THE aoe i : AMERICAN.” OURNAL OF SCIENCE, EDITORS MES D. ann E. S. DANA, Aanp B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS ° Prorrssors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or CamprinGE, *roFEssors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, .or New Haven, Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Purapecputa. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXIU.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXXIII.] Nos. 133—138. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1882. WITH FOUR PLATES. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. S. DANA. 1882. MI890UR) BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY ae a Sete < ae % soe CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIII NUMBER CXXXIIL Page rT, L—Contributions to Meteorology: Mean annual Rain- : fall for different countries of the globe; by Ex1as caer weitp © late I (Map), .--..2.-- 25222 eutaceac rs 1 TI.—Post-Glacial joints; by G. K. Grupert, -------- ----- 25 IH.—Sound-Shadows in water; by Joun LeConra, ......<- 27 IV.—The Connection between the Cretaceous iia the recent Eehinid Faune; by A. Agassi, . 22. c2s0 betes ous 40 V.—Apparatus for determining without pain to the patient the position of a projectile of lead or other metai in the human body; by A. pi ids eer ea kee oar 46 . Bur VII. —Clasaifiontion « of she Dinosauria; by O. C. Marsn,--- 81 VI.—Observations of the transit of Mercury, 1881, Novem- Ss. cae 7, at saad cpm California; by E. 8. HotpEN SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics and Chemistry.—Lunar Disturbance of Gravity, G. H. DARWIN and H. 5 ate A GH, 51.—Edison’s Hlectrical ‘Mote 2.—Carbo etre H. Tornog, . Rien of the oxides of Nitrogen on glass at a high temperature, T. M. Mor Geology and ~ ae ka pou Es elauar of Glaciers, F. A. ForE are — i Glaciers: Soileap-M R. W. Copprvcer, 59.—Eva city as petiaors in Glacial eeeg E. Hit, 61. Sadare a Natural ‘History Survey of Minnesota for 1880, N. H. Wren, 62.— Joints cite of Colorado, J. 8. NEWBERRY, eee eee region in Northern angie and the Indian Territory, J. ‘H. Furman: The mygdaloid of Brighton, 3h nhs Seat el ‘ Paige alogical Notes, E. CLAASSEN, 67.— = Analysis of the Emerald-green Spodumene from North Carolina, F. A. GENTH: — New Mineralogical Works, G. Packwineie: 68 2 “ome and Zoology. SP ierimtags of the igen 69.—Repertorium Annuum Litera- tx Botanic Periodice, G. C. W. BOHNENZIEG: Fahitach = Poe oe cc hen Gacein und des Botanischen gree zu Berlin, A. W. EICHLER, mei} Moe GASSIZ, 75. —Geographical Distribution of certain fresh- ee hay r ceiaapaer f North America, A. G. WETHERBY, 76 ae ST there of Comet VII, Boss: esq laearagt : Morrison Observatory, _ctomond Mo., J. R. EastMan and H. 8, PRIvcHET?, a Miscellaneous Scienti telligence.— Annual Report rt of oe Chief — Officer of ; ifie Tn the Army to the 5 Hocetany of the War for the year 1881, 78.— nal Acad- emy of Science, Noy., 1881, 79,— Obituary.—Mr, Robert Mallet, TES. M0. e 1vV CONTENTS. NUMBER CXXXIV. P Art. VIII.—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier ; 5 PY J. D. Dana, 1X.—Geology of the Diamond ; . A. X.—Algebraic Expression id the Diurnal Truly of Tem- Perera, Ue By a POULD te i ts XI. Celestial Chemistry Toa. the Time of Newton; by T. STE Oe ee oe ae ee XII. om Coit with Caudal Sete; by J. W. Fewxss, - -- XIII.—Notice of the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying the outer banks off the Setlp ne coast of New England, 0.3; by A. E. VerRIL SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics ee pt istry.—V apor-density of the Halogens, V1cTOR Ary YER: ies convenient for Chemical purposes, ANDREWS, 143.—On the h ; eletencs. se Phosphorus oxide, REmNirzeR: Preparation of apoaanacnale j inflammable Hydrogen phosphide, Brosster, 144.—Ammonium tribromide, BOOM: Petroleum of the Uaucaaus, BeILsteIn and Kurpatow, 145.— On the reactions of Chinoline, DonaTH: On the theory of the Peptones, POEHL, — 146.—On the existence of Alls ner in hein ScHULZE and BARBIERI: bservations upon Klangfarbe: W. Siemens upon the Dynamo- isereigies pei pele icine ory of the rotation of the plane of Polarization of Light, —Elee- h, Raererane ce of a Vacuum, EpLunp: Elementary Treatise ah loot, ; AXWELL, 149. —Tables of Qualitative Analysis, H. G. eralogy.—International Geologica cal Congress at Bo oe ogna, Geology and Miner ; Notice -; the discovery of a Pcecilopod in the temas slate formation, is ; _ Goal-Field near Cafion City, Colorado, J. J. Srevenson: The Paleolithic Imple- ments of the Valley of the Delaware, 152.—Bryo stan of ro Upper Helderberg Group, JAMES HALL: Tertiary of the Tintern and Southern United States, G i minerals: sede ial E in Meteorites, 156.—Tabellarische Uebersicht der Mineralien nach ihren krys- tallographisch-chemischen Beziehungen geordnet yon PAUL GROTH, 157. Botany and re —Natt Dirarls,. ice et Monochasma: Ueber oer i Compasspflanzen, E. Stat 159.—The Brain of the Cat, B. G. WILp .—Notation o. - H. ©. Schumacher: Washington Observations for | 1877 arom ndix III, 160.— : i e Astronomical Observatory of _ Harvard College, B. C. Pickering, 161.—Be abe'e. Four-Place Tables, 162. : Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. Deve petingh Industries, A. D. Hague: Were _ Ancient Copper implements hammered or moulded into shape. F. W. PuTNAM, :162.— Obituary.—Joun Witiaan | eames 163, —Lewis H, More@an, 166. PEL tural History Nomenclature, 157.—Maximowica, 4 q CONTENTS. 7 vy NUMBER CXXXV. ; Arr. XIV. a seg Correction of double Objectives; by C. S. Has XV.—To Cut a a ailment Sorew ; by C. Ku Waap 176. XVI.—Gold-bearing pied S the Province of Mivas Geraes, Brazil; by O. Ay Deiay. 2. a ee 178 XVil.—The Flood of the Coninoshics: River Valley from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier; by J. D. Dana. WV 2 MCO RE, ies ces oo eC ewe a ee 179 XVIII. —Geographical Distribution of certain Fresh-wate Mollusks of North America, and the probable causes of their Variation; by . Werne RBY, 203 TX.—Description of a New Genus of the Order Eurypterida from the Utica Slate; by C. D. WatcormT, .......-...- 213 X.—Notice of the remarkable Marine ee occupying - oa banks off ce eee coast of New England, No.4; be A; We Vea so es 216 XXL =A new form of Ravers Stereoscope; by W. L. Pee eiees CLC sk een ey en ee RUN eee 226 XXII. Magnets Properties of a Specimen of Nickeliferous Tron from es Catarina, nina ise a note by J. Law- pil a rence Smith; by H. Brecqurer PR Bea ONE AC 229 XXUL. Origin of Jointed ola in undisturbed Clay ‘and Marl Pence by Ji De@ewra ee 233 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Relation between the Optical and Thermal phenomena of Liquid Organic substances, Brix, ant snd Dissociation Apparatus, TOMMAS!, 235.—Effect of ee on the Deco of Potassium Chlorate, © riadaol 0 Donatp: Freezi eee o = Sulphuric acid of different degrees of tion, ee 236. Ag tio Bismuthou vitae ts as ge e f ITLINGER and WACHTER: Le ga limit for “ihe ‘Kinetic Energy 0 Electricity, pre 240.—Electrical Units recommended by the Blectrical Congress of 1881: Lessons in leoeioity and Magnetism, S. P. Thaonieoeia' Babies Meus Fos in Maine, G. H. Stone: Glacial inoue on, the 5 G. F. Wrigut, 242.—Jura-Trias in C aoe R. C. Hiuts, 243 Botany and Zoology. —Note on Graminez, G. BENTHAM: Flora Ben pe —Diagnoses Plantarum novarum Asiatica rat be z ong MOWICZ: possessed by Leaves of eae themselves a igies to the directions ne Thohlont Light, F. DARWIN. 245. —The Bota gece Nace Handbo ok, W. W. BAILEY, 246 yet Disealand Flora: A Memoir on the Ee asinine the retic Sea, {. Duxcan and W. P. sea Trg —Dis poNery of a fresh- . ptr shell (Getbacy in western New York. J. M. Cooke, 248. eas: Miscellaneous Scientific Intelli ligence.— Min Pan “ Bidiaheied: Bee. eae Ne Pe 249.—Schott’s BTS bles ra sams i of the Predpitaton in Rain and Snow in vt nited States: Bosto Water, MSEN: The Lalande Astronomical ; La Lumiére Piaeee Sek tae Moai 250. vi CONTENTS. NUMBER CXXXVI. ‘ Page Art. XXIV.—The Wings of Pterodactyles ; (with Plate Bree Oy A meen 8 Oe ce 251 XXV.—Sandstones having the grains in part Quartz Crys- ReeG OYA OURO a oe ee ee 257 XXVI. —Notes on Amesiea Earthquakes, No. 11; by C. G. BOORG ag oa ok i edhe bea 257 eee —Note on the hae ra gran Theory of lights ee OUR fe oh ere a eS XXVIII Sing, “ Timber Te CY thc AMNBIT, 2005... 55 215 XXIX. ia ais seat for Calibrating Thermometers ; Wiss TOMA ie ile ee ee XXX. iN dks ‘of Fisher s Physics of the Earth’s Crust ; es C. UTTON, 288 XXXTI. —Physiological Optics, No. IIL; by W. L. Srevens, 290 XXXII. Pad ee of Foyaite or Eleolite-syenite in North- western New Jersey; by B. K. Emurson, ---- -------- 302 XXXII. Sie of the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying the outer banks off the Southern Coast of New einer No. 51; by RIOR eo cS et XXXIV.—Determination of Phosphorus in pons as Jo kL. SMITH, hee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. Rg for ee rs action of Geysers, 320.— Electrical resistance of Gases, E, Ep Dielectric polarization in Electro- lytes: Change of phase due vay extension and contraction of metallic wires, 321.—-Phosphorescence, ABNEY iscussion of the re each theory of the conduction of heat: Spectroscopic observations with monochro- matic light, M. ZeENGER, 322.—Crystals of Potassium Chloride ee 9 in the extr: i EN, Geology and Mineralogy.—Tides in early Geological _ ee eat as ee the History of the Vertebrata for the Lower Eocene of Wyom nd exico, made during 1881, E. i a? E, 324.—Re Sort’ of ithe State Geologist of New Jersey, Jook: Diop a eek Arizona, R. C. Hints: Analysis of @ variety of Siderite, E. ae “325, Botany and Zoology—The Names of Herbes, W. Turner: A Synopsis of the North American Lichens, E. Tuckerman, se 6.—Botanische Mikrochemie, V.A. E to) Cc I C tronoy s Coelenterates, 328.—Ueber das Zusammenleben von Thieren und Algen, 329.— Botanical Necrology: Thomas Potts Ja ag — 330,— History and Present Condition ee the Fishing Industries, 8. F. B 334. Astronomy.—Micrometrical — of ie Double Stars, 1879-80: Names of age Planets, 334.—Photograph of the Spectrum of the Great Nebula in SOB Ns, 335.—Linear caactanies Algebra, B. PEIRCE, 336. Misellancou Scien Intelligence.—V oyage of the Vega round Asia an nd Europe, with a cal review of previous journeys along the North Coast of the Old World, re K. NonDenskiun Guides for Science Teaching: Potassium permanganate, . DeLace ndex to the Reports of the Chief of Engineers and the officers of ita. Corps of Engineers, 836.— Earthquake of March 4, 1881, in Ischia: The Swiss Seis mological Commission, 337.— Glacier seratches in the Catskills: A. Geikie, Director of the Geo eiol Survey of Great Britain, 338.— Obitwary.—Sir C. Wyville Thomson, 338. Remar em ae EY Wt ok CONTENTS. Vil NUMBER CXXXVIL. Art. XXXV. eed ee Sy lh of the Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion: by EH: DRarnk, |. 22.5... 24s ete 339 XVI. = Mean Annual Rain. ‘fall for different Countries of the Globe; “by A> Wonikor, 00200 sc ee 341 XXXVI. Ph yaolebival Optics, No. IV; by W. L. Stevens, 346 XXX VIII.—Flood of the Conneetient ‘River Valley from d. De Da 36 Page the Quarternary Glacier Vapi oe 0 XX XIX.—Brazilian specimens of Martite ; . Derny, 373 XL.—Method for determining the flexure of a Telescopic Tube for all positions of the Instrument ; CHAEBERLE, 374 XLI.—Dykes of Micaceous Diabase penetrating the be Zine Ore at Franklin Furnace; by B. K. Emerson, ---. 376 XLI.—Occurrence of Smaltite in Colorado ; by M. W. Is, 380 XLIUTI.—Vanadium in the Leadville Ores ; by M. W. Izzs,_ 381 LIV. xX —Conditions attending the Geological Descent a some Fresh-water gill-bearing Mollusks; by C. A. Wat . 882 XLV.—Measures of the Rings of Saturn in the years 1879, 1880, 1881 and 1882; by E. 8. HoxpmEn, -__.._--._--- 387 XLVI.—Interference Phenomena in a new form of Refrac- tometer ; . A, MicHREBON, aco 396 = XLVII. —New Minerals, Monetite and Monite, with a notice of Pyroclasit e; by ©. U. Sumeanh, Sali ck 400 XLVIIL.—Marine Fauna off New Kogiadd: by A. E. Verritt, 406 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Determination of Gas-densities, GotpscHmMipT and V. MEYER: Diffusion of Solids into Solids, Conson, 409.—Production cat "Aotiee : ) {END Oxygen, T Hed Persul oe oxide of Berthelot, Menp F 410.—Production and properties of met Pears SETTERBERG, 411,--Metals of the rarer Earths, BRAVNER: Pree of Cymene from Tepe Navpin: New Alkaloid from Cinchona ve HowarRp and —— , 412.— Coloring matter of the Chinese yellow berries, FOERSTER ot m tization of diamagnetic and weakly paramagnetic bod Reflection of electrical rays, 413.—Influence of mechanical hardening ip6 Se properties of steel and iron: Storage of peed 414,.—Storage o tricity: Velocity of Sound in Wood, H. Kayssr, 415.—The chomiaty “of Cooking and Cleaning, a manual for Housekeepers, BE. i RICHARDS, 416. Geology and Natural History.—Bulletin ~ the ne Museum of Natural History: Glacial-era Climate ota or, 417.—Post-Glac ip ait Quincy Syenite M, Be. Wapsw n old chapter of the Get peal & cord, W. Kine T Bee: NEY: Species of Eurypterus and Pterygotus trem Buffalo : " Chautauqua ca Scientific ry, ero A. S. Packarp, Jk.: Tab ve for the wpaiaig ates so Of oe Minerals, J. C. Foye: Female Flowers of Conifers, Eon 418,—Domestica- tion oes Wild Dike 421.—Conchologische sineltiuires. E. gh Manet 42205 Mise Scientific ee. prea Annual Report of = pee - nolbgy 422,— ry.—Charles Robert Darwin: E. Deso: CONTENTS. NUMBER CXXXVIII. Be ag Arr. XLIX.—Respiration of Plants; by W. P. Witson,--- 423 L.—On the Question of Electrification by Evaporation ; by : LL—Observations on Snow and Ice under eesti at tem- peratures below 32° F.; by E. Hunarrrorp, ---- ------ 434 LIL—On the minerals, mainly Zeolites, Sontag in the basalt. of Table Mountain, near Golden , Colorado; by eA MOH AN We PILL RBBAWD, 20.0... ..2..+---- 452 D, LITI.—On a new Locality for Hayesine; by N. H. Darron, 458 LIV.—Notes on ane: Electromagnetic Theory of Light, I; Te Ne se ek ky ne e+ LV.—New Phyllopod oe from the Devonian e New York; by J. Crarke. (With a Plate), ---- -- 476 LVL—An Organ-Pipe Serre : by W. LeConte Stevens, 479 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—New apparatus for determining ae points, Cease and BEVAN, 482. ari tical Temperatures of Organic Liquids, PAWLEWSKI: New tg Sulphobrom ide, HELL and UrecH, 483.—New ater se ysical Properties a Carbon Oxysulphide, Thosvay, 484.—Form mation of. Metallic Alloys by Pressure, Spr Symmetrical Chlor- ethyl oxide, HANRIOT, 485 6.—- Constitution a Riaeonaa The PP and Ges tepetio Preparation of lizarin-orange, songs otometric Investigation, E. KeTeLer and 0. Puurricy, 486.—Theo eg elite double Refraction, E. Lome: Differ- ence of Potential hebeeon a Metal and Fluids of different concentration, E. Kirtiter: Electrical Resistance oe a Vacsim, i Eptunp: Solar Heat, M. A. Crova, 487.—Aconitic acid, from Sorghum Juices, H. B. Parsons, 488. Geology and Natural History.—The Climatic Changes of later Geological Times, J. D. Wurtney, 489.—Third Appendix to the Fifth Edition ‘of sae 3 System of Mineralogy, E. S. Dana: The Genus Wolnctlipors, 8. A. MILLER: Handbook _ of Invertebrate Zoology for La seorvon Bex s and Seaside Work, W. es BROOKS: bsorption of lg oxides bol nts, P. ©. Putiuips, 491.—Monographie des Composées, H. BAILLON: Guide Bisco Pere of Washington and vicinity, L. F. WARD. , 499. Les Mailers Bles, "eb. ORIN-ANDRIEUX: ust pr Matters in Plants, Dr VRIES, —A Po pular cari Flora, V. Ratt Miscellaneous Scientific Tels Aecas cal Observations fae her at the ! U.S. N. Observatory: American Assoc rr 495.—Norton’s Astronomy, 496. i —Sir Charles Wyville Senet 496.—General ces G. Barnard: Charles M. ‘Wheatley : William S. Vaux ERRATA. Page oes = 18 for, at the disk, read, at he eee of the disk. Page 30, for J. I. LeConte read J. J. LeCon Page 35, = line from bottom, for beaten pate remaining. Page 37, 3d line of continued note, for different read tea Page 248, line 40, for John M. Cooke, read John M. ©. 2 Page 281, the expression in line 15 from top should read: u’+ u’”—— (B—A)- Page 349, the words Jeff and right in lines 15 and 17 respectively should be exchanged. Page 399, the expression above Eq.’7 should read: = (no tani — tan r) sin 7. _ Page 400, the expression after or, should read: no cosi — ncos7. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ‘ aii 6 ce a [THIRD SERIES] *# ART. L — Contributions to Meteorology: being results derived from Un an examination of the ina > of the United States Signal With a [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, Nov. 15, 1881.] m ; by Extas of palin Philosdoky in Yate Colton Sixteenth paper. dap. Mean annual rain-fall for different countries of the globe. and how much to geretee causes. The influence of general causes is sometimes best shown by the averages derived from a large number of cases, by which means the peculiarities of particular storms are mostly eliminated. ith this view rain for the entire globe. A comparison of the mean annual — rain-fall for different localities shows unequivocally the influ- ence of general causes quite distinct from the peculiarities of particular storms. These general causes must operate upon eac storm, and a distinct understanding of their nature must assist Am, Jour. a Serigs, Vou. XXIII, No. 133.—January, 1882, 2 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. us in explaining the phenomena of particular storms. For many years I have been desirous of making a comparison of this kind, but have been prevented by the deficiency of obser- vations of rain-fall for large portions of the earth’s surface. Having at length succeeded in collecting observations from a pretty large number of stations, I have vee rtaken to compare them and to represent the results upon a by lines of equal rain-fall. I am well aware that for sorter portions of the globe (especially for the southern hemisphere), the observa- tions are too few to enable us to draw the lines of equal rain- fall with confidence; yet I trust this imperfect effort may be useful in assisting us to understand the causes which influence the amount of rain-fall at particular localities. The following table presents a portion of the results which I have collected, and the observations are divided into groups depending upon the amount of the mean ee rain-fall. The rst group contains all the cases I have found in which the mean annual rain-fall exceeds 200 English fnahe the second tains cases of rain-fall from 150 to 100 inches; the fourth from . 100 to 75 inches, the fifth from 75 to 50 inches, the sixth from 50 to 25 inches, the seventh from 25 to 10 inches, and the eighth group contains cases in which the mean annual rain-fall is less than 10 inches. This table shows all the stations I have ound where the annual rain-fall is specially remarkable either for its great or for its small amount, and for those regions of the globe where only a few scattering observations have been found, all known eases have been inserted in the table; but for those countries where the ge of observation are numer- ous, only a small portion of the whole number have been retained. If I had inserted in my 7 iabie the results for all known stations, the list would have. filled a large volume. The number of stations in the United States at which the rain- fall has been measured is over 1200; the total number of rain- gauges now regularly observed in Great Britain is about 2200; and there are numerous stations of observation in every coun- try of Europe. In British India the rain-fall has been meas- ured at more than 350 stations, fel many of which the observa- tions have been continued for more than twenty years; in the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago, wiih ava to Holland, the rain-fall is measured at 124 stations; and there are numerous stations of observation in Australia, Africa and elsewhere. oa available observations have been consulted in drawing the es of equal rain-fali upon the accompanying map, but only a asia part of them are contained in the following table. EF. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 3 Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations. % 8] sian, fee] tat, | tone, | SRN"| AR] Ammon a — | q te - 3 1 Cherapunji, oo 4125/25 14 N.| 9140 KE. gh 492'45/India, 1878, p. 116 —— 2/Buxa sige |. .|26 47 N.| 8936 E. | 9-10/217°58|India, 1878, p. 115 : {pratt ab 1810N.| 94 5 E. |16-18/213°54|India, 1878, p. 120 _ 4|Mahableshwar, Bombay 4540/1756 N.| 73 38 B. |22-24|253-24 India, 1878, p. 117 a aura, Bom _...{16 29 N.| 74 0K. | 5— 7/260°65|India, 1878, p. 11% 3 6|Matheran, Bombay Dh ON.) 7312 E 3'255°41|India, 1878, p. 118 7|Uttray Mullay 4500] 839N.| 77 0 2 |267°21|Phil. Trans., 1850,p.358 8|Buitenzorg, Java 869| 6368. 10647 E.| 1 (220°72|Bergsma, 1879, p. 217 9| Pelantoengan, Java 2274, 7 68. |109 59 E 1 |235°6 rgsma, 1879, p. 219 rang, Java 1027| 7 8S. j110 23 1 (205-04/Bergsma, 1879, P. to 11/Padang Pandjang, um. 2559) 0308. |100 30 E 1 282'33 Bergsma, 1879, 12) Amboina, Island "| 3498, |128106.| 1. |226-06|Bergsma, 1879, p. ass 13 Pi Guadeloupe 4000/16 5N.| 6150 1 |292°33|Comp. Rend.,v. 7, p.743 e Maranhao 31S.| 4418 W.} 1 /|280-00|Humb’s Tr., v. 5, p. 270 15/Sylhet, Assam ___ 9453 N.| 9147 E. |22-26/154-28) India, 1878, p. 116 16|Akyab, Burmah 20/20 8N.| 9252 EK. |21-22/196-63|India, 1878, p, 120 17 Kyouk Phas 19 24.N.| 9334B.| 13 |170°30|India, 1878, p. 12 18)Moulmein, Burmah 8711629 N.| 9740 E. | 29 |189°39|\India, 1878, p. 120 19/Tavoy, Burmah 0 114 7N.| 9818 B. |21-22/193°83| India, 1878, p 121 Mergui, Burmah 0 11233 .N.| 98 48 B. |14-15/150°55| India, 1878, p. 121 Rungbee 5000\27 - N. 4 5 |Haughton, Ph. Geog. 22\Lanauli, Bomba _...|18 48 N.| 73 26 5 |162-93/India, 1878, p. 117 Ratnapura, ea ..| 635 80 22 9 |151°73/India, 1878, p. 120 ttaghery 0] 8 7 } |170 |Phil. Trans.,1850, p.362 25) Au Peak 62 8 1 Phil, Trans., 1850, p.36 Sindola, Bombay 4600/17 56 N.| 73 39 1 |185°16| Phil. Trans., 1850, p.354 27|Magelang, Java 1256] 7 11013 1 |180-04|Bergsma, 1879, p. 220 olali, Java 1300} 7325S. |1:0 35 1 18|Bergsma, 1879, p. 220 29/Padang, Sumatra 100 25 1 |181°39/Bergsma, : 2 Siboga, Sumatr 0 | 144N.| 98461 1 |172'36|Bergsma, 1879, p. 222 Singkel, Suma 0 | 217N.) 9745 1 |171°22/Bergsma, 1879, p. 222 82/Tandjong Pandan 0 | 2458. |107 33 Lets ergsma, 1879, p. 224 Sintang, Borneo Be 1 N.J111 32 | |160°08|/Bergsma, 1879, p. 224 34|Makassar, Celebe 015 88. |119 24 1 |152°76|Bergsma, 18 4 St. Domingo |_._.|18 30 230 Wii ois 150 |Maltebrun’sGe’y,i,p359 36|Vera Cruz, M. 0 12 96 9W.| 9 |183°20|Mayer’s Mex.,v.2, p.188 N. Grenada |4678| 533.N.| 76 0W.| 2 {162-80|Rep ,1840,p.1 38)/Demerara, Guiana i BN.) 68 2.Wo.2..- 156°72\Berghaus, Phys. Atlas Caraceas, gery 273010 22 67 5 W.) 1. |155°37|Dove ; _ 40)The Stye, E 1600/5428N.| 313 W.|--.-. 189-45|Koner, v. 13, p. 105 — AlSea athwarte, ele 133415429N.| 312 W.|...-- 152°24|Koner, v. 13, p. 105 . 42\Kurseong, Bengal |____/26.54.N.| 8818E.| 4 |140-67)India, 1878, p. 116 = & Darjeeling, rican. 6912/27 3N.| 8818 E. |18-21/118'24|India, 1878, p. 115 riba ....|26 58 N.| 88 — 6|119-44| India, 1878, p. ] ie lpigoree, Bengal -__/96 32 N.| 8850 K. | 9-10/124-22\India, 1878, p. 115 POC: ar, Bengal |... |2616N.),89 29 8 '129°95| India, 1878, p. Chittagong, Bengal 90/22 21 N.| 91.50 EB. }20-24|103°73| India, 1878, p. 115 Noakhally, Bengal 199 52N.| 9114 E. |20-22)107-45| India, 1878, p, 115 , As 87/24 48 N.| 9251 H. |21-22)117-54|India, 1878, p. 116 51 ssa : 7N.| 9018. 9 122°16|India, 1878, p. 116 Dibrugarh, Assam _._.|9734.N.\ 98 2. |15-18 114'45|India, 1878, p. 116 531P, ’ s 6N.| 9646 EH.) 1 16 India, 1878, p. 121 ort Blair, Andamans | 61|1141 N.| 9242 E.| 11 |117°39|India, 1878, p. 121 ancowry, Ni 811 8 ON.| 9346 B.| 5- 6/100-85|India, 1878, p. 121 unjab |_. ..(32 19 N.| 76 21 E. |19-201126-29|India, 1878, p. 112 4 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations— Continued. No. Station. Flew: Lat. Long. thd eee Authority. 56 Igatpuri, Hyderabad | __..- 1947 N.| 73 35 E.| 9-16/120-43|India, 1878, p. 117 57|Karwar, Bombay 441445 N.| 7417 E. |17-18)115-54|India, 1878, p. 118 8 74 30 E. |15-17|140-97|India, 1878, p. 118 73 40 10-17|114°30 India, 1878, p. 118 73 23 E. |10-22!104-20 India, 1878, p. 118 73 56 107-04|India, 1878, p. 118 7617 E. |22-23/114-04 India, 1878, p. 120 75 32 "i. |17-18]116-73/ India, 1878, p. 120 75 32 E. |15-16|128-08 India, 1878, p. 120 15 26 17—18]135'34|India, 1878, p. 120 74 54 E. |20-25|134-04| India, 1878, p. 120 75 50 15 |119-94/\India, 1878, 76 20 5 |113-26|Phil.Trans., 1850, p.358 T.| 7547 1 |101°24/Phil.Trans., 1850, p.358 I.) 73 30 2 |141°59|Phil.Trans., 1850, p.356 T.| 75 40 14 |123°52 Dove Beitrage, p. 10 107 8 1 |128-27|Bergsma, 1879, p. 217 107 38 1 |117-88|Bergsma, 1879, p. 217 110 2 1 |134:10|/Bergsma, 1879, p. 21 109 40 1 |104°37|\Bergsma, 1879, p. 219 110 25 1 |101-78/Bergsma, 1879, p. 219 110 24 1 |113-16|Bergsma, 18 219 110 30 1 |135-67|Bergsma, 1879, p. 219 110 21 1 |123-90|Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 110 35 1 |110-99|Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 110 49 1 |112-41|/Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 111 26 1 |107-95|Bergsma, 1879, p. 2 112 38 1 |136:30|/Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 — 113 50 1 |139°41/Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 102 14 1 |130°51/Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 T.}104 25 1 |123-70|Bergsma, 1879, p. 225 104 45 1 |108-07|Bergsma, 1879, p. 22 105 9 1 |136°50|Bergsma, 1879, p. 225 v./109 2 1 |130°94|Bergsma, 1879, p. 225 13435] 1 |104-05/Bergsma, 1879, p. 225 cio3].4 398.1205 1 ma, 1879, p. 2 92 Flagstaff Mountain 2245) 5 25 N./100 . |-----|116°21|Berghaus Ph. --93 Fiji Islands 77/16 389.|17837E.} 5 |124:15/Q.J. Met.Soe 94| Navigators’ Islands 13 508. |171 44 W.|_-_._.|106 |Q.J. Met.Soc. iki 242 8. |170 58 E. 111°65| Zeitschrift, 5.N.| 6145 W. 126°74| Dove Beitra; ON. 70 W.| 2 |107-47|Dove Beitriage, p. 93 3N} 7213 W.|..__./127-89|Berghaus Ph 9N.| 6148 W.| 3 /107°73|Dove Beitrage, p. 92 ON.| 7625 W:| 2 |136-46/Q. J. Met. Soc., v.4, p-16 9N.| 7650 W.| 4 |106°61'Q. J. Met. Soc., v.4, p-16 3N.| 7640 W.| 4 |104°83 Q. J. Met. Soc., v.4,p.16 3N.| 7644 W.| 4 |100-01.Q. J. Met. Soc., v.4, p-16 56N.) 5230 W.) 6 8 n Met. deF 45N.| 5513 W.| 5 |142°45|Dove Beitriige, p. 90 10 3451 W.| 1. |106-07| Dove Beitriige, p. 90 3357/19 58 4330 W.| 2 |115°74 Dove Beitrage, p.94 getown, Guyana |-...| 650N.| 58 4W.| 7 /|100°5 |Dove Beitrage, p. 90 Cordoba, Mexico 1851 N.} 9654 W.| 9 [11 Haughton, : 110| Aspinwall, N. Granada 923N., 7953 W.| 4 |121-44\Schott’s Tables, p. 83 111/Glenco, Scotland 525/06 99 Ni 610 128°51|Koner, v. 13, p 2 112!Skye, Scotland S116 SONG 612 W.'. 6. 101°50/Koner, v.13, p.105 ac EF. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 5 Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations—Continued. No Station. ar Lat. Sone. 41 Oe eee. Authority. ae mbra, Portugal 46 SW: 825 Waeics 118°55| Dove Beitrage, p. 114 id Freetown, W. Africa "250. 8 29 N.| 13.10 Wi) 5 125°80 Zeitschrift, v. 5, p. 122 115 Fernando P o, W. Africal 98 346N.) 828 W.| 4 |100°67/Q.J. Met.Soc., v. 2, p. 52 116 Bahr el Abiad, E. Afri ie Fe a 2g aa a Pe ee 100°? Johnsto frica,p.57 7 Ft. Tongass, Al 25/54 46 N.|13030 W.| 2 |118°3 cific Coast Pilot, p. 26 118 Neeah B Jash. Ter.’ 4048 22N./12437 W.| 3 |123°35/Schott’s Tables, 119| Valdivia, Chili 423957S.| 7328 W.| 19 |115-49|Zeitschrift, v. i ; p. 137 120 Mussoore, N. W. Prov.|.... 30 25 | 17 44 E. |14-26| 95-21\India, 1878, p. 113 121 Naini Tal, N. W hens 29 26N.| 79 36 E. {17-19} 81°16\India, iD, PIS 122 Dinajpore, Bengal ...- 25 36 N.) 8837 E. |19-21} 77-18/India, 1878, p. 115 123 Rungpore, Bengal 2.-.|25 44 N.) 89 25 18-22} 86°67/|India, : : 115 ‘Bogra, Benga _|24 49 89 26 16-19] 81:28) India, 1878, p. 115 125 Burrisal, Ben _.-. 2244.N.| 9020 E. |13-14] 78°46/India 1878 p. 115 | sing, Bengal --- (2448 90 30 17-19} 98°27|India, 8, p. 1] 127 Comillah, Bengal _... 2333 N.| 9120 E. |21-22] 92°56/India, 1878, p. 115 8/Rangamati, Bengal |.... 2232N.| 9217E.| 10 57|India, 1878, p. 115 garta ng p25. (a8 62 90 20 6-7 | 77°77|India, 1878, p. 115 130 False Point, Bengal 15/20 20 8647 12 | 75°02\India, 1878, p. 116 * 131|Sibsagar, Ase 332.2659 N.| 94.40 E. |22-24| 93-98|India, 1878, p. 116 132 Goalpara, Assam 386 26 11 90 40 34\India, 1878, p. 116 133 Tezpur, As __...2644.N.| 9252 EK. |21-25| 76-06|India, 1878, p. 116 134 Nowg m __.. 2628 N.| 9245 E. |21-24) 81-65/India, 1878, p. 116 135 Shillong, Assam i228 oe 92 12-13} 86°93|India, 1878, p. 116 136 Rangoon, Burmah 401646 N.| 9612 “69|India, 1878, p. 120 _ 137 Bassein, Burmah 1516 4 94 50 9 96°89| India, 1878, p. 120 138 Henzada, Bur: Sees 45 95 32 8 5°09|India, 1878, 0 39|Pachmarhi, Cen. Prov. |3504 22 28 78 28 7 8) 80°93 India, 1878, p. 117 140 Byculla, Bombay 1850 N.| 7249 E. |10-17| 82°60|India, 1878, p. 118 141 Esplanade, Bombay |_.-. 18 54 N.| 7249 EB. |10-17| 77-00/India, 1878, p. 118 14 | anna, Bombay ..|19 28 72 49 E. |12-21} 98°21|India, 1878, p. 118 143|Manantoddy, Madras |___.|11 48 6 11 -88\ India, 1878, p. 120 144 Galle, Ceylo 40 6 80 12 9 | 91-69|India, 1878, p. 120 145 Colombo, Ceylon 0 65 79 50 88°82 India, 1878, p. 120 M6 K. 650 718N.| 8035 9 | 81-27\India, 1878, p. 120 147 Newera Elya, Ceylon /6159 7 ON,} 8042 8-9 9°45 India, 1878, p. 120 48 Quilon, Ma 30 854N| 7639E.| 5 | 76-76\Phil.Trans., 1850, p.357 149 Singapore, Malacca |____| 142 N.|103 50 10 | 91°66 India, 1878, p. 121 150 Serang, Java 102 6 8 1 | 81°02|Bergsma, 1879, p. 21 ts Java 33, 6 10S. |106 40 1 79°41 ay eth a 217 152 Ba a 23 6 11S. |106 50 6 | 78-91 via Obs «163 Meester —— Jaya| 46 6138.|10654E.| 1 78°78 boqeoe 1879, 'p. ee 154) Tega 0 | 6518.|109 8 1 | 95°56|Bergsma, 1879, p. 219 155'T = : 0 | 6528.|112 5 1 | 88°70!Bergsma, 1879, p. 219 156 Modjokerto, Java 95 7288.\11225E.| 1 | 96°70|Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 15 ja, Java 0 7148.|11244E.| 1 | 92°64|/Bergsm 9, b pia 158 Grissee, Java 0 | 7108. {11239 1 pe Bergsma, sh p- 2 159 Ba alan, Java 16 2 12 44 1 rgsma, | 879, p- 991 160 Pamekasan, Jay. 0 | 7108, 111330 1 pe 48|Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 161'Soemenep, Java 7 3S. |113 54 1 | 83-07/Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 162 Pasoeroean, Java 13) 738S 111256 1 75°20|/Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 163; , Java 43 8.113 41 1 | 83°15 Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 9 shear es 262| 7418. |114 2 ] | 77-87|/Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 _ 165/Banjoe 16] 8138. 11423 1 | 88-50 Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 7 Telok | Betong, gabe 0 968.1105 16 1 88°86 Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 _ 167 Solok, Sumatra 1234} 0488. |100 40 Yo 1879, p, 223 168) Pajakombo, Sumatra [1630] 0158, 10047 1 | 83-38|Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 6 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations— Continued. No Station. etl Las. | bene: does Authority. 169|Medan Poetri, Sumatra) 46) 335 N. 9841E.| 1 | 84:41 |Bergsma, 1879, p. 225 170|Djambi, Sumatra 1358. |103 36 E.| 1 | 96°85 |Bergsma, 1879, p. 225 171|Hong Kong, China .---|22 20 N./114 13 E.| 1 | 79-02 |Dove Beitrige, p. 102 17 , Ching ui iee 16m asae Bh. ‘64 \Dove Beitrige, p. 102 173)|Manilla, Ph 14 36 N.|120 40 if International Bulletin 174)Reunion, Isle Bourbon | 131/20 50 55 30 6 | 79°18 Zeitschrift, v. 9, p. 334 175|Southport, Australi ~.--|12 44 131 0 1g 7 oe .) p. 126 176|Kingstown, St. Vincent 13.13 N.| 6118 W.j.. 2. 78 Dove Beitrige, p. 92 177\St Vincent, WwW pe ES Eb 6118 W.| 6 | 178-17 Dove Beitrage, p. 92 178| Martinique, W. I. ovale 6 Sie. 86°93 |Gchler’s Ph. Wor., 179|Havana, Cuba 50/23 9 82 23 1 7 | 91°37 |Dove Beitrag 180 Philipsburg, St. Mart 18 5N.| 63 31 3 | 86°32 |Schott’s Tables, p. 81 181 - y Hill, paar "1495 18 4N.| 7649 W.| 5 | 80°53 /Q.J. Met. Soc, v.4, p.16 182|M. , Jamaic 2130/18 1 47 32 \ 7 | 86°58 'Q. J. Met. Soc., v.4, p.16 183 Salter’s Hill, Jamaica | 889}18 19 17 48 1 5 | 77-41 iQ. J. Met. Soc., v.4, p16 . Gu. 11 | 95°03 |Sandeman’s Obs. CO He > 00 We © _ bo -~T ® _ oc ra et So a. ca <4 pas a —) Pr oo to —T ire Wa ae Bap Oo Sas Seo Fee a Pe Si ee go Rt i ee ae Pa 3. 8 6 eae eile tre Sad ah el ela et esa DE Me Lae ok NIRS ae MENT MRA ch lps ye OR ae A pee co or os ° =] =< Cs -an 24 od — i) or 96-29 |Schott’s Tables, p. 77 31 69 acific Coast > PB 2 : 90 -roc. Br. yi ae i r 20 ¢ he — i) pt i, 96°37 itechritt v.11, p. 187 © 70-20 |India, 1878, p. 112 62-36 |India, 1878, p. 112 8E.| 21 | 70°76 |India, 1878, p. 113 E. [24-28] 55-90 |India, 1878, p. 114 9| 58-58,|India, 1878, p. 114 55°31 |India, 1878, p. 114 9) 55-65 |India, 1878, p. 114 or ot or o 5 a ~ + = ax ~I P . TUPTtrT? et Cn oc oor ot i | bo > ou or bo fap) S a ir a — Go Ia 3 @ yr UC — ee _— Se oot © ae at | w i DD © a i) joa 3568 Se FEE — ee oe) TI I -1 RPS iene a el el ARAN 223 Gauhati, 4 : 224 Jubbpore,C es 1351 79 59 KE. 133-35] 52°32 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 7 Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations— Continued. EB eeetton. Foer. |: Long. | Ops. | Inches. Authority. 225|Colaba, Bombay 37/18 54 = 72 49 BE, |32-62| 74°20 |India, 1878, p. 118 226/Pal Ighat, Madras .--.|1046N. 7645 E. | 16 | 71°52 |India, 1878, p. 120 207 irevan drum 130) 830N.| 77 8 | 69:42 |Dove Beitrage, p. 100 : 228 riditders Java Foren 1 106 46 1 71°42 rgsma, 1879, is sib mbang, rite gennl-6 46 BELT 20 1 67 gsma, 1879, p. 219 ane Probolingo, 3} 7448. ]113 1 1 | 67°84|Bergsma, 1879, p. 221 231 Fort de Bock Sumatra 3041; 0 218. |100 28 ] 1 | 74°53 |Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 232 Kotta Radja, Su so} 6.32 Nip 96 201 1 | 53°27 |Bergsma, 1879, p. 223 233|/Pulo Penang ..--| 5 26 N./100 19 B. |...-- 65-06 | Berghaus’ Ph. Atlas 234 Macao, China ---. |22 15 N.}113 341 14 | 69°10 |Dove Beitrage, p. 102 235/T. Japan 35 43 N./139 46 8 5°3 eitschrift, v. 15, p. 439 236/Petro Paulovsk 40/53 0N./158 39 3 | 611 |Russian Met ale 237/B e, N.S 5 28.}153 2 12 Taughton, Ph. Geog. N.S 52S. 151 15 33 | 50°63 |Zeitschrift, v. 10, p. 356 135|39 358. |144 5 5 | 58°66 | Zeitschrift, v. 7, p. 394 200/21 108.149 5 4 | 74-84 |Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7, p. 9 -. {21 308. |166 0 2 | 63°3 Met.deFrance, 1867 18/41 15 173 18 7 | 61°60 |Zeitschrift, v. 6, p. 345 2.2199 26 117455 9 | 59-44 |Zeitschrift, v. 6, p. 345 ..|35 42.8. [173 37 4 | 58°14 |Zeitschrift, v. 6, p 345 41 158, |174 45 8 | 51°60 |Zeitschrift, v. 6, p. 345 ‘ A oe 4 _...-| 60° |Johnston’s Af., p. 568 _..| 829 N.| 1315 W.|...-.| 69° |Johnston’s Af., p. 568 4378. Bt O2 Bb. oe 58° ohnston’s Af., p. 577 44| 5 458.} 3910 5 | 61-02 Met.Soe., v. 6, p. 32 Si 31 N. bee 1 be eitschrift, v. 13, p. 416 75\38 44 48 53 { | 51°74 |Koner, v. 13, p. 105 42 20 42 60] 7 | 658-90 |Koner, v. 13, p. 1¢5 4.22 /4216 41 36 60°36 |Koner, v. 13, p. 105 --|42 3 : ...|45 20 3 > oon ees -..|46 24 ...|43 48 ....|b1 48 oa wept 41 y 44 2 .-.|48 2 ...|48 45 .|45 34 cic. oe 20 ...|60 23 _..-|42 49 43 30 «= [43 42 52 ‘ 4) ..-.|54 10 168 17 N, = (62-28 37 40 N 22/47 53 N 150/47 34 N 34:46 12 N 46 122|44 39 N.| 63 36 W. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations— Continued. No Station. pert Lat 282|Perry, 100/45 0 283|Steuben, 50/44 31 284\Fayetteville, Vt 280/42 56 285|Southwick, 265/42 2 286| Wallingford, Ct 133/41 27 287\Ceres, Penn. 1440/42 0 rwick, Pen 583/41 5] 289) Poplar Grove, W. Va. | 720/38 20 290|Camden, S. 275/34 17 291\Fulton, 8. C 150/33 40 292\Sparta, Ga 550/33 17 3|Culloden, 825/32 51 294) Atlanta, G 1050/33 45 N 5|Ft. Barra: 20/30 21 N 296| Jacksonville, Fla 14/30 20 297|Ft. Brooks, 20)2 [ 298|Ft. Pierce, Fla. 30/27 30 Ft. Myers, Fla. 50/26 38 1 300|Ft. Dallas, Fla. 20/25 55 301) Huntsville, Ala. 600/34 43 302|Greensbo borough, Ala 350/32 40 303|Monroeville, Ala. 150/31 33 04/Mt. Vernon, AL 200|31 12 305|Columbus, Mis. 227/33 30 306| Natchez, 8. 264/31 34 7|\Jackson, Mis. 350/32 23 308|Monr 100/32 20 309) West Feliciana, La. 96/30 38 310|Baton Rouge, 41/30 26 311 Mave | Orleans, La. 10/29 57 533/36 10 660/33 4 _ 338\Chapelton, Jamaica 2000 Saoape S ar 41 23} 4131 4110 4000 40 20 8/43 42 co oO ID tO i oO a < be ~ ° BES EE APSE Ge IRE ON a ae a ae | E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. Years Obs. _ we rer aacaToonwnrmowownpan- we = I ao Poo Fo 008 — eR aanweo BO tt BD BO BO Fin 09 00 6 > pe or oo BS a | - Or Ee eee a ee ets se ee et toe tare yt ee ee ete tt ee a te tartans a ee Rain. Inches, Authority. 50°29 Schott Schott Schott’s Schott hott’s Tables, choti chott’s Tables, p. chott’s Tables, p. chott 8 epee p. Li ot ic) = co Pp ~ Le _ chott fe] Ss ° e et, a 3S = te] Fee ae] ~ or fe] ad ° oe e mn 3 loz = oO R u] Cs 5 cae Ee D 3 of P bo] a a Met. Obs. sig s Tab bles, p. 81 Jove Beitriige, p. 93 oy tt’s Tables, p. 81 x. Met. Obs chott? 8 Tables, p. 81 haus’ Ph. Atlas IQ.J. Met.Soc., v.4,p. 15 q E q ; ; 3 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations — Continued. rer: ak, Long. 1 5 ee Authority. Hope, Jamaica 650/18 2N.| 7644W.| 4 | 50°95 /Q.J. Met.Soe., v. 4, p. 15 (0|Black River, Jamaica |___.|1758N.| 7752 W.| 5 | 56°12 /Q.J. Met.Soc., v. 4, p. 15 orant Point, Jamaica 1756N.) 7628 W.| 7 | 64°58 /Q.J. Met t.Soc., v. v.4, p. 15 t. A ----|17 29 N.| 8813 W.| 6 | 72°35 |Schott’s Tables, p- 81 Pointe a Pitre, Guad. |._..|1616N.| 6132 W.| 19 | 71°62 |Dove Beitrige, p. 92 a. C. Am. 4856|14 38 N.| 9028 W.| 4 | 53:1 |Schott’s Tables, p. 81 8, .../13 10 N.| 5937 W.| 25 |57-°7 |Haughton, Ph. Near Kingstown, 8. V.|..../1313.N.| 60 W.)...-- 67°16 | Dove Beitrage, p. 92 Walt. . 110 28.N.| 60 28 W_|__.-- 62°92 — Ph. Atlas Jose, Costa Rica (3757) 956N.| 84 0 14 |58°7 |Haze Gren. oc o8 23 Ae COW 6G 4°1 |Proc. he Met. Soc., v. 3 ..--| 1258.| 4830W.| 1 ! 71-41 |Dove Beitrage, p. 90 ; ...| 3528.| 3834W., 28 | 52°84 |Nature, v. = “ 2\Rio Janeiro, Brazil |____|23 0S.| 4316 W.| 64 | 53-06 |Dove Beitr. Chi 9/41 51S.| 7313 W.) 3 | 52-01 |Zeitschrift, v. ee tte nialas 40 N.| 77.16 E, 28-29} 27-20 |India, 1878, p. 112 369/26 50N.| 81 0 8-11} 41°69 India, 1878, p. 114 W. Prov. | 26725 20 83 2 22:1 39: ia, 1878, p. 114 3621 13 N.| 7246 BR. 10-16| 42°74 |India, 1878, p. 118 02521 9N.| 7911 E, 31-32) 43°43 India, 1878, p. 116 2000.18 28 N.| 74.10 23 | 30°41 \India, 1878, p. 117 __.|1727 NN} 7840E.| 10 | 29-27 India, 1878, p. 117 adras 13 5N.| 8017E.| 66 | 48°51 |India, 1878, p. 119 Trichinopoiy, Madras | 275/10 50 N.| 78 44 E. |25-27) 38°70 |India, 1878, p. 119 “Teg orate _...|56 27 N.|138 26 E.| 4 | 34°06 |Rep. fiir Met.,v.1, p.175 90.41 47 N.140 45 4 |43°6 |Pacific C. Pilot, p. 26 ma, Japan 656 35 27 N..139 40 1 |41°7 |Annuaire Met.de. ce ina 2222181 13 N21a6 4 | 42°21 |Bolletino Mens., v. 1 200043 5N.| 4419KE.| 10 | 38°94 |Rep. fiir Met., v.1,p. 175 Reaantinonle, Turkey|....|41 2N_| 28 58K, |_....| 27°56 |Koner, v. 13, p. 108 Irut, Syria _..(8354.N,] 3529. | 2 | 40-5 b. fiir Met., 1876 rie borg, Sweden ....|57 44 125.0 Base 32-56 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 erdeen, Scotland |____|57 9 $2 Wace 29-44 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 yavbureh, Scotland |____|55 57 312 W.| ._.. -| 27-00 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 anchester, England |____/53 31 216 W.|...-- 34-06 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 Ire ..-|53 21 616 Wil. ic. 29-21 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 ...|51 55 8 26 W.|.....| 41-73 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 F-15268 33 $68 Bo tose 28-82 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 cece 4 $0 tase 30°40 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 mouth, England —|____'50 22 4.0Wi. a: 44-38 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 nee ....|48 22 429 W.|_..-- 28-35 |Koner, v. 13, p. 106 paegee tS: | 1 4K, }.....} 25°59 |Koner, v. 13, p. .../48 1135. Beda 29-09 |Koner, v. 13, p. 108 wou |40 49 13 0 5 See ee mer, v. 13, p. 10 ..../46 21 rag he ne 29°53 |Koner, v. 13, p. 108 : ..../45 28 911K. |____.| 38-04 |Koner, v. 13, p. 107 Tia ..-.|45 39 N.| 1349 Bj. .._- 43-90 |Koner, v. 13, p. 107 » France =| .._./43 35 $6807 32 29°18 |Koner, v. 13, p. 107 igal ....|38 43 010. Wisc 26°77 |Koner, v. 13, p. 1 oh 5/43 48 N.) 1016.1. 36°73 |Koner, v. 13, p. 107 2c. ped Of 32°29 Bt. ue 30°91 |Koner, v. 13, p. 107 sccsMi68 NE 1814 foc 30°99 —_ v. 13, p. pes ‘eg 8 $20. Wi ioc. 29°73 v.13, pe "heehee /3652N| 3 2K.|.22..| 31-10 [Koner, v. 13, p. 107 : ictoria, yssinia wenn ihe BO SEOL duu. 37°38 erghau 3’ Ph. Atlas 0 Eames Sas Mas cam 9: ohnston’s Af, p. 573 451'Duluth, Wisconsi 10 E.. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations— Continued. No. Station. ads ES Long: ola lien. Authority. 395 poner 3 . Africa |-- hi ao 25] 2 |47°5 |Johnston’s Af., p. 577 396|Mauriting Is, = 26,05 ec) 20 27 56731] 2 | 32-4 e Beitriige, p. 102. 397) Port se iesladiek 30)20 10 57 30 13. | 35°63 |Zeitschrift, v. 7, p. 205 398) Tete, South Africa 250/16 10 33 30 1 | 33°55 |Zeitschrift, v. 7, p. 205 - 399) Port de France, N. sy peer 5 166 39 2 | 48°27 |An.Met. deFrance,1867 — 40 ritzburg, Natal 2095/29 308.| 30 10 | 30°35 /Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7, p.5 401 Gardenscliffe, Natal |2270/29 38 S.| 30 30 13 | 35°81 |Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7, p.5 402) Merebank, 30/29 55S. | 3055 9 | 44-21 |Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7, p.6 403) Ottawa, N 300 29 38 34 10 | 38°98 J. Met. Soe., v. 7, p.5 404 Durban, N 130/29 50 31 7 | 42-05 |Q. J. Met. Soe., v. 7, p.5 405|King Williamst’n, S.Af.|2100/32 51 Pay Gs | 10 | 28-23 |Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7, pd: © 406 Grahamstown, §. 1800/33 20 26 33 18 | 28:73 |Q. J. Met. Soc., v.7,p-9 — 407|Capetown, S. Af. 50/3355 18 25 16 | 26-77 |Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7, p.5 408) Wynberg, S. Af. 200/34 1S8.} 1828 14 | 42-65 |Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7, PD» 409 Somerset, S. Af. 120/34 5S.| 1852 5 | 25:01 !Q. J. Met. Soc., v. 7,9 — 410 Simonstown, 8. Af. .-|34 12 S.| 18 26 7 | 29-20 |Q. J. Met. Soe., v. 7. pd 411/Mt. Lofty, 8. Aust. ..-.|34 55 S. |138 5] 12 9 v. 9, p. 202 412|/Mt. Barker, S. Aust Sey ti pee 139-3 9 1 Ope 202. — 413) Robetown, S. Aust -|37 38. |139 42 9 v. 9, p. 202 — 414| Penola, S. Aust. 340437 23:8. 1140'59 9 Os 415|Mt. G: , 8. Aust. |_.-.137 52S. [14053 9 9, p.2 416 Beechworth, Victona |1783/36 24S. |146 24 44 ey Ps 417 Ararat, Victo 72/37 18S. |142 54 3 Veit Pe 418 larat, Vi 38/37 36 143 54 84 . 1, p. 29 419|Gabo Island, Victoria 40/37 3 149 54 24 St 420\Buninyong, Victoria |_...|37 42S. }143 54° 3 . 1, p. 29 4 mperdo Victoria 770)38 12 43 12 5R ih peas 422| Port! ria 38 2. 41 36 7 1, p. 29 423|Port Albert, Victoria 30/38 36 46 42 3 . 1, pe 49 424|Melbourne, Victoria 121/38 48 45 17 v. 7, p. 2% 425|Ca way, Victoria | 300/38 548. 143 501 24 1, p. 29 426|Kent’s Group, Is. 280|39 29S. /14715 B.| 5 . 7, p. 3% 42 n n, Tasmania | 142/41 27 147 8 3 v. 7, De? 428|Swansea, Tasmania 18/42 88.|148 5 -3 ty 429/Port Arthur, Tasmania} 55/43 98. |147 54 5 Taps 430|South Br Tas 250/43 30S. |147 10 5 v. 7, p- 431\Stykkisholm, Iceland |.___|65 5N.| 2246 W.|____- ufiord, ....|6440 N.) 1415 W.|._.-- 433|Reikiavig, Iceland 664 9 20 OWA Angra, Az -138 38 N.| 2715 W.| 6 435)|St. Michael, Azores we c13T 46 25.15 7 10 6| Madeira 0/32 30 17 30 \ 4 pres eee Madeira Oeuiase 26 16 55 1} 16 438 00/28 12 16 39 | 4 439 Be | Sslewe a 76415 55 bas Wass. 440|Godthaab, ss Panam (<7: ee | 6146 Wijo ck. 441|Iviktut, Greenland 5 cf OL APM A911 Wie. 442 Ramah, pees doe 15)58 54 6259 W.). 2 443/York Factory, Hud. B. 55,57 0 9226W,) 3 444\St. Paul Is., Bering Sea) 50/57 17018 W. 5 445 actory, Canada) 30/5116 8056 W.) 2 i 446|Poplar Heights, Cana 50 97 50 1 1 6°3 447|/Gimli, Canada 723,5037 N.| 9658 W.) 1 6°75 8/Quebec, Cana ...(4648N.| 7112 W.| 6 |37-27|Am. J. Sei., v. 12, p2% 449| Montreal, Canada ../45 30 N.| 7336 Wi 9 1°76 |Schott’s ae 450) Marquette. ee ~..-|46 32 N.| 8723 W.| 12 | 33-48 |Schott’s - 4648 N.| 92 8W.) 8 | 25-64 |Schott’s Tables £. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations— Continued. Station. Eley.| Feet.| Lat. 21 6 3458/21 22 920/24 51 1411/26 50 1240/31 0 5072/17 3N. Long. Ee Epson Authority. re. | 93 5W. 5 | 25°09 |Schott’s Tables 7923 W. 25 | 35°17 |Schott’s Tables 7634 W. 8 | 46°94 |Schott’s Tables 7015 W. 4 | 48°63 |Schott’s Tables 1 4W. 382 | 41°44 Schott’s Tables 74 OW. 24 | 43°24 |Schott’s Tables $258 W. 29 | 35°23 |Schott’s Tables 8735 W. 8 | 34°74 |Sig. Service Obs. 96 OW. 2 | 35:02 |Schott’s Tables 80 2W. 11 | 36°64 |Schott’s Tables 77 1W. 19 | 37-96 |Schott’s Tables 8426 W. 30 | 44°50 |Schott’s Tables 9015 W. 28 | 42-18 |Schott’s Tables 8552 W. 3. | 48-12 |Schott’s Tables 7619 W. 19 | 47-04 |Schott’s Tables 7917 W. 4 | 42-71 (Schott’s Tables 8354 W. 2 |39°76 Schott’s Tables 0 OW. 9 | 44°25 |Schott’s Tables 95 7W.| 20 | 3637 Schott’s Tables 7956 W. 41 | 43°51 /Schott’s Tables 8325 W. 4 | 36°54 |Schott’s Tables 9056 W. 15 | 48-87 |Schott’s Tables 9825 W.| 6. | 32°93 |Schott’s Tab] 12227 W.| 3 | 47-6) |Schott’s Tables 12410 W.) 11 | 35-92 |Schoti’s Tables 9727 W. 6 | 36°74 |Schott’s Tables 10630 W. 3. | 25-44 |Schott’s Tables 106 0W. 1 | 3364 |International Obs. 10233 W. 1 | 30-48 |Bol. Geog., v. 5, p. 181 10140 W. 1 | 34°12 |Bol. Geog., v. 5, p. 181 10130W. 1 | 27-92 |Bol. Geog., v. 5, p. 181 10131 W. 1 | 43-72 |Bol. Geog., v. 5, p. 181 811W. 1 | 36°69 |Bol. Geog., v. 5, p. 181 9640 W. 1 | 37- . Geog., v. 5, p. 181 03 4W.) 6 | 32-90 |Revista Clim.,v.1, p.115 164 52 \ | 7 }42°9 |Haughton’s | Tigi | 3 | 46°75 |Schott’s Tables 64 56 V | 3 | 35-19 |Schott’s Tables 745 W. 2 |45-12 |Q.J. Met.Soc., v. 4, p. 16 77 40 \ & 2 | 35°68 |Q.J. Met. Soc., v. 4,p.16 7654 W. 4 | 37-58 |Q.J. Met.Soc., v. 4. p.16 7655 W.| 6 ‘25 |Q.J. Met.Soc., v. 4, p. 16 7650 W. 5 | 39-29 |Q.J. Met.Soe., v. 4, p. 16 7647 W 4 8:13 |Q.J. Met.Soe., v. 4, p. 16 7650 W.) 7 | 39°85 |Q.J. Met.Soc., v. 4, p. 16 TT17W.| 6 | 43°83 /Q.J t.Soe., v. 4. p. 16 50 W.| 22 | 44-6 |Zeitschrift, v. 12, p. 341 6148 W. 56 78 ve Beitrige, p. 92 69:20 W.). 252. 26°64 |Berghaus’ Ph. Atlas 7442 W.| 6 | 43°8 /Br. Met. Soc., v. 3, p.429 451 W.| 5 | 44°98 |Zeitschrift, v.11, p. 137 6510 W.| 1 | 41°73 |Zeitschrift, v. 11, p. 137 358 W.| 2 | 30°51 |Zeitschrift, v. 11, p. 1 56 TW.) 10 | 43-56 /Zeitschrift, v. 11, p. 137 5828 W.| 17 | 34°08 Clima de B. A.. p. 466 14934 W.| 2 | 47-68 |Zeitschrift, v. 4, p. 530 12 E.. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various stations— Continued. No. Station. et tat. long. 1a ee Authority. 508/Turukansk, Siberia .--.|65 45 N.| 90 5 509|Bogoslovsk, Ural Mt. | 650/59 45 N.| 59 59 510) Enisseisk, Russia 58 27 511/Blagodat, Ural Mt 1249/58 17 59 47 512|Tobolsk, Russia 355)58 12 68 16 51 i 9 pcos Ural M.| 73057 55 59 53 614\Ir 4] 63 2 515 Parnas cana Ural Mt.} 850/56 48 60 35 516|Tomsk, Russia 241/56 30 N.| 8458 517|Ischim, Russia 56 6N.| 6927 18/Zlatouste, Ural Mt. 1230/55 11 59 45 sia 61154 58 N.| 73 20 5 ir, Russia 2515415 N.| 85 47 521|Nikolaiwsk, China 82/53 18 N.|140 45 5 , Russi 1514/52 17 N.]104 22 bourg, Russi 45 §24/Nertschinsk, 2230/51 18 N.|119 36 525| Blagoweststhuck, China| .___|50 15 N.|127 38 526|Chabarawka, Ch |48 28 N.1135 7 Urga, Mongolia -|47 55 N./108 50 528] Vladiv , Ch 86}43 7 131 54 529)Taschkent, Tartary 1588/41 2 918 530|Pekin, China 0/39 53 N./116 40 31|Tientsin, Ch .|39 17 10 Sheen, China eLuige.17 11710 533/Bannu, Punjab .|33 1 N.} 70.40 534|Shakpur, Punjab «25219220 72 24 , Punjab ctenlok Le 1219 536|Montgomery, Punjab |__._|30 45 73 11 j|Jodhpore, Rajputana |____/26 15 538}Umarkot, Bomba Bo eb 20 69 42 539 rhage Rajputana | _..|25 13 » 6 weden 2223166 19 21:31 541 eet Sweden e216 oO P53: 542/ Abo, Russia 5. .}60 27 Ni} 22.17 543 St. Petersburg, Russia} 10/59 56.N.| 3018 ae mcenots Eee .-.-|59 22 N.) 18 0 ussi ...5745 N.| 4056 be = peavey Sweden 5 of a second of are was easily measurable. The experiments of the authors confirm the previous results of M. d’Abbadiela and also of M. Plantamour, who found that there were ths iods of agita- s surface without reference to any perceptible external cause, and that there were gradual changes of level extending over several months, and indications of an annual inequality of level. In short the earth’s surface ap- pears to be in a state of continual movement. Previous experi- ; nae deep mine if a support sufficiently invariable could be found there. foe ort oe Seueen of the British Association, Ses of Sir W. Thomson, Professor t, Professor Sue Dr Sanory Professor Purser, Professor G. Parise and race Darwin, appointed oe the measurement of the a Disturbance of Grav vity. Account of experiments b H.° Darwin and H. Darwin; read re York, September, Is Da on the surface of Water. Lua “of water are frequently seen een for some time on the surface of water before they disappear. henomenon is frequently seen feat ng showers, and we hh e prow of a boat which is throwing up The results of ecpaiee ets by Professor Dikothe ee iit appear to affect the phenomena. meconaiio fs ri Phil. ee ee Oct. 4, ivdeigiain- oF Nov. 3 and wave lengths is examined pr st entally.—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 10, 1881, p. 177. ee Physics and Chemistry. dl 4, Density of the Earth—Pu. v. Jouty has employed the balance to directly determine the density of the earth. A body was weighed in two stations distant 21:005™ vertically from each oth The errors incident to this method were examined and the value obtained for the earth’s density was p=5°692. The re- sults obtained by previous observers are as follows: Muskelyne soo SU ct cee we eres Mane 4°713 Cavendish ...2 22.22... 5°48 Reich TERT vid 1, . Baily 5°66 A. Cornu and J. B. Baille 5°56 Cath... ee ae oe ABST Airy Mineo ihe ae 5°480 —Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 10, 1881, p. 331. J.T. na new arrangement for sensitive flames ; uORD Ray- LEIGH.—A jet of coal gas from a pin-hole burner rises vertically in the interior of a cavity from which the air is exciuded. It then passes into a brass tube a few inches long, top, burns in the open air. The front wall of the cavity is formed of a flexible membrane of tissue paper, through which external sounds can reach the burner. If the extreme of sensitiveness be aimed at, the gas pressure must f : ; ; : b sound’ he apparatus exhibited was made in Prof. Stuart’s workshop. An adjustment for directing the jet exactly up the middle of the brass tube is found necessary, and some advantage is gained by contracting the tube somewhat at the place of ignition.— Cam- bridge Phil. Soc., Noy. 8, 1880. 6. On an effect of vibrations upon a suspended disc ; by Lorp Rayieteu.—tIn the British Association experiment for determining the unit of electrical resistance, a magnet and mirror are enclosed in a wooden box, attached to the lower end of a tube through which the silk suspension fiber passes. Under these circumstances it is found that the slightest tap with the finger-nail upon the box deflects the mirror to an extraordinary degree. The disturbance appears to be due to aerial vibrations within the box, acting upon the mirror, We know that a flat body, like a mirror, tends to 52 Scientific Intelligence. set itself across the a of chat steady current of the fluid in which it is immersed, anc may fairly suppose that an effect of the same character will follow from an alternating current. At the moment of the tap upon the box the air Einside 5 is vmade to move is as if an impulse had been given to the suspended par he experiment shown is intended to illustrate this offot. A avoid any possible disturbance due to the were om a of the vibrating prongs s.— Cambridge Phil. Soc., Nov. 8 4. Edison’s Electrical Meters.—A recent pai le (Nov. 23), of the excellent electrical Journal “La Lumiére Electrique,” con- tains a stain tae by the scientific editor, M. Th. Du Moncel, of two forms of meters designed by Mr. Edison to measure the’ amount of electricity consumed in a given case either for mechan- ical purposes or for lighting. One of these is very simple in con- struction, but requires that a weighing operation should be per- formed each time it is ar to learn the amount of electricity which has been consu ; the other is somewhat more compli- cated, but icaimpaael: all its Hoary seg — a record on a dial after the manner of ordinar gas The first of these consists of two closed copper batphate volta- ware placed in separate adjoining compartments of the enclos- ing case; to one of these subscriber is supposed to have aie and the other is to be used for verification by the officer of the company which supplies the electricity. The electrodes in each cell are formed of copper plates placed near to each other so that as the current passes a deposit of copper is made on one of them by the isa branch action. The curr feng passing through the ecb is a h of the main current which is being used, and b sof a small resistance coil its intensity is re- du ne toa er faster, perhaps one ee of it. The oo of the instrument is as follows: the one passes in naiaiea, a certain bows ‘portion of it pearmnee the two volta- meters and causes in them a deposit of eg which is propor- tional to the given current in the given time. As the exact. rela- tion between the intensity of the current whieli traverses the vol- tameters to the main current is known, it is easy to deduce the quantity of electricity which has been used from the amount of copper deposited on the negative electrode; the weight of copper ieee Sp alle cag reg aE at aphasia Ma oan a De Cilia a? a7 van Sera a Ai a Mic Physics and Chemistry. 53 is obtained whenever desired by removing the electrode and weighing it. As a supplementary arrangement, igned to remove all danger of the freezing of the liquid in the voltameter, a metallic thermometer is placed beneath, so adjusted that when the temperature falls near the freezing point a second branch cur- rent is sent through an incandescent lamp and the heat thus pro- duced is sufficient to accomplish the end named. The second form of electrical meter cannot be intelligibly described in all its ingenious details without reference to the fig- ure which accompanies the original article, but the main principle is not complex. It consists of two voltameters each placed be- neath one end of the beam of a balance. The cells are filled with the beam of the balance. A counterpoise suspended by a slender vertical rod, from the center of the moving beam, is thus moved by food B ° = 2 a ol e-) ce c O = ° Qu a wR ) oO ) — wD © a oO Ha Oo S & i] Qu S 5 Lar | & es ° S Qs _ i=] TQ oo =, v7) the balance beam regains its horizontal position and is then de- ther side. This continues until, as before, the about one swing of the balance (determined by the weight of the counterpoise) is also known, it is easy to deduce the amount of gas or, to a small extent, combined in bicarbonates. In the later determinations, 54 | Scientific Intelligence. made in erro with the “ Pommerania ” Expedition of 1871, results to investigate anew the sbacspehne capacit y of sea-water for carbonic acid. He determined the amount contained in the water of the North Sea to be about 100 mgr. per liter, and of this he concluded that only a very small proportion was obtained from the bicarbonates; and further he was confident that no por- process. He found, however, that even when the boiling process was carried on under the full atmospheric pressure the carbonic acid, though supposed to exist in the gaseous form, escaped so slowly that souiseitention to about one-tenth of the original vol- ume was needed to obtain it all. To account for this phenom- enon Jacobsen. uaatibed to sea-water a peculiar power of retaining its carbonic acid depending, as he believed, upon the magnesium chloride present. This hypothesis was adopted by: dX Bo chanan, chemist of the “ Challenger ” Expedition, who also, as the result of a series of experiments, concluded further that most of the salts present in sea-water had this property of retaining the sagen acid, but most of all the sulphates. He, accordingly, n his determinations first Ea abet the sulphuric acid b atic chloride, but otherwise adopted the method of Jacobsen. The amount of sarees acid i sheen water of the Siashesa Seas he found to be 43°26 mgr. per lite conclusions which have been. described were, however, n, and his experiments lead to a very different result. Consid- nena it more probable that the carbonic acid obtained was derived from the decomposition by the protracted process of boiling of sor neutral carbonates present, than that it existed as a gas and w series of experiments to decide this point. Two hundred c. c. of a-water were distilled nearly to dryness eggs ong carbonic acid éollected 3 in baryta water; 20°2 mgr. were found to have been off. Freshly boiled water was now octet on the seecndus and it then ev speeitadl the result yielding only a trace of carbonic acid ; finally some purified and treshly-heated soda was added, Ad and the whole again diluted to the original volume. As soon. in eben so large that part passed unabsorbed through the baryta water. The experiment was also repeated with precipi- tated saiehaie carbonate, and the carbonic acid expelled from it 1m considerable quantities, though not so large as before. These mining the free carbonic acid in sea-water were inaccurate, inas- much as the boiling process causes a decomposition of the neutral in which the gaseous elements in the water were boiled out - ai Physics and Chemistry. 55 carbonates. In the autumn of 1878 the experiments of Tornde were again resumed, after an interval of about a year. use of an improved ‘form of apparatus devised by Classen, the total amount of carbonic acid yielded by sea-water on boiling was determined, and found to agree very closely with that obtained by Jacobsen’s method. The determinations were, how- ever, carried still further, and not only the total amount measured ates, and the difference between the two gave the amount com- bined with bicarbonates, for it is shown that the onion ObaGne va- tions can only be e xplained in case the water contains no free gas. Tornée gives a table in which the results of sey “eo aene determin- ations, made with water taken between 65° and . latitude, rom various depths, from the surface down to Hee fathoms. The table shows a remarkable constancy in results, the amount of Ww points near the ice on the coast of Greenland are excluded, the extreme ja dictaao are only 4 mgr. and 8 mgr. respectively. average result, the amount of carbonic acid forming neu- tral carbonates i is be ate o be 52°78 + 0°083 mer. per liter, with a probable error sor 3 oe observation of 0°662 megr., and for that forming bicarbon 43°64+ 0°16 mgr. with a probable error of 1°26 mgrs. per liter. A series of re ters ments were also carried on to explain the liberation of gas the carbonates on boiling, and the conclusion is reached Ghat: this is due to the slow te action of the carbonates and salts o magnesia it contai In regard to the character of the carbon- ates present in sea-w ribek Tornde believes it probable that be 2 are rather sodium and potassium carbonates than carbonate of cal- cium, this supposition ser ats toe explain the alkaline reaction of ivi noted by him, and also the resistance to decomposition ob- served, allowing of hciy being exposed for an hour ether" toa temperature of near rly 90° C. without effect. Earlier _determins- e not witb as to allow of even appr oxim ste pauses. n the Action of the Oxides of Nitrogen on Glass at a high teinperatere ; by Ett ai MorGan.—Several attempts were made to determine the trogen in organic nitro-derivatives by heating the substance in aslo d tubes of hard shee containing oxygen, and in presence also of a little mercury to effect the reduction of any oxides of nitrogen which might be $onndee. but in all cases the nitrogen obtained was dots deeABIS less than the 56 Scientific Intelligence. quantity theoretically present in the vio analysed. ‘The source of this deficiency was eventually trace the action which the oxides of nitrogen exerted on the alkali of ae glass, and also ou the mercury. For when some of the tubes which had been subjected to a temperature not above dull redness were washed with a little water, the washings could 258 ways be shown to con- tain a nitrate and a soluble salt of mercury; others, the tempera- ture of which had been higher, contained nitrates and nitrites, but no soluble mercury salt. For the purpose of showing more conclusively that the glass was thus attacked, and in order also to investigate the extent of the action, the following experiment was performed: A tube of ard glass, 50 ¢. ¢. capacity, was cleaned until the evaporated ue filled with red fumes; after which it was heated to dull sage for two hours. When cold it was still full of red fumes, and when these were withdrawn it was washed as before, ad ‘the evaporated washings left a residue of 0°0038 of a grm., consisting of nitrates and nitrites. The same experiment was repeated three times on the same tube ; the second pote was 0°0044 of a grm., and - third 0-0022. Another tube gave might be expected, this action is cos more energetic at a Zi ar than at a low temperature, and it Lit to be very slight until the heat approaches redness. In the analysis of such nitro- genous compounds as have the nitrogen in combination with oxy- gen, a certain deficiency of nitrogen, varying with the tempera- ture anplogit. may therefore be expected.— Chem. News, Nov. 25, 1881 Il. GgoLoegy AND MINERALOGY. 1. On the Periodical Variations of Glaciers.—Mr. F. A. Forex, of Morges, has an important memoir on this subject in the Geneva Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, July, 1881, based on observations in the Alps. He refers to the os elongation of the Grindelwald glacier in iy that of the ply of snows, oy a )t ah cae of the ice or ablation “By means of h eat. Abundant snows lengthen it; heat thins and 5 a io) i) 2D co S oO oO — _ © =F ie) = ~ mR ae ‘° er < — mt me ° = © er — o S wR pn a ° = co 2 =] co glaciers lengthen during cold summers, when the snows are not sufficient to account for the change. The true theory was sug- ; q a 2 ‘ a Ml : 3 Geology and Mineralogy. 57 ugi, the able professor of Soleur. The points are these :— (1.) The law of long periodicity. — Glaciers vary by long | sipeysiae, ten, twenty years or more, not by annual changes. he Pfarrbuch of Grindelwald, from 1575 to 1602, underwent great elongation; from 1602 to 1620, was stationary; from 1665 to 1680, shortened ; in 1703, reached its maximum elongation ; in 1720, reached a maximum retreat, and in 1743, a maximum elon- gation; in 1748, again made a maximum retreat; in 1770 to 1778, lengthened; in 1819, became much elongated, and in 1840 was still advancing; but from 1855 to 1880, has had a period of retreat, oes in 1821 by Venetz, and fully propounded in 1831 by F. J. a ] - os the evaporation of the ice, were struck with the fact of the very evident retreat of this great glacier. From observed facts by rom 1870 to 1874 the retreat was 71 meters a year; and from 1874 to 1880 the retreat was 41 meters a year. Thus, through 24 years, retreat has been going on with no year of advance. So, that of the Bossons from 1854 to 1875, and the upper glaciers of Grindelwald have continued to retreat since 1855. e facts connected with the Rhone sustain the conclusion at— depends on changes of long periodicity in meteorological condi- tions—heat, moisture, winds. > and these numbers were for the absolute humidity, 14, 10, and 16, 8; and for precipitation, 14, 10, and 12, 12. Thus the long- quently a less long exposure to ablation, and thereby less nice; and the reverse for diminished thickness. The gla- 58 Scientific Intelligence. cier when shortening, loses also in its other dimensions. There is internal ablation as well as external-—interstitial fusion taking place between the grains of the lacier and ablation along the walls of crevasses; and this action, besides being one of the means by which the thinning takes places, causes loss of movement, the amount of which diminishes upward along the glacier. More- over, the greater the thickness the less propor —— is there of this internal ablation. Internal ablation tends then to exagger- ate the small variations in the rate of flow, and pr mi — effects in the inferior part of the glacier, although smal The variations in the amount of sno Ws, which cause ‘bd pare thidknoss of the glacier at its source, depend on long terms of periodicity. The precipitation at Geneva was below the normal shear from 1835 to 1841 inclusive ; pho it, 1842 to 1857; ear the normal in 1858 to 1861; below it in 1862 to 187 a3 above since 1877. It is seen that there is an approximate parallelism between these changes and the variations in the glaciers of the Alps. The effects are not immediate, as should be expected, but t is seldom that. all the glaciers of the Alps, without any exception, lengthen or shorten together. In this — the only case of simultaneous elongation took place in the year 1817 and 1818, and the only one of general retreat in 1872 to 1874. Dur- a ing the years 1812 to 1836, most of the glaciers underwen a shortening which included the above-mentioned years, 1872--1874, mmenced in Mont Blane about 1854; in the Upper Grindel- wald, in 1855; the Giétroz, in 1855; the Rhone e, in 1857 Aletsch, i in 1860; the Gorner, in 1870; the Fiesch, in 1870: the Unteraar, in 1871; and it ended with the Bossons about 1875; with the Bois, i in 1879; the Trient, in 1879 ; the Giétroz, in 1880. The facts seem to show that it took twenty years after the cycle of retreat began for the time of simultaneous retreat to arrive. Hugi, besides giving the above explanations, illustrates them by reference to the same class of re though of less range of years. ith regard to the coming o of the conditions of the Glacial pe- with a series of moist and mild winters and mois d cold sum- ers, as was long since suggested by Professor Guyot. The in- mentioned effec But M. Forel ‘aida: while these effects would follow in moun- tain regions like the Alps, other regions, as the Vosges, the Cé- Rey ee EIR Pe tan Pin mE ee pe aoe ate ae SERS Abe fats, hate a ee a Se eee | BRS Bees a eee et meme oe R Re ae 5 ae ee “3 e é = ri esick Geology and Mineralogy. 59 vennes, the mountains of Scotland, ete., which are now remark- able for the amount of rain, show that increase in humidity is not the only cause needed to bring on a Glacial era; it is necessary also for such countries that there should have been a general lowering of the temperature of Europe. movement have already been described in this Journal (xix, 425), The same observers in the following year (Sept., 1880) made a second series of similar measurements, using essentially the same methods as before. It will be remembered that their first obser- vations seemed to prove a considerable and unexpected degree of irregularity in the movement. It was found, for example, that the result since, for some unknown reason, the motions measured were taken to eliminate the errors, and finally give tables showing the results of their measurements during two or three days out of ch the e probable error, rf : allow of satisfactory discussion, but that they, notwithstanding, indicate real ice movements, and are not to be referred to irreg- ularities in the position of the observing telescope.— Wied. Ann., 1881, 3. On Soilcap-Motion ; by R. W. Coprincer, Esq., M. D.— . is : mp t I wish to call attention briefly to a phenomenon which, so far as [ erns, and mosses, but also a “ moraine profonde” of rocks, stones, Stems of dead trees, peat and mud, whereby the hills of this region ae denuded, and the valleys, lakes and channels, gradually up. 60 Scientific Intelligence. merged. On looking more closely I observed that the sodden snags of dead timber, mingled with stones, were often to be seen at the bottom of the inshore waters, and that the beds of fresh- water lakes were plentifully strewn with similar fragments of wood, the remains of forests prematurely destroyed. As the soilcap, by its sliding motion, reaches the water, the soluble portions are re- moved ; and just as stones and bowlders are often seen deposited ror ta ioe the class of cases to which I refer, due to a totally differ use. These facts are all the more interesting from their pits in a region where the effects of o/d glacial action are to be seen in a marked degree. Planings, scorings, striz an “roches moutonnées” may almost invariably ‘be found wherever the rock is sufficiently capable ° resisting — disintegrating influence of the weather to retain these impressions. us they are nowhere to be seen on the ¢ eosin friable syenite, which is the common rock-formation of the district; but where this rock is intersected by dikes of the more durable greenstone, the above-mentioned signs of former glacial action may n well developed. There are therefore in this region ample oppor- tunities of comparing and differentiating phenomena which have resulted from “ glacial action” and those which are due to “ soil- cap-motion”—a force now in active operation may here observe that we did not see any glaciers worthy of the name either on the western islands or abutting on the mainland shores of Patagonian channels, although oe oa exist so ther eastward, and discharge icebergs at the head of some o deep fiords. In the main straits of Magellan thet are fine samples of complete and incomplete glaciers, where may be observed, in all its grandeur, the wonderful denuding power hich these ponder ous masses of ice exercise as they move silently along their rocky beds. Sir Wyville boars (vide ‘ Voyage of the Challenger,’ the “ Atlantic,” vol. ii, p. 245) attributes the celebrated “stone rivers’ of the Falkland ined to the ——— action of the soileap, i mong other causes, der its motion from expansion an extent supported at the occurrences which I a m now endeavoring to describe. Here, in Western Patagonia, are evergreen forests, nd a dense undergrowth of brushwood and mosses clothes the hillsides to a height of about 1000 feet; and this mass of vegeta- tion, with its subjacent soil, resting as ‘it frequently does upon a hillside already planed by Penney naturally tends, under the influence of gravitation, combined with that of expansion and con- traction, to slide gradually javword until it meets the sea or a lake or valley. In the first two cases its free edge is then removed by the action of the water, in a manner somewhat analogous to the wasting of the submerged snout of a Greenland siattees in the sum- mer time; and in the ‘last case the valley becomes converted into a deep morass. Geology and Mineralogy. 61 It appears to me that the conditions which are said to have re- sulted in the production of the “stone rivers” of the Falklands here exist in equal if not greater force. There is the thick, spongy, vegetable mass covering the hillsides and acted on by varying con- ditions of extreme moisture and comparative dryness; there are the loose blocks of disintegrating syenite to be transported; and there are the mountain-torrents, lakes and sea-channels to remove the soil. Of actual motion of the soileap we have at least strong presumptive evidence; but nowhere in the valleys have I found anything resembling a “stone river. It might perhaps be thought that a slow and gradual depression of the land would account for some of the above phenomena ; I have seen no reliable sign whatever of subsidence, and have, on the contrary, the evidence of numerous raised beaches and the vaporation and eccentricity as co-factors in Glacial periods. —Rey. E. Hixx discusses this subject in a paper published in the Geological Magazine, viii, p. 481, November, 1881. e observes that the capacity of air for aqueous vapor increases with the precipitation must occur. For example, a cubic meter of air at 10° C. and 20° evaporation at the mean temperature ; and, moreover, - peratures vary about a mean, increased variation produces in- creased evaporation. A egree of eccentricity in the terres- ese considerations support Croll’s view of the relation between high eccentricity and glacial periods. ough this effect of evaporation is here clearly recognized for the first time, it is among the agencies whose combined influence was 62 Scientific Intelligence. petit nemeth computed by the writer in the December caend of ve w. Beponk on the Geological and Natural History fetes ‘of sa for 1880; N. H. Wincue xt, State Geologist. 392 pp. 8vo, with vi plates. St. Peter, 1881. —This new volume contains detailed Reports on the For estry of Minnesota by O. E. Garrison; on the geography and hydrology of the Upper Mississippi by C. M. Terry; and on the Glacial phenomena of the State and the region some distan rest by War a descriptive list of rocks, descriptions of three new Lower agree pice Aaa (two o id one of cao ean and a of Ay bits ba by Dr Pe iL. Haren Bs om. a note on an salle out- let of Lake Manitoba by H. 8. Trenerne The report on the hydrology eneiite of the rivers and lakes and other features with much detail. It states among its facts, that the lake es, of which there are several thousand, are gradually diminishing in extent and depth, or ae ee and a ttributes the e when freezing, and also os transportation shoreward when the iakes are flooded. An excellent map (PI. V) illustrates this report. r. Upham’s account of Glacial phenomena is devoted largely to ra courses of terminal moraines and is full of interest. The on p, on whi 1 the State are given in a table as well as on the map, iad finde wide variations, the limits being 8. 60° E. and 8. 60° W. The map represents the outline of the moraine as extending from the Missis- sippi, between the meridians of 93° and 94°, south to the parallel of 414°, and then as trending nor sw cekieaea with some westing to the Coteau des Prairies whose course it follows. West of this range, according to information derived from different sources, the mo- raine bends southward in latitude 453° and continuing to , latitude 43° (or nearly to the Missouri) between the meridians of 97° and 98° making a second prolongation or lobe which has the Coteau du Missouri along its western side. The drift sheet is stated to be 100 to 200 feet thick over the western two-thirds of Minnesota —and the material is for the most part an unstratified mixture of earth, stones and clay. The color below is s usually dark bluish. e drift contains stones of Archzean rocks from north of Lake Superior, occasional masses of native copper from the vicinity of the s e, and limestone bowlders pro bably from Manitoba ; and rat of ‘the Archean in the till south and ‘west of Minnesota Geology and Mineralogy. 63 were probably transported 500 to 700 miles. The following gen- eral statement of Mr. Upham’s conclusion is from an early page o his report: “The terminal moraines, which form the principal subject of this report, show that the southern portion of the continental ice-sheet was divided into great lobes, each having a central current in the direction of its longer axis, with diverging currents bending from this and becoming perpendicular to its border. The red and blue till were the deposits of two such ice-lobes which overspread Minnesota from the northeast and northwest. During the most severe epoch of the ice age, before that in which the terminal till nor striw, This driftless area has a less average height than the vieinity of Paris; b . Davusrée, (Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, with one another, which exist at the various quarries in Tertiar; and Cretaceous strata about Paris. M. Daubrée points out the System in their courses, and the exceptional directions, and also their general parallelism to the reliefs of the region (the most valley of the Seine) illustrating the same by a map; an a notice * See also, for of these experiments, Dana’s Manual of Geology, edition of 1880, pages 801, 832. 64 Scientific Intelligence. Brick-clays making cream-colored bricks in Minnesota.— Profesor N. H. WINCHELL, in abe oes Publications, No. 8 Carver, Chaska and aoe ae preg on oe cream-colored combination with the silica and alumina a of remaining a oxide, a point first explained by Mr. E. T. Sw These apres clays are those of the earlier drift, and are cae by Professor Winchell to have been derived from the clay-beds of the Cretace- ous. The clay-beds in the State connected with the later alluvium make red bric 8. Geology of Frenchman's Bay, Maine, just east of Mount Desert Island.—This locality is the subject of a pape rb O. Crospy in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Maison! His- tory, 1880, p. 109. The schistose rocks of the region about ite, siliceous argillite, sometimes hornblendic; and the group 1s metalliferous, it conta wee the silver bearing vein at Sullivan Falls. These rocks are stated to oc on the north side o wick. On the islands of the bay are other rocks, referred to a later age, which are entirely uncrystalline, the chief kind being a slate of black, drab and purplish shades of color, passing into siliceous slate and sandstone and a micaceous slate. They con- tain no fossils in Frenchman’s Bay, but the same slate on the a similar slate has afforded at Narraguagus, according to Professor . 8. Hitchcock, an Orthis and Crinoidal joints, and at Foster’s Island off Machiasport, undetermined Rhynchonelle. Mr. Crosby agrees with Professor Hitchcock in referring the slate rocks of Frenchman’s Bay, areas to the Cambrian or Primordial. The rocks of the egen are intersected by dikes of diorite or allied rocks and gr 9, Coking pene and anthracite of Colorado.—Professor J. 8. Newserry, in the Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, for 1881- 1882, p. 8, observes that a coking coal occurs H amber “es noooediti ve a recent analysis m eoren! of Min ew York, ane as less than one per ce sulphur, and only three of ash and i is not inferior to Pennsylvania anthracite. Pea ne ee Geology and Mineralogy. 65 Copper-bearing region in Northern Texas and the Indian 10. Territory.—The geoosy of this region is briefly described by J. H. Burman; in the Trans. N. Y. Ac ad, Sci. for 1881-1882 (p. 18) strata are abou og © ~ — c w D © a = i <2 a ® cr o. <4 ¥ we o 7 ie) iS) eS go) 2 is") oO tory. Protcaat Newberry a added, in the discussion which fol- lowed the reading o r, Furman’s paper, remarks on the similarity of the ores and their mode of occur rence to the same in the upper portion of the Triassic in New Mexico, and southern Utah, and observes that in the localities hitherto explored, the ore is too much scattered to be profitably mine he wood, impreg- nated with the ore and also that which occurred silicified, he said was pala hag Coniferous of the Araucarian family, as he had found from a microscopic examination. e Amygdaloid ve Brighton, ravoarggltl pal has beenexam- ined microscopically by Dr. E. R. Benton, and pronounced to be a true eruptive rock. aper on the ge AAS accompanied by a map, is contained in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xx, 416, 1880. 12. Primordial Trilobites in Sardinia,—Prof. Meneghini has announced the discovery of W species of trilobites in slaty an ch ag beds at Gutturu eae in Nebida, Sardinia, which he ames Paradoxides Gennari (near P. Bohe micus in Ms Bi ae | fossils of we Hu dso n River gro and notice of Meutboriele i gs by 8 . Miller (with a plate) ; ‘acdsee of new fossils of the Lower er and Subcarboniferous rocks of Ohio and cake, by A. G. laut (with a SateL, ; on new Airey of Entomostraca by Crs. Fossils of the Cincinnati Booka eer “ Paleontologist” of Cincinnat edited by U. P. James, contains a notice of Scoli- thus linea ae m the Cincinnati group, in the eastern part of Cincinnati; at sland species of pte pete supposed to be new ; of Dekaya maculata James; of eight species of Ptilodictya; and of an Orthis and two species of SiFiptonk ola. 15. Voleanoes: what they are and what they — art Joun W. Jupp, F.R.S. (Kegan Paul and Co,: London, 1881.)—This work forms volume xxxv of the teen engi Scientific ae ae In his earlier studies the author enjoyed the counsel and assistance of '. Poulet Scrope, who up to his death was an eminent authority on volcanoes, and the present book may in some sense be regarded 48 Contin nuing the work of that pioneer in Vuleanology. Am, Jour. Sct, ee ane Series, Vou, XXIII, No. 133.—Januanry, 1882, 66 Scientific Intelligence. In Chapter I a nature of the inquiry in hand is stated and reference made to the older investigators, Spallanzani, Dolomieu and Scrope. Chaptes Ii deals with the nature of volcanic action, illustrated by the ordinary phenomena of Stromboli an eruption of Vesuvius in 1872, and in each case the action is attrib- uted to the elastic force of confined steam. Chapter III describes the characteristics, chemical, mineralogical, and microscopical, of the lavas, while Chapter IV discusses the other r ejected ma aterials, scoria, pumice, etc., as also the change of form in volcanoes result- ing from ejections of lava and scoria, ee by Monte Neuvo, and by the history of changes in the cone of Vesuvius itself, In Chapter V the internal structure is na sgl as shown in the Kammerbiihl in Bohemia, in Vulcanello and in the volcanic wrecks of the islands of Mull and Skye. In this comection the method of formation of a cone from scoria is experimentally “aunt by the mode of deposition of ee blown vertically from an orifice in a horizonta fa and the formation from viscid lava, aby soft sealed forced through a ater 6 ening, as devised by Dr. Reyer. In Chapter VI the author discusses the structures built up about the vents, the cones of scoria, tufa or lava and their vary- ing forms, the parasitic cones formed by lateral openings along fissures in the sides of the main cone, the change of position of the vent gts such fissures, the crater-rings and lakes, mud-vol- canoes, e Chaser VII gives the life history of the sepa erorwe st uw probable order of the phenomena, from the first issue of the and gases from the rent in the earth’s crust, ete Heh the eruiptiot of andesitic and cr i lavas, to the basaltic or basic lavas, the building of the cone, the intrusion of lavas between the aioe tt strata foxtaitag taseulitds: and across the strata forming es, the appearance at first of the acid gases at high tempera- ‘bon : rings, until all manifestation of igneous agency disappears and e cycle is com Ohapter Vill ‘peaks of the distribution of volcanoes; that of the 300 or 350 active volcanoes, the majority on islands, arranged in lines thousands of miles dong, and all near the sea except two or three in Central Asia. it may be stated here, that advices ages was both in its natu in roducts similar to that of our own day. Chapter X illustrates the part played by be ges in the economy of nature, by the growth of the Alpin aaa Ss aaa oe ig ee eel i Nak | ha ae ey 5 th Sah alee ale ees Geology and Mineralogy. 67 rior, and Chapter XII the causes of volcanic action, stating at len neth the several theories advanced by different authorities on nucleus within the earth, and would attribute the volcanic action in general to high temperature joined ne ich i of vapors and gases beneath the volcanic vent; but no new theory is offered to account for the occurrence of these boudisions within the crust The book is illustrated with numerous diagrams and wood cuts and will well repay the general reader, as ie as those who are more especially interested in Vuleano ology. s a fair presentation, so far as its limits allow, of the present state of Knowledge oe es ion in that department ‘of science. Princeton, Nov. 26, 1881. planes were J and 2-i=(#P, 2P 2 Hardness of the crystals about 6; color, white, reddish and red. The ey dissolved in no acid except hydrofluoric acid, but were easily decom osed by fusion with the carbonates of sodium and potassiu Ithoug the greatest care was taken to get the crystals fox the analysis in a pure state, a magnifying lens still shows a few very small particles of the ore oe with them, so that in the analysis elow the amount of Fe, ould be somewhat diminished. It is evident that an analysis ‘of the poriaeily. white crystals would not afford any iron. The reddish and red crystals contain— SiO, Al,O; Fes0; CaO MgO K,O Na H,0 63712 17546 1°644 0714 0°172 13°807 0-233 0-612 0°606= 99-046 The P.O, in another sample amounted to 0°685 Pe cent. (2.)° On regular ae whet ged fat in sane tite. Some time dently effected their aca Not the smallest particle of this mineral, however, could be met with either in these cavities or in any other part of the ore. Cleveland, Ohio, N ovember, 1881. 68 Scientific Intelligence. 17. Analysis of Be ors -green oo from Nor th Carolina; by F. Grentu. — The following analysis of the Alexander County atin "(hiddenite) was furnished Genth, and should have been added to the article on the er setak line form of the gh on page 179 of the last volume, but was not received in tim e presence of a small quantity of chro- mium shown by this analysis is interesting as bearing upon the question as to the cause of the color to which this variety of spod- umene owes its beauty : SiO, Al,Os Cr.05 FeO Li,O Na,O K,0 63°95 26°58 0-18 ji 2 | 6°82 154 0°07=100°25 Beau gravity = 3°177. 8. ae Miiwalogieat Works—Lehrbuch der Mineralogie von vTs SCHERMAK, Erste Lieferung. 192 - 8Y0. Vienna, topics discussed, but fully so as regards the way in which old principles are presented. The style is clear and concise, and the author’s long experience as a teacher has given him an unusua al power in — ning difficult subjects in an intelligible and attractive Matetoles: “eur Mineralogie Russlands von N. von Kok- scharof. Volume viii, pp. 33-320. St. Petersburg, 1881.—The first. portion of volume eight of the valuable work by Professor Kokscharof on Russian » Mineralogy was issued about three yon since (this Journal, xvii, 486, 187$ The continuation, no species : pepe. epidote, eschynite, phosgenite, bournonite, greenockite, quartz, samarskite, amphibole, beryl, magnetite, py- ini ite i f erystals of various artificial compounds are also aN e me- moirs contained in the volumes of this series w ways be regarded o models of careful and accurate cystallogta she holds Elemen e der Min ee ee ee toe Wine Ny n lo This edition, the eleventh, has been prepared, as was the preced- ing (this Journal, xiv, 424, 1877), by Professor Zirkel, of Leipzig. The new matter added gives the more important results of min- eralogical investigations during the past four years. It speaks : 7 : : ; a ee eS Re EM ie eo Foe pcs soy et oe pee Botany and Zoology. 69 well for the position which this work holds, that it is possible for the publishers = reprint the entire volume after so comparatively short an interv tneral Kiribioianl: En geintreanite Mi bestimmandet sO Mineralier och Bergarter af Dr. F. J. Wu 217 pp. small Helsingfors, 1881. This little volume will doubtless receive shi welcome it deserves among the special class of students and readers for whom it is intended. It ranks with the well known bach and Websky he physical ‘side, and of von Kobell and Brush on the anise side, Professor Wiik devotes the first art of the volume to a general discussion ~ the if epee eo ical, physical and chemical character of minerals ; the remainder of drawing out independently each of these three methods of determining minerals, and of giving under each those characters of the erat pal which belong there, is for purposes of instruction an excellent IIL Botany AND ZOOLOGY. . A Manual of the Conifer, containing a general Review of ae Order, a Synopsis of the hardy kinds cultivated in Great Britain, their place and use in Hotlines ete., etc. James Veitch & eyes bis hat Exotic Nursery, pues Road, Chelsea. 1881. pp. 343, roy. 8vo.—We have ha e pleasure to receive this large and. beantifal volume, the ule popular book of the day upon Coniferous trees, as it is the most recent. It is well adapted to its purpose, which is not to serve as a scientific agree, but to supply the demand for practical information whic stantly made upon an establishment ae that of ba Messrs. Veitch, and, indeed, is made by the legions of planters of Conifers in Great Britain and elsewhere. It is copiously nae by wood engravings, the smaller ones in the letter- ee the larger as sepa- rate plates. Among the most notable e latter, that of a branch and cone (nine inches long} of °tBice nobilis, grown at Bicton, takes the lead; a view of the famous Araucaria-avenue at Bicton faces the title- -page; the unrivalled Avauearia at Dro more (now sixty-one feet high and in the most perfect condition) is represented from a hotogra ave pecially taken for the purpose ; - eae less interesting are such as the Zaxrodium on the bank e Thames at Syon House—the | towe: part only repre emulating a “ cypress swamp ” n Car cane also Earl Ducie’ s fine és bracteata at Tortw Orit a fir ick 1, Wherever it can be pe ag grown “ will always be ‘auarded with genuine admi- 70 Scientific Intelligence. 2. Repertorium Annuum Literature Botanic Periodicw, eu- ee G. C. W. Bounenzixc, Custos iothece Societatis Te ye leriane. Tom. vi. — op. 420, Evo. —This most laborious ok, painstaking work has gone on to the sixth volume, systemati- cally cataloguing ‘the franca articles in current periodicals. is volume, issued in the year 1881, deals with the articles which were published i in the year 1877, in 237 different oe 3. Jahrbuch des Kéniglichen Botanischen Gartens und des Botanischen Museums zu Berlin ; herausgegeben von Ercuter. Band I. Berlin, 1881, 8vo, 351, tab. vi—A new ae cal periodical, in the form of an annual voliume , intended especially to represent the work done by the accomplished director and oth- ers at the Berlin Botanic Garden and Museum. Naturally it will e more ues to systematic a henogamous botany than is common in the German journals of the present day; and, as is fitting, the tues will be merged in it. The Bee is royal octavo, paper and print excellent, and the type Rom proper commencement is the opening article which fills ee half the volume, in which, after a briet state- during the three years of his direction, the complete history of these establishments is given by Dr. Urban, the assistant director of the garden. Three plates exhibit ground plans of the garden, in 1801, in 1812, and 1881, and a photogr eu aot view of the “Ee Eichler has articles upon Infloresncnse-balblesa upon Hete- rogeneous shoots; upon the nature of the Vine-stem as to its mor- ology; upon Cephalotus-pitehers ; Garcke, a synopsis of Pavo- nia (in which P. Leconte? is kept distinet from P. hastata, though it seems to be only a waif of that South American species) ; ihmer, an article upon wild and cultivated Pharingian hybrids; Urban, on the pollenization of Lobeliacee, with a monograph of Monopsis ; F. C. Dietrich, a biography of the Rctestor Sieber, with an enumeration of his distributed Pid a and a list of names to the numbers (645) of his Herbarium Flora Nove Hol- landiew ; Potonié describes the Anatomy of the Lenticels of Marat- tiacee, "the stomatic apparatus of Ferns, etc.; Ascherson has an sch article on the subfloral axis as apparatus for dissemination, as in Stipa, Erodium, Podopterus, Brunnichia, ete.; and in an iS he characterizes a new African Brunnichia, the "same Sabah as one which has been or is about to be figured in the [cones ie Botany and Zoology. 71 rum at Kew. Finally, Kuhn gives a synopsis of the species of Adiantum, 113 species. A. G. Ene.er’s Botanische Jahrbiicher fiir Systematik, Pflanzens- ¥ geschichte und Pflanzengeographie is well kept u ember whether works or articles—in the year 1881, and also containing four original articles. She Ge 0oKER’s Icones Plantarum, part II of the fourth volume And h Texanus, of Steudel, who, however, had no idea that he had to 0 be gathered from the work before us; for the letter-press for this te 1360 has inadvertently been omitted. Mwuroa squarrosa, A. G. 6. Occurrence of an additional specimen of Architeuthis at Newfoundland ; A. E. VERRILL.— e was tak 7 apt. Davies. In an article in the New York Herald, of November 25th, the following measurements of the fresh speci- hi to New York, packed in ice, on the steamer “ Catima,” _ +48 specimen was purchased by Mr. E. M. Worth and preserved in alcohol at his museum, 101 Bowery street, New York, where, hotwithstanding these defects, this specimen is more nearly per- fect than any that has been previously brought to this country, and has, therefore, afforded me important information in respect 72 Scientific Intelligence. to several of the organs that have not been cobra in any the r specimen. Of these points the followmg be men- tioned: The siphon is large, with the a ar Kehily bilabiate, and four inches broad; valve large; dorsal bridles well-devel- oped ; siphon-pit bro ad, not very deep, pee Ds ayalios large, only slightly angulated ace —: with a shallow sinus; iameter of opening, inch ; transverse nuchal crest, back of hare possibly rubbed off. The median dorsal angle of the mantle-edge is rather prominent lateral angles evident; lateral ah cartilages of the mantle very simple, consisting only of a short, simple,. fongcitndinal Sian connective cartilages on the base of the siphon simple, long-ovate, somewhat oblique, slightly concave. Anterior tip of the pen very thin, broad, ob- tuse. ‘The caudal fin was too much mutilated’ before and after death to afford. additional information. When examined by m after it had been in alcohol about two weeks, the body aoe 4:16 feet in length, along the side; length of head, 1°25 feet; circumference of body, 4 feet; of sessile arms, 7°5 to 8°5 inches; length of ventral arms, minus tips, 4°66 feet ; of tentacular arms, 15 . fee 7. Descriptions of some new and rare oe Part IT_< Trans. Zool. eis codon, xi, part 5, pp. 131-170, pl. 23-35, June, 1881. By Ricnarp Owrn.—This a as paper is of special interest on aniiast He the figures and descriptions that it contains of two gigantic s name, Enoplotenths Cookii,* Professor Owen 241).