AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. JAMES D. ann E. S. DANA, anv B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorrssors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Campriner, Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Prorrssorn GEORGE F. BARKER, or Patapecputa. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, OXXV.] Nos. 145—150. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1883. WITH FIVE PLATES, NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J.D. & E.S. DANA. 1883. oe BoTANICAL RI GARDEN ERRATA. Page 82 (January), 5th line from bottom, read ergy no more.” Page 83, lines 21 and 22, for ‘‘ Ford” read ‘“ Forel.” Page 326, line 3 from top, for 2" 30™ 46% he 2 39m 49s, Page 326, line 4 from bottom, for ‘section’ ser! ‘second.’ Page 328, line 4 from top, for 64"°43 read 64 Page 330, in title, for Wm. F, Fontaine read a M. Fontaine. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, W HAVEN, NN. Site we dace CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXV. NUMBER CXLV. P Arr. I.—Contributions to altar a Euias Looms, ghteenth paper. (Plate Ee ones papa 0 1 IL—On Bowlder Drift in Deluna: 18 I1l—Upon the Electrical Experiments to iccarinthe’ "the location of the et in os bias! of the late President arfield: and u ssful form of Induction Balance for the inuliens defecation of Metallic Midas in the Human Body; by ALexanprer Granam Bett, ---- 22 IV. —A Method for Seobcme the Rate of Tuning-forks ; MIRC BOM oC a a eee us 61 V.—Relations of the Monova Argillites and associated ocks at Braintree Rohe phones fy in Massachusetts ; by < We Donen: Wh 6 eS i as ee 65 VL. Observations of ibieg Trane of Venus made at the Washburn Observatory, Madison, Wisconsin, 1882, De- ie cember 5-6; by E. S. HotpgEn, : 71 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry a ‘sics.—Improved Apparatus for Gas ges be GEPPERT, 74.— ~sstniet Apes i. Su ee in Coal Gas, KnusBLAvucn, 75.—Dir ct Formation of Zinc Sulphide, Scuwarz: Electromotive — — 6 Ghee Siemens’ New bie: of the Sun, M. Faye : ieee pret vations upon telluric and atmospheric Shand: ne oe spect, for the study of absorption of the Micvaphies Cornu, JANSSEN, 78.—The Hlec Co io. Botany and Zoology.—The caupeie Lignitied Snake from Brazil, 79—Flora Peoriana, Die Vegetation im Clima von Mittel Tinois, F. BRENDEL, 8L— Monograph of the Genus ‘Li um, H. WES, Ford on the — Pelagic fauna Peg Freshwater Lakes, 83.—A ast genus ‘of apeeas Rhizopods, H. B. Brap Astronomy.—Transit of Venus, 84.—Otservations of the Transit of Venus at she = Allegheny eet tory, S. P. Laneugy, 85.—Elements of the great . 1882, E. Frispy, 86. Miscellaneous Scient Intelligence.—Science, a new Erp = scientific Journal: Report from se M. Museum of Geology and Archwology at rineeton, A. Guyor: sid viewing of the Dave —— Academy of t Neto Sciences, 8i.- . Obituary.— oN Kopett, 8 1v CONTENTS. NUMBER CXLVI, Page ARr. VIL «—Henry Draper)... ..-:--s--2--2-- 0s st ee ene e-- 89 iit, Phila at the base he es Chemung Group in New ~ ey TS WALLAAMBy oi te ae ng ae eee = = 97 or IX. — Geological Ohemistry of” Yellowstone National Park. Geyser Waters and Sema by H. Lerrmann; Rocks Of the Fark: by W. BRAM, 222002 S 606 ese 104 X.—Hlectromagnetie Theory “A Light: General Equations f Mo nochromatic Light in — of every degree of ranspare het W. Gis | XI.—The Rainfall in Middletown, ionnectan from 1859 to 1882; by H. D. A. Warp, eta. ys Es Ag XII.—Discoveries in Devonian. Crustacea ; Bt LARKE, 120 XIU. —Photographing the Solar Corona without an Yelttpne PIUGGINR oa Cae oo ee ues 126 XIV.—Observations of the Transit of Venus, pe Alo at the Lick Observatory, California ; D. XV.—The Antenne of Melée; a F. ©. om lot een 137 XVI,—Hypersthene-andesite ; by W. Cross,..-...---..--- XVII.—Method for determining the Collimation Constant 1 a Transit Circle; by J. _ SCHAEBERLE SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, say repoaly lg Physics.—Metallic ee: Ninson: Atomic weight of Thorium, Niso —Kthy] peroxide, BERTHELOT: Catechol- -orthocarboxylic acid, Mim- LER, Ms inet on of Solar icy, SrEMENS: Conservation of Solar En- soba os he of the aieaed Unit of baer ae esate to absolute Approximate Photometric Measurements of Sun, eos, “Cloudy ‘Shy, "Blectric: and suber ral lights, W. THO oe N. 149.—Dr. Siemen’s Address to Me ah eb of Arts, 150.—Die tecaciowenicten und oo a chinen und die Boia Secundar-Batterien, etc., n G. GLA iors entiae on the Distillation of Coal-Tar, G. Lunas, 151. _ Geology and Mineralogy. —Jointed Structure; W. J. McGup, 152. —The Climatic iid N. von Koxscnarow: Netot’ esi the Laboratory of the Taiversity of Virginia, 159.—Analyses of Danburite from Switzerland: Native Lead and Minium in Idaho, W. P. Bake: Topaz from Stonehaia Maine, 161. _ Botany and Zoology.—F¥ormic and ran ig he in Plants, E. BERGMANN, 161.— Conspectus Fiore: Europee, ©. F. : Flora Brasiliens nsis, KicHLER: Flora of British India, 162.— Distribution of Onesie life i in depth, T. Fucus, 163. Astronomy.—Parallax of Alpha es and of 61? Cygni, 165.—Orbit of the Comet ‘of 1771, 166.—Celestial Charts, O. H. F. Math, oe ery ae Obituary.—Titus Coan, 168. CONTENTS. gia, NUMBER CXLVII. P Arr. XVIII. Ebi Selective Absorption of Solar Energy ; AN 169 ; RDN, we tens ee anes shh XIX.—New loaaaty of the Green Turquois known as Chal- chuite, and on the identity of Sg eda with the Callais or Callaina of Pliny ; by W. P. Brags, .-2.-.-.-..-2. 197 XX.—On portions of the Skeleton of a Wha le from gravel on the line of the Canada Pacific Railway, near Smith’s Falls, Ontario : by J,.W. Daws0my ooo) cous eae tae 200 XXI.—The Cobwebs of Uloborus; by J. H. Et MERTON, -- -- 203 saan —Glacial Drift in the Upper Missouri River Region ; WA A WRIT Rs cel asvodest bd i cha clea hee XXxIIL —Late Observations concerning the Molluscan Fauna and the eee extent of the Laramie Group; by 2 i ee ee ee eae er ee XXVL ae os ent depen of the Volcanic Phenomena of the Hawaiian Islands; by OC. E. Durroy,.---------.-- 2 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics,—Isomorphism of ‘mass, KLEIN, ‘ her —Case of Physical Isomerism, LELLMANN: Nitr rogen Selenide, agp Srp pon of Carbonous oxide, Noack: Molecular compounds ace ‘and Na aphti e Ww Rarefied Air as a Conductor of Electricity, y serie Conference for the Adop- tion of a Standard Meridian and of a Standard Time. ntroduction nls Study of Organic Praness g A. PINNER, 232. Claes Kinematiee of Solid: “and Fluids, G. M. Mrncutn Geology and Mineralogy. gif scananys vies i the Neher Academy of Sciences, rts and Letters, 233.— an fossil-bearing metamorphic rocks in the region of “peng Belg eebictiok Asitee from Gloucester Co., New Jersey, G. F. Kun Botany ta alg y.—A propos gr ae ang - le Marquis de Saporta: _ Les P aie Testo ahaa VILMOR x & OtK, 235.—Colors of Flo owers, » ALL ——Direct ohestrebe on of the peat a oe ee Visavs, 37. —Stalked Crinoids of the Caribbean Sea, P. H. CARPENTER, 238.— Select from Embryological Monographs, A. Agassiz, W. Faxon, E. L. oe sping 239. Miscellane ous Scientific Intelligence —Cold of —) in Iowa, G. HryRIcHSs, ima Report on se the Climatic and ga tural Fea ete., of the Arid regions the Pacifi E. W. Hm . O. JONES, ah W. Furnas: peice a Naval Observatory and Saitecrccaion? pdeonare st of lg at af the vv. 8. Science, 240.— Obituary—Alexis Perrey, 2 vi CONTENTS. NUMBER CXLVIOL Art. XX VU.—Review of DeCandolle’s Origin of Gulevarede Plants; with Annotations upon certain American Species; by A. Gray and ne ye, Tomminiy ooo ees 241 XXVIII —Remarks a Gif psactitide. and Reteocrinus, two mals he Silurian Crinoids ; by C. WacusmuTH an ‘ PPRINGWE 2 Ooh ON CSL Scuba: Bago 255 pi peau eT ICL OE AG a er MAS i em cre Goes Bett os 268 ~The ‘Age of the Southern Appalachians; by J. B. ee ater em Sem ts al eee Mw Seen: Be ONS iaco he Ba cease ee 282 ss volaton of the American Trotting-Horse ; by W. fei asie Uilaags tilda ep leone oe a Buena Wm ee OL Se 299 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Reciprocal Displacement of the Halogens, BERTHELOT, 305.—Action of Nascent Hydrogen in page the Ac tivity of Oxygen, Hoppr-SEYLER, 306.—Phosphorescent Flame of Sul phur, HeuMANN: Hydrates ua r Pak 8 > wang in an electrical field, A. peace Magnetic storms, M. omet of 1882, THoLLON and Goux: Magnetizing ania re Steel ners Roser Hueo Meyer: Determinations of ibe Ohm, G. C. F Geology and Natural History.—Paleo-geological and Geographical nyt of = iti EK, Hun ila: Tu. W. Ene ce 0} croaed and Shaded Lavslisien on the Development of f Fol iage Le sites KE. Sraut, 3.—Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-Flora: Hetercecism of the Uredines, C. B. terinary y GE: ientices concernant one Naturelle de ? Empire Chinois par des aes de la compagnie de Jésus, Astronomy.—Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, 317.—Transits of | Mercury, 1677-1881, 317.— Obituary. .—Henry Seybert, 320. 7 CONTENTS. vu NUMBER CXLIX. : Arr. XXXII.—Observations of the Transit of Venus, Dee. 6, 1882, at Princeton, N. J., and South Hadley, "Mass (Communicated by Professor C. As YounG), soo slisite 321 XXXUI, —Notes on the Occurrence of bi Minerals in Amelia County, Virginia; by Wm. F. Fonrarne,.-___- 330 XXXIV.—Surface Limit or Thickness of the Continental sd in New Jersey and adjacent States; by J. C. Ore UN eee a ete 39 XXXV.. oy Rarer se to the Geological Chemistry of Yel- ag National Park ; . LEFFMANN and ake Sree "351 oo. 7, XXXVIIL—A Four Years’ Record of Earthquakes in Japan, studied in their a to the Weather and Seasons ; 3 Se ee rocks of Bomardston Mass. ; be R. P. Warrrter LD, .-: 2° $68 XXXIX.—Rev of DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants ; ah Annotations u _ certain American Spe- cies ; ; by A. Gray and J.-H. "TRumeuts, 6. 08) coc 370 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Chemistry and Physics.—Change of volume produced by mixing solutions of salts, Nico, : 379.—Mutual displacement of Bases in — of their Neutral salts, MENScHUTKIN, 380.—Formation of Arsenides by P. yeeeee SPRING! Atomic Weight of Yttrium and Lanthanum, Cukve, 331.—Synthesis of Crypti- dine, Lexps, 382,—A Text-Book on the Elements of Physics, A. P. GAGE, 383. cology and Mineralogy.—Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey, “tr 1882, G. H. Cook, 383.—Life of Sir William E. Logan, B. J. HARRINGTON, 0. 1, W. Cae. Paleontology of the Geological Survey of New York, J. HALL, 391. —North American fossil asseray COPE: Brgy remains from the Silurian ee = Isle of Gotland, G. J. Hinpr: Review of the non-marine fossil Mollusca, C. A. Warr: Second Report of the State "Mineralogist of California, or 92.—Zur Kenntniss der vulcanischen Gesteine und Mineralien der Capvortchen Inseln von C. DozLTeR: Fluid-bearing Quartz Crystals, W. eee Zoology.—Essay on the Development of the Vegetable Kingdom, LER, 394.—Bidrag till Japans Fossila Flora, A. G. NaTHoRst, 396.— Structural and Systematic Conchology, G. W. Trron, Jr., 397. Miscellaneous Seient tifie Intelligence.—Report of the Supecaantet of bs United Se States Coast and ene gona of the year ending June, 1880: Telescopic — val a Society of London: Medals awarded Ba the Geological t Semel 6 Londou: The | : the’ ciety of Naturalists, 399.—National "Academy of Sciences: Index to Popular Science Monthly, 4 = vill CONTENTS. NUMBER CL. Arr. XL.—Nature of the greutiete in the St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones in Wisconsin; by R. D. Irvine, .. 401 XLI.—Existence of a deposit in TWonbeustern Montana and Northwestern Dakota that is py Poiana with the Green River Group; by ©.a. W atrey, : 22.0) 12S New Percide from Dakota; E D. ‘Goss, side Jae 414 XLII.—Concretions in Meteoric Irons ; sD J.'ds SMrrn, jae: Sie XLITI.—Mineral Vein formation in progress at Steamboat rings and Sulphur Bank; by Josrerpn LeConre,. -- -- 424 XLV Observations of the Transit of Venus, Dee 6th, 1882; by O. H. Lanprers, - goa oe Pueee be XLV.—Fauna found at Lime Creek, Towa; by S. Cat LVIN, _- 432 XLVI.—Stratified Drift in Delaware ; by F. D. CuEstER,.. 436 XLVI oe discharge of the flooded Connecticut ; ‘by J. Bosshe ie ls, Gt posto eed) a iad 440 XLVI. he eriments made to determine the variations in length of certain gil by R. 8. Nias pwarpD, E. 8 R. Wuereer, A. aot Wi. Vnee se XLIX. sBepiaitica a new elas sme fons Satuanes Conn. ; by G. J. Brusu and 8. L. AA 45 1 8 eae maser emg oyred ke 459 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chenteiry and Physics—Numerical estimate of the rigidity of the Barth, G. H. —s 464 _Ripple-marks, 467.—Direct vision Spectroscope of great disper- : Transmission of power by electricity: Radiation of rock-salt at different roi rs C. Baur, 469.—Application of Organic acids to the examination of sasestomnis H. ©. Botron, 470. . EB. Hat, a eS ae of the Triassic traps and sandstones of the Eastern United States, W. M. Davis, 474. et voree phenomena of Long Island, J. Brysen: Relations of the Felsyte to e Conglomerate on Central Avenue, Milton, Mass., M. E. big sola 47 ahr: ca fat W. O. Crossy : Origin of the Crystalline a Ore —Overturn folds in the Alps, 477.—The Dimetian, Arvonian and idian y karat Erect tr oo Animal remains in Nova Scotia, J. W. Daw he Letheea Geologicn, . RoEM sae genet be J.D. Dana: Jeremeieffte, Damour, 478.—Pic 0-epidote, Demat DESCLOIZEAUX: Text-book of Mineralogy, HE. 8. Dana, om and Zoology. Bem then p des K. Seay aes Gartens ue ae Botanischen Museums 8 zu Berlin, —Flora of the Southern United States, 480.—Genera W. H. Moate: Synopsis of the Fishes of ao America, ‘Saueaie aad Giizert, 481.—Atlantic Right Whales, J. B. Houprr, Astronomy.—Draper Astronomical Medal, 482. _ Inpex to Vouume XXV, 483. i rs eh ay ae ae le se oe AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] ArT. 1—Contributions to Meteorology ; by Exras Loomis, Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Eighteenth paper. With a Map (Plate I). [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Noy. 14, 1882.] Mean annual rainfall for different countries of the globe. My sixteenth paper of “Contributions to Meteorology ” con- tained a table showing the annual rain-fall for 713 stations from various parts of the globe, and also a chart showing the lines of equal rain-fali as well as I could determine them from the observations then collected. I however distinctly stated that for Certain portions of the globe, and especially for the southern hemisphere, the observations were too few to enable us to draw the lines of equal rain-fall with confidence; and I re- quested that if any person should discover serious defects in my chart, he would communicate to me the observations which Indicate these defects. In response to this request I have received communications from numerous sources, of which the following are the most important: The Meteorological Service of the Dominion of Canada; the Meteorological Institute of Norway; the United States Signal Service; Dr. Alexander Woeikoff of St. Petersburgh ; Dr. A. von Danckelman of Leip- aig; Dr. Benjamin A. Gould of Cordoba; Professor Orville Dewey of Rio de Janeiro; Dr. Mauricio F. Draenert of Bahia: and Henry B. Joiner of S. Paulo, Brazil. I have also received the published observations of rain-fall from a large number of | a Am. Jour. Sor.—Turrp Serres, Vou. XXV, No. 145,—Janvary, 1883. a ene E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. countries, of which those from Mexico, Japan, the East Indian Archipelago, and Australia, and those contained in the second edition of Schott’s Rain Tables, have proved of the greatest value for my present purpose. I have carefully considered the criticisms which have been made upon my first paper, particu- larly those of Dr. Woeikoff (this Journal, May, 1882) and those of the editor of Nature (June 29, 1882). The accompanying table shows the most important observa- tions which I have thus far received, many of them being from new stations, while those from stations included in my former paper exhibit the results of a more extended period of observa- i olumn Ist contains the reference number; column 2 gives the name of the station; column 38d gives its elevation above the sea expressed in English feet; column 4th gives the latitude of the station and column 5th its longitude from Green- wich; column 6th shows the number of years of observation represented ; column 7th shows the mean annual rain-fall ex- ressed in English inches; and column 8th gives the authority for the results. In the last column, Schott’s T. 2d ed. stands for Engenharia; S. Paulo Rw. Co. stands for Saéo Paulo Railway Company; Zeitsch. stands for Zeitschrift der Osterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie; En. Met. Com. 28 stands for Contribution to the Meteorology of Japan No. 28, issued by the English Meteorological Committee; Q. J. Met. Soc. stands for Quarterly Journal of the London Meteorological Society; A. v. Danckelman stands for Meteorologischen Beobachtungen von Dr. A. von Danckelman; Russ. Met. Obs. stands for Russell’s Rain Observations in New South Wales. The other abbrevia- tions will probably be understood without particular explana- tion. This table might have been very much enlarged, but I have confined myself to those stations which were regarded as specially useful in revising my rain-chart. With the aid of the new materials thus collected I have prepared a new chart of the rain-fall which is believed to represent pretty well all the obser- vations contained in my two tables. If these two charts are carefully compared, a general resem- blance will be readily perceived, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere. In North America there is a little change be- tween Lake Superior and Hudson Bay; also in Yucatan and Central America. In South America the changes are much greater. The observations from the Argentine Republic indi-— eate that the line of 50 inches rain-fall crosses the meridian of 60° in about latitude 274° S.; and although the number of ob- £.. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. mead potonngl Rain fal for various Stations. Ni ae Station. - | Bier | Lat. Long. | Kear Rain. | Authority. 1 ost Peel’s River 67 32 N/134 30 wi | ; 4 : 2} | 53°88|Schott’s T., 24 ed. > Eee Fact'y, Hud 55/57 ON| 92 26 W) 4 | 24-73] ‘anada Met. Obs. hen yeah line 100056 ON|118 20W) . | 15°26/Can. Met. Office ony ee 405/51 53 N| 55 22 W| - | 55-07] — do. a ana: i Col. | = [60 42 N/L22 2W| 3 | 15°26/Canada Met. Obs. iteaee. ridge, B.C.) 760/50 256 Nj121 30 W) 4 | 1lu'ld do. eg ke, Br. Col./2100/50 16 Nj120 48 W} 3 | 11°99 do. ain ow Lea, Ma 825150 7N| 97 40 W!) _ | 24°64/Can. Met. Office. 10lPo rt Manitoba 50 6N/} 98 15 W)| - | 27:14 0. ~ rnd Heights, Man. 50 5 N!| 9750 W| 2 | 25°45/Canada Met. Obs. sh oad itoba| _. [50 5 N| 9712 W) 2 | 17°60 Y if a 49\23 11 Ni\106 0 W!| 2 | 45°91/Bol. Met. Mex. 5 gga ge 8187/22 44 N/102 33 W] 3 | 25665 do. Pab uis at Mex.!6202/22 9N/i100 58 W| 3 16°30 do. sitar a mat tag Bei < 4N 102 11 Wi 3 | 20°8: do. 1 6N/101 30 W| 3 | 28°26 do. - Crna, Mex. (6761/21 1 N\|l00 48 W| 1 | 20°6 do. lees re ‘ 20 55 NiL05 12 W} 1 | 49°41 do. Hi “ el Rio _. 120 24 N} 99 39 W} 1 | 22°3 do. mt Sa e, Mex. _. 119 54 Ni} 90 24 W] 1 | 45°56 do. es a Mex. _. 119 46 Ni 97 22 W] 3 | 66712 do. pes ha aro, Mex. 7015/19 31 Nj101 31 W] 2 | 44°77 do. nd Scena hag 3600/19 15 N| 96 40 W} 12 | 83°8 Schott’s 1. 24 ed. ab iTas a, 7112119 3.N| 9811 W| 3 | 40°24/Bol. Met. Mex. 96 ey, Mex _ 119 ON) 97 TW 38 | 59°61 a1 Vfahe oho 4/18 46 N/103 20 W; 12 | 41°73|/Revista a CL Mex. Fea pam, Mex 11/18 37 N} 95 39 W| 2 | 90°28/Bol. _ Mex. Slsmunet 5072/17 3N} 96 40 Wi 3 | 30°21 30 = ter aly , N. Gren. 119 23 N| 79 63 Wi 6 {12 60|Schott's T., 2° ed. SHicurent’S sta Rica [3837/10 ON| 84 0 W] 1 | 47 38 Medellin, enezuela /2923/10 31 N| 66 55'W) 1 | 37 = mea Rep. 1867. 3alPare in, Colombia 6 38 N| 76 35 Wi 2 63°36|Sig. Ser. Int. Obs 34 Paramaribo .. | 6 49 NI} 65 12 W} 2 bee wae He ne ane 1211 8 88/60 OW] 1 | 55°20|Zeitsch., viii, 267 ae ridieae Jeara _. | 3 438] 38 29 W| 28 | 58°62/W. M. Roberts. 31| Porat 3201 3 443} 73 8 WI] 14 |103-28/Schott’s T., 24 ed. aa. meets 10! 8 48] 34 52 W] 4 |108-40|Zeitsch, xiv, 216. 30[Bahin or as Lages 98/12 87S| 38 40 W| 14 | 80°80/Rev. de I 4 Sabare — .. 113. 08] 38 32 Wi 1 3°08 do. — 411Rio dey zil 2280119 548| 44 30 W| 25 | 64:45)W. M. Roberts. 42l8 Pa snd Brazil] .. |22 54S! 43 8 W| 17 “78 do. ee ro “tig 0, Brazil 2393123 33S] 46 37 W) 3 | 53° - Henry B. Joyner. da\Sency mvehateo 9625/23 458| 46 30 W] 6 |137'8 46) ito ed razil 0124 0S| 46 22 Wi 8 doen Paulo Rw. Co. 46|Salta, Re rra 24 08] 49 20 Wi 9 pede Hla rise y. 47\Ville F p. we _ 124 458} 65 27 Wi 4h | 27-01 . Gould. Maan orm: r. 96 128| 58 6& W| 24] 72°72 ( _ 468| 65 29 W| 44 | 35-40 do. 198| 58 56 W| 7 | 58°58 do. 30S] 66 36 W) 5 | 3917 do. 7 449| 64 23 Wi 6 | 19:92 do. 12S| 59 22 Wi 6 | 46°22 do. 9 Bet WE B pare do. 18 S| 67 22 Wi 24 | 11:93 do. 548] 58 9 W] 19] 5146} do. 158| 59 41 W| 5 | 39°80) do gi 58 2Wi 3 | 4610) do, 4 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various Stations. No. Station. pth Lat. Long. — ones. Authority. 58|Cordoba, Rep. A re 124031 25S| 64 11 W] 94 | 27-80 |Dr. B. A. Gould. §9|San Juan, Kep oe laleat 68 20 W] 5 2°83 do. 60) Parana, Rep preg -- |31 44 60 24 W} 6 | 36°77 do. 61|Mendoza, Rep. Arg. |2559/32 53 68 52 Wi) 4 715 do. 62| Rosario. Rep. Arg. . 182 55 60 39 W! 5. | 38°50 do. 63|/Rio Cuarto, R. Arg. | _. |33 7S/| 64 21 W) IL | 29°21 do. 64) Nueva Palmira, R.A.) _. [33 47 58 16 W| 44 | 27°24 do. 5)Tatay, Rep. Ar, _ 134 148] 59 54 W| 54 | 33-78 do. S. Antonio d’Areco | __ |34 15 59°30 Wi 3 13188 do. 67|Uhacra Matanzas a2 {3426 58 26 W) 5 | 36°58 do. 68|25 de Mayo, R. \rg.| __ |35 20 62 OW 14 | 37-48 do. 69|Salado, Rep. Arg. .- 135 408/69 6 Wi 34 | 30°94 do. 70| Dolores, Rep. A fis 28 es, 58 14 W} 34 | 33°27 do. 1/Tandil, Rep, -. 187 138} 69:10 W| 33.) 34°45 do. 72|Bahia Blanca: R. Ar.} 62/38 44S} 62 11 W} 22 | 19°25 do. 3\Ushuaia, Rep nee (oa 6S 68 10 W} 3 | 19-72 do. 74| Alten, Norwa 43'69 58 23 17 8 | 10°46 |Dr. Henry Mohn 75|Sidvaranger, Norw. | 66/69 40 30 11 E| 7-8 | 14°39 do. 76|Troms6, Ne 50/69 39 N| 18 58 J 8-9 1°86 do. 77|Fagernes, Norway 25/68 27 Nj 17 28 8. |19°%2 do. 78|Lédingen, Norway 44/68 24 16° 43 7 | 47°39 do. Varé, Norway 39]/67 41 N} 12 32 2-3 | 24°19 do. 80|Kodé, Norway 15\67 17 N} 14 24 12 | 32°39 do. 81|Ranen, Norway 43/66 12 13:32 8 | 39°74 do. 82/Brén6, Norwa 35/65 28 N; 12 14 8-9 | 32°65 do. den, y | 249163 49N/} 11 14E/ 9 | 21-04 do. 84\Christiansund, Norw.| 50 uae 7 45 18 | 33-47 do. 85| Kéros, No 64/62 35 11 23 7-8 | 15°73 do. 86| Aalesund, Norway 47\62 29 628 14 | 45°20 do. Dovre, Nor 2110|62 5 9 8 EF j\LO-11| 14°30 do. 88|Domsten, Norway 36/61 53 5 40 5 | 74:02 do. 89/Floré, Norway 661 36 N| 5 2 6 | 75-28 do. 90|Sogndal. Norway 109/61 18 a. 3 9 | 27-97 do. Flesje, Norway 16/61 8 6 27] 8 | 52°75 do. 92;)Grunheim, Norway 1251/61 6 8 58 8-9 | 21°35 do. sdal. Ni 16\61 6 121 10 2°22 do. 94|Birid, Norway 19/60 58 Ni} 10 35 5 “86 do. Bergen, N 57/60 24 5 20 14 | 72°24 do. 96) Kidsvold 11 13 E /10-11] 30°84 do. 6 40 6-7 | 39°69 do. 10 16 5 | 19°74 do. 10 31 6 | 41:08 do. 10 39 aw 1 42 02 do. 10 45 42 | 26-93 do. 10 47 6 | 27°63 do. 10 56 3-7 | 31°60 do. 7 32 3-4 | 36°80 do. 5 16 14 | 42°84 do. 10 28 14 | 23°15 do. L2¥ 14 | 44°88 do. 62 37 14 | 12°64 |Dr. 133 50 S]138 37 1g | 24:93} do. 72) Auburn, S. Aust. -_ 34 281138 38 EB] 15 | 24°50} = do 273/Wallaroo, S. Aust, _. 183 5481137 38 15 | 13°59 do 274/Kapunda, §. Aust. 34 2031139 0 B| 19 | 20°25 275 Gawler, 8. Aust. _ 184 35S$1188 45 18 | 18°97 do 276/ Adelaide, S. Aust _. 184 5781138 35 41 | 21°31 do 277/Strathalbyn, 8. Aust.| _. (35 16S |138 55 19 | 1884) do a3 lwa, 8. Aust. .. [85 $1138 47 oot Oe hee a do 19/Meningie, 8. Aust _ 135 4181139 19 15 | 19°27 do. 280/Robe, 8. Aust. > Ig7 38139 42 B| 19 | 24-69} do. 281 Bourke, N.S.W ~ }30 38|145 58 | 8 | 15°45/Russ. Met, Obs. 282/Narrabri, N.S.W. _. 130 20 S}149 46 ll 45, — do. Saale ia. N.S.W. | _. (31 318143 331 Re A — assilis, N.S.W. _. 192 0S|150 0 a 285|Scone, N.S. W. ~~ |g9 48150 53 B| 7 | 22-27] do 8 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. Mean Annual Rain-fall for various Stations. 4 ! No. | Station. | feet. Lat. Long. youre oben Authority. 286 Muswellbr’k, N.S.W.| 2. |32 17S|150 53 7 19-00|Russ. Met. Obs. 287|Dubbo, N.S.W. .. |82 188/148 35 9 20°39 do. 288)| Bathurst, N. -. [33:24 5/1149 37 19 |} 24°62 do. 289|Wentworth, N.S -. |34 142 0 10 | 11°55 do. 290|Waggawagea,N.S.W) _. |385 8S(147 241] q 23°89 do 1|Murray Dow i -. (85 168/143 41 16 | 15°59 do 292/Queanbeyan, N.S.W.| .. (35 205/149 15] 10 | 23°91 do 293|Denili uin, N | -. |85 328|145 2 20 | 16°50 do. 294 Cooma, N.S.V 36 12S|149 9 16 | 19°09} do. 295 Charl. Waters, S. Au.) _. |25 505/134 57 | 4 8°83)Todd’s Met. Obs. 296|Peake, S. Aust. bak 28 49/135 50] 4 7:00 do. 297 Strangw. Spr., §. A.| .. (29 118(136 33 4 6°12 do. 298|Stuart’s Creek, S. A.| -. |29 459/137 5 3 8-17 do. 299/Farina, oer (30.4 811398: 14 1 6°59 do 300) Arrowie, 8 Be 1 oy 18058 SB 199519 3 7-49 do 301\Beltana, S. Aust. | _. (30 58S /138 27 4 8°39 do. 302) Wirrial ~ | o{8k) 18 iie8 62 4 | 694 do. 303) Wintabatingana, “ | _. |31 208/138 18 1 8°60 do. 304|Moonaree, | .. |31 549 |135 34 2 | 944} do. 305/Port Augusta, 8. A. | .. |32 298/137 45 20 “TC do. 306|/Moorna, 8. Au | .. [34 98/141 42 3 7-87 do. 307|Paringa, Bete 1 ou ee 0 44 7 9°94 do. 308|Goorimpa, N.S.W. -- |30 225)144 1 2 9°34) Russ. Met. Obs 309|Tarella, N.S.W. -- {30 55 3. 0 4 9°67 do, 310| Weinteriga, NS.W. | -- (32 42 52 4 *26 do. 311\Teryawynia, N.S.W.| _. |832 208/143 20 a 9°99 do. 312/Ne N.S.W. 32 53 42 20 4 9-04 do. 313)Geraldton, W. Aust. | - 448114 44 2 | 16°90)Fraser’s Met. Ob 4\Ne i We sp [aks 16 33 2) 1640 do. 315|Northam, W. Aust, a Io Ab 116 45 2 11°30 do. 3 Aust. vor JARS 6 47 2 16°15 do 317/Guildford, W. Aust. | -- |31 558/115 56 2 88°25 do 318/Perth, W. Aust. .. |81 578 j115 52 4 32°58 do 19/Freemantle, W. Aus.| ~~ 28)115 421] 2 | 2645 do. 320|Pinjarra, W. Aust. .- \82 348)115 52 2 | 35°55 do 321\Banburg, W. Aust. | -- |33 18S/|115 32 2 | 41-90 do 322\/Vasse, W. Aust. - (83 32 Sj115 28 | 2 27°75 do. 323'Albany, W. Aust. -- '35 0S!117 53 EB! 2 | 35°55 do. ee hy - - u . i _ difficult to trace satisfactorily, partly on account of the scarcity E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 9 ? regions where the rain-fall does not much exceed 10 inches. Some change has been made in the East Indian Archipelago required by the three years’ observations of Dr. Bergsma. The changes in Central Australia are explained by the fact that when I prepared my former chart, the observations which were available were few in number and most of them included a period of only one year. The observations since received appear to indicate that throughout the whole interior of Aus- tralia, the average annual rain-fall is less than 10 inches. In Central Africa the present chart shows a greater rain-fall than the former one. Some of the changes are based upon new observations, and others have been made in deference to the judgment of my critics. _ It is hoped that this revised rain-chart may be found less imperfect than the preceding. I do not expect, however, that tt will be found perfect, and I urgently renew the request con- tained in my former paper that if any person whose attention is attracted to this map should discover in it serious defects, he will communicate to me the observations which indicate these defects, I propose hereafter to publish all additional observations of rain-fall which I may be able to obtain, so far as they indicate the necessity of changes in the present rain- chart, and if this chart should be found greatly in error, intend to issue a revised edition of it. Relation of rain-areas to areas of low pressure. In former papers I have examined the cases in which a‘rain- fall of two inches in eight hours has occurred at any of the Stations of the U. S. Signal Service, and also the cases in which the aggregate rain-fall at all the stations was unusually great. This examination has shown a marked difference between the effect of a great rain-fall in the northern and southern portions of the United States. South of the parallel of 36° we find that of observations, but especially because there are very extensive inch *Ppear to be always under the influence of an area of low pres: ure. The average distance of the principal rain-centers from 10 £. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. the center of low pressure is nearly 400 miles; they are gener- ally on the east side of the low center, and are most frequently found nearly in the direction of the average progress of storm tracks. ‘There is, then, an intimate connection between the rain- ical influences, I have prepared tables showing for a series of years the principal rain-falls in Europe. I selected from the Balletin of International Meteorological Observations all those cases in which a rain-fall of two inches in twenty-four hours was reported at any station during the years 1878, 9 and 80. These cases are 233 in number, and the stations at which more than three cases of these great rain-falls occurred are shown in the following table. Column 2d shows the latitude of the station; Station. Lat. pe >is ae Station. Las. (Sere int Aa Trieste 45°39’, 85] 26 ||Puy de Dome...../45° 464, 4813) 6 OCG 6 4{ 880; 13-||Moncalieri......._ 44 ¢ Roohslort 6. Le as 66) 90) 99 |i Pola. 220... : 44 51] 105) 6 Genoa: soo 44 25} 157) 12 ||)Com. de Greasque _/43 25} 1056 6 Valonn.:3 Gee ee eee ES Mondovi. ..o55 2. 44 22) 1824) 5 Pie du Midi... _ = 42 36) T7163) 11 | Carcassonne .____- 43 13 84; 56 Mantiago Jos 226 42 53| 863| 9 ||Bergen.._._....../60 24{ 49, 4 column 38d its elevation in feet above the sea, and column 4th the number of cases in which a rain-fall of two inches tenths of a millimeter, but was reported in such a way that the numbers were understood to represent millimeters, thus making the rain-fall ten times too great. Of the other thirteen stations, all but one are in the south of Europe, and show un- equivocaliy the influence of local causes; two of the stations ing on mountains and the others being in the neighborhood of mountains where the mean annual rain-fall is unusually great. £. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 11 The following table contains a complete list of the cases for 1879. Column Ist gives the number of reference; column 2d, the date of observation ; column 84d, the station of heavy rain- fall; column 4th, its latitude ; column 5th, its longitude from Greenwich ; column 6th, its elevation (in English feet) above sea level; column 7th, the rain-fall in twenty-four hours ex- Ala in English inches; column 8th, the height of the arometer, reduced to sea level; column 10th, the direction of the wind at the date of observation ; column 9th, its direction twenty-four hours previous; and colamn 11th, shows the direc- tion of the given station from the center of low pressure with which it is believed to have been associated. he average height of the barometer at the time of these heavy rains was 29-8 inches, and in only twenty-six cases was the barometer below 29°75 inches. In eleven cases the barom- eter at the station of greatest rain was above 80 inches ; but in eight of these eleven cases, although the barometer was above its mean height, it was from three-tenths to seven-tenths usual distance. There were however two cases (Nos. 54 and Within an area where the barometer was depressed somewhat below its mean height, or where the barometer was relatively low when compared with neighboring areas of high pressure. Within these areas of low pressure there was generally a oe movement of the winds. This is indicated by the Change in the direction of the winds shown in columns 9th and 10th. It will be seen that in eight cases the wind changed 180° in twenty-four hours; in seventeen cases the wind changed 135° in twenty-four hours; and in twenty-eight cases the wind changed 90° in twenty-four hours. There are, however, twelve cases in which no change in the direction of the wind Was reported during these twenty-four hours, viz: Nos. 2, 4, 5, » 18, 20, 41, 60, 64, 66, 68 and 73. In eight of these cases the low center traveled very slowly, and the direction of the Jow center from the rain center changed but little in twenty- four hours; two of the remaining cases occurred on the sum- mit of a mountain about which there is presumed to have been S 12 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. Rain-fall of two inches in 24 hours. | Wind. & P S| Date Station. bat: || ete Ber) Bee ae eT apo ee | obsery.| date. | &™ 1879. 2 4 1/Jan. 2|Trieste, Aus 45 39)13 47 85/2°334/29-82) Calm | Calm | SE 2 4|Carlsruhe, Gath! 49 25 HE | 404/2°181|29 wi} sw |Sw 3 6!Pic du Midi, France/42 16; 0 8 E |7763)2°240/36-22; NNW; N 4 Midi, France/42 16] 0 8 E |7763/2°212/30-07| N N 5 10;Valona, Turkey [40 27/19 27 Ej __ |3°940/29-76 be aed oe 6 ies ustria 45 39/13 47 ] 85/2°035|30°09 y ENE |NE 7|\Feb. 1/Nottingham, Eng. |52 57 W| 174/2°770/30-08} ESE | SE |NE ; 9\Santiago, Spain [42 53) 8 28 W| 863/3°048/29 51 S) < 10/Santiago, Spain 42 53! 8 28 W| 863/2°713)29°38| § sw {Ss 1¢ 15|Trieste, Austria 39)13 47 I 85|2°063/29°51| Ca E NE 1) 15|Monach, Hebrides [57 30) 7 40 W)| 150/2°000|29-21; E SSE | SE 19 15|Genoa, Italy 44 25) 8 30 E| 157/2°587|29°46) Calm | N j|NE : 17 Mont L Louis, France|42 31! 2 7 5203|2°917|29°71| SSW | WSW| S 14|Mar.22|Genoa, Italy 44 25) 8 30 15'7|2°657|29°58) Calm 15 23(\Trieste, Austria D SIIB 47 85/2°976/29°53| EH Calm [NE lf 26 Trieste, Austria {45 39/13 47 85}2°028/29-83) ENE | §S E ste, Austria (45 39/13 47 85/3°511/29°63] S SE 1g|Apr. 3|Pic du Midi, France|/42 16) 0 8 7763)2°390/29-82) NW | NW} ? 4|Pic du Midi, France/42 16} 0 8 E |7763/2°469/29 95) N N ? 2( 8|Nice, France 43 42) 7 17 30/2°110/29°47 S |SE 2] 8iCommune de Gr. {43 25) 5 1056/2°252/29°47| SH N |SE 2° 16|Trieste, Austria 45 39/13 47 85/2:063|29-69| S N |NE : 21|Genoa, Italy 5| 8 30 B| 157/3°346/29:55) SW | NE | SE 24 22|Udine, Italy 46 a 380/2°252/29 70}. S SE |SE Rome. 41 54/12 29 207/2°598/29.69| W 26|May 10|/Puy de Dome, Fr. |45 46) 2 58 E |48 906)29°84) NW | NNW|ISW Cra Aust 50 4/20 721|2°467/29-68) ESE | NW iINW 2s ae Mondovi, Italy [44 22) 7 48 B/1824/2-468/29-98| NNW| W 2s 4|Moncalieri, Italy [44 59) 7 41 853/2°098/29°91| SH N E 3 pe Mondovi, , Italy 44 22) 7 48 B \1824/3°378/29-72) W |WNW| N 3] 27|M. dovi, Ttaly 44 22 48 1824/2°091|29°69|\WNW| N |SE hmar, Austria |47 49/22 51 1] 430|2°059|29°88| BH W |SE 33|June 8iSantiago, Spain [42 53) 8 28 863/2-241/29°32)} SSW | W |SE d ries, Austria /|48 58/21 15 EK | 820/2°045/29:90) SE | NW |SW burg, Ge 33} 9 58] 66|3°366|29°62) SW 8 S$ 36|July 2|Besancon, France {47 14, 6 1 | 830/2-067|29-97; SW | SSW | SE 14)) _ France 3 51) 4 21 E| 187/2°760/29-95| § 8 38 14|Geneva, Switz. 46 12) 6 1339)2°551/29-90| NE SW |SE 39|Aug. 3 Cadhelden ae 62.12) 0 8 88/3'180/29°86| EF SE E 40 3|Cardington, Eng. 8| 0 27 W| 109/2°000/29 E SE |NE 4] 10|Besancon, France 4,6 Il 830/2°421130°08) S NS] 42 17|Trieste. Austri 45 39/13 47 $5/2°020/29°89] ESE | E 43 17|Barcelona, Spain |41 23) 2 11 98|2°908/29°99| SE | SSW INE 44 18|Gratz, Aust 4/15 28 E|1171|3°544|29-86| N SE |SE He nnstadt, Aus|45 47/24 13 1355)2°150|29-71|. WNW/IWNW| SE 46|Sept. 2|Bergen, Norway 60 2 18 49|2°401|29 72 Ss E 9/Ch nia, Nor. |59 55|10 44 134/2°043/28-50| ENE | SSW INE 4s} -:10|U 63 50/20 17 E| ._ |2°389]29°42) § 49 15|Carcassonne, Fr. |43 13) 2 21 384/2°217'29-90 Ss 50 15|Commune de Gr. [43 25) & 37 E/1956/2 170/29°96} SW | SE |SE 51 15|Marseilles, France }43 18) 5 23 246'3°051|29°88 E 52 16|Marseilles, France |43 1s} 5 23 E| 2466-261|29°91| E | ESE |SE 53 18|Pola, Austria 51/13 53 105/2 028/29 97| ESE |WNW|SE 54 25 A gnon, France 43 57 8 bb 5 836 30 09, N 55 25) Milan. Di es 482/2°599)|2 99) NE E NE 56 5\Christiania, Nor. |59 55:10 44 E| 1343-08329 86; SSE | SSW /|SE 571 26(Zurich, Switz. | |47 22| 8 33 E|1542/2-047|30-21| S | W INE E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 13 Rainfall of two inches in 24 hours~continued. g Date Stati | Long. /| Elev.) Rain.| Bar. | tess nantes ey - ; beagle Lat. | fr Green. | feet, | inch’s red’d Prev. | At 28 ek ee observ. date. | © 58/Sep.26|Pola, Austria [44 5113 53 E| 105/3-962/29°85| SSE WSW INE 59) 28/Nice, France 43 427178 | 30/2-322/30-07| E | ESE |NW 60/Oct. 1)/Santiago, Spain [42 53) 8 28 W! 863/2-091/30-03) SW | SW |SE 61; 16|Bréno, Norway |65 3012 0E| 36.2-087/29°80| NE | SW |NE 62} 17 |Cosenza, Italy 39 1816 15 E| 8401/2197 29°78) SE | NW |SW- 63; 18/Pola, Austria 44 51113 53 EB} 105|2-008 29°85, WNW) SSW | SE 64) 21/Carlsruhe, Germ. |49 1 8 25 K | 404/2-020(29°79| SW | SW ISW 65 23) Valona, Turke 40 2719 278! .. (23602988) SEN. ISW 66/ _-28/San Fernando, Sp. |36 28) 6 13 W| 95/9:134.29°31| S SE 67 29/Carcassonne, Fr. [43 13. 2 21 E| 384/2:106 29°85| ESE E {INE 68) 29/Perpignan, ¥r. [42 42 29 54 BE | 9819°102/29°86| SE NE 6 29/san Fernando, Sp. |36 28) 6 13 W| 95/3183 29°78) S| S 70\Nov. 1\Campo Major, Por. |39 2| 6 69 W) 945|2'296|29°79| ESE | SSW | E - enoa, Italy 25 8 30 E| 157/2'126. 29-80] SW 2| _-20/Genoa, Ital 44 25) 8 30 B| 157/3°165/29°88| NW | NE |NE %3| -25\Helston, Eng. «(50-5 «5-17 Wi _. (24003032 E | B 14) 28/Santiago, Spain 42 53) 8 28 W| 863/2-024'29-30| NE | SSE | N Fel o,4| Genoa, Italy 44 25 8 30 H| 157|2'5392953| NE | N |SE ~2__15'Bergen, Norway !60 24/ 5 18 E! 49'9500'30-29! SSE | SE |SE aeronie movement of the winds nearly stationary as will be own hereafter. In No. 2 there was a small barometric de- ee i conclude that each of these cases of great rain- “aad - perhaps one or two exceptions) occurred within an ings pibertre somewhat below the mean, or at least a pres- elatively low, and that there was a cyclonic movement oF the winds about this low center. In order to show the position of these heavy rain-falls with Pras my seventeenth paper. Column 11th of the preceding 4e shows the quadrant in whieh each of these rain centers : a8 situated, except that in a few cases the direction corre- eooeded very nearly with one of the cardinal points, and this * indicated’ by the letters N, E, 0 There are also five ti marked with the character ? which will be considered ereafter. The following is a summary of the number of cases of great rain-falls for each of the four quadrants about the e center of low pressure : eek Northeast. Southeast. Southwest. North 29 3L 6 : 14 E.. