integral area of the test coil. Twice the simple ratio of these two areas is taken, for the reason that the earth induc- tor coils are turned through 18 180° when use eT st Se emia intensity of earth’s magnetism at position of earth induct sin =a quantity relating to effect on the galvanometer used ‘with test coil, produced by withdrawing the latter from the magnetic field. sin z=a similar aur relating to the galvanometer and the earth induc k = constant of ee galvanometer. a = reading of tangent galvanometer when measuring primary current through the metal strip. w = effective width of metal str ip. t = effective thickness of metal stri d= difference in readings on the Thomson galvanometer scale caused by rever _ rita ee in ne main experiment. = difference in readings on same scale caused by reversing ~ gurrent in duiariintag berlaiti satan of the Thomson gal- vanometer. © = reading of tangent galvanometer when measuring current used to determine sensitiveness of Thomson galvanometer. on a Permanent Electric Current. tr p = proportion of above current which passes through the Thom- son galvanometer. 7 = total resistance of circuit containing Thomson galvanometer uring main experiment. The above formula reduces to the form h 460 sin — tana d'H Mov ee ee iP tdprtan Osin= to the Thomson galvanometer, a matter of considerable ease. The following pages give some details of the study of the various metals examined. GoLp. ae. the ratio a This value, however, would be very much larger than that obtained when thicker strips of metal are used, and facts to be hereafter mentioned make it appear quite prob- able that the thickness of the strip, as above arrived at, is sev- eral times smaller than the true thickness.* Without attempting therefore any accurate determination of the constant of this first strip (A), I pass on to Gold Leaf, Plate (B). This plate also is of very thin metal, and in general I shall use the term gold leaf, when speaking of the metal in this shape, and use the term gold /oi/ to denote the strips of con- siderable thickness. ns See also Albert v. Ettingshausen, ‘ Bestimmung der Absoluten Geschwindig- keit,” ete. Sitzungsberichte Akad. Wien, vol. lxxxi, p. 446, 1880. He found the value of the thickness indicated by the weight in similar cases, to be from four to ten times as great as that indicated by the resistance. 172 E.. H. Hali—New Action of Magnetism This second plate of gold leaf was not constructed until after several thick plates had been tried and found to give very dif- ferent results from those obtained with the first thin plate in the manner described above. Thinking that some experimental nto tions with the same plate, but using the low resistance galva- nometer. The results were, the thickness here also being estimated as above described, March 18, with high resist. galv., = oid = 622 X 10” “ “e “ee ‘74 “ oo 637 ed atk og Ge:) tr seat 6: err er 88h) es os Mean $i) Bee 64T C10" ance are evident; Ist, gold leaf so thin as to be transparent is by no means continuous, but is perforated by a multitude of small holes, so that the electricity is, as it were, obliged to wind or zigzag its way through the strip, thereby having a longer path and meeting a greater resistance, than if it could pursue a direct course: 2d, gold leaf is an alloy about twenty-three carats fine, and the resistance of such alloys is often much larger than that of either of the pure metals: 38d, it is difficult to se- u contact at the ends of the strip. In the plate under consideration this contact was probably very bad, and may have been many per cent of the whole resistance of the plate as measured. on a Permanent Electric Current. 173 ject of gold leaf strips with a very few words, were it not the case that, in a matter of this kind, it seems proper that the pub- lic should be informed of anv facts that have the slightest suspicious appearance. The gold plates which are now to be described, were of comparatively thick metal, sueh as is used by dentists. The same number. Gold Foil, No. 6 (A). his strip was, I believe, of the kind called by dentists “hard,” or “cohesive.” To determine the thickness it was S. oe was in general shape a parallelogram with a pro- jection from the middle of eath of its longer sides. The use of these projections, which were much reduced in size before making the observations, has been already explained. ip tg of strip when weighed = 8°50 cm. Width a 3 ee Qeh a st Area including projections = 2080 * ag. Weight = .0848 grms. Taking the specific gravity of gold at 19°36, the value given by Ganot for “gold stamped,” we find Thickness = ‘000214 em. With this pes many series of experiments were made, yield- he time results which were very discordant, owing to various disturbing causes, some known and others perhaps 174 FE. H. Hall—New Action of Magnetism unknown, to which a has already been made. The re- sults obtained every day, except the last of my working with this plate, are so Hissdh det that in preparing ‘them for ‘publi- cation it does not seem worth while to go over again the great mass of figures involved, for the purpose of correcting any small errors of calculation. The results obtained were MxvVvV February 20th : = 134 XK 10” << “ce - scoot 3 Lt aie eee “ 23d = ae LUD 6s 6 “ce sp Ae ee “ “c és oe 160; ““ 25th mat? Cae OO tes “ (4 6c as 1408 eS. «“ j “6 sc venti Oy Beer “ 27th eee. oe. “ “ Bes heme TAY foo ac. Mean “ = 152 x10’ Replacing now the old perforated poles of the electro-mag- net by solid new ones and removing one or two other sources of error, I found MxXV March 5th EO = 150 X 10” ce ia “6 a 150 : ~ ey *) ee 156 : : ' Mean “ = 1513 X 10° The strength of thé magnetic field was, as usual, determined twice on March 5th, once before and once after the other ob- nt. The m strength for the day. The strength of the primary current sent through the gold strip was much varied for the different series of observation Thus we may Wife as corresponding to the above three values ge ae of Field. Strength of Joe Current. 6400 kX jan! 23° 44’ 4 ~ 42° 14 “ “ce (74 49° 98’ when & is the constant of the tangent galyanometer = ‘07 nearly. ' The agreement between the mean of the various results pre- viously obtained and the mean of those found March 5th, was considered satisfactory, and the next measurements were made with on a Permanent Electric Current. 175 Gold Foil, No. 5. ; The metal in this plate was, I believe, either “soft,” or ‘‘ semi- cohesive.” Length of strip when weighed = 8°49 cm. Width - 5 = about 3°28 “ Area including projections = 30°0 ‘oa — “ sq. g °1122 grm. Thickness ‘000188 em. This strip after being placed on the glass was trimmed down to a width of about 2°32 cm., and the mean thickness of this strip was no doubt quite different from the value above ob- tained. This strip was reduced in width after being weighed more than any other that has been used, and this fact may account for the discrepancy between the results obtained with it and those obtained with the strips of No. 6, already de- seribed, and of No. 4, which is to be described next. With No. 5 were made four series of observations, resulting thus : ‘ Mx V M. C. EF’ Mar. 8th, 6400 k X tan 42° 26’ 161 & 10" . 6330 ge ore. pers 4 168 60%. “10th, 6440 oS wie. kes |g ROR 0%. Ss Seay Sc esi cee OF 14d uide x Mean = 1625 X 10° The next plate used was Gold Foil, No. 4 (soft). Length when weighed . 2 OF OM, Width . —— et ary Area including projections saae sO 7 Oe: Weight = ‘0478 grm Thickness = ‘000134 cm. With this plate four series of observations were made in one The results obtained March 12th were Mx V M. C. log 6480 kX tan 22° 21' 155 & 10"° . vg “ 96° 25 EBD ee cay a -_ 49° 316’ gH es ees = = “6 98° 43’ RGM a alt bey Mean = 1545 x 10° Measurements had now been made with three plates of gold foil, and, considering the irregularity likely to be produced b the impossibility of determining accurately the effective thick- ness of the strips, the results seemed to agree satisfactorily, 176 E.. H.. Halli—New Action of Magnetism to be a constant for this metal. If the ex- indicating = riments in wold had begun with these particular plates, they ae probably have ended with them for the present. Owing, owever, to the great discrepancy observed between these re- sults and those obtained with the very thin plates it seemed desirable to go further, and I therefore constructed a plate using Gold Foil, No. 30 (A), (semé-cohesive ?). Length of strip when weighed = fs big Width % Area including projections sis 7 30 “s <4: Wet ht ane 1 grm Thickness i oline em. With this ake ~" x V a3 M. C. Apr. 20th, 6520 k X tan 48° 38’ 123 ef 10” skate 6600 of POS, SO 424 wea ‘ 7 * 40° 80’ BUG cn ss Mean = 1250 X 10° This value is about twenty per cent lower than the mean of those obtained with the three es Nos. 4, 5, and 6, previously used, The discrepancy was so great, that another plate was made with a strip cut from the same sheet as No. 30 (A). Gold Foil, No. 30 (B), (semi-cohesive ?). Length of strip when weighed = 5°69 cm j “cc “ — 1:08 * Area including projections = 706 ° ag Weight e cee” “Tae ore Thickness = ‘00105 cm t will be seen that the strips (A) and (B), cut from similar sot as in the same sheet of metal, differ about seven per cent in mean thickness, he importance 0 of this fact has already been pointed out. The difference in thickness thus found was so great, that I at first supposed a mistake must aye been made in weighing the first strip, thereby giving too large : value for the weight. I therefore removed the strip from the glass plate and weighed it again. The result con- firmed the original value obtaine With the new plate, No. 30 (B), I found wad M. “6 bY’ Apr. 26th, 6760 k X tan 68° 0 139 x 10" 6 oc + gg" ee ji 9 hae ware Mean = 1400 x 10° ‘on a Permanent Electric Current. 177 This value is much nearer those obtained with the plates 4, 5, and 6, but even now there is a discrepancy of eight or ten per cent. Without discussing this matter any further at pres- ent, I pass on to tell what has been observed with SILVER. Measurements have been made with four separate plates of this metal. The thickness of the strip was estimated in one case by weighing, in the three others by measuring the elec- trical resistance. I will give first the results obtained with the thick strip. . Silver Foil, No. 10. Length of strip when weighed = 7:98 cm Wiew - -< © ee Area including projections = 28. Mad Weight 047: .*. Thickness (taking sp. gr. to be 10°47) = += 000491 cm. With this plate MxV M. C. ’ Apr. 21st, 6580 kX tan 49° 17’ 114 x 10” ¥ « eae 80 | ey Mean = 1160 x 10° Two of the other plates were prepared, not by fastening sil- ver leaf to glass with shellac, but by depositing from a solu- tion the silver directly upon the glass. The process made use of for this purpose was Béettger’s, as detailed in this Journal for 1867. The two plates were cut from the same piece o glass after coating. Silver Film (A). Length between the contact blocks = 6°05 em Width = 2°46 om. Electrical resistance, as measured, = 1:45 ohms. ened the rip by placing the blocks nearer together, then measured the length and again determined the resistance of the whole. This process was repeated, thus giving three values of the resistance corresponding to the three lengths of the strip employed. From these values the contact resistance is readily determined, though of course very roughly. It appeared to be equal to the resistance of about 27 cm. of the strip itself, and Am. Jour. epic" * anaes Vou, XX, No. 117.—Srprt., 1880, 178 EF. H. Hali—New Action of Magnetism therefore in estimating the thickness of the strip from the elec- trical resistance, the effective length of the strip was taken to be not 6°05 cm., but 88cm. Assuming the specific resistance of the silver in this plate to be 00000165 ohms, the value given by Jenkin for “hard drawn” silver, we obtain as the thick- ness of the strip ‘00000407 cm. It will be shown below that this value is probably very much too small, but I will for the moment give the results obtained on the basis of this estimation of the thickness. assing over a result obtained at quite an early period of the experiments, and which there are excellent reasons for re- jecting, we have Mx V M. C. i’ Jan. 30th, 7120 ke X tan 43° 38’ 487 * 10” . ‘ = Sit 32. 499 x 10"° Mean 493 x 10” The discrepancy between this result and that obtained with the thicker strip of silver was so great, that I determined to try Silver Film (B). have assumed the thickness of (B) to be the same as that h I of (A). The other dimensions are about the same, and the result is M x V M. C. EK’ May 4th, 6640 kX tan 47° 39’ 491 «* 10” The agreement of this result with the mean of those just pre- ceding is entirely satisfactory, and the discrepancy above men- tioned, as existing between the results with plates of different kinds, is confirmed. This disagreement was so large as to be difficult to account for, without the hypothesis of a specific difference exhibited by different forms of the same metal, under the conditions of the experiment. To be sure the method of estimating the thickness from the electrical resistance was open to suspicion. Among other probable sources of error there was the possibility of having assumed a wrong value for the spe- cific resistance of the silver in this condition. It did not ap- pear to me probable that an error of about 400 per cent could be accounted for in this way, but it seemed worth while to attempt a determination of the thickness of the films*y another method. Plate (A) was taken and cleaned with aleohol to remove the particles of cement adhering to the glass and metal. The area of the silver film was roughly determined, and the plate was dried and, when cool, carefully weighed. The silver was . on a Permanent Electric Current. 179 then removed by dissolving in nitric acid, after which the glass was again dried and weighed. In addition to this the so- lution of silver was filtered and treated with hydrochloric acid. The precipitate was filtered off, and the silver reduced by burn- ing with the filter paper. The amount of silver on the glass was thus estimated in two ways. According to the weight lost by the plate the amount of silver appeared to be 4:3 mgr., while the amount obtained by the chemical process was only about 25 mgr. There are good reasons for thinking the former value too great and some reasons for thinking the latter too small. Giving the latter double weight in taking the mean we set tot2X2'5 fe) =8'1 mer. for the amount of silver in the film. The area covered by this on the glass was about 20 sq. cm. Taking the specific gravity of silver to be 10°5, we get for the thickness of the film 0031 = ————_- = 20000148 cm. 20 & 10°5 t _ This value is more than 3°6 times as large as that obtained by the resistance method. In order to make perfect accord be- tween the results obtained with the two kinds of silver plates, the thickness would need to be rather more than four times as great as that obtained by the resistance method, but consider- ing all the difficulties of the case, it seems to me that the large discrepancy still existing is within the limits of experimental error. In presenting the results of all the experiments in tab- ular form further on I shall give the results obtained with these silver films as calculated on the basis of the larger value, i. e., 0000148 cm., found for the thickness. Mention is made above of a fourth plate of silver. This was also of a very thin film, but the silver was fastened to the glass with shellac instead of being deposited from a solution. The silver was in the same state as that of the thickest plate, and the results of measurements with it accord sufficiently well with those obtained with that plate. As the resistance method was employed in estimating the thickness, it does not seem ” P worth while to publish the results obtained. Tron. _ Measurements have been made with three separate plates of iron. The first two plates were made early in the research and the quantitative results, like all others obtained at that time, are hardly reliable enough to be worth publishing. The dimensions of the third strip were as follows: 180 FE. H. Hall—New Action of Magnetism Length as weighed = 5°68 cm. Width sa cae | ae Area including projections es. 4:15,..% i on 98 grm. Thickness (taking sp. gr. = 7°79) = 00347 cm.* With this plate the following results were obtained : 2 Vt M. C. ie ae Apr. 29th, 6680 k X tan 38° 37’ et x 10° “cc cc ce cc 49° aM Mean = aa. Xx 10° PLATINUM. One strip of this metal has been used. Length as weighed = 6°32 cm. Width 2-016 Area including projections oo 1. *, , 8G: Wei ht = °457 grm. “Thickness (taking sp. gr.=22°1)= -00274 cm. With this strip only one series of observations was made and that was rather a hasty one; I found MxvV M. C. R’ Apr. 28th, 6830 k X tan 66° 2’ 417 * 10”° NICKEL. There was some difficulty in obtaining a strip of this metal of proper shape for the experiment. The piece used was ob- tained by stripping off the nickel plating from a piece of ee upon which the deposit had been purposely laid in such a m ner as to make it easy to remove. The strip thus obtained ak narrow and irregular in shape and its thickness cannot readily being, next to iron and cobalt, the most baohaly magnetic sub- stance. As already stated, this direction was found to big i * The plates of very thin rolled iron used were furnished me by land, who is hee for a sepey of the same to the courtesy of beat 5 Poe of Allegheny Observ: + It is evident that ‘the ‘values of this ratio thus obtained for iron are to so gre eat advan ntage of Riggers: easily determinable. Nickel has hardly been examine quantitatively as big , and platinum is not sufficiently magnetic to present any difficulty of this s on a Permanent Hlectric Current. 181 site to that in iron. The action in nickel, though not really measured, was seen to be very decided, and may possibly prove to be as strong as that in iron. TIN. The action in this metal is very small and has not been measured with any accuracy. Its magnitude may be 3 that of the action in gold. o other conductors have been tested in such a manner as to warrant an expectation of detecting an action. In the following table the results obtained with the different metals are brought together. Those obtained with very thin strips will be mirked thus (?) for reasons which must be evi- dent to any one who has read the preceding pages: MXV Metal Plate. M. Cc. ae Gold, No. 6 [‘ hard” ] 152 x 101° } nos @ a 6400 kxtan 23°44" 150x10" (1.1. og aot 6400 “ “ 42°14% 150x 10% i oo BS 6400° * “ 49°98” 1] g1 “No. 5 [soft or semi-cohes.]6400 “ “ 42° 267 161 x10! | 13558 6330 * “26° 2% = 163x10 | Oo. 99 Sea 6440 “ “ 99°48" 162x101 ey ae 6440 “ “ 43° 0% 164x100 “ No. 4 [" soft] 6480 “ “ 99°91% 155x 10 oe” 6420 “ 96°25’ = 155x110 | ae ao aka toe 6480 “ “ 42°16 154x10” vs a 6480 “ “ 28°43’ 154x101! ‘* No. 30 (A) [semi-cohes.?] 6520 “ “ 48°38’ 123x10" e eT ve 6600 “ * 31°30% 124x 10 11250 x 10° ‘ Bg alt 6600 “ * 40° 39% 128x101 “* . .{B)fsemi-cohes.7] 6760: ** © 68° 0%. . 139 10” 9 a we MOE 6760 “ 39° 96% 141x101 t 1400 aan ilver, No. 10 6580 “ “ 49°17% 114x10” ‘ o a 6580“ * 39°907 118x190 ¢ 1160x10 . eposited] (A 7120 “ 43°33” 134x109! : “ a 7120 “ “ 19°39 137% 1910 ¢ 1855 x 10°? ; : o $ (B) 6640 “ 47° 397 1350 x 10°? ron ( 6680 “ © 38°37” —127x 109 4 eS 6680 “ “ 46°13’ —130 {1285 x10 gaan .« «@ gg? ey 4170 x 10° Platinum Nickel—effect large, possibly as strong as in iron. Tin—effect probably much smaller than in platinum. list is placed a number representative of this magnitude. In the case of gold this number is a quantity inversely propor- tional to the mean of the results obtained with the five differ- ent plates named above. In finding the corresponding number for silver, I have, for obvious reasons, used only the result ob- tamed with the plate of No. 10. The representative number given for tin has been very roughly estimated and may be one 182 FE. H. Hatl—New Action of Magnetism or two hundred per cent larger or smaller than the true num- ber. All the numbers given must of course be taken as at best only rough approximations to the true representative numbers. We find t Tron — 78° Platinum 2°4 Silver 8°6 Tin "2 (?) Gold 6°8 This arrangement is made on the basis of defining the magni- tude of the action studied as a quantity inversely proportional M to EO If on the other hand we were to define the same as inversely proportional to , rather, EK being the difference ik of potential of two points a centimeter apart on the longitud- inal axis of the metal strip, the representative numbers wou be relatively changed. The representative numbers on this new basis may be found by Bre bs eile each of the repre- sentative numbers given above a quantity proportional to the specific electrical resistance of the metal to which the num- ber is attache We thus obtaii Tron — 80: Platinum 2°6 Silve er 57° Tin "15 (?) old 32: It will be observed that the order of arrangement remains unchanged. Platinum and tin are carried still farther from gold and silver than before, so that the range of the representative numbers is increased. It is plain, therefore, that by this second arrange- ment no progress has been made toward finding a constant representative quantity for all the metals. In dealing with the results obtained with different metals, it seems to be little { X importance whether we take as our basis 5 hg When, however, we have to do with different eae of the same metal, we see from the experiments on both gold and silver that the basis * is by far the better one. We may sum oF the matter by saying that according to present appearances: Ist, there is no ea representative quantity for all metals ; 2nd, the basis aoe quantity for ate ve of the same metal ; 3rd, the badis metal a sg tlacalaitea quantity which is approximately a con- stant. does not give a constant representative gives for different plates of the same on a Permanent Electric Current. 183 MxV EK’ not be expected to give the same result for all metals. We get the quantity V by dividing the nominal cross section of our conductor by the strength of the current. We must, however, think of a metal as not strictly continuous, but consisting of It is evident, upon consideration, that this ratio could conductors of the same nominal cross-section. It may, there- fore, be found that different specimens, of the same metal but of M x EK’ Of course the magnitude of the new action in the different metals may be considered in connection with various other physical properties of the metal beside the specific electrical resistance. One might for instance expect to find some strik- ing relation by comparing in this connection the known mag- netic or diamagnetic properties of the metals. It is indeed to be observed that the most strongly magnetic substance, iron, does show the new action in a more marked degree than the other metals, and possibly nickel will come next in the list. Here the clue is entirely lost however, for the relative magnitude of the action in gold, silver, etc., is entirely different densities, will give quite different values for se metals. It is of course possible, however, that ore present unsuspected will appear. It can hardly be doubted that the action we have been considering, placing at our com- m. e return now to the remarkable anomaly presented by the direction of the action in iron. That the direction in this metal, a magnetic substance, should be different from that in gold, a diamagnetic substance, is remarkable, but not per- haps surprising. We find, however, that nickel and platinum, both magnetic substances, resemble in the particular above mentioned, not iron, but gold, and the other diamagnetic sub- stances. This fact has to be taken into account in endeavor- lug to apply the newly discovered action to explain the mag- netic rotation of the plane of polarization in accordance with 184 Ei. H. Hall—New Action of Magnetism the principles of Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory of light. Professor Rowland, therefore, in view of this difference of iron, has, in the plate used, unmistakably the same direction. This nickel plating, however, was executed in Germany, and Professor Rowland thinks that, as the nickel of that country is very impure, this specimen may possibly contain iron enough. to mask the true action of the nickel. I have already spoken of the fact that, when a strongly mag- netic substance is experimented upon, complications are intro- duced by the influence of the induced magnetism which affects the condition of the magnetic field through which the current flows, making the value of M different from that determined by means of the test coil. It does not seem probable that in this fact can be found an explanation of the anomalous behav- the electro- magnet would be accompanied by a permanent change in the equipotential lines after the electro-magnet had to on a Permanent Electric Current. 185 tricity, on coming within the influence of the magnet, to acquire a motion of rotation about an axis parallel to the axis of the mag- net.* Under all these supposed conditions we might perhaps ex- pect to find the action which is actually detected. ‘To account for the reversal of the action in iron, we might suppose the par- nickél, as different from that of iron. The analogy, such as it is, which has been pointed out, is perhaps curious rather than significant. Historical. ' Iam not aware that investigators, during the first part of the century, made any attempt to discover the phenomenon which has been the subject of the observations described in the pre- ceding article. Wiedemann,t however, mentions two investiga- had access to the original article and cannot say what the author’s theory of the experiment may have been. The method of attacking the problem seems however to have been similar in principle, to that which I at first adopted, viz: an eavo trical current by diverting it from its normal course through the conductor. Another research in this direction mentioned by Wiedemann was that of Mach.§ This investigator covered a circular disk of silver leaf with wax and applied the poles of a battery to points diametrically opposite each other on the cireumfer- ence of the disk. The silver leaf becoming heated by the cur- Maxwell (Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii, p. 416) says, “I think we have good evidence for the opinion that some phenomenon of rotation is going on in © magnetic field, that this rotation is performed by a great number of very small portions of matter, each rotating on its own axis, this axis being parallel 186 EF. H. Hail—New Action of Magnetism, ete. rent, the wax began to melt and melted most rapidly where the current was strongest, thus roughly showing the distribu- now subjected to the action of an electro-magnet, but no change could be detected in the behavior of the melting wax, the cur- rent remaining apparently unchanged in its course through the disk. is experiment therefore, like the preceding, was negative in its indications. A recent number of the “ Beiblatter zu Wiedemann’s Anna- len” mentions, in connection with the researches of Feilitzch and Mach, another by Gore.* The latter took a wire bifur- into the other branch more than its normal share. It was thought that an unequal division of the current might show itself by a change in the appearance of the white hot branches. No change of this kind could be detected, and the investigator therefore concluded that the action known to take place be- tween conductors bearing currents, was not an action between the electric currents as such. Gore expressly states that he undertook this experiment not knowing that any previous in- vestigations with the saine aim had ever been made. On the same page of the “Galvanismus” which treats of the research of Mach, as mentioned above, Wiedemann describes, as a means of showing that no action takes place between per- manent electric currents as such, almost the exact arrangement of apparatus with which the discovery was finally made. Who first used this apparatus for this purpose I cannot say, unless it may have been Wiedemann himself. The same plan was hit upon by Professor Rowland,t+ quite independently I believe, and he experimented to some extent in this direction about the year 1876. The same arrangement was finally adopted by me after another method of attacking the problem had been unsuc- cessfully tried. I desire to express my sense of obligation to the professors and students of the physical department of the Johns Hopkins University, for the generous assistance which they have ren- dered me during the progress of this research. e Attraction of Magnets and Electric Currents,”—Phil. Mag. (4th series), vol. 48, p. 393, 1874. + Amer. Jour. of Math., vol. ii, p. 289. O. H. Koyl—Oolors of Thin Blowpipe Deposits. 187 Art. XXIII.— The Colors of Thin Blowpipe Deposits; by C. H. Korn, B.A., Student of Physics in Johns Hopkins University. SOME examples of the action of very fine particles of matter upon light, having lately come to my notice, it may be inter- esting to make them public, as they have heretofore, I believe, been unexplained. Those who are familiar with the methods of blowpipe anal- ysis have observed faint borders occasionally surrounding some of the colored charcoal coatings, the colors of these borders seemingly bearing no relation to the characteristic colors of the adjoining oxides. For instance, the white coating of antimony is generally accompanied with a blue border, the brownish oxide of cadmium occasionally with a green, while the lead and bismuth yellows not unfrequently have a whitish ring inclosing them. As these oceur only and always where the coating is very thin they have a significance different from that of the ordinary colors, and as they may be produced at pleasure from the purest specimens they cannot be due to mixtures of the metals. A possible analogy with the antimony blue was suggested by a consideration of the colors of the sky, and to prove the connection it was simply necessary to show the similarity of attendant phenomena. As is well known, it is believed that the blue of the sky is due to the presence in the atmosphere of suspended particles, so fine that they are unable to reflect the longer rays of the spectrum which accord- ingly are transmitted and the union of the remainder gives to the sky its blueness. At evening, the sky is red because we get the rays of the sun directly transmitted or reflected from the clouds. Thirdly, the light of the sky, reflected at an angle of 90° with the sun, is plane polarized. ; When an antimony coating had been produced which gave, beyond the white oxide, a blue well defined and full, the whole was illuminated in a dark room by a sodium flame and that the blueness was no psychical or physiological effect as distin- guished from ordinary vision was proved by the fact that here it almost completely vanished while the white presented the usual ghastly appeardnce. A blue book-cover, treated in the same manner, gave more reflection than did the blue coating. Experiments with the polariscope were at first inconclusive from the fact that though the light from the blue coating was largely polarized, so, to some extent, was also that irregularly reflected from the charcoal, and it was found necessary to cover the block with a thin layer of carbon from a gas-flame. The . 188 C. H. Koyl— Colors of Thin Blowpipe Deposits. repetition of the test then showed that the proportion of light polarized by the layer of carbon, at the given angle, was almost nothing; that by the thick white coating, small; while on the blue the phenomenon was almost complete. What light here was not polarized was evidently reflected from the larger parti- cles mixed with the fine, for the analyzer, while it did not totally extinguish the light, yet excluded nearly all appearance of blueness. In order to determine the character of the transmitted light, a microscope covering-glass was inlaid in the charcoal and the oxidation so executed that the glass was in the center of a small area all of which was blue. On removing the glass, the light which passed through, proved to be of the expected yellow, though less brilliant than anticipated. The color might be seen either by transmitting the direct light of the sun or by placing the glass at such an angle that total reflection was produced and thus in the passage of the rays through the layer to the glass and out through the layer to the eye the blue was principally lost and only the mixture of longer rays appeared. Viewed through a microscope, the result was the’ same. I have since, however, improved upon this plan by the more convenient method of covering with carbon a piece of ordinary window-glass, three inches by two, and then project- ing the oxide upon the opposite surface of the plate. There is thus no difficulty in distinguishing a very slight amount of color in the coating and for transmitted light, any portion of the carbon may be easily removed. color (dark red) through yellow into a fine green. As before, the light reflected from the thin layers is highly polarized and the rays which pass through form a deep, dark red. In excep- tional cases, it is possible to produce such a thin coating that the extreme edge is fringed with a faint blue. Sse is lel nig CR a la ea M. M. Garver— Voluntary Nervous Action, etc. 189 The other case, lead, is now easily explained. This metal gives a coating of which the color is a beautiful chrome yellow, and regarding this merely as a repetition of the preced- ing phenomenon and the yellow as compounded of rays from the whole range of the spectrum but not in the proper propor- tion to form white, the line of thought suggested evidently is, that if*the layer be decreased in thickness regularly from the center to the circumference of the charcoal, there ought to be, at some distance from the centre, a zone within which sufficient red should be transmitted to equalize the amount of blue lost by absorption and the reflected rays should form a yellowish white. Beyond this, as the thickness of layer still decreased, the color should be blue for the same reason as in the case of antimony. The white zone is easily produced and the blue border, which always surrounds it, polarizes the light as before and transmits orange colored rays. e theory, once given, serves to explain nearly all the anomalous colorings of the charcoal coatings ;—the bluish a change in reflecting power could have been produced by so small a change in size and thickness. Baltimore, Md., July 9, 1880. Arr. XXIV.—The Periodic Character of Voluntary Nervous Action; by M. M. GARVER. In the June number of this Journal for 1878 (No. 90, vol. XV, 18-422), in an article on Nervous Transmission, I 190 M. M. Garver—Periodic Character that the expression “think twice” is literally true, and tha the variation 7s entirely cerebral.” The matter can probably be best presented in the form of an hypothesis, supporting it by what proofs may be at hand. The hypothesis is this: ae cerebral portion of the nervous system is continually rying in its activity, waxing and waning between ‘certain fimita, periods of maximum activity following periods of mini- mum activity at the rate of 86 to 60 times per secon The first proof in support of this view is that it offers a to which attention was called in the preceding article. For, if voluntary movements must also be periodic in character—it being impossible, according to the hypothesis, for a voluntary impulse to originate during a period of minimum activity or rest. The fact that the periods are not more sharply defined is not conclusive proof of the non-existence of such cerebral variations, for there is evidence to show that the periods are omewhat variable in different individuals, and in the same individual under different circumstances. For instance, it is generally conceded that the — does not work so well after a hearty meal as before. Here are two series of experiments, one of — was taken pimadately before dinner, the other soon a Garver, “hand to hand.” BEFORE DINNER. 16 it 18 19 20 21 22 23 vib. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 16 17 18 19 20 2] 16 7 18 19 21 17 19 21 17 19 21 19 _ The numbers below the line are the answers to the signals and show the time expressed in etal of the tuning-fork, one vibration being equal to ;4, of asecond. An evident preference 3 is shown for the numbers 17, 19, “OL. Garver, “hand to hand.” FTER DINNER. 1G. 30 30 10 20 2b ge ao. 2k 2b 62 2T 88.29 vib. 16 15 13 ke 200 2k Us oe A 25 86. 8 it 28 19 "20° 21 23 26 29 18 19 20 23 18 19 20 23 18 219. 26 18 29 20 19 of Voluntary Nervous Action. 191 Besides these numbers there were many failures, in the last series, to answer at all. This last series differs in one respect from many others. The periods are not all of the same length; and if this should prove to be a rule and not an exception a modification of the hypothesis would be necessary. At present I am inclined to regard it as accidental, as it is opposed to so many well-defined examples. The periods after dinner are seen to be lengthened and the whole series drawn out. at the grouping is not due to the nerves themselves is shown by the fact that the nerves of animals recently kill transmit the motor impulse with perfect regularity ; and also by the fact that, in the living subject, nerves excited by artifi- = means transmit the motor impulse with the same regu- arity. 2d. The muscles, in order to remain in sound health, must have periods of rest alternating with periods of activity. Even the heart, that keeps the blood in ceaseless motion from the earliest dawn of our independent existence till the last closing act in life’s drama, rests about one-half the entire time; and it certainly appears reasonable to suppose that the brain also has its periods of rest. Besides this, it is an established physio- logical fact that a muscle during contraction is in a state of vibration, giving out a continuous sound like a musical tone. According to Helmholtz* the pitch of the fundamental ton vibration varies somewhat, but Helmholtz and two other _ 3d. All of the simple mental or psychological processes, the time of which has been measured (and many such measure- ments have been made), require a longer interval of time than that shown by experiment to pass between two maxima and minima, This fact is regarded as specially significant, for, if such waxing and waning of nervous activity exists, the sim- : Helmholtz, Ueber das Muskelgerausch; Reichert u. du Bois Raymond’s Ar- chiv fiir Anatomie, 1864, p. 766. Foster, Text-book of Physiology, 2d edition, p. 56. 192 M. M. Garver— Periodic Character plest possible element of thought would probably — wi least one period of maximum activity, ae more processes would require two, three, or e higher ia / of that number. According to pe perannts by Burekhardt,* Professor Donders, and many — the time soe og by an intelligent person to perceive and to will is about 51, of a second. ‘To illustrate, take an pe al from Burekhardt.* After allowing for the time required to traverse all of the nerves and for the latent period of the muscles, there still remains about of a second for the cerebral operations. When the signal was “> by a bell and the answer require a movement of t , the percentage of the time required for the different speniions was found to be as follows: Acoustic 6 per cent. Brain 62.“ Spinal cord 4 ‘i ervou smission 92 tk Latent period of muscles Can he mean value for the time required from “ear to hand” was 0°169”, of which 0°105” or sixty-two per cent was taken up by the mental operation involved. From this it will be seen that “quick as thought” is after all not so very quick. Similar results were obtained by — r.¢ In our experiments (see pine nen ene for June, 1878, p. 4 16), the “reaction period” from ear to hand varied from 071327” to 01651’. The latter atin is my own ‘reaction period ;” and if sixty per cent of the time was consumed in the cerebral operation it takes zy of a second for me to perceive and w The foregoing results were shintaad by answering to an eXx- pected and known signal; however, if a dilemma is introduced, offering a choice, the time required i is considerably lengthened, and the lengthening is greater as the mental Lapiaaees are more complex. Professor Donders{ made some experiments in which the answer was required by the left ees when the psychological processes involved. That is, it took of a second longer than if the signal was ao given in the same ue and sie aaa the same ans By poner three ed Soe Die Gai cleueiniathe Diagnostik der Nervenkrankheiten, Leipzig, 1875 + See Foster s bri derse 6 p. 5 ¢ Donder; ete pi sbbechiiy Processe; Reichert und du Bois Ray- mond’s peti: 1868, p. 6 of Voluntary Nervous Action. 193 plain our appreciation of continuous sounds, as a musical tone ; if the vibrations occur at a less rapid rate than that they are recognized as separate sounds,—if at a higher rate as continu- s tones. 4th. It is maintained by some writers upon purely meta- sciousness. is pulsation or vibration is, of course, very rapid ; otherwise, we should not have to infer its existence, but would know it by perceiving the alternation of one state with another. We may make it to some extent perceptible, as well as of vision, and during brief intervals not only does the object cease to be visible, but the mind seems to go out.” Dr. Spence may object to my “hypothesis” as a “ premature theory ;” however, his words express quite clearly my views, and seem to accord well with the facts in the case. Ithaca, N. ¥., July 1st, 1880. pine ae Hy ores Reopens considered as Negations, Journal of ssa hemes pose. Vou, XX, No. 117.—Sxpr., 1880. 194 J. D. Dana—Geological Relations of the Art. XX V.