+ It is to be regretted, however, that Pr ofessor wen has neither described nor figured the dentition of the radula, in a manner to enable it to His used as a systematic character. His a in regard to it is of the — general ind, and shows only that there are seven rows of teeth. It is also a matter of * The synonymy of this at is as follows: OPLOTEUTHIS Cook Ow Trans. Zool. Soc. pernnn a9: p. 15 vil coe ; Sige. 1-3; pl. 31, figs. 1-4; pl. 32, figs. 1-6, pl. 33, fig. 1, (restora tion), June, Seppia iculata Molina, 1810 (no desert ion). Enoploteuthis Moline 1’ Orbigny, Ceph. Acétab., p. 339, 1845-1848, ? Enoplo is Hartingii Verrill, this vol., p. 241, pl. 24, figs. 4-4b, 18 + In referring a own work upon Cephalopods, T be ve made all the references to my paper in di Conn. Aead., v, on Pi Cephalopods of the Northeastern “Coast of America.” Of this, Part I ( , 14 pl.), relat- ing to the large species, was poblished December. 1879 to ‘March, 1880. 15™ to 14h 118 B. A. Gould—Algebraic Expression of the and yearly results are thus made numerically accordant; but at a sacrifice of real accuracy. The corrections thus applied have the effect of belatening the minimum in the spring half of the year and anticipating it in autumn. For it cannot seri- ously be maintained that the influence of an increase or de- crease of the sun’s declination continues through the night- hours as through the day. This influence is necessarily inter- mittent ; in dealing with annual variations, we cannot use.hours as the independent variables; although here also the numerical changes are small, and although their influence disappears from the daily means and from determinations based upon them, yet whatever effect they may have goes to produce distortion and error in the resultant curve of diurnal variation. In this very case of May at Tiflis, the observations themselves give 4" 473 for the mean epoch of minimum, instead of 4% 50™5, which results after they have been modified by this reduction for an- nual variation, or of 5" 0™ as deduced graphically by Dr. Wild. This modification has a still greater effect upon the time of mean maximum, for it changes this epoch from its true value 14" 18™-8 to 14" 28™ or to 14" 32™ if we accept the graphical result. But, leaving this relatively unimportant question, the most striking fact to be noted in the example now considered is that the form of the diurnal curve, in the vicinity of its maximum, is such that, while the minimum temperature—4°°60, as given by only three variable terms, corresponds to an epoch 4” 176, yet the analogous value—4°-76, deduced from the full series of twelve terms, and only 0°:16 lower, corresponds to the epoch 4® 50"-5, more than half an bour later. That obtained graph- ically and given as the correct one by Dr. Wild, is, as above mentioned, 5® 0". The accomplished physicist, whose views we reluctantly op- pose, maintains that his method gives the epoch with accuracy to within 2™. With reference to this we will only remark that careful trials, plotting the observations with the utmost care upon the scale employed by Dr. Wild, show that the graphical method could give any value from 4% 48™ to 5" 12" according to the taste or fancy of the draughtsman. Tracing the curve as it results from the formula, its true form may be recognized. If graphical processes are to be trusted in such cases, they must be based upon more frequent observations :—half-hourly, at least, in case the result is to represent the actual mean epoe within eight or ten minutes. How inordinately the resu tant epoch would be affected by the, certainly not improbable, error of a few hundredths of a degree in the mean observed tempera- ture, either for 4" or for 5%, is manifest. It may not be amiss to add that the mean discordance between the observed and Diurnal Variation of Temperature. 119 calculated temperatures, using only three variable terms of the formula, is less than the tenth of a degree. Usinglfive variable terms, it is less than four hundredths of a degree. n case the preceding month, April, had been selected for only six variable terms to be one minute /ater than if deduced from the complete series. Or if the next following month, June, had been taken, the formula with only five variable terms would have given the epoch of minimum not only within a single minute of that resulting from the full series, but also /ater than any of those resulting from the successive incorporation of the four following terms. _ When we examine the results obtained for Katharinenburg, the case is analogous, but even more favorable for illustrating the facts to which we call attention. Here the formula wit but five variable terms represents the observations with such completeness that the mean discordance amounts to only 0°02. With eight variable terms the discordance does not exceed one one-hundredth of a degree at any hour from 2 to 7 A. M.; and the same minute results for the epoch of minimum as when the complete formula is used. Indeed, with only six variable terms, the difference does not exceed five minutes. The value obtained graphically by Dr. Wild is five minutes later than that which results from the formula using the same data; and careful trials, employing the scale used by him, have convinced te that curves may be so drawn as to seem equally plausible, self; and it will be found that the errors, inevitably committed in the plotting and reading off, are far less than those resulting from the sketching of the curve. The extreme variability and uncertainty of these mean epochs of diurnal maxima and minima find an excellent illustration years from 1857 to 1862. [Temp. Verh., p. 54]. It has already been stated that in the trials for obtaining the daily mean, the time of maximum may, in the absence of any Am. Jour, if Pl Serres, Vou. XXIII, No. 134.—Frpruary, 1882. 120 B. A. Gould—Algebraic Expression of the knowledge, be at first advantageously assumed as 2 P. M.; and also show how a rough approximate knowledge of the epochs may be made to contribute essentially to that of the formula. Tq aid the attainment of this let us consider the facts at our disposal regarding the values of these epochs in general. ery extensive materials are available for this purpose, but it is safer to restrict ourselves to a limited number of points for which the observations have been scrutinized, and the in- ferences deduced, with special care, than to base our researches upon a larger number of less trustworthy results. For these reasons the values adopted by Dr. Wild in the work already cited, have generally been preferred to others; and those for a number of places, such as Upsala, Berne, Leipzig, Greenwich, St. Helena, Lisbon, have been specially determined here. ll depend upon hourly observations, with the single exception of Schwerin; but at Santiago de Chile, and Valparaiso, the observations were made during only a few days in each month, in different years. At Santiago the total number of days’ of observation was 130, at Valparaiso, 60. To facilitate the ex- amination of the results here given, and the deduction of analogous ones for other places, it may be convenient for those who are not astronomers, to have ready access to general tables of the equation of time, the sun’s declination, and the times of sunrise and sunset in different latitudes. Those which follow* represent the mean values; and although not strictly accurate in every year, they may be used without hesitation for meteorological purposes. The equation of time as here given is to be applied to the mean time, to obtain the apparent; or with reversed sign to the apparent if the mean is desired. The first of these tables gives the mean values for each decade during the year, corresponding to our arrangement, according to which all the days subsequent to the 20th of each month are made to form the third decade. The second table gives the apparent time of sunrise if the latitude be North, and of sunset if it be South, for the middle of each month. Our data relative to the mean epochs of the diurnal ex- tremes are deduced from the observations in each month arrival of the sun’s center at the horizon is used, without any correction for refraction. * The tables mentioned are giveu in the original article, but are necessarily omitted here.— Eps. Diurnal Variation of Temperature. 121 The data thus collected afford some opportunity for general- ization; but this we reserve for some future occasion ; sim ] the average epoch of maximum from 2 P. -M., and to the large those deduced for th several months. The ee tendency of the interval, between the minima and true sunrise, to increase with the latitude i is mts readily sarge This is of course due to the sun’s near approach to the horizon long before its actual arrival there. esiring a rough test both of the average epoch of max- imum, as deduc ed from a short aes od of obs ervation, and of , t indebted for our meteorol soa observations, asking them to note the temperature half-hourly for a pe eriod of some hours which should include the epochs of maximum during ten or twelve successive days. These pPrereasione referred to apparent time give the fol- lowing results: ee ee Place. Approx.Lat.| Period. | Mean Epoch |Uncertaintyof) Variation. | Bahia Blanca _____ 38° 45’ May gens 2h 13™ p, mM. 547 jh27m~_2h4gm Buenos‘ Aires_____ 34 16 |Apr.21-30] 2 22 4 1 2 -2 56 8. Antonio de Areco| 34 13 | Apr. 21-30 2 194 1 38 -2 44 Cc 2 14 34 127 -361 ordoba ee 31 25 |May j)-90/ 2 11 6 11 28 -3 40 Villa Hernandarias 31 15 |May I-14) 2 453 3 1 40 -3 28 le. dod CO 9 |\May 1-10] 1 554 5 12 48 -2 48 sem, nds 24 50 |Apr. 23-30] 2 38 4 1 14 -2 57 The column entitled “ Uncertainty of ah epguenea con- tains the sum of the various estimated possible errors in plot- ting the observations, drawing the curves, and sending of the results. The limits of probable, or posible errors of the last two classes depend of course, princip ally, upon the form of the curve itself. The column entitled “ Variation,” contains the ifference between the — values on different days during the continuance of the it will be seen that pri ‘results confirm our previous infer- That the later terms of the formula should become more im- portant in high latitudes during the winter season is a manifest snp ba of the inequality of the two portions into which the minimum divides the interval between the normal epochs of maxi imum. When sunrise occurs so early as to render this 122 B. A, Gould—Diurnal Variation of Temperature. inequality comparatively slight, the first variable term, the period of which is twelve hours, acquires an overwhelming significance; and the residuals which it leaves are disposed of with comparative ease by the other terms of long period. But when the sun rises later the reverse must be the case. By means of the data above collected, provisional assumptions of the form of the diurnal curve may often be so made as to afford important assistance in deducing its true form, with great approximation, from a small number of observations. On the other hand, no argument is needed to show how un- justifiable is that frequent misuse of the general formula by ich the values deduced for certain terms from observations made during the day time or at inadequate intervals, are em- curve, give a close approximation to the true fo. 4 daily variation, so far as this can be expressed without includ- T. S. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. 123 ing those terms which complete their period in less than eight An approximate knowledge of the epoch of the maximum or minimum temperature, will, for each of them, enable us to add an additional constant to the formula with a good degree of approach to the truth. 6. The mean epochs of maximum or minimum can seldom be determined with precision even by employing the highest refinements of observation and calculation known to science. Indeed it appears unlikely that they ever have been ascer- tained for any points of the earth’s surface with less uncer- tainty than several minutes. It is moreover questionable whether there are any such epochs sufficiently marked to per- mit determinations without the introduction of various condi- tions; unless by the employment of observations extending over a series of years sufficiently long to eliminate all the vari- ety of conditions. Even if this be possible it will not be within the attainment of the present generation or their near posterity. Art. XI.—Celestial Chemistry from the Time of Newton; by T. Srerry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S.* has, I think, scarcely been quoted, except r. Young, and Its existence is but little known, even among the best-informed scientific men. he essay in question was read before the esis of Newton was again printed in the L. H, and D. Philo- a Read before the Cambridge (England) Philosophical Society, November 28, 1, and reprinted from its Proceedings. Z + L. E. and D, Philos, Magazine, IIT, xxviii, 106 and 478; also xxix, 185. 124 T. S. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. tion of the writings of our great Natural Philosopher, in the light of the scientific progress of the last generation, renders still more evident the wonderful prevision of him who already, two centuries since, had anticipated most of the recent speculations and conclusions regarding cosmic chemistry. As an introduction to the inquiries before us, and in order to show the real significance of the speculations of Newton, it will be necessary to review, somewhat at length, the history of Benjamin Brodie, of Oxford, and the present writer, and subse- quently developed and extended by-the latter. In part I of Royal Institution on The Chemistry of the Primeval Earth, which was delivered May 31, 1867. A stenographic report 0 the lecture, revised by the author, was published in the Chem- ical News of June 21, 1867, and in the Proceedings of the Royal Institution. Therein, I considered the chemistry of neb- ule, sun and stars in the combined light of spectroscopi¢ analysis and Deville’s researches on dissociation, and con- cluded with the generalization that the ‘“‘breaking-up of com: ounds, or dissociation of elements, by intense heat is a principle of nniversal application, so that we may suppose that all the elements which make up the sun, or our planet, would, when 80 intensely heated as to be in the gaseous condition which all even give us evidence of matter still more elemental than that revealed in the experiments of the laboratory, where we can T. S. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. 125 matter was much higher than it is now, and that these other things [the ideal elements] existed in the state of perfect gases— Separate existences—uncombined.” He further suggested, from Spectroscopic evidence, that it is probable that ‘‘we may one ay, from this source have revealed to us independent evidence ”? it is that I have made no reference to Sir Benjamin Brodie on the several occasions on which, in the interval between 1867 and myself, was one to which we were both naturally, one might say inevitably, led by different paths from our respective fields of speculation, and which each might accept as in the highest degree probable, and make, as it were, his own. I write, therefore, in no spirit of invidious rivalry with my hon- cred and lamented friend, but simply to clear myself from the charge, which might otherwise be brought against me, o: * Nature, August 25, 1881, vol. xxiv, p. 396. + Ideal Chemistry, a Lecture, Macmillan, 1880. 126 T. S. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. having on various occasions within the past fourteen years, put forth and enlarged upon this conception without mention- ing Sir Benjamin Brodie, whose only publication on the subject, so far as I am aware, was his lecture of 1867, unknown to me until its reprint in 1880. It was at the grave of Priestley, in 1874, that I for the second time considered the doctrine of celestial dissociation, commenc- ing with an account of the hypothesis put forward by F. W. Clarke, of Cincinnati, in January, 1873,* to explain the grow- ing complexity which is observed when we compare the spectra of the white, yellow and red stars; in which he saw evidence of a progressive evolution of chemical species, by a stoichiogenic process, from more elemental forms of matter. I then r eferred to the further development of this view by Lockyer i in his com- munication to the French Academy of Sciences in November of the same year, wherein he connected the successive appear- ance in celestial bodies of chemical species of higher and higher vapor-densities with the speculations of Dumas and Pettenkofer as to the Sekai nature of the chemical Slaaenet I then conceive to be condensing into suns and planets, have hitherto shown evidences only of the presence of the first two of these elements, which, as is well-known, make up a large part of the - gaseous envelope of our planet, in the forms of air and aqueous vapor. With this, I connected the hypothesis that our atmos- phere and ocean are but portions of the universal medium which, in an attenuated form, fills the interstellary spaces; and further suggested as ‘‘a legitimate and plausible speculation,” that “these same nebule and their resulting worlds may be evolved by a process of chemical condensation from this univer- sal atmosphere, to which they would sustain a relation some- * Clarke, “ Evolution and the Spectroscope,” Popular Science Monthly, New York, vol. ii, p. + Lockyer : Comptes Rendus, November 3, 1873. T. S. Hunit—Celestial Chemistry. 127 what analogous to that of clouds and rain to the aqueous vapor around us.’’* These views were reiterated in the preface to a second edition of my Chemical and Geological Essays, in 1878, and again before the British Association for the Advancement of Science at ublin,t and before the French Academy of Sciences in the same year.{ They were still further developed in an essay on the Chemical and Geological Relations of the Atmosphere, published in this Journal for May, 1880, in which attention was called to the important contribution to the subject by Mr. Lockyer in his ingenious and beautiful spectroscopic studies, the results of which are embodied in his “Discussion of the Working Hypothesis that the so-called Elements are Compound Bodies,” communicated to the Royal Society, December 12, 1878. It was then remarked that the already noticed “ specu- lation of Lavoisier is really an anticipation of that view to which spectroscopic study has led the chemists of to-day ;” while it was said that the hypothesis put forth by the writer in 1874, “which seeks for a source of the nebulous matter itself, is per- of Newton that “the heavens are void of all sensible matter.” This statement is, however, qualified elsewhere by his assertion, that “to make way for the regular and lasting movements o the planets and comets, it is necessary to empty the heavens of all matter, except perhaps some very thin vapors, steams and effluvia arising from the atmospheres of the earth, planets and comets, and from such an exceedingly rare etherial medium as we have elsewhere described,” etc. (Optics, Book 111, Query 28). In order to understand fully the views of Newton on this subject, it is necessary to compare carefully his various utter- ances, including the Hypothesis, in 1675, the first edition of the Principia, in 1687, the second edition, in 1713, and the va- nlous editions of the Optics. This work appeared in 1704, the third book, with its appended queries, having, according to its author’s preface, been “ put together out of scattered papers” * A Century’s i i i i at Northum- berland, Pens, July's1, 1614; Amer, Chemist vol ¥, Po. 46-81, and Pop. Sci aye Monthly. ’ vi, p. . t Nature, Aug. 29, 1878, vol. xviii, p. 475. + Comptes Rendus, Sept. 23, 1878, vol. xxxviii, p. 452. 128 LT. 8. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. subsequent to the publication of the first edition of the Prénez- pia. The Latin translation of the Optics, by Dr. Clarke, which was published in 1706, and the second English edition, in 1718, contain successive additions to these queries, which are indi- cated in the notes to Horsiley’s edition of the works of New- ton, and are important in this connection. From a collation of all these, we learn how the conceptions of the Hypothesis took shape, were re-inforced, and in great part incorporated in the Principia. In the Hypothesis, he imagines ‘an etherial medium much of the same constitution with air, but far rarer, subtier, and more elastic.” “ But it is not to be supposed that this medium is one uniform matter, but composed partly of the main phleg- matic body of ether, partly of other various etherial spirits, much after the manner that air is compounded of the phleg- matic body of air intermixed with various vapors and exhala- tions.” Newton further suggests in his Hypothesis that this complex spirit or ether, which, by its elasticity, is extended throughout all space, is in continual movement and interchange. “For nature is a perpetual circulatory worker, generating fluids out of solids, and solids out of fluids, fixed things out of vola- tile, and volatile out of fixed, subtile out of gross, and gross out the sun and planets. The language of this last sentence, in which his late biogra- pher, Sir David Brewster, regards Newton as “amusing lf with the extravagance of his speculations,” at which “ we may be allowed to smile,”* was not apparently regarded as unrea- sonable by its author when, more than ten years later, he quote it in the postscript of his letter to Halley, dated Cambridge, June 20, 1686. The views therein contained, with the single exception of the suggestion regarding gravitation, have not wanted advocates in our own time, and many of them were embodied in the Principia, which Newton was then engaged in writing. = But this was not all: Newton saw in the cosmic circulation and the mutual convertibility of rare and dense forms of matter a universal law, and rising to a still bolder conception, which * Brewster’s Memoirs of Newton, vol. i, pp. 121 and 404. T. S. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. 129 cowpletes his Hypothesis of the Universe, adds: “ Perhaps the whole frame of nature may be ceed but various Ost TC the Creator, and ever since, by the power of nature, which, by virtue of the command ‘increase and multiply,’ became a com- plete imitator of the copy set her by the great Laren Thus, perhaps may all things be originated from ether If now we look’to the third book of the Principia, we shall find in eames 41 the remarkable chemical argument by which Newton was led to regard the interstellary ores as peng “the material principle of life” and ‘the food of planets.” Considering the exhalations from the tails of matiot he supposes that the vapors thus derived, being rarified, dilated, and spread through the whole heavens, are by gravity brought atmosphere, so important, though small in amount, he then Supposed might come from the tails of comets.* his appeared in the first edition of the Principia, in 1687. It was not until later that the conception of exhalations from p e may learn from the Optics. Thus, in the first edition of this — in Query 11, the sun and fixed stars are spoken of as “Vapor enim in ihe tae illis ioe perpetud rarescit, “ iar gs << ots fit ut cauda omnis ad extremitatem superiorem latior udm pita cometae. Ka Rare rarefa singe pepe perpetud tatu aiitandl =e i : lin fri ba philosophantur) decurrant ie fontes et flumina : sic ad phate tionem ma- um t humo m u et vaporibus ng ones aeahgp liquoris per vegetationem et putrefactionem cousumitur et in Ter Shee convertita Y continud — et refici it. Nam vegetabilia Sibi te Nagano t, dein magn ex parte in Ter- ram aridam per sotbetactiaiis aunt et limus ex isaac putrefactis perpetud decidit. Hine moles Terrae aridae indies es ur, et liqnores, nisi aliunde augmen- tum sumerent, perpetud decresere deberent, ac tandem deficere. Porro suspicor ase gew hae ian qui aéris nostri pars mini i "est, s ed subtillissima et sehen et ad omnium sae requiritur, ex cometis — venire.”— Newton, Principia, lib. IIL prop. Xt - 130 T. S. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. * Compare this with Prop. X, Book III of the Principia. : “ Vapores autem, qui ex Sole et stellis fixis et caudis cometarum oriuntur, in- cidere possunt per gravitatem suam in atmosphaeras planetarum, et ibi condensarl et converti in aquam et spiritos humidos, et subinde per lentem calorem in sales, et sulphura, et tincturas, et limum, et lutem, et argillam, et arenam, et lapides, et coralla, et substantias alias terrestres paulatim migrare.”—Newton, Principia, lib. ILI, prop. XLII. T. S. Hunt— Celestial Chemistry. 131 Ether, which term we may apply to the highly attenuated mat- ter existing in the interplanetary spaces, being an expansion of some or all of these atmospheres, or of the more volatile por- tions of them, would thus furnish matter for the transmission of the modes of motion which we call light, heat, ete. ;"and pos- sibly minute portions of the atmospheres may, by gradual accre- tions and subtractions, pass from planet to planet, forming a link of material communication between the distant monads of the universe.” Subsequently, in his address ds President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1866, Grove further suggested that this diffused matter may be- come a source of solar heat, “inasmuch as the sun may con- dense gaseous matter as it travels in space, and so heat may be produced.” Humboldt, also, in his Cosmos, considers the existence of a resisting medium in space, and says “of this impeding ether- lal and cosmical matter,” it may be supposed that it is in mo- tion, that it gravitates, notwithstanding its great tenuity, that it 18 Condensed in the vicinity of the great mass of the sun, and that it may include exhalations from comets; in which connec- tion he quotes from the 42nd proposition of the third book o the Principia. He further speaks comprehensively of ‘‘ the va- porous matter of the incommensurable regions of space, whether, scattered without definite limits, it exists as a cosmical ether, or is condensed in nebulous masses and becomes com- y ; Power with that of terrestrial gases, the density of ‘the ex- : : ” * Cosmos, Otté’s translation, Harper’s ed., vol. i, pp. 82, 86. } Ibid., vol. iii, p. 40. Pp. bs. rans, Roy. Soc, Edinburgh, vol. xxi, part 1; and Phil. Mag., 1855, vol. ix, 152 T. S. Hunt—Celestial Chemistry. or no this medium is (as appears to me most probable) a con-. tinuation of our own atmosphere, its existence cannot be ques- tioned.” He then attempts to fix an inferior limit to the den- the thermal unit. He concludes “that the luminiferous me- dium is enormously denser than the continuation of the terres- trial atmosphere would be in interplantary space if rarified ac- cording to Boyle’s law always, and if the earth were at rest in a state of constant temperature, with an atmosphere of the act- ual density at its’surface,” The earth itself in moving through space ‘cannot displace less than 250 ounds of matter.” In 1870, W. Mattieu Williams published his very ingenious work entitled The Fuel of the Sun, in which, apparently with- out any knowledge of what had been written before with regard to an interstellary medium, he attempts to find therein the source of solar heat—the “solary fuel” of Newton. To quote his own language, “the gaseous ocean in which we are im- t. p. 5). Since the days of Newton, however, no one had hitherto con- sidered the interstellary matter from a chemical. point of view. conception of Humboldt that its condensation gives rise to nebula, ventured the suggestion that from an etherial medium accordance with the views of Brodie, Clarke, and Lockyer, by a stoichiogenic process; so that in the language of Newton’s Hy- ; ? pothesis, ‘ It was not, however, until 1878, that, from a consideration of the chemical processes which have gone on at the earth’s sur- face within recorded geological time, I was led to another step in this inquiry. ‘That all the de-oxidized carbon found in the earth’s crust in the forms of coal and graphite, as well as that existing in a diffused state, as bituminous or carbonaceous mat- ter, has come, through vegetation, from pheric carbonic acid, appears certain. To the same source we must ascribe the carbone acid of all the limestones which, since the dawn of life on ou earth, have been deposited from its waters. It is through the sub-aérial decay of crystalline silicated rocks, and the direct formation of carbonate of lime, or of carbonates of magnesia and alkalies which have reacted on the calcium-salts of the pri- T. S Hunt— Celestial Chemistry. 133 meval ocean, that all limestones and dolomites have been gen- erated. These, apart from the coaly matter, hold, locked up and withdrawn from the aérial circulation, an amount of car-. bonic acid which may be probably estimated at not less than 200 atmospheres equal in weight to our own. That this amount, or even a thousandth part of it, could have existed at any One time in our terrestrial atmosphere since the beginning of life on our planet is inconceivable, and that it could be sup- plied from the earth’s interior is an hypothesis -equally un- tenable I was therefore led to admit for it an extra-terrestrial source, and to maintain that the carbonic acid has thence gradually come into our atmosphere to supply the deficiencies created by . chemical processes at the earth’s surface. Since similar pro- cesses are even now removing from our atmosphere this indis- pensable element, and fixing it in solid forms, it follows that except volcanic agency, which can only restore a portion of what was primarily derived from the atmosphere, there are on earth, besides organic decay, only the artificial processes of hu- man industry which can furnish carbonic acid; so that but for a supply of this gas from the interstellary spaces now, as in the past, vegetation, and consequently animal life itself, would fail and perish from the earth, for want of this “ food of planets.” Such were the conclusions, based on an induction from the facts of modern chemistry and geology, which I enunciated in my papers in 1878 and 1880, already quoted in the first part of this essay. I was at that time unacquainted with the Hypothe- sis of Newton, and with his remarkable reasoning contained in the 41st proposition of the third book of the Principia, in which of planets,” and, in a sense, “ the material principle of life.” have thus endeavored to bring before the Philosophical the almost forgotten views of Newton. It is with feelings of 134 J. W. Fewkes—Cercaria with Caudal Sete. Art. XIL—A Cercaria with Caudal Sete; by J. WALTER FEWKES. THE interesting larva of a Trematode worm, described below, was found during my work last summer in the private labora- tory of Mr. Alex. Agassiz at Newport, R. I. While watching the water in a glass jar, for the purpose of detecting new forms of pelagic life, my attention was attracted by the strange motions of a larva swimming near the surface. At first sight the unknown animal was mistaken for the nauplius of one of our common Cirripeds, which it closely resembles in the char- acter of its movements. A microscopic examination, however, shows that it is a Cercaria, or larval Trematode, although it differs from any of these animals yet described. As nothing similar to it is to be found in the published figures of larval Trematodes, a figure and description is given below. e especially interesting feature of this Cercaria, and one which seems to me to justify this isolated publication of a description, is found in the annelid character of the tail. The larva, from this characteristic, may indicate some relationship which has | not yet been pointed out, between the worms known as the a . Trematoda and the Anneli This Cercaria is marine in habitat, and is always found at or near the surface of the water. The length, when the body and tail are extended, is about one-sixteenth of aninch. Its motion The head or body is in no respect characteristic. Its shape is very variable, being sometimes contracted into a spherical A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 185 The tail is the most peculiar nhl of this larval T'rema- tode. Its general shape is hardly characteristic, and it owes its Important interest to the appendages (s), found along its entire length. It is very muscular and extremely active. The appendages (s) distinguish this larva from all other Cer- great. Ten specimens of this Cercaria were captured. It was impos- sible to raise them and all the specimens died soon after capture. the Museum of Yale College: No. IX.) AFTER the printing of my last article, in the October num- ber of this Journal, an additional trip to the outer grounds, off Martha’s Vineyard, was made by the Fish Hawk, Sept. 21. Owing to unfavorable weather, only two successful hauls (1038, 1039) were made, but some very interesting species were pro- cured. One of the most notable additions to the fauna was a large and perfect sea-urchin, with large spines nearly four inches long (Dorocidaris papillata). This had not been taken before on this coast, although not uncommon off the coasts of Europe, and beneath the Gulf Stream, off Florida, ete. The specimen taken at station 1088 measured 74 inches across the spines. A small comatula (Antedon Sarsiz) was found at station 1038, Am. Jour. ase Wiccncaas Series, VoL. XXIII, No, 134.—FEBRUARY, 1882 186 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. in 146 fathoms, in the greatest profusion, over 10,000 speci- mens coming up at a single haul. s usual, nearly all the surface. The great abundance of this and other recent cri- noids at certain localities is parallel with the abundance of many ancient fossil crinoids, in particular regions. In fact, a large number of species, belonging to various zoological groups, in this region are found living gregariously, in vast numbers, at particular spots, while they may not occur at all, or only sparingly, at other stations, in similar depths, and apparently identical in temperature and character of the bottom. us, among Echinoderms, the large opbiuran, Ophioglypha Sarsii, occurred at stations 918 and 1026, in 45 and 182 fathoms, in vast quantities; at 1026, between two an three barrels (probably over 10,000 specimens) came up in a single haul; the elegant star-fish, Archasler Agassizii V., 0¢- curred in great numbers at station 997, in 335 fathoms; the more common A. Americanus V. has often occurred in very great profusion, many thousands being taken at a haul, at several stations. A slender-armed Amphiura occurred in very great numbers at station 920, in 68 fathoms, but was seldom met with elsewhere. Many other echinoderms might also be cited, though affording less conspicuous examples. Several very large actinians, among them Bolocera Tuediv, Urticina nodosa, and other species of Urtieina, occurred in great quantities at many stations (924, 937, 988, 998), more than a barrel of them frequently coming up in the trawl. The pretty bush-like gor- gonian coral, Acanella Normani V., was very abundant at sta- tions 938, 947, 1029. Of the spiny sea-feather, Pennatula aculeata, we took over 500 specimens, at station 1025, and nearly a hundred of Anthomastus grandiflorus V., at station 1029; both these forms are usually scarce. The coral, Mlabel- lum Goodei V., was abundant at 894, 895, 952, 938. The large ‘and curious annelid, Hyalinecia artifex V., remarkable for the very large, quill-like, free tube that it constructs, must be ex- cessively abundant in many places, as at 869, 880, 1025, 1026, 998, 938, for several thousands are frequently taken at a sin- gle haul, and sometimes even four or five bushels, as at station 1032. Among Crustacea, such cases are also very common A species of Munida was very abundant at some stations (871, 922, 941), so that 2,000 or more sometimes came up in one aul, and the same is true of several species of shrimp ( Pontophilus brevirestris Smith, at 865, 871, 878, 941; Pandalus leptocerus 5., at 870, 878, etc.); certain hermit-crabs, as Hemipagurus socialis S,, at 871, 874, 877, 878, 940, 941, 944; the maioid crab, Enprognatha rastellifera Stimp., at 871-4, 878, 921, 941, ete. One of the most striking instances was the occurrence of * A. E. Verrili— Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 137 a very remarkable and hitherto rare hermit-crab (Parapagu- rus pilosimanus Smith), with its associated, investing polyp (Hpizoanthus paguriphilus V.)* which is a true commensal, form- ing, out of its own tissues, the habitation of the crab; and hitherto it has not been found elsewhere than upon the back of this particular species of crab, which, likewise, has not been found without its polyp. Of these associated creatures we i 2 Species were obtained, among which were several fine large large species of Fissurella, and a very large specimen of a rare crab, Geryon quinquedens Smith, also occurred. uring the summer, the writer made some observations in regard to the phosphorescence of many species. Among those having strong phosphorescence, were Pennatula aculeata ; Aca- nella Normani; Urteina nodosa (in which it is confined to the tentacles and the-smoother, soft portion of the column, near the summit) ; Ophioenrda olivacea; Ophiacantha bidentata. Additional dredging stutions occupied by the Fish Hawk, in i881. | Temperature. Fath. Bottom. Date. | | | Bottom. | Surface. Station. Locality. Pee ee | Of Martha’s Vineyard. | : 1881 1038 | 39° 58” 70° 06’ | 146 sand & shells} Sept. 21 47°F 67°F. “ oe 5 1039 | 39 59 70 06° | 136 0 67 Of Delaware Bay. N. Lat, W. Long. 1043 | 38° 397 "3° 11” | 130 sand Oct.10 | 49 654 1044 | 38 37 va he 224 | gray mud " 424 66 7S] 38° 35. 4S Nae | B13 is i 0 66 1046 | 38 33 73 18 104 | | sand : 51 66 1047 | 38 31 73 21 | 156 Me tH 49 66 1048 | 38 29 13 21 | 4365 mud at 40 66 _1049 | 38 98 73 22 | 436 ie « 40 66 ey mud-colored, translucent basal ec chyma, which at first invests small univalve Shells, occupied by Para imanus, but finally grows far la than th Shell and eventually absorbs it. Disk broad, larger than column; tentacles nume- light orange. Breadth of colony, 2 to 3 inches; height of . Ll inch or more; diameter, °5 to ‘7 of an inch. g, nD polyps, in expansion 138 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. ECHINODERMATA. Most of the Echinodermata enumerated last year were again taken this season, in still greater abundance, and several addi- tional species were discovered. Among the latter are four species of Archaster, one of which is new ;* one of the curious large specimens of Dorocidaris papillata ; the European Kchino- cyamus pusillus ; three species of Spatangoids (Spatangus pur- pureus, Brissopsis lyrifera, both Kuropean species, and a Schizas- ter, like S. canaliferus); but the last two were also taken in 1880, though not then enumerated. The Astrochele Lymani V., occurred at 939, 1028, 1029, in abundance, twining its arms closely around the branches of Acanella Normani V. It had before occurred off Nova Scotia . —_s S oe E a4) ie) po] =| oO 4 ist) a ° =] ct =. Mm pS) 3 Qu ° eo = ga fa) oy 2) ber 0g =) S 99 5 ie) oO bey | it m =) Schizaster canaliferus L. Agassiz (? variety). A number of specimens of this singular Schizaster have been taken at several stations, in 65-130 fathoms. It is closely related to the Mediterranean form, S. canaliferus, and to the spe- cies, S. Orbignyanus, recently described from the Gulf of Mex- ico, by Mr. A. Agassiz. Some of the specimens were sent to Mr. Agassiz, who thought them allied to the last named spe- cies, but as he had no time to study them carefully, he kindly bulacrum. It differs from both the forms named, in having the * These species are A. arcticus Sars, 183-310 fathoms; A. tenuispinus D. and K., 388 fathoms; A, mirabilis Perrier (?), 310 fathoms ; and A. Bairdii, sp. nov-; 388 fathoms. A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 1389 Brissopsis lyrifera Agassiz. A’ large specimen from station 921, after immerson for a short time in alcohol, had the test greenish black above, dark brown beneath, spines dark olive-green. Length, 71™™; breadth, 65; height, 46™. Phormosoma Sigsbei A. Agassiz, Bulletin Mus. Com. Zool., viii, p. 75, 1880, Dorocidaris papillata A. Agassiz. Our specimens are near the variety abyssicola. The long Spines appear nearly smooth to the naked eye, but are finely fluted and minutely spinulose; they increase gradually in size for a short distance and then taper very gradually to the trun- cate or slightly excavated tips; the ventral spines are clavate and truncate, with the distal half strongly sulcated ; those near the mouth flat and curved. Color of test and small spines, pale pink; large spines, at base, mostly pale pink above, with three or four broad, faint bands of dull greenish brown; scattered “pines (probably reproduced), are dark purplish brown; ambu- lacral zones and sutures, greenish. Diameter of test of largest Specimen, 65™"; height, 45; length of largest spines, 80; their diameter, Same Archaster Bairdii Verrill, sp. nov. _ Disk, broad; arms, broad at base, tapering rapidly to slender “ps; the interbrachial spaces have nearly the form of a segmen ofa circle. Lesser to greater radii, as 1: 2:20-2°38. The abac- ‘nal surface is covered with rather large (1:3-1-6™™), regular, well- 140 A. EF. Verrilli—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. defined paxille, those toward the center decidedly larger, each surmounted by a regular rosette of short, bluntly rounded, not very small spinules, which, on the larger paxillee, form a central cluster of 12 to 20 or more, with a regular circle of slightly larger ones around the edge; these rosettes appear more or less hexagonal, and decrease in size toward the margins and on the arms. ‘The dorsal area of the arms is wide at base, but narrow distally. Marginal plates about 20 on each side of the arms, above and below, rather large, not very convex, evenly covered with rounded granules. Actinal surface with large triangular areas, occupied by regular, rather large, clearly defined paxille, with regular rosettes of not very fine, blunt spinules. The adambulacral plates bear, each, a group of about five, rather long, slender, tapering, nearly equal spines, which stand in regular longitudinal rows, the edges of the plates projecting inward but slightly ; outside the inner group of spines, there 1s a rosette of shorter blunt spines, of which the three or four inner- most are larger and longer than the outer ones, which are small, like those of the paxille. Oral plates not swollen, bordered, on each side by seven or eight, rather stout, vertically flattened spines, and terminated at the inner end by two decidedly longer and stouter ones; their surface bears two regular median rows of seven to nine shorter spinules, and usnally a row of three or four small ones between these and the marginal series. Ambu- lacral feet well developed, with a conspicuous, concave, ter- minai sucker. reater radius of one of the largest examples, 38™"; lesser radius, 16™. Color, when living, light orange. crowded spinules; the marginal plates often bear a central spine; the ventral paxille are more convex, with much finer and more crowded spinules; the adambulacral spines are smal- ler, finer, and more numerous (8 to 10), with finer spinules out- side of them; the oral plates are decidedly swollen, with a crowd of fine spinules over the surface, and with the marginal spines, more numerous, smaller and more acute: it also has large, conical ambulacral feet, with a rudimentary sucker. A. Parelii agrees nearly with the last in form, but has still longer and more narrowed arms. From A. Bairdiz it differs 1n A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 141 row, with a group of 10 to 12, or more, smaller, divergent spin- ules outside of them; the oral plates bear shorter and stouter, round, blunt, marginal spinules; the ambulacral feet have well- developed suckers ; the color is dull red, in life. Ophioglypha aurantiaca Verrill, sp. nov. nus tips), from center of disk, 45™". Off Martha’s Vineyard, 192 to 310 fathoms. Specimens of this singular species were sent to Mr. Lyman for examination last year. He considered it an undescribed species. It has no near allies on our coast. Ophioglypha confragosa Lyman (variety). This remarkable form was dredged, both this year and last, sparingly, in 238 to 410 fathoms. The identification was made by M man, who was kind enough to compare eS ae 142 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 600 fathoms. According to Mr, Lyman, our specimens differ but slightly from the type. Color, in life, yellowish or grayish white. It is easily dis- tinguished by its rigid arms, with decidedly swollen joints; the conspicuously plated, rigid disk; and by the large, supplement- ary plate, outside the mouth-shields. Amphiura macilenta Verrill, sp. nov. A small species, with very long, slender arms, having three slender, acute arm-spines. Disk, in life, nearly round, often be- scales, forming a more or less evident rosette at the center ; lower side with more minute scales; radial shields long and narrow, wedge-shaped, the outer ends prominent and in contact, the inner ends separate a narrow wedge of small scales. Mouth-shields shield-shaped, with rounded corners, rather longer than wide, broadest in the middle, inner angle obtuse; side mouth-shields wide. Mouth-papille five on each side of each mouth-angle, unequal in size, mostly obtusely rounded; the arm-plates. Tentacle-scales two, minute, flat ; tentacles long and slender. Arm-spines three divergent, nearly equal, a little fathoms ; also taken sparingly at several other localities. is has been examined by Mr. Lyman, who does not recog- nize it as a described species. Physics and Ohemistry. 143 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Puystcs AND CHEMISTRY. o . Fs) tion of only 16 per cent. in that of chlorine. At high temperatures, therefore, the behavior of the halogens would seem inverted, com- pared with that at ordinary temperatures. The separation of the atom of any other element. Hence chlorine which is the most: active of the three halogens is also the least readily dissociated. Iodine which forms weak molecules with hydrogen, ethyl, etc., . . forms a weak molecule with iodine. Bromine is intermediate in dissociation of the molecules P, and As, toward P, and As,, Fer- rous chloride vapor, which at low temperatures is Fe,Cl,, is FeCl, at high ones.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 1453, July, 1881. G. F. B. 2. On an Air-thermometer convenient for Chemical purposes.— The growing necessity for accurately determining temperatures 144 Scientific Intelligence. rubber tube with two branches, one of which goes to a closed manometer and the other to a rubber bag. The bag, the manome- ter and the wide tube are filled with mercury. To make an obser- vation, the rubber bag is compressed till the mercury rises to the black glass index and the height of the mercury column in the manometer is noted. The thermometer bulb is then exposed to coagulates gradually on standing but at once on being heated to °- and possesses the properties of Leverrier’s solution of his considered as the anhydride of phosphorous acid since its aqueous solution reacts neutral and contains a yellow colloid.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 1884, September, 1881. G.. F. B. 4. On the Preparation of spontaneously inflammable Hydrogen phosphide.—Bréss_er has re-examined H. Davy’s statement that the action of zinc upon dilute sulphuric acid in presence of granu- lated phosphorus, produces spontaneously inflammable phosphine, Dumas in 1826 having asserted that the gas evolved was hydrogen, when the liquid has a temperature of 40° to 50° C,, though after it has once commenced it continues even at the temperature of ° potassium hydrate solution acts on zine and phosphorus at 60 © The hydrogen phosphide evolved by the action of hydrochlor! acid upon tin in presence of phosphorus is the ordinary variet Cc Physics and Chemistry. 145 not = peepee the inflammable. But upon the addition of a f drops of nitric acid to the mixture the gas emer: psa rae — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 1757, Sept., 1 81. i On Ammonium tribromide. a teste finds cha oer: to a saturated solution of ammonium bromide, sufficient bromine is added to form H,NBr,, and the whole is plac ced over sulphuric acid “hy a bs : days, lar ge prismatic crystals are formed, havin the color of ee dichromate. The heat of thei formation is considera Vhen a solution ot 9.8 grams ammonium bromide in 13° 93 grams water is mixed with 8°39 grams bromine, the temperature rises from 20° to 28°6° C. At o ordinary tempera- tures the pat hiar lose the excess of bromine in from one to two hours; at 50°, in ten minutes. They are not hygroscopic and ve readily i in water. By drying the stad in an atmo- Thi tribromide was put into a solution of potassium iodide. results confirmed the formula H,NBr,. No dibromide appeared to be formed, but from the continued solution of the bromine With additional evolution of heat, the author infers the existence of a cera blenny, HN Br, —Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 2398, Nov., G. F. B. 6. ‘On ve dertarke b of the Caucasus.—BrILsTEIN and Kur- BATOw have continued their examination of the petroleum found in the Caucasus and pve ve now given the results of their investiga- examined were obtained. "This etroleum is much lighter than that from Baku and yields a larger quantity of volatile fractions. Three of these were at first obtained, boiling respectively between _ 30°-35°, 70°-75° and 95°-100°. The first fraction consisted of pen- tane, and was a mixture of nearly equal parts of normal pentane and isopentane. From the second fraction hexane was isolated ; Series corresponding to the formula Yn ns the Tiquid was treated with bromine and with concentrated nitrie acid in order to de- Stroy them. The suspicion was confirmed by the fact that after this ‘treatment the liquid possessed all the properties vid normal hexane. The third fraction consisted of heptane, from which, by treatment with fuming sulphuric acid, traces of bet ne stare tolu- ene were obtained. It would reel h appear shat en etroleum essentially of the ape nal C nli.,+,, like American petroleum, ut contains small quantities of the aromatic hydrocarbons C,H,,_, and their addition- products ©, H,,. Treatment of the crude e petro- leum with nitricacid of 1°52 sp. gr. gave volatile crystals, which were Obtained in relatively greater quantity from the fraction boiling 146 Scientific Intelligence. between 40° and 50°. Reerystallized from alcohol, they appeared as brilliant broad needles, fusing at 95°-96°, insoluble in water but easily soluble in boiling alcohol, in ether, petroleum naphtha, carbon disulphide, ete. On analysis they gave the formula C,H,(NO,), which is that of dinitrobutane.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 1620, July, 1881. G. F. B. 7. On the reactions of Chinoline.-—The antiseptic and _anti- ] duction into commerce, Donartu has given the following reactions of this base, by which its presence may be recognized: (1) Chin- ie 3 Phosphomolybdic aeid (10 parts sodium phosphomolybdate in 100 water made strongly acid with nitric acid) gives with a chinoline solution acidulated with nitric or hydrochlorie acid, a yellowis white precipitate easily soluble in ammonia. Delicacy 1: 25000. cacy 1:17000. (6) Mercurie chloride (5 parts to 100 water) gives a white flocculent precipitate, readily settling, soluble im hydrochloric acid, difficultly in acetic aci arated from dilute solutions in crystalline needles. Delicacy 1: 5000. (7) Potassium-mercuric iodide (5 parts KI, 1-4 parts HgCl, and 100 amorphous precipitate falls which soon becomes crystalline. Delicacy 1:1000. (9) Potassium dichromate, carefully added, forms fine dendritic crystals soluble in excess of the reagent.— G. F. B 81. 3. F. B. 8. On the theory of the Peptones.—Porut has experimentally confirmed a theory of the formation of peptones proposed in 1873 by Eichwald; i. e., that liquid albumen in contact with animal Physics and Chemistry. 147 also Soon pate by finding ee peptone b treatment with de- hydra precipitable albumen.— Ber. Berl Chem. Ges., xiv, gisky oa the coma of Allantoin in Vegetables. _The young dices vie leaves of trees contain, as is well known, asparagin Believing that other nitrogenous bodies — to be simultane- ously formed, Scuutze and Barsiert have examined the freshly opened buds of the plane tree (Platanus cpieritalis) for;these sub- young , dried, were extracted with hot water, the extract decomposed with lead acetate, the filtrate freed from lead and evaporated. In 12 to 24 hours, crystals of the new body separated, mixed with asparagin. The latter may be sepa- rated by fractional crystallization or by converting it into the comparatively insoluble copper compound. The filtrate from this after removing the copper by H,S, yields small, brilliant i dea difficultly soluble in cold water r, and givin mercury and silver reactions of allantoin. Analysis gave pres formula O,H,N ,O, The occurrence of this uric acid derivative in r. Be o: seen ulum mo disturbing influence of resonators. ifferent forms of sinusoidal curves representing pendulum movements in various phases are cut upon the edge of thin iron rings which are arranged in a con- ical form u upon an axle. ese rings can be rotated in front of various blast pipes from a wind bellows and the blast pipes can directed either upon the summit of the waves or between the elevations. Discussions of the results afforded by this kn are given.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 11, p. 369. 3 11, W. Stemens apon the ihe namo- -Electric ‘Machine * This in machine is esis ‘and it is maintained that the so- called Foucault currents are not the only cause of the heat which is de veloped in rotating iron armatures. these armatures are divided into thin plates separated by inviting media, in order to break up the currents of induction, the iron was still very 148 : Scientific Intelligence. much heated. This heating is attributed to the sudden reversals of maximum of the magnetic capacity of the iron. In the transmission of power by electricity one-half of the useful effect is consumed in the development of heat, and in the development of magnetic effect where it can not be practically utilized. This loss is a serious draw- back to the future of the electrical transmission of power. The fol- lowing considerations should be observed in the construction of dynamo-electric machines : (1.) All disposition of conductors which does not conduce to electro-motor effects should be avoided. , e conductivity of all wires employed to produce such effects should be as great as possible. (3.) Metals should be arranged so as to avoid Foucault cur- rents. .) The magnetism of the electro-magnets should be fully utilized in the most direct manner. 5.) The division of the windings of the inducing wires, through which currents of changing direction flow, should be as small as possible; the number of divisions should be made as large as pos sible to avoid the extra currents which arise with each change of current. : ween the ether and the particles of the body an effect can be produced analogous to those produced by friction, which (3.) Each particle is affected by an elastic force peculiar to “g i i to influenced by the above retarding causes. The mathematical dis- cussion, based upon the above hypotheses, leads to results which agree, on the whole, very well with Verdet’s observations on the change of the plane of polarization of light in bisulpbide of carbon and in kreosote. The author considers that the divergence of re- sults obtained by Maxwell’s formula from the observed results 1D kreosote, proves its untrust worthiness. Lommel’s theory also ex- plains the non-ma netic rotation of the plane of polarization.—4””- der Physik und Chemie, No. 11, 1881, pp. 623-554. Bee 3 * Physics and Chemistry. 149 vacuum, is not questioned, but this is regarded to be due not to a sudden increase in resistance of the vacuum itselfbut to the the surrounding medium. Representing by 7, the specific resist- ance in a ¢ f gas of unit length, and by r the resistance to the passage from the electrode to the medium, then the total resist- ance for a tube of length 7 will be r+7, fessor Edlund and so on), after which it must increase. As 1,, for theoret- ical reasons, diminishes as the rarefaction is increased, this fact Just stated can be explained only by assuming that 7 ine Maxwett, M.A., edited by Wiiiiam Garner, M.A. 268 pp. with 6 plates. Oxford, 1881 (Clarendon Press).—The larger por- - 150 Scientific Intelligence. places by selections from Professor Maxwell’s well-known larger work on Electricity and Magnetism. That this is necessarily labors were so prematurely interrupted, it does not seriously end for which it was planned. The author’s design, as is stated in the fragment of the preface which he left for us, is to “ present in as compact a form as possible those phenomena which appear to throw light on the theory of electricity, and to use them each in its proper place for the development of electrical ideas in the mind of the reader.” There are many conscientious students of electricity who are unable to master the mathematical methods of Professor Maxwell’s larger treatise and yet who desire to obtain an accurate knowledge of the fundamental theories of the subject ; to them the present volume, in which mathematical analysis is in general avoided, will be invaluable. In fact it would be impossi- ble for any one, however far advanced, not to gain new ideas or to see old ones in a clearer light, after a careful study of Professor Maxwell’s lucid exposition of the subject. 15. Tables of Qualitative Analysis ; arranged by H. G. Manan, Oxford, 1881 (Clarendon Press). ve too mechanically. Il GroLocy AND MINERALOGY. isted c mittee of four members from other countries, M. Mosissovies for Austria, M. Dausrf&e for France, Mr. Toriey for Great Britain, . Giorpano for Italy, and M. pe Métier for Russia, wit M. Renevier, of Switzerland, as Secretary. The subject of the nomenclature for the series of geological for- mations was also considered and the following conclusion reached. Geology and Mineralogy. 151 That for the highest division the term Group be used; that the term for the next lower range of subdivisions be System ; be 1:500,000. It was proposed also that in the coloring of geological maps the colors which shall be used on the geological chart of Europe be those as nearly as possible that shall hereafter be generally adopted. Rose-carmine will have the preference for the crystalline schists unless shown to be of Cambrian or later age; violet for the Triassic, blue for the Jurassic, green for the Cretaceous, and yellow will be reserved for the Cenozoic group. € notation in letters on the map will be based on the Latin alphabet; the letters used will be the initials (capital) of the name of the system; and an additional letter or numeral for subdivisions of the system, the numbering starting from the oldest included Subdivision. For eruptive rocks the same rule will be followed, ot that the Greek letter will be employed in place of the in. The directors of the International chart of Europe will meet at the extraordinary session of the Geological Society of France in 1882, and that of the Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences in 1883, in order to explain the condition of their work; and the quences—that, in future, priority for specific names shall not be irrevocably acquired unless the species shall have been not only described but also JSigured. he third meeting of the Congress will be held in Berlin in 1884. , Notice of the discovery of au Peecilopod in the Utica slate formation. —Through the courtesy of my friend, Rev. William 4. Cleveland, of Holland Patent, Oneida County, New York, I - Jour. et Cheese Serres, Vou. XXII, No, 134.—Fesrvary, 1882. 152 Scientific Intelligence. am able to call attention to the discovery of the remains of a large Pecilopod in the Utica slate, north of that village. The remains consist of a large endognathary arm of seven or nine joints, provided with long backward curving sabre-like spines, an portion of a thoracic somite, probably one-half of the ventral sur- face of the anterior somite. For this species I propose the name Eurypterus ? Clevelandi, n. sp., and will give a detailed escrip- tion with figures of the specimens, in a future number of the Journal. Cc. D. WALCOTT. New York, Jan. 10, 3. Coal-Field near aon City, Colorado.—Professor J. J. SrEvENson has described, with detailed sections, bat Mote A coal-field in a paper published i in the Proceedings o can Philos eu Society for October 7, 1881 (p. 505). ot occurs in a small area of Laramie rocks lying along the eastern foot of the Greenhorn Mountains. a generalized section of the beds thirteen coal beds, from six inches to six feet in thickness (num- red A d to t th o. H at some places contains the fucoid pe Aah major 10 ae abundance; and this fossil occurs in other localities in the aah of the same Povies nd oneiesouty also at the base the series; the thickness of the Nee between the upper and gee limits is over 400 feet. Professor Stevenson states that he had before found the same fossil abundantly (this Journ., ITT, xvii, 370), along with dicotyledonous leaves, in a sandstone shown other fossils to be of the Fox Hills group, and that he had _als found the fucoid in a sandstone, 60 to 80 feet thick, of the Trini. dad coal-field of Southern Colorado and N orthern New Mexico, but not below or above this sandstone; and he had recognized the bed as marking the base of the Laramie group. The s anostane scrap: holds a coal bed, ag at one place say a Car m-like mollusk, too imper rfect for determination. The Paleolithic Implements e the Va me! of the ee 5 pp. ton Soe. t. Hist. for Jan. 19 Th Ss pam mphle et is a collection of sivet apers on the Delaware Valley paleolithic implements, severally by Messrs. ne C. ABBOTT, the discoverer of them, H. W. Ha G. F. Wrieat, Lucie Carr and M. E. Wapsworts, with concluding sone by F. W. Putnam. Mr. Putnam closes his remarks respecting these very interesting discoveries and his own visit to the segmeee.s as follows: Dr. Abbott has stated, in his historical summary of the n lithic implements from the gravel at various depths and at differ- ent points. The relation of the circumstances under which one of these was found will be sufficient to convince you that the implement was in the position hows it was buried by the four feet of gravel which had been deposited over it. Feology and Mineralogy. 153 A short distance from Dr. Abbott’s house and very near where the Trenton gravel joins the marine gravel, there is a deep gully through which flows a small brook. In this gully the gravel bank 1s constantly washing away and presenting new surface a fter a heavy rain in June, 1879, I visited the spot with Dr. Abbott and his son. Here I noticed a small boulder of about six or eight inches in diameter, projecting an inch or two from the face of the bank, about four feet from the surface of the soil above ; I worked the stone from the gravel in which it was firmly imbedded and drew it out. At the back part of the cavity thus made I noticed the one end of a stone, and after working it up and down a few times, so as ae loosen the gravel about it, I drew out the eh oat now exhibi On the same day I discovered a ee specimen in place, eight feet from the surface, and Dr. Abbott’s son Richard found another about four feet from the surface. These three specimens were found within twenty or thirty feet of each other, after a heavy =~ had made the roa favorable conditions for ‘their discovery. 8 show Be he ; seldom the smplemenis are likely to be found, ae it may be’ from this cause that some unsuccessful hunters have doubted the occurrence of the implements in the gravel. - Certainly the evidence that has been brought forward to-night will clear away all doubts as to the importance and reliability of Dr. Abbott’s discoveries and investigations, which shave proved a sie existence of paleolithic man in the valley of the e Hat. 6 pp. 8v 29, a Albany, 1881. This paper is an abstract of the section on ’Bryozoans of the Upper Helderberg and Hamilton beds in the Thirty-third Report na the State Museum of N pee daatagd fos ings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for the years st and 1881. - Cambarus primevus, a Cray fish, from the Lower Tertiary Se ‘a Western Wyoming; by . Pa nae Bae Jr., with a plate. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv ey under F. V. Hayden. Vol. S 8. American Museum of Natural History tsa far Park, New York). Bulletin No. 1.—This first number of the Bulletin of the American Maas contains three handsomely illustrated and Sadak yee by the paleontologist of the Museum, Mr. Wurr- FIELD—On a new Crinoid from Burlington, lowa; On Dictyophy- ton and new allied forms from the Keokuk beds; and Observa- 154 Scientific Intelligence. tions on the purposes of the embryonic Sheaths of cto and their bearing on the origin of the siphon in the Ortho 9. Petroleum in the Northwest yt lstadand of British Area, on the Athabasca and elsewhere.—A r on this subject, by Dr. R. Bell, is contained in the Beceeudings of the Canadian rex Site new Ser., i, 225, 1882. 10. Traité de Géologie par A. de Lopparmt Ancien Ingénieur au Corps des Mines, Professor 4 l'Institut Catholique de Paris. v e L rent, the associate of Delesse he preparation of his annual Revue de Géologie, is now in course of publication, only 480 pages ng thus far reached this country. This portion, scheme, and so far as completed, the work promises to be quite full and thorough in its treatment of its subjects. After a gen- eral introduction, it takes up “ Terrestrial oil daa 3 ” under the heads of morphology proper and phy n which are presented many details from senrceains physics. eBook Second on the title “External Terrestrial pe ina ere ” and renisaite- to treatise largely from his own country, yet ranges viety also for illustrations of the subjects. 11. JSelly-like Hydrocarbon from Scranton, Pennsylvania. —The Loait Sage carbonaceous mineral, resembling do opplerite, the occur- V in a peat bog at Scranton, Pennsylvania, was descr ihed ir Mr. T. Cooper, (see this Journal, December, 1881, veins in the mathe at sli Ssten of the peat bog. It is lack in color, and when first taken out it is jelly-like in consistency. On exposure to the air it becomes tougher and elastic, somewhat like India-rubber. When in this condition a thin slice can be cut by a knife; it is then seen to be ssouahonns red by transmitted light, and nearly homogeneous. When completely air-dried it is brittle and nearly as hard as coal and resembles jet, having a brilliant resinous luster and conchoidal fracture; its specific gravity 18 1-032. Before drying it burns slowly i in a Bunsen burner and without flame, but when dry it burns with a clear, yellow flame. It dissolves partly i in hot alcohol, but wholly in caustie potash, even in the cold. An analysis by Mr. J. M. Stinson, of the Penn- sylvania Geological Survey, of material dried at 100° C. ae Cc H N 0 Ash 28°99 517 2°46 56°98 6'40=100°00 Analysis of the dry separated material gave— Geology and Mineralogy. 155 soca ae eu 72°19 Fixed ¢ 21°41 6°40 100-00 The empirical formula calculated is C,,H,,O,,, which requires C 30:15, H 5°58, O+ N 64°32=1 In physical characters this substance very closely resembles the dopplerite of Haidinger, from Aussee (see “Dana’s Min., p. - but is different in composition. Similar jelly-like hydrocarbons have been eceuiined By others. Lewis suggests that these jelly- like hydrocarbons may be grouped together under the name marconiitts Eee. but the new name seems very unnec- ssary.—Am. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia, Dee. 2 1881. 12. Brief notices of some recently pa minerals.—BERGA- MASKITE is a variety of amphibole remarkable as containing no magnesia. It occurs in a caraoie hornblende-porphyry from Monte Altimo, Province of Bergamo, Italy. orms acicular net gee ihweny striated, with pr ismatic cleav age at an angle of Gud An analysis gave: —(%) SiO, 36°78, Al,O, 15. 18, FeO, 14 46, FeO 22°89, CaO 5:14, MgO 0° 98, ne ‘0 4:00, K,O 0°42, loss 0-25==100. ars congrtt in Z. Kryst., ‘Lrriproxr nitE.—E, Scacchi describes blue lapilli Be "Vesuvius, n analysis gave: SiO, 71°57, CuO 6-49, Fe O4 02, K,O 10° 92, Na,O 6:78=99-78. Fuses easily ; the eee consisting of au- gite, olivine, ete, is infusible. The author on the ground. of the fusibility regar Js the substance asa mixture of quartz and the carbonates of poly oe and sodiu Obviously the name given does not gic - aes definite oe species.— Rend. Accad. Napoli, Dee., ombs is covered with mica.—Acead. es. Trans., U1, v, 1881. go BLANOTERITE. —Massive, cleavable in two directions. H.= 5. G.=5°73. Luster metallic to resinous. Color, black to blackiair ores, Opaque. Analysis gave: SiO, 17°32, Fe,O, 23:18, PbO 55-26, on 0°20, FeO 0°75, MnO 0°69, CaO 0- 02, MeO 0°59, K,0 0:24, Na,O 054, BaO 0-11 (2), CL 0°14, P,O, 0°07, ign. 0-93= 100-04, The ‘calculated formula is Pb, Fe,Si ‘O.. Described by G. oe as occurring with native “lead, ‘magnetite and ies it low garnet at Longban, in Wermland, Sw eden. This loca has scam dee furnished ‘two other silicates of lead—hyaloteki ite and ganomalite.— Gf». Ak. Forh. Stockholm, xxxv, 6, 13. Artificial Brcatite — Chrysolite, —M. St.’ Meunier has recently succeeded in forming artificially a variety of minerals by 156 Scientific Intelligence. exposing the metal, a silicate of which is to be formed, when at a red heat, to the vapor of water and that of silicon chloride. This method is regarded by the author as of especial interest as imita- ting the conditions realized in the natural formation of the primi- tive minerals of which we have examples in various types 0 " h ; sponges. Meunier remarks, with some humor, that it is sig- nificant that these supposed fossils can be formed in a porcelain tube heated to redness y varying the conditions the author meteorites.— C. R., xciii, 737. 14, Supposed Organic Remains in Meteorites—A year since _we should have a rock essentially identical with that of natural : rman to describe. a large series of fossil sponges, crinoids, corals, and 80 It is only simple justice to Mr. Hahn to say that while his con- clusions will not be accepted, his memoir is a most valuable con- tribution to the study of the structure of meteorites. The photo- graphic plates which accompany it are remarkably beautiful and can be studied with profit. It is only the author’s interpretation of them which is at fault. Botany and Zoology. 157 15. Tabellarische Uebersicht der Mineralien nach ihren krys- tallographisch-chemischen Beziehungen geordnet von rkoTH.—Zweite vullstiindig neu bearbeitete Auflage. 134 pp. on (Phe Vieweg & Son). — Professor to. Braunschweig, 1882 . according to chernical characters end crystalline form, giving Ill. Botany AND ZOOLOGY. _|. Natural History Nomenclature.—The Zoological Society of France has issued a pamphlet entitled “Régles applicable a la oS orum, fluvialis and Jluviatilis” are not allowed in the same genus. two of them had found their. way into a large genus of plants, botanists would hardly regard it as a case of double employment e name 158 Scientific Intelligence. nearly indifferent ; in others by no means so. ho would write Pecki or Becki in place of Peckii or Beckii ? Fortunately the erally followed in writing. So we need not follow the custom which in England certain zoologists have forced upon one botani- cal work, and other zoologists are adopting in this country, which would require us to write pecki. It is strange that any one could wish to have a mechanical and senseless uniformity override all other considerations. By one rule, the name of an author when appended to that of a species must always be printed in a different type from that of the species. As the omission of this causes no confusion in writ- ing, it might seldom cause any in print. But ordinarily the refer- ence, of which this name is the abbreviation, is in different type ee the name which precedes. It is hardly a matter to prescribe by law. That the names of families should always end in id@ may be practicable in zoology, but hardly so the rule against homonyms, viz: that the name of a genus which has been reduced to a syno- nym shall never again be used as such in the same kingdom, nor a specific name so reduced be ever used again in the genus. It is laid down, also, that no carded on account of its impropriety. That surely depends on ogy. e have so fully and repeatedly expressed our opinion on the matter in this Journal that we need not farther refer to it here. last degree of analysis gives some excuse for the practice, and the ractice seems likely to facilitate the degradation. Naturally we have indicated only points in which the proposed rules do not harmonize with the received botanical code. A. @- Botany and Zoology. 159 2. Maximowicz, de Coriaria, Ilice et Monochasma, ete. quarto paper in the Mém. Acad. St. Petersb., 1881. pp. 70, and four another. Monochasma is a new Chinese genus near to Bungea, and to Schwalbea is assigned a character for better distinguishing A. G. 3. Ueber sogenannte Compasspflanzen. By Professor E. Sranu. —In this paper, which is an extract from the Jen. Zeitschrift, Stahl gives the result of his experiments with Lactuca Scariola and Silphium laciniatum, for the purpose of ascertaining the con- ditions which cause the leaves of the plants named to assume a meridional position. In the case of the Silphium, which is the common Compass-plant of the Western States, the fact that the : rder. Thos the north side of the stem become vertical by a twisting of the petiole, the upper surface of the leaf facing the east. Those on the south side by a similar twisting become vertical with the upper surface facing the west. The leaves on the east and west side of the stem do not exhibit any torsion of the petioles, but they become upright with their upper surfaces approximated to the stem. Stahl took two plants growing in pots and placed one where it would be exposed to direct sunlight from 10 o’clock onal position, but in the second case they did. That the meridi- iti he su i 0 osition is produced by t n when near the horizon is clearly shown by the following experiment. A ith several young plants was placed in a window facing the north, where the plants received direct sunlight a few hours after sunrise b fore sunset. In this experiment the leaves bent ard the north with their upper surfaces turning either to the east or to the west. e pot was then placed farther back in the room, so that 160 Scientifie Intelligence. the window. Stahl concludes that the meridional position of the leaves of Lactuca Scariola is due to the common athena observed in most leaves, and that these leaves differ from those other plants only in their greater sensitiveness to intense light. In Silphium there is a torsion of the petioles as in Lactuca; and, if the petioles are fastened so that they cannot bend, the blade of the leaf itself twists. Stahl — that a meridional position of the leaves can be seen clearly in Aplopappus rubiginosus and to some extent also in Lactuca Stas and Chondrella juncea, and he believes that many other examples os be ieand, — ally among the plants of dry and e gion n a number of the Pokasiea! Magazine, published paki the ast yee in which the American Compass-plant is illustrated, it is recorded that I noticed, during the preyious year, in a plant grow- ing in the. Botanic Garden of Harvard Univer sity, one leaf in which there was an abrupt torsion of 90° in the middle of the blade. I cannot now ey whether or not the basal portion was free to change its directio A. G 4. The Brain of the Cat, Felis domestica, by Burr Proc. Amer. : Phil. Soce., 1881.—An elaborate’ memoir occupying 40 pages and illustrated by 4 fine lithographic plate IV. ASTRONOMY. fauaeaat ‘to retain after the year has pass ed. Two notations so similar tend to confusion. Until the order. of the perihelion a sage is determined the comets can be readily distinguished by t _names of their discoverers, adding the date of range if eee anys so Be the notation by le letters is superfiuo H. Astronomische Nachrichten, begriindet von H. C. aoe er.—This veteran Journal has just completed its handsedth vee Dr. A. Krueger, who has succeeded the late Dr. Peters as Director of the Observatory at Kiel, has also sueceeded him in the editorship of the Journal. By an understanding with the Prussian Government the Council of the stronomische Gesell- schaft promises assistance and countenance in order that the pry feseiaescsy Na chrighten vera be the central and scsi _— Astronomy. 161 the purpose of determining the solar parallax. Returns which could be used in the investigation were received from Melbourne, Sydney and the Cape of Good Hope in the Southern, and from Cambridge (Mass.) and Leyden in the Northern Hemis sphere. After the discussion and comparison of the observations, reject- ing a very few that are palpably erroneous, Professor Eastman says: “Taking the mean of the remaining i 6 results from all the stations, with regard to the weights, we ma = 8":980 + 0"°0172. The results from the Melbourne and Cambri ridge Serie me seem to indicate either that the value found for 2 [9’:1382] is cer- tainly too great, or that the observations at the first five stations are all affected by a systematic error. This difference may arise from the method of observing over Shalivied threads at Cambridge, for the agreement of the ‘results ong themselves is very satisfactory ; but, whatever the canse of the discrepancy may be, it has not been deemed advisable to employ these values in obtaining the final result. mitting the results derived from the Cambridge obser semonee and also those inclosed in parentheses, and taking the m Ce) the remaining sixty results with regard to the computed eights, we have for a final result— a = 8"°953 + 07-019. This value of z is undoubtedly greater than would be assi igned by a large majorit ty of astronomers, but it, fairly represents what the method will give from such observations as were at hand for this vice ibe e H. A. N. trty-siath Annual Report of the Director ¥ the Astro- . nomical Aged atory of Harvard ge; Epwarp C. ICKERIN 6 pp. 8vo. Cambridge, 1882.—Professor Pickering’s Annual Re - gives a gratifying statement of the present con- dition of the Harvard Observatory, and of the work whic been accomplished there during the ae year. The brief sum- _ Mary of the work done includes: (1) a urge number of photometric observations of the eclipses of J npiter satellites; (2) observa- tions of stars having singular spectra—che spectra of all the stars north of —40° marked as red or colored in the Uranometria Argentina have been examined in the — telescope, and from this and also some miscellaneous sweeping, a list of about eighty ced having banded spectra has see? published ; (3) photometric udy of variable stars; (4) observations of the comets of 1881; (5) observations with the open Baste. and (6) with the meridian photometer. The distribution of time signals has been continued under the charge of Mr. F. Waldo until June 1, and since then o Mr. Edm 8; it is stated that the error is believed to ran ely exceed twortenths of a second in clear weather and four-tenths 162 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Among the investigations proposed for the coming year are the measurement of the position of the principal lines in the spectra of all banded stars as yet known; also the photometric deter- mination of the brightness of various points on the surface of the moon; the measurement of the light of faint stars, for which a system of standards of brightness has been devised with the mspenition of other astronomers. The new Hema photometer will be used for measuring variable stars and their comparison stars, and also for determining the light of the bree asteroids. V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Mining Industries: Paris Exposition, 1878; by Hacur, Commissioner.—This valuable review of "the Mining Industries of the various nations of the globe contains a condense d imports and exports, mining regions, ores and ore-deposits, coal fields, diamond fields, etc., consumption of metals, coals, ete. 2. Were Ancient Copper implements hammered or moulded into shape. — Professor F. W. Purnam, cf Cambridge, Mass., closes a note on this subject jin oa Kansas City Review for December, with the following statement : “That copper was used in large junisie by the Indians there is no doubt, and it was also used to a considerable degree by the tribes who erected the burial mounds in the Ohio valley and should regard as having been cast; on the contrary, the evi- dence of hes gre ae and rolling between stones, is more or less clearly shown in all by the character of the surface and by the distinct lero of the metal in places, when carefully exam- ined with a len 3. United States Coast Survey.—Mr. J. E. Hilgard, Chief Assist- ant in the Coast Survey Department, has recently been appointed Superintendent in place of Captain C. P. aad deceased. ear Hilgard is eminently fitted for the positio eebe’s Four-Place Tables.—This book contains, in clear os and compact form, the logarithms of numbers with propor tional parts, and the trigonometric functions, both logarithmic A very careful comparison with the st tandard tables reveals no mistakes. Published by H. H. Peck, New Haven. Sensation and Pain. by Charles Fayette Taylor, M.D. 78 pp. 16mo. New York, 1881. (G. P. Putnam’s Sons Opium Smoking in Am pi pear China, by H. H. Kane, M.D. 156 pp. 16mo. New beds, 1sh2. (Fok nah Sons). Greenwich Spectroscopic tea oe ee Results. 84 pp. 4to. Bulletin of the — —— of Natural Sciences, seacapeie Minn. Vol. ii, No. 3,1881. pp. 3 Obituary. 163 OBITUARY. Joun Wr11amM Draper, M.D., LL.D.—The death of Dr. Draper, which occurred on the 4th of January, removes the most renowned investigator in molecular physics and the most encyclopedic author in the circle of American scientists. Although born in England, age of 22, and in 1836, took the medical degree from the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania where his thesis on the Crystallization of publishing the results of his work in this Journal, the Journal ; he American Journal of Medical Science, and in the London Philosophical Magazine. These researches , being Knowledge of Radiant Energy” (473 pp. 8vo). This volume was noticed at the time of its publication in vol. xvi, p. 390 (1878) of this Journal. It remains a noble monument to his memory, made of the results of labors which have greatly advanced the sum of human knowledge. * 164 Obituary. America had given attention to the spectroscope, and, except Fraunhofer, few in Europe decomposition in the spectrum itself, I showed that it is effected b w. Under very favorable circumstances I exam ed the experiments said to prove that light can produce magnetism, and found that they had led to an incorrect conclusion. The first photographic portrait from the life was made by me... . - I also ained the first photograph of the moon. ... - obtaining more accurate results in these various inquiries I in- vented the chlor-hydrogen photometer, and examined the modifi- cations that chlorine undergoes in its allotropic states. Since In such researches more delicate thermometers are required than our arm; and that, s one portion—the violet—being dis- tinguished by producing chemical effects, every ray can accom- plish special changes is series of experiments, on radiations, ea $ ; . is concluded in this volumé by an examination of the chemical : hg This is a remarkable series of claims for one investigator to oe up on a single line of research. But they were well founded; an : Obituary. - 165 this was substantially affirmed by the report of the Committee of the American Academy Arts and Sciences, at Boston, which, after an impartial review of Dr. Draper’s work, recommended the award by the Academy of ‘ie Rumford Medals for the year 1875 (one of gold and one of silv er) to Dr. Draper for his “ Researches on Radiant Energy.”* This was only the sixth award of the Rumford Medal in about sixty years. The previous five awards were (1) to “Fete (1839) for the jaieeihin of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe and improvements in voltaic apparatus; (2) to Ertcsson (1862) for his piri engine; (3) to TreapweLt 1865) for im- provements in management of heat; (4) to Arvay CLark (1867) improvements in the lenses of ra aasatins telescopes; (5) to Coruiss (1870) for improvements in me steam engine. ‘This enumeration shows that the award to Dr. Draper was for. impor- tant discoveries in science, while the others, excepting in the case r. Hare, were for inventions and improvements, It rarely falls to the lot of any one investigator in physical research to add so largely to the triumphs of science over the unknown ur admiration, however, of the author’s ability and industry is increased, when we review the considerable number of impor- tant memoirs which he has contributed to the departments of chemistry, electricity and physiolo e have to regret that the autbor did not find nine ee in his declining years, to give to the world his memoirs on chemical, electrical and physiological must reserve.” But it is a great satisfaction that he has left, as his literar ry executors, sons whose names are well known in the annals of science, from whom we may look for the aie of moirs so reserved. A full list of Dr. Draper’ $ papers, ¢ by himself, will be found in the writer’s address tinted ** Con- ae to Chemistry,” 1874, pages 78-82 r. Draper was not simply an experimental i investigator of deen phenomena. e was an earnest and also a deep thinker in the department of the philosophy of “aie and human progress, and his works in this direction were among his most elaborate eHorts. He says: “ From the study of individ man it is but a step to the uitep ying of him in his social ce and this, accordingly, had been done in the second par my work on Physiology. But ry subject being too poor ae $s be dealt with satisfactorily in that a I have published the materials Se I had collected in a se e book uncer the title of ‘A History of the Intellectual Develoninent of Europe.’” The view ipurtne he aimed to illustrate in this work is that the ageless progress of nations proceeds in the same course as the intellectual develop- ment of the individual; that the eee ae ic of both is not fortu- aw. yea ee of America,” his elaborate “ History of the Ameri- ivil War,” in three volumes, and his “ History of the Con- Haig American Academy, IJ, xi, 313, 325, May 25, 1875, March 8, 1876, 166 .. Obituary. - of Religion and Science” are all logical sequences of his ew of human progress. He remarks, “ When I thus look back existence for which the phon is only a preparation For many years Dr. Draper has dwelt in a quiet retreat at Hastings on the Hudson, a few miles ohge New rk City, near the astronomical spearvatory of his son, Dr. Hen Draper, the his more elaborate works into a ¢ reat number of ee and Asiatic languages. His wife died sete years before him, leaving three sons and three daughters. All the sons have adopted pur- suits of science, sph to the father’s taste, and oe mee names for themselves now well known in the walks of se e funeral of ee Draper was attended, oy 10th, by a throng of mourners, including delegates of numerous scientific societies with which the deceased had been connected—the Fac- ulties of Medicine and Arts, Science and Law, of the University of a — and ee of the Faculties of the Universities of - Verm and Penn sylvania, The religious ceremonials were shaneed | in St. Mark’s Church, in New York, where the remains were brought from the village church at Hastings on the Hud- son, and finally found their resting-place in the Greenwood Cem- sland. Be ewis H. Morgan, eminent in American Ethnology, and Archeology, died on Saturday, the 14th of December last, at Rochester, New York. He early began his otitdy 3 in his favorite department among the Indians then remaining in Western New _ His published vos and memoirs are ab 1 the result of ety, or Researches in the line of human progress from pie through Barbarism, into Civilization ” (1877), “ Houses and House-lite of the American pL RD (1881); and in another line, the “American Beaver and his Works” (1867). Mr. Morgan was President of the ace Association at the meet- ing in 1880 at Boston. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. , [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XIV.—On the Color Correction of double Objectives ; by CHARLES S. HASTINGs. I. Review of attempted methods. IF we call the focal length of two thin lenses in contact P, one of the lenses being made of a material with indices of refraction n, and the other with indices indicated by n’, we may write papain) A +(n’—1) B, (1) Where A equals the sum of the curvatures of the two surfaces bounding one lens and B the corresponding sum for the other. In order that this system may be achromatic it is necessary that P or ¢ should be invariable with n and n’, or in other words that the equations ae dn' A=—7- B (3) should be satisfied. Unfortunately this is in practice impossi- ble, because at present no two varieties of glass are known in which Fa constant. On the contrary, this coefficient is itself Am. Jour. sas Senet Series, Vo. XXIII, No, 135.—Manou, 1882. 168 @. S. Hastings—Color Correction of Double Objectives. a function of n and has an infinite number of values, all in- cluded in practical cases, however, within limits nearly ap- proached. ‘Thus, since the last equations cannot be satisfied for all —_— of n, the problem is reduced to finding that value of © < which substituted in (8) will make the combina- tion the oe advantageous one. e first efforts to find a solution of ibis problem were wended by one of -. most brilliant discoveries in physical optics. Only in objectives of considerable size does the ques- tion become of great importance, and as Fraunhofer was the first to attempt such objectives, so he was first confronted with the problem. ‘'’o solve it he performed an elaborate series of experiments on the optical properties of various glasses, during which he discovered the lines in the solar and certain stellar spectra universally known by his name. Moreover, as it was evident that the accepted value of 5 — should depend upon the relative intensity of lights of different refrangibilities, he made a photometric determination of the brightness o the various parts of the solar spectrum. With data thus derived his theo- Se method of determining the best value of the coefficient r was to deduce various values by observation, multiply each value so obtained by the relative brightness of the correspond- ing region of the spectrum, and divide the sum of these products by the sum of the numbers denoting the brightnesses. For example, if n, 1 2g, My, ete., are the indices of refraction for the first medium heroin to the Fraunhofer lines a, ?, 7, ete. n'y Ng, n',, etc., the corresponding quantities for the sec cond medium, and q,, q., Js, ete., are the relative quantities of light contained in the solar spectrum between the lines af, fy, etc., then the accepted value of the coefficient is given by the equa- tion 41+, +ete. Fraunhofer found, however, that for a combination of crown ty flint glass this method always gives too large a value for = —, that is to say, that an objective so constructed would be notably under-corrected. Nor is it difficult to recognize that the theory is imperfect, for it implies that light of all refrangi- bilities is of value in ‘the formation of the image exact y in C. S. Hastings— Color Correction of Double Objectives. 169 proportion to its intensity, whereas, in reality, light of the extremes of refrangibility instead of assisting in defining an image is absolutely harmful. Fraunhofer was driven, there- fore, to a purely empirical determination of the quantity uader discussion; and from his time to the present, the only way for an optician to determine the relative foci of the two components of an achromatic objective is by a laborious process of altering the curves and testing the result until the outstanding color. about the image of a bright star is such as experience has shown 1s attended with good definition. A few of the more scientific opticians determine the coefficient by means of prisms instead of lenses, and thus, by a knowledge of the mathematical rela- tions involved, save a great deal of manual labor. Still, even in the case where a pair of prisms combined to form a diasporo- meter is used, instead of a pair of lenses, the accepted value of the coefficient depends upon an exercise of the judgment alone, and hence this ‘process yields no unambiguous solution. Il. A Vheoretical Solution. In order to investigate the best theoretical value for the 4 n' : j ‘ coefficient da? We may begin by expressing n’ either directly or indirectly as a function of xn. The most naturally suggested course is to express each as a function of the wave-length o n'’=a+fn+yn*; and the equations above become p= P=(n—1) A+(a—1+fntyn*) B (1) Poo=A+ (B+2yn) B (2') A=—B (B+ 2yn). (3’) The problem is to determine the particular value of which can be most advantageously substituted in the last equation. * On Triple Objectives with Complete Color Correction. This Journal, vol. Xvili, p. 429, 1879. 170 ©. 