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. The three cases in which the great rain-fall took place on the N.W. side of the low center are Nos. 27, 54 and 59. May 11th there was a low center (29°37) about 200 miles southeast of Cracow, and during the preceding twenty-four hours the low center traveled only 275 miles, which is considerably less than the average velocity in this part of Europe for the month of May. Sept. 25th there was a high barometer (30°58) at Mos- cow, and another high (80°39) over Spain. Under the influence of these two areas of high pressure, a system of cyclonic winds was formed about the southeast part of France, resulting in a heavy rain-fall at various places in Switzerland and Northern Italy as well as at Avignon. This movement of the winds caused a considerable lira of the barometer (29 83) which - was central over Northern Italy on Sept. 26th. Although the heaviest rain-fall may have occurred on the northwest side of this low center, very heavy rain er occurred on the north- — east side of the low center. Sept. 28th there was a low center (29°80) southeast of Nice, and es about 500 miles. Dur- ing the preceding forty-eight hours, this low center traveled only 400 miles, or about eight miles per hour. © No. and 59 appear to have been similar to that of Aug. 12, 1880, in Austria, where the principal rain-fall was on the west side of the low center and the low center remained nearly station- - ary for several days. It seems natural to conclude that the low center remained stationary because the principal rain-fall was on its west side. The six cases in which the great rain-fall took place on the S.W. side of the low center are Nos. 2, 26, 34, 62, 64 and 65. Jan. 4th Carlsruhe was situated on the S.W. side of a low center (2913 inches) at a distance of nearly 1000 miles; but on the 3d of January there was a decided cyclonic movement of the winds about the southern portion of the North Sea, accompanied by a slight depression of the barometer on the northwestern side of Carlsruhe, and the great rain-fall at Carls- ruhe was probably the result of this local movement rather than the effect of that distant area of low pressure on the northeast side. No. 26, May 10th, was similar to the preced- ing case. A cyclonic movement of the winds covering nearl the whole of France was very decided, although the principal center of low pressure was distant 800 miles on the east side. No. 84, June 10ti, was also similar to the preceding, the wind at Eperies having been S.E. June 9th and N.W. June 10th. No. 62, Oct. 17th, presents another similar case. The wind at Cosenza was §.E. on the 16th and N.W. on the 17th. In No. 64, Oct. 21st, rain was very general throughout nearly the whole of Europe, and it apparently resulted not so much from the existence of an area of low pressure over the Baltic Sea, £. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. 15 as from local cyclonic winds prevailing over Northern Italy and Austria, although the observations do rtot show any such system of winds near Carlsruhe. In these five cases the great rain-fall occurred at a distance of from 600 to 800 miles from the center of the low area in which it nm In the other case (No. 34) the local effect uopn the barometer was not distinctly marked. In No. 65, Oct. 23d, the low center was about 100 miles N.E. of Valona. On the 22d the wind was S.E. and 1°30 inch of rain was reported ; on the 23d the wind was north and 2°36 inches of rain were reported. The observations do not clearly show whether this rain fell chiefly before or after the change of wind. f the five cases in the table which are marked with an ? in ic du Midi. inches of water in twenty-four hours. - t H * } . . | 2 | Sa / sg | 28 | 88 [28] $4 z, Date. 5 33 | 53 5 | ca > aa : e| 2 | 2 | &s | a3 | 88 |“2) a8 1/1879. Jan. 6INW| W | N | NW|NW/| NW |NE| E 2 Jan. 7INW|SSW!| N | W |WNW| NE | E| E 3 April 3|NW| W | NW! W | W | W |NE| SE 4 April 4INW| W | N |NW/| NW) WINS 5/1878, Mar. 25NW|WSW| NW WNW|WSW W |NW/ NE 6 . 2NW) .. |NNE WNW sw i E | N |WNW 71880. April 3SW| NW| S | W |WSW| W INE; 8 8 April 27|NW| W INNE| N WNW WNWINW E 9] May c6INW| W | NE | SB [WNW EB INW 8 10 May "INW| W | W INNW!] W | W |NW) SSW 11 Sept. 20'NW|] W w | NW iwsw! W 'NE! SSE Th 1880, the direction of the wind on the Pic du Midi was not reported, and the winds shown for that station in 1880 are the directions of the lower clouds. At Mont Louis the lower Clouds were reported from S. in case 1; from S.E. in case oe 16 E.. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. 6; from E. in case 8, and from E. in case 10. At Carcas- them the cyclonic motion of the winds is distinctly marked ; while in three of them the evidence is not entirely clear. No. 41 occurred where the barometer was near its normal height and was situated between two areas of low pressure. A local circuit was formed near Besangon, resulting in a great rain-fall, but without any appreciable effect upon the barometer. Cyclonic movement of the winds about Trieste. _ 2 “4 She a e 3 ba 3 £ : | a2 Sy ode ee Ste ph Boo} eg bobeh Be oe es * Bog a = ee ea pe) & . oS | 4} Mg 1879. ; Jan. 2} ESE | NE Ww | Sw | NW] S | Calm | Cal WINW|IWNW ENE | NW | SSE NE | N E | ENE| ENE| SSE | E | ENE © Feb. 15|NN W|NNE| SE | NE |SE ees E 4|Mar. 23 SE NE | N | SE | Calm; 8 SE 6 E| SE |N K SE | § EK | ENE 27| SSE INNW; S NW | NNE|NW E W oF E | ENE 7\|April 16] ENE | SW E J ee wei oN SE |WSW|SW| NE gjAug. 17) WS NW | ESE| 8 SE |SE/ SE 8 E Ww 1878 g\April24|NNW}| SW | NE | SE | NNE| E| E | ENE} § W | SE} SE ay Wi NW E |wsw| SW s SW | SSW} Nw js Ww 25| SSE | NE | NE | SW | ENE|SE| 8S SE | SE W |SW|WNW 2\June 5| SS SW W)} SE | Calm/ SSE | SSW |INE| W W/|ENE| N | 8 WwW S | ESE [NE |WSW 4\July 26) SS .. |;WSW|NNE|NE| N | ESE |Calm| E Ww E | NE be E Ca W | SE | NE |NE 6\Sept. 15, SW | NW S SE | ENE| W | Calm| Calm} NE | E |NE/ Calm 20| NW | N | ESE | NW| SE |N vi SE | SW |NE} Calm 24INNW| NW | E NE | ..| E | 88SE/8 Ww Oct. 9) SE | N E | EN --| E | Calm| 8S E | Calm 14] SSE NW| ENE |NW ENE | ENE | ENE |NE| ENE NNW} NW | ENE| SE d E | Calm m ENE Nov. 14) N SE S NW SSE | NE |NE| W “re ENE | Calm| NE N |W | NE | Calm} 8s W | Calm 24iJuly 31INNW|WNW; S S |NNWINE| SW | N | SE | S_ |NE|WSW -25\Sept. 20] ENE NE | ESE| SSE| E | S| SW | SW | SSW] SE |NE|WNW WNW! N E]| N | S | SW | Calm| SSE E E.. Loomis Contributions to® Meteorology. 17 In nearly all of the other cases in the table, the evidence of a cyclonic movement of the winds about the rain center is equally clear. In order to give a more distinct idea of the nature of the evidence, I subjoin the preceding table showing the direction of the winds at a few of the stations near Trieste at the time of the rain-fall of two inches at the latter place. The table shows all the cases which occurred at this station during the three years 1878, 1879 and 1880. n nearly all of these cases the evidence of a cyclonic move- ment of the winds about a center not far from Trieste is un- case of No. 10 the low center was on the east side of the stations shown in the table; but at several stations farther east, the winds blew from an eastern quarter. The preceding discussion appears to me to warrant the fol- lowing conclusions. ases of very heavy rain-fall in Europe almost invariably Occur within or near ‘an area of low pressure, but a great rain- fall. is frequently due to a local cyclone of moderate extent formed within or near a large area of low pressure. This remark applies not merely to those cases in the table in which the rain-center was on the west side of the center of low pres- sure, but also to many of the cases in which it was on the east side. Whenever the movement of the winds about a center of low pressure is feeble, there frequently results a local disturb- ance attended by a cyclonic motion of the winds and a con- siderable precipitation of vapor; and this is generally associated With a subordinate area of low pressure which sometimes ex- tends and attains considerable magnitude. In many cases, this Precipitation of vapor appears to be due to the influence of Mountains by which the air when set in motion is deflected upward. 2. These rain-falls most frequently occur on the east side of an area of low pressure. In 1879, the cases in which a heavy rain-fall occurred on the east side of a low center, were nearly Six times as numerous as those on the west side; and even if We count all those cases marked N or S, as having occurred on the west side of the low center, we shall still find the cases on the east side to be nearly four times as numerous as those on the west side. 8. Nearly four-fifths of the cases enumerated in the table on page 12 occurred at stations south of lat. 48°, so that the con- clusions above stated apply primarily to southern Europe, an Wwe cannot fail to notice a marked correspondence between the — Am. Jour. Sco1,.—Tuirp Serius, Vor. XXV, No. 145.—Janvary, 1883, 2 : 18 F. D. Chester—Bowlder Drift in Delaware. effects of a heavy rain-fall in southern Europe, and in the southern part of the United States. In both countries the influence of a great rain-fall upon a center of low pressure is generally not very decidedly marked; while in the northern part of the United States, this influence is generally quite obvious and decided. In the United States, the parallel of 36° generally forms a satisfactory dividing line between these two classes of cases; but in Europe this dividing line is found in a of the center of low pressure more than four times as frequently as it did on the west side; the rain-center was found in the northeast quadrant as frequently as in the southeast quadrant ; the cases of one inch rain-fall in the northwest quadrant were only three in number, and in neither of these cases was the rain-center distant from the center of low pressure more than 150 miles. For all the cases in 1880 in northern Europe, the average distance of the rain-center from the center of low pres- sure was 420 miles, and the average pressure at the center was 740 millimeters or 29°13 inches. Art. I.—On Bowlder Drift in Delaware; by F. D. CHESTER. ABOUT two miles to the south of Newark, Delaware, on the line of the Baltimore & Philadelphia Railroad, there rise above the level of the plain two hills, which, uniting with each other, trend in a nearly east and west direction. Their total length is about two miles, their breadth one mile, and their height between two and three hundred feet. glacial field. From Newark to Wilmington, running across the northern part of Delaware, is a chain of hills made up of the highly tilted gneissic rocks ; this chain marks the southern boundary F. D. Chester— Bowlder Drift in Delaware. 19 of the Archean rocks of the State. Resting unconformably upon these latter are strata of red, white and yellow clays of Creta- ceous age, dipping at so low an angle to the southeast, that they seem almost horizontal. The position of these clay de- posits gives to the country south of Newark a very even topo- graphy, hence when we see these two hills of detritus rising above the plain they become objects peculiarly conspicuous and interesting. At the very foot of the hills we find the material a ferrugin- ous sand, mixed with quartzose pebbles and fragments of com- pact iron-stone. Wherever we can get cuttings in this loose characteristic of this cutting, are made up of red and NC decomposed materials, derived from the decay of a red ortho- hected with these facts is that the rocks whence these loose materials came must have been immense in size, aye ak humerous, and that they were once scatter ed rene ne like the equally large bowlders of ferruginous quartz and iron Stone, . 20 FE. D. Chester—Bowlder Drift in Delaware. Some of these latter are enormous in size. One ba elas of Besides these larger examples, the whole bank is completely filled with bowlders of iron-stone, large and small, distributed irregularly throughout the confused mass, and it is this fact which gives the deposits their economic importan One of the most interesting facts with regard is the geology of these hills is the occurrence of great bowlders of aoieae which are thickly strewn over every part and even in the mea- dow land to the north, and just at the foot of the hills the ground is so covered with them, that one is immediately re- sca of similar scenes in more northern latitudes. At the beginning of the ascent I came across the largest bowlder of g See yet found ; it measured thirty-seven feet in circum- ference, and another near by, sixteen. At the top, the west side of one of the hills was so literally strewn with bowlders that one could not step without walking on Reng one of these measured twenty-five feet in circumference and numerous others were not less than fifteen, all the fades: varying from this size down. I have to note here that I have found bowlders both to the north and ten miles to the south of these hills, some of them ela in size from fifteen to twenty feet in circumference these cases of bowlder examination, I have not suc- seeded in patti: distinct glacial scratches, although patient search was kept In a few instances parallel striz were seen, but these were so obscured by the extreme weathering of bowlders that their true nature remains a question of doubt In almost every case the surfaces of the rocks were FO so weather-worn or moss-covered as to obscure all evidence with oe cine As to the _ fag how bowlder geolgi that: bowlders have been foand as « far south as the uthern States, and that their presence in these localities is saitaiaed by supposing that they were transported by floating icebergs which found their way to the south at the close of the Glacial period; hence it seems to be the most probable theory, that not only the solitary bowlders found in Delaware, but that - the materials of these two hills were transported southward by floating ice during the Champlain period. e entire want of stratification observed in both hills would tend to show that the materials were dropped pell-mell from F. D. Chester—Bowlder Drift in Delaware. 21 the melting ice-floats, while the slightly stratified arrangement of the sand and gravel for not more than a foot in the topmost layer of the cuttings would show a slightly modifying effect of the waters into which the debris was dropped. It was only in two localities that this stratification of the surface could be trae of all parts of the uppermost material. Professor G. H. Cook (Ann. Rept. of N. J., 1880, p. 94) mentions the occurrence of bowlders in Cape May County, ‘ew Jersey, near the town of Dennisviile. He gives the dimensions of the largest one found in that part of the State as fourteen feet, and its other dimensions eleven to seventeen inches, by thirteen to sixteen inches. These figures may make some readers skeptical as to those already given, yet their to twelve miles from the river, and with different geological surroundings. The tracing also of sand and gravel, similar in character to that found in the hills, for some distance due north, would also seem to indicate that the floating ice was not alone confined to even the ancient channel of the Delaware River. ether the great height of these hills above the level of the Delaware would not seen to indicate a greater submergence of the land during the Champlain period than is reckoned for this locality, will be a question worthy of consideration, pro- vided future evidence shall strengthen the theory. Delaware College, Newark, Delaware, Dec. 8, 1882, 22 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance Art. III. — Upon the Electrical Experiments to determine the location of the Bullet in the body of the late President Garfield: and upon a successful form of Induction Balance for the pain- less detection of Metallic Masses in the Human Body ;* by ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. (A paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Montreal meeting, August, 1882.) THE subject of my present paper recalls a time of intense excitement and painful suspense. The long, weary struggle with the untimely death-wound— the prolonged suffering borne so bravely and well by the lamented President Garfield—must still be fresh in every recollection. The whole world watched by his bed-side, and hopes and fears filled every passing hour. No one could venture to predict the end so long as the position of the bullet remained unknown. The bullet might become safely encysted, but, on the other hand, recovery might depend upon its extraction. The search with knife and probe among vital and sensitive tissues could not be otherwise than painful and dangerous; and the thought naturally arose that science should be able to discover some less barbarous method of ex- the year 1841, and a good description of it in the English lan- guage may be found in De la Rive’s “ Treatise on Electricity,” (1858 edition, vol. i, pp. 418-433).t * A preliminary notice relatin i ished i esdue of the idles Academy of peel gy. 4 oath, fe oc ae + Pogg. Ann., vol. liv, 5-335, $ A similar apparatus was independently devised in America a number of 8 Sor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 28 Another and superior arrangement for the same purpose is the well-known induction balance of Prof. D. E. Hughes.* The Static Induction Balance of J. E. H. Gordon + though primarily intended for experiments upon specific inductive capacity, might also, perhaps, be employed in the same class of vestigations. My own attention was directed to the balancing of induction a number of years ago by the disturbing noises produced in the telephone by the operation of telegraphic instruments upon lines running near the telephone conductor. The difficulty was remedied by using two conductors,instead of one, and by so arranging them with reference to the dis- turbing wires that the currents induced in one of the telephone conductors were exactly equal and opposite to those induced in the other. In this way an induction balance was produced and a quiet cireuit secured for telephonic purposes. This method was patented in England in November, 1877, and dur- ing the whole winter of 1877-8 I was engaged in London upon experiments relating to the subject. in the course of these researches I made frequent:use of flat ee of insulated wire, like those employed by the late Prof. enry} in his experiments upon induction. : My method was to pass a rapidly interrupted voltaic current through one flat spiral while I examined its field of induction by means of another flat spiral connected with a telephone. The currents induced in the latter coil produced a musical tone from the telephone. : Fig.2. Positions making a right angle with one another. _ It was also noticed that when a position of silence was estab- lished a piece of metal brought within the field of induction Caused the telephone to sound. This effect was most marke When the two flat spirals were in close proximity, and were arranged with their planes parallel, as shown in fig. 1 hen a silver coin, such asa half-crown or florin was passed across the face of the two coils, the silence of the telephone was broken three times. The instrament emitted a musical * Phil. Mag., July, 1879, vol. ii, p. 50. } Phil. Trans, for 1879, p. 417. ¢ This Journal, xxviii, 329; xxxviij, 209; xli, 117. 24 A. G. Bel—An Induction Balance tone when the metallic disk passed the points marked 1, 2 and 8 in the illustration, but the loudest effect was produced when the coin crossed the area marked “2,” where the two coils overlapped. After my return to America I embodied these and other results in a paper ‘ Upon New Methods of Exploring the Field of Induction of Flat Spirals,” which was read before this Association at the Saratoga Raabe in August, 1879. Practical application.— While brooding over the problem of the detection of the bullet in the bod of President Garfield, these experiments made in England returned vividly to ay mind. It seemed to me that if the overlapping area “2” of t two coils shown in fig. 1 could be brought over the seat of in bullet without disturbing the relative positions of the coils, the telephone would probably annouuce the presence of the bullet by an audible sound A crude experiment was at once made to test the idea. A large, single-pole electro-magnet (the core of which was com- of fine iron wires) was used in place of coil A (fig. 1); and a small coil of fine wire taken from a han rons. was arranged a little to one side of the pole to rep- resent eat . The small coil being connected witb a tele- one, a battery current was passed through the coil of the electro-magnet, and the battery circuit was made and broken by an assistant. nder these circumstances a much better balance was ob- tained than could possibly have been anticipated. Upon now bringing a leaden bullet near the small coil, a distinct ticking sound could be heard from the telephone each time the battery circuit was made and broken Being absent from my laboratory, and without facilities for proper experiment, I communicated my ideas to Mr. Charles Williams, Jr., of Boston, manufacturer of electrical and tele- phonic apparatus, who kindly placed ni resources of his large establishment at my service; and, at great personal incon- venience, delegated his best yorkie to attend to my experi- ments. Upon attempting to devise an appropriate form of apparatus for the special purpose in view I saw that there were great practical difficulties in the way of utilizing the arrangement shown in fig. 1, and it occurred to me that the apparatus of Prof. Hughes might perhaps be employed with more advantage as the basis of my experiments. In the a form of Hughes’ induction balance four coils are used, as shown in fig. 2. Through the agency of a Hughes micro One the ticking of a clock is made to create an electrical disturbance in the voltaic circuit containing the two primary coils (A C) and a Jor detecting Metallie Masses in the Human Body. % at intervals can be substituted for the microphone with advantage. 0 iy 4 balance was most suitable for my purpose, and I immediately Commenced the construction of such an apparatu Suggestions tested.—Just at this time Il learned from the news- papers that Prof, Simon Newcomb, of Washington, had the Be: i 26 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance idea of using a magnetic needle to indicate by retardation of its rotation the proximity of the bullet in the body of the President, and I telegraphed to Prof. Newcomb the offer of my assistance in carrying on experiments, knowing the compara- tive diffic my he would experience in having apparatus made in Washingt At his Saanec I tested the point whether the rotation of a leaden disk and of a‘ leaden bullet underneath a delicately ‘suspended magnetic needle would cause a deflection of the needle. The disk occasioned a deflection, but the builet produced no mene effect. I telegraphed the result to Prof. Newcomb, at the same time took occasion to inform him of the hope- fal results I had obtained with the crudely constructed induc- tion balance referred to above. I was much gratified by his immediate appreciation of the experiment. He telegraphed that he thought an induction balance promised a much more hopeful solution of the problem than his own oN and encouraged me in every way to con- tinue my exper This a scacine " detepinared me to proceed to my labora- tory at Washington, where I was accompanied by Mr. Sumner ba et who was anxious “A assist in such a cause. [ eae ceived from Mr. Hopkins, and also a Hughes’ induction bal: ‘ance like that shown in fig. 2, which Mr. Hopkins bad for- warded to the Executive Mansion for trial. his apparatus was at once tested in my pie a with re- sults slightly better than those I had obtained in B My Boston —_ did not give a greater pee a dis- tance than 3 cm., whereas with the Pea apparatus I could — effects at a distance of 3.75 ¢ r. ae og (A B, fig. 2) were then fastened upon a peades han o form an ‘exploring instrument, and the whole apparatus was Sentaed for immediate use in case of pal 7 arising for an experiment upon the — I set myself in communication with Mr. Hopkins, and r Paierl his assistance and coéperation, and in reply saciea through Private Secretary Brown the following account of further experiments : Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 27 “60 Irvine Pracr, Brooxtyn, July 16, 188). “Mr. J. Stantey Brown: “Dear Sir: I have made two new instruments on plans differ- ing from that _— but they yield no better results. The first consisted of tw o oblong coils arranged at right angles to each other, thus : Pig. 8. ifefufet “The outer coil ere: BE conn wire (No. 18) placed in con primary circuit, the inne 1 being of very fine wire (No. 36) and connected with a jelaphcia The parallel currents travers- ing the wires iret each other, and no audible effects are wire (Se. oo aced upon opposite sides of a coil of coarse wire fo coil tos une eon so that the induced cur- rents oritidiie each other, _ -1 am sorry to be obliged to say of this as of the other, ae: it is no more sensitive than the one sent. To produce the effects from the instrument which you have it will be ace to use all the batter y power possible without burning the coils, a two receiving telephones of the best constrnetion must be se “As I stated in the first instance, if the ball is more than two inches deep, I think it cannot be located by this wees : wad larger coils were used the stitrdtanilt might erative at a greater distance, but the area indicated as sonkaiiia the ball ag be so large that the result would be indefinite and without 2 SHoping that hte Bell will be able to succeed, I remain, oe ae “Gro. M. Hopxrs,” 28 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance Prof. Hughes of London, England, Prof. Trowbridge of Harvard College, Prof. Rowland of Johns Hopkins University, and other authorities were consulted by telegraph as to the best theoretical form of induction balance for the purpose re- quired, while empirical experiments were being carried on under my direction in my laboratory at Washington by Mr. Sumner Tainter; in the electrical work-shop of Davis an Watts, in Baltimore, by Mr. J. H. C. Watts, and in the estab- lishment of Mr. Chas. Williams, Jr., in Boston, by Mr. Thomas A. Gleason. To test the influence of size of coil, an instru- ment was constructed in which the coils were no larger than the bullet for which we sought (as had been suggested by Prof. Newcomb), and experiments were also made with the enor-° ? mous coils used by the late Prof. Henry in his researches upon induction, which were kindly lent to me for the purpose by the Smithsonian Institution, but neither the small nor the large coils produced more satisfactory results than those we had already obtained 3 To test battery power, 20 enormous Bunsen elements, which had formerly been used to light the gas at the Capitol, were placed at my disposal by Mr. Rogers, electrician of the Capitol, but while great electro-motive force was evidently of use we derived no advantage from such a battery as this. ruptions of the primary circuit of all rates up to 600 interrup- tions per second,* and we found that the more rapid the rate of interruption the more distinct was the sound in the tele- phone. The hearing distance, however, was not proportionately increased. he automatic interrupter (shown in fig. 5), yield- ing about 100 interruptions per second, gave as good results as any, and was much more convenient. This interrupter was therefore afterwards used exclusively in our experiments. The theoretical form o coil suggested by Prof. John Trow- bridge was substantially the same as that proposed by Prof. Rowland, and is shown in fig. 6. The arrangement was quite sensitive to metal placed in the interior of the coil, but the hearing distance for a bullet exter- nal to the coils was no greater than before.+ Professor Hughes proposed to have two flat superposed coils wound on a single reel, so that the two coils should form * Mr. Sumner Tainter has since made an apparatus operating in a similar man- ner by means of which he has obtained as many as 4,000 interruptions of the -cireuit per second. e | lance obtained was not quite perfect, and we have since discovered that the insulation of the wires of one of the secondary coils was defective, - Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 9 a single one as regards their relative distance; and Mr. F. T. Sond, Washington correspondent of the N ew York get: uggested w inding two wires side by side into a single co that the lke distances of the wires from the bullet tad To primary coils of ~ tnduction pt MSS be absolutely the samé. Mr. Ch arles E. Buell and Dr. Chi- este e bal lancing coils until silence was restored ; the secondary bullet Fig. 7, it was presumed would then be at the same distance from the balancing coils as the embedded bullet from exploring coils. The results of all the experiments so far e were neem factory. I had tried every thing that had ot suggested, #™ remained the extreme limit of audibility for a bullet like 30 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balanee, ete. that which had struck the President. Even when such a bullet was flattened by being fired against a board, and was presented with: its flat side toward the coils of the explorer—-the most favorable mode of presentation—no better result was obtained. | Original Experiments.—In the theoretical arrangement recom- mended by Professors Trowbridge and Rowland (fig. 6) the primary coil A was of smaller diameter than the secondary B. This had given us no better effects than the ordinary form of Hughes’ balance (see fig. 2), in which the two coils A B were of equal diameter. We then tried the effect of making the primary coil A of greater diameter than the secondary B (see fig. 7), and in this case we appeared to obtain an increase of at: Bi: WU AY oe x re ‘3 < hearing distance. Five centimeters (2 inches) was, however, the utmost limit reached, when, on the 19th of July, Mr. J. Stanley Brown and Dr. Woodward visited my labcratory and witnessed some experiments. No difficulty was experienced in detecting a bullet held in the mouth by passing the exploring coil over the cheek; and the presence of a flattened bullet held in the clenched hand wasalso readily determined. Dr. Bliss, Dr. Reyburn and Surgeon-General Barnes visited the laboratory next day and expressed themselves as very hopefully impressed by the experiments. These were subsequently repeated in the surgeon’s room at the Executive Mansion, for the information of Dr. Frank Hamilton and Dr. Agnew, who also seemed favor- ably impresse uch opinions from the surgeons in attendance upon the President, and the continued interest shown by Professor New- comb, encouraged me to proceed with the experiments.* It was now determined to test the effect of each convolution of the primary coil, so as to arrive empirically at some idea of *T desire specially to express my gratitude to Dr. Frank Hamilton for words of encouragement spoken at a later date when sympathy and encouragement were greatly needed. Tt Y Y 7 Z Z % Wi H ; WK WK 32 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance the best shape of coil. structed the instruments shown in For this purpose M fig. 8 r. Tainter con- ircular grooves were turned in two boards, one of which is shown in perspective at A and the other in section at D. An insulated copper wire Oo as to ive the king an experiment with this apparatus the secondary n ma coil (B) was first placed within the primary ring and produce silence. ° : horizontal rod until the balance was sensibly disturbed and the relative distances of the coils and the brass ring were noted. The brass ring C was then mov in the RESULTS OF A SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS MADE ON THE 19TH OF JULY, 1881. Distance between— Distance between— Pines F of | | mene Aha aes es LS | Oe | esueeeres AB | BO’) AC | a | mm. mm. mm mm. | mm. / mm. mm. mm. er ae ae ee ee ee Gos [ee 19 | 5 20 25 30 10 --f 48 23 159 | 10 18 28 90 9 29 F390 17 37 360 °°4 7 31 30 14 44 50 0 50 50 14 64 Oc at 17 0 12 12 pF. ae 24 5 18 23 a0 10 } 26 36 206 10 25 35 | 20 17 37 20 19 39 | 30 14 44 30 22 52 50 5 55 50 18 68 Oot 2) 21 0 20 20 bo OF 28 28 5 18 23 81 ee Ca vee 3 33 253 10 20 30 fae 5 18 38 20 19 39 | 30 14 44 30 23 53 | 50 12 62 50 20 70 0 22 22 ae 25 30 113 164 27 37 | 80 4. 96 46 . | 30 | 36 56 bs OO 67 Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 33 Continuing the experiment, the coil B was moved a deter- mined distance beyond the plane of A, and the balancing coils again adjusted to silence. The brass ring C was once more caused to disturb the balance, and the new hearing distance was noted. ‘The results of a series of experiments made on the 19th of July, 1881, are tabulated on the preceding page. The battery employed consisted of six bichromate cells connected in series. These figures show that the distance from the primary coil A (fig. 8) at which the influence of the brass ring C became perceptible mereased with the diameter of the primary ring, and that the sec- ondary coil B required to be projected considerably beyond the plane of the primary in order to obtain the maximum effect _ The conclusion seemed a natural one that the degree of pro- Jection A B of the secondary coil should proportionally increase with the diameter of the primary ring, but the tabulated figures did not fully justify the inference. _ The experiments had necessarily occupied a considerable time, and I thought that the difference between the results that should have been observed, according to the above hypothesis, and those that were actually obtained, might have been due to the gradual exhaustion of the bichromate battery employed and : y- t will be seen by reference to the tabulated statement shown above that the maximum hearing distance ad been ob- Hearing distance. - Apparatus tried with 1 cell (bichromate battery). ..(B C, fig. 8) = 9™™ - Six cells in series : B : B es 3. Six cells in multiple are B = 4. Six cells in two series of 3 each B O, fig. 8) = 15™™ 6. Same experiment repeated _- (B = 13°5™™ 6. Same experiment repeated by Mr. Tainter.------- (B =< ig oom I concluded, therefore, that if the battery power had re- mained constant, the hearing distance might not only have been Proportional to the diameter of the primary ring, but, in order to attain the maximum effect, the projection of the secondary coil beyond the plane of the primary might also bave been found to increase in like proportion. AM. Jour. 8c1,—Turrp Series, Vor. XXV, No. 145,—January, 1883. 3 34 A. G. Bell— An Induction Balance This led me to try the effect of a conical primary coil A with the secondary B at its apex, as shown in fig. 9, but the hearing distance for a bullet was only 3:5, Fig. 8. B Hess eo: BK .B Singularly enough Mr. J. H. ©. Watts, in Baltimore, had independently arrived at a very similar form of coil, and wit the instrament shown in fig. 10 he had obtained at one time a hearing distance of 75™ (or 3 inches), but from some cause unable subsequently to reproduce the not ascertained he was effect. Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 35 The final form of apparatus adopted as the result of the above experiments is shown in fig, 11. With this arrange- ment and a battery of six bichromate elements freshly set up, Wwe were always sure of a hearing distance of at least 5™, although after the battery had been in use for some time the hearing distance hardly exceeded 4°. The following are the dimensions of the coils A B (fig. 11) and their resistance : Coil a eo External diameter ne nternal diameter _ =i epth ig Wire used, No. 23 (cotton covered). Resistance, 2 ohms. Coil B____External diameter. dian oie 3:30 Hternal Giaiheler .. eke oe a Depth The face of the coil B projected beyond the face of coil A 4™. he balancing coils were made as nearly as possible the duplicates of A and B. The resistance of the coil of the tele- PAone employed was 75 ohms. ; ) Influence of Battery Power.—The following experiments were made with this apparatus (fig. 11) on July 20th, 1881, to test the influence of battery arrangements upon the hearing distance Of a leaden bullet: 36 A. G. Beli—An Induction Balance I. Series of experiments with a ~ many! which had previously been in use a few min Hearing distance of leaden | bullet as observed by— | A. G. Bell. _ §. Tainter. cm. cm L cell”. oe eee ete eee ee 2°4 | 2°6 2 2 cells in in ‘series Satins rs 3:3 3°5 cells in series 3°] 4°] to origni- so oe ei gee eed 37 40 5 cells in conlrenis Sserien SMe Ae ee 4°0 4°] 6 cells in =e 4°3 4°4 6 cells in mnitiale SEO eels: 2°6 2°9 0o 6 cells in two series of 3 each ___.__-- — oo | — 3°8 37 oo __|oeoo| _ 40 pore yews series of 2 each. _--- -- > > een} |: 4:3 : : Il. Series of experiments with a Leclanché battery of twenty cells which had been set up for about one month. It had been kept normally upon open. cireuit, and had only been occasi ocometly used. Hearing distance. 20 cells in series 3-Zem 20 cells in 10 series of 2 each 36? 20 cells in 5 series of 4 each 4°]e™ 20 cells in 2 series of 10 each_.__- 3°30m Although the battery appeared to be in good condition, a close inspection showed that the connections were dirty, an that one of the zinc wires was half broken through. he defective cell was now removed from the circuit, and the connections of all the other cells cleaned and tightened. Ill. The following experiments were then made with the Leclanché cells united in series : No. ofcelis. Hearing distance. No. of cells. Hearing distance. cm. em. hi 2°7 11 3-8* 2 2°8 12 4°2 3 3°70 13 42 4 3°3 14 4°2 5 3° 15 43 6 a5 16 4°2 7 3°6 a 4°2 8 3°38 18 4°2 9 4-6 19 4°2 10 3°8* These results are ain represented in fig. 12. It will be observed that the hearing distance was carried nearly one-third as far see as at first, simply by increasing the number of cells employed without any other change in the * Balance not quite perfect. 37 Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. ¢ 8 é |? EF £ e zg : ae et fi Ser : y | | \ ae bois ER r | | nT SLES SE GRRE SE | | os ee | | on os ances eee Be Ee ee oP eye | | | SEAN a as Es bike sci - ——_}—— i SET? SBE SOE = REESE Cn A std | | | | ee 38 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance, ete. arrangement. It will also be noticed that the apparatus re- quired to be adjusted to complete silence in order to obtain the maximum effect As a general result of all our experiments with voltaic bat- teries, we find that 2 7s advisable to use a battery possessing great electro-motive force and slight internal resistance, and to connect the cells in series. Experiments upon Living Subjects.