— Geological Relations of the Limestone Belts of West- chester County, New York; by JAMES D. DANA. [Continued from page 32.] (4.) Hornblendic, Augitic, and other associated Rocks not in- cluded in the preceding subdivisions. Tur hornblendic and associated rocks referred to in the above title cover a large part of the township of Cortland— the northwestern of Westchester County — between Croton River on the south, and the parallel of Peekskill on the north, an area of about 25 square miles. They differ widely from the ordinary rocks of the county, and may well be des- ignated the Cortland series. In fact, a series so remarkable in constitution, so diversified in kinds and so full of geological interest is seldom found together within so small an area any — where on the globe. They reach the banks of the Hudson just south of the Peekskill railroad station, and at several points beyond; yet considerable portions of the shore region are occupied by narrow strips of common kinds of mica schist and gneiss, and occasionally limestone. Leaving Peekskill by South street, near the river, the first ledges (north and south of Hudson street, 4, on the following map), consist of one of the rocks of the series; and to the eastward of the village, on the road leading southeast, only half a mile from the Acad- “ = : oo Lower Friable reddish sandstones gassing into more com- a Aubry. pact and massive beds below. A few filets of im- EA 1455 feet. | pure limestone are intercalated. fy & = <4 =) Red Wall Arenaceous and cherty limestone 235 feet, with Limestone. massive limestone beneath. Cherty layers, coincident 970 feet. with the bedding, in the lower portion. PLANE OF BY EROSION. Devonian. : : 100 feet. Sandstones and impure limestones. PLANE OF UNCONFORMITY BY EROSION. 3 = Massive mottled limestone with 50 feet of sandstone = 235 feet. at the base. 2 F % Tonto Thin-bedded mottled limestone in massive layers. E Primordial. Green arenaceous and micaceous shales 100 feet, at bes 550 feet. the base. Entire thickness of Paleozoic, 5000 feet. Paleozoic Groups of Arizona. 223 reddish-brown gypsiferous marl that becomes more arenaceous below, finally passing into a sandstone that rests on the choco- ate and cream-colored limestone Dene This kee suffered Ba es is a sue i the Upper Aubry group. A hes plane of erosion with an ene change in the character of the rock separates the two g The Permo- OP ie of Mr. G. K. Gilbert* is the same as my lower division of the Permian. It is placed as a subdi- vision of the group, now that the beds above are known to be of Permian age. The stratigraphy of the section shows a group separable into two divisions, defined above and below by planes of unconform- ity by erosion and a decided change in the character -of the es from those of the subjacent and superjacent formations. There is no physical break in the beds above the Permian lime- stone of the upper division before the conglomerate is reached. This stratigraphical arrangement is sustained by the evidence of the fauna found in the limestones and associated arenaceous layers in the upper division. “The genera Myalina, Schizodus, Nucula, Aviculopecten, Murchi- sonia, Naticopsis and Goniatites are represented in the lower chocolate-colored limestone. The fauna is distinct in specific character from that of the Carboniferous groups beneath, oe more intimately related to that of the fossiliferous beds of t pper Permian division. Mr. G. K. Gilbert obtained from ce same horizon Pleur oto Schizodus and Bakevellia a group of shells, as he states, suggesting the Permo-carboniferous of the Mississippi Valley.t Twenty-three genera Teprenenies by wut four species com- prise el fauna of the upper division. Of these the basa have strong Paleozoic relations: Scolithus ——?, Lingula my andes Discina nitida, Orthis ?, Rhynchonella Uta, pe eee » Nucula, 2 species, Aviculopecten, 3 species, Myalina, 4 ne Nulconea.. 2 species, Pleurotomaria ——?, ‘Maer ocheilus ?, Cyrtoceras ?, Gontatites ?, and Nautilus 2. The Permian character of the fauna is more marked by the presence of Plewrophorus, 8 species, Schizodus ?, 3 species of Bakevellia including B. parva, Pteria tilus ?, Uss00 ?, and the still more gene Mesozoic genera Pen- 2. tacrinus and Pi ‘Lleol e Pentacrinus plates were discovered by Mr. Edwin E. * Wheeler Survey, West of the Borg sce iii, p. 177, 1875. Also, see Arch. R. agit d s Report in same, + Ibid. ep p. 2 224 =C. D. Walcott— Permian, ete. Groups of Arizona. Howell, oat the Shinarump conglomerate in Southwestern ah. y belong to a species distinct from P. asteriscus of the Fucraceh Three species are now known to pass from the lower division to the limestone of the upper division. mian character of the fauna, taken with the evidence afforded by the stratigraphy, clearly establishes the Permian as a well-defined and distinct group in the Colorado Valley. It occurs at the same horizon as the Permian determined by Mr. Clarence King in Northern Dia, Western Colorado, a South- ern Wyoming, fully corroborating the views advance him of the age of the beds resting on the “ Bellerophon wadk ” of the Upper Carboniferous.* The Permian as found in the Kanab section undoubtedly extends to the west, east and southeast in Arizona and New Mexico.t Mr. Jules Marcou referred the beds resting on the Carbonif- erous at the crossing of the Little Colorado to the Permian. He says:}t ‘This formation, which is placed between the Car- boniferous and the T'rias, corresponds without doubt, to the magnesian limestone [Permian] of England.” The proof of this was entirely stratigraphical, but Mr. Marvin’s discovery of Per- mo-carboniferous fossils at the same horizon and locality, and on the same horizon of those obtained by Mr. Gilbert, which are known to have come from the lower division of the Per- mian, as given in the present note, tends to prove that Mr. Marcou was correct in his original reference of the beds he mentioned to the Permian and entitles him to the claim he as- serts of adding a new member to the sites of secondary rocks in North America, although, pe ane! ne includes a portion of the Upper Aubry group in his Per is of the Coal-measure type, except near the base, where there is an assemblage of forms uniting a few coal-measure species me a much larger proportion of a Lower Carboniferous char- acte The Carboniferous rests on the sonra erate surface of the Devonian formation. The Devonian beds very variable in character, and of little vertical eis At Massie greatest devel- opment, when increased by being deposited i in a hollow of the limestone beneath, there is but 100 feet of purple and cream- colored limestone and sandstone passing into gray calciferous sandstone above. Over the knolls of Silurian limestone the * ee of the 40th Parallel, i, pp. 245, 246, and atlas maps of the Newberry, Shumard, Gilbert, Marvin and Howell all. “ information of this horizon. t Pacific R. R. Report III, pt. iv. Resumé, p. 170. D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. 225 upper beds alone extend with a thickness of from10 to 30 feet. The purple sandstones deposited in the hollows of the Silurian limestone are characterized by the presence of Placoganoid fishes of a Devonian type. The Silurian limestone was exten- sively eroded antecedent to the deposition of the superjacent Devonian beds. Hollows 80 feet deep are seen that were worn in the evenly bedded strata. The upper 235 feet may belong to about the time of the Carboniferous group. The 450 feet of mottled limestone and 100 feet of arenaceous, micaceous shales is shown to be of Primordial age by the presence of Lin- gulepis prima, Conocephalites and Bathyurus in the upper portion, and Hyohthes primordialis, Lingulepis, Crepicepalus, and the species found above in the ‘lower beds. he missing Silurian groups may not have been deposited in this region, or, what is quite probable, their representatives were removed in the period of erosion that followed the close of the Silurian time, and has left traces of its action in the hol- lows oe irregular surface over which the Devonian beds were sprea ArT. XXVITL.— Preliminary Account of a Shiocaiihiioe and Practical Search for a Trans- se rami Snes y Dek, Topp, M.A., Assistant Nautical Almana Introductory and Historical. THE suggested probability, on scientific sartteae e oes there revolves about the sun a second planet exterior to t it of ranus, is not new. So early as 1834, when the doemven astronomers of the day were by no means settled in their con- victions that even the ‘greater portion of the then rapidly in- creasing residuals in the longitude of Uranus was due to the perturbing action of a single exterior planet, Hansen is credited with expression of the opinion, in correspondence with the elder Bouvard, that a single planet would not account for the differences between theory and observation.* Dr. Gould, how- ever, in his Report on the History of the Discovery of Neptune,+ says, “I have the authority of that eminent astronomer himself [Hansen] for stating, that the assertion must have been founded expressed or entertained that belief.” Professor Peirce’s criti- cism of the ‘investigations of LeVerrier, to the effect that his predicted orbit of Neptune was so widely discordant from its * Memoirs Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xvi, p. 388. Published by the Smithsonian Institution, 1850, Am. Jour, Sct. oo eee Vou. XX, No. 117.—Sxpr., 1880, 226 D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. observed orbit as to indicate that his computations did not per- tain to the actual disturbing planet, elicited from him the reply that the perturbations of Uranus due to a possible planet exte- rior to Neptune might readily cause an uncertainty of 5’-to 7” in the fundamental data of his researc In 1866, the Smithsonian Institution published the general tables of Neptune, by Professor Newcomb. In the investiga- tion of its orbit the author proposed: “3. To i xiao whether those motions [of Neptune] indicate _ action of an extra- Neptunian planet, or throw any light on the question of the existence of such a planet.” He iemais (page 73) that it is “almost vain to hope for the detection of an extra-Neptunian planet from the motions of Neptune before the close of the present centur In 1873, the Smithsonian cae Sra the general tables of Uranus, is Siegen weomb. His success in the b known, ae me that since the ibeaticn of these tables the error of longitude has been on the negative increase, and the latest observations place the planet increasingly more in ad- vance of its theoretic position. Sometime in the spring of 1874, the first preliminary outline of the very simple method which 'T have here employed in the treatment of planetary residuals with reference to exterior per- turbation, suggested itself to me. For more than three years, very little opportunity offered for consideration of the problem of a trans-neptunian planet, and I gave it merely desultory attention. In August, 1877, however, 1 began to devote the arger portion of my leisure time to the theoretic side of the question. It was soon evident that no certain hold upon any possible cause of exterior pres eo could be obtained from the residuals of Newcomb’s tables. An may remark here that I have consequently éhowen the term speculative rather than theoretic as applying more fitly to the investigation which preceded the actu 5 ialioicess search. The Speculative Search. While the magnificent researches of LeVerrier and Adams on the perturbations of Uranus are masterpieces of analytic skill, I felt that they should a be taken as models in the present investigation—for two (1) The residuals of ibaitude which must form the basis of D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. 227 the investigation are not sufficiently well marked to justify the execution of so laborious a research, especially if it be found that a simple, rational treatment, unencumbered with the re- finements of analysis, may be fairly interpreted as indicating the position of an exterior perturbing body with merely a rough approximation. (2) Even in the case of Uranus, and the theoretic search for Neptune, where the residuals of longitude were very strongly marked, many of the elements pertaining to the disturbing planet which Adams and LeVerrier sought to determine theo- retically, turned out afterward, when their real values became known, to have been indicated with only meagre precision. Much less should we now expect these elements to be given with any certainty in the case of a planet exterior to Neptune. I was also much impressed by a remark in Sir George Airy’s Account of some Circumstances historically connected with the Discovery of the Planet exterior to Uranus—“T have always considered the correctness of a distant mathematical result to e a subject rather of moral than of mathematical evidence.”* This provisional treatment of the residuals of Uranus was undertaken, then, as a preliminary to the proposed telescopic search, to determine whether that search was worth undertak- ing; and, if so, at what point, approximately, it was best to begin. I should remark, also, that this portion of the work, as an investigation to these ends, was never undertaken with reference to publication. —Let us now consider, seriatim, the errors of the elements 1) The error of mean distance of the perturbed planet.—Any error of radius vector enters very largely into the residuals of heliocentric longitude, if the observations are made at any con- siderable interval from the planet’s opposition. If it 1s sus- pected that the error of radius vector will vitiate the residuals of longitude, we may avoid its effect by passing to residuals of geocentric longitude. Or, we may confine our research to the mean residuals of observations near the opposition-points, and symmetrically placed with reference thereto. e effect of erroneous radius vector is thereby eliminated. * Memoirs Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xvi, p. 398. 228 DD. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. (2) The error of periodic time of the perturbed planet.—f the residuals are examined graphically, the eye will readily detect whether any correction to the aes time is advisable. If, in general, the mean line of the residuals is nearly a right line, and makes a given angle with the line of zero-residual, it may fairly be concluded that the residuals need a correction depending directly on the time, the magnitude of the coéfficient f which is indicated by the divergence of the two residual- lin TI had considered the problem only thus far when it occurred to me to apply the method, only partially developed, to the determination of an 2a position of Neptune from the residuals of Bouvard’s f Uranus, published in 1821. Taking also the aideati: pare observations up to 1824, and not permitting myself a knowledge of the longitude of Nep- tune at any epoch, a very little labor gave me an approximate position of the distarbing planet from which, it now appears, Neptune might easily have been found some twenty years in advance of its actual discover When my work had advanced to this stage, a mere chance threw in my way a copy of Sir John Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy, (which I had never before examined): I at once observed that my treatment of the residuals of Uranus with reference to a planet exterior to Neptune was quite similar to his “dynamical” exposition of the perturbations of Uranus arising from Neptune itself. And I was further gratified to ' find that he had given a very full and lucid statement of the effect upon the longitude-residuals caused by errors of the third and fourth elements of the perturbed planet—the error of eccentricity, and the error of longitude of perihelion. I there- fore adopted, without hesitation, the continuance of the graph- ical method therein detailed ; and shall do no more here than to refer to the pages o Herschel’s treatise where these ele- ments are = with. 3) or of eccentricity of the perturbed planet.—(See Sir 7 Herichal's Outlines of Astronomy, page 536. id, The he of longitude of perthelion of the perturbed planet.— peice page 537.) hen the longitude-residuals have been corrected in this manner, we proceed on the assumption that any outstanding residuals are due to unexplained exterior perturbation. IL.—Of the seven elements of the disturbing planet, we must assume a value of one: the values of three others, together with the mass of the disturbing planet, we may consider as theoretically determinable from the longitude-residuals them- selves (1) ‘The mean distance of the disturbing planet.—Regarding D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. 229 the next order of distance beyond Neptune as occupied by the planet for which we are searching, I assumed, as a first value f mean distance, a=46°0: this value seemed to be indicated by a fair induction. The periodic time of the planet would Adams (first hypothesis) -....--.------- 0°16103 LOV erties! i 2555 2: POOR PS ee Ore Adams (second hypothesis) .....-------- 0120615 The eccentricity given by investigation of the orbit of Nep- tune from observations of the planet was: Newcomb ( Tables of Neptune) .---. .--- 00089903 We should, therefore, expect nothing of any attempt to arrive at the eccentricity of an orbit exterior to that of Nep- une. (3) The longitude of perihelion of the disturbing planet.— Much the same remark obtains in reference to this element. The several values of longitude of perihelion of Neptune, ae from the researches on perturbations of Uranus, are as ollow : Adams (first hypothesis) ....-..------- 315° 57’ LiON OPIGE on an ace pee es ten 284° 45’ Adams (second hypothesis) ...-...------ 299° 11’ The longitude of perihelion given by observations of the planet is: Newcomb (Tubles of Neptune) .----- 46° 6’ 39'°7 Evidently it would not be wise to include this element in the investigation. : e epoch of the disturbing planet.—If we can obtain even a rough approximation to the value of this element, the end of the investigation is fully attained. An inspection of the outstanding residuals, graphically exhibited, will show. without further labor, the epochs of maximum disturbance. The best that can be done will be to prepare an approximate perturbative curve, the epochs of maximum disturbance of which shall be in harmony with the assumption of mean dis- tance of the exterior planet. By applying this to the plot of outstanding residuals, we may decide at what points the appli- 230 D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. Adams (first hypothesis) 0°0001656 09 LeVerrier 00001075 ato0 Adams (second hypothesis) 0°00015003 ee While the most reliable mass of Neptune from observation is: Newcomb (motion of the satellite) 0.00005160 totsy We have thus reduced the inverse problem of perturbation to a very simple, rational form. The residuals of longitude of - Uranus were next treated in accordance with this method. In his Investigation of the Orbit of Uranus, Newcomb presents three series of residuals: the mass of Neptune finally adopted in the tables, ;54,y, corresponds very nearly to the mean o the first and third series. But the mass of Neptune which was employed in this investigation is that given by Newcomb’s discussion of the motion of the satellite of Neptune, and is : first step; then, was to correct these mean residuals into accordance with this adopted mass. The follow- ing table presents the date, the mean residuals, the correction for mass, and the corrected mean residuals. Date. $(Ail+ Asi). Mass-correction. 2. 1691.0 —11’" +3" —8" 1715.2 — 8.5 +19 —6.6 1751.1 + 2.8 —0.7 + 2.1 1769.0 — 1.5 +1.5 0.0 1783.3 — 0.17 + 2.58 +2.41 1790.0 + 0.76 +2.27 + 3.03 1795.0 — 0.36 +1.73 +1.37 1802.0 — 1.06 +0°72 —0 1806.5 — 0.86 +0.09 0.77 1810.5 — 0.21 — 0.32 —0.53 1814.5 — 0.32 64 --0.96 1819.5 — 0.37 —0.79 —1.16 1824.8 + 1.45 —0.79 + 0.66 1829.7 + 0.86 —0.76 +0.10 1835.2 — 0.37 —0.77 —1.1 1839.8 — 0.33 — 0.82 —1.15 1844. — 0.02 —0.93 0.95 1849.9 — 0.37 —1.08 —1.45 1854.9 — 0.25 —1.20 —1.45 1860.0 — 0.14 1.2% 1.41 1865.0 + 0.49 —1.24 —0.75 1870.0 + 0.12 1.05 —0.93 D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. 231 The numbers, then, in the column 2, taken’ in connection estimated to be, roughly, 10°. This result was reached on the morning of the 10th of October, 1877. During the few days Exrrerior Pianetr.—Longitude (1877°84), 170° + 10° Mean distance from the sun, 52° Period of revolution about the sun, 375 yrs. Mean daily motion, 9”°46 Angular diameter, 2”°1 Stellar magnitude, 13+ Longitude of ascending node, 103° Inclination of orbit to ecliptic, 1° 24’ To the determination of the four latter results I shall allude The Practical Search. I should never have been able to execute the telescopic search consequent upon the investigation just related, had it not been for the courteous offices of Rear Admiral Rodgers, 232 D. P. Todd—wsearch for a Trans-neptunian Planet. Superintendent of the Naval Observatory, and Professor Hall, in charge of the great refractor. It was with this instruament— the 26-inch equatorial—that the search was conducted, begin- ning on the night of the 8d of November, 1877. It seemed to me that I should begin the search at a point about 20° preced- ing that indicated as the most probable position of the planet, and continue it to a point following by the same distance. But a careful search extending over a zone of this length, and of sufficient width to be certain to contain the supposable arrive at no successful result from the search of this limited zone. I may remark that the detailed plan of the instrumental light with the appearance of an average star of about the thirteenth magnitude. I considered tection of a disk of this diameter: in the actual search, a power of 600 was often employed, but most of the search was conducted with a power of 400 diameters. On thirty clear, moonless nights, between the 8d of Novem- ber, 1877, and the 5th of March, 1878, this search was carried on after the manner I have indicated. D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. 238 ] pected objects. On the succeeding night of observation these objects were re-observed: and, at an interval of several weeks thereafter, the observation was again verified. t 3 A. M., the h of March, 1878, the search was discontinued—my observ- ing-book ends with the following note ‘The adopted plane of orbit of trans-neptunian planet is now searched (without break) from = 1456's to v = 186°°1.” I have much confidence in this telescopic search—my aim was to sweep the zone so carefully that there should be no pressing need of duplicating it. If a trans-neptunian planet of an apparent diameter, so great as 2’ is ever discovered, I shall be much surprised if it is found that it must have eluded my search. ery soon after the termination of this search, I received the new tables of Uranus, by the late LeVerrier.* I at once in- stituted a treatment of the residuals of these tables after the method employed with those of Newcomb. I merely mention here that I reached a result entirely confirmatory to that pre- viously obtained. The residuals were first reduced to New- comb’s mass of Neptune. T ought not to conclude this paper without adverting to the apparently long delay of its publication. From the very be- earlier realization—it seeming improbable that any sie chance- i Aft rch. with the residuals of Uranus only in the hope of a possible Shortening of the search by some indication that the * Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris, Mémoires, vol. xiv. 234 D. P. Todd—Search for a Trans-neptunian Planet. planet was more probably in one portion of the -heavens than in another. After the telescopic search which I was conduct- ing had been temporarily brought to an end, by circumstances beyond my control, I was not without hope of effecting some arrangement whereby I might resume the search at an early day, and carry it to a satisfying conclusion. After much thought upon the apathetic reception with which the magnifi- cent researches of Adams and LeVerrier had met, I reached the conclusion that no competent observer would be led to continue the search through knowledge of the little work of speculation that I had done. And, as the work was undertaken with the end always in view of finding the planet, I saw no good to Professor Forbes’ paper, will not appreciably destroy the repre- sentation of the residuals with which I have dealt. I have not et been able to convince myself that the remarkable harmony of the results of the two investigations is simply a chance agree- ment; and, with the hope that the accumulated evidence of the existence of a far exterior planet may not fail to incite some ob- server in possession of sufficiently powerful telescopic means to a vigorous prosecution of the search, I have prepared this pre- liminary paper in order that attention may be called to the matter in sufficient advance of the now approaching opposition- ime. may add here that, should a careful and protracted search of the region adjacent to the indicated longitude prove unavailing, no more certain test of the existence of a trans- neptunian planet admits of application within the next few years than that of telescopic search of a limited zone extending entirely around the heavens—a search which I have been hop- ing, for more than two years past, for an opportunity to under- take, but which I see no present prospect of realizing. Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, August 4, 1880. 0. C. Marsh—New Orders of Jurassic Mammals. 235 Arr. XX VIUT.—WNotice of Jurassic Mammals representing two New Orders ; by O. C. MARSH. found, and others are different from any now known. is new material is all from the Atlantosaurus beds, in essentially the same horizon which furnished the earlier speci- mens. The general resemblance of the American forms to those from the Purbeck of England becomes still more evident in the remains here described. , Diplocynodon victor, gen. et sp. nov. One of the largest mammals yet discovered in the Jurassic beds of this country or of Europe is represented by various remains of several individuals, found in the same locality. The most characteristic of these specimens is a right lower jaw, with most of the teeth in position, and well preserved. The general characters of this jaw are well shown in the figure below. Ls Right lower jaw of Diplocynodon victor, Marsh. Outside view; twice natural size. a, incisor, b, condyle; c, coronoid process: d, angle. This jaw is quite distinct from anything hitherto described, and exhibits several characters of special interest. re were at least three incisors, directed well forward. The canine is very large, and is inserted by two fangs. This important fact has suggested the name of the genus. The molar series con- s : J by six premolars. The second of these is smaller than t and the others gradually increase in size. The last true molar was smaller than the others) The crowns of these teeth are * This Journal, vol. xv, p. 459, 1878; vol. xviii, pp. 60, 215 anf 396. 1879. 236 O. C. Marsh—New Orders of Jurassic Mammals. composed of a main external cone, with a small elevated lobe in front, and a lower one behind. This is repeated on a re- duced scale on the inner side, except that the posterior small cusp is rudimentary or wanting. The antero-posterior faces of the crown are deeply excavated, and grooved. ‘There is no cingulum. The jaw is elongate, and gently curved below. The coro- noid process is large and elevated. The condyle is placed very low, nearly on a line with the teeth. The angle of the jaw is produced into a distinct process, the lower margin of which bends outward, although the process asa whole has a slight es eel. The outer face and the sides of the upper molars are deeply sculptured with irregular grooves. Stylacodon validus, sp. nov. Since the discovery of the type of this genus,* two other allied specimens have been brought to light, one of which, also a lower jaw, proves to be new. This indicates a species much larger than the one first described, but apparently belonging to the same genus. e molar teeth in this jaw are inserted by a single fang. The anterior premolars preserved have each jaw. They have one main external cone and three inner cusps, thus agreeing in general form with the molars of Dryolestes. The mylohyoid groove is distinct, and continues forward nearly to the symphysis. Some of the dimensions of this specimen are as follows : Space occupied by eight anterior molar teeth,... 10°0"" Depth of jaw below first lower premolar, -- ---- - 3°0 Depth of jaw below fourth premolar, ---.---- -- BS Height of crown of fourth premolar, ---- .--- - aeeVE Tinodon ferox, sp. nov. *This Journal, xviii, p. 60, July, 1879. O. C. Marsh—New Orders of Jurassic Mammals. 237 penultimate molar has four distinct cones instead of three. The canine was large, and directed well forward. The coronoid process is large, and inclined backward. The mylohyoid groove is nearly parallel with the lower margin of the jaw, and extends forward to the symphysis. The latter is large, an elongate. The main measurements of this specimen are as follows: Extent of lower molar series, ......-...--..--.. 14™™ Space occupied by premolars, ._--..--.---- his do Fa of jaw: below: cani@yces: asade- 3 - vs 3.0 Depth of jaw below last premolar, .--.-.------- 3°5 Depth of jaw below last molar, -.----.-..-.-.- 4°0 Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate molar,. 3-0 Heiphit of erewnpucs ois ieee adi. gi iz 2°5 Triconodon bisulcus, sp. nov. Space occupied by three last molars,....-........ 8-0™™ Antero-posterior extent of last molar, .... ...._._- 2°0 Depth of jaw below last molar, ................. 40 Antero-posterior extent of penultimate molar,.._.. 2°5 EADS 0 OW a ee Depth of jaw below last premolar, ..........._-- 30 Dryolestes obtusus, sp. nov. Additional specimens of Dryolestes show that this genus possessed a peculiar dentition. There were no less than twelve teeth in the lower jaw behind the canine, and at least eleven in same series above. The upper molars had three external cones and one inner cusp, and this order was reversed in the lower molars. There was no cingulum above or below. The canines were small. The specimen on which the present species is based is a left upper Jaw, with the molar series nearly complete. The crowns 238 0. C. Marsh—New Orders of Jurassic Mammals. of the true molars differ from those in typical specimens of Dryolestes in having the cusps blunted, making the crowns un- usually short. Another important difference is that the tooth which may be regarded as the last premolar is so much larger than the rest of the series that it projects far beyond them. The line of the true molars is much curved outward. Some of the dimensions of this upper jaw are as follows: Space occupied by eleven posterior teeth,..---.- 12°0"" Extent of seven posterior teeth,......------.-- 8°0 Projection of last upper premolar from jaw, ---- 270 Ctenacodon serratus, Marsh. Additional remains of this interesting form have made clear some points in the structure of the lower jaw which the type specimen did not show.* The left lower jaw, represented in gure 2, agrees so closely with that specimen in size and gen- eral features, that it must be referred to the same species. ‘The ortion is very short, and nearly round. The inlet of the dental preserved are manifestly low generalized forms, without any distinctive Marsupial characters. Not a few of them show * This Journal, vol. xviii, p. 396, Nov., 1879. O. C. Marsh—New Orders of Jurassic Mammals. 289 features that point more directly to Insectivores, and present evidence, based on specimens alone, would transfer them to the latter group, if they are to be retained in any modern order. This, however, has not yet been systematically attempted, and the known facts are against it. j In view of this uncertainty, it seems more in accordance with the present state of science, to recognize the importance of the generalized characters of these early mammals as at least of ordinal value, rather than attempt to measure them by special- ized features of modern types, with which they have little real affinity. With the exception of avery few aberrant forms, the known Mesozoic mammals may be placed in a single order, which may appropriately be named Pantotheria. Some of the more important characters of this group would be as follows: (1.) Cerebral hemispheres smooth. (2.) Teeth exceeding, or equalling, the normal number, 44. (3.) Premolars and molars imperfectly differentiated. (4.) Canine teeth with bifid or grooved fangs. (5.) Rami of lower jaw unankylosed at symphysis. (6.) Mylohyoid groove distinct on inside of lower jaws. (7.) Angle of lower jaw without distinct inflection. (8.) Condyle of lower jaw near or below horizon of teeth. (9.) Condyle vertical or round, not transverse. The generalized members of this order were doubtless the forms from which the modern specialized Insectivores 4nd Marsupials, at least, were derived. Another order of Mesozoic mammals is evidently represented by Plagiaulax, the allied genus Ctenacodon, and possibly one or two other genera. These are all highly specialized aberrant forms, which apparently have left no descendants. This order, ' which may be termed the Allotheria, can be distinguished from the previous group by the following characters : (1) Teeth much below the normal number. (2) Canine teeth wanting. (8) Premolar and molar teeth specialized. (4) Angle of lower jaw distinctly inflected. (5) Mylohyoid groove wanting. Yale College, New Haven, August 7th, 1880. 240 Serentific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. J. Paysics. 1. Terrestrial Magnetism.—Professor Batrour Srewarr, in a letter to Nature, July 1, 1880, eronanee the connection between auroras and magnetic storms, Since we have changes produced in stationary strata by a moving pani, cannot the reverse be true? May we not have discharges produced in moving strata by a stationary magnet? The n this case would by ‘convection currents produce per in the’ atmospheric strata and the earth as a permanent magnet would cause are disturbances, which in turn would react pin Hertesthisl magnetism. orking on this hypothesis Balfour Stewart has been led to the fact “that certain magnetic diurnal changes lag behind cor es ott iy solar changes, just as meteorological changes wou nd he also states that his observations up to the resent cect to Sabot that an increase or decrease of solar activity corresponds to an increase or decrease of both magnetic and meteor ological activity. The probability of a progress of magnetic phenomena from west to east, corre: sponding in character to a progress of eer ilaaion’ phenomena is alluded to. Magnetic che groves appears to travel faster, how- ever, a meteorological weather. i. 7. 2. Onthe Reversal of Phetogrmabte Impressions.—M. J. JANSSEN eR diseovered that photographic images can be made to pass om negative to positive by the wb ett ore action of the same lieht which "predies ed them originally. 248 Scientific Intelligence. 2. naturalness ; 3. preponderant actual usage. We had maintained in this Journal (for March and for May, 1877) and in vos Botany (6th ed., note on pp. 51, 52) that the externe visum v has decidedly the best case on the second ground, and aint in botany on the third also. And now that DeCandolle has drawn our attention to the m atter, we are going to claim the remaining ground likewise, and to ¢ ontend that the contrary usage in botany came in from non-attention to the teaching and practice of Linnzus himself! On p. 39 of Linneus’s only own edition of the Philosophia Botanica he defines and illustrates the directions of twining thus: “Sinistrorsum, secundum solem vulgo: Humulus, Helxine, Loni- cera, m, cont otum solis vulgi; Convolvulus, lla, Phaseolus, Cynanche, Huphorbia, Eupatorin othing is said about the position of the observer. But in every one of the examples of sinistrorse (//elzine being Polygonum eres the stem winds around the support passing from right to left of the observer confronting the coil; and in every atok é : : : repeated, except that reference to the sun’s apparent course is omitted and additional examples are a Jee (but wt all) of them accordant with the preceding. woul m that Ss ds Wichura was not mistaken in his sulecbuiaik ‘hae DeCandolle had followed a different method from that of Linneus. this appears ae be the whole case as respects direction moe twining. But on the same page, to “ Corolla non erg is appended the deokause which has made so much trouble, viz: ‘ Sinistrorsum hoe est, quod respicit sinistrum, si ponas Te sus sum in centro ; rors That is to say, in defining the direction of overlapping of the parts of a perianth, Linnzeus took the open flower instead of t a and proposed to look down upon it from above or ish w it may well be that Linneus subsequently perceived the soinesithidis between his terminology for overlapping and that for eiyfonack ; and that his brief erratum, on p. 310, “ pro sinistrum ege dextram,” was intended to bring the former into congruity with the latter which it does, but t in an owkwar d way. Perhaps many of them accord with the outside as with the inside point of view. Hepa ay, the erratum . his own; it seems unlikely that he authorized its omission from the Vienna editions; and Gledistch and Willdenow should not be blamed for heeding his behest in their editions. For, so far as it goes, it tends to render their author consistent with hinwibie If Linnaeus had revised the page himself, he would have left out the “ meridiem adspicere,” which has notl ing to do with the matter, and doubtless he would have completed his assimilation of the direction of petal-obliquity or overlapping with that of stem-winding; and so the whole confu- Geology and Natural History. 249 sion ~winen which we are endeavoring to escape would have been avoi In edsp ting the external point of view—now fortified by original authority—it is well to note that we shall be in accord with the modern physicists and mathematicians, and also with common people. ‘The ordinary screw, on which the thread ore left to right, is everywhere known as the right-handed screw; and this, with the corkscrew, is taken as the norm and ex “ponent of right-handed rotation a Clerk- Maxwell (Treatise on Electricity and ee i, 23), and ir Wm. Thomson nalogies which have been adduced in favor of the inside sioulticles are “mostly drawn from objects which have a right and left of their own; a building, ss — has a — and left side or wing beca t has a front a rear. e right t side of an assembly sce a over by an ard who faces the members is quite arbitrarily, but naturally, taken to be that on the right of the chairman. But the right hand figures on a drawing or engraved plate are taken to be those on the right hand of the observer, erate that the plate,*having face and back, has a right and left of its Chapter XV refers ne certain difficulties which grow out of am- biguous terms of ordinary language; for example, the various meanings of the word (jin) end or purpose, and the aertsk ds in the use of the terms Vature, natural, supernatural (which lead off into philosophy, but are here treated rather in reference to s style of exposition) ; also the. change which has occurred in the scope of the word history in natural science. Chapter XVI is an interesting and pertinent one, upon the man- ner in which facts observed under the microsco ope are describe Extracts from the German of Schacht, the Tanck of Payer, and the Italian of Gasparrini are given, an nd by their side a rendering in ais i Latin; and the words and letters are counted. The specimen so treated is diminished to considerably less than half the number of words and a little less than half the num- ber of letters. The French simmers down to one-third the number ess th Italian extract of 51 words and 256 letters is expressed in Latin of nean form by 21 words and 127 letters. Style in botanical works is discussed in Chapter XVIII, which all hee botanists rca ma —— age the portion which bo 250 Scientific Intelligence. free use of Latin and latinized technical words by direct transfer- ence. Botanical French, English, and Italian, are apenseir ta ” the German in this respect. Noting that the German of ¢ sation inclines to be clear and sententious, while in nated psa the words lengthen more and more and the sentences be- come badly ig iti our author remarks that recently havin e m c Sclerenchymfisergruppen, Gefissbundentwickelung and — lungseigenthiimlichkeit, he asked himself if that was good Germ tyle en recollected that Goethe, one of the very g greatest opened his Metamorphose der Pflanzen, read a page or so, and experienced a relief which he likens ta ‘that felt by a. ‘scutiaed Chapter XIX discusses the ropositions to employ letters and figures, semecant ot or otherwise, to represent specific and generic characters,—repulsive contrivances, to which our author lends no ps et nce. signs, pagination, typogr aes the twenty-first. ¢ er of titles and inde exes; bo th full of interesting details upon which we cannot pas althou h we are longing to put in san! XII animadverts upon the tende ency of certain Fe eeptogataintes to set all botanical th at naught. next gives advice about articles in journals, dissertations, and the like; the next treats of translations; another, of figures, and has ma ny noteworthy remarks; Chapter XXVL Sas auxiliary and bibliographical works; and Ch napter XXVII, logical table of the progress of phytography, eutaning with fi hinese encyclopedia 1000 years before Ch rist, and ending with Sachs’ Lehrbuch, 1868-1877. Botanical students will find it very ee _ instructive. The remaining Chapter begins the second part of the volume, Preuves thes "‘Desriptione ; which is principally devoted to herba- ria, their history, formation, and management ;—a most important chapter, the analysis of whi ch would form an article by itself. a rder and n ion i ria, with an fodiens of the place where their ‘er tasin or cole tions are preserve courrence at Newport, R. I, of too sr i Lepore of > by A. in the docks at Newport, R. L, see specimens, “both full grown and young, of Truncatella truncatula and Assiminea Grayana. They were associated with Alexia myosotis, A nurid maritima, Chernes oblongus, a large species of Ligia, Orchestia agilis, and other littoral species. hether these shells have been Geology and Natural History. 251 accidentally arias at that point, by shipping, or are really indigenous, cannot at present be determined. They are now cer- tainly well established ee of our shores. They may have nye verlooked hither 4. Rapid diffusion of mgr — on the New England Coast ; by A. E. Verr well-known to American conchol- ogists that this common epee plates has become well-estab- lished on the New ere coast within ten or twelve years, appearing first on the of Maine about 1868; Dr. Dawson, however, states that he pars it on the shores of Nova Scotia at a much earlier date. wish, at present, merely to put on record some additional data, as to its ge rig along the coast. In 1873, it was collected, in gests , at Saco, Maine, by the U.S. Fish Commission, and was found apkilieg gly ‘at Peake’s L, Casco Bay. In 1872 it was ph rare at Provincetown, Mass., but in 1875, it was common there. In 1875, it — collected by the writer at Barnstable, Mass., on the shores of Cape Cod Bay, in large quantities. In 1879, it had become exceedingly abundant at Provincetown. In 1875, our parties found two speci- mens only, on the southern shores of Cape Cod, at Wood’s Holl, but in 1876 it was found to be common there, and is now very abundant. he first specimen found so far westward as New Haven was obtained by Professor 8. i Smith, during the past winter. Other solitary specimens have since been obtained here Mr. E. A. Andrews, and by Mr. J. H. Emerton. It is, at present, exceedingly abundant at Newport, 5. Artific tal propagation of the Sp anish Mackerel ( Cybium maculatum) ; by A, E, Verrii ber 298 this highly valued fish habitually breeds at certain localities in Chesapeake Bay was recently ascertained by Mr. R. arll, of the U. 8. Fish Com- mission. In July, he visited the locality and made experiments upon its artificial propagation. He was very successful and easily hatched many thousands of the young fish. These, though among utilize this discovery next year on a large scale, and there is every reason to believe that this excellent fish wed se thus ee ga into all the waters south of. Cape Cod, in g bundan 6. Occurrence of Ciona cowie 1 (iia eal Ages aSsiz) a — R. I; by A. E. Verrmu.