8. Hastings—Color Correction of Double Objectives. This value will be designated as n) and the corresponding focal distance as P». To accomplish the solution we must first find a criterion of excellence in an objective. This we may easily do, after de- — fining the sense in which we here use certain terms, as fol- ows :— Light, for the purpose of this investigation, is defined as that form of radiant energy which affects the retina; its quantity is measured, not by the value of the energy, but by the physio- logical effect which it is capable of producing. The intensity of light of refrangibility n is measured by the quantity of light contained between the refrangibilities n and n+dn divided by dn. Thus, if g, equals the quantity of light so defined and ¢, its intensity, then Gn== 1,0. In what follows we shall consider only such light as is given out by a very hot solid body. is light is composite and contains light of all refrangibilities from a little less than that of the Fraunhofer line A to, practically, a little more than that of the line H. e let », and n, represent these limits of refrangibility. Then, if Q is the total amount of light falling upon a given area, e. g. upon an objective, we have evidently Ny Q= x=[ z dn. Ny In this expression ¢ is an unknown function of n, but we know enough of the properties of this function for the present pur- ose. 2 A perfect objective would concentrate all the light incident upon it from a distant point in its axis to a very small circular area in the focal plane, which area would be constant for all telescopes of the same angular aperture. The most perfect attainable objective then would be that which concentrates the greatest attainable amount of light within this area. ‘To inves- tigate the conditions which must be satisfied to this end we must determine the amount of light falling within a small cir- cular area a at Po, the radius of which we will set as a tg $4, where a is the angular aperture of the objective. It is evident that all the light of such refrangibilities as substituted in (1’) would yield values of P contained between Py—a and Pot+a would fall within the area a. These limiting refrangibilities shall be denoted by n_, and ,,. Only a portion of the light of refrangibilities less than n_, and greater than Nea however, falls upon this area, the amount for light for the refrangibility n being clearly, : Qu7p _ Pp \2 a . (P,—P,)* 4 C. S. Hastings—Oolor Correction of Double Objectives. 171 hence the total quantity of light falling upon @ would be equal to the sum of three integrals, the first taken from the extreme red up to n_,, the second from n_, up to n,,, and the third from this last limit up to the extreme violet; that is, if g be this quantity, fi, dn f ee ae a ae dat erregen ees 1,0n+ af 1.3 pie" q ny (Pee Vk / ie (P)—P,)? To find the value of mp which will render the last expression a maximum, it is necessary to find the first derivative of the function with respect to my and set it equal to zero. Remember- ing that need, we see that P,, n_, and n,, are the only quan- 0 tities dependent upon 7, hence we obtain by differentiation under the signs of integration, 2 sane 2 sf 1,0 : dl Gr le tk oa iN psepettriepadt 2 {P.—P.Y dng (P.—Pp_,)? 1,0” d oe n : bees Inga in 208 , (Po=P.) day (P—Pay)® But from the definition of the quantities n_, and n,4, we have (Po —Pn_.)? =(Po— Pn)? =2?. Hence the value of a reduces to minus the product of 2a? Ne into the sum of two definite integrals, and the problem becomes simply the determination of the value of , which will cause this sum to vanish, or, since must have opposite dP, 1 dn, (Po—P,)? signs in the two integrals because ioe that value which will 0 make the two integrals equal. If both z, and P,, were sym- metrical with respect to some one value of n, that value would evidently answer the condition; otherwise it is necessary to know the function ¢,. It would be easy to find a transcendental function which would express empirically the photometric observations of Fraunhofer, or the more recent and elaborate ones of Vierordt, but a simple consideration of the physical limitations of the problem will enable us to dispense with this operation. Hitherto we have made no restrictions as to the value of a, Let us now suppose that a is so small that it may be regarded as the image of a star, then a is small and, since ae =0, P, may 172 ©. 8. Hastings—Color Correction of Double Objectives. be regarded as symmetrical with respect to 7 for values not differing largely from Py Again, for white tight, ¢, is shown by the photometric observations above named to have a single maximum corresponding to a certain value of n which we will designate as n,, and consequently may be regarded as a sym- metrical function of x in the region of this maximum. Finally < is never large in practical cases between the limits , and 0 n, while P,—P, increases continuously in numerical value toward these limits. If then we set ny=n, the two definite integrals become sensibly equal and q is a maximum. e value n, corresponds to light of a refrangibility greater than that of the Fraunhofer line D and less than that of H, however, to the former. The only prominent Fraun- e€ reasoning given ab : forms of radiation transmitted by the lens system if appropriate — ] x Np Should be nearly equal to ng. ‘ It will be observed that the term color and all considerations relating to color have been entirely omitted from the discussion. This is what we might have anticipated as a necessary feature from the remarks on page 170. One consequence of the solution above developed may be here noted, viz: the focal plane is defined by Py and not by two like values of P,, greater than this minimum. This is con- trary to the doctrine of some writers but in accordance with eritical experiments. * Ill. Method of applying the results to the practical construction of an objective. The solution obtained cannot be directly applied as a guide in the construction of an objective, for P is by no means the simple funetion of n, A and B as implied in equation (1’) when real lenses are in question. Even if we confine our attention * See paper cited above, pp. 434-435. C. 8. Hastings—Color Correction of Double Objectives. 173 easier, even if indirect, method; to a still greater degree if we wish to consider the far more important marginal rays. There are several evident methods of finding indirectly the constants of the objective, but the most practicable one has seemed to me the following: We have as data a, § and 7 in the formula n'=atfpnt+yn?; also F, the required focal length of the objective. Then set 1 1 ; PF = (Ns6r4— 1) A+ ( 5p14— 1) B 0 A=—B (B+ 2y seu). These last two equations yield the values of A and B. In the general equation (1’) substitute these values of A, B, a, 8, 7 with some known value of n other than ngj4, e. g., I have gen- erally used the value ng. Its solution will give the value of the focal length for light of the refrangibility C. Let this value of P be substituted in turn in equation (1’) and solve with re- Spect ton. We shall thus obtain two values of n, one of which 1S mg and the other a value greater than 754 which we may call n., and if we substitute this in the equation connecting n and n’ we shall be able to derive the corresponding value n’,. This 18 all that the consideration of infinitely thin lenses can do for us, but from it we have found that the rays of refrangibility denoted by © and ¢ should have a common focus, and we have also the values Uy VL, nt ¢ r Tse14 1 seis nN. n, Having given, the thickness of the lenses and the distance between them, and having*assumed radii proper to correct spherical aberration, we calculate the courses of three marginal Tays of refrangibilities defined above, and of one central ray of refrangibility 5614. By successive trials and modifications of three of the radii we can meet the three conditions, that the Marginal and central rays 5614 unite in a point on the axis, that this point is ata distance F from the second principal point of the system, and that the marginal rays C and c unite another point on the axis. The remaining arbitrary constants, viz: the thicknesses, distance and fourth radius, may be utilized for the purpose of satisfying other conditions; but the consid- eration of such conditions is at present foreign to our purpose. 174 © S. Hastings—Color Correction of Double Objectives. IV. Practical tests of the value of the foregoing theory. There are two evident methods for determining the value of the results which we have obtained; one is to construct a tel- escope according to the principles developed in the theory and study its performance, and the other is to find how the practice of the most approved makers agrees with that as founded upon the theory. Both of these tests I have applied with thorough- ness and will here give the results in the order named. Three object glasses, involving the use of six varieties of glass, have been constructed according to the principles devel- oped above. The first was of 4:1 inches aperture and 53 inches focal length, with the flint in advance of the crown. e mate- rials of which this objective are made are the flint glass of Feil, No. 1237, and the crown glass of the same maker, No. 1219. The focal length was purposely made small so as to yield the severer test. The second objective has a clear aperture of 6} inches and a focal length of 91 inches. The crown lens is in advance and the curves are such as satisfy, for a first approximation, the conditions proposed by Sir Jobn Herschel. ‘This form, though e ground very exactly according to the values yielded by calcula- tion and the objective ,finished before testing. An extremely delicate spherometer was employed to determine the radii. As all the objectives are of the highest excellence, the usefulness of the theory may be regarded as demonstrated. For the second test proposed, we possess the results of the studies of two distinguished spectroscopists on the character of the color correction of several large telescopes. To these I can add two more. inch rh 2 * The optical properties of these glasses as well as those of the 6 } tive are given in a paper entitled, On the influence of Temperature on the Optica Constants of Glass, This Jour., vol. xv, pp. 269-275, 1878. - C. S. Hastings—Color Correction of Double Objectives. 175 Professor Vogel, in the Monatsbericht d. k. Preuss. Aka- aa d. Wissenschaften for April, 1880, has described three arge telescopes in respect to their color correction, one by ee of 298™™ aperture, another by Grubb of 207" aper- ture, and a third by Fraunhofer of s4gem aperture, as deter- mined by observing a stellar image spectroscopically. A fourth objective by Steinheil of 135™", Tess c ompletely investigated, is of little importance to us here on account of its smaller size. e method was to determine the various lengths of the teles- cope when a stellar image, observed through the e e-piece armed with a prism, was caused to eat the greatest con- tractions at recorded ay eaten in its s Professor Young, in this Journal for Te. 1880, gives the results of his measurements on two telescopes by the Clarks, each of nearly nine and a half inches aperture. ‘I'he method employed was analogous to that of Vogel except that a very powerful spectroscope was used and the limb of the sun taken instead of a star. By this means the focal planes for various wave lengths of light were determined by the position of the slit plate of the spectroscope. In the summer of 1879 I determined, by the method last described, the color characteristics of Mr. Ed gecomb’s telescope at Hartford, Conn., a 9-4 inch objective by the Clarks, and, with Professor Van V logis assistance, those of the 12-ineh Clark at the Wesleyan University. To compare these various successful practical solutions with that given by the theory embodied in this paper, I foun interpolation, using the first two terms of Cauchy’s formula, the wave lengths corresponding to the various values of n,, that is, those wave lengths which should have, according to theo their focal point coincident with light defined by the ralelcter ne C, They a W. GL Crown glass Se 50074 f 64 in. 499°5 " 2% of 9-4 in. 498°6 Flint glass 1237 500°7 “of 6} in. 499°7 ie of 9°4 in. 498°9 Mean, 499°6 € corresponding values as derived by measurement from various telescopes are as follows: 176 0. K. Wead—Millimeter Screw. W.L. Makers. Authority. Remarks. 530 Fraunhofer. Vogel. 465 Schroder, . 494 Grubb. os 490 Clark. Young. Princeton telescope. 522 ie eo Dartmouth. 495 > Hastings. Edgecomb’s. 497 : es Wesleyan Univ. duced by a small crown glass prism, is W. L. 5005. Hence, in practice, determine the indices of refraction for the lines ©, W. L. 561°4 and W. L. 500% in both materials to be used; calculate the curves of the objective so that the spherical aber- ration for ray 561-4 shall vanish while marginal rays C an 500% havea common focal point. This method, though simple and direct, is without doubt sufficiently correct for all telescopes of moderate apertures and all varieties of glass hitherto used in their construction. Johns Hopkins University, Jan., 1882. pean Art. XV.—To Cut a Millimeter Screw ; by Cuarztes K, WEAD. CO. K. Wead— Millimeter Screw. 177 oo REF cAmeb 08 Oni. ie 1c metde. vane nB-08x 898T 200 48x73 threads. This requires two gears with a prime number of teeth. e. The method is based on the fact that 1 inch equals very nearly 25-4 millimeters; it would equal it exactly— If one meter equals 39°37008 inches. Clarke’s value “ 39°37043 “ Kater’s “ eo SPST Te. This “ mechanical” meter differs from the best determination yet made, Clarke’s, by no more than that differs from the next est one, viz: zzq/o9q part, though in the opposite direction. The form in which the direction was given to Buff & Berger was, “gear the lathe so as to’ cut a screw with twenty threads to the inch, with a gear of 100 teeth on the feed-screw ; replace the 100 by 127 (=>), and the pitch will be 1 millimeter, the theoretical error being much less than the mechanical error of cutting.” Thus, on the lathe above referred to, ay x4= ; 12 25'4 to the inch, or 1 to the millimeter; again, wa oi xde Physical Laboratory, University of Michigan, Dec. 15, 1881. 178 O. A. Derby—Gold-bearing Rocks of Brazil. Art. XVI.—On the Gold-bearing Rocks of the Province of Minas Geraes, Brazil; by ORVILLE A. DERBY. THE rock series of Minas Geraes, which have heretofore been recognized as auriferous, are the gneisses and mica schists o the crystalline group, and the quartzites, unctuous schists, and iron ores (itabirites), of the less highly metamorphosed group of rocks succeeding the crystalline series. o these may be added a second group of quartzites lying unconformably on the second metamorphic series. In all these rocks the gold is in, or in the immediate vicinity of, veins of quartz, generally if not always accompanied by pyrites, cutting the beds or accompanying the bedding, or in vein-like lines of a peculiar clay or iron ore. Ina recent trip down the Rio das Velhas I noticed that long after having passed the region in which rocks generally recognized as auriferous were exposed on the river as rich in gold as are those within that region. At the same time trial washings at the mouths of the rivers Parauna and Pardo, tributaries which at a short distance from the main river issue from the auriferous series about Diamantina, and proved that the sands of these streams are much poorer than Sopa to the west of Diamantina. In the west of the province a newer conglomerate appears to have furnished the diamonds of the Jezuetaby and Abacté washings. J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley. 179 Art. XVII.—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier; by J. D. Dana, With Plate IT. [Continued from page 97.] 4. Dimensions and velocity of the flooded Connecticut. IN the preceding pages it has been shown that during the era of the melting of the glacier the Connecticut River and its tributaries participated together in the rising flood and in the work of transportation and deposition; that the tributaries brought in the chief part of the materials for the terrace-forma- tion; and that the main stream left its best registerings of high- water mark in the deposits about or near their mouths. When the flood was at its height, the Connecticut was one continuous stream, hurrying seaward, as it is, though in a more moderate way, during a modern flood. e may now seek to determine approximately the dimen- sions and velocity of the river when at maximum flood, taking and velocity, or the height of the water surface with reference to sea-level, on which slope and velocity depended, the evi- dence is still more uncertain. i. MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF THE WATERS ALONG THE VALLEY.— Before the flood had made much progress, the level of the river may have been the same with the present low-water level, or below it. And, between this condition and the end of the rise in the waters, there were successive levels along the valleys and some perhaps of long duration. ere are no satisfactory means of determining the height either of the lowest or of any following stage, excepting the last—that of maximum flood. ith regard to the level of maximum flood we take the facts afforded by the heights of the normal upper terraces in the different parts of the valley. To show these heights at a glance and the continuous line of the water-surface I have Plotted them for the several points of observation, together with the levels of low water and mean tide, so as to make a Section of the flooded valley and stream; and this section is presented on Plate 2. The plate contains, above the section, in figure 1, a map of . 180 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley the river and its vicinity on a scale of 18 miles to the inch (or 14 miles to the line), which extends from the village of Co- lumbia, toward its source (about 28 miles from the more southern of its head lakes called Connecticut Lake) to Long Island Sound. The position of the western outliers of the hite Mountains is seen to the east of Wells River and Haverhill. The Green Mountains, on the west, are too distant to be included. The section of the flooded stream just referred to is on the same scale as to length measured along the valley (not the river) but extends only to Stratford Hollow, 45 miles from Connecticut Lake, on account of the northeastward bend in the more northern part of the valley. The vertical scale of the section is 300 feet to the inch, or 25 feet to the line. In this section the longitudinal line AS indicates mean-tide level ; BS the level above mean-tide of modern low water in the Con- necticut, the figures under the line giving the same in feet for the places mentioned below; an ’ flood-level when the flood was at or near its maximum-height. The figures directly below CS’ give the height of the surface above mean tide at _each of the places stated, and those reading vertically, the dif- ference between modern low-water level and the highest flood- level. For the part of the section north of the Massachusetts line the levels for mean tide, low water, and maximum flood have been few other points I have depended on my own examinations. Some of these divergences I here mention in order that the nature of the changes introduced may be understood.* The height of the “highest normal terrace” at Lancaster, ac- cording to Mr. Upham, is 30 feet above low water in the river. * In the measurements of the heights of terraces I have used a hand-level. As the method is less exact than that employed by Mr. Upham, I have always in any remeasurements accept r. Upham’s results. : speaking of a terrace, I often use the term terrace-plain for the plain that _ makes the top of the terrace, and terrace-front, for the front slope of the terrace, the angle of which is often 40° to 42°. from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 181 130-foot; it is made 100 feet on the chart; while the 130-foot level is indicated by a dotted line. Along the Fifteen-mile Falls, between John’s River and the mouth of the Passumpsic, the region of the upper falls, according to Mr. Upham, is without regular terraces ; but that of the lower, below Lower Waterford, has hills and terraces of stratified drift which reach in some places a level of 200 feet above the river. So great a height here favors the view that the 130-foot level at and above Lancaster is the most nearly right. My personal observations in the valley beyond arnet were limited to the single locality of Lancaster. t Barnet, in Vermont, three miles below the termination of he Fifteen: mile falls, the * « ighest normal terrace, ace — ing to It was manifest Shet ges plains were not diszinatively terraces of Stevens’ Broo or the brook now flows over stratified drift and between bla of ie 10 to 95 feet below the level of these plains ; and it could not have worked at terrace-making at these high levels except hay the help of the Connecticut waters. That at least the lower of the two terraces above-mentioned was stretly a Conese River terrace is proved by the occurrence of it two miles no rth along the BR il valley (near the ahrciat of the terrace. The material of the Barnet terraces is mostly loam with fine sand in ateatientate beds up to the 150-foot ? and at 164 feet, just north of the village, I found a clay- t Wells River, a “ delta-terrace,” 263 feet above low water in the river, was found to be the true normal upper terrace of the Connecticut ee us ved terrace so-made by Mr. Upham having a height of only 123 At Haverhill the “ peach ele poe of Mr. Upham has a height, as he states, of only 83 feet. But the true normal upper terrace is over three times this height, as is shown by the position and extent of the large Haverhill ‘terrace-plain as well as the so-called “ delta-terrace” of Oliverian Brook. The terrace-plain on which the village of Haverhill is situated has great breadth, and continues along the — ut for two aaa uth of the vie: Its height above low water in the bs measurement, to a point in the street near the hovel, is 259 feet, and it rises eastward to 273 feet. Its surface consists of sand and sandy loam with some small pebbles, but becomes more stony toward the hills. Mr. Upham alludes to the plain, but excludes it from the true serraces, Stating that it is “a terrace-like area of ¢i/.” He says that “at about one-fourth mile southwest from Haverhill village a gully recently made on a previously smooth slope, at a height 182 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley about 175 feet above the river and 75 feet below the village t 3. Layers of sand, with Layers of finely straticulate sand (s) ction and sand and fine pebbles (sp) over- some of fine gravel, finely bedded, laid by coarse gravel, till-like (cg). overlaid by a till-like deposit (cg). top, or was probably the position of the gully mentioned by Mr. Upham as situated about 75 feet below the village. Its beds were like en in the former section, was continued here, and had greater thickness with larger unconformability to the stratified beds be- neath; and some of its s were angular and two feet in diam- eter. Figure 2, representing the upper half of this exposure, shows the position of this stony deposit, ¢ g, in relation to the beds beneath. This till-like deposit is thus a superficial mass lapping down the slope, quite independent of the terrace-formation ; and it is there- from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 183 fore of subsequent origin. It _ poe ey ree, by floating ice. The Oliverian Brook, which here enters the Co nnecticut, comes directly from the southwestern part of Me White Mountains, —Mt. Moosilauke, 4811 feet high and not a dozen miles off, being its source (see map), aud other “peaks, 2000 to 2500 feet in height, borderi ring its cour he section at the time of Mr. Upham’s examination of it aatiek have shown the till-like deposit but not the beds beneat On an ascent of the terrace half a mile farther south I found evidence of ee and fine gravel, but saw nothing of the till- like capping; and it was evident that the latter was a local de- posit. Neither se ‘ 1 observe evidence of it near the village over the top of the At Piermont, the « delta terrace” of Eastman’s Brook, 258 feet above low water tev el, is so situated evidently with reference to the Connecticut valley that it should be taken as the normal instead of the 78-foot terrace made the “ highest normal” by Mr. Upham; and at Fairlee, a “delta terrace” of Jacob’s Hevek, having a height of 247 feet, is ue upper terrace, instead of a 57-foot terrace so made by Mr. U In the north part of Norwich, the kame, ie to Mr. Upham, has a height of 189 to 224 feet above ane water in the river; and the mean of these extremes, 207 feet, is not too high for flood level, 7 this is Bane as the height Si ctead of the 159- foot terrace of. n Hanover, the Mink Mok “delta terrace” carries the height up to 207 feet above low water in the river. Between Hanover and White River 1 aro: miles apart ~-there are, near midway, falls of 40 At White River J unction, the southwest wee warrants carry- ing the level up to 213 feet at least, in pla of 177; and a ter- race to the west of it makes the fall ‘height,'s as I found, 242 feet. The correctness of this higher level is sustained by the height which Mr. Upham gives on his map for the upper terrace and kame three miles south, in North Hartland, namely, 242 feet, and nearly by that of the “delta terrace” of Lull’s Brook, 227 feet ae four me farther south in Hartlan Windsor, I made measurements up to the high plain west of the village, and "found it 216 feet above low water in the river, which is the height taken in place of the 196-foot terrace. The material of the terrace was fine sand and loam, but slightly per ly in the upper ahaa It is a terrace of Mill Brook, but not less so of the Connectic hea examples are sufticient to explain the course I have pur- su For the height of flood-level in the part of the — passing dtc the State of Massachusetts I have used s of the Professor ©. H. Hitchcock observes. in vol. i of the Geto Report of New Hampshire (p. 217), that the Oliverian Brook in Haverhill may be ex to show signs, throu ugh boulder deposits, “of al local glacier deecsatetieg the west flank of Moosilauke. Am. Jour. ace ae Series, Vou. XXIII, No. 135,—Maron, 1882. 184. J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley measurements of Professor Edward Hitchcock, and for the Spring- field region, the survey of the Springfield Cit Engineer, as in a former paper.* I have personally made alge in Holyoke, Willimansett, and South Hadley. It was my purpose to have made pre gather in the State, but fing cea "Pr ofessor B. K. Em , of Amherst College, was engaged in a thorough study ‘st thugs g of the terraces, I gladly left the subject in his hands. The height of the very extensive upper terrace of wester Northfield, the town adjoining New Hampshire, I have ‘eked from Mr. Upham, his map covering this Northern Massachusetts town; he gives it at 198 to 213 feet above low water in the river. Although the terrace borders most obviously the Connecticut valley, he speaks of it as a tributary’s — , and takes for the The true upper terrace extends to Gill; aids corresponding one on the eastern side of the Connecticut, ‘put little lower, continues with small interruptions all the way to Miller’s Falls. For the height of low water level in the paabteozie Valley, between Holyoke, in Massachusetts, and Hartford, Connecticut, I have used the section made in connection wish: the very exa yoke has not yet been acetates determined. In the section, the height at the top of T s Falls | is made 180 feet, and at the foot of the rapids, 120 fee n the Connecticut part "of the section, the paar are, with one D kon om my own levelings. y former measurements have been repeated, in order to be able to ete the heights to mean-tide level, and others have been made. e extensive terrace east of the Co nnecticut, which com- mences 8 miles north of Springfield and has a w width in Massachu- seldom rises to the level of maximum flood. Just south of Thomson, this upper plain appears about the isolated Enfield ridge, at a height of 214 4 feet. Two miles west of the Connec- ticut, peiec opposite the — place, it has full height, 215 feet, about the isolated ri ridge of Suffield village. The material is coarse gravel. A northern portion of the Suffield ridge is 10 feet higher and is of coarse cobblestone material, and may be till. Northwest of Hartford, the upper terrace is well ‘defined half * Southern ie — during the melting of the Great Glacier, this Journal Til, x and xi, 187 + Annu ual Lagat of ‘chs Chief of — for 1878, nck B14. Report of the surveys and examinations o e Connecticut River between rg Conn., an oke, Mass., made = 1867, by Brevet-Major General G _K. Warren, Major of Engineers, U.S. A * 2 from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 185 a mile from the gap through the trap for the Farmington River, and has a height, by aneroid, of 210 to 215 feet. The plain in the vicinity of the Manchester depot, on the east of Hartford, is about 200 feet in height. South of Hartford, east of the Connecticut, in Glastenbury, a i spreads two t rd, with a height of 170 to 190 feet. Two miles north of Middletown it is reduced to a broad shelf against the eastern hills, a mile or more from the river, and has a height of 186 feet above mean tide east of Gildersleeve’s landing. At Middletown, where the river turns eastward to pass the Narrows, the waters spread 2 to 4 miles west of the Connecticut. At Rock Falls, and just beyond, the terrace deposits have a height of 193 to 199 feet above mean-tide; and at Pine Grove Cemetery the wide plain is, according to an aneroid measurement by Professor Wm. North Rice, of Middletown, 199 feet. The facts make the maximum height at Middletown probably between 193 and 199 feet. Nearly two miles southwest of Middletown, just east of the Haddam road, stratified sand and gravel make the upper part of a hill which is 235 feet high above mean tide. If a part of the terrace-formation, it would make the maximum level of the flood and of the Middletown dam 40 feet above the height just men- tioned. But it has a capping 3 to 4 feet thick of coarse unstrati- either side of the stream of 420 to 440 feet ; in Northfield the ter- race rises toward the hills 15 feet above the level taken for the 186 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley all judgments. It is quite possible, however, that a more exact study of the terraces will place the flood-level higher than I have done ; certainly higher, I think, rather than lower. The section gives an impressive idea of the greatness of the ancient flood. The river had, as it shows, two great falls in its course, one, the Fifteen-mile Falls to the north, below Lancaster, the other a’ twenty-five mile fall on the way to the Sound from Middletown, Connecticut. It took its full magnitude west of the White Mountain region, after its junc- tion with the Passumpsic, one of its two chief sources, and after accessions from its other head waters, Stevens’ Brook and Wells River on the west, and the Ammonoosuc River ané Oliverian Brook on the east. At North Haverhill the height of the water above modern low-water level was at least 250 feet, and its width exceeded two miles; and it was nearly or quite 200 feet above the same level at Middletown in Connect- icut, 172 miles south of Haverhill and 26 miles in a direct line along the valley, from the Sound. The diminution in depth southward was evidently a consequence of the inereasing of some prominent hills. Yet those of the hills that are within one to two miles of the river are mostly free from stratified drift and terraces, and have instead rounded surfaces and a deep covering of till; and it may be that this scoured condi- tion was produced by the violent rush of the waters at the fina destruction of the ice-dam. enable the reader to compare the ancient with the mod- ern floods of the Connecticut, a section of the latter from Hol- yoke to Long Island Sound is given on the general section. For the part from Holyoke to Hartford it is taken from the sec tion published in General Warren’s Report as the result of a series of careful measurements by General Ellis. For the * Report of Mr. Upham, p. 24. + This Journal, III, xi, 178, 1876. from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 187 tween the two falls, 31 feet. me additional exaggeration is made apparent in the course of the following discussions. From the facts presented in the section and others connected with the Connecticut valley and its terraces, we may obtain ap- proximate results with regard to the mean depth of the flooded river, its mean width, the mean slope or pitch of the stream, and its mean velocity. extent of this lower terrace, it appears to be necessary to deduct 60 to 80 feet from the whole height of the flood in most parts 188 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley of the valley; and for the sake of an estimate and not an over-estimate, 75 feet may be the amount deducted. According to the section, the height above modern low-water level at Haverhill was about 260 feet; and this, diminished by 75, gives for the depth 185 feet. So we obtain for Hanover and White River Junction, if the height of the intervening falls be divided between them, 295-75=150 feet ; for Windsor, 216-75=141 feet; for Brattleboro, 210-75= 135 feet: for South Vernon, near the border of Massachusetts, 207-75=132 feet. may thence take for the average depth north of the Mas- sachusetts line, 140 feet. The depth on the southern boundary of Massachusetts obtained by the same method would be 125 feet, and at Hartford in Connecticut, 125 feet. But the width is so much greater after entering Massachusetts, that it is quite certain, as already stated, that the less depth is more than bal- anced by the greater width. 3. MEAN wiprH.—In order to obtain an approximation as to the mean width of the flooded stream between Wells River and the Massachusetts line, we may review, for a few localities, not only the width (which I take from Mr. Upham’s map), but also the areas of cross-sections. At Haverhill, the highest normal terrace of the east side rises nearly to its fall height, 263 feet above low water gee directly from the lower terrace-plain of 83 feet. The widt the chan- sea -way on the map, above the 88-foot terrace, is CE 000 feet. Taking for the depth of water 2683 —83=180 feet, the area of the cross section, with this width, would be 720, 000 square feet. Between northern Orford and Fairlee, 8 miles south of Haverhill, the higher terraces are wanting. Taking for the width only that covered by the valley deposits, that is, the low terraces—it is about 3,300 feet—which is too low, because there is no high terrace to mark the actual width, and the low ter- races referred to are only 55 feet above low water. The height e flood as given in the section, Plate 2, is 252 feet; thence, with the depth (252—55=) 197 feet, and with 3,300 feet as the width, area of cross-section is 650,000 square feet. Where the valley passes Norwich and Han nover, the most peaninent terrace has a height of about 150 feet above low water in the river, while the upper one, marking flood limit, is 210 feet. The channel. -way has hence a narrow lower, and a wide upper section. For the width of the former, I have measure- ments obtained for me by Prof. R. Fletcher, of the School o Civil Engineering at Dartmouth College. The measurements were taken between points half-way up the steep terrace-front. 600 feet below the bridge crossing the river, width : oe feet. 400 feet above * soo t «Yao y 3 500 “i a o o ; 000 “ Jrom the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 189 The mean of the above numbers is 1,400 feet. At the last of the localities, the river has on its west side high rocks and therefore no terraces, and the bottom terrace is only 30 feet above low-water level. This number should, therefore, be thrown out, the small width having probably been compen- sated for by increased velocity. In this case the estimated mean width would be over 1,500 feet. For the width of the upper section of the flooded stream, or that above the level of the 150-foot terrace, we have the inter- val between the highest terraces of the two sides of the valley in the line of the villages of Hanover and Norwich, 8,000 feet ; and on a transverse line 2,500 feet below the bridge (see above), 4,000 feet. The mean between the two is 6,000 feet. To obtain the area of a cross section we have. then 1,500 feet for the mean width of the lower section of the flooded stream, and for that of the upper, 210—150=60 feet. The area of the whole cross-section, afforded by these numbers, is 514,500 square feet. The falls of 40 feet in the river, two miles below Hanover, suggest a good reason for the little height of the lower terraces. Above Brattleboro, the mean width, as nearly as we can obtain it from Mr. Upham’s map, is 5,000 feet. The depth, deducting 75 feet for the lower terrace, is 135 feet; and this gives for area of cross section, 675,000 square feet. At the narrowest part 3 miles north of Brattleboro, the width of the channel-way is 3,500 feet; but this is so only for a short distance, and the lower terraces here have a height of but 35 to 50 feet. With this width and deducting only the mean between 35 and 50, or 43 feet, for the lower terrace, the area of section is about 585,000 square feet. . From these results, although not based on accurate measure- ments, we may conclude that the area of cross-section for the Connecticut, between Wells River and the Massachusetts line, averaged at least 560,000 square feet, and hence that the mean width, if 140 feet be taken as the mean depth, was probably not less than 4,000 feet. 4. MEAN Stopr.—We may /irst deduce the slope or pitch on the assumption that the land and ocean had their present rela- tions as to level; and then, secondly, consider the evidence as to these relations having been different from now, and finally make other calculations in accordance with the conclusion reached. * 190 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley . Mean slope of the river in case the land ie ocean: had their an sane as to level.—Supposing the land and ocean in measured along the valley (taking no note of the on in the river) between localities, on a scale of a twelfth of an inch to 14 miles. We thus find for the slope: Distances Slope in miles, per mile. Haverhill (655 ft. pon age dh to Windsor (520), .-..-.-.-. 41 3°3 feet Windsor (520) to South Vernon, Vt. ‘a 3 BS a cee nN oe 49 2°5 South Vernon (396) ap Springfield, MRE C240 44. 3° Springfield (240) to the Middletow n Narrows (LOD) er 38 1-2 Narrows (195) to Long [sland Sound, .-.... _._..-___.. 26 7:4. caaeon Ssasid! to the Middletown Narrow s (195), . ‘ 172 2°71 m (396) to the Middletown acives (195), - S83 82 2°5 Haver t b the Sound, e 198 3°3 outh Vernon to the So und, yee kent ah See A eee Eee aR N 108 3°6 From the above 5 ey peeks that, except for the dam at the Middletown Narrows, the mean slope from Haverhill to the Haverhill to Windsor. But, owing to the dam, the mean slope to Middletown is but 2°7 feet, eile below the Narrows it is 7-4 feet per mile. B. Mean velocity.—To obtain the velocity, we have the data above hss is for the mean width, depth and aispe of the flooded riv Another Sadek required is the amount of resistance from bends and obstructions in the stream. It is fortunate for the calculations that the ees valley follows a remarkably straight north-and-south ¢ With the water raised 20 a rapid stream. On the map of the river and valley between Wells River and Bellows Falls, figure 4, Plate 2, the band covered by the deposits, indicated by the dotted outline, shows that the waters made nearly a straight stream. The map is somewhat short of the truth, since the upper terraces are absent in parts of the valley and particularly so for the narrower part along from Ely to Piermont. Only a map that gave on each side of the valley the eras line corresponding to the he ight of maxi- mum flood, and also the limits of the channel-way as marked by the inner limits of the highest terraces, would show fully the degree of straightness. from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. - 191 Below Windsor there is a prominent obstruction in Mount Barber, an elevation in the direct course of the stream and a mile wide; but there was abundant room for the river on either side of it. Another obstructing mass of ledges probably ex- isted just south of Turner’s Falls southwest of the mouth of Miller’s River, in Massachusetts, ten miles south of South Ver- non, where the Connecticut river makes a westward bend of six miles to Greenfield. This probably existing “‘mass of ledges,” is now: beneath the terrace formation, the top of which is the elevated plain between Montague City and Miller's river ; and its existence at no great depth beneath the plain is infer- red from the terrace deposits—on the ground that these are an indication of slackened flow in the waters. The flooded river passed both along the east and west sides of these obstructing ledges, as well as over them at highest water. After passing this place, the river at highest flood had an open and almost straight way to Middletown, which was nowhere less than 4,000 feet in width, though narrowed at Mt. Holyoke, Enfield Falls and Glastenbury. Whenever a careful topographic survey of the Connecticut valley shall have been made, which shall lay down throughout it contour-lines corresponding to the maximum flood-level, it may be possible to arrive very nearly at the amount of resistance produced by the flexures. At present it is not possible to reach any accurate estimate ; and the best that we can do is to use a diminished width for the basis of the calculations and make a further allowance by estimate. The results with regard to the velocity are hence obtained below for the river with a breadth of 2,500 feet, as well as with that of 4,000 feet. he formula for the calculation of the velocity here em- ployed is that given by Humphreys & Abbot for large rivers in their admirable Report on the Mississippi River, numbered 41, on page 312. It is applicable strictly to a limited portion of a large river without bends. It is as follows : v = ( (2257, st]4—0°0388) in which v is the velocity sought: s, the sine of the slope; and r, the mean radius = area of cross-section, a, divided by p+W, or the length of the wetted perimeter (p) plus the width at surface. In the general formula, the sine of the slope = s - /= length of limited portion of the river. h =h,+h,,= differ- ence of level of the water-surface at the two extremities of the distance /, in which h, = the part of h consumed in overcoming the resistances of the channel supposed to be straight and of nearly uniform cross-section, and h = the part of A consumed di in Overcoming the resistances of bends and important irregular- 192 J. D. Dana-—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley ities of cross-section. In the equation for nik rivers, above quoted, h,, is thrown out by the condition he fo ollowing are the results for the peionn of the river in- dicated in the column to the left. The slope is given in feet per mile. The velocity is stated in miles per hour and in feet per second, and both for a width of 4,000 and 2,500 feet Velocity, width 4000 been 2500 feet. - pe I e Inm I In ft. per Slope hour Ss second oben to Windsor __. -.- Vico 13°07 19°16 12 ne 8:97 sor to South V ernon ate ies 2°56 12°18 17°87 12-06 17°69 ete Vern ringfield_____- 3°5 13°26 19°45 13°13 19°25 Spring fiel Middletown dam_-. 1°25 = 10°23 15-00 10°12 14°85 Haverhill to Middletown dam ____ 2°7 12°42 18°22 12°30 18°03 South Vernon to Middletown dam oh 12:18 L737 12:06 17°69 Middletown dam to the Sound____ 7-4 16°02 23°49 15°85 23°25 From the above, the mean velocity for the whole river from Haverhill to Middletown, would have been, assuming that the relations of the land to the sea-level were the same as now, over 12 miles an ued even supposing the mean width to have been but 2,500 fee This oreat acy, or even one of 10 miles an hour, is not compatible with the character of the deposits which lie at dif- ferent levels beneath the surface of the stream—both those at 140 feet below the surface and those at higher levels. The former, away from the region of the mouths of tributaries, con- sist almost uniformly of nearly incoherent but stratified sand, or any. rape and in some parts of clay ; and similar fine mate- ials in general constitute the terrace-deposits of the higher peels Pehadina the terrace-fronts) up toa level within 50 feet of the highest flood level and often nearly to the upper- most plane. According to trials, a current of one-third of a mile per hour will take up and transport fine earth or clay having the parti- cles ‘016 inch in diameter; and one of two-thirds, fine sand, the mean diameter about ‘064 inch. Accordingly, since the mean diameter of the largest transportable particles varies as rey and Bazin, in their Recherches Hydrauliques, vate the so ielge as the stan velocity (in feet per second) at which scour commences for e different materials mentioned, and the corresponding calculated mean pi — Bottom velocity. Mean velocity. 7. Marth cove tues 0°26 0°33 Bi MOON: Coc eae bein ane 0°50 0°65 WOMANS (oo Soe oe 1°00 1°30 4. Gravel 2°00 2°62 B POpDIOB Seve oS, Se 3°40 4°46 on BLOHO 35256 4°00 5°15 % he 6°5 13°12 —Cited from ee Encyl. Brit., vol. xii sass an Hydromechanics. Jrom the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. » 196 the square of the velocity (supposing them of like density) a stream of 2-miles an hour at bottom would carry along stones of about 0°6 inch in diameter; and one of 4 miles, stones 24 inches in diameter. The mean velocity is generally about a third to a sixth greater than the bottom rate, the differences diminishing as the velocity increases. the mean velocity were 10 miles an hour, that of the bottom would be over 8 miles (unless greatly impeded by transported material)—rapid enough to scour down to stones and soli This argument is not based on the depositions made by the stream; for these were more or less made over the flood- grounds of the river as the waters rose; and the waters over flood-grounds, even in the case of rapid streams, are variously impeded by the amount of transported material, friction in the shallow waters, and obstructions, often dam-like, due to the uneven surface beneath; but on the transporting force of the stream at the time of maximum flood, when all the terrace- waters. It may be questioned whether the,lower terrace of 60 to 80 feet above present low water, which is almost everywhere —if the mouth of no tributary is near—made of sand or loam where not of clay, was actually the bottom of the flooded stream ; whether, the waters did not excayate down to stones and rock, so that this terrace is of subsequént formation. this supposition does not rid the subject of the fact that the flooded stream did not take up and carry off the sands of its bottom, For the range of higher terraces usually 140 to 160 feet above low water in the river, were at the time under 50 feet in depth of water; and these, away from tributaries, usually consist at top and below of fine sand or loam, or of fine gravel. The great terrace-plain north of White River Junction was one of this kind with 50 feet of water above it; and it consists at chiefly of sand with some clay. The materials of the corre- sponding terrace near Windsor are still finer. The high ter- race-plain east of Greenfield and south of Turner’s Falls, be- tween Montague City and Miller’s Falls, called the Montague City plain, lies directly in the way of the Connecticut, as stated on page 191; and although flowed over at the highest flood by water 10 to 30 feet in depth, it consists chiefly of fine sand, or loamy sand, with some clay, except on its eastern and north- eastern side, where it received contributions from the violently torrential Miller’s River. _ Thus all parts of the valley bear like testimony to a velocity 'n the waters at maximum flood which was not great enough to carry off fine gravel, and this means a velocity not exceeding 194 J. DP. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut. River Valley two miles an hour at bottom; se is the condition in a stream having a mean velocity of 3 to 4 miles, The transported materials in we waters would have had a retarding effect; but small, since as rar shown, they were only ‘sand and finer material, and the fine straticulation indicates a free-flowing stream (p. 93). "the deduced mean velocity, over 12 miles an hour, could hardly have been reduced by all the causes of retardation together to less than 9 or 10 miles an hour. We are thus led to enquire what range of evidence there may be as to the existence of a less pitch in the valley, to cause the less velocity, or as to any other method by which a dimin- ished velocity might have been produced. One method is by means of dams; a second, by changed rela- tions between the level of the land and sea. B. Dams on the Connecticut Valley as a possible source of less slope in the waters.—That it mE be understood ite is to be explained by means of dams, or in other ways, e view the facts with regard to the ley: deposits kad. aniociatad sand-deposits of the valle It is to be remembered that the sand-beds and those of finer material ordinarily make not only the lower terraces but also the highest, where tributaries are absent, to within 50 and often 20 or 30 feet of their tops; and that this is so even high up the Connecticut, as at Barnet, not two miles south of the junction with the Passumpsic, where these finer deposits ex- tended to a level of 150 to 200 feet above low water in the river. Clay-deposits are widely distributed about Hartford to a height of 75 feet and less above tide level, or Jow water in the river. At Springfield, 58 miles ina direct line from the Sound, they are of great extent at a height of 170 feet above the sea level ; at Holyoke, 8 miles north, on the west of the Connecti- feet; and over the Amherst region, as I learn from Professor Emmons, of Amherst, at nearly the same level. The dam below Middletown suggests a possible explanation of the origin of quiet water for the making of the clay beds about Hartford ; for if the dam were but little more than a third of its final height it would be sufficient; and if raised to within 10 feet of its full height, it might have produced the quiet movement in the waters required “for all the clay-beds up to and including those of the Amherst region. That the height of the dam was actually so near its extreme height, when the terrace deposits ~ from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 195 of Springfield were 50 feet and more below their maximum height, is far from certain. The Springfield, Willimansett and Amherst deposits are situated close by the present river chan- nel, and hence seem to be safe evidence as to the very small velocity of the river, which they might not be if they were more distant flood-ground deposits. Jlay-beds exist just below the Middletown dam, on the east- ern or Portland side, to a height of 75 feet above modern low water, in a very steep and short valley. The place would seem to be very unfavorable for such fine depositions if the dam were then formed, and especially if at its final height. But it is possible that the ice had made a barrier to the little stream, so that the evidence from these clay-beds is not conclusive against the existence of the dam during their formation. But, further, extensive clay-beds exist in the high and broad terrace of Montague City, east of Greenfield, 300 feet above tide level. Again, on the terrace-plain, between Windsor and Hartland, 500 feet above the sea-level, or 190 feet above the river, clay comes to the surface in a field so as to be turned up (as I observed) by a plough, the material along the plain else- where being fine sandy loam. South of this, in Windsor, the deposits are fine loam and sandy loam to a height of 500 feet, with clay nearly to this height. North of White River Junc- tion clay was exposed near the river ata height of 460 feet above mean tide, or nearly 130 feet above the river at low water. In Hanover, N. H., the clay-beds extend along for 3 or 4 miles or more; and in the village they reach a height of 523 feet above mean tide, or 150 feet above the river—clay having been taken out at this level in excavating for the cellar of Professor Hubbard’s house (as he informs me), opposite the northwest corner of the College Square; and on the opposite side of the Connecticut, in Norwich, there are clay beds at cor- responding heights up to 500 feet. Just north of the village of arnet a clay-bed comes to the surface in the terrace-plain near the river at.a height of 610 feet above mean tide an 8 above the river. These few examples will no doubt be multi- plied greatly by careful exploration. For making the clay-beds north of Amherst, the Middletown dam would have been of no avail; and besides this dam there 1S no satisfactory evidence of any other. This is shown by the regularity in the pitch of the terraces along the valley. The valley is comparatively narrow between Mt. Holyoke and Mt. Tom; but the heights of the terraces give no evidence of adam, and the clay-deposits are at nearly the same high level above and below. Another narrow way for the modern river is between Mt. Toby and Sugar-Loaf, a dozen miles north of Mt. Holyoke; but here the waters of the flooded river 196 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley had a passage east of Mt. Toby, and a very wide one west of Sugar-Loaf. ere are like objections to the location of dams at other places. Mr. Upham says, on this point, especially with reference to the part of the valley north of meee Ea ip that the idea of dams oe the valley is not sustained by the topog- velocity that would admit of epee depositions of sand throu ugh all the valley and of cla Pies 90 in yet sone to nee C. gil and i cue changed relations in the level of the land and se a. Rounes of a change afforded by the heights of Elevated Sea- beaches.—The fact of a wide difference between the flood era and modern time along the coast region is put rar eyond question by the heights above existing tide-level of shell-bearing beach- eposits. he facts are well known. The more important are here tabulated :* Latitude. Height. New Haven or New eae On Phe. Pounds ue 41° 14’ 15 to 25 Sankaty Head, Nantuc rs ie if Point Shirley, near Baan 42°19” 75 to 100 aga gris oe x 44°" 6’ 200 WS sa nie ates 44° 207 217 Crise, ve ‘a N. of Burlington, on L. Champlain), -. - 44° 337 335 Middlebu os ipoee one Mie . 44° 10’ 403 Monteal. Pep eaten Pema rere Ne 45° 31’ 520 oulements, on St. Lawrence River, 47° 30 Murray Bay, on Se Tawiehte River 2 47° 45’ { about ” The facts prove (1) a difference of level compared with tide- ~~ between the era of the beach-deposits and the present; d (2) an increasing amount of difference northward. They are all from the coast it is true, but from the coast of the northwest side of New England as well as from its. eastern, southeastern and southern borders; and in view of their wide geographical range, and especially the fact, ames made mani- fest, that the valley of the Connecticut must have had dimin- ished oer during the era of the flooded river, we “ome believe that the interior of New England aries the changed re- * The heights at Eboulements and Murr have received from J. W. Dawson, of Mewitael The beds at Middlebury, —— C. H. Hite: h heights on Long Island age (north side) are based on stratified deposits along or near the Sound, but not shell-bea ~ The shells in the Mt. Desert deposits indicate a considerable tone of wate: from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 197 lations to the sea-level that we find indicated along the sea- asts. Tt being thus altogether probable that the inéerior of the country participated in the change, the amount of this change along any diameter would probably have had some relation to the amount at its extremities. As Montreal and Lake Cham- plain lie on the west side of the area, Murray Bay on the north, and the Atlantic border deposits on the eastern, several such ~ gp ay may be run across. From the ee observed Distance 2. New Haven to Montreal .._..-.--- 300 miles. 1°66. feet per mile. Point Shirley to Montreal ._.._---- 255). 1°65-1°75 we Lewiston, Me., to Montreal 195 15 B. Lines TO Murray Bay. New Haven to iene cv Catiada 460 miles, 1°25 feet per mile. Point Shirley to Murray Bay -.--.- STB 23 i 1°33-1°40 s Wwiston to BAe ae aie eas 200; 1." 1:44 ©. LINES TO LOCALITIES ON THE ATLANTIC BORDER. New London to Lewiston, Me.---. - 220 miles. 0-9 feet per mile. Sankaty Head to i eg i ae ee 192.234 1°05 & Point Shirley to Lewi ston, Me.._..- bap 1 to 1:2 ee Sankaty Head to Point Shirley Sede ta 0'5 to 0°8 “ The mean rate of increase toward Montreal is thus 1°5 to 175 feet per mile, while on the coast it is not over one foot a mile; and in the direction of an intermediate point, Murray Bay, it is 1:25-1:40 feet per mile. The direction of greatest merease is not in the direction of a meridian, but along a line running northwestward. rom these mean rates of increase, supposing the increase uniform, the amount of change at intermediate points on the lines may be obtained. We thus obtain for the region of the: Connecticut Valley at Lancaster, using the line from Lewiston to Montreal, a height of 318 feet. Using thel ine from aven to Murray Bay for a similar acne the height for the same place is Longue to be 326 feet. This near coinci- dence seems to be si For Haverhill, she amount of change would be—the place being 46 miles from Lan ter, Leathe along the valley, and 198 from Long Island Sonnd 972 fe * 198 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley We thence have 1:25 feet per mile (=50 seconds nearly in angle) as the mean rate of change northward along the Connec- ticut valley. e line D S on the section (figure 2, Plate 2) represents the ‘mean-tide level thus deduced. It is drawn from a point on the Sound marking 25 feet above mean-tide level (supposing the change on the Sound to be 25 feet, though along by the mouth of the Connecticut it may not have exceeded 15 feet), and rises in the direction of the valley northward, at the rate of 1-25 feet per mile. It cannot be assumed that the rate was equable throughout the valley. It may have been less than the deduced rate to b. Effects of the change while the river was low.—It the river were, for a while, at or near modern low-water level (and it probably was so), the change of 1:25 foot a mile, would have taken out all the mean slope from the several parts of the valley, excepting the abrupt descents at the falls. The tides would have extended beyond the Holyoke dam, eight miles above Springfield, obliterating the falls and have stood 15 feet above its top; and have reduced Turner’s Falls nearly 30 feet in height. The elevation of low-water level above the sea would have been only 35 feet at South Vernon, or the Massachu- setts boundary; at Windsor, 83 feet; at Haverhill, 120 feet. Hence the descent between South Vernon and Windsor would have been only 48 feet, which is three feet less than the fall (51 feet) at Bellows Falls, situated between these two points ; and the descent between Windsor and Haverhill would have been only 87 feet, which is three feet less than the fall (40 feet) at the falls between Hanover and White River. Since these falls would have wasted, by friction at bottom, any velocity which might have been gained by descent, the Connecticut River would have been for the most part a series of nearly still-water stretches with falls at a few distant points. This condition would have continued, with but little change as to the effect 0 the dams, after the waters had risen 20 to 25 feet above low . water, as in a modern floo from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 199 have had but slight working force, and the present low-water level would have been the lowest possible level at which this little work could have been done. An earlier consequence . might have been—the deposition of the till with no more strati- fication where it fell into the waters than when dropped outside or them. c. Effects of the change after the flood had made progress. — When the river had risen to a height of 60 or 80 feet above Haverhill 383 feet Windsor 299 * South Vernon, 336 f Springiiel: .. 3.54 224i 135“ The Middletown dam Beceem re a 5 RAs The mean slope and velocity on the above supposition, would hence have been for the part from— Velocity, Magee with width with width Distance _ Slope ft. ft : in miles. ft. perm. m.perh, ft. persec. m. perh. ft. per sec. Haverhill to Windsor.... 41 2 11515 16°89 LL 16°70 a 2 39 Windsor to South Vernon 49 1:3 10°: 15°15 10°22 =: 15°00 8. Vernon to Springfield. 44 2'3 1108 1760 AGI: 27-82 Springfield to Middletown 38 0 Buse ons wens wi0e Haverhill to Springfield... 134 19 113% «1667 | 1088. - 168 Middletown dam to Sound 26 5°2 14°65 21°49 14°51 21°28 According to the above, the river at maximum flood would have had no slope between Springfield and Middletown, and have therefore been in this part a great lake. But this condition Jour. sg deg Series, Vou. XXIII, No, 135.—Marocn, 1882. f 200 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley is shown to be improbable by the coarse character of the deposits in the Springfield region that were made at maximum flood ; mean tide at PIV OTE es re ee oe te So 387 feet. WelGGOt oro eg Le er el eee SOF. + South Vernon Sub iy Aira ts ray. 2 Se Springfield 1Di os The Middletown damwn__..__.. 144 * Excepting south of Springfield, the changes in slope thus in- troduced between the places mentioned are small—that from South Vernon to Springfield becoming 2-2; from Windsor to South Vernon 1:2; that from Haverhill to Springfield, 1°8; and that from Haverhill to Windsor continuing at 2; so that the velocities would be but slightly altered. Between Springfield and Middletown the pitch becomes about 8 inches a mile. According to the preceding table, the velocity from Haver- hill to Springfield, notwithstanding this change of one-third in the slope of the stream, would still, when at the highest flood- level, have exceeded 10 miles an hour for a mean width of 2500 feet, the pitch to Springfield being nearly 2 feet a mile.* And if we assume that bends and other obstructions, and trans- portation would have reduced the mean velocity 20 per cent, it would still be 8 miles an hour, with a bottom velocity over 6, and: therefore much in excess of that indicated by the char- acter of the bottom deposits. It is quite certain that the slope must have been much less than that which corresponds to a height of water-surface at Haverhill of 387 feet, or a pitch in the valley to Springfield of 21 inches a mile. But it is not so evident what slope would harmonize the facts; that is, would cause a velocity sufficient to make or leave coarse valley deposits near and at flood level, such as might be made by a current of 4 to 6 miles an hour, and, at the same time, leave almost undisturbed beds of sand or of fine pebbles along its bottom, whether at depths of 50 or 150 feet, this alike for the stream north of South Vernon and south of it, and even for the part north of Wells River to Barnet as well as south of Wells River. . : By calculation, using the same elements as before, taking the width at 2500 feet and making no allowance for ob- * According to the formula, the velocity varies approximately as the 4th root of the slope, and, consequently, to diminish the velocity from any rate to one- half, the slope must be reduced about a sixteenth. S if 4 ; from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier. 201 structions by bends or transportation, it appears that a slope in the water surface of only 0°383 inches a mile would give a mean velocity of 4 miles an hour; and one of 0°923 inches, a mean velocity of 5 miles. The Mississippi along a straight portion at Carrollton, during high water, when the maximum depth was 186 feet and the slope but 1:3 inches, has a mean velocity of 4 miles per hour. (See beyond.) Making allowance for the probable amount of resistance from the sources above mentioned, it would seem that a slope of 2 inches a mile to Springfield would have been sufficient to meet the conditions; and that one of 3 inches would have been too great. But suppose it 3 inches a mile; a change in the pitch of the valley amounting to 18 inches a mile would have been needed to produce it. If we suppose it 6 inches— which is a very large pitch in any stream under continuous flow (that is, not broken into parts by dams) which was the fact with the flooded Connecticut down to Middletown—the needed diminution in the pitch of the valley would have been 15 inches a mile. This amount, 15 inches, added to the 15 inches a mile deduced from tie elevated sea-beaches, would make for the total diminution in mean rate of pitch to Springfield 24 feet a mile; and if the amount were 18 inches, the total would be 22 feet a mile, which would make the change at Haverhill hardly 50 feet less than at Montreal. The later change, whatever its amount, would have been a continuation of the former. Whether it was confined or not to the Connecticut valley—a line of weakness in former geo- logical eras—must be determined by the study of other valleys to the east and west, especially the Merrimack on one side and that of Lake Champlain and the Hudson on the other. Itisa strange fact that the terrace formation of the southern part of the Lake Champlain region, and of its continuation along Lake George to Albany on the Hudson has not yet been carefully studied. In view of so great changes in the slope, reining in the va Carrollton is 121 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi, and at high water © surface of the river is 15-2 feet above sea-level. 202 J. D. Dana—The Flood of the Connecticut River Valley. the report of Humphreys and Abbot as one of the thirty cases upon which data their formula for velocity was based, the ele- ments were as follows: Area of Wetted Maximum Mea cross-section Width perimeter wy hn v locity in square feet. feet. in feet. in feet. per second. lope. 93,968 2653 2693 136 5'9288 0:00002051 The calculated velocity found by the formula was 5°9673 per second, giving a difference of 0°0385 feet. The velocity obtained is almost exactly four miles an hour; and the slope to w te this velocity corresponds is, as already stated, 1-3 inches per m eans of the fo rmula, we have, from th scnai tions in the Mississippi as to dimensions, but with other acciak slopes, the following results Slope per mile Velocity in Velocity in feet in feet. Slope per foot. miles per hour. per second. 0°00033 : 11918 3°0 0°0005682 13°670 45 0°0008523 10°32 157145 6°0 0-0011364 12°47 18-292 The case of the Mississippi differs from that of the flooded lei ig in the less average depth—the maximum being 136 he Mississippi River was more like the New England i when it was itself flooded from the same cause; when its less deposits were formed, according to Professor E. W. Hilgard, not many miles above the head of the delta, to a height of 450 feet above the sea. Its average width below the mouth of the Ohio exceeded 50 miles. Professor Hilgard points out the fact* that the “Grand Gulf Group,” of the border of the Gulf of e stratified arift to a ant ot of 500 feet above the Peulf; and that the facts berate that an elevation of the gulf f border, and of that portion of the Mississippi valley, was begun in the earl y Ter tiary and — on until it had re — a height in the Glacial te of 900 feet, after which ther reverse movement. In t reverse sameness (or after it yee a yor bend upward), pod region must have been long at or near 450 above the sea (if there was not, in ‘are of part of it, a diminution of pitch northward), in order that ne slope of the water-surface of the river should have been yt as the le On this view, the Mississippi had a dam, and ~~ put thereby into a lacustrine condition, right for making less or loamy depos- its. The Connecticut had a dam also; Sing it couanned neverthe- less to be a river throughout, its loa deposits and clay-beds being “saboniinasen in the upper Sevtnen | to its sand-beds and those of coarser constitution, * Tn this Journal, xxii, 58, 1881. [Lo be continued.] to a minimum, so as to allow of such fine deposits zy: ‘ De a eT Sar een eT OM ATE Ug OR Te Foe eae ep ee Oe ee ee ee ee ee eo i Bee t es Wetherby—Distribution of Fresh-water Mollusks. 203 Art. X VIII.—On the Geographical Distribution of certain Fresh- water Mollusks of North America, and the probable causes of their Variation; by A. G. WETHERBY, Professor of Geology and Zoology, University of Cincinnati.* Havine set forth, in the first part of this paper, the main facts connected with the distribution of the Unionide and Strepomatide,+ over the region under consideration, it now be- comes my task to attempt a solution of some of the problems thereby indicated; for, to the careful student of this subject, several of its features are in the nature of unanswered questions ; and these, it seems to me, will be found to be so intimately associated with the history of our continent's development, and especially with that part relating to the evolution of its systems of drainage, as to cause continual reference to that subject, in the light of present geological knowledge. Without stopping, at this point, to discuss the zoological relationships which possibly indicate the marine ancestry of the mollusks under consideration, it is a fair presumption that the first fresh-water forms were lacustrine. Of the truth of this proposition there seems to be ample evi- dence in the fact, that, even during Archean times, fresh-water akes were not impossibilities or even improbabilities. The processes by which salt water areas, isolated from the main — ocean, pass through their various stages of approach to fresh- water conditions, are familiar to all students of physical geog- raphy ; nor is the fact of the existence of such bodies of water In areas of limited drainage any less well known. High pla- teaus and low plains alike contribute examples of this fact. They are most typical in regions of comparative aridity from Various causes; and many such bodies of water now known have been undergoing the freshening process since the early _ Tertiaries It can not, I think, be doubted that there have been, through- out the geological ages, depressions of this description; and Rs : : _ when we consider the fossil shells found in lacustrine deposits, and the forms now inhabiting such bodies of water as Lake Baikal and Lake Balkash, the probability of their gradual dif- ferentiation from marine types, and of their successive varia- ions as fresh-water forms, seems to be associated with no factor of the improbable. Inthis consideration due weight must be given to the great * From the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, July, 1881; being Part ii of an article of which Part i appeared in January, and was notice on p. 76 of this volume. t The Strepomatide comprise the American species formerly referred to the Melania family. 204 A. G. Wetherby—Distribution of Fresh-water Mollusks, influence of Archean lands upon the subsequent moulding and forming of the continent, whose final systems of drainage, and all the stages of development leading to them, were determined by this early and stable region, which had its representative areas on both sides of the incipient uplift, and at comparatively isolated points over the great central basin; areas aroun which clustered, throughout the history of continental progress, the geological activities that determined eve ry thing. t seems desirable, in discussing the variations above hinted at, to remember that there must have been a far greater impe- creatures the vicissitudes accompanying a ce into bod- ies of flowing water. Such changes of s nally of habitat, were among the last possibilities of oe growth, because it was only in connection with the later grand move- ments associated with terrestrial evolution, that present sys- tems of drainage became possibilities. It is likewise true, that h range of forninons. ravers will be sreatek Threagh the more extensive erosion. Third, because in mountainous regions there is an increase of probability that saneval deposits will fall in the path of streams, which will effect changes in the water, causing enone stunting, or extraordinary devel ment, of given for Fourth, because the influx of side streams, bearing the Water of mineral springs, will saa to these effects. Fifth, because here we have the maximum of extremes in rate of current, and consequently the maximum of capacity to transport sediments that may act favorably or unfavorably upon the various creatures inhabiting these streams. th, (ax because of the probability that these mollusks have been prop: agated down stream, to the limit of favorable conditions—@ eS Ses Seen Me es Lo easy. REIL Ee i Ee oe ee Ae ey Peer ea esse Y and the probable causes of their Variations. 205 limit always determined in the first place by geological causes —and because of the variation in the conditions met in this traverse. Seventh, because combined with these circumstances is the fact, that all the stages in the development of these creatures are passed in an element thus unstable, amid condi- tions thus diversified, where the slightest tendency to varia- tion must have the maximum of exciting causes constantly operating to call it into play. If, then, it be admitted that there is in t i water shells. First, we may consider the circumpolar distribution of the Limneide. These mollusks are essentially lacustrine, for while they are distributed into rivers and smaller streams to some extent, their station of fullest development is in lakes, the world over. he genera, Physa, Limnea and Planorbis, are essentially northern forms, for it is in the cooler regions of the earth that they reach their largest size and greatest differentiation. Dis- tribution southward is accompanied by a stunting of forms in all cases but that of the sub-genus Bulimus, of which the B. aurantium passes through the American tropics, and is many | times the size of its circumpolar northern relative, the well- known B. hypnorum. This case stands as the only exception most critically accurate of our conchologists hesitate to label the The careful student of our North American forms will lons at north ; second, their cireumpolar distribution ; third, their presence in regions unfavorable to the development of other families of mollusks, as testified by their absence; b] ‘fourth, their persistent appearance together, even south ward, 206 A. G. Wetherby—Distribution of Fresh-water Mollusks, over regions of elevation. For these reasons, and for others of convenience in this discussion, I shall designate them as Fauna A, and will add this important and distinctly proven state- ment: that they reach, on our continent, their maximum o size, of differentiation, and the greatest local number of so- called species, in precisely that portion of it having the greater number of lakes, in regions of the oldest land or contiguous to it, and where there is the greatest paucity of other mollusks. less and interminable confusion. Nor is this statement an exaggeration, when we remember that European malacologists, of greater or less repute, have made nearly one hundred syn- onyms for the A. cygnea alone; and that the slightest review of our North American species, in the light of the evidence offered by geographical varieties, now well known, must reduce the number of so-called species more than one half; and many of these varieties continue from EKastern New York to Minne- sota, and a fewer ifumber, southward to the very borders of Mexico, over all of which area I have traced then! These shells, for like reasons with the first, I shall designate as Fauna B. The region occupied by A and B contains very few repre- sentatives of the Strepomatide, or FaunaC, Their geographical range northward was set forth in the first of these papers; an it is a significant fact that the few species of the Strepomatide, occupying this region, are those belonging to types that farther south, where the conditions of variation enumerated in another part of this paper reach their maximum, are so intimately united by varieties as to render their separation into distinct species, in most cases, utterly impossible; as the shells from different localities are so completely blended, that it is no exaggeration to gay that fifty per cent of the deseribed species are the merest synonyms. At the north, even, the difficulty begins; and it vastly increases in the more southerly mountain- ous region. This fauna differs essentially from A and B, 1p that it is not, normally, lacustrine, but fluviatile. A very few species are found in lakes, occasionally ; but there is in these / and the probable causes of their Variations. 207 shells an inherent aversion to still water, which characterizes all the genera, leading them to frequent rather the rapid parts of rocky streams; and here it is that we meet their greatest diver- sity of types, and the greatest variety of coloration and orna- mentation. This peculiarity of station is so persistent, that no skilled collector ever searches for them in level reaches of deep water, unless in the case of a few species of Pleurocera, which groups are only represented by the genus Melanopsis, over the same range in Kurope and Asia, and by Goniobasis and Pleuro- cera at the north, in America, their grand metropolis; in for- eastern and southeastern tributaries of the Tennessee, we find, as has already been stated, a group of shells of a distinct facies, _ requiring no expert knowledge of conchology to enable one to see that it differs, as a whole, from the Fauna D, with which it in this discussion, and in this place. In his last edition of his Synopsis of the Family Unionidw, 1870, which he tells us is his “most important work,” Mr. Lea makes the following remarkable statement, the truth of which he had abundant opportunities to verify; “although I have examined critically, . 208 A. G. Wetherby— Distribution of Fresh-water Mollusks, and published descriptions of the soft parts of 254 species of this family, and have often dissected 50 to 100 of the same species, I-can not see, as yet, any useful division that cou ei satisfy the student or the adept, which can be made by syst atic difference in the organic forms of the soft parts.” This means, I suppose, that the differences of the soft parts are so small as to afford no safe -basis upon which to predicate class- ification. I may add to this, that the most intimate study of the anatomy of different species of the Limneide and Strepoma- tide, has convinced me beyond reasonable doubt, that specific differences, supposed to be indicated in the shells, do not ex- tend to the animals themselves, so far as these studies go to show. I have now in course of preparation a memoir on this subject, which I hope soon to publish with accurate anatomical illustrations. Here is one of those strange facts, standing at the very threshold of the question of evolution, which finds a ee in the Zingula and the ee od ay now venture upon a few s estions, to which these the continent would have earally inhabited Archzean regions ; and as it is altogether likely, from chemical facts associated with the deposit of iron ores, ai the presence of graphite in the older rocks of the continent, as a out by Dr. Hunt and Dr. Dawson, that organic life may have existed to an extent not yet determined by rani: coil discovered as such, I think we do not pass beyond the bounds of probability in assigning to Fauna A a very remote antiquity. From its original locus, it has spread to the limit of suitable conditions, a limit undergoing constant variations, perhaps, through the geological ages, but which has been determined by boundaries mainly fixed by true geological causes. Through adaptation this fauna has, in a few cases, overstepped its primitive barriers, but it remains, as we have seen, true to its original instincts in all its more important phases. It is not probable, as may be suggested by the doubting reader, that this fauna wouls ae en exterminated by the great glacier, which is osed t have originated in its peculiar haunts, but more likely that Pe few species having an abnormal southern or southwestern range, received the first impulse of distribution in that direction from the glacial condition; and that, with the northward retreat of the glacier, they simply resumed their normal habitat, continu- ing their Gesribunens in that direction, in sueceeding times, to the northern lakes of British America. In st udying Fauna B, we find evidence that a previous distribution, probably sev- ered by the same or other causes, has never been fully united in a few cases—as in that of the MZ. margaritifera, occurring in Maine and Oregon, but not between these stations so far as now and the probable causes of their Variations. 209 known. But in most cases, the re-union has been complete. Such remnants as the Glacial epoch left, have been equal to the emergency of perpetuating their races over the region desolated by glacial action, and they may thus indicate what are the possibilities of development under determinate conditions. It may be suggested, that as the species of so-called Strepomatide of the west coast have rather the facies of the tropical Melan- ians, and as the other associates of the J. margaritifera in the waters of Oregon are species not elsewhere found, that this little faunal remnant is an independent one, and I readily agree to all this; yet there is no doubt of the existence of a Fauna B, or of its distribution, and the possibility that its present species are the descendants of a geological remnant like those of A. Still more striking is the evidence to be adduced from Fauna C. The region over which this group is distributed tures, we should have another proof of the existence of what have been so philosophically called “comprehensive types ;” and it is by no means a difficult thing to show abundant evidences of their presence in this heterogeneous host of their modified descendants, as I hope to point out hereafter. Even if this fauna does not antedate the Carboniferous epoch, rope, new light will begin to break in upon the “origin of species” among these protean bivalves; for such work is the ; 210 A. G. Wetherby—Distribution of Fresh-water Mollusks, — a significant fact that those North American rivers which con- tain the richest Unione fauna drain Mesozoic and Tertiary tropolis of these shells. And it is here that we find the two aunas above indicated most distinctly developed. The rivers draining the Mesozoic and Tertiary regions of the west have a very meagre fauna, both as to species and individuals; and I have already stated, that, with the exception of the few Ano- dontas of the northwest, the entire assemblage is composed of Ohio types. Until series of casts of the Ohio River shells are made, and these are carefully compared with the casts of species described from these western localities, we shall not have reached the best conclusion which a study of these fossils will afford us. If we consider the species of the Mesozoic and ‘Ter- tiary regions of the south and southwest, we shall find that when we have removed the Ohio types from the lists, very few valid species remain. How absolutely true this is, and how their remnants which have spread over the same area persistent species have either less tendency to variation, or the precise circumstances to call out such latent energies have not yet been brought into active account; while other forms, for opposite reasons, present us an infinity of varieties, always easily recognized, and of the derivative character of which no person, who has investigated this subject, can have any doubt. In this connection the isolated fauna of the Coosa, to which reference was made in the previous article, must not be neg- lected. This stream flows through a comparatively limited drainage. It contains two genera, Schizostoma and Tuiotoma, und the probable causes of their Variations. 211 mergence than took place in this region during the Tertiary, would exterminate many contemporary species in the lower part of its drainage. In such a case, this isolated remnant, ique and strange, would present us with a problem for con- sideration like that of the Unio spinosus. This single example well represents the principle to which this article points, and shows how readily, in earlier times, when systems of drainage were comparatively limited, and opportunities for the spread of species were correspondingly less, there might have been many cases like that of the Coosa, during the various epochs, which left remnants of their shell-fauna; and those remnants, which had less tendency to variability, have persisted with compara- tively little change; or, possibly, the changes have been in a direction which did not characterize other groups with which they were associated, leaving them distinct. At all events, the faunas are plainly indicate and in many cases it is not diffi- cult to point out central forms, around which they seem to be clustered. The various other genera of Fresh-water Shells, found in the western deposits above mentioned, all exhibit a tendency to varieties equal to that of the Unionide. e species of Goniobasis (?), Viviparus, Physa and Planorbis, are all cases im point; but one can not help seeing how closely the three genera last mentioned are related in all these fossil forms to Species now living; and it seems that Dr. White’s remark, accompanying the description of the Anodonta propatoris, “It 18 not to be denied that its separate specific identity is assumed from its known antiquity, rather than proved by its structure and form,” might have been, with still greater significance, written of many of these fossil Viviparide and Limneide. t this be as it may, I am convinced that the origin of these Ter- lary and Cretaceous forms is to be sought in a Paleozoic pro- genitor, whose probable starting point was in regions adjacent to the western Archean. While the species of fresh-water habitat may have persisted since the Carboniferous, in all the region between the Appalachians and the Mississippi, much of that portion of geological time has been fatal to such existence in the region west of the same stream; and thou r. Tryon Speaks of the Mississippi as a barrier to the westward distribu- tion of species, it seems to me that the cause is really to be found in the character of the western tributaries as well ; for while the 212 A. G. Wetherby—Distribution of Fresh-water Mollusks. able; but they were not favorable, and consequently no such distribution has taken place. Hence it is, that the few species of shells inhabiting those streams, seem to me more likely to be the descendants of an ancestry of old date, and their general correspondence in form to the Ohio type, points to their com- munity of origin. The Fauna E is here wanting; nor has it any representative. When we come to the consideration of the down-stream distribution of the species east of the Missis- sippi, we find the Strepomatide, as represented by their most characteristic genera, and Fauna E of the Unionide, to have a barrier in that direction. Here they cease, and beyond it, in the Tennessee, Cumberland, etc., we find mainly the Fauna D. Since this fact is general, it becomes one of high significance in this discussion, and stands as a unique evidence in favor of some of the suggestions here made; and it shows conclusively, that continuous water is not the only condition of molluscan dis- tribution; and that the present station of Jo, Goniobasis, Ancu- losa, etc., in mountain streams, and in the more rapid por- tions of these streams, is the result of the presence of condi- tions to which these creatures are by nature fitted; and while ies are more cosmopolitan, owing to their greater grea bull of Fauna C has its range circumscribed as has here been indicated. teristic geological groups; and to these evidences I shall direct attention in a future article. C. D. Walcott—New Genus of the Eurypterida. 2138 Art. X1X.—Deseription of a New Genus of the Order Hurypte- rida from the Utica Slate; by C. D. Waxcorv. In the February number of this Journal,* notice was given of the discovery of the fragmentary remains of a large Poecilo- pod in the Utica slate and its identification with the Hurypte- rida, a provisional reference being made to the genus Hurypterus. A review of this and the genera of its order shows that none of them present the characters seen in the remarkable cephalic appendage from which the genus now proposed derives its name. Echinognathus, nv. g. in the genus Pterygotus. Type, EB. Olevelandi. Echinognathus Clevelandi. yn. Eurypterus? Clevelandi Walcott. This Journal, vol. xxiii, p. 151, 1882. * Vol. xxiii, p. 151, 1882. + Pal. New York, iii, p, 414*, 214 C. D. Waleot— New Genus of the Eurypterida. e 2, is a sketch, 7-10ths of the natural size, of the cephalic appendage as it appears on the surface of the slate - and in the matrix. The entire length of the appendage from the point aa to the end of the terminal joint 7, as restored to its natural position, would be 125™, exclusive of the basal joint ataa. The long spines of the joints 3 and 4 are 5™ in length. Fig. 2.—Reduced to 7-10ths the natural size. The joint (1) overlaps (2) and is broken away on its posterior margin. The line crossing it should be a slight The joint marked (1) is broad and short with a rounded de- pression at the center of its inner margin. There is no evi: dence of the attachment of the long spines that are articulated to the posterior side of the succeeding joints. From the form of the joint and the presence of broken fragments of the test in the matrix at aa it is probable that it is the second joint of the appendage and that the first or basal joint is broken up. T joint (2) is large, elongate, rudely subtriangular, the long ante- rior margin curving around to meet the nearly straight poste- rior margin at its inner end. e latter margin has nine long curved dn articulated to it while the three following joints (3, 4) and (5) have but three each on their posterior et, These joints (3, 4, 5), are more or less quadrangular in outline, tle elongate. The spines Bas: CO. D. Walcott—New Genus of the Eurypterida. 215 joint (1) and the anterior portions of (2) and (8) show the seale-like markings observed on the fragment of the thoracic segment. If there were but one joint beyond the transverse joint (1), i. e. the basal, the entire appendage would have had nine joints, if our interpretation of the crushed joints is correct. The long curved spines (s, s, s), are a very curious feature of _ the appendage and the most marked character of the genus and species. ‘They are articulated to the posterior margin of the joints, as the latter rest flattened out in the slate or shale, and there is no evidence but that they formed a single series, as shown in the specimen and in the drawing, fig. 2. Hach spine is constricted a little near its base, forming a rounded end or point of articulation; from this well out toward their pointed termination they retain an average width curving gently back- ward and inward. ey appear to have been flattened when in a natural condition, and formed of a thin test which is rather strongly striated. -It is difficult to understand the purpose these spines served unless they are considered as having some relation to the branchial system of the animal. That they were used in securing food or carrying it to the mouth is not apparent, and no other use than the above is suggested from a study of the Specimens we now have. Was not less than 45 or 50 in length, and the approximate width 15™ or more, it is evident that we must search deep in the strata of the Trenton group, or even lower, for the first members of the order. As far as known to us the EKurypterida has not been repre- sented hitherto on the American continent below the Medina Sandstone of New York, and no described species is known below this horizon elsewhere. M. Barrande mentions the dis- covery of a fragment of the test of a Pterygotus in his étage D, 5, Am. Jour. ae Serres, Vou. XXIII, No. 135.—Marcg, 1882. 216 A. EB. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. at the close of the second fauna,* which would place it a little below that of the Medina sandstone. The specific name of the species under consideration was given in honor of Rey. Wm. N. Cleveland, who obtained the specimens described in the Utica slate formation north of the village of Holland Patent, Oneida County, N. Y. On the same pieces of slate with them occur two characteristic fossils of the formation, Leptobolus insignis and Triarthrus Becki, and I have also obtained from the same locality and stratum of slate, Dendrograptus tenuiramosus, Chimacograptus bicornis, Srane Several collectors have been and are now working in the Utica slate both in New York State and Canada, and a number of undescribed and interesting species are in their hands, as also several described from the Trenton limestone but unknown from the slate before. It is largely due to the persistent efforts H County, N. Y., have been discovered, and their rich fauna made known from the slate, from one of which localities the form we have described was obtained. ArT. XX.—WNotice of the remarkable Marine Fauna occup ying the outer banks off the Southern coast of New England, No. 4 by A. E. Verritu. (Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College: No. IL.) EcHINODERMATA (continued). In the following list there are included 48 species. Of these, 22 have not, hitherto, occurred elsewhere on our coast; 26 have been found farther north, in the Gulf of Maine, or off the coast of Nova Scotia, and may be considered as arctic; at least 22 are Kuropean, and of these 18 or more are northern Euro- pean; at least 14, and probably more, have been taken in deep water, in the Gulf of Mexico, or off Florida, by Pourtales and gassiz, but there is, as yet, no general ‘lists of their star- fishes and ophiurans; of the whole number, only six are, 80 far as known, peculiar to this district, - probably this num- ber will soon be reduce any of the species have a very extensive range, on both sides of the Attinte and also a great range in depth, occurring in much deeper water than was foun at any of our stations. Species dredged only in less than 60 fathoms are not included. In the list, the range of depth given applies only to this special region, as determined by the stations here inclu ded. * Systéme Silurien Centre de la Bohéme. 