—On the 22d of July an experiment was made at the request of Dr. Bliss upon the per- son of Lieut. Simpson, who had carried a bullet in his body for many years. When the exploring instrument (fig. 11) was passed over the lieutenant’s back a sonorous spot was found, but the indi- cations were too feeble to be implicitly relied upon. Imagina- tion very easily conjures up a feeble sound like that observed, but a number of experiments by different observers seemed to indicate that in this case there was an external cause for the sound—probably the presence of a very deeply-seated bullet. The results of this experiment were communicated to Dr. Bliss in a letter dated July 23d, 1881. On the 25th of July, Prof. Rowland visited me at Washing- make any experiment. After our conversation with Prof. Rowland, however, we were so impressed by the importance of the point that we obtained a condenser next morning, an found it to produce not only a different quality of sound when the bullet approached the coils, but also to increase the hear- ing distance of the instrument shown in fig. 11 at least one centimeter. n the evening of the same day (July 26th) our apparatus was carried to the Executive Mansion, and an experiment made upon the person of the President. rom some cause then unknown a balance could not be ob- tained, and the results were therefore uncertain and indefinite. It was discovered afterwards that a mistake had been made in the mode of connecting the condenser. The latter should have been connected at EF (fig. 13), whereas it was placed at KE G, thus influencing only one, instead of both, of the primary oils. , With the condenser properly arranged experiments were _ tried on July 29 and 80 on three soldiers from the Soldiers’ Home who had been wounded during the civil war, namely, John Teahan, Asa Head, and John McGill In the case of John Teahan no results were obtained. In the case of Asa Head, who had a buckshot in the cheek, loud ic He a, aoe peels. fe} ! 1 i rf vA Nalther™ ‘IS8I ‘9G Ane ‘pley.tey queptserg 97R] ey UOdN {usetmLiedxe 4B1y Ol[} Ul pesn snjyvavdde jo juemesuva.ry 40 A. G. Bel—An Induction Balance and well-marked sounds were heard in the telephone; and in he case of John McGill, who was supposed to carry a bullet n his back, no results were obtained. Further efforts were then prosecuted for the improvement of the apparatus Further experiments to improve apparatus.—Our attention had hitherto been directed chiefly to modifications of the exploring instrument. We now investigated the effect upon the hearing distance, of the coils used to obtain a balance. The following experiments, made July 29, 1881, bear upon the point: Pig.ta. ae Bs % - me sy ¥ ’ - ~ tee ne a3. 3 es ae AS Niet ~ so ) 3 alnla | Exp. (See fig. 14.) Resistance of primary A of ex- loving fetuaaee 2 ohms; resistance of primary C of bal- ancing coils, also 2 ‘ohms ; resistance of e he bee cam J B, 140 olims; and of balancing secondary D, 120 oh Result : "Hearing distance of bullet from explorer A A B, 36%. Hearing distance from balancing coils C D, also 8°5 xp. 2. (See fig. 15.) Same exploring coils as in Exp. 1 but balancing son consisted of a flat primary, E—resistance, 5°30 ohms; and flat secondary, F—resistance, 83 ohms. The adjustment was made by sliding the pe ene! ry coil upon the primary until a position of silence was obtain Result: Hearing distance from explorer re B, 15™. Hear- ing distance from EF, 3™ _ As a general fel of our ex eriments we found that ever mnerease in the rsistance of the balancing coils (especially the primary) reduced the reset! distance of the exploring instrument, Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 41 and it became therefore desirable to do away with this source of resistance as much as possible. Return to original form of apparatus.—This led us back to the original form of apparatus that had first occurred to me (see fig. 1), in which a single pair of coils was employed. few other experiments, made July 29, 1881, will show the import- ance of the point attained. Fig.15. iW<€ Exp. 3. The two flat coils E F used in experiment 2 were arranged as in fig. 16, so as to form a balance by themselves. Result: Hearing distance, 7™. In all these experiments the battery used consisted of four cells (Leclanché.) Pig. 16. Exp. 4. The same coils used in Exp. 3 were tried again, as Shown in fig. 16, but with a battery of eight cells (Leclanché.) esult: Hearing distance, 8°7™, or nearly 34 inches—a re- Sult quite unprecedented in our experiments. The following are the dimensions of the coils K, F. Coil B.__.. Bviornsl diameter 6. 10 ™ Titernal diamoter 2 6 2a ec 2-5em Deoth oe ow dos ene ne tenon nent nee La Wire used, No. 23, (silk-eovered.) OM Pico. Retersal dametet co esi interhal diameter oo... ok c. - Bose ae Dye a eC eM ey niaeceut phan ered 1 b si Wire used, No. 28, (silk-covered.) 42 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance Exp. 5. The same coils EK F, used in Exps. 2, 3 and 4, were tried once more with a battery of six large bichromate ele- ments, and with a condenser, G, in the primary circuit as shown in fig. 17. Result: Hearing distance 138, or more than 5 inches. This great increase in hearing distance seemed to be chiefly due to the condenser, for upon disconnecting it the hearing dis- tance was little more than ge", but further experiments prove that other causes also contributed to the result. Exp. 6. When the condenser was in circuit and the leaden bullet close to the coils (arranged as in fig. 17) the sound pro- duced by the telephone was a musical note whose pitch was the same as that normally produced by the vibration of the. reed of the interrupter. ingled with this tone could be dis- tinguished a number of feebler tones of very much{ higher pitch. Upon withdrawing the bullet gradually from the coils the fundamental sound became fainter, and one of the hig upper-partial tones gradually acquired prominence; and ata distance of about 8 or 9™ the fundamental could no ‘longer be distinguished, but the high tone persisted, and was clearly audible up to a distance of 18™. The effect was very striking, and when the bullet was moved to and fro parallel to the plane of the coils EF at a distance of about 10™, the telephone emitted a role tieslings sound each time the sensitive area (H) was pass It was noticed that other metals, such as iron, brass and copper, did not seem to reinforce this high tone to any great extent, but brought out the fundamental at every distance where an effect was produced. Exp. 7. The condenser G (fig. L7) was removed from the circuit and the leaden bullet held about 4 or 5™ from the coils KF. The fundamental tone was heard, and the characteristic upper. partial Aga also be distinguished, but it was onl faintly audibl Jpon now suddenly replacing the condenser the high Sabie paral tone was instantly reinforced as if by a or p. 8. The rheotome employed to interrupt the primary nak (which had been placed in a distant room) was found to be vibrating badly. The reed I of the instrament (see also Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 48 - fig. 5) was rattling against its contact pieces, thus producing an impure sound, and I could distinguish among the upper-par- tials the tone that had been reinforced by the condenser. ound, upon connecting them with the coils E F, as shown in fig. 17, and, holding a leaden bullet near the coils, that each be heard continuously, like the drone of the bag-pipe, while oe higher tone changed its pitch with each change of con- enser, The pitch of the high tone reinforced seemed to depend upon the electro-static capacity of the condenser employed, but the exact relation between the two has not been ascertained. In experi- ments 5, 6, 7, 8, and the subsequent experiments described above, the battery em loyed consisted of six pairs of carbon and zine plates of large area placed in a solution of bichromate of potash containing sulphuric acid. e effects noted above were not produced satisfactorily when the battery was much run down, nor were they obtained with a Leclanché battery which had been set up for some time, but which appeared to be in good condition. aS At is evidently necessary in order to produce this characteristic high tone to use a battery possessing considerable electromotive force and shght internal resistance. ur experiments had reached this stage when, on Saturday, the 20th of J uly, 1881, I was requested to make another trial — we person of the President at the evening dressing of the ound. At this time, however, we had no exploring instruments Completed excepting one or two like that shown in fig. 11; for 't will be understood that the promising results noted above sees a. aa : TISSl ‘IST Isnsny “pleprepH Iueplse1g 7e] eT? uodn juewL1edxe puocoes ey4 Ul pesn sngvarddy oraz A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance, ete. 45 had been obtained from coils that were simply placed upon a table and adjusted by hand. ¢ immediately proceeded to the Executive Mansion with the apparatus shown in fig. 13, prepared to make a trial, if it was deemed advisable ; but upon learning of the results of our later experiments the surgeons resolved to postpone any further trial until we could arrange the coils (fig. 17) in a portable By forced exertions the coils were arranged that same night in a wooden case, as shown in fig. 18. This case consisted essentially of two oblong blocks AB. A shallow circular recess was turned out in each block for the reception of one of _ the coils, and the two blocks were held together by four pins of ebonite, C, D, E, F, which passed up through slots in the upper block and were secured by ebonite thumb-screws. _When the instrument was completed [ found to my great distress that a balance could not be obtained by any adjust- ment of the apparatus. There was a position of minimum sound, and the telephone responded to a bullet presented to the central part G of the instrument; but the bearing distance did not exceed 3 or 4™_ whereas we had obtained with the Same coils before the construction of the wooden case a perfect balance and a hearing distance of 13°", ter numerous unsuccessful experiments had been made to nature of the defect. ‘ he coils (fig. 18) were then removed from their case, but a cursory examination revealed no defect. Upon trial, however 46 A. G. Bell—An Induction Balance (being arranged, as formerly, in fig. 17), a balance could not be obtained, and the hearing distance was only about 4™. The defect was thus definitely located in the coils ee Figt9 Upon close examination it was noticed that the outside con- volutions of the primary coil were slightly frayed at one part, but it appeared hardly possible that so great a Dard could be due to so apparently slight a cause. However, to test the mat- ter, I removed the outside layer of wires and he tested the coils again. Result: The defect had vanished—a aes balance was ob- tained, ‘and the hearing distance was again * These experiments have revealed the cause of the extreme difficulty always } veloc fatal to the success of an Induction Balance. Indeed, so required i respect that it is jestreeicly difficult to obtain coils that are per- fectly suitable — an apparatus intended to search out a bullet imbedded in the body. tie e it a rule to test every helix used in Induction Balance ex- perim by b ringin g it up om a system of balanced coils like that shown in fig. 19. RR Lg rf the helix is perfect the balance is not disturbed until the terminals of the coil are connected. 2. If there is a break in any of the convolutions the balance i is not disturbed, ag when the terminals are co . If a convolution is short-circuited the balance is disturbed, even though Jor detecting Metallic Masses in the Human Body. 4% The coils were then replaced in their case and the completed instrument tested. The lower wooden block B (fig. 18) was adjusted by hand as nearly as possible to the position of silence, and then the thumb-screws ©, D, E, F were tightened. he balance now obtained was not quite perfect, but by striking the lower block B, a few smart blows with a wooden ae we were able to reduce the arrangement to complete silence, portion G of the wooden case (fig. 18) under the weight of the, Was in a condition to be used, should any necessity arise for an immediate experiment. At the same time I informed him that Up ee the bullet was al ways supposed to be. bad terminals are not connected, and the sound produced is the fundamental of the rheotome employed to interrupt the primary circuit. : 4. If the ibe os is defective the balance is disturbed, although the pines vig not connected, and a peculiar spluttering effect is noticed like that produ J 4 series of sparks. ; ays propose se apely this method practically as a means of testing the condition of the helices used in the construction of Induction Coils and those employed in the manufacture of telephones. 48 A. G. Bell—Eaxploring for an imbedded bullet reply we were requested to make the experiment upon the per- son of the President next morning. On Monday morning (August lst, 1881) we accordingly re- moved our apparatus to the Executive Mansion. The late President Garfield—During the former experiment (July 26) a sudden sonorous effect had been observed upon ee ot 5 = n s < ra) > ® Oo Ss oe os) S OD Qu = het i) S @ SS = bow § ia?) Q S ~ a) ef 1882, G n the Determination of Sulphur in Coal Gas.—An im- proved form of apparatus for the determination of sulphur in coal gas has been devised by Knustaucu. The gas is collected be filled either with gas or water drawn out, slightly bent at right angles, and ground in to the tubulure of this a tube passes connecting with a second absorp- tion bottle. Then comes a series of bulbs and finally a wash bottle connected with a meter and a Bunsen pump. _ By the side potassium carbonate, ten grains to the liter, contained in the ab- Sorption flasks, The amount of admixed air is determined from the combustion products passing through the meter. The co tents of the absorption bottles are treated with permanganate to oxidize any SO,, decolorized with oxalic acid, and precipitated With barium chloride; 10 ¢.c. of a solution containing 7 grams to hi The 101 uires about an hour and the results vary only 6-2 to 0°3 gram of sulphur in 10,000 liters of gas—~ Ber. Beri. Chem. Ges., xv, 2397, Nov., 1882. eh Sy 76 Scientific Intelligence. A the above mixture may be inflamed by the blow of*a hammer. = 2 oO Qu ° < @ bar | | SS Q Qu s mR ee GQ o SB a — b | eg oO “2 S @ Se was oe oO 8 So ie) 9, ° 4 m & io) ° = ie) et ig as) NH +H,, forming ammonium cyanide. This desulphuring action of alecohoiic potash gave ammonia and crotonic acid.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv, 2505, Nov., 1882. G. F. B. Electromotive Force.—It has been maintained by Exner that “s results, The latter employed a cell with zine and plati- num as elements, with iodine or bromine as the liquid. Notwith- * standing the fact that iodine and bromine are elements and can- current results whether the different metals are immersed in ap electrolyte or not, as long as the liquid can conduct electricity. Chemistry and Physies. 7 tricity. A zine and a copper plate in contact give a difference of potential ; by their mutual attraction they can give out a certain amount of work. Their action can be represented by a piece of aving criticized Exner’s results, Braun shows how important the study of electromotive force is to the subject of thermal chemistry. A part of the matter in the series of difference of ment due to a process is zero, still exchanges can take place in Pe ' 78 Scientific Intelligence. 5. Objections to Siemens’ New Theory of the Sun. —M. Faye has made a calculation of the amount of matter which would be added to the solar system by Dr. Siemens’ hypothesis. This =a would be attracted to the sun and stars and would increase their mass. A liter of air Bape the requisite amount of aqu son vapor weighs at least 1 gram at ordinary pressure. Ata pressure of zgy;9 which is aquired ed by Dr. Siemens, this will amount to 0°0005 grams, and a cubic meter ia weigh 0°0005 kilog nsider the solar system a spbere which ill include the planets as far as Neptune, ‘tie weight of the ex ely rarefied matter added to the solar system would be in kilograms, Hy ppt sisted es Baby 00065 kilog.; the weight of the sun is $2(64000000)* x 5°6 x 324000 kilog. The first 18 100,000 sins as great as the second. And this amount of matter would be added to the solar system.— Comptes Rendus, Oct. 9, 1882, p. 612. M. G, A, Hten presents two objections to Siemens’ new theory of the sun. The first is based upon dissociation effects produced by the great heat of the sun. It is perhaps true as Siemens asserts that the compounds which are ees under his hypothesis by the effect of the sun in space, in return ward a center of force like the sun can recombine om baie tie athe energy to t the sun, but these elements reformed at a certain distance, 1 in falling to the center of the sun, would be dissociated again a use up the heat they gave off in becoming compounds again, and therefore no gain would be made by the cycle of operations. The second objection urged i is the following: If the solar radiation or the radiation of a star is employed in this work of chemical disso- ciation of the hypothetical matter disseminated through space, the intensity of the light of the star should suffer, and their light should diminish much more rapidly than the law of inverse squares -of the distances. Hirn also gives a numerical calculation to sup- port aye’s objections to pata hypothesis.— Comptes Ren- dus, Noy. 6, 1882, pp. 812-81 J. T. 6. Compar arative sisarsitions upon telluric and atmospheric lines of the spectrum, for the study of absorption of the atmos- Aere—The atmospheric lines in the solar spectrum afford a means, according to Cour u, of obtaining the absorption of the of the sun, the relation ——~ — or — = oe i results. Certain groups of telluric pa can be pe mien, Behe are ore in Cornu’s paper. mptes Rendus, Nov 2, pp. 801-806. pee eae had arevioadiy” called attention to a method analo- gous ae that proposed, by Cornu, in which the study of the tru a was conducted by means of a tube which “a filled with this vapor, and a comparison was made with Botany und Loology. 19 the telluric lines in the spectrum. He commends the ingenuity of Cornu’s method and reviews the history of the discovery of tel- luric lines. — Comptes Rendus, Nov. 18, 1882, pp. 885-890. 4. 7. I. A redetermination of the ohm. ; a.) Atmospheric electricity. (6.). Protection against dam- age from telegraphic and telephonic wires. (c.) Terrestrial cur- rents on telegraphic lines. (d.) Establishment of an international F . telemeteorographic line. Il. The Cong October 16, 1882, and adjourned on October 26, 1882, to the first Monday of October, 1883. It was concluded by the Congress that there is too great discrepancy between the ous values of 1, The Lignified Snake from Brazil.—The Popular Science Monthly for pares tg et the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical most conden illustrating the object, however, is poor; that in the Popular lence Monthly is a somewhat better representation. oe * ‘ 18, | ica the sci- of wood containing the reptile, after an spn Le Lines 80 Scientific Intelligence. Netto (Brazilian Minister to the United States) and placed in the hands of Mr. Louis Olivier, who, after a careful study of the specimen, submitted the results thereof to the Botanical Society nce. * What is grea a says Mr. Olivier, in an article on the subject in La Nature, “is that the entire body of the snake is lignified,* the anatomical study that I have made of it having ‘ shown me that it consists of cells and fibres like those of the secondary wood which surrounds it. It is impossible to explain the fact by saying that there has occurred a formation of these elements in a hollow, which, having been traversed by the animal, has preserved the form of the latter ; for on the piece of wood it is not only the contour of the snake that is visible, but, indeed, the whole relief c its body. e head there is likewise opens in relief a small cylinder which appears to represent the larva of an insect. It seems, then, that the snake, in pursuing the eee into a fissure in the tree, has insinuated itself between the wood and the bark into the cambium-layer, which is well known to be the generator of wood and secondary liber. The function of this cambium-tissue is two-fold; in the interior it gives rise, in a centripetal direction, to ligneous elements, the youngest of which are conseque ently found at periphery of the wood; but, toward the exterior, on the contrary, it produces, in a centrifugal direction, liber-fibres, but, besides ei Ba and aera fibres ae saved from the cambium-tissues have been substituted for the elements which constituted the “aon portions of the snake in measure as these ave become absorbe The places that these occupied et as they gradually disappeared, been taken by secondary wood, het can) i be ee -E is Se ore by che very relief of the gaakets ar % The result, as in eased of petrifaction, is that in some parts of the body certain delicate details of the animal’s organization are clearly visible. This is especially the case with regard to the stri i it fully bears out this wateindde * Except the center, in which are found the constituent elements of the animal. Botany and Zoology. 81 Through the kindness of the Brazilian Minister, we have seen D ve been presented reat curiosity. The resem- blance to a snake is wonderfully close, although “the scales and cephalic plates,” which Mr. Olivier identifies with those of a par- ticular Brazilian snake, exist only in a lively imagination. The traced from the body to the woody surface. The adopted explanation requires us to suppose that a snake bad forced his way between the bark and wood of a living tree, in a position exactly under a grub or larva; had perished there when within half an inch of its prey; was somehow preserved from decay, even to the eye-sockets and the markings of the skin, the Whole superficial structure of the animal,—until the animal snake. This explanation was suggested by Professor Wadsw of Cambridge, examinin e specimen along wi e writer; Parisian savants in question—which we are slow to believe—they eee less eeely to have been noticed by Sefior Lopez Netto, whose or and good faith are incontestable. An @. 2. Flora Peoriana, Die Vegetation im Clima von Mittel Tlli- “ots. Von Frieprich Brenpet.—An imperial octavo, of 107 — Interesting for contents and very curious in form and ort, mg in German, and printed at Buda-Pesth, at the printing-ollice of the Franklin Society of that town, and as being a part of the Am. Jour, :gaehgeet Srries, VoL. XXV, No. 145.—Janvary, 1883. 82 Scientific Intellagence. fifth sont of the Természetrajzi Fiusetek, edited by the National Hun n Museum. In this treatise, Dr. Brendel discourses from hie ‘fall knowledge of the topography, climate and vege- tation of Ilinois, and in particular of the relations of the latter to the former ; and he ends with a Catalogue of the Flora around Peoria, his residence; adding to each species an abbre- viated indication of its geographical range, also specifying sar which on either hand approach the limits of his district. So tha eo is Seo an important contribution to the pytlogy he United Sta pat Manvipeat of the Genus Lilium ; by Henry oat “Ee s, F.LS., F.ZS. Hlustrated me W. H. Fitch, F.L.S. 1880. finds it possi sible. He re epeat 8 me ates descriptions with only occasional and generally very slight alterations, but wisely differs from him, not only in his limitation of species, but in their grouping. e recognizes but two main phages ‘Car- diocrinum and Hulirion—the first including only the two very peculiar Asiatic species, Z. giganteum and ee co era teliee: The other proposed sections, Martagon, Isolirion, etc., he considers too artificial to be kept merican cL he retains and illustrates the eastern L. Alsat ele petit a Catesbei, L. Canadense, L. superbum and L. Carolinianum. Of the more recently propo abe L. Grayi, of © the Sonciers Alleghanies, he had seen no specimen before the ree of his work, Of ao Coast Soutdes, ee abet are en of L. Waskinajeinianivn and var. purpureum, L. Parryi, L. Humbotitit, L. pardalinum with te se, Se dom DL. parvum, L. maritimum and L. Columbianum. The v urpureum of the first species is obviously more sta a vidios 3 and it is only through mistake that Z. rubescens, of the Botany of California, a quite different species of the Coast Ranges, has been suppose ed to have any connection with it. The forms of Z. pardalinum are left somewhat in confusion, inasmuch as the plate which repre- Botany and Zoology. 83 of L. referred to L. medeoloides, and from which the figure is drawn, represent possibly a distinct species. The figure of Z. avenaceum - £. A. Ford on the Pelagic fauna of Freshwater Lakes.—A translation of Professor Ford’s paper on this subject, from the Biologisches Centralblatt, ii, 299, is given in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for October. Its principal points are the following: The pelagic, or deep-water fauna of the lakes of Europe is throughout very similar in species, and consists, fishes excluded, almost wholly of small Entomostracans of the ton. Weismann hence regards them as nocturnal animals which keep at the extreme limit of light ; but it is better to say through the aid of migratory birds (ducks, grebes, gulls, ete.). The cause of the differentiation of the pelagic fauna is attributed the shore again, The action tends to make them pelagic and confine them to that region; and thus “a differentiation takes Place by natural selection, until at last, after a certain number of in only the wonderfully transparent Pie Ww. ea exclusively swimming animals, which we kno € speci a ee Scientific Intelligence. 5. A new genus of spherical Rhizopods.—Mr. H. B. Brapy describes, in the Magazine of Natural History for September, a white porcellanous spherical foraminifer, obtained by the Chal- lenger expedition at a depth of 1,950 fathoms, in lat. 53° 55'S., long. 108° 35’ E., or roughly about 25 degrees south of the south- western corner of Australia. It is a tenth of an inch in diameter, series. The chamberlets of the same layer communicate by sho lateral stolons, those of successive layers by the pores which: formed the superficial apertures of the previous layer. The sur- face is areolated, owing to the arrangement and the small con- vexity of the chamberlets, The material brought up in the dredge was a white diatom-ooze, composed chiefly of diatoms, radiolari- ans, sponge spicules, and other siliceous organisms, with seventeen species of rhizopods of arctic habit. Ill. Astronomy. were secured one or more of the four contacts. Particulars these and of the physical appearances of Venus must, to have per- manent value, be given by the observers themselves, in their own observing the Transit. In its present perfected form it is thought by ny astronomers, especially i rmany, e the most powerful m now have of observing the Transit for the purpose of measuring the solar parallax. At New Haven the six-inch Repsold heliometer was used by Dr. Waldo and Professor Kershner continuously throughout the whole time of the Transit. The clouds interfered but little with this work, about 250 point- ings of the instrument with corresponding readings being secured. These constituted twenty-seven more or less complete single sets of measurements across the sun, each set when complete being com- posed of eight pointings. There were in addition 20 direct meas- ures of the diameter of Venus, 33 of the sun’s diameter before and after the Transit, and 14 position angles near the first and fourth contacts. Each of the four German parties had three-inch heliometers. At Hartford the clouds entirely prevented observations for the first hour, yet after that time five double sets of observations were secured by Drs. Miiller and Deichmiiller, together with various other valuable measurements, Astronomy. 85 At Aiken, the second northern German station, the clouds interfered somewhat more than at Har tford, be a Franz i is said to have sata three double sets of measurem t Martinique, the French party under M ied had a saa thinng heliometer loaned by the Russian Government. Most unfortunately the clouds covered the sun metinely 3 after the first eesitts and apparently prevented further observation. There are three southern stations armed with this instrument no > of which has as yet been heard api om. These are the man parties under ee essor as t Punta Arenas in me rench party cadee M. Bericta: which has a second eae heliometer. esis from these three parties are looked for with he Ame noth Government parties have been equipped with photo-heliographs under the belief that this instrument furnishes the best material for ao ea, the solar perallax. The pats —— from, viz: that tavtin Lieut. Very at Santa e French parties had photographic senate eg this was Bo regarded as an essential part of their equi t a large number of observatories in the United ne photo- graphs have also been taken. At New Haven, Mr. Willson secured about 150; at Princeton, Prof. Young 188; at the a Observatory, 147 were taken, Whatever results can be had fr potemehe which we are now able to make have apdoabiedlg been see he English and French parties relied upon contact observa- tions, There were ten English parties, at Kingston (Copeland), Barbadoes (Talmage), Bermuda (Plumm er), Madagascar Babi Cape Town (Gill), inla d (Marth), Brisbane frag 28 New Zealand (Topman), Siac" ican st (Wha ide ri f There were ni Puebla (Bouquet ie la aver Martinique ne rand), Au, gustine (Perrier), Santa Cruz (Fleuriez), et (Beruardire), Chubut (Hatt), Rio Negro (Perrotin), and Oran (Jan xe these, Bos dla, St. Augustine and Oran were successful, eee tinique fa led. There were four esdpcgeens yeas Spicer wire of which have but and, st Pots it was vinta over England and Fra "2 haaichions of the Transit of Venus at Observatory; by S. p the Allegheny = Lane ey (in a letter to the editors, dated i. 86 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Allegheny, Dec. 6, 1882).—The Transit of Venus was scone here by clouds, which came on between 1st external and 1 internal contact. Owing to these it was only certain that oi latter occurred between 21" 04™ 45:9 and 21% 05™ 16°°0 Alle- gheny mean time. The sky remained clouded till the close. A at curious and unexpected phenomenon was witnessed, however, Y - ; ‘ : there was seen a distinct bright ga eho heal about 30° of the esi nieesse and ex ending inward from the planetary limb to perhaps one-quarter of the radius. It is very noticeable that this brightness was not in a line joining the oats of the sun and planet, but was distinctly on one side. It S seen mt me with the large Equatorial and a power of 244 on the polarizing eye-piece, and so plainly that I could even notice the gradation of the light, which was brightest at the amit of ence, ough my own obser vation was too clear to admit mated its position angle on the planetary disc within 10° of e other. What it was I cannot say. It is certain that it was aad 3 ments of the ges eb s of 1882; by E. Frissy, Pro- fessor of Mathematics, U.S Uonneutental by Vice-Admiral wan, Sup’t U. 8. Naval 7 La )—The following elements were computed from three observations made at the U. 8. Naval Observatory ; the first and last being made with the Transit circle, and the middle one compared with a known star whic was afterwards Bhesevcd on the Transit circle. App. @ App. Sep. 19-9697877 11h 14™ 188-94 — 0° 34 29"°7 8-7204363 10 28 663 —10 40 22°6 Nov. 247009228 oS. 6 1693 —9t 21 967 From these observations we deduce Perihelion Time = Sep. 17°2228200 Greenwich mean time. 91 T—Q = 69 36 12°79 i= 141 59 52-16 $= 89 7 42-7907 18820 log a=1 9381366 log g = 7°8904739 period = Bs 98 080 years cos 8 = — 0"-06 6B = + 0°01 a@ =r [9°9951411] sin (170° 42’ 12"-72 + ») y =r [99877234] sin (262 46 57° : y 2=r (9°4435130| sin ( 49 20 2571 The observations as given were afterwards ee for paral- lax by means of elements previously computed. These elements ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 87 bear a considerable resemblance, to Comet I, B.C. 371; and it may possibly be its third return, a very brilliant comet having been seen in full daylight A. D. 363. Washington, Dec. 19, 1882. IV. MiscennaAneous Sctentiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. Science—A new American weekly scientific Journal.—lt is announced that a new scientific journal will be shortly com- on the practical applications of mechanics and physics, discussions of the methods of teaching the natural and physical sciences, and of other topics of general interest. The name of the editor-in- chief, and the long list of names that has been published of those 0 have promised to support this new journal is a guarantee that its standard of excellence will be high and that it sine! . s e skulls of two large mammals, as yet unknown to science. A prief account of one, in advance of the fuller publication, is given *Y the authors on page 223 of the last volume. Vo tn oceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences. ol. iii, Part 2, Pages 65-192, with 5 plates. 8vo. Daven- 88 Miscellaneous Intelligence. port, Iowa, 1882.—This numbey of the Proceedings is devoted almost who ly to American Archeology, several important papers on this subject being depp» in it, and the plates being devoted to pacoatie t them. Their authors are, G. Seyffarth, W. si a odin D r. W. J. Hoffman, Rey. A. Blumer and ev. oy. Gass. Other ae baie papers treat of the pa of West- ern Cicade, by J. D. Putnam; two new species of Oaytheca, from Southern California, by Dr. C. C. Parry ; Gealagion! notes by "Mr. W.. H. Pratt, and Fete of Explorations in “[daho and Montana, by E. L. Bertho Madeira Meteorologic, being a paper on the subject read before the Royal Society, Edinburgh, May 1, 1882, by C. Piazzi Smith, A a omer Royal for 12mo i The Climatic changes of ati geological times. Part ILI. By J. D. Whitney. to) 1882. Selections from itistryolovical Mono ographs, compiled by A. Agassiz, W. Fax and Mark. 1. ee with eo _ Ato. =o of the Museum of Com mpara ative Zoology, © idge, vol. ix, No. J. Celestial charts ~— ae a Lite Observatory 2 Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., by C. H. F. Peters. Charts 1 to 20. 188 Mineral statistics of Michigan : 1881. 262 pages 8vo, with numerous sec- tions. Lansing, Michigan, The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. 10th A nnual Report, for the year 1881. N. H. Winchell, State Geologist. 254 pp. 8vo, wh maps and plates. St. Paul, Minn., First Annual Catalogue of the Sta e Museum of California, Henry G. Hanks, State Mineralogist. 350 pp. 8vo Sooraie ento, Transactions of t eo Wisconsin Academ my al Sciences, Arts and Letters, vol. ¥, gp oe 364 pp. 8vo. Madison, Wisconsin, ransactions of ~~ ee ‘Socio ety of New York, vol. i, 168 pp. 8vo, with dale New York Geological surrey. 7 *t ewfoundland—Report of robe for the year 188 ~seurr m8 Murray, C. M. G., Director. 16 pp. 8vo, with maps. St. John’s, New. fou: ois The f the Gas Engine, by Dugald Clerk. 164 pp. 16mo. New York, 1882. ‘. Van Nostrand). Nachtriige zur Dyas II, von Dr. Hanns Bruno Geinitz und Dr. J. V. Deich- miller. 46 pp. 4to, with 9 plates. Kassel and Berlin, 1882. OBITUARY, Franz von Kopett, the Mags pang 502 of Munich, died on the 11th of N ovember last. The e of von Kobell has been identified with Mineralogy ye more gyri fifty ye and the g as published, bear testimony to the industry that characterized his long life. in addition to minor researches he was the author of an elementary work on general mineralogy which has gone through five editions, of a history of mine eralogy, and of a series of tables for determining mineral species whic f w t. man of unusual general culture, being a poet as well as mineral- ogist, and in his character he was most attractive; the many American students to whom he has shown ki ndness will never forget the impression which his genial courtesy made upon them. MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL. 80° 60° 20° O° 20° 40° i be ; = . ’ f ¢ 4 " H > Land s J y re aa) / Vigten Mads o% 23 7 , ee “3 4 ; > A 2} 4 ate . ee Os a 4 Gainba Carleby ain?" (h. Find, Ghristiansund 7% 7 th A ~ pSacobstadt Onegal de: xf oe a * R U s Manselst. ¥ r — AHUDSO? . Poe a d ence abil : i * oO * Chourchill Tite BAY Bs £ “ we ate 7s “3 gaa CTatnam es WORT AH ea | |: ssprge pi a - rab SEA = B “ “fe "Og Tacha Tatas po } is fae : Ae Grodno (ee EAS; js* 1 i R thew J i *Tehernigor i eeu = : c H Saghalion 3 Ale eS 3 . Se, t *y Quebec a . ae ; eg P 4 ; 3 sa hes ees : a F I N t E aon Ss SG ¢ BLACK “> ® he eT L Fe COxtord t rp Gs Mc aontinople * 5 é - esa O + Manitou ra is Be Corsica PSC: % : i , oF * ie C.Meredscing tS | Saptinde ln a . > na - te M Leaele of Gor seat ATV 7 A " ss i fajorca 3 pa ee 3 ? t a = . a8 2 si aege bg i: EY, pe ‘2 PT : ke ‘Sm j 5g : Ey: ‘ et | Fas SPranis® ait 2 Rinne sg ug: rater . agit rE, Midler o ,. i ee E MC fitters patcabess,® Aln, Cana os 2, a S Bard iy okt : 7 Ee Ses ere, # yepanaat Os 4 % s é 7 lags BA prep. ay B USE in -NA ; ire Oe fa ; Mine Ake a — : wie” o haa” Gadamis . 4 Siwah ; poset << Sn ae Ls cad crise ay ee elSalay p SERT * Ae a Reto. i ct PS fooper I. ae : Gulf of Mexico As * * Efe oon iq Mourzouk = Bacar 3 hd te ‘ Sure sea Pn pice Sie, s “¥py oF Ppoopetaags : oe el fad - ? c. A 4 <8. sae E 9 36 fan sartaya & & Ras ay iB ‘ et a i f pres < = . x bal e eee Alp on Re 7 oe ‘Taf 2 Sens area Me babad” CHINES American If pevittagigedo 4 peli” 6B 53 da capeVe ‘¢ ; / sh: " fe, ; faye 3 ina an a mat , ee le 7 et — ARABIAN Benguet . : Caribbean Seq ‘Sbninico antiog ; : d > dz ? ee for it will make no difference whether we take the average before or after differentiation. 5. The electrodynamic force is determined by the accelera- tion of electrical flux in all parts of the field, but physicists are not entirely agreed in regard to the laws by which it 1s determined. This difference of opinion is however of less im- portance, since it will not affect the result if electrical fluxes are always solenoidal. According to the most simple law, the components of the force are given by the volume-integrals Wie ihe Ie r r r where dv represents an element of volume, and 7 the distance of this element from the point for which the value of the elee- tromotive force is to be determined. In other words, the for brevity, — Pot &, — Pot 7, Pot & for the components of force, using the symbol Pot to denote the operation by which the potential of a mass is derived from its density. For the average values of these components in the small spaces defined above, we may write — Pot [é Javes — Pot ne — Pot [2] ave in Media of every degree of Transparency. 111 since it will make no difference whether we take the average before or after the operation of taking the potential. f we write X, Y, Z for the components of the total elec- tromotive force (electrostatic and electrodynamic), we have “ A dave [X]ave = — Pot [&Jave — a (3) ete. 5 or by (2) 47? v [X]ave = Y [U]ave (7) where Mand ¥ denote linear functions.