—This ascidian, which i is one of 252 Miscellaneous Intelligence. seen through the pes greenish or yellowish-white test. It is —— attached by the “base and lower part of one side. The apertures are ferroundud by a circle of bright lemon-yellow, and the ocelli are bright red. There are also two bright red spots connected with the nervous ganglia. The Ciona tenella (Stimp.), which is common in the Bay of Fundy, has the circles around the apertures bright re . Note by C. A. Wurre.—In the August race of this Jour- nal, p- 158, Mr. R. E. Call calls attention to two slight errors in my a article “On the Antiquity of certain Gidbordiwnte Types of Fresh-water and Land Mollusca ;” referring to the geographical distribution there attributed to Tnio complanatus Solander, and to my use of the name “Unio gi arnes,’ atter is 80 plainly a typographical error that, if Anexoussble, it i is in no dan- ger of misleading any one. My statement in relation to the former question was based upon the identification as Unio com- Planatus Solander of — shells (collected by myself in Lowa) by the late J. nthony. I accepted that decision without nection, however important it may be in connection with the subject of the origination of those species. IIT. MisceLLaANgous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. American and British Associations meet this eg on 1. The the same day of August—the 25th, the former at Boston, the latter at Swansea. The President of the American iAmeetatibis is E 2 eep-Sea Sounding and Dredging: A description and discussion of the methods and appliances used on board the Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer “Blake,” by Cuarres D, Stesrer, Lieut. Commander U.S. Navy. 208 p- 4to, with 41 lates. Wisshinahar 1880, vu S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Carlile P. Patterson, Superintendent.—This valuable volume describes in full detail, and with a profusion of excellent illustrations, the methods and appliances employed f for , deep-sea sounding and dredging on board the steamer “ Blake. The work of Lieut. Commander Sigabee, on the “ Blake” was carried on for four years beginning in the autumn of 1874. It Miscellaneous Inielligence. 253 invention by him of many new forms of apparatus and the im- provement of previous ones, calculated to facilitate the operations of sounding and dredging. Prof. Alexander Agassiz was connected with the expedition of the Blake in the winter of 1877-1878, from December to March, and also during its later cruising, having had special charge of the collections from the dredgings, and has nt special publications with detailed instructions on the systems and methods adopted for deep-sea soun ing and dredging, although the ‘ Blake,’ have been prosecuted with celerity, ease, and precis- ion, showing that deep-sea work has become nearly as ready of accomplishment as ordinary littoral soundings.” e plates are partly heliotypes; and all details are given so as to make the work a full exposition of the best methods of deep-sea dredging, and of keeping records of the observations and working up the results. : OBITUARY. Louis Frangors pr Pourratis, died at Beverly Farms, Mass., in the 57th year of his age, on the 17th of July, 1880. * Spite of &@ magnificent constitution and a manly vigor of body and mind, which seemed to defy disease and to promise years of activity, he sank after a severe illness under an internal malady. Educated as an engineer, he showed from boyhood a predilec- tion for natural history. He was a favorite student of Professor at Cambridge, shared his labors. In 1848 Pourtalés entered the U. 8S. Coast Survey, where his ability and indefatigable industr were at once recognized, and he remained attached to that brane. 254 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of our public service for many years. He there became deeply interested in everything relating to the study of the bed of the ocean. Thanks to the enlightened support of the then Superin- tendent of the Coast Survey, Professor Bache, and of his successors, Profe - Pierce and Captain piu aie 08 was a, to devote seo ace dary and the biological investigations nieliome to it. The large collections of specimens from the sea bottom accumulated by the different Sale ae energy of the U. 8. Coast Sur- vey were carefully examined by him and the results were pub- in Peterman’s Mittheilungen, accompanied by a chart of the sea bottom on the east coast of the United States. So ama navigation, but in their wider bearing on the history of the Guif great interest among zodlogists and wea ists. r. Pourtales was indeed the aap of esa dredging in Amer- n through the Straits of Magellan to California he had entire charge of the dredging operations. Owing to circumstances beyond his control the deep sea explorations of that expedition were not as successful as he anticipated. At the death of his father ee Pourtalés was left in an inde- pils, throughout life his abe and colleague, he now ag ww the oe , e Miscellaneous Intelligence. 255 and crinoids. A number of his papers on the deep-sea corals of Florida, of the Caribbean Sea, and of the Gulf of Mexico have ap- peared in the museum publications. He had begun to work at the magnificent collection of haleyonarians made by the “ Blake ” in the Caribbean Sea, and had already made good progress with interesting genera Rhizocrinus and Holopus. _The titles of his memoirs indicate the range of his learning and his untiring industry. His devotion to science was boundless. A model worker, so quiet that his enthusiasm was known only to those who watched his steadfast labor, he toiled on year after year without a thought of self, wholly engrossed in his search after truth. He never entered into a single scientific controversy nor even asserted or defended his claims to discoveries of his own which had escaped attention. But while modest to a fault and plished, and the example he leaves to his successors. A. AG. Cambridge, Mass., July 31, 1880. Professor E. B. Anprews, of Lancaster, Ohio, one of the corps of geologists engaged since 1869 on the Geological Survey of Ohio, a e author of a very valuable volume among its final reports, as well as various geological memoirs, died on the 21st of August, in his sixtieth year. He was a graduate of Marietta College, Ohio, and its Professor of Geology from 1851 until he entered on his work in connection with the State Geological Sur- vey. During the five years previous to 1851 he was pastor of churches in Housatonic, Mass., and New Britain, Conn. Th State of Ohio owes much to him for his careful study of the coal 256 Miscellaneous Intelligence. - General Avserr J. Mynr, the efficient head of the United States Signal Service, died in Buffalo, on the 24th of August, in his fifty-second year ph grand nwa of the American Journal of Science not only is much cra es in seque of the demand 7 its s long i but fails of several book notices which sca have appeared in Report of the Sprint of the U.S. Coast Sua, showing the progress of the work for the fiscal year ending with June, 1876. 416 pp. 4to, with 24 maps. Washingt = 79. The Natural History of the Sneed Ant of there a monograph of the habits, rear tare and structure of Pog yrmex barbatus, by Henry Christo- pher McCook. 312 pp. 8vo. Philadel, 180, (J. B. Lippincott & Co. The Geo “aa Record for 7: An unt of works on Geology, en’ ogy, and Paleontology pu ished ae og a. with supplements for 1 6. Edited by William he coed B.A., F.R.S., of the Geological Survey of England. 32 pp. 8vo. London. ontributions to Pal alias Nos. 2-8, by C. M.D. [Extracted from the 12th nape emaeh of the U. S. Geo lage of 1878, F. V. Hayden, ologist ee -] Author’s edition. 171 pp. 8vo, plates 11 to 42. Washington, 188 Obser- vations made with the Meridian Circle sae ing the years 1874 and mys: aa pre- pared for pelican under the direction of Joseph Winlock and Edward ©. Pick- ering, successive etal of the Observatory, Ld William A. Rogers, Assistant Professor of Astron n the Observ: ae rinted from the Sturgis fund. 271 pp. 4to ee introduction i-xcii). Cam reg li ni see observed at the Astronomical ‘Obser See of Harv: year: First Annual eet of the grseees ni ‘of apr ae and Geology of the State of Indiana, 1879. 514 pp. 4to. ementary Treatise on Electric peyton rom ike French of Alfred Niaudet, ee esa by L. M. Fishback. 266 vo. New York, 1880. (John Wiley & Sons.) ce Primers: ser cortege’ hy esdeens Huxle ey, F.R.S. 94 pp. 12mo. New York, 1880. (D. Appleton & Co. Analysis for ae ee Purposes; with hints for the interpretation of Rly ty E. Frankland, Ph.D., etc. 144 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1880. (Presley Blakiston. Interesting Chansical Exercises in ea = oe for seen oo by Geo. W. Rains, M.D. 59 pp. 8vo. New York, 1880. (D. arate Pcitinna f the National Microsco opical —— hel a Indianapolis August 14-19, 1878; and of the American Society of erin 1 Buffalo, -f August 19-24, a TT pp. he “Tntianapois 1 or 18 e Microscopists Annu 878. Num ie it rules, ulze, memoranda, lis cr aig f prominent makers, etc. 48 pp. 12mo. New York, 1880 Gndetri Publication Company nwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch-Indié. ers a .P age Directeur van het Observatorium te Batavia. 257 pp. 8vo. Batavia, Mémoires sur les partici Crétacé et Tertiares préparés par feu André Dumont. Pour servir a la dese nde la Carte Géologique de la Belgique. Edités par Michel Mourlon ay iii, Terrains Tort rtiaires, seconde seh 459 pp. 8yvo. Brussells, 1878. Musée Royal d'Histoire Naturelle de Belgique PLATE LV. cat SUA ig ~ x ae si ae Wee dk aw # ‘g ; Wess a ‘Diss: iy oe i Ba, NNN ma hte ins Wi rena ANN i, api ei “tt sand New Haven, Ot AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.,] ArT. XXIX.—On the Mineral Locality at Branchville, Connee- ticut: Fourth Paper.* Spodumene and the results of its Alteration ;+ by George J. BrusH and Epwarp S. Dana (With Plate 1 IV). N the present paper we give the results hi have obtained ina (iy of the spodumene from Branchville, Conn., and of the various minerals derived from its penn Iti is, after the feldspars, mica and quartz, the most important of the orig- inal minerals of the locality, and occurs, though mostly in an altered condition, in very large quantities. * For Tr previous papers upon this eg see this Journal, III, xvi, 33, 114, 1878; xvii, 359, 1879; xviii, 45, 1879 ed and valuable memoir upon ‘ nicgrereages 8 and its alterations from © granite veins of Hampshire Co., Mass.,” has been recently published by Mr. A. A. Julien in the Annala of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. i, No. x (see this Journal, xix, 237, March, ec Pe is proper that we should state here that most of the results of this paper, including every had — pleted previous to the appearance of that of Mr. Julien, and when we had no eo) results, apts ct arrived at independently and based upon material from a ditferent so source, i cases confirm those of Mr. Julien, and this, as we believe, ~_ much to to the i “bora. "of t the whole subject. Our conclusions, however, differ spects. W i Am. Jour. ideas —- Vou. xx, ie. 118.—OocrT., 1880, 258 Brush and Dana—the Spodumene of Branchville, Conn., A. UNALTERED SPODUMENE. he greater part of the unaltered spodumene occurs in sontaasaly crystalline masses, showing distinct cleavage, but seldom any approach to crystalline form. It is possible to obtain the mineral nearly pure, though somewhat intermingled with albite, in blocks weighing several hundred pounds. this form the spodumene has a dull white color; it is in many cases somewhat discolored, and is only partially i a ne the cleavage surfaces are often coated with delicate dendrites of manganese oxide. The associated minerals, in “pddition to the albite and a little quartz and mica, are apatite, lithiophilite, columbite, garnet and uraninite, with various other uranium minerals formed from alteration. In addition to this massive variety, the spodumene also occurs in an unaltered condition as nuclei of distinct pseudo- rphous crystals. These crystals ohies occur of enormous size, oo for the most. part. in ive quartz, though s mene ei below and figures la, 5, 8, 14, Plate Iv*) is in every vet a separated from the altered mineral surrounding it, d its characters show that the crystals must originally have a rare beauty. One of the finest crystals that we have found thus far had, as imbedded in the quartz, a length of three feet, a width of eight inches and a thickness of two inches. The unaltered spodumene, of a fine amethystine color, made up about one-fourth of the whole, extending rather regularly through the middle of the crystal. Unfortunately, the spodu- mene was much — and fractured, so that its former trans- parency had, for the most part, disappeared. The exterior of the crystal consist fe ead of u spodumene, with small which have a widt over a foot across the prism and thickness of two to four inches. habit the crystals are much like those from Norwich, Massachusetts. They are orwich ; a pee broad or flat, Pay the pa intend of the ortho- Pp or pee Pics purple color. It shows the prismatic cleavage with unusual perfection, and that of the clinopinacoid irregu- * Figures 1 to 14 inclusive Mt to be found on the accompanying Plate, the other even (15-20) are in the and the Results of its Alteration. 259 larly. The angle of the prismatie cleavage—viz., 87° 13’— was obtained with great exactness. Chemical composition.—An analysis of the transparent pink spodumene was made by Mr. S. L. Penfield with the following results. Bea wiles 2a 198. Mean Ratio 2 64 mn eo y 64°25 LOT: Al,Os 27°14 27°26 27°20 262 263 98 FeO; 0-2 0-20 001 t Li,O 7°64 759 762 254 260 97 Na,O 0°39 0°39 0°39 006 t 20 tr tr tr Ignition 0°24 0°24 0°24 99°91 99°88 99°90 The ratio of Li,O: Al,O,: SiO, =1:1:4; this corresponds to the oxygen ratio* of 1:3:8. The formula is then, neg- lecting the very small amount of soda, Li,Al,Si,0.,. This result agrees exactly with that reached by Deelter in his investigation of the composition of spodumene,+ and with that of Julien.t It is to be noted, however, that the percentage of lithia here obtained is higher and that of soda lower than in any analyses previously published. For example, Deelter found in the storich mineral 7°04 Li,O, 1:10 Na,O and 0°12 K,O; in that from Brazil 7:09 Li,O and 0:98 8 Na,O. Julien obtained in the Goshen n spodumene 6°89 Li,O, 0 99. Na,O, 1:45 K,O; and in that from Chesterfield 6-99 Li 0, 0°50 Na. ‘0, and 1°33 K O. Deelter concludes for the No rwich mineral that the B. ALTERATION OF SPODUMENE, As the result of the alteration of the spodumene, we have found two substances which at first sight seem to be homo- geneous, and each of which has a definite chemical composi- tion, and which, notwithstanding, are only intimate mechanical mixtures of two species; one of these, called by us § spodu- mene, is made up of albite and a new lithia mineral to which This ratio was obtained by bechonny from analyses of the Massachusetts mineral in 1850. Am. Jour. Sci., IT, x + Tschermak, Min. u. Pe tr. Teitth, i, 517, 1878. t1L.c, p. 326. 960 Brush and Dana—the Spodumene of Branchville, Conn., we have given the name eucryptite ; and the other “ cymato- lite, an aggregate of albite and muscovite. We have also tinct pseudomorphs, hee the form of the etc mene. The mica, taken independently of its constant associate the albite, plays only a secondary part. In addition there are other pseu- domorphs, of composite character, consisting, as Mr. Julien has well expressed it, ‘of vein granite.” We will first give the physical and chemical characters of the various minerals (including the two aggregates) taken sep- arately, and then go on to describe more minutely the way in which they are associated together. I. PRopUCTS OF THE ALTERATION. 1, £ Spodumene. The substance which we have, for convenience, called f umene, since we do not regard it as deserving an inde- sink spodumene, described above, and the outer portion was this mineral (similar to fig. 5). The line of demarcation was perfectly sharp, so that the purity of the material analyzed — be ceectanaate: The results of the analysis are as ) No. 1, G@.===2°649. L Il. Mean. Ratio. iO. 61-35 61°42 61°38 1023 4 AlO, 26-26 25°74 26-00 — Fe,0s 0-24 0-24 0-24 002 t eat: % 3°63 3°59 3°61 ee . Na,O 8°32 8°25 8-29 134 t — ; tr tr tr Ignition 0°46 0°46 0°46 100-26 99°70 99-98 The second portion analyzed was from a fragment ot a fag and entirely altered crystal ; its dimensions were 9 by 8 by 24 inches. It consisted mostly of cymatolite, and the # spodu- and the Results of its Alteration. 261 mene had all the appearance of passing insensibly into it; a i e obtai a p No, 2, G.==2°644. ; Il. Mean. atio SiO. 61:4 61°57 61°51 1°025 4 Al,O; not determined 26°56 26°56 258 1 Li,O 3°5 3° 3°50 “Hit : Na,.O 8°15 8°13 8°14 131 *249 0-97 “Keo 0°15 0°15 0°15 001 Ignition 0°29 0°29 0-29 10014. 00°15 The third portion was part of a smaller and well developed crystal, having the external prismatic form complete. It con- sisted in the interior of spodumene, then the B a aaa making up the greater part of the whole, and finall crust of cymatolite. The specimen analyzed was, as far as the eye could detect, perfectly pure and homogeneous. The color was greenish-white and it was decidedly translucent. The analysis afforded :— No. 3, G.—=2°649. , Tl. Mean Ratio. SiO, 61°78 61°64 61°71 1028 44 Al.O;3 26°57 26°69 26°63 259 #1 Li,O0 3°83 3°83 128 t eel y Na,O 8-16 8-16 132 2 tr Ignition 0-21 0-21 10053 10054 If the mean analyses of the three groups be compared, it will be found that they agree very closely with one another; in fact the agreement is as close as could be expected for three successive analyses made upon the same material. But, as will be seen from what has already been said, the three samples were entirely independent, being taken from different parts of the ledge and differing in manner of association; the agree- ment between them thus becomes very striking. The ratio obtained for eac R,O: RyOy: SiO, = 1:1:4 is the same as that of spodumene, from which it differs only in this: that one-half of the lithium has been removed and its ree (chemical equivalent) taken by sodium. The formula is then :— ° (Li, Na): Al.Si,O.2 = LigAlSi,Oi2 + NacAleSisOr2 (1) or = Li, Al,Si,Os + NazAlpSisOi¢ (2) It is shown below that the formula given in (2) is the correct one. he facts stated thus far would seem to be sufficient to prove that the mineral was homogeneous and had a definite composi- 262 Brush and Dana—the Spodumene of Branchville, Conn., tion ; there are, however, other facts which have an important bearing upon this point. It was found by Mr. Penfield that, although the mineral gelatinizes with acid, it is not entirely decomposed. On the contrary, it is divided into two portions by the treatment with hydrochloric acid, viz :—a soluble portion (A), and an insoluble remainder (B), the latter including also the silica extracted from the soluble part. The results of three analyses gave B. Insoluble in HCl, with A. Soluble in HCl. SiO. from A. No. 1 (17°97) : 82:03 = 100- 2 16°65 83°01 = 99°66 3 17°91 82°18 = 100-09 In the case of No. 2, complete analyses of both the soluble and insoluble portions were made; these were independent of the total analyses of the same sample already given. The method of analysis was, briefly, as follows:—-A gram of the mineral was digested with HCl, evaporated to dryness, then moistened with HCl and a second time evaporated to dryness. After being again moistened with HCl the soluble portion, A above, was filtered off and the alumina and alkalies determined in it by the usual methods. The insoluble portion, which included the silica extracted from A, after being weighed, was boiled with Na,CO, and (in the case of No. 3) with a little KOH. By this means the soluble silica of A was dissolved out and the insoluble remainder being weighed, the amount of the soluble silica was determined by the difference. Finally, the insolu- ble part was analyzed in full by the usual methods. The results of the analyses were as follows: No. 2. B. Insoluble in HCl with silica of A 83°01 nsoluble remainder after treatment with soda 67°56 15°45 A. Soluble in HCl (16-65), plus silica extracted by soda from B 32710 _The two parts, therefore, into which the original mineral is divided by hydrochloric acid, are :— No. 2. A. Soluble portion 32°10 B. Insoluble portion 67°56 99°66 The composition obtained for A was as follows :— A, Soluble ion. Calculated to 100. Calculated from formula. 0. 2. No. 2. SiO. 15°45 48°13 4751 Al,Os; 13°00 40°50 40°61 Li.O 3°50 10-90 11°88 0715 047 ae and the Results of its Alteration. 263 For the above analysis the ratio is, nearly :— a tn 5 men pon . eres No. 2 : This corresponds to the nin os Al,Si,O,, the percentage composition of which, given above, agrees well with the ana The composition obtained for B was:— B. Insoluble portion. Calculated to 100. Calculated from formula. No. 2. No. 2. SiO, 46°06 68°18 68°62 Al,O3 13°56 20°07 19°56 Na.O 7:94 11°75 11°82 67°56 100°00 100-00 The ratio calculated from the preceding analysis is :— as : Al,Os : ers No. 2 1-07 10 This ratio is very 2 that of Wis viz: 1:1, so that the formula for the insoluble portion is Na,Al, n analysis was also made of sample No. ‘ bas, ‘the separa- tion was a little less complete than of No. 2; the first diges- tion in acid left behind a very little of the soluble mineral, as shown by the presence of lithia in B, and then in the subse- quent treatment of the insoluble part ‘Gin which also KOH was employed) there seemed to have been a slight decomposition of the albite. The results, although for the reason given hardly worth putting on record, were satisfactory in this, that they confirmed those of No. The point thus far established may be stated as follows: A chemical examination proves that the substance, called Herkewier J 8 spodumene, is vas a dis 5g dece'any 9 only av ery uniform mixture of t inerals ; of thes ean by us sts Herat he iges pik gelatiplzation: in hdposhitakts acid, and has oe ag ‘3 2i,0,; the mere not seen to be that ® given above. That the mixture is truly insoluble residue B a tgs left after the digestion in sodium carbonate, was in one case examined under the microscope, a found to be crystalline, and to have the peculiar semi- aon ah belonging to the pseudomorphous albite, as described elow. he microscopic examination of thin sections of # spodu- mene confirms the results reached from the chemical side as to 264 Brush and Dana —the Spodumene of Branchville, Conn. them could not be answered; the whole gave the effect of aggregate polarization. The above statement is true for the greater portion of each of the slides—the result thus far was negative. Occasional irregularities, however, in the usually parallel fibrous structure, which may not inaptly be compared in appear- ance to the grain of wood-fiber in the bakadibprbved of a knot, as seen in a smooth board, gave better results. The fibers in such cases are much curved and irregular in outline, and so separated from one another that they are seen to be merely enclosures in a surrounding matrix. In other cases, this enclos- ing material forms open spots, where the structure (in polarized light) is found to be that of ordinary albite, and into this the needle-like fibers of the other mineral project (this is illustrated in fig. 15,a = albite). Still again, on the edges of the sections \ i \' \ ; jj Y Y ( Re \ r y i ( Ny ‘ \ | | \ \) Day \\ } y J / q ( ff i ff ij | 2 } i ! i | } ) a i where a degree of thinness impossible for the whole slide is sometimes attained, a similar satisfactory result is reached. e fibers in such cases are distinctly seen, independently of each other and of the enclosing albite. They are generally nearly straight and parallel, but not infrequently the shape is more or less irregular; branching forms recalling some kind of coralline and the Results of its Alteration. 266 structure are common. ‘The latter forms are shown in fig. 16; the fibers here are much more irregular and coarser than is gen. erally true. (Compare also fig. 19.) The fibers are apparently rounded but the outlines are usually indistinct, and the form can be made out only by repeatedly changing the focus of the microscope. The explanation of all these irregularities in out- line is given by the result obtained on examining the sections cut transverse to the fibers. Several additional facts were brought out in the study of the sections now described. It was found that, when examined between crossed Nicols, the extine- tion of the light took place parallel to the length of the fibers ; moreover, the fibers have not infrequently a transverse fracture, probably indicating cleavage. The form of the terminations of the needles could not be certainly observed. In cases like those above described (fig. 15), the extremities seem to be given entire, but no absolute assertion can be made in regard them. In many cases, probably the majority, they taper out gradually to a fine point, while in others they seem to be ter- minated by a low pyramid. The examination of the other set of sections, cut across the fibers, was even more satisfactory and conclusive. The appear- ance in polarized light, as the plate is revolved on the stage of the microscope, is at once striking and beautiful. The section as a whole is divided into irregular patches (albite), changing from dark to light and the reverse with the revolution, giving the whole a strangely mottled look. Distributed closely an 17. 18. tee * g Ys uniformly through this matrix are seen also minute areas of an- other substance, sometimes curved but generally bent at an angle of 60° or 120°; they are wnchanged by the revolution between the crossed Nicols. The effect will be best appreciated from the accompanying sketches (figs: 17, 18). When a high power 1s employed (say 600 diam.) and the attention is confined to a small portion at once, it is seen that these narrow bands, which 266 Brush and Dana—the Spodumene of Branchville, Conn., in a cursory glance under a low power seem to be quite irreg- ular in form, are, on the contrary, A oereeapawe in parallel position. The solid portions are triangular or hexagonal in outline, and the bands are bent at angles of 60° and 120°, sometimes so as to form complete rings ;—they are all more or less rounded. In short, the structure is that of the most regu- tion in the albite of the new mineral in question. ey mar the mineral as belonging to the hexagonal system, and the result of the optical examination both parallel and transverse to the fibers confirms this conclusion. e ex: pected, the axial directions (60°) change at small distances, so that a given set of directions belongs only to a limited area; this is obviously determined by the enclosing albite. e are now able to connect the results of the microscopic by the fact that it, whenever distinctly separate, has the same structure as in undoubted cases of the same pseudomorphous material ; it is also shown by the examination of the insoluble portion alluded to before, for in this the fibers have been removed and the matrix left unattacked. The enclosed mine- ral is that which with the albite makes up the # spodumene, having the composition Li,A1,Si,O,. In view of the fact that this lithia-bearing mineral 1s thor- oughly defined, as well crystallographically as chemically, and considering, moreover, the important part it plays in the his- tory of the spodumene, we feel obliged to give it a distinctive name. Weceallit eucryptite, from ed well, and xpumrd¢ concealed. EvcryYPTire crystallizes in the hexagonal system, with proba- bly basal cleavage. Its specific gravity, calculated from that of # spodumene, 2°647 and that of the pseudomorphous albite 2°637, is 2°667. It gelatinizes with hydrochloric acid and fuses easily. It is a unisilicate, and its chemical compo- sition is expressed by the formula Li,Al,Si,O,=silica 47°61, alumina 40°61, lithia 11°88=100-00. Its mineralogical relations are not very certain; still, in form, and essentially in com- position, it is analogous to nephelite. It also might be viewed as a lithia-anorthite, it having the same ratio as anorthite ; though it is different crystallographically. On the other and the Results of its Alteration. 267 hand, the fact that it ao ds so readily into muscovite, and has the same ratio as the mal varieties of that species, might seem to place it near ad but it certainly has no mica- ceous structure. The true lithia mica (lepidolite) has a very different composition. 2. Cymatolite. The name cymatolite was given in fated by Prof. oo to a mineral found at Goshen and .- ich, Mass., sult of the decomposition of spodumene. The ainiven given a him left the composition of the supposed new mineral in pect and this doubt was not removed by a subsequent analysis by r. B.S. Burton. Mr. Julien gives in his paper several anal- yses of cymatolite which agree well together and which corre- spond to a simple chemical formula. In our earlier investiga- tions we assumed it to be an established point that the species was a good one and had a definite composition. This assump- tion was confirmed by two closely agreeing analyses (given be- low) made upon the Branchville material. Further study, however, which was made necessary by the results reached in the case of 8 spodumene—for the cymatolite is directly derived from the 8 spodumene—has convinced us that the supposed species is i a a remarkably uniform and intimate mechanical mixture of muscovite and albite. We shall, however, through- out this paper retain the name cymatolite as a convenient way of designating this interesting aap cnc substance, and shall describe it first as if it were a true specie The physical characters of the coanaciiie of Branchville are as follows :—It has a distinct fibrous structure, sometimes strai edly but more generally wavy. It is also at times con- i ly fibrous and again scaly. The specific gravity = 2°692- - The color is gore white, 5 t it - often slightly Fablowd and occa gh it has a faint pin in an intricate hte giving sometimes a feather-like appear- ance. biotrer all trace of the original prismatic spe: and cleavage of t e spodumene has disappea cases, however, in a interior of a crystal this longitudinal inencters is still apparent, although the direction of the fibers remains transverse. (Compare also other figures in the Plate, in which ¢ = cymatolite.) 268 Brush and Dana—the Spodumene of Branchville, Conn., Two analyses of cymatolite have been made by Mr. Penfield. Number 1 was made from a portion of an entirely altered rystal; it was perfectly white and prenpenhyy free from any impurities. The results are as follow No. 1, G.==2°692. I. Il. It, Mean. Ratio. Si0. - 59°38 aes Se 59°38 Al,O; 26°67 nee Aus 26-67 259 1-05 Cad 0-6 on iil 0-62 oll Wage (ie 7-66 7-70 1-6 124| K,0 ee 3:53 3°49 3-51 os7f 288 «IIB H,0 201 ne ae 2-0 111 99°87 The second analysis was made on the pure mineral associated on the same crystal, which Sei Sage 2 of 8 spodumene. The results afforded are, as follow No. 2, G.==2°699. I. Mean, Ratio. iO» 60°61 wis 60°55 1009 4 Al,03 37 26°39 26°38 256 1-016 0-08 0-06 Na.0 8-08 8°16 8-12 131 3 3:33 3°35 3°34 o35| Li,O 7 0-17 0-17 006 2631044 HO 1°65 1-66 1°65 091 100°29 100°28 100°28 The agreement between these two analyses is as close as could be expected ; the ratio obtained from No. 2 is nearly R,0: Al,O3: Si0g = 1:1: 4. This is the same ratio as that _ for spodumene and f spodumene. The formula is therefor (Na, K, H),A1,$i,0,.—=(K, sith i cuabeoet Since the cymatolite is certainly derived from the # spodu- mene, while the latter substance has been proved to be a mix- ture of albite and what—as was shown—has the composition of a lithia siaiboyite the fact that the formula of cymatolite can be written as a compound of one molecule muscovite and one molecule albite is significant. Were no other facts at hand the conclusion that cymatolite also must be a mechanical mixture could hardly be questioned. The facts, however, are in them- selves sufficient to prove this, inde endent of any other consid- erations. It may be mentioned that the chemical method of attacking the problem, employed in the case of the # spodu- mene, is not here applicable, since the muscovite is not decom- posed by hydrochloric acid. preliminary examination was made with sulphuric acid, which resulted in showing that the cymatolite was attacked by it, as was the mica of the locality, eee the albite was barely so. This method was, however, carried further, for the microscope gave all the solution shat could be desired. and the Results of its Alteration. 269 A considerable number of sections of cymatolite, both in its purest normal varieties, and in its transition forms from # spod- umene on the one hand and to albite on the other, were exam- ined. The result not only proved the fact of the mixture of muscovite and albite, but also gave the explanation for the remarkable uniformity of the analyses, for in most cases the mixture is in the highest degree intimate. A section of cyma- tolite like that represented in fig. 1c (Plate), when examined in polarized light, is found to consist of long, slender, somewhat curved fibers, giving very brilliant colors and showing the characteristic structure of mica, and between them grayish portions of albite. In some cases the fibers of mica are so —— All the details of the structure came out most clearly in the sections in polarized light. The feather-like them becoming more and more distinct as their distance e any details could be added, but enough has been said to make the character of the observations apparent on which the statement as to the compound nature of cymatolite is based. The mica and albite are always distinct from one another. In some cases they both appear in larger masses having segrega- ted together in the process of alteration. More is said about this later. The only foreign mineral observed in the slides was one which occurs in hexagonal prisms, and can hardly be anything but apatite, as it agrees optically and crystallographically with that species. It is seen scattered through the cymatolite some- times rather abundantly, occasionally also in the 8 spodumene, it is, however, not for a moment to be confounded with eucryp- 270 Brush and Dana—the Spodumene of Branchville, Oonn., tite. The presence of apatite would explain the lime found in analysis 1 of cymatolite. Certain of the sections which show the transition from to one another, in other words where the change of the eucryp- tite is only partial. This will be understood from fig. As 18 here seen, some of the fibers are 7 apparently unchanged, while oth- ers are partly altered, the last containing many minute scales of mica, often packed closely togeth- er. These small scales are irreg- ularly situated, often across the original fiber of eucryptite: the direction can always be observed both by the cleavage line and too by the direction of the extinction of the light between crossed Nic- ols. Where the process has been completed, however, the scale of mica is generally parallel to the line of the original eucryptite. The eucryptite fibers along this intermediate zone, even when mica scales are not visible, have generally lost their smoothness of outline, and sometimes have separated into lines of minute, irregular, transparent granules. e transition of 8 spodumene into cymatolite can also often be seen by the unaided eye, along the line of contact. In such cases the silvery lines of mica, though the scales are too minute to be distinguished, can be seen shooting up into the compact B spodumene. 3. Albite. The albite, which occurs pseudomorphous after spodumene, appears in several rather distinct varieties. It is sometimes finely granular, showing no crystalline structure. Again it hasa fibrous structure, similar to that of 8 spodumene and cyma- tolite, the fibers transverse to the prism. Still again it 1s and the Results of its Alteration. 271 found forming: parts of altered crystals, in which it has the avy laminated structure which is characteristic oO Observations on Japanese Brachiopoda. S. V. CLEVENGER: Plan of the cerebro-spinal nervous system. B. D. Haupstep : An inv rs fee 2 ae the peach yellows. P. R. Hor: ee neh a J. G. HENDERSON not L. F. Warp: inchanptere peenrins as illustrated by the history of sex in plan . G. WitpEr: Partial revision of the ee Hs the brain; The fora- mina of Monro in man and the domestic cat; The ta fornicis, a "part o of the mammalian brain tri y not hitherto sated: a TE ey n of parasitic plants. T. Tay thod of oe the germination of garden, field, and ore | sed, Aiscorered by the . J. BER Anthrax of tui son or the so-called fire-blight of the pear and twigsbtisnt of the apple-tre 2 V. Ritey: Further notes oe the pollination of Yucca, and on Pronuba and T — A. Buckuout: — to Dh eed sasee of the Phitoptide G. Mactosee: endo-cranium and maxillary suspensorium of the bee. Cc. 8. An ten my ot the pele in snakes and other reptiles, and in birda—exhibi bitio on of sections; On the summation of muscular contractions Notice of a complete bibl peat on Plathelminths. KE. D. © Origin and —— of Feli S. H. Gage: Permanent microscopic psa of Amphibian blood cor- puscles, Perman anent micro Debate preparations of Plasm C. V. RineEY: Additional notes on the arm lef worm (Lucania “unipuncta Haw.) ©. ScALER: Minute pines of the hum ridges S. P. SHARPLES: Some of the Infusoria gays resh ponds, Cambridge, Mass. C. W. Sminey: The Spanish Mackerel and its porct eo propagation. C. LAKE; Occurrence of exostoses in the external auditory canal in pre- historic man. E. B tid Sei The sh meni og of Actinotrocha. . BROOKS: Rite cle nm the Meduse of Beaufort, N. C.; The rhythmical character of segment C. V. Rizr: fair resto results of the cotton worm inquiry by the U. S. Entomological Commission. CUTTER Contribution to the histological nature of the membrane in ite! i dance of m icroscopic forms of life in the central and lateral surfaces lakes and ponds. R. Hox: Occurrence of Aletia argillacea in Wisconsin. 4A, seen . F. Samer Sub-el air ges in © tra. J.C : Two Sey hea. fighting Maitioes sects. 5 want DON: Brief ee on the mechanical preseat et of the house- Spider, and the habits of the hous fly. 0. H. FERNALD Fane od of “mathe ing and mounting wings of microlepidoptera. B. F. Man: contributions of the Cambridge Entomological Club to the progress of eubcbaceniey? W. H. Seaman: A method of aaa in glycerine and certgin differentia- tions of structure pr reduced by it oni TILEY; The life-habits of mai “a a snort Remarks on tree-crickets ; Remarks on the curious stages of B ae a AGEN: On biological collections of in fain On tha some very rare insect w on o Miscellaneous Intelligence. . MARTIN: Insects from ¢ aoe AED, Jr. ; Migrations ef Rocky Mountain oe : Some points in the anatomy of the Coc Binet Structure and development of oetasi nyiichSpuiKsk gal . LeConte: An essay on lightning beetles: List of Coleoptera hatched 'detun Sapo a few hick H. ©. McCook: The otek of the Garden of the Gods, Colorado. G. D. Putnam: Notes on N. A. Galeodes. A. R. Grote: Generic ahabattor of the Noct C. H. FERNALD: On the classification of the Tortricidee On Phocopteris angu- lifascina. H. A. Hagen: On the aan fly ; i fon even of Prodoxus lh E. Burgess: On the structure of the h organs in the Lepidopter: 8S. H. ScuppER: Annual eaten of the Preddent of the uicmaliyien! Club of AAD A. Si 5. seem anelegy- H. B. Carrinaton: The Dacotah tri A. 8. BICKMORE: ~ae ay of Aided ‘illustrated by a large manuscript map. A. Kocsis: The Vogu W. - Hoisecor Prehistoric altars of Whiteside County, Lllinois. C. TLLIAMS: ition ina kneeling posture, as practiced by the women a moundbuilder poate sri 5 race. E. 8S. Mo ersis of’ Korean ornamentation in Japanese pottery; Prehistoric and early yhien of J eons ome E. A. Situ: Folk lore of the Iro J CURRIER wal . M. Aare sor in ae coil of New ceokel Vermont. D. W. Ross: Theo eory of p e democracy in ps. pa MALLERY: Scheme ob he "tanith census for sohatione statistics of untaxed dians. C.C. Apsorr: Exhibition of stone implements from the river drift of New Jersey; Indications of a pre-Indian occ oom of the Atlantic coast of ‘Norah America, subsequent to that of palolithic J.G. HED : Textile fabrics of chi a ancien inhabitants La bd Ae engi spinn ces among the North Ameri sean Toate. F.W. Purnam : Conventionalism i in prom of ancient American pottery ; On the occurrence in New England of carvings by the Indians of the North- west coast of Ame erica. R. J. Farquaarson: The probable existence in America of the argent Fert of trepanning, in the cutting of rondelles As cease from the skull ; temporaneous existence of mastodon and man in A wpe a PERKINS: Relation of the archeology of Verwioint to that of the adja- Wa. MoApams: The pipes of the mound-builders and pottery-makers; An- cient agricultural implements of stone; A stone rar’ he nes base of the drift in Illinois ; beg n lls in the mounds; The mo of Illin W. : Engraved tablet from a moun W. M. Baavomaiiht Antiquities of Onondaga Cbuity, New York. J. F. Everwart: Ethnolo Oey. . A. LyLe: The Indian que 8. 8. Sere abet on m serio pottery; On stone H: 0: Hi 8, flint mines and other entieciin recently found in Mammoth Wyandot soit) Tray Caverns. Miss ErMinNig A. SurtH: On the Iroquois languages. J. W. Pow®L — tha F rank of Indian languages: The classification of kindred by the N. A. aaiae S. D. PRET: The topo, graphical survey of the works at Aztalan, Wis.; The military system of the emblematic mound-builders. H. G. Lewis: The antiquity of man in Eastern America geologically considered. oF Miscellaneous Intelligence. 