1, supl. pp. 556, 557. 1872. A. B. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 217 List of Echinodermata. Holothurioidea. THYONE scaBra Verrill. 51-435 fathom Stations 870, 871, 876, 877, 894: 919, ag 943, 949, 1038: 1040, 1049. TOXODORA ays NEA V., Sp. nov. re 155 fathoms. S. 870, 871, 873, 876, 817: 943, MOLPADIA TURGIDA Verrill. 120-182 fathoms. S. 876 (1): 1026 (2) Echinoidea. SCHIZASTER FRAGILIS (Duben & Koren) L. Agassiz. 64-258 fathoms. 8. 865, 869, 870, 871, 873, 874, 876, ab., aie ae 939-941, 943, 945, 950, 1025, ab., 1026, 1032, ab., 10 135, 1036, 1038, ab., car epee CANALIFERUS L. Agassiz ae 7 ree 130 fathoms. S. 871, 873, 874, 876, 877: 921-922 (9), 940, ae LYRIFERA (Forbes) L. Agassiz. 65-146 fattiotaas 8. 870: 921, 1038. Europe and W. Indie SPATANGUS PURPUREUS Leske. 130 rathasae S. 940 (1 large, living). Europe and W. Indies. ECHINOCYAMUS PUSILLUS (Miiller) Gray. 146 fathoms. S. 1038 (1). was and W. Indies. ECHINARACHNIUS PARMA Gray. 10-219 fathoms. 8. 951, meu very ab., 1038, many. PHORMOSOMA SigspEI A. Agassiz. 458 fathoms. S. 1029 (1 eo W. Indies (A. Ag.) EOHINUS G@RactLis A. Agassiz, 86-146 fathoms. S. 872 (2): 940 (7), 1038, 1039: 1046 off Delaware Bay, 3 larg’ Ecutnus WaLuist A. Agassiz . (=£. Norvegicus in list of 1880): 258-458 fath. S. 893, 894: 939, 1028, 1029. TEMNECHINUS MACULATUS A. Agassiz. 1165 fathoms. 8. 871. Gulf of Mexico ae Ag. Dorociparis PaPILLATA A. Agassiz (variety). 104-146 fathoms. 8. 1038 (1): 1046 off i Bay (5). Asterioidea, anger sag a peogoeg Verrill. Shore to 208 fathoms (? 368). 8. 869: 917- es 994 (3), 1032 (1), 1035 (12), 1037 (12): 1046 (1), 1047: ab. : in ieiian i STERIAS TANNERI Verrill. 69-192 fathoms 8. 869-872: 922, ab., 923, ab., 940, 941, ab., 949, 950, 1035: 1047, ab. STEPHANASTERIAS ALBULA Scoroakero Verrill. 64-130 fathoms (? 192). 8. peice, ab., ? 869, 870-872: 921-923, 940, 949-950, ab., 1035, ab., 1036, 047. _. very ab.: 1043, ab., 1046, 1 CRIBRELLA rapier Agee Liitken. Shore to 115 fathom S. 865-867, 871, 872: —commoner and larger, a Ser cet wae, nearer the coast, S. 928, 933, jaa ers 957, 985-987, 1009, 1 918 A. EB. Verrill— Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. DIPLOPTERASTER MULTIPES (Sars) Verrill. 130-212 fi S. 869, 878, 895: 924, 925, 938, 939 sie 940 (10), ae a 947, 951, very large, 1025, 1026, 1032 (22), 1033, 1038: PORANIA GRANDS Verrill. 69-192 fathoms. S. 869, 872: 923, 940, sev., 949, 950, sev., 1039: 1046 (9 j.) PORANIA SPINULOSA Verrill. 192-368 fathom S. 869, 879, 894, 895: 925, 938, 939, 945, Mae (10), 951, 998, 994, 1025, 1032. PORANIA BOREALIS Verrill. (=ASTERINA BOREALIS V.). 192-225 fathoms. S. 869, 879 ee aa HISPIDUS Verrill. 64—487 fathoms. 869, ab., 871-873, 878, 879, 892, 894, 895, 921, 922, 940, ab., 946, me Bs 'ab., 994: 1043, 2 1049 Qj 8 ARCHASTER FLOK& Verrill. 100-410 fathom S. 869, 873, 879, 881, 895: 924, 925, EAS 943, 945, 946, 951, 997, ab., 1025, ab., 1026, 1028, 1032, 1033, 1038. ARCHASTER AMERICANUS Verrill. 64-225 fathoms; es in 64-15 ae 865-868, very ab., 871, ab., 873-876, very ab., , 879: 918, ab., dng ab., 940-941 1, very ab., 945, 949, 950, very oe Tee. 1035- 1037, very a 1038, 1040, 1043 ARCHASTER AGaAssizi Verrill. 182-487 fathom S. 879, 880, 881, 891-894, 895, nade 939, 946, a ab., 952, 994, ab., 997, very ab., 998, 1025-1026, ab., 1028, 1029 : 1049. ARCHASTER ee Dub. & Koren. 225-487 fathoms; scarce. 879, 892-894: 938, 939, 947, 952, 1028, 1j., 1929: 1049 (6). ARCHASTER TENUISPINUS Dub. & Koren. 368 fathoms. S. 994 (1). ARCHASTER MIRABILIS (?) Perrier. 310 fathoms. S. 938 (1). Gulf of Mexico (A. Ag.). ARCHASTER AROTICUS M. Sars. 183-310 fatho: S. 925, 938, 939, 946 (2), 951 (3), 1028, 1032, sev., 1033. ARCHASTER BarRpu Verrill, sp. nov. 388 fathoms. S. 952 (6). Lutia ELEGANS Perrier. 51-192 fathoms. 865-872, many large, Uae 873, 876, 877; 919, 921-923, ab., 940-941, ab., 949, 950, 1035, 1036, 1038, CTENODISCUS CRISPATUS Diiben & Koren, 182-310 fathoms. $879: 938, 939 (5), 1025, sev., 1026, 1032. Ophiuroidea. OpHIogLyPHA Sars Lyman. 30-368 fathoms (? 458). 8. 865-871, ab., 873, ab., 877, ab., 879, 895: 917, 918, very ab., 919, 924, ab. L., 925, 940, 943, 980-994, 991, ab., 1025, ab., 1026, very ab, L 7 1029, 1032, 1033, ab. i, 1035, 1033 047. OPHIOGLYPHA SIGNATA Verrill. 100-258 fathoms, S. 869, 870 (10), 873, (24), 875, 877, 878: 939, 1038. OPHIOGLYPHA (OPHIOPLEURA) AURANTIAGA Verrill, sp. nov. 82-310 fathoms. S. 869 (2), 872, 880 (2), 895 (4): 938, 939, 946 (6), 951, OPHIOGLYPHA CONFRAGOSA Lyman. 238-506 fathoms. S. 895 (1): 937 (1), 938 (2, large), 1028 (13), 1029. A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Ooast. 219 OpHiomustuM LyMAni W. Thomson. 238-500 fathoms. S. 891 (11 j.), 892 (5), 895 (1), 994 (2) OPHIACANTHA BIDENTATA Lyman=O. spINuLOSA M. & Tr. 192-202 fathoms. . 869: 945, DeikGenis MILLESPINA Verrill. 100-258 fathom 8.869, ab., 870, 871, 873, 895: 924, Phe ab., 938, “939- 940, ab., 945, 951, 1026, 1032-1033, ss 1034, 1035, 1038, ab., OPHIOPHOLIS ACULEATA Gray. Shore to 258 fathoms. 8. 865, 869, 871, 872, 879, 895: 920, 922, 924, 925, 939, 940, 4 cae 947, 949, Saphe 986, 989, 1025, 1032, ab., 1033, 1035, 1036, 1038, very ab., 9, ab 104 Apion ene 1 (2?) geese pean! fathoms. ' §. 869 , 891, 895: 99%, 998 C.. ELEGANS Norman, var. TENUISPINA Ljung. 120-487 fathoms. 8. 869, 871, om er 894, 895: 1038. AMPHIURA MACILENTA Verrill, sp.nov. (?=a. Abdita, young). 51-115 fathoms. S. 865, 871: 919, 920, very ab., 921, 941. OPHIOCNIDA OLIVACEA Lyman. 64-142 fathoms. S. 865, 869, 871, ab., 872, 873-877, ab., 878: 921, 940, 941, 949, ab., 1040, ab. OPHIOSCOLEX ving: Miiller & Troschei. 115-238 fathoms. S. 869, ns Balla 1, 879, 895: 924, 925, 939, 940, 945, ab., 946, 951, 1025, ab. 1026, 1032, ASTROCHELE LyMANI Verrill. 258-458 fathoms. 8. 938, 939, 1028, ab., 1029, a Crinoidea. ANTEDON hierdie (Say) V.=AntTEDON Sarsi (D.& K.). 85-258 fathoms. S. 869-871, 873-876, 878-880, 895: ens 939, ab., 940, 943-946, 949, 1025-1027, 1032, ee re 1035, 1038, very ab.: 1043, 1047. The foll lowing species were taken by Lieut. Z. L. Tanner, in 1880, off Chesapeake Bay abd SCABRA i a Pie ZASTER FRAG ASTERIAS TA port o6 fath. S. 896 ASTERIAS BRIAREUS V., sp. nov. 31 to 57 fath. S. 899; 900. LEPTASTERTAS CoMPTA V. 31 fath. S. 900 IPLOPTERASTER MULTIPES V. ‘Two large specimens, CRIBRELLA SANGUINOLENTA Litk. 31 fath. S. 900. . 899. ARCHASTER AMERICANUS ee Bg to 57 fath. S. 896, ab.; 899. ARCHASTER AGassiziI V. fath. 8S. 898, a OPHIOPHOLIS ACULEATA G ees 31 to 57 fath. S. 899; 900. Ampuiura Orreri (?) Lj. 300 fath. 8. 898. ANTEDON DENTATUM (Say) V.° 157 fath. 8. 897, ab. Toxodora V., gen. Dov. Allied to Chirodota. Tentacles twelve, sige Skin thin, with scattered, slender, bow-shaped plates 220 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. Toxodora ferruginea V., sp. nov. Body cylindrical, sloniate ted, very contractile, liable to rup- ture. Skin somewhat translucent, filled with minute, reddish rown pigment-cells, and having numerous, minute, slender plates, in the shape of a bow, ora parenthesis, with the ends in- eurved. Tentacles stout, with numerous digitations. Length, 50m or more; diameter, 8 to 10™™ Asterias Briareus V., sp. nov. Arms variable in puriber ; 10 in the largest example; long, slender; disk small. Radii as 1: 9°5; Tesser radius, 8™"; a ; plates connect the dorsal and lateral nde leaving large spaces, in which are numerous papule, uped in several clusters. Along the five wae are long, ida acute, rather distant spines; a few also stand on the cross ‘plates ; these spines are all similar and bear large, dense wreaths of small pedicellarize near the base. Solitary pesca i of large size and remarkable form are scattered between the spines, above and below : these are spatulate or hand- apes, the wide tips terminating in five or six incurved claws, which interlock when the pclwelabie are closed. Adambulacral spines slen- der, two to each plate, ne to the ventral spines, with no in- tervening spines nor papu Ophioglypha Sarsii (Liitk.) Lyman. Two varieties “ this species occur, which differ widely. e larger and smoother form, withou ut prominent disk-scales, 1s found exclusively in the deeper waters, while the form with rominent, swollen disk-scales is abundant in the recone localities (4 0 to 60 fathoms), though often found, also, a greater sel as ce oe is the form that occurs sr ae in the Ba f Fund and off Nova Scotia, where it grows to a large size, anion shaareite its character. The two forms also differ in other ways. I have seen a few four-armed specimens. Peculiar color- varieties are common. Ophioglypha signata V errill, sp. nov. Ophioglypha afinis Verrill, in former papers (non Liitken). Disk varied in color, rounded- cps ane “gta above, or even coneave when dried ; covered with s sg which form @ distinct ee? the dorsal sare is Mee ek the ventral nal rid e, which becomes well-marked in dry speci: mens ; fotdad. at the bases of the ae slight, with an irregular and interrupted series of minute spinules ; usually a short: row A. E. Verrill— Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 221 of small, slender spinules on each side of the notch, and a small, irregular, isolated group in the middle, sometimes nearly obso- lete, or represented by only one or two small spinules, in the larger specimens; just below these there is a similar small group on the middle of the first visible arm-plate; the second a row of very minute spinules along the upper half. The color 1s variable; the disk is usually prettily marked by a rosette of brown or dark gray spots on a paler ground, or the darker tint may take a star-shaped form, with five or with ten rays, with the radial shields usually pale; or there may be a combination of the rosette and star; rarely the disk is nearly uniform pale gray, like the upper side of the arms. The larger specimens have the disk 10™™ in diameter ; length of the arms, about 45™, his species is rather common in this region, in deep water ; we have also frequently dredged it farther north, in the Gulf of Maine; Bay of Fundy; and off Nova Scotia. ® 222 A. #. Verrili—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. Antedon dentatum V errill. Alectro dentata Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. segs on Philadelphia, vy, P. 153, 1825. Antedon dentata Verrill, Proe. Boston Soc t. Hist., x, p. 339, Alecto Sarsii Diiben and Koren, Sv. Vet ate a Handl., 1844, p. 231, pl. 6, fig. 2 Antedon Sarsit Verrill, Amer. Journ. Sei., vii, p. 500, 1874. This species se Sconce deseribed by Say, from a speci- men found at Great Ege aE is description agrees in all respects so wall ithe our anialler specimens, that there can be little doubt of its identity. Moreover, this form occurs in abundance off New Jersey, at moderate depths, but no other species has been taken there, unless in very deep water. In addition to the numerous specimens from off Martha's es fishing grounds. Mr. A. Agassiz, also, took it, off our coast. ANTHOZOA. Of Anthozoa, upwards of thirty species were obtained. Among these are seven species of Pennatulacea and four of appear to be Spee be Urticina longicornis V., sp. nov. A large and very baniacane species, remarkable for its par ch- ment-like skin and long, tapering, pink tentacles. It contracts (eae and quickly. Column more or less pe case rest ; below this the integument i js firm, par rchment-like, gate with small verruce, arranged in vertical lines, often fading out below, to mere wrinkles; the verruce are mostly due to the arranged alternately in two or three circles, concentrated to- ward the margin; the inner row contains only twelve, whic stand wel apart, and are lar rger r than the rest. Mouth _ ‘ Pe Ta Nae nay Cae: See ae AOE A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 228 Urticina perdix Verrill, sp. nov. _Full-grown specimens are very large, often 8 to 12 inches in diameter, in expansion. Form very changeable. Column varying from low and broad to cylindrical and hour-glass shape, often higher than broad; integument soft and smooth, but in partial contraction sometimes covered, near the summit, with small, ovate verruce. Disk, in expansion, usually broader thrives well in aquaria. Several were kept by us all summer. fe not appear to extend to- very great depths; 61-115 athoms, 224 A. H. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. egal callosa V., sp. nov. very large species, with a very thick, firm, leathery integu- ment, covered, especially on the uppe r half, with irregular, often angular, large low verrucze or babes: which fade out into irregular wrinkles be ow; the verruce extend to the uneven edge of the disk, at the base of the tentacles, without any change and tentacles ey, La ori y owing to the firmness and leather-like stiffness of the walls of the body, but smaller ones contract more ieay and have a much smoother surface. The column is usually, in expansion, higher than broad, vets more frequently smallest at base or, hour-glass ‘shaped, b when handled becomes more or less flattened longitudinally, or collapsed. Tentacles rather short, stout, obtuse, numerous, “aay much of the disk, usually extending more than half to the mouth, changeable in form, but not very coutrac- tile often bomeitudiaatly striated or wrinkled. Disk large, usually much broader than the column, and commonly concave. large, ree salmon-brown. Base broad, perc deeply similar habits, and grows. scat as ate The latter can thes - disguised by ng the dates upper part of the mn, for sl ort distance below the opis ak smooth, soft, the colimn is coriaceous, not febricous. and covered with irregularly icaelred. prominent, often very pros rounded tubercles, Upkeep below : there is usually ac losely adher- . : A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the New England Coast. 225 Urticina consors V., sp. nov. A delicately colored species, with a soft, smooth integument. Column elongated, in expansion; above, occasionally showing sch aeate peer i outer ones much smaller. Mouth with strong, whitish, goni- dial grooves at both ends, and about ten lobes on each side, separated by darker grooves. Color of body nearly uniform salmon, or rosy; tentacles a paler shade of the same, the outer ones with a flake-white blotch at the base, outside; disk pale salmon, with a pale bluish tint, and with flake-white radii, forking at the tentacles; mouth bright orange inside, with lines of reddish brown on the lips. Height, about 2 inches; diam- eter, 1°d. All the specimens obtained were on the backs of a brilliant] colored species of hermit-crab (Parapagurus, sp. noy.), remark- able for large bright red patches on its legs; 160-458 fathoms. This species may not be a true Urticina. It resembles certain species of Sagartia, but no acontia were observed. Actinernus saginatus Verrill, sp. nov. A large species, with a broad, low column, having a pale, translucent, thick, soft, cartilaginous, or gelatinous test. e column is broader than high, largest above, smooth, or more or less wrinkled. Tentacles not crowded, in two rows, close to the margin, long, tapering, rather slender, acute, decidedly thickened at the base; the outer ones have the thickened, outer, basal swelling continuous with the edge of the disk. ase much smaller than the column, concave, secreting a chitinous pellicle and enclosing a mass of mud, as in JU. callosa. Color of column, pallid, or bluish white, with a tinge of pink; disk dee orange, with paler radii; lips deep orange-brown ; Adamsia sociabilis V., sp. nov. smali, conspicuously colored, abundant species, which is always found on the back of a small hermit-crab (Hemipagurus socials Smith). Color: column translucent, usually conspicu- ously striped with alternate pink and flake-white longitudinal ands, the latter narrowing upward ; tentacles pinkish ; mouth with pink lips, crossed by darker lines, between the small lobes, Height, in expansion, about ‘5 of an inch (10 to 14™™). Common in 86-300 fathoms, . 226 W. LeConte Stevens—New form of Reversible Stereoscope. Art, XXI.—A New Form of Reversible Stereoscope ; by W. LeConTe STEVENS. Wir a view to removing for others the difficulty implied in the binocular experiments on which I based the conclusions without special discomfort. It has been constructed for me by Messrs. EK. & H. T The semi-lenses (fig. 1, /, 2), rest in a pair of boxes, with h of the screws. To secure natural perspective through the semi-lenses, press the brass and wooden screens flat (fig. 1) and use the instru- eyes to be not greater than usual, comfortable vision will be secured by turning the adjusting screws until the semi-lenses are pressed as near as possible together. The light which enters the pupils then passes through the thicker part of each Se ae tn ee E ; W. LeConte Stevens—New form of Reversible Stereoscope. 227 semi-lens, and the optic angle is positive and small, or the vis- ual lines may be sensibly parallel. If the observer’s interocu- by 2. Semen a eran AT AE TES EEN ERAT S a ———— : aed y. , Pees last LY pain Lida rs mxinesisinenecs amar ern maar > ane achromatism in the semi-lenses. By now turning the screws so as to press the glasses closer together, any degree of optic di- vergence may be attained that the observer is willing to endure, while the picture is still seen in natural perspective, distances being apparently slightly magnified, and diameters also in the same ratio. To secure reversed perspective, lift up the wooden screen, fold the brass hinges outward in front, and substitute the 228 W. LeConte Stevens—New form of Reversible Stereoscope. prisms for the semi-lenses, as in fig 2. Slide the stereograph nearly to the end of the stereoscope. He GN Sis perspective is at once reversed; whether this is enoug overpower the other elements of perspective must depend ae the nature of the picture. If the stereograph be that of the moon, the reversion is complete; if of terrestrial scenery, some objects may be apparently transposed in position while others are not. same picture may be examined successively with each iilusive effect several times in as many minutes. As soon as reversion is attained, the stereograph may be drawn up as close as may e convenient. If both semi-lenses and Hae are ered, the instrument becomes a direct-vision stereoscope; in some ‘respects similar to that deaisibed by Professor William B. ee | in 1855. To secure natural perspective, press the screens flat, pull the stereo- graph up as close as possible, and gaze as if ‘through it at a remote object, with the muscles of the eyes relaxed. ‘The two pictures, imperfectly focalized, are dimly seen apparently to overlap. The stereograph is then pushed out to the end of the stereoscope, and the pictures are binocularly combined by optic divergence. The stereograph may now be pulled up as near as Sivanient o secure reversion of perspective by direct vision, pos the brass hinges and lift the wooden screen, as in . Push this out (0’ 6’) as near as porible to the stereograph_ at re or of the instrument, then pull it up, keeping the gaze fixed upon the projection Cd ) at the top. This grows dim as it approaches its previous position. Without changing the direction of the visual lines, except slightly to lower them, transfer the atten- tion to the stereograph beyond. The combined picture is seen in reverse perspective, apparently much smaller and nearer than when the prisms were employed. Those who have tried this instrument ts far have usually The use of aes screws for the semi-lenses of the stereo- scope is, of course, not a novelty. They were thus applied by Petes. |e gee ee eet oe Pe i H. Becquerel— Magnetic Properties of Nickeliferous Iron. 229 Duboscq, about 1850, to one of Brewster’s stereoscopes and also subsequently by Helmholtz. A similar a apeaie is espe- cially described by Professor Emerson in this Journal, Noy., made indeed be difficult to Byales any wholly n ew anche in the ree nebo of stereoscopes. The present instrument was de- sed for a specific purpose, which it ad Gaal successfully. 40 West 40th St., New York, Jan. 21st, 1882 Art. XXII. — On the no es Properties of a Specimen of arouse Iron from St. Catarina, Brazil, as first pointed ut by Lawrence Smith, by HENRI BECQUEREL :* with a note ies. LAWRENCE SMITH. it is very teh attracted a the magnet, but if a Sasrnts is cistind me from the Gliese at the Garden of Plants. A small bar was prepared, weighing 2731 grams, and 18:5™™ long, 5-2™" broad, and 3°8™™ thick. This bar was compared with a small bar of Swedish iron, of the same length and width, with about the same dimensions. he experiments St. Catarina Tron. Intensity. yeah Natural co ee ag we! Heated to redness. pegrae toes ee Sine of | | Relation the d Mag: | Relation|to the n Relation ions of vi netis | Ma cocte | to o Swedish Magnetic \to ahd tive Tron — netic |to awed needle. | weight.| weight. | iron weight. ish iro not eight. [ish iron. gs eas | : | heated. pues i mg. mmg } 01600 | 60) 32 0053 | 64 | 1°066| 20° | 60 | 1-000 0°3000 | 238 | 12°6 | 0053 | 244 | 1025 | 193 | 232 | 0-974 0°5600 fon 405 | 0054 | 1702 1:004 ISS jf. 449 0°986 0°7000 | 1110 | 588 4 0°053 | ane bear ewer ties 9°8300 Si 1489 ai ae. Oo 052 1489 1:000 19°1 1454 0-976 * oe from Comptes Rendus, xciii, p. 794, 1881. + Comp endus, ae p- ¢ Annales “Er Chimie et de Physique, 5th series, xvi. 1879. (Magnetism of Nickel ; and Cobalt.) 230 H. Becquerel—Magnetic Properties of Nickeliferous Iron. It is apparent, in the first place, that in the natural state, the small bar of St. Catarina iron is very much less magnetic than the Swedish iron. When the former was heated to 230°, it . ° aa o To study this iron under conditions more or less removed from its magnetic saturation, two other little bars were experi- mented with. Ber Npreadth, 4inm.; thiekiess ona. Bar eadth, aos mins thickness 13 mun. atural Heated to Rela- Natural Heatedto Rela- Intensity state. redness, tion. Intensity. state. redness. tion. 071525 17 (2) 36 he) Sea eerie ot ere - = 0°3000 130 26 0°3020 1°8(2) 41° 23°(?) 05600 16 407 25-4 0°56 5° 23 24°6 0°8100 749 24-9 0°8141 9°5 229 2471 The native iron of St. Catarina has been carefully studied y M. Damour and MM. Daubrée and Meunier, who have attributed to it a meteoric origin, and who have found that it contained about 34 per cent of nickel. The remarkable effect manifested when it is heated appears to be due principally to the presence of nickel and a crystallization effected at a very low temperature. I therefore undertook a series of experiments, to see whether pure iron and pure nickel crystallized in the cold did not exhibit the same property. To try this, small cylinders of iron and nickel were prepared by depositing these metals upon a platinum wire by electrolysis. The deposit took place slowly at the ordinary temperature, and the deposited metals were crystallized. ‘The bars were studied by the aid of the balance, then heated to redness and re-examined. ‘The iron in the con- ditions under which I operated presented after heating n° notable change in its magnetic properties. This was not true of the nickel crystallized in the cold, for it presented after the heating a considerable augmentation of its magnetic property. The following are some of the results obtained with this metal : H. Becquerel— Magnetic Properties of Nickeliferous Iron. 231 Nickel deposited by the pile. | First bar.— Weight 2-442 gr.; length 40 mm. Second bar.— Weight 4-484 gr.; length 50 mm. Not ela- Ni Reia- Intensity. heated. Heated. tion. Intensity. heated. Heated. tion. 071500 34 mer 216 mer 6°37 0°1708 80°56 mst 434 MEt 5°39 0-3000 147 589 4-00 0°2885 320°5 1010 3°15 04200 310 909 2°93 0°5480 1132°5 2313 2°04 075900 5 1363 2°33 0°T758 1982°5 3470 1:75 589 24 08500 1103 2043 DRG ehite eae ae pats, oa eae The bars that were examined contained in their axes a platinom wire, thus forming a kind of tube; and as their section is small compared with their length, they are much nearer their point of magnetic saturation than the bars of native iron already examined. In regarding the rapid increase of the relation as recorded in the last column of the above tables, when we recede from the point of saturation, we recog- nize that the increase of the magnetic properties of the nickel crystallized in the cold is of the same order of phenomena as that observed in the St. Catarina iron. It might be imagined, that on forming with the native metal bars such as No. 2 and No. 8, of which the sections are smaller and smaller in relation to their length, that we approximate to the Magnetic saturation and would obtain numbers nearer to those which were found for the nickel in the condition of the preced- ing experiments; but on the contrary, in the case of these two bars, the magnetic relations before and after the heating is _ greater for the second than for the first. If the facts be con- sidered which I have established in the memoir previously re- ferred to, it will be recognized that the characteristics presen by the St. Catarina iron indicate that the magnetic conditions to which it has been submitted are far removed from those of Saturation. The magnetic capacity of nickel is greater in proportion to the distance the molecules of this metal are removed from each other; it therefore tends to become equal and even a little erty of this metal; in fact observation proves that after the heating of the nickel which accompanies the iron, the nickel be- haves like the iron. The crystalline condition of the native ‘ron not reheated appears as in the pure nickel to be the cause which opposes the magnetic manifestations. . ‘Ve necessarily conclude from this research that the native 'ron from St. Catarina has been crystallized at a low tempera- ture. This conclusion does not permit of forming a correct hypothesis of the meteoric or terrestrial origin of the iron. Am. Jour, is ieee Series, Vou, XXIII, No. 135.—Marcu, 1882. Es 232 «=S. L. Smith—Magnetic Properties of Nickeliferous Iron. Nore py J. LAWRENCE SMITH. After completing my researches on the Ovifak iron and do- lerite of Greenland,* which had occupied me off and on for sev- eral years, establishing indisputably the terrestrial origin of that iron, I was induced to examine into the nature of some other native irons, whose origin was somewhat equivocal. One that has been supposed to be of meteoric origin is that discovered, in 1875, at St. Catarina in Brazil. Having obtained specimens of this iron, I tried to apply to it the same rules of investiga- tion as I had done to the Greenland iron, but my series of spe- cimens would not permit of this and the question was left in doubt. My first object was to separate a pyritic mineral asso- ciated with the iron; but owing to the fact that the metallic iron permeated the pyrites in numberless filaments, it was impossi- ble to conduct this separation by means of the magnet, nor have I as yet been able to devise any other method. While ap- plying the magnet to various parts of the pure metal, it was possible origin. : * Comptes Rendus, vol. xci, and Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 5* ser-, xvi, 1879. John LeConte—Joints in Clay dnd Marl Deposits. 288 Art. XXIII.—Origin of Jointed Structure in undisturbed Clay and Marl deposits; by JoHN LeContE. (From a letter addressed to Professor J. D. Dana, dated Berkeley, Califor- nia, Jan. 10, 1882.) homena of immense vertical cracks or joints, evidently due to the shrinkage of these marshy deposits during the progress of their desiccation. These cracks, by éheir intersection, form tributary of the Sacramento). hen this stratum of clay is Subjected to the desiccating influence of the prolonged dry Season, cracks are fo hrinkage extending to the bed Powerful desiccating influence of the arid climate which suc- ceeded the Glacial epoch. It is evident that when such cracks or joints become filled, by subaerial agencies, with sand and other materials, the subse- quent lines of erosion must necessarily follow these channels 234 Scientific Intelligence. of rupture in the more compact subaqueous deposits of clay an rl. IT am indebted to my son, L. J. LeConte, for the facts above recorded. He had the opportunity of carefully observ- ing the phenomena under consideration, in connection with the reconnaissiince of the Sacramento valley, in relation to the improvement of the navigation of the river as well as our great engineering problem of the disposal of the debris resulting from hydraulic mining. Of course every one is familiar with the cracks in mud or clay due to the shrinkage consequent upon drying; but, as far as I am aware, no one has called attention to the fact that they may be developed on so large a scale as to become an im- portant factor in the physical geology of past ages. SCIENTIPEG INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PuysiIcs. 1. "On the Relation between the Optical and Thermal phenom- ena of Liquid Organic ,substances.—Briut has continued his re- searches on the connection between the physical properties of organic bodies and their chemical constitution, and in his last paper discusses the relation between the optical and the thermal phenomena observed in organic liquids. He finds: Ist, that pro- gressive oxidation has the same influence on the optical as on the 1 thermal properties; the refractive power, represented by et Es, diminishing as the amount of oxygen is increased, precisely a8 the heat of combination diminishes. Removal of hydrogen, or its replacement by oxygen produces the same effect ; so that both the ab still less. 3d, in the homologous series of alcohols, acids and ethers, both the optical and the thermal constants increase with 7 Chemistry and Physics. i 280 value of this constant than their isomers not having this union ; and the value is larger when carbon atoms are doubly united than when carbon is thus joined to oxygen. Longuinine has proved the same to be true of the heat of combustion. ; an unsaturated i com- Idehyde, or ace- tone. 7th, since if two bodies having the same molecular formula give different quantities of heat on combustion, they must con- tain different quantities of energy, it follows that the internal The energy of a body consists of the vis viva of its moving par- ticles and of its interior work, the latter only, tending to diminish the torces uniting these particles and so to produce disaggrega- Hon. But the vis viva of isomeric bodies is equal; hence the reverse of the fact. This conclusion is supported by Kopp’s and by Buff’s results showing that the volume of : only singly united ones; and also by t Kekulé that on oxidation of a body with doubly united atoms the molecule first breaks at the double union.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, 2533, Nov. 1881. G. F. B. _ 2. Simple Dissociation Apparatus.—Tommast has described a ‘imple apparatus which he called a dissocioscope, for showing the dissociation of ammoniacal salts. It consists of a tube of glass ~0 to 25 centimeters long and 3 or 4 centimeters in diameter. By means of a platinum wire a slip of blue litmus paper, previously moistened with a solution of ammonium chloride, is suspended in — the tube. The solution should be exactly neutral and be com- i and the paper becomes blue again. is may be repeated any number of times at pleasure. Of course by using the bromide, 236 Scientific Intelligence. sulphate, or nitrate of ammonium the dissociation of these salts may be shown.— Bull. Soe. Ch., 11, xxxvi, 545, December, 1881. regulator, with the porcelain crucible in close proximity to it, covered by its lid. A thermometer bulb was placed near it, the iron pot was covered and heated with a Fletcher’s burner. The air bath was first heated for a half-hour to the temperature of the experiment. The crucible with its mixture was inserted, and the heat continued for four hours. At the end of the time the crucible being gradually increased from a decigram to ten grams, the tem- perature being kept at about 195°. If the action of ferric oxide upon potassium chlorate be similar to that of an ordinary oxide upon an ordinary salt the numerical results should admit of rep- . ee x a y = resentation under some form of the general equation EK = ~~ m which E is the chemical effect on oxygen expelled, # and y are e mas ical effect, the number of chemical units of oxygen expelled pet unit of oxide. The results suggest that the values of a are in versely proportional to the values of a. Calculation upon this hypothesis gave results closely agreeing with experiment. _ When # is very small, a = 33028, and (Fe,O,), expels O,, or a unit of the oxide acts on rather more than a unit the chlorate. When 7 1s very large, a=0°27240, and the five grams of chlorate reaches the limit of 071775 gram oxygen expelled. Moreover as the mass. of oxide increases its efficiency decreases. Inasmuch as in the action of ferric oxide on potassium carbonate, the factor of chemical effeci, in the first stage, is inversely as the mass of oxide, the authors regard the entire course of the action of ferric oxide upon potassium chlorate as strictly analogous to the first stage of the action of the same oxide on potassium carbonate. This case of chemical change then presents nothing peculiar or abnormal and the name catalysis ceases to be applicable to the reaction now con- sidered.—J. Chem. Soc., xli, 18, Jan. 1882. ciel ek 4. On the Freezing point of Sulphuric acid of different Degrees of Concentration.—Lunexr has determined the point at whic sulphuric acid of various strengths solidifies when exposed to cold. A freezing mixture of three parts ice and one of salt was used, 1m Chemistry and Phystes. : 237 which the thermometer sank to —20°. The first separation of crystals required prolonged cooling; but once effected, it takes place much easier and always at the same temperature. That temperature at which the first crystals appeared was called the freezing point. The fusing point could not be fixed with the same exactness. The thermometer was corrected, the specific gravity determined on an accurate balance and reduced to 15° by Schaeppi’s tables. The Baumé degrees were calculated according to the rational arseometer, d = ais The results obtained are ve —h Siven in the following tabular form :— Sp. gr. at 15°. Baumé. Freezing point. Fusing point. 1-671 58° Liquid at —20° fb 1691 59° aol eR Ge, 1-712 60°05° ee E127 60°75° 75 — 75° 1-732 61-0° —85° ome 1°749 61°8° —0°2 +4°5° 1767 62°65° +16" +6°5° 1-790 63°75° +4°5° +8:0° 1-807 64°45° —9-0° —6-0° 1°822 65°15° Liquid at —20° aia 1842 66° ae pees F. B. - On trating Chemical change.—Parrison Muir has suggeste the action o Se and red BiOI but in smaller quantity, in the third, The town Bil, passes into the red BiOI on standing ; addition of Strong HI reproduces brown Bil,.— J. Chem. Soe., xli, 4, Jan. 1882. G. F. B 6. On the Splitting of Petroleum hydrocarbons at low Temper- ‘tures.—Gustayson has observed that when in hydrocarbons obtained either from American or Caucasian petroleum, alumi- he 238 Scientific Intelligence. num bromide is dissolved and hydrogen bromide gas is passed into the liquid, the whole heated in a paraffin bath, the mass separates into two layers, the composition of the lower one being always the same. It is a pretty thick liquid, of the consistence of aqueous glycerin, orange-red in color, not solidifying at —15°, permanent at 100°—120°, but decomposing at higher tempera- tures into gaseous poaase, insoluble in the hydrocarbons from which it is formed, and in carbon disulphide, but miscible in all Jo gph with ethyl bromide. It has probably the formula ers of the series.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xiv, eke sy xistence of m fiskaien pragy Wwotwenes in the gedit of the dry distil- lation of rosin, _ From the lighter portions of the distillate, me me pores with serene su rane acid on the water bath. Dilution with w and neutralization with barium carbonate ave the cymene- oe, shake But on saturating the acid with hydrogen chloride and heating. in sealed tubes to 180°, cymene it ya was obtained. From 15 rams of rosin-spirit, 800 grams of e were procured. On padition with chromic acid, jsoph- ehatle : saa was obtained ; thus proving the cymene to belong to the meta-series C,H, CH. . To determine the structure of the propyl group, isopropyl oad was made to act on toluene in ae gah of aluminum chlori cymene was obtained identical that Sitatnod a A the sui e hus proving the former to be metaisopropyltoluene C HA OH CH j oe H. (3) Several co sa ate a od sg new cymene are described. Lieb’ get ecx, 1, Oct. * 8. ‘bn ihe ‘Mieliploncbise of living Protoplasm. _Starting from the fact observed by them, that living cells behave difter- ently from dead ones, that living protoplasm has the pow reducing very dilute ‘solutions of silver which aeea protoplasm has not, Lorw and Boxorny have concluded ot living proto plasm is chemically of the nature of an aldehyde. ” Reinke suggested in it the presence of formic aldehyde, - authors have examined the distillate from algw with a negative result. The ur own view seems to them the more probable.— Ber. Berl. ber Ges., xiv, 2441, Noy, 1881 G, F. B Chemistry and Physics. 239 9. On the Viscosity of Gases at High Exhaustions.—In a paper read before the British Association in 1859, Maxwell pre- sented the remarkable theoretical result that the coefficient of the gas. Previ and Professor Crookes has lately investigated the subject, bring- ing to the study great experimental skill gained by for experi- ence in obtaining and measuring high exhaustions. For the was set in vibration by the radiometer effect on the semi-black- ened plate of mica), a careful analysis of the decrements of the Swings were necessary. Several curves illustrating the viscosity by means of this decrement in the swing are given; and a care- ful analysis on hydrodynamical principles by Professor G. G. Stokes is appended to Professor Crookes’ paper. The following Is a table of the results obtained by different observers. Graham. Kundt and Warburg. Maxwell. Crookes. ee Pa ae og ee 170000 1°0000 170000 170000 12, ae ey ee 11099 “ “ 11185 MORONS op ede 0-971 és “ O-9715 Carbonic anhydride.._.. 0°807 0806 0-859 0°9208 Carbonic oxide __._... 0°97 3 O-97T15 Hydrogen ms eae Wie as 04855 0°488 05156 0°4439 Professor Crookes believes that his results are more accurate than those of previous observers. e has obtained a much lower viscosity in the case of hydrogen and believes that its accurate obedience to Maxwell’s law is a proof of its purity, for any im- purity arising from admixture of other gases impairs the results. The results uphold Maxwell’s theory in general, and the more perfect the gas the nearer theagreement. Professor Stokes states cee his discussion of Professor Crookes’ results that the direct solu- tion of the problem of the movement of a lamina like a mica plate in even a perfect fluid cannot be solved; but theory enables One to compare the viscosities in different media under certain conditions of similarity. Professor Stokes is accordingly led to the following law. f ee If 240 Scientific Intelligence. consequently the ratio of the coefficients of viscosity of the dif- ferent gases will be the same for the pressures in one such system as in another.” He remarks “ that this law is in accordance with he # bed . . . - appear to differ from the generally received opinions upon this influence. promises further experiments upon this point.— upon glass, and the needle of the galvanometer was brought to Cand . rest by scraping away a portion of the silver coating, at she side Chemistry and Physies. 241 of the plate and also by forming derived circuits between the en branches were confluent. This plate was then made to revolve about an axis perpendicular to the middle of the elliptical plate, and various ingenious arrangements were made to allow the terminals of the galvanometers and those of the battery to follow the motions of the plate. If the electrical current possessed in- “ertia, a difference of potentials would be created by the revolu- tion of the plate. This difference of ae: being formed at the extremities of the minor axis of the ellipse would cause a current in the galvanometer whose spelen were connected with the ends of this axis. The various errors incident to this method of experimenting were closely examined and the results of the experiment appeared to the writer to warrant the asser- tion that he could wager lind to 1 that no movement of the needle of the galvanometer greater than one of his scale divisions could be ascribed to the rh Dis of the electricity. His caleula- aie ee tion leads him to the formula p= ao in whieh ys is the kinetic @ energy of a current of the magnetic density of 1 in a cubic milli- meter of a silver neat Pp the difference of potential between the ends of the minor axis, @ the thickness of the metallic coating of the revolvin lite J the strength of the current passec through the plate, and w the angular velocity of sti plate. The value obtained for y¢ was j= 0°0000185 mm.” for o e seale divis- 10n which ~ author selected. He is led to iuiave that the value of ; ld be much lar bad in Hs eer and that a positive result saat ai obtained wit em if the difficulties of experi- mentation could be overcome. suaaaihy der Physik und she re No. 12, 1881, pp. 581-591. 13. Elécirisal Units reconamended by the Hlectrical CG, ane *€88 a 1881.—(1.) The fundam tal units are the centimeter, the gram and the second (C. G.8.). (2.) The volt and the ohm retain the present value, viz: 10° and 10°. (3.) The resistance of one ohm one volt is PPh: an ape (6.) The quantity of clectvity afforded by one ampére in one second is called a coulomb. (7.) A farad is defined to be that capacity by which one coulomb in one farad gives a volt.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 12, 1881, p. 708. 14. Blemonca ‘y Lessons in Electricity and cy deta by S : VANUS P. THompson. 446 12mo. London, 1881 Macoliitan 0.)—The beginner who wishes to make himself rie vega with the fundamental experiments of Electricity and Magnetis and with the principles which have been deduced from them, will 242 Scientific Intelligence. find this little book an excellent guide. It is written from the modern standpoint, avoiding the use of old phraseology so likely to mislead the beginner, and explaining the not always simple ideas now accepted, clear and intelligible form; the student who has mastered it will be in a position to go farwatd with more advanced treatises without having anything to unlearn. There is much fresh matter introduced into the text, but in this respect the figures are not quite all that the book deserves. II. Gronoey. 1. Glacial Erosion in Maine; by Professor GEoRGE Stone, of wegen College. Proc. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist. Nov. 21, 1881.—Professor Stone treats in this paper of the com- position ‘and ioe ibution and a ae of the oe in the State of Maine; of the ae of bite ground moraine, wher Shame in * eda average depth of the till is stated to be probably between 30 and 50 feet. The rarity of sub-glacial streams is sustained for the fol- lowing reasons: the fact that no stratified deposits and only a moderate amount of glaciation have as yet been found in or be- cath the ground moraine; that the direction of the valleys is that of the glacial movement, and is sometimes transverse to ; that there were no peaks or ridges rising above the glacier to oc casion the formation of crevasses ; that the capping of ice over the hills was so thick that the ice may have moved independently = the hills and valleys beneath ; and that the pressure of ice wa great that the lower part of the ice could har ly have been es jected to the strains necessary for making crevasses. Another reason mentioned is that no pot-holes have been found except within a few miles of the sea. But no pot-holes could have been formed from the fall of water in crevasses while the ice was in motion. In borings by waters to make a cylindrical pot hole, the tool has to work as truly about a center as in the use of a carpenter’s augur. A motion of even a yard a century would elongate it. é 2. Glacial phenomena on any Delaware. — Professor G. F. WriGut, in a paper on a : of the Paleoliti-earing cae in Seiden staat a te ma bioag gravels rise to a 4 feet above aie " This fies “ roaths "sncontormably ae the older gravel formations.” In the Lehigh valley, t Bethle- hem, a few miles above its junction with the ‘Deleware valley, Geology. . 243 this clay contains scratched pebbles, and overlies coarse gravel at a height of 180 feet above the river Professor Wright remarks that the area of the part of the Del- aware valley that was covered by the ice was not far from 6,000 about 1,500 feet; and, further, that, with the water at Trenton 150 feet deep, as the clay-beds would seem to indicate, the 16 months. He hence concludes that, as this rate of discharge is highly improbable, there must have been “a depression of the region to the extent of 100 or more feet”; the era in which it took place was that of greatest depression during the ag See i i ren- ura-Trias of Southwestern Colorado; by R. C. Huts. (Communicated).—The Jura-Trias period of Southwestern Colo- rado is divided into three epochs, not always clearly defined but well marked on the Rio De Las Animas, about three miles above Animas City, also on the Rio Dolores about 19 miles below Rico. The rocks of the lower epoch are exposed on the Uncompahgre, San Miguel, Dolores, La Plata, Animas and Florida. They con- ‘ist of dark brown sandstone and conglomerate and_brick-red Sandstone and shale resting comformably upon the purplish beds of the Permo-Carboniferous. e strata aggregate about 1,000 feet in thickness and are Seemingly destitute of fossils. The rocks of the middle epoch, absent on the Uncompahgre, Which the pebbles are so small, well-rounded and compactly cemented as to suggest, at first glance, an odlite. It is character- istic of the middle series and generally contains fragments of bone and teeth of saurians. : +n the light-colored sandstone indistinct leaf impressions are, in Some places, quite numerous. Tracks of a diminutive species of 244 Serentific Intelligence. is a pinkish-colored cross-grained massive sandstone. It underlies the gray sandstone of the Dakota group and is briefly alluded to by Holmes.* On the Uncompahgre and on the San Miguel, near the mouth of Leopard Creek, the Jura-trias is overlaid by a failed sandstone of like color, having a band of bituminous limestone about 7 feet thick at the base. On the North Fork of the San Miguel the sandstone is generally gray and the limestone is from 20 to 40 feet thick. is group is slightly spells yw the Jura-trias, but, contrary to my statement in a prev communication on the subject,t it is conformable with the Crsteseans and more likely to be Lower Dakota than Jurassic. III. Borany and Zoonoey. 1. Notes on Graminew; by Guorce erpere: F.R.S. Extract Jour. Linnean Society, vol. xix, p. 14-134.—A modest title to a most important essay, in which this ae eee sets forth the general sala abipe ent he has made of the genera of Grasses, to succinctly sketches, nor upon his view of the homology of the floral organs and their adjuncts, which has been discussed in a separate paper a few years ago, of which due notice was taken in this Journal. Botanists do eae need, and no others would be inter- ested in, an abstract of these v and conclusions. In his refer- ence to the morphology of the Tocrantek Mr. Bentham hesitates 6 he His main objection to Hackel’s conclusion—that they e bractle _ dict fore and aft position; but as this is a com- mon position in the Monocotyledones, it seems rather to tell in The arrangement of the genera makes some new associations and representations which may horrify old- esteenege agrostolo- ists. In the two great divisions (which are those R. Bron? of pitoaiation: Ww tic is of minor importance in most other orders that any living botanist could make a better one. The reader will probably be surprised to learn that, predominant as Graminew are in individuals, they are surpassed by the Orchidew in the Pere of species. as Flora oe —The Graminew are continued by Doell species chieslnced or cultivated in Brazil): ase, 84, a large ot contains the greater part of the monospermous Rubiacee y Mil * Hayden’s Report, 1875, page 266. + This Journal, vol, xix, 1889. : Ah ee ce I Cae ee TESS FN Pe ea RIE eae Botany and Zoology. 245 ler of Geneva. Palicourea and Cephaelis are reduced to Psycho- tria, of which there are 250 Brazilian species, although Mapouria, with 68 species, is kept distinct and made to include Geophila. . A, G. 3. Diagnoses Plantarum novarum Asiaticarum: TV. scripsit . J. Maximowicz. Mel. Biol. Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb. 1881. —It is pleasant to see more of the systematic work of Maximowicz, especially when it relates to Japan, as does some of it in the pres- ent fasciculus. Hypericum pyramidatum is identified with H. Ascyron and with the Japanese species; H. Japonicum of Japan, with HZ. mutilum ; but it is remarked that the species in question can hardly be that of Linnzeus, on account of a phrase in Mantissa, ul, 456. We certify that 7 is the Linnean plant, and also the ronovian. And by tracing back the unfortunate addition in the Mantissa, made nearly twenty years later: “Folia tam arete cauli A. G. 4. On the Power possessed by Leaves of placing themselves at pight-Angles to the direction of Incident Light; by Francts A “The Power of Movement in Plants,” Mr. Francis Darwin, in this atihd 3 plant’s axis is attributed to geotropism and heliotropism, rank attributes the position taken by leaves (with one face to the sky and the other to the ground) to transverse geotropism and 246 Scientific Intelligence. g in these directions.” Indeed the one is just as satisfactory or unsatisfactory as the other. The terms “geotropism,” “heliotropism,” “apheliotropism” and the like, transverse or otherwise,—now a numerous brood,—are useful have an inherent power of growin virtue of an inherent tendency? This is substantially denied by opposing forces. It is unnecessary to enter into particulars of how this obviously might produce the effect: for the result of Mr. Francis Darwin’s experiments is a clear disproof of DeVries h ve, its leaves will be horizontal. Let the plant be now made to rotate on a klinostat [so slowly that no centrifugal effect will be produced, but rapidly enough to destroy all geotropic action| so that the axis of rotation coincides with the axis of the plant. And let the direction of the incident rays of light be par- i geotropism being destroyed by the aah oy the balance cannot be maintained.” The experiments, varied in many ways, and wit arrangements to eliminate epinastic and hyponastie tendencies, plainly bring out the conclusion “that the power which leave Botany and Zoology. 247 in his text-books and manuals,—how to herborize, with full partic- ulars and, indeed, figures, of all the implements he can possibly ire; how to prepare his specimens for the herbarium, and to arrange and manage the same; what books are most needed ; what and where the principal public herbaria of the United States flora, are to be separately issued, with a brief letter-press, under Me west of Greenland; by P. Martin Duncan and W. Percy S3ia- DEN. Large 4to, 82 pp., six lithographic plates. London, John Van Voorst, 1881.—This work is of special importance to Ameri- can naturalists interested in this group of animals, for a large Proportion of the species treated are found upon the New Eng- land coast. All the species are described in detail and nearly all of them are well illustrated. The whole number of species is Oreula Barthii, are New England species, and the latter occurs on George’s Bank and off Nova Scotia. Eight of fishes occur on the New England coast, the ninth (Asteracanthion Gulf of St. Lawrence and. off Nova Scotia, and only one is, so far as known, peculiar to the authors have included, erroneously, I believe, as the young of Cucumaria frondosa, the form that is regarded by me, and many others, as a distinct species — {Pentacta minuta). Am. Jour. Scr.—Tatgp Serres, Vou. XXIII, No. 135,—Marox, 1882, 17 248 Scientific Intelligence. Greenland seas (Pedicellaster Lend tth. ystallus Sladen); but it is possible that a Pedicellaster dredged in the Gulf of St. Lawrence several years ago, by Mr. auistiead ntl. sent me a specimen, in land s Cles ; - Ophio lypha PO occurs on abe Grand Banks and in the Gulf a St. Aogit rence (Whiteaves) ; Amphiura Holbcelli oceurs in the St. Lawrence ; while Ophiocten sericeum ea and ae a wie Duncan appear to be confined o the arctic waters. Th er is, howev ver, closely related to Optophaehe COptioplednay pusaniains V.,* described in the last number of this Journal, which has been ‘taken by us, several Hige can no longer be regarded as peculiar to the arctic region Of the three crinoids one ( Antodlon Eschrichtit) is recognized as he celtica Norm. and A. prolixa Sladen are not known from our coast, unless the latter be the same as some of the forms that I have hitherto called A. Sarsii, our sO species, which it certainly netege resembles, in some r In discussing the geographical distribution of the species the authors ie the large number of species that extend south- ward along the North American coast to Nova Scotia, Maine, etc., but in a number of cases the range on our coast, as deter- mined by our later researches, is more southern than they give. Thus, Cucumaria [ Pentacta] frondosa, Psolus [ Lophothuria] Fa- bricii, Ctenodiscus corniculatus |=crispatus|, aba rie — losa, ‘Astrophyton Agassizii have all occurred south of Cape Cod; Ophiopholis ae eesterevsid are common as far south, at least, rence and Nova Scotia; 22 extend to the Gulf of Maine; 11 pass the the south of Cape Cod; 5 extend to the region off arr ae: E. 8. Discover ‘y of arare fresh-water shell ( loners ge in eoutien New York; by Joun M. Cooxe.—In the summer of 1880 I found several individuals of this genus in the waters es a “Sucker flows through the village of Canandaigua, N. The s ecies geri not agree either with G@. Californica, no r @. Malet our two uicriass species. Four have been desorbed by Pfe iffer and Bourguignat from the West Indies. The spect mens which I found baie in a pool formed in the summer shrink- age of the stream. In the last season I was unable to find them * This species was described (p. 141) as an Ophioglypha, but it is evidently congeneric with Ophiopleura aretica, from which it differs in the smaller size 0 of the under arm- a upper arm-spines larger he flattened, differently shaped mouth-shields, Botany and Zoology. 249 as it oul ret cuelly é. n examining a Quaternary fresh-water shell-marl from St. Helena Island, off the coast of South oer have found a species existing either on the Continent or in ae West Indies. This is Mr. Tryon’s ib as well as this, that the species of the associated genera mentioned are several of them both West t is interesting, therefore, to find along with the Gundlachia, a species (Pupa mis ray da hewadon) described b Adams from Jamaica, and no et identified on the Continent: -Itw in this shell-marl ae ies the entire skeleton of a Manbdie was found, about fifteen years ago, by Capt. Cc: sie si of the U.S. Coust Survey. IV. MisceLLANEOuUS ScrenTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. . Minor Planets.—Since the list of minor planets in volume xvii was published, there have been added thirteen to the number. 210 we discovered by aa Nov. 12, 1879 211 Isol Dec. 11, 1879 peruyt vad era Feb. 6, 1880 213 Lila, ¥ Peters, Feb. 17, 1880 214 Aschera, : Pali Mar. 1, 1880 215 Oenon " norre, Apr. 7, 1880 2tO. Jie uf Palisa, Apr. 10, 1880 Ppa eee i. Coggia, Aug. 30, 1880 y 0. Siren ae . Palisa, Sept 1880 OG cole : Palisa, Sept. 30, 1880 20 2 oe i Palisa, Feb. 23, 1881 iy See Sar ae : Palisa, Jan. 18, 1882 BAD ohn Bia Feb. 2 The following names have been given t planets previously discovered: (204) Kallisto; (205) datas: (207) Hedda; (208) Lucrimosa. Hailstorms. — A letter to the editors from Mr. FASB. Ottver (Atheneum, Glasgow, Scotland), ray one he is prepar- : & memoir for the eteorological Societ ailstorms.” asks any Palate, who have opportunities or observing hail- stor tms, to furnish him with ph ta of them. The points to be partinlarly par earee are as foll mas - Dote, and hour of the day. 2. Area of the storm, if it assume t the ae Ae (2) length h of the course, (6) adth, (c) direction of poi ( o rate of ical features 0 vation, i storm, i ) 6. Barometrical readings freque eutly taken during time of hailsto Wind, (a) pilose near the earth’s surface, (b) direction in the higher regions 250 Miscellaneous Intelligence. as indicated by the cloud aes (c) force. 7. Preceded or — by rain. 8. Aspect of the clouds. Note if there be avy anperae S of two separate strata at different elevations. 9. Blech rical phenomena, should there be lightning, note the relation between the discharges and the fall of he hail—whetber the light- ning precede the hail, or vice versa. 10, Duration o i e storm at one spo 11. Sound. Note if a peculiar noise precede the descent of the hail. 12. Con- en and size of the hailstones. 13. Weather fates oa after the storm Sehot?s Tables and Results of the Precipitation in Rain ae Snow in the United States and ae adjacent parts of North and South America, pablishe ed by the Smithsonian Institution. A new edition (secon 1d) of this very rile! nle memoir was issued in May last by the Smithsonian Institution under the direction of Mr. C. A. Schott. It makes now a quarto volume of 248 pages, with 10 plates. In the first edition the records were tahulated edition were constructed between April and June, 1880, and are made of the same size rade the temperature charts of the Smithson- ian Memoirs by Schott. The explanatory notes and deductions have been written anew, and various other changes have been introduce 4. Boston City Water: report on a peculiar pipe nes of the Water in November, 1881 ; by Prof. Ira Remsen, with notes , A. Hyarr and W. G. Fartow.—The “ peculiar condition Ge one observed in the waters supplied to cities at certain pores in which the taste is a “cucumber taste” or a “ fish-oil ” taste. rof. Remsen found in his observations that such ie a con- tained more “albuminoid ammonia” than those not having the taste, and by this observation ascertained the particular ponds that sent to Boston the offensive waters. He afterward examined the mud of the bottom of Farm Pond, without positive results ; detected green masses of the size of pin-heads, which rose to the surface, and were recognized as plants of the Nostoe fa Prof. W. G. Farlow, but which did not have the smell; obtained from the screens, through which the water passes at the effluent of the gate-house of the pond, among dead leaves, ete. here 4 or 5 oe in length, tooth most not over an inch, an reached the root of the matter. Prof. Farlow recognized the material as a fresh-water sponge, and Prof. Alpheus Hyatt as the common ain Spon. gilts Suviatilis. 5. The Lalande Astron al Prize was awarded by the Acad- my of Sciences of Paris, a ts recent annual meeting, to Pro- fessor Swift, of Rochester, i bap . La Lumitre Ellectrique. —This excellent electrical journal, since the ther ago of the year, appears but once instead of twice weekly; at the same : ime the size of the numbers has been increased fr om 32 ie 48 colum Cosm seten Me eis —With the beginning of 1882 the well- ‘resine review, edited by the Abbé Moigno, commences volume I of a third series 7 a eke rete | ' : : AM. JOUR.SCI. VOL. XA H PLATE It LATE I. 44°30 4 42°30 =) Hl Kae \ surat @) ancaske? Ww o E Mo ves tee + é ¥*% a8 my ae, aa } ASs Ss / es asa \ A \ ee? > . sUmMPs x ° do o5 (eR Barngh egoes lS Nogthfield is ngmsonyitté re j en eR | gpg windsor Winds” ppatFORO \ i Mullers Fal Awa —— 4 mortage 1 1, Faliggd m.city + Nernom og *\ : \ Bernardston oa , \ Greenfietd © ve : ¢ i 2 x “ a % . £ oc . : 4 we : ' ‘ ° &_mean tide Here ; E : ee - a : i i i | i H | j ' * ed Lo ba oe cee Pe & ; One. Be eee a a Modern mean tide level i : $< ee 4 ve i i SoS Cia BEES bd i 33 } i ; i ; ye: io i pe 8 of ae oy ate ee > * - * . en, Ihe : = . —— = ~ - - - ~ u i * i i t : j 4 ? $ dads RS Fees i ? a. ee oa - dS Ear Oui foie. © Oo me ae 2g SS oe > fe) ae Meee es ui Secor s moo ig 4 iy SS ee ae a ee af ae ol 25 66 oem eet 4 ee we GEES GR BS B88 Es 8 2 oases es Shh Gs 38 8 ¢ 8 ye Se ce 5 Blu ace rao) vi a & na a> Be 5 ee peepee lr ena Z reas Ls Boeke Oe enige a 2 Be O oe i) moe mi aa On & WE =u 3S (2) = 5 ; 7a 8 Rew #05 ok 2. 5 a % < 17 = Gf On 2 ie ce Soe Mh bh ose 5 i oo & a ae pe epee i be Bi Re ce & rma O30 2q 8 fe 3a5 <3 3) wg w a ada! fs <0) ee Os. Be oe bee Aone Yn Nn SS ee a My z as FEE = ¢ ye a wl Sa ce) & z c mo au 209 «xO Zz BE Aa gee one tne 1s fae r Pas ae poaieg a fee oy eB = ; a re > oo il Aaa tT pee SE ae = x z oc > Bre 2 wo > 5 sae <= oS ee oe 5 2 Ns 3 ? oe ee ae a ‘ G ul > = i ul es ae ae 22 23 Bn e) = * xe ag ot S <7 née Soe =F oo Zw 4 oe Geos, Se < 4 6 eae ES 5 2 ae Oh oe = 8 4G 5 ¥ r: 4 <_- rus 4 = a Z, see a Zz ©& 9 .a a = Qa = o< = SI - 5 4 vs t wis O26 ra fd m os = wn o ad = =". e t = Ey po a ; 253 < > 2 : 2 a ; 5 ~ 3 “a pe 2 | ia aes Figo. 3. | 3 ig me yiong t= ee oF = JoHN’s FALLS % UPPER —— - : ela ‘ e WATERFORD i WATERFORD oe ers LOSING RE ON Ae is EN, etion : = ‘ 2 SECTION OF THE CONNECTICUT RIVER. DURING, THE FLOOD, FROM THE MELTING GLACIER. : oS < rs + \ : 4 1 ; cS whey | : my ie 3 fj Sill en ee S PHyYiLU RUS. Marah: . i . RHAMPHORHYNCHL OUR SCT VOL XXITT. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES] ART: XXIV.—The Wings of Pterodactyles; (with Plate III), by Professor O. C. MArsH. THE first Pterosaurians discovered were recognized as flying animals, but were thought to be bats. As soon as their general structure became known, they were classed with the Reptiles, although it was considered possible that their power ight was due to feathers. Later, their bones were mis- taken for those of Birds by various experienced anatomists, and others regarded them as sharing important characters with e an limbs of Pterodactvles were used for swimming, rather than for . flight, and this view has found supporters within the present decade. A single fortunate discovery, made a few years since, has done much to settle the question as to the wings of Pterodactyles, as well as their mode of flight, and it is the aim of the present article to place on record some of the more over, the extremity of the long tail supported a separate ver- tical membrane, which was evidently used as a rudder in flight. Am. Jour. BE rad Series, VoL. XXIII, No. 136.—AprIL, 1882. i 252 O. C. Marsh—The Wings of Pterodactyles. These peculiar features are well ele in Plate III, which represents the fossil in the natural s The discovery of this Bes bieeieen naturally pa much attention at the time, and man secure it for Tease museums. The writer was then ork on the toothless be haat lag which he had rooniia found in the Cretaceous of s, and believing the present — specimen important ir his ivetiomiate sent a message by cable to a friend in Germany, and lee it forthe museum of Yale College, where it is now deposit THe Wine MEMBRANES. at See eee ee A careful examination 4 this fossil shows that the patagium of the wings was a thin smooth membrane, very similar to © that of modern bats. As “the wings were partially folded at — the time of entombment, the volant membranes were naturally — contracted into folds, and the surface was also marked by deli- cate striz. At first sight, these striz might readily be mis- taken for a thin coating of hair, but on closer veers they are seen to be minute wrinkles in the su : membranes, the ander side of which is exposed. The wing membranes appear to have been attached in front along the entire length of the arm, and out to the end of the elongated | wing finger. From this point, the outer margin curved inward and backward, to the hind foot. e membrane evidently extended from the hind foot to near the base of the tail, but the exact outline of this portion can- not at present be determined. It was probably not far from — the position assigned it in the restoration attempted in the — eut given below, figure 2. The attachment of the inner margin of the membrane to the oe was doubtless similar to that seen in bats and flying squirre In front of the arm, there was fkawins a fold of the skin extending probably from near the shoulder to the wrist, as indicated in figure 2, This fold enclosed a peculiar bone (pteroid), the nature and function of which will be discussed below in considering the osteology of this part of the skeleton. Tue CaupaL Memprane. The greater portion of the tail of this specimen was free, and without volant cage nies The distal extremity, how- ever, including the last sixteen short vertebrae, supported a vertical membrane, which is shown in Plate III, and also in the O. C. Marsh—The Wings of Pterodactyles. 253 portions were slightly unequal in form and size. The upper part was kept in position by a series of spines, sent off one from near the middle of each vertebral centrum, and thus clearly repre- senting neural spines. The lower half also was strengthened by similar spines, which descended from near the junction of the vertebree, and hence were homologous with chevron bones. These spines were cartilaginous, and flexible, but sufficiently firm in texture to keep the membrane in an upright position. FiguRE 1.—Caudal extremity of Rhkamphorhynchus phyllurus, Marsh; natural size. Seen from the left side. THE Scaputar ARrcH. dontia. Probably their great size induced special modifications of the scapular arch, which is here far more complicated than _ In any other members of the group. Y as _ ¢lavicles have yet been found. The sternum here shows no distinct facets for sternal ribs. in the Cretaceous genus Péeranodon, and probably also in Some of the other gigantic forms from deposits of this age, the 254 0. C. Marsh—The Wings of Pterodactyles. marked facets for the sternal ribs. This peculiar method of strengthening the scapular arch has not been observed in any other vertebrates. THe Wine Bones. The three principal bones of the arm (humerus, radius, and ulna), present such similar characters in all Pterodactyles, that they need not be considered here in detail. It is important, how- ever, to bear in mind that the ulna, although but little larger than the radius, contributes the greater share of direct support to the enormously developed wing finger, which is on the outer or ulnar side of the hand. As this position has been a question of discussion among anatomists, it may be well to state, that the writer bases his opinion upon this point on the results of an examination of the best preserved specimens in Kuropean museums, as well as nearly all known in this country. The latter specimens settle the question beyond doubt. e views expressed by anatomists in regard to the bones of the wrist and hand of Pterodactyles are almost as various as the specimens investigated. Some of the restorations of these little to clear away the serious difficulties in the case. The main facts in regard to the carpus now known may be briefly stated as follows: In all Pterodactyles, there are two principal carpal bones, placed one above the other. These sometimes show indica- tions of being composite, but their constituent parts have not been satisfactorily determined. On the inner side of the wrist, articulating with the distal carpal, there is a smaller bone which has been called the “lateral carpal.” In addition to these three bones, some American Pterodactyles have on the inner side three ossicles, which may be sesamoid bones. ‘T'wo of these have been seen in a few Jurassic forms in Europe. Beside these, there is often found on the radial side of the wrist, and sometimes attached to it, a long, slender styloid O. C. Marsh—The Wings of Pterodactyles. 255 the outer or ulnar side, but American specimens prove conclu- sively that they belong on the radial side. The nature of the so-called pteroid bone has been much discussed, but without a satisfactory conclusion. fter a care- ful study of many specimens, the writer is disposed to regard it, not as an ossified tendon, but as a part of the first digit, or thumb, which is usually considered wanting in Pterodactyles. According to this view, the “Jateral carpal” would probably e the metacarpal of the same digit. In favor of this interpre- _ tation, it may be said— (1.) That the position and structure of this appendage of the carpus correspond closely with that of the first digit in some other reptiles, for example, /guanodon. (2.) The “lateral carpal” unites both with the distal carpal and with the “ pteroid” by very free, well-defined articulations. (3.) In American specimens, the “lateral carpal” stands nearly at right angles to the wrist, and the “pteroid” is much bent near its articular end. (4) In no Pterodactyle known is there any remnant of a digit outside the wing finger, where the membrane might be expected to retain it. ).) This view would make the wing finger the fifth digit, the same to which the membrane is attached in the hind foot. and they vary much in other reptiles which have the digits highly specialized. This subject will be more fully discussed by the writer elsewhere. According to the above interpretation, there are five digits in the hand of Pterodactyles, although not the five often given in restorations. The first digit, the elements of which have been considered, undoubtedly supported a membrane in front of the arm. The second, third, and fourth are small, and armed with claws. The large wing finger is the fifth, corresponding to the little finger of the human hand. he metacarpal bones are much elongated in the Pterodac- tyles with short tails, and quite short in those, like the present Specimen, that have the tail long. The metacarpal of the wing finger is always large, and robust, while those of the claw-bear- Ing digits are usually quite slender. In Pleranodon, the second metacarpal is a slender thread of bone, throughout most of the length, while the third and fourth are attenuated splint bones, Incomplete above. = _ The phalanges of the three middle digits are quite short, and the terminal ones supported sharp claws. The wing finger has four greatly elongated phalanges, the last being a styloid bone, 256 O. C. Marsh—The Wings of Pterodactyles. without a claw. This digit is well shown in the right wing represented in Plate III, and also in the restoration, given elow, in figure 2. In the restoration here attempted, the writer has endeavored to reproduce (1) the parts actually present or clearly indicated in the specimen described, and (2) those which the former seemed to require to complete the outward form in life. Th Figure 2.—Restoration of Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus, Marsh ; one seventh natural size. membrane at the base of the tail may have been somewhat less in extent, and the fold of the skin above the fore-arm either more or less developed than here represented, but the facts now known render the outlines here given more than probable. The hands are represented with the palms forward. distinct, however, is shown, aside from the difference in size, by the complete ankylosis of the scapula and coracoid, and by the fifth digit of the hind foot being well developed, and hav- ing three phalanges. In the name Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus, here proposed for the species, the latter designation refers to the leaf-shaped caudal appendage, which appears to be one of its most characteristic features. _ For the long delay in the description of this important European specimen, the writer can only plead l’embarras des richesses nearer home. Yale College, New Haven, March 14, 1882. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus, Marsh. Natural size. The caudal membrane is seen from the left side. _ ‘The animal lies upon the back, and the under surfaces of the wing membranes e & CO. G. Rockwood—Notes on Earthquakes. 257 Art. XX V.—On Sandstones having the grains in part Quartz Crystais; by Rev. A. A. Youne, of New Lisbon, Wisconsin. In the Potsdam sandstone of the ents of New Lisbon, Wisconsin, and the St. Peters sandstone of Grant County in the same State, I have found many of the quartz grains to be true quartz cry stals with polished faces. On mounting some of the grains in pang and then examining them with the micro- scope, many were f ound to have well-defined nuclei of varying sizes, proving that the crystalline form was produced by the . finishing out of original irregular grains of the sand-bed, auch are now the kernels of the crystals, thus according with obser- vations by Mr. Sorby, as described in his Presidential address, of 1880, before the Geological Society. Some of tlie kernels are quite translucent, others nearly opaque, and occasionally one has a needle of rutile (?) which does not extend beyond. XXVIL—WNotes on American Earthquakes: No. by se rca C. G. Rockwoop, Jr., Ph.D., Princeton, N. ‘S THIS article embodies such information as the author has obtained in regard to the earthquakes which occurred upon the American continent and adjacent islands during the year 1881, with notice of some earlier shocks not previously reported. Items which depend upon single sources of information have their source indicated, and if regarded as doubtful are printed in smaller t type. or assistance in collecting information the author is indebted to J. M. Batchelder, Esq. of Boston, to President J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, and to the Superintendent of the Meteorological Service at Parone. The Monthly Weather Review of the U. S. Signal Service has also furnished valuable information. 1880. Sept. 28.—6 p. . . Mah shocks on the island of Uka- mok, Alaska (55° 48’ N., 4’ W.); the first in north-south direction, the others westeast; 4 p. M., severe shock from W. to K. th, 3 A. M. and 1 heavy shocks tie W. to E. e commencement es this phenomend, Sept. 28th, until its eubaidenog Oct. 16th, there was an ep hencht tremblin ng motion of the earth, interspersed with heavy, subterranean, rum- bling sounds. During a short trip over a portion of the island, on Sept. 29th, ancy fissures, a width ie from ee. to twenty inches s were found to be very numer The abov pels ae ee sae ae tomate at that time a dat of the a 258 C. G. Rockwood—Notes on Earthquakes. Oct. 26 to 29. In regard to the earthquake shocks of these dates in Alaska (already reported, vol. xxi, p. 201), the following details of separate shocks are given by the ‘Sitka pismlga en of an Oregon paper, as are also the two succeeding items in Novem- ber: Oct. 26th, 1.20 p. m., very severe shock, tweet: 2.14 P.M. and 8.46 p. M., slight shocks ; 27th, 5.35 a. M., two ‘short and sharp shocks, east—west 9.15 Pp. M., sharp shock, S.W. to N.E.; "11.04 P.M. and 11.45 P. M., slight shoe 8, east—west. 29th, 1. 05 A. M., a shock; 6. AS Mi, a sharp shock, S.E. to my Weis with rum- bling noise ; ‘11.58 P a three shocks, N.E. Swi-w s cath. Rev. Nov. 13.—5.28 a.m. A shock at Sitka.—U. S. Weath. fev. Nov. 14.—5.50 a.m. Two shocks at Sitka, N.E. to S.W.— S. Weath. Rev. 1881. - 1.—6.55 p.m. A shock at Red Bluff, Cal.; vibration, sheik atu. — U. 8. Weath. Rev Jan. 5to7. At wel inland, W. T, (47° 42° N., 192° 3) W.); slight shocks at 10.56 P. m. of 5th; at 4.20 Pp. Mu. of 6th, and at 10.15 p. . of 7th.— U. S. Weath. Rev Jan. 6.—6.25 p. Ms A shock at Red Bluff, Cal. ; vibrations, N.W. to S.E.—U. 8. Weath. Rev Jan. 7.—6.15 a.m. Slight shook at Campo, Cal.— U. S. Weath. Rev isc 3 16.—1l p. mM. Slight shock at Bainbridge Island, W. T. —U. 8S. Weath. Rev. Jan. 20.—9.40 p. mM. The shock felt in the vicinity of Bath sue Brunswick, Me. (vol. xxi, p. 202), was accompanied by a ru bling noise. Three shocks felt at San Francisco and Oakland, Cal. At the former place the times were stated as 8.54 Pp. M., 9.15 P. M., and 11.15 p. m., and the direction N.W. toS.E. At Oakland the first and second shocks were accompanied ae a low rumbling, - and the direction is stated to have been S.W. t Jan. 30.—9.45 p.m. A slight shock at Banbridge Island, W. — v. . At Visalia, Cal., at 4.11 p. m., three shocks lasting altogether about two seconds, and at 9.53 Pp. m, two more shocks. Motion, 8.E. to N.W.— JU. 8S. ’Weath. Rev. Feb. 2 ay slight shock from north to south at Salinas City, Cal.—JU. S. Weath. Rev. Feb. 2.—About 4 A. M. a slight shock at Boston, Mass.—J. M. B. Feb. 3.—4 a.m. A loud report and shock at Plymouth, Mass.—J. M. B. Feb. 4.—Loud report and earthquake shock at Greenland My Stratham, N. H. Feb. 12.—A shock at Portsmouth, N. H pi SB, : Feb. 14. Aslight shock at Uki eG ne “about one o’clock ; direction, east-west.—San Francisco Chronicle. Feb. 26.—10.55 p. m. Slight shock at heme Me.— Augusta — Journal. C. G. Rockwood—Notes on Earthquakes. 259 March 14.—10.30 Pp. M. thea shock at ae see Island, W. T.; duration, pee seconds.— U. S. Weath. Rev March 18.—9.30 p.m. Four slight shocks at Suhonddtadn i. V.—wW. Y. Times. March se About 7 p. M. a slight shock at Hebron, Utah, and Pioche, Nev April 3.--4. 52 A.M. Slight shock at Antrim, N. H.—J. S. Weath. Rev. pril 5.—9.30 a.m. At San Cristobal, Cuba, a “ee shock in direction S.E. to N.W. April 7. At midnight on the morning of the 7th, a shock at St. Paul’s s Bay, on the St. Lawrence River, bec About 2 a. M. several severe deecanks shocks were felt in Central California. _ The district affected was from Sac to 2.15 a. M., and the direction at most places was east—wes At Sacramento and Merced there were two, and at Watsonville four shocks, S April 20. Shocks felt at Goshen, Indiana, with heavy rum- ling. April 21.—11.30 a.m. A heavy shock, acco a by a rum- bling noise, was felt at Port Jefferson, N. Tribune. April 21, A sharp earthquake shook in ‘he Hawaiian Islands. —San Francisco Chronicle. April 23 assenger arriving on this date at New Orleans, from Belize, British Honduras, states that a number of severe earthquake shocks had recently occurred there and along the coast of Spanish pr ovirans ; espe ecially one that bogs three or four rocks Lie ious had injured houses in Belize.—N. Y. Times. pril 24. e New York bbe tend te this date speaks Be a “recent” earth- quake shock = "Dolores ado, most se in the vicinity of the Twin Lakes. No other report of it has come to ha by April 27.—9.10 p.m. A shock at Los Angeles, Cal. ; direction, 8.W. to N.E.; duration, two seconds.— U. S. Weath. Reo May 17. Das the night a shock in Hayti, causing several dacidelinecte ey May 18s. At a N. H., two shocks, at 12.20 a. Mm. and between 3 and 4 ; pene 9 a. M. slight shock at Lawrence, Kan.—Law- Pls: Journal. May 27. A shock at La Salle, Ind., in the early morning, May 31.—3.20 a. A heavy shock at Murray Bay and vicinity: on the St. Tawiene River, sixty miles below Quebec. une 8. “On the night of the 8th” four shocks, one quite severe, at Greytown, Nicara ragua.— J. M. B. June 19. In the morning a slight shock at Ottawa, Ont. — 260 C. G. Rockwood—Notes on Earthquakes. June 19.—3.35 a. At Newburyport, Mass., a rumbling and Saba, lasting some seconds, June 20,—11 a. mM. Two shocks, each lasting about ten sec- onds, at Nickerie, Dutch Guiana. They were “precede ed, accom- panied and followed by a rumbling soun ar rometer, 30°20 inches ; thermometer, 86°.— U. 8. We ev June 24 and 25. Earthquake at St. oe (W. tious June 29. ee in Trinidad, (W. I.)\— Nature. June 30.—8 A A sharp shock at ‘Gato, Cal. ; direction, S.E. to N.W. preceded and accompanied by a rumbling noise.— U. 8. Weath. Rev July 2.—11 P A shock at San Juan, San Benito Co., Cal. —San Francisoo ironies: July 3.—2.10 a. m. A heavy earthquake at Hanford and Visalia, Cal. ; vibration, west-east in both places, accompanied by subterranean, noises. —San Francisco Chronicle. July 5 and 7 ioe in Hayti, W. L—Wature. July 45 slight shock at zene Ors Me., and vicinity, felt as far distant as Dover and Augu Aug. 13. An earthquake at Candoba ‘Cordova ?), Mexico.— San Pemcieo Ohroni cle. a 13. A shock at Contoocook, N. H., in the early morning.—J. M. A little after 11 p. m.a slight shock at Hillsboro, Ohio, and vicinity. Aug. 30.—7 p.m. Two slight shocks at Santa Barbara, Cal. ; direction, north-sou th— UW. S. Weath. Rev. Sept. 13. Violent shocks in Maui, Hawaiian Islands.— U. 8. Weath. Rev Sept. 18. ae 20 p.m. A severe shock at San Francisco, Cal. ; motion, west-east; duration, five seconds; felt also slightly at Angel Is Island. Sept. 25. A slight shock at Elmira, N. Y., preceding a violent storm Sept. 30. About 5 a. M. a severe and destructive earthquake shock occurred in the Hawaiian meer followed after a few schol ecagrea continued through Oct. 3d. The earthquake appears to have been most destructive in the two Konas where many bangs and oientn were injured, Oct 1.—1.40 a.m. A strong shock occurred at Kamouraska, Quebec, on nee south side of the St. Lawrence River. ‘ 7. be d wic a May 31), ona same vicinity had been shaken. Bars B Bay and Murray Bay are nearly opposite Kamour: eet Oct. 2.—9 a.m. pee ee nae , hy Dispersion of Colors in perfectly transparent Media. 265 We may go farther in the determination of the quantities €’, ’, ¢’. For in view of the very fine-grained structure of medium, it will easily appear that the manner in which the gen- eral or average flux in any element Dv (represented by &, 7, 0) distributes itself among the molecules and intermolecular spaces must be entirely determined by the amount and direction of that flux and its period of oscillation. Hence, and on account of the superposable character of the motions which we are consider- ing, we may conclude that the values of €', 74 C’ at any given point in the medium are capable of expression as linear func- tions of €, 7, € in a manner which shall be independent of the time and of the orientation of the wave-planes and the distance of a nodal plane from the point considered, so long as tbe period of oscillation remains the same. But achange in the period may / J ment. Let us examine each of these quantities, and consider the equation which expresses their equality. 6. Since in every part of an element Dv the irregular as well as the regular part of the displacement is entirely determined (for light of a given period) by the values of &, y, ¢, the Statical energy of the element-must be a quadratic function of 14; 7 Say (AE? 4+ Br’ + Ce? + Ene + F2é + Gn) De, where A, B, etc. depend only on the nature of the medium and the period of oscillation. At an instant of no velocity, when - t sin on’ =0, and cos" 27-=1, P P the above expression will reduce by equations (1) to (Aa? + B6* + Cy? +Efy+Fyat Gap) cos’ 225 Do. Since the average value of cos* an, in an indefinitely ex-’ tended space is 4, we have for the statical energy in a unit of volume S=}(Aa’?+BA’+Cy?+Efy+Fya+Gaf). (2) 266 J. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction and the 7. The kinetic energy of the whole medium is represented by the double volume-integral* gaff fEFO ere), dee. where dv,, dv, are two infinitesimal elements of volume, (E+é’, (€+€’), the corresponding components of flux, 7 the distance between the elenfents, and ¥ denotes a summation with respect to the codrdinate axes. Separating the integrations, we may write for the same quantity 3/(E+2), | f See do, | dv.. It is evident that the integral within the brackets is derived from €+€ by the same process by which the potential of any mass is derived from its density. If we use the symbol Pot to express this relation, we may write for the kinetic energy 4E/E+E) Pot (E+E') dv. The operation denoted by this symbol is evidently distribu- tive, so that Pot (E+€’)= Pot &+Pot é’. The expression for the kinetic energy may therefore be expanded into 43 /é Pot & dv+42/é Pot & dv 4435/8! Pot F dv+4>/& Pot &' de. But & , and therefore Pot é/ , has in every wave-plane the average value zero. Also and therefore Pot &, has in every wave-plane a constant value. Therefore the second and third integrals in the above expression will vanish, leaving for the kinetic energy 42> /é Pot & dv+42>/& Pot &' dv, (3) which is to be calculated for a time of no displacement, when 2a 3 tae ‘5 any U4 ates al cos an; ote cos an, 6 cos 2n-. ( ) The form of the expression (3) indicates that the kinetic energy consists of two parts, one of which is determined by the regular part of the flux, and the other by the irregular part of the flux. * The fl tic system of units. It is to be observed that the difference of opinion which has prevailed circuits. ‘Dispersion of Colors in perfectly transparent Media. 267 8 The value of Pot § may be easily found by integration, but perhaps more readily by Poisson’s well-known theorem that if ¢ is Pan function of position in space (as the density of a certain mas eons @ Potg ,@Potq _ dal dt Cdytte aap ee (5) where the direction of the codrdinate axes is immaterial, pro- vided that they are rectangular. In applying this to Pot é, we may place two of the axes in a wave-plane. This will give PPoté _ nee qt = AE: (8) In a nodal plane, Pot &=0, since € has equal positive and negative values in elements of volume symmetrically distributed with respect to any point in such a plane. In a wave-crest (or plane in which € has a maximum value), Pot £ will also have & maximum value, which we may call K. For intermediate ints we may determine its value from the consideration of waves, on ving a wave-crest, and other a nodal plane passin stabagt the point for which the potential 1s sou e maximum amplitudes of these component System as cos one and sin Qn to unity. But the second of the component aan will contribute nothing to the value of the potential. We thus obtai Pot €=K cos ans, @ Pot § ae Comparing this with equation (6), we have > Pot E=—4z, 47° u 4n’ : 7 K cos 275 Te Pot &. Pot €=— Zee (7) Hence, and by equations (4), $2/E Poté dy == >/ do=*Z (a? +? +y’) f cos? ans dv. The kinetic energy of ras cate part of the flux is there- fore, for each unit of volum Am. Jour, me .—THIRD SERIEs, vo XXII, No. 136.—Apriz, 1882. 2 268 J. W. Gibbs— Double Refraction and the al’ 2 2 2 pom eho (8) 9. With respect to the kinetic energy of the irregular part of the flux, it is to be observed that, since é, 7’; ¢’ have their average values zero in spaces which are very small in compari- son with a wave-length, the integrations implied in the notations Pot & Pot 7, Pot e may be confined toa sphere of a radius which is small in comparison with a wave-length. Since within such a sphere & 7, ‘a are sensibly determined by the values of é, om c at the center of the sphere, which is the point for which the value of the potentials are sought, Pot &’, Pot 7', Pot a must be functions—evidently linear functions—of é, ’; C; and €’ Pot &’, 7’ Pot 7’, ¢’ Pot ¢’ must be quadratic functions of the same quantities. But these functions will vary with the position of the point considered with reference to the adjacent molecules. Now the expression for the kinetic energy of the irregular part of the flux, $/&' Pot & dv, indicates that we may regard the infinitesimal element dv as having the energy (due to this part of the flux) 428' Pot &' dv. Let us consider the energy due to the irregular flux which will belong to the above defined element Dv, which is not infinitely small, but which has the advantage of being one of physically similar elements which make ty the whole medium. The energy of this element is found by adding the energies of all the infinitesimal elements of which it is composed. Since there are quadratic functions of the quantities é, th; C, which are sensibly constant throughout the element Dv, the sum will be quadratic function of é, ts . say (A'S 4B + CS +E e+F'2E+G'S7) Dv, which will therefore represent the energy of the element Du due to the irregular flux. The coefficients A’, B’, etc., are determined by the nature of the medium and the period of os- cillation. They will be constant throughout the medium, since one element Dv does not differ from another. 4 Dispersion of Colors in perfectly transparent Media. 269 This expression reduces by equations (4) to Am" (A'a! + BB+ Cy" +E By +F’yat G'af) cos? 2a Do. The kinetic energy of the irregular flux in a unit of volume is therefore Tat (Ala BS +/+ Eiby +P yatG@iap. (9) 10, Equating the statical and kinetic energies, we have 3(Aa’* +B" + Cy’ +EBy + Fyat Gap) =" (a+ +7) +22 (Aa + B+ Cy + Eby +Fyat Gap), (10) waves is given by the equatio eee Aad’? +BR?+Cy’?+EBy+Fyat+Gap p on 2 2 2 The velocity (V) of the corresponding system of progressive n a+ oe A'a? +BiP+4C'y +E By +F’ ya+G@'af a 2 * ug 11 a + fF + & If we set 1 ae eer 2% 6, ie bio gee a etc., (12) a patti +y’, the equation reduces to as’ + by? + ca" + eyz +fea+gey=1. (14) Then 1 ax* + by*® + cz? + eyz + few + guy ght r ‘ If this radius is drawn parallel to the electrical oscillations, we shall have and Wook (15) r 270 J. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction and the the direction of vibration, must hold true not only of su vibrations as actually occur, but also of such as we may imagine to occur under the influence of constraints determining the direction of vibration in the wave-plane. e directions of the natural or unconstrained vibrations in any wave-plane may be determined by the general mechanical principle that if the type of a natural vibration is infinitesimally altered by the application of a constraint, the value of the period will be stationary.* Hence, in a system of stationary waves, such as we have been considering, if the direction of an unconstrained vibration is infinitesimally varied in its wave-plane by a con- straint, while the wave-length remains constant, the period will be stationary. Therefore, if the direction of the unconstrained vibration is infinitesimally varied by constraint, and the period remains rigorously constant, the wave-length will be stationary. ence, if we make a central section of the above describe ellipsoid parallel to any wave-plane, the directions of natural vibration for that wave-plane will be parallel to the radii vectores of stationary value in that section, viz., to the axes of the ellipse, when the section is elliptical, or to all radii, when the section is circular. 12. For light of a single period, our hypothesis has led to a perfectly definite result, our equations expressing the funda- mental laws of double refraction as enunciated by Fresnel. But if we ask how the velocity of light varies with the period, that is, if we seek to derive from the same equations the laws of the dispersion of colors, we shall not be able to obtain an equally definite result, since the quantities A, B, etc., and A’, B’, etc., are unknown functions of the period. If, however, experiment. Pr we set qa Ae t+ BA +Oy* + Eby +Fya+Gah (16) : p * See Rayleigh’s Theory of Sound, vol. i, p. 84. 4 Dispersion of Colors in perfectly transparent Media. 271 ie t Q2 Pe t I U so w—*2 +Bi#+C'y eee as i (17) our general equation (11) becomes Oss ss ae ¥ pig ?p o) (18) where H and H’ will be constant for any given direction of oscillation, when A, B, etc., and A’, B’, ete, are constant. I we wish to introduce into the equation the absolute index of refraction (nr) and the wave-length in vacuo (4) in place of V and p, we may divide both sides of the equation by the square of the constant (%) representing the velocity of light in vacuo. Then, since Vee Our equation reduces to H 22 nm? 2nke At > (19) It is well known that the relation between n and 4 may be tolerably well but by no means perfectly represented by an equation of this form. 1 we now give up the presumably inaccurate supposition that A, B, etc., and A’, B’, ete., are constant, equation (19) will still subsist, but H and H’ will not be constant for a given direction of oscillation, but will be functions of p, or, what 1%; C,—a that the values of &, 7, € are changed,) this constraint, accord- mg to the principle cited, will not affect the period of oscilla- 272 J. W. Gibbs— Double Refraction and the tion. Our equations will apply to such a constrained type of oscillation, and A, B, ete., and A’, B’, etc., and therefore H and H’, will have the same values in the last described system of waves as in the first system, although the wave-length and the period have been varied. Therefore, in differentiating equation 18), which is essentially an equation between 7 and p, or its equivalent (19), we may treat H and H’ as constant. This gives We thus obtain the values of H’ and H: H= 17__27k* 2mk*X dn — si— 2 3 dv’ a. as Qnn® “aN (20) By determining the values of H and H’ for different directions of oscillation, we may determine the values of A, B, etc., and ', B’, ete By means of these equations, the ratios of the statical energy (S), the kinetic energy due to the regular part of the flux (T), and the kinetic energy due to the irregular part of the flux (T’), are easily obtained in a form which admits of experimental de- termination. Equations (8) and (9) give 2 Lf se let Se ra. Therefore, by (20), T’ 27H’ 27H'n? Adn_ dilogn (21) a ee Si Ae EO A. Bote oy ae A—dlogn_dlogi (22) x T : dloga diog A ‘aes _ dog n (23) Ss dlogl Since S, T, and T” are essentially positive quantities, their ratios must be positive. Equation (21) therefore requires that the index of refraction shall increase as the period or wave- length in vacuo diminishes. Experiment has shown no excep- tions to this rule, except such as are manifestly attributable to the,absorption of light. : 14. It remains to consider the relations between the optical properties of a medium and the planes or axes of symmetry which it may possess. If we consider the statical energy per unit of volume (S) and the period as constant, we may regar equation (2) as the equation of an ellipsoid, the radii vectores of which represent in direction and magnitude the amplitudes of systems of waves having the same statical energy. In like manner, if we consider the kinetic energy of the irregular part of the flux per unit of volume (T’) and the period as constant, Dispersion of Colors in perfectly transparent Media. 