* The optical properties of media are determined by the form of these functions. But all forms of linear functions would not be consistent with the principle of the conservation of In all isotropic media not subject to magnetic influence, it is probable that @ and ¥ reduce to numerical coefficients, as is certainly the case with @ for transparent isotropic media. 9. Comparing the two values of [E]Jaye, we have : e Pot [Ulave — 71 Glave = 2[Ulave + Y[U]ave (8) the solenoidal character of the displacements, if we regard them a8 necessarily solenoidal, or in connection with that which expresses the relation between the electrostatic potential and the displacements, if we reject the solenoidal hypothesis, may be regarded as the general equation of the vibrations of mono- chromatic light, considered as oscillating electrical fluxes. For € symbol Pot, however, we must substitute the symbol rep- resenting the operation by which electromotive force is caleu- ated from acceleration of flux, with the negative sign, if we 4 hot satisfied with the law provisionally adopted. ea ~~ 5 ° ry yy o cr cr ° © os 7) oO we <4 $a) et i bs) ee as Ss © oO 1 —_ ta cr <2) Ss oO a>) ° ey 5 ° g S r=) La | rough the medium, will not affect the reasoning by which this equation has been established, provided that the nature mple in whi ese functi y afforded by the phenomena of selective absorption and abnormal dispersion. c vector is said to be a linear function of anothe th argent of the first omogeneous functions of the first de, the three compone: 114. JS. W. Gibbs— Equations of Monochromatic Light and intensity of these vibrations in any small part of the medium (as measured by a wave-length) are entirely deter- mined by the electrical forces and motions in that part of the medium. But the equation would not hold in case of molec- ular vibrations due to magnetic force. Such vibrations would constitute an oscillating magnetization of the medium, which has already been excluded from the discussion. The supposition which has sometimes been made,* that electricity possesses a certain mass or inertia, would not at all affect the validity of the equation. 10. The equation may be reduced to a form in some respects more simple by the use of the so-called imaginary quanti- ties. We shall write ¢ for y(—1). If we differentiate with 2 oe respect to the time, and substitute — 10) ave for LU }ave: e obtain 47° ° aes * 47° p Pot [Ulave — 7[@]ave = ®[U]ave — > YU lave If we multiply this equation by ¢, either alone or in connection with any real factor, and add it to the preceding, we shall obtain an equation which will be equivalent to the two of which it is formed. Multiplying by 2 and adding, we have . Pot ([Ular Gil Pi) lave) —P([dlave— U f dave) 4 Pp 27 27 9 ° = (6628 ») (Uj + 2.t0hn} If we set W = [Ulave — 7% [U]aver (9) Q= [Zlave Be - glass (10) O=@+1 di -. (11) our equation reduces to 4 2 3 Pot W — pQ= OW. (12) " * See Weber, Abhandl. d. K. Sachs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss., vol. vi, p. 593-597; Lorberg, Crelle’s* Journal, vol. lxi, p. 55. in Media of every degree of Transparency. 115 averaged displacement [U]aye, and the coefficient of ¢ the rate of increase of the same multiplied by a constant factor. This bi-vector therefore represents the average state of a small part - It may serve to fix our ideas to see how W is expresse as a function of the time. We may evidently set 2a prise [Ulave = A, cos ~~ ¢ + A, sin ie t where A, and A, are vectors representing the amplitudes of the two parts into which the vibration is resolved. Then _ , aed 27 £ [U]ave = — A, sin > t + A, cos ry t, and * 27 peg Es [U]ave watt. z” [U]ave = (A, — z A,) (cos > t+1 ae t); that is, if we set A=A,—¢A,, amt W = A e Pp S (13) In like manner we may obtain Q =J9 eP, (14) where g is a bi-scalar, or complex quantity of ordinary algebra. Substituting these values in (12), and cancelling the common actor containing the time, we have =e Pot A- rg = OA. (15) Our equation is thus reduced to one between A and g, and may easily be reduced to one in A alone.* Now A represents six humerical quantities, (viz: the three components of A,, and the three of A,), which may be called the six components of ampli- tude. The equation, therefore, substantially represents the relations between the six components of amplitude in different parts of the field.+ The equation is, however, not really * The terms vQ, vq are allowed to remain in these equations, because the b — of eliminating them will depend somewhat upon our admission or rejec- “on of the solenoidal hypothesis. : we € representation of the six components of amplitude by a single letter notation that which is undivided in the nature of things. e separation of th SIX Components of amplitude is artificial, in that it introduces arbitrary — into the discussion, viz: the directions of the axes of the codrdinates, Zero of time, 116 J. W. Gibbs—Equations of Monochromatic Light different from (12), since A and g are only particular values of and 12. From the general equation given above (8, 12, or 15), in connection with the solenoidal hypothesis, we may easily derive the laws of the propagation of plane waves in the inte- rior of a sensibly homogeneous medium, and the laws of reflec- tion and refraction at surfaces between such media. This has been done by Maxwell,* Lorentz,+ and others,t with funda- mental] equations more or less similar. ; The method, however, by which the fundamental equation has been established in this paper seems free from certain objections which have been brought against the ordinary form of the theory. As ordinarily treated, the phenomena are made to depend entirely on the inductive capacity and the con- ductivity of the medium, in a manner which may be expressed by the equation {So fC a\ Ax’ [Ulave —— (=- An? +) (S Pot [U ave oh rlalave), (16) which will be equivalent to (12), if K pC\ (47° An Qn where K and C denote in the most general case the linear vector functions, but in isotropic bodies the numerical coéfii- cients, which represent inductive capacity and conductivity. By a simple transformation [see (9) and (10)], this equation becomes ; ts a pe 18 ce 4m ont’ (38) where 6" represents the function inverse to 8. ow, while experiment appears to verify the existence ° such a law as is expressed by equation (12), it does not show that @ has the precise form indicated by equation (16). Io other words, experiment does not satisfactorily verify the rela- tions expressed by (16) and (17), if K and © are understood to be the operators (or, in isotropic bodies, the numbers) which represent induction capacity and conductivity in the ordinary sense of the terms. a Phil. Trans., vol. cly (1865), p. 459, or Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, ap. * + Schlémilch’s Zeitschrift, vol. xxii, pp. 1-30 and 205-219; xxiii, pp. 197-210. ¢ See Fitzgerald, Phil. Trans., vol. clxxi, p. - J. J. Thomson, Phil. Mag+ V, vol. ix, p. 284; Rayleigh, Phil. M : and refraction, was first shown by Helmholtz. See Crelle’s Jourual, vol. (1870), p. 57. in Media of every degree of Transparency. 117 The discrepancy is most easily shown in the most simple case, when the medium is isotropic and perfectly transparent, and @ reduces to a numerical quantity. The square of the velocity of plane waves is then equal to er and equation (18) would make it independent of the period; that is, would give no dispersion of colors. The case is essentially the same in transparent bodies which are not isotropic.* ; case is worse with metals, which are characterized elec- trically by great conductivity, and optically by great opacity. In their papers cited above, Lorentz and Rayleigh have tion, therefore, is essentially the same as that which Lord Ray- leigh had previously made to Cauchy’s theory of metallic reflection, viz: that the apparent mechanical explanation of the phenomena is illusory, since the numerical values given by experiment as interpreted on Cauchy’s theory would involve an unstable equilibrium of the ether in the metal. : I this points to the same conclusion—that the ordi- nary view of the phenomena is inadequate. The object of this Paper will be accomplished, if it has been made clear, how a Point of view more in accordance with what we know of the molecular constitution of bodies will give that part of the ordi- nary theory which is verified by experiment, without including that part which is in opposition to observed facts.f 118 HD. A. Ward—Rainfall in Middletown, Conn. the dispersion of colors. In one of the papers already cited, Art. XI.—The Rainfall in Middletown, Connecticut, from 1859 to 1882; by Henry D. A. Warp. Wuen Mr. B. F. Harrison’s paper, on the Rainfall in Wallingford, appeared in the American Journal of Science in June, 1881, a friend suggested that the publication of a similar one from my own records would be of interest as affording a means of comparing the precipitation of the two places. As a result of this suggestion the following table has been pepe. It covers a period of twenty-four years, from anuary Ist, 1859 to December 31st, 1882, and, like Mr. Harrison’s, gives month by month the amount of rain and of hills on whose western slope that town is situated. I deem it proper to state that, up to June Ist, 1868, the and 70 feet above sea-level. bodies the latter part is by far the greater. But it need not surprise us that the former should be the greater in some meta the phenomena observed in metals, * See volume xxiii of this Journal, page 460, 119 ft. D. A. Ward—Rainfall in Middletown, Conn. 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M. Clarke—New Devonian Crustacea. Arr. XII.—New Discoverres in Devonian Crustacea; by JOHN M. CLARKE. In continuation of the notice of some new Devonian Crustacea with a few remarks on their affinities and distribution. The Portage shales, in the town of Naples, Ontario Co., N. Y., but at the time of description were confined, as far as my knowledge ing distribution : . In the “ Lower Black Band” of the Portage. 50 feet above the “ Transition shales,” Bristol, Ontario Co. 2. About 150 feet above the “ Transition shales,” in the town of Naples. . Approximately the same horizon in the town of Rich- mond, Ontario Co. 4. In the “Upper Black Band” of the Portage, 540 feet above the “T'ransition shales,” Naples. 5. In approximately the same horizon, in the ‘‘ Upper Black Band,” 14 miles south of the Shaker Settlement, along Casha- qua Creek, Livingston Co. 6. In approximately the same horizon in a cut on the Dela- ware, Lackawanna & Western R. R., in the town of Sparta, Livingston 7. In the shales immediately overlying 4. 8. In the Upper Portage sandstones, Portageville, Wyoming Count ; * The term “ Transition shales” is applied without liability to misinterpretation to passage beds of slightly arenaceous shales lying between the highest horizon of the fossils belonging distinctively to the Genesee, and the lowest stratum of undoubted Portage age. have a wide distribution in the counties of Ontario, Yates, Livingston, 20! believe’them to be well defined on the Genesee River at Mt. Morris, They coR- tain ich i i z tus H., of the Hamilton and Portage, Styliola fissureila H. abundant from the base of the Hamilton to the base of the Chemung proper, and a Pleurotomaria of uD- described species, abundant in the Portage. J. M. Clarke—New Devonian Crustacea. 121 plete differences in the character of the faune of which it of the Portage rocks, Goniatites complanatus H., Colevlus acicu- lum H., Cardiola speciosa H., Lunulacardium ornatum H., Car- diomorpha (Paracyclas) suborbeularis H. In the bituminous shales of the “ Upper Black Band,” it appears with remains of the genus Paleoniscus and other undetermined fish relics, and also with an abundance of plant remains of doubtful affinities, spores of ferns or Lycopods, and with “Conodonts” and Anne- lidan teeth; in the Chemung in the lowest horizon with Leto- if we accept Newberry’s suggestion a deep-water, sub-sargossan May prove to be, abdominal segments, but I should hesitate to éscribe any as such. I have discovered another variation from the type of Spathio- carts in certain specimens taken from the shales and sandstones of the Chemung proper, at several localities, and in one, Cana- dice, Ontario Co., associated with Spathiocaris Emersonii, with Which it is allied in some points of the structure of the carapace. e differences are, however, very strongly defined and generic, 48 will be readily seen from this diagnosis of the genus. Diprerocaris (dixrepog=two-winged, xapic= a prawn). _ Carapace in one piece, elongate, divided along the major axis ‘to two more or less separated wings or ale. Greatest width anteriorly through the apex or area of union of the ale of the ®arapace. These ale approach each other in planes which, normally, make an angle of about 120°, but the area of union 18 not acute but rounded. Ale united medially for a distance equal to 4d or 4th the length of the carapace, in this union the ale anchylosed and without hingement of any kind. Clefts . Jour. Scr.—Turep Szrims, Vou. XXV, No. 146.—Fesrvakry, 1883. 9 122 J. M. Clarke—New Devonian Crustacea. extend anteriorly and posteriorly from the ends of the area of union, the anterior cleft being the shorter and its sides making the larger re-entrant angle. The surface of the carapace is marked with fine concentric ridges, as in Spathiocaris but is without the radiating lines of that genus. Of this genus I find three species, as follows: DIPTEROCARIS PENNA-DADALI Area of union of the sides of the test, or ale, extends about 4th the entire length of the carapace and is situated anteriorly. The antennal or cephalic cleft is 4d the length of the carapace, its sides generally straight, somewhat incurving toward the apex, and making an angle of radius and cireum- ference where they meet the margin of the carapace. Posterior cleft a little less than } the length of the carapace, margins curving slightly outward to meet the straight and parallel mar- gins of the carapace at an angle of 46°. imensions: length, 50™™, width of each ala across area of union, 18™™. The sur- face is marked as in all of these species by low concentric ridges, somewhat crowded near the center, rather coarser in this species than in the others. In the illustration (fig. 1) the form is given unintentionally somewhat larger than actual size, and one-half of the carapace is restored in its proper position. In the light-greenish sandstones of the Lower Chemung, taken from a gully in the town of Canadice, Ontario Co., N. Y., six miles $.E. of the village of Hemlock. DIPTEROCARIS PROCNE. Area of union of the ale midway between the anterior and posterior extremities, and reaching less than one-third the length of the test. Anterior and posterior clefts of the same length, the margins of the anterior having a somewhat greater inward curve as they pass to the margin of the carapace than those of the posterior. The anterior angles made by the margins of the cleft, and the periphery are large—120°—but rounded. Posterior angles sha Sides straight, anterior curvature abrupt. Dimen- sions: length, 23™"; width of each ala, 9™™. Fig. 2 shows a carapace which has been flattened between the layers of sandstone, from the same locality as the preceding. Fig. 8 shows both a/e not flattened, but probably at nearly their normal angle. From the sandstones of the Middle Chemung at Haskinsville, Steuben Co., N. Y. This species differs from D. penne-Dedali in these particu- lars : J. M. Clarke—New Devonian Crustacea. 123 a, The anterior marginal curvature is more abrupt and shorter. 6. The area of union is larger and medially situated, ¢. The cephalic and abdominal clefts are of the same length. d. The individuals are, as far as observed, much smaller. These details of difference are all well shown in the figures. bd ek «Ae AN a Di ; ; ; ve. Dipterocaris pes-cerve. pterocaris Procne. Dipterocaris pes-cer ; J menaed Pp de DIPTEROCARIS PES-CERV2. : Outline of carapace elongate lanceolate, area of union of ale anterior, dh the Jength of the test. Cephalic cleft short, mar- 8s divaricating at an angle of 68° in the typical specimen and making angles of 78° with the periphery of the test. Posterior cleft long and narrow, the margins making an angle of 6 with each other, and angles of about 23° with the periphery. pa Sions: length 11™", width of each ala 33”. From the sandy Shales of the Lower Chemung in the cutting of the Delaware, - eawanna & Western Railroad, at Dansville, Livingston Co., 124 J. M. Clarke—New Devonian Crustacea. . 4 represents the specimen natural size from which this poaaes is described. Fig. 5, the same, enlarged 4 diameters. The genera Spathiocaris ‘and Lisgocaris, which have been described by myself in this Journal as noticed above, show, neither of them, any evidence of a dorsal suture in the carapace. At the time of. my description of the genus Spathiocaris, the existence of this suture seemed a matter of considerable doubt, along a median line. More abundant material, however, places beyond a doubt the absence of any hingement, and the fact that the carapace is in one piece. The genus Lisgocaris was then proposed to cover a species differing from Spathiocaris as then apprehended, in the undoubted absence of this suture, and though rather an aberrant form from the type of the genus Spathiocaris, I think it wise, in the light of the additional ma- terial obtained, to abolish the name erected for it, and to include it under the genus Spathiocaris, the species there described to be Sp. Lutheri. With my present cance ptidt of these genera, I should not expect to find (though ee; and careful search has been made) any traces of a “rostrum” or free valve to cover the single cleft in Spathiocaris, as it fom in the genera Discinocaris Woodward and Peltocaris Salter, which are allied to Spathiocaris in some of the grosser features, or to cover the cephalic cleft in D¢plerocaris. In sarge the cleft seems to be posterior and for the protrusion of the men. In Dipterocaris I am inclined to believe, for lack of any evidence to the contrary, that both clefis were uncovered and allowed the protrusion of the cephalic appendages as well as the abdominal somites e statement of the absence of the hingement, or the dorsal suture, in Dipterocaris, depends on these observations : 1. There is no mar upon the carapace evincing such a suture 2. One example of D. Procne, having the entire carapace 10 its normal position, has been subjected to peel from above by accumulating sediment, in just such a manner as would be most likely to separate the carapace along a "dared suture if any existed, but instead of such separation the carapace has yielded in concentric wrinkles parallel to its margin 3. Another example of the same species, flattened in a thin laminated sandstone, has been broken across the area between the apices of the anterior and posterior clefts, and in such 4 way as to have been left with a ragged edge. Mr. hitfield, in this Journal for Jan., 1880 (vol. xis; No. 109, p. 33, “Notice of New Forms of Fossil Crustaceans from the Upper Devonian Rocks of Ohio,”) has presented a synopsis of the Ceratiocaride based upon features ey the ‘“cara- J. M. Clarke—New Devonian Crustacea. 125 rande, with this characterization. “Carapace composed of three pieces, or apparently of three, two of which are semi- circular, with the anterior end of each obliquely truncate, form- ing, when the two are united, an anterior triangular notch into which the third or rostral plate is inserted; surface concentri- cally marked by growth lines; no nodes or ridges.” None of the sections in this classification cover in as many particulars as this, the genera here and heretofore described by myself, and the description is quoted in full to emphasize the fact that, though the absence of the rostral piece can be regarded as only negative evidence, the unity of the carapace will preclude their observations on new forms of the Ceratiocaride from the Penn- sylvania Devonian, and in the loan of bis beautiful drawings for comparative stu ¥- Smith College, Northampton, Mass. 126 =W. Huggins—Photographing the Solar Corona. Art. XIIL—On a Method of Photographing the Solar Corona without an Eclipse ;* by WitutAM Huaeatns, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. PROBLEMS of the highest interest in the physics of our sun are connected, doubtless, with the varying forms which the coronal light is known to assume, but these would seem to ad- mit of solution only on the condition of its being possible to study the corona continuously, and so to be able to confront its % ? which are hidden by the glare of our atmosphere, the progress of our knowledge must be very siow, for the corona is visible only about eight days in a century, in the aggregate, and then only over narrow stripes on the earth’s surface, and but from p In the years 1866-68 I tried screens of colored glasses and other absorptive media, by which I was able to isolate certain portions of the spectrum, with the hope of seeing directly, with- out the use of the prism, the solar prominences.¢ I was unsuc- cessful, for the reason that I was not able by any glasses or other media to isolate so very restricted a portion of the spec- trum as is represented by a bright line. This cause of unsuit- ableness of this method for the prominences which give bright lines only, recommends it as very promising for the corona. f by screens of colored glass or other absorptive media the region of the spectrum between G and H could be isolated, then the coronal light which is here very strong would have to con- tend only with a similar range of refrangibility of the light scat- * Nature, Dec. 29. Communicated in proof for this Journal, by the author. + “The Sun,” p. 239. ¢ “Monthly Notices,” vol. xxviii, p. 88, and vol, xxix, p. 4. W. Huggins— Photographing the Solar Corona. 127 tered from the terrestrial atmosphere. It appeared to me by no means improbable that under these conditions the corona would be able so far to hold its own against the atmospheric glare, that the parts of the sky immediately about the sun where the cor- ona was present would be in some degree brighter than the adjoining parts where the atmospheric light alone was present. t was obvious, however, that in our climate and low down on the earth’s surface, even with the aid of suitable screens, the addition of the coronal light behind would be able to increase, but in a very small degree, the illumination of the sky at those ea where it was present. There was also a serious draw- ack from the circumstance that although this region of the Spectrum falls just within the range of vision, the sensitiveness of the eye for very small differences of illumination in this tegion near its limit of power is much less than in more favor- able parts of the spectrum, at least such is the case with my own eyes. ‘T'here was also another consideration of ee phe: ) . the corona is an object of very complex form, and fall ences of illumination, and also the enormous advantage of fur- nishing a permanent record from an instantaneous exposure of the most complex forms. I have satisfied myself by some lab- oratory experiments that under suitable conditions of exposure and development a photographie plate can be made to record minute differences of illumination existing in different parts of a bright object, such as a sheet of drawing paper, which are so Subtle as to be at the very limit of the power of recognition of a trained eye, and even, as it appeared to me, of those which Surpags that limit, small plane ulum was brought to focus on the ground glass. The 128 W. Huggins—Photographing the Solar Corona. sitive film, as in that position they would produce the least optical disturbance. Before the end of the telescope was fixed a shutter of adjustable rapidity which reduced the aperture to 2 inches. is was connected with the telescope tube by a short tube of black velvet for the purpose of preventing vibra- tions from the moving shutter reaching the telescope. On account of the shortness of the exposure it was not necessary e ter some trials I satisfied myself that an appearance peculiarly coronal in its outline and character was to be seen in all the plates. I was, however, very desirous of trying some modifications of the method described with the hope of obtaining a photographic image of the corona of greater dis- tinctness, in consequence of being in more marked contrast with the atmospheric illumination, ' ur climate is very unpropitious for such observations, as very few intervals, even of short duration, occur in which the atmospheric glare immediately about the sun is not very great. nder these circumstances I think it is advisable to describe the results [ have obtained without further delay. The investigation was commenced at the end of May, 1882, and the photographs were obtained between June and Sep- tember 28th. W. Huggins— Photographing the Solar Corona. 129 Tays admitting in the best plates of measurement and drawin om them. This agreement in plates taken on different days I the sun but the corona also is photographically reversed, and in these plates, having the appearance of a positive, the white respond in form and general orientation, and the inner corona, which is more uniform in height and definite in outline, is also very similar in my plates to its appearance in those taken dur- ing the eclipse, sures of the average height of the outer and of the in- her corona in relation to the diameter of the sun's image are 130 3 W. Huggins—Photographing the Solar Corona. the same in the eclipse plates as they are in my plates taken might be desired. It may be that by a somewhat greater re- striction of the range of refrangibility of the light which is allowed to reach the plate, a still better result may be obtained. Plates might be prepared sensitive to a limited range of light, but the rapid falling off of the coronal light about H would make it undesirable to endeavor to do without an ab- sorptive screen. Lenses properly corrected might be employed, but my experience shows that excessive caution would have to be taken in respect of absolute cleanness of the surfaces and of some other points). There might be some advantage In intercepting the direct light of the sun itself by placing an opaque disk of the sun’s image upon the front surface of the absorptive screen. I regret that the very few occasions on which it bas been possible to observe the sun has put it out of my power to make further experiments in these and some other obvious directions. —Dee. 15, 1882.]} D. P. Todd—The Transit of Venus, 1882. 131 Art. XIV.—An Account of Observations of the Transit of Venus, 1882, made at the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cali- fornia; by Davin P. Topp, M.A., Professor in Amherst College. (Communicated by the Trustees of the James Lick Trust.) enabled to arrive on the summit of the mountain early in the evening of the 2ist. Two weeks then remained before the day of the transit, for completing the unfinished portions of the photoheliograph, mounting and adjusting the same, and two days had we any rains—these very slight. Violent winds interfered with our operations on three or four days. gone erature was rarely below 50°, and most of the time above At midnight, the 80th November, the sky cleared, after three and a half days of continuously cloudy weather. From that time. until the afternoon of December ‘7th, we saw so cloud, day nor night, which could interfere in the least wit any observation we had to make. Thin cirrus was floating above the summit on the morning of the 2d, but it had van- 132 D. P. Todd—The Transit of Venus, 1882. ished completely within two hours; and on three or four occa- sions clouds were observed very near the horizon, but they never rose. The wind blew in fitful gusts night and day the 3d and 4th, and the morning of the 5th. But very soon after 12 o'clock, that day, the winds entirely subsided, and for the next fifty or sixty hours the utmost tranquility prevailed, the temperature never falling below 60°, and rising to very near 70° in the shade at noon on the day of the transit. Optical—The sun rose about 7 o’clock, December 6th, with Venus a good way on its disk. The planet was observed by Captain Floyd at intervals throughout the time of transit, with the twelve-inch equatoreal of the Observatory; and with this instrument he made several drawings, and observed the two con- tacts at egress. The photographie operations were suspended just before the two contacts; and I observed these with the four-inch transit instrument, mounted on its reversing carriage. Photographic.—The horizontal photoheliograph, with which the pictures of the transit of Venus were taken was constructed by Alvan Clark & Sons, and is, in all essential parts, entirely similar to those made by the same makers for the American Transit-of-Venus Commission. The general theory of this in- strument was first published by Professor Harkness in volume xliii of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society ; and subsequently by Professor Newcomb in the “American Obser- vations of the Transit of Venus,” 1874, Part I, where a detailed ciently large to insure their absolute stability in every part. The first pictures with the Lick photoheliograph were made with dry plates by Captain Floyd, November 19th, two days before I arrived on the mountain. These confidently assured me that the instrament, although not then in adjustment, and in some parts lacking, was capable of work of the best sort. A suitable exposing-slide had not been provided by the makers; this, however, arrived within two or three days, and D. P. Todd—The Transit of Venus, 1882. 133 tween the transit house and the heliostat, for supporting the tripod of the engineer’s level to be used in finding the level- error of the photographic telescope. The tube of this telescope, about thirty-eight feet long and without diaphragms, was cut near the middle, and the half near the objective removed. A tube was then made, about nineteen feet long, of thin plates of iron, diaphragms of sheet lead being inserted as the several sections were riveted together. This tube was a half inch less in diameter than the original tube, and was slipped inside of the remaining half of it—thus giving an air-space between the two tubes, in addition to that between the wooden awning and the exterior tube. ood fifteen inches square was made of card-board to cover the plate-holder and the upper part of the pier on which it rested. This was blackened inside, and hinged to the wall of the photographic house, so that it could be pushed up and out of the way when the plates were being put into the holder or taken out. The hood was always pulled down before making the exposure, and thus the momentary flash of light through the photographic house on drawing the exposing-slide, was entirely obviated. Great care was taken to prevent the mishap of fogged plates from any light falling upon the sensitive film other than that of the sun from the first face of the heliostat mirror. After the adjustments of the heliostat and objective were complete, the following test was applied :—a section of thin iron pipe two feet long and five inches in diameter was fitted with a stop- per at one end, and painted jet black outside and in. The sun’s image was adjusted centrally on the reticle-plate, the clock-work maintaining it there. The pipe was next set up at various points between the objective and plate-holder, the stopped end being toward the photographic house. Then the pipe being so adjusted that its axis was coincident with the axis of the photographic telescope, the eye of an observer located south of the plate-holder, and looking north through the tube, would readily detect the presence of any object — appeared sufficiently luminous to affect the sensitive plate. The first gi ee of the sun by the wet process—which 134 D. P. Todd—The Transit of Venus, 1882. tion of the plate-holder being duly changed and recorded be- tween the several photographs of each set. Before the plate- holder was secured in its final position, each photographer had critically inspected all these plates; and without conferring with any one else had made a memorandum of the numbers o those plates in each set which he regarded as indicating the best focus. In addition to this, nearly all the trial-plates were examined independently by Captain Floyd and Mr. Fraser, and all of them on two separate occasions by myself. Nearly all the different determinations were, when collated, in surprising agreement; and the adopted setting of the plate-holder could not have been in error by so much as the ;,4;;th part of the focal length of the objective. In point of fact, the position of the focal plane was definitely indicated to the ;,'5sth part. The superior definition of the photographs of the transit was an entire compensation for all this trouble. The first photograph of the transit of Venus was taken at 19" 11™, local mean time. The exposure was 14° long, and the slit 3'°-0 wide. Only a very faint image came out on the plate. The fourth exposure, somewhat shorter, and with the slit the same width, at 19" 17™, gave a picture sufficiently in- tense for measurement; but the vertical diameter of the sun was something like #* shorter than the horizontal one, and the limb was not well defined. Plate No. 13, at 19® 50", slit 1-0 in width, and exposure 0*-4 long, is the first photograph of real value, though the five immediately preceding it may be worth measuring. The width of the slit was gradually reduced as the altitude of the sun became greater, being successively 0-75, 0-5 and 3", until at 21" 20™, it was set ata width of 0'"-25, and was so kept until the end. The exposures were quite uniformly 0%-25 in length. ree records of the times of exposures were kept—one au- tomatically on the chronograph, the circuit being broken at the precise instant when the middle of the slit passed the central vertical line of the reticle-plate; a second record, by myself, taken from the mean time chronometer in the dark room, and set down at once in the photographic record ; and a third record, kept in the transit house by Psd Floyd, assisted by Mrs. Fraser, the approximate time of the exposure-click of the chro- nograph-armature being taken from the face of the sidereal chronometer. As neither the observation of the mean-time chronometer time of the exposure, nor the automatically re- corded sidereal-chronometer time, could properly be regarded as complete without the corresponding number of the photo- graph, this latter was, in every instance, made equally a matter of observation with the time itself; and no plate was ever exposed until I had myself seen and recorded the number it « D. P. Todd—The Transit of Venus, 1882. 135 bore. The chronograph was attended by Professor Welcker, late of the University of California, who made also the obser- vations with the thermometer and barometer. irteen reversals of the plumb-line were made during the period of the exposures. The exposing-slide was moved to the east and to the west, alternately with each exposure, this order never being varied for any reason whatever. I invariably moved the slide, and made all the necessary entries pertaining to each picture in the photographic record myself. perature of the photographic house, in which there was no fire, was frequently read from a standard thermometer, the range being from 65°-7 at 19" 51™, to 75°-4 at 23" 38™. This latter was the time of the last exposure preceding interior contact at egress. After I had observed this contact optically, ten addi- tional exposures were made. Of the Photographic Record proper there are three copies; the original was deposited in the vault of the Observatory, the duplicate is now in my possession at Amherst, and the triplicate was left in the safe of the Lick Trust Office, San Francisco. he total number of plates exposed was 147. Subtracting from this number all those exposed at the beginning of the day, the ten made between the two contacts at egress, a few worthless ones, and all others of doubtful value, the total num- ber of plates which are available for micrometric measurement cannot fall far short of 125, and may somewhat exceed that number. Before the plates were finally packed in the boxes I made a comparative estimate, based on a somewhat rapid examination, of the value of these photographs of the transit. Each plate was taken up in order, and a mark assigned to it, on the scale A, A—, B+, B, B—. The mark A means that the plate was Judged to be of the very first quality, and capable of the most accurate measurement. Those marked A— are a shade infe- rior. Second grade plates are designated by B, those a shade better, but not so good as A—, being marked B+; while those not quite up to the grade B are marked B—. A few were judged to be worth only a still lower mark, ©. The result was as follows: A 71 B 9 Ase oon OB Bevis Total, 128 Bae a8 C 4 Mr. Lovell was ably assisted in the photographic work by Mr. Milton Loryea, of San José, whose services were very kindly rendered to the Observatory without compensation, and by Mr. A. P. Flaglor and Mr. O. vy. Lange, who were engaged from San Francisco. x 136 D. P. Todd—The Transit of Venus, 1882. Storing of the Photographic Plates, ete.—After the quality of the photographs had been noted in detail, they were carefully packed in boxes of the ordinary pattern, and these latter stored in the upper part of the vault forming the interior of the brick pier, which supports the twelve-inch equatoreal. Tests for absence of moisture were applied to this vault, and as it has the means of pretty thorough ventilation, it is difficult to see how the photographs could be in a more secure place. Four of the photographs were brought by Captain Floyd to San Francisco and placed in the vaults of the Safe Deposit Company of that city. Within a few days I have sent him the numbers of twenty-four additional plates which he intends bringing down at an early day for safe keeping in the same place. These twenty-eight plates are so selected that in the event of destruction of all those remaining on the mountain, they will of themselves give a very satisfactory record of the transit as seen from Mount Hamilton. Before I left the summit for San Francisco, there were also stored in the Observatory vault the following parts of the pho- toheliograph, the constants of which have yet to be investigated: I. The measuring-rod (in five sections). Il. The jaw-micrometer. Ill. The Chesterman steel tape (50 feet). IV. The heliostat mirror. The photographic objective. The reticle-plate. mS NL. All these were so marked that no doubt can ever arise in re- gard to the station at which they were used. In addition to the five-section rod used in determining the focal length of the photographic objective, there is on the mountain another rod, of similar pipe-material, which has been carefully compared with the principal rod. This additional rod was left in post- tion over the tube of the photographic telescope. It is made up of three lengths of pipe, put together in the ordinary plumber- fashion, the joints being so marked that the lengths may be brought up always to the same relative position to each other. In the possible event of loss or destruction of the five-section rod, this additional rod will at any time give the focal length of the photographic telescope with nearly equal accuracy. n conclusion, it is proper that I should remark the full gen- erosity with which the entire outfit for our work on the moun- tain was provided by the Trustees, and which, while it was in no sense lavish, contributed very largely to the success so gratify- ing to us all. Lawrence Observatory, Amherst, Mass., anuary 16, 1883. F.C. Hiti—Antenne of Melve. 