351 6. Miscellaneous, - H. Duptey: Transportation expenses and their reduction. Gro. M. STERNBERG: Microscopical investigations of the Havana Yellow Fever Commission. : DE: The first decade of the U.S. Fish Commission. Its plan of work and accomplished results , scientific and economical. “7 E. B Euiotr: The credit of the United States Government. Wm. McMurrrie: On the defi ied . meteorological work in data of value to agriculture and oe for prongs ng t . CAPEN: Explanation of rae for 24 hours London and Boston time, showing ~ method - obtaining rey for weather prediction. - H. DupLey: Railroad t es Fi bobe: Contiibatieie of aytoultns to science. 4. Report of the ab tipi oe of the United States Coast Survey, showing the progress of the work for the fiscal year end- Ing with June, 1876. Pas se 4to, with 24 maps. Washington, 1879.—Among the various memoirs inserted as appendices to this ing metic, by EIRCE ; Methods of rene tidal observations with illustrations, by R. S. Avery; Report on the physical sur- at initial stations in America and arg ; Comparison of the methods of determining heights by leveling, vertical angles, and barometer, by G. Davipson and C. A. Scuorr; Observations on atmospheric refraction, and hypsometrie ih poe based on thermo- dynamic princip es, by A. ScHotTr; an chart of the mag- netic declination in the United States, by C. % anon There is also a list of publications relating to the deep sea investigations carried on in the vicinity of the coast of the United States under ve Sve of the Coast Survey, nv commences with obser- vations a Count Pourtalés in the 5 a and eg results of i its alteration agi Branch- ville nate by G. J. Brusu and E. 8. Dana: note to the article on p. 2 57.—The sections “yepreaented in figs. 15 ia 16 (p. 264), ee 17 and 18 (p. 265), and 19 (p. 270), are magnified 300 diam- OBITUARY. Cuartes Toomas Jackson, early eminent as a chemist, miner- alogist, geological explorer and teacher, and long identified with the science of Boston, died on the 29th of August last, at Sum- merville, Mass. Dr. Jackson was born in Plymouth, Mass, June arv niv 21,1805. While yet a student of medicine in ar ersity, Jackson pase’ in connection with the late Francis Alger, o Bosto n eological and mineralogical map of Nova Scotia, which was published in the Memoirs of the American Academy oston. He subsequently studied science in Paris, under the 352 Obituary. most eminent masters, and retained the warm personal friendship of Elie de Beaumont, throughout life. Returning to America in 1832 he soon abandoned medical practice and devoted his ener- rior invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph, is well remem- red, and the more acrimonious one on the subject of etherial paint Gian will probably never be settled to the satisfaction of the friends of either Jackson or Morton. The French Academy, after an investigation, decreed a prize of 2,500 francs to each of the contestants. In the erat Ae of the Royal gee oh there are sixty-nine titles seek Dr. son’s name, prior to 1863, and his name “ found often a a Gonteibintiie to the early volumes “of this Journ The older Gheatifist will remember his powerful blast- lamp ms alkaline fusions, which did good service before the eet duction of street gas became general in laboratories. He w active om te and long the president, of the Boston Society of Natural Hist Professor "ails SHERMAN Hatpeman died on Friday, the 17th of September, at = home in Chickies, te ee ae aged sixty-eight years. He was born near Columbia, Pa. 812, and graduated at Dickinson hoshage in 1830, In 1836 he was con- nected with the Geological Survey of New Jersey, and the fol- lowing year with that of Pennsylvania. He was Professor of also that of Profeseo or ° of Seach and T Chemistry 3 in the A Agri rieul- tural College of Pennsyl He aft erward became Professor of Philology in the University of Pennsylvania For many years e worked with great zeal and success in entomology and con- chology, and published various memoirs, describing new species trated with 114 sauces es, and containing a hibliont aphy ‘eerading sixty references. j ifs y ARRISONS scsi esiieneeainiieseeaaaliall BREWSTER < one i 38mit pian DANBU 1? |/ l A cS oe aoe ee F ‘g i ai = \ . a! X ee ' ‘ = ‘ ed \ EDFORD y » NN __ ——= z —— oe / J) — —— ee =o eee =a ima SCALE Y 2g A ae SA a | 3 MILES TO 1 INCH. i j : : - 3 * 3 : Punderson & Crisand,N Haven, Ot. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] ArT. XXXVII.—Spectroscopie Notes, 1879-80; by Professor C. A. Young, Princeton, N. J. I. Double reversal of lines in Chromosphere Spectrum. THE magnesium lines of the } group, and the two D-lines of sodium have been seen several times (first on June 5, 1880) doubly-reversed in the spectrum at the base of a prominence. shown in the figure. The phenom- sal of the bright sodium lines, ob- servable in the flame of a Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp under cer- tain circumstances when the quan- tity and temperature of the sodium vapor in the flame are greatly increased. Il. The H-lines in the Chromosphere and Sun-spot Spectra. In 1872, I found the H- and K-lines to be reversed in the Spectra of prominences and sun-spots, as observed at Sherman, 8,000 feet above the sea. Until recently I have not been able Am. Jour. em ar psi Vou. XX, No. 119.—Nov., 1880. 354 C. A. Young—=Spectroscopic Notes. to verify the ep ebdcrs except for a moment during the e these special rays, and exclusion of extraneous light T have no further difficulty with the observation. e a jam employed has collimator and view-telescope each of 14 inches aperture, and about thirteen inches focal length, and a a lum-metal Rutherfurd grating with 17,300 lines to the inch. A shade of cobalt blue glass greatly aids the observation. The solar image is 1} ‘iohen 3 in diameter. In the spectrum of the chromosphere, H and K are both always reversed. I have never failed to see them both when circumstances were bite that h, the nearest of the hydrogen lines, could be se to some other substance shan that which produces H an a substance prominent in the esi ibe, tena but not acialiy so in the neighborhood of spots. In view of the recent obser- vations of Vogel, Draper and Baoan, i is natural to think that hydrogen is probably the element concerned. If so, it may be expected that H will be found doubled in the spectrum of a spot which reverses the hydrogen line h. I have not yet been able to test it in this way, as h is rarely seen reversed, though C and F occur pretty cently: (See, further, a note by the author in the miscellany beyond.) Ul. gag sip of lines in the Solar Spectrum gerssol are given he Maps as common to two or more subst For en purpose a spectroscope of high fires has been constructed by combining the grating mentioned above, which has about four square inches of ruled surface, with a collima- tor and observing telescope each of three inches aperture and about 42 inches focal length, using magnifying powers ranging from 50 to 200. The apparatus is arranged 8 on a W frame oer and when in use is strapped to the tube of es 0. A. Young—Spectroscopie Notes. 355 12-feet equatorial of our observatory, so that it is kept by the driving clock directed to the sun. An image of the sun is formed on the slit by an achromatic object glass of three inches aperture, in order to increase the light and to avoid the widen- ing of the lines due to the sun’s rotation. A large prism of about 20° angle was sometimes placed in front of this object glass (between it and the sun) to separate the colors before reaching the slit; and in examining the darker portions of the Spectrum a concave cylindrical lens was sometimes used next the eye, like a shade glass, to reduce the apparent width of the Spectrum and thus increase its brightness. e grating is an admirable one, on the whole the best I have ever seen. But I have been greatly surprised at its ex- cessive sensitiveness to distortion by pressure or inequalities of temperature. Although the plate is fully 3 of an inch thick, and only 34 inches square, an abnormal pressure of less than a single ounce at one corner will materially modify its behavior, and a quarter of a pound destroys the definition entirely. fact the plate is not naturally exactly flat, and to get its best performance it is necessary to crowd a little wedge gently under one corner. When it is in good humor and condition, however, the performance is admirable; one could wish for nothing better, unless for a little more light in the violet por- tions of the spectrum. With this instrument I have examined the 70 lines given on Angstrom’s map as common to two or more substances. (At the time of the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Boston, I had finished the examination of only 47). Of the 70 lines, 56 are distinctly double, or triple; 7 appear to be single ; and as to the remain- ing 7, I am uncertain; in most cases, because I was unable to identify the lines satisfactorily on account of their falling upon spaces thickly covered with groups of fine lines, none of which are specially prominent. ; eneral rule the double lines are pretty close, the dis- tance being less than that of the components of the 1474 line. Generally also the components are unequal in width or dark- ness or both, though in perhaps a quarter of the cases they are alike in appearance. The doubtful_lines are the following, designated by their wave length on Angstrom’s map: 5489-2, 54250, 5896-1, 5265°8, 4271°5, 4253-9 and 42268. I strongly suspect 5396°1 and 5265°8 (which present no difficulty in iden- tification), of being double, but could never fairly split either of them, and therefore leave them among the doubtfuls. Those which show no signs of doubling, so far as could be pie were: 6121-2, 6064°5, 5019-4, 4585-8, 4578°3, 4249°8, and 5. 356 0. A. Young—Spectroscopic Notes. g grating. If the angle, between the normal to the grating and thre view-telesco e, 1s less than that between the actrisl and the n. e mathematical theory is very simple. Suppose the colli- mator and telescope to be fixed at a constant angle, as in the now usual arrangement. C. A. Young—wSpectroscopic Notes. 357 Let angle between telescope and collimator = a. ngle between telescope and normal to grating = t. Then angle between collimator and normal = % = a — r. Also, let space between adjacent lines « of os = 5, And the order of spectrum observe Then, by principles of spectrum formation we have A=} sine — sin xl, nr 4 being the ae Abo of the ray which is in the center of the field of v whence mn t= sect sin 4. s Differentiating, we have at once COS H cn om dt =e du, or praia which reduces to, dr = (cosa + sina tant)dx. Distortion can only disappear i in cases when this coefficient of dx reduces to unity. Special cases— 1. If t= there is no distortion—but also no dispersion : it is the case of simple reflection. 2. If x=0, the grating being kept normal to the collimator, it ween en adn. If t=0, the grating being kept normal to the telescope (which i in this case we pe ina then dr = cos a dx. 4. Ifa pened: ae = = the eyepiece. An instrument on this plan is ee made for Profedape Brackett i the Clarks, for use in the physical labora- tory at Princeton, and is now nearly completed. Princeton, Sept. 27, 1880 Note to the ehh Article, by Professor C. A. Youne.—An observation made since my p paper was written, leads me to modify this opinion, that he companion of H is due to byamgen and e hydrogen-lines, At 11 a. m. on October 7, a bright horn ap- peared on the S. E. limb of ion un. When firs st seen it was about 3’ or 4’ in elevation, but it rapidly stretched up and before noon reached a measured altitude of over 13’ (350,000 miles +) above 358 C. A. Young—Thermo-electric power of Iron, etc., in vacuo. mit. H notable elevation, though the companion of H was visible at the base of the prominence. The H- and K-lines also showed evidence of violent cyclonic action, just as id. / was only faintly visi- e in the prominence; F a he line near Y were of course strong. But no other lines, either of sodium, magnesium, or anything else, could be traced more than a very few seconds of are above the sun’s limb. I am not able to say how long the H- lines continued visible, or to what elevation they extended after- wards, as I returned to the C-line to watch the termination of the eruption. If I remember rightly, this eruption reached a higher elevation than any before observed. ere was (and is to-day) nothing on the sun’s limb visible with the telescope which would account for it. Princeton, Oct. 8. ArT. XXXVIII.— On the thermo-electric power of Iron and Sarina im vacuo; by Professor C. A. YounG, of Princeton, EXNER, a few months ago, published a paper asserting that the thermo-electric power of antimony and bismuth is de- stroyed by removing them from all contact with oxygen, and immersing them in an atmosphere of pure nitrogen. From this he argues that the thermo-electric force in general is due to the contact of the gases which bathe the metals. The following experiment was tried to test the theory : y the kindness of Mr. Edison and Mr. Upton a vacuum tube was prepared in Mr. Edison’s laboratory, containing an iron wire, about two inches long, firmly joined to two platinum terminals which passed through the walls of the tube; the tube was exhausted until the spark from a two-inch induction coil would not pass ¢ of an inch in the gauge-tube, indicating a The wi reflecting galvanometer was included in the circuit. By laying the tube and connected joinings in the sunshine, and alter- nately shading one or several of the joinings it was found that the electro-motive power of the joinings within the tube was precisely the same as that of those without, and the develop- ment of current just as rapid. There was no trace of any modification due to the exhaustion. J. D. Dana—Inmestone Belts of Westchester Co., N. Y. 359 Art. XXXIX.— Geological Relations of the Limestone Belts of Westchester County, New York; by JAMES D. Dana. (With a Map, Plate V.) [Continued from page 220.] 2. DistrRisuTION OF THE Betts or AREAS OF LIMESTONE. The limestone areas of the co ee sec the distribution shown on the accompanying map e V),“ the colored portions representing them. The Pesce surface is occu- pied by the crystalline schists—mostly mica schist and gneiss— as already explained. I have not attempted, in my study of the because my purpose was accomplished when their conforma- bility and their conformable relations to the limestone beds were ascertained, and the time I could command, without aid in he county. Moreover, the distinction of mica schist, micaceous gocieey thick-bedded feldspathic gneiss, hornblende schist, is, arts, of uo stratigraphical value, these unlike rocks, as bina been stated (p. 29), often occurring in alternations and graduating into one another in the direction of the bedding as well as transverse to it, rendering a correct mapping of their dis- tribution next to impossible. There are, however, areas of the hard feldspathic gneiss in which micaceous bands seldom laid Th estone areas often — as stated on 29, more or less mica schist or gneiss, which is not indicated on the map, partly owing to the smnall iced of the map, but ived a The Tahaped aid on the map indicate the strike and ~ of the beds, both of the limestone and schist; the top “This map, apart from its geological facts, is Colton’s pocket map of West- chester County da¥: ced one-half, with also the roads and most of the names of laces omitted. A slight change has been made in the coast west of Cruger’s, T-symbols with reference to all roads may be ascertained on comparison with Colton’s map. ; 360 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the of the T shows the direction of the strike, and the stem that of the dip (or pitch) of the beds for the locality situated at their junction. Moreover, the length of the stem as compared with that of half the top of the T is made to give an approxi- mate idea of the amount of dip, according to the following scheme: ratio for 80°, 1:4; for 70°,1:38; for 60°, 1:2; for 50°, 1:14; for 45°, 1:1; for 85°, 14:1; for 25°, 13:1; for 15°, 2: In the following descriptions of the belts I speak : first, of the SOUTHERN section of the county, from New Eee Island to White Plains; secondly, of the MIDDLE section, from White Plains to Croton Lake ; and thirdly, of the NortHEeRN section, north of the latitude of Croton Lake. The areas are num- bered on the map, and these numbers are used in connection with the descriptions. The following pages contain only the general facts respect- ing the several belts—their position and features ; the average strike and dip; the characteristics of the limestone , and the kinds of adjoining rocks and their relations as to position. The details with regard to the various directions of strike and dip at all the points marked by symbols on the map and for other points not thus indicated, which make part of this paper as prepared, are reserved, with other details, for an Appendix. a. Southern Section of the County. Three areas or belts commence in New York Island and ex- tend two to four miles into Westchester County. The adjoin- ing rocks are mica schist and micaceous gneiss and in some parts thick-bedded gneiss Area 1.—The eastern of these three pes which may be called the Tremont, extends from Fordham southward to Har- em River, and from thence into New York ined. It reaches Harlem River by two lines, a western at Mott Haven and an eastern at the mouth of Morris Mill brook, west of Brook avenue. The main strike is N. 18-25° BE." The western of these southern terminations, or that of Mott Haven, shows itself just east of the railroad, south of the Mott Haven railroad station, in two limestone hills which will soon disappear from grading. The rock on the west or opposite side of the railroad at this ee is somewhat contorted mica schist; and layers of the same kind of schist are involved among the beds of the anhers of the hills. Near the Mott Haven depot, the limestone passes to the west side of the rail- road, and from thence it continues northward on both sides. The eastern line has large outcrops of purer limestone near The angle pri (and so elsewhere in this paper) is corrected for magnetic ariation. In stating the dip, only the point of the compass is mentioned in a general way, the exact direction being at right angles to the strike. Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 361 142d street, and at many points to the north. The eastern and western lines become united in one wide belt in Morris- ania which continues northward through Tremont to Fordham. Toward Harlem River the interval between these two lines is limestone of the belt divides pee te as the facts appear to show, the axis of the fold has a small northward pitch. This division of the limestone to the south into two bands, an sataphs and western, separated by intervening schist, would come from the we pete. ‘down of such a fold to a horizontal i ag to represent an anticlinal fold with an inclined axis but vertical axial plane, in which layers of nails are enveloped by a stratum of prt In the pee? section, e fg, the cmtone of the two sides is in one connected mass from ¢ to m, but in two bands separated by interv eer esc from m to fg. The same also is shown in the section a Professor Gale states" that the gneiss along 4th avenue from 118th to 120th street is in places half limestone; and Professor D. S. Martin has obse Bre the same on. 194¢h street ; and these localities are in a hes with the Mott Haven and Tremont belt, and indicate its southward oe into New York Island, as recognized by Mr. R. P. Stevens.’ This Tremont belt is widened on its eck side in Morrisania, over Fleetwood Park, in consequence of a second anticlinal (see map), but one having the axis inclined southward, or in the opposite direction from that of the main belt. That the axis has this inclination is shown by the strike and dip of the mica schist which divides the northern end of this western exten- sion, and its widening northward. Ata section of the schist on the north side of the He the dip is in opposite directions ; '® Mather’s N. Y. Report, ™ Proc. Lye. Nat. Hist. el York, 1871, i, 222. 8 Annals, ibid., viii, 116. 362 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the = farther north on the Morrisania side, the anticlinal is a more gentle one. The limestone here extends over half a mile west of the railroad, the western limit being nearly half way up the slope that makes the high western side of the park. Area 2.—The second belt, or that of “the Clove,” Bridge Cromwell’s Creek, north of Central (or McComb’s Da am) B and the brook emptying into it. The most southern pate occurs about a mile north of the aes mei the crossing of the brook by Central avenue. Some of the layers at this place contain much chlorite in bright ¢ green scales. It out- crops again near the ‘Club House.” North of this the acrte ence of limestone is indicated only by the form and definite ness of the valley and by the outcropping schist on its sidek The limestone varies much in strike, owing to contortions, but the adjoining schist gives for the strike about N. 25° E. This belt probably continues southward into New York Island, as R. P. Stevens has observed,” who says that in grading east of 6th avenue in 132d street, limestone was cut t rough. Area 3.—This limestone belt is a prominent feature of the north a of New York Island. From the island it extends three miles northward into Westchester County, along Tibbit’s Brook. At Kingsbridge a deep cut is made through it for the Hudson River railroad. North of this place it is not in sight along Van Cortland’s Lake, but outcrops at points in the val- ley of Tibbit’s Brook above this to if not beyond the stone- arched bridge, nearly three miles from Kingsbridge. Crumb- ling masses of the limestone lie on the eastern approach to this bridge which, as I am informed by the superintendent in its construction, Mr. John Wetherill, were quarried in that vicinity, his letter saying hee opened several quarries for stone for the bridge,” and found “all the rock of the valley to be limestone of a poor kind.” The mica schist on the east ie a N. 37°-40° E., the ip in both 70°-75° to the eastward. he limestone area from dae. southward was imper- fectly mapped by Dr. L. D. Gale.” South of the Harlem, it widens on its eastern side for the first mile and just north of the east-and-west inlet called Sherman’s Creek, extends from a point west of the “ Kingsbridge road” or Inwood street to the Harlem River. Thence its western side has a narrow continuation southward along the Kingsbridge road in a well- defined valley wall-sided on the west, while its broad middle portion is fronted, south of Sherman ‘Creek, by hills of mica- ceous gneiss; and it is probable, judging from its strike, that 19 Annals Lye. Nat. Hist. New eo viii, 116. 20 In Mather’s N. Y. Geol. Rep., Plate I. - Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 363 the eastern side has its narrow continuation down Harlem River, as is suggested on the map, although no outcrops appear to prove it. If this be the correct view, the area as a whole resembles in form the Tremont or No. 1, and, like that, owes the forked character to its being the remains of a denuded fold. The most southerly ee of the limestone on the Kingsbridge road is, as found by Dr. Gale, near 204th street, or about 500 yards south of poke: street, where the width of the valley is nearly 800 yards. The valley fades out and is closed by the — at 182d street; the limestone may exist beneath as far s 190th street, if not beyond. The supposed. Harlem River or eastern fork of the belt has western side. The depression is well defined to 115th street, and is distinct to 110th.” ver the more southern part of New York Island, in the line of the western fork of the belt, there are some localities ” occur in the tions the occurrence of black serpentine between 10th avenue and the river and between 54th and 62d street, ae a bed twelve feet wide containing also limestone and tale. At 157th street, 100 feet west of 10th avenue, a mixture of Hea and ser- pentine has been observed. North of Area No. 1, which stops at Fordham, the line of out- cropping limestone is shifted a little eastward to the course of the valley of the Bronx, in which occur, at intervals, the areas numbered 4, 10 and 11; and from No. 3, there is a shift west- ward, to the course of ce valley of Saw Mill River, along which there are, at Yonkers, two small parallel areas 7 and and farther to the north, numbers 14 and 15. The line of No. may perhaps fo represented in No. 9, which follows the course of Grassy Sprain Brook. To the east are two areas, nearly in the same line of strike, numbered 5 =e 6, which are the serpentine areas of New Rochelle and *! Whether the fold in this limestone is a synclinal or pieces a do not Positively decide. This point will be further considered in the appendix * Mather’s N, Y. Geol. Report, p. 582. 364 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the As stated, these limestone areas follow the courses of the rivers mentioned ; but the historical fact in each case is this, that the river follows the course of the imestone, the softness of the latter rock causing it to yield easily to eroding or denud- ing agents. Area 4.—In this area, ledges of limestone show themselves just above the point of junction of the Harlem an railroads, and were cut through in grading for the tracks. The valley of the Bronx has here a flat marshy bottom and this continues, with the same bordering schist northward to West Mt. Vernon and southward to and below Williams Bridge, indicating the probable presence there of the limestone, as in- dicated on the ma was informed at Williams Bridge of the former existence of an outcrop of limestone visible at low water, on me river just below the bridge, but failed to find any no The strike of the mica cone adjoining the belt on the feet is N. 20°-29° K., and an ke °—15° Ke ; and west of the areas are nealy on the same line of strike. There is no essential difference in the schist adjoining them. The dip of the rocks around the latter afford evidence that it is situated along the axis of a local anticlinal. From Stamford westward to the Harlem the dip is in general westward; but at Port- chester on the way toward Rye the dip changes to sear and then becomes westward again west of the area. The sym- bols indicate the wrenching the beds underwent in the making of the fold, and show that the fold was steepest and narrowest to the southwest, and had its axis inclined to the south-south- westward. — vicinity of = Harlem railroad, the rock chang to a hard It appears that upon these high see the earthy material or drift left by the glacier has remained almost undisturbed, instead of being cut through to the rocks as on the slopes that Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 365 lead to the Sound on one side and to the valley of the Har- lem railroad on the other. Along this railroad, limestone again appears, and before reaching it there is a return to mica- ceous gneiss and mica schist. Areas 7 and 8.—Of these areas at Yonkers, number 7, or the western, follows the course of a north and south bend in Saw i iver, and has a width of at least 100 feet. It lies beneath the city of Yonkers, and I am indebted for the facts respecting it to Mr. W. W. Wilson, Engineer of the Yonkers Water Works. Indications of a more eastern belt (No. 8) occur along the Saw Mill River valley, just north of the city, in the existence of loose masses of limestone on the east side of the river. But I found no outcrops in my observations along that southern portion of the valley, and its width an length are therefore undetermined. It is possible that the two areas may be one cut into two by a fracture and a horizontal or oblique faulting. The rocks are not open to view for a decision of this point. rea 9.—This small area, on Grassy Sprain Brook, has a width to the south of 500 yards. The strike is N. 10°-20° E. Areas 10, 11 and 12.—Kast of the last, on the River Bronx, a limestone belt begins near Bronxville, which, in Tuckahoe and Scarsdale, is the site of many marble quarries. The strike is N. 22°-27° E. This limestone belt tapers out to the south, while to the north, and for the most of its course, it is divided into two parts separated by a band of mica schist and gneiss. It is probable that the whole corresponds to a decapitated anti- clinal having its inclined axis dipping at a small angle to the south. To the north of the Scarsdale depot the eastern line is not traceable, and the western line appears to thin out. imestone re-appears on the Bronx 100 to 200 rods to the north of the last, just east of the railroad—that of area 11 —and thence continues to Hartsville, where the strike is N. 17°-24° EK. A narrow strip of low land follows the east side of the Bronx nearly to White Plains, and it is possible that the belt is continued beneath it. About a mile and a half north of hite Plains a small area of limestone shows itself, No. 12, the most of the exposure of which is due to the removal of the Stratified drift. Area 13,—Again, along the Hudson, north of Yonkers, occurs the Hastings belt. It was formerly visible at Dobb’s Ferry ; and it was cut into, as I learn from Mr. Benjamin S. Church, when excavations were going on there for the Croton aqueduct. This river-border belt may have much greater length than is given it on the map, and greater width also; for the high terrace deposits (stratified drift) of the valley conceal all shore rocks. The adjoining schists are gneiss with nearly vertical dip. 366 J. D. Dana—Geological Relations of the b. Middle Section of the County. Areas 14 and 15.—In Saw Mill River valley—the same that has its limestone belts near Yonkers—a large limestone area commences, about two and a half miles north of Ashford. It widens much at East Tarrytown and continues northward to a near junction with the Pleasantville area, No. 15. The mean strike for its northern two-thirds is about N, 30° K. The Pleasantville area also is broad and sinuous in course. It terminates just north of the Chappaqua depot. The strike near Unionville is N. 24° E., and at Pleasantville (where there are large and valuable quarries) mostly N. 30°-40° HK. A small independent limestone area (No. 15a) occurs just east of the Pleasantville area. Areas 16 and 17.—The long known Sing Sing belt com- mences south of the depot on the Hudson and extends north- northeast nearly to the north boundary of the town of Ossin- ing; and it also branches eastward up a small valley toward the Camp Woods, a furcation which seems to indicate the ex- istence of an anticlinal fold with the axis dipping southward, which was made thus to furcate by denudation as in the case of the Tremont area, No. 1, the opposite direction of pitch in the axis making the difference in the direction of the furcation. No. 17 is a small area of contorted limestone giving nothing reliable as to strike or dip. Areas 18 and 19.—A small Croton limestone area, No. 18, exists half a mile east of the village, without distinguishable planes of bedding. Mica schist bounds it on the north; but it may extend in the opposite direction to the bay, where drift and alluvium conceal the rocks. uth of Croton River a narrow area, No. 19, extends from near a bridge northeast of the last, called Quaker Bridge, to the fureation of the river at Huntersville, about two miles, fol- lowing mostly the west side of the road. Its southern portion has a westward bend, with which the strike of the limestone corresponds. Areas 20, 21 and 22.—No. 20 is a very small area at Merritt’s Corners among contorted rocks, giving uncertain strike and dip. No. 21, to the northeast, on the east border of Croton Lake, may be the margin of a long belt following the course of that part of the lake, though such an inference is not sug- gested by the observed strike. No. 22 is another small area of contorted limestone near Bedford station on the Harlem rail- road. Area 23.—No. 238 lies to the east of the Pleasantville belt on the borders of New York and Connecticut, and follows the course of Byram River to its source in Byram Lake. It was first laid down on Percival’s geological map of Connecticut Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 367 and the limits assigned to it by him are here retained. 1 found the limestone outcropping along the eastern half of the broad valley. The mean strike to the south is N. 10° E. ; and the same east of Armonk. The limestone exists in the lake and was quarried near the northeast when the water was quite low ; but I found there no place for observing the strike except- ing in the schists about the lake, where the rocks are greatly contorted (see the T-symbols on the map), as if situated about the end of a fold. Areas 24 and 25.—These areas, to the northeast of Byram Lake (first mapped by Percival), are both bow-shaped, but in opposite directions. No. 24 follows a valley along the head- waters of Mianus River, and No. 25, that of Stone Hill River. The limestone outcrops to the east of the village of Bedford show that the bend corresponds with a change in the strike of the beds. In the Stone Hill River belt the strike of the bed- ding, in its southwestern part, is N. 55° E., but in its eastern, N. 23° E., showing that the bow-shaped form of the valley and outcrop was determined by the direction of the i c. Northern Section of the County. Some of the areas in the northern part of the Middle section of the county have been shown to tend toward east-and-west in trend and in the strike of the beds. In the Northern sec- tion the larger part of the areas have approximately this abnor- mal course, the normal northeast trend existing only in a large eastern and in some of the northwestern areas. Areas 27 and 28, and the small areas in the Verplanck Penin- sula.—These areas have been described on pages 205, 215. I add here that while the rocks on the north side of the Cruger’s limestone (number 27) are mica schist, and micaceous gneiss with soda-granite, quartz-dioryte and various chrysolitic kinds, those on the south side are the ordinary gneisses of West- chester County, containing chiefly orthoclase with some triclinic feldspar, and vary in color from flesh-colored and grayish-white where the feldspar predominates, to black or grayish-black where mica (biotite) is abundant. Of the small limestone areas of the Verplanck Peninsula, No. 2 (see map on page 195) has black dioryte on its northeast side, but on the opposite, and plainly 368 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the conformable with it, common gneissoid mica schist, and in the schist there are thin beds of limestone. e Verplanck belt, No. 28, has the normal northeast trend, the strike averaging N. 35° E. (dip 60°-70° E.). But toward the Point there is much variation from this, the strike a third of a mile from the Point changing from N. 44° E. to N. 63° W., and near the river, south of the more northern brickyard, from N. 50° EK. to N. 74° E., the dip 40°-70° E. Areas 29, 80 and 80 A.—Number 29, another of the north- ern belts having a northeast course, extends up Sprout Brook Valley or Canopus Hollow, into the Archzan area of Putnam County. Its length is nearly five miles. It adjoins quartzyte conformably at the mouth of the brook (p. 214) with the strike N. 47°-54° E., and dip 60°-70° E.; near the crossing from Peekskill to Annsville, a hydromica slate lies between it and the quartzyte ; and just below Annsville, near the river, it lies against Archean hornblendic gneiss. The most northern outcrop I have found is situated to the west of the south end of Osca- wana Lake. The limestone has been already described as for the most part but slightly crystalline, especially in its more southern portion. Two-thirds of a mile north of the Putnam County line, under a bridge over the stream, quartzyte in beds lies against the limestone; and above this at some of the out- wi the limestone is interstratified with mica schist. anopus Hollow belt appears to be continued south- westward, across Hudson River, in the limestone of Tompkins Cove at the foot of the Archean Highlands. This limestone forms a prominent bluff facing the water and has long been worked for lime. It is in its eastern part a whitish, compact, fine-grained, crystalline limestone, but to the westward a gray, uncrystalline rock. The area extends south-southeast nearly to Stony Point village, about two miles, and dis- appears because beyond this it is overlaid by the Triassic Red sandstone. The average strike is N. 20° E., and the dip 35° to 60° EH. Just southwest of Stony Point it is covered by a grayish to reddish limestone conglomerate made up of peb- bles and rounded stones which are worn fragments of the lime- stone bed; and: this conglomerate is referred by Professor G. H. Cook to the Triassic. Although the average strike of the beds of the limestone is as above stated, there are great variations at the Cove, they becoming even east-and-west in some parts. At the Cove the limestone has on its western side, a blackish, fragile, partly graphitic slate or hydromica schist (called talcose slate by Mather), resembling that of Canopus Hollow north of Peekskill, which, half a mile south, changes to a quartzose rock, partly feldspathic, resembling the granitoid quartzyte of Peekskill. Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 369 On its eastern side, toward the base of Stony Point, it is followed conformably by mica schist and micaceous gneiss, coast by a massive granitoid rock which is intermediate litho- logically between soda-granite and ordinary granite, the feld- spar being half orthoclase. Then succeed the noryte and chrys- olitic rocks of the areas marked z’ and z on the map on page 5, then the soda-granite of y, and lastly, near the extremity of the Point, the mica sehist or micaceous gueiss of 2 The succession along the north side of the Point from west to east thus is: (1) schist, (2) semi-soda-granite, (3) chrysolitic rocks, (4) soda-granite, (5) schist. Going between these points by the south a wholly different state of things is found; schist continues all the way; and the strike varies from N. 20° E. where at ad- joins the limestone, through northwest and west-and-east, to N. 62° -70° H,, which is the strike on the south side of the Point, south of the eastern soda-granite, as already stated (page 218). of the schist into the soda-granite with the rock very garnet- iferous at the junction—a good example of which may be seen northeast of the house on the south side of the point. Notwithstanding doubts on some points, there is no ques- tion that the schist has the flexure pointed out, and is one con- tinuous stratum; and that the limestone is an adjoining stra- tum, and must have participated in the flexure. Further, since the dip of the schist on both the south and west sides is towar the axis of the flexure, the limestone stratum is probably an under- lying one, which would make the schist and soda-granite supe- rior to it in stratigraphical position. Now since the Cruger’s limestone adjoins a schist that is similar to that of Stony Point in kind, and position, and in all of us relations to the soda-granite, the Cruger’s limestone must be of the same stratum with the Tompkins’ Cove limestone; and, if so, it ts one, also, with the limestone of Canopus Hollow. : The area Number 80 is like 29 in extending along a promi- nent valley—Peekskill Hollow—northeastward far into the Ar- chean. The most northern locality of limestone which I have found is a mile and a half above Tompkins’ Corners (west of Am. Jour. een ee Series, Vou. XX, No. 119.—Nov., 1880. 370 J. D. Dana—Geological Relations of the the mouth of Roaring Brook) about seven miles northeast of Oregon—a village on the borders of the two counties. fine-grained white to blue limestone and occurs with a well marked by the T-symbols. Below this, there are no out- crops of rock, and its limits southwestward are consequently undetermined. This valley—Peekskill Hollow—is so narrow ° for much of the way above Adams Corners that it is probable that the limestone is not continuous, but that the present spots are what is left after long denudation. There can no reasonable doubt that the large, open valley was once the course of a broad band of the limestone for the whole of the seven miles in Putnam County. The facts observed with respect to area 30 A and the asso- ciated mica schist and quartzyte are mentioned on page 214. Mather speaks of an outcrop of limestone, with “ hornblende rock adjoining it on the east,” at the Lower Dock of Peekskill. This spot is now graded over and the observation cannot be confirmed ; but it lies in the line of this area where it would reach the river. If it is correct, the rock which adjoins the limestone in this part is noryte, and no mica schist intervenes between this rock and the limestone, as it does 150 yards north. To the eastward, in Peekskill village, there is limestone in the mica schist on the Crom Pond road, according to Mather ; and north of the Academy grounds there appears to be an out- crop in the road; and this lies on the south margin of the valley in which this area occurs. The limit of the area eastward is not determinable; it may possibly connect with that of Peekskill Hollow, though this seems to be hardly probable. Areas 31, 32, 83, 84 and 35.—Number 81, in the southern part of Somers, east of Hallock’s Mills, trends nearly east and west; it is made up of two parts, a western and eastern, the strike in the former N. 58° E., and that in the latter east-and- west. Number 32, in North Somers, east of Somers Center, is another nearly east-and-west area, the strike averaging N. 71° umbers 88, 34 are small areas, too limited in extent of outcrop to determine their characters, beyond that of an approx- imately east-and-west trend. No. 35, or that of Lake Wack bue, has, according to Percival, the extent given it on the map. I have seen outcrops only between the lake and the pond west f it , Areas 36, 37 and 38.—The large North Salem belt, No. 36, first laid down by Percival, is six miles long, and has an east- and-west course. It has in some parts a band of gneiss Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 871 grounds for the following statements. The limestones and adjoining schists of Westchester County— (1) are one in series and system of disturbance. 