273 we may regard equation (9) as the equation of an ellipsoid, the radii vectores of which represent in direction and magnitude the amplitudes of systems of waves having the same kinetic energy due to the irregular part of the flux. These ellipsoids, which we may distinguish as the ellipsoids (A, B, ete.) and (A’, B’, etc ), as well as the ellipsoid before described, which we may call the ellipsoid (a, 5, etc.), must be independent in their form and their orientation of the directions of the axes of codrdinates, being determined entirely by the nature of the medium an period of oscillation. They must therefore possess the same kind of symmetry as the internal structure of the medium __If the medium is symmetrical about a certain axis, each ellipsoid must have an axis parallel to that. If the medium is symmetrical with respect to a certain plane, each ellipsoid must ave an axis at right angles to that plane. If the medium after a revolution of less than 180° about a certain axis is then equiv- alent to the medium in its first position, or symmetrical with it with respect to a plane at right angles to that axis, each ellipsoid must have an axis of revolution parallel to that axis. These relations must be the same for light of all colors, and also for all temperatures of the medium. 15. From these principles, we may infer the optical charac- teristics of the different crystallographic systems. — : n crystals of the isometric system, as in amorphous bodies, the three ellipsoids reduce to spheres. Such media are opti- cally isotropic, at least so far as any properties are concerned which come within the scope of this paper In crystals of the tetragonal or hexagonal systems, the three ellipsoids will have axes of rotation parallel to the principal crystallographic axis. Since the ellipsoid (a, }, etc.) has but one circular section, there will be but one optic axis, which will have a fixed direction. : In crystals of the orthorhombic system, the three ellipsoids will have their axes parallel to the rectangular crystallographic axes. If we take these directions for the axes of codrdinates, E, F, G, K’, F’, G’, e, #9 will vanish and equation (13) will reduce to aa’ +b? +ey? v= ene pi _ Ifthe codrdinate axes are so placed that a e, the optic axes will lie in the X-Z plane, making equal angles ¢ with the axis of Z, which may be determined by the equa- tion tan” gee (A—B)—47° (A’—B) ”~b—e p* (B—C)—47’ (B’—C’) 274 J. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction, ete. To get a rough idea of the manner in which g varies with the period, we may regard A, B, C, A’, B’, C’ as constant in this equation. But since the lengths of the axes of the ellipsoid (a, 4, ete.) vary with the period, it may easily happen that the order of the axes with respect to magnitude is not the same for all colors. In that case, the optic axes for certain colors will lie in one of the principal planes, and for other colors in another. For the color at which the change takes place, the two optic axes will coincide. The differential coefficient ° becomes infinitely great as the optic axes approach coincidence. : In crystals of the monoclinic system, each of the three ellip- soids will have an axis perpendicular to the plane of symmetry. Then F, G, We may choose this direction for the axis of X. F’, G’, fg, will vanish and equation (18) will reduce to yr te tof tey?+epy The angle @ made by one of the axes of the ellipsoid (a, 4, etc.) in the plane of symmetry with the axis of Y and measured toward the axis of Z is determined by the equation : *E—47? E’ tan 26= of the two optic axes will be unequal. The same crystal, however, with light of different colors, or at different tempera- tures, may afford an example of each case. In crystals of the triclinic system, since the ellipsoids (A, B, etc.) and (A’, B’, etc.) are determined by considerations of a different nature, and there are no relations of symmetry to cause a coincidence in the directions of their axes, there will not in general be any such coincidence. Therefore the three axes of the ellipsoid (a, 6, ete.), that is, the two lines which bisect the angles of the optic axes and their common norma}, will vary in position with the color of the light. 16. It appears from this foregoing discussion that by the electromagnetic theory of light we may not only account for the dispersion of colors (including the dispersion of the lines ep this phenomenon, will be shown in another number of this ournal, Art. XXVIII.—The “Timber Line ;’ by HENRY GANNETT. In Dr. Rothrock’s valuable report on botany, recently pub- lished by the ‘Surveys West of the 100th Meridian,” the author quotes Dr. Engelmann’s statement that “there is little or no increase in altitude in the timber line toward the equator, in our western hemisphere, south of the 41st parallel of north latitude.” This statement is approximately true regarding the Rocky Mountains, owing, however, not to any general principle, but to what may be termed an accident of topography. Even here a decided rise is observable from 41° to 39° of latitude. In the feet, has a mean temperature, not of 37°, as the height might indicate, but of 49°. 276 Rear. 3 Gannett-—The “Timber Line.” Therefore, in considering the height of the timber line, we must regard the mountain ranges in connection with the plateaus upon which they stand, their latitudes, heights and masses, or what, in a measure, sums up these three, their temperatures, as it is by these that its height is determined. Looking at the subject from this point of view, a fair com- parison may be instituted between the timber line in different latitudes and on different ranges in the same latitude. The actual elevation above sea level of the timber line in the Cordilleras of North America ranges from 6 or 7,000 to 12,000 feet. It is lowest in the Coast and Cascade Ranges of Wash- ington Territory, where it is at about the former figures. Fol- lowing the Cascade Range southward into Oregon, the timber line rises to a height of 7,000 to 8,000 feet. It continues to increase as we trace it southward into California, being on Shasta and the neighboring mountains 8,000 feet above the sea. On the high sierras of Hastern-central California, forests grow to 10,000 or 11,000 feet, while the San Bernardino and other ranges of Southern California do not reach the upper limit of forests. Few of the ranges of Nevada reach the timber line, which is at a height of 9,000 feet in the north up to, probably, 11,000 feet in the southern part of the State. : In Arizona, probably none of the mountains reach the timber line, except the voleanic group known as the San Francisco Mountains, and the Sierra Blanca. On these the timber line is between 11,000 and 12,000 feet. In New Mexico, it averages about 12,000 feet above sea level. There is little variation between the northern and southern parts of the territory, as the higher annual tempera- ture of the southern part is fully compensated for by the greater Colorado, it ranges from 12,000 feet in the ssc e San Juan Mountains and in the Sangre de Cristo range, and In Montana and Idaho, the limit of timber is, in general, from 9,000 to 10,000 feet, being highest in the south, and lowest near the northern boundary. ° ey In the Uinta and Wahsatch Ranges of Utah, it 1s about 11,000 feet, rising somewhat above this figure in the southern part of the latter range. H. Ganneti—The “Timber Tine.” O77 Thus it is seen that in the same latitude, there is a very marked difference in the height of the timber line. The less the elevation of the surrounding country, other things being equal, the lower is the limit of timber. his suggests a farther point. The upper limit of timber must have. approximately the same mean annual temperature everywhere. Of course it will differ to a slight extent in dif- general principle. The determination of this rig sated accu- rately is, without direct observation, of course, impossi ave, however, computed it approximately from such dats as are available, and have found tolerably close accordance among the resulis. mean annual temperature decreases ae 1° Fah. for each 300 feet of abrupt ascent. In the case of Pike’s Peak and Colorado Springs, where the difference of elevation 3 is more than 8,000 feet, the change is 1° for each 295 feet. In the case of Mt. Washington and Shelburne, New Hampshire, it is 325 feet for each degree. The former case is the most favorable in every respect, and as most of our results are drawn from the western region, I have adopted, as a round number, 300 feet. ow, if the average mean annual temperature all around the base of a mountain were known, it would be a very simple Matter to determine, with some accuracy, the temperature at timber line, knowing its height and the mean height of its base. The nearest approach witee can be made to this, is to no means correct. Using, howev the manner indicated, such data as are at hand, I have obuined the following yest ? | BASE STATION. Tem- Height ¥ Mountains, ete of tim- | Hei nt | Mean thre at ie bar sage Name. infect. an. tem. | timber : line. Cun: ningham Pass, Colo.) 11 ,500 Fort Garland, 7,945 |" 43° 31° Mt. Lincoln, Colo. 12,051, Fairplay, sf 9,866 | =. 36° 31° Mt. Sivericls, Colo., 11,5 49 9,965 38° Sn” t. Guyot, Colo., 1, tH 9,965, 38° 32° Mt. Powell, Colo., 1,600 ‘White River Agency, | 6,491 45° 28° Pike’s Peak, Colo., 1720 Goh lorado Springs, 6,032] 48° 29° Gray’s Peak, Colo., 244 48° 29° Wahsatch Mts., Utah, | 1¢ “600 lgaie tae City, 4,350} 52° 33° Mt. Washington, N. H., | 4.150 Shelburne, N. H.. 700| 42° 30° Mt. Marcy, N. Y., 4,851)Some ee 412 45° 30 . | 4,851|Plattsburgh, N. Y., 18 44 29° Mt. Blackmore, Mont., | 9,550 0\Fo rt Ellis, Mont., 4,935| 44° 29° Mt. Doe Pe 9,002! 4,935 44° 31° Mt. Delano | g7s4| & Kw 4,935| 44° 31° 278 S.W. Holman—Method for Calibrating Thermometers. The mean of these results is 30°'4, and this is probably very near the true mean annual temperature of the timber line. The better the conditions of the determination, the nearer are the results to this mean. Mts. Blackmore and Bridger are very good cases, being on the border of the Gallatin Valley, in which Fort Ellis is situated, and but very few miles distant from the latter. Mts. Lincoln and Silverheels are also admira- bly situated with respect to Fairplay, but the annual tempera- ture of the latter station is not well determined. Pike’s Peak Agency are widely separated by many miles of high plateaus, which may materially change the conditions of the temperature about the mountain. _ Should this result, when tested by a wider range of observa- tions, hold good, it will afford a very valuable and easily ob- tainable isothermal, and also enable one to estimate the height of the timber line from thermometric stations at the bases of mountain ranges. Art. XXIX.—Simple Method for Calibrating Thermometers ; by Sinas W. Houtman. Tue calibration of a thermometer by most of the methods in ordinary use is a tedious and somewhat difficult operation, and hence often neglected even in important work. For the purpose of supplying a method simple both in observation nd computation, and at the same time accurate, the following process is described, which, although involving little that 1s novel, has not to my knowledge been used before. _ First, however, it is necessary to recall to the attention of observers the fact that, without calibration correction, the b . iocremens This practice is much more general than is ordi- narily supposed, and has an important bearing upon the accu- AC) e work done with such instruments. For the scale thus made is merely approximate, the dividing engine or other tool being usually changed only at such intervals as to make ss Be Bae S.W. Holman—Method for Calibrating Thermometers. 279 the average error less than some specified amount.. An inspec- tion of these conditions will show that the calibration of such a tube and scale can be only approximate except with correc- tions for the inequalities of the spacing, involving an amount of labor disproportionate to the result attained. The best makers, such as Fastré, Baudin and others, have produced sat- isfactory thermometers graduated to equal volumes; but even these are not as reliable as instruments of less cost with a scale of equal linear parts, say of millimeters, supplemented by a calibration by the observer. The best form of tube for almost 1 work is one backed with white enamel, with an inverted pear-shaped bulb at the upper end of the capillary (a very important feature), and with a scale of equal arbitrary linear parts (0°7 mm. to 1 mm. is a suitable length for estimation of tenths) or of approximate degrees, for convenience, etched or engraved upon it. the use of the observed freezing and boiling points, upon which some methods are based, is most undesirable. In the method which will now be given, either one or both of these points may be left to be selected, according to the combined conditions of length of thread employed, shape of the tube, and numerical convenience, after the observations with the thread have been made. _Let it be desired to find the calibration corrections for a given tube. Determinations which will give the errors of Set the thread with its lower end at or near the beginning of the graduation: call the reading* of the lower end of the * Tenths of a division are supposed to be read by estimation. 280 8. W. Holman—Method for Calibrating Thermometers. . 1, and that of the upper end u,. Move the thread less than 1 mm. and read again, finding thu sl, and w,. e the thread about lem. and r ae l,and u,. Move the thread less than 1mm. and read /, and u,. So continue throughout the whole length of eden increasing the number of settings or repeating the whole series in reverse order and several times if the highest attainable precision is desired. This alterna- tion between 1 mm. and 1 cm. in setting tends towards the bet- ter elimination of errorsin estimation. It is not, however, essen- tial, nor even always as well as an equal number of distributed readings. This must depend upon the skill of the observer. Avoid, as far as convenient, taking readings with an end o the thread. apparently just at the line of the scale, as the width of the line, even in the best scales, is a source of con- _ Then u,—J,, u,—l,, etc., will give a series of lengths of the calibrating thread in all parts of the tube. Before reuniting this thread to the rest of the mercury, plot points with abscissas » 4, ete., and ordinates u,—1,, u,—l,, ete., the corresponding lengths of thread, and draw a smooth curve through the points of the capillar e; and, sho any parts of it show con- siderable irregularities, the wah thee LSS totes of the tube should at once be re- a! ored with the f the sucabonaci is aioe ed one or two starting point. upon the curve the ordinate w’ corresponding to the abscissa A; then with abscissa A+w’ find the corresponding ae ws 3 with cpm A+u’+w’, find the corresponding ordin ’’, conti o the upper limit of the graduation. If A is on a edidient Beau from the lower end of the gradua- tion, find a similar series below the point A. These points, A, A+u’, A+u’+uw’’, etc., upon the graduation are separa by equal volumes of the ‘capillary. Select any one of these as the second point of which the error is to be arbitrarily * Some of the advantages of Neumann’s method are offset by this error, 8. W. Holman—Method for Calibrating Thermometers. 281 assumed as zero, and call this B. Then A+u’+wu’+ ... + ures ere are thus n spaces of equal volume between A and B, and these correspond each to “th of the interval B—A. Hence the true reading (which, however, it is not necessary to compute numerically) at the point— A is A Atul A4— (BLA) siete eek B me And the error obtained by subtracting the true readings, as given in the right-hand column, from the corresponding actual readings, given in the left-hand column, at A is 0 Afu — * Atw {A+— (B-A)} =u'—— (B-A) A+u’ tu” [74 wu! —4— (B-—A) B 5 0 Tn selecting B it might have been assumed equal to A+w’, thus making n=1. is would somewhat simplify the calcula- tion, and would be of equal accuracy, but is objectionable from the fact that, in general, this volume would differ considerably rom the average volume obtained when m has a greater value (always an integer), and the resulting series of errors would assume larger numerical values. he errors or corrections are, for purposes of interpolation, most conveniently represented graphically by a smooth curve through points with abscissas proportional to the direct read- ings, A, A+u’, A+u’/+u”, ete., equal to zero, distributing the difference at that point pro- portionally to the scale readings, among the errors at the in- 982 8. W. Holman—Method for Calibrating Thermometers. termediate points: in other words, to shift the axis of the second curve of error so that it shall make the error at B zero. his method requires for each calibration the use of but a single thread. The computation is simple, and involves a mini- mum of approximation. Hrrors of observation are largely eliminated by the number of settings made in all parts of the tube, and by the inspection of the curve of lengths, both of ing simple met ; Considerable aid in eliminating errors of parallax in such work is sometimes found by looking down upon the horizontal thermometer through a vertical tube having a small hole at each end. One of the cheap French microscopes with its lenses removed, and inverted in its stand, answers this purpose well. With such a device two calibrations of the above described thermometer with threads of 3 cm. and 5 cm. respectively, each with only one series of observations, and requiring not more than one hour and a half each for completion, gave results whose average difference from each other at nine points was 0:04 mm., and the arithmetical sum of the extreme differences was 012 mm., a result of sufficient accuracy for any class of work of which such an instrument is capable. For brief descriptions of methods of separating threads of mercury for calibration, reference may be made to the paper O. Fisher— Physics of the Harth’s Crust. 283 by Russell, and the text-book by Pickering, noted below. ese processes are in general use, and are safe and con- venient. Mass. Institute of Technology, Boston, Feb. 1, 1882. References upon Calibration of Closed Thermometer Tubes. Brsset—Pogg. Ann., vi, 287 (1826). Rupsere—Pogg. Ann., ix, 353, 566. = “¢ - Xxxvii, 376 (1836). as “. xl], 39, 562 (1837). Konirausca—Physical Measurements, p. 59 [Engl]. Transl. ]. Pickrrtne—Physical Manipulation, ii, 75 (1876). ‘Tut1rseN—[Neumann’s Meth.], Carl’s Rep., xv, 285 (1879). RusseLn sf 43 Transl. from Thiesen.]| Amer. Jour. Sci., xxi, 373 (1881). Marrek—Carl’s Repertorium, xv, 300 (1879). [Solution by least uares, von Oxrtrincen—Inaug. Diss., Dorpat, 1865. [This I have H. | been unable to obtain.—s. w. Art. XXX.— Physics of the Earth's Orust ; by the Rev, SMOND FisHeEr, M.A., F.G.S.* Mr. OsMonpD FISHER has long been known to geologists as a writer upon the higher and more difficult problems connected with the evolution of the earth’s physical features. His quali- fications for this kind of discussion are rare to an extreme degree, for he possesses extended knowledge of geological sci- ence considered as a category of observed facts, and unites to it both wisdom and knowledge in physical science and great skill in mathematical analysis. Such men are indeed rare, and the need for them is very urgent. For upwards of ten years papers by him have appeared in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and in the Journal of the Geological Society, the more important of which deal with the mechanical t proportioned whole, with a strong bond of connective logic running through it. * Physies of the Earth’s Crust. By the Rev. OsMoNnD FisHER, M.A., F.G.S. pp. 299, 8vo. London: Macmillan & Co. 188]. Am. Jour. ae Serizs, Vou, XXIII, No, 186.—ApRIL, 1882. 0 3 284 O. Fisher—Physics of the Earth’s Crust. The first chapter is upon Underground Temperature, and recites those observed facts which lead to the universally received opinion that the earth’s interior is hot. hese can be stated very briefly. They are, 1st, the observed increase of temperature as we penetrate the strata, and 2d, volcanic phe- ena. These considerations are so familiar that no extended discussion is given to them. The main work of the chapter is devoted to an examination of the case presented by the arte- sian bering at Sperenberg in Prussia, which was believed by Prof. Mohr to lead to the inference that at the depth of only a mile the temperature ceased to augment with increasing depth. r. Fisher shows that these observations, though apparently anomalous at first sight, are probably not so in reality. H holds it to be a just inference that everywhere throughout the earth’s external shell the temperature increases at a nearly uni- form rate for each locality for 25 or 80 miles, below which hori- zon the increment becomes notably less rapid, and that below 160 miles at most there is no noteworthy increase. This result flows from the application of Fourier’s theorem of the conduc- tion of heat and from the amplification of that theorem by Sir William Thomson. The second chapter has reference to the physical condition of the earth’s interior. Here the conclusions are necessarily very limited. As regards the distribution of density, it is satisfac- torily established that the mean density being about 5:5 and the external density about 2°65, the density of the interior approaches that of the metals, iron, silver, etc., and probably increases toward the center, but the-law of increase is wholly unknown. For the purposes of subsequent discussion, It 1s much more essential to frame some reasonable provisional by regarding the solidity of the nucleus as due to pressure an the solidity of the crust as due to cooling; while the interven- ing shell is nearly as hot as the nucleus and maintains the liquid condition because it is subject to a lighter pressure. e third chapter is a quantitative investigation of the densi- ties and pressures existing at various depths which follow from assuming Ist, the law adopted by Sartorius von Waltershausen, and 2d, the law of Laplace. In the fourth chapter he proceeds to some of the geological O. Fisher —Physics of the Eartl’s Crust. 285 explanation. Within the earth we know of heat and gravita- tion as possible sources of such energy. Have these really been the agents, and if so, in what specific manner have they acted? The compression to which strata seem to have been subjected, is very generally explained by the hypothesis that the interior of the globe has contracted through secular cooling, while the crust collapsing upon the shrinking nucleus becomes wrinkled and distorted. Mr. Fisher proceeds to compute the intensity of the compressive force which would be generated in a tangent to the crust upon this supposition, and finds it to be . about 830,000 tons upon the square foot. So far as intensity is concerned, there can be no doubt of the sufficiency of this pressure. Having shown the sufficiency of this factor he then pro- ceeds to inquire (Chapter V) whether the work has really been accomplished in this way. He ins by seeking for some measure of the inequalities of the surface; taking first the greater inequalities; the oceanic basins and continents. If the existing inequalities of the surface were leveled down and spread out they would, he estimates, form a layer over the whole earth from 9,500 to 13,000 feet thick—an under- rather than an over-estimate. e 2 many things will become explicable. From a liquid or plastic substratum it would follow that the position of 286 O. Fisher Physics of the Earth’s Crust. rest in the crust would be approximately the position of hydro- static equilibrium. r. Fisher assumes this plastic substratum henceforward through the remainder of his work. The subsequent chapters are devoted chiefly to a considera- tion of the consequences which would flow from the following postulates, both of which Mr. Fisher regards as being forced upon our conviction by the nature of the facts to be explained. ~ 1st. That lateral compression has acted upon a grand scale in developing the earth’s physical features; 2d, that the earth has an inflexible crust resting upon a liquid or plastic substratum. It would be impossible in so brief a notice to do justice to the many ingenious, suggestive and valuable ideas he throws out in this discussion and only the most striking ones can be alluded to. ; Mr. Fisher inclines to the following explanation of the origin of mountains. He recognizes difficulties in it but it avoids more difficulties than any other he can think of. Granting a plastic substratum of somewhat greater density than the crust, it is possible that the compression of the strata (from whatso- ever cause arising) may be localized in a narrow belt or zone. At this disturbed tract, as he calls it, where the yielding takes place, the crust becomes thickened greatly. But its position of rest must observe the law of hydrostatic equilibrium or simple flotation. If,by means of compression the amount of lighter crust-matter is increased in any locality it displaces denser mat- ter in the plastic substratum. The height to which the surface of the disturbed tract will rise above the mean level will be greater than the bulge upward. Mr. Fisher’s great difficulty O. Fisher— Physics of the Earth's Crust. 287 judgment upon it. The discussion cannot be briefly summa- rized. derives from his construction a mechanism for volcanic action, but since it is impossible to abstract his view and do it justice, the reader must be referred to the work itself. If we may venture to sum up in a very few sentences the general tenor of this book we should say that its earlier and middle chapters show that interior contraction cannot 1e source or origin of the earth’s physical features. Nevertheless once by elastic vapors would, he thinks, supply the requisite machinery not only of compression but also of volcanic action. In this work Mr. Fisher has rendered extremely valuable Service to the science of physical geology, and chiefly to that branch which deals with its largest and noblest problems. My Own thoughts have for some years run so much in the same paths, that it would be most pleasant to speak at considerable length upon many points he has discussed, but I can advert to only a few of them. First and foremost he has rendered most cause of interior contraction; for contraction is, they think, absolutely necessary to explain the physical features of the earth. Mr. Fisher has touched—all too briefly it seems to me—upon an argument quite as fatal to this modified form of the theory, as the one he has so fully elaborated, and v indeed, of a more direct and comprehensive character. For 288 O. Fisher— Physics of the Earth's Crust. the features to be explained are not such as would have been produced by contraction. The strains set up in the crust by a shrinking nucleus would be such, that for any u plications in long narrow belts, with the axes of the folds all approximately parallel, with no corresponding plications at right angles to them, is an impossible result of a collapsing spherical shell. It certainly seems as if those who advocate contraction had inferred that the tangential strains set up by such a cause, would act only in two opposite directions ; where- as, since they must be uniformly distributed over the entire spherical surface, they must act in every direction within a tan- gent plane at any point. Mr. Fisher’s postulate of a solid crust, resting upon a plastic substratum, is one which seems indispensable to any rational theory of terrestrial physics. It will hardly be questioned by any geologist. Indeed, is not the proof of it abundant and complete? Surely no one can question the fact that the vast bodies of strata deposited in all areas of maximum sedimen- tation have sunk bodily as rapidly as they accumulated. The Paleozoic strata of Western Europe and Eastern America, the Carboniferous and Mesozoic system of the west, were accumu- lated in comparatively shallow waters with the surface of deposition almost constantly near sea-level. But if they pro- gressively sank in this way they must have displaced yielding matter beneath. How could it have been otherwise? In the face of a conclusion sustained by evidence so irrefragable, it is certainly to be hoped that no geologist will have his faith at all shaken by any purely theoretical conclusions which may have been reached by physicists in their discussions of the effects of tidal strains upon the earth. Mr. Fisher, however, proposes a very fair compromise to the physicists) He might be understood as saying to them, “ give me a rigid crust resting upon a plastic substratum, and you may do what you like wit the remainder.” If this concession does not meet the require- ments of the physicist so much the worse for the tidal argu- ment. In truth the position of the geologist here is incompar- ably the strongér of the two. The plasticity of at least a thin shell next below the solid external rocks has a validity of the highest order. Reasoning or induction scarcely enter into it— I O. Fisher—Physics of the Karth’s Crust. 289 Perhaps the best feature of Mr. Fisher’s book is the skillful use he makes of a direct consequence or corollary of a plastic substratum. The slavatians and depressions of the different portions of the earth’s surface, he argues, are, on the theory of a plastic substratum, determined ydrostatic laws alone. Rigidity can have but slight influence upon them. - For rigidity is a quantity which relatively decreases as the magnitudes o the masses involved increase. In the continental and oceanic areas, in great plateaus and mountain oe rigidity is a van- ishing quantity, and even in individual ridges of grand pro- portions it probably has no great value, as compared with the forces which produce elevations and depressions. The ase mental doctrines of his book.* Having proceeded thus far it is somewhat surprising that Mr. Fisher did not advance one step farther. Elevations and depressions (considered as actual movements) mean one of two things, (1. .) Hither as quantity of matter underlying the ver- tically moving surface, has been increased or diminished, or minished. The change is either a local change of mass or a change of density. The contractional id aprons is sh — to obtain an increase of mass in elevated region stant mass in the depressed regions. It has iphelty “failed sae so must any theory of this purport fail; for later eg ousete: are more and more firmly establishing ‘the fact, that elevated regions are not regions of greater mass nor are dloprencal regions, regions of less mass; but the contrary. And even if the conclusion sought were for a moment supposed to be true, the continents and great plateaus, as Mr. George Darwin has recently shown, could not be sustained without a transcendent- ally rigid globe ; much less could they with a very rigid globe ever have been pushed up. It only remains to seek the re- bag solution in causes which will produce Jocal cater of ensitv. This dilemma is by no means sought. re appa- rently driven to it by the most inexorable of logical eoseial ae Here — question sobdivides Shall we assume that these we ong been convinced that this doctrine must form an importa of any sabe theory of the earth’s evolution. In an unpublished paper 1 hae surface which would follow chp: the flotation of the crust upon a liquid or highly plastic substratum ;—different portions of the crust being of unequal density. Isobarie would have been a eaaile yaks but it is preoccupied in hypsometry. 290 W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. changes of density are all so many varying degrees of increased density, or shall we boldly assume that local expansion is a cause of upheaval and the reverse a cause of depression ? Mr. Fisher has shown the difficulty which attends the former view. There is no difficulty in supposing that the crust and subcrust to a depth of 100 to 150 miles (not the true interior be it observed) may have contracted its volume. It may have sunk and risen again. Calling this ‘columnar distinguish it from nuclear contraction, it must be said that columnar contraction alone cannot explain the facts. I see no resource but to call to our aid columnar expansion. It will at once be objected that physical science furnishes us no warrant in the known processes of nature for such an assumption. Very true. Let us all go to work therefore, and try to find a warrant for it. Cc. E. DUTTON. Art. XXXI.—WNotes on Physiological Optics, No. IL; by W. LECoNTE STEVENS. 1. TuHrory or Assoctatep Muscuntar ACTION. IN previous articles’ it has been shown that the current theory of binocular perspective applied to the stereoscope 1s not only incapable of accounting for many observed facts but unsatisfactory even when the visual lines are convergent; that the apparent position of points in the stereoscopic field of view cannot be determined by any mathematical formula or accurately represented by diagram; and that this impossibility is due to physiological conditions attendant upon the abnormal use of the eyes. 4 q 2 q F ; " i : W. LeConte Stevens— Notes on Physiological’ Optics. 291 Binocular Vision,” and subsequently in his book on the Stereo- scope,” published in 1856. Professor W. B. Rogers contributed to this Journal in 1855 and 1856 a series of most interesting articles on Binocular Vision,‘ in which he determined matbe- matically what should be the form of the resultant curve when images of dissimilar lines are binocularly combined, each point June 6th and Aug. 19th, 1881, the latter having since been published in this Journal. It is a source of satisfaction now to find, in the London Lancet, of Oct. 22d, and Dec. 31st, 1881, two able papers written by Brigade Surgeon Tyler Oughton, of the English army, who with no knowledge of what had been expressed by me, reaches conclusions closely akin to my own, substituting for the current theory that of “muscular consent,” and rejecting the theory of corresponding retinal points. t is but right to add that this theory was virtually stated by Professor Huxley” in 1868, and in such a way as quite plainly to indicate its applicability to the phenomena of optic divergence. That he should have been satisfied with a brief Statement that has passed almost unnoticed, instead of elabo- 292 W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Opties. rating it in refutation of Brewster’s theory, was probably due to the fact that the fallacy and popularity of the latter, in its application to the stereoscope, had not been brought especially to his attention. 2. ReLatTioN BETWEEN DtrrErenr ELEMENTS oF BrNnocuLaR PERSPECTIVE. The fact that in all stereoscopic vision there is necessarily an interruption of the usual relation between the axial and focal adjustments of the eyes was first noticed by Professor W. B. ogers, who makes however no reference to the production of any disturbance of perspective, as noticed by myself. In the articles already published it has been shown that even when the stereograph is so constructed as to exclude to the utmost the ordinary elements of perspective, there are left still three to consider. These are— I. The optic angle, positive or negative, enclosed by the visual lines and interpreted through the sensation of contraction or relaxation in the rectus muscles of the eyeballs. . II. The focal adjustment, interpreted through the sensation of contraction or relaxation in the ciliary muscle encircling the crystalline lens. III. The visual angle, subtended by the diameter of the ob- ject regarded, and interpreted by recognition of the retinal area impressed but instantly and unconsciously referred to the external objec ith a view to finding, if possible, what relation these three elements bear to each other in abnormal vision like that in the stereoseope, I constructed a modification of the instrument c originally devised by Wheatstone. Upon a cubical block, ‘\ x al B (fig. 1) two plane mirrors, m and m’, were cemented, and a pair ¢ . VD’ ne of arms were attached to carry the conjugate pictures, A and 4 W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. 293 A’. These arms move upon a pivot, each through an arc of 60°, under a divided circle. When so adjusted that the angle of incidence on each side is 45°, the direction of the reflected rays is such as to necessitate parallelism of visual lines for those which come from the centers of A an ‘ respectively. If the arms are pulled forward for example to B and B’, the | angle of incidence becomes such that the eyes must be made to roll inward to retain binocular combination of images; if ushed back toward © and ©’, divergence of visual lines is necessitated. The value of the optic. angle, positive for con- vergence, negative for divergence, is obtained, with but trifling error, from the circle. On each side let the picture be kept at a fixed distance, while the eyes are as near as possible to the sivas for example, so that Am + mR =50™. For this dis- inocular image BAe in full relief about 50™ in front. ard of comparison, the optic angle, focal adjustment and ul angle all conducing to the s ame judgment of distance. Modifying slightly the formula hitherto employed, we have, for the distance, D, of the optic vertex from each eye, deter- mined by intersection of visual lines D = fi cosec fa, where 7 is the interocular distance, and @ the optic angle. If this equation be expressed as a curve, fig. 2, ta ing values of a for abscissas and values of D for ordinates, the axis of ordi- nates is obviously an asymptote t the arms now be pulled forward until 2 = 37° 20’. The corresponding value of D is 10™, while the visual angle is un- ses and the focal adjustment, if perfectly distinct vision cured, must still be fora distance of 50°. These two ele- ie therefore tend to counteract the suggestion due to strong convergence, and the image appears perhaps 15™ or 20 dis- tant. Its apparent diameter varies directly as the estimated distance, PB is diminished to ‘3 or 4 of the original diameter. The influence of axial convergence, though partially counter- acted, preponderates over that of the other elements in deter- mining the judgment. et the arms now be pushed back until a=—5°. The theo- retic value of D is negative and hence physically impossible, but practically pa contraction of the external rectus muscles 294 W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. produces the impression of continued recession in a positive direction. The visual angle has not been changed, and the focal adjustment not enough so to produce any very perceptible decrease in distinctness of vision. The image appears perhaps 60™ or 70™ distant, but this estimate is quite uncertain. e _ apparent diameter is of course increased. The effect of constancy in the visual angle in this case seems to be the preponderating element in determining the judgment. The results of experiment with the apparatus just described are given in the curve A A’, of Fig. 2. The stereograph em- 2. ran Oe 3 A: oo: Ne Le ay sy ne “NY gee morn ped AS ze. BD) > Ht A Boe IP So? ae? abe “lp? focaiin of relief. Distances were estimated to the edge of the concavity, which was surrounded with a uniform black surface. Itis seen that the curve of theoretic distances, DD’, is cut by that of apparent distances, AA’ not far from the i ao 7" 20%. n irregular order, recording each value, of which I remained ignorant, and at the same time recording my corresponding est- mate of distance. The curve has been constructed from the record of six independent series of estimates. In consequence of the difficulty of securing perfect dissociation between axial and focal adjustments for large positive values of the optic error being +8™™. It is found almost to coincide with the the- oretic curve for a short distance on each side of the intersec- ee ete a Sa ait ss W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. 295 tion, but the judgment is much vitiated as we depart from the conditions of normal vision. Even for a=7° 20’ my estimate of distance was too small, and as a a the curve shows strikingly how fallacious must be any conclusions drawn from Brewster's theory that there is a necessary connection between apparent eae and optic nitisg he or, as he expressed it, that we e distance,” instead of judging it as contended by rete the variation in apparent distance is not very great between the limits of —2° and +5°, within which the optic angle is in- cluded in most cases of binocular vision with lenticular stereo- scopes. This explains my remark in a former article that the rather by physical perspective. In these cases, it will be ob- served, the fie of view is quite limited, and the optic angle not very lar Sir David Bactueee! noticed the strong effects obtained with convergence of visual lines by combining the images of per- fectly similar patterns, recurring regularly and in great num- er, on large surfaces. en an extended field of view is occupied by such images, the effect of contraction in the rectus muscles seems to be more marked in comparison with that of the other elements of perspective, in estimating absolute dis- tance there being no contrast of background and foreground to interfere. This enhancement is noticeable also when the vis- 296 W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. mer, however, 3", with that expressed in the curve A A’, 58™, for the same negative optic angle, and the same real distance, _ 50™, it is seen that the change of conditions has produced a great change in the unconscious interpretation of the retinal image. In both cases the facts contradict Brewster's theory of triangulation. Brewster* himself noticed that when the com- bined image is small in comparison with the whole field of view, it did not appear at its calculated distance, even with convergence of axes, and to get rid of the disturbance due to comparison he resorted to large surfaces with geometrical pat- terns, but evidently without suspecting that optic divergence in viewing them was possible. hile the curve A A’, fig. 2, represents the result of exper- iment upon myself alone, similar results have been obtained from the examination of several other persons. In each case two curves approach more nearly to coincidence if the ob- server is well practiced and at the same time presbyopic, so that ciliary adjustment interferes less with the suggestion due to axial adjustment. ere are several considerations which interfere still further, er ne mates of each observer will be found to be affected with a nearly constant error, as has been shown by the experiments of Helmholtz and Wundt mal vision, furthermore, the dissociation between axial and focal adjustments is usually not instantaneous, and for strong a forced convergence,” that “it generally advances slowly to its new position,’ and he speaks of ‘the influence of time over the evanescence as well as the creation of this class of phe- nomena.” The nature of focal accommodation by action of the ciliary muscle was not then known—(1844). 3. A. New Mops or STEREOSCOPY. cross-vision a large plane surface on which are regularly recur- "ing figures, such as wall paper, a phantom image of the wall is curved,’ but discusses this feature no further. His explana- tion” of the production of the phantom wall is easily under- stood. Let A, B, ©, ete. (fig. 3), be equidistant points on the wall, in front of which stands the observer whose eyes are at Rand If the right eye be directed to A and the left to A’, To make the curvature apparent, the optic angle must | arge; and on account of the exceeding muscular strain it In- 298 W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. volves, the experiment has probably been rarely tried, and soon passed into oblivion. The curvature of the phantom sur- face, in a median plane passing vertically between the eyes, was rediscovered a short time ago by Professor LeConte, and soon afterward I discovered the curvature in all directions. The effect is in no way due to intersection of visual lines, but to the opposite obliquity of vision with each eye separately, combined with the fact that the retinal surface is not plane but almost spherical at the points impressed, the center of curvature being very near the nodal point of the crystalline lens. The ex- periment is therefore far easier and more striking if optic paral- lelism or slight divergence be substituted for strong convergence, and if, instead of a wall, a pair of cards be employed, on which are perfectly similar figures, such as a pair of similar series of concentric circles. If there be difficulty in directing the eyes, an ordinary stereoscope can be used as an aid. I have devised a simple attachment for the adjustable stereoscope described in my last paper, by which one can with perfect ease thus secure stereo- scopy with similar figures. Dissimilarity between the external pictures has hitherto been deemed indispensable for the attain- ment of true stereoscopic effects. The present method there- fore, in which advantage is taken of the globular form of the eye, so far as I can learn, is entirely new. The binocular relief moreover can be reversed at will without consciously changing the relation between the visual lines, and the same pair of siml- 4. mt , i i i ih Qa FP Page +! Nar = % ye: . e \ f a us * oF Ps }' , a SAROREr dee. a? Meine Ae, } ‘s , * ‘ . ’ oe we a sth , > x J “at “4h oe . 4a P io a, i Ul ce d lar pictures can be examined with comfort while in form the binocular image changes from an elliptic convex shield to a flat circular plate and thence into a deep elliptic cup; the pro- cess being reversed at pleasure. W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. 299 The attachment consists of an ordinary cross-bar, MN, fig. 4, which may be placed as near as convenient in front of the eyes whose optic centers are at O and O’, the visual lines being par- allel and passing through points C and OC’. These are the cen- ters of the conjugate series of concentric circles, on cards whose planes are perpendicular to the principal plane of vision, and which rest on extra short bars, PQand P’Q’. The latter are pivoted on the cross-bar so as to revolve about vertical axes passing through C and C’ respectively. Let ED and E’D’ be the horizontal diameters of the largest circles, the cards having been revolved so as to make with each other a dihedral angle opening toward the observer. Their relation to the visual lines 's obviously the same as if their planes were coincident and the visual lines crossed, making the optic angle equal to the sum of NCD and MC’E’, as in Brewster's experiment. The retinal projections of ECD and E’C’D’ are ecd and e’e'd’. Since the t ured by the difference of the angles DOC and D’O’C’. The associated contraction of the external rectus muscles which this necessitates at once produces the sensation that habitually ac- companies recession of the object binocularly viewed. The 0 ing on the extent of the minor axis in each. If the successive vertices be connected, we have two curved lines, ACB and A’C'B’. If these be binocularly combined and externally pro- Jected, since CC’ is less than A A’ and BB’, optic divergence the observer. Let F and G (fig. 5) be points symmetrically situated with regard to the vertical diameter and hence equidistant from D Am. Jour, oe Serres, Vou. XXIL, No. 136.—AprRIL, 4 300 W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. and E respectively. When the card is revolved, as in fig. 4, the distance O E exceeds OD, and hence the visual angle sub- tended by EG is less than that subtended b . ver ellipse therefore is distorted. ‘To each eye separately the effect is the same as if every major axis were bent, and every pomt of each curve were correspondingly displaced; F and G’ are elevated, F’ and G depressed, and hence F and F” differ in ret: nal latitude as well as longitude. The binocular combination, however, is perfect, although double images due to difference in retinal latitude are neither homonymous nor heteronymous. That conjugate points differing slightly in altitude can be bi- nocularly viewed and their images combined, even when there is no horizontal stereoscopic displacement, was first shown by Professor W. B. Rogers.” is is one of several considerations which show that the theory of corresponding points in binocu- W. LeConte Stevens—Notes on Physiological Optics. 301 equal and opposite in the two eyes, are perfectly corrected in the binocular combination of each pair; the resultant curves are hence perfect ellipses. If a pair of small circles whose vertical diameters are ad and a’b’ be drawn above the large circles, the visual lines directed to their centers are similarly oblique to their vertical diameters but oppositely oblique to their horizontal diameters. The external projections of their retinal pictures are hence slightly distorted ellipses, of which the upper vertices are farther apart and the lower vertices nearer together than their centers. The binocular combination is hence an ellipse whose plane is ob- lique, the upper vertex being farther, and the lower vertex hearer to the observer. A pair of small circles below the large ones are binocularly combined with opposite obliquity. : No explanation is now needed to show that if the planes of the cards be revolved into the positions P”’Q” and P’’Q”’ (fig. 4), the combination of the concentric circles must present # Concave surface and the obliquity of the plane of each pair of conjugate small circles, when binocularly viewed, must be re- ally advances slowly to its new position” ” is now easily under- s re . . en EO exceeds E’O’, there must be dissociation between the two focal adjustments which are generally adapted to the same dis- tance. To this must be added the necessary dissociation be- face appears convex or concave. Despite this inconvenience, if the experiment be performed with axial parallelism, the image soon becomes clearly defined. With strong axial convergence, a8 in Brewster’s method, the dissociation is far more difficult on account of the extreme muscular strain that is necessary. _ By holding the cards, fig. 4, with their planes coincident and then drawing them apart in this plane, so that 6° or 7° of divergence of visual lines is necessitated in retaining retinal usion, the image changes very perceptibly from that of a flat plate to that of a shallow coneavity. By cross vision the oppo- site is obtained; but not so strikingly, for the muscular strain of 7° of divergence I find to be as great as that of 60° or 70° of Convergence, : ; : If vertical lines, an, a’n’, fig. 5, be combined binocularly 302 B. K. Emerson—Dyke of Elwolite-syenite in New Jersey. they appear as a tangent to the curved surface, and this pierces the planes of the small ellipses, passing through each at its cen- ter. Any inaccuracy in either drawing interferes with these results and is at once manifested in the binocular picture. 40 W. 40th st., New York, Feb. 25, 1882. REFERENCES. ! This Journal, Nov. and Dec., 1881. ® Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xv, Part III, p. 360. * Brewster on the Stereoscope, London, 1856, pp. 50-100, 4 This Journal, IT, vols. xx and xxi. ° Am. Journal of Photography, vol. v, p. 114. ® Helmholtz, Optique Physiologique, p. 827. 7 This Journal, Dec., 1881, p. 447. . 824. * Brewster on the Stereoscope, p. 91. ‘0 The same, p. 95. ely Vow, SD ISL © Elementary Physiology, Macmillan & Co., p. 280. Art. XXXII.—On a great dyke of Foyaite or Elcolite-syenite, cutting the Hudson River Shales in Northwestern New Jersey ; by Ben. K. Emerson. west of Libertyville, without interruption, to its pouleninae uster. The hypersthene is of a greenish black color, of a bright metallic luster; it occurs in small and slender crystals more or less perfect. : “At the southwestern extremity the dyke presents a peculiar and striking appearance. It does not occupy a long and high hill, with nearly perpendicular slopes, like the northeastern part, but, owing to a powerful and rapid disintegration, it has "Say BOR. Emerson— Dyke of FE leeolite-syenite in New Jersey. 303 crumbled into loose pieces and into a fine sand, which form a range of low hills with gentle slopes, and which, seen from a distance, look exactly like hills of sand or drift. - “The dyke here consists of a rather coarsely granular aggre- gate of labradorite, sphene, mica, quartz, pyroxene and iron pytites. ‘The sphene is of a brown to yellowish brown color, of an adamantine luster, and occurs in small, more or less per- fect, crystals, in such gveniy as to form one of the principal ck. € iron pyrites is profusely disseminated throughout the rock, and causes the rapid decomposition. which skirts the mountain on the east, at the house of Mr. D. B. Roloson, this is seen in great perfection on the hillside, and in the orchard above this gentleman’s house, a band of lime- stone oceurs—a dark gray fine grained rock, which might be easily mistaken for a fine-grained diorite. It has, however, the rusty corroded surface of a siliceous limestone. Scales of bio- tite are disseminated in it in considerable abundance, and the rock is so rich in magnetite that the coarse powder is readily B. K. Emerson—Dyke of Elaolite-syenite in New Jersey. 305 While the calcites are limpid, the orthoclase crystals, opaque white by reflected light, are of deep reddish brown by trans- mitted light, and this color, which is caused by the abundance of a very fine red dust, is spread uniformly over every portion of every crystal, except in one slide where they are quite fresh, and enclose in considerable number small perfect spheres of a deep brown to black color, which seem to be some hydrocarbon compound which has been included in the forming crystal in a liquid state. This black carbonaceous matter is scattered here and there through the mass, and it is sometimes aggregated in the midst of a brownish substance in such a manner as to sug- gest an incipient stage in the formation of chiastolite crystals. All the rest of the micaceous ground-mass is mottled by a lens everywhere incomplete crystalline outlines. _ The component next in importance is eegirite, which appears in black elongated crystals up to 8™™ in length, upon which I was able to measure the angle of the prism 92° 47’. The min- eral fuses with somewhat greater difficulty than the Norwegian egirite, and tinges the flame yellow. The surface of many of the crystals is brightly iridescent, as is sometimes the case s with the arfvedsonite from Kangerdluarsuk, and the crystals 306 B. K. Emerson—Dyke of Elaolite-syenite in New Jersey. can be seen toward the surface of the rock to be changed for a part or the whole of their length into a greenish black, fibrous, hornblendic mineral apparently arfvedsonite. The third constituent, orthoclase, occurs in elongated Carls- bad twins up to 80™ in length; in a single instance three crys- tals are twinned together. They are of brilliant luster, and of the same flesh color as the elwolite in the fresh rock, while toward the surface they are whitened, and there closely resem- ble the feldspar of the Brevig zircon-syenite. They are scat- tered in the rock somewhat distantly, so that in three sections no feldspar appeared. The crystals enclose rounded masses of eleolite as well as crystals of zgirite, often so thickly crowded as to give the feldspar a pegmatitic appearance. itanite occurs in minute crystals quite abundantly. The ) often brightly iridescent. No trace of triclinic feldspar or of hypersthene could be foun “High up along the crest of the ridge, perhaps fifty rods west of the point where the specimens were obtained which fur- nished the material for the above description and for micro- scopical study, the rock is much coarser grained, more loosely granular and decomposed, failing readily to a mass of coarse grains under the hammer. The proportion of elwolite is here much less, and the only additional mineral found in this coarser variety was a glossy black mica, which gives all the blowpipe reactions of astro- phyllite, but it may be a biotite containing much manganese. er the microscope by far the greater portion of the section is eleolite, with scattered crystals of wgirite and titanite. The eleolite presents itself in three forms, quite distinctly demarked : (a) as distinct crystals, stout hexagonal prisms with end faces, of much the same appearance and properties as in tne more moa- ern nepheline rocks. These crystals are rare. The cleavage is more perfect and delicate than in the remainder of the elzeo- lite in which they are embedded, and as a result they are only slightly decomposed. They are quite free from enclosures. The second form (6) appears in somewhat larger, aggregated, and more imperfect crystals, in which the basal, prismatic and pyramidal cleavages are ruder and more open, and the erys- tals much more decomposed. Flakes of a green hornblendic mineral, probably arfvedsonite, appear as enclosures parallel to the three cleavages, Finally it occurs (¢) filling up the interstices of the other two forms like the quartz of a granite, and swarming with minute acicular microlites, especially in the recesses made by neighboring crystals of earlier formation. This portion has a less distinct cleavage and is less decomposed. B.K. Emerson—Dyke of Eleolite-syenite in New Jersey. 307 The freshest egirite shows six-sided cross-sections (/, 7-2,) remarkably regular both in form and cleavage, the latter being in straight equidistant lines carried generally clear across the — crystal, and thus differing widely from that of augite. It is red brown with much depth of fee in cross-sections, blackish brown in longitudinal plates, free from enclosures, and without trace of fibrous structure. Both in lengthwise and cross sections it absorbs the light with a single Nicol’s so aa that at the point of extinction it becomes jet black. e pleo- chroism is also very marked, ranging from charcoal brown to deep emerald green. In other crystals, starting from one end, the color in ordinary light changes gradually from dark brown into a bright green, and corresponding with this change of color the mineral becomes quite suddenly fibrous, and filled e unchanged portion. The changed portion has all the micro- scopic peculiarities of a fibrous hornblende. In longitudinal sections of the egirite a cleavage parallel to O appears, ee in one instance occurred a well terminated arrow-heade — twinning pees 7-7. Its crystals often radiate from or eile a cee to mallest pk erst ) ining any clo- sures. Besides ‘eae the microlites often radiate from it. Beautifully distinct ie occur with the tw weenibe ponies , and side of this plane. odalite occurs rarely in wholly apolar patches irregularly bounded by the other constituents, and showing rude dodeca- hedral cleavage. The order of crystallization of these minerals is sabarinne ged The titanite is plainly the first formed, and had reached its limit before the appearance of the other paar rN except perhaps the first form (a) of the elxolite. These are almost without enclosures of any kind. ext the second portion of the elzeolite (4) crystallized out, and during the time of its formation the hornblendic mineral, which is included in it in scales, as well as the wgirite which radiated from the earlier formed titanite, appeared. This green hornblendic mineral as it is synchronous with the sgirite and as it is found in the most decomposed portion of the eleolite, I. take to be arfvedsonite paramorph after the wgirite. oward the close of this period the orthoclase, which encloses the imperfect crystals of the elxeolite and the wgirite, separated out, and all these minerals share the same freedom from micro- lites, a great swarm of which is included in the third form of 308 B. K. Emerson—Dyke of Elwolite-syenite in New Jersey. the elxolite (ce) which has taken its shape entirely from the receding minerals and which thus closed the series. Out on the plateau of metamorphic rock I picked up a curi- ous mass not in place, which showed a contact of foyaite on foyaite of different age. The older was coarser grained than I found it elsewhere and richer in orthoclase, being largely made up of crystals 25-30"™ long, distributed porphyritically in a fine-grained rusty ground containing pyrite. The newer rock, resting on this, has a rudely columnar structure at right angles - to the plane of contact, resembling somewhat the gypsum crusts from salt vats. The columns of which this layer consists are elongate imper- fect crystals of orthoclase and eleolite and bundles slightly radiated of a greenish black hornblendic mineral. Small tufts and spheres of the latter are also scattered through the mass, together with some dark purple fluor and much pyrite. Under the microscope distinct crystals of elzolite appeared and the hornblende needles were contracted, like the handle that the hornblende ha ere commenced its crystallization first and that the two minerals had thereafter increased to- geth a plum twig. Only rarely in unchanged non-fibrous portions _ Decomposition has everywhere affected the superficial por- tions of the dyke, and at the summit where the rock is coarsest, extended quite deeply, but without the formation of any zeolitic minerals, Amherst College, Massachusetts, April, 1882, A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 309 Art. XX XIII.—WNolice ft the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying the outer banks off the Southern Coast of New England, No. 5; by A. E. VERRILL. (Brief seated grt 2 to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College: No. LI.) AnTHOZOA (continued.) Pennatulacea. Previous to 1871 no representative of the Pennatulacea had been discovered on the American coast between Cape Hatteras and ros Arctic Ocean. In that year, and also in 1872, a number of specimens of Pennatula aculeata and of a small Virgularia were re dredge by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves in the deeper parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1872 these were also dredged by Dr. A. S. Packard and Mr. C. Cooke, on the “ Bache,” in the Gulf of Maine (see this Journ., v, pp. 5, 100, 1873). Sub- sequently the former species has been obtained in many locali- ties, and in ae numbers, off the coasts of New England and Nova Scot ince cre summer of 1878, when the Gloucester fishermen became interested in bringing home, for the use of the U.S. Fish Commission, the various objects taken on their deep-sea lines, they have not only presented large numbers of this spe- cies, from many localities, but they have contributed several others that are of still greater _ including more than a hundred fine specimens of the very large Ashe eaceg borealis, many of them nearly ane fect on ng, with abo ut a a ORD ) details of their distribution will be gi siven, in a report on our Anthozoa, sates to be published in the report of the U.S. Fish ny missio f the Voyage of H. M. 8. anaicry = vol, i, Part ii, Report on the Possiculan by Professor Albert V. Kélliker, 1880, ~~ 310 A. Bb. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. Pennatula inlet ee and Koren. Pennatul elssen, Forhandl. Vidensk.-Selsk. oe 1858, p. 25; Fauna Tittoralie Norvogi, . Aa i xs 11, figs. 8-9. 1877. Verrill, this Journal, v, pp. 5 Pennatula phosphorea, var. wean sires ‘Klliker, Aleyonarien, i, Pennatuli- d 134, pl! 9, fig. 73, is species is very eathe and widely distributed on our coasts, in 100 to 487 fathoms, on soft muddy bottoms. Gulf of St. Lawrence, 160-200 fathoms,— W hiteaves, 1871-38; Gulf of Maine,—U.S. Fish Commission, on the “ Bache,” 1879-2: Grand Bank, St. Peter’s Bank, Banquereau, esc Bank and other banks off Nova Scotia, in 60 to 300 ‘fathoms,—Gloucester fish- ermen (in 29 lots, including about 90 apenilivertey: off Cape Sable, N.S., 88 fa thom s,—U. 8. Fish Commission ; off Martha's Vineyard and Block Island, and off Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, 1880, 1881, in 100-487 fathoms,—U. S, Fish Commis- sion. Several hundreds of specimens were taken at each of the stations 948, 945, 1025. Also taken by Mr. A. Agassiz, on the ‘‘ Blake, * 1880, in ae to 524 fathoms. Chistiansund, 30— 100 fathoms,—Sars and Danielssen. Eastern Atlantic, 300 fathoms,—Carpenter and Thomson. Variety, rosea Danielssen, op. cit., p. 88. Several fine specimens of this handsome variety occurred among a large number of the usual dark red variety, at stations 943, 945, 1028. It differs only in color. Variety, alba Verrill. This name is used to designate a pure white variety, which was taken at station 1025, in 216 fathoms. Pennatula (Ptilella) borealis Sars, sp. Pennatula grandis Whrenberg, Corall, rothen te - 66, 1832, (non Pallas). see at Zeol. Voy. Challenger, i, pt. ii, p Pennatula borealis Sa ars, Fauna rae A sali i, 1%, pl. 2, figs. 1-4, 1856. Kolliker, Pennatuliden, i, p. Verrill, this Journal, xvi, p. 316, Ptilella borealis Gray, Catal ogue of bea Pons, p. 21. Verrill, this Journal, xvii, p. 241, Seay ao Koren and cade Founa Lit. Norvegiw, p. 82, pl. 11, figs. 1877. On ne young specimen of this magnificent species was dred ged by us at station 925, in 224 fathoms. From the Gloucester fishermen over 120 specimens, mostly of large size, have been received by the U.S. Fish Commission, all ae giaoh have been examined by me. These were received in 83 lots, from 1878 to 1881. They were taken in 120 to 350 fathoms, on the outer slopes of the Grand Bank, St. Peter’s Bank, Western Bank, Banquereau, Sable Island Bank, Le Have Bank and George's A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 311 Bank. Previously it was known from only a few Norwegian specimens, from Chistiansund, Deresue see "iatoten. Banen- fjord, ete., in 150 to 200 fathom Balticina Finmarchica (Sars) iat Virgularia finmarchica M. Sars, Fauna Lit. Norvegiz, — , 68, pl. 11. Balticina finmarchica ee Catalogue of "Sea Pens, p. 1 Vernll, this Journal, xvi, p. 375, 1878. err: Jinmarchica Richiardi, Fea della Fam. Pennatularii, p. 69, seit ia finmarchica Ko6lliker, Pennatuliden, p. 243, 1871 (non Pavonaria Cuvier) Segui specimens were trawled by us, off Martha’s Vineyard, in 160 to 238 fathoms, in 1880 and 1881. The Gloucester fishermen have presented many large and fine specimens more than 75), some of them over two feet long. These came in 57 lots, from the outer slopes of the Grand Bank and all the banks off ‘the Nova Scotia coast, in a to 400 fathoms. Off George’s Bank, 980 fathoms,—A. Agass 1880. It was preriinely known off Finmark, 240 fathoms ; ‘eraeution’ 300 fathom While a majority of these specimens are large and perfect, some examples of this, and other related species, have more or less of the distal portion of the axis bare, and sometimes bare or partially bare portions of the axis are seen along the middle region; not rarely, as much as one-half of the whole length is bare. This, I am convinced, is entirely due to accidental » injuries received while still living * In most cases the bare portions of the axis, whether terminal or median, have one or two, and often several, a firmly attached to them. The most common of thes is a verrucose e Urticina (probably the of Virgularidee, ‘that the nevevak genera “propre by Kolker for the small forms, with polyps in two simple ro for which he has proposed the families Protocaulidze and Prone! * Koren and Danielssen mention the same peculiarity as occurring in all their weeckcana of Vir via afinis and other European species. But they seem to think that this is a normal feature: They correctly objec ng . the view that it is due to contraction in alcohol. (Fauna Lit. Norvegis, iii, p. 9 312 A. BE Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. lidee (op. cit., p. 26), are see if not all, the young of larger and more complex form Anthoptilum grandiflorum Vervill. Virgularia grandiflora Verrill, this Journal, xvii, p. 239, March, 1879. nei ones Bent mtg Kalliker, Zool. Voy. Challenger, Pecaceits D138, py , figs The new ue saa acide has been constituted, for species allied to this, by Professor Kélliker, (Voyage of the Challenger, Saaccade: p. 13, 1881) He described, from a single ed a species (A. Murrayt, pl. 6, figs. 19- 21) taken off Halifax, in 1250 fathoms, which iss maller and more slender than my saci with fewer polyps aod ad zooids, but it may possibly prove to be the young for From off Buenos Ayres, in 600 fathoms, he described A. Phones which is a large species, apparently identical, in all respects, with my species, from off Nova Scotia and New En olan We trawled this species, off Martha’s Vineyard, in 302 to 310 fithonia Its color, in life, is usually deep salmon-brown, but varies to pale salmon, and even to yellowish white. The Gloucester fishermen re presented about forty specimens, in twenty lots. These are from near the Grand Bank, St. Peter's Bank, Western Bank, Banquereau, Sable I. Bank, and Le Have Bank, in 85 to 300 fathoms. Off C. Fear, S. C., 647 fathoms,—A. Agassiz. Fiuniculina armata V errill. This Journal, vol. xvii, p. 240, March, 1879. Two excellent specimens of this fine species were taken at Stations 880 and 881, in 252 and 325 fathoms. ‘Phese were larger and more developed than the original specimen, which was taken off Sable I., N. S., in 800 to 400 fathoms. The genus Probptitan bere: I regard as the young of Virgularia. His aberrans and t other ar forms, eon oa New ck: in ape to 1700 with some previously known form. The genus Trichoptilum sao (op. cit., Pp. 29), I consider ‘the young of Funiculina. The only species, 7. brunneum, from off Ceram, very closely resembles the young of my F. armata, and I shoul, | therefore, prefer to name it ironic brunnea. Protocaulon may, likewise, prove to be the young of Anthoptilw A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 313 MADREPORARIA. Flabellum Goodei Verrill. This Journal, xvi, p. 377, 1878. This species is very closely allied to F. alabastrum Moseley,* taken by the Challenger, off the Azores, in 1000 fathoms. The two forms may eventually prove to be identical, when directly compared, but none of the numerous specimens examined by His Specimens ave the calicles more oblong, with the ends ec prominent and angular; and the whole surface is rougher. This very fragile coral has the power of restoring itself from mere fragments. Many pieces have been found showing new calicles, in all stages of progress, arising from the inner surface of the fragments ‘of old calicles. Specimens thus restored are often irregular in form till of considerable size, and one, about an oe across, still had a nearly circular outline e the color of the disk and tentacles is 3 rich salmon ; Bp 458 fathoms, is 65™ high, g greater diameter 98™, lesser diam- eter, 5 The Giousees fishermen have presented it in eleven lots, mostly from near the Grand Bank, Banquereau, none Island Bank, and east of George’s Bank, in 180 to 400 fathoms. We have ‘dredged it, on the Fish Haw k, at various localities off Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, in 219 to 487 fathoms; off Chesapeake Bay,—Captain Tanner. Large numbers were taken at stabi 8938-895, 925, 951, 952, but they were mostly crushed to small fragments by the great quantities of larger animals in the trawl. Bathyactis symmetrica Moseley. Fungia symmetrica Pourtales, Deep Sea Corals, p. 46, pl. 7, figs Bathyactis — metrica Moseley, Zool. Voy. Challener part vii, . "ise pl 11, figs. 1-13, 1 Fangincyatins fragilis Sars, in S. O, Sars, Remarkable Forms of Animal Life, i, p. 58, pl. 5, re rier 1872. Numerous broken specimens of this very fragile coral were Sa at stations 879, 880, 895, in 225-252 fathoms, gh - these specimens must have been at least 20™ j Royal Soc., 1876, p. 555; and Zoology Voyage Challenger, Part vii, eis on ie p. 169, pl. 7, ae ab pl. 16, fig. 11, 1881, 314 A.B Verrill— Marine Fauna off New England Coast. diameter. They agree in all respects with the larger specimens figured by Moseley. This coral is remarkable for having a wider range in depth and geographically than any other known species. It was taken by Pourtales, off Florida. By the Challenger it was taken in the N. Atlantic, off the Azores and off Bermuda. in 32 to 1075 fathoms; in the S. Atlantic, in 1900 to 2650 fathoms; in the South Indian Ocean, in 1600 to 1950 fathoms ; in the Malay Archipelago and West Pacific, in 360 to 2440 fathoms ; east of Japan, in 2300 to 2900 fathoms; off Valpa- raiso, in 1375 fathoms. e Fungiacyathus fragilis of Sars closely resembles this coral, but its septa are not united into groups, nor are there any transverse dissepiments nor trabicule in the four specimens escribed, although some of them were larger than many o the specimens of Sathyactis, in which these characters are well A larger series of the arctic form may, however, serve to unite them. ACTINARIA,. Adamsia sociabilis Verrill, this vol., p. 225. This starts upon a small shell, usually a pteropod (Cavolina), occupied by the crab, but eventually secretes a chitinous pelicle and absorbs the shell. The base becomes much expanded and bilobed, the lobes often surrounding the aperture of the shell, and uniting. Column slender and long in full expansion, aM changeable, smooth, with pores near the base; disk a little wider; tentacles small, slender, in two circles, alternately erect and recurved. Mouth often protruded. Sagartia abyssicola V errill. ? Phellia abyssicola Koren and Dan., Fauna Lit., Norvegis, iii, p. 78, pl. 9, figs. 3, 4, 1877. pores scattered on the column, and from the mouth. ery abundant in this region, in many localities, on pebbles, shells, worm-tubes, Acanedla, etc. ; 76-506 fathoms. List of Anthozoa. PENNATULA ACULEATA Kor. & Dan. 100 to 487 a. S. 869, 873, 875, 878 ab., 880, 892, 895 ab.: 897: 924, 925, 938, 943 ab., 945 very ab., 946 ab., 951, 999, 1025 very a ab., 1026 ab., 1028, "1029, 1032, 1045. PENNATULA ACULEATA, var. ROSEA Kor. & Dan. §S, 943, 945, 1028. PENNATULA ACULEATA, var. ALBA Verrill. 216 fathoms. S. 1025. PENNATULA (PTILELLA) BOREALIS Sars, 224 fathoms. 8. 925 1]. BALTICINA FryMarcuica Gray. 160 to 238 fathoms. S. 895: 924, 925, 945, 951. VIRGULARIA, sp. (young). 487 fathoms. §S. 892. ANTHOPTILUM GRANDIFLORUM V. [=VIRGULARIA GRANDIFLORA V.] 302 to 310 fath. §. 938, 998 FUNICULINA ARMATA Verrill. 252 to 325 fathoms. S. 880, 881. ACANELLA NoRMANI Verrill. 219 to 458 fathom 8. 880, 881 pe ai ab., 894, 895: 937, 938 very ab., 947 very ab., 951, 1028, 1029 very ab., ANTHOTHELA GRANDIFLORA (Sars) V. 255 fathoms. S, 1031. ANTHOMASTUS GRANDIFLORUS Verrill. 410-458 fathoms. S. 1028. 1j., 1029 ab. ALCYONIUM CARNEUM L, Agassiz. 8 to 30 fathoms. ADAMSIA SocTABILIs Verrill, sp. nov. 86 to 410 fathoms. S. 869, Selig hs Nipabaok 898: 923, 940-941 very ab., 1027 ab., 1028, 1035 ab., fae Dt noraaing ABYSSICOLA (Kor. & Dan.) V. 76 to 506 fathoms. S. 869, 873, 880, 892, 895, 894: 897: 923-925 ab., 937-939, 940 ab., 941, 949, 951, 1098. 1028, 1032 ab., 1033, 1038 ab., 1039: 1043, 1047. Urtictna (TEALIA) CRASSICORNIS Ehr. 16 to 40 fathoms. Urriciva crassicornis Ehr.(?) Young. 86 to 146 fathoms. 8. 872 ab.: 923, 949 ab., 1038 ab., 1039, 1043. UrRticina (Eustis) LONGICORNIS Verrill. 120 to 325 fathoms. S. 869, 876, 877, 879-881: 924, 938, 945, 1032, 1033, 1043. ° Urticina Lonetcornis V. (?) Young. 8. 924, 925, 945, 951. On Balticina. Urrictna bane PERDIX boise fo nov. 61 to 115 fathoms. 8. 871, 872: 920, sev. L, 921, prions cna) NODOSA ee Verrill. 100 to 506 fathoms. 8. 72, 876-881, 893-895, 898: 924 ab., 925, 937- hee ab. 1, 945, 949, 951, or ae ab., 1025, 1026, 1028, 1029, 1031-1033, 1038, 1 URticina CALLosa Verrill, sp. noy. 120 to 335 fathom 8. 876, 879-880 ab. 1., 894: 924, 946, 951, 997, 998, 1036, 1031, 1033. strita conxsors Verrill, me nov. 160 to 458 fathoms. S. 924, 938, 939 (3), 947, 10 ACTINERNUS SAGINATUS aaneas sp. noy. 458 fathoms. §. 1029. . BOLOcERA TUEDLE Gosse. 65 to 365 fathom S. 879-880 ab., 894, 895: 921, 924 ab., oa ic 938-939 ab. 1., 1031-1033. Am. Jour. ae Sees Serres, VoL. XXIII, No. 136.—Apri, 1882. toad 5 316 J. L. Smith—Determination of Phosphorus in Iron. CERIANTHUS BOREALIS Verrill. 100 to 258 fathoms. 8. 873, 875, 876, 878, 897: 939 EDWARDSIA FARINACEA Verrill. 8S. 1038. -Epioantuus AMERICANUS Verrill. 28 to 487 fathoms, S. 865, 869-878 very ab., 880, 892, 894, 895, 896: 898 ab., 899: 918-924 very ab., 939, 940 ab., 941, 944 very ab., 945 ab., 949 ab., 985- aan hte 999, 1025, 1021, 1032 ab., 1035 ab. , 1036 very ab., 1038, 1039, 1040, 1043, Sn AMERT grb ls encrusting variety (= Zoanthus Ses Koren 69-160 fath or pene ab.: Care Py ab., 941, 949, 1036, 1038 ab., 1039, 1040, 1043, EPIZOANTHUS PAGURIPHILA Verrill, sp. nov. 252 to 458 fathoms. S. 880, 883, 893, 894: 938, 947 very ab., 994, 997, 998, 1028, 1029. PARACYATHUS, sp. 65 fathoms, on shells. S. 865 FLABELLUM Goope! Verrill. 219 to 487 fathoms. 8. 879, 880, ey 893-895 ab., 898, 31.: 925 ab., 938, 946, 951 ab., 952 ab., 1028, 1029, 1031. BATHYACTIS SYMMETRICA Moseley. 225 to 252 fathoms. S. 879, 880, 895. PARASMILIA LYMANI Pourt. 57 to 130 fathoms. S. 899 ab.: 940 ab., 949, 1040. ART. Kae On te Determination of Phosphorus in Tron ; y J. LAWRENCE Switu, Louisville, Ky. IN recent years it has been a matter of considerable interest to determine the amount of phosphorus in the iron used in the arts, especially in that form of it known as pig iron; in fact, since the manufacture of — by the process of conversion known as the Bessemer process, it has become a necessary procedure to ascertain the peculiar Hise of the cast-iron for this purpose ; and has a bearing also upon the commercial value of pig-iron. It is not many years ago that a few thousandths in the differ- ence in the amount of phosphorus in two lots of pig-iron had but little effect upon its commercial value, while now, its pres- ence affects it to the extent of several dollars value per ton. Formerly but little reliance was to be placed upon the analy scat estimate of the amount of these small percentages of s in iron, and uniform results were not furnished by different analysts. It was not until the use of an acid solution were to be had. Many years previous (in '1852), when I estab- was obliged to devise a process which, rue it gave very good results, was not applicable to the present The so-called molybdiec acid process did t not at first satisfy * Method of making described in Fresenius’s Analytical Chemistry. J. L. Smith— Determination of Phosphorus in Iron. 317 the phosphorus from a nitric acid solution of the iron by an acid solution of the molybdate of ammonia, redissolve the lysis. ith these facts wal established to my mind, I have been engaged off and on for two or three years examining the ques- tion of the determination of phosphorus in iron and steel, making several hundreds of variously modified experiments, and repeating the details of processes adopted by different chemists. I first tried the solution of from one to three grams of or steel solution, with all the iron present and without separating the silica; but the process gave no satisfaction, whatever way the me their experience on the subject. 2 In describing the following method, ultimately adopted as affording the most speedy and accurate results, I give but little else than slight modifications of methods already employed by others, with such detail of manipulation as facilitates uniform method of operation.* Quantity of iron employed.—It is customary to employ 1 gram for pig-iron, and 2 to 3 grams for malleable iron and steel; but in. my own practice I employ but 1 gram for *S. Peters has used a process nearly the same as the Burdon Iron Works, Troy. 318 J. L. Smith—Determination of Phosphorus in Iron. all varieties of iron; for even where the iron or steel contains one-thousandth and less of phosphorus, I get as satisfactory results as where 2 and 3 grams are employed. ution.—The iron, say 1 gram, is placed in a porcelain capsule of about from 100 to 150 ¢. m., and 3 or 4c. m. of water added ; the capsule is placed on a water-bath, and 10 to 15. m. of aqua regia is added little by little; the aqua regia is prepared in advance in the usual way with two parts chlorhydric acid and one part nitric acid. The contents of the capsule are now evaporated to dryness over the water bath or more speedily on an iron plate; the capsule with its contents is then placed in an air-bath and heated from 140° to 150° C. for from 30 minutes to 1 hour—thus rendering all the silica insoluble; 3 or 4c. m. of chlorhydric acid with an equal quantity of water are added to the dry residue, and then warmed gently over a water bath or lamp; the iron is redissolved, a little more water added, the solution filtered with the filter pump; the filtrate placed on a narrow graduated measure of 100 c. m. capacity and sufficient water added to make the liquid contents 100 ¢. m.; the whole is well shaken to make the solution uniform. ‘The next step is to concentrate all the phosphorus into a limited amount of the iron. Concentration of the phosphorus.—From 90 to 92 ¢. m. of the last solution is placed in a capsule of 300 or 400 ¢. m. capacity, either of porcelain or platinum—the latter I use by preference —and ec. m. of water added; the iron oxide is now reduce to iron protoxide by soda sulphite or ammonia sulphite.* i prefer the latter, and prepare it in the manner mentioned in the note; the ammonia sulphite I used at the suggestion of Mr. S. Peters, which he stated to me was used advan- tageously by himself and others. wo or three centimeters of the ammonia sulphite is added to the iron solution and the contents of the capsule are boiled until all the sulphurous acid is driven off, this stage of the process being recognized by the sense of smell. By putting a small drop of the solution on the end of a glass stirrer into a weak ammonia solution we readily recognize the complete conversion of the oxide, for the precipitate is nearly white. Of course during the whole of the above process the solution. is acid, with the excess of chlorhy- dric acid. Ammonia is now added slowly to the warm solu- tion until a little of the greenish precipitate remains undis- solved; about 20 ¢. m. of acetic acid is now added to the solu- tion (which immediately redissolves the precipitate), and then ammonia and water are placed in a bottle and an excess of sulphuric acid passed through; the operation Jasts for several hours, using a m1x- ture of charcoal and sulphuric acid. Once prepared it keeps very well, when kept from the light. J. L. Smith— Determination of Phosphorus m Iron. 319 1 or 2em. of ammonia acetate solution; finally, the 8 or 10 c. m. of original solution remaining in the graduated glass is added with 200 or 300 c. m. of water. The whole contents of the large capsule is boiled gently from one-half to one hour, and if necessary the water renewed as it is evaporated. The result is the formation of a basic per- salt of iron containing practically all the phosphorus that was originally in the gram of iron used. Separation of the phosphorus from the above precipitate.—W ith a filter-pump on a 84-inch filter, the last precipitate is collected in 15 or 20 minutes; the precipitate is not washed, but a mix- ture of 5 or 6c. m. of chlorhydric acid, with an equal quantity of water, is warmed in the capsule in which the boiling has taken i i ot a this solution is placed in a porcelain capsule and evaporated to dryness over a water-bath or on a hot plate. I prefer the for- mer, although it takes a longer time. To the dry, but not over-heated residue is added 1 to 2 c. m. of nitric acid, with an equal quantity of water; this will furnish a clear solution if here be no titanium in the iron; if the latter be present, there will be formed a flocculent precipitate that can be readily sep- 10 or 20 ¢. m., to which ammonia is to be added until the pre- minutes to a temperature of 80° C., and agitated with a glass rod. The phosphorus is precipitated as the double ammonia- * Whenever I filter a participate to be weighed on the filter, a double filter is used, each of the same size; they are weighed one against the other and exactly the number of mg. that it is lighter than the other. As only a 24 or 3-inch filter is used, the difference in weight between the filters does not usually exceed 10 or 20 mg. I always keep a number of tliese double filters (with the difference marked on them) ready for this purpose or any other. 320 Scientific Intelligence. After washing, the double filter is placed in an air-bath heated to about 120° C., and in about 30 minutes weighted by sep- arating the filters, the complete dryness is verified by a second heating in the air bath. Of the phospho-molybdate every 100 m. g. will contain 1°63 m. g. of phosphorus, or 3°74 m. g. of phosphoric acid. The result of this method of analysis will indicate a very minute quantity of phosphorus less than what is contained in the iron, ut so small as not to affect the practical result, and will be more accurate, certain and speedy than if estimated as magne- sian phosphate. Cold short iron.—It has been customary to attribute the cold shortness of certain iron to the presence of phosphorus. Now, after working on this problem in rolling mills, I have found that the phosphorus cannot alone account for this peculiarity. Very often I have taken a 1-inch and 13-inch iron that was very cold short and working them down to smaller sizes, as }-inch bars, etc., found that very good merchantable iron is produced, capable of being bent and forged cold or hot as well as any good quality of iron, although the phosphorus in the large and small iron is the same in quantity. I would not say that phosphorus has no effect on the cold shortness of iron, but I would remark that whatever effect it has is very much modi- fied by the manner of working the iron. And this opinion is sustained by that of others who have had much to do with the working of iron. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcs. 1. Apparatus for illustrating the action of Geysers.—In J. Miiller’s Cosmical Physics, 2d ed., p. 386, 1865, Bunsen’s theory of the eruption of geysers is illustrated by filling a vertical me- tallic pipe with water and applying heat to its middle portion and to its lower end. G. Wiedemann believes that this appara- tus does not truly represent the actual phenomenon, since It 1s hard to conceive of the earth’s heat being applied in two points ; and he has for-several years used the following apparatus in his lectures. A Florence flask is provided with a long vertical glass tube drawn out at its upper end into a comparatively small orifice. Another glass tube passes through the cork which closes the mouth of the flask and is led away at an angle to a glass bottle which it enters by a stop cock at the base of this bottle. This bottle is filled with water, the height of the liquid being about at the level of the top of the vertical glass tube which rises from the Florence Chemistry and Physics. 321 flask. The Florence flask filled with w ater is heated a pet beneath by a Bunsen burner, and water entering through the stop cock from the glass bottle is raised to the boiling point. The bubbles of steam rise in the vertical tube and the alternations of heating in the flask and changes of level of the water in the vertical tube cause steam and water to issue with violence from the vertical tube. The tube conveying the cold water to the Florence flask should be curved at its lower end to prevent the cold water from striking the hot base of the flask, and the vertical tube should be flush with the bottom of the cork which closes the Florence flask.— ie der Physik und Chemie, No. 1, 1882, pp. 173-175. 3. 7. . Electrical resistance of Gases. —E. Epuunp in this er reviews the segs of previous experimenters, especially thee of Becquerel and Hittorf. Since it is known that gases differ from solid and fluid rere? in not conducting electricity wie the elee- neous fnieimess n. Edlun anew that his unitarian theory o electricity is borne out by the behavior of gas in respect to elec- trical conduction.—Ann. der Physik und ‘Chemie, No. 1, 1882, pp- 165-171. 3 x 3. Dielectric pete in Electrolytes. — The phenomenon of sieotsion! conduction through electrolytes has lately been the 8 ductors of electricity. Among these rabacabces were benzo light benzine, heavy benzine, petroleum, olive oil, solution of chloride of iron in benzol, and ether. The results of his investiga- tion confirm the views of Faraday and Maxwell in regard to elec- trical action in a dielectric. Dielectric ee exists not only in insulators but also in conductors, the dielectric con- stants of electrolytes are of the same order i proutieas as those of true dielectrics.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 1, aig pp. 94-111. Change of temperature due to extension and soiaiaseton: of metallic wires.—In works on thermo-dynamics the expression 5 (273+) aP., =— ee is given for the change of temperature which results from mechanical strains in wires produced by extension and subsequent contraction. In this expression, 322 Scientific Intelligence. A is the mechanical agape of heat, P the change of tensi a the coefficient on ss C the specific hea W the weight of thie length. Joule was the first to test the formula and his results did not entirely confirm the ers eso result. Edlund found that the formula led to a value of A=682°7 kilogrammeters, and concludes that the ct deca must be ccplatiel by the presence of inter- nal work in the wire. Riihlman is opposed to the conclusion of Edlund, and does ak think it probable that the specific heats of stretched wires can differ essentially from those of unstretched wires. H. Haga has accordingly tested the formula ee ally, measuring carefully the specific heats of the wires. From steel wire and a German silver wire the values of A were 437° 8 and 428-1 respectively, and the author therefore concludes that the formula is correct and the mechanical theory of heat explains the changes of temperature which follow the extension and contrac- tion of wires.— Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 1, 1882, DP. ~~ hosphorescence. aone Apyery, R.E., at a meeting | of ithe oe © Balmain’s lumi paint, which is violet when excited by a: light, becomes more violet when it receives the blue ae of the solar spect The red end of the spectrum, however, extin- m. re guished the violet phosphorescence. The light of ce electric oe assed through a sheet of red glass also extinguished’ the phosphorescence. Ag oe eee believes that there are a series of octaves in the end of the spectrum which do not extin- guish the violet i ah The mean wave length of the rays excit- roe the phosphorescence was found to be 4300,—Nature, a 9, temperatures U and U’ of their boundaries. W. ye vn cusses these objections and thinks that the objections 1 and 3 not pra hear ne and that the points can be embraced by the petitions He shows, in the case of 2, that Fourier’s theory demands that if the dondusd oli 4 is diminished by extension that the flow of heat between like particles is increased ayaa certain limitations).— Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 1, 1882, pp. 19-38. 5%. vf alegre observations with monochromatic light. — M. ZeNGER finds that benzine and benzylene in a compound prism together with quartz at an an le of 75° eliminate the extreme red, while pure anethol at the refracting angle of 75° ebnioates Geology and Mineralogy. 323 the extreme violet. A compound prism or parallelopiped thus formed affords the best means of studying solar we and spots and ee reversed lines of ros chromosphere. The prism : Lisgtige eae o the Transit of us Comm mission, since clear- s of ielntsion: can be obtained er great dispersive and see magnifying power. ft ane obviates confusion arising from aor: oo can be obtained by the use of this sigonaee taht. endus, Jan, aie 1882, pp. 155-157. 8. On ¢ ery of Potassium Chloride found in the ceirdbee of i Se he or Absinth (Arte deatcge someones L.; by E CLAAssEN. (Communicated),—Some time I had occasion to aes use of the above named atinict a deci was surprised to find in it many perfe ectly transparent, yellowish, almost colorless crystals of great regularity of form. The largest were about : fabian were combinations of the octahedron ain cube, with either a pre- crystals were potassium shlos his salt is commonly pose in cubes, and the uncommon forms described are sis es to the presence of organic substances in the wormwood extrac Cleveland, Jan., 1882. Il GEoLoGy AND MINERALOGY. . Tides in atid Beteeag er’ time.—Mr. G. H. Darwin, whose edt on the “ Pre on a Viscous Solid” (Phil. Trans., 1879), called out the eee: of all, Astronomer Royal of rela nd, on great tides as a ecleiptoal agency in early time, states, in Na- ture for January 5th, his non-coneurrence with Mr. Ball in his y Mr. Ball, he ould locate in regeclopiod periods. He had contemplated on possibility of tides two or three times as high as at present in the earliest geological time, and observes that this estimate is Sipsrantd rather excessive than deficient. As in his former paper, Mr. Darwin states that an increase of rain-fall would be an un- nc is, and th i out ten netic iacatebs spn sh and: Mr. ane ie se ote th h must have been rotating in about s hour the trades would pr obably have hed a velocity of 32 their presetia velocity, and, consequently, vortical storms would have had pro- B24 Scientifie Intelligence. digious violence; but these conditions would have favored the making of a arge proportion of very coarse-grained sedimentary rocks, contrary to the fact among the pailieat: of fossiliferous strata. Tides having twice the height of modern tides (such as existed when the moon wa fth nearer the earth than now) would have aided much in degradation during Archean times, by increasing the vertical ran f wave and current action and the working range force of tidal currents flowing through shallow seas or channels; and this action together with that of erosion resulting from lar. ge recipitation, are the chief geological effects over the earth’s sur- tace which Mr. Darwin attributes to the cause mentioned. Geolo- - gists have here no reason to question Mr. Darwin’s eee wake Another effect is also mentioned in the original paper, and r ferred to here again: that ‘‘the ellipticity of figure of the Peas must have been ‘continually diminishing, and thus the polar regions must have been ever rising and the equ uatorial ones falling ; ut as the ocean always elses these changes, they might quite well have left no geological traces.” 