137 Art. XV.—On the Antenna of Melve; by FRANKLIN C. Hit. THE antenna of Melée, male, is so peculiar in form that it has been described by every coleopterist who has seen it, and ap- parently by some who have not. This peculiarity consists in a geniculation or hinge involving the fifth, sixth and seventh joints. The descriptions of this hinge given by European writers vary greatly, even to the extent of locating it in different joints and different numbers of joints, in the same species, M/. proscarabeus eing the one most commonly described, and their drawings are equally varied, very few giving any true idea of the struc- ture. Top view. Side view. Melée angusticollis ¢. Right antenna x 8. The American drawings of M. angusticollis which I have met with only differ from each other in badness, and the de- scriptions are worse than the cuts. In Harris's “ Injurious In- sects” the binge is located rightly though badly drawn, and in Packard’s “Guide” it is worse drawn and wrongly located, while Le Baron in his “ Fourth Report,” in making a copy of Packard’s cut, preserves the errors in the antenna, and adds a variety of others in the tarsi and abdomen. Both European Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXV, No. 146.—Fesrvuary, 1883. 10 138 F. C. Hili—Antenne of Melée. and American authors apply a number of terms to the antenna, as “twisted and knotted,” “remarkably swollen and knotted, “‘writhed or distorted,” etc., which do not at all describe it, and no ove with whom I have met takes any notice of the remarkable flexure between the sixth and seventh joints which eads me to speak of the geniculation as a “hinge;” and o course they do not hint at a use for the hinge, while one of our best entomologists assured me recently that no use has been found for it. ten, as he closed his hinges, the female drew her antenn® out of them, only to have them seized again at once. When she allowed him to retain them for a moment, he would move backward, drawing her antenne with his like a bridle. My Princeton, New Jersey, December 5, 1882. W. Cross—Hypersthene-andesite. 139 Art. XVI—Communications from the U. S. Geological Survey : Rocky Mountain Division. Ill. On Hypersthene-andesite ;* by Wutrman Cross. In the course of the investigation of some apparently normal augite-andesites, of the most typical variety, occurring at the Buffalo Peaks in South Park, Colorado, the writer found that a large part of the pyroxenic constituent possessed the crystal- line form and chemical constitution of hypersthene rather than of augite. The comparative study of similar andesites from this ‘country and from well-known European localities has forced him to the conclusion that in very many, if not in all of them, augite is decidedly subordinate to a rhombic pyroxene, which is presumably hypersthene. As this conclusion, if proven to be correct, affects materially the current classification of andesitic rocks, the grounds upon which it is based will be concisely Stated. Hypersthene-andesite from Buffalo Peaks, Colorado. The rock in question occurs in mass, associated with a number of other andesites, prominent among which is a normal hornblende-andesite, and too in fragments imbedded in an important series of voleanic tufas, also of andesitic character. For farther information concerning ae rocks, the reader must be referred to the forthcoming “ Report upon the Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, Culorado,” by S. F. Emmons. The rock with which we are now occupied is very compact, almost black in color, showing Se at a large number of small glassy feldspars, and a few dark, green grains. The ground-mass in which these crystals lie has a dull vitreous luster. When examined under the microscope in ordinary light the rock seems to be an augite-andesite of very typical composition and structure. Clear plagioclase crystals an pyroxene in small crystals and irregular grains, with magnetite and apatite, are the only mineral constituents to be recognized. These larger individuals lie in a ground-mass composed of deli- cate staves of plagioclase, light green microlites of ee and minute octahedra of magnetite, with a glass ba t them, which is usually a though seek Geis devitrified oy poke brownish globulite 8. “Geological Fol Its publication sth dcaty bee ae she’ for sev eral 0 140 W. Cross—Hypersthene-andesite. The description so far would answer for almost any repre- sentative of that sub-group of the andesites usually spoken of as “ original” or “ normal augite-andesite,” or as “ Augit-andesit im engeren Sinne,” and which is found with unvarying charac- teristics in Hungary, Transylvania, the Andes of South Amer- ica, in many islands of the South Pacific, and in the Western United States. When, however, the pyroxene crystals and grains of the Buffalo Peaks rock are examined in polarized light, it is clear that a large portion of them do not belong to the monoclinic augite. If, in the first place, all those individuals of which the vertical axis seems to lie in, or nearly in, the plane of the thin section, be examined, it is seen that much more than half of them are very distinctly dichroic, and that all of these extinguish light parallel to the vertical axis. e others are not visibly dichroic, and extinction takes place at a very decided angle, usually approaching 40° from the vertical axis. Tf, on the other hand, those crystals which are apparently cut at right angles to the principal axis (judging from cleavage an outline) are tested, more than half of them are found to extin- guish light when the diagonals of the prism, as indicated by the best developed cleavage planes, coincide with the principal sections of the crossed Nicols. In the remainder there is @ very pronounced variation from this action, and one which is pleochroism observed in this case does not seem to differ from that often described for the “augite” of the andesites. It's a massive rock, that any large proportion of the augite crystals of which the prismatic development can be seen are by chance W. Cross— Hypersthene-andesite. 141 so situated that the ortho-axis falls in the plane of the section. In all of the sections prepared from the various specimens of uffalo Peaks ‘“‘augite-andesite,” a majority and usually a large majority of the prismatic sections of pyroxene gave extinction parallel to the vertical axis. Believing that the optical behavior indicated the presence of rhombic pyroxene in this andesite, and bearing in mind the results obtained by Fouqué in his researches on the Santorin lavas, an attempt was made to confirm the microscopical deter- mination by the isolation and analysis of the questionable mineral. The method of procedure adopted was the same which was used by Fouqué.* A specimen of rock was chosen in which according to the microscopical diagnosis the rhombic yroxene predominated but slightly over the other, which will be called augite for convenience, though much of it differs optically from that mineral, as has been described. After being suitably crushed, the rock-powder was treated with strong ydrofluoric acid until ‘all but the iron-bearing minerals, pyrox- ene and magnetite, were dissolve e latter mineral and -such crystals of pyroxene as contained inclusions of it were then extracted with a magnet. The microscopical exam- ination of the residue showed more clearly than ever that two distinet minerais were Pe resent, the one markedly pleochroic was found to consist almost slang of the pleochroic mineral with but a very small amount of the ene This residue was then subjected to a quantitative analys In this manner the apparently cy Lek mineral was isolated from two different rocks from Buffalo Peaks, and the operation was repeated for one of them. Both the isolation and the t y Fouqué for the Eerie of a Santorin lava; VI hypers- thene from Labrador ‘“Santorin, et ses éruptions,” Paris, 1879, p. 190, *F. Fo Se gyn : ses éruptions, p. tJ.D. Dana. System of Mineralogy, p. 210. IO, _.2.; 56°190 51°703 61:157 50°043 50°12 51:36 Biss. AG LTT 1°720 97154 2°90 2) 0:37 Fe,0, _. 4919 OOUR eee eee jo etek a et £433 17°995 18°360 17°812 23°59 21°97 MnO __. trace 0°363 0°363 07120 1:32 CaO..... 6-996 2-873 3°81 6696 10°49 3 MgO... 4°601 25091 24°251 91-744 11°05 21°31 eG ea pe ee a cee Na,O. POG ie Pe tice 0°24 OGTR Juste H.O Stik s “028 HORS oy ae A ce os OPER Se WS Se RTT ae RAT eI gh Pim, Water rome pe P05 = ge oe Nk a RA eee Pe Hg pias eee 87 Ores ce 0-022 99°901 100°049 100°097 99°595 99°64 98°72 In analyses III and IV the total amount of iron is given protoxide, the small quantity of available material rendering satisfactory results impossible. An amount corresponding to that given in II is to be considered as sesquioxide. The MnO of III is taken from I, and is undoubtedly very nearly correct, the portions being derived from the same rock. The micro- scopic investigation of the material giving results II and Il ties of the mineral, fully justify the application of the name hypersthene to the pyroxene, which, in all of the Buffalo Peaks *“Santorin et ses éruptions.” Plate LX, fig. 2. W. Cross—Hypersthene-andesite. 143 Results of the comparative study of the so-called “ Augite- andesites,” The limited space of this article does not allow a full dis- cussion of the grounds upon which the conclusion reached by the writer is based. They are, however, stated at length in the forthcoming Bulletin. A careful study of thin-sections of all the “ augite ”-andesites of the normal type referred to above which are at the command of the writer, some 31 in number, and representing especially the rocks of Hungary and the Western United States, shows that a rhombic pyroxene is more abundant than augite in each and every one of them. This statement rests chiefly upon the numerical ratio found to exist between those prismatic sections of pyroxene, giving extinction parallel to the vertical axis, and those with oblique extinction. In every case examined the some rocks no distinctly monoclinic pyroxene could be found. Such evidence cannot be ignored simply because there is a pos- sible position for a monoclinic prism in which it cannot be dis- tinguished from a rhombic by the test of extinction. he fre- quency with which such a position is liable to occur in massive rocks may be fairly ascertained by testing the extinction of hornblende in diorite, or of augite in diabase, in the manner above indicated. It may be thought strange that the true character of the pyroxene, in so many well-known rocks, has so long escaped detection. A single instance will here be cited, however, which will serve to partially explain the fact. The single hypersthene-andesite mentioned by Rosenbusch, in his standard work, “Die mikroskopische Physiographie der massigen Ges- teine,” p. 480, has been annihilated by Dr. E. Hussak with the derselben steht, und die Ausldschungsschiefe zu tiber * Verhandl. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt. 1878, p. 338. 144 Schaeberle—Collimation Constant of a Transit Circle. been questioned. This case simply illustrates the fact that most observers have not considered the possibility of two pyroxenes occurring together in the andesites, and the results obtained by Fouqué, who isolated both augite and hypersthene from the Santorin lavas, have been passed over as interesting but unique. In conclusion, the writer must not be misunderstood as h emical investigations are now. in progress upon several well-known rocks of Hungary which are cited by Zirkel and Rosenbusch as types of “ Augit-andesit,” and the results will be communicated at an early day. Denver, Colorado, December, 1882. Art. XVIL—A New Method for determining the Collimation Constant of a Transit Circle; by J. M. SCHAEBERLE. THE collimation constant of a transit instrument is usually determined by one of the four following methods: y observations of stars in reversed positions of the instrument. ; z. By reversal on a collimator or very distant terrestrial object. 3. By combining observations made with the spirit level with nadir observations. B ssel’s method, in which two horizontal collimators (placed on opposite sides of the instrument and having their optical axes parallel) are used. he last two methods are usually employed in cases where, on account of the construction or size of the instrument, it 1s not advisable to reverse it very often; or, as in case of the Greenwich circle, where the instrument cannot be reversed at all. As the greatest possible accuracy is sought with instruments of this class, it is especially desirable to vary the processes by means of which the instrumental constants are obtained. The various results derived, besides serving as a check on data otherwise obtained, furnish means for investigating irregular variations in the so-called constants, due to changes in the material of which the instrument is made. thod which I am about to propose for finding the collimation constant, without reversing or disturbing the 1n- Schaeberle—Collimation Constant of a Transit Circle. 145 strument, is believed to have some advantages over the ones already mentioned. such a position that when the telescope is — to the mirror is then brought into coincidence with its reflected image by slightly rotating either the telescope or the hanging collimator about the horizontal axis. et m,=the distance of the middle transit wire from its reflected image; positive when the image is on that side of the wire which is toward the clamp. m,=corresponding distance after the collimator has been reversed. c=collimation constant —then m, +m, 4 The collimation constant is therefore positive (for clamp west) so long as the algebraic sum of the distances m, and m, is a negative quantity. If the pivots on which the instrument rotates are not of the same diameter, the expression for ¢ will evidently become + p being the angle included between the axis of rotation and a rectilinear surface-element of the frustum of a cone having for ases those circular sections of the pivots which rest upon the hire the upper sign being used when the clamp pivot is the arger. CcC— _ On account of the length of the arms of the collimator, tmconvenience may be experienced in its reversal unless some ments now in activity. The film of silver, if kept properly covered when not in use, will last for years before resilvering will be necessary. Ann Arbor, Mich., Jan. 8, 1883. 146 Seientifie Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On metallic Thorium.—Nitson has succeeded in preparing pure metallic thorium and in determining its properties. For layers with sodium, pressed firmly down with a piston, and then more sodium chloride. The tube cap and heated to a moderate red heat in a furnace. The reauction an agate mortar give a silver streak. Metallic thorium is perma nent in the air up to 100° to 120°, Heated higher, it ignites even below redness, giving a brilliant light and forming snow-white oxide. Its attraction for oxygen is so great, that when heated This latter on examination was found to contain 19°4 per cent of oxide. Calculating this out, the specific gravity becomes 10°9178. — Ber. Berl. Chem : F. B 1 ‘ : 2. On the atomic weight of Thorium.——Nirson has determined by e tion of the chlorides treated with hydrogen sulphide, filtered, treated with ammonia and decanted from the olive-green hydrate- Chemistry and Physics. 147 This after washing, was dissolved in HCl, precipitated with oxalic: g requiring 20 parts of water, while the hydrated salt seni 88 parts; and further that the former must’ be preserved in ice-cold. water, since on raising the temperature to 20°, the hydrated salt was deposited. The solution of the impure sulphate saturated at the freezing point was heated on the water bath to 20°; an abundant heavy snow- eae oe precipitate of the hy- drated sulphate came dow amount about two-thirds of the total sulphates, On évaporation, the mother liquor yielded a second crop. By several repetitions of this operation, the sul- phate was obtained pure. It was again ote ‘with am- monia, the hydrate washed and dissolved in HCl, again precipi- tated and washed, conn dissolved in HCl, converted into oxalate = dark-heat — n, had been estimated, by ha ahdous extra-polati radictory formule —formule which profess a the- oretical basis, but prin t geo other. Thus Miller finds by Radtenbacher’s formula a wave-length of nearly 5/-0 for the extreme solar heat rays, Draper (aS st seen) a wave-length of spe oe 0 for nd a rays, etc. All these servations in the visible Ee 8 i) i zg B ee Bs " 4: rays, whose real place we give later 174 8S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. limit then assigned to the normal spectrum by experiment. The writer’s further investigations, however, led him to b lieve that this immense and unverified extension really ex- isted, and to thus confirm by independent means the statements of Tyndall and others, as to the great heat in this region. He was unable to determine its exact limit with the grating as then used, on account of the over-lapping spectra, but was, some two years since, led, from experiments not here detailed, to suspect the existence of solar heat at a distance of nearly four times the wave-length of the lowest visible line, A(A=0"-76) or at A=3!"0. We receive all the solar radiations through an absorbing atmosphere, and it is of the first consequence to determine the rate of this selective absorption for each separate ray. This has (owing to the difficulties before alluded to) never yet been, s0 far as I know, attempted. It forms a prominent part of the present design. e great difficulty in this investigation, after the provision of a sufficiently delicate heat-measurer, lies in the varyl amount of radiant energy which our atmosphere transmits, evel for equal air-masses. ‘The solar radiation is itself sensibly con- stant, but the variations in the radiant heat actually transmitted are notable, even from one minute to another under an appal- ently clear sky. The bolometer, in fact, constantly sees (if I may use the expression) clouds which the eye does not. That he variations from minute to minute (under a visually clear sky) amount frequently to ten times the probable instrumental an afternoon. ven of the twenty-nine days cited, and which may be considered exceptionally fair, it will be seen that of measures throughout the spectrum daily, one when the rays S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 175 have been little absorbed (at noon), the other when they have =n — absorbed (in the morning or afternoon). The ass of air through which the rays pass is taken proportional “ secant, oH for zenith distances less than 65°. and for those 0174 tabular refraction greater to —— apparent altitude , and in oe cases to the the proportion of the radiation transmitted by a sun in the zenith to an observer at the sea-level, and this is here shown to vary greatly for each ray. Thus by reference to table III, we find of three solar rays whose wave- -lengths are ‘375, ‘600, “1 ,000, that of the ray whose wave-length is 0-375 (in the ultra violet 61 per cent of the original energy would be absorbed and 3 transmitted, of wave-length 0-600 (in the orange) 36 per cent would be absorbed and 64 transmitted, of wave-length 1-000 (in the infra-red) 20 per cent is absorbed and 80 transmitted, etc. Allegheny pebinagonct Observations on the Solar gi a Spec- m previous to Mt. Whitney Hxpeditio - The poole list shows the dates at which bolometer ob- Servations were made at Allegheny up to June, 1881, for the measurement of heat in the spectrom and the determination of atmospheric transmission, by the comparison of noon and after- noon measures. Those days on which noon measurements causes are indicated by an asterisk. It will be seen twenty-nine days of observation only ten could be fully sabia Dates: 1880, Nov. 12,* Dec. 11,* Dec. 18.* 1881, Jan. 12,* Jan, 18,* Jan, 28, Feb. 9, Feb. 3, * Feb. 5,* Feb. 17, Feb. 19,* Feb. 22,* Feb. 26,* Mar. 2,* Mar. 10.* Mar. 11,* Mar. 25,* Mar. 28," Apr. 7,* Apr. 16,* Apr. 22, Apr. oo Apr. 28,* Apr. 29, Apr. 30, May 4,* May 26,” May 27,* May 2 The following table gives the nies galvanometer deflec- tions reduced to a scale on which the readings are proportional to the current passing through the galvanometer. a = Pa ys enti rane’ aeetias es high sun - low sun. ii TABLE IL. A= 0”. 375 400 -450 500 Jan. 28, 1881 ---.9° ce Set es se ee ee oe Apr 23,4-Ma--g "7 GT ak 89 Apr. 23, P.Mn---g 7732103 12d oa eee ee ee Bites cede By. MH OB ite eR ee a 600 -700 ‘800 -900 1°000 BSB ..590° 991 6.144. [108 968: 815 299" 116 18. BOE A808) Ih oes 93 141-195 91 5 47 60° 327 188 va 133 151 Oy 39. 262 239-5 1775 123° 98 171°5 180°5 122°5 895 963 - 227-191: 12) oon Obi 18h). dee 96- 963997 191 121 94 188 198 140 80 66. 935 235 139° 100 89 156 197 35 698 86 935 235 139 100 89 vy eee ip Cs eer fe ells te, 66. 245 59 175 2119 90 990° 282 166 UT 80 144. (184 «89: 64 652 69° 6G BA 88 39: The next tablé gives the sun’s position, oe ra correspond- ing air-mass for each series in the previous In this table, 8 denotes the reading of the barouietes and M is determined from the formula ‘0174 tabular refraction M= cos. app. altitude. TABLE IT. : Cet jee ee High Sun. | Low Sup. Date of Observation. ° | asee lame] ater’ | aan || gee leanne ek | ie Angle. | tance. (8 7) (M8. .) ‘it Angl Ae bg (8, ). (MB) h ° ' hm b > dm Jan. 28, 1881_...| 0 00 | 58 29 | 7:45 | 14.25 || 2 57 | 71 28 | 7°45 | 23°24 te ea ee 0 09 | 57 09 | 7-39 | 13°63 || 3 00 | 70 45 | 7°39 | 22°24 Pa 19 0 38 | 62 57 | 7-43 | 12°33 || 2 56 | 66 09 | 7°42 | 18°25 Ayes 93s 5 0 12 | 28 13 | 7-36 | 835 || 4 36 | 66 22 | 7°36 | 18°32 Apr. 23, A.M. ...} 0 11 | 27 49 | 740 | 8-37 || 2 45 | 45 30 | 7°40 | 10°56 Apr. 23, P. M..... O11 | 27 49 | 7-40 | 8-37 || 4 26 | 63 57 | 740 | 16°85 Apr. 29, A. M...-. 0 06 | 25 60 | 7°35 | 8-17 || 3.11 | 48 46 | 7°35 | 1115 Apr. 29, P. u.....} 0 06 | 25 50| 736} 8-17 |] 6 23 | 73 36 | 7:36 | 36°73 Ape 80 0 04 | 26 31 | 7-41 | -8-2t || 3 54 | 56 31 | T41 | 13°43 May 28. 225014 011 | 19 031 7321 7-75 || 6 33 1 71 14 | 7°32 | 22°33 By su day separately, coefficients of pune shers transmissiO ula combining the high and low obtained by using the form log ¢ = M,,6,,—M,8, log d,, —log d, n observations os cae are S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 177 where ¢ is the coefficient of vertical transmission by air at a barometric pressure of one decimeter. A tabular statement of these coefficients has been seam but the average or adopted value only is here given TABLE IIT. A= “400 *450 “500 “600 “700 “800 -900 1°000: Adopted 7 “884 "892 “909 923 “942 "955 "965 -970 “9T1 fi-6 “392. 420... AS had P6Re WOR S tes. od “799: It is important to notice that (contrary to a generally received opinion), the yp eneer ote of the atmosphere is here found to be greatest for the infra-red rays. All good noon observations have been reduced to a uniform battery current of 0-25 webers, and the results, arranged in two. sets, the first for winter and the second for spring measures. ee tables are not here given but the average results are as fo TABLE IV. ae 375 400 450 -500 ‘600 -700 *800 ee 1-000: inter d, (mean of 7 ser ‘aay SL 88° 190. 294 328 259 142 91 Wi Spring d, “(mean of 9 series) 18 57 139 218 281 271 188 131 94 The average noon deflections for winter and spring, given in the previous table, require further correction; first, for the se p ich is tensity one-thirtieth that of the first. Second, for the selective absorption by silver surfaces. Third, for the selective absorp- ion by one surface of speculum metal. Fourth, for the diminu- tion of heat in the diffraction spectrum with increase of the angle of diffraction, which is here oe taken as pro- portional to secant r. The selective absorption by the material of the bolometer is here treated as negligable. orrections are expressed as factors by which the by special researches on setae absorption, which will form the subject of a separate me The researches here on she saloon absorption of lampblack, it should be added, are incomplete and the value given may be yet subject to a farther correction due to this error. TABLE V. Ass 3175 -400 -450 °500 600 -700 +800 -900 1:000 Correct’n I (subir.) 0 se xdso dex das dex dso IT a aeto ; ood 206% lL se ‘si? 1: si ae i oa 1166 1145 -923 1-802 1°695 1550 1-460 1:408 1:389 @ 1°370 iv _ : an aks 1°051 1:064 1-096 teat 1193 1266 0 ©=-:1°366 ‘ 178 8S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. We have been measuring thus far ‘“‘ heat” by which we mean the solar ee as interpreted by certain agents (that is, a lampblack, ete.), in our apparatus. In the degree in whie have above sintinated the selective absorption peculiar to it of these agents, are we entitled to speak of the resultant values, ee oe to the abeplate energy cu rections being se the: Boat values of noon cP eS 33 Allegheny becom TABLE VI.* A= 3175-400 450 500 600 -700 -800 900 1°00 = Bp an 1881, 192°6 363-4 579°3 767-9 724-9 527-9 3383 215-4 173% d,, ring, 1881, 111-9 235-4 423°7 569°6 621°0 552°5 372°3 238°0 2346 The mean air mass for winter = 13°88 spring = 9°33 We now proceed to the calculation of the energy outside the atmosphere for homogeneous rays with the data which have been given. For this purpose we have used the formula ee ee d,—M, f, log. t. deflection at n or the same ray, a the natoomntet pressure in units of one BS dacimetey or the mass of air in the vertical column ; the co rresponding air-mass for the sun ’s sp ssion, to show the relation between energy outside the See and Bae high and low sun at “Allegheny, the BE VII. *BI5 ry “450 -500 “600 -700 °800 °900 1-000 A= K =energy before a 353 683 1031 1203 1083 849 519 316 309 d, =energy after absorptio (corrected high sun), 112 235 424 570 621 553 372 238 235 bsorption corrected low sun), 27 63 140 225 311 324 246 167 167 * Tt will be seen that riety the winter absorbing air-mass was nearly half ge again as in the s ben eat mesh from the shorter wave- -lengths was actually greater in sf REO RS IE i 180 8S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. E can be computed from d, and d,, by the formule already given, and with these values the curves in fig. 2 have been plotte : The middle curve (1) is that at high sun. Except for the heat below wave-length (1%0), the area of the curve may be considered to represent the heat actually observed by the actinometers, at noon, as presently given. The lower curve (II) is that at low sun. Its area is propor- tional to the heat received when the sun shone through double e. The above values (in table VII) are relative only. To obtain absolute ones we have now to combine this result with the actual measurements of solar radiation in calories, or other days, we have 1°81 calories observed at Allegheny in March, 1881. This is the absolute amount of heat represented by the area of a completed “high sun” curve. To this result, the energy distributed through the whole spectrum has contributed, while our bolometer measurements ance for the (here) uncharted area below A= 1”0: S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 181 Area Outside Curve above = 1“:000 47°26 Area Outside Curve below = 1”:000 26°49 Total 73°66 Area High Sun Curve above = 1":000 —.26-96 Area High Sun Curve below = 1":000 —- 20°00 Total 46°96 ; . Area Outside Curve 73°66 The ratio of these areas is Area ¥ligh Saw Ourve 1 4008 7 1°569 We have, then, adopting 1°81 cal. as the solar radiation at Allegheny with clear sky, 1°81 cal. x 157 = 2°84 calories as an approximate value of the Solar Constant. In all these observations, the object a been to avoid the registering of small variations analogous to the Frauenhofer lines, and to give only the general eee of the energy. e mapping of the peg tare” of the energy caused by visi- ble or invisible lines or bands forms a distinct research, and the results are given ites in the present article. e find from these preliminary observations, that the maxi- mum energy in the normal spectrum of a high sun at the ok surface is near the yellow, and “that the position of the maximum of heat does not in fact differ widely from that of ole the most transmissi But we see here, not waly how enormous the absorption at the violet end really i is, bnt that the light rays have suffere larger absorption before they reach us “than the “heat” rays (i. e. than the extreme red and infra-red rays) a Bisse ot opposed to the present orev ee opinion, and if t f far- us heat enters, our view “of the heat-storing action of this ae and of the conditions of life on our planet must be changed. Within the limits of the present charts the “dark” heat apparently does so esca We can from the data now Seibel as to the rate of abso tion for each ray, Pamcie a the value of the heat or energy value indicates that the true solar constant is larger than that commonly given. The ratio of the dark to luminous heat has been so ehclhy changed by selective absorption that we must t 182 S&. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. greatly modify our usual estimates not only of the sun’s heat radiation but of his effective temperature. The sun to an eye without our atmosphere would appear of a bluish tint. n spite of the care with which the experiments on which the above conclusions rest have been conducted, owing to the : ep sound, we ought to find like results, by actually ascending to S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 183 Sir William Herschel, in 1800,* showed that heat extended below the visible spe ectrum. He found that about one-half the spectrum consisted of obscure Ty one-half of luminous heat. Seebeck and Melloni in various memoirs showed that the dis- position of the heat depended on the substance of the prism, and that this was due in part to its absorption. In 1840, Sir John Herschel* gave a thermograph of the in- visible spectrum indicating unequal absorption below the red. DY. J. Draper, in 1842,* observed three wide bands in this region which he called a, 8,7. In 1846, Messrs. Foucault and Fizeau appear to have observed the same lines. Dr. Draper‘ states that prior researches lead him to believe that ah hottest part of the normal spectrum will be found in the yellow Dr. J. Miiller’ gives a construction showing how we may, from the distorted prismatic spectrum, obtain the true or nor- mal dispersion. Dr. Miiller conjectures Me the wave-length of the extremest infra-red ray is about 1:8, and from his dia- gram it appears that nearly two-thirds of ob heat is below the visible portion ndall° gives the position of the maximum of heat in the prismatic spectrum and estimates the invisible radiation of the sun to be twice the visible. In 1871, Lamansky’ gave a drawing showing three gaps in i continuity of the infra-red curve as observed by the ther i there ei four known bands in the infra-red whose wave- lengths are 0:85, 0-99, 14-28, 1°48, and gives Ve ‘77 and 2"-14 as wave-lengths he supposes himself to have identified. If our charts be correct there is no considerable band at 1"-48, and 2“-14 which he marks as the termination of the spec- trum is in fact the hottest point in its neighborhood. It seems probable, however, that he had perceived by his in- genious method the existence of the band whose wave-length On our charts is marked i”:37, and in doing so had reached the furthest band then certainly observed. Captain Abney,” in 1880, mapped by photography the infra- red prismatic spectrum as far as wave-length 1”-075 with a pre- cision and completeness till then schrolly unknown, besides 1 Phil. ence 1800. * Phil. Trans, 1840. * Phil. Mag., May, 1843. 4 Phil. Mag., 1857. > Poggendorf’s Annalen, vol. cv. Phil. Trans., 1866. * Monatsbericht Konig. Acad. Wissenschaft., ’ Berlin, ‘tae. Phil. Mag., 1872, mptes Rendus, vol. Ixxxix, p. 298. : Comptes Rendus, vol. Ixxxviii, p. 1190. Phil. Trans., 1880. 184 S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. giving the wave-lengths of lines for which he derives by an extra-polation curve a position at A = 1"-240, and indicating a band still beyond. Captain Abney had previously published a map of the diffraction spectrum extending to 4= 0"-9682. Dr. J. W. Draper,” by the aid of Captain Abney’s map, believes he has identified the lines a, PB, 7 he saw in 1842 with groups repre- sented by Abney at 4 = 0"-8150 to 0"-8350, 0":8930 to 0"-9300, and 0":9350 to 0"-9800. On our chart we have given Draper's a, , 7 according to his own locations of them. He believes these to be the same lines seen by himself, Foucault and Fizeau, and Lamansky. Ac cording to Draper, then, the lowest limit of his own or any other researches known to him in 1881, did not extend much beyond wave-length 1”:0000. It appears to us probable, how- ever, that Lamansky’s lowest point was below this, and we give a copy of Lamansky’s curve (fig. 8) which the reader can compare with the positions on our present charts. 3. - * * D cine LAMANSKY. These brief references concern only what belongs to our im- mediate purpose, and are not offered as a history of the subject. RECENT OBSERVATIONS ON THE INVISIBLE PRISMATIC PECTRUM. After the return from Mt. Whitney, observations were taken at Allegheny with the train of apparatus used on the mountain just referred to, and on nearly every good day during the first six months o , ese were of such: 4 days in January, 8 in February, 9 in March, 9 in April, 9 in May, 12 in June. In all, 51 days. " Proceedings of the Amer, Acad., 1881. S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 185 Very early the obeerynnen with this efficient RODATNAE (the daily, whenever o puiebe hat eve vy E portion of the curves here given, to the smallest infetion, been observed — three to twenty times, and the accidental variations due momentary paneer of solar toh by invisible clouds sis been, it is hop arly eliminated. The bolometric pier represented by the preceding 51 days’ observations, may be here regarded as being divided into two classes having distinct ihonile related objects. ee To determine the general selective absorption of = earth’s atmosphere throughout the entire spectrum in conn v whole forming a “series,” and these ‘‘series” are observed at least twice daily: namely, at meridian, and when the air mass is approximately double that at meridian; or else three times daily—at meridian, when the mass of air traversed is approxi- mately 14 times that at meridian, and again when it is approxi- mately 14x14=24 times that at meridian. It will be observed by reference to the map, that the points chosen for measurement coincide, as a rule, with the summits of the energy-curve, but separate investigations are still in * Nevertheless, as the thread, however Pracsiicih is not absolutely linear, it feels the cad before its center coincides with the center of the line. om interruptions of the energy curve are thus in fact all ina slight + degree too wide, especially at the Sianhasseniels of pts depression, a and it is yom that the aaa we have args: are really due to an aggregation of finer line Am. Jour. — SERIES, Wee. XXV, No. ve —Marcoxn, 18383. 186 &. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. progress on the nature of the absorption in the intervals, to de- termine whether the newly-observed bands are of solar or ter- restrial origin. The part of the spectrum included extends from 4 = 0":888 (above H in the violet), to 2 = 2-28 (in the newly-observed infra-red region, about two octaves below Frauenhofer’s B). (As we can, in fact, obtain evidence of heat in ultra-violet waves whose length is little more than 0”.8, the length of the solar spectrum as now observable by the bolometer is between 8 and 4 octaves. The distant slit is separately exposed at each observation, and the extremity of the full swing of the galvanometer needle is read. In all these measures the galvanometer is used in the same condition of sensitiveness. The slit is opened to a con- stant width of 2™™* (except in measuring the very feeble en- ergy at the most refrangible end of the spectrum, where the width has been increased without prejudice to accuracy, owing to the corresponding prismatic expansion of the spectrum itself). The same bolometer is used, as a rule, having for this purpose i™™ effective aperture (except in measurements at the mos refrangible end of the spectrum, where the full aperture of the bolometer is used). ese observations on the absorption of different air masses, for each spectral ray, evidently furnish means for determining the curve outside the atmosphere, by the method already indi- cated. They also, of course, give us the means of making 4 map of the whole spectrum, but their use for this latter pul pose is incidental. 