1. The Limestone and adjoining Schists one in series. From the facts presented on the map and in the preceding pages, and better from the special details as to the position of the beds and kinds of rocks given beyond in the Appendix, the important conclusion is derived that, throughout the county, the limestone of the several areas is conformable in its bedding to the schists which in each case adjoin it. There are contortions in the limestone, and in many places also in the schists; but this is so because such uplifting necessarily involved a warping of the beds, and was often attended also by 372 J. D. Dana—Geological Relations of the. torsion. The limestone areas are commonly the positions of upward or downward folds or flexures, with usually the axis in each case inclined in the direction of the fold and the axial plane also inclined to one side or the other; and in the making of them, contortions should have been often produced. The small serpentine area at Rye, No. 6, is a striking illustration ; and the north end of area 28 is another. The varying strikes between areas 24 and 25 show the effects of torsion and the interference of the near extremities of two curving folds. 2. Relation to the Green Mountain System. With reference to the relation of the rocks of the county to ij of the Green Mountain elevation. The axis passes along the interlocking borders of Connecticut and New York, and least degrees of metamorphism are found in the limestone and associated schists of the vicinity of Peekskill, in the northwest corner, while along the central and eastern portions of the county, and in the western, also, south of Croton, the crystalli- zation is commonly very coarse. The limestone of the Ver- planck, Cruger’s and Croton areas (Nos. 28, 27, 18), are of inter- mediate texture. (3.) The limestones have the same kinds of associated rocks, that is, of mica schists and gneisses, as in the eastern and more metamorphic portion of the region in Connecticut—a fact deserving mention though not of great weight. ; e limestones have a like paucity in disseminated min- erals and similar occurring species with those of Connecticut ; mica (muscovite) and tremolite being the common kinds, white pyroxene of occasional appearance, and graphite sometimes present. (5.) The ordinary normal trend of the rocks, N. 20° E. to N. 30° E., is very nearly the average trend of the beds of limestone and associated rocks in the Green Mountain system. Through the Southern and Middle sections of Westchester County this trend or strike is almost uniform, except where great contortions occur; and on the east, this strike is continued northward into Connecticut. In the Northern section, on the contrary, the exceptions, excluding its eastern and northwestern portions, are almost universal; and the question is a serio one whether another system is not here represented. But, in opposition to this inference, we observe that the limestones and Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 373 money, that of the Northern. My study of the position of the beds has not resulted in the discovery of any want of conformity between the rocks of different areas except such as can be traced to contortion. The east-and-west and northeast trends appear therefore to have been results of one and the same system of disturbance. This argument with reference to the relation of the rocks to those of the Green Mountain system cannot be regarded as wholly satisfactory without a fuller presentation of the facts from the adjoining portions of Connecticut, and this will be given in another number of this Journal. 3. The limestone and associated rocks are younger than the Archean of the Highlands. The region affords three classes of decisive facts. (1.) The rock adjoining the Archzan in the southern part of Canopus Hollow near Annsville is a bluish slightly crystalline limestone, so slightly that it might for all this contain fossils. This nearly uncrystalline condition characterizes the limestone for a mile up the valley though not in so extreme a pi and beyond this it has nowhere the coarseness of the lime- stones to the : ee 5 (2.) The limestone area is bordered on its west side, opposite 3874 J. D. Dana—Limestone Belts of Westchester Co., N. Y. Annsville, by a fine-grained hydromica schist which looks as much like argillyte as the Dutchess County slates at Pough- keepsie that contain Hudson River fossils; and this argillyte- ike rock occurs at other points up Canopus Hollow, forming hills on its eastern side, and outcropping occasionally on the west side. Its feeble degree of crystallization corresponds with that of the limestone. Both rocks in this respect are like the rocks of Dutchess County, and unlike anything found in the Highland Archean. (3.) The limestone at the locality near Annsville lies uncon- formably against hornblendic Archean gneiss, its beds much contorted ; and another similar case of unconformability exists on the east border, half a mile northeast. In general, both in this valley and Peekskill Hollow, actual contacts are not in sight owing to the earth or alluvium of the valley ; and the upturning of the limestone and its associated schist has usually placed them in near conformity to the strike of the Archean rocks. Still, the unconformability is in some places distinct. Moreover the mica schist involved with the limestone in the case if the rocks were of the age of the Highland Archean. Inasmuch then as the Westchester rocks are newer than the Highland Archeean, the limestone belts of Canopus Hollow and Peekskill Hollow occupy Archean valleys—valleys that %3 The limestone of the small areas of the Verplanck peninsula, situated in the hornblendic and augite rocks, is often graphitic and more coarsely crystalline than t of the Point, Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. 375 antedate the era of the rem and these broad and ongly marked valleys were a he sea in that er stretching a third —— a cae of the weg across the Putnam County Highland re n these extensive bay the lime and quartzyte, were formed. Since, also, the limestone now in these valleys is what is left after long ages of denudation, it has but a small part of the — and thickness which belonged originally to the format m the fact of this: ‘prosdicionds of the Archean High- lands, we appear to have also a reason for the contortions of the rocks in the northern half of Westchester County, and for the nearly east-and-west courses in the bedding. For in the upturning or flexing of the strata, which took place, and which put the beds in nearly vertical positions over the whole county, the Archean stood as a stable barrier on the north ; against it the rocks were forced a the lateral pressure that produced the great results.) The mass of the Archean as here an easterly trend, much more easterly than that of the New Jersey Archzean, although the strike of the Archian beds is generally northeast." The direction of the pressure and the resistance to movement in such a barrier, are the chief of the conditions that would have determined the direction of the folds, fractures and faults in the disturbed strata. [To be continued. ] * Art. XL. a Re and Embryological Development. Ad- dress by ALEXANDER Aaassiz, Vice-president of Section B, -at the recent ices Meeting ‘of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. [Continued from page 302.] up now the embryological development of the veal ‘families which will form the basis of our comparisons, beginning with the Cidaride, we find that in the earliest stages they very soon assume the characters of the adult, the changes being limited to the development of the abactinal system, increase in number of the coronal plates, and the modi fications of the Pes OY pee primar les. I the changes undergone by the young are limited to ie “gfeaal transformation of the embryonic Spines into those which characterize the family, to the changes *4 In New Jersey, also, the trend of the mass of the Archean has more isn according to Prof. G. H. Cook, as brought out in his New Jersey Geological Re- port (1868), than re stike of its beds, the former being about northeast and the tter north-northea 376 Agassiz —Paleontological and Embryological Development. of the vertical row of pores in the ambulacral area into the ares of three or four pairs of Pontes and to the specialization of the th the Echinometrade the young thus far observed are characterized by the small number of their primary tubercles, the large size of the spines, the simple vertical row of pores, the closing of the anal ring by a single plate, and the turban- shaped outline of the test. Little by little, the test loses with increasing age this Cidaris-like character; it reminds us, from the increase in the number of its plates, more of Hemicidaris ; then, with their still greater increase, of the Pseudodindema- tide ; and, finally, of the Echinometrade pro . following pari passu, the changes of the test, oe little by little their fantastic embryonic, or rather. Cidaris-like appearance, and become more solid and shorter, till they finally assume the delicately fluted structure characteristic of the Echinometrade. The vertical poriferous zone is first changed into a series of connected vertical ares, which become disjointed, and form, changed to the characteristic heer types. e find, as in the Echinometradz, an anal system closed with a single plate, and an abactinal system separating in somewhat more advanced stages from the coronal plates of the test. This is as yet made up of a comparatively small number of plates, carrying but few large primary Saherslos, with fantastically shaped spines entirely out of pees to the test, but which, little by little, with the increase of the number of coronal plates, the addition of primary tubercles, and es proportional decrease in ae assume more and more the structure of the genus to which the young belongs. The original anal plate is gradually lost sight of from the increase in number of the plates covering the ana system, and it is only among the woven reebit that this anal plate remains more or less prominent in the adult. In the Salenidz, of which we know as yet nothing of the development, this embryonic plate remains Heep a prominent struc- — feature of the apical syste oung . ha following ing have served as a basis for the preceding laaivnts of the roth oe or ors the Desmosticha: Cidaris, Dorocidaris, idaris, Aiba Podocidaris, Strongylocentrotus, Echinometra, ae Toxopneustes, Biippouiol, muniniopletras, Temnechinus, and Trigonoci Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. 377 surmounted by few and large primary tubercles, supporting proportionally equally large primary radioles, simple rectilinear poriferous zones, no petaloid ambulacra,—in fact, scarcely one of the features we are accustomed to associate with the Clype- astroids is as yet prominently developed. But rapidly, with increasing size, the number of primary tubercles increases, the * Among the Clypeastroids I have examined the young of Echinocyamus, Fib- ularia, Mellita, Laganum, Echinarachnius, Encope, Clypeaster, and Echinanthus. 878 Agassiz—Paleontological und Hmbryological Development. young stages of this group of i eg ap not one of these structural features is as yet developed. e actinostome is simple, the poriferous zone has the same simple structure from the actinostome to the apex, the primary tubercles are large, few in number, surrounded by spines which would more readily pass as the spines of Cidaridze than of Spatangoids. The fas- cioles are either very indistinctly indicated, or else the special ines have not as yet made their appearance ; the ambulacral suckers of the anterior zones are as large and prominent as those of the young stages of any of the regular Hchini. It is only little by little, with advancing age, that we begin to see signs of the specialization of the anterior and posterior parts of the test, that we find the characteristic anal or lateral soma making their appearance, only with increasing size that t spines lose their Cidaris-like appearance, that the petals basil to be formed, and that the simple cree develops a prom- inent posterior lip. In the genus Hemiaster, the young stages are specially interesting, as long before the appearance of the petals, while the poriferous zone is still simple, the total sepa- ration of the bivium and of the trivium of the ambulacral sys- tem, so characteristic of ithe earliest Spatangoids (the Dysas- teridw), is very apparent. rom this rapid sketch a the changes of growth in the prin- cipal families of the recent Echini we can now indicate the transformation of a more general character through which the groups as a whole pas In the first place, While still in the Pluteus all the young Kehini are remarkable for the small number of coronal plates, and for the absence of any sae between the actinal and abactinal systems and the test proper. They all further agree in the large size of the primary spines of the test, whether it be the young s a Cidaris, an Arbacia, an Echinus, a Clypeaster, or a Spatangoid, They all in their youngest stages have simple ated ambulacral zones; beyond this, we find as changes characteristic of some of the Desmosticha, the special- ization of the actinal system from the coronal plates, the forma- tion of an anal system, the rapid increase in the number of the coronal plates, with a corresponding increase in the number of the spines and a proportional reduction of their size, the form- ation of an abactinal ring, and the change of the simple verti- cal poriferous zone into one composed of independent ares. In the Spatangoids and Clypeastroids we find common to both groups the shifting of the anal system to its definite place, the modifications of the abactinal part of the simple ambulacral * For this sketch of the embryology, of the Petalosticha I have examined th young of Kchinolampas, a Kehinocardium, Brissopsis, Agassizia, Spe- tangus, Brissus, and Hem Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. 379 system in order to become petaloid, and the gradual change of the elliptical ovoid test of the young to the characteristic generic test, accompanied by the rapid increase in the number of the the simple actinostome to a labiate one, the specialization of the anterior and posterior parts of the test, and the definite formation of the fascioles. Comparing this embryonic development with the paleonto- logical one, we find a remarkable similarity if both, and in a general way there seems to be a parallelism in the appearance of the fossil genera and the successive stages of the develop- ment of the Hchini as we have traced it. We find that the earlier regular Echini all have more or less a Cidaris-like look,—that is, they are Echini with few coronal plates, large primary tubercles, with radioles of a correspond- ing size; that it is only somewhat later that the Diademopsidx make their appearance, which, in their turn, correspond within and miliaries, and traces of a Hemicidaris-like stage in the size of the actinal ambulacral tubercles. omparing in the same way the paleontological development of the Echinidx proper, we find that, on the whole, they agree well with the changes of growth we can still follow to-day in their representatives, and that, as we approach nearer the pres- ent epoch, the fossil genera more and more assume the struct- ural feats which we find developed last among the Echinidee of the present day. Very much in the same manner asa young Kchinus develops, they lose, little by little, first their Cidarid- ian affinities, which become more and more indefinite, next their Diadematidian affinities, if I may so call the young stages to which they are most closely allied, and, finally, with the increase in the number of the coronal plates, the great nu- fossil Echini of the Tertiaries, we pass insensibly into the generic types characteristic of the present day. __ Although we know nothing of the embryology of the Salen- id, yet, like the Cidaridw, they have in a great measure remained a persistent type, the modifications of the group being all in the same direction as those noticed in the other Desmos- 380 Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. ticha ; a greater number of coronal plates, the development of secondaries and miliaries combined with a specialization of the actinal system not found in the Cidaride. : An examination of the succession of the Echinoconide shows but little modification from the earliest types; the changes, however, are similar to those undergone by the Clypeastroids and Petalosticha, though they do not extend to modifications of the poriferous zone, but are mainly changes in the actinos- tome and in the tuberculation. In fact, the-group of Echino- sistency of the types preceding the Kchinoneidw and the Ananchytide, which have remained without important modifi- ree with the changes which have been observed in the growth of Echinolampas. The early genera, like Pygurus, have many of the characteristics of the test of the young Echi- nolampas. The development of prominent bourrelets and of the floscelle and petals goes on side by side with that of genera in which the modification of the actinostome, of the test, and of the petals is far less rapid, one group retaining the Echino- neus features, the other culminating in the Echinolampas o the present day, and having likewise a persistent type, Echino- rissus, which has remained with its main structural features unchanged from the Jura to the present day. That is, we find genera of the Cassidulidee which recall the early Echinoneus stage of Echinolampas, next the Caratomus stage, after which the floscelle, bourrelets, and petals of the group become more prominent features of the succeeding genera. Accompanying the persistent type Echinobrissus, genera appear in which either the bourrelets or petals have undergone modifications more extensive than those of the same parts in the genera of the Kchinoneus or Caratomus type. The earliest Spatangoids belong to the Dysasterids, appa- rently an aberrant group, but which, from the history of the Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. 381 young Hemiaster, we now know to be a strictly embryonic type, which, while it thus has affinities with the true Spatan- goids, still retains features of the Cassidulide in the mode of the anal system. The genera following this group, Holaster and Toxaster, can be well compared, the one to the young Can trace an agreement which, as we go further back in time, becomes more and more limited. We are either compelled to 882 Agassiz Paleontological and Embryological Development. seek for the origin of many structural features in types of which we have no record, or else we must attempt to fin them existing potentially in groups where we had as yet not succeeded in tracing them. The parallelism we have traced does not extend to the structure as a whole. What we find is 3 he These are all structural features which are modified independ- ently one of the other; we may find simultaneous develop- ment of these features in parallel lines, but a very different degree of development of any special feature in separate fam- ilies. This is as plainly shown in the embryological as in the paleontological development. In the Cidaride there is the minimum of specialization in these structural features. In the ence of the few larger primary ambulacral tubercles at the base of the ambulacral area, and by their Diademopsid and Eehinid- j ( E a j : Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. 388 ian affinities that we explain the indented imbricated actinal system with the presence of a few genuine miliaries. But all the structural features which characterize the earliest types of spines of the abactinal region of the test naturally leads to similar spines covering the whole test in the other families of the Desmosticha. The .difference existing in the plates cover- less gibbous forms, next that of the Laganide, and finally of the flat Scutellides; while we trace in the Echinanthide the Spatangoid genera, the modifications of a test in which the ambulacral and interambulacral areas are made up of plates of nearly uniform size, in which the anterior and posterior extrem- ities are barely specialized, to the most typical of the Ananchy- tide, in which the anterior and posterior extremities have devel- oped the most opposite and extraordinary structural features. In a similar way we can trace among the fossil genera of differ- ent families the gradual development of the actinal plastron from its very earliest appearance as a modification of the posterior interambulacral area of the actinal side, or the growth of the posterior beak into an anal snout, the successive changes of the anal groove, the formation of the actinal labium, or the devel- . 884 Agassiz—Paleontological and Embryological Development. opment of the bourrelets and phyllodes een a simple circular actinostome, the gradual deepening of slight anterior groove of some early Spatangoid to nae the deeply sunken actinal groove. Hqually well we can trace the modifications of the ambulacral system as it passes from the simple poriferous zones of the earlier Spatangoids to genera in which the petal- iferous portion makes its appearance, and finally becomes the specialized structure of our recent Spatangoid genera, such as Schizaster, Moira, and the like. Fin ally, we can trace to a cer- prominent, to genera like Brissopsis, Brissus, and the like, of the present day; on the other, perhaps, or in both combined, the formation of a lateral and anal fasciole from genera like Micraster in Spatangus and Agassizia. us we must, on the same theory of the independent modifications of special struc- tural features, trace the many and complicated affinities which so constantly strike us in making comparative studies, and which render it impossible for us to express the manifold affinities we notice, without taking up separately each special structure. Any attempt to take up a com ination of charac- ters, or a system of Perma is sure to lead us to indefinite problems far beyond our power to grasp. In the oldest fossil Giypeaiteoiie oa Petalosticha, as well as in the Desmosticha, we also find the potential expression of the greater number of ‘the modifications subsequently carried out in genera of later date. The semipetaloid structure of some of the earlier genera of a, the slight modifica- tions o — of the plates of the actinal side near the actinos- tome, the precursors, the one of the highly complicated elaioa aaese of the recent Spatangoids, the other of the actinal plastron, leading as it does also to the ot ee differ- ences subsequently developed in the anterior and posterior ex- tremities of the test, as well as to the modifications which lead to the existence of a highly labiate actinostome. The appear- ance of a few srisasiant = the actinostome constitutes the first rudimentary bourre Going back now to ite Palechinidee, the earliest representa- tives of the Echini in paleeozoic times, ‘without ee a to trace the descent of any special type from them er- haps find some clew to the probable Madificelsogs ok ag principal structural features preparatory to their gradual dis- appearance. In the structure of the coronal plates, the special- ization of the actinal and abactinal systems, the conditions of the ambulacral system, we must compare them to stages in the embryonic development of our recent Hchini with which we find no analogues in the fossil Echini of the Lias and the sub- 4 ‘ Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. 885 sequent formations. In order to make our parallelism, we must go back to a stage in the embryonic history of the young Kchini in which the distinction to be made between the ambu- lacral and interambulacral systems is very indefinite, in which the apical system is, it is true, specialized, but in which the actinal system remains practically a part of the coronal system. But here the comparison ceases, and, although we can trace in the paleontological development of such types as Archxocida- ris or Bothriocidaris modifications which would lead us with- out great difficulty, on the one side to the Cidaridse, and on the other to the Echinothurise and Diadematide of the present day, we cannot fail to see most definite indications in some of the structural features of the Palechinide of characteristics which we have been accustomed to associate with higher groups. The minute tuberculation, for instance, of the Clype- astroids and Spatangoids, already existing in the Melonitide, as Cidarid. The polyporous genera of the group represent to a certain extent the polypori of the regular Echini, and the lapping of the actinal plates of the Cidaridze and of the coronal plates in some of the Diadematide, as well as the existence of such genera as Tetracidaris, of four interambulacral plates in Astropyga, and of a large number of ambulacral plates in some of the recent Echinometrade, all these are Paleechinid characters which we can explain on the theory of the inde- pendent development of the structural features of which they are modifications. We should, however, remember, that the existence of a large number of coronal plates, especially inter- ambulacral plates, in the Palechinide, is a mere vegetative character, which they hold in common with all the Crinoids,— a character which is reduced to a minimum among the Holo- thurians, and still persists in full foree among the Pentacrini of the present day, as well as the Astrophytide and Echinide. It would lead me too far to institute the same comparison between the embryonic stages of the different orders of Echin- are identical with the fossil orders, and that as far as we know they all begin at a stage where it would be impossible to dis- tinguish a Sea-urchin from a Star-fish, or an Ophiuran, or a Crinoid, or an Holothurian,—a stage in which the test, calyx, abactinal and ambulacral systems are reduced to a minimam. From this identical origin there is developed at the present day, in a comparatively short period of time, either a Star-fish, a Sea-urchin, or a Crinoid; and if we have been able success- Am. Jour. a Series, Vou. XX, No. 119.—Nov., 1880. 386 Agassiz—Paleontological and Embryological Development. fully to compare, in the development of typical structures, the embryonic stages of the young Echini with their development in the fossil genera, we may fairly assume that the same pro- cess is applicable when instituting the comparison within the different limits of the orders, but with the same restrictions. That is, if we-wish to form some idea of the probable course of transformations which the earliest Echinoderms have under- gone to lead us to those of the present day, we are justified in seeking for our earliest representatives of the orders such Echinoderms as resemble the early stages of our embryos, and in following, for them as for the Echini, the modifications of typical structures. These we shall have every reason to ex- pect to find repeated in the fossils of later periods, and, going back a step further, we may perhaps get an indefinite glimpse of that first Echinodermal stage which should combine the structural features common to all the earliest stages of our Kchinoderm embryos. n yet, among the fossil Echinoderms of the oldest peri- ods, we have not as yet discovered this earliest type from which we could derive either the Star-fishes, Ophiurans, Sea-urchins, or Holothurians. With the exception of the latter, which we can leave out of the question at present, we find all the orders of Echinoderms appearing at the same time. But while this is the case, one of the groups attained in these earliest days a prominence which it gradually loses with the corresponding development of the Star-fishes, Ophiurans, and Sea-urchins, it rs the early types of Cystideans to the typical embryo- This may not seem a very satisfactory result to have at- tained. It certainly has been shown to be an impossibility to trace in the paleontological succession of the Echini anything like a sequence_of genera. No direct filiation can be shown to from the earliest epochs at which they occur to the present among the marine animals of the present day are the direct descendants of those of the earliest geological periods. When Agassiz— Paleontological and Embryological Development. 387 which have continued through two or three great periods, we must likewise accord to their latest representatives a direct de- scent from theolder. The very fact that the ocean basins date ack to the earliest geological periods, and have afforded to the marine animals the conditions most favorable to an unbroken ancestors of the Cidaris of to-day. The Saleniz of the lower Chalk are those of the Salenia of to-day. Acrosalenia extends from the Lias to the lower Cretaceous, with a number of re- cent genera, which begin at the Eocene. The Pygaster of to- day dates back to the Lias; Echinocyamus and Fibularia com- mence with the Chalk. Pyrina extends from the lower Jura through the Eocene. The Echinobrissus of to-day dates back to the Jura. Holaster lived from the lower Chalk to the Mio- cene, and the Hemiaster of to-day cannot be distinguished from the Hemiaster of the lower Cretaceous. better acknowledge our inability to go beyond a certain point; anything beyond the general parallelism I have attempted to trace, which in no way sewalidiates the other proposition, we must recognize as hope- ess. But in spite of the limits which have been assigned to this general parallelism, it still remains an all-essential factor in elucidating the history of paleontological development, and its importance has but recently been fully appreciated. For, while the fossil remains may give us a strong presumptive evi- dence of the gradual passage of one type to another, we can only imagine this modification to take place by a process similar to that which brings about the modifications due to different stages of growth,—the former taking place in bh may practically be considered nfinite time when com to the short life history which has given us as it were a résumé of the paleontological development. e well pause to 888 Agassiz—Paleontological and Embryological Development. growth or of historic development, repeating in a different di- rection the same phases. Does it then pass the limits of analogy wide of the facts as far as ‘they are known, and seem so readily to ignore them. e moment we leave out of sight the actual succession of the fossils and the ascertainable facts of postem- bryonic development, to reconstruct our genealo boasts for its very creed a belief in nothing which is not war- ranted by common sense should descend to such trifling. The time for genealogical trees is passed; its futility can, perhaps, best be shown by a simple calculation, which wil point out at a glance what these scientific arboriculturists are attempting. Let us take, for instance, the ten most character- istic features of Kchini. The number of possible combinations which can be produced from them is so great that it would take no less than twenty years, at the rate of one new combi- nation a minute for ten hours a day, to. pass them in review. Remembering now that each one of these points of structure is itself undergoing constant modifications, we may get some idea of the nature of the problem we are attempting to solve, when seeking to trace the.genealogy as understood by the makers of * Agassiz—Paleontological and Embryological Development. 389 without direct observation at the time. The actaal number of species in any one group must always fall far short of the 390 = A. E.:; Verrill-—Marine Fauna of the Outer Banks Art. XLI.—Notice of the remarkable Marine Fauna oceupying the outer banks off the southern coast of New England; by A. E. VERRILL. (Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College: No. XLVIL) DurinG the —., season the headquarters of the U. S. Fish Commission, Pro r S. F. Baird, Commissioner, were at Newport, R.I. The Gabdetigabon of the marine invertebrate fauna of the region was very effectually carried out by the large party employed under the general direction of the writer. Large collections were made in the shallower waters of the coast, both at the surface and along the shores, as = as by dredging and trawling. The new steamer “Fish . ” of 480 tons, built last year specially for the Fish Ss shiadion’ and fitted up with suitable appliances for its scientific work, was employed in the trawling and dredging. It was commanded by Lieut. Z. Tanner, U.S. N., who was also in command of the “Speedwell ”" last season. The writer had, as associates and assistants, for the invertebrata, Mr. Richard Rathbun, Mr. ig erson Smith, Mr. J. H. Emerton (as artist), Mr. B. F. Koons, Mr. E. A. An drews, Mr. Charles Bent, Mr. N. P. Scudder. Capt H. C. Chester, as usual, had charge of the apparatus. Wire rope was very satis- factorily used for the dredging and trawling. In September and October, three very successful trips were made to the outer banks, or the region where the wide area of shallow water more | rapidly falls off into the deep water of the Atlantic basin. The first of these trips was made Sept. 8d to 5th, south of Martha’s Vineyard, about 75 to 80 miles ag 865 to 872) where the depth was from 65 to 192 fathoms. The bottom was mostly fine compact sand, with some an ‘and with a large percentage of Foraminifera. The second trip was made Sept. 12th to 14th, nearly south from Newport, 90 to 105 miles, where the depth was from 85 to 325 fathoms (stations 873 to 881). The third trip, Oct. Ist to 3d, was to the same region, but somewhat farther west and south, and in deeper water, (sta- tions 891 to 895). At all these stations, except 867, a large beam-traw! was used; at 867 a se “rake-dredge,” of a new form, was used with rood succes The temperature dstaredthagions owing to the violent motions of the steamer, are unreliable at stations 865 to 872. At sta- tions 873-878 the bottom temperature was usually 51° to 58° F.; at 879-881, it was 42° to 48° F.; at 898, 894, it was 40° F. All these stations are located in the region designated on the charts as “‘ Block Island Soundings,” and nearly all proved to be exceedingly rich in animal life, the vast abundance of indi- viduals of many of the species taken being almost as surprising off Southern New England. 391 as the great number and variety of the species themselves. Crustacea, Mollusca, Annelids and Echinoderms were the most numerous. The very large quantity of specimens obtained on these three trips has, as yet, been only partially examined, but enough has already been done to prove this region to be altogether the richest and most remarkable dredging ground ever discovered on our coast. Dredging stations on the outer bank, in 1880. Locality. Depth, No. Lat. Long. Fathoms. ature of botto 865 40° 057 Ne 10? 2a? oo We 6b: Fine compact sand swith some mud. 866 40 05 18” N. 70 22 18” W. 5 867 40 05 N. 70 22 06 W. 64 x e 868 40 01 42 N. 70 22 30 W. 162 - 1 869 40 02 18 N. 70 23 06 W. 192 Mud and fine sand, soft. 870 40 02 N. 70 22 58 W. 155 Fine sand with some mud. 871 40 02 54 N. 70 23 40 W. 115 872 40 05 39 N. 70 23 52 W. 86 Shella and sponges. 873 40 02 Ni -90 57 W300: Fm e sand and mud. 874 40 No 70-61 WwW. 85 875 39 57 Ne= 70-67 30: Wi 196 “3 2 876 39 57 N. 70 56 WwW. 120 . S 877 39 56 N. 70. 64.18 -W.- 126 o : 878 39 55 N. 70 54 15 W. 1424 cS = 879 39 49 ce BB ty 41) W. 225 880 39 48 N. 10 W. 252 #$Mud and fine san 881 Somewhat farther pak 325 Mud. Trawl patil fouled. 891, 46 Ne FE T0 W.+500 Mud and fine 892 3 46 N. 71 06 W. 487 Mud, fine sand, Pama Stones. 893 39 52 20 N. 70 68 W. 372 804 39 85 WN 0 OS a * . 895 39 66 30 N.. 70 69 46° W. 2880“ : Mo.tuiusca.—Of Mollusca, about 175 species were taken. Of these, 120 species were not before known to occur on the south- ern coast of New England; about 65 species are additions to the American fauna; of these about 30 species are, apparently, undescribed. The known species now added to our fauna have mostly been described by G. O. Sars, Jeffreys, and others , from the deep waters of the European coast and the Mediterranean. List of Mollusca new to the New England coast. Sh ay feo n prefixed were previous ly known from r Nova Scotia or farther ed. Various undetermined species are not includ pearing tenera V.., ned ae goon pellucida V., tre reversa V., and spt nov. | n.Lovenella Whiteavesit Verril, nov. mollis y sp. pe wre no Cingula rolhid (Jeff.) Apanien Argo Linné. n. Cingula eta ain (Friele) V. Taranis ie orch mers Lepetella tubicola V. & S., gen. and sp. nov. n.Bela tenuicostata Sars. ee V. & S., nov. Phuarchias ye omc V. & S., no Scalaria (fr Pleurotoma teri V.&S., aie Scalari a Pourtalesii V <&S., Marginella Arte ra Pa, ? poechinr sp. (sharply setae n.Neptunea propinqua (Alder). Aclis Walleri J. Tritonofusus latericeus (M@ll.) Morch, Calliostoma Bairdii V. & 8., nov. 392 Margarita regalis V. & ri rgarita lamellosa V. & ‘S., soe Turbonilla Rathbuni V. & S., nov. 55 MOSa Eulima intermedia Cantr. a Des ~isosgngtn Finmarchica gs Phi ine w is V., Amphisphyr. aloo Loven Diap Diehonn nitidula (oven Clio Pardee Aygegaa Linné. sti calceola V., nov. Spiriake retroversus (Elem. ) irostris Cadulus Padi V.& s., nov. A, E Verrill—Marine Fauna of the Outer Banks Cadulus Jeffreysti arenes nquus Cadulus Poromya rotundata cats rostrata (peng:) ‘Lovén. costellata Cera siete S. Wood. Pecchiotia abyssicola Sars n n. Yoldia frigida a Tor n.Pecten vitreus (Gmel. n.Pecten Hoskynsi Forbes, var. pustu- losus V. Pecten fenestratus Forbes Limea subovata Lyottiers) Monteros. List of Mollusca new to the southern coast of New England, but prev sara known to me from the northern coast. Rossia sublevis V' Bela impressa Morch (8. 814). Bela violacea et Ad. (8. 812). Neptunea decemcosta ) Ad. Neptunea Seaton (Morch), (= Fusus Islandicus Gld. Anachis costulata (Cant.) (= Columbella ca (Moll) A LIunatia nana (ei) (S. 812, ee Torellia vestita Jeff. Aporrhais occidentalis pwcgstentess abe seta (igh) Dall. ina (.) Lowe. Turbontila nivea ea (St) Ad. Odostomia emg, timp. reid tc! nitida Scapha i petal teks (Migh.) Ad. Amphisphyra rena pine Loven. Octopus Bairdii Ver Admete sedis th ieee viridula G1d.) Ter. Siphonodentalium vitreum Sars Dentalim occidentale Stimp. (= D. abys- ars. redo Being cin Han ct bg Svong ) Woodw. Cyrtodarta sane g.) Woodw. Neera o ae ee pellucida St.) n. eera glacialis G. eh é =A, lens St.) hinodonta Mighels olin Sue aha Nala Stimp. ole expansa Jeff. (2) vas acialis Gray. -aceeorys 3a (? var. of last). creniiie’ decussa ont.) ae. Dacrydium crew (aol) Sar Pecten Istandicus Terebratulina ouarene (Couth.) ry See Descriptions of new species included in the preceding lists.* Heteroteuthis tenera Verrill, sp. nov. Body small, rather short, scarcely twice as long as broad, obtuse. Fins thin, r ounded, relatively very large, length about two-thirds thie ‘of the body, longer than broad, the anterior edge extending forward beyond the mantle. pReajptood in the Proceedings of the National a detailed descrip- w species will be given. Therefore only the more diagnostic *In a tions of ‘th ne characters are given here. Arma off Southern New England. 393 slender; in the male the left dorsal arm is hectocotylized, being broader than its mate, with four rows of minute suckers, while on the right one, and in the female on both, there are two regular rows of larger suckers. Lateral and ventral arms have of body 25 to 40™". More or less abundant at all the stations, from 865 to 880, inclusive. About 200 specimens were taken. Calliteuthis Verrill, gen. nov. nal valve. Mantle connected to sides of siphon by lat elongated cartilages and grooves. Arms long, free; suckers in two rows, largest on middle of lateral and dorsal arms. e rounded verruce; their center or anterior half pale, the border or posterior half dark purplish brown ; upper surface o with much fewer and smaller scattered verrucse; a circle of same around the eyes; inner surface of arms and buccal mem- branes chocolate-brown. Total length, 183™"; to base of arms, 67; of mantle, 51; of fin, 17; breadth of fins, 24; of body, 20; diameter of eye-ball, 16™™. Station 894. Alloposus Verrill, gen. nov. Allied to Philonexis and Tremoctopus. Body thick and soft, smooth ; arms all (in the male only seven) united by a web extending nearly to the ends, the length of the arms decreasing from the dorsal to ventral ones ; suckers sessile, simple, in two rows; mantle united firmly to the head by a ventral and two lateral commissures, the former placed in the median line, at the base of the siphon, and by a broad dorsal band ; free end of the 394 Marine Fauna of the Outer Banks siphon short, well forward. In the male the right arm of the third pair : eapreing dips and developed in a sac, in front of the right eye; as found in the sac, it is curled up, and has two rows of saaeane the: groove along its edge is fringed ; near the end, the groove connects with a rounded, obliquely placed, ridges on the inner surface. The permanent attachment of the mantle and neck, by means of commissures, is a very dis- tinctive character. Alloposus mollis Verrill, sp. nov. Body stout, ovate, very soft and flabby. Head large, as broad as the body; eyes large, their openings small. Arms rather stout, not very long, webbed nearly to the ends, the in two alternating rows. Color deep purplish brown, with a more or less distinctly spotted appearance. Length, total, 160; of body, to base of arms, 90; of mantle beneath, 50; of dorsal arms, 7 0; breadth of body, 70™. The sexes scarcely differ in size. Stations 880, in 225 fathoms, (22,12), 892, 898, 895. Cymbulia calceola Verrill, sp. nov. Test thick, transparent, rebel rounded at both ends, covered, above and below, with low rounded verruce ; aperture large, with abs Gukeiied ieee. “Animal pale pink, with rown nucleus; fins very large, connate, broadly rounded. Length of test, 40™"; breadth, ‘20. aaron 865 to 872, (near surface), common Pleurotoma A slot Verrill and Smith,* sp. nov. Shell large and handsomely sculptured ; whorls eight, con- vex, shouldered, with about sixteen thick, rounded, oblique ribs, separated by concave reiarag te the ribs do not extend above the shoulder, leaving a rather bend flattened band, which is covered by raised revolving lines, more or ey by prominent lines of growth ae slight riblets, unning down from the suture; the revolving lines become ribs fade out and the revolving lines become still more promi- nent. Outer lip with a wide and rather deep rounded notch below the suture; below this it vurves strongly forward, and recedes again at the canal, which is rather short, narrowed, an a little excurved. Columella smooth, curved, and obliquely * Mr. Sanderson Smith has been associated with me, during the present and two preceding seasons, in working up the yap mollusea. The species here briefly described under our joint names will eh scribed, in detail, in a special article in the Proceedings of the National Muse’ off Southern New England. 