2. Contributions to i History of the Vertebrata for the Lower Eocene of ged and New Mexico, made during 1881; by E. D. Corr. Read before the Amer. Phil. Soc., Dec. 16 , 188i. Cope’s Patmontalogical Bulletin, No. 34.—This paper by Profes- sor Cope treats especially of the Lower Eocene of the basin of the Big Horn River. e upper drainage basin of the Big Horn River, which was examined in 1859 by Dr. Hayden and then pro- nounced Lower Eocene, ers explored in 1880 by a party under L. Wortman, sent out by Professor Cope. From the speci- garded as peculiar to eac ow ips on the same river north of the chs — Mountains, ts 18 1, Mr. Wovens under the same auspices, made further ee of the region, an obtained numerous e aictinet vertebrates from the Lower Eocene hor- izon. These ete e beds “ca een be less than 4000 feet in verti- IT new genera, and they are stated to réprenent fully the Wasatch fauna ih) little admixture of earlier or later forms. In place of the characteristic Middle Eocene (Bridger) genera, Hyrachyus, phn Sea: A agg and the Zillodonta, there are Phenaco- dus, Hyracotherium, Coryphodon and Teeniodonta, as in New Mexico ; ak several genera are, as elsewhere, common to the two horizons, and two species from both, Hyopsodus paulus and H. ALERT cannot be distinguished by the parts preserved. The * Geology and Mineralogy. 325 Big Horn collection is peculiar among those of Wasatch age, in the presence of numerous species of Phenacodus and of new and rare species of genera of Coryphodontide. The new Corypho- donts here described are Manteodon subquadratus, Hctacodon us, U. curvicristis, C. mar- ginatus, Metalophodon testis ; and besides these, four previously C. simus and C. pes, elep ; new Artiodactyles, Mioclenus brachystomus and M. etsagicus, similar to of Dichobune, even to the presence of the exter- nal digits (which are wanting in the Anoplotheriide) ; it differs The collections contain two species related to the Lemurs and family Prosimiw, named Cynodontomys latidens and Anaptomor- hus homunculus. The latter is remarkable for the small size of Pp the canine teeth. The genus is nearest to Zarsius among the Coast Survey triangulation, and elevations will be given by care- fully determined contour-lines for every twenty feet. By the aid of the maps, it is expected to make out completely the system in the distribution of the ore-beds so as to be able to point out where they are to be looked for and where not. 4. Dioptase from Arizona ; by R. C. Hits. (Communicated.) —The rare mineral dioptase has been recently found at the Bon of mines, near the head of Chase Creek, about nine ; j by Epo. CLAASSEN. (Communicated).—This variety of siderite occurs on hematite In he Lak i i dral crystals, or more commonly in crystalline crusts. It is often also found associated with crystals of calcite, which then form on 326 Scientific Intelligence. siderite. The siderite has a light green ae which = exposure ganese reaction. It contain FeO; CaCO; MgCO; MnCO 3 66°240 28°362 5391 trace =—99°993 or FeO CaO MgO MnO CO, 41115 15°883 2°567 trace 40'428—= 99°993 aces. $ “s ied above analysis the ratio a FeCO, : CaCO, : MgCO, i sins ae ie ae ; III. Borany AND ZooLocy. 1, The Names of Herbes. By pare Turner, A. D. 1548. Edited (with an Introduction, an Index of English Names, and ce) ° had o ,@ a.) Lard = R a i = te?) Ss 5B es ° “S = SS fa) au oe the English Dialect siti Triibner & Co., 1881. The original full title is “The Names of herbes in Greke, Latin, Duch and the shadow of Syon Haase: Mr. Britten j issues his editorial pre- face. Full of instruction and quaint interest is this neat ote of 134 + pages, 8vo. A. Synopsis of the North American Lichens, part i. by Epwarp TucKkERMAN. Boston: Cassino, 1882. It is a great pleasure to receive this volume, which sa pscanic students ‘have greatly needed and longed for. It is the first part of a work intended to describe all our ets rth American Lichens ; and we have here a very important portion of them, namely, the Parmeliacet, Cladoniei and Coen cenogoniet, arranged in the man- er roposed b y Prof. Tuckerman in his ra Lichenum, pub- ne lished in 1872. In an introduction of paiscarnai pages the author riefly states his views with regard to the nature of Lichens, which he thinks ought, together with Algw and Fungi, to be still considered as the three classes into which Thallophytes should be divided. With respect to the development of the lichen- Botany and Zoology. 327 Prof. Tuckerman has shown a wise conservatism with regard to the limitation of species, avoiding the excessive multiplications, founded on trivial or accidental distinctions, which characterize s. No e The ee are clear and adequate, without being diffuse, and the botanist and student are now in position to determi ine 0 at experience and protracted cannes car eet on in this country, Prof oe in the very beginning of his botanical career the onal frie cee and aoa pbs of ee baklaie able, so to speak, to transmit to us in this sta the views wer the fathers of the science with regard to North American species and their relations to European forms. In the case of marine alge, Harvey sinkonieaetiel died before any one in this country bias really to study that group of plants, and we are left in the dark as to many species about which Harvey alone could have given information. With the death of Curtis, too, students of mination is now uncertain, but which w have — = enough to one who had had betty snipe from Cu reater part of the more striking Lichens eee ta the Pacmoliases and the Cladoniei, the student will find most of the forms which he is tien to collect described in this first liga of means difficult, cepecils as Prof. Tuckerman is is not given to ex- cessive splitting up of species. The family of the @ ollemiei, however, must present difficulties even to expe . eems: be us the forms present without necessarily commi tting one as to their nature. It is to be hoped that — learned author will soon give to the public the remainder of the Synopsis, including the very difficult Lecidea and Voriaca. cosaie. with which he alone of American botanists is able to cope. With the appearance of 328 Scientific Intelligence. Part II. we shall of course have the index of species and synonyms, of which, in using the present part, we feel the want. no temporary index is given, we infer that the remainder of se wor = soon follow Botanische Mikrochemie; by V. A. Poutsen, iteaslated: by ie Méiier.—This little book is to be recommended to all per- sons in charge of laboratories fr botanical work is carried on. It forms a small har sat Be gee e to ept on one’s working table, and gives in a conde need form the. reactions used to distinguish paring the various reagents, Gopetlier with information as to the best of mounting different botanical objects, The present German translation was made from the original Danish edition, with the sanction of the author, and although condensed in form, it can eee! be read by any one having a slight Acar with Germ We have not yet heard of its appearance in the Ameri- can book market, but it can be a i the patilanee Theos Fischer of Castel, for a couple o 4. Nature and en of the “ cae Cells” of Radios ans and Colenterates.—A paper under this title was read by Mr. Patrick Geddes hafore the Royal Soeiety of Edinburgh | in January last, and an abstract of it is given in Nature of January 26, from which we take the ee notes. The “ Yellow Cells” referred to, first so named by Huxley, occur abundantly in most Radiola- rians. mets have a well-defined nucleus and multiply rapidly by ision. Heeckel made them pr obabls secreting erik or digestive Anemones. The author in 1878 Panes aid precee ed the g given gee in direct sunlight by a Planarian, Convoluta Schnee and found it to be one-half oxygen, and fur rthe er detected starch in the green cells. At Naples, in October, 1881, he confirmed t conclusions of Cienkowski as to the pe cells of Radicedae and found starch invariably present. e same results were ob- tained with Velella, sea-anemones and jelly-fishes. On ag to oo a Velella gave out bubbles of gas which proved to be about one quarter oxygen, and similarly rae cereus gave gas mies was 32 to 38 per cent oxygen; and among other sea- anemones those specimens in which tee ‘yellow ‘ella existed gave a like result. A white Gorgonia contained the yellow cells and eet ded the usual sc pene w eae a red ~~ of a same rue nd o moving carbonic acid and nitrogenous waste roduced by the animal, thus performing an “ intracellular renal function ;” and by Botany and Zoology. 329 native hemoglobin.” Specimens of Anthea placed in the sunlight cent; while with animals containing the alga, as above shown, the amount of oxygen in the gas evolved is less than this and in all the trials except those with species of Ceriactis, much less. Mr. Geddes named the alga Philozoon, and distinguished four species, P. radiolarum, P. siphonophorum, P. actinarum, P. The green bodies were obtained free by crushing the animals hat the green bodies are independent unicellular organisms to classed with algze and he describes t s Zoochlorell one species, Z. conductrix, occurrin : nd Z. parasitica in Spongilla. He includes the yellow cells of the Radiolariv, Hydr nd Acting in a new genus Zooxanthella. The green bodies obtained free by crushing Hydra and Spongilla did not die but continued to live for weeks slides, and when exposed 330 Scientific Intelligence. they nourish themselves like true aca by the absorption of fixed organic material; as soon, however, as they contain a sufi- ans amount of Algz they are autshied ‘like true plants by the assimilation of inorganic material. henever in consequence of a lack of light the Alge cannot perform their proper function they Na host-animals) must again nourish thems oo like anima ‘: BoranicaL NEcROLOGY. Tuomas Porrs James.—With sorrow we have to announce the decease of one of our oldest botanists, which has taken place just when the fruits of long and laborious studies were nearly ready to be gathered. To Bryologists Mr. James’ intimate acquaint- ance with mosses and his devotion to their investigation were not unknown. But the Hees of the Manual of North American Mosses, by the two re eg esquereux and James, for whic we were waiting, woul t once have resulted in wide apprecia- tion of devoted services. Lae t us hope that the Bee vs of this leaves Leo Pana FS r. James died, at his residence in Cambridge, on the 22d of February, 1882, in the seventy-ninth year of his age. In his usual r. James came of a HAN stock of Penn colonists. His maternal ancestor, from whom bis baptismal name was derived, was mas Potts, of Colebrook Dale, and his great great- grandfather, David J ames, oualenad from Radnorshire, in 1682, and settled at Radnor, Pennsylvania, near P Re where the ee ect of this notice was born , September 1, 1803, Circum- rena prevented him obtaining a collegiate cdation at Prince- ton, for which he was preparing, and directed him to business ey hos He became a wholesale druggist, aed paieiod on the busi- - ness with success in Philadelphia for forty years, 29, Sattnige ~ while his leisure to botany, for which he had a fondnes early youth. In December, 1851, he married Isabella Batcualaer, Cambridge, Mass., a lady of similar scientific tastes and of varied accomplishme nts, who with their four children survives; and in 1869 the family removed to Cambridge, where the remain- der of his life was sed. In Philadelphia he was an active member of the leading scientific societies, especially of the old- eS = oat ek a ae FN Sa eee Botany and Zoology. 331 est one in the country : the American te ieieer sa Soci- ety; of the Horticultural Sciaks he was for twenty-five years the eflicient Secretary ; Beas erican Potinlontoal Society ie’ was one of the founders “a for twenty-seven years the treasurer; of the American Pharmaceutical Society he was for many ears an active associate; and after removing to Cambridge he was chosen a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a member of the Boston Society of Natural History. In Botan after having become familiar with the phenogamous vegetation of the neighborhood of Philadelphia, he “ire the good sense to take up a specialty, and the perseverance to follow it up; and so he became a proficient and an authority in | Bayolony: His first pub- lished paper upon Mosses was peer to the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences in the year 1854. eared in the Tr scinantinae of the peep tte nee ical Poem ep and in the Ero oe of the ica rite men arallel, he contributed the elaborate article on the M in h ral new species were characterized. After these suc- cessful essays, Mr. James was for more systematic work in his chosen field. The great desideratum was, and is, a Moss-flora of the United States. Mr. Sullivant, having completed his Zcones Huscorum, was about to turn his attention to this greatly needed manual, in ¢ onjunction with his associate, Lesquereux, when he was taken hock us. is surviving associate, deeply engaged in fossil botany, turned to Mr. James, who was able to give more time to this work; and our lamented friend, at a time of life when most men court repose, consented to joint authorship, and its onerous tasks, from a simple regard to the interests of his fa- vorite science, and in view of the urgent needs of a rising school of botanists and amateurs, to whom mosses were becoming attractive, To this task Mr. James gave himself with single and untiring devotion. Owing to the state of his associate’s eye-sight, tke whole work of microscopical analysis has fallen upon “Mr. a fascinating study. And the memory in Mr. James, the kindly, of Bieta a 2 seis. gentle man—admirable in every relation Meares inet the most eminent botanist in France, the rater of the Jardin des Plantes ever since the death of Mirbel, the a of Culture in the Museum of Natural History at sont de Series, VoL. XXIII, No, 136.—APRIL, 1882. 6 332 Scientific Intelligence. Paris for more than forty years, ann on the 8th of February, 1882, in the 75th year of his age. He was born at Brussels, March 11, “1809,” according to Pritzel’s ree eae: but this must be a misprint for 1807. He must have been a very pom man when first attached to the Garden of Plants, it is said as a gardener. For it was there that he began the series of his published ‘contribu- tions to botanical science, in the year 1831; and he soon became aide naturaliste in that department of the Museum. He was ye into the Institute in 1847, taking the place in the Acadnian sciences vacated by the de ath of Dutro chet. In 1842, after the death of Guillemin, he was associated with Adolphe Brong- niart in the edit torship of the botanical part of the Annales zs Sciences Naturelles, and has been sole editor since the death of Brongniart. In 1858 he began the publication of that eae (in 1839), his investigation of the oe of the sugar- beet; his well-known paper upon the Mistletoe; his classical memoir on the Lardizabalew ; his essay on the classification of Algw and his restoration of the Corallines to the vegetable avy aaa not to speak of other papers and separate publications, all ring the ee of his sincere and faithful workmanship. The « same may be said, somewhat qualifiedly, of his elaboration of two orders ee DeCandolle’s Prodromus, the Asclepiadee and ked slo arate and leisurely prosecuted ert nog Yet his work on the Pouce might have been in true fos. edie egaiaite. to the general judgment of betaine he had not concen- trated his attention upon this group as to view comparatiy oe small differences under exaggerated proportions. But, withal there is much to be said for his decided opinion that. the Apple, the Pear, and the Mountain Ash are . distinct genera, Decaisne was a capital Aight gras and to his gifts in this regard we are much indebted for the Traite. Général de Botanique, ut aoe e in 1868, a veritable treasure to teacher and pupil. The older bot- anists will sadly feel the loss of Decaisne, and the Jardin des Plantes will be much changed to them, now that the last represen- tative of the régime of Adrien de Jussieu and Brongniart disap- pears in the decease ag this accomplished botanist and most amia- ble and excellent ma To supply the oe necrology of 1880 and 1881, the follow- ing memoranda are inserted : F, Austin, of Closter, New Jersey, died March 18, 1880, at the age of 49. He was a keen ares and was p! eparing a manual of North American Hepatic Botany and Zoology. ; 333 W». Purr Scurmper, leading bryologist as well as a foremost vegetable Leper, died March 20, 1880, at the age of 72. His rich and im mportant herbarium of Mosses has been acquired by the Herbarium of oe Royal Gardens at Kew. ; Nits J. AnpErsson, the aah of Salix, died at Stock- holm, March 27, 1880, ‘in the 60th year of his age. He had been in retirement for several years on account of infirm health. G tiles Munro, the learned agrostologist, to whom looked for ypecies Graminum (which was to be published in DeCandolle’s s Monographie), died at his residence near Taunton, England, January 29, 1880, at the age of 64; a sad los Dominique ALEXANDRE. Gopron, one of t e authors of the Flore de a died at Nancy, August 16, 1880, in the 74th year of his S. B. Maat one of our older local botanists, of much activity in former years, died at = home in Augusta, Illinois, November 11, 1880, at a good old a W Ee AUDER LINnDsAy, a . learned lichenologist, and a writer upon tthe rien! of New "Zealand, died in November, 1880, at the age “se ST Hl AMPE, a veteran bryologist, died at sorry near eskcabieg + in Hannover, where he had so long resided, m ber 23, 1880, at the age of 85. It has been said of him that pairee he began the study ‘of Mosses, the 931 species enumerated by Bridel were all that were then known; ; in 1851, the number had risen to 2303 ,and the ere estimated at 6000 at the time of his death, Sen hee barium has been acquired by the British Museum. xso Woop, the well-known author of some very popular botanic: 3 text- books and of one or two botanical papers, an enthu- siastic devotee in botany, died at his ren doie in West Farms, New Yo tk, January 4, 1881, in the 7ist year of his age. The Date of. the Torrey Club, oy which Professor Wood was for y years a member, has a good biographical notice of him, 56. Gorrtien Lupwig RaBpennorst, a mycologist of note, who has published very extensive and v aluable exsiccate of cryptogamous rie died near Meissen in Saxony, April 24, 1881, at the age 74 — IAs JacoB SCHLEIDEN, whose name dy 5 aoa in _— ery prominent forty years ago, when his text-book on scien- tifte botany appeared, but who had so spuiptetaly aabaded from Scientific pursuits t at few were aware of bis actual existence, died at Frankfort on the Maine, June 23, 1881, a ak the age of 77. The proposition that all ve etable tissues are formed of cells, which was a, a by Mirbel, was made familiar by Schleiden. His itryman, early transferr ed to Belgiu Turovore deve ANN extended the proposition to pe tissues, and appears to have originated the idea that animal and vegetable cells, as the structural and phys iological units of organic nature, Were identical. Although like. Bebleiden, Schwann’s name had 334 Scientific Intelligence. become one of the past, it appears that he ce ie! Sop ob Liége, quite down to the close of his life, early in the present year. is researches, published in 1839, upon which his scientific fame ests, appear to have been essentially his last, as well as his first contribution to science. was a most noteworthy contribution, however, if it contained, as is said, the announcement that animal tissues originate in cells, that Bacteria are the cause of putrefac- tion, and that alcoholic and analogous fermentations are ae by plants 6. The “Census. Report on the History and Present Condition of the Fishing Industries ; prepared under the direction of Pro- fessor S. F. ee trp, U. 8. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, by C. Brown Goong, Assist. Director U. S. Nat. Mus. Zhe Seal- one of ioe: by Henry W. Exriorr, 176 pp. 4to, with lates and other illustr: volume treats of the Fur Seal Islands (the Pribylov), and ‘the seals, with great fulness, from all practical and scientific points of view. Its plates illustrate the seal in various attitudes and conditions, singly, nd in indefinite multitudes along the shores, and also the unt sea- lion, and birds of the region; and contains views of the eople and. their houses, the coast "scenery, and maps of the sealing region. The number of seal skins taken to market from the Pri- bylov Islands (St. George and St. Paul), in 1880, was 100, 000. These islands lie in the Ber ‘ing Sea (not Behring, remarks the author), between latitudes 56° ‘and 57° and the meridians ne and 170°, about 200 miles west of Cape Newenham. They ar voleanic in origin, but have no active fires. IV. ASTRONOMY. Micrometrical Measurements of 455 Double Stars, 1879-80 ; Subhiensons of the Cincinnati Observatory, No. 6, University of Cincinnati. Cincinnati, 1882. Large 8vo, pp. 69.—The sixth contribution to the Astronomical literature of double stars is alike creditable to the beh! sity of Cincinnati, ieee: Stone personally, and the pri Perhaps it would not an easy matter to find a better illustration of the wisdom in » confining the staff of a it gelncongel equipped observatory to such observ ations as do not imply expensive or tedious reduction, than is given in the consecutive pdiblientions of the observatory since it oy its activity under Professor Stone. The observations seem made with continuous care, according to a fixed system, and wid due regard to personal and systematic errors. The results are vected. : 2. Names of small Planets. ee following names have hash given to recently discovered plat 12 Medea 218 Bianca, 216 Cleopatra, 219 Thusnelda. Astronomy. 8335 3. Photograph of the os trum of the eae Nebula in Orion ; by WitiiAM Huaeins. (Comatn uni- cated be the Author.) —On Tuesday cht, 7th March, I obtained a pho- tl LP ro Or ~ = ~— — ~ ~ pa i ct @ io] . — 4 — =) ia) RN CS is”) nt > — i | © v2 © i”) — Y fas) and special arrangements attached to the Cassegrain telescope of 18 k photographie spectra of the stars. My former researches showed that in “che visible spectrum of the gas- eous nebule four bright lines can be seen. The strongest, coincident with the less refrangible component of the brightest double line of the nitrogen spectrum, has a waye- length 5005. The next line is at A. 4957. The other two lines coin- cide with Hf (F) and Hy of the hydrogen spectrum. On the photographic plate these four lines can be seen, but in addi- tion there is a strc ong line in the ultra-violet at the position of A 3730, or very nearly so, as the wide slit does not permit of quite the same high degree of accuracy of measure- ment as was possible in the case of the spectra of the stars. It is very probable that this new ane coincides with the line £ in the typical spectrum, as shown by my photogr aphs, of the brightest white stars. For the convenience of com- parison I have placed this typical spectrum by the side of the spec- trum of the nebula. I could not be certain if any faint lines are present between Hy and the new line at A 3730, and also beyond this line. I hope by longer exposures and more sensitive pl: ites to obtain i in- form: rue on these points The vas a faint continuous spe baloney on the plate, which was eobabiy due to stellar light. The bright stars of the Tra- 336 Miscellaneous Intelligence. stude nte t se ios access to it. - repr gs oe in is a feinae Journal of “yeu eapesl is a real boon to scien V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. The Voyage of the Vega round Asia and Europe, ah a Historical sitaeet of previous journeys along Me He rth Voa the Old World; by A. E. Norpensxréip. Translated by coed ANDER Lesuiz. 756 pp. 8vo, with numerous cen and illustra- tions and fine steel portraits. London and ak eee i (Macmillan & Co., N. Y.)—This large volum of ¢ interest to all readers “tt is a 1 contribution to bbe: subjects “of one o Tordenskidld. Zi sass des for Science Teaching, issued under the auspices of the Boston Soe ayo ae ural History. Ginn, Heath & Co. nse Publishers, -1879 to 1881.—These small primers, of 24 to oes each, are by authors well versed inv the several subjects ied. and will be found of much value to teachers and learners. The titles of the seven before us are: About Pebbles, by ALPHEUS ~Hyarr; Concerning a few Common Plants, by G. 'L. GoopaLE; Commercial and other Sponges, illustrated by several plates, by A. Hyarr; A First Lesson in Natural History, by Mrs. AGassiZ; Common Hydroids, Corals and Echinoderms, by ae tae illus- trated by several plates; The Oyster, Clam and other Common Mollusks, by A. Hyarrv, well illustrated by plates ; rma" Min- ~_ and Rocks, by era O. Cro so Potassium permanganate.—Dr. J. B. DeLacerpa, after dasha experimenting, has rea ached the conclusion that this salt is an antidote to the poison of the Cobra; and that it acts ¢ through the disengagement of oxygen as a consequence of its decomposi- - ore system. , to the Reports of the Chief of Engineers an id t. an of the Corps of Engineers, United States Army, a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 337 Works and Surveys for River and Harbor Improvement, 1866-— 1879.—Compiled under the direction of Maj. Henry M. Roserr, Corps of Engineers, by cusauusl Onn C. O. L. Potrrrer, A.M., M.D., and dhbers, 624 pp. 8vo. W ashington, 1881.—The reports of the pea "De partment embra ace so harbors, canals, bridges, improvements by levees, dikes and other means, and the materials and methods of construction, and contain so important contributions to the sciences of hyd1 raulies, dynami- cal geology and peography, made over the breadth of the Ameri- can Continent, that this Index volume is one of great value and very general interest. Bade this, they are full “of Dees details as to surveys and improvements in all parts of the cou 5, Earthquake of ange 4, 1881, in Ischia.—The fir st number of “ Humboldt,” the w German scientifi monthly published py Enke at Stutteart, ‘opens with a paper f asaulx, ‘ Erdbeben von Casamicciola auf Ischia.” The ga tha argues that as the shock was aay slightly felt on the island of Procida and not at all on the opposite mainland, the origin must have been at a less depth than the sea-botto n of the Apa ova strait. And since the district most vielenty affected is bounded by an oval whose long diameter is east-west and sieastoies im radial to the volcanic center of the island, which lies to the south, the cause due to hollows caused by removal of material in solution by the vomit hot springs. c. G, R. ; e Swiss oo seaganapen Commission.—We gather from Comptes Rendus (Dec. 26, 1881) and from Nature (Jan. 12, 1882) some particulars in regard Se the work of this Commission since it began operations in the fall of 1879. Its members have pub- lished a number of papers, which have been recently presented to the French Academy by M. J. L. Soret. eae these are: 1. Note on Earthquakes and their scientific study, by M. Heim ; 2. Note on the Seismometric Observations in Switzerland, by M. asc ag 3. Report on the pica Neva of ie 30, 1879 ie M. Forel ; ” Note on the Havthquakes of November, 1881, by Poa: r. M. Heim writes in German, the others in rench, and the first paper is translated into Fieioh by M. Forel. In presenting these papers to the Academy, M. iets cited a number of interesting facts from which we take only tw Some shocks, 4, 1880, and March 3, isai, > eebaktel ‘Alsons 338 Misccllaneous Intelligence. of the disturbance; as if this district were, from the seismic point of view, under caulliions different from those which affect adjacent cantons of November, 1881, s also distinct shocks of earthquake had occurred within the month, and of its thirty days there were only thirteen on which an earth- quake did not occur in some part of Switzerland. They were traceable to three principal centers; the first, at the commence- on ne the month, in the Pays @’ Enhaut and the Vaudoise Alps; the second in Eastern Swviteerldnd « the third, at the end of the oats in the lower Valais, from Martigny to Lake sei sR 7. Glacier scratches in the Catskills.—Dr. J Sesion in the wae actions of the New York Academy of Sciences, Ae i, no. 2, states that he has found no glacial s yritohek near the Clove nen of Round Top, at 2,871 ae ay direction of este W., magneti S. 35° E. He remarks tat ae hi ighest sera siches ee a in the Catskills occur on Overlook Mountain, at an elevation of about 3,100 feet, showing that the ice surface was at least 3,200 over this part of the Cats- kill region. He concludes that there were two movements over appoined D Surveys of heeni “Britain eis — and Director of the Museum of Practical Geology in Lor The Constants of Nature, Part V: A _reqpitalation of the Atomic Weights, by F. ; hem. and Phys. Univ. Cincinnati. Smithsonian Miscel- - laneous Contributions, No. 441 280 pp. een,” Washington, 1882. Fifty Years of Science, being the ‘Address delivered at York to the British i ‘dent 90 pp. 8vo. London, 1882. (MacMillan & Co.)— —The extracts from this address in a former volume of this Journal are enough to seat a desire for this volume which gives it entire OBITUARY. Sir Cuartes Wyvitie THomson died on the 12th of March, at the age of fifty-two. oe was born at Bonsyde, Linlithgowshire, on chon 5th of March, 830. His ex pa Dk the “an in the Light ral burgh. His so early departure is say to be aeolae ed. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XXXV.—On Photographs of the Spectrum of the Nebula 4 D.* in Orion; by HENRY DRAPER, M. similar series; and second, to photograph the spectrum of the Nebula in various parts so as to see whether any new lines could be found, and also whether the composition is uniform throughout. As to the first of these objects I have recently succeeded in taking a very fine and extensive photograph of the Nebula containing most of the delicate outlying parts which were not in my earlier photographs. This is in the hands of the photo- lithographer now and will shortly be published. The experi- ments have been very difficult because an exposure of more than two hours in the telescope has been necessary, and an. exceedingly minute motion of the stars relative to the sensi- tive plate will become apparent on account of the high magni- fying power (180), employed. te n carrying out the second object two contrivances have been used ; first, a direct vision prism in the cone of rays from the objective before they had reached a focus, and second the two-prism spectroscope with which I have taken photographs of stellar spectra for some years past. * Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April, 1882, at Washington. Am. Jour. en doa Series, Vo.. XXIII, No. 137.—May, 1882. i 7 340 HH. Draper—Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion. During the month of March I have made two good photo- graphs with each of these arrangements. Those with the cult to get as good photographs of the nebula itself. On the contrary, those obtained with the slit spectroscope do not re- quire the same steadfast attention. The results derived from these photographs are interesting partly from what they show and partly from what they promise in the future. A number of photographs, under various con- ditions, will be needed for the full elucidation of the subject. The most striking feature is perhaps the discovery of two condensed portions of the nebula just preceding the trapezium, which give a continuous spectrum. At those places there is either gas under great pressure or liquid or solid. J have not been able to detect any stars of sufficient magnitude in these portions to produce this effect either in my photographs of the nebula or in any of the well known drawings of this object. It seems to me also that the photographs show evidence of con- tinuous spectrum in other parts of the nebula. In these respects the conclusions arrived at by Lord Rosse in his memoir (Phil. Trans. Royal Society, June 20, 1867, page 70), are to a certain extent borne out. he hydrogen line near G, wave-length 4340, is strong and sharply defined ; that at h, wave-length 4101, is more delicate, and there are faint traces of other lines in the violet. Among these lines there is one point of difference, especially well shown ina photograph where the slit was placed in a north and south direction across the trapezium; the H7 line, 4 4840, is of the same length as the slit and where it intersects the spectrum of the trapezium stars a duplication of effect is visi- ble. If this is not due to flickering motion in the atmosphere it would indicate that hydrogen gas was present even between the eye and the trapezium. I think the same is true of the He line, 44101. But in the case of two other faint lines in this vicinity I think the lines are not of the length of the slit, one being quite short and the other discontinuous. If this observation should be confirmed by future photographs of greater strength it might point to a non-homogeneous constitu- tion of the nebula though differences of intrinsic brightness would require to be eliminated. e April number of the American Journal of Science con- tains an account of a photograph of the spectrum of this neb- ula taken by Dr. Huggins. ave not found the line at 2 3730, of which he speaks, though I have other lines which he does not appear to have photographed. This may be due A. Woethkof—Mean Annual Baird 341 to the fact that he had placed his slit on a different region of the watery or to his employment of a reflector and Iceland spar prism, to the use of a different sensitive preparation. Baventeion: my reference spectrum extends beyond the region in question As illustrating the delicacy of working required in this re- cerned. It is only a short time since it was considered a feat to get the image of a ninth magnitude star, and now the light of a star of one pienasnen less may be ‘photographed even when dispersed into a spectrum. 271 Madison avenue, New York. + Art. XXXVI—Mean Annual Rain-fall for different Countries of the dais by Dr. ALEXANDER WokErKor of St. Petersburg, Russ PROFESSOR K. ee having 2 ee in this Journal a ology, paper xvi), inviting meteorologists to give upplemen tary information on subject, readily. accept this invitation, having myself given yes dentiok to the subject. t fessor Loomis, when he was drawing his lines of at rain- the sheaphioe configuration and notices of A are the only objects which give a basis to the pee ee I will give only examples in relation to Africa and Asia. On the first Continent not only are none rat the ‘equatorial lakes given, but tence. In Asia the Stanovoi watershed between the systems of the Lena and Amur is given as if it was a high mountain chain; the same is to be said of the slope of the rT plateau north of Pekin, while between 25°-40° N. and 96°-110° K., no mountains are shown, while this region comprises West China, Kukunor ae Eastern Thibet, and has some of the highest chains of me now to Pratencr Loomis’s work in Europe. ‘The Shades are mostly right, except— 1. Sicily, which has, in its greatest part less than 25’, 2. Portugal, where the author cites the old and « erroneous 342 A. Woetkof—Mean Annual Rainfall. figures for Coimbra, while Professor Hann has some years ago proved, by the results of the new observations, that it has a oer -fall not much above that of Lisbon. 3. Scandinavia, where the fall above 50” is restricted to a few exceptional places, near high mountains of West Norway, like Bergen and Floroé. Even Christiansund has much less. Kastern Norway and the interior valleys (Christiania, Dovre) have less than 25’ In what concerns s Huropean Russia, the shading is perfectly right, as I have found by a new and more extensive collection of data. The frontier of the fall of more and less than 10” is also in the main right, except in the vicinity of Orenburg, where it should be drawn somewhat more to the south. In Asia, north of the medida there is more tochange. Thus the zone of less than 10” in the Arabo- -Caspian steppes and vicinity is too large in Profesor Loomis’s ma t does not stretch so far to the north and northeast, and certainly does not reach to the foot of the Altai, where the rains of summer and the snows of winter are rather abundant. On the east coast of the Caspian, Krasnovodsk (40° N.) has also more an 10”. There is a great rain-fall on the south shore of the Caspian, as well as on the south part of the western shore; on the latter Professor Loomis has the station of Lenkoran 51:7”. The country about Lake Balkash and the upper Irtysh is very dry, it being really a continuation of the Arabo-Caspian dr: pasture and toes in this region prove that the two latter sta- tions are os exceptional. I should rather include most of the basin of the Yang-tze and eastern Indo-China in the region having more than 50” , though I have no observations to prove my case. But the known humidity of ae region, the luxuri- ous vegetation, the immense floods of the rivers* corroborate my opinion. Easter oes seems to hive ae than 75”, as is seen ep 54 yeast f Surabaya and 2 years, 1879-80. It safe to give 50-75” to the islands east of Java so far as Sumbawa, and a shade less to Flores and Timor, while Biltod Billiton and the Moluccas and Southern Philippines have probably over 75” As to British India, Professor oo has made a good use of the numerous observations ther * Sce E. L. Oxenham, Inundations of the Yang-tze-Kiang, in Jour. Roy. Geogr. Soe., 1875, p. 170. A. Woetkof—Mean Annual Rainfall. 343 ' In Western Asia the region of 10’’-25” is probably in closer proximity to mountains than shown in Professor Loomis’s map, extending far to Shiras along the mountains of southern Persia, and not so far to the south in southeast Syria and Mesopotamia. In Arabia a closer approximation of the rainy regions to the mountains is also what must be the case. is less than 50” rain, are the llanos of Venezuela re perhaps part of the Magdalena basin. On or near the Amazon, we the Madeira has 91°38” As to the west coast, the region of more than 75” extends 2 or, the provinces of Esmeraldas and Choco being described as exceedingly rainy. Farther to the south T would object to giving to Chiloe and the adjacent coast *. 344 A. Woeitkof—Mean Annual Rain-fall. less rain than to Concepcion and Valdivia. Professor Loomis probably made use of the observations at Ancud, Chiloe, and seeing that this place had less rain than Valdivia and Puerto oo Rater it as generally admisstble for the latitudes above ° S. on the west coast. But Ancud is protected by a roc ae on the west, that is, the wind and rain side, white the other two stations are open to the west. In the LaPlata States the interior is very dry, only the eastern slopes of the mountains and their vicinity have more rain. Now all the interior stations from which we have rain Saati tape are so situated, and all except Mendoza give much more r than would be the aver age of more evenly distributed gine. e know that westward from the stations of Cordo a, Tucu- man, Salta are the States of Catamarca, Jujuy, San Luis, which are so dry that even good pasturage is scarce. It would thus be safe to extend the region with less than 10’’ much to the eastward, and that of 10’25” also s to Australia, the region of 25'’-50” in the north of the Continent probably extends along the coast somewhat to the southwest from the position given ‘it by Professor Loomis. As to that of less than 10” there is no reason why we should admit that it is so very restricted in the interior as in Professor Loomis’ map. We have no observations from an extensive district, but what we know of the mA pees of the interior allows us to make this very pee supposition On the whole, Professor Loomis s work is certainly a good one, but on account of ‘ahiat I have pier above, a revised — of the map is yet desirable. would besides draw attention to some perplexing and erroneous designations of the countries and regions in whic are situated some of the stations mentioned by Professor mis. I give here some of them, with the corresponding num- bers of Professor Loomis’s table. 254 Ragusa, Kuropean Turkey. Is situated in the Austrian province of Dalmatia. 363 Ajansk, Russia. As other places in Siberia are cited as such, it would be better to mention Ajan, the exact name, as being i in Eastern Siberia. The same applies to 524 Ner -tschinsk, 522 Irkuzk; 646 Kjachta, 510 Enisseisk; while 512 Tobolsk, 516 Tomsk, 517 [schim, 519 Omsk: 520 Isalair neh 645 Bar naoul, 644 Akmolinsk are situated in Western ria. 521 Nikolaiewsk, 525 Phspeccctidvesieh, 526 0 haba eee: 528 Vladivostok are placed by Professor Loomis in China, while aed are in Eastern Siberia (in the Amur and Littoral prov- "The appellation Tartary applied to 529 Tashkent, and 647 Irgis is wanting in precision. If it is meant for the Kirghiz A. Woetkof—Mean Annual Rainfall. 345 steppes, Russian Central Asia and the Khanates of Khiva and Bokhara, then the following stations should also be included in it: 649 Raimsk, 650 Fort N. 1, 652 Novo Petrovsk, 653 lakust Mekuss, 654 Petro- Alecandrovsk. give below some data about rain- -fall, especially in relation to countries which, in my opinion, are not correctly represented in Professor Loomis’s map. Names of Places. Lat.* | Long* | perey ae Authority. Manaos, — —3° 8’7|—60° 37 1 |} 55°2 . Iquitos, Per —3 44/—73° 81 95 | 1 aa t zeitschr. ¥..8, p. 267 S. Antonio, Madeira, Brazil|—9 5|—64 .---| 1 | 91°3 |Zeitschr., v. 15, p. 492 era: ambuco, Brazil —8 4|—3452 3) 4 |108°4 cheers v.14, ,p. 216 hae 7} —713/112 48] .__.| 54| 71°7 |Zeitschr., v. 8, p. 56 Passoerce, | —17 38) 112 56 4 ye et i Pr hibatiiee. | Eastern |—7 44/113 13] 10 2 | 57°33 Besceki, ' ava. —7 43/113 41 2 2 57°76 Térontie itcebondo, | =741|114)3 80) | St BOB Fo veg Oa Tend Banjoewang, } —813]}114 23} 5 | 2 | 688: : Amboina, Mol 342] T2810 cocks (2 OC bt Banda, t we 432/129 53| ....| 2 [135-77] | Urga, - Mongolia 47551103 50} ..--| 6 | 10°] S. E. Sib 50 21/106 25} _...} 4 10°0§ ak f Siberia | 50 17 | 104 92] ....| 6 | 17°38 arnaul, 63 20.|* 8B. OU Al 9°5( Akmolinsk, S. w. |5112| 77 93| -2..| 6%] 9°52 Semipolatinsk, Siberia | 50 24 | 80 13] -.-- : i ir (Altai 15 | 85 47 | 346 is Viadikavkasy 'N: Caucasus} 430 | 45 3 | --..| 8 | 34°04 Met. Annalen ropol 455 OOM Bea ma 27°74 Pot E.co’t] 42 10 | 41 40) i...) 10 65°95 Suchum- ofBI'k 4258| 40 53|....| 34 | 505 Dachovsky-Possad { Trans] 43 34| 39 42] -.--| 9 | 80°81 2 ssa, van | 444 7 46 | 22.2b 2° | 30-08 Sevastopol, Crimea 44 3 332 cl pe a Abs ~ there Lg be} 59 55 10 43)) cau ; rte andésund, 59 Bt: 10.98)... 2 3 : Christiansund. ) W. 7145! _..| 7 | aan Zeitschr. v. 4, p.508 Aalesund, eo't }4| 6229) 6 9}.---] 7 | 45°53) J atania (E.), 424| 153 12 | 18-05 sin (E.), Sicily 4 vipa ty oa Pass a eee ay eee alermo (N. ; 38 7 Ha 1 (ee ; : ta ‘6 W), 87 30| 13 5 |---| 10 | 22°26) } Klima deri — rto, Portugal 419 8536:) cusp 20 ee imbra, Portag 40,18 | 8:36, = & I a Pupillary areas, in square millimeters. —5° +3° 30’ 5 Optic angle, -.-..-.. 5° = + 60° Maximum area, -.--. 12°4 70 3°0 } tap’ Minimum area, - - - - -- 8°2 4:2 Pat 12 rower that the observer’s eye is perfectly free from such cefects as consciously, by every one who uses a stereoscope that is ill adapted to his eyes and stereographs that are improperly mounted. % F i fi Z : % i, W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Optics. 353 5. Tue Operation oF THE WILL IN VIsIon. In reference to the operation of the will upon the muscles of the eyes, Helmholtz states that we are limited to efforts for the attainment of single and distinct vision. The French edition of his great work on Physiological Optics received the last corrections of the author, and from this the following quota- tions must be made: “Tl faut remarquer en général que, dans toutes les mouve- ments volontaires, notre volonté ne tend jamais qu’a atteindre un résultat extérieur nettement déterminé et perceptible par lui-méme.”—Opt. Phys., p. 613. “Il résulte de ces faits que la relation qui existe entre les mouvements des deux yeux n’est pas commandée par un mécanisme anatomique, mais qu’elle se modifie, au contraire, sous l'influence de notre volonté; la seule limite réside dans le fonctionnement de notre volonté que nous ne savons pas appliquer & un but autre que celui de voir les objects simples et nettement.”— Opt. Phys., p. 617. : The experiments just described show that the will may be directed to the attainment of other ends than single and dis- tinct vision. Although not affected with any oe or other weakness of the muscles of the eyes, and 6. Bryocunar Viston AND Brnaurat AUDITION, The discoveries in reference to binaural audition, made during the last few years independently by Professor Silvanus Thomp - son,* of England, and Professor A. M. Mayer, of this country, are Interesting, not only as additions to our knowledge of physio- logical acoustics, but also in relation to the phenomena of * Philosophical Magazine, Oct., 1877, Nov., 1878, and Noy, 1881. - B54 W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Optics. physiological perspective. The localization of sounds has been ound to be much affected by the mode in which the waves are conveyed to the separate ears. The same tone may be perceived as if produced at the back of the head, or from the two sides, or from a point obliquely in front, while the position of the true external source is unchanged, the perception being involuntary while the conditions are adjusted at will. The judgment of distance by the ear is far more uncertain than by the eye, there being no other criterion than the degree of energy of the vibrations which give rise to sensation; but the perception of direction may be moditied by imposing special conditions, such as fatiguing one ear with agiven tone and then listening to the same with both ears. For a fixed posi- tion of the eye, the perception of direction may be modified at will by methods already described, or by pressing upon the eyeball, while that of distance is also subject to variable condi- tions. Although the binaural estimate of direction and dis- tance may be made less uncertain by properly adjusting the ponton of the head to the wave front, or, as in the case of the ower animals, by directing the two ears at will toward the source of sound, no one has attempted to apply geometry to the binaural localization of sounds. Its application to binocu- lar vision is now found to be wholly unreliable in the very department for which it was deemed most satisfactory, that of stereoscopic perspective. 4". Errecr or ExpERIENCE IN VISION. with nearness of the point of fixation, and this is pictured upon the yellow spot of the retina. No one whose eyes are healthy has any consciousness cf possessing any retina except 1 rela- tion to external objects, or any tympanum except in relation to eee PRM nc tecsh ed yer Re goer maT es Pe ee eam ep ee cop at ee ee “ait a a W. LeConte Stevens— Physiological Opties. BBS thus restored. lace here is one psychologic aspect of the present investigatio of which I have not been unmindful, particularly in reference to the effects of extreme voluntary ciliary contraction. 1n re- thought. 8. Turorres or BrnocuLaR PERSPECTIVE AND RELIEF. 356 W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Optics. graph. he relative distances in the drawing being fixed, variation in muscular sensation may modify the imagined scale of measurement, while ratios are sensibly the same as before. The beautiful results attained by Professor W. B. Rogers* in determining the form of the binocular resultant are applicable to projecting lines that intersect, and not necessarily to visual lines, since the perception is attained when these are divergent. ‘The same remark is true of Helmholtz’ admirable mathematical discussiont of the stereoscope, in which he makes no provision for optic divergence, although elsewhere e refers to the possibility of stereoscopic vision by this method. It is but due him to state that, under the conditions assumed, he closes his discussion with the remark, ‘‘ These con- ditions are not always fulfilled for the photographic proofs and the stereoscopes of commerce.” Associated muscular action, to which special prominence has been assigned in the present series of pap is in like manner incapable of explaining all the phenomena of stereoscopy. uch stress has been laid upon it because it overs all the facts that have hitherto been referred to visual play of the eyes often enables us to become at once sure © interpretations that would be enveloped in uncertainty until f In the attention is apt to be confined to the point fixed, but also ness. It has been suggestedt that the perception of relief is by * This Journal, IT, vol. xxi, pp. 91, 173, et seq. Optique Physiologique, p. 842, i -LeConte, Sight, p. 151; Appleton, 1881. W. Le Conte Stevens—Physiological Optics. BST means of double images, and that the mind cnstinetively distin- guishes between those made by objects that are respectively farther and nearer than the point fixed. his last proposition would be hard to demonstrate experimentally, but even when the attention is not specially given to the double images, these may, and probably do, play an important part as elements in the unconscious formation of judgments. Again it has been stated* that we see ai long and short viistances ut the same time, because the retina has thickness and transparency, and images are focalized at different depths beneath its surface. Here again we can neither affirm nor deny in answer, although re- cognizing the fact that the erystalline lens, being one of short focal length, has in consequence of spherical aberration consid- erable “depth of focus.” It is moreover fluorescent, irregular in structure, and imperfectly centred. Perfectly sharp focali- zation is hence impossible, as shown in the radiated appear- ance of stars and the irradiation about any brilliant surface like that of the crescent moon. These optical defects may be in some respects advantageous in ordinary vision. If : theory be true, though not demonstrable, it may partly explain the possibility of binocular combination when the differences between the two pictures are so minute that the perception of double images in any part of the binocular field is impossible. Some idea can be formed of the minuteness of the stereoscopic displacement actually necessary when we consider that Mr. Warren De la Rue succeeded in obtaining a stereograph of the sun, from which by stereoscopic vision, the ridges of the faculze could be perceived in sharp relief. On the stereograph of the moon, to which reference has been more than once made, the levation of mountain ranges and solitary peaks, and even the inequalities of the supposed dead sea bottoms can be clearly seen. The crater Copernicus and the lunar Apennines stand forth particularly boldly, and the ridge that divides the bed of the heart-shaped “Sea of Serenity” can be easily traced. Any one who has undertaken the preparation of a stereograph with the pencil or pen knows how very difficult it is to avoid the a naar of roughness in the combined image at places where smoothness is desired. No two impressions from the same mathematical meaning has been assigned to this expression, and obviously none can be. It is generally thought, but has not n C * Towler, The Silver Sunbeam, p. 310; KE. & H. T. Anthony, 1879, B58 W. LeConte Stevens—Physiological Optics. one retina has its mate in the other, and when such a pair are estimated. ‘There are strong reasons however for doubting the validity of this theory of corresponding retinal points. we can affirm is that experience, acquired individually and probably with exceeding rapidity in consequence of inherited tendencies, has taught us to interpret retinal sensations that are slightly different in the two eyes, as the signs of an external object possessing three dimensions in space, when the images are made upon parts of the concave surfaces that bear to each — _— W. LeConte Stevens— Physiological Optics. 359° cases. The group of light images in the one eye forms a sum total that is different from that in the other, and the sensations they arouse are simultaneously conveyed to the brain. Ex- perience comes to our aid, and the modified resultant is in- stantly recognized, even though we may be unable to perceive separately the minute modifications which give character to the two main components that form it. I doubt therefore the anatomical theory of corresponding retinal points, and regard that of partially correspondent retinal areas as a substitute more in accordance with observed facts. This correspondence moreover must be considered merely the effect of association resulting from oft repeated experience, an association that is very quickly established, although a new- r apparent blending of images that are really dissimilar. dissimilarity is but slight, clear relief is perceived without the production of any sensible duplication of images in any part of the binocular picture. In the light of these facts it is seen that the explanation of stereoscopy with perfectly similar figures, as given in last paper,* was inc te. It was known to be so at the time it was given, but my intention was to present only a geo- * This Journal, April, 1882, p. 297, . 360 J. D. Dana—Flood of the Connecticut River Valley. metric discussion and reserve the remainder for a new paper. In performing the experiment for the first time, confusion is generally experienced ; after a few moments the form of the binocular resultant is clearly perceived, and in subsequent trials the perception is attained much more quickly, all parts of the image being sensibly equally distinct at the same mo- ment, if the inclination of the cards be not great. It is only when this inclination is considerable that play of the eyes be- comes necessary, and the associated exercise of the rectus muscles thus furnishes suggestions that are complementary to the modification of retinal impressions just discussed. ‘There are further experiments in regard to this mode of stereoscopy by momentary illumination, which I hope to make and pub-, lish at some future time. New York, 40 W. 40th St., April 3d, 1882. Art. XXXVIII.—On the Flood of the Connecticut River Valley from the Quarternary Glacier; by J. D. DANA. {Continued from page 202.] Tux facts, presented in the preceding part of this paper, on the dimensions and velocity of the flooded Connecticut appear to make it certain that, during the era of the great flood, the pitch of the Connecticut valley was very much less than it Is now, and that a change equivalent to 1 foot a mile from the Sound to Springfield, and 24 feet a mile to Haverhill (and an undetermined distance beyond)—but corresponding to some curving plane between the extreme points—would not be too great to meet the requirements.* ‘ But I have not said that the land over the interior of New England was depressed to the amount stated, or to any amount. It has been left an open question whether the change was a change in the sea-level or in the land-level. ; Leaving this point for discussion in another number of this Journal, I here take up the subject of the disappearance of the ice from the Connecticut valley. 5. The Retreat of the Glacier. the amount of ice to melt. But there are various unknown * This curving plane would make right the heights for Middletown and Spring- field on page 199, where the former is, by the assumed rate of pitch, the higher. The Retreat of the Glacier. 361 . general conclusions can be looked for _ CL.) Drainage-area.—The present drainage-area of the Connec- ticut, north of Massachusetts, covers about 8,500 square miles; »etween the northern Massachusetts line and Hartford, 2,10€ square miles; and between Hartford and the Sound, 450 square miles; making in all 11,050 square miles. The Hartford limit is here made to extend south of Hartford on the west, so as to include the whole drainage-surface of the Farmington River, which joins the Connecticut north of Hartford. The area cov- ered by the Quinnipiac River might also be added, since the overflows from the Connecticut River valley, at Northampton and south of this point, so far as they emptied into the Sound ‘by a separate outlet, reached it by the Quinnipiac valley. But the area is not over 50 square miles. (2.) Amount of ice over the drainage-area.—The mean thick- ness of the ice in and west of the White Mountain region, judg- ing from the glacial scratches on the White Mountains, and on Mt. Mansfield of the Green Mountains, was probably about 9,000 feet; at the sources of the Connecticut River, 75 miles north, on the borders of Canada, at least 6,000 feet; and to the south near the Massachusetts border, not far from 3,500 feet. The mean thickness for the whole area, 8,500 square miles in extent, thence deduced, is about 4,500 feet ; and, if so, the whole amount of ice covering the drainage-area north of Massachusetts, at any one time before melting had made much progress, would have been about 7,250 cubic miles. quantities connected with this subject, and -only some very across the Sound, and landed large bowlders, some of more than a hundred tons weight, with a large amount of moraine material (referred to the terminal moraine) on the south side and other parts of Long Island; and the chief part of the fall necessary for motion came from a northward increase in the thickness of the ice, the Sound being a shallow trough 20 miles or so wide. slope of 0° 25’ would give a pitch of 38°39 feet per mile (= 1:137°5), and make the thickness along a line 34 miles north-northwest from the south side of Long Island, 1305 feet ; and one of only 0° 20’ would give a pitch of 30°72 feet per mile (= 1:171°8), and a thickness of 1,044 feet.* On the above assumption the amount of ice in this part of‘the drain- * In Greenland a thickness of more than 900 feet exists according to Helland, at the very end of the Jakobshavn glacier, this being proved by the thickness of the icebergs broken from it. 362 J. D. Dana—Flood of the Connecticut River Valley. age-area at any given time would have been 965 cubic miles, making the total about 8,215 cubic miles. 3.) Sources of the Water.— Melted ice and unfrozen waters from the precipitation over the drainage-area were the sources supplying the flooded streams. he precipitation, to produce the snows needed for the Glacial era, must have been large, much larger than now. e amount at the present time for the part of the drainage-area north of Massachusetts averages 42 inches a year, and for the part south, 46 inches; while on Mt. Washington, just east of the area, the annual fall is between 55 and 80 inches. In 1873, 78°56 inches were registered on Mt. Washington. n the Glacial era the conditions must have occasioned still he relations were consequently like those between the tropi- cal Indian Ocean and the seaward mountain ridges of India, though less extreme. In India, at many localities, the mean, annual rain-fall is 100 to 160 inches, while at three stations on the Ghats, in Bombay, it is over 250 inches, and at one m Assam, nearly 500 inches. In such facts we have seemingly sufficient reason for estimating the average annual rain-fall of the Connecticut valley during the Glacial era to have been at least as high as 120 inches. The present high average on the isolated White Mountains is good evidence that.90 inches would be too small an estimate, and the more so since during the four months in which half of the precipitation there takes place, June, July, August and September, the slopes are, with small excep- tions, free from snow—Mr. Schott’s tables (page 56) making the mean for the four years of observations 67°12 inches, and for the New England, over which would have blown moisture-ladened winds from the region of the great Mediterranean sea of the con- tinent; though possibly, owing to the distance from that sea and the position of the Appalachians, the annual precipitation The Retreat of the Glacier. 363 north of the Ohio may have been increased somewhat less than over New Englan From the condition of Greenland,*—a semi-continent, covered by a continuous glacier-mass more than a thousand miles long ng hose sel of gees gp tr a regard to the interior of enw are: (1) the explor n July, 1870, ieeetenrgedte over the ice for 28 miles, sixty niles pre of Jakobshawn, near te ee lel of 6 8° 20’, (Geol. Mag. for 1872); and (2) that of Lieutenan D. Jensen, in pete: ith Mr. A. petra. as geologist, who ete on the Predeikcinab glacier, be Ada the parallels of 62° and 63°, it travele d 4714 miles in an E.N. E. direction (Meddelelser om Groénland, Copen- ha . 1879, Part firs = = mS ERT The black a ice - white, land; shaded, water; J. N., nataks ; white lines on the black, crevasses : tak 8 YX. Dalager’s arrow s, glacier- fay rdenskidld saw an nr surface of ice, whi te cw moraine le sss, much intersected by crevasses, and f wed by innumer able r and one “ copious, deep and broad riv er betw een eckan blue ice,” who ce banks he followed until th saw ‘the : mas s of water rush part : ape rpendicular ¢ depths below.” There was di portions e surface, and with it, as detected by his companion, Mr. Berggren, great qua ctv of am cos alge, in be threads of usually 4 or 8 cells, along with some Protococcus ni place, so much of the material lay toge ether, (alloted “ny gesians ov “dvied up) hat i e sun, ‘so as t a most unpleasant odor. like t 1at of nipardhed aci se says that om alge tenc id 1. The height reached by Nordenskiéld 364 J. D. Dana—Flood of the. ConnecticutRiver Valley. ane several. hundred wide, and leaving outside only a fringe of ords and islands generally but 30 to 60 miles in width,—-we. ae derive many facts illustrating this subject. We learn from it that a continental glacier (1 would have crevasses of indefi- nite number and extent, either transverse to the direction of motion, longitudinal, or radial, according to the bottom over which it moved and the atten dant conditions ; that (2) it would be covered Macmucuns in the warmer season at least, with fresh- s 2,200 0 sho the mean slope of the ice-surface on ved rite as deduced from the heigh as 0° 26’, equivalent to 40 feet per mile (1: uieut. fae se the i mit of his inland ice set of 474 ee from he foot of the Frederi shaab glacier, reached a clu-ter of ae peaks, rising from beneath the glacier— Nunat eee of the Greenlanders (J. N., 1). The Rhee pris a sea of the four largest were severally. commencing ve the north, 5,623 (g), 5,1 (7), 5,654 (k), and 5,580 (m), feet. (See fig. 2 be low .) From these doaks hich stand like islands in the sea of ice, moraines of stones and earth (some of the stones 20 feet in their Siaanelcns) extend af = to 24 miles, (m’, m’”, m’’’, m’?”", 2) and di ist, by the aid of the re winds, is drifted off for wide oe ~ . distribution over the gla ier. The ter a short outside ex- istence, disappeared poco = , the stones dropping down crevasses that were from 1e opening (the account says) as th cier mo on - ing direction of the moraines, and the eddies in the flowing i he obstructing ridge (of which the Nunataks are the peaks hese directions indicate, are r markably instructive. The arrows how the inferred direction of move he aine m’, 2 Co) made mostly of polished stones, which appear therefore to have led far, a be the debris of the nunataks. @ ?’ have no conpe eae with any ne nunatak. Ia 2°60 Pi ee ee 2°05 De ae eee eee ee 1°55 Bio ee 1°13 Ce seo oe ee orl ING 2 trace Ag aac ee 44 98°89 ee Lhe sample yielded 15 per cent. cobalt. e Gem, and other mines, near Silver Cliff, meetin ana a number of nickeliferous minerals, and a sma ma tae of cobalt. riter has recently detected a small amount of nickel and a af Veh of cobalt in an iron pyrites near Granite, Colorado ; i iki mblance e ihe iron pyrites found at Anthony’s Nose on the Hudson fe Grant Smelting Co., Leadville, Colorado. M. W. Tles— Vanadium in the Leadville Ores. 381 Art. XLITI.—On the occurrence of Vanadium in the Leadville Ores; by MALVERN W. ILEs. Art the Evening Star and Altna Mines, I have detected a vanadium mineral, ete in a pocket surrounded by a silt ceous gangue, and also well-defined seam. In the Even- ing Star mine, the v aiaitiien compound is associated with the so-called “ hard oucbonits of lead,” and is found as an incrus- and lemon- -yellow. Both the red and yel ow specimens g give a deep green solution when treated with hydrochloric acid, and not unfrequently jee Jean colored mineral gives a marked amount of vanadic a Prof. Silliman ban called — to the fact that a choco- late-colored mineral, fou mercies with vanadinite, also chloric acid was made use of: Portions of the — colored incrustation were detached from several specimens, and sub- mitted to a chemical examination; the results make it probable that the mineral is dechenite. The saith is as follows BO oui. 36°86 PbO 38°51 ABO oo 9°07 V,0, pic. s Oe PON Gs a a 2°59 HA) oe 2°41 2 AOR ener, Cah re cre nt ae aes 0°48 99°06 precipitating the vanadium as a_ basic lead vanadate, and subsequently decomposing this salt by means of dilute sul- phare ee '; the concentrated filtrate, afer using the well- nown precautions to ensure removal of all traces of lead, was transferred to a platinum oon the sulphuric acid cautiously expelled, and then strong heat was applied with a blast ms until complete fusion of the neat eter oxide. * This Journal, ITI, xxii, 200, 1881; pga Ps 2 Fos, Journal, Sept. 3d. 1881; Transactions American Institute of Mining 382 ©. A. White—Fresh-water gill-hearing Mollusks. ao aces On Certain conditions attending the Geological De: of some North American iypes of Fresh - water gill- vias Mollusks ; by C. A. WHITE [Extracted in advance ei the Annual Report of the U.S. Geological Survey for y permission of the Directo r.] THE following see are extracted from an article entitled Mollusca of the Laramie and Eocene deposits of Western North America, and their descendants now living in the reve drainage- -system, and are offered as an explanatio on of the ner in which that system became stocked with its present c shine! oe Aye paw aia and doubtless to a large extent, with ts ichthyic fauna When we store to trace the probable lines of succession or descent of the various types of Mollusca that now exist, the difficulty seems especially trea when casually considered, i in the case of the fresh-water gill- bearing Mollusca. The prevalence of the sea has always been practically uni- versal ; and the various movements which the earth’s crust has undergone since life began in the sea, while they have repeat- edly distarbed or destroyed the habitats of its molluscan deni- zens in certain localities, and many o “on lines of genetic suc- cession of types that had from time to time become establish have been broken, there has e ony never been anything like such a general destruction of life in the sea as would either break or materially interfere with the greater aol ‘of the prin- oe lines of such succession. in short, the ne field for e development and perpetuity of hpHeMoste ‘life has been ae and unbroken from the beginning to the present time, and we are at no Joss to understand how continuous lines of genetic succession of its denizens may have extended down through all the geological ages, ipsa it is true, by immedi- ately environing and cosmical causes, but still u nbro ken. We may at least conclude that if ay ‘olfosean 7 sess that now exists in the sea bas not been lineally m the ae molluscan forms that have e sisted in it hee th ave been such changes of its physical Seaton: as would preclude ae a possibility. When we come to the study of the fossil Pepaianee Mollusca, especially the land-shells, we have le or ifficulty in understanding how it hus been ‘pgs for contin lines of existence of these mollusks to be preserved through succes- sive geologcial periods upon any esac area, “such for - example as North America, notwithstanding the numerous and O. A. White—Fresh-water gill-beariny Mollusks. 383 great physical changes that have taken place within its area ing air-breathers, nothing has appa- rently Reapiite to prevent their safe migration to other ground whenever that which they may have at any time occupied Keane auaabtigenstal by reason of physical changes, because as a rule, those changes were effected so slowly that a continuity of congenial — for such mollusks was not neces eae? bro- ken. They were thus apparently as capable of preserving a continuous eXistenves through successive geological erie as the marine mollusca were. But, as before poatget when we come to the study of pa fossil melts of the fresh-water gill-bearing mollusea, which i their living state hae necessarily have been confined to davies tile and lacustrine waters, it is not easy to understand, without been preserved (a hey were preserved even down to e present time) thro a succession of geological periods, during which the great ee of the Laramie and succeedin Tertiary periods, as we know, and all the rivers which flowed into and from them, as is “peberilly but erroneously believed, ave been successively obliterated.* separate from each other by intervening lan , Tunning to the sea, But if it can be shown that throughout those geological periods and down to the present time there has been direct continuity of fresh water by means of lakes or rivers, or both, the case is circumstances of such vast physical changes as are known to h urred, we are forced to conclude that it is in this direc- tion shag we must seek for an explanation of the manner in which were preserved the fresh-water oi aR types that rt meri rivers, flourishing in the lakes, when they existed, as well as in the rivers, and escaping by the streams which were the former be suggested that the distribution of these forms from one river or lusks or their eggs by aquatic birds ile such trans ion is admit to have possible in some ot be admi robable cause of y 8 ble part of the di on that must have premio gents se ogi have existed. Notwithstanding the annual migration of my: ace fs gare bite between the northern and southern portions of North America ever since it has been a rteseanass the fresh-water molluscan faunze of those regions, roapactively, are still distin 384 C. A. White—Fresh-water yill-bearing Mollusks. outlets and inlets of the lakes, but which continued to flow after the obliteration of the latter, as rivers or tributaries of river systems. Lakes are only parts of unfinished river systems which dis- appear when the system is finished by the erosion of its ~ channel to a nearly uniform slope. A lake consequentl may ae cas that at least a part of the river chan- nels of to-day have existed as such ion former geological times; that the fiaior part of them were Se in epochs anterior to our own, and that those of some of the tributaries of the present Mississippi River system are decdeat at least in part, with former outlets or inlets, or both, of the great ancient lakes which have been referred to. Consequently we of those ancient lakes, and the river systems of which they constituted lacustrine portions. This view is confirmed by the identity of the living with the fossil molluscan types which a oe n found so “abundantly i in those Laramie and Eocene de tn th these someon the ancient Laramie sea is included under the te rine,’ the term ‘“‘sea” being used simply to asae that i its nee were saline and not fresh; just as the Black and Caspian are called seas instead of lakes, and for the same reason. It may seem to be the use of a misnomer to speak of the Laramie sea as a part of a-river system, because it was so immensely large, and the continental area which was a, sis its tributaries and outlet, differed only in degree and n kind, from any river system which has a lake of any size in its princi ¥ co he of that sea having een saline, the ae eee omen more n ivers have x opie existed ever since a sufficient extent of continental surface was raised above the git to accum mulate d in view of ‘the mighty changes that have taken place Seen ‘he Gainnnaea C. A. White—Fresh-water gill-bearing Mollusks. 385 growth of the North American continent, especially the eleva- tion of its great mountain systems and plateaus, it would be hav physical features; that many of them are older than the mountain ranges of the regions which the rivers traverse, and that they have not yielded their “right of way” when the mountain ranges and plateaus were raised, but continued dur- ing and after that elevation to run in essentially the same lines ch t which they osen when the region they traversed was a plain instead of a mountainous one. That ancient river sys- tems have been in some and aes S many instances, to a the view concerning the general persistent integrity of rivers and river systems which has been referred to.* The coalescence of separate minor drainage systems by the gutacass of their lower portions into a common channel dur- ing the progressive ae of the continent has also been an important means of the dispersion of seeNrshane Mollusca. By age for the principal part of the continent. The Ohio and Upper Mississippi, the two most ancient portions of the present luscan fauna, which now so strongly characterizes them, until after the confluence with them of the western portions of the * The discovery of so few traces of concurs pian s have been made among the strata of the earth is ni due to the per: sistent adherence of rivers to oy ) If the lan been so generally i case in the gradual ‘pioduction of the North American conti- nent, the pea Ape r deposits were swept away in later times by their own waters, as their valleys were broadened and deepened. It is therefore, as a ru rule, only in the deposits - ror yess portions of ancient river systems that their faunz have been pres 386 0. A. White—Fresh-water gill-bearing Mollusks. present great river system which brought that fauna from its ancient home in the western part of the continent. Rivers having been thus persistent, and the manner in which confluence of the waters of many of them has been effected being understood, it is no more remarkable that the types of fresh-water gill- bearing mollusca have come down to us be baean teh be, than it is that marine and land mol- lus hed us bearing the imprint of their really ancient but “WAAE we have been accustomed to call, modern Not only have the molluscan denizens of the great Missis- sippi drainage system descended to their present habitat in the manner suggested ; but there is no reason to doubt that a large part of the fishes of that system descended in the same manner, and in company with them. This is thought to be especially true of the characteristic Ganoids of that system. The progeni- tors of many of the fresh-water fishes may have aspanded from the sea by the mouths of the rivers which have since coalesced to form that great river system; but it is believed that all did not do so Both cetbiniaa and ichthyic life doubtless began in the sea ; and it seems at least probable that the freshwater denizens of a large part of both these classes became such by compulsion h : lu t Mississippi drainage system have come down wholly un changed from a time at least as remote as the Laramie Period. E. §. Holden—Measures of the Rings of Saturn. 38 “1 Art. XLV.—WMeasures of the Rings of Saturn in the years 1879, 1880, 1881 and 1882; by Epwarp S. HoLpEN s memoir entitled Recherches sur Saturne, ses anneaux et Ses + satelite (1880), Mr. W. Meyer gives the results of his recent servations with the 10-inch “equatorial of the Geneva Observ- ary, ot of these results will not be received without criticism, e they go to show that the ball of Saturn is excentrically aaited | in the ring-system, and that the breadth of this system is not alike on the two sides. Specifically M. Meyer says, “je regarde done comme établi par les observations qu’ a l'époque ou elles ont été faites, la largeur de Vanneau de Saturne a été plus forte a son cété ouest, et que le centre méme de la planéle état plus prés de lextrémité est de lanneau que Vautre.” The results of his measures are given in table XI of his memoir, ea ina table which accompanies the present note. In order to make observations of this class readily compar- able I have adopted a simple nomenclature whic 4 will cover all possible measures which can be made on Saturn. I have em- ployed this in an extended examination of all the published drawings of Saturn known to me; and I take this opportunity of asking for a notice of the existence of rare drawings of Saturn, of those privately printed, and so forth. This system is shown in connection with a drawing of Saturn which was made at this observatory, 1881, November 27. The letters at the a of the drawing relate to points along the major axis of the rin a is saa east end of the major axis. 6 is the pencil line so-called (seen Nov. 27, 1881). It is too eset te the cut. ale —THIRD ar VoL, XXIII, No, 187.—May, 1882. 388 S. Holden—Measures of the Rings of Saturn. ce is the middle of the principal divisio d is the po in ring B where the shading off begins; it is a definite poin e is the Satay edge of the dusky ring. The remaining letters, h....n, refer to the west half of the system. Part. W. Struve, Bessel, Encke, Galle, Main, 1826. 1830-3: 1837-8. 1837-8. 1840, ab Loe oe eave ac 2°61 ate 2°76 3°36 ae 671 See 739 727 6°55 af moe ps an 40°095 39°311 40°93 40°90 38°33 11°05 E13 11°63 11°50 List ce (width) pie ones oe che cd Loek we te ce 4°11 saitee 4°63 SOb oes of aes ono wie bus is ct sahees ao eax cl 34-882 hee 35°41 34°18 eae de Sti Sen Dee ae mie ef : een aera oo o eg Eee 4:24 4°2 82 6 26°67 sphere 26°15 26°36 25°24 tg is a small quantity of the fourth order; conse- quently 2Pp sin* — 9 may be neglected. We have therefore, to a very close kotlopiuaeee 4=pp’ cos 3; or, substituting 2¢ for pp, 2t being the distance base hi the ima ages, at the point where they are cut by the li 4= “94 cos . Let cdef, c’d’e’f’, 3, represent the two images, and let their Raita be poe with cf, and their inclination be f i 2g. Let P be the point considered ; P’, the projection of P on the surface cdef; and PB, the line forming with PP’ the angle in a new form of Refractometer. 397 & Draw P’D parallel to & cs awe at hhh angles, and com- plete the rectangle BDP PC=i and DPP’=6. Let PP’=P, and the distance riba "thé abiienss at P’=2t. We have then t=t,+CP’. tan p=t,+P tan @~. tani, and A=2(t¢,+P tan @ tan 7) cos 9,-or Auce (¢, +P tan @ tan 7) (1) /1-+tan?7+ tan? We see that in general 4 has all possible values, and therefore pupil of the eye, for instance, the light which enters the eye from the surfaces will be limited to the small cone whose angle is bPa, and if the aperture be an mereney aad the differences in 4 may be reduced to any required degr It is proposed to find such a sabes. P. that with a given aperture these differences shall be as small as possible, which is equivalent to finding the distance from the mirrors at whic the phenomena of interference are most distinct. The change of J for a change in @, is 64 _—-2(t,+ P tan ptan ec z (2) eT eee a — (1+tan? ¢+tan, 6g The ieee of td for a change in @% is _ 2S8K the curve is an Lene =0 thecurveisac 4=0 the curve isa ateatih line, All the deductions from equations (4) and (6) have been ag Reg rag came verified by experimen served that in the most important case, and that most likely is occur in practice, namely, in the case of the central fringe in white light, we have 4=0, and therefore also t,=0; and in this case the central fringe is a straight line formed on the surface of the mirrors. Practically, however, it is impossible to obtain a roe gas straight line, for the surface of the mirrors is never It is to be noticed that the central fringe is black, for one of the pencils has experienced an external, the other an internal reflection from the surface 4, fig. 1. This will not however be true unless the plate g (which is employed to compensate the effect of the plate aoe is of sada the same thickness as 5, and placed parallel wit these conditions are not ful- filled, the true result is oe by the effect of “achromatism” investigated by Cornu (Comptes Rendus, vol. xciii, Nov. 21st, 1881). This remark leads naturally to the investigation of the effect of a plate of glass with plane sere surfaces, interposed in the path of one of the pencils. in a new Jorm of Refractometer. 399 The effect is es aaa of the position of the glass plate, provided its surface is kept ase with the corresponding mirror. Suppose, diievetora that is in contact with the latter and fet ed, fig. 4, represent the common surface. et ¢=hi= thickness of the glass, i=angle of incidence, r= angle of refraction, n=index of re- fraction, 4= wave-length of light. Let ef represent the image of the 8 other mirror, and put n,=—. It can be rendily, pela dg ste : O..- eke that the path of t Fier. hat given in the figure, where one of the rays follows the path gnmh, and the other the path rofh. Suppose the mirrors cd and ¢ parallel, Then as has been previously shown, the curves of a erence are concentric circles, formed at an infinite dis Therefore the rays gn, ro, whose ath ” to be traced, sein an allel, and from the point A they coincide. Their difference of path is 2nm—2h/—op, and their diftseenas of phase is : _2nm 2hi op 2n,.t 2t.n AG a aed A cosr 2t ‘ esis —z(% tan ¢—tan7) sin7, whence p=— [m, cos i—n cos 7] (7) Let it be proposed to find the value of , which renders any Saiiviar ring achromatic. The condition ‘of achromatism, as given by Cornu, is “P9, which gives +2¢ (cose —n sin CR )=0. r aa rs dn da) sin 7 dr 2 We have =, whence — = PreecdiI , whence sin dn sinécosr + 2t ond ¥ cosr dA dn_ 2a, By Cauchy’s fe ] =a +—2 y Cauchy’s formula we have n= =a, +5. > Whence — a. 400 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. oe | 4a, 2a, gS As Gj or n,cos 1=n cos r=———-— Substituting, we have g— Teicie XS cosr 2a = +n cos? r a , or finally, cos 7 cosr _2(m—a,)+n cos® f cos 7 cos 7 (8) If the angle zis small, the value of n, will vary very little with 2, consequently there will be a large number of circles all nearly achromatised. Under favorable circumstances as many as one hundred rings have been counted, using an ordinary lamp, as source of light. The difference of path of the two pencils which produce these rings in white light may exceed a thousand wave lengths. Art. XLVII.— On two New Mi ated Monetite and Monite, with a notice of Pyroclasite; by CHARLES UPHAM SHEPARD with analyses, by C. U. SHEPARD, a THE specimens ay described were sent to us by Mr. John G. Miller of Ottawa, to whom Canadian ee owes so many inipeiieieat ' discoveries. “Dhay 4 e from the Twin islands, Mona and Moneta, wes are aidan forty miles from the port of Mayaguez, Porto 1. Monetite.—The Moneta mineral, which we call monetite bird-guano. The soluble ae oe of this investment, in percolating the highly porous strata, have been thrown down in their transit in the me etamorphosed semen now met _unerystalline, more or less mpact , heterogeneous in their composition ; and contain coljsiderable traces of organic matter. They very rarely present dissociated simple minerals; polar ized, an ree from ongisie mpregnation as if derived from as or granite. The most wbendin Species in C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 401 the specimens received, is the monetite which sometimes forms isolated yas deme 08 the size of one’s hand. The second con- stituent of the masses is a snow-white gypsite, either crystal- lized, fibrous or polveralent; while the remaining one is calcite, in wel -formed, semi- bpanecieay — No alumina or oxide of iron is present in the aggreg The monetite, besides ate in thick isolated masses as above mentioned, also forms irregular seams through the gyp- shaped cavities. More rarely, it presents itself in botryoidal shapes, with rough crystalline Alors But under all circum- stances, it is an highly crystalline mineral. Mineralogical description.—- Primary oe * right oblique angled prism z on T about 148° as determined approximately by the ¢ on siniieiater Secondary forms, terminal and acute fateral edict replaced by single planes, the former generally very narrow. Height of prisms less than one-third their longest breadth ; ee much less. Greatest length of crystals between qeth and y4th of an inch. They exhibit numerous irregular enna indentations, but are without striz or curva- tures. They cross and interpenetrate each other in several directions, some of the groups suggesting a regular composition of individuals. Though exhibiting Boy Schaal rifts, the cleavage is indeterminate. Fracture, uneven. Luster, vitreous. Semi- Gravity =2°75, which is a little below the actual, from the impossibility of wholly clearing the crystals of the mealy white monite and gypsite by which they are more or less coated. Before the blowpipe, heated in a glass tube, ite white and evolves Suonidie. ut unattende odor. In latinum oe turns white and melts into a globule with ‘aepeallinn face pages tee I Mean. Lim a 92 40°59 40°255 Proiphoris acid 225.2525 4641 49°79 47-100 ee POMS ES ES 7°20 1°90 4°550 Ware oo a 8-474 7°88 8-175 100-00 100°16 100°080 4:55 per wg Sagar hcies acid calls for 3-185 per cent lime and 2°047 per cent wa thus constituting 9°782 per cent of gypsite. The sainiern si 0-2 per cent of moisture on drying it several ee at nearly 100° C. Subtracting the above con- stituents we * See also the note on the crystalline form by E. 8. ee oe Pe 405, + The water in the first analysis was estimated by differe 402 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. oe eG: ea BEL yas Sie 47100 MAG. SU oo a a TO Water SUSE Oo Ue cee eeu 5928 90°098 And raising the above figures to 100, we have as the com- position of the monetite, heiress WI ie ee 52°28 je ees Aaa ra Pete Oe ee ee 41°14 Waker POU Gs. PON ae IES Ur, 6°58 100°00 Dividing the above percentages by the respective molecular weights, we have: phen ae acid_... 52°28 +142 = 0°368 bi oe ee 41°14 56 = 0°735 Witer ieee 6°58 — 18 = 0°366 or very nearly, as 1 phosphoric acid: 2 lime: 1 water. This would require the formula zCaO, H,O, P,O, (or CaHPO,), as a comparison of the calculated and ‘obtained results will show. | Calculated. Found. per ore BOUL Ss ous cas 52°20 52°28 Se 41°18 41°14 Wikia: SS a eg ehia Sie 6°62 6°58 100°00 100°00 Monetite is a crystalline dicalcie-hydric-phosphate, or dicalcic- ortho-phosphate, differing from that artificially prepared (by the action of calcic chloride on disodic-hydric-phosphate), in not possessing water of crystallization as does the latter—(PO,H), Ca,+2H,0. 2. Monite. —Intimately associated with the monetite, above described, is a hydrated tricalcic phosphate, resembling in color and density the more friable varieties of kaolinite, and whic we propose to designate monite, after one . the islands where itis found. It has the following characte Massive, slightly oe impalpable a wholly uncrystal- line; snow-w fractur ot elt dull; hardness, below gravity 2-1 faciotoxienststys B:B. melts with difficulty to an opaque, white enamel of feeble luster. In closed tube emits much moisture. U. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 403 Analyses. Mean P.O. 40°39 39°44 39°75 39°86 CaO 50°04 50°89 49°51 50°15 sO 2°57 1°75 2°16 HO 7°56 7°56 Deducting 99°73 2°16 SO,=1°5¥ CaO=0°97 H,O=gypsite, 95°09 Raised Molecular Approximate Remaining. to 100. weights. _ ratios. P20) 39°86 41°92 + 142 = 0°295 I CaO 48°64 5115 > 56 = 0°913 3 H,O 6°59 6°93 + 18 = 0-385 14 95°09 100-00 Or corresponding to Ca,P,0,+H,O with some slight excess of moisture, probably hygrometrie. wo minerals, monite and monetite, are much inter- ees constituting together three-quarters of the variously zed masses, whose remaining quarter consists of gypsite and calcite, the latter however in isolated patches and in much the least proportion. The remarkable feature of the egate as comin stone-guano formation, consists in the ent absence (in masses, half a foot in thickness), of all traces of organic The monetite is the most abundant species, broad; and inasmuch as its crystals are confusedly aggregated and rather sharp, the specimens are exceedingly ro ugh to the with the latter, the aggregate is often arranged in imperfect layers, separated by intervals of about one-sixth of an inch filled by the mons A cross-fracture of such masses displays an obscurely banded appearance. Rarely the monetite presents globular concretions, with a sub-fibrous structure. It is also sometimes granular, but then pure it is rarely impalpable. The asso cated aypsit is white, in small shining crystals, in coarse Abroas sudividualy small globules, fine granular and pulverulent. The calcite is in distinct, semi-transparent crys- tals, having the form of acute rhomboids, analogous to those resulting from the slow evaporation of brine-waters. The pres ence of silica, or some insoluble silicate is detected in the analy: ses of the aggregate only, where it varies from 0° ~ 2° per cent. Am. Jour. a —Tuirp ee Voi, XXUIT, No, 187.—May, 1 404 C. 0. Shepard— Mineralogical Notices. Pyroclasite—As the series of specimens sent were said to have been from caves, which abound at these islands, it would appear that their contents fits in percolations across Tertiary strata. Indeed, examples ot the lime-rock are limestone caves. Portions of the guano-stalagmite are singu- larly in the shape of mushrooms; and must have occupied the surface of the floor-crust. en broken, their structure is seen to be concentrically Jaminated, and not fibrous. In color they are brown, intermingled in spots with ash- “Bray, suggestive of a composite constitution. Other masses appear to have come from the floor stratum itself; and are bard Pa compact, with a subconchoidal fracture, like the monetite and like some varieties of opal. Its color is brown, though much darker and occasionally almost black. It is moreover variegated with ash-gray. The specific gravity is 2°62-2°65; hard- ness, 35-40. B.B. it decrepitates, emits a seeny organic tates, with liberation of much water and strong empyreumatic odor. The subjoined analyses give its chemical composition. Shepard. Mean results, 38 Oo ais ‘0 “ ‘8 0 CaO (ee 39°98 40°125 8 ) Eg NGM Pistia been LE WSN said 6°80 6°825 Phosphate | iron and alumina 2°90 2°900 Insoluble 0°58 113 O°855 Water and loss on ignition. ee ere 10°91 10-335 “98:97 10052 100°120 Deduet pypane Dee oe te ee 14°670 ON SOL). Fosse ne eee 0°855 vs ‘licenhaces iron and alumina 2-900 “ _ gof loss by ignition, as organic 2°422 20°847 79°273 0. U. Shepard— Mineralogical Notices. 405 This raised to 100 gives Calculation requires a8 38°08 49°30 + 142 = 0°347 CaO 35°35 44:59 — 56 = 0°796 44°06 H,O 4°84 61ll— 18 = 0°339 6°29 79°27 100-00 100°00 Admitting the foliowing formula: 3(Ca,H,P,O,)+Ca,P,0,+H,0. The substance above analysed is undoubtedly identical with that from Monk’s Island (Caribbean Sea) described in 1856, in this Journal, vol. xxii, p. 97, and named Pie from its very striking property of decrepitation when ted.* Whether it forms a true mineral ie — aepent von more extended an uniform compound af bnanite and monite. It may, how- ever, prove only a mechanical mixture of the two. Whether chemical or certains it is re pee to admixture with gypsite, alumin and iro n phosphates, silica and organic ase i covstitating the Pri coe shaphato rock of the West Indies and Sout It Ay be ndded i in + coneliniod that the collection embraced several specimens of antillite, which is identical with the trappean rock mentioned in connection with the pyroclasite of Monk’s Is nd. * Ana ated mineral which | then ap ea and called glaubapatite is siladatilly the the « same thing; the soda found therein having without doubt been i aged state of t i Note on Crystals of dies The erystals of enna placed in ag hands may with tolerable certainty be referred to the triclinic e general form is that of a rather thin rhomboid The longer lateral oda is replaced by the plane 100 (a), Pe the shorter by the — 110 (J); there are se present in this zone the brachypinacoid 010 (), and two other hemi-prisms hko (m and n) te ‘ ment angles are: «J (100 _110)=42°, ab (100 . 010) = 81°, am=17°, an=28°, al=18°, ac==76°, ae (100 . 101)=1: 38°. “There appears to be a distinct cleavage el to a e crystals often interpenetrate each o) forming complex groups, but there is no uniform law of composition.-—-E. 8S. Dana Charleston, Feb. 18, 1982. 406 A. E. Muavine Fauna off New England Coast. Arr. XLVIII.