2d. The other class of observations is for the special purposé of making a spectral map, extending from the line C to the lower limit of the Safensted, This is carried on by means of the linear bolometer consist- ing of a single strip #™™ wide. In this second class of observa- tions, a rough map of the whole infra-red spectrum having beet prepared, a very limited part of the spectrum (such as that included between 15’ of deviation) is gone over several times in the course of one day, the measurement being repeated on every single minute of are, with a separate opening and closing of the slit, and a record made of the full swing of the galvano meter needle for each observation. _ These observations are entered numerically, and correspond: ing charts made on large sheets of section paper. The sam narrow region will thus be gone over also on different days, and the different charts subjected to a very rigid examination, * It will be remembered that, the actual distance of the slit being 5 meter this aperture subtends an angle little greater than one minute of arc. él S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 187 so that every feature which is not common to them all is re- jected or rééxamined, and in this manner the whole spectrum is studied. ese original charts are on a scale four times as large linearly as that the reader now sees (Plate ITI). In addition to this, on some clear days, ae have been made upon the chart directly corresponding to the movements of the galvanometer needle; that is to say, the observer at the spectro-bolometer has moved the bolometer through the whole spectrum by means of the tangent screw; the slit has been left permanently open so that the bolometer has been constantly exposed; and the observer at the galvanometer, seeing the action of the selective absorption of the atmosphere in every part of the spectrum, as the rays of the sinking sun pass through greater depths of air. This third method—very useful when, as in this case, many observations have to be taken in a short time—is nevertheless ise accurate than his before described. A careful bolometric and also optical setting ade on the invisible rays measured. This lens and the slit are fitted into opposite ends of a tube, T, 44 meters long, held by suita ble y’s. The beam of rays from the slit, now rendered parallel by the collimator, next falls upon a prism,* P, of the same ee bee _ as the tk ed tlin on a cireular ade salt prism of near co size and great puri as 8 as prisms of quartz an Spar, have been u sued to determine the pron ava es the glass for sah ray, visible _ and invisible.) 188 8S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. table over the vertical axis of the massive instrument we have now, of New York, from the writer’s design. Two long arms, A, A’, turn independently about: the above mentioned axis, the angle between them being measured by a 10’. One of eylinder, and serves to examine optically the place which will be occupied by the bolometer strips when the bolometer cylin- der is in the y’s. The optical axis of the mirror, M, exactly bisects the angle between the direction of the arm, A’, and the central line of the track, so that a ray falling on the center of the mirror from the center of the instrument at P, after reflec- tion falls upon the bolometer strips. ©, C’ are counterpoises t0 offset the weight of the arms A, A’. To adjust the apparatus for observation, the screws at D are ‘ loosened, the prism removed, and the arm A’ brought around sere tal oe j 3 4 i i S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 189 h the eye-piece are set upon the D line the circle should indicate a deviation of 47° 41’ 15’. A bright and pure image of the spectrum about 6™" wide and 640™™ long between the A and a Thomson reflecting astatic galvanometer of about 20 ohms resistance, constructed especially for the purpose by Elliot Bros. of London. It is placed upon a pier entirely disconnected from the building. The scale is cylindrical, with divisions 1™ apart on a transparent surface, and is placed 1 meter from the vanometer requires no reduction for our present purpose. A resistance forming the Wheatstone’s bridge, and other electrical adjuncts of the bolometer are on the ri ft 190 &. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. EXAMPLE OF THE MODE OF OBSERVATION. As an example of the first class of measures, let us consider the observations made with the Hilger Prism on June 22, 1882. The high sun observation was made at 0" 15”. The suns zenith distance at this time was 17° 10’; the air mass* was me as at noon, and the air mass by the same formula was 5:18 times that overhead, or 7:39 X 5°18 = 38-27 decimeters, so that the mass of air traversed in the second observation exceeded that in the first by an amount capable of supporting 30°58 decimeters of mercury. The galvanometer deflection obtained in the part of the spectrum whose deviation is 44° 30’ (a part which is near the extreme lower limit of the present cbservations, far below the visible red) was at noon 17, and in the afternoon 11. In the violet, where the deviation is 50° 00’, the corresponding deflec tions were 45 and 0:39. Let us take these two feeble extreme rays as types with which to illustrate our process. Considering first the infra-red ray we have, deflection at noon = d, = 17, deflection in afternoon = d, = 11, difference in mass of alr traversed = M, 8, — M,?, = 30°58 decimeters, which, by 1 absorption, has produced the difference in the deflections. ¢ representing the amount of energy transmitted by a layer ° air equivalent to 1 decimeter of mercury, we find from the formula t= (M,6,—M,6,)4/2 ¢= ‘986; that is, a mass of air capable of supporting 1 deci- meter of mercury in the barometer, transmits 98°6 per cent of the energy of this particular kind of ray. This quantity ¢ we call the coefficient of transmission of the ray. nowing now the amount of energy transmitted by one such layer of air, we can find the amount transmitted by the 7-74 layers which intervened between the observer and the sun at noon, namely 986" = 895. Only 89°5 per cent, there- fore, of the original unknown heat of the ray, which we will 0°0174 Tabular Refraction cos, app. altitude. ae + In general it is not advisable to make observations at so great a zenith dis- tance as this. * Computed from the formula M = S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 191 represent by H, reached the observer at noon, producing a deflection of 17, or 895 E = 17, giving ey : E=.,;5 = 190 That is, had our instrument been placed outside the atmosphere ~ that time, it would have indicated a deflection of 19 instead of 17. By a similar process we find that the coefficient of transmis- sion for the violet ray is -928, from which we see that the ultra- red ray is transmitted with greater facility than the violet. The amount of this violet radiation transmitted by the whole depth of atmosphere at noon was ‘538, from which its energy outside the atmosphere was 338 > 84. The table below gives the coefficients of transmission, etc., for these and other points in the spectrum where measurements were taken on this day. The first column gives the deviation of the observed ray in the spectrum of the prism used, the second and third columns the deflections obtained with the galvanometer at noon and in the afternoon, respectively, the fourth column the coefficient of transmission (for an atmosphere supporting one decimeter of mercury), the fifth the transmission _of the whole depth of atmosphere at noon, obtained by raising the coefficient of transmission to the 7°74 power, and the last the computed energy outside the atmosphere expressed in galvanometer deflections. TasBLE VIII. Deviation, ad, dy t p8 ‘ E 3° 00’ 0-02 0-00 52 00 0°21 0-00 51 00 0°96 0°09 925 549 18 50 00 45 0°39 923 538 84 49 30 7-3 ies ents ones KOE 49 00 13° 3°0 "953 689 18°9 48 00 43° 12°5 980 731 58'8 47 30 72° 38° ‘979 ‘850 7 46 45 158° 109 938 910 173°7 a6: 14-4 209° 134° 986 “894 233°8 45 63 175° 107° 984 ‘883 198°3 45 28 122: 79° 986 “895 136°2 44 30 17 11 986 “895 Similar reductions have been made for each day’s observa- tion the result from each being confirmatory of the statement here (see column f° #e) that the atmospheric absorption dimin- ishes continuously as the wave-length increases (save for the interruptions already cited) to the extremity of our charts. e graphic representation of this and other extra telluric curves of energy will be given in a later memoir, in such a 192 8S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. form as to show from the mean of a year’s observations, the percentage of absorption suffered by each ray in the entire spectrum, visible and invisible. The reader who may desire still fuller details as to the ap- paratus, the original observations and their treatment, is referred to the forthcoming official publication already mentioned. In the later memoir will be found a description of the method used for determining the wave-lengths corresponding to measured deviations, and the formule for deducing from the prismatic spectrum, the distribution of the energy and the extent of the spectrum on the normal scale. SUMMARY. As one result of this present research, the chart of the pris- matic spectrum as observed at Allegheny with the bolometer is now presented (Plate IIT). The abscissz are proportional to deviations and the ordinates to measured energies. The second chart now given, (Plate IV), represents the normal spectrum as deduced from the prismatic, as it has been thought advisable to present it here for the reader's convenience, in advance of a description of the means used for making it. The abscisse on this are proportional to actually measured wave-lengths, and the ordinates to measured energies. In both charts, the area, between ordinates cotresponding to like wave-lengths is the same, and hence the total areas are the same. Their very as to the nature of the new absorption bands, may be give hereafter, together with tables (already prepared) of the absorp- tive action of the solar atmosphere for each spectral ray. These will, it is hoped, give with a satisfactory approximation the distribution of the energy, before any absorption whatever; a the source, that is, of the energy, in the photosphere itself. The extent of the newly observed region may be most clearly en by reference to the map of the normal or diffraction spe trum. (Plate IV.) Previous maps end at or near wave-length 1*-2. Beyond this point (with the exception of the single band near wave-length 1-4) every line, and every ordinate representing heat, is believed to be new. The extent of the region here newly mapped, is then considerably larger, on the normal scale, than the whole of that (both visible and invisible) e observe that the prismatic spectrum is enormously expanded at the violet end. To carry this on the prismatic S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 198 area beyond wave-length (4 represents the whole ultra-violet ener We are accustomed to speak of the ultra-violet or infra-red regions without reflecting on the enormous difference between their actual importance. The reader will be able to see by a simple inspection of the normal chart and a comparison of the little area above wave-length 08, and the great area below wave-length 0-7, that the latter is nearly a hundred times as great as the former. Yet the former, owing to the prismatic expansion, and to the selective absorption by the feeble rays of this region of certain salts of silver, with which it can be photo- graphed (while the far greater luminous energy below makes lit- tle impression on these salts), has occupied more attention than the latter. When we observe here how the infra-red region is compressed by the prism, we can understand how its extent has been under-estimated. Its real extent is so vast that we should accustom ourselves to consider “in the infra-red region” as a wholly vague term, needing to be supplemented with a descrip- tion of the particular part of the infra-red referred to. e well to epitomize the principal results of all these researches as far as they have been here given. In general ey emphasize and extend our first conclusions. Ist. In measures now made for the first time on approxi- mately homogeneous rays in the diffraction spectrum, we find that the maximum energy is above the red and is placed in fact near the yellow. The place of this maximum point varies With the sun’s altitude, ranging from a wave-length of nearly 0:55 on a clear day and with a high sun, to a wave-length of 0-65, or even more before sunset. On the normal scale then, the position of the maximum of heat in the spectrum does not vary widely from that of the maximum of light. It is shown ater how similar results are deducible from the prismatic spec- trum. ators and of present opinion on the point, we find that (sassondings to th 4 whole Jess and less, as we go down below the red, to a point 194 S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. our air. i the sun’s true appearance for the first time, regard the s¥? itself as colored. 3 F . E { : E * S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. 195: Our white light, then, is not the sum of all radiations, but only of a DAC even of the visible ones. 4t e can, by measuring the area of the curve veg our atmosphere and comparing it with the area of the ve within, obtain by a method never before pursued, Nits Sa in close accord with theory, a value for the Solar Constan exactness of that in the first decimal place is Story open to doubt. The conclusion which we are entitled to draw from Sth. These Mom ang show heat in extreme ultra violet ays and the change of temperature (hitherto unobserved), in the Frauenhofer lines. They lend increased probability to the belief that all the energy in any ray can HE ited as heat, if there be a proper medium to receive this energy. Their evidence, So far as it goes, then, favors the conception of one solar energy which is interpreted in terms of heat, or of light, or of chemical action, sera to the medium by means of which we choose to observe it. th. The ratio of pee ee to dark heat has bcc eal been wholly changed by the selective absorption. The ratio at the sea-level may be found with close approximation by ee the two areas, (1st) above ee pou where we assume the lu- minous spectrum to end, and (2d) below it. This point each one may define diff fferently, for the extent of the luminous. Spectrum depends much upon our precautions for observing it. we assume it to end near B, then three-quarters of the energy must be termed invisible : if at the actual visual ex- tremity (far below A), then less than half. To fix our ideas, let us suppose it to terminate at Frauenhofer’s A. We then find luminous and ultra-violet energy (within the smooth curve) 0°368 infreréd onetwy (isi oucdns does cide es 0°632 1°000 The ratio of the invisible (infra-red), to the whole then is 0°632, and there is reason to believe this value rather too small than too large. If, however, we deduct the space occupied by the gaps in the lower spectrum the ratio becomes 0562. The 196 8S. P. Langley—Selective Absorption of Solar Energy. infra-red energy at sea-level may be roughly taken, as thus de- fined, at three-fifths the whole. At the same time the ratio of luminous to obscure energy without our atmosphere is, we repeat, far greater than within it. We conclude (among other consequences of our observations) that since the heat in the shorter wave-lengths (corresponding in a general sense to high solar temperature) was thus relatively greater before absorption, we are obliged to increase our usu estimates, not only of the amount of heat the sun sends us, but {and very greatly) of the effective temperature of the solar surface. he relatively small amount of energy, corresponding to e not so much to The discussion of these and other points is reserved for ® subsequent memoir. Among these will be the fuller considera- tion of the place of the principal absorption of water vapor, @ consideration which it will be advantageous to present 10 another connection. It is to be remembered that all the values Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Penn., Dec. 30, 1882. W. BP. Blake—New locality of Chalchuite. 197 Art. XIX.—New locality of the Green Turquois known as Chalchuite, and on the Identity of Tig vets with the Callais or Callaina of Pliny; by WituiaM P. B N this Journal,* pee 1858, I directed attention to the occurrence in New Mexico of a green turquois highly prized as a gem by the loaseae and known as Chal-che-we-te, “ Grande has made the Cerillos eee in which the gem occurs, much more accessible than it was, and the ancient mine as been re- opened and worked to some file a by Eastern capitalists, as made known by ee sil Silliman.t The stone is in consequence more abundant than before, and at Wallace Station on the railway very i specimens can frequently be obtained of the Pueblo India T have reonNly visited another locality where chalchuite occurs and was mined by the ancients. This is in Cochise County, ee about twenty niles from Tombstone, in an outlying ridge or spur of the Dragoon Mountains and not far from the stronghold of the Apache chief, Cochise, so long the terror of that region. This elevation is now known as the “Turquois Mountain,” and as there are several deposits of argentiferous ores near it, a mining district has been formed called the “'Turquois District.” At the turquois locality there are two or more ancient excava- tions upon the south face of the mountain, and large piles of waste or debris thrown out are overgrown with century plants, yuceas and Cactacew. It has not been worked for a long time and probably never by the Apaches. The excavations are not as extensive as at Los Cerillos, and it is more difficult to find spenineng of the mineral. It is evidently much less abundant at the New Mexican locality. Hnough of the gem was obtained. however, by searching in the waste heaps, to show that it is identical in. its appearance with the New Mexican chalehuite. The rock is also similar and the chalchuite occurs in seams and rene rarely more than an eighth or a quarter of an inch in thickness. The color is light apple-green and rey green, prooisaly that of the New Mexican reise as general A 9 e is in some fragments a faint shade of blue as at Los Cerillos, tot the true bet tre color appears to be green rather than blu specific gravity I find to be, of two different fragments, 2 710; and 2°828. The first was slightly rous and earthy and the second dense, hard and homogen ay These results are * The Chalchihuitl of the ancient Mexicans, this Journal, I, xxv, 227. + Ibid., II, xxii, 67, July, 1881. 198 W. P. Blake—New locality of Chalchutte. Mexico. Of this there is much confirmatory evidence, obtained since my first communication. The reopening of the old mine revealed many implements of the stone age, and showed work- ings of much greater extent than even the enormous surface excavations indicated. The early explorers and historians of ew Spain chronicle the fact that the inhabitants of Cibola had an abundance of turquoises. We also know that the ehalchuite was worked with considerable skill by ancient lapidaries. few years ago a remarkable specimen of neatly executed mosaic work in chalchuite was dug up from the ruins near Casa Grande on the Gila. mask from Mexico’ preserved in the British mixed with green, and again that the best have the color of the emerald. . . ‘No gem is more improved by setting in gold, b C. W. King. The Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems, p. 136. f : c ; See wie W. BP. Blake—New locality of Chalchuite. 199 Such on a vanish before the specimens of chalchuite as they come from the mine. Large masses do not occur without earthy eet eevee and mixtures of a yellow color. e mode of origin and the accretion of more or less rounded semi- globular crusts in the cracks of the rock often leave spaces fistulous form, and these are Sepeepe filled by earthy fopasie colored by iron oxide. In the selection of masses for jewels such imperfections fear re =i pane of course do not appear in the turquois of co That the stone of sete Pliny treats is not a transparent gem seems to be clearly shown by the statement of the effect of oil or — upon it. He evidently is describing au a ent stone, a porous and consequently opaque mass. It is interesting fact that the Pueblo Indians at this day resort to the expedient of soaking the chalchuite in tallow or grease to heighten the color aid to make the tint of the larger tpi: more uniform. The grease is taken u the more poro and softer parts of the stone, while the harder portions oes a deeper tint do not absorb it. Ben Mansur, in pobre 8 pad turquois, also refers to the improvement of the color of s sorts of the stone by steeping in oil. Damour* reli the greet: colored hydrous phosphate of alumina ornaments, found in a Celtic grave, to the callais of Pliny, especially in view of the green color. The mineral is evidently a somewhat altered green turquois and is not specifically different, but is well enti- tled to the name callainite, the modified form of Pliny’s name proposed by Professor Dana.t The name turquois is certainly unsatisfactory for the species. Callais or callaina and also chal- with the terminology of the nomenclature of the science. Moreover they are not misleading as turquois (Turkish stone) is in regard to the source of the gem. Although some of the ties in Puria: at Nichabour an t Firusku in the province of Erak. One of Arn eho pa that the turquoises were there called “firuses,” and King mentions Firuzegi as the name of Persian turquois. SSicuehian ii, 225, quoting from Chardin, says the turquois is found in ‘a mountain name * Phirous,” between Hircania arid Parthide. Again the name turquois is applied to the blue fossil bone or ivory, called also the Occidental turquois and odontolite, of which large quan- tities were eames and are still, used in jewelry. * Compt. stots lix, 9! + Dana’s pererad 5 edit., p. 572. Buffon, Histoire salons des Mineraux, 1790, vi Adin Gieurian, Voyage, &c., Paris, 1656, p. i, 4 200 J. W. Dawson—Skeleton of a Whale from Ontario. The fact that the beautiful green of chalchuite is the normal color of the gem, and that among the ancients, and even so recently as the last century, the stones of a green tint were the most prized, should lead to a higher appreciation of this gem and to its more extended use in jewelry and choice mosaics. Mr. C. W. King, in the work already cited, says that the very rare antique works in turquois are in the green kind, notably the head of Tiberius at Florence in a stone as large as a walnut, and other half relief works in green turquois in the Marl- borough collection. The chalchuite is well adapted to cameo _ or intaglio work, and the color is finer by candle light than by sun light and the blue tint is deeper. using the name chalchuite instead of the longer form “chalchihuil,” as in my former paper, I now follow Bernal Diaz, the historian of the conquest of Mexico, rather than Mill Rock, New Haven, Conn., Jan. 6, 1883. Arr. XX.—On portions of the Skeleton of a Whale from gravel on the line of the Canada Pacific Railway, near Smith's Falls, Ontario ;* by J. W. Dawson. a the Canadian Naturalist; communicated in an advancedgproof byith® author. n 4 i : a - i Serge Sg SE Le ME Rs eee Po eY a Pee eT ee ene Ee Oe ate ENE ey oar SS REE Se eRe a eg een J. W. Dawson—Skeleton of a Whale from Ontario. 201 Remains of the Beluga, or small white whale, were found by the late Dr. Zadock Thompson, author of the “ Natural History of Vermont,” in the marine clay i in the township of Charlotte, ‘Vermont, at an elevation of 150 feet above the sea. They were associated with shells of Saxicava and Leda. The species was supposed tobe distinct from the B. Catodon Gray, and was named by Thompson B. Vermontana. I have found detached bones of Beluga in étis Post-pliocene clays of Riviere du Loup, and considerable portions of a skeleton were found in the exca- vations for the Intercolonial Railway, on the south side of the Baie des Chaleurs, and were described by Gilpin in the Trans- actions of the Nova Scotia Institute of dasat Science.* Bones have also been found in the brick clays near Montreal, and a specimen was discovered several years ago in sand holc- ing Sagxicava, near Cornwall, Ontario. The last named speci- men was studied by Mr. Billings, and its bones compared with those of the modern species in the McGill College Museum. On this evidence Mr. Billings concluded that it belonged to the differences in modern spec But though the Beluga, whidh now extends its excursions far up the St. Lawrence, and has even been captured in the vicinity of Montreal, occurs as far west as ornwall; no * ee of the larger whales have, so far as I am aware , bee en found so far inland, until the discovery of the specimens if ferred to in the present note. These were found, as I a informed by Archer Baker, Esq., General Saperinvendent of the Canada Pacific Railway, “ina ballast pit, at Welshe’s, on the line of the C. P. Railway, three miles north of Smith’s Falls, and thirty-one miles north of the St. Lawrence River, in the Township of Montague, County of Lanark. They oceurred in gravel at a depth of 30 feet from the surface, and about 50 feet gee ke the so She face of the pit.” n, C. H., has been kind enough to obtain for me the alevasgn of the - rd where the remains were found, as “ngvag by the railway levels, It is 420 feet above the level Se fawrands at Hoche aga, or as nearly as possible ic petite sea-level. It is interesting to observe 6 this cor- responds exactly with the height of one of the sea terraces on the Montreal mountain, and is only 80 feet feat than the well-marked beacii with sea shells above Céte des Néiges, on the west side of the mountain. The highe Sei level at hia Post-pliocene marine shells are known to occur on mountain is near the park-keeper’s house, ae an elevation “of * Volume ii, 1874. Am, Jour. eee Series, VoL. XXV, No, 147,—Manca, 1883. ? about 520 feet. These marine deposits of Montreal are of the same geological period with the Cetacean remains in question, so that the animal to which these belonged may have sailed past the rocky islet, which then represented Montreal moun- tuin, at an eleyation of 400 feet above the lower levels of the city, and in a wide sea which then covered all the plain of the Lower St. Lawrence. The deposit in which the remains occurred is no doubt the are! of the Saxicava sand and gravel, and was probably a beach or bank near the base of the Laurentian hills, forming the west side of a bay which then occupied the Silurian country between the Laurentian hills north of the Ottawa, and those extending southward toward the Thousand Islands, and which opened into a wide extension of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 202 J. W. Dawson—Skeleton of a Whale from Ontario. may safely be referred to that above named. The larger of the two vertebre, a lumbar one, has the centrum eleven inches in transverse diameter, and is seven inches in length. he in length. Through the kindness of Mr. Baker the specimens have been deposited in the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill t . bs "4 i ‘ ' a i i od. H. Emerton—Cobwebs of Uloborus. 203 ArT. XXI.— The Cobwebs of Uloborus; by J. H. EMERTON. IN a recent article on the cribellum and calamistrum (Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 1882), P. Bertkau has cleared up the uncertainty about the structure of the cribellum by finding again the secreting glands at the ends of the fine tubes which have their outlets in this organ. Like Blackwall, Bertkau places together in one group all the spiders which are provided with the cribellum, instead of dividing them among several families according to their form and habits, as has been done 'y more recent writers. One of the principal reasons for this division has been the supposed resemblance of the webs of Hyptiotes, and especially of Uloborus, to those of the Hpeiride, 204 J. H. Emerton— Cobwebs of Uloborus. round as that of most Hpeiride, and is made in the same way by spinning a number of threads radiating from a center, cross- \ 2. ing these with a loose spiral of the same kind of thread, and afterward beginning at the outside, crossing the rays again wit closer ieee gradually removing the first spiral of smooth ea thread, leaving only slight thickenings of the rays to show where it was attached. The principal difference between the webs is in the structure of the thread of the final spirals. In Epeira it is covered by a viscid liquid that collects on it 1 drops. In rus it is covered by a band of fine threads drawn out by the calamistrum from the cribellum as descri in Hyptotes. 4 E i " t i : a J. H. Emerton—Cobwebs of Uloborus. 205 Fig. 1 represents an unfinished web of Uloborus walckenerins seen in France, showing the central part still occupied by the preliminary spirals, a a, while the outer part is covered with curled threads, and the smooth spirals cut away leaving thick- ened spots, } 6, on the rays. In the finished web most of the spirals pass regularly around, but the outer ones are often more or less irregular as in Hpeira webs, according to the shape of the space in which the web is made. After laying her eggs, this spider, like many others, becomes careless about her web, and repairs it only enough to keep the cocoons in place, so that many imperfect and irregular webs are found at that season. I have seen such webs made by Uloborus walckenerius, and the only web I have seen of the American - Uloborus= Phillyra riparia Hentz (fig. 2), is imperfect from the same cause, but is evidently the remains of a nearly round web, the rays meeting somewhat nearer the upper than the lower edge. The thread of Ayptiotes and Uloborus has a strong smooth thread through the center. That of Hyptiotes, which I have examined fresh, has the finer part arranged in regular loops or scollops (fig. 3), a, b, in which the separate fibers cannot be dis- tinguished. The thread of Uloborus, at least when old and dry, has the loops longer and less regular, and I have not been able distinguish the separate fibers except at the edges of the and, The close resemblance of the web of Uloborus to those of the Epeiride makes the classification of this genus still more di cult, for while its structure shows its close relationship to Ayptiotes and the other Cinsflonide, it is highly improbable that the habit of making such complicated webs of the same kind should have been acquired separately by Uloborus and by the perride, 206 OC. A. White—Glacial Drift in the Upper Missouri. Art. XXIL.—Glacial Drift in the Upper Missouri River Region ; by CHARLES A. WHITE. [Published in advance by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.] bowlders and coarse gravel, without clays. It was ound nowhere abundant, and over a large part of the space within - syenitic, some showing no lamination, some showing It 10 18 tinctly, and some being schistose ; and the proportions of feld- spar, quartz and hornblende, varying much in different spect mens. Among these bowlders of Archean rocks are frequent masses of cream-colored magnesian limestone containing 1g" ments of fossils, which I regard as belonging to the Galeua division of the Trenton limestone. This glacial drift material is very different from the coarse drift gravel which is so abundant in the valley of the Yellow- stone, and which has doubtless been derived from the mountain region about its sources. The latter is similar to that which !§ usually found in the valleys of rivers which have their rise 10 the Rocky Mountains. C. A. White—Molluscan Fauna of the Laramie Group. 207 Art. XXIII.—Late Observations concerning the Molluscan Fauna, and the Geographical extent of the Laramie Group; by C. A. HITE. THE observations that have been made concerning the faunal characteristics and geographical extent of the Laramie Group during the past year are of considerable importance. e now now the strata of that group to exist at numerous and exten- sive localities through more than twenty-four degrees of lati- tude; that is, from the State of Nuevo Leon in Mexico to the Valley of the Saskatchawan in British America. many fresh-water and land mollusks. This fauna characterizes a great wide-spread geological group of strata in the most dis- tinct and unequivocal manner, several of its molluscan species now being known to occur at localities more than a thousand miles apart. It is cause for great regret that the admirable Text-book of Geology lately published by Professor Archibald Geikie should contain so erroneous a statement as it does of the molluscan fauna of the Laramie Group. I do not hesitate to assert that numerous species which do characterize that group are any- where mentioned in the book. With due recognition also of the value of the geological labors of Professor J. J. Stevenson, who bas published several articles in this Journal, and in the Wheeler Reports, upon the Laramie Group, I am quite unable to reconcile his statements with my own extensive observations of that group and the study of its fossils. That any trae Lara- mie strata ever alternate with those of the Fox Hills Group, or any other marine Cretaceous group; or that any true marine 208 C. A. White—Molluscan Fauna of the Laramie Group. fossils were ever collected from any strata of the Laramie roup, I cannot admit. I regard all such statements as the result of a misunderstanding of the stratigraphical geology of ogi in which such observations are said to have been made. The true molluscan fauna of the Laramie Group has been published mainly by the late Mr. F. B. Meek and myself. Most of Mr, Meek’s species are figured in vol. ix. of the U.S. Geological Survey of the Territories; where they are referred now passing through the press, contains illustrations of all the known molluscan species of the Laramie Group. In former publications I have referred to the fact that the strata of this group have been recognized from northern New Mexico to the British Possessions; and from the meridian of Great. Salt Lake to that of Western Kansas and Nebraska. Besides the results of a full season’s personal work upon the Laramie Group in Montana, I have, within the past yeal, received collections of its characteristic molluscan fossils from roup. The collection that has been received from Mexico was made at a point about seven and a half miles northwest of Lampazos in the State of Nuevo Leon, and numbers seve? species, of which the following is a list: * This volume is not yet published, but my extract from it, with 32 plates & illustrations, was published in 1880, ee ica oe) Ae eee C. A. White—Molluscan Fauna of the Laramie Group. 209 . Ostrea Wyomingensis Meek. Anomia micronemu Meek. ite. . Corbicula cytheriformis Meek and Hayden ? . Odontobasis buecinoides White . Melania Wyomingensis Meek. — THA Pp wD eH Q $ A s ok 8 of hydroxylamine upon the respective Sees Ber. - Chem. Ges., xv, 2 2778, 2783, Dec., and pasty. After ea s was dissolved in dilute KOH, saturated with NH,Cl and precipitated =n a mixture of am- monia-silver solution an magnesia mixtur The precipitate after washing was decomposed wit a | sulphide, The filtrate was saturated with ea and concentrated. The crude product by solution in alkali and repregpiestion was purified. A yellowish pe gs powder resale which possessed all the pioperues of uric acid. Under the is bone the crystals were the right formula on we — Ber, Berl. Chen 0 xv, 2 abe sie G. F. "The Radiometer.—Much uncertainty still exists in reg ad to the phenomena exhibited by the radiometer. These phenomen are complicated by the action of the enclosing vessel, the rar feet medium ana the constitution of the vane of the radiometer. ERNST Prinesueim has made a careful study of the influence of the glass- containing git of the enclosed gas and of the constitution of vane. His apparatus consisted of one vane which was hung by. a long bifilar suspension. A little mirror was placed upon the vane, and the movements of the ated were observed by means of a spot of light reflected upon a scale. His experiments lead him to believe that a pressure Pianeta from the heated side of the vessel, and that this pressure increases with the t pregmben g — Nee ; ae and believes that the kinetic theory of the radiometer is the 230 Scientific Intelligence. ph which result from the various forms of radiometers, and he there- fore adopted the simplest instrument, a single vane suspended by a bifilar suspension. Ann. der Physik und Chemie, 1883, No. 1, pp. 1-32. 7% 9. Measurement of wave lengths in the Ultra-red portion of the solar spectrum.—The peculiarity of this measurement by Ernst Pringsheim, resides in the use of a radiometer to measure the heat. The spectrum produced by a Rutherfurd’s grating, 17,296 lines. to the inch, was examined by keeping all parts of the ap- paratus stationary except the grating; this was turned upon 4 vertical axis, and different portions of the spectra were thus thrown upon the radiometer. This radiometer consisted of but one vane, which was suspended by a long bifilar suspension. The radiometer was carefully protected from irregular disturbances by being placed in a suitable enclosure. ea . apparatus, absorption bands were found from wave length A= 070013658" to 1=0-0013908"™™. These results were modified by the absorbing media which were used to separate the spectra of different orders.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, 1883, No. }, Pp length of a certain band of fine lines denoting the absence of ut ting was e ployed and the spectrum was thrown upon various phosphorescent esence . . f a tinctions are known to exist in the ultra-violet.— Comptes Rendus, an. 8, 1883, pp. 121-124. sept 11. Siemens’ Theory of Solar Energy.—M. Favye has pointed out that the centrifugal force at the sun’s equator is too feeble in comparison with the force of gravity to enable the sun to play the role of a machine which takes in matter at the poles and throws it off at the equator. Siemens replied to this objection by using as an illustration Newton’s tube, which the latter employed to show how the flattening of the earth could be determined. ‘This a point upon the equator. Faye replies that Newton’s ideal tube was supposed to terminate upon the surface of the globe, while mt ; Ee re ge et ee ae ET et RE ett ey Rete a ee Chemistry and Physics. 231 sun—a consequence which M. Faye believes that Dr. Siemens - not admit.— Comptes Rendus, Jan. 8, 1883, p. 12. The Eifect of Oil upon Waves.—In reply to an biG of calm sea is covered with a thin layer of oil and is then submitted to the action of the wind; in the second, where the waves break. In the first case the formation of great waves is rendered impos- sible by the presence of the layer of oil. In the second, a simple calculation shows that the layer of oil exerts a great resistance at the base of the breaker, and thus compels it to extend itself and to subside very rapidly without poe severe wave shoc — omptes Rendus, Jan. 2, 1883, a Rarefied Air as a ‘Gondeor of iiteceridiny Euan par presents an obstacle to the passage of the current. Everything is in favor of the hypothesis that vacuum opposes a very feeble re sistance to the propagation of electricity.” Without the employ- ment of electr ne can excite an induction current in a Geissler tube, which is sufficient to produce light. This would be impossible if the pa rar sre oe or vacuum were an insula- tor.— Phil. Mag., Jan., 1883, p. 1 14, Con ference for as Adegitin ot a Standard Meridian and of a Standard Time.—The Minister of Public instruction has in- - cr et ° Qu "oO son a — Republic to convoke a conference of all nations, which shall con- sider the question ee the establishment of a common initial meridian and a common hour. us circular states :— . 