395 narrowed at the canal. Aperture subovate, sinuous, rather large. Shell white, except the columella, which is stained with orange-brown. Length, 31; breadth, 14; length of aperture, 16; breadth, 6™. Stations 865-880 ; 891, 892; 894; 895. The animal has neither operculum nor eyes, and does not properly belong to Pleurotoma er: _ is, pe — most nearly related to Pleurotomella V. The ni differ from all those figured by G. O. Sars, ate inci those of Thesbia. The basal appendage is large and oblique Pleurotoma Carpenteri Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell rather small, solid, slender; surface glossy. Whorls smooth ; the interstices between the ribs are deeply concave, wider than the ribs, > perfectly smooth, except the faint lines of growth. Outer lip with a broad shallow notch, below the'suture. Aperture rather small, ovate; canal short, narrow, straight; columella nearly straight. Col or, pale brownish. Length, 7; breadth, 2°75™. Stations 870-873. Scalaria Pourtalesii Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell pure white, rather a with seven well-rounded with fine revolving lines, not visible without a lens. Aponte round, with a broad, somewhat reflexed lip; umbilicus small, concealed behind the inner lip; no basal keel. Length, 175; breadth, 10; of aperture, 4™™. Stations 878, 874. Sealaria Dalliana Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell smaller and much slenderer than the last, thin, delicate, bluish white. Whorls eleven, evenly rounded, with deeply indented sutures. Ribs about twenty, on the lower whorls, moderately high, thin, oblique, often with a small sharp den- ticle, just below the suture; they often alternate; interstices wider than the ribs, smooth, without distinct revolving lines. Aperture round with a reflexed lip, nearly even all around; umbilicus none, Paneth; 10:5; breadth, 35™. Stations 869, 870, 871, 878, etc., not uncommon Lamellaria pellucida Verrill, sp. nov. Animal yellowish brown mottled with darker, broad ellipti- cal, swollen, without tubercles on the back. Shell ovate, with * 396 =A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna of the Outer Banks peeentie — sees — smooth; aperture broad ova g the interior of the spire, except from poset a view. “Middle tooth of the odontophore with the basal portion oblong — truncated p meee ice (not bilobed as in other species). Len 2 to ™ when living. Stations 870, 871, 872, several ara 3 ae g Lepetelia Verrill, gen. nov. Shell small, sant oval or oblong, limpet-shaped, conical, with a simple su central apex, not spiral. Animal much asin Lepeta, but with salbtiect eyes. Odontophore tzenioglossate, with seven regular rows of tee Lepetella tubicola Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell thin, white, smooth, conical, with the apex acute and nearly central ; ; aperture broad elliptical, oblong, or subcircular, usually more or jon warped, one to its abitat ; ae thin markings faint. toe of largest specimens 3°75; breadth, 3; height, 2™™. On inside of old tubes of Hyalinecia ; twenty- seven were taken from one tube. Stations, 869, 192 fath., and 894. Lovenella Whiteavesii Verrill, sp. nov. Shell slender, white, acute, allied to Z. metula. Whorls nine or ten, flattened, with a prominent nodulous carina below the middle, a smaller one just below the suture, and another on the last whorl, in line with edge of lip, below this smooth ; : the whorls are crossed by numerous elevated, rounded, curved ribs. Columella much incurved above; canal excurved ; outer lip with three angles. Length 45™"; breadth 15™™; one is considerably larger. Stations. 891, 894; also Gulf St. Lawrence (W hiteaves). Calliostoma Bairdii Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell large, strong, regularly conical, with a flattened base, no umbilicus, yellowish white or light yellow, with more or less numerous narrow, spiral bands of pale brown or dark brown, and with large squarish spots of bright rosey red on the spire. Whorls nine or ten, flattened, or concave, below the suture, which is not impressed. The ‘last whorl has eight to ten con- spicuous, raised, Spa a revolving ribs, of which three or four are much smaller and alternate with the larger ones; the strong- est rib is just below the suture; interstices concave, brownish, glossy, obliquely striated by the lines of growth, and sometimes with airings, revolving, raised lines. The four principal ribs are continued on the upper whorls, but the intermediate ones gradually disappear on the middle whorls. The nodules off Southern New England. 397 30; breadth of aperture, 16™". Taken alive at nearly all the sta- tions, from 865 to 880, inclusive. A very handsome and showy species, having a tropical aspect. Margarita regalis Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell rather large for the genus, thin and delicate, whitish, ical opening, which is funnel-shaped and moderately large, but often partially obstructed by the reflexed edge of the inner lip. yp ngth, 14; breadth, 15™™; often larger. Stations 865, 870, 871, 873, 880, 891-895, common. Margarita lamellosa Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. _ Shell small, fragile, conical, canaliculate, with a wide umbil- icus. Whorls five, angulated and carinated below the middle, (398 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna of the Outer Banks swollen just below the suture, which lies in a deep channel; they are crossed, above the peripheral carina, by numerous elevated, thin, oblique ribs, which rise into lamelle near the suture, where they join the carina forming small nodules; between the ribs are fine parallel lines of growth and sometimes a few fine revolving lines. Below the periphery, in line with the posterior edge of the lip, there is a smaller, plain, angular rib, and around the umbilicus there is a strong nodulose rib. Between these ribs, the base is covered with fine revolving lines. Within the umbilicus are radiating raised lines which cross two or three small revolving ribs.) Aperture rounded, with angles corresponding to the ribs. Length, 3; breadth, 3™™. Station 871, scarce. Turbonilla Rathbuni Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell white, large for the genus, elevated, with twelve rather convex whorls, and impressed sutures. The whorls are slightly flattened and crossed by numerous slightly flexuous, elevated, - smooth, even ribs, of which there are about thirty on the lower whorls; intervals about as wide as the ribs, concave, crossed by impressed revolving lines, of which there are eight or ten on the spire. apeerale somewhat oblong, with the lip a little prolonged and slightly effuse anteriorly. Columella nearly straight, smooth. Umbilicusnone. Length, 18; breadth, 4". Station 869, 192 fathoms, common; 894, 895. Turbonilla formosa V. and S., sp. nov. Shell white, lustrous, large, in form and size resembling the preceding; whorls twelve, somewhat flattened ; aperture ovate, effuse in front; sculpture, strong rounded ribs, but without any revolving lines. Stations 891, 892. Pleurobranchea tarda V., sp. nov. y- Length 80 to 40™". Common at stations 814, 865-880 ; 28 to 250 fathoms; over 200 specimens taken. One, 60™ long, from station 895. Philine amabilis V., sp. nov. ; Shell very thin, diaphanous, delicate, and shining with bright iridescence; very large for the genus, and very open, ta ee ee off Southern New England. 399 showing the interior of the spire, broad oblong, with rounded ends; outer lip evenly Seepien posteriorly and scarcely pro- jecting beyond the spire; apex occupie ee a shallow pit. Diaphana (Tibncnanesy cee V., Sp. nov. Shell white, rather solid, resembling, in size and form, Oy- lichna occulta (Migh. ), but distinpnistio by having a small, dis- tinct umbilicus, and also a narrow deep pit at the apex of the spire. Sculpture, a few distinct spiral lines at each end; mid- dle region of shell smooth. Length, 4:2; breadth, 25" Stations 871, 873. Doris complanata V., sp. nov. Body large, broad elliptical, depressed, pale brown to dusky brown, more or less mottled, back nearly smooth, with few minute verruce. Dorsal tentacles stout, clavate, with many crowded lamelle, sheaths plain. Gills ten, large, bipinnate, brown, retractile into a large cavity. Oral tentacles free, ovate, tape ered, Odontophore with 70 to 80 rows of lateral teeth, the outermost smallest: 22 to 24 inner lateral ones, on each side, sharp, hook-shaped, with two side lobes; those exterior to these, ave obtuse, incurved, denticulate ends. Length, 50; breadth, 25™™. Station 872, eight specimens. Cadulus Pandionis V. and S., sp. nov. Shell very large for the genus, white, ree very smooth and polished, shining, strongly curved, largest in front of the middle, with the aperture oblique ; sculpture none. The shell is somewhat transversely elliptical in section, slightly ie and most swollen at about the anterior third, on the with a thin smooth m margin. Posterior opening small, with a semicircular wetcli above and below. Length, 10; breadth, 2°25; breadth of aperture, 1°75; of anal aperture, 40™, Sta tions 869-87 1, 878, 874, 87 6 (abundant), 877, 891. * T here use Diaphana for the restricted genus Utriculus, as adopted by G. 0. Sars. It is peculiar in lacking the odo ntophore. Utriculus is predccupied by Schumacher (1817). Our “Utriculus Gouldii” is, in its ; and de — a lichna and should called Cylichna na Gouldii. The Diaphana pertenuis (Migh.) is very distinct from it. 400 A. #. Verrill—Marine Fauna of the Outer Banks Loripes lens Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. Shell white, well-rounded, nearly equilateral, slightly convex, thin; lunule small, cordate, deeply excavated ; sculpture slightly raised, concentric lines of growth, distinct at the ends, but nearly obsolete on the median portion of the shell. Posteriorly the outline is more obtusely rounded, so as to form a rounde angle with the dorsal and ventral edges: dorsal edge incurved in front of the beaks; a faint undulation runs from the beak to the posterior angle. Teeth none. Length, 14; height, 12°6™™. Stations 865 to 872; 873 to 879, RET on. Also dredged off Cape Cod, 1879, in many places (40 to 120 fathoms). Modiola polita Verrill and Smith, sp. nov. ell thin, translucent, without sculpture; epidermis pale yellow, smooth and polished. Umbos prominent; hinge-line straight ; posterior end broadly oe compressed ; anterior end prolonged decidedly beyond t eak, narrow, rounded, Greatest loath, 40; breadth, 21™™. Station 895, two specimens. Pecten HES Forbes (?). The small species that I refer doubtfully to this species is beautifully marbled with brown, red and white. The ears are prominent. The lower valve is covered with thin concentric riblets, while the upper valve is canceilated with fine radiating and concentric raised lines. Station 872. EcHINODERMS. The star-fishes and ophiurans were | Seepenely abundant and beautiful at all the stations, and many species not known pre- viously on our coast were = savin! of which appear to be undescribed, while others were known only from northern Europe, or from the deep pais off Florida. Many of the species have only recently been obtained from the ‘northern fishing rage off Nova Scotia, and are recorded in this Journal. ne new species of Archaster (A. Americanus) was particu: larly ech ant, several thousands of specimens having been taken ; but the two largest and most beautiful species of this genus were Archaster Agassizii (new) and A. Flore. Of Odontaster hispidus, over 100 were taken. One of the most conspicuous star-fishes was the remarkable Pleraster multipes Sars,* one specimen of which was over six inches in diameter, . and very thick and heavy. Its color, in life, is rich purple above, with the lower side orange, streaked with Bs and Hoce Pete yo differs so widely from typical Pteraster as to merit generic separa I propose for it the name Diplopteraster, characteriz ayer ecially by faviny suckers in four rows, and by having the horizontal radiating interrach ial spines of the lower surface imbedded in, and concealed by, a thick skin, w adult, (exposed in the young). off Southern New England. 401 with large dark purple suckers. A large and handsome orange- colored species of Luidia (apparently Z. elegans) often ten to fifteen inches broad, was very common, but nearly all the specimens dismembered themselves before they came he surface. Large specimens of two oe sea-urchins ( Eehe- nus gracilis and H. Norvegicus) were taken Dacha Seat of Echinodermata, E. = European; F. = off Florida; rthern coasts of New cage aa — Scotia; * = new species. yunes ae to list of stations; ab. = hyone are woe (876, 877.) udina ~~] sblondigcitrs is D. & Kor. (865, 871, 873, 874, 876, ab., 877, ab.) chinus pelle 7 AB {lt two large specimens.) chinus Norvegicus D, & iter S i ed T Ca s E E 1 inus maculatus a Asierias vulgaris Stimp. (865, 0 sp.) Asterias Tan ner Te (869, ‘810, 871, 872, 877.) Stephanasterias albula (Stimp.) Verrill. (865, 866, ab., 871, 872.) Cribrella sanguinolenta Sith. ( Diplopteraster multipes (nee) Verril (869, one very large, 880, two, 895, one.) Porania grandis Verrill. (869, several, Porania spinulosa Verrill. (B68, 879, rg 894, 895.) Porania borealis Verrill (= cao wae V.) (869, several, 879, few.) pintado oe gen. nov. (865, 869, ab., 871, 872, ye ih 878, 894, 895.) ¢ chaster Flore Y errill. (869, several, a ony? Re y. d L OF ¢ C te ¢ ( ( A A 4 c 8 5.) rchaster Americanus V. (865-8, very ab., 871, vis, 877, ab., 879.) irchaster Agassizii ii (879, ah sev., 881, sev. a 91-89 4.) rchaster Parellit D.& K. (879, 892-894. uidia elega ns Perrier. (869-812, sot large, 873, 876, 877.) Boe ##E HSE SE Bt odiscus crispatus (879, one. phiopholis aculeata Gray. (866, 860, 872, 879, 895.) phioglypha Sarsii Lyman. (865-869, ab., 870, i 871, 877, ab., 879, 895.) phioglypha afinis Lyman. (869, 875, 877, 878.) p pha. 80, 8 Dp n millespina Verrill. (500, ab., 871.) ioscolex glacialis M. & Tr. (869, 871.) SPR eps 0.) . Ophiocnida olivacea Lym. (869, 871, ab., 872, 873-877, ing n. y erieg Sarsii (D. & K.) (870, 871, "873-876, 878-880. Asterias Tanneri Verrill, sp. nov handsome, five- pacts dark red : ecies, with a small disk and ac, narrow arms. nen ut as 1:7. Am. Jour. fer Tanp gents, Vo Vou. XX, No, 119.—Nov., 402 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna of the Outer Banks, ete. scattered between the dorsal spines and clustered around their bases. Radius of disk, 11; of arms, 75"; larger ren 250™™ in diameter, were ‘secured, but most of them had dismem bered themselves, "before reaching the surface. Odontaster Verrill, gen. nov. Form and appearance like Archaster ; two rows of marginal plates ; dorsal surface with paxille ; ventral plates polygonal, spinulose. ach jaw bears a large, strong, sharp, erect or everted tooth, outside of the marginal spinules. repr ead hispidus Vv. , 8p. nov. tooth of jaws with saci smooth tip, “atraaite or “recurved, longer and much larger than adjacent spines. Color ale salmon, or yellowish, when —e Radius of disk, 15; of arms, 49mm, Archaster Americanus Verrill, sp. nov. Arms five, rarely six, tie regularly tapered, moderately broad, rather flat. Radius of disk to that o arms, commonly, : 5. Color in life, pale yellow, orange-yellow, or salmon. Dorsal area covered with slender r paxille, not crowded, each pearing. a stellate group of eight to ten she slender, long spin- ith a central one of the same siz Upper marginal aS rather large, elongated vertically, densely covered with small spinules, which radiate around the margin; sometimes a few plates, in the angles between the arms, bear, each, a single spine, at the upper end. Lower plates large, broad, ‘reaching nearly to the ambulacral groove, covered with : slender, sharp spinules, the middle row longest; two or three of the outermost of these are much longer and larger than the rest, and more or less flattened. Ventral plates very few, spinulose. Adam- bulacral plates, each with an inner group of three or four slender spines, in a row, and an irregular outer group of three or four larger ones; jaw-spines numerous, blunt. Largest specimens have the larger radius 74; lesser 12™". J. W. Dawson—Paleozoie Land Snails. 403 Archaster Agassizii Verrill, sp. nov. A large and elegantly formed species, with rather large pen- tagonal disk and wide, rapidly tapered arms. Color, in life, bright orange-red. Luidia elegans ? Perrier. Arch, Zool. Expér., p. 256, 1876. The species taken by us grows to more than 350™ in diameter. Color deep orange above, lighter below. Paxille crowded, smallest in middle of arms; large laterally ; each a la roup of slender spinules, and usually one to three larger, blunt pedicellarie. Marginal plates with a vertical row of three long, tapering, acute spines, the upper ones largest ; adambulacral plates also with a row of three sharp spines, which are smaller and recurved; the middle one largest. A row of large, ovate, bilabiate pedicellarie between the lateral and adambulacral plates. The specimen described by Perrier was very young, if of this species. Art. XLII.—Revision of the Land Snails of the Paleozoic era, with Descriptions of New Species; by J. W. Dawson. THE Gasteropods as a class occur as early as the Upper Cam- brian, but all the earlier known types are marine. That por- tion of the group distinguished by the possession of air sacs instead of gills (Pulmonifera) has not hitherto been found in any formation older than the Carboniferous, and only four Car- boniferous species have been described. In the present paper 404 J. W. Dawson—Paleozoie Land Snails. I propose to state some additional facts respecting the species already known, to discuss their affinities, and to describe two additional species, making six in all from the Paleozoic rocks, including one from the Hrian or Devonian. For reasons to be mentioned in the sequel, I do not admit the genus Paleorbis founded, by some German naturalists, on fossils which I believe to be tubes of Annelids. t may be useful to premise that of the two leading sub- divisions of the group of Pulmonifera, the Operculate and Inoperculate, the first has been traced no farther back than the Kocen e second, or Inoperculate division, includes some genera that are aquatic and some that are terrestrial. Of the aquatic genera no representatives are known in formations Carboniferous and the early Tertiary, though in the inter- vening formations there are many fresh-water and estuarine There is perhaps no reason to doubt the continuance of the Helicide through this long portion of geological time, though it is probable that during the interval the family did not increase much in the number of its species, more especially as it seems certain that it has its culmination in the modern to Bradley, in an underclay or fossil soil which may have been the bed of a pond or estuary, and subsequently became a forest sub-soil. The Erian species occurs in shales charged with remains of land plants, and which must consequently have J. W. Dawson—FPaleozoic Land Snails. 405 received abundant drainage from neighboring land. It is only in such deposits that remains of true land-snails can be ex- pected to occur; though, had fresh-water or brackish water Pulmonates abounded in the Carboniferous age, their remains should have occurred in those bituminous and calcareo-bitu- minous shales which contain such vast quantities of debris of Cyprids, Lamellibranchs and fishes of the period, mixed with fossil plants. With reference to their affinities, the Paleozoic land ‘snails present no very remarkable pec uliarity except their close re- semblance to some modern forms. Of the known species, four belong to the genus Pupa in its wider sense, and are very near to sub-generic types still represented on the American conti- nent and its islands. One is a small helicoid shell not separa- ble from the modern genus Zonites, and the rem a one, though it has been placed in a new genus, is very near to some small American snails of the present day (Stenotrema, te) All the species are of small size, though not smaller than some modern shells of the same types I shall now proceed to give the characters and descriptions of the several species, “apie to the account of those previously known, such new facts s have oceurred in my more recent explorations and exitesinatintst I should state here that many the new facts detailed have been obtained in the course a excavations for the extraction of erect trees holding land L test vetusta Dawson. (Figs. 1 to 4, and 14, a, 6.) [Sir C. Lyell. = Dr. Dawson on Remains of Reptiles and a Land shell from the South Joggins in Nova Scotia, Journal of Geological Society . London, vol. ix, 1832 (figured but not named). Dawson’s Acadian Geology, 1855, p. 160. Dawson's Air-breathers of the Coal Period, 1863. Acadian Geology, 2d aa 3d editions, p. 384, 1868 wich ache = Shel wehbe te somewhat abruptly con at the apex, in some specimens tending to diminish in dist eter in the later turns or west of the shell. Whorls nine in adult shells, slighly opm in Oy peace to half the diame- ter of the shell. Suture i ‘hens evenly rounded, n broad, destitute of spaces a little wider than the ridges; spaces about x},th inc in width. Shell calcareous, thin, rismatic in structure. Young specimens abruptly conic cal and helicoid in form. Nucleus round, smooth, the first turn below the nucleus marked with 406 J. W. Dawson—Paleozoie Land Snails. rows of little pits which gradually pass into the continuous stria. The last whorl of the adult presents irregular lines of growth, instead of the regular microscopic ribs of the middle turns. Mature ovum membranous, or so slightly calcareous that it can be compressed without breaking: the embryo shel sometimes visible within. Length of adult shell rather less than 1 centimeter, breadth in middle 4 millimeters. Variety tenuistriata.a—Along with the ordinary form there are others of similar size and general structure, but with the apex less obtuse and a somewhat greater tendency to diminish in diameter in the later whorls. They have also the microscopic ridges in the shell about half as far apart as those of the ordinary form. This form I was at first disposed to regard as specifically distinct, but there seems to be a gradual transition from one to the other, and the two forms seem to accompany each other throughout the entire range of the species. te of preservation.—The shells are usually entire, but often somewhat flattened, and cracked or distorted in the pro- cess. Many fragments of shells, however, occur with the entire specimens, and some of these have a whitened or bleached appearance like that of modern land shells after having been exposed to the weather. In one layer I found impressions of several flattened shells, the substance of the shell having been altogether removed. Ordinarily the shell remains in such a state as to show its structure, and the more perfect specimens found in the erect trees have a grayish brown color, like that of some modern Pape. The habitat of this species was in forests of the Coal-forma- tion period, composed of Sigillaria, Calamites, Lepidophloios and Ferns. The only known locality is the South Joggins, Nova Scotia. At this place the shells have been obtained in con- siderable numbers, though perfect specimens which can be dis- engaged from the matrix, are comparatively few. They have been found in erect Sigillarie and also in a bed of shale. The lowest and highest beds in which they occur are separated by 2,000 feet of vertical thickness of strata including no less than thirty-five beds of coal and many underclays supporting erect trees, so that the species must have inhabited this locality for a very long time and must have survived many physical vicissi- tudes. The first specimen, which was also the first known Paleozoic land shell, was found by Sir Charles Lyell and the writer in 1851, in breaking up the contents of an erect tree holding reptilian bones. The specimens obtained from this tree having been taken by Sir Charles to Cambridge and submitted to the late Prof. Jeffries Wyman, the shell in question was recognized by him and the late Dr. Gould, of Boston, asa land shell. It J. W. Dawson—Paleozoie Land Snails. 407 | ) >> Bae —— SS ———___—- om ————— ¥ ———— ee Fig. 1, Pupa vetusta, magnified 8 times lineally ; 2, same, showing the aperture, x 8; 3, same, nuclear whorl, x 25; 4, same, mature egg and embryo shell, x 25, 5, 6, Pupa Bigsbii, x , Pupa Vermilionensis, x8; 8, same, showing aper- ture x8, the small tooth on the columella somewhat exaggerated; 9, same, section of aperture, showing tooth x16. 10, Zonites priscus, x8; 11, same, crushed specimen, showing aperture x 20. 408 J. W. Dawson— Paleozoic Land Snails. was subsequently examined by M. Deshayes and Mr. Gwyn Jeffries, who concurred in this determination; and its micro- scopic structure was described by the late Prof. Quekett, of London, as similar to that of modern land shells. The single specimen obtained on this occasion was somewhat crushed and did not show the aperture. Hence the hesitation as to its nature, and the delay in naming it, though it was figured and described in the paper above cited in 1852. Better speci- mens showing the aperture were afterward obtained by the writer, and it was named and described by him in his “ Air- breathers of the Coal Period,” in 1863. Prof. Owen, in his ‘Paleeontology,’ subsequently proposed the generic name Den- dropupa. is ave hesitated to accept, as expressing a generic distinction not warranted by the facts; but should the shell be considered to require a generic or sub-generic dis- tinction, Owen’s name should be adopted for it. There seems, however, nothing to prevent it from being placed in one of the modern sub-genera of simple-lipped Pups. With regard to the form of its aperture, I may explain that some currency has been given to an incorrect representation of it, through an un- fortunate accident. In the case of delicate shells like this, im ed in a hard matrix, it is of course difficult to work out in my possession. This restoration, specimens subsequently pens The lowest bed in which Pupa vetusta occurs belongs group VIII of Division 4 of my section of the South Joggins, J. W. Dawson— Paleozoic Land Snails. 409 and is between Coal 87 and Coal 88 of Logan’s section, being about 42 feet below Coal 87. The next horizon, and that in which the shell was first discovered, is 1217 feet of vertical - thickness higher, in group XV of Division 4 of my section. The shells occur here in erect Sigillarie, standing on Coal 15 of Logan’s section. The third horizon is in group XXVI of Division 4, about 800 feet higher than the last. Here also the shells occurred in an erect Stgillaria. In the lowest of these three horizons, the shells are found, as already stated, in a thin bed of concretionary clay of dark gray color, though associated with reddish beds. It contains oneles priscus as well, though this is very rare, and there are a few valves of Cythere and shells of Nazadites as well as carbon- aceous fragments, fronds of ferns, Zrzgonocarpa, ete. The Pupe are mostly adult, but many very young shells also occur, as well as fragments of broken shells. he or in a carbonaceous mass composed mainly of vegetable debris. Except when crushed or flattened, the shells in these reposito- ries are usually filled with brownish calcite. From this I infer that most of them were alive when imbedded, or at least that they contained the bodies of the animals; and it is not improba- ble that they sheltered themselves in the hollow trees, as is the habit of many similar animals in modern forests. Their resi- dence in these trees as well as the characters of their embry- ology are illustrated by the occurrence of their mature ova. hey may also have formed part of the food of the reptilian animals whose remains occur with them. In illustration of this T have elsewhere stated that I have found as many as eleven unbroken shells of Physa heterostropha in the stomach of a modern Menobranchus. I think it certain, however, that bot the shells and the reptiles occurring in these trees must have been strictly terrestrial in their habits, as they could not have found admission to the erect trees unless the ground had been sufficiently dry to allow several feet of the imbedded hollow trunks to be free from water. In the highest of the three horizons the shells occurred in an erect tree, but without any other fossils, and they had apparently been washed in along with a grayish mud.* * The discovery of the shells in this tree was made by Albert I. Hill, 0.E. 410 J. W. Dawson—FPaleozoice Land Snails. 2. Pupa Bigsbiis.n. (Figs. 5 and 6.) Description.—Shell half the size of Pupa vetusta, or between three and four pate ae in length and one and five-tenths millimeters in breadth. m, long conical. Body whorl about one-third of the entire detipatli, giving the shell a somewhat bulimoid form. Whorls five in the largest specimens found, tumid, suture much impressed. Surface smooth. perture apparently oval in form, but not perfectly known, as the body se is crushed in all the specimens. A few specimens, none of them quite perfect, were found in the erect trees of group XV at the Joggins, along with Pupa vetusta. They differ from that species in smaller size, different form and absence of sculpture. The specimens do not show whether the aperture was toothed or simple, but it was proba- bly the latter, as the lip is evidently very thin and delicate. From its form it is probable that it belongs to a different sub- genus from P. vetusta. It is very much more rare than that species in the erect trees, and has not been found elsewhere. I dedicate it to my venerable and dear friend Dr. Bigsby, F.R.S., of London, a pioneer in American geology, and still an indefatigable worker in the science. 3. Pupa Vermilionensis Bradley. (Figs. 8 and 9, and 14¢.) [Bradley in Report of eh ae Survey of Illinois, vol. iv, p. 254. Id. in Am. Journ. Sci., III, vol. iv, p. 87.] Description.*—Shell spindle-shaped, tapering to an obtuse apex, covered with microscopic ridges (25 to 30 in a millime- ter) parallel to the lines of growth. Aperture oblique, oval. Outer lip thin, slightly reflexed. Columella lip reflexed, thick- ened ; furnished with a single central curved tooth, projecting nearly half way across the aperture. Junction of columella and outer lip somewhat angular and dentiform. In old indi- viduals the columella tooth is often continuous through an entire turn or farther. It is not seen on shells having less than three turns. The last turn forms nearly half the length of the shell. Whorls rounded. Suture impressed. Surface glossy. Color black or gray. Length three and six-tenths millimeters. Width two millimeters. Some individuals are smooth or desti- tute of the fine microscopic ridges, but whether this is a natural SiR BS or a result of injury to the outer surface, is not cer- * Slightly modified from Bradley. IE EO Ne ee gE ee Toke = RL LEON NE | ee eee eee ae a J. W. Dawson—Paleozoie Land Snails. 411 course also a strong mark of distinction. The shell is thin, and from its black color and failure to show structure under the microscope, I infer that it must have been of a horny or cor- neous texture, with little calcareous matter. The matrix is light colored and concretionary, and somewhat hard and cal- careous, As compared with modern American species, P. Vermilion- ensis is very near to several of the smaller forms with teeth in the aperture. In its form and aperture it approaches closely to P. (Leucochila) corticaria of Say, or to the immature shell of P. rupicola. It has also some resemblance to the western species P. hordeacea Gabb, from Arizona. This shell was discovered by the late Mr. F. H. Bradley in 1869, in concretionary limestone accompanying the underclay of Coal No. 6, Wabash Valley Section, at Pelly’s Fort, Vermil- ion River, Illinois. In the first notice, which appeared in the Report of the Geological Survey of Illinois, it was referred to Pupa vetusta, but was subsequently described by Mr. Bradley in the American Journal of Science, under the name above cited. Iam indebted for specimens of this shell to Mr. John Collett, of the Geological Survey of Indiana, and also to Mr. W. Gurley, of Danville, Illinois. 4. Zonites (Conulus) priscus Carpenter. (Figs. 10 and 11, and 14d.) [Quarterly Journal of Geological Society of London, Nov. 1867. Acadian Geol- ogy, 2d edition, 1868, p. 385.] Description.*—Shell small, helicoid. Length two and five- tenths millimeters, width two and eight-tenths millimeters. Spire little elevated. Nucleus small. Whorls four, somewhat flattened, with the suture little impressed. ase somewhat excavated with large umbilicus. Aperture oblique, suboval, somewhat regularly rounded. Lip simple. Surface marked with uneven strie and somewhat more conspicuous ridges of growth. Angle of divergence about 130°. Shell thin and probably horny. This little shell was discovered in 1866, in the bed already referred to as the lowest of those at the South Joggins in which Pupa vetusta has been found. Shortly after I had discovered ie Slightly modified from Carpenter. 412 J. W. Dawson—Paleozoic Land Snatis. shell is much more delicate than that of Pupa vetusta, and therefore less likely to be preserved. Fig. 12, Dawsonella Meeki, x8; 13, same, section of aperture, x16; the outer edge of the lamella is imperfect. 14, Markings of surface x 100: (a) Pupa vetusta ; (b) Pupa vetusta var. tenuistriata; (c) Pupa Vermilionensis ; (d) Zonites riscus ; 15, Strophites grandeva, natural size and magnified 8 diameters. gssegij With regard to its affinities, it was compared by Dr. Carpen- ter with the African species Paryphanta Caffra Fer., “on an extremely small scale.” Dr. Carpenter also compared it with Hygromia, and stated that it might well be rank under! Pseu- J. W. Dawson—Paleozoic Land Snails. 413 dohyalina of Morse, with the living species mznuscula and exigua. e thought it best, however, to place it in the subgenus Conulus of the genus Zonites, as defined by Messrs. Adams. Wit regard to the subgeneric name, Dr. Carpenter explained that the subgenus Conulus of Fitz, 1833, appears to be synonymous with Zrochiscus Held, 1837 (non Sby.); also with Petasia Beck, 1837; and with Perforatella Schlitt. ; and according to Adams is a subgenus of Zonites Montf. (non Leach, Gray). Those who do not care to enter into these subgeneric distinctions, may designate the species as a Zonites, or even, speaking loosely, as a Helix. There seems nothing in its characters to separate it, more than specifically, from many of our smaller helicoid snails with thin shells and simple aperture. 5. Dawsonella Meeki Bradley. (Figs. 12 and 13.) pBerors of Geological Survey of Illinois, vol. iy, p. 254. Am. Journ. of Sci., II, vol. iv, p. 88. Ibid, vol. vii, p. 157.] Description.*—Shell broad, depressed, helicoid. Spire ob- tuse, consisting of three to three and one-half turns. Length three and two-tenths millimeters, width four millimeters. Sur- face smooth, but with fine microscopic lines of growth, about fifteen in a millimeter. Aperture oblique, oval, greatly con- tracted by a broad lamellar expansion of the columella, extend- ing more than half way across, even in small individuals. Outer lip thickened, slightly reflexed. Suture little impressed, imperforate, but last turn slightly excavated in the umbilical region. The shell is usually black in color, and under the microscope shows no distinct structure, from which it may be inferred that it was corneous in texture. It is thicker than the shell of Zonites priscus. This species is found along with Pupa Vermilionensis, and was discovered by Bradley, who was, however, at first disposed to refer it to genus Anomphalus of Meek; but subsequently, and with good reason, regarded it as distinct and as a land shell. In size and general form it resembles Zonites priscus, though expanding less rapidly and with rounder whorls; but it is at once fk ae by its want of the somewhat coarse sculpt- ure of that species, and by the plate which partially covers its aperture. Its nearest modern allies in eastern America would s be such shells as Helix (Triodopsis) palliata, and H. (Stenotrema) monodon. or specimens of this shell I am indebted to the persons above named as having furnished specimens of Pupa Vermil- tonensis. 6. Strophites grandeva, s.n. (Fig. 15.) Description.—Shell cylindrical, with obtuse apex. Whorls four or more. Surface covered with sharp’ vertical ridges, * Modified from Bradley. 414 J. W. Dawson— Paleozoic Land Snails. separated by spaces three times as wide. The body whorl about 4 millimeters in diameter, with about thirteen vertical ridges visible on one side. Length of a specimen probably not quite perfect, about 8 millimeters. The shell, which has dis- appeared, must have been very thin, and the surface remaining is smooth and shining. In general form, so far as can be ascer- tained from a very imperfect specimen, this shell must have closely resembled the modern Pup of the genus Strophia of ers. he only specimen known is from. the Erian (Devonian) plant-beds of St. John, New Brunswick, which, besides afford- ing great numbers of remains of land plants, have produced the only Erian insects as yet known. It was sent to me by Mr. G. F. Matthew, of St. John, along with specimens of fossil plants, several years ago, but I hesitated to describe it, waiting in hope of additional specimens. As these have not occurred, and I have now carefully examined the whole of the material from these beds to which I have been able to obtain access, I venture to name it as probably the oldest known land shell, the beds in which it is found being either middle or upper Erian. If a land snail, it is larger in size and probably of higher type than any of those known from the Coal-formation. This odd not be wonderful, when we consider the greater variety of sur- face and the high character of the vegetation, which, as I have elsewhere endeavored to show, distinguished the later Erian age in Northeastern America. Concluding Remarks. It may be proper to mention here the alleged Pulmonifera of the genus Paleorbis described by some German naturalists. These I believe to be worm-tubes of the genus Sprrorbis, and in fact to be nothing else than the common S. carbonarius or S. pusillus of the Coal-formation. The history of this error may be stated thus. The eminent paleobotanists Germar, Goeppert and Geinitz have referred the Spirorbis, so common in the Coal- measures to the fungi, under the name Gyromyces, and in this they have been followed by other naturalists, though as long ago as 1868 I had shown that this little organism is not only a calcareous shell, attached by one side to vegetable matters and shells of mollusks, but that it has the microscopic structure characteristic of modern shells of this type.* More recently Van Beneden, Cenius and Goldenberg, perceiving that the fossil is really a calcareous shell, but apparently unaware of the observations made in this country by myself and Mr. ue- reux, have held the Spirorbis to be a pulmonate mollusk allied to Planorbis, and have supposed that its presence on fossi * Acadian Geology, 2d edition, p. 205. J. W. Dawson—FPaleozoic Land Snails. 415 plants is confirmatory of this view, though the shells are attached by a flattened side to these plants, and are also ors, 11 there w successors, but from any contemporary animals allied to them, It is probable that the land snails of the Erian and Carbonif- erous were neither numerous nor important members of the occurred. Further, what we know of the vegetation of the Paleozoic Period would lead us to infer that it id not abound in: those succulent and nutritious leaves and fruits which are of form or structure in this type of life in that vast interval of time which separates the Erian Period from the present day. 416 Crosby and Barton—Carboniferous in Massachusetts. Art. XLITL— Eatension of the Car <6 a ous Formation in Massa- chusetts ;* by W. O. CrosBy and G. H. Barron. (Con- tributions bom the Geological Department of the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology: No. L) THE Carboniferous strata of Massachusetts and Rhode Island are all found within the limits of what is known as the Narra- gansett basin ; the well-marked geological basin holding Boston and its environs ath. in our opinion, entirely filled with rocks of Primordial a The northern and western boundaries of the Na rasitiett Bost have about the latitude and longitude, respectively, of the northeast corner of Rhode Island, tending to form a right angle at this point. But the angle is not closed, for the basin gives off a long, narrow branch or arm here which sweeps first in a northeasterly and then in an easterly pgs to Braintree in Massachusetts, where, at a distance o than twenty-five miles from its origin, it nearly, but oS bAUEY not quite, sae with the Boston basin. The nearest out- crops in the two basins are about two miles apart, are entirely dissimilar Ngislabloally and are certainly widely separated in time. The intervening ground is a thick deposit of drift, and, although its contours are not unfavorable to the theory that the basins communicate, yet it is probably underlaid by gran- ite, which is the predo minant tnderigiag rock of all this re- gion. This elongated arm of the Narragansett ace lies wholly within the limits of Norfolk County; and, hence, it has re- ceived the local designation of the Norfolk Catinty’ basin. Its breadth varies from a small fraction of a mile to two and one- third miles; and it is Me in the middle part, being very much contracted toward eac four months of field and laboratory work,. performed chiefiy b y Mr. Barton, and formed ie thesis for graduation i in the Class of 1880 of the Massachusetts pin baat tute of nolo acknowledge our great obligations to Professo W Niles for material om rende many ways, and also to He. Jobn Cummings and W. T. Hart of the New York and N Railroad for free Fisoesniine while engaged upon the field-work. Crosby and Barton—Carboniferous in Massachusetts. 