— Notice of the remarkable Marine Fauna oceupy- re the outer banks off the Southern Coast of New England, No. b VERRILL. (Brief Contributions to Zoology dee re Museum of Yale College: No. LIL) Parasmilia Lymani Pourtales. Far ot modes of gr owth and 7 PoURTALES mentions that in ae cup-coral the young bud out from the inside of the parent-calicles and burst them, by their normal growth. So that, afterwards, they remain at- tached to fragments of their own parents. "This is probably an erroneous explanation uf facts identical with some a those that I have observe ave dredged this coral in co re numbers, and of Laser size than those described and ured by Pourt ales In each locality nearly all the specimens are attached, at base, to the inner surface of fragments, more or less old and Aiscolore of the same coral, as observed by Pourtales. Mor. have been able to collect a series er, sufficient to fully aotuohselate that all these cases are instances of buds arising from the inner or septal surfaces of such speci- mens as have been accidentally broken or crushed. The coral is very fragile and bas a tendency to split longitudinally into wedge-shaped segments when it breaks. Hach fragment then has the power of developing from its still living internal tis- sues, and especially from the membrane (endoderm) sihali the septa, one or more buds, which then ata up into cornu- copia-shaped cups, like the parent. In m P single large bu will start from near the Sued end of a hiiee piece; such a bud will grow up into a regular, more or less curved, srotilue or elliptical cup, with a thick base, continuous in part with the original fragment ; the coste and septa of the old fragment are perfectly coincident with the costa and septa of the new coral on the outer or marginal side; examples of this kind, in all stages of development, were taken ; one of these buds is 14™ broad at base and 17™™ high on the peat mal side, 7" high on the distal side: another is 13™™" broa base and 23™" high; another is 10™ broad at base, 22™™ high, ee cirenlar calicle 14" broad; another is 6™™ broad at base, ™ high, the ng Sr calieles 20 by 25™". In several cases or buds starting close together, from a spel fragment, or from two imperfectly meperabed pieces, have grown together more or less completely, so as to pedis e a double ealicle, the two halves either equal or unequal, and separated by a con- striction, but with two septal centers and columelle, and two distinct mouths. The largest example of this kind j ape A. E. Verrill— Marine Fauna off New England Coast. 407 high, the two ory together, 40" across, each one se 20™" broad. In one instance the base of a good- sized cu been broken off, vleie about 6™ in diameter; from the a te and ragged ends of the septa thus exposed three buds have started out, each 3 to 4™ broad, with 24 to 36 septs: the old ealicle appears to have been unaffected. In another instance a h the interior of the calicle died, but was not broken, but from the other half a large bud arose, nearly filling the old calicle by its new growth, and soon becoming larger than before the injury, so that on one side the e cup is nearly regular and the costee continues to the base, while on the other ‘side the edge of the old calicle, with the old septa in ae epee in high relief, at about mid- -height of the cup; in this case we have,.as it were dines. generations shown in one Ep aaiivarr: this exam- ple is 45mm high, the calicle 25" broad. One of the most re- markable examples is a large cup, 50™" high and 28™" broad, in which the inner margin and distal portion of the septa are discolored, indicating that the soft parts within the edge of the calicle, and probably t the tentacles, disk and stomach had been destroy ed by access of mud, or some other accident, while the parts Seed within thes deep cup, or at least the membranes there covering the walls and septa, remained alive; from the edges and surfaces of the septa over thirty small buds have started out, varying in size and degree of soldpsel aire tio . greater number form a partial circle, 10 to 12™ the gin, but others are scattered over the more sear ars of 1 the cup, even to very near its base, the columella being nearly absent; the larger of these buds are about 5™ in dia meter, but some are not more than 2™™, and many are just beginning to appear, and have slight walls and septa only on one side In all cases the still living edges of the old septa serve as some of the septa of the new gr rowth A uumber of large specimens were dredged, off Chesapeake He in 57 fathoms (station 899) by Lieut. Z. L. Tanner, on oe “ Fisl ay Oct., 1880. It was bina by our apie the u Fish Hawk,” off Martha’s Vineyard, in 100 130 fathoms (stations "940, 949 and 1040), in 1881. It was more common and seein at station 940, in 130 fathoms. Off Florida,—Pour In iooukian: o "Flabellum Goodei (p. 313), I have mentioned that it also has this same mode of budding from the inner sur- face of the fragments. Some of these phenomena have been noticed in other deep- = corals, though not explained in the same way. Probably this will, ‘here reafter, be foun b common mode of increase in the case of various fragile cup- 408 A. E. Verrill— Marine Fauna off New England Coast. corals. Indeed, I believe that the same explanation will apply to some of the ancient cyathophylloid corals, in which buds arise within and appear to destroy and supplant the parent ealicle. olay of se buds being the cause of the death of the parent-polyp, as has been supposed, I believe them to be due to the result of one and the consequent effort of the tissues to retain life and repair injuries. Restoration of the disk in Ophiurans. That Opbiurans ioe their rays seh remarkable facility when broken, or entirely lost, is well known. In examining a large series of peereat abdita May vollented in the harbor a oank, Conn., among ee]-grass (Zostera), in 1874, I feaed several specimens in which the entire dorsal disk, with the contained viscera, bad been lost and more o1 - less restored, showing the various stages of the process. The dorsal disk of a species is soft and swollen, a a is very easily detached. arms are exceedingly jong He net and subject to fre- net restorations. In some of the examples in which a new disk was forming, the scars are “till plainly visible, on the bases of the arms, showing where the disk had been torn away, and its former size. In some of these tha new disk, though perfect in form, had not grown to more than one- third, or one-half the diameter of the old one; in others it was nearly completec ese small disks connected ak the full sized arms and jaws of the adult, give such specimens a very peculiar appearance. At first I mistook some of these for the genuine young. ut a more careful examination easily re- vealed their true nature n the same lot were specimens in Dorie a portion Bie the edge of the disk, with one two of the arms, had stroyed, and afterwards seat | ia a few instances eee arms had grown out, in place of one. * It is quite berg that Amphi ura macilenta V., described i ake the February pays of this p. 142, is really the true young o of A soul There are aed ) oe low-water orm known to me. The red speci- diaka: appeared so different that, uutil I discovered their true wattied the identity of the two forms did not seem to me poss ERRATA. Page 309, line 26, for Ballicina, read Balticina Page 313, line 7 from bottom, for S. 0. are read (+. 0. Sars. Chemistry and Physics. 409 SCIBN TIFIC:INTSE LLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. " 1. On the determination of Gas-densities. Ee gets and Victor Meyer, having occasion to make a series of determinations of the density of cyanogen n gas at various cesibie ratures, contrived for this purpose a simple method. The gas vessel is filled first with pure dry air at the temperature at which the determination is to be made. Then this air is displaced by a current of hydro- gen chloride gas, collected over water and measured. Next the hydrogen chloride is displaced by air, After this the gas to oy examined is passed through until all the air is replaced b gas is again displa hydrogen or air and collected in a potash bulb fil ith a liquid which absorbs it completely. The merease of the weight of the bulb gives the weight of the gas. — “apa - 3 the vessel full “of air and of gas being now known r the given temperature the density is easily obtained. The aratus consists of a cylinder of glass 200" high, 30" diame- ter, with ary tubes attached to the ends, rising considerably re at t bottom, 40 400" high and about twice the diameter of the inner tube, containing the liquid whose boiling point is the tem- perature of measurement. Water, aniline, amyl benzoate and diphenylamine are used in the glass outer vessel ; but at tempera- tures of boiling —— or phosphoric sulphide, the inner vessel is spherical and the outer one of iron. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen chloride gases gave in this ap aratus densities of 1°53 and 1-26 respectiv ely. The a pparatus may obviously be used as an air thermometer ; - the ee ee the 1, Heb ager : sulphur as 426° C.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, 137, red iat if an iron plate is nae 1 da ey not ‘aly the carbon be shown to ake place. even at 250°. a piec ‘e of piano wire, imbedded in lampblack, be eo to redness in the reducing mg that a diffusion occurs between solids only when they can react on one another. Pure silver loses weight when heated in ek dry alkali-chloride. But the product darkens on exposure to en hence silver chloride must have been formed, free _— ng been produced by the oxygen ‘of the air. If a polished est ce of artificial iron sulphide be heated on a plate of co oi ina current of CO, small quantities of sulphur go from ‘the j iron to the 410 Scientific Intelligence. copper. If,a piano wire be heated in a crucible lined with carbon and filled with lime, the wire increas es in weight and shows on Ie me presence of calcium.— C. #., xeili, 1074. G. F. e production of Active Oxygen.—TravBx has summed up the poet tet upon the production of active oxygen to which he has been led by his experiments. He finds (1) that hydrogen- palladium, agitated with water and oxygen (or air) produces im- mediately and abundantly hydrogen peroxide; (2) that the oxi- dizing —— of hydrogen-palladium in presence of oxygen and water, is not a direct one but depends almost entirely upon the bn plegea peroxide ec bace p canbe (3) that only in a single case has he observed the oxidizing action of ee ee to be different from that of hydrogen peroxide; iodide of potas- ay and starch, which is not blued by H,0O,, is blued pe once by e hydrogen- palladium and oxygen ; evidently by the carrier- action of the palladium transferring oxygen from the hydrogen positively, in opposition to the view of Hoppe-Seyler, that nascent hydrogen cannot produce active oxygen from ordinary oxygen by aptitting its molecule; and (5) that the frequent production of hydrogen peroxide in | processes * oxidation is no evidence of the split, but the molecule of water, its oxygen combining with the zine to form the hydrate, its hydrogen uniting directly with the oxygen molecule to form hydrogen peroxide, thus ‘O—H Zu+(H,O0),+0,=Zn(OH), ay Hr Hydrogen peroxide is ih gine mS bey union > a mo sigan te: oxygen with two atoms of hydro By analogy with ye i € uctio of a. might be called reduced oxygen. It behaves toward common oxygen as ebay ite to indigo-blue.— Ber. Berl. coe (res, xv, 222, Fe 4. On ee aed Per. bile attas hd oxide of Berthelot. aie by the mode of its producti s well as by its reactious and proper- ties, the body discovered ti Berthelot, and called by him persul- bodies MnO, and PbO,, which form salts, he would call dioxides vad The blue Cr,0.,, the highest stage of oxidation of chromium ust be viewed as chromium peroxide, or chromy! peroxide. Aer ing to the author’s view, an element, according to its char- acter, gives either basic or acidic oxides whi ch possess the pro erty of forming salts corresponding to the water type, and aboard: Chemistry ond Physics. 411 ing to which the so-called valence of the elements or their position in the system, is determined. Only after the production of the oxide forming the highest salts, can the element yield a peroxide of the type of hydrogen peroxide. There is no ground for the, assumption that hydrogen, barium, ete., can give still higher stages of oxidation, and then perhaps yield acidic oxides. Sulphur per- oxide confirms this view completely and leads to the expectation of the discovery of similar peculiar peroxides with many of the other elements.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, 242, Feb., ory a On the ee and “oli aaponed of metallic inet 12 to 14 hours. The mother liquid contained no trace of cesium or rubidium salts but the crystals were rich in these metals; the author having found that each of the different alums is insoluble in saturated solutions of the more soluble ones. Hence o long as the solution of the alums was saturated with kone alum i contained scarcely a trace of the other alums; and the solution showed no trace of cxsium, so long as it was ‘saturated with ru- bidium alum. By repeating this process the alums were obtained ure. Search for other alkali-metals gave a negative result. In a Setterberg prepared . ies: ams rubidium alum and 10 rams cesium alum both At 17° C. 100 parts of water diast ed 1°42 parts of mabidiedy alum and 0°38 parts of cesium alum. For the preparation of other salts, the sion were decom- posed with barium hydrate, and the filtrate neutralized with the : oe mene y the acid ta the cyanides were prepared. or the preparation of metallic rubidium, 1500 grams hydrogen-rabidium tartrate, 150 grams eal- Gockroly ds method was then employed first with the chloride and then with the cyanide of ceesinm. Finally a mixture of 4 molecules cesium cyanide and one of barium cyanide was found to give a satisfactory result, the metal prepared showing in the spectro- scope only a tra of sodium as an impurity. Cesium resembles closely the other alkali-metals. It is silver-white, malleable and very soft at ordinary ence: ieee Thrown on water it bursts into flame, and swims about on the surface like woedaet and rubidium, It inflames in ahs air when not protected. It fuses about 26°5°, passing through a pasty condition. Its specific gravity is 1°88 at 18° C.—La jebig’s Ann., cexi, 100, Jan., 1882. G F 412 Scientific Intelligence. 6. On the metals of the rarer Earths.—The ponens of ras cerite metals in the periodic series of Mendelejeff has 9 time a subject of discussion. Bravner has sg a hee cia 1 study of these elements with reference to this point. With cerium *he succeeded in preparing the tetrafluoride CeF,, H,O, as an amor- phous brown powder, and a double fluoride (RF), (CeF,), (H,O),, pared the hydrated pentoxide Di,O,, H,O, and also the anhydrous pentoxide. 1e atomic weight of ‘didymium was determined as 146718 and that of lanthanum as 139. Hence the author places cerium (atomic weight 141°6) in the fourth group, eighth series, didymium in the fifth group, eighth series, and lanthanum i in the third group, eighth series. This places Ce with C, Si, Ti, Zr, Sn, band Th; an nd erin with N, P, ¥, Aw Ob, Sb a nd Bi. J. Chem. Soe., xii, 68, 1882. oT 7. On the forsee of Cymene from Turpentine. —Navors has pointed out a reaction by which cymene can be prepared fro turpentine vigis great facility. If two atoms of dry chlorine are absorbed by one molecule of turpentine cooled to —15°, there is no sensible ervolntion of hydrogen chloride but the liquid becomes » A slight elevation of temperature ede ie decomposition, and cymene and hydrogen chloride distill toget f to the mixture 4 per cent. of phosphorous chloride be aided, and go nae ture be maintained at 25°, a regular evolution of HCl take aaley until the conversion is complete. Washing with water, drying over calcium chloride and _ rectifica- being 75 per cent. The author has observed that at 100° traces of zine dust violently gia Dek the body C,H, ,Cl,.— Bull. a th., 11, xxxvii, 110, G. ¥. 8. On anew Alkaloid ye Cinchona Bark.—In investi ae the alkaloids of the variety of ¢mchona bark described by Fliicki- ger as China — Howa ARD and HopeKin le obtained an cie is bark has amounts of yaad and phish e new alkal oid is in hb ie properties analogous to quinine, having a ecinipteltio ror) es and nearly the same specific rotary power. It differ however in the solubility of its salts and in the readiness with ehiale it crystallizes from ether. The authors propose for it the name Aomoquinine. The alkaloid ass "adiclves very spa ring) y in ether, 100° pene only 0°57 at 12°. Alcohol of 90 cent dissolves 7°64 parts. The s afohats resembles that of athe but the crystals are ie and appest to contain 6 molecules of water. One part of this salt requires more than 100 of water for solution. In a5 per cent solution of 90 per cent alcohol the alka- loid shows a rotation of —158°,.—J/. Chem. Soe., xli, 66, Feb., 1882. G. F. B. Chemistry and Physics. 413 9. On the Coloring matter of the ( STER has examined the Chinese ye ello: ow Sentkes used in ifr enee (the buds of Sophora japonica). The glucoside obtained when treated with sulphuric acid yielded 46°84 per cent of a yellow substance and 57°56 per cent of isodulcite. This low ee was not quercetin however; and so the me is not quercet The author proposes for it the name sophor The a liboesee of the caper ( Capparis spinosa) and of the panto rue (Ruta yn graveolens) are apparently identical with quercetrin, yielding quercetin and isodulcite when oe osed by means of dilute Siictasestind Berd. Ber. Berl. aun Ges., xv, 214, , 1882. 10. Maximum of magnetizatio n ” of te gnetic and ane pibiagade bodies.—The researches Jankel, Rowland and t ne i Ww point of magnetization. Silow has also aeeeea that a solution of chloride of iron possesses a maximum point. H. W. Eaton, in is paper discusses the various results of Giderent observers : s tha oO igtl 1 Bunsen cells), and doubts whether the use of 30 Bunsen cells would show a maximum. Shumeister reeanee the maximw conditions of water, alcohol, sulphide of carbon, ether, oxygen anc ee and discovered apparently a maximum. Eaton re humeister’s observations and maintains that this maxi- mum pele: ne does not exist in ordinary magnetic fields. Then x constant of bismuth. The following table of the results of various observers is given: 10° k. 1é Weber (through pean ors a eB iw Oa ORES —2°304 2. a ough electrical influence),........:..._--_-- —2°122 3. Chris Bs ee —1-485 4, take ‘and Mtingenansen, = ots —1'492 ARREST EI Ts Wo UEP Nirae =o Mn —0°012554 5. Rowland and Jacques (in C. G. 8. units), is LES Sed aE —0°14324 K’ principal axis of crystal Mesias Gag te ee “ hori iZO) tal. —Ann. der Physik und Sheds No. 2, 1882, pp. wfc ll. Reflection of electrical rays.—W. Hittorf has maintained m te) age condition can serve as a reflector—it matters not whether it a phosphorescence exciter, on insulator, or a conductor. Th 414 Scientific Intelligence. reflected rays can excite phosphorescence and are acted upon by a magnet like es el ars a ie rays.— Ann. der Physik und hemie, No. 2, 1882, pp. 2 12. Influence ay NT seid "hanna ng upon the magnetic properties of steel and tron.—Many investigations upon the rela- e by heat, by cic and by annealing processes fo the resulting changes i in magnetic conditions have been ma appears from the paper ar Louis M. Cheesman that the effect of mechan- ical hardening has not been properly investigated, and this paper contains the results of his investigation upon this point. The method of research consisted simply in determining the magnetic moment of the magnetic bar after it had been subjected to well devised mechanical pressures. The result of his investigations is summed up as follows: Iron in a mechanically hard condition can receive more permanent magnetism than in a soft condition. he magnetic moment of a steel magnet in a mechanically hard oa phage on is greater or smaller than in a soft condition, according ‘the ratio of its diameter to its len gth is less or greater than a paren limit.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 2, 1882, pe 204-225, 13. Storaye of Electricity.—A commission consisting of “iia Allard, LeBlane, Joubert, Potier and Tresea, experimented upon Faure’s batt tery in Paris, Fannury, 1882. The e bat- tery was composer 35 elements, the lead plates of aie a form weighing each, with included liquid, 43°700k*, The le ry elec- trodes were a with minium to the amount of 10** per square meter. The liquid consisted of distilled water wink the addition of one-tenth of its weight of pure weg oe acid. The charging machine was of the Siemens type the armature having a resistance of 0°27 ohms, and the inductor 1945 ohms. The cur- rent of discharge was passed through a series of Maxim’s inean- - descent lamps. The authors state, in general, that they obtained the light “ ove carcel with an expenditure of 5-80%s™ of electri cal work per second. They were also led to the conclusion that it is Gusiblageots to charge the battery with the feeblest current possible and to prolong the duration of the Lee: ge. The results of the investigation are summed up as follow : The ¢ arge of the ota orse power during 22" 45”, or I-horse power during 35" 26™, The battery received in reality only 0°66 of this work, the rest having been dissipated in the work of excitation. The exterior electrical work during the entire duration of the discharge oe to 3809000%*"; the mechanical work con- sumed was 9570000*", but of this amount furnished only 6382000" was retained by the battery. Hence the amount re- covered during the discharge was 0°40 of the total work, and 0°60 of the stored-up work. The employment therefore of the accum- ulator has cost 0°40 of the work furnished by the wt lnseecnadiiccs soi machine which might have been utilized in other ways. The Chemistry and Physies. 415 advantages of having a reservoir of electricity, however, compen- sate ven ag loss of energy.— Comptes Rendus, March 6, sek ae J. ab aye of Electricity. Professor Ayrton, F.R.S., deli abut a Gece on the storage of energy at the London Institution, March 2,in which he maintains, allowing for the unnecessary waste due to the too hurried charging and too hurried discharg- g a Faure accumulator, “that for a million foot-pounds of stored energy discharged with a mean current of 17 ampéres, the loss in charging = discharging combined need not exceed 18 per cent,” and in some cases he has found it not to exceed 10 per cent. He has f fond fren experiment that 81 pounds of lead and red lead charged and discharged, the discharge lasting eighteen hours—six -hours on three successive days—represented in its discharge 1,440,000 foot pounds of work, or I-horse power for three-quarters 0 of an hour. The resuscit: ee power of the Faure accumulator was wonder- ful. After t ae bers of discharge just referred to it was found after a fi Sat s of insulation that the eisin ulaeer could give a current of over ae annpeeek The phenomenon resembles 0 : 15. i as Sound i" Wood ; by Dr. H. nena) (Com. in regard to it, erm at a somewhat late date. Mr. Ihlseng defines the velocity of sound in wood in two ways: in the first, the rod of wood is fixed in the middle, one end is rubbed and the other end marks its vibrations on a blackened glass plate; by ck means are found the number of scat n, and half the wave length in wood, 3? equal to the length of the rod; then the velocity is »=nA, The number of vibrations can also be found by Kundt’s method, the bing of the rod causing the air in a tube to vibrate; if = designates half the wave length of air in the : : a tube, a the velocity of sound in the tube, then n=, and there- fore age © Mr. Ihlseng se pie in every case greater velocities by the second method than by the first, and was unable to fin d Bs reason for the iasuse I think the explanation is easily given, and it is this which induces me to send this note. Unfortunately Mr. Ihlseng gives the results of his researches so very incom- pletely, that I cannot be sure that my supposition is cael but from the words of the a uthor, I must Presume, that ca gata. m in free air, that is to say about 3925-2", This would be allowa- 416 Serentitic Intelligence. ble only if his tube were » wide, or . pitch w high. If this is not the case there is a diminution of the v velocity by friction and by conduction of bent: which duadnution is to be calculated according to Kirchhoff* by the equation : Se Uy apa/ mn where w means the velocity in free air, a the velocity in the tube, n the pitch - tune, 27 the diameter ie the tube, and y a con- stant. This equation I have verifiedt by experiments and have determined the poor y to be for glass tubes y=0-0235— On a later eet this number was again confirm Ww ee what numbers would have been shtaiied by Mr. Ihlseng with, the second method, had he kept in view this equa- tion. He indicates the diameter to be 27=0°019/7; the pitch m can be calculated nearly by his Table IV. I find by it numbers lying between 1000 and 2000; taking as average 1500 vibrations, we find u—a=6m and a=326'5m, Mr. Ihlseng having, therefore, calculated the velocity of wood 5 by means of the dust figures by v= ee the right equation — would have been »=326°5~. It follows, that for the mean velocity of 4000-——— in wood, the number calculated by Kundt’s method is too great aves 7390, The gitudinally, but at the same time transversely, and therefore the number . vibrations can be determined only very inexactly by the curv Berlin eae Institut., March, 1882. 16. The pyre of Cooking and € nase dt a Manual for Housekeepers ; NH. Ricuarps. 90 pp. 12mo. Boston, 1882 (Estes and y ress ).—The practical apteations of chemical Ones to some of the ‘amiline processes of every-day household ife have never been better presented than in this little book b Mrs. Richards. Clear and concise in style, and happy in its illus- * Kirchhoff, Pogg. gp ‘geal fos LT. + Kayser, Wied. Ann., ii, p, 218. ¢ Kayser, Wied. Ann., viii, p. 444 Geology and Natural History. 417 trations, it is a successful eeaiaeien st of good science with sound rwetieal advice. It is to be hoped that the day is not far distant when every hétkelteeper will have the knowledge | to un- derstand these principles and the wisdom to apply them in all the omely operations which she has to direct or perform. This little book cannot fail to do good service in bringing about this de- sired end. II. GroLtogy anp Natura Hisrory. Bulletin of the I niet is State ete of Natural History No Fr g. (at Springfield. I mee ka 188 8vo. Printed for the Museum, 18 >This 6 rst Bulletin of the Illinois State cheat seamen shies articles, (i) Descriptions of 54°n : onif Tilinois aha: ek and (2) Corrections and proposed new names for species previously we oe d in the Geological Survey of Illinois under names that were preoccupied, an escriptions of two new species of fossil shells from the Coal Measures of Illinois and Kansas, by = ORTHEN, Shee: Sy and (3) Descriptions of two new species o noids fron Chester limestone and Coal Manatee of Tinos, by CHARLES ‘Wa HSMUTH. Mr. Worthen announces that the new species sepited by him will be fully illustrated in the Seventh volume of the Geologi- eal Survey of Illinois, now in course of preparation. still living and eee in ape instances a . need of resorting to special inducements. says, “it is evi- dent that the Dusky Duck is fully as ou as the Mallard 429 Scientific Intelligence. which has been thus far supposed to be the originator of our com- mon tamed ducks.’ i i nahMaptahe cree = Sh demeresg den Novt- tates C Jonchologice, herausgegeben . von Martius, Pro- fessor in Berlin. Band 1. ce ee 0, ae 18 colored plates. Cassel, Germany, 1881, (Theodor Fischer .)—The plates illustrate species (with their varieties) of the genera Nanina, Helix, Bulimi- us, Pleurotomaria, Pleurotoma, Buceinum, Pupa, Helicarion, Limnaea, Tornatellina, Stenogyra, and Parte la. Ill MisckLLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. First Annual Report t of the Bureau of magwhee, (i to the Secretary of - Smithsonian Institution 1879-80; b ae OWELL, Director. 604 pp. Roy. 8vo, with eats plates and woodcut uit ey Washington, 1881.—After a prefatory statement, by the Director, of the work now in progress, under the auspices of the E thnological Bureau, by a number of special inves- tigators, this volume presents a series of ver y eg papers pertaining chiefly to the North American Indi The subjects of Mr. Powell’s own reports are (1) the Evolution “of language, (2) sketch of the oe a the Nort h Am n Indians, (3) Wy andot government, ae Limitations to eh e of some anthropo- logic data. ese are follow d by other nae as follows: a further contribut on 6 the study of the Mortuary customs of the Nortl can “Todians y H. C. Yarrow; Studies in Central American Pictai ing, by E. S. HOLDEN ; Jessions of land by Indian tribes to the | a nited States, by C. OYCE; Sign lan among Nort merican Indians, by Col. Garrick [ALLERY ; Catalogue of linguistic manuscripts in the library of the Bureau of Ethnology, by J. C. Preurye; Illustrations of the method of recording Indian languages, from the MSS. of J. O. Dorsey, A. 'S. Garscuer and 8. R. Ries. The numerous illustrations of the volume are highly instructive as to Indian rites, modes of life, hyeroglyphics, and sign language, and other topics discussed. OBITUARY. Bees “gh the as thought nite t as abra upt 2 as a turn in the pee and whose later — ave successively led the way into new fields of research, died on Wednesday, the 19th of i i b nt ; ris ts of dredging under the supervision of Alexander aos, in the ind of Mexico, 1877-78, by the United States Coast Survey Steamer “Blake.” ambridge, 1881. 7 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] +o ART. XLIX.— Respiration of Plants; by W. P. WILSON, S.D. THE process of breathing in animals and plants is essentially the same. In both the free oxygen from the air, or surround- ing medium, is carried into the living tissues, where, after a series of chemical changes, carbonic acid, water and perhaps some minor compounds are evolved as excretory pacducts e changes in the nyAng cell, alike in animals and plants, determine the amount of oxygen taken up and the products given off. on both an ares of temperature is a direct effect animal- or race be deprived of oxygen for any considerable length of time the life activities cease, and, later, death ensues This oxygen-respiration is then a constant need of the living cell, whether it be of plant or animal. When plants possessing chlorophyll are exposed to the sun- light they carry on a process of assimilation, in which organic — substance is produced from carbonic acid and water, and oxy- gen set free. The amount of carbonic acid decomposed and ve n given off, in this preparation of organic food for t plant, far exceeds, as a rule, the carbonic aed raat and ra ossEen taken up in respiration. Thus it happens that the process of respiration, in plants containing chlorophyll and exposed to the light, is a hidden one, and difficult of demon- stration Am, JOUR. Scare Serres, VOL. XXIII, No. 138.—June, 1882. i 424 W. P. Wilson-—Respiration of Plants. When plants are + Pee of every trace of free oxy gen by placing them in atmosphere of nitrogen or of hydrogen, they still slaere so long as life exists, to excrete carbonic acid. The discovery of this fact, which has been observed for animals as well as cian . not of recent ice although its signification was only recently understood. As early as 1798 Rollo* observed that barley, which had been wet for two days and then placed in a vacuum, excreted carbonic acid; and that at the end of twelve days, the amount equaled six ‘times the volume of the barley. Saussure} placed plants in an atmosphere of nitrogen to see if they would grow, and found that they excreted carbonic acid, Thich he remarks must have been produced at the ex- pense of the substance of the plants At a still later date Bérard,t abi experimenting on the preservation of fruits, placed green pears in a vacuum an ey rved for several days following an excretion of carbonic a Biouphton§ and also W. Pfeffer] have recorded the same phenomenon in plants deprived of free oxygen In 1875, Pfliiger§/ obtained some very interesting results in animal respiration while experimenting on frogs. These animals, carbonic acid as if they had been placed in pure oxygen. In another of Pfliiger’s experiments, a frog continued to give off carbonic acid during eleven consecutive hours, and at the end one sn the expiration of carbonic acid in the absence of free oxygen, take place in the cells. He named the process intramolecular respiration n 1878 a critical résumé on the aoe and signification of sespifation in plants,** written by W. er, brought together all the then Vow ‘facts which could ba made to bear on this subject. The similarity existing between animal and plant respiration was sharply noted, and the term ¢ntramolecular respiration, taken from Pfliiger, was made to cover a like series of phenomena i in plant life, viz: the chemical changes continu- * Annales de Chimie, 1798, vol. xxv, p. 42. + Recherches sea 1804, p $ An de Chim) pte aad a vol. xvi, 1821, p. 174. 6 Arbeit. d. Warzburger Tustituts, 1871, Bd. I, p. 34. { Archiv. fir Physiolo gie, Bd. + 1875, p. 313. Pfliiger gives other refer- ences to investigators in animal Ls sonaticad who had made similar experiments on cae we _ — the 18th century. ie Bede shraar: der Pi eye in der Pflanze, Landwirth- achattiche Jahrbiicher, 1878, Bd. VII, p. - W. P. Wilson—Respiration of Plants. 425 ing to take place in the plant-cell after oxygen has been with- drawn, resulting always in the production of carbonic acid, and often in other more or less important products. In this article the author Jays great stress on intramolecular eta as being the first cause of the oxygen or normal respirati e next works of any special eu eine st plant respiration appeared in 1879.* ortmann measured and com- pa e carbonic oe expired from germinating plants placed in common air, wit 8 ven off from an equal number o co epee in a vacuu all the carbonic acid produced in plant respiration has its origin in intramolecular decompositions; or, in other words, that the free oxygen of the air cept no direct part in the formation of the at acid in respiratio made of the expir carbonic acid from the same ‘planta placed both in airand in hydrogen gas. Th thods of experimenta- n used were the following a constant current of air, previ- ously freed from carbonic acid, was passe y means of an aspirator, first through a large number of germinating seeds, or other objects to be experimented upon, and then thro ugh long tubes filled with barium hydrate in which the carbonic acid given off by the seedlings was absorbed, essentially ge accord- ance with . Pettenkofer's method.t After a given time had elapsed, hydrogen, as an indifferent gas, was hes to replace their. This was quickly done by exhausting the air in the seed-vessel and tubes leading thereto, and then introducing hydrogen to take its place. A constant current of hydrogen was then passed over the seedlings, Sieniaely as had been done previously with a The carbonic ‘oie was determined for either half hourly or hourly intervals. This was easily accomplished by using two * Wortmann, tiver die Beziehungen der intramolecularen zur oo Athmung der Pflanze, in "At beit d. Wiirzburg Instituts, 1880, Bd. IT, p. 5 + A mue ch shorter cbeebait than the present appeared in German in “ Flora,” st Avhandlangen der Akademie d. Wissenschaften in Miinchen, Cl. II, Bd. 1X, Abth. IT, p. 2 426 W. P. Wilson— Respiration of Plants. absorption tubes filled with barium hydrate, and so connected together by glass stopcocks that the current of air or gas, when passing through one tube, could be instantly turned aaa the other without interruption. Thus while the current In conducting an experi fen me fae were made first in air for several half sears then the air was de aia by paaatiahs took place. The last series in air was used to com- pare with the first, and it readily showed whether the seedlings had undergone any lasting change for want of oxygen. e temperature of the plants for any given experiment was not allowed to vary; also the yee bat air or gas was held con- stant for all the successive half A great advantage in the piabods here aigre lay in sub- jecting the same seedlings, first to air, and then to hydrogen ; thus the products of the respiration of the same ‘plants under these "es different conditions could be compared.* ge number of seedlings were employed (from one to” sauces Dandies according to size), thus ensuring the produc- tion of a comparatively large amount of carbonic acid in a short: space of time, with which much more accurate measure- ments could be made than with small paper es. The amount. of carbonic acid was determined by the volumetric method. ecording to the investigations of Wuriheae with seedlings of Vicia Faba, Phaseolus multiflorus and some others, the car- bonic acid excreted in short spaces of time, one to three hours, was found to be the same whether oxygen was present or not. + In the case of seedlings of Vicia Faba, with which Wortmann ostly experimented, I have found this to be substantially true; tor all other germinating plants, flowers, or parts of plants there was an immediate decrease in the cart nie acid produced when oxygen was excluded. The first half hour's respiration in hydrogen often yielded but one third or even one-fourth the pueais acid produced by the preceding half hour’s respiration in air, ter three or four consecutive half hours of Baie a cular respiration, sometimes from the very first, steady ecrease in the carbonic acid was cine ae every follamicy half hour. This was also found to be true for Vicia Fada. The following are the results obtained ‘oti. mann used two sets of sg aap 5 as nearly alike as selection would permit, in vacuum compared with o “ire Als ich jedoch die in mene. kurse a Zs raumen—nach der ersten, zweiten und dritten Stunde—-a hiedenen K Koblensi remengen mit einander verglich, so fand ich jeneneey ‘dass das i in ‘dieser Zeit durch intramoleculare Sara ausge- schiedene ey ure g Wortmann, | Lod W. P. Wilson—Respiration of Plants. 427 Lupinus luteus. ; : { Ist half hour, lat Bat soe te 9 I. Period. Air. 1 d half hour, 66 at : 3d half hour 5 . II. Period. Hydrogen. 4th half hour, +h oe és : : { 5th half hou So re III. Period, Air. { 6th half hour, ey el me The rig tot ab decrease in the amount of expired carbonic acid in hydrogen is here greater than with many plants. ‘The Dears face shows much less difference: Cantharellus cibarius. I. Period. Air, 1 hour 1000 98" U0. Il. Period. Hydrogen. 1 i poate 1080: + * Mil. Period. Air. 1 hour =16'20. me It will be seen that with Lupinus luteus less carbonic acid was measured in the fifth than in the sixth balf hour. This is coabpencll based upon the fact that at the begiuning of the fifth half hour the seed-vessels contained less carbonic acid than at the Rasalig of the sixth. With a constant current of air and a constant production of carbonic acid, it requires a little time efter the airor gas has been changed before an equilibrium between = produced me the out-flowing gas establishes itself. mong a large variety of germinating “plants, branches with leaves, a ‘fruits and fungi, Viera Faba te as been the only plant which has given results differing from t : That the volume of carbonic nis expired in "norm and in intramolecular respiration is the same, is, therefore, in accor- ‘dance with the facts above nistea, untrue. The theory which Wortmann founded upon this fallacy, viz: that the total volume of carbonic acid excreted in cece elepees has its the origin absolutely independent of xygen “ air, in intramolecular ee eke saa to the gro Moreover, if it had been found by sletaritian, that the volume of carbonic acid given ane in intramolecular equaled that of normal respiration, Wortmann’s theory would still fail. This has been well shown by W. Pfeffer, in saying, substan- tially : if an equal pres of carbonic acid were formed in free oxygen was absent, the full supply might yet be obtained through constant powerful attractive forees which could take. 498 S. H. Freeman—Electrification by Evaporation. ese from other ae and in this way give rise to secondary changes.* Pa rtial presence of Oxygen.—W hen wee of Helianthus e posed to a current of air made up of a mixture of one-fifth air and fourth-fifths nydrogen, a comparison of the excreted car- acid in both cases shows no difference whatever. Sufhi- cient yee is heb in sey mixture to supply all demands made by the plants. When, however, the expired carbonic acid in the depen kt of ees placed ‘first in air, and then a mixture of 45 air and $4 hydrogen, is compared, one finds he septs aac g greater during respiration in air. Thus a trifle Ta iibingen, Wirtemberg, April, 1882. Arr. L.— id Question of Electrification by Evaporation ; by S. H. Freeman, Fellow in Physics in Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, Baltimore, Md. Ir has been very commonly believed that evaporation is an important source of atmospheric electricity. So far as this be- lief has an experimental basis, it is sy be found in the researches. of Pouillet,t and of Tait and Wanklyn.§ In comparison with their work the experiments of Volta, Saussure and others are of little value. As the result of an elaborate series of experiments. ouillet came to the following conclusions : 1. Simple changes of state never give the least sign of elec- trification. = ao ride mae nur, dass i in beiden Fallen ag oe aeiembonge des Kohlen r dies gen, An ee von Sauerstoff aus anderweitigen Verbindu ungen eben die Veranlas- zu sekundiiren Prozessen werden. Pfeffer, Planzenphysiologie, Bd, J, 1881, ethods of analysis which A it ce cone the detection of one- S. H. Freeman—F lectrification by Evaporation. 429 . From solutions of sei solids the water evaporated carries away a negative c e. . From solutions of winds acids or salts the water carries off a positive charge. Tait and Wanklyn repeated Pouillet’s experiments with a much more sensitive electrometer. They detected electrifica- tion where Pouillet had failed to do so, e. g., in the evaporation of distilled water; and in some other cases the effects obtained were totally different in kind and degree from those obtained by Pouillet and earlier experimenters. In these experiments a few drops of liquid were dashed on a red hot platinum dish insulated and connected with an electro- meter. So long as the spheroidal state continued, little or no electrification was observed; but as soon as violent vaporization began, decided deflections were obtained. This fact and other circumstances about the experiments indicate that friction was the chief source of electrification and make it doubtful whether TT had any part in producing the observed electrifica- tion. Tait and Wanklyn recognized the fact that to friction was aie a large part of the ae which they obtained. Still, in his lecture on Thunder Storms,* Professor Tait, speak- ing of atmospheric electricity, says: ac ae alm, clear weather the atmospheric charge is usually positive. This is very com- monly attributed to evaporation of water, and I see no reason to doubt that the phenomena are closely connected.” After reading these lectures the writer of this article decided to inves- is sufficient to account for the phenomena of atmospheric elec- tricity. In this connection it will be remembered that Faraday traced the electricity, produced by the escape of steam or water from orifices, to friction, and concluded it was not due to evap- oration, nor r did it have any mae on atmospheric electricity. he investigation was begun with the expectation on the part of the writer of finding electrification, Professor Row- land, to whom the author is much indebted, believed that no electrification would be found. sh aan case the subject seemed important enough to warrant experiments which were free from the objections which hold against Ftioee already described. At the very beginning of the investigation it was found that at most the electrification due to evaporation would be extremely small and very great caution would be necessary to eliminate various sources of error. The apparatus finally used consisted of an evaporating dish 19™ in diameter and 1™ deep, insulated, and connected with one pair of quadrants of a Thomson’s quad- rant electrometer. The other pair of quadrants and the case of * Nature, vol. xxii, p. 340. 430 3S. H. Freeman—Electrification by Evaporation. ae electrometer were connected with earth. By means of a mercury commutator the evaporating dish and its connections could also be connected with earth. The evaporating dish was supported on a wire frame suspendéd by silk threads. To aah vent disturbances ius to electricity on ish ap Sale spendin par ticularly the clothes of the observer, it was found necessary to enclose the whole apparatus in a metallic case. sohanie were made in this case to facilitate Sella and to permit the mirror of the electrometer to seen. e commutator was governed ye a silk thread assitig through an opening in ae case. In experiments, the results of which are give table II, the aucune dish was of copper; in the other cases three were most carefully studied, water and NaCl because of their importance in evaporation in nature, and CuSQ, because of the very large deflections which Tait and Wanklyn ‘obtained with it The electrometer was about thirteen times as sensitive as Professor Tait’s. Its deflections were reduced to absolute measure by comparison with a Daniell’s oak, the deflections produced by which were observed before and after each series. The capacity of the evaporating dish and its connections was found by comparison with Sees Rowland’s ecient con- denser to be 65™ nearly. The rate of evaporat as deter mined by weighing the ceeean dish and hand ‘afore and after each series. It was found impossible to eliminate ever source of electricity fibers evaporation, since deflections were always obtained even with the evaporating dish dry. In order to correct for this each series began and ended with tw a known ms usually five minutes, the dry evaporating amen these observations several similar observations with the liquid sapien were made. As the result of a large number of observations i in which the fie eines niece was insulated for five minutes cohol gave a poten —'04 to — a that of 3 Daniell’s cell. Fre wet with stobol mee a Ay ge pica es a to Sulphuric ether gave a potentia _ 10 . Sede sign indiats the Be ples carried away by the vapor. r.) No correction has been made in the above figures for the deflections bbeacusd with the dry dish, These were more variable, but usually of the same sign, as when a liquid was evaporating, and of a magnitude not very different, Making this necessary correction— Alcohol gave a potentia 024 to — foo that of a Daniell’s cell. Cotton wet with peer coe ott Wa from — — 028 to Sulphurie ether gave a potential oa 4 to oon : » S. H. Freeman— Electrification by Evaporation. 431 In the above observations the rate of evaporation was not measure The earlier observations on aa and salt water gave defle ec- tions about 0:1 that given a Daniell’s cell, the deflections with the dry dish being uty the same (see table I). Though the dish was insulated for five minutes or more, the position ‘ot the spot of light was read every 30 seconds. Far the greater part of the deflection was attained in the first minute or two, and after five minutes scarcely any further deflection could be discovered. The observations thus indicated that the small deflections obtained were mainly due to leakage from electrified parts of the apparatus. The sources of this leakage were carefully in- vestigated and three principal ones were discovered, viz: the charged needle of the electrometer, the vulcanite Alnstn support- ing the electrodes of the elect oinevek and the glass cup of the commutator. In the later ex perime Sie care was taken to elim- inate these sources of leakage as far as possible. The connec- tions were so made, that the electrodes and commutator were not touched for days before the experiments, and the charge on the needle was not replenished within about 24 hours of the ex periment. hen these precautions were taken, the deflec- tions became less than 0°01. and generally less than 0-005 of a Daniell’s a (see table IT). n contrast with these deflections, Tait and yoy ob- tained by dashing liquids on red hot platinum, Solution CuSO, a potential +300 times that of a Daniell’s cell. Solution NaCl a potential +120 f - “ eRe ome d water a potential : 24 i“ ‘i hol 3 ae “ te ure the deflections obtained n almost eve as pt set state ceased, ee nol of light et beyond th the limits of the scale. To show the pani gt of the apparatus to very slight fric- tion it was so arranged that the drops of liquid could fall u upon the evaporating dish from an insulated ea: in metallic connection with it. A few drops of liquid, falling 3 or were sufficient to give deflections of nearly the size obaihad from a Daniell’s cell and much larger than any obtained in evaporation. In order to compare the results obtained with the phe- nomena of atmospheric electricity the writer computed the virtual depth of water which would be necessary to produce one flash of lightning, if the vapor in a thunder-cloud had been electrified as indicated by the experiments. By virtual 432. SS. H. Freeman—Electrification by Evaporation. depth is meant the depth of the layer of water over the whole area of the cloud, were all its vapor condensed to the liquid tate. Let J=this depth in c.m. fora cloud of area A and height a. Let V and C=respectively the potential and capacity of the cloud. Let g=the charge per gram of water. Then “ C 4 AQ But from Sir Wm. Thomson’s experiments V=130a,* and by re or atnae formula for a condenser of horizontal wae A ~ 47a Now in the experime Let d=the , ‘biained by insulating for ¢ minutes, and apparently due vapor Let D=the iedlasion shared iin a Daniell’s cell. Saturated solution | NaCl 0 0°35 |—0°35| 39°6 6 30° | 0°54 525 _- es 0-2 0°12 |+0°08) 396 2 30 | 0°54 7 + ts 0-4 0°35 |+0°05| 39°6 6 30 0°54 | 3678 + Hydrant water 1°6 06 |+1°00;} 37°6 | 10 30 0°59 318 + 1°45 06 |+0°85} 37°61] 10 30: 1: O59. 373 + " 06 (|+0°70! 37°6 | 10 30. | 0°59 454 + Disiled water 0°5 06 |—0:10| 39°6 7 35 0°89 | 3031 _ Cotton wet with hydrant water | 1:0 0°66 |+0°34! 876! 11 | 30* | 0-59*! 1029 + The actual value of 4 (the virtual depth of ee we a cloud 1500 meters thick, f condensatio 2s ig t 35° C. is about 5°9 e«m.; at 80° C. is about 4% ¢ at 95° C. : aback 34 c.m.; at 20° G se uhoet Soca ° C. is about 1‘9 ¢.m. Hence, aie if the deflections a ‘of we tables are really due to evapora and if evaporation be the principal source of the saps slecuidity, the quantity of seats. which oar be required to produce a single flash of lightning, i is very m greater than the actual quantity ever found in a tnunder clo, while a thunder-cloud usually gives not one but ma ashes. It may be objected to this reasoning that a Srilidek cloud in hoes on the globe. If 100 ¢.m. be taken as the aang age _ for the whole surface of the earth and 400 c.m as the value of 4, the total annual evaporation on the earth is apr ent to produce only about 14,000,000 flashes of lightning from clouds nine ae kilometers in extent. ence if one were able to observe every flash of lightning which occurs within eighteen se loietere of himself the average number of lightning flashes seen by such observers at different points of the earth’s surface in one year would be only twenty- ce Caleulation from more exact data would give a less * In this case the rate of evaporation was not measured, but was assumed in Midler nig A to be the same as for hydrant water a “the same Patore The rate was probably greater, which would make A still grea’ 434 E. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice mber. This calculation assumes that all 04 See is ry lar ing pienomets Evaporation is then at most a very insignificant source of the ea oh electricity. ut further, the following facts are to be observed ? I. The deflections obtained in the experiments were always very small. (In the original readings it was easy to make an error of 0°1 a division, and thoug “the numbers in the tables are the means of Api observations, they are still affected by this error of rea 2. The sign of the apparent charge is not always the same for the same liquid. This is particularly noticeable in the npn’ case of water. . The deflections were very much diminished when care the deflections, obtained with the evaporating dish dry, are usually much larger than the difference between these and the deflections, obtained when a liquid was evaporating. Ev idently then most of the electrification was due to other causes than evaporation, and the experiments do not tae trace any electricity whatever to this source. The problem of the source of the electricity of the atmos- phere is still unsolved. Evaporation, first proposed by Volta, whose theory until now has been better supported by experi- ment than any other, fails to account even for a small portion of it; and no other source has been proposed, which can as yet be scunideren sufficient. Art. LI.—Observations on Snow and Ice under pressure at iealeceia below 32° F. ; by EDWARD HUNGERFORD. from 1869 to 1871. hey have never been given in detail to the public. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement _ Seen ce, Pa) in Burlington, August, 1867, I gave a résumé of the observations made in the previous winter or spring, under he title of “A Preliminary Notice of Experi- ments on Snow at bole rencton below 32° F.” Of this paper a short abstract appears on page 39 of the proceedings of the Association for that year. I also gave at the get meeting, under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 435 of the following year, some account of the work done in the winter preceding. On neither of these occasions were details of observations given to the press. The work was incomplete, and as even at my home in Vermont, the periods of extreme cold, lasting for two or three days, in which the most favorable opportunities are given for conducting such experiments, do not occur many times in any one winter, my work ran along until the spring of 1871. My note- books show an accumula- tion of numerous trials of the effect of pressure upon snow and ice, reed a portion of which will be included in this article. ‘After the observations were ma e, a change of residence for a pris of years, took me away from Vermont to a region less favorable for such observations. Other occupations have also prevented me from putting the results into presentable shape. In the meantime, however, these results have not, so far as I know, been anticipated, and though they are not by any means as satisfactory as I could wish, the publication of them may at least save anyone else the necessity of going over the same ground. give first in order a series of experiments reunited under a moderate or even a heavy pressure. Also whether cold and dry snow will upon like circumstances of aie become converted into solid ic Thirdly, I have considered it desirable to nete whether the time acai intervenes as a factor, whether reunion and glaciation at low temperatures take place on reel or whether the Ate requires time for its complet nd in the fourth place, it is a matter of taabrask and per- haps of pavetioal bearing on theories of glacier motion, to know whether, in case such union of ice masses and snow lepapee ice retained at low temperatures. The supposition of regela- tion necessarily involves the development of moisture along the ice joint and among the snow granules. In the absence of eee moisture the result is to be ascribed simply to the molec- observation was Faraday’s, the term regelation was appt to the ieaarvel facts by Professor Tyndall. 436 FE. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice ular plasticity of ice, whether Ae = mass or in the form of minute snow crystals. The m n of these points, around which the interest of the pepe cutest: will enable the reader to follow the details more intellige y method of conducting the trials vith prisms of ice is as follows: The prisms are obtained by sawing a block of lake ice into slabs an inch or two ne and “gain sawing the slabs on mp, which should be light (made with, perhaps, half inch wooden a half inch thick and three inches wide), two prisms can be treated at the same time. The fractured faces of the prism are ipa together, and when they have been carefully adjusted, e clamp may be laid over the ends of the two prisms which tie parallel and near to each other on the table. The screws are then gently tightened. To avoid heat and moisture the handling should be done, if they are bandied at all, with a cold cloth ; or they may be pushed about with a chilled knife blade to get them into position. All my work was done in a cold shed, which was kept open to the weather. It will be noticed that in these trials, both with prims and with snow, the temper- atures were carefully noted, 2 — intervals, during the progress of the trial. These are the natural te emperatures of the room where the work was rien and so of all the apparatus concerned in the experiment ith these explanations I submit several illustrations of the behavior of ice prisms under a light pressure. These are in the form of abstracts pct directly from my note-books, with only such corrections and explanations as seem necessary to a full understanding of each trial. JANUARY 27th, 1869.—Temperature ranged from 12° F. to 22° F. during the fol- lowing trials, which began on the 26th. Prisms of ice an inch thick by two inches were broken, and after matching them on the lines of fracture, were placed in clamps and subjected to a’moderate pressure, the screws being tight- ened several times during the experiment. One — yas parted on the evening nd sho iti e one that was permi = remain in the ¢ 04 over night, therefore, some twenty-four hours, was so firmly reunited that i endeavoring to part it I thought the ice would break slaserhier ere. Tt fi nally yielded on the old joint to a force little less than sufficient to break the ice in any direction. There had evi- dently been a firm reunion, not a mere sticking Sasthae but a knitting of the joint. Loerie > 1869. —Temperatures for Feb. 2d to vie 3d. Feb. 2d, 104 7° ¥., 5,30 . 18° F., OP. MIE’ F., 9.4. 0. of Feb. 3d, 20° F- Highest Honing 20° F. The “ of the 2d of "February was bright ure under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 437 The prism of ice remained in the clamps with only moderate area contd nearly twenty-four hours. The joint was firmly knit at the end of that 8, ting with a d in, showi i tra ng clear ok Proof that the union is not due to atmospheric pressure is furnished by the great ease with which the joint is separated when the pressure has been applied only a ites FUBRUARY 8th, 1869. Rahat tye OAs M. 2° Fl PM. 19° F. 2.15 Pie 20° F.,4P 22° F., 6.30 Pp. mM. 20° F., 9.15 a. M., sf Feb. 9 9th, 21° F., 10,30 a. M. 4° FF ighes Da fine block of ice two inches square was secured in clamps at 9 A. M. sed experiment at 10.3 f the am 9th. e block separated on the joint with difficulty under a smart blow. Feb. 21st, 1870.—Temperatures, aa P.M. 21° F.; 17.30 Pp. uw. 12° B., 7 A. M., of Feb. 22d, 6° F, 2p. M. 13 F., ‘3 P, 6° 2 _ Highest temperature 21° F. Set sete blocks i in clamps and one Witwer ii which had stood without pect a pe parted with a light snap and readil o. 2, twenty-four hours in clamps, was crushed by the pincers in applying transve rse strain, and yielded near to, but not on, the old line of fracture. It was shiver ed into fragments but the two faces were . firmly adhering. Nos. d arted readily after lying in clamps twenty-four hours. This my otes conjecture to have been due to imperfect adjustment of their faces in plac- ing them in the clamps. JANUA RY 4th, mak Poa arsierigs ae hy A. M, ss pat ne 1p. Mm. 9° F., 5 Pp, M. Me 8 ty Me E st |= a = > — ‘ot Ke! oe te bS oe ™ a) we 3: a mE S ® a or e of the bench by for Then clamped it in two clamps and wrenched it apart. t parted only with viotenee, the separation taking place in a new line parallel to the old line of fractu e following tril i is selected = bait a ‘iy — low ay of temperatures, Gee RY be —Tem mbes 11 Ao a ae a a 8 Pe, °F. 6 P, u. 9° Fr, ah a oF Highest rent a 12° oan Three ice prisms aio tested i in nthe clamps ear 11 A, M. and 12 noon = 10 Two of them rosa on aman force. The third required much mor force, about the would be required to break a prism of the same ie separation, the Fhetices of the old joint presented the torn, ragged appear: part. e note here she gor that the success of t ting oe joint of the b n prism properly Seadjusbed. so as to os the 5 aphtied pres- ure bear Hone eid a Dat points — seg eee Failure to do this accounts for the feiertect adherence of some spec JANUARY 18th, 1871 —Temperatares, This day before noon pi ae ranged from 16° F. tol pe um. 16° F., 4 Pp. Mm. 15° F., 10 vp. . 6° F. 19th, 7.30 a. w. 0° F., Bes noon ve: ze M. 22° ¥. ghest p., 22° F about A of 18th put two prisms in clamps and continued one of them until 4 P.M. of the 19th. One of these much less than a square inch in c section, was well united so a lift sixteen pounds weig he prism was omewhat cru Vy pi re and gave way elsewhere than on the eigre line of fracture under a heavier ht. I finally wrenched the old joint apart, it giving way partly in a new direction. JANUARY 10th, 1871.—Te emperatures, wea A 10.15 a. Mm. —4° F., 12.15 P.M. —2° F, 1.15 p.m. —-2° F.,2.15 P.M, 0° F.,4P.M.0°F, 10P.M. —4°F. Jan, 10th, 6 a. M. —7° F., 12 noon 8° F., 9.80 P. M. 9° Pr. oe p.m. 8 F., 9.30 P.M. 3° F. Highest temp., 9° F. On the 9th between 11 and 12 in the morning put a prism of ice in clamps and kept it there oat x of the 10th. It was so firmly reunited ai that it did no w bj a strain of hoa scierage = addition of five Ibs. more pa it. e test de made ring on of the prism and lifting a weight attached to the other end. The ai area of thes cross section of ent. the prism was less than a square inch by actual measurem 438 EE. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice A gla that fragments of ice may be fir ot re- eS ctned at all tem- tioned in the note of Feb. 3, “ the great ease with which the joint is separated when the pressure has been applied only a few minutes.” But, not content with this, the note of January 10, 1871, institutes a test by weight and measure. In this in- ures less than a square inch, and the force necessary to pull the fragments apart exceeds thirty pounds. In my note-_ book comments on this t ; nd the conviction expressed obliterated. And I remember that this remark was occasioned by the close apie: of the joint, and the growing indistinct- ness of the line of fracture in certain cases, under pressure. T scarcely nau call especial attention to the violence required in some cases to part the reunited fragments or to the fact that the second break sometimes occurs along a new line of fracture as in the note of January 4th. In regard to the influence of time as a factor in the reunion of the broken sepia my impres- sions are strongly in favor of the value of time to the result. I ver known a prism which had ee "heck exposed to pressure for w minutes to show strong adherence. It is —freshly joined faces come apart readily with a light snap. The trial recorded under date of January 27th, 1869, gives us a prism, subjected to ressure for a few hours, which shows “evident signs of reuniting,” while one which has been kept in the clamps “some twenty-four hours was so firmly reunited that in Ageing tabs to part it I cioaah the ice would break else- where.” So far as the evidence goes ther me the element of time is an hisscanais one in the process; this conviction has grown egal! me during the Lee in are I have experi- mented upon snow and i As to the bank point n ued as being among the objects kept in view during these studies, it is difficult to conceive under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 439 w any moisture can intervene to assist in restoring the con- aay of the faces of broken prisms. In discussing the effects -of heavy pressure upon snow, this subject will come up again. But in the prisms, exposed to temperatures such as some of result. Tei is very true that Mr. Tyndall. whose howinitel ex- periments upon ice have attracted the admiration of all readers, found lines of moisture developed transversely to the direction -of pressure in masses of ice. But these observations were ys ogee Somes upon 32°, it is scarcely necessary to say, was due to the liquefaction of ice under pressure, domo: to the tise given by the brothers Thomson. Inasmuch as water expands in freezing, : was observed that by parenting the expansion of water through pressure, that fluid could be re- duced ohana degrees in temperature and still be kept in the fluid state. The brothers Thomson have given us the numer- the prisms were exposed (2 heed would a a ee of it is only by special contrivances that the conversion of snow into ice can be watched. My earlier trials, those to which allusion was made at Burlington and Chicago, were conducted with wooden moulds, into which the snow was packed, aud the UR. p+ edna Serres, Vou. XXIII, No. 138.—Junz, 1882. 2 440 EF. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice pressure was brought to bear by means of a square wooden plun- ger, driven by an iron screw, which worked in a wooden frame. ‘or these contrivances, which were, in many respects, very useful for earlier observations, I afterwards substituted a much more convenient iron press. The details of this press, it is hardly necessary to describe. e snow was packed in a cast iron cylindrical mould, having a smooth ee es bore in the center one inch in diameter. The bore is three and one- half inches deep and of smooth finish, to laine the friction of the snow. Into this bore works a plunger, also of iron, nicely rods which are the uprights of es press. Into the upper side of this head the lower end of the iron screw projects ba in brass fittings—while the screw itself runs through an upper iron cross bar. By this means the plunger with its head can be carried down into the mould smoothly, by a slow motion of thescrew. ‘To the head of the screw a wheel was attached to which the power was applied by means of a cord passing over s not By this meaus a reasonably continuous and regulated pressure could be brought to bear upon the snow in the moulds. These moulds were split vertically through the middle, and were held together by a stout iron ring, which could be struck off with a blow of a hammer, When opened, the moulds exposed a vertical section of the little cylinder of ice resulting from the pressure. ‘The slight differential motion of the pressed mass, on each side of the plane along which ms mould was split, left. a corresponding plane of easy cleav in the resultant mass. Aside from the convenience of this fe arrangement, it gave me the marees that the conducting power of the iron, as exposed to low temperature, would help to prevent the accu- mulation of Sent from the gradually increased pressure and slow downward motion of the plunger. The snow in the inte- rior of the mould savoger ire be kept very close to the tempe- rature of the externa am under great obligalions to my friend, Mr. Robert W. Willson, Assistant Astronomer in the Observatory i in New Ha- ven, who has very kindly assisted me to obtain ai Bge:| power of this little ate press by actual trials. We have tested the force exerted at the lower face of the plunger Pies aves five pounds of power up em fifty applied at the wheel. ‘The obser- vations, made and repeated by us interchangeably, to correct the sonal error, have resulted in a very even rate, so that we abled to extend the rate up toa er of sixty pounds at the wheel, which is the highest used. Te ean therefore insert in all under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 441 of the following phe ald the ieee press, excepting the first in which the screw wa ned by hand, the actual pressure per square inch used. "The ae tempe ratures of the room or shed in which the work was done are also carefully recorded, along with each trial, for every few hod urs of the day or days th ae which the trial lasted. With these Srey I give the following : rat poten on Snow with the Tron Press, DECEMBER 29th, 18 0.—Temperatures, Saw OP AP ee ESP. we a P.M. 2° F., highest Capac aden e3°F. At9o’clock a. M. packed the mould with snow screw at a time, so as to avoid evolving heat in the snow by sudden pressure. At noon the force necessary to turn the screw through the quarter had become con- siderable, though by no means violent. The screw was turned slowly through the abi arter. Thus three hours were consumed in bringing the strong pressure to _ Discontinued the experiment at 7 P. The w was converted akg to perfect ice, white, clouded here with darker an’ share with lighter lnes— aceak: This ¢ experi riment is a perfect success. Everything has been adage care, January 4th, 1871.—Temperatures, 8.15 a. Mm. 2° F., ee mo FF M. 9° PUD SG i” 1p ale BF, 10Pp.M. 8° F., 64. M., January 5th, 15 12.30 P. 26° F. eft stan through the night, but the wheel Lion turned petites beg d about a quarter crcl during the whole night. This I think is the most pe rmed as yet at low temperatures or under slowly applied pres vi ‘tt was perfect gray ice uniform throughout, n ouded. JANUARY ou 1871 —emperatares 0.15 a.m. —4° F., 12.15 —2° F., 1.15 p. . —2°F.,2.15 p.m. 0°F., 4 0° F., 10e.m.—4°F, January 10th, 6 a.m. —7° F., 9.30 A.M. 0° F, ‘highe est psig 0° F. ape ney pressure at 10. 15 A. M., after d for . Com- menced with weight of three pounds aoe 375 Ibs. Aine and then added two pounds, ete. Discontinned at 9.30 A. M. of the ts the Arora marking 0°. Highest weight u 60 Ibs. =412 . Pp re per inch. Result ata mass changed to py throughout of panama ay at every way fine uality. The weight was increased very gradually, only a few last additions ght being weve in quantities sabe 6 or 8 Ibs.=400 to 550 Ibs. pressure. At this point the me very slow. e press was left over night with a weight of 60 tba -4123 Ibs. sda per square inch, and the screw did not probably make mm during the ~~ and up to the time of Seaiie the trial. The snow used was slightly gran JANUARY 18th, 1871.—Themomete: r up to 12 noon has ranged from 16° to 18° F., relates 16° F.,4 p.M. 15° F., 10 Pp. M. 6° F. January 19th, 7.30 a, mw. 0° F,, pote F., 4p. M. 22° F. Highest temperature to which snow was exposed while iis vader pressure was 18°F. The mould was packed with snow last night (the * The resulting pressure for each additional oe of power diminishes as we go into the higher ‘ee owing to increased fricti: 442 EF. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice 17th) the thermometer standing at 16° F.* This morning began with 1 Ib. and continued to increase the bah up to ze lbs. total=1693 Ibs. nieaexete Discon- tinued at 11°30 0 ‘edo the 19t Transformation into ice incomple he mass melted partly as ice but the lower portion of the cast from the rmpald ital more like snow. Notice that less than half the previous ealgut had been used. Here are four trials with the iron press, all purposely al and all but the last resulting in perfectly formed ice —the character in the last instance being developed in the upper Bor. tion of the mass, while the lower portion melted more like snow. This test of perfect and imperfect glaciation is worthy of notice. In no way is the true ice character better exhibited the union of the snow crystals is complete, the mass melts only at the surface, like lake ice, whereas if the conversion into ice is imperfect the mass, as the melting goes on, begins, after a time, to. disintegrate and betray a granular structure. Other tests such as whiteness and opacity or their opposites are less reliable. For, though the mass usually clears up under pro- longed pressure, the glaciation may be far advanced in a mass which retains much of the whiteness of snow. Nevertheless the usual result is a eletkits Sten ice of a grayish appearance highest pressure exerted is equal to 41 29 Ibs. to the square inch as against 1693 Le to the square inch in the fourth trial. In the first of the series the power was applied by hand and can not be certainly erent, erie as the final power applied i is described as “considerable, though by no means violent,” it was doubtless much less than 60 ey power. It would probably be safe to take it as equal to 45 lbs. fae would give an effective pressure of 3068 Ibs. to the squa n the first trial I ask the randee tuithibe to notice the man- ner in which the pressure was brought to bear. The screw, which had six threads to the inch, was turned only through a quarter circle at a time, and each quarter was made slowly, so * This was done in order to let the whole stand over ree without pressure and allow the temperature of the snow and press to ized, under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 443 utes, or, on an average, a revolution in 18 minutes. But as there was, doubtless, a pause of several minutes between each he Pea of the snow. In this respect the trial under tions of power dine hier 5 aed The weight was in- creased very gradually (no hand power being used) three pounds to start with equals about 400 lbs. pressure, under which of course the lightly packed snow was yielding; then two pounds, etc., until, only at the last, increments equal to from 400 to 550 Ibs. effective pressure were use In the fourth trial, beginning was made with only one lb. power, and increase made 1 up to 25 lbs. pow The times also vary in the td trials, 2 this fact has its ua lence the conditions and results of these four trials may be grouped together as follows: ° High’t | Duwation = | Resulting Date. T = at of Exp. Increments of Effective Pressure. Condition. Dee. Monts small by hand, total 3,068 to squ. 1 |29, °70| 3° F.|10 hours} inch. Perfect ice. Jan. Small by hand at first, then 346 Ibs. — Most perfect 2/4, °71/15° F.|21 hours) gradually to “egg 4, ha lbs. to squ. i ice. Jan. 375 Ibs., 250 lbs., 400 to a Ibs., totail Remarkably 0° F.)23 aeniel phsg square inch, Pe 13 clear ice. Jan. 0 lbs. with a additions a: total of 1,693|Upper part of 4 |18, °71/18° F,|24 h’s+ gets square inch. mass true ice. w a) a — From this table and ae preceding explanations, the follow- ing conclusions are reac (1. may ee care into ice under pressure at a temperature as low a required to complete the process, “under a very slowly applied . pressure and with gradual increments, until the total reach sasalianity of ice and snow under pressure. When a prism a cold ice is placed in the clamps and any given amount of pres- 444. FE. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice sure brought to bear upon it by screws, the pressure will not remain constant. The prism will very slowly yield to the pres- sure, by what seems to be a molecular movement; and if the pressure is to be kept up, it becomes necessary to tighten the screws after a comparatively short time. I regret that the lateral expansion, which may be supposed to attend this longi- tudinal yielding, was not measured. That such a longitudinal yielding takes place is impressed upon my mind, as a constant experience, and I think there can be no mistake about it. Indeed I find attention called to it in my notes made on the under the pressure. Here in a firmly bound iron mould, there can be no lateral expansion, but the ice particles seem to e turn of the screw is comparative : Having thus established the main fact of the glaciation of snow of low temperature under pressure, we come to the discus- sion of the question whether, under the circumstances of these experiments, we are to suppose that glaciation is due to the production of water, or at least of moisture, under the pressure applied. or tbis purpose it will be necessary to combine with the observations above given, some earlier ones, made with wooden moulds, fitted with wooden plungers. It will be understood that trials next to be mentioned were of that kind. It is not of liquefaction. ; actual facts of observation, gathered from numerous efforts to The question of liquefaction at low ped pandas accordin is of, another er these larger t y an sufficient to account for liquefaction. In the outset suc under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 445 ag guaa seems wholly unwarranted. I have only to refer ction of ice in the iron press, with its slow and Moreover, I have endeavored by actual — to obtain the -extreme effect of such pressures as have been used—pressures not so great indeed as the highest of those state with the iron press—but great enough to convert snow into ice at very low temperatures. The most reliable of these observations have been made upon not very cold snow with pressures rising from 580 Ibs. to the square sare to a possible maximum of 2,000 Ibs. to the square inch. shall hereafter give cases of the glaciation of snow of low temperature under the latter pressure. The method of testing has been as follows: The temperature of the air, and the snow before pressure is noted, and in some cases, also, the temperature of the moulds. Then pressure is rapidly applied to the snow in the moulds by sudden impact of the crew. A wire in the bottom of the plunger leaves a fine bore in the pressed snow for the insertion of a thermometer, and the -of the plunger. In some instances pains have been taken to aggravate the rise of temperature by sudden and violent im- pact; throwing myself on to the handles of the screw with all my might. Now the highest elevation I have been able to obtain by this violent method of applying a pressure of 1,500 to 2,000 lbs. to the square inch, sat only one minute, was 32°F. The pressure exerted was my whole strength applied to the handles of the screw by sudden and violent efforts. pica ne 2 the temperature of the moulds before pressure not o d. ee the cae next observation recorded, I find the same opera- tion gone through with, except that the violent impulses were repeated, at intervals, during twenty minutes. The gape He) the same as before, but the elevation effected w ] 1 pressure was applied, only two minutes, to a mo ould tilled with bits of ice. The temperate of the air and of the moulds before arr ee ‘gov at 27° F. The ice before pressure measures 25° F = Brebae esse 27° F. The eleva- tion in this case was deabiien « ed by that of the moulds, -and in the case before given, as the temperature after pres- sure rose to 32° F., it is very probable that the temperature of e moulds was higher than that of the snow; while in the second case, there is reason to think it was lower than that of 446 FE. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice the snow before alee In this way the 32° F. would be too- much and the 14° F. would be too little. From numerous observations, I am ane satisfied that the effect of pressure quietly applied, would not exceed a degree, or a degree and one- alf of Fahrenheit; and where special pains are taken to avoid sGietion of temperature, its effect will be so diminished that they may be left out of the account, in experiments conducted a number of degrees below freezing, If it is said that the method of taking the temperatures is crude, this must certainly be admitted. But it is the best that could be devised. I have indeed sashes a thin, hollow pointer of iron to the plunger, in the center of which I carried a thermometer down into the. snow and strove by this means, to get at the temperature dur- ing pressure. But after numerous trials, the indications proved o be so unreliable that I have discarded the results. It may te said, however, in favor of the proximate accuracy of the temperatures quickly taken after the pressure is removed, that, w is not elastic, the — evolved by pressure will not be absorbed again on its wit 1, So far as the observations ou they were entirely Saree tory of the above conclusion. The thermometrie evidenc being ree the supposition of any development of csnaen so arranged matters” that. f could actually watch the an inch in diameter in the opposite sides. These moulds were as usual in alte bolted, so that the eae, ice could be: expos ough a windows, which were of very heavy _ lass, 1 . watched he progress of worden from beginning a 8 signees scrutiny failed to disclose any signs of rohan ee any free and abundant nek of water through the would have been readily detec ‘without nice contrivances. We are considering only the production of a proper moisture, which might be forecd: through the mass so as who meate it. Of such moisture I found no trace the lowe temperature experiments. When the pressure had been an brought to bear, a change could be seen coming over the mass, as will be detailed ina ge hes below. The snow in the mould, as seen throug e glass, began to have a glaz rd ea and eat lies to be losing its whiteness and opac This'change went on gradually until the whiteness o the snow was nearly gone. I could discern upon the glass no trace of condensation of moisture, no clouding as if by a haar though the temperature of the room was only a few degrees above zero of Fahrenheit. under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 447 Another attempt was made to detect the presence of mois- ture. I sprinkled into the snow little particles of water-paint. These paints are quite sensitive to moisture; so much so that, if buried in lightly oe snow without pressure, at a tem- perature as low as 12° F., they attract moisture and soften by an action similar to that Sf common salt. And when barely touched to really moist snow o , the snow is promptly ss with a blotch which spreads around the point of cg ct. w it is manifest that this oo. furnishes a delicate test of the phesiien of moisture. If at temperatures lying in the region of zero Fahrenheit moisture were being forced through he interstices of the snow, even in minute quantity, it would necessarily carry with it some traces of color from the paint sprinkled in the mass; and this is observed to be me case with snow under pressure near to 82°, the paint spreading in large at this temperature is miei to the liquefying io ‘of the snow, because as will be seen in the trials detailed below, no sign of such spreading brie be detected at the temperature ffec seat the process, it is not Fae until the snow has been so completely consolidated as to prevent the passage among its particles of even so minute a quantity of moisture as would be necessary to carry color along ea ut snow so consol- idated would be little if any short of ice. I have thought it better to state the points involved in oe following observations before giving their details. Observations with wooden moulds. Experiment No. 1, bed i Tth.—Temperatures. 12 noon 9° F., 4.20 p. Mm. 3° F., tak off. The ice was ect. whole prism had lost its opacity so far as to transmit the light, the snowy whiteness was gone and the whiteness of ice—a gray ice had taken its place. A layer of particles of water paint was in full view, on ri of the were perfectly sharp asa their lines perfectly well defined. The same was true when the prism was Sane The particles scattered through the mass exhibited no sign of spreading 448 EE. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice Experiment No. 2.—Snow used marked on the ground 5° F. io aa 9.45 a.M. of February Abe 3° F.—during the day near 0° F. 10P oa 9 a. M. of February 11th —5° F., 10 p. um. 4° F., 7.30 a. Mm. of Februa aire 8.30 “i M. 7° F. Duration of ats from February 10th 4 45 A.M. to Pawcian at 8.30 a. ce brepagics 47 hours n Use a pair of parte moni iP iat full of snow, which accounts for the par glaciation of the lower e bottom was granular snow. Then rr. y defined. On the 1 paint were lodged, but here — had been no change in their Cera: } .—Tem A. M Temperature of moulds — pressure 4°. Snow used was gran Temperatures, 9 A. M. — —4° F.,12.15 p.m 0° F.,2P ees ST BoM. —2° F., 9.40 P.M. —T F., B sa. of February 33 —3° F, Pm. 0° R, 9.30 P.M. —5° F. February 24th, 7.30 A.M. —10° F., 9 a.m. —7° a "Dur on 48 hours. Opened and found a a gradual transition from lea snow at the ‘betlon, of the prism to perfect ice at the top. The ice was clear and fine. e paint used in T the least moisture, and yet in the best of the ice brat was no trace of a spreading of the color. Bach particle was a distinct speck in the ice. g seems to negative the supposition that, at the low temperatures used, moisture intervenes to prepare re the way for regelation. In the case of prisms fully exposed to view, there important bearing on the resulta, Moreover, inasmuch as regel- be is spe necessity an instantaneous process, the evidence that me plays a not unimportant part in the process by which con- en particles, though that evidence hereafter to be reviewed is not as definite or complete as could be wished, bears, so far as it is allowed weight, 5 ne the application of that theory to the facts here i insist would - eae be supposed to overlook possibilities which must be conte miles in this connection, though they e conceived, that, in the case of Ha and of snow peelid ss moulds, inasmuch as it is not possible _ bring the pressure to ‘las cota either upon all points of trac caine faces of prisms or upon all points of the mass of snow, pressure "locally: poe molecules, in consequence of which, now at this point and next at another, slight moisture might be — _ developed, in which case true — world take place. In under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 449 iy form my friend Mr. Willson has suggested to me a possibil- , akin to one which I myself had considered, namely that of a leverage among the particles, by whic large ocal eer ures might be concentrated here and therein the mass. But must be remembered that the paint test demonstrates that ther can be no speading of moisture from such centers; and a further counter-suggestion, Mr. Willson points me to the fact that we should, in this way, secure only partial re-union, at single points along the faces of fracture in prisms, and only local glaciation of the snow at scattered centers, instead of the uniform glaciation of the whole mass, which results when the pressure is prolonge It remains only to lay before the reader such evidence as the facts give us of the influence of time upon the processes we ~ are discussing. I think it will serve our purpose bas “ te point, to intro- duce a brief tabular exhibit of quite mber of trials, ar- ranged in the order of temperatures ; Sg that an una- voidable indallaitencss attaches to the contained results. Those pressures which had to be estimated are given within maxi- can do is to say, that, at_ particular temperatures, and with cer- tain pressures, no more than a certain length of time is required. We have only some evidence re garding 1 minimums. ill be noticed also that here ice is not considered perfect, unless the snowy whiteness has nin ag egree replaced by a darker shade, more approaching that of lake ice, and unless | Q er 44 there has been an elimination of the granular structure. 450 FE. Hungerford—Observations on Snow and Ice Tabular Exhibit of Observations on Snow. Temp Pressure ‘| B. | Time. | to feo Result. ss © tees 8 242 Gray ice, imperfect. 2} 32 2°5m.| 950-1275) Sub-vitreous, sub-granular, gray ice. 3| 32 3 m. Gray ice, oo erfect. 4| 29 3m. | 950-1275) now and coarse granular, very good ice. 5} 276 | 1m. 580 Hard but ate dt reset 6} 26 1 m. |1475-1975)§ vitr nular 7) 26 j24h. | 950-1275)" “ery perfect, ‘pees png ice. 8} 25 1} h. |1475-1975 ven per rfect ice. 9 245 10m 580 |Sub-vitreous, 0} 23°25'20 m 975 Sub-vitreous, ash sub-gran ] 2 . {1475-1 0m. /1100-1465).In ve min nine Sega aareery " plachatites — 12}. 22 3h. 950-1275 Vitseons, ae translucent ice character well ad- need. 13} 21 (45m. | 950-1275 ade rather 14| 20 2m. | 950- re Sul-vitreons oT granular, pure white, 15} 20 (10m. | 575- 7 ee oe granular. 16} 20 | 3h. |1200— ibe Goo i 17} 18 (24h. 1693 |True ios bet not as perfect as some. 18) 15 j21h 4122 ect gray ice uniform eto out. 19) 9 22h. |1475-1975| Change manifest in two hours and in ten hours a nS was far saieeed. | sre! gray ice. 20; 7 (|47h. (1475-1 1975 i 21; 4 5h, eet fighiy vitreous bon melts with only slightly gran- ney S2p 3). HO 8 | Perfe Za, 42s 14h, ee yt Perfe d ice 24) 0 (23h, Remarkably clear fi 25) —2 2h. 1415-197 5| Highly wiretia fartaea advanced than No. 21. If, with the above explanations in view, we direct our atten- tion to special portions of the table, we find, in the first place, that at 32° F., with a very moderate pressure, a gray ice may be obtained in a one to three minutes; and no marked difference is observed between ice produced under an extreme pressure of 250 rain to the square inch, and that produced under higher shah se perature, fails in so short a time to produce 6 parfens Jc oe in No. 7, at the same tem bectare; under fe ioe pheniin we get in 24 aed “ very perfect, pretty clea _ At 25° F. No. 8 gives us very perfect i in an hour and a half under a poeta of from 1475 pounds to 1975 pounds = square inch; and still better is No. 11 in which, at a tempera ture of 28°, and under a pressure ranging from 1100 pounds to 1465 pounds to the square inch, we get a nearly eg ioe gla- under pressure at Temperatures below 32° F. 451 ciation in twenty minutes, with some darkening of snow in five minutes. ; In the next five trials, from No. 12 to No. 16 inclusive, we Vv of only two degrees of temperature, and such a relation of times and p res as will throw, perhaps, some light on the cat under discussion. We will arra eee these No. 15.; 20°F. | 10m. 575to 775 Ibs. | Sub-vitreous, granuiar. Ss Sub-vitreous, opaque. No.14| 20°F. | 2m. 950 to 1275 Ibs. ; Gratis, pes white No. 13° | .21° F. .| 46 m. 950 to 1275 lbs. | Good vii ricng white. No. 12 | 22°F. 3 hours 950 to 1275 lbs. No. 16 | 20°F. 3 hours | 1200 to 1600 Ibs. Vitreous, dark, translucent. Ice- sharaueee well advanced, Good ice. The pressures in Nos. 14, 13, and 12 are the same, and the temperatures so near together as to point pretty Tiekindly: to ime assing Over the higher pressures and long times in the _ lower part of the table, I call attention to Nos. 21 and 25. ow as —2° F., under a pressure ss Reape less ae! 2,000 points to the square inch, glaciati may be very far advanced ; but it is roe to be noticed ‘that ~ — pe ress- nature observe ey experimenting upon prisms; taken also process of glaciation. Dayenn: early e by observa- tions have grown into a strong con ee that glaciation would take place in a few dap under the moderate pressure of say 1,000 pounds to the square inch, allowed to bear _— and continuously on snow the temperature of which did no exceed that ” zero, Fahrenheit. The’ of these observations a now be briefly summed up. We tn may re fond as establishe (1.) That broken prisms of ice, at temperatures far below 32° F., will firmly reunite if the faces of fracture are brought together and a very moderate but long continued pressure is — applied. 452 Cross and Hillebrand—Minerals in the basalt of (2.) That snow is converted into ice under a long continued pressure, not exceeding 2,000 pounds per square inch, and probably much less than that, and at temperatures near to zero Fahrenheit. (3.) That while great pains have been taken to detect the presence of moisture in the snow while under pressure at these temperatures, no satisfactory evidence of its presence has been obtained, the various tests failing to give it; while, on the we contemplate this possibility as influencing the result. (4.) That the evidence is not inconsiderable in favor of the in- fluence of time as a ma in the establishment of continuity between fragments of ice and between snow crystals and, inso- far as this Taaadorition is admitted, it militates against the srepechen of liquefaction and regelation at these tempera- ART. LIL, — Communication from the U. S. Geological Survey, Rocky Mountain Divi the minerals, mainly Zeolites, occurring in the Saat of "Table Mountain, near Grier, Colorado; ‘by WHITMAN Cross and W. F. HiLLEBRAN [Tue sone of which the following is the first, are and analcite. The latter mineral therto been supposed b many per who have collected it at this to basing their tion on statements made in th layden Reports,* to be by me — when on the Fortieth Parallel Su Survey. Since ed Caen leucite proves to be analcite, the Leucite Hills of Wyoming seem to be still the only known locality of leucite in the United States. oe 8. F. Emmons, Geologist in charge.] ual Report of the U. 8. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories for et. > 130 and 389, Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado. 453 Table Mountain is situated upon the plain, twelve miles west of Denver, although it approaches so near to the abruptly rising foot: hills, composed of Archaean schists, that the inter- vening space is scarcely more than a mile in width. Within this space, however, are exposed the upturned edges of strata of the Trias, Jura, and Creta aceous, including the coal- bearing horizon of the Laramie formation ; dipping very pens! cast Table Mountain owes its existence to a sheet, or rather most parts, to two sheets of basalt, which have in a measure protected the underlying strata from erosion. Through that agency the upturned strata adjacent have been de nuded until a valley several hundred feet deep has resulted, separating Table Mountain tect the foot-hills. The horizontal strata of Table Mountain seem at first sight markedly unconformable with those so near by, but this ap- pearance is due to the location of this valley of érosion directly in the shar wings In other places the conformability is dis- tinctly show Opposite the mountain, Clear Creek issues from the foot-hills and has cut a gorge directly through it, forming what are known as North and South Table Mountains. On the banks of the creek, behind the mountain, is situated the town of Golden. : The mountain is a plateau or mesa of not more than four to five square miles in area, with an average elevation above the bed of Clear Creek of about 700 feet. The source of the basalt is in certain dykes situated to the and to the south-southeast. The lower sheet averages one hundred to one hundred and fifteen feet i” thickness, and — me 8 structure of a stream which has flowed upon the Of the second sheet, et the mass p remains, and its thickness, as well as the pact! extension of sheets, can only be a matter of conjecture neeeion basalt of —_— simple composition ; rather coarsely erystalline in its massive parts, and in the porous with a ground- mass which becomes finer-grained as it a ie cianhta: < pet contact or the surface. A glassy base, a- much devitrified was for- merly present in the porous par In the cavities of the upper paves of the lower sheet are 454 Cross and Hillebrand—Minerals in the basalt of many beautifully crystallized zeolites, associated with calcite and acegont e. e mode of occurrence varies somewhat in dif- ferent parts of the mountain, and a few species seem to be locally astrintad: but most of those to be described can be found in abundance and well develo Ata point on the southern face of North Table bad aaa where the greatest number of species occur together, the cimens several years ago. uring the present investigations the locality was still further opened, and absolutely fresh and clear material obtained. Up to the present time, the following species have been definitely determined, viz: analcite e, apoph- yllite, aragonite, calcite, chabazite, mesolite, natrolite, stilbite and thomsonite. Several others are in process of investigation, some of the species mentioned. In the further description, the order to be followed is primarily that of deposition at the above locality, where frequently as many as six or seven spe- cies occur together. e only previous notice of this mountain is embodied in the cor of Arch. R. Marvine, in Annual Report of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories for the year 1873, pp. 129-131, but the eee! given is exceed- ingly meager, and in part e entirely incorre he Survey is indebted to Professor A. eka of the School of Nene for calling special attention to Table Mountain 1. Chabazite. This mineral seems to be the oldest of the zeolites, with the exception of certain peculiar stratified deposits in some of the cavities, the character of which has not been fully determined. It was however pam ed in some places by yellow calcite, as will be described late In most cases she several zeolites occur.together, —-€ are de anally as much as 1 te diameter. The pends be are he twins of interpene Na n some of the smaller cavities are sub-dividing walls of cha- bazite, or miniature columns composed of many small crystals. A second generation of sbishastee came after thomsonite and pera. but the otpetale are few and very minute. No optical chemical examination has as yet been made. Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado. 455 2. Thomsonite. This zeolite followed closely upon the chabazite, indeed its earliest aggregates are so intimately associated with that min- n other like the leaves of a closed fan, and the very compact _ pena ee of such agerogates are usually arranged in a more or less distinctly radiate manner. -Sometimes ‘spherical rine result ; in other cases, solution, by radiation from an axis; or less frequently, walls, the blades standing at right angles to the centra] plane. here crystals of yellow calcite were not covered by feGasite the thomsonite has never failed to coat them, the blades being approximately perpendicular to the crystal hen a large surface of shahabite has been completely coated by the more or less radiate aggregates of thomsonite, forming an undulating surface, the whole has a most delicate silken janine vcs that on a fractured surface of a spherical mass is more satin-like. e€ aggregates are white when pure; single Sages are transparent It is eae to obtain isolated leaves, and they are then so thin o affect polarized light but slightly ; still, it was sot nitely sy aimee that the direction of total extinction betwee crossed Nicols is parallel to the longitudinal axis. By examin- ation of the ends of the blades, under the microscope, with a power of ninety diameters, it could be seen that the vertical edges were formed in many cases by a plane at right angles to ond to the prism and eR io rennet of tho rapt’ as authorities. The termination seems to be the basal ae The average thickness of these Bindas' is shout Toward the close of the zeolitic formation, a second generation “of thomsonite was deposited. The blades are in this than those of the first, while the other dimensions remain about the sam In combination with the basis upon the crystals of this latter growth are apparent brachydomes, whose angles with the r 135 The blades of the second generation, when upon those of the first, have the same crystallographic vigoeate 2's and serve at all as_prolongations of the latter. hrough the clear. The long blades of the second growth of thomsonite often form bundles resembling rough prismatic crystals, and these Am. Jour. Scr.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXIII, No. 188.—June, 1888. 31 3 ‘ 456 Oross and Hillebrand—Minerals im the basalt of bundles arranged ina loosely and irregularly radiate manner form bunches an inch or more in diameter, upon which the delicate needles of mesolite have a special tendenc cy to deposit themselves. Reference will be made to this again later. the following chemical analyses, that under I is of the older, and that under IT of the more recent growth. In eac case the percentages under 6 denote repeated determinations. The material for I was carefully selected with a view to purity. The imperfectly spherical aggregates were broken up quite article appropriated for analysis was first possible. ad comparatively few of them, and the increased percentage of SiO, probably indicates the amount of the impurity teat i IL. eas IV. a b. a b | Si0,....| 40°681 40-703 42-662 | 41:6 40°877 Al,Os...| 307117 | 29-749 29-252 29-286 |. , CaO ....| 11°921 | 11-895 10-900 10-900 Na,O...| 4444 | 4°920 H.0 12°857 12275 12,337 100-020 | 100-009 | From the above figures, the following oxygen ratios are obtained : RO : AlO, : SiO, : H,O B; 1 BO a TE Us 261 Il. 1 OO se OLY oe 2-248 These ratios agree quite well with those in the variety for- oe called mesole or fardelite. But that thomsonite which to be cumaenn by Dana, Rammelsberg, Naumann- Zirkel a others, has a ratio of about 1:3:4:24, and Dana* bare Laeger that the high percentage of silica in mesole, is due to an admixture of quartz, aa gi etc. Thinking it barely saaatia that some sh escaped notice in ob- taining material for I, thus increasing the percentage of silica, a second portion of thomsonite from e same specimen ab * A System of Wisiesleny. ed, of 1874, p. 424. Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado. 457 of thomsonite contained very small, irregularly rounded parti- cles, imbedded in the outer surfaces. These particles which are clear, or slightly yellowish, do not affect polarized light sybase ly, and are not crystalline in form. ey are present koe regates. Analysis [IV was made from material taken from the purest and finest specimen of thomsonite as yet obtained. Here the a of thomsonite was unusually thick, and the separation om the underlying thin layer of chabazite was complete. The particles above referred to were present in very small quantity in the upper part of the blades, and even if they con- sisted of pure silica could have affected the result but slightly. While believing that the results obtained indicate a greater variation in the composition of thomsonite, than is allowable under the generally accepted formula of Rammelsberg, m (2CaAlSi,O, + 5aq.) n (2Na,AISi,O, +5aq.) the further discussion of the question is reserved for the final repor It was found that a varying quantity of water (usuall about 2 per cent) could o a be driven off at a very hi h temperature, b yet, no simple molecular ratio between this water and the compound has been fo T aterial was dried at 100 The action of this thomsonite before the blowpipe is entirely normal. e thomsonite of Table Mountain was first identified, through a quantitative analysis, by Carlton Hand, at the time a student, now, assistant in assaying, in the School of Mines, at Golden. The analysis was never sistsliaiea and has since been lost 3. Analcite, Analcite follows thomsonite in time of deposition. At the locality mentioned on North Table Mountain, its crystals are pure white or transparent, and vary in size from very small ones, to those nearly an inch in diameter. The predominating form is the common Geko by 4 % 2 Or teccpe its octa- appearance of 3 is very characteristic of the Ta hie Yate analcite, though the form is — r prominent, and is nuee a by an exceedingly narrow line. According to Zirkel,t the form $ has been scare os "but once on analcite, viz: by Laspeyres on that from the Kerguelen islands, *.C. Rammelsberg, Mineral Chemie, 1875, p. 657, ¢ Macmane: -Zirkel, ‘‘ Elemente der Min neralogie. ” Leipzig, 1881. 458 N. H. Darton—New Locality for Hayesine. by some irregularities of grow A second generation of analcite was observed, analogous to that of chabazite, the crystals being very small and clear. They were observed upon apophyllite. n the eastern side of North Table Mountain, analcite is any other zeolite. Large cavities have a floor of analcite, but always in quite small crystals. Natrolite is almost invariably deposited upon it, and frequently small cracks are filled with the same mineral, associated with calcite or natrolite. Analcite was also found in spaces between the pebbles of a conglomerate bed, not far below the basalt, the pebbles being of basic eruptive rocks. Denver, Colorado, April, 1882. [To be continued. | Arr. LIII.—On a new Locality for Hayesine and its novel occurrence; by Netson H. Darton. HayYEsINE has only been found heretofore, as far as I can find, at Iquique, South America, upon the western coast of Africa, and in Nova Scotia, and occurring with gypsum and some allied species, the variety generally containing soda in greater or less but no fix roportion. I now add another locality, which is Bergen Hill. It occurs here, not with gyp- sum, ete., but with datholite and calcite in cavities in the trap : : and 185 feet below the ground above, I found in examining a vein of calcite, etc., ex on the north side, a peculiar min- eral lying upon the crystals in the geode that I did not recog- nize for this locality. It evidently was not pectolite as the fibers were quite soft, even pulverulent. They seemed more * Alfredo Ben-Saude, ‘‘Ueber den Analcim,” in ‘“ Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min- eralogie” etc., 1882, I, 41. N. H. Darton—New Locality for Hayesine. 459 like asbestos than any other species, but still in doubt I secured all that was possible, and wher arriving in New York made a chemical and physical examination of it. A preliminary blow- pipe treatment showed it to be readily fusible and when moist- ened with acid the characteristic green flame proved it to be a ate. The analysis yielded the following results: Calculated to CaB,O; + 3H.0. Baer yale EME ze 18°39 2 Horacic FTG. i Eee eed 46°10 46°05 Se aRenge 35°46 36°53 one SOGAYs ean tac trace Magnesia — 99-95 100-700 have reason to believe that much more may be proe ea by cutting into the vein bios it, and besides there may be many reproductions of the same conditions under which it occurred. The form was that of acicular crystals about 4™" long and very slender. They were grouped together in the form of little mats and Goss lay loosely upon the crystals of calcite (dog- tooth spar). These geodes were surrounded by others of dath- olite and enclosed in a vertical vein 24 to 4 inches wide, se filled with the primary forms of calcite and chlorite. The is quite soft and apd permeable to infiitoring water, Thus de o would thus arrest and hold infiltering solutions. I intend to investigate how datholite is decomposed and borate of lime separated out of its constituents, Laboratory, 319 Pearl street. 460 J. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction amd Circular Art. LIV.—WNotes on the Electromagnetic Theory of Light; by J. Wi~uarp Gisss. No. Il.—On Double Refraction in per- fectly transparent Media which exhibit the Phenomena of Circular Polarization. 1. In the April number of this Journal,* the velocity of he i of a system of plane waves of light, regarded as scillating electrical fluxes, was discussed with such a degree i approximation as would account for the di ee Y colors and give Fresnel’s laws of double refraction. It is the object of this paper to supplement that discussion by aie rhe ap- proximation so much further as is necessary in order to embrace the phenomena of circularly polarizing media. 2. If we imagine all the velocities in any progressive system of plane waves to be reversed at a given instant without affecting the displacements, and the system of wave-motion thus obtained to be superposed upon the original system, we obtain a system of stationary waves having the same wave- length and period of oscillation as the original progressive sys- tem. we then reduce the magnitude of the hel Sool ae in the uniform ratio of two to one, they will be identical, at an i stant of maximum displacement, with those of the original x tem at the same instant. Following the same method as in the paper cited, let us especially consider the system of stationary waves, and divide the whole displacement an the regular part, represented b 4, C, and the irregular part, represented by &’, 7’, 2’, in accord- ance with the detnidous of R 2 of that paper. 3. The regular part of the displacement is subject to the equations of wave-motion, which may be written (in the most general case of plane stationary waves > u ; Uu t &=( a, cos 27—+ a, sin 2m) cos 2 : Z l Pp n=(B, cos oni + Bi sin 2m) eos ae (1) 2=(y, COS ono + ys sin 2m) cos on J where / denotes the wave-length, p the period of clei u the distance of the point considered from the wave-plane pas ing through the origin, a,, 8, 7, the amplitudes of the dais ments §, 7, € in the wave-plane passing through the origin, and @, By 7, their amplitudes in a wave-plane one-quarter of a , * See page 262 of this volume. Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. 461 wave-length distant and on the side toward which w increases. If we also write L, M,.N for the direction-cosines of the wave- normal drawn in ‘the direction in which w increases, we shall have the following necessary relations: L’+M’+N’=1, (2) u=Le+My+ Naz, (3) La,+Mf,+Ny,=0, La,+Mf,+Ny.=0. (4) 4. That the irregular part of the displacement (&’, 4,’ €’) at any given point is a simple harmonic function o the time, having the same period and phase as the regular part of the displacement (€, 7, €), may be proved by the single principle of superposition of motions, and is therefore to be regarded as exact in a discussion of this kind. But the further conclusion of the preene paper (§ 4), “that the values of &, 7’, ¢’ at any given point in the medium are capable of expression as linear “unetions of €, 7, € in a manner which shall be inde- pendent of the time and of the orientation of the wave-planes and ie distance of a nodal plane from the point considered, so long as the period of oscillation remains the same,” is evi- dently only ho areca although a very close approxima- tion. A very much closer approximation may be obtained, if we regard &’, 9’, ¢', at any given point of the medium and for light of a given penoeus as ae fencer of &, 7, € and the nine differential coéfficie dE dn de dé : dx? de’ de’? dy’ a We pn write &, 7, € ond diff. coéff. to denote these twelve uan “ Pon “his it follows immediately that with the same degree of approximation & 1, a may be regarded, for a given point of the medium and light of a given period, as linear functions of , ” t and the differential coéfficients of &, ” * with respect to the codrdinates. For these twelve quantities we shall write ag a ieee L mate each of these quantities for a unit of 6. The statical energy : an infinitesimal acne of volume may be represented by odv, where a is a quadratic function of the components of iisplaseginat E+E’ n+n’, C+0'. Since for 462. J. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction and Circular In estimating the statical energy for any considerable space by the integral / ode, it will be allowable to substitute for the seventy-eight coéfli- cients contained implicitly in o their average values through- out the medium. at is, if we write s for a quadratic func- tion of &, 7, C, and diff. coeff. i in which the seventy-eight coéfti- cients are the space-averages of those in a, the statical energy of any considerable space may be estimated by the integral J sd. (This will appear most distinctly if we suppose the integration to be first effected for a thin slice of the medium d two wave-planes.) The seventy-eight coéfficients of this func- tion s are panei i Re 2 by the nature of the medium and the period of oscillat may divide s ante three parts, of which the first (s,) con- tains the a ee products of €, 7, , the second (s,,) co tains the products of &, 7, € with the differential coéfficients, and the third (s,,,) pe ins the squares and products of the differential coéfficients. It is evident that the average statical energy of the hoe medium per unit of volume is the space- average of s, and that it will consist of three parts, which are the space-averages of s,, s,, and s,, respectively. These parts we may call S,, S_, S,, Only the first of these was con- sidered in the preceding paper. Now the considerations which justify us in neglecting, for n approxi tate estimate, the terms of s which contain the dif- fore, to carry the approximation one step beyond that of the preceding paper, it “ only be necessary to take account of s, and s eae ye S, a : 1. set ry Se ay +Gé&n, (5) | where, for a given medium and light of a given period, A, B, ©, E, F, G are constant. Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. 463 Since the average values of sin’ on, cos” 2a, sin 2no cos on are respectively 4, 4, and 0, and since at the time to be considered t cos® a 1; it will appear from inspection of equations (1) that S,=4(Aa’+ BA" +Cy’+Ef,y,4+Fy.a,+ Ga,f,) +3(Aa’+Bf"+Cy?+Ef,y.+Fy.a,.+Ga.f,). (6) This is the first part of the statical energy of the whole medium per unit - volum second part of the statical energy of the whole medium per ‘unit “of volume is the space-average of s,,, which is a linear function of the twenty- -seven products of &, 7, € with their arpa: coéfficients with respect to the codrdinates. Now ce ~45__ a(S") Bh PA ek Ge * de? “te 7 &? etc., the space-average of such products will be pie ae they will epetiipale nothing to the value of 8. Ther 1 be nine of hese products, in which the same component AE pete saeh hipeare twice. The remaining eighteen products may be divided into pairs according to the letters which they contain, as dé sis ">. and on, A linear function of the eighteen mets may also be rezarded as a linear function “e the sums and differences of the products in such pairs. But si ne fe Palle cine) the terms of 8), containing such sums will contribute nothing to the value of S,. We have left a linear function of the nine differences ne dn ae de dé ae es ae ga ae fae! ete., 4 Sy unwritten expressions being obtained by substituting in he denominators dy and dz for dx,) which constitutes the part 464. J. W. Gibbs— Double Refraction and Circular of s,, that we have to consider. S, is therefore a linear ee of the space-averages of these nine quantities. But by (3 eo at, (12-282), da? dae and the space-average of this, at a moment of maximum displacement, is by (1) aL (Buy sB). By such reductions it appears that /S,, is a linear function of the nine products of L, M, N with . BiV2—ViPr ViG2—NHYr, fi— Byars. Now if we set O=L (fiy2—y1h2)+M (yia,—ay2) +N (af.—fia,), (7) we have by (4) and (2) LO=fh,\y.—yV:f, MO=y,a,—My, NO=a,f,—f,a, (8) Therefore /S, 6 i linear cade of the nine products of L, M, with L6@, M 6. eae s, /S,, is the product of 6 and a quadratic function of L,Ma dN.’ We may therefore write 8,=5 O=F{L(A,y.— yuh.) +M(y,a.— ay.) +N (a, f.— 3,4) |, (9) where @ is a ce uadratic epee of L, M and N, depende nt, the nature of the medium and the period of It will be useful to consider md closely t the geometrical significance of ae quantity 6. For this purpose it will be con- ent to have a definite Se ceuinatis with respect to the rolativd poston of the coordinate axes. _ We sh Ages be the axes of X, Y, and Z are related du lay ofl lines representing - in direction and nage the dis- placements in all the a at wave-planes, we obtain an ellipse, which we may call t displacement-ellipse.* OF 1 this, one radius vector (,) will Ses the components 4, f,, 7;, and * This ellipse, which represents the simultaneous Dopamine cr in different of the field, will also represent the successive displacements at any same point in the corresponding system o Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. 465 another (p,) the components 4,, f,, 7, These will belong to conjugate diameters, each being parallel to the tangent at the extremity of the other. The area of the ellipse will therefore be equal to the decir Sa of which p,, and p, are oh o sides, oR ak by Now it is evident that f;7.—71 8,, —a Tw which the wave-normal is drawn, it follows that 0 is positive or negative according as the combination of displacements has the character of a right-handed or a left-handed screw e kinetic energy of the medium, which is to be esti- mated for an instant of no displacement, may be shown as in § 7 of the former paper (page 266 of this volume) to ¢ sist of two parts, of which one relates to the aschiges! Ras G, 1, o> and the other to the irregular flux ¢ i 2’). The rst, in the notation of that paper, is represented 4/(é Pot & +n Pot +2 Pot 2) dv, which reduces to Us en ae gad +9° +6 ) dw. By substitution of the values given by equations (1), we obtain for the kinetic energy due to the regular flux in a unit of vol- ume =a + PB; +y +al+ B+ y,)- (10) 11. The kinetic energy of the irregular part of the flux is represented by the volume-integra sae’ Pot &’ +77 Pot n +2! Pot 2!) dy. Now, since &,. 7, C' are everywhere linear functions of &, y, ¢ and diff. cob tees § 4), and since the integrations implied in the notation Pe may be confined toa sphere of which the 466 J. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction and Circular radius is small in compariehs with a wave-length,* and since within such a sphere é, ’; ¢ and diff. coéf. are sufficiently de- termined (in a linear form), by the values of the same wales quantities at the center of the sphere, it follows that Eat &, Pot 7, Pot e must be linear functions of the values of &, 1'; 4 and diff. coeff. at the point for which the potential is sought. Hence, 4(&' Pot 2’ +1 Pot 7 +2 Pot 2’) will be a quadratic function Dae a i, C e and dif. coef. But the seventy-eight coéfficients this function is expressed will vary with the position of the int considered with respect to the surrounding molecules. Yet, as in the case of the statical energy, we may substitute the average values of these coéfficients for the coéfficients themselves in the integral by which we obtain the energy of any considerable space. The kinetic energy due to the irregu- lar ‘part of the flux is thus reduced to a quadratic function of é, ” z and diff. coéff. which has comet coéfficients for a given medium and light of a given The function may be divided tno. tie parts, of which the first contains the squares and produets of &, ” C, the second the eae pa of &, qs ¢ with their differential coGfficients, and the , which may be neglected, the squares and products of the differential coéfiicients e may proceed with the reduction precisely as in the case of the statical energy, except that the differentiations with re- x spect to the time will introduce the constant factor —-. This will give for the first part of the kinetic energy of the irregular ux per unit of volume T= (Was + Bis +Cy +EBy, +F'y,a,+G'a,f,) + 2B (Aas + BAS + Cy! +E By.+P'y.a,+@ah,), (1) and for the second part of the same atte = PTL By. 1 B)+Mya,—ay)+N(af,—Ba)h (12) * See § 9 of the former paper, on page 268 of this volume. Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. 467 where A’, B’, C’, EH’, F’, G’ are constant, and ® a quadratic function of L, M, and N, for a given medium and light of a given 12. Equating the statical and kinetic energies, we have 5, +8,=T zs t+ 2 that is, by equations (6), (9), (10), (11), and (12), $(Aa’*+BA?+Cy?+EZf,y,+Fy,a,+Ga,f,) +3(Aa,?+B6+Cy2+Ef,y +Fy,a,+Ga,f,) p +> [L(4.y.—-7,A;) + M(y,¢,—4,7,) + N(a,f,—f,a,) Yk =F (a: +B ty! tast+ pity, 2x7 : - 3 (A'a,? +Bi624+C0'y{+E'By,+F'y,a,+G'a,f) 27" ; te (A'a,’ + BiB2+C'y?+E'f,y,+F'y,a,+G af.) $a tL (By — yf) +M(y,a- apt N(a spay. Os) pl If we set A SrA’ ; B 2zB' = ri we Pe etc., (14) PDP Iz’ and ?~ Sap Pp ’ (15) the equation reduces to aa, +bB'+cy,"+eB,y,+fy,a,+9a,f, +aa,'+bB? +ey, +eB.y.+SV,4, +942, 2 3 +FPL(By.—-7,A,) * M(y,a,—a,y,) + N (a, f,—f,a,)] P pay Sgt Ae ees +h ey, (16) 13. Now this palit which expresses a relation between the constants of the equations of wave-motion (1), will apply, with those Saree not Sea = such vibrations as actually — take place, but also to such as we may imagine to take place under the influence hasan determining the type of ¥ vibration. The free or unconstrained vibrations, with which alone we are concerned, are characterized by this, that infin- ‘itesimal variations (by constraint) of the type of Vesdenege 468 S. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction and Cireular that is, of the ratios of the quantities a, f,,7,, 4, Be ee ior not affect the period by any quantity of the same order magnitude.* ‘These variations must however be consistent oe equations (4), which require that Lda,+Mdf,+Ndy,=0, Lda,+Md6,+Ndy,=0. (17) Hence, to obtain the conditions which characterize free vibra- tion, we may differentiate mi jemi (16) with respect to on Bis Ty 4 Ax 7» regarding all other letters as constant, and give to da,, ap,, dy,, da,, dP,, are sabe values as are eofitet ak equations (17). “Now dj,, dy,, are independent of da,, df,, ay and ei oo ihre variations, values Meygebcy es either to » Ty OF to @, B,, 74) are pos ssible. If, then, we se rentiate ‘i aasii it) ae respect to a,, 8,, 7,, and substitute first a » Zy and th st 4,, Bo 7 for da, dP,, dy, and also difforentiata with respect to a,, f,, 7,, with similar substitutions, we shall ster all the Uilepetident equations which this principle will "dese If we differentiate kp respect to a, f,, 71, and write a, A, 7: for da,, df,, dy,, we obtain aa, +bf,'+ey,+ep,y,+fy.a,+9%P, +P P(L(B,y,—y,8.) +M(y,a,—4a,y,)+N(a,8,—f,a,) | Pr Sales Pets): (18) If we differentiate with Bhi to a, Bi, 71, and write a, Py, 72 for da,, dB,, dy,, we o 2aa,a, + 28,8, + 2cy,y.+ (BY ,+ VP.) +P(Vi 8+ 42) 2 +9(a,h,+ fa.) ~o (a,a,+ BB, + VV 2) (1 9) If we differentiate with Mages tO Gd, Po, 72, and write dy, for da, dB., dy, we obta ze nats aa? +bB)+cy,'+ef,y,+fya,+94,f, +PPIL(B,y,— 7.6.) +M(y,4,—a,y,) +N(a,8,—f,a,)] =S(a +BS +7, )- (20) The equation derived by dilconishar with respec Qn, Po Y2, and writing a, f,, 7; for da,, dP, dy2, is identical “eth “t19), We should also phactes that binetious (18) and (20) by addi- * Compare § 11 of the former paper, page 270 of"this’volume. Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. 469 tion give equation (16), which therefore will 4 need to be considere in addition to the = three equatior lines p, and ps, of which a, y 7, and a, Ao, 7. are eee the components, will now be the semi-axes of the displace- ment-ellipse, and therefore at right angles. (See $9.) The case of circular polarization will not constitute any exception. Hence, a,+f,8,+y,y,=9. (21) and by § 9, O=L(f6,y,—y,8,) +M(y,a, fla +N(a, P— B, a)=p, Pry (22) where we are to read + or — in the last member according as the system of displacements haa the character of a right-handed or a left-hande 15. Equation (19) | is now reduced to the form 24, A, + 208, Bot 2eMi Vet e(Piy¥o+ Vi fs) +P (Vit 2) +9 (a4 f.+ Bya)=0, (28) which has a very simple geometrical signification. If we con- sider the ellipsoid ax® + by* + ez’ + eye + fex+ gay, (24) 2: Mara its central section by a plane parallel to the of the wave-system which we are donseritig: it will cel appear that the equation 2H; Hy + 2by,y> + 202,2,+ €(Yre +2,Ye) + f (Zits + 212s) +9 (Yo + Yikes) =0 will hold of any two points 2, y,, z and a, Ys, 2, which belon to conjugate diameters of this central section. Therefore — Ne ¢ are ne at right iia to ae ne it follows that ¢ tbey are parallel to the axes of the cen-— ral section of the ellipsoid (24) ve a Lenhae That is:— * ay reader will perceive that an earlier a of the position of the a supposition of this nature, involving a limitation of the values - ae rs V1; @a, rk Ye, would have been embarrassing in t the operations of the last para- graph. 470 = oS. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction and Circular The axes of the displacement-ellipse coincide in direction with those of a central section of the ellipsoid (24) by a wave-plane. we write U,, U, for the reciprocals of the semi-axes of the central section of the ellipsoid (24) by a wave-plane, being the reciprocal ist the one to which the displacement a, A, 7: 18 parallel, we aa +bB Ye +ey, ee We (a+ f,°+7”,’), (25) as is at once evident, if we substitute the codrdinates of an extremity of the axis, for the proportional quantities a, (3, 7. So also G0" + O82 + ey. + PoVotfY 22+ J Af.=U,* (ay + B+ 2"). (26) If we write V for the velocity of Poe of the system of progressive waves corresponding to the system of stationary waves which we have been considering, we shall have ; : Vv=-. < (27) By most? (22), (25), and (26), equations (18) and (20) are reduced to the f Usp Lop.=V'p!, Us" po ‘+ Fpp=V'p:, (28) where we are to read + or — according as the ane has the character of a rae handed or a left-hande progressive system of waves, when the sonic bneatich of displace- ments has the character of a right-handed screw, the rotations will be such as appear clock-wise to the observer, who looks in the direction opposite to be tek propagation of light. We shall call such a ray right-ha We may here observe Hes in aH y=0 the solution of these a is very simple. We have oe either p.=0 =U;, or pj=0 and V*=U,". In this case, the light is linearly polarized, and the directions of veritas and the velocities of propagation are given by Fresnel’s law. Experi- ment has shown that this is the usual case. We wish, however, to sins See the case in which ¢ does not vanish. Since the term containing a arises from the consideration of those ciuantities which was allowable to neglect in the first approximation, we may, assume that ¢ is always very small in comparison with V*, or U,*. 17. Equations (28) may ie written 2 Pp Pr Oy YP ViUSty 5 V-US=2e (29) Pr Py Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. 471 By multiplication we obtain ; Vv? (VU) (V*—U;)=9 2 (30) Since g is a very small quantity, it is evident from inspection : ag equation that it will admit three values of V®, of sty will be a very little greater than the grea ter of the we have to do are those which differ ree little from U,? and Us. ‘For the numerical StS po of Y, n U,, U,, an vw are known numerically, we may divide ee ate ae = and then solve it as if the aac member were known. This will give vu ci Jan) gee ea Seo (31) By substituting U,U, . V* in the hots member, we may approximation to the two values of V2. Each of the values obtained may be improved by substitution of that value for V* in the second member of the equation For either value of V*, we may easily find the ratio of p, to fx, that is, the ratio of the axes of the ep accent nee from one of equations (29), or from the equatio be et bs Pal ores y*-U* (32) obtained by combining ee In equations (29), we are to read + the second members, according as the ray is right- anit or left- beak (See $16.) It follows that if the value of ¢ is positive, the : : : the the ae is tha ¢ case. Ex xcept when g = 0, and the polari ri- zation 1s linear, there will be one right-handed and one left- handed ray for any given wave-normal and period. 18, When U, = U;, equations (29) give Pi = Ps, V =U +, * We should not stagione yg Lon significance to the third value of V2, For this value would imply a e-length very small in comparison with the length of ordinary waves of light, and with respect to which our fundamental - assumpiion that the wave-length is it in comparisou with the distances of gth is very ee molecules would be entirely false. Our analysis, therefore, tira! a that any such velocities are possible for the propagation Giesttical Maeavba Am. Jour. Sct. teas Serres, Vou. XXIII, No. 138.—Jung, 1882 32 4 sf 472 oS. W. Gibbs—Double Refraction and Circular where U represents the common value of U; and U;. The polarization is therefore circular. The converse is also evident from equations (29), viz: that a ray can ey circularly polarized e direction of its wave-normal is such that U,=U,. Such a direction, which i detonated by a pieulee section of the ellipsoid vo presse - an optic axis of a crys- tal which conforms to Fresnel’s law of double refraction, may be called an optic axis, although its s physia properties are not the same as in the mor inary case. we write Vp an V,, respectively, for the wave- welcahes of the right-handed and left-handed rays, we have 2 ; 2.772 Pp =U*+ +e Pelt ove 5 (33) whence - v. r+ i“ ee +y)= a ee and ViVi (34) L ‘The phenomenon best observed with respect to an optic axis is the rotation of the plane of linearly polarized light. If we denote by @ the amount of this rotation per unit of the distance traversed by the wave- we regarding it as Hosa when it appears s clock-wise to the observer, who looks in the direction opposite to that of the propagation of the ieee we have a 6=—( — — > Ave va) es By the preceding equation, this reduces to °= EVE (36) Our pa arate pon ledge of circularly or Bom tiered Sarah: media is cinbiee'y such as are optically either isotropic or uniaxia ral theory of such se embracing the case of two optic axes, has Soueye: fer discussed by Professor von Lang. eorie der Circeularpolarization, Sitz.-Ber. Wiener Akad. vol. Ixxy, p. 719.) The general results of the present paper, although derived pore physical hypotheses pr an entirely different ner are quite similar to those of the memoir cited. They would become identical, the writer believes, by the substitution of a constant for ” ori in the equations of this paper. [See es- pecially equations Ge (20), (2 8) That a complete discussion of the subject on any theory must include the case of biaxial media having the property of circular or elliptical polarization, is evi- dent i i m i Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. 473 Without any ol) ha error, we may substitute U‘ for ~V,’ Vz’, which will giv ; =78. (37) 19, Since these acs involve unknown functions of the ‘period, they will not serve for an exact determination of the relation between @ and the period. For a rough approxima- tion, however, we may assume that the manner in which the _generai displacement in any small part of the medium dis- tributes itself among the molecules and intermolecular “isp is independent of the period, being determined entirely by th values of &, %, C, and bes differential coéfficients with nna to the coérdinates.t For a fixed direction of the wave-normal, @’ will then be soaieant Now equations (15) and (36) us p 272° @' “wp VeVe pave 2 To express this result in terms of the quantities directly ob- served, we may use the equations A k eae Vas V.=—, Tae where & denotes the velocity of light in vacuo, 2 the wave- ‘length im vacuo of the eit employed, Np, ry the absolute indi- -ces of refraction of the two rays, and n the index for the optic axis as eit from the ellipsoid (24) by Fresnel’s law. We thus obta _ GOnz*n,’ 270° O'ng’ ny" ee 9) In the case of uniaxial crystals, the direction of the optic axis is fixed. We may therefore wri “Vd. Wag © 0=n,*m, (5. : (40) ‘regarding K and K’ as constants. If we had used ae (37), we should have had the factor n‘ instead of np’n * The degree of accuracy of this substitution may be shown as follows. By es Vs (Va?—U)=Vi (U?—Vi 9), *whence VnF+Vi PF =(Ve + Vi )U*, Vz2—Va Ng 4+-Vi ied 3 is —(Ve aaa Vali: Vi). + Compare § 12 of the former paper, on page 270 of this volume. 474. JS. *W«. Gibbs— Double Refraction and Circular Since this factor varies but slowly with 4, it may be neglected, if its omission is compensated in the values of K and KY. The. formula being only approximative, such a simplification will not i aia render it less accurate. without any such assumption as that contained in the finer paraire , we may easily obtain formule for the ex- perimental determination of @ and @’ for the optic axis of an uniaxial crystal. Considerations analogous to those of § 13. of the former paper (page 271 of this volume), show that in differentiating equation (89) we may regar and @ as con- stant, although they may actually vary with 4) This equation may ‘be written OM @. : Bx O' pe cai Seeley (41). Therefore, 6 2 a) =—27'°9'” (42). a(ys) When @ has been determined by this equation, @ may be aoe from the preceding. . If we wish to represent g geometrically, = U, and U,,. we Aa construct the surfaces Aw’ + By’? + 02? + ny2+F2e+Gry=+1, (43): the coéfficients * B, ete., being the same by which ¢ is ex- pressed in terms 0 L , M*, ete. The numerical value of g, for any direction of the wave- ‘normal, will thus be represented by the square of the reciprocal o the radius vector of the surface: drawn in ee: same direction. The positive or negative charac- ter of g must be separately indicated. There are here two eases to be Saeed If the sign of g is the same in all. - directions, the surface will be an ellipse, and we have only to know whether all the values of ¢ are to be taken positively or all negatively. But if g is positive for some directions and negative for others, the surface will consist of two conjugate hyperboloids, to one of which the positive, and to the other the negative values 39, The manner in which the ellipsoid (24) may be par- tially determined i the relations of symmetry which the medium may possess, has been sufficiently discussed in the for- mer With m reupest to the quantity g, and the surfaces which determine it, the following principle is of fundamental import- ance. If one y is identical in its internal structure with the image by reflection of another, the values of gin corres- __ Polarization in perfectly transparent Media. — 475 sponding lines in the two bodies will be numerically equal but ‘have opposite signs.* It follows ie if a body is pores in internal structure ith its own image by reflection, the value of ¢ (if not zero for ail directions) must be positive ‘for some directions and nega- tive for othe reflection of the other. This ae that the hyperboloids shall be right cylinders with conjugate rectangular hyperbo- las for bases. A crystal characterized dy suc prove kind from an ordinary uniaxial crystal, unless the ellipsoid (24) should approach very closely to a sphere. It is only in the very limited case described in the last para- graph that a medium which is identical in its internal struct- images vy reflection, ad have the property of circular polariza- tion, we on apply the itlowins general principles. medium has any axis ‘of symmetry, the ellipsoid or hyperboloi which Sie the values of g will have an axis in same directi If the medium a revolution of io ol 180° abo me any axis is quienes o the medium in its first position, the epee or hyperbolids will have an axis of revolution in that dir 23. The laws of the sale a of light in plane waves, which Sees thus been derived from the single hypothesis that the disturbance by which light is transmitted consists of solen- oidal electrical fluxes, and which a ly to light of different colors and to the most general case of perfectly transparent and sensibly homogeneous media not subject to magnetic poe: are essentially those pagan are generally received as *The necessity of the opposite signs will perhaps appear most readily from the obuiseaueon that the direction of veletiien of the plane of polarization must be opposite in the two ies, here is no difficulty in conceiving of the constitution of a body which could have properties described above. Thus, we may imagine a body with mole- cules of a spiral form, of which one-half are right-handed and one rs eft- handed, and we may suppose that the motion te lectricity is opposed a less” resistance within them than without. If the axes of the hese mouilen are parallel to the axis of X, and those of the left-handed molecules to the axis of Y, their effects would counterbalance one another pep the se is par- allel to the axisof Z. But when the wave-norma’ a beam of linearly polar- ized light), is parallel to the axis of X, the an ea eg sales les oe gc peo i i i nee ¢ The rotation of — pla ne of polarization chien is produced by ne er action has been discussed by Maxwell ( Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii, Chap. XX), and rs Rowland (Amer. Journ. Math., vol. i, p. 107). 476 J. M. Clarke—New Phyllopod Crustaceans. embodying the results of experiment. In no pea so far- as the writer is aware, do they conflict with the results of ex- periment, or require the aid of worn and ioroed. hyphens to bring them into harmony therew In this respect, the spaces tts theory of light stands in marked contrast with that theory in which the properties of an elastic ste are attributed to the ether,—a contrast which was- very distinct in Maxwell’s derivation of Fresnel’s laws from electrical puceliee, but becomes more striking as we follow the subject farther into its details, and take account of the want 8 absolute scraped in the medium, so as to embrace- nomena of the dispersion of colors and circular and eile ptiont aden Art. LV.— New Phyllopod Crustaceans Jrom the Devonian of Western New York; by JoHN M. CLarkeE, Smith College. With a Plate (annumbered.) Estheria pulex,n. sp. Plate, fig. 4. IN examining some fragments of soft, olive- colored shale- from near the base of the Hamilton proper, in Miles’ Gully, Hopewell, Ontario Co., I have detected the above representa- tive of this extremely pe coe The little pet ee are never more than in wi Fae in length, a described as having the ula margin nearly semi- Girkulay e beak central or very slightly solenior hinge line sloping tay, The surface is marked by six, or in the largest. seven, concentric ridges which are very broad with narrow in- tervenin g furrows. There appears to be no more elaborate: sculpturing of the carapaces than Jones has figured for his. ° . membranacea, which is the simplest of any as yet. noticed. It is irene to notice that this Estherca, the first ever found the Trias in America and nowhere at so low an horizon a et resembles in its sub- a beak, its outline- and surface markings, this species just referred to, E. mem- branacea Jones, from the Old Red of at as while all others . figured by that author (Mon. Esth. Paleontogr. Soc., vol. xviii) are from higher horizons, have the beak anterior, and the out- line of the carapace more nearly sub-trigonal. recent Hstherie vie found in fresh, or, in possible cases, brackish waters. In some general remark in thie connection. Jones has said that “seeing that Estherie appear in pools and ditches of rain-water, it is not unlikely that pools of fresh water- temporarily formed on a flat sea-shore may have been inhab bited: oe ¢ J. M. Clarke—New Phyllopod Crustaceans. ATT by Estherie, destined to be quickly buried in the first wind- drift of sand on the return of high tide.” We can not prove from this | species, HZ. pulex, the presence of fresh-water deposits in the Hamilton, but the evidence is fairly in favor of brackish water pools, guarded from the action of the waves of the open ocean and depositing a smooth muddy bottom. Associated with these clannish little fellows are undescribed species of Beyrichia, Leperditia, Entomis, with a species of Discina not identified, and this association, omitting the Discina, is not an impossible one for such a bra ckish water pond. Even the Discina itself is not a serious objection to it, as I have found but a single example, which may have been washed in either as a dead she l, or as a live one, and if the latter, may have soon yielded to its unfavorable environment and dis ed, or have adapted itself to the change and have lived on in an abnormal condition, as this specimen seems to prove. Spathiocaris, n. g. (G2a6n=a spathe.) Plate, figs. 1, 2, 3. rapace in one piece ) oblong- -elliptical ; dimensions when Car. normal, length : width :: ‘ nterior and posterior mar- ginal curvature of the he ‘value except near the sides of the ce of dorsal suture except in the fact that when gin Noor eet as many specimens are, the line of folding is usually straight from apex to anterior margin, but there is no external mark of a commissure in the ornamentation lines on the surface.. It has for several years been a matter of some doubt to myself, whether this fossil should be looked upon as crustacean, which I now believe it to be, or some new form of Discinoid brachio- pod which it very closely resembles, but my reasons for nt ing it the former lie in the fact that while I have in m sion thirty specimens, all that have as yet been found and all from a layer only a few inches in thickness, they show a great variation In size from a length of four to sixty millimeters, a fragment of an unusually large individual showing a probable — length of even eighty or ninety mil sowie gad is not a fact to expect rte the Discinoid brachiopod reover, every mt the carapace, so that a among them there is’ no evidence of the ventral or oodward from the Moffat shales of seaimarsdattet (qan Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xxii), agrees with Spathiocaris in the — 478 J. M. Clarke—New Phyllopod Crustaceans. anchylosis of ah lateral valves and its wide, wedge- age ie cleft, but differs in the presence of the “rostrum” or plate acting as da: anid vad to cover the cleft, and also in its more nearly circular outli The srnaisetanien nat the surface of the carapace in this species, S. Hmersonti, n. sp., consists of low concentric ridges a more eer dees on the sides than at the eign of the valves. ee of the cleft these lines show inane re a retral beads Radiating lines from he apex of the cleft to the margin cover the anterior portion of the carapace and give to this part a strong decussate sculpturing which is rarely noticeable along the margins of the cleft. I am not satisfied that I have seen the abdominal arthromeres of this neg though it will be only a matter of time for their detectio The geological horizon in which gu occurs, the Portage, is usually regarded as barren of fossils in New York, but is show- ing under ‘careful scrutin ny many facts of paleonto ological i inter- est au = fairly especially in the direction of the ates crustac Hacc N aples, Ontario Co., N. x Fig. 1, Spathiocaris Emersonii, shows the carapace free from sag seesgia ih ith an un oo central apex. ot . The same, young.—Fig. 3. e, wing by la compression the usual position of. the apex = aches, of ea Staal fore se well as the position na the possible dorsal sutu Lisgocaris, n. g. (Aioyos=a shovel.) Carapace in one piece, without evidence of dorsal suture. Periphery sub- pentagonal, lateral edges parallel, making shar angles with the two anterior e ges nterior edges re- entrantly enrved and meeting in the axis of the carapace. As in the genus Spathicaris, there is an sti oe cleft beg ining cen- trally and at the highest point of the carapace, which is con- cored elevated, and widening to the posterior margin. This species, Z. Luther’, has the surface of the gat con- centicl y marked with fine, crowded, impressed lin No o idence of abdominal arthromeres. This is a very ‘daliede orm feat uring three by two millimeters, which has been rie near the base of the Hamilton proper in the same horizon | as Estheria pulex. It belongs to the apus type of the et Fs oe with Peltocaris Salter, Disecinocaris Woodward, and Spath tocaris. Northampton, Mass. aie ee tee NS ie a A W. L. Stevens—Organ-Pipe Sonometer. 479 Arr. LVI.—An Organ-Pipe Sonometer ; by W. LECONTE EVENS.* WHILE using the sonometer in illustrating the laws of vibra- tion of stretched cords and the nature of musical scales, it has been found desirable to have an instrument on which division- marks were properly arranged to furnish the operator the means of contrasting the scale of equal temperament with the true natural scale, and thus showing to some extent the error of the ordinary keyed instruments. In demonstrating the laws of vi- bration of columns of air, moreover, it is not always easy to obtain the successive notes of the harmonic series from a single pipe. If the fundamental is pure and strong, either the upper harmonics are unattainable or several are attained at the same moment, and the untrained ear fails to single out the one to which attention is invited. If a single standard of pitch be kept at hand for comparison, the auditor must be practiced in estimating musical intervals; hence a tuning fork alone is not sufficient for most persons. It occurred to me that the union of sonometer with organ pipe in a single instrument would be attended with some advantages, particularly in connection with the exhibition of Bernoulli’s laws. The following device has been found very satisfactory. : The resonance-box consists of a double organ pipe of spruce, which is rested horizontally on the lecture table. e two em- may be thrust, by means of its handle, half way into one of the pair, converting it at will into a stopped pipe whose funda- mental is the same as that of the open pipe of double its length, The upper wall consists of a single plate of pe 5™™ thick, that forms the sound-board of the sonometer. Firmly fixed at each end is a bloek of hard wood (é, 6’) into which pee pins s are driven for the attachment of three steel wires which pass over the fixed bridges (¢, ¢’). The latter are exactly 1® apart, in contact with the ends of a strip of wood divided at each edge into millimeters, and occupying the middle of the sound-board. This strip not only serves as a guide for the movable bridges - _ * Presented before the New York Academy of Sciences, May Ist, 1882. 480 W. L. Stevens—Oryan-Pipe Sonometer. (d, d’) but makes it easy to mark off the division lines at their proper places. A longitudinal line divides its surface into two equal parts; that on the side toward the operator is marked off so as to give cord- mi gr for the natural scale, by changing the fractions 3, 4, 3, et , into decimals. e results are indicated, correct to three clave on the millimeter scale. ree octaves. in succession are thus marked off; the lines for the first octave ec TEMPESED LY NATURAL natural scale. These are marked off for two octaves, the lines extending half way to the edge. The other side of the central strip (¢ é , fig. 2) is marked off to give cord-lengths for the suc- cessive semitone intervals of the scale of equal temperament. These are easily calculated with the aid of a table of logarithms ; for since the twelve intervals of this scale are equal, the succes- sive vibration-numbers form a geometric series, in which the common ratio is r= 8/2 = 105946. The ee of this is the ratio for cord-lengths, and is ry’ = -94388. W. L. Stevens—Organ-Pipe Sonometer. 481 Thus, the cord-length for C being one meter, we have for OF, J=944™; for D, =891™™, etc. Two octaves are thus marked off for the scale of equal temperament, with twelve division- lines to the octave, while on the other side are twenty-one to the octave. es ference in position of the bridges being easily detectible even hen the ear fails to distinguish between the two sounds. Ev- ery note in the two scales can thus be compared in a few mo- Metts, starting with C as key note. : The necessity for temperament, and yet the unavoidable derived key for purposes of comparison ; for example, that of G. For this purpose a separate strip (4,/”, fig. 2), properly marked off, is placed at the side of the central strip, the mov- able bridge being grooved below to slide over It. It is pre- The division-marks 4, 4, 4, }, 4, ete., each labeled with the name of the corresponding note, C’, G’, C”, BE”, G”, ete., as well 482 Scientific Intelligence. as with the figures composing the fraction, render it easy to ogee with quickness and accuracy the first ten or twelve notes the harmonic series, besides facilitating experiments on co- flan. To obtain the rappin series from the open organ-pipe, it is found convenient to mo the size of the embouchure and the diameter of the sae ” For this last purpose a piece of wood, 120™ long, 6™ wide, and 2™ thick, is thrust into the pipe next the operator, thus practically diminishing the volume of air set in motion, and increasing the ratio of length to width. A sliding plate (g, ‘fig, 1,) of thin sheet-iron serves to narrow the embouchure at will. By varying the force of the blast from the lungs eight or ten successive notes of the harmonic series are thus secured and co mpared at the same time with those obtained by aid of the wire and labeled scale. The stop can then be thrust into one pipe, and several of the odd series of harmonics elicited. e wali of the pipe next the operator is perforated with three small holes, at distances 4, 3, ?, from the open end. These are kept stopped with plugs, which may be sveeda at will. Immediately around them the wall is covered with sheet rubber (A, h), to secure an air-tight fit for the funnel (4) from which a tube (/) conveys waves ‘to a manometric capsule. The position of nodal points in the air-column is thus shown. By fitting the tube (7) upon a Y-tube like that shown at (m), and interposing between this and another Y-tube a pair of rubber tubes, one of which is longer than the other by a half wave- length, the apparatus can be utilized for illustrating interference, with the aid of the manometric flame. 40 West Fortieth street, New York, May 3d, 1882. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. J. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. New upparatus for determining Melting Points—Cross and Se have proposed a simple method for determining melting points which is free from some of the objections of other methods. A small strip of thin sheet iron 9 by 17™™ has a hole cut at one end to admit the bulb of the thermometer, which it fits somewhat closely, and contains a small indentation near the other end 1°5™ deep and 2™" in diameter. A glass float is also made, of very fine tube with a small bulb at its lower end, into which i is sealed a wire of the float is pla n it sia allow fixed by Pee The plate is hes attaphed to the chavenainte Chemistry and Physics. 483 ter and the whole is immersed in mercury. On_ heating this meet, the thermometer —_ watched, a point is reached at 105°0°, mercuric chloride at 258°3° sini sodium nitrate at Sugg is m. Soc., xli, 111, March, 188 2. On the o “itical aap ‘of Organic Licute we LEWSKI has given the results of an extended investigation of the critical tnipotasties of pees liquids. He finds, (1) that the critical temperatures of homologous compounds differ from their boiling points by a poset quantity; (2) that isomeric ethers have the same or very nearly the same critical temperatures; (3) ee. pais (4) that the critical temperature T,, of a mix- tw uids can be expressed by the formula T,, nT 100-n)T" HE oo in which m and 100—n are the percentages of the constituents and T and T’ their critical temperatures; (5) th the above formula gives the means for determining the er vitical are known, critical temperatu f the less volatile constituent, that of the more volatile one is obtained by transposing the formula T’= 100 T,.—nT Pinan: volatile liquids can be obtained from the same formula, provi the critical raha of the mixture and of each constituent is known, since n—100( ,"--). Owing to the facility with which (6) that the percentage composition of mixtures of water attacks glass at high temperatures, the action beginning even at 240°, the author has not been able to fix very accurately the critical temperature of this liquid. Beg Berl. meee phi Xv, 460, sabi ge Carbon ay SEY a and Vase pe n be : by recrystallization from ether. Alcohol also eonlbe the erystal- lization. The new body is thus obtained in the i w bright rismatic crystals—or if slo zs separated, of rhombic lee having the composition C.S,Br,, r carbon tri ide. It fuses at 125° to a red liquid eer 484 Scientific Intelligence. on cooling. At higher temperatures it decomposes evolving rown-red condensible fumes and leaving a coal. en pure it has no odor or taste. It is insoluble in water, difficultly soluble in cold ether, alcohol and glacial acetic acid, somewhat more easily in benzene, petroleum naphtha, chloroform, and entirely in CS, and bromine. ilute alkalies in the cold are without action; on heating with NaOH it decomposes as follows: C.S,Br, +(NaOH),, =(Na,CO,),+ Na,8, + (NaBr),+(H,O),. The author gives four possible constitutional formulas for this crit ty ee 2 cj =e" c} ~8_B d ==N— Dr. a a 7 body, S =s—Br °}( —S—Br? Brs ets c} Br oa 22 Br C ae ot : = ES, Br.=C—S—S—S—C=Br,. He gives the preference to the lat- ter on account of the decomposition products. The oily body from which it was produced gave on analysis CS,Br, or Br,=S =—C=S=Br,. The crystalline body is therefore a condensation product of thé oily one.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, 273, Feb- ruary, 1882. G. F. B. 4, On anew Sulphur oxychloride.—OcieR has obtained a new oxychloride of sulphur by heating to 250° in sealed tubes a mix- ture of equal weights 8,Cl, and SO,Cl,. The liquid becomes dark red in color and on opening the tubes SO, is evolved, and a liquid remains which distills at 60°, and gives on analysis the formula S,OC1,. It is formed according to the equation (S,C1,).+ ‘gi : (SO,Cl,),=(S,0Cl,).+S0,+8. It is a dark red liquid of density 1-656 at U°, and of a repulsive odor recalling that of sulphur chloride. Water decomposes it, yielding sulphur, sulphurous and sulphuric acids, hydrogen chloride and some thionic acids. Heat of 100° decomposes it into sulphurous oxide, sulphur chloride and chlorine. Its calculated density is 3°84; observed 3°98, 3°84, 3°75 by Victor Meyer’s method; 3:9 by the method of Dumas. The author supposes it to be derived from the hypothetical body ing from 741°29 to 766°2"™, gave as a mean for 1 + 100a, 1°37317. ‘The mean under constant pressure was 1°37908. In the Cailletet apparatus the gas was easily liquefied, the pressure required at various temperatures being as follows: At 0°, liquid at 12°5 at-— Chemistry and. Physics. 485 9°8°, 44; at 41°2°,45; at 63°0°, 59; at 69°, 65; at It is thus intermediate in its properties between CS, and CO,.— Bull. Soe. Ch., I, xxxvii, 294, April, 1882. Ga. Fr. B. 6. On the Formation of Metallic Alloys by Pressure. —In 1878 and 1880 Sprine showed that many substances when sub- & Hho ? . over it melted completely in water at 7 . Rose’s alloy, after two pressings, melted in boiling water. Zinc _ Acid, after Wollaston’s method. But to his surprise both plati- um and silver dissolved in the acid, having united the two into a definite alloy.— Ber. Berl. Chem. on xv, 595, March, 18 G “ald - On s alde- ba and ethylene oxide form many analogous compounds, but i dene has not been prepared. Hanrior has sought to produce ed to 5°, in ng as it remains clear. The aldehyde absorbs nearly two-thirds of its weight of HCl. The _ liquid is then immediately distilled, in vacuo, a vessel of caustic lime being placed between the receiver and the water pump. Under a pressure of 1° of mercury a liquid passes over boiling 486 Scientific Intelligence. pressure of 4°™ of mercury. The first of the above liquids being . apy j OH ethylidene monochlorhydrin CH (| > the author regards the ‘ : -4 CH,CHCI ) second as symmetrical mono-chlorethyl oxide CH CHC] (9 analogous to ethyl oxide HCH’ Lo. This constitution he has verified by causing zine ethyl to react upon the body. The H,CHCH,CH, action is prompt and there results secondary CH meets CH, butyl oxide. Sodium ethylate gives the same e thylidene oxy- 4 chloride in which one of the chlorine Soran is ae eo ced by oxethyl.— Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xxv, 219, February, 1 c. F. B. 4 On the Constitution of Quinones.—J arp and StTREATFEILD . have pointed out the probability that the reaction with aldehyde 4 and ammonia belongs to the class of condensations in the ortho 4 series and that consequently it ought not to be capable of exten- 4 sion to para-quinones. Indeed they suggest this reaction as a E proof of the ortho- = ne in quinones. aving found that both 4 benzoquinone and aphthoquinone yield with benzaldehyde a g. ro , hot eee silky needles were obtained of the composition Co HNO, peg benzenyl-amido-chrysol.—J. Chem. si ae 157, April, 1882 es a Preparation of Alizarin-orange. — sison ‘Tie =a observed that if dinitro-oxyanthraquinone is suspended in boiling = water and very little of a 20 per cent solution of sodium hydrate be added, a deep red solution of the sodium salt is at first formed a ammonia to 100° for one hour in a sealed tube. On solution in B A ee ect siete is and then the color passes: into ae e, and a dark red flocky - sodium salt separates. This decomposed with HCl and the yel- ; low peuslve erystallized from glacial acetic acid, mare beautiful 4 orange-red needles of a mono-nitro-alizarin, £- -nitro-alizarin.' It 4 fuses at boat , and dyes orange with alumina, The ‘Tenet is: | ae C,,H,0,(O H) (NO,) ), + KOH=KNO, + C,,H,0,(NO,) (OH),. The: 33 constitution of the ae is thus fixed.—Ber. Berl. Chem. — ahr xv, , 692, March, 1882. G. F. B. 0 ¢ composed of several curves, and a special study is made of Glan’s _ photometer; the Siskrienent: is then applied to a very ae By ee Chemistry and Physics. 487 e study of the composite character of the absorption curves give certain values of the constants used in the theoretical formulas. _ A portion of the paper is devoted toa reéxamination 0 subject, and finds a eee agreem rp between nee and experiment. His earlier papers are contained in Wied. Ann., iv, p. 58, 1878; Wied. Ann., xiv, p. 523, 1881,— Wied. Ann., ao 3, pp. ee, 1882. upo chloride of barium, chloride strontium, chloride of calcium chloride of magnesium ae chloride of manganese.—Ann der Physik und Chemie, No. 3 2, pp. 391-412. BR 3. Electrical Baliweenee or a Vacuum.—E. Evuvxp* reviews the ¢ observations 0 various experim menters upon the electrical finds no di iculty in explaining th nection betwe elec- trical disturbances on h with various pheno on on the sun’s surf The celestial bodies are mutually influ- r eae, spas is a necessa hen for electrical action is eous ; and the terms expressing conductibility therefore lose bivstoct i meaning. arious material bodies oppose a greater ec to the solar rays, which were concentrated upon a blackened Mer placed at the focus. The boiler was surrounded by a glass e action of t odies is passive not active.-—Ann. We . Physik und Chemiey No. 4, 1882, pp. 514-533. 3 pe he engines of Mouchot and others which are? 488 Scientific Intelligence. cylinder, and the steam arising from the boiler was condensed in a serpentine condenser. The number of calories utilized by the apparatus was deduced from the weight of water distilled per hour; and hourly actinometric observations gave the number of calories that were received by the apparatus. At the same time number of calories utilized and that received were expressed in great calories (kilogramme-degré) received in one hour upon 1° ‘of surface normal to the solar rays; their quotient gave the effi- ciency of the apparatus. The following table expresses the princi- pal results obtained: Average Value of Results obtained during 1881, per 1™4 per 1%. Maximum Cal. Cal. Heat received directly ------- ooo eOlGL 945°0 (25 April.) Heat utilized by apparatus- .----- 258°8 547°5 (15 June.) Mean of efficiency -....--------- °491 0°854 (14 June.) Under the most ‘favorable circumstances, that is to say, with an sulphate, as has been supposed. Analysis showed the presence of lime and magnesium oxides with water and organic matter. Eliminating accidental impurities and considering the scale an impure lime salt, it gave the composition H,O 7°95, CaO 24°32, organic matter 67°73. e organic acid was separated from the is . 5 . . . . finely pulverized scale by dilute sulphuric acid in quantity short of saturation of the calcium, and salts of zinc, lead, silver, magne- sium and calcium respectively found with it and subsequently analyzed with results very closely agreel o the assumption ng t e that the sorghum scale is a two-thirds metallic calcic aconitate Te Ss ees sr ete ee gi Bi ais Eee oe meaa ae yi AR a CPEs Eee aye oe ee rae ee Geology and Natural History. 489 with one molecule of combined water (CaHC,H,O,.H,O) aconitic acid =C,H,O,. Arno Behr has determined the presence of acon- itic acid in the melado of the West Indies, (Bericht. der deutsch. ¢ hem, Ges., x, 251). It also exists, as is well known, in the Juices of the Monkshood or Wolfsbane (Aconitum Napellus), and of Blue rocket (Delphinium Consolida) as calcium aconitate, the same salt now found in sugar cane juice and sorghum. B. S. II. GroLtocy anp Natura History. 1. The Climatic Changes of later Geological Times: a Dis- cussion based on observations made in the Vordilleras of North by J. D. W ; : 121 to 264, 4to. vu, No, 2, Part II, of the Memoirs of the Museum of Com- i] Rn oe a ce ©Q bax} oO ee & © ® ° S Rm @ ad i) 4 bs) R ™m co ES a 5 a} = 3 08 a @ DR R L n Pe fe s p i Ps) ct ® oY ane S “ eo oo ® - are not compatible with density of population or with intellectual _Vigor”—namely, “the countries in question have become very roposition is sustained by citations from obse ers as to nishing water-surface of the basin of the Aral and Caspian, e dryness of the table-land of Persia, on account of which 490 Scientific Intelligence. mission, has attributed to a ah Seacee reduction in the rainfall of modern — consequent on a gradual change in the climate of Central Asi The eiiaene of lakes and the making the number few ee once there were many in Western Thibet and Turkestan is gon to the same general cause by Von Schla- intweit and the Geological Survey of India—“a progressive decrease of precipitation.” he same report is derived from other parts of Asia. Among many other similar accounts it is said of Arabia— it is a well established fact that the volume of flowing water is constantly diminishing ;” of the region bordering on the low er Euphrates and Tigris, once the most fruitful land of anti- some 3,000 square miles, formerly so rich in oases, which, thirty one eenturies ago, cou d. send into the field 135 000 swo ordsmen, is abandoned to a few hundreds of a mongrel Eg to-Bedawi race, half peasants, half nomads;” of Egypt, a similar history; of Greece, as Professor Unger repor ts—‘‘ instead of the former fruit- ful and well-watered meadows and peipies now only dry fields and bosky hills devoid of forests are to be found, cate in conse- quence of this, it is impossible that Greece should ever be again drawn within the circle of bic iccstl culture ;” and Picfesuok Fraas, recognizing the same cause s: ‘On the present soil of the Nile-land never again will any "philosophical syotemn be developed, tew only as examples 0 them are here cited. fact of gradual desiccation is further sustained by reports with regard to the Sahara region, Central Africa and South America In discussing causes for the desiccation in progress since the Cretaceous era, Protessor Whitney sets aside the idea of any of the diminished precipitation. Finally, he takes up the question —‘‘Has the solar radiation been diminishing | in ihe rie d f sun has been losing in Anois? power. In the third part of Pro- fessor Whitney’s important ei yet to be published, he will endeavor to show that “the ideas maintained are not in conflict with the phenomena of the so-called Glacial epoch.” } ; Geology and Natural History. 491 Third Appendix to the Fifth Edition of Dana’s System of Disienwoos by Epwarp S. Dana. 186 pp. 8vo. New Yor (John Wiley & Sons).—This Third Appendix is stated to be de- on is Bouble the size ay the pr ae tem It contains 5 fall qeeecptois of all species announced as new, some three hundred in number, and also references to all mineralogical memoirs, published during this period. From the latter many new analyses are quoted and new facts in regard to physical chataceete and localities. A list of punches pie works and of mineralogical journals is given in the ene 3. The nae “Monticulipora. —Mr. §. A. Mutter has an arti- cle in the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, for April, 1882 (v, p. 25), showing that the subdivisions of this genus of fossil nN he by Professor H. A. Nicholson in his recent memoir, base specimens from the Cincinnati group, in Ohio, have various olgestinns and criticising other points in the memoir. 4. Handbook or riage hard ae for Laboratories and Seaside Work: ; W.K.B s, Ph.D., Associate in Biology and Director of ie Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory of the Pics Hopkins University. 392 pp. 8vo. Boston, 1882. (8. E. Cassino,)—An excellent work, well adapted for its purpose by its : icious arrangement and detailed directions for investigation, and its numerous and admirable illustrations, and attractive also - in ga aaa ag oe ae is just the and-book wes a wg student tain metallic oxides, and whether plants in a soonealy healthy State will gael such oxides through their roots. The conclu- sions reached w — (1.) That ne aliey plants, grown under favorable conditions, — ihe h their roots small quantities of lead, zinc, 7 mt (@) That | er) ia zine may enter the tissues in this way with- out causing any disturbance in the growth, nutrition, and fune- tions of the plant. 492 Scientific Intelligence. (3.) That the sean of copper and arsenic faite a dis- tinctly poisonous influence, tending, when present larger ‘quantity, to check the formation of 1 roots, and either killing the plant or so far reducing its vitality as to interfere with nutrition and growt In the ease of the heavy metals, copper, zinc, arsenic and lead, it seems to be probable that their oxides m may under soa cir- cumstances become deposited in the tissues of bide ‘plan 6. Monographie des Composées, par H. Battion, Pari , 1882. 316.— This is the 8th volume of Baillon’s Histoire des Plantes One-third of the volume is occupied with an exposition of the references in foot-notes. Now Mr. Bentham filled 370 pages o the Genera Plantarum—pages of just the | same size, but of fine type—with his characters of the tribes and genera of this order. In his laborious and conscientious review of the fam mily, by a botanist who is not at all prone to the multiplication of genera, d for by the reduction of the genera by Baillon to 403. Baillon’s specialty is generic consolidation. Yet withal he keeps up several genera which we find it impossible to maintain ; and there are others which should have been suppressed upon his principles, though not upon ours. Deducting these, the genera according to Baillon would be only half as many as those of Bentham and Hook Ba ena is an able botanist and is entitled to have his own views. is plan is not adopted, as being neither philo- sophical nor PeucGcaly convenient, it is ‘warnitens as compared with the opposite extreme ; and nothing can be easier than to ‘double up the genera upon a preconceived line after all — ma- shee had been well elaborated beforehand. uide to the Flora of Seerah Ses and vicinity, by ceaeue F, Wiss, A.) pp. 264, 8vo.—This capital piece of work is phen ‘by. the U.S. National Museum as Bulletin No. 22, and “ one of a series of papers intended to illustrate the collections of ape history and ethnology belonging to the United States and constituting the Nat ional Museum, of which the Smithsonian aes was piaced in charge by Act of Congress of August 10, ‘The j fe oductory portion treats first of the range of this “ flora Columbiana,” which is said to be limited on the north by the Great Falls of the Potomac and on the south by the Mt. Vernon estate; it compares the present known flora of the district with that of 1830, as exhibited in the Flore Columbiane Prodromus by the botanical club of that day; describes in some detail the = Bs ae = s a ae Geology and Natural TTY: 493 “apeaaes of special interest to the botanist; aie the flower- ing time of the plants and its variation in different years; tabu- Item ‘ed discusses the statistics of the flora; speaities the sixteen largest orders* (these furnishing 55 per cent ‘of the genera and 62 per cent of the species), also the 15 larger genera (beginning Alas Curex and ending with Asclepia) ; mentions the number of intro- duced species (198, pe Oe hich: 15 are eee of the United Ste to find that the proenee forest trees, smaller trees, shrubs, woody climbers, and the more souepiineus herbaceous species are in turn enumerated, There are some critical and more explana- it is a mistake to say that, in the New Genera Plantarum, “ Va- lerianella has been made oubxeonsiee with Fedia. European authors almost without exception keep up the two genera, it Seems to us without good reason. Stedronemu was not adopted in that work only because the authors did not know the peculiar zstivation of the corolla; it was adopted here upon the discovery of this character.) Ther re are good remarks upon common names, i, e. vernacular names; and it is well said ‘that the best common name for a plant is always its systematic name, eee this should be made a substitute for other popular na whenever and where ver it can be done.” We have come to agre e with DeC Exceptions there may be, where a generic name may be aptly translated, but these are few The flora itself makes up only about 80 pages of this volume. it is a catalogue, without characters or synonymy,—these being at hand in the manuals: and proper floras,—but with localities, time of flow many particular observ ations. It should essentially facilitate on a ier the study of botany in and > around the District of Colum Following the flora is a ‘ “check list,” with piney itor ends with pone remarks on herbarinm work; all BRS ‘clear and instructive. Great is the need of such Seranlion: especialiy to young United States officers and others who make botanical * The Se eight are Composite, 53 gen., 149 sp.; ifort ge 110; Cyper- an, 10, 108; Leguminose, 24, 51; capes 15, 46; Labiate, 2 494 Scientific Intelligence. collections in distant expeditions. The knowledge and the tact they may here acquire should make all the difference between a neat and scientifically valuable collection and one which is repulsive and worthless. If we rightly understand it, Mr. Ward’s plant-poison is not strong enough. e recommend that the alcohol should be satu- rated with corrosive sublimate, and then, if need be on account of efflorescence, that just a little aleohol be added. And = alcohol should be of the strongest. This appendix covers about the same ground as does Professor Bailey’s Botanist’s Hand-boak, Se in the preceding number of this Journal. Both are excellent, a needed, and we hope will be widely disseminated. In view of this, it may be expected that the appendix will be separately issued and be distributed by the Smithsonian Institution. a. 4. 8. Meilleurs Blés ro sean et Culture des principales Variatés des Froments d’ Hiver et de a ee own, Anprieux.—This is a handsome Finer 4to, of 175 pages of letter-press and 66 plates, each one admirably repr cea in ‘the natural size and colors, two heads of each sort of wheat and some separate rains; not ‘only all the best varieties of Triticum sativum, but also of the cultivated spelts and other wheat species,, zr. turgidum, durum, Polonicum, Spelta, Amyleum, and monococ-- cum. Besides the details for each variety, in a page accompany- ing the figure, and some general considerations, there is an inter- esting chapter on the classification of the seven types or species and the many varieties of the common wheat. As this work is a practical one, only the — sorts pea to the title) are here described and illustra We may add that this volume comes from the collections ae svsitdinations of three generations, son and grandson having cont wae es iene and the studies i his Methodical Se of Wheats in 1850, and died in 1860,, since which ork has been prosecuted in the same OBITUARY. Sir Cuartes Wrvitte Taomson.—Sir Charles Wyville Thom- son was born March 5th, 1830, at Bonsyde, Linlithgow, Scotland, where he died March 15, 1882. His father, a surgeon in the ser- vice of the East India Company, intended to make him a physi- cian. But the ‘oan sete had no charm for him excepy oe Miscellaneous Intelligence. 497 the University of Edinburgh. is post he resigned a few months before his death on account of ill-health. The versatility of Professor Thomson’s attainments is shown b the variety of learned posts, all of which he filled with marked of = 9 a ° oo WD a i) ie) 3 om S =] st co a CQ © 4 E o 4 ) nm — oS Qu S fe) o Qu ct og — 2 o h and the ‘“‘ Poreupine, and finally the “Challenger” and the “Kni he m. B. Carpenter, Mr. Jeffreys and Professo . the results were embodied by Thomson in a most attractive vol- ume entitled, “The Depths of the Sea,” by far the most interest- e new zoological me hich has ever appear problems suggested by similar expeditions Stimulated by the success hese two voyages of discovery th yal Society of _R. von Willemoes Suhm. “Challenger” sailed over — ations, at each of which, sys __ a e ic of the ocean depths, but physi : : rc sad materials were brought 498 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ee gee ue first et gen sketch map of the great. c basins, as well a ords and eo of tempera- ‘ies and curr ade wherever week were feas These immense collections were sent fone from time to time, abe on the return of the expedition the working up of the whole erial was entrusted to its scientific director, Sir Chaties Wyville Thomson. He selected as his assistants the ‘best and three volumes of the sonlGey have already ite al Un- ee lished, le the title of “The Atlantic. 2 he material for the other intended volumes on the Pacific and the Southern ocean exist Only 3 in the form of notes, and in the sketch of the results of the “Challenger” éxpedition, given by Thomson in his address as President of the eS as Section of the British Associa- tion at its Dublin meetin The death of such a man at a comparatively early age, before he had time to gather in the harvest he had so fairly won, is not only sad in itself but is a great loss to science. His extensive and exact knowledge in many fields of biology would have ena- bled him to put Be red the varied results of his expedition as. no one else can Thomson was a , er favorite, beloved not only by his col- eee vt ed his students who flocked to his lectures. Natural History w erhaps never more popular Mees while he held the ; professorship, which had been occupied in turn by Jamieson, ‘orbes Iman. His relations with his ee associates were always frank and ip nid and those who had t ood for- tune to meet him parted from him not only as from an aol friend, but also with sincere admiration for his character and sagen ive attainments. AG. eneral Joun G. Barnarp, of the Department of Engineers, U.S. Army, died on the 14th of May. General Barnard was a able mathematician, and the author of papers on Projectiles, thé Gyroscope, the Tides and sala subjects. eee HEATLEY, Of Phenixville, Sage? ikea Min- ing Engine tie d on the 6th of May. Mr. Wheatley’s dis- coveries a: a Saurian bone-bed near Phenixville i in ie Mesozoic shales of the region, and of a Quaternary Cave in n Eastern Penn- sylvania bicoaans a bones of the Mastodon, Megalonyx and other extinct species, were of the highest interest to American geology. mam S. rie x died at Philadelphia on the 5th of ie Mr. Vaux used his wealth largely for scientific purposes. gathered one of the finest collections of minerals in the countr a and besides a large archeological collection. Among his bequests, there is one of $10,000 to the Academy of Natural Sciences, an another, of his Collection of Etruscan Pottery, to the Pennsylvania : Museum and School of Industrial Art. A Academy, National, list of papers, 79. Acid, namin from Sor eghum Sige carbonic, in sea-water, sulphur e freezing ie of 236. Aerolites, oa "Meteorites. 42, A., Cr reba and recent ra. | Chall oe Echinoidea, 75. obituary of C, Wyville Thomson, ak Petals ai for chemical purposes, lizarin -orange, preparation of, 486. q Allantoin, in vegetables, 147. f Alloys, formation of, by eae. 485, i ouium tibromie, 145 iation, American 495. aera oe Ritrnoitache N desist, 160, ley, W. W., Botanical Collector’s Handbook, F Baillon, H., Monographie des Compo- sées, : Barker, G. F, chemical abstracts, 143, Me wie 409, 4 482, . Bec inp properties of nickeliferous ir shit 8 Fo ie Place ‘Tabl ca Gg, appara the position of a projectile of metal in the body, Bentham, e. Notes on Graminew, 244. ae Bobnensiog ‘Annual of Botanical Liter- - ature, 70. Boss, comet yi 0) (Switt, ue _ Boston city w Borany— \lgve in animals, 328, 329. Lsia, ge Lo gee Zoo. and under each the atus for ae mining Ch * This Index contains the A bebiyier heads Botany, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, | Oprrva > tles of Articles referring thereto are mentioned. INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII* ibe ‘Brasilensis, 244, ole aaa , 245. peta ge ea motions of in or light, 245. rpedkendeg pariculatu Lichens, North me 326. Metallic oxides in plants, 491. a in ant nts, 494. ngilla in Boston city water, 250. Timber-line, Gannett, 2 ellow cells” of eaholactae and , 328 sa oe WK, layouts Zoology, Ballet arden? for ae the in the body, Be se , “W., transit iy Mercury, 1881, 48. Cc ar jae production and properties of, Garten oxysulphide, physical properties Carbon sulphobromi ide. new. oe Chemical mere illustration of, 237, emistry, lestial, Hunt, 1 Chinoline, Nicene ws s of, re rai oxide, symmetrical, 485, Cine bark, new alkaloid from, 412. Cincinnati 8 — ror Natu ral History, Journal of, 65 Claassen, E., potassium chloride in ab- sinth, 323 analysis of siderite, 325. ery J. M., new Devonian phyllopods, 476. Be ner J., Treatise. on Blee- tricity, 1 500 Coal, see GEOLOGY Color correction of double objectives, Hastings. Comet vii, 1881, et ag of i. Comets, notation of, 1 Cook, G. kr New os Geological Report, 3 Cooke, J. mig ne in western a Yo oe ro lg tae “cl a of New peed cae Wyo Copper lage ioe forme ro Real Crosby, W. ny geology of pata 8 Bay, Mai sSewiaded ‘inerals in basalt of Table Mount 452. sob seeariicn of, 412. D Dana, E. S., monetite crystals, 405. oa Appendix to Dana’s Mineral- ogy, 4 Dana. J. Di, flood of Connecticut valley | — 87, 179, 360. Darton, N. H, new locality for Hayesine, Da arwin, F., movements of leaves in the light, 245 Dar rwin, G. H., lunar disturbance of gravity. Daubrée, on in strata, Derby, O. A., geology on ‘thie diamond, gold-bearin g rocks of Minas Geraes, azil, 178. Brazilian specimens of Si 373. Diffusion of solids into solids, 409. Dinosauria, see GEOLOGY. Dissocioscope, a ee photographs of spectrum of bula of Orion, 339 Drops oe on wate Dun Pen, Sohisedeniske 24. up Dutton, CO. E., oo Physics of the Earth’s Crust Dynamo- electric shines 147. E _ — of, 51. crust of, Rarthquslit] in ana le 337 Seas one rican, Rockwood, 257. T, 41 Sesto dhs "R sol paticg 160 ison’s electrical meters, 52. Kichler, A. W., J Sete des konig- chen botanischen ns, 70. female flowers of Conitee: 418, INDEX. Electrical meters, Edison’s, 52. acuum, 149, Bete inertia of, 240. 14, 415. Electrification by evaporation, Freeman, Ele ctrodes, disintegration of, 2 Electrolytes, dielectric Solshantion in, Hlectro-magnetism, theory of, hole Bi Elliott , Seal-islands ae yore 334, Emerson, B. K., dni rs Elzeolite-syen- on, B. ite in n New Jers ase Peele zine ore, 3 Buglomann, G., female flowers of Gani fer; Ruvor. Botanische ogee a cbs Ether, nature of, Hunt, 123. meron Ha G., botanical notices, 159, Fe wakes. rs W., a Cercaria with caudal Fisher, 0., the Earth’s Crust, 2 Flames, new arrangement for pega Fossil, see GEO “hab a Tables ‘for Determination of “Nin rar y, ‘electrification by evap- , 428, 7 H., poppe -bearing region in nort ies Texas, Fusion, see Melting pointe, veem: oration rma G nett, H., the timber-line, 275. Gacdonsitc, gprs tion of, 409. Gases, elecirical resis eee 321, 487. scosity of phic d, 2 Geikio. A. , Director-general of ‘spp y of Great Britain Gecloeical ns Sin Polane, 150. GEOLOGICAL AND SURVEYS— gett o Pg New Jers United sats aes, 452. ‘Seog Amygdaloid of Brighton, Mass., 65. thra olor Basalt of 1 Table Mountain 452, Brick-clays ing cream-colored _ brioks § in Minnesota, 6 Cincinnati rocks, fossils of, 65, Sia Jui eit GEOLOGY— any ta a of later times, Whit- Coal, ooking, of Colorado, 6 Coal-field near Cafion City. 6 , 1d Con “geree river glacial ood, ees 87, 360. Co bpeerbe aring region in Texas cg intersecting zine ore, pan n, 3 Diamond logy of, Derby, Dinosauria, claseificadi on of, ans wie ini, Cretaceous and recent, ype 2, 40. Behinogoathns, Walcott, of Wyoming and New Mexico, Eozoon, controversy on, 418 Barapees, new, Walco tt, 151, 213. m near Buffalo, 18. PER te" and eccen nie as co- fact ote t in : aoe periods, 6 Foyaite dyke, New Jersey, ‘Eoown. Frenchman ’g Bay, Maine, 64. Glacial era climate, Le rh AL. — in Maine flood, of. Connection Valley, Dana, 87, 17 9, perio: tricity in, 61. phe enomena in apt 242. in Minneso’ on the Delaw: seratches in ne MeLiits 338, Glaciers, moveme: riodical vareubas of, 56. nd, 363. of ‘Grastie rouse Bape rock, Brazil, Derby,178. structure clay and marl, ie ao Joints, in stra 6, 63. post-Glacial, Gilbert, 25. aide ves pat 243, coe! role ote of bccn America, 1 lopods, new Devonian, Clarks Peecilo opod in the is bogge slate, 151. Pterodactyles, wings of, Mar “fe 251. Pterygotus from 418. il-cap motion, 59. ‘Syenite, Quiney, 4 Tides in early hie 23 Trilobites, Primordial i in cee 65. Eocene, Cope. se hog apparatus illustrating pe of, INDEX. sek capontcn and eccen- © 501 Gibbs, J. W., tgs refraction nad dis- persion of ‘color d circular po- pian h o> Gilbert, G. K., posta joints, 25. fale ioahoan ns di- of tem Gravity Ht disturbia pe botanical mse ti 30, 159, 24, ra 26, 492. nomenclature, 157. Gr a4 PS pebellarische Uebersicht der Mineral ien, Guides for Science Teaching, 336. H Hague, A. D., eae Industries, 162. Hailstorms, 249 ae Bryozoans of the Upper Hel- ‘deeb er, Halogens, ‘vapor-density of, 143. Hastings or correction of aie wees 67. Hazen, W. B., Signal Service Report, 7 eat, Ppaecen Pomel theory of sos erti Southern United States, ae ne J. E., a te elec peer a of Coast Surv: Mill, £., pirate i and eccentricity in glacial} periods, 61. mys WF, Table Mountain, 4 a-Trias of southwestern minerals in basalt of ills, a "Golorado, 4 diopta: te m Arizona, 325. Holden, Tn ‘S. Gansit of Mercury, 1881. rings 3 of Saturn, 387. Holman, 8. W., method for calibrating thermom eters, 78. Hooker, J. D., Icones Su clgeiie i. ns, W., photograp f spectrum of ae of Orion, 335. ‘ord, E., snow and ice under pressure, +. Hunt, T. S., celestial chemistry, 123. Hydrogen phosphide, spontaneously in- flammable, Ice under pressure, Hun gerford, Iles, M. W., smaltite in oleate: 360. vanadium in Leadville ores, 381. 502 Illinois Museum of Natural History, Bulletin of, 417 Tron, determination of phosphorus in, Smith, magnetic properties of a nickelifer- ous, 229. Judd, J, W., Volcanoes, 65. ard H,, velocity of sound in wood, Klangfarb 14%. Ko mo bares . v., Russian Mineralogy, L Lalande prize, Lapparent, Traits de Géologie, 154. Leaves, see Bota Le Conte, J., Fire sey in water, 27. jointed s structure in clay and marl, 233. Lichtenberg’s figures, hae Light, sede of, 5 oe ronmagnetic ook of, Gibbs, ae ope phenomena of, Michel- son, 395 rotation of plane of polarization of, spectroscopic I iid oi with oa uae tic, E., sie RN to meteor- ology, 1 Madan, H. a Tables of Qualitative Analysi 8, M tism as aff fected by rites 414, Magnetization, maximum o Man, Paleolithic in Delaware rie, 152. Marsh, 0. MK, classification of the Dino- sau wings sat Pterodactyles, 25 oe , E. v., Conchologische Hitthen ungen, 422. _ Maximowicz, 0. J., Coriaria, etc., 159. pigs ses Plan tarum novarum Asi- aticaru : gees W. i. evaporation and eccen- ricity in glacial periods, “Melt A eggs apparatus for determin- Mendon ee of Tokio, 496. | , 48. Meteorites, ape spatearartl in, 156.' INDEX. speniiea 32 contributions to, Loomis, 1 Woeiko/, 341; Mendenhall, Caswell, 496. Mey va vapor-density of the halogens, le he om m, interference oa 395. Millimeter r screw, Wead, 1 Bergamaskite, 155. Chabazi Geel ‘ilctal 155. Diamond, Di ible from Pa Bec 325. Dopplerite Hematite, polyhedra cavities in, 67. Hiddenite ron, a nickelfrou, 229. Litidions e, 155, ti Siderite, Shope of, 325. Smaltite in Colorado, 380 Thom, wy Vanadium Museum, iia the n, Bulletin of, 153. of Cowsiiarstiva Zoology, ‘Bulletin, Naumann, C. F., Mineralogie, not., 68. Nebula of Orion, photograph of s spectrum of, ae 335; Draper, 339. woerry, J. 8., err coal and anthra- pes of Colorado, ton, H. A.,n noe ion we aig 160, astronomical notices, pe Je of e's Algebr a, 336, Ni stonen aeiled pitch of on glass, 55. Nomenclature, natural history, 157. Nondenski my A. E., Voyage of the Norio, W. we Treatise on Astronomy, 0 OBITUARY— yi sna) igh 333. aoe so Apes lee d, Gen. "Toh + G., 498. sad "Charles Robert, 422. sera a ane oxide, 144. OBITUARY— Decaisne, Joseph, 331 Desor, E., 422. Posner Joh n W., 16 Godron, Dominique Riividess 333 Hampe. E eas Robert, 80. Mea ra forgan, a bee H., aoe Munro, Ge en. Wm venhorst, Gottiied Ludwig, 2 mper, Wm. Phili sehen Matthias Hacob “333. n, Theodore. Thom mson et be rrille, 388 496. Vaux, Will W heatley, Chase M., “498. od, igs Kes # ss Sees clo correction of double, ti Observatory, Harvard College, Report of, 161. vite longitude of, 77. Vational, publications of, 160, $95 Optics, physio ogical, Stevens aoe liquids, physical properties of critical her sober of, 483. Owen, R., Ce wt ster 72. Oxides, effect of, in the i ee taeais of potassium shields Oxygen, production of Nee 410. { Packard, A. S., Jr., Cambarus primevus, Chat atauqua Sane Diagrams, 4 8. | Pei _ e, B., Linear Associative | 3 Hi asa theory of, 146. L Persulphuric oxide, 's o-called, 4 Petroleum hydrocarbons, ping 937. | of the Caucasus, 145. | fs absorption of metallic ides Phos y Report, 161. Plenet ets, a et ong 249, "334, see also, Mercw “hee ve permanganate Ban “ n Absinth, 3 | Potential, aiterence of, haaw cn srectel (Spe d fluids of different consultation, Poulsen, V . A., Botanische Mikrochemie, > 828. 33a INDEX. 503 J. W., Report of Bureau of Ethnolo ogy, 4 St Be nature of eee 238. se Pte yles, see GEO Sera "P We alsoolithic implements of the valley ‘of the Delaware, 152. Quinones, constitution of, 486. R Ascoli annual, Loomis, 1, Woetkof, 34 Rattan, v., Popular Californian ies 95. Refraction, double, a 262, 460. elliptical do ble, 487 Regelation, Hungerford, 434 Remsen, [., Boston city seh angi ae Reports of i parce Ric a Ee E:, apy Gnakius nd C Hckanot C. G., American earthquakes, — oy - — Vv PEP 65. earthqua ais ay hapa vie in, 238, jaturn, rings of, Holden, 387. ‘Sthe berle. J. M, flexure. of a telescope rain and snow tables, 250. be id in Pepe ae Commission, § Sorina 337. tite ‘ , C. U., monetite, monite and ptr ee 400. Siemens, W., dynamo-electric machine, ‘Signal Serv Silliman, B.. aves any i Seige 163. aconitic acid from Sorghum juices, Sinith, A ie Or gacinat properties of nickeliferous iron. a, dete: rmination of saroshoeen' in iron, © Sacer, effect of pressure on, Hungerford, 34, Solar, see Sun. Sonoineter, od a Stevens, 479. Sophorin, ifaw ‘elocity of in wood, 4165. ee in water, r, Le Conte, aT, preci with mono- chromatic ight, 3 ahl, B., Co ants, 159. Stars, observations is of double, 334. Stereoscope, reversible, Stevens, 226, : ue 504 INDEX. Stevens, W. L., — form of reversible stereosco ope, 2 notes on physiologiea optics, 290, 346. coat sonometer, 479, Stevenson, J. J. coal-field near Canon City, atorad, Stone, G ae oxychloride, Sun of, at of, 4 Sie Aetanlclogical Commission, 337. T Peak tube, flexure of, Scheeberle, 374. ! emperature, change of from mechanical ernie diurnal variation of, Gould. Thompson, 8. P., Lessons in sincastcaey and “Magnetism, 241. Tides in early Sr. time, 323. Timber line, Gannett, 275. ones, harmonic and partial, 147. Trowbridge, J., ee notices, 49, 147, 1 239, 320, 4 io mak, G., "Lehrbuch der Mineral- eerkniiiah, E., North American Lichens, Turner, W., Names of Herbes, 326. — electrical resistance of, 149, 487. ‘Vapor-densi “f = coe heres 142, Veitch, J., f the Conifers, 69. Verrill, A. 'E, cauicoat at Newfound- lan Owen’ 8 Cephalo poda, 7 Agassiz ymca ripe of the Chal- lenger Expeditio marine fauna gee: outer ban ks off New England coast, 135, 216, 309, 06. nand Sladen’ 8 Echidore of the hace Sea, 247. ‘Vibrations, effect oe on a samen dise, 51. Vilmorin-Andrieux, Les Meilleurs Blés, Viscosity of jong gases, 239 pheno: gr "ee ens, 290, 346, vetcaronk toile ries, H. De, Paka ais Matters in Plants, 494. stale erosion - aoe 242. Wa icott, “ D, Peecilopod in the Utica bee, slate, 1 new a us of Rasy perida: 213 Waldo, L., Micrometrical Meaiusieais of Double Stars; 334. Ward, L. F., bee os to the Flora. of * Was shington ‘Wead, C. K., widlecatae screw, 176. Wetherby, A. G., distribution and varia- on of fresh- ‘water mollusks of N. picioen 76, 203. White, C. ve descent of certain ‘fresh- water mollusk 382. epee Rok “paisstologioa papers, Whitey, Jd. D., Cli pial piog gc of later Geological Tim Wiik, F. J., ral Karatrisi Bd Wilder, B. G. gle e Cat Wilson, 8. De pespiation we pla ants, ‘23 Winchell, . nesota Geologica Report, clays making cream-colored biické!: 4. Wires, change of temperature from me- 32 nriual: rain-fall, 341. Geers of chinate 417. ag Young, A. A., sandstones erage the ele in part presen erystals, 2 Z ZooLoay— Actinaria, New England, gs 314. Animals — Algze, 328, 329. Anthozvoa, New England, Verriii, 309. Atchitenthis Newfoundland, TT. mares poda, caria with ne 1d: al sete, Fewhkes, 134. kas dom enna of wild, 421. Echinoderms, ar arctic, 2 pee Hla, err 138, 216. retaceous cent, Agassiz, 40. Gundiachie i in acute N ew York, 248. Madreporaria, New England, Verrill, 213. Marine ey New England, Verrill, 136, 216, S09, Mollu sks, descent of ‘White dis mg ne ‘Weller, ve 203. ener on ‘* Yellow cells, ee BOTANY. See further under G GEOLOGY. ARTOTYPE, E. BRERSTADT. *%. ¥- 1. 2. 3. Spathiocaris Emersonii Clarke Estheria pule _ pulex 5. Lisgocaris Lutheri +"