232 Scientific Intelligence. = chee of the great extent of its territory in respect to longi- “The President of the United States, convinced of the advantages of the reform in regard to the question, accordingly desires to obtain the opinion of the French Government in regard to an in- the French Academy to a commission from the Section of Astron- omy and rea that of ESSVG TARY and Navigation.— CORES es us dus, Jan. 2, 1883 15. An tr odution to the Study of Organic Cheat by ot Be Pinner, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University Scientific Se hool. New York: John Wiley yes 1883, pp. xix and 403. 12mo. —Dr. "Pinner 8 Introduction is probabl our best tial explanations, the eens ee n group or methane cone s are described, including methane and its various halogen, hy- droxyl, sulphur, nitrogen (cyanogen bodies) and other derivatives he a chosen is that which most naturally leads from the’ simpler to the more complex bodies. The descriptions are full or rief aetna to the importance of the substance, and the genetic and constitutional relations Ey the compounds are brought out 1 a clear and concise man The methane envatti ed occupy sixty pages. The ethane Sosvaaves olin { in similar order ; fol- lowed again by their homologues up to the hexa-carbon bodies. The e carbhydrates and uric acid derivatives are treated separately. Then follows a retrospect in which the more important pacers olefine and acetylene hydro-carbons, their halogen and hydrox xyl Pcie (including aldehydes, ketones and acids of various basicity), amines, etc., etc., are tabulated so as to emphasize their homologies. These t topics fill one-half of the book. Then f follow Ww 8 plan of instruction ; it 18 written in a very simple, clear and appropriate style. The translation as well a the , and we cordially commend the volume to teachers and students of this ecient and now most * sean ” branch of science. & W, 4 4 Geology and Mineralogy. 233 16. Uniplanar Kinematics of Solids and Fluids, with applica- tions to the distribution and flow of electricity ; by EORGE Mincuin xford, 1882. 8vo, pp. 266.—Professor Minchin limits himself in. this book to motion which takes place in one plane or parallel to one plane. In fluids, for example, no displace- ments are supposed perpendicular to the plane ay. extension of uniplanar theorems and formulas to motion in three eames D amstiek small strains. In the treatment of es 8 motion, oie the author has introduced new theorems, The last half of the yore is devoted to kinematics of fluids and notes. It will be appreciated by persons who undertake to zens Clerk-Maxwell’s Hctictity and Rape Ks daron to which it is admirable introduction. The style of Professor Minchin is i clear and concise. H. IJ. Grotocy AND MINERALOGY. 1, Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of eens, Arts and Letters Vol. Me 1877- 81. Madison, Wis.—Professor T. C. r it was formerly under he ae aad has leh es on its and passes around it to unite ag below, leaving it 8 present action is concerned a non-glaciated area, surroun wed on all sides by active glaciation. It is stated that the resemblance l area the glacial debris thins out gradually and disappears in an obscure margin. Further, the As rdin lies on the lee sip of a Lisbon. The tracks are in involved a or aim ‘ds 8, hate moi § est 4 to 44 inches wide, and have the characters of Climatichnites of Logan. Mr. Todd names them C. Fosteri, and speaks of them as pegers | of animal origin. An excellent figure accom- panies the arti Am. Jour. — sittin Series, Vou. XXV, No. 147.—Mancu, 1883. 234 Scientific Intelligence. 2. Lower Devonian fossil- ira wg wipers att: rocks in the region of Bastogne, Belgium (town of Luxembourg). —A paper A. Renard, on the lithology of these metamorphic Devo- nian rocks, is published i in Volume I (1882) of the Bulletin of the Belgian Royal Museum = Natural History. The beds belong to the middle member of the Coblentzian group of Dumont, called and chloritic quartzytes, garnetiferous fossil-bearing quartzyte, and chloritic et eo schist also fossiliferous. M. Renard has studied the rocks both by chemical analysis and the micro- scope. He fou od in the hornblendic quartzyte, 30°62 of quartz, 37°62 of hornblende, 20°85 of mica, 4°14 of garnet, 1°02 of titanite, 1°51 of apatite, and "4°80 of graphite (visible i in scales), with some ottrelite. rape actinolitic rock consists of quartz 52° 36, horn- blende 46°73, with traces of titanic iron, mica and graphite. hornblende (actinolite) i is in sietlnged fibers. The garnetiferous late con of biotite and garnet, with pees in gives analyses of the ottre vag mass of Oretddebus Amber from Gloucester se New Jerse by Gro. F. Kunz. (Read before the New Yor Academy of Sciences, _— Sorat 5th, 1883.)—A bout twelve ‘ie ago a mass of amber ommon size and shape Sees Se ihe inches long, six ie wide and one inch thick, and w ighing Man’s quarter inch section showed a light grayish yellow color. A parent yellowish brown r. ass (surface and interior) was filled with botryoidal- Magee. cavities sp with beta: or green sand, and a trace of vivia ardness is the same as the Baltic amber, only slightly soulicr and cut- ting mor re like horn, and the cut surface showing a curious pearly luster, differing in this respect from any other amber I have yet examine is luster is not to meno by the impurities, for we oe 4 seri show it the best. It admitted of a very good pot 0% 7 orm of avery pure piece of the carefully mostly of Opies vesicularis. 5. Gryphon Pite. hori. some ere tula Harlani and others ; the u r part of the marl, ‘consisting re a large layer of cis oe several feet in thickness, filled with Botany and Zoology. 235 Palorthis, Echinoid spines and an occasional shark’s tooth of the 8. No analysis has as yet been made of this amber, but the simi- larity in specific gravity, hardness and ignition leaves little doubt of its being true amber, or of its having been derived from a or aa renemitiag that which is the source of the Baltic and other Ill. Botany AND ZooLoey. if ee des Algues Fossiles, par le rd Sole de Sapor Paris: Ma asson. Imp. Ato, .82+10., 1882.—Nathorst, af diac And he pronounces this to be true of most of the fossil Alga described in Saporta’s Paléontologie Frangaise and in his later and more popular volume, L’ Hvolution du Regne Végétal. The present volume is a courteous and magnificent reply to Nathorst’s criticism—magnificent, as he devotes to it this beautiful imperial quarto volume, illustrated by figures sear in the text, as well as by ten Hithegvaphic plates —courteous, for he over and over acknowledges the entire jovani "of his there s facts and his conscientiousness in de ducing from them damaging conclusions. But he proceeds to rebut Nathorst’s inferences as to ® they know has led them to notice and describe not a few which are she seth of the rege 6) etation given by the Swedish natural- o the greater aporta insists that the adverse con- slesious' are far-fetched, fives. founded on a preconception, and in certain cases capable of complete disproof. Also that some of the most dubious markings, which might well receive Nathorst’s explanation, have been found quite closely imitated by me traces of an Ulva. G. Les Plantes Potageres, Deseription et Cultures des Prine heeea ux Légumes des Climats Tempérés; par Vitmorin, ANpRiEUX & Cre. 1883, pp. 650, 8vo. Paris. —Besides its importance to cultivators, this volume—prepa red by a most competent and trusty hand, and issued by the axe house of Vilmorin, Andrieux o.—has no small botanical value. It treats of the kitchen-garden plants of temperate climates, with considerable fulness and peti ae tration from original sketches. It refers the varieties to their proper eat species, the native country of ake is 236 Scientific Intelligence. vées, by DeCandolle, a notice of which is still due to our readers. Among the interesting matters contained in the Introduction, we note the statement of the author that cultivation, even where immemorial, has in no wise effaced the limit of species. =A. G. 3. The Colors of Flowers ; by Grany Atten. Macmillan & Co. 1882.—This taking little book, in which a popular subject is very interestingly treated, originated as an article in the Cornhill Magazine, was extended into a series of articles in Mature, and now the latter are reédited and collected in a volume of Nature Ser We need only notice the distinguishing feature of a con- tribution to evolutionary science which must already have been widely read. The “central idea” is that petals are transformed stamens, rather than transformed leaves. ‘The argument is, that the earliest flowers consisted only of stamens and pistils, one oF oth; that the original color of these was yellow, that conse quently (by inheritance) the stamens of almost all flowers are ellow,—whence “it would seem naturally to follow that the earliest petals would be yellow too.” Now “the earliest and . simplest types of existing flowers [i. e. the petals of such as have suppose no convincing proof is to be had from observation. Yel- so more commonly may be the anther, but rarely the filament, the dilatation of which is assumed to give rise to petals:—to give rise, moreover, to the sepals also, if the theory holds, at least when they are colored. ut how when they are green an her- baceous? And how is the line to be drawn; and if colo sepals originated from stamens, why not subtending bracts 8 well, when these are petaloid ? Our author says: “We can see how petals might easily have taken their origin from stamens, while it is difficult to undel- stand how they could have taken their origin from ordinary leaves, a process of which, if it ever took place, no hint now mains to us.” But either we have a hint in the brilliant bracteal j 4 3 F 5 4 A 4 ; Botany and Zoology. 237 leaves of Painted-cup, Poinsettia, and Salvia splendens, or these attractive leaves have also taken their origin from stamens! as modifications of stamens or as modifications of green leaves is, according to our apa mainly a question of mode of concep- tion. Some good morphological evidence may be adduced for either. Mr. Allen’s study of the case by evdlaonary deduction is interesting and — It has the advantage of making an appeal to facts open to Mee Rang We are by no means convinced that the fate: sustain 4, Direct teapes of ie: pose of Water in Plants, M. Junien Ves Ann. des Sc. Nat., XV, 1) has devised a sim- ple method of demonstrating the transfer of water in the stems of plants, which promises o have a wide application. The stem is introduced under the cover. “Te ae lowe have not bones rem ov. from the stem, a rapid current is at once observed to flow Aone the cut surface. The insoluble salt collects at the open ey of the vessels, often passing into the capi llary tubes after a tempo- rary arrest, and the same phenomenon is ah ee a seit awe as the minute plugs are formed and then sucke ith te ow powers of the microscope it is poeaible to use a sec- ond slip instead of the thin cover, and then the simple apparatus can be held more firmly in its olin: In ~* case it is possible to measure the rapidity of the current ie of a micrometric oe rg several such rates are Wh stem is quickly stripped of its leaves the current is stopped sa once. But when, on the other hand, a leaf or a part of the stem is pinched, there is immediately a backward flow of water. It is well known that two conflicting views have been — by physiologists as to the channel by which the upward movement of water in wood takes ve ace. Some think that the transfe is me a subordinate role. oa these anes vines may be added a the paper regarding the method of direct demonstration, whic’ 238 Seientific Intelligence. go far towards showing that here, as ri long ago ed bie the truth is to be found between the extremes. These experiments, which need to be carefully repeated, indicate that under certain circumstances the transfer of water takes place by means of the opines gone but that in all cases they may serve the part abr rese oreover, ‘the ealiber and length of the vessels regulate the ate of transpiration ; resistance to the movement of ‘the water follow wing the law of Poiseuille, so that the resistance is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the diameter and directly pres portional to their length. We give in full the close of Vesque’s “It is evident that p having reached its maximum, that is to say the suction resulting from transpiration not being able to increase without changing our conditions, eens the air dis- solved in the water becomes disengaged. the quantity of water which arrives at the organs of transpiration across a vessel filled with water is expressed by or From this we can see why climb- ing plants have such large vessels; in fact, the increase in diam ter can alone compensate that of the len 1th, And, further, ‘he quantity of water which can pass through a ves ssel in a given time ears a certain relation, v varying for each species, with the water t contains : this, which I have called the transpiratory eral, A study of this apparatus very often gives the key as to the resistance of certain plants to certain surroundings, and per mits us to indicate at once the conditions under which we must cultivate biarcé Anatomy, I am convinced, will snag oa — to rational culture 5. The stalked ‘Gviniods of the Caribbean Sea ; by P Her BERT CarPENTER, Bulletin - the Museum of Comparative Zo- ology, vol. x, No. 4, Dec., 1882.—This paper Report on the Dredgings of the Coast Survey aieioeois Blake, in ir the Gulf of BP, asterit P Milleri, P. decorus and P. Blakei (here gee 6 Lofotensis and .R, Rawson: They were obtained at ace ths est limit being 2,435 — for etaess vio found by the Porcupine in 1869; that P. Wyoille Thomions was obtained y e roar in 1 ee “ye thoms in 1870 - Naresianus, at 4 b 4 : : a : 4 ; Miscellaneous Intelligence. 239 Mr. Carpenter adds “it is a pity that we have no later aise of the “ Australian Encrinite,” a stem six inches long, which w obtained by Poore (Ann. Mag. Nat. swt Xs 486, 1862), at ri depth of 8 fathoms in King George’s Sou ad Selections cA Eimbryological Winctrdele. compiled by A. Acassiz, WaLTer Faxon and E. L. Mark. I. Crustacea, by Faxon, with 14 pt Memoirs of the Museum of Comp. Zool., vol. No. o.—This series of publications hailet will constitute a most generous con- tribution to American science by the Museum of Comparative The fourteen crowded but admirably engraved plates contain full illustrations of the e mbryological development of vari- ous species of Crustacea, Limulids and Pyecnogonids, derived St. George, ay Reiche nbach, i Ra thke, Auten Donat Ay. Nordmann, C. Grobbe ny P: P. O. Ho ek, C. ‘Dar win, T. H. Huxley, C. Spence Bate, Ji Batraiide, G. Hodge, W. K. Brooks and A. S. Packard, Jr. Transactions of the Linnean Society of New York. Vol. I. 16 8 pp. large not the Fish-Crow (Cervus os sp ero Wilson) a winter as well as a summer resi- dent at the northern ya it of its range? by Wm. DutcHeR; A review of the summer birds of a part of ee Oa tskill moneini, with ny remarks on the Faunal and Floral soba of the region, by K. P. BICKNE IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. tin $0e 5. anuary, 1883; by Swiss Hinson .—The great cold spell from the loth 4 to the 23d ha n of so extraordinary character that possibly the following table, giving the ra- re of the air as registered by the standard thermometer at the Central Station e of interest. The minus sign — indicates degrees below zero, Fahrenhei January. Friday 19. Sat. 20. Sun. 21. Mon. 22. Tues. 238. Wed. 24. 2 a. M. 21 —12 —24 —20 —18 0 21 —11 —25 —21 —18 1 6A4.M 5 —12 —22 —22 —18 0 M — 8 —12 —18 —22 —19 0 10 A. M — 9 —13 —13 —15 —17 5 Noon —9 —13 —10 —19 —I11 12 2P.M — 8 —12 -9 — 8 — 6 16 4 P.M — 8 —12 —10 — 17 — 6 15 6 P. M —10 —14 —14 —10 — 6 14 : i . —12 —18 —16 —13 —4 10 —13 —20 —18 —14 — 2 Miduight nig 8 9 —15 0 5 240 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. Report on the Climatic and Agricultural Features and the Agricultural ipleag ph i of the Arid regions of ue Pacific slope, wit. n Arizona and New Mexico. Made under the direction of the N Ouitiaanones of Agriculture, by E. W. Hines cite ONES an nd R. W. Furnas. 182 . 8vo. Was ashington, of California, and en e piplloxers:t in California, b gard; on eld ¢ ps sid animal ee stries, by T. ©. Jones; HS the standard cadet Peaticucss Alvarado, California, raisin making, olive industry, etc., by R. W. Furn 3. Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made dur- ing the year 1878, at the U. 8S. Naval Observatory.—The two ap- clei in this volume, Professor Holden’s Monograph on the ebula in Orion, and the Longitude of the Observatory at Prince- ton, N. J., have already been noticed in this Journal, The vol- ume contains, besides these, the regular observations made at the Naval Observatory with the large ‘and small equatorials and the transit circle. . Screncx.—The first number of Science, the prospectus of which was noticed on page 87, appeared on the 9th of Februar : Report of an examination of the Upper Columbia River and the ter ritory in vicinity in September and October, 1881, to determine its navigability, and atap bility to steamboat navigation, "made by direction of the Depa aes of the Columbia, by Lieut. T. W. Symons, Corps of Engineers, U.S. A. 134 pp. Foy- 8v ith ma ashi 1882. Bulletin of the U. 8. Fish Commission, Spencer F. Baird, Commissioner, vol. I, 1881, 466 PP. 8vo. Washington 882. The American Hateranin’ Fossils of S. A. Miter, Cincinnati. 334 pp., large é : second vag of Mr. Miller’s useful w ork, mentioned on page 474 of the last volume we is Journal as in the press, has been published. The 4 addi- rt of the Entomologist to the eto of ore for the year 1881, by Gratis V. Rey, M.A., Ph.D. 214 pp. 8vo, with 19 ae ates, partly colored. elektrische edie Giecus ona ihre Anwendun A tae Praxis. Mit besonderer enna re auf Srsae Fortleitung und Vertheilung aaa elektrischen Stromes: dargestellt von Eduard Japing, dipl. Ingenieur. 236 pp. 12mo, with 45 cuts Wien and tis (A. Hartleben) Wak ceechniachs Bibliothek, Band IT. OBITUARY, ALEXIS PERREY, eminent for his long-continued labors in con- nection with the department of Earthquakes, and Honora Pro- fessor of the Faculty of Sciences at aoe died at Paris, on the 29th of December last, in his 76th yea Plate Il. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXV, 1883. Spectro,bolometer. rf T B T T T ; T T T r T . T T T vo 50” 30 49 so 48 } ! ae) | | $o 60 G F b : PRISMATIC SPECTRUM, AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXV, 1883 Plate ill NoRMAL SPECTRUM. AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXV, 1883 Plate IV. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] ArT. XXVII.—Review of DeCandoile’s Origin of Cultivated Plants ;* with Annotations upon certain American Species ; by - Asa Gray and J. HamMMonD TRUMBULL. * Origine des Plantes Ouiltivées, par ALPH. DE CANDOLLE, Associé Etranger de Academie des Sciences de l'Institut de France, ete. Paris, 1883, pp. 377, 8vo. (Bibl. Scientifique Internationale, XLIII.) Bailliére et C's, Am. Jour. Scr.—Tairp Series, Vou. XXV, No. 148.—APRuL, 1883. 17 249 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. remark, here and there, upon points which strike our attention.* We may expect this to be for many years the standard wor upon the subject, and to undergo revision in successive editions; and we are sure that the excellent author will welcome every presentation or discussion which may chance to throw any new light upon the sources or the aboriginal cultivation of certain plants which the Old World has drawn from the New ir lants have been derived. The botanist enquires where a given cultivated plant grows spontaneously, or what was its wild orig- inal; a as to judge, as well as he can, where it is truly indigenous or where a reversion from a cultivated to a wild * To avoid repetition, it may be mentioned here that, in the following anuota- tions, the Relations of the Voyages of Columbus are cited from Navarrete’s Colec- Viajes, etc. (Madrid, 1858, and 1827-37); references to PETER Mak DA RA’S first three Decades De s Oceanicis et Novo Orbe—written before 1517—are to the Cologne edition of 1574; references to Ov1Eepo’s Historia Gen y i which the first nineteen books, published in 1535, included a revised and enlarged edition of his [Relacio sumaria] t. His : in 1526—are to the edition published by the Royal Academy of History, of Madrid, 1851-55; JEAN pg istoire d'un Voyage faiet en la terre du Brasil (in 1557-8) is refer in his revised edition in Latin, a Nawigat liam (Geneve, 1586); Fr. Hernanpez, No’ niarum, ete. A Historia, in the edition of Rome, 1651; Rariorum Stirpiwm Historia by L’ECLUsE (Clusius), in the first edition, Antwerp, 1576; his Zzvotica, including his transla- ri of Monardes and Acosta, Antwerp, 1605, with his Cure Posteriores (posthum- ous), 1611. nh. ___ Ilva sans dire—yet should explicitly be said—that all the historical and philo- logical lore, which gives this article its value, is contributed by my associate. : A. G. ; , ae a i ee eee ee = a DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 243 the ancient monuments and tombs of Mexico and Peru. His- came indeed from New Zealand, but is not a Flax. Among errors from the careless transference of names from one plant to another, that of Potato, which belongs to the Batatas or Sweet Potato, is familiar. Of mistakes which have been made in the transference of a popular name from one language to another, DeCandolle mentions the Arbre de Judée of the French, which in English has become Judas-tree. We may add that of Bois Jidéle, of the French West Indians, which, taken up by their English successors as Fiddle-wood, has been perpetuated in the generic name arex he several lines of evidence,—botanical, archzeological, palzsontological, historical, and linguistic—may be used to sup- plement or ct each other. How they may be brought to such as roots, : Those cultivated for their herbage, whether for human food, for forage, for fibers, for stimulation, etc. ; but medical gins are left wholly out of view, as likewise plants and Saffron. For the Rose, Acacia Farnesiana, and all plants however largely cultivated for perfume or for essential oils are 244 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. left out of view. So also are the sweet-herbs of the kitchen garden, and all condiments, except Horse-radish. Plants cul- tivated for their fruits and seeds occupy the closing chapters. _ Among the latter the Cotton-plantis placed. The arrangement — matters little, and that adopted may be the most convenient. _ A good index makes ready reference to any topic In the order of the book we come first to Helianthus tuberosus, the Topinambour of the French, Jerusalem Artichoke of the Eng- lish ; in the United States the tubers simply called artichokes. Almost all we know of the origin and source of these esculent tubers has been recovered since the publication of DeCandolle’s earlier work, in 1855. Although the contemporary accounts specified its introduction from Canada, and Linneus so cites it in the Hortus Cliffortianus, the suheegtient reference to Brazil was followed without question down to DeCandolle’s Prodro- mus; and the present author, in the work above mentioned, doubted the Canadian as well as the Brazilian origin. It now appears that Schlechtendal (in Bot. Zeitung, 1858) was the first to recover a part of the documentary history. Our own et on the subject—to which there is nothing of importance —was contributed to this Journal for May, 1877. Singularly, it has remained unknown to DeCandolle, although it is referred to at the close of Decaisne’s independent a and eX- haustive article, in the Flore des Serres, 1881. It can now be said that the wild plant to which Helianthus tuberosus has been traced is not A. doronicoides Lam., although it was confounded with that species in Torrey and Gray’s Flora. Lamarck’s plant is a sessile-leaved species. Decaisne’s remark t sus is the only species of the genus which is at all tuberiferous may be qualified. A form of what appears '0 *In = reference was made to Le opebind: mention of roots ‘ Bg comme naveau ans un gett retirant — ring etc., and cited hi 4 la men France, in the edition ot 1612 (p. 40). a subsequent edition (1618), cited by M. DeCandolle, pons bot adds that o had brought these roots into France, where they began sold under the name of Topinambauz, and that their Indian name was Thiquedi. On this last point, Lescarbot was wrong. Chi j was an eastern Algonkin name for the tubers of Apios tuberosa, the common “ ground nuts,”—not for those of Helianthus tuberosus. It is easy to se¢ how Lescarbot was misled. Father Biard’s Relation de la Nowv. Faas was printed in 1616, and in it (chap. 22) voor is mention of certain “ racines, appel- lées en Sauvage Chiquebi,” whieh grow spontaneously under oaks: “elles sont comme des truffes, mais meilleu _ et aon. ssent sous terre en, "une a Vautre — en forme de chapelet,” etc. Lesca bot doubtless ca selight the name from Biard, and misapplied it. Father Paul Le Séak (Relation, 1634, chap. 7) mentions these ground-nuts, “une racine que nos Francois appellent des chapelets, eas ee elle istin ar e grains.” Le "in 2 e b=] bg & oF _@ © =| 3 ® fF £ S) J ‘ Tupinamba Indians of Brazil—a division of the Tupi-Guarani family—had been allies of the French in the 16th century, and their name was probably well known in France through the sbeaione of J. de Lery and other voyagers. Les- carbot (Hist. de la N. F,, 1612, p. 178) follows tint in writing the name Zouow- pinambaoult. 3. B. f 4 i De Candolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 245 Douglas under the of Indian p of the Assin- iboine tribe, by Bourgeau as “ H. subtuberosus,” in herb. Kew, and by Dr in Owen’s Minnesota Report, p. 614, parts of Canada West. The aborigines who cultivated it must have obtained it from the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi and their tributaries, where it abounds. ehanthus annuus L.,—the history of which was almost seeds, which they used for greasing their hair, also for eating and other purposes. Champlain noted this (in 1610?), and e qui's trent de la graine,” etc., piously adding: “ Mais com- Ment cst-ce que ce peuple sauvage a pt trouver l’invention de rer d'une huyle que nous ignorons, sinon a l’ayde de la divine Providence.” " The wild original of this Sunflower must have * Champlain’s earlier record of the cultivation and use of the Sunflower is ? uron towns near the southeastern point of Bs amplain Teached by the a (R. des Prairies) and Lake Nipissing. The lamented Deca has here introduced some confusion into the history, which we hasten to rectify. In his article in the Flore des Serres xxiii, p. 108, phlet), he says, “Je trouve dans Champlain lobservation suivante (Voyag. France, réimpress. 1830, tom. i, p. 110):” St. es fermés de palisa bois, jusqu’ a Cah 7 t and so on to the mention of the “grande quantité de bled I’Inde (Mais) qui y Vient trés beau, comme aussi des citrouilles, Herbe des soleil, dont ils font de Phuile, de la graine de laquelle ils se frottent Ia téte.” e of 44.50° being stated, would refer ('ahiagué and the Sun- cited by name and . The excelle otation act He must have taken it at second hand and neglected to it. 246 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. been obtained by the Canadian Indians from beyond the Mis- sissippi, and some degrees farther south. Judging from the breadth of the flower-heads soon after its introduction into Kurope, it must in aboriginal hands have assumed much 0 the abnormal development which distinguishes the cultivated Sunflower from its wild original of the western plains. Solanum tuberosum L.—The question of the Potato was and that it was carried to Hurope first by the Spaniards between 1580 and 1585, and afterwards by the Englisb. Batatas vulgaris Choisy, Oonvolvulus Batatas L., the Sweet Potato, is one of a few cultivated plants which have attained to a very wide distribution over the warmer parts of the world in early times; and it is one which no botanist pretends to have seen in a truly wild state. The evidence inclines to an American origin; but it had reached the Pacific islands in pre historic times, and was cultivated in China in the second or third century of our era. DeCandolle states that :— - “Clusius, one of the first to speak of the Batatas, says that he had eaten it in the south of Spain, where it was said to have come from the New World. He indicates the names of Batatas, Amotes, Ajes. DeCandolle cites from. the edition of 1601. He gives 4 p American origin, not as a doubtful matter or with a “l’on pre- tendait,” but as a well established fact: “Sponté nascitur 12 novo orbe, vicinisque insulis, unde primum in Hispaniam delata est.” “Now,” dds, i aE A ga Oe nal ye ee eee ee NE DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 247 country being too cold.” As to the name—he was as unde- cided as have been some botanists since his time: “the Spaniards call them Batatas, and also Camotes or Amotes; some also Ajes; yet, as they say, they differ among themselves, and the root of Batatas may be much the sweeter and the more tender,’ This confusion of names dates from the time of Columbus— for Clusius was not, by half a ahh the first to speak of the Batata. (It ma be worth notin , In parenthesis, that Batatas, the specific name adopted by Tiwiiabaes and as the name of a genus by Choisy, is the Spanish plural of Batata, the aboriginal name.) Hven Peter Martyr and Oviedo do not agree, in all particulars, as to the distinction between Ayes and Batatas—a distinction which both recognize. In the 9th book of his second Decade, written about 1514, Peter Martyr (ed. 1574, p. 191) describing the fruits, etc., of the province of Ur; aba, Darien, names, for the first time, Batate: ‘They dig from the earth, ” he e says, “roots that grow spontaneously ‘(swaple natura nascentes), the natives call them Batatas [accus. plaral], which when I saw I thought to be rapes of Lombardy osubres m terre and Tuber terre of the old botanists]. In whatever way euey 2 are cooked, roasted or boiled, they yield in delicate sweet- ness,* to no con fectionery or other eatable whatsoever.” hey are, he adds, ‘‘also planted and cultivated in gardens.” In his 8d Decade (lib. 4, p. 240) he mentions “ maize, yucca, ages and battate,” as plants that grew in Honduras when Columbus. landed on that coast in 1502; ; and in the same Deuude (lib. 5, p- 261), he names the same four plants as the ordinary food of the people of Caramaira (east of Darien) “as of the others,” and again takes occasion to name the battatas, as surpassing all else ‘mira quédam dulci mollitie—especiall y if one falls on the better sort (noWittores) of them viedo gives a good description of the Batata, which, when he wrote (1525-85), was commonly cultivated by the Indians in gt een and elsewhere, and highly prized (Hist. gen., lib. ,c. It resembles the Ayes, he says, in appearance, but tien better ata is far more delicate. The leaf is more notch (harpada) than that of the Age, in nearly the same fashion. me varieties are better than others, and he gives the names of the five kinds aie are most highly esteemed. [Peter Martyr (dee. iii, lib. 9, p. 302) included “the same five names amon ig the nine varieties of Ajes that he mentioned as distinct; but in this, as in other matters pertaining of natural page Oviedo is the better wubiowity!? “When the Bataias are well cured, * The sweet potato was an inspiration to Peter Martyr, who rarely indulged himself in such a flight as “‘ dulcorata mollities. * 248 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. they have often been carried to Spain, when the ships happened to make a quick passage, but more often they are lost on the voyage. Yet,” adds Oviedo, “J have carried them from this city it Saint Domingo in Hispaniola, to the city of Avila,” in Old The “Gentleman of Elvas” who wrote the ‘True Relation” of DeSoto’s expedition to Florida, in 1538, mentions Batatas, then growing in the Island of Terceira (belonging to Portugal). Ciega de Leon, who was in Peru in 1547, speaking of the fertility of the valleys near the Pacific coast, and the plants ea arsed by the Indians, pees among these, sweet potatoes (Chron. del Peru, c. 66 To he Quichuan language they were called. apichu in the dialect of Quito, cumar. Mr. Markham, in a note to his becriaae yt Gaklayt Soc., 1864, p. 284) men- tions, on the authority of I eemann, “the curious and inter- country, and are met with y oars in various Rtg 65). Mon ntoya (Tesoro, 1639) gives 5 Tupi- -Guarani name, Yeti, and mentions numerous varieties. onardes, in the third part of his Simpl. Medic. ex Novo Orbe, published in 1574 (translated by Clusius, ed. 159 93, p- 439) states that Battate ‘‘are now so common in Spain, that ten ad wes caravel loads are sent annually from gab Malaga to vi DeCandolle (who has elsewhere printed a short article upon the subject) calls attention to che fact, which ought to be familiar, that sweet potatoes are roots, not tubers, and that Turpin ‘long ago published good figures illustrating this; also that while these roots are free from acrid or noxious qualities, all the Convolvulaces with tubers, of which there are many, and not a few of large size, are inedible and acrid,—mostly as we know, violently purgative Manihot ulilissima, Manioc, Cassava-plant—DeCandolle as- signs good reasons for concluding (as did Robert Brown, with- out giving his reasons) that this important food-plant of the * Hans Stade, who was a captive in Eastern Brazil in 1549, briefly mentions _ these “ roots called Jettiki, of pleasant taste.” (Captivity, Hak. ‘Soe. ed., p. 166.) DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 249 tropics is American, not African. But he leaves unnoticed the convincing fact that Manioe and Manihot are Brazilian names, slightly corrupted, of a plant cultivated in St. Domingo and Cuba before the landing of Columbus, and which became known to Spanish and Portuguese discoverers before 1500, by its Haytian name, yuca, or hiucca. Peter Martyr (1493) describing the food of the islanders, and of the preparation of ‘‘Cazabbi” from the root: and he states that “there are many kinds of tucca” (p. 263). Oviedo Acosta (Hist. of the Indies, transl. by E. G.; Hakluyt Soe. ed., p. 232), 1588-90, gave a good account of the plant yuca, and the Gomara (Hist. gen., ec. 71), Acosta (Hist. nat. y moral de las Indias, 1588-90 ; lib. 4, c. 17), Monardes (De Simplicibus medic., transl. by L’Ecluse, 1598, p. 4387), and other writers of the 16th century gave good descriptions of the plant yuca, and of the cagavi or cazabi prepared from the root. By the blunder of Kuropean editors, in the last half of the 16th century, the Hay- tian name was transferred from the plant to which it belonged to one of another order, the Yucca of Linnzus and of modern botany. The mistake was pointed out by eb Jean de Lery (Hist. Navig. in Brasil., c. 9) describes the two Fe that were cultivated in Brazil in 1557—under their upi names, Aypi [M. aypi Pohl] and Maniot (A. utilissima]. Marcgray (Hist, plant. Bras., p. 65) mentions many varieties of both species, and gives Mandioca as the name of the root, Man- diiba or Maniiba for the plant. Of the products of the root, Cassava retains its Haytian name (cagavi) nearly; Tapioca isa - corruption of the Brazilian (Tupi) tproca or tprocus. A 250 DeCandolles Origin of Cultivated Plants. Dioscorea sativa, alata, etc. Yam.—DeCandolle informs us that these species, or their allies, are wholly unknown to bota- islands, the Spaniards at first gave the name of Name, Niame, lgname, Inhame, or other corruptions of a foreign (prob- i Vv sionally misapplied both to the Yuca and the Batata. ‘Ecluse, who had traveled in the south of Spain and in Portugal, in 1568, says that the Colocasia (CQ. antiquorum) “first brought from Africa, was common in many places In Portugal, near streams of water, that it was sougbt for by negro slaves in Portugal, who ate it both raw and cooked, i | fields “full of mames [‘these are ajes or batatas,’ notes Las unlike ours.” (Navarrete, Colec., i, 200.) These mames are - mentioned again, Nov. 6 (7d., 203)—in both places, probably by DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 251 of others with which they were at first ner The Admiral sent a eee: toa een 4 cacique. ‘The officer who Oordows The lands are planted with nptes which are little shoots (ramillos) that are slaaitad; and at the bottom of each grow roots like zanahorias, whi use for bread,” and (id., p- 242). Again, atives “brought bread made of niames, which they reall Aja” (id, 251); and, Dec. 26, they gave the Admiral a “collation, of two or He kinds of Ajes, and of rors bread that they call cazavi,” ete. 263). After this the name of niames gives place to ajes og ages). On the second voyage of Columbus, the natives, near Isabella (in St. Do- nine) brought great quantities of “ages fae are like rapes: (nabos) very excellent eating,” and “this the natives of Caribi (the Caribbean a0s, Be eall nabi, anit ‘the Indians [of iii, This pine of names, in the first decade of dns in America, was — and unavoidable. he ign name, niame, igname, was applied without much disirinmination to roots cultivat ed by Pe. natives it the islands and the mainland * Tt is to this passage that Humboldt refers, in Nouv. Esp., 2d ed., il, an (cited iy M, DeCuiolie p. 63), - evidence that tthe name /gname was heard o the continent of America, by Vespucci, in 1497; pt; ca will bs be begees. Tanpucth (or his copyist) does not say that this name was used b 252 DeCandolles Origin of Cultivated Plants. —primarily, to ajes, occasionally to ywca (Manihot), and pera to batutas. In the relations of the voyages of Columbus only two cultivated roots are named—Ages and Yuca. The first book of Peter Martyr’s first decade (dated 1498, but probably revised before its publication in 1511), names only these two; and in the third book of his second decade he mentions the use of the same two roots by the natives of Comagra, in Darien (p. 148); but in a subsequent chapter (dec. ii, c 9., p. 191), he adds—as has been mentioned in a preceding note—a third kind of roots, which the natives of the province of Darien call Batatas, that grow in their country spontaneously. From this date to the middle of the 16th century the distinction between these roots, though occasionally lost sight of, is generally observed. Oviedo (Hist. Gen., 1. vii, ec. 2, 8, 4; p. 268-78), describes the cagabi and two species of the plant (yuca) that yields it; ajes; and batatas. The ajes, he says, were cultivate in Hispaniola, and in all the other islands, and on the conti nent; they were of various colors—white, reddish, inclining to mulberry, and tawny, but all white within, for the most part; the stem of the plant extends itself like that of correhuela (n- volvulus or Bindweed), but stouter; the leaves cover the ground, and are shaped much like correhuela and nearly like ivy or panela, with some delicate veins (unas venas delgadas), and the little stems (astilejos), on which the leaves hang; are long and slender, etc. The leaf of the Batata, he says (p. 274), is more toothed or notched (harpada) than that of the Aje, but of nearly the same fashion; and the two plants are much alike, but the Bataias are sweeter and more delicate, ete. : some of the Ayes weigh four pounds each, or more. in some parts of Castilla del Oro (in Darien), there are Ayes that are poneh they resembled—the imported fiame or “yam: 10 Ovei i] are not the same, and generally are larger than ajes.” They had already multiplied greatly in the islands and on the mainland. | : : The distinction between Ajes and Batatas, though clearly apprebended, was sometimes lost sight of. Peter Martyr (dee. inl, lib. 9, p. 802), says that ‘‘the species of Ages are innumer- able—the varieties being distinguished by their leaves and d : ” flowers ;” an e gives the American names of nine of the DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 25 who wrote the narrative of S expedition, mentions a fruit, at Santiago, Cuba deira, ¢ ‘ Jean de Lery, who was in Brazil in 1557, though he gives a good description of the Batata, does not mention the Yam; but it is figured and described by Piso (Hist. Nat. Brazil, 1648, p. 93), as Inhame of St. Thomas, called Cara by the natives of Brazil, and Quiquoaquecongo by the Congo negroes. Ruiz de Montoya has the name Card in his Tupi dictionary, 1639, and mentions five varieties. As the Tupi name for the Virginia potato (Solanum tuberosum) Carati (i. e., white yam), is formed from that of the Inhame, it would seem that the latter was of earlier introduction. So, in the Mpongwe—a language of the Congo group—the potato is called mongotanga ‘ white- yam.’ ortuga ynhame, with nearly the taste of chestnuts” (Relagam Verda- h. 5).