417 a wide area of conglomerate, extending to the limits of the basin. This great development of conglomerate was regarded by Hitchcock as underlying the coal strata, and as probably of Silurian age. While the stratified rocks lying to the northwest of the anthracite belt, and composing the attenuated Norfolk County basin, were finally referred provisionally by this dis- tinguished geologist, and mainly upon lithological grounds, to the Devonian system, and Sir Charles Lyell, ina paper on the Worcester Anthracite,* appears to concur in this conclusion. Of the former, if not the present, existence of Cambrian (Lower Silurian) strata in the Narragansett basin there can be but little doubt, since pebbles holding Primordial fossils—Sco- lithus and Lingula—are of common occurrence in the conglom- erate at Newport, Fall River and Taunton; and yet this great conglomerate itself is now generally and, as we think, justly regarded as essentially a part of the Carboniferous series. at all previous determinations of the age of the Norfolk County eds have rested on insufficient evidence is obvious; and to cerning the horizon of this belt, it having been referred by dif- from their color, red sandstones and shales occupying a peer i i i their communication of the two basins in either ae or present time. The Norfolk County beds are extensively folded, show- ing at most points high, and often vertical, dips; but in this re- spect they are as little contrasted with the Carboniferous on the one hand as with the Primordial on the other. In the almost and from those of Hitchcock, consists essentially, beginning at the base, of the following groups of rocks: _ (L.) A great thickness of conglomerate, which, at the bottom, is sometimes extremely coarse and irregular, holding bowlders * Jour. Geol. Soe. London, vol. i. Am. Jour. see ae Srertes, Vou. XX, No. 119.—Noyv., 1880. 418 Crosby and Barton— Carboniferous in Massachusetts. a yard or more in diameter, though the great mass of the rock is composed of pebbles not exceeding three inches in diameter. The higher portions, especially, include considerable sandstone, mostly in thin and irregular beds. All the crystalline rocks of the region are represented among the pebbles of the conglomer- ate, though granite, quartz and quartzite predominate. The paste is sometimes ferruginous, giving the red conglomerate de- scribed by Hitchcock. (2.) The conglomerate gives way upward to red and gray or green sandstones which have in the aggregate a ebnsiderable thickness, certainly not less than six hundred feet. The differ- some localities than in others. Both the red and the green sandstones frequently pass into true slates and shales; and in the red shales, especially, the ferruginous character is often very strongly marked. (8.) Above the sandstone series, and forming the summit of the formation, come the true coal-measures, which, as well de- scribed by Hitchcock, consist very largely of a black, highly carbonaceous slate, but also include a large amount of green sandstone and shales, with comparatively little red rock. Con- glomerate is rare in this series, though not entirely wanting. Now, the important point to be made here is, that the first and second series described above agree perfectly in both com- ition and sequence with the rocks of the Norfolk County asin ; that is, the Norfolk County beds are essentially similar lithologically and stratigraphically to the lower Carboniferous of in basin; but we find in the smaller basin no trace of the highly carbonaceous, plant-bearing shales, and anthra- cite of the third series. able to clinch the proof of their Carboniferous age by the discovery, near the middle of the belt, of characteristic Carbon- iferous fossils. o td, © ee NE Puce SS ee eee oS Crosby and Barton— Carboniferous in Massachusetts. 419 The precise locality is the place marked on the map as Rock- dale, in the southeastern corner of the town of Norfolk. In this neighborhood there are many large, bold ledges of conglomerate and sandstone, as well as of the underlying granite; and this is, on the whole, the best exposure of the rocks which the belt affords. The fossils are found only in a small-pebbled or arenaceons conglomerate which lies near the top of the first or conglomerate series; and their occurrence along several lines of strike has assisted us in arrivingat a knowledge of the struc- ture of the region, the beds being clearly thrown into a series of closed folds. The fossils seem to consist wholly of the molds of Sigillaria, though many of them are so imperfect that, for aught that we could determine, they might be Cala- mites or Lepidodendron. The coarse texture of the rock has been unfavorable for the preservation of the finer and more characteristic features of the bark. till, in several cases, enough remains to show that the specimens are unquestiona- so formed having been probed to a depth of twenty feet or more. About thirty molds in all have been observed. Although fossils have been found at only this one locality, yet we are not persuaded but that, having learned what kind of impressions are to be looked for, close observation would discover them at other points. Certainly, there is nothing pe- Culiar in the character of the rock at Rockdale; and we fee that the fossils occurring here, taken in connection with the lithological and stratigraphical evidence already referred to, afford ample proof of the equivalence of the Norfolk Count series and the conglomerate and sandstone underlying the coal- measures in the main Narragansett basin; and Hitehcock and Lesquereux have already satisfactorily referred these lower Narragansett beds to the horizon of the Millstone Grit. It is worthy of note, too, that the descriptions given by Dawson in his ‘Acadian Geology ” of the Millstone Grit series of New Bruns- wick and Nova Scotia apply very closely to the rocks in ques- tion; and since our coarse conglomerate rests immediately upon the crystallines, it is apparent that Dawson’s Carbonifer- ous limestone and lower coal-measures, which taken together represent the Subcarboniferous of the Appalachian region, are probably entirely wanting in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. 420 Crosby and Barton—Carboniferous in Massachusetts. We have observed many facts pointing to the conclusion that the Norfolk County beds were deposited in a narrow, elonga- ted basin, similar to that which they now occupy, that is, that the present borders of the belt coincide approximately, at least, with the original shore lines, and that any narrowing which the belt may have experienced is due mainly to folding rather than to denudation. Along the existing border of the belt, where, of course, the lowest beds of conglomerate outcrop, these are usually mainly, Jy glomerate ake meets abruptly the steep and sometimes al- most cliff-li Blue Hills is not only almost entirely composed of the débris of these two varieties of rock, but it is also, for the most part, exceedingly coarse, holding many bowlders from one to four feet in diameter, and these are often but imperfectly rounded. It is, in fact, just such material as accumulates on the adjacent coast to-day, where the sea beats against clifis of granite and petrosilex ; and, to our minds, the conclusion is irresistible that the Blue Hills, much higher then than now, towered cliff- like, above the Carboniferous sea, and marked then as now, the northern limit of the deposits of that age. From the conclusions already stated, an inference of some practical importance may be drawn, viz: although the Nor- folk County basin contains only beds of Carboniferous age, idee is improbable that coal will ever be discovered within its imits, this narrow trough having become filled with sediments and converted into dry land, before the deposition of the true coal-measures began, and this later-formed series having been always, apparently, restricted to a comparatively small part of the main or Narragansett basin. C. H. F. Peters—New Planetoid, ete. 421 Art. XLIV.—Discovery of a new Planetoid, Pete observations on Hartwig’s Comet; by Professor C. H. F. ERS. Communi- cation to the editors, dated Litchfield ObesHvata of Hamil- ton College, Clinton, N. Y., October 18, 1880. A BRIGHT planetoid was discovered on Oct. 10, se the fol- lowing positions have been obtained : o. of 1880. Ham. Coll. m.t. App. @ (219). App. 4 (219). Log. (p" A). wy Oct. 10. 14h 18m 128 ¥ 27 928 49° 6746"4 0°5530°705 10 Oct. 11. 13 19 58 26 2786 +8 52 196 0°3420699 10 The position of ae 11 depends upon that of Dm. + 8°-252, a star of 8"-8, but of which no accurate determination is found. It has been aoe for 1880-0 a=1 29" 45°0-+¢ o=+8° 48' 20" +e’, 80 that the Hichedl codrdinates will receive corresponding cor- rections, when the star’s place has been better determined. e magnitude of the planet was estimated at 9"-3, and its relatively great nearness to the earth is, rite fe concluded a met great apparent motion, wikininsins to 43° and 15’ 14” in 24 h I ap ui such of my observations on the Comet Hartwig, as far as the comparison stars have been deter oon ned. of 1880. H. C. m. o. é Log. (p."A) Coane Comp. star. h m a ° ' " Oct. 3. 7 18 29 5 21 12: 46 +2715 49°3 0°8420645 6 Wo. 15654 “8. 910-45 16:56 26°34 +2711 54°7 0°862 0°767 5 =a Coron. 8. 7 33 23 16 30 53°87 +22 40 57°3 0°803 0°651 10 7 ae 970 & 976 “ 10. 8 2765 16491768 +2055 1771 08300704 7 651602 n Weiss’s ponroene the right ascension of 16" 970 ought to be eee 10°. tober 9 hd the moon did not yet interfere, the tail could be followed, by a five-inch seeker, for three or four de- grees. The nucleus, though not aa stellar, shows a goo concentration for accurate pointin Art. XLV.—The Discovery of Oxide of Antimony in exten- sive lodes in an Mexico; by E. T. Cox, of Tucson, Arizona Territory. [Read before the Doon meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ent of Science, August 27, 1880.] UP to the sae time the antimony of commerce has been madi: ‘Shiba by the reduction of the sulphide, and though this ore is widely distributed over the globe, it is, asa rule, associated with a variety of mineral substances that obstruct 422 KE. T. Cox—Ovxide of Antimony at Sonora, Mexico. reduction and add to the cost of purifying the metal. These sulphides are also found in such sparse quantities, that the iaotal usually commands from three to four times the price of lead, and fully as much as that of tin or copper. At present the supply of sulphides of antimony for the English smelters is obtained from Algeria, Spain and Ceylon. Small quantities of oxide of antimony ores have been found in portions of Europe and in Ceylon, but at no time in such capageia as to elicit special attention. When, therefore, about a year ago, I called the attention of English metallurgists and Fp to the occurrence of vast lodes of almost pure oxide of antimony in the district of Altar, Sonora, Mexico, thirty miles from the Gulf of California, it seemed too marvelous for their belief. A company of gentlemen of Boston, Mass., now have con- trol of these psuinony mines, and the ore will soon be in the hands of smelter, The ees features of the country where A ore abounds are similar to those of Southern Arizona. The m tains are in short, narrow ranges, having for the most Se a northerly and southerly trend. Their crests are either rugged or well-rounded cones, mela to the nature of the rocks tw) forming their mass. Between these ranges, we have what is called mesa or table land ; Ae latter is formed of the aeore of the mountains. This material is of so loose and us a nature, that the small amount of rain which falls sinks fronek obliterate all traces of fossils. Presi ahr these and forming the mountain peaks, we have porphyry, quartzites, basalt, diorites and trachytes. e country rock in the immediate vicinity of the setae mines is quartzite and limestone. The lodes are from to twenty feet wide, and iseplovtation work, carried to a depth of thirty feet, shows that the fissures are filled from wall to wall with the oxide of antimony, almost pure and remarkably uniform in character. The course of the lodes is nearly north and south; the pitch is high to the east. The area over which the ore is found may be roughly stated to be five or six miles long and half a mile or more w The Boston Company controls nine mines, each of which is a full Mexican claim, 800 meters (2624’ 8”) long and 200 meters (656’ 2”) wide. On three of the mines, the crop, which is solid oxide of iatishoity, stands up boldly above the general surface and may be traced along the claims for many hundred feet. As stated above, the ore, so far as explorations have exposed it, is Drag of water upon water at Low Velocities. 423 ge. This discovery is destined to produce a marked influence upon the production of metallic antimony and to greatly extend its uses. Professor S. P. Sharples, of Boston, after an examination of many specimens of the oxide of antimony, received from me, from almost white, a very dark brown. The specific gravity of one of the purest specimens, is 07, and it con- tained 5 per cent of water, an er cent of antimony. This * Star antimony. Art. XLVI.—Eaperiments made to determine the “ Drag” of Water upon Water at Low Velocities; by the Rev. SAMUEL AUGHTON and J. Emerson Reynoups, M.D.* A SPHERICAL ball of granite, unpolished, was suspended by a pianoforte wire, and allowed to hang freely; from the brass collar by which the ball was suspended an index projected on * From the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, read Feb. 23, 1880. The term “Drag” is to be understood as signifying the combined effects of friction and viscosity 424 Haughton and Reynolds—Eaperiments to determine the wire of suspension was 6108 centimeters, and its diameter was 0°889 millimeter. The diameter of the iron tub was 2 feet 4 inches, and the depth of water contained in it was 1 foot 9 inches. The method of observation was as follows: the indices of the ball having arrived at the zero of rest, the ball was then displaced by a torsional movement of the wire, and allowed to regain its position of rest by a succession of vibrations of sh atime amplitudes. uantities observed were, the time of vibration and the rate of iminution of the amplitude. The equations of motion of the apparatus are thus found :— Px mee es Seem ()" 1 . aa X=; (1) where «=the varying a of moc tes of the surface of the ball measured from the zero of rest; X = ae tangential forces bes torsion and drag” acting at she oin me that for low Mer el the frieaiin will be pivpiobtiohal to’ the velocity, we shall hay X=he — f— Th (2) where & is a coefficient depending on torsion, and / is a coeffi- cient depending on “dra It is easy to see that the complete integral of the equation of motion, dx ee ae atte t+He=0, (3) must be of the ca = ae™ cos nt + be™ sin nt, (4) where a and d are wie ail constants, and where m and n have the values Peal das J If we reckon the time from the commencement of the oscil- lation, equation (4) reduces to xe = ae™ cos nt. (6) If T denote the time of a complete double oscillation, we find from the above fnT eP (7) where 0 ee of & (n+1)" vibration ; 6,=amplitude of the first v ion From (7) we aie the following working equation, or use in the calculations to cores the coefficient of frictio Ss ef nT oS (a =). ®) Drag of water upon water at Low Velocities. 425 27 Also, we have r= T= Jeo from which we obtain, after some reductions, T= — Pasa (9) HRP If we introduce into this equation the value of / determined by (8), we obtain &, which depends on the torsion only. From careful experiments made by means of the apparatus described at the beginning of this paper the following value has been obtained for the coefficient of “drag” : 1 i= 307°057 From this value of f we can determine the relation between the slope of a water-surface and its velocity. We have, for the equation of motion of the surface, aa 2 ieee qe = 9 Sint— fa 3 (10) where g denotes the force of gravity, ¢ the slope of the surface, and x the distance of any particle from the origin measured in the direction of the motion. If v denote the velocity of a particle, equation (10) becomes at once 7 tf =o sini; (11) which gives, by integration, sin ¢ — fv) = const. (12) This indicates that the velocity will increase from zero up to the value given gsinti—fv=0, (13) after which it will remain constant forever. ; The final constant velocity given by equation (13) is g 80? __ 39.9 9¢ 307°057 sin ¢. (14) v7= If we express the velocity in feet per second, and call A the slope per mile, we find v = 1°8726 X Aft. per second; (15) which is equivalent to v = 30°642 A miles per day. (16) Dr. Carpenter has proposed to explain the phenomena of ocean circulation by the greater height of the water at the equator as compared with that at the poles. 426 Scientific Intelligence. If we call the distance from the equator to the pole 6,000 miles, and suppose the velocity of the surface current toward the pole to be only one mile per day, we find from a (16), that this would require a head of water at the equator h = 195-80 feet. such difference of level can be admitted between the equi- iiviam levels of the equatorial and polar oceans. The latest accurate estimate of the difference is that made by Mr. Croll, vizZ., eet. This head of water, if it eould produce an oceanic flow at all, would be one at the rate of one mile in 42°567 ays; or a flow that would occupy 700 years to pass from the equator to the poles. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the determination of Carbon dioxide in expired air Marcet has described a modification of Pettenkofer’s apparatus oe determining the amount of carbon dioxide contained in expired He uses a cylinder of thick glass, of about two liters capacity, ground flat at both ends and re by disks of thick glass, closely tting the openings and kept in place by brass collars upper glass disk is perforated ii three holes, to contain respec- tively a thermometer and two sto oe The lower disk has one opening, for the insertion of a pyeock. The cylinder is sup- orted ona tripod. The air to be sae ee is collected in a rubber ag, those used by Marcet holding 39°3 and 64:8 liters under the pressure mak one inch of water. The bag is connected to the cyl- inder by one of the upper openings, ge the cylinder is put in SoGininibation with the air-pum e lower one. After ex- hausting to 20 or 30 mm. pressure the air from the bag i is allowed to enter the cylinder; this Speration being repeated till the cylin- der is filled with air from the ba y means of the thermometer solution. On patie the fre nerd of the pipette and the i 8 necting tube, the solution passes into the spades After a - the milky liquid is drawn off into a 100 e.c. bottle and claealy ed. Subsequently, at convenience, 25 e.c. of this liquid A aed with a pipette, 100 c.c. of distilled ute on is added, t solution is placed in a burette and added to 5 c.c. of an sat acid solution of such strength that 1 ¢.c, pubs i to one milli- Chemistry and Physics. 427 gram of CO,, until neutralization is effected. From the data thus given the weight of the carbon dioxide is calculated. ae iiss Soe., Xxxvii, 493, July, 1880. 2. On the "Atomic Weight of Ytterbium.—N ison mad ecctaeel his researches upon the rare elements of the satan enite, ee seven different oxides, i yiterbia, pears erbia, terbia, the earth which Soret calls x, and yttria. ‘To extract them, the finely pe tatised mineral wa s placed i in a platinum “dish, in ‘quantities of about 400 grams, mixed with four times its weight of hydro- potassium sulphate, and fused over a powerful gas lamp. The n was com rae extracted with cold sere decanted from OBR metallic acids, precipitated with ammonia, the hydrates thus obtained washed out, dissolved i in nitric acid, boiled, nitrate evaporated and fused until the weight was twice that of the mixed earths. On solution in water, a residue remained of basic nitrates of thorium, cerium, uranium and iron. The filtrate gave a beautiful fused nitrate, which was subjected to the long series of partial decompositions already pr ey aoek ibed. The Strongest bases, didymium, yttrium and terbium accumulated in the first. mother- “liqu uors so that the ices: solution after seven decompositions, contained no didym In the mother-liquors from 8 to 30 the abso orption-bands of she so-called erbia increased successively in intensity, the solution containing finally nearly the whole of the earths which are characterized by bsorption bands. Cleve 5 wiley ee ae 15 kilograms of gadolinite at had Pare pi pure "ytter rbia.* The solution of the nitrate pi? sone h H,S, and the filtrate precipitated with oxalic eae was ignited, the earth converted into nitrate i ‘livided * Serie s 61-68 contained, Seeide seri only os oxide of a on to which Cleve ity given the name of thuliu . 428 Scientific Intelligence. 172°91; or 17301 as a mean. The author also describes ytterbia, and its hydr ate, nitrate, anhydrous and hydrated sulphates, selenite, and oxalate.—Ber. Berl, Chem. Ges., xiii, 1430, Ju ly, be used: the first, based upon the fact that scandium nitrate is far more easily decomposed by heat than the correspondin ytterbium salt; and the second, which rests on the behavior of a double sulphate KS0)), Se,(SO,), being poe Es while ytterbium sulphate is easily soluble in such a solut Three ixed earths were dissolved as atone, ciphae in eotasad basket. In a few hours the walls and bottom of the vessel were covered with the or fatalline double salt. After a couple of days, it was collected and washed. A weighed quantity of the earth from the eee Soh verted into sulphate gave an atomic weight of 172°88, wing this filtrate to contain pure erbium. The po otassium- eae sulphate itself was converted mto nitrate and fractionally decomposed. our products were andium. oe this last fraction, four further fractions were obtained and the pure scandia prepared by igniting the oxalate. is was weighed, sreeeaber in nitric acid and evaporated with id ex sulphuric acid in excess till fumes no longer appeared. These fractions gave atomic wetbtile of 43°99, 44°07, 44°05, and 44°02 respectively; or 44°03 This atomic weight, 44, ‘coin- and also the eines nitrate, sulphate, selenite seid oxalate. The molecular sei “ Se,0, is 20°81.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, 1439, July, “ On a ie ante in Rosin oil. —Kew.se has examined the lighter. oils obtained from the distillation of rosin and finds that they contain a new cymene. After washing with sodium hydrate solution, and frac semaine 5 several products are obtained of ives stant boi iling points. One of these boiling at 170°-178° C., wa ee aon ith ier nee sulphuric acid, in which it atsscived in \aleohl “and yielding, when treated with ac pheoaplions chloride and ammonia an a-cymene-sulphamide fusing as 73° Further Chemistry and Physics. 429 A-cymene-sulphate, as an indistinctly crystalline mass, easil soluble in absolute alcohol. -cymene-sulphamide prepared from this salt, fuses at 106°-108° ©. e cymene prepared from the a-sulpho-salt is a colorless highly refractive liquid of agreeable °=175° oxidation it gives an acid of high the sulphamide, Hence the author is inclined to regard this cymene, at least provisionally, as meta-isopropyltoluene.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, 1157, June, 188v. G. F. B. reparation of normal Ethyl sulphate.—V W.mERs slowly with twice its volume of concentrated sulphuric acid, in as good a vacuum as possible. The yield is 25 to 30 grams. Two layers of liquid appear in the receiver, the lower of which is the ether. It is rectified in vacuo, and boils under a pressure of 5 mm, at 2°5° ©. It crystallizes at —24°5°, and alkalies convert it at once into sulphethylate.-— Bull. Soc. Ch., I, xxxiv, 25, July, 1880, G. F. B. _ 8. On Homatropine.—Atropine, as is well known, breaks up Into tropic acid and tropine. LapenBuRG succeeded in reversing the process and in producing atropine from tropic acid and tropine. This led him to the synthesis of an entirely new class of alkaloids, which he called tropeines, produced by the action of acids upon tropine in presence of hydrochloric acid, The tropeine of mandelic or oxytoluylic acid, which he calls oxytoluyltropeine or homatro- pine, while possessing equal mydriatic power with atropine, yet passes off much more rapidly, in 12 to 24 hours. Merck has obtained it crystallized from solution in absolute ether. It fuses at 95°5° to 98-5°, and has the formula C,,H,, NO,.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiii, 106, 1081, 1340, July, 1880. G F. B 7. On Carbonyl Hemoglobin.—W uxt and Von Anrep have emoglobin toward oxidizing agents as a means of detecting the becoming yellowish-green in color. Blood containing CO remains red, becomes turbid and shows no bands. The quantity of the oxidizing agent required to produce the bands increases with the 430 Serentific Intelligence. quantity of CO present. A one per mod aqueous solution of pyrocatechin or of hydroquinone go causes the appearance ni once of the methemoglobin bands blood containing oxygen while carbonyl blood is dichanwed: In this test, the blood is heated with the Jig 0 to 40° for 15 minutes. Be: aa gee Ges., rity Sas 8 i Sr by the approach or recession of the sources of light, : to the left of 6 is a telluric line a=5976°35 iid to the right at's a telluric line d=5974'36. When the edge of the solar disc is observed it is found that the iron lines change while the telluric lines remain in the same position they assume when the center of the solar disc is observed.— Comptes Rendus, No. 7, 1880, P. aa 9. Successive transformations of the photographic sinidigl ih prolonged action of light—M. J. Janssen states the followin facts in extension of those previously communicated by him: zi The ordinary nti Sohne image. (2.) A fir: “ neta state. The ond neutral state, opposite to the first, in which the plate becomes uniformly éleat under the action of the dev eloper. (5.) second negative image, resembling the ordinary negative image, but differing from it by intermediate states and by the enormous difference of the luminous intensity which is necessary to obta in it. (6.) A third neutral state—in which the negative image of the second order has co een ae is sy by a dark uniform tint.— Comptes Rendus, No. , 9. Captain Abney enters in he an venphanation of the reversal of the developed photographic image in the Philosophical ay ne heteen 1880, p. 200. J. hange of the zero point of a thermometer.—Professor ee M. Gales shows (1.) that the zero point rises more rapidly in vystal = in those made from perature; and the effect produced by the elevated temperature pei the thermometer more stable under the ach of lower temperatures. Professor Crafts shows that the ecard aheing sine: back to positions of equilibrium, and probably not to the effects of pressure.— Comptes Rendus, Nos. 5 and 7, 1880, pp. rae: Chemistry and Physies. 431 11. On the electric discharge in Rarefied gases—Dr. EvcEn GopstEIN, in a preliminary paper on a new differentiation of rarefied gas, takes place only when the ray strikes upon a solid obstacle. (2.) It is not the whole length of the ray which pro- duces the ngnt, but only the end of it furthest from the negative pole. (3.) The cause of the production of the light is to be sought in an optical action. (4.) The Breuer of the bat of the ray is produced, not only when the mpinge a pea wall, but also whenever it falls on ay solid substance (5.) T differentiation | 1n sar is not associated with a par- teaaes prone (6.) The phenomenon is not associated with any pa baa inteblilg of discharge. (7.) The same differentia- tion occurs with the “ secondary negative light,” a name given to the light produced at any point of the discharge at which a Contraction of the tube is introduced. (8. e excitation of light by the ends of the negative rays is not of the same kind as the illumination called forth in the surrounding walls of the tubes by the stratification of the positive nen when the veritatis is small.— Phil. Mag., September, 1880, p. 173 Dr. Goldstein’s paper is to be ricoh se and will prove of aces interest in connection with Crookes’ experiments in ane direction os 12. Heat theory of the development of Electrici se aie L. Hoorwee maintains the theory that the development of electricity is due to a redistribution of kinetic energy in the form of heat. Electricity results from thermo-dynamic relations ni seven the points of contact of heterogeneous substances. Peltier’s phe- nomena—the development of electricity from ev ph news from iffusion, from osmone, from psa re, in turn, discussec med , 1880, ndemce to he wads of Chemical Reactions ; Pat Part, Epmunp Drecuset. ‘Translated by N. Fred. Merril, Ph. D. New York: pare Wiley & Sons. 138 pp. 12mo,—This volume is occupied with the application of the most recent and advanced rarest er i to the elucidation of the chemical changes that a ved in elementary qualitative analysis. The wo ~ of both authér and translator is excellently done. The term Molecules, Atoms and Reactions are first defined; Valence a its laws ; Oxidation and Reduction; Solution of Metals and Metallic Oxides; Manner in which Reagents work; Characteristic and Special Reactions of Bases and Acids, are the titles of the pre ses, he chapters. The book must be very serviceable to students of analytical chemistry in acquiring pegaiariial see se theory of their 14. Water "analysis = Sanitary purposes, with hints foe the interpretation of results; by E. Franxianp. 149 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1880 (Presley Blakiston).—This little volume gives 432 Scientific Intelligence. water for sanitary purposes, and the determination of the various ingredients which may be present. It contains much useful infor- mation in regard to the sanitary effect of different kinds of water, the comparative danger arising from the various possible im ties, and concludes with the Report of the Rivers Pollution Cae missioners of Great Britain. Il GroLtogy AND Natura History. 1. On the Geological action of the Humus acids; by ALExis A. Jutien, of New York. 100 pp. 8vo. From the Proceedings of the American Association, vol. xxviii, eaneyoss Meeting, 1879. Salem, 1880.—This exte nded memoir treats of the “acids existing humus” according to chemists, or feibon « some chemists, and of mineral Aas silicifications and many ah of its a se wish t pitted of crystals of the amazon stone from Colorado, rutile and brookite from Arkans sas, yen some other species. 3. — of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, Ca mbridge, Mass.—No. 4 of the fifth volume of the eros! bulletin m 0 n an article by Dr. Coues, “ Behind the Veil,” bee eo ence to much of peculiar turret: not only in the personal his- tory of Wilson and Audubon, but also in the early patery of ee Ornithology itself. 4, Life on the Seashore, or — sa our pais ps glee ; by James H. Emerron. 138 mo, 161 cu George A. A it] “@ oS | - ba) =, ot = 5B @ aS oo ~) 5 ° =} 5 ° Lear) _ Ss ee ° 5 i) ot ot °o _5 Ce ° 7 cerning the habits and transformations uf many of these aiken | ; , Astronomy. 433 gives additional interest to the book. Descriptions of the appa- ratus and the modes of capturing and preserving specimens o marine sy acta ees are also given. It is an admirable introduc- nen to val study of marine zoology. A. E. V. inet History of the Agricultural Ant of Texas, a Moss ier of the Habits, Architecture and Structure of moe nomyrmex barbatus; by Hunry Curisropurr McCoo 0 pp. 8v0, with 24 Siew ese plates. Philadelphia, 1880, (J. Lippincott & Co.)—This volume gives at great length the final results of an cuiheaaes study of the life-history et the agricultural ant of which s 2, ata were published nearly twenty years ago by Backiey ge 3am um. Considerable doubt has been expressed in regard to the Prat of these early o servations, and Mr. McCook, in 1877, visited Texas for the pur- r the earlier cues but are far more comp and minute and add many new facts to the remarkable history. The present work is eminently po piled in style and certainly very readable and thoroughly etree though often greta diffuse, and eserves a wide circle of such readers a n delighted with the sbibewhat similar work of Mo gridge, “e nerreatag Ants Trap-door Spiders.” It may add to the interest in Mr. yeti volume to call attention to a note, by the Rev. G, K. orris, in the American Naturalist for September, p. 669, ascrib- nei bacenutiad habits to an ant (a species of Phesdole) in 1 New ey. L Ill. Astronomy. l, allege’ fAaaee R af, the Nebula in Orion; by Professor Henry Draper, M.D.—During the night of September 30, 1880, I suc- for the ge ree rays. The ot ge stand and drivi ing clock I construe ed myself. e exposure was for fifty minutes. I intend at an early date to publish a pine decries of the negatives. pga York, Oct. 2d, 188 Astronomical Ohare et Rochester N. Y., under the Pads of Professor Swirr.—The new Astronomical Observatory, ochester, is to have the third acne telescope in size in ‘aaa The telescope will be twenty-two feet in length and its lens sixteen inches in diameter. The Observatory is named after Mr. H. H. Wacken: by whom it has been most liberally endowed, and its locality is one of the most commanding in Rochester. ith Professor Swift as its observing astronomer, atory. ‘great results sea vee expected from the new Warner Observato 434 Scientific Intelligence. IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. é anual of Cattle-Feeding. A Treatise on the Laws of Animal ' Nutrition and the Chemistry of Feeding-Stuffs in their application to the feeding of Farm Animals, With illustrations and an Appendix of useful tables; by Henry P. Aruspy, Ph.D., Chemist to the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Wiley f New York: John Sons. 1880.—This volume of 525 clearly printe es is divided Bp three parts, viz Pa The General Laws of Animal N , comprising eight ody ; Components o ers ge aents Resorption ; Circulation, Resphation and Excretion ; ~ Methods of Investigation ; Formation of Fles ; of Fat; Production of Wor art on Feeding Stuffs, in three chapters, discusses Digestibility ; The Coarse Fodders; Concentrated Fodders. Pa A treats of the Beenie of Farm nimals, in seven pn bey Feeding Working Animals ; Production of Milk; Fe ceding pape ing animals; Calculation of rations. An Appendix includes four ables: I. Composition of Feeding Stuffs ; II. their Digestibility ; ill, Feeding Standards for farm animals ; IV. Bo pe by may be safely asserted that Dr. Armsby’s work contains D me a =| ) state of knowledge on pe subjects it treats of, that is extant. Not only is it very far i hava nee of anything that has hitherto appeared in the English language, but no other tongue, not excepting the German, can to-day offer its equal. The book treats of a difficult and complicated subject, but the difficulties are approached in a manner adapted to make their mastery easy to the careful reader who possesses a moderate knowledge of been surveyed. Excellent discrimination is shown in the selection of illustrative experimental data, and to a great degree all essen- tial facts are so presented that the reader cannot fail to see their force. The author fairly presents the claims of rival or opposing theories, and clearly indicates where his conclusions rest on solid facts, and where, in default of accurate knowledge, it is for the in the German cepatteie Stations, with which our see siologists are imperfectly acquainted ; and the farmer who is exercised on the practical questions of cooking fodder, the use of concentrated foods, fensilage, compounding = rations, exclusive meal feeding, influence of food on milk, ete., can read in Dr. Arm sby’ — the essence of what is sonitivel y Show on these prctvandd Miscellaneous Intelligence. 435 2, Contributions to the Archeology of Missouri (30 pp. 4to.) by the Archeological Section of the St. Louis Academy of Sei- ence. Part 1, Pottery, 30 pp. 4to, with 23 plates.—This valu- able and well-illustrated contribution to archeology consists of two memoirs: one, a general sketch of the archeological remains in southeastern Missouri by W. B. Porrer; the other, on the an- cient pottery of the same region, by Dr. Epwarp Evers, in which the large number and often quite artistic forms represented in the plates are treated of as to locality, conditions of occurrence, and other particulars. 3. Spectroscopic Notes by Professor Young.—In this article, in the 8th line from the top of page 358, the letter Y should be G. OBITUARY. Professor Bensamin Perrce, LL.D., F.R.S., Perkins Professor of Astronomy and Mathematics at Harvard University, died at father and mother were both distinguished for their acuteness of mind, and his instructor, Nathaniel Bowditch, predicted that 1849 Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, for which he prepared his upon Congress the duty of effectually reorganizing and pushing forward the work so much retarded by, the civil war. He was free from class distinctions, and to which he would never be elected in the higher class of fellows but was a member only. He contributed very largely to make the American Academy 0 Boston what it is, and throughout the whole of the scientific literature of the past fifty years Peirce’s name frequently occurs as a contributor upon mathematical and physical topics. In his works, The teaching at Harvard is based upon his methods and notation, and these methods are models of perspicuity and ele- gance. In physical astronomy perhaps his greatest works were 436 Miscellaneous Intelligence. in connection with the planetary theory, his analysis of the Saturnian system, his researches regarding the lunar theory, and the profound criticism of the discovery of Neptune following the investigations of Adams and of Leverrier. As a mathematician, his work on Analytical Mechanics, his treatise on Curves, Func- tions and Forces, and ol near Associative Algebra all evince extraordinary originality and genius. Many of his detached papers, relatin the t of observing, and the solution of special problems, show an appreciation of the needs in applied mathematics which perhaps has not been exhibited by the same order of genius since the death of his friend and ad- mirer, Gauss. His originality was fostered by his habit of exam- apers 5 but showed such a penetrating discernment of the conditions of a problem, he made such sagacious suggestions regarding the infer- ences to be drawn from the data before him, he showed such a ble; notably the second volume of his “Curves, Functions and and his memoir on “Linear Associative Algebra.” L. Ww. Witiiam Lassevt, F.R.S., the distinguished astronomer, and eminent in connection with the history of reflecting telescopes, died on the 4th of October, in the 82nd year of his age. 1880. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XX, THE f AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES] Art. XLVII.—Note on the Zodiacal Sees by Henry CARVILL Lewis. With Plate VI. [Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Boston, August 28, 1880.] is designed in the present paper to make a brief record of sis rena obtained from observations of the zodiacal light extending over a period of nearly five years.* The facts here piokaial are deductions from a large number of closely ac- cordant observations, the SS - which in detail must be reserved for some future ne ne of observation rrectly such very faint objects, as those parts of the zodiacal light here called om zodiacal band until after the close of the whole series of observations, In order to train the eye - more acute vision, it has been custom- ary before each observation to use it in the detection of stars of the sixth magnitude ite foci + It has been found that such practice is not only a good preparation for accurate observing, but that an idea of the comparative transparency of the atmos- *A short notice of the writer's work was published in the Annual Record of Science and Ind for 1878. The writer has jtemarstes seen twelve stars in the Pleiades with his naked eye. Am. Jour. a a Series, VoL. XX, No. 120.—Dec., 1880. 438 A. C. Lewis—Zodiacal Light. phere is thus obtained. In all cases the observations were made in perfect darkness, and recorded as soon after as possible. Nearly all of the observations were made in Germantown, Pa. (lat, 40°); but a few, especially those upon the “ horizon light,” were made at the sea-shore, on board ship, or on the mountains. The zodiacal light may be divided into three portions :—the Zodiacal Cone, the Zodiacal Band and the Gegenschein. This division, in addition to its convenience, saves confusion in In this latitude, the zodiacal cone is not a symmetrical figure, its southern side being more vertical than its northern side. southern side is also the more sharply defined of the two, and is the side more nearly parallel with the ecliptic. Its axis of greatest brightness does not correspond with its axis of sym- metry, but lies south of it. There is a very small angle be- tween these twoaxes. The axis of greatest brightness appears to lie precisely upon the ecliptic. The lateral extension of the base of the zodiacal cone, often observed, is probably a purely atmospheric effect. The brightness of the zodiacal cone depends upon the sea- son of the year and the time of the night when observed. I brillianey increases rapidly as it approaches the sun, and at such times as it can be seen nearest the sun it always appears brightest. The time of shortest twilight coincides with the greatest brilliancy of the zodiacal cone. In each of the five years the evening zodiacal cone was most brilliant from the middle of February to the middle of March. Several observa- tions have proved it to cast a distinct shadow at that time.* * Zodiacal light shadows were noticed on Feb. 12, 1877, at 7.15 P. M., and on Feb. 21, 1879, at 7.20 p. m. On the latter night snow covered the ground, on which distinct zodiacal light shadows were cast. H. C. Lewis—Zodiacal Light. 439 Numerous comparisons have been made between the bright- ness of the zodiacal cone and that of different parts of the Via acal cone. Although aware of the statements of some observ- ers as to their existence, the writer, during the whole of his observations, has never once been able to detect any certain pulsations, any movement, or any sudden change in brightness in any part of the zodiacal light; and he believes that all such changes in the eyesight of the observer. Since frequently an Pp 440 H.C. Lewis—Zodiacal Light. altitude with a definite portion of the Via Lactea; and it was then always noticed that the diminution in brightness of the zodiacal cone was accompanied by a corresponding change in the Via Lactea. Any change in the transparency of the atmos- phere or in personal judgment affects equally both phenomena. Not only have no pulsations been observed, but as yet no periodic variations in the appearance or brightness of the zodi- acal cone have been noticed. e photometric observations mn enomenon generally ignored is thus brought to special notice. he observations of the writer tend to prove the invariability of the zodiacal light. The difference in its appearance 1s se to be due merely to the different positions of the earth in reference to it. Nor has the moon been discovered to have any action upon the appearance of the zodiacal cone. The zodiacal cone is fre- quently sufficiently bright to enable it to be seen when the moon is either in it or higher in the heavens. The presence of the moon does not appear to alter its shape. hen the moon is above the zodiacal cone, but not on the ecliptic, it has been frequently observed that the axis of the cone points away from the moon, making with it a considerable angle. Again, the cone is found to preserve its shape, both while the moon lies within it, or on one side of it, or when, after having passed its first quarter, the moon illuminates it from above. The widening of the base of the zodiacal cone, as the moon lights up the horizon, is an atmospheric effect caused by the bright- ening of the “ horizon light.” The writer has taken several observations upon the spectrum of the zodiacal cone. Three different spectroscopes, of different make,* have been used with accordant results. It was of interest to find that, notwithstanding the brilliancy of the cone when observed, nothing whatever could be seen when using a narrow slit,—a fact proving the truly continuous character of the spec- trum. When a slit of overa millimeter in width was used, there appeared a faint, pale, continuous spectrum, brightest and most abruptly ending at the less refrangible end, and gradually * Browning’s one prism, Browning’s direct vision, Eaton’s direct vision,—the last being the most satisfactory. H. C. Lewis—Zodiacal Light. 441 visible objects in the heavens, and has thus escaped the atten- tion which it deserves. It may be described as an extremely faint zone of light, somewhat wider than the milky way, which, ike a narrow strip of gauze, is stretched across the sky along the zodiac from horizon to horizon, and which can be seen at seek out first the darkest places in the sky, shifting the eyes rapidly and continuously along the sky from north to south gegenschein. The width of the zodiacal band can only be very approxi- mately estimated. As generally seen, it has perhaps a width of about 12°. When low down toward the southern horizon, 442 H. C. Lewis—Zodiacal Light. this width is apparently greatly increased, and, the horizon light interfering, the whole southern sky beneath the Via Lac- tea may seem illuminated. On rare occasions it is possible to detect an inner zone of greater brightness, some 2° wide. At such times the principal band of light has a width of 5°-6°, while beyond and on either side a very diffuse portion meas- ures from edge to edge as much as 20°. This diffuse portion is particularly noticeable on the northern edge. It must be understood that each of these portions shade by insensible de- grees one into the other, and that probably no two observers would give the same widths. The zodiacal band lies in the zodiac, upon or close to the ecliptic. The observations appear to show that while its axis of greatest brightness is either on or very slightly north of the ecliptic, the axis of symmetry is decidedly north of that line. Probably in the southern hemisphere the reverse would be the case. The zodiacal band is generally quite obscured in the pres- ence of the moon, but two or three observations are recorded, in which the zodiacal band has apparently been seen by moon- light. That such an extremely faint object as the zodiacal band should be seen by moonlight, as though illuminated by it, is an interesting fact, which, however, is not as yet sus- tained by sufficient observation. 2 Gegenschein.—The term gegenschein, given by Brorsen to a light which appears opposite to the sun, but which has been confused by others with the eastern part of the zodiacal band, is here limited to the round or oval spot of light which nightly appears at that place in the zodiacal band which is 180° from the sun. The writer has paid particular attention to the observation and careful mapping of this object. He has made more than forty maps of its position among the stars at different times, and upon subsequent calculation, he has found that almost without exception, the center of the gegenschein, thus mapped, lies within 1° or 2° of a point in the heavens 180° in longitude from the sun. The gegenschein is an extremely faint spot of light some 7° in diameter, lying in the zodiacal band. It is best placed for observation about midnight, and can be detected by shifting the eye backward and forward along the zodiacal band. Any- one who looks for it in February and March, when the Via Lactea is low on the horizon, cannot fail to find it, first in Leo and afterwards in Virgo. Night after night it shifts its place among the stars, so as to keep opposite to the sun. It is of course invisible when crossing the Via Lactea. : The gegenschein is decidedly brighter than the zodiacal H. C. Lewis—Zodracal Light. 443 band, along? always much fainter than any central portions of the Via Lactea. It often appears to form an oval whose major axis is parallel to the ecliptic. At such times its major axis may be 15° in length. This effect is probably caused by the brightness of the zodiacal band on either side of it, for care- ful observations show that the brighter portion is approximately circu in the arene of. the gegenschein. Th nucleus is a small nue erally the gegenschein appears as a nebulous pass of equally diffused light. Perhaps the most interesting fact concerning the gegenschein which is clearly deduced from ee maps of its position, is that it always lies some 2°+ north of the ecliptic. ile a num- ber of observations place its center 8°—4° north of the ecliptic, not a single one makes it south of that line. This fact will be of importance in a theory of the gegenschein. he extreme faintness of both the gegenschein and the zodiacal band made it impossible to obtain any spectrum other than that given by diffuse star-light. Explanation ot Plate.-—Plate VI represents those apd det ch of vain Beeen- schein which were taken while it was ape the vernal equinox. These observa- tions, made at ‘different times and upon different maps, are (ors for the firat time plotted on one map and the line of the etigtin added. The bounding lines of the different gegenscheins represent boundaries of more or less diffuse portions; an the various circular figures on the plate are oe to be regarded as showing differ- ya : ty: e are merely indices to locali The dates of observations were as follows 1. Feb. 4, 1880. 8. Mar. 5, 1872. 19. Apr. 5, 1880. 2. Feb, 4, 1878, 9. Mar. 9, 1877. 14. Apr. 6, 1877. 3. Feb. 7, 1880. 10. Mar. 15, 1877. 15. Apr. 6, 1878. 4. Feb. 9, 1877. 11. Mar. 25, 1879. 16. Apr. 7, 1880. 5. Feb. 14, 1879. 12. Mar. 31, 1880. 17. Apr. 10, 1877. 6. Feb, 21, 1879. 13. Apr. 5, 1877. 18. Apr. 14, 1877, 7. Mar. 5, 1880. just before moonrise. It may have been owing to an snferigr horizon, but, although careful search was made, at no time has the ‘present writer been able to detect any such 2 ain gee The light which precedes the rising of the moon is uni- formly to rise at right angles to the horizon. This light * U.S, Japan Exped., iii, 329, et seq. - 444 H.C. Lewis—Zodvacal Inght. spreads out laterally along the horizon, and appears to be a purely atmospheric effect. nother kind of “moon zodiacal light” is described in a recent paper with the above title in the Proceedings of the American Acad. of Arts and Sciences.* Here the observer describes comet-like tails extending on each side of the moon to a distance of 8-10 times its diameter. The sky was soon after overcast with dense vapors, and after all such vapors had disappeared, these appearances also vanished. They were sup- posed to have a connection with both the zodiacal light and the aurora. Similar appearances have been observed by the present writer only upon similarly cloudy evenings, at which time dif- fraction caused by floating vapor might have explained what was seen. Since such phenomena have not been seen on clear evenings, it is thought that these effects are probably purely . atmospheric. The writer has not, as yet, been able to recognize in his observations any direct connection between the zodiacal light and the moon. The aurora appears to have no influence whatever upon any portion of the zodiacal band. The Horizon Light.—More than once in this paper, reference has been made to a light which it has been found convenient to designate by the above name. It has no connection what- ever with the zodiacal light; but since it is continually ob- served with that phenomenon, and at certain seasons of the year blends with and is apt to be confounded with portions of it, it Is necessary to take it into account. Unlike the zodiacal light, it is a terrestrial effect. ts brightness is variable. At times its lower portion seems * Proc. Amer. Acad, Arts and Sc., Noy., 1877, p. 183. H. C. Lewis—Zodiacal Light. 445 as bright as the Via Lactea and at other times is fainter than the gegenschein. When the moon is in the sky it becomes ex- ceedingly bright and wide, far surpassing the Via Lactea. Just before the time of the rising of the moon it widens out on both the east and west horizons. Stars are readily seen through the horizon light and are but slightly dimmed in lus- ter. The horizon light can most easily be detected by inclin- ing the head toward the shoulder and glancing from the zenith to the horizon. portion and the zodiacal cone, even when very bright, extends it is difficult if not impossible at times to separate one from the other er. Conclusion.—Other observers have contributed much of im- portance concerning the phenomena of the zodiacal light, and several theories of its origin have been propose o theo is advanced in the present paper, and, as the observations are being continued, these partial results alone nave peter as a contribution to the store of facts already collected on this inter- esting phenomenon. Germantown, Pa., August, 1880, 446 E.. B. Wilson—The early stages of Renilla. ArT. XLVIII.—The early stages of Renilla; by Epmunp B. ILSON. With Plate VIIl.—Note from the Chesapeake Zo- it ologicai Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University. DuRING the past summer, while at Beaufort, N. C., I had an opportunity to study the development of the colony of Renilla reniformis Cuv., from the simple free-swimming young to the adult stage. Since very little is known concerning the growth of the colony in the Pennatulacea and the mode of budding in Renilla is somewhat remarkable, a brief abstract of the observa- tions may be worth recording. In a fuller paper, to be else- where published, the intermediate stages will be figured and the anatomical details fully described. The young polyp (fig. 1) is ciliated, and at first swims actively at the surface. ‘T'wo slight elevations, a, a, indicate the rudi- ments of the first pair of zooids. The septa (indicated by dot- ted lines) are of unequal lengths and are disposed in accord- ance with a perfect bilateral symmetry. Thus, the pair on the op- posite side from the zooids (which may be called the lower side) are the shortest, not extending as far back as the level of the ape of zooids; the upper pair extend to the zooids; the upper ateral pair are apparently continuous with the longitudinal septum (s) which extends to the extremity of the body; and the lower lateral pair extend some distance beyond the pair of zooids. This arrangement of the septa is very constant and may be traced up to a late stage. And the mesenterial fila- ments, which appear later, are of corresponding lengths. Figure 2 represents the young polyp some time (probably about two weeks) after the free-swimming life has been aban- doned. Hight pinnate tentacles have appeared, the lateral zooids have become divided into chambers by the development of rudimentary septa, and a median zooid (A) has appeared on the upper side in front of the lateral zooids, The small or “ventral” compartment of each Jateral zooid is on its outer side, that is, the lower side when the zooid is horizontally ex- ten The corresponding chamber of the median zooid is on its posterior side, that is, the side opposite to the oral end of the primitive polyp. e median zooid ultimately becomes the peculiar central zooid through which the contained water of the colony is mainly discharged ; and hence the term “ Haupt- zooid,” which has been applied to it by German writers, is in- appropriate. The characteristic spicules make their appearance about a week after the free-swimming life is abandoned ata considerably earlier stage than fig. 2. Figure 3 represents a much later stage. The lateral zooids, Plate VII. 1880. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XX, TS ae ABs tae eC ND re A a ee ig te nn 448 E. B. Wilson—The early stages of Renilla. (a, a, of the last figure,) have now well-developed tentacles, and four new pairs of zooids have appeared. Of these the first to appear are the pair }, 6, behind the primary pair; they are fol- lowed by ¢, c, in front of the primary pair, and these by d, d, still farther forward. The fifth pair e, e, appear in the angle etween a, a, and 6, 6. Besides these, which all develop into sexual zooids, a pair of rudimentary zooids, 7’, 7’, have ap- peared, and also an odd one, 7’, which, however, has normally a fellow on the opposite side. The subsequent development consists in the growth of these sexual zooids, the constant development of uew ones in the angles between contiguous preéxisting sexual zooids, and the appearance of a series of rudimentary zooids on the upper side of each sexual zooid. And at length each rudimentary zooid, he mode of budding exhibited by the rudimentary zooids ony; so that each group tition of the whole colony. As might be expected, there is some irregularity in the multiplication of these zooids; and the following description applies to the most usual method as de- termined by the study of a large number of cases. Figure 5 gives an enlarged view of one of the simple zooids shown in fig. 4. The small median chamber (which may as before be called the lower chamber) is always turned approxi mately toward the center of the disc, that is, away from the oral extremity of the sexual zooid on which it is situated. E. B. Wilson—The early stages of Renilla. 449 In fig. 6,the rudiment of a new zooid, h, has appeared on the upper side of the primary one. In fig. 7 this is fully developed and two lateral zooids, a, a, have appeared. The group may now be compared with the entire colony as shown in fig. 2. In both there is a larger primary zooid with a pair of lateral zooids and a central zooid on the upper side. Moreover, it is important to observe that, in both, the lower (or smaller) chamber is turned away from the center of the group. In other words, the zooids are not only grouped in the same manner but their axes have the same relation to each other. In the next typical stage, fig. 8, four new zooids, ¢, ¢, d, d, have appeared in the angles between the four preéxisting zooids, and in these, also, the small chamber is turned away from the center of the group. Very soon after this stage, many of the individual zooids be- come themselves centers of multiplication and according to the same law as before. A study of figure 9 (which represents an . almost fully developed group) will show this. Thus p is the primary zooid, A the central or upper zooid (which might be compared to the “ Hauptzooid ” in respect to its relation to the group) and a, a the primary lateral pair which are still undi- vided. As in fig. 8, d and d aresimple; but cand c have themselves become secondary centers of multiplication. On one side, ¢ has become a group of four (exactly like the entire group in fig. 7); and on the other side the corresponding zooid is repre- sented by a group of two. Besides these, two incomplete way. 4. The peculiar central zooid of the colony is not the pri- mary polyp but a secondary zooid; the term “ Hauptzooid ” is therefore a misnomer. 5. The posterior (i. e. aboral) part of the body of the primary polyp persists as the peduncle of the colony. 450 J. D. Dana—Geological relations of the Art. XLIX.—Geological relations of the Limestone Belts of Westchester County, New York; by JAMES D. Dana. (With Plates VIII and [X.) [Continued from page 375.] 3. The Limestones and the conformably associated rocks of West- chester County and New York Island are Lower Silurian in age—the Cambrian or Primordial being here included. No evidence with regard to the age of the Westchester County and New York Island limestones, and the conformably associated rocks (gneisses of various kinds, mica schist, horn- blende schist, ete.), can be wholly satisfactory that is not based on fossils. But the fossils may exist at points outside of the region if only they are within the same system of conform- able strata or formations. This kind of evidence as to the age of these rocks is afforded in three ways: _ First: by the relations which exist between the limestone _ areas and schists of this county and those of Western New Engiand and Eastern New York to the north. Secondly: by the special relations between the areas of north- western Westchester County, south of the Putnam County Archean, and those of Dutchess County, north of it. Thirdly: by the relations of both the Westchester and Dutchess County rocks to those west of the Hudson in Southern New York and Northern New Jersey. : _ The age to which the facts from these different sources point is the Lower Silurian. The Cambrian or Primordial era is here included with the Lower Silurian because in the geology of the region there is no possibility of separating them ; more- over, no stratigraphic or paleontological reason for the separa- tion is afforded by the geology of North America, and little 0H that of Great Britain where the separation was first e 1. Relations to the limestone areas and associated schists of the regions to the north.—In order that the facts under this head may be appreciated, I have brought together in one map (Plate VIII) the southern portion of the Green Mountain region, from the northern boundary of Connecticut to New York Island. The northern portion of the map was published with my paper on Dutchess County ;* the rest is the Westchester County map (Plate V) reduced to the same scale, or that of ten inches to the mile. The limestone areas of the Connecti- cut portion, east of Dutchess County, N. Y., are mainly from * This Journal, III, xvii, 375, May, 1879. Limestone Belts of Westchester Co., New York. 451 hem. Now, to the north in the western half of Vermont, where these limestones and schists are least crystalline, they have afforded many fossils, including Corals, Crinoids, Brachiopods, Gasteropods and Trilobites, of Trenton, Quebec and Calciferous age, so many kinds and under forms so little disguised by metamorphism that the Lower Silurian age of the limestone and of the associated schists is placed beyond reasonable ques- tion.+ Again, along what may be called the middle of the range, in its western half over Dutchess County, where again the limestones and schists are least crystalline, that is, least altered, the limestones have afforded, at various points between Poughkeepsie and the Taconic range, numerous Trenton and Caleiferous fossils—Corals, Crinoids, Brachiopods, Gasteropods, Orthocerata, Receptaculites and Trilobites ;{ and, besides, the associated schists of Poughkeepsie have yielded several species of Hudson River Brachiopods;§$ so that a Lower Silurian age for the limestones and schists has become a certainty. In addi- tion to the facts already. published I have learned from Profes- sor W. B. Dwight, in a letter dated October 26th, of his recent discovery of fossils (Orthis testudinaria, O. pectinella, Cheetetes compacta, crinoidal columns, ete.) in the Wappinger valley lime- stone three miles directly south of Vassar College. * Percival’s limestone areas often embrace, as has been explained, large areas of comformable schist (all that are contained within the outer limits of the lime- stone); and in the Ridgefield part of the map the positions of the areas, as a bese lly fail to indicated. are similar itions of schist in his broad Canaan area; but these follow the line of strike of the area, other season; and, at the same time, to attempt to map the Archeea’ n W. exists in isolated areas to the south of Canaan, and is the occasion of the abnormally in the vicinity of Danbury and Ridgefield. 7 curving co sin + This Journal, TI, xiii, 332, 1877. eA Dana, ibid., xvii, 378; W. B. Dwight, ibid., xvii, 393, xviii, 50, 1879. elson Dale, ibid., xvii, 57, January, 1879.—It cannot be inferred from T. Ni | , these fossils from the vicinity of Poughkeepsie that the hydromica and mica schists or slates of Dutchess County, or even the argillyte-like kinds, are wholly of the Hudson River group; on the contrary, part may be Primordial. 452 J. D. Dana— Geological relations of the ) The limestones and associated slates of northwestern Westchester County are closely like those of western and southwestern Dutchess County in their semi-crystalline condi- tion and aspect, so closely, that, were the intervening Archean way, no one would suspect any difference of age or system. e southern. of these two regions looks, as regards its rocks, like an uninterrupted continuation of the northern. This resem- blance descends to details. For quartzyte occurs with the slightly crystalline limestone and slate of each, adjoining the Archean : as if precisely the same seashore work were then going on simultaneously on the north and south sides of the High- land peninsula now known as Putnam County. Further, some of age. : e evidence of Lower Silurian relations becomes the more remarkable the closer these are studied. In Dutchess County, in the Fishkill limestone belt, at points between Kast Fishkill (E, map, Plate VII) and Shenandoah Corners (8), the limestone is partly a white fine-grained variety, and partly a bluish gray scarcely crystalline rock; and the latter (at a place $ mile N. of Shenandoah Corners) afforded me (in an excursion made since the publication of my Dutchess County article) large shells, of a Strophomena, like S. alternata, distinct in form though dis- guised by pressure and slight alteration, indicating for the beds a Trenton age. A little to the south, between Shenandoah Cor- ners (S) and Hortentown (H), where the limestone extends up a valley, openings have been made for limonite and kaolin (as elsewhere along belts of Green Mountain limestone), and near Hortentown beds of quartzyte have been exposed in the exca- vations. The quartzyte (like that east of Matteawan, nearer the Hudson) lies between the limestone and the Archean. * This Journal, xvii, 386, 1879, and xx, 24, 214, 1880. ; Germanlowny Nef ke [r-anWo Ancramo® ~ eur t Mg {be Sacis i @KINGSTON QRhinebeck v § = ne = ¥ ae OS 7 oRorbu,, zl 7 & vy ~ ten tee le we ft Vv wv ec Cl Sorin oy v mr ~ a emmocesuRY SI i] g ~ Cain ' us ALOT EFL: pion s \ BRANCIIVLLE ss ; % \ TRUMBULL &s LIMESTONE AREAS or DUTCHESS WESTCHESTER ANO PUTNAM COUNTIES NEW YORK “4 y : Q... ¥ i "a co FORD é . ye ead ee aL ate FRANKLIN : um? - « Kot von, 9 7\, PATTERSON a ae *wonnss ame vee ee : Yow vv s sf ~ cS ¥ ¢ ERMAN a> : Vv “S Pe euitage red orate ? - NTRAL A.B -¢ ee Ce SS” ASC SSeS eee Pa SSSI SOC SSeS OOS SEY of es secon, P SSSR? 2 Se 5 tee _ Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N. Y. 453 Passing south from Hortentown over Archean rocks for fifteen miles (in a direct line) the first of the l'mestone outcrops up Peekskill Hollow is reached; and the rock where most -erystalline is undistinguishable from the white fine-grained limestone of East Fishkill ; moreover, it is accompanied by a well-bedded quartzyte, which affords good slabs for the floors of furnaces. The limestone may have once—before denuda- tion began its long work-—extended farther northward toward Dutchess County. But whether so or not, the similarity of the limestones of the two regions, and especially the similar associa- tion with quartzyte, add weight to the argument for sameness of geological age. Like the quartzyte of Dutchess County, that to the south is, in all probability, the Potsdam sandstone ; and as the limestones of Dutchess County include beds of the Calciferous as well as the Trenton, as proved by fossils, so the limestones of Westcl:ester County may have the same range; or, if not the whole, may cover at least the earlier part of the Lower Silurian. This true, the conformably associated schists of Westchester County are Lower Silurian in age, whatever their coarseness of crystallization, whether mica schist, gneiss, or anything else. survey of that State.* For the small northern portion about Newburgh, I am indebted to Professor W. B. Dwight of Poughkeepsie. Its areas are explained underneath the title. The part between the Hudson River and the Archean which is left in black is Triassic. once obvious that the slates and limestones of Dutchess County are continued southwestward in those west of the Hudson. his is so lithologically. More than this, it is so strati- graphically and paleontologically ; for Lower Silurian fossils like th ounty have been found in both the slates a mile south of Washington Lake (the lake in which the New- burgh limestone terminates), the gritty beds of the slate crowded be Saiear. of N & geological Atlas. Newark, 1868. : uate . Nelson Dale, this Journ., xvii, 59, 1879; W. B. Dwight, ibid., xix, 50, 451, 1880; R. P. Whitfield, ibid., xviii, 227, 1879. Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp SEriEs, Vou. XX, No, 120,—Dzc,, 1880, 29 454 J. D. Dana— Geological Relations of the ersey. Much of the limestone is bluish “ magnesian lime- tone,” uncrystalline or slightly crystalline, described by Profes- sor Cook as Calciferous, and not yet found to be fossiliferous; but, besides this, there are Trenton beds, in which fossils have been detected at various points. urther, the two belts of limestone and slates of Dutchess County are separately continued along and through the New Jersey Highlands. The Wappinger Valley (or Barnegat) belt, passing within a mile of Newburgh on its southwestward course, is continued, though with interruptions, in the large limestone area lying partly along the western side of the Archean and partly within its great western longitudinal val- ley, and reaches the Delaware River near Belvidere; and it is described by Professor Cook as having Trenton fossils near Middleville, Branchville, Newton, Huntsville, Stillwater, Belvi- associated quartzyte (the latter outcropping at several points between the limestone and the Putnam County Archean), is the great valley that includes Greenwood Lake and German Valley and ends in the limestone on the southern border of the Archean about Clinton. Only a little limestone is indi- eated along the belt on the map; yet it outcrops at several points (marked L) besides in other larger areas, notwithstand- ing the losses from ages of denudation; and, at pper Long- and thence the rocks of these belts, but slightly crystalline near Peekskill, extend southwestward along the eastern border of the New Jersey Highlands, outcropping as mag- led . Rep. N. Jersey, p. 131: and on the “ Magnesian limestone which is the Calciferous sandstone of the New York Geologists,” pp. 90-130 Archean valley are accompanied, west of Greenwood Lake, by shale and con- glomerate, which are referred by Professor Cook to the Upper Silurian. Limestone Belts of Westchester County, N.Y. ~ 4655 of the thick covering of Triassic, east of Ramapo, and beyond in the large limestone area of Pepack. These “ magnesian lime- stones” have not yet afforded fossils, but their Lower Silurian age is unquestioned. New Jersey thus throws light upon Westchester rocks as well as those of Dutchess County; and, in fact, into all Green Mountain geology, for these New York and New Jersey beds are but western and southwestern prolongations from the Green Mountain region. CONCLUSIONS. From the distributional, stratigraphic and paleontological facts which have been presented the conclusion appears to fol- low that— The limestone of Westchester County and New York Island and the conformably associated metamorphic rocks are of Lower Silurian age. Should it be made certain that all the magnesian limestone of the New Jersey Lower Silurian is Calciferous, there will be some reason for the inference that the limestone of West- chester County, since it is magnesian, is Calciferous or of the earlier part of the Lower Silurian. The schists may be either earlier or later than the limestone. Finally, in view of all the facts from the length and breadth of the Green Mountain region which are brought out in this and previous papers, comes the broader conclusion : The limestone and the conformably associated rocks of the Green Mountain region from Vermont to New York Island are of Lower Silurian age. e evidence which has been adduced, though then but partly discerned, led Professors W. B. and H. D. Rogers and Professor W. W. Mather, forty years since,* nearly to the re- sult here reached. The discoveries of fossils, together with Lower Silurian. ine. It remains to add a few words on the origin of the rocks of the “ Cortlandt Series.” * Professors Rogers, Amer. Phil. Soc., Jan. 1, 1841, and this Jour., iv, 1872, p. 363; Mather, Rep. Geol. N. York, 4to, 1842, pp. 438, 464, 628, and this Jour., xvii, 388, 1879. 456 H. 8. Williams—Life History of Spirifer levis. Supplementary note on the Distribution of the belts of Limestone, —I have given, on page 363, probable evidence that the lime- stone area. of northern New York Island has an eastern division extending down Harlem River to Kighth Avenue. I have since learned, from Mr. Benjamin S. Church, Resident Engineer in charge of the New York Croton Water Works, the confirma- tory fact that three of the piers of High Bridge (the Croton aqueduct bridge over the Harlem, crossing it near the middle of this part,) stand on limestone in place. I propose to pub- lish, in connection with the Appendix to this paper, an enlarged map of the north end of the Island and of the southern part of Westchester County, giving my observations in detail. (To be continued.) Art. L.— Abstract of some Paleontological studies of the Life History of SPIRIFER L&VIS H.; by Professor H. 8S. WitLiams, of Cornell University.* A CAREFUL study of the character and mode of occurrence of Spirifer levis H., of the Portage group of New York State, and comparison of it with other species of the genus, has led to the observation of some interesting facts bearing upon the probable history of the species in geological time. The orig- inal article embodying the results of my study was read before the Cornell Philosophical Society last- spring. Only a brief abstract of some of the important points will be attempted in the present article, hoping at some future time to publish the results in full detail. The important characters of the species were gathered under seven heads, each of which could be examined and compared separately with like characters in other species. These were: (1) Form and proportions of the shell; (2) the size; (8) the prominence and over-arching of the beak ; 4) the short and high cardinal area; (5) the triangular aper- ture covered by an arched pseudo-deltideum ; (6) the smooth- ness (not plicated) of the surface; (7) the concentric series of minute radiating lines covering the surface. A careful determination of these characters as found in Spirijer levis was made, and the last character was specially noted and described. _ These concentric series of fine radiating lines have not been recorded as characteristic of the species, and so far as I know have not been observed by any writers on the Devonian Brachi- opods. Nevertheless it is an all-important character to be ob- * Prepared for this Journal by the author. H. S. Williams—Inje History of Spirifer levis. 457 served in making comparison with other forms. After point- ing out the specific characters of S. levis I give the results of a minute comparison of them _ those of 8. fimbriatus of the Hamilton and earlier formatio This comparison has left little doubt that a genetic relation- ship exists between S. devis and the earlier form mbriatus. en an examination was made of the relationship of several species of the preceding geological formations to the typical form as characteristic of each of the former species, and thus representatives of the type were tli in each of the fos- oe formations back to the ar the Niagara group was found the earliest trace of the sodibthatien of characters found to be essential in S. /evis and fimbriatus and the other representatives seen in the interme- diate formations. The species which appears to be the central type of the orig- inal primitive species is Spirijer ha Hisinger, of the Niag- ara formation, of which I presume S. bicostatus H. may be re- garded but an extreme variety, ae S. sulcatus His. (at least in Pe art as referred by Hall), the extreme variety on the other side. he peculiarities of this species (S. craspus His.) are very tee abundance and wide distribution in the formation in which first appears. It being a characteristic species of the lip ac hie represented, in England and at several localities in rope. Where it does appear, it also assumes great variation of charac- ters, so that the three species in America, S. crispus, S. bicostatus and sulcatus, while good species in small collections, are rec- ognized, even by Hall as bordering on each other in some of their varietal forms. Also the three species ig a by Davidson in Great Britain (s sulcatus, S. elevatus Dalman and S. ertspus), corres- ponding in the main to a extreme forms identified by Hall in this country, are regarded by Davidson as doubtfully dis- tinct species (see Brit. ‘Sil. Brach., pp. 91 to 98) on account - the variations and intermediate forms. I have also traced o as well as the limited material at hand eoaid: allow, oe relationship to S. glaber Martin and gig age) acta forms. _ The study of the facts has led me to the following conelu- sions. Whatever theoretical aeocaon: we may give Z species, here are, in the first place, an abundance of individual organ- isms whose ‘remains are found in the Upper Silurian rocks of Kurope, Great Britain and America, presenting a few clearly marked distinctive characters, which are found v alaitps de- veloped in the individual forms, but so sae | in the various varieties as to cause careful naturalists to associate them as varieties of a single species. There are well marked typical 458 H. 8. Williams—Life History of Spirifer levis. characters distinguishing all the individuals from other forms of the same genus, together with great variability of the charac- ters themselves. In the upper part of the Upper Silurian we find the same typical characters, with a greater permanence of one or other of the variations; but still, in the variations occur- ring later in the Corniferous and Hamilton, we have the main type represented with some variations strongly marked and seeming to be fixed, but still recognized as varieties simply. n the Portage, we see under peculiar conditions a solitary race of the type with greatly exaggerated size, a luxuriant form, but still presenting the typical characters of the second varietal type. In the Carboniferous we meet with several well marked varieties, but no feature which did not appear in the early form except large size, which is evidently a mark of good nour- ishment and other good conditions of growth. This latter seems to be a character of most of the Carboniferous forms of Brachiopods which have lived on from earlier times. There may be unknown characters to distinguish these forms, but of the characters that are preserved we have evidence that in the earliest form, the type, & crispus His. of the Niagara, ete., are found all those which afterward appeared in the later repre- sentatives. great time and change of -conditions has been the fixing into race groups of the original variable characters of the species. ° especies, at its first appearance in the Silurian presented a decidedly new combination of characters for the genus and Miscellaneous Notices. 459 also much variation. When once these specific though varia- able forms appear they lived till the variations which could be played on them were exhausted; and the species ceased to live and sont extinct either near the close of the Carbonif- erous or not till later in the Mesozoic. Some of the races or varieties may die out but they peeb ben again and again till there are such strong contrasts that i difficult to see even generic can orig between them The following is a tabular view of the Satiing of the Silurian and Devonian forms of which Spirdfer oe of the Niagara in New York. is the type; the tracing of the history through the European forms and higher into the Carboniferous is reserved for further study. In the table, lateral extension is expressive of the morphological variations; each line repre- sents one of the geological puna which are aun ae in their natural order; and the name of each species is place the position on the line representing its supposed relation to the typical form of Sp. cris Chemung prematurus Porta eevis Hamilton oo ee fimbriatus_-_-.-- -. subumbona Corniferous fimbriatus Orisk tribulis N.Y. & Tenn. .. Saffordi (pars. ) agoas Maryland ..-~-octocostatus __..modestus Lower ea Woe Fick cyclopterus rus (pars fates New York anuxemi : abnle ) <) +7864 aa) ies seee eal eee et = ObspUus sy. -.<5-. Naw Time caraakcue ..--fuleatus (pars.).. 2... Chspusacct.. bicostatus -.-.-- A History of the Jetties at the Mouth of the ras River, by E. L gh thell, C. E., Chief Assistant and Resident Engineer during their constru 384 pp. 8vo. Illustrated by numerous maps and geome and with a portale of Mr. J. B. Eads as its frontispiece. New York. (J. Wiley & Sons Réutgen’s Principles of rhaiene taeda with special applications to hot-air, t e 8. ised A. Jay DuBois. : befo field, in August, 1879, aiming to show especially that the Ascidians are brates. History of North American Pinnipeds: a oe es of the Walruses, Sea- saph Allen, Assist. Mus. lions, Sea-bears and Seals of North America: by Joel A omp. Zool. Cambridge. 786 pp. 8vo. With a number of wood cuts. 1880. Constitutes N ° oe" = ea emertoor Publications” of the U. 8. Geolc gical nd Geographical Survey of t rritories under en, Geologist-in- Su ol er. cal, Srymetinrs and Economical, and as interesting to the garter Spor as it is valuable to science. Second Treatise on the decrease of Water in Bariage Creeks and Rivers, co Sir Dip rowed Wex, Chief Siainves of ne ce eats of the Danube, at he papers of the Society of the an Engineers and Architects, ee ig 6-8, translated by G. Weitzel, Major ingiiaers Brevet Maj. Gen. U. 8. A 460 Miscellaneous Notices. 42 pp. 8vo. Washington | ri A peper of wide interest to the people of America, illustrating the evils coming from the destr — of forests. The Geological and Natural History Sutvey of Minnesota. The 8th Annual Report, for 1879, 0 Wi 1) Fae | p. 8vo. Saint Paul, 1880. Con- tains Reports on the Cupriferous a ake? at Duluth, and the Trenton and Hudso River groups in Minnesota, by N. H. Winchell; a Rte »ort on the Geology, and especially the glacial phenomena, of (en ef and stern Minnesota, by W m; on the Zeolites of the vicinity of the Grand } s, by S. F. Peckham C. W. Hall, and other papers. Prof. Winchell gneve ‘of the Cupriferous aan concludes that these rocks (the Ke vi bengainae as they have been recently called), in- cluding the associated igneous, LAA correctly assigned to the Potsdam by Messrs. Foster, Whitney and Hall, in 1849.” ulletin of the Philosophical Salen if Washington, (D. C.). Vol. i, March, 18 ii, to June, 1874; ii, Oct., 1874, to Nov , 1878; iii, Nov, 1878, to June, 1880. Museum of Conrady Zoology. The follo wing publicat ons of the Museum ve been recently issued: (1.) The pe sage Gravels of the Sierra Nevada an ecunapreg b Dd. titney, vol. vi, No. 1 of the 4to ineticien: 4 289-570 pp.; ing the e completion of the Sehr a. wee k on the subject, the preceding portion of which appeared in 1879. (2.) The Climatic Gh ranges of Later Geological Times, a discussion based on oo. he —. in the Cordilleras of North America, ab J. D. Whitney, vol. vii . 2, Part 1 of the 4to memoirs, 120 pp. (3.) On e points in ee structure = ‘ae itmabryonic Zoéa, by W. Faxon, vol. vi, No. 10, "of the Bulleti Die pongien on miata von Mexico und begee Caraibischen ret Mein r Schmidt. 2nd Heft. 4to, with plates 5 to 10. Jena, 1 of in reports of the Arodging aces the it ocsieics of Prof. ipa or the direction of the Coast Survey. On the Zoological position of Texas, by E. D. Cope. 52 pp. 8vo. Bulletin No. 20 of the U.S. National Museum, Washington, 1880. Also, by the same, Ame Genera of the Creodonta, Proce. r. Phil. S Supplement I to a Catalogue of Official Reports - bere es Surveys of the United States and British North America, by F. P van Jr., late Asst. Geol. Survey of “Spr Aegewr 13 pp. 8vo. Cedar Point iron 0 , Baltimore, Jay 31, 1880. tr orp ~ er — Observatory (Chicago). for 1880, G. W. Hough, Direc- . um of bok rop Caneel Types - the —_ of the Pacific Ocean, with 2 shomeranic p ca, explanatory t and ane ical Scar of the Ocean, jon published at tigre by the Ascoli Godefro oy. 4to, 1881. (L. Frederichsen & Co.) Al oe Pa _ Museum, a Saye on Phathe Ocean Ethnography and Ethnology. 0 pp. 8vo, and 46 plate: tion oy te Double-Star Maasiens of Ss Bedford Catalogue, by 8. W. Pics (Monthly Not. Astron. Soc., vol. Observations 2 the Satellites of Mars, by ‘Asaph Hall. (Monthly Not. Astron. Soc., vee xl, No Science. This mee York Weekly Journal ot cepa has announced that its size wiil be doubled with the commencement of n xt yea American Entomologist, a monthly devoted to Practical a Popular Entomology, edited by ©. V. Riley. Washington, D. ©. Vol. iy commences with January. .00 a year, Annals of the ape aga Observatory of Harvard College, vol. xii. iss vations made with the Meridian Circle during the years 1874 and 1875, and pre pared for apse ty nein the direction of Joseph Winlo ny ms a C. Pickering, uccessive Directors of the Observatory, by Wm. A. Ro t. Prof. Astron. e Ob xcii, and 272 pp. 4to. Cambridge, Shien "S80, Also, by the rast Gneslonvs of 618 Leg extracted from volume xii of the Annals of the Observatory. eee e, Nachtrege zur Dyas L., n Dr. H. B. Geinitz, 44 pp. 4to, with 7 as of the Geological ated of India Sind Fossil Corals and penne artin Duncan. vol. i, 110 pp. 4to, with 28 = (Tertiary and Upper oa Fauna of Western Tndia, Ser. xiv.) Calcutta, 1 880.