* man’s Portulaca oleracea, Purslain.—Botanists have taken it for granted that this weed of gardens and other cultivated grounds was transported to America from the Old World. But Nuttall * In one Indian language of the south, the Choctaw, the sweet potato is now called ahe ; while the Firginia potato (S. tuberosum), takes the adopted prefix of “Irish,” Ilish ahe, or is sometimes called ahe (wmbo ‘round ahe. . 254 DeCandoile’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. the Christians came to these parts, and are natives of this land, an e not brought fromm Spain,” names “ verdolagas or pertulaca” and “bledos or bletum” (Blitum). In his description of ‘perebenegue,” written in 1525, he says, that plant grew, in great abundance, in Saint Domingo and in many places on the continent, in the woods and fields; even “purslane (verdolagas) is not more abundant here” (:., lib. xi, ¢. 5, p. 878. Jean de Lery, in Brazil in 1557, was as much impressed by the novelty of the flora, as Columbus had been, in the West Indies. “I declare,” he wrote (Hist. Navig. Brasil., 168), “8 far as it was permitted me to discover in wanderings through the woods and fields, that there are no trees or plants, or any fruits, that are not unlike ours, these three excepted, portulaea, ocymum and filex” (in the original French edition, 1578, p. 217, ‘ pourpter, basilic, et fougiére.”). Capt. John Smith, in Virginia in 1606, found “ many herbes in the spring, commonly dispersed throughout the woods, good for broths and sallets, as Violets, Purs/ain, Sorrell, ete.; be- sides many we used whose names we know not” (Smith’s (en. History, 1632, p. 26; and repeated by Strachey, Zravaile mo Virginia, p. 120). Smith's purslain was probably Sedum ternatum. Sagard-Theodat, in the relation of his Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, in 1624 (p. 831), says that the Hurons make little use of herbs, ‘‘although the pourpier or pourcelaine is very com: mon there, and grows spontaneously in their fields of corn and pumpkins.” 3 W. Wood, who was in New England from 1629 to 1638, names “Purselane” among plants growing “in the woods, with- out either the art or the help of man” (N. Z. Prospect, pt. 1, ¢ 5). We doubt its growing literally in the woods, as unlike 118 England, growing among the Indian corn; ‘the savages making no more account of it than if it. were a noxious weed ( Voyages, ed. 1632, p. 80). ‘ Humulus Lupulus, Hops.—Although the matter has nothing to do with the introduction of hops into cultivation, it is notice able that DeCandolle assigns the home of the plant only 0 Europe and Western Asia. It is undoubtedly indigenous 10 orth America also, and is mentioned as such in the American works. In Gray’s Manual, besides the printing of the name 0 the type appropriate to indigenous species, the plant is eX pressly stated to be “clearly indigenous.” But, through some ac oe in the Prodromus (xvi, 29), it is stated, in connection with this very reference, that the plant was introduced. Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Urinoids. 5b Oca.—Considering that Maté and Coca find place in this vol- ume, although perhaps rather employed than cultivated (at least (Garcillaso, Comment., b. v, c. 1; b. viii, ¢ 10.) J. de Acosta, the Indies, lib. iv, c. 18 ur notes upon plants cultivated for their herbage, tubers, Toots, etc., have run to such a length, that the remainder, con- cerning some plants cultivated for their fruits and seeds, must be left for another article. Art. XXVIII.—Remarks on Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus, two Genera of Silurian Crinoids; by CHARLES WACHSMUTH and FRANK SPRINGER. In the second part of our Revision of the Palsocrinoidea, at Page 185, and following, we undertook to define the character and relations of Giyptocrinus and allied genera, in suc ma her as to render it possible to group the species thereunder with Some approach to their natural order, As is well known to every one who has attempted to identify the species, the Amer- can Silurian Crinoids are an extremely difficult group to understand. There are a few well marked species, of whic sine number of species have been described by Billings, a scar Conclusions would prove entirely satisfactory, even to ourselves. d Reteoerinus has S 256 Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinoids. der the firstname. He objects to our definition of the characters of the former, to our rectification of the latter, and to our refer- ence of species thereto. He also intimates that we have taken unwarrantable liberties with Billings’ genus, and been guilty of a lack of proper respect for the work of its founder. We have given to the remarks of Mr. Miller the considera- tion that is due to the observations of a gentleman of acknowl- edged learning, and whose researches in the literature of this branch of Natural Science have lightened the labors, and merited the thanks of every American Paleontologist; and have re viewed the species referred to the two genera in question with the aid of somewhat better material, as to some of them, than r torily than before; one of which was represented by the two species described by Billings as Reteocrinus, but with a miscon- a of their true characters. t may probably be said with justice, that in this case, as perhaps in some others, we have adhered in our diagnosis of generic characters rather closely to the particular form which we regard as typical, and have not in express terms indicate the limits to which variations of these characters may and do extend. That modifications of characters and departures from the typical form in various directions are to be expected with- in the limits of every genus, is a fact which we have always ES at ae ee Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinoids. 257 admitted and repeatedly asserted. We do not know of a single genus, illustrated by any considerable number of specimens, in which there are not some forms exhibiting a variation of one or more of the typical characters, and constituting transitional forms between that and some allied genus. The same may be said of some of the best defined species, and in- deed, this observation may be extended to almost every group, whatever be its rank, which naturalists have attempted to sep- arate and define. For example, one of the best characters of Actinocrinus is the simplicity of the arms, which almost univer- sally remain undivided after becoming free. Yet we i one of the latest species, A. Lowez, which otherwise retains and exaggerates all the characteristic features of the genus, that number. No method of systematic classification has as yet been devised to adequately provide for all such cases; and we do not believe it possible so to limit and define the characters of a genus, as to escape the difficulties arising from modifica- tions due to individual growth, and the variations of types in geological time. re A modification of the phraseology of our generic descriptions of Glyptocrinus and Reteocrinus, by which the existence of cer- tain of the less important characters, such as surface ornamen- tation, the number of arms, and the geometric form of plates should be stated in less absolute terms, and with greater al- lowance for exceptional cases, would apparently meet the objec- tions urged by Mr. Miller on this point; and we may find it advisable to make such alterations hereafter in this and perhaps other cases. It did not occur to us that our language was liable to misconception in this respect, in view of our frequent expressions as to the value of such characters, and our explicit Statement of the leading characters. e do not regard the —Turrp Serres, VoL. XXV, No. 148.—Aprin, 1883. 258 Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinovds. as we have defined them, or the reference of species thereto, in any substantial respect. . Mr. Miller expresses the opinion that our “separation of the species under this genus Heteocrinus and that of Glyptocrinus, o one familiar with the structure such a cross mixture their systematic relations, whose importance cannot be under- estimated. For this reason, upon questions relating to these enera, we attach much weight to the opinions of our Cincin- nati friends, who not only are themselves collectors as well as investigators, but have access to the other numerous fine col lections that have been made in that locality ; and we are grat- ified to be able to avail ourselves of the benefit of their observations, whether critical or otherwise. In a work of the nature of ours, so beset with difficult problems in classification, we do not expect to be exempt from error and shall be only glad if others are led to the investigation of these questions independently, because we are sure that by the operation of ifferent minds, considering the subject from other points of view, and with other material than ours, a nearer approach to correct results will be gained. diff “naturally fall into two hea: the extremes being represen b Veatlt ;” that ‘these two groups are Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinoids. 259 closely united by a series of intermediate forms, of which the Gl. Richardsoni is the last and most important link;” and also that “the Gi. Nealli....seems to be a as closely allied to Reteocrinus of Billings : as to Glyptocrinus.” Afterward, in the April, 1881, number of the same Journal, Prof Wetherby, with his new species Heteocrinus gracilis under gO eine makes the following statement, under the head of Reteocrinus: “ Under this generic name, Mr. Billings described two Goats from the Trenton rocks of Canada, in the publication cited above. Like most of the fossils of the locality whence they were obtained, these. were in a very poor state of preservation. our own Pons Meek, in re-describing ‘‘@/. Neal/i” in the Pale- ontology of Ohio, vol. i, p. 84, and having before him at the time many of the finest Cincinnati collections, alluded to the characters of this species as “showing a decided approximation toward Reteocrinus of Billings.” These extracts will be sufficient to show that so far as au thority, and the discoveries of the latest and most competent observers, could furnish a guide, we were fully warranted in referring al. O' Nealli and alhed species to Feteocrinus. 5h con- sons still more conclusive than those stated by the above men- tioned authors. We have considered Glyptocrinus a form of the utmost interest and importance, and have made it the foundation of our discussion of the family relations of the Ac- tinocrinids and Rhodocrinide. us now endeavor to ascertain what the Reteocrinus of peg really is; and we wish to state in this connection, that e yield to none in admiration for the work done by E. Bil- Rae in fossil crinoids. He was continually embarrassed by 260 Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinovds. reason to appreciate, not only from his published works, but from an extended correspondence with one of the writers during the preparation of his admirable articles on the struc- ture of Crinoidea, Cystidea and Blastoidea, in 1869. Billings established his genus Reteocrinus upon two species, R. stellaris and &. fimbriatus, which are described in Decade iv, of the Geol. Surv. of Canada, pp. 64 and 65, and illustrated on pl. ix, figs. 8,4. Of &. stellaris, which he took for the type of the genus, he had four specimens, three of which were frag- mentary, and all of them in such a poor state of preservation, that Billings himself says at the end of the description, that “‘none of the specimens collected are perfect, and the characters of the species, therefore, have not been fully ascertained.” The interradial spaces were very deeply depressed and filled with a hard matrix of limestone, which concealed from vieW the whole interradial portion of the calyx, with the exception of some small stellate points, which are now known to be the projecting summits of the plates. His principal specimen, fig. 4a, was so imperfect that Billings seemed to think that the ridge-like series of anal plates on the azygous side might possi bly be an arm, and that there might be six (primary) arms 10 the species, although the generic description calls for but five primary radials. He considered the plates following the first rimary radials to constitute arms, and found that the right (left posterior) of these ‘‘arms” divided on the fourth joint, but the others he could not see distinctly. The genus, 0 which this was the best specimen of the typical species, he con- sidered to have “no perfectly formed plates,” and its cup to consist of a “reticulated skeleton, composed of rudimentary lates, each consisting of a central nucleus, from which radiate from three to five stout processes,” (Dec. iv, p. 63), characters which do not exist, as subsequent investigation of the type specimen has fully demonstrated. : R. fimbriatus, the second species, was described from a single imen, Dec. iv, pl. 9, fig. 8a, and this, as Billings states, 18 “very imperfect.” There is enough, however, in his figure and description to show, that in the opinion of the founder of the genus, a species having a pentagonal column; the “ basals | (underbasals of our terminology) minute; the “ subradials (basals) one line in height; the arms several times divided (but only once in the body); a bifurcation on the third primary radial; and the spaces between the rays ‘‘ filled with very small ” might properly be referred to Reteocrinus. These char- acters apply mar well, and with scarcely any variation, to the so-called Glyptocrinus O’Nealli Hall, G. cognatus Miller, Gi. Boeri Meek, and. Reteccrinus gracilis Wetherby, and with the exception of the column, to Gl. Richardsoni Wetherby, Gl. S &. Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinoids. 261 Pattersoni Miller, and Gil. subglobosus Meek, all from the Hudson River Group at or near Cincinnati; and this may be taken asa sufficient answer to Mr. Miller’s statement, on page 13 of the author’s edition of his paper before cited, of the essential char- acters of Reteocrinus. In 1869, in a letter to one of the writers, Billings himself stated that Glyptocrinus O’Nealli was certainly not a Glypto- crinus, and indicated its probable relationship to Reteoerinus. Unfortunately we are unable to find his letter, or we should quote his exact language. has our warmest thanks. We quote the following extract from his letter of July 10th, 1882: ‘“Your communication contains an uncleaned but very per- fect specimen of Glyptocrinus O’ Nealli Hall, (Reteocrinus O’ Nealli of Wetherby, Wachsm. and Spr., and others) with a request that I compare it with the type specimen of Reteocrinus in the Canadian Survey Museum, and inform you as to the acts. Prof. Whiteaves, Palsontologist G. S. C., with his characteristic kindness, granted me full permission to examine the type speci- mens of #. stellaris, and I have given special attention to those figured in Decade iv, G. S. ©., as ‘ figs. 4a, 4d.’ Both these Specimens are obscured by a hard adherent matrix, which in so valuable specimens would require a skilled lapidary to remove ; however, with a soft brush and a little moisture, I readily re- on the specimen 4a), and are heptagonal, resembling a hexagon slightly truncate, they have ridges corresponding with, and 262 Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinoids. ridges on the succeeding series of piates. The plate of the azygous side has three ridges passing upward; one from the center to become continuous with a ridge following the median part of the azygous interradius; the remaining two, which are directed obliquely, meet with similar ridges on the adjoining plates of the third order. The depressions between the ridges of the plates of the second order extend slightly to the plates of the first and third order; they are deep, especially the Jarger one at the azygous side, which has a depth of # of a line. The platesof the third order, which alternate with those of the second, are radial in position, and support in an upward direction a row 0 other plates with strong, rounded, arm-like ridges, which in the specimen resemble closely arm plates, as which they were described by E. Billings. They are, however, evidently radials with elevated ridges, similar to the primary radials of /. O' Nealli Hall, which, like these, were connected laterally by interradial plates, and formed a part of the calyx. This is indi- cated by the numerous stellate pieces interspersed between the ridges, which in all probability represent interradial plates, of which only the elevated central portions are exposed to view, while their depressed margins are obscured by matrix. These stellate pieces are continued as high as the third plate of the secondary radials, and I have observed one within the axis of the first bifurcation to the left of the azygous series, thus indi cating that the body in this species is not confined to the three lower angles of the plates, as suggested by E. Billings, but that it extended to the secondary radials. “So far as the imperfection of the material will admit of com- parison, there is a strong resemblance between Releocrinus stel- laris and Glyptocrinus O’ Nealli Hall, which extends not only to the arrangement and form of first, second and third ranges of plates, but to the entire radial and interradial series, in vieW of which, and in the absence of any points of more than specific distinction, I am led to think the two forms cougeneric. ‘In addition to the two specimens on which these remarks have been founded, and to those figured in Pl. 9, Dec. IV; G. 8. C., there is in the G. S. C. collection a flattened specimen, showing the side opposite to that shown in fig. 4a (loc. cit.), but wanting the first three ranges of plates, leaving the identity of the species not quite positive. This specimen (fig. 8, infra), has the interradial series more clearly and fully shown, and 1s filled with stellate pieces as high as the third secondary radials, below which they are interspersed with smaller and flatish plates, which grow smaller above, and disappear either lost 1m the matrix or through preservation. At one point at least, these smal] plates are seen to be continued with the arm pieces; they may represent the vault, and if so, this is another potant of resemblance to Gi. O' Nealli Hall.” Wachsmuth and cl gill auras Crinoids. 268 ike margins, which were before obscured by the matrix. He also figures the flattened specimen referred to in his letter, but not —— in the Canada Reports. * Reteocrinus Billings. Fig. 1. Billings’s type specimen (Geol. Rep. Can., Dec. AN Pl. 9, fig. 4a). Fig. 2. Section A-B, to show depression of margins of plates. Fig. 3. Specimen in G. S. €. collection not pede before. All from drawings by Walter R. Billings. We think that with these figures, and the notes above quoted, the pitas of we generic identity of GU. A ees ad allied forms with Reteocrinus, may be considered a By following the strict Teese of the rules of plant ine: we might have been justified in setting aside Billings’ genus entirely, and re-describing the type under a new name, for the reason that the leading characters ascribed to it as generic, do not in fact exist in his own species or elsewhere. This has such forms as are paealy Sais with pr species first described, than to deprive him, by a technical adhesion a strict rule, of all credit for his work, and burden science 264 Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinoids. clearness in scientific determinations. We do not believe they require absurdities, but if any of them does, the sooner it 1s abrogated the better. Mr. Miller thinks that in making GJ. O’Nealli the type of Reteocrinus, we have been guilty of an “open violation of the rules of nomenclature.” We think our practice in this respect fully justified by the consideration above stated. At all events we shall adhere to it, and we find that other good authorities do the same thing. w words now as to the relations of these two genera. exhibiting an approach to some of the earlier forms of th Actinocrinide. Its close affinities with Reteocrinus, with which we stated (p. 183), it to be “connected by most remarkable transition forms,” led us to refer Glyptocrinus to the Rhodoerin- ide, although there were almost as good reasons for referring it to the Actinocrinide. It might perhaps have been well to place it in a section by itself, on account of the exceptional disposition of its interradials. It is an important fact that in all Actinocrinide, without 4 single exception, the regular interradial series rest upon the edges of the first radial plates, and are not extended down to the ocr barely touch them. Glyptocrinus is the only genus of the Rhodocrinidz in which neither the anal nor interradial plates are in line with the first radials, or in contact with the ; oS ON sn ia Bs Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Orinoids. 265 nearly equally distributed among all five rays; and twenty Sitional species above mentioned, which seem to be nearest to numerous small plates of irregular arrangement, and extend- ing between the first radials down to the basals; by its under- : 266 Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Crinords. basals, often well developed; its strongly marked _ bilateral symmetry ; and by its ten primary arms as arule. It is typi- fied by Reteocrinus O'Nealli, R. cognatus, R. gracilis, R. stellaris, R. fimbriatus ; while R. Richardsoni, R. Beri, R. subglobosus and R. Pattersoni—the latter described by Miller as a Glypto- crinus, Cincinn. Journ., July, 1882—are good examples of it in every respect, except that the underbasals have not as yet been noticed, and perhaps do not exist; although we think it very probable that they may be found to possess these plates in a more or less rudimentary form as in Glyptocrinus. We do not consider it necessary or advisable to separate these species from the typical form upon this character alone, since the whole assemblage of species above named forms a group, which i united by other well defined characters. The slight modifica- tion of our statement of generic characters renders it easy and figures, extended down to the bas If it has in fact four basals, it would be a good Mariacrinus, were it not for the posi- t first anal plate, which is not in contact with the basals in any of the Melocrinites ; or it would have the calycal Glyptasterites, without however ahy development of under- asals. The other species for which Miller has established a 2 enus, and in case the Gl. Harrist should prove to possess 4. quadripartite base, and the discovery of other specimens shows this character to be constant, we should be disposed to adopt the same course with that form. Wachsmuth and Springer—Silurian Orinoids. 267 Mr. Miller considers it probable that Gi. Harrisi has five basals, because “in ther respects it agrees with Glypto- crinus”—not recognizing the difference in the disposition of the anal plates—but states that “if it possesses but four, it would not belong to Xenocrinus, but would still be very closely allied to Glyptocrinus.” We confess we are somewhat at a loss to understand just what Miller’s views are, as to the limits of this Sere eee Species to Feteocrinus, and at one place considers the O’ Nealdi and his own Gl. cognatus, and therefore necessarily GZ ri, to be true Glyptoc . At another, in describing his Gl. Patersoni (Journ. Cin. Soc., July, 1882), he states that the O'Nealli and Gi. Beri, but also Gl. cognatus which he had himself described a year previously, have but ten arms; but we infer that he then considered these species to be generically distinct from Glyptocriuus. If this be not so, how can it be said that Xenocrinus priscillus, which is in every respect a Gi. with four basals and a oe column, would be generi- eveloped, They are among the earliest forms we know, and they stand in a similar relation to these families that Heterocrinus and its allies hold to’ the Cyathocrinidx. In both there is the same rudi- mentary and varying development of characters, which when xed and constant, become of family importance. In both are found the types of the fundamental structure of the respec- tive families in very simple forms, whose differentiations in various directions led to the several subdivisions and genera, into which these families have been divided. ithin each there is found a commingling of characters which is a source of endless perplexity to those who are seeking to discover some clew to a natural classification. We are disposed to think that a further subdivision of the families, whereby these embryonic types should be placed in separate subfamily groups, would tend to eliminate some of the Vificulties we have encountered, 268 W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galvanic Polarization. through which the latter are united to form the great family Spheeroidocrinidee. ArT. XXIX.—On the Smee Battery and Galvanic Polarization ; by Wm. HaLuock.* 1. INTRODUCTION. THE electromotive force of the Smee battery, when deter- mined with the greatest care by different methods, gives values which differ greatly from each other and are larger or smaller than the theoretically calculated value, E = 0°75 D.,+ according as the resistance in the circuit used is larger or smaller than about 300 or 400 S. E.t It was with a view to obtaining an which might help to decide between various conflicting eX: panebone already offered, especially those of Exner} and to collect as large a number of values as possible, to see what extent the experimentally determined values correspond with the theoretically calculated ones. 2. APPARATUS. Not having at my disposal an electrometer which answered all the requirements of delicacy, damping, ete., it was deter- ; The small ring magnet had a short time of vibration (1-1 second) and was so strongly damped that it came to rest * Being an abbreviated translation by the author, the original having appeared in Wiedemann’s Annalen, vol. xvi, p. 56, 1882. + As this work originally appeared in Germany the Daniell (D.) and Siemens Unit (S. E.) were used. F. Exner, Wien. Ber., lxxx, 1879, und Wied. Ann., x, p. 265, 1880. § C. Fromme, Sep.-Abdr. a. d. 20, Ber. d. Oberh. Ges. f. Natur- u. Heilkunde. — Wied. Ann., xii, p. 399, 1881. : ; ; W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galvanic Polarization. 269 in from 4 to 6 sec., even after a large deflection. It was so delicate that a single Daniell cell gave a deflection of 170 scale-divisions with the scale 2™ from the mirror and 830,000 . HK. in the circuit. Inasmuch as resistance coils of the necessary length of wire were constructed and calculated to see that they can lay no claim whatever to accuracy. The resistance used in this research was that offered by a column of a solution of Zn in hol, 1™™ in diameter in section and 200™™ long; this capillary tube was horizon- t i i n a diameter and 100™ high, in which stood the amalgamated zinc terminals. A better form however is to simply invert a case of the same salts dissolved in water. are was taken to prove that the polarization of the terminals could be ictijeet {5 Bunsen cells through 40 S. When afterward this resist- ance was compared with a wire coil of 200,000 S. KE. there could no difference detected in the results obtained. It moreover remained during the three months of its use constant to within the limits of an error caused by an error of 071° C, in the determination of its temperature. Of course the great ob- jection to liquid resistances is their large heat coefficient (from ‘dD to 3°5 per cent for 1:0° C.). However there seems no reason why such resistances should not be used, where they can stand still in a case or water-bath and where about 0°2 to 05 per cent is sufficiently accurate. In all cases it is better to determine the resistance experimentally than to calculate it; the above * W. Hittorf, Wied. Ann., vii, p. 563, 1879. + F. Exner, Wien. Ber., Ixxxiv, p. 528-529, 1881. t F. Kohlrausch, Pogg. Ann. Frgbd., viii, p. 1, 1877. 270 W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galvanic Polarization. resistance column was determined from time to time in the Wheatestone’s bridge in the ratio 1,000 to 10,000. The resist- ance can of course be easily varied by varying the dimensions of the capillary tube or the amount of water and salt dissolved in the alcohol. Objection might be made to the use of the galvanometer for such galvanometer, but a simple calculation will show that it would require a polarization equal to one and a half Daniell’s to con sume 0'1™" of hydrogen per minute working in a circuit whose resistance was 150,000 S. KE. That this quantity of gas may be neglected at first when the electrodes are still heavily coated is evident. This theoretical refutation of the ahove ob- jection was strengthened by the following experiment. Two platinum plates were twice equally strongly polarized, and the first time connected through 150,000 8, EB. and left and the curve of the diminution of the polarization plotted; the secon time the similar circuit was only closed once a minute and only for from 6 to 8 sec. and then opened again, and the curve plotted in this case. The two curves showed that the con sumption of gas by the current when left closed did not make itself apparent until after 17 min., i. e. it may be neglected for the first five minutes at least. The electromoter possesses the advantage, that with the pro per use of a switch or commutator it can be charged to a potel sarily has a long time of vibration and is weakly damped: # very convenient form of the switch is that made by Hartman in Wiirzburg, being a slight improvement upon the Weber. 8. ON THE RIsE oF THE ELECTROMOTIVE FoRCE OF THE SMBP BATT _Exner* endeavors to explain those values of the electrom tive force of the Smee which fall above that calculated, from the thermal equivalents of its chemical reactions, E=0°75 D, the ground that the acid contains oxygen in solution which oxidizes the hydrogen evolved, and thus increases the thermal equivalent of the battery. a is question could be easily answered if it were possible t get and keep a cell entirely free from dissolved gases. Exner used the method of short circuiting the cell for a en time, bub * F, Exner, Wien. Ber., xxx, 1879 und Wied. Ann., x, p. 265, 1880: f W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galwanic Polarization. 271 it is evident that this method simply substitutes evolved hydro- gen for any other gases which may happen to be dissolved in the acid, and it is just the hydrogen which it is necessary to Temove, since to its presence is generally ascribed the diminution of the electromotive force below that obtained BD) electrometer or by the compensation method (about In this research the following method was used to obtain a cell free from dissolve gases. the cell used. Its force, when freshly filled with 5 per cent H.SO,, through a circuit of 150,000 S. E. was found E=1-07 D. It was then closed in a circuit of only 0-2 S. HE. external resist- ance containing a tangent compass, and its force at the expira- hon of the first minute determined to E=0-71 D. after 20 min. ‘o H=0-06 D. and after 70 min. to E=0-03 D. These small Values, although they agree well with those obtained by Fromme,* can only be considered as approximations owing to the difficulty of accurately determining the internal resistance of inconstant cells. The cell was then left short-circuited for ours inorder to let the evolved hydrogen drive out the other gases as completely as possible; at the expiration of this time its force through a circuit of 150,000 S. E. was found quite onstant E=0-69 D. In order now to drive out the hydrogen, the flask was placed over a burner and kept at a sharp boil for 0 min., the steam and gas passing off through a long nar- ‘ow tube in the cork. A layer of petroleum about 1 deep Was poured over the acid while boiling, to assist in keeping gases from redissolving in the acid. The flask was then sealed shut with hard wax and cooled. Its force 5 sec. after being d in a circuit of 150,000 8. E. a ren E=0°86 D. When its force in a circuit o ‘during the first minutes, it rose gradually, ho became constant after six minutes at EH=0-70 D. boiled and covered with petroleum and sealed as b force through 150,000 S. E. was found E=1-01 D. ovever, in 4 min. to E=0'88 D. in 25 min. to E=0°83 D., nd in 24 hours to H=0-78 D. "Thus it would seem that the value E=0-70 D. represen that force which is active when the liquid immediately aroun * 0. Fromme, Ll. ec. 252 W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galwanic Polarization. the platinum plate is saturated with hydrogen, and the evolu- tion is just equal to the diffusion of the gas into the liquid. This experiment would seem to show conclusively that the values above E=0‘70 D. are not caused by any oxygen which may be dissolved in the acid. A similar conclusion was reached in a series of experiments where the other gases were removed by leading CO, over the the acid of its dissolved oxygen.* ll the above results are opposed to Exner’s theory, that these larger values are due to the oxidation of the evolved hydrogen, and rather support the older theory that they are due to the small force of the hydrogen polarization which acts against the true force of the cell. 4. EXPERIMENTS ON THE FALL OF THE HELECTROMOTIVE Force OF THE SMEE BATTERY. When the electromotive force of the Smee is measured in @ circuit where the resistance is small in proportion to the siz of the cell, i. e. when the density of the current on the platinum plate is large, values are obtained which fall decidedly below that of H=0°75 D. Exner says, this is due to the formation of ZnSO, in the cell which has a larger specific resistance than H,SO,, and that zinc is precipitated upon the platinum, thus increasing the inter a resistance and diminishing the thermal equivalent of the cell. To test this question a cell was constructed such that the zine and platinum were in separate vessels connected by an 1D verted U-tube filled with 5 per cent H,SO,, the ends being tied up with parchment paper. The vessel containing the platinum was furnished with a lid so that CO, could be conducted throug the vessel or it could be shut up air-tight. Owing to the large internal resistance of such a cell, it was not possible to get 4 very great density of current on the platinum, still its electra motive force fell as low as E=0°81 D. on being short-circuited, and rose again in a long circuit, even when the vessel contalD- ing the platinum was filled with CO,, as bigh as E=0'92 D e and finally to E=1°07 D. An analysis proved that th liquid * Compare also here C, Fromme, 1. ¢. + F. Exner, Wien. Ber., lxxx, 1879 und Wied. Ann., x, p. 265, 1880. zi | t : W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galvanic Polarization. 273 around the platinum did not contain a trace of ZnSO, It may be here remarked that had all the H,SO, around the zinc be- come ZnSO,, the consequent increase in the resistance of the cell, either in this case or that of the flask cell of § 3, it would ave made a scarcely perceptible difference in the intensity of the current measured. _ These results seem to throw us back upon the old explana- fon, which ascribes the variations in the electromotive force o the Smee battery, to the variations in the counteracting force of the hydrogen polarization of the platinum plate. 5. DETERMINATION OF THE ELECTROMOTIVE FoRCE OF POLARIZATION. essary Tent is still closed.” I must admit, from my experience, that Plish, unless perhaps with an electrometer and switch as before mentioned. : An example will show how rapidly the polarization vanishes. The following is the falling off of the polarization of SO, between electrodes of gas-retort carbon. Time j 60 120 180 480 Fores in Desiell, ion ith Lee bes as! fas 139, 198 a0 00 The value for “0” sec, is that calculated by closed primary Current.§ nasmuch g. determinations the method by closed primary current seem decidedly preferable and was employed. ‘ver, arise when this method is applied. x a eS F . 388, 1878. { W. bee Wiel oak Se om aout es 429, May, 1880. C. Fromme, Sep. Abdr. a. d. 20, Ber. der Oberh. Gesellsch. f. Natur. u. Heilk., % Wied. Ann., xii, p, 399, 1881. . : § The vanishing of polarization has also been studied by serge A tient Go. Bei others, whose results agree with mine; compare here 759, 1880.) Ogg- nn, xxix, p. 106, 1850) and A. Witkowski (Wied. Ann., xi, p. 759, 1880. Am. Jour. Sct.—Tutrp Serres, VoL. XXV, No. 148.—ApPRIL, 1883. 19 Tn the first place a 274 W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galwanie Polarization. branch of the primary current goes to strengthen the current from the polarized voltameter through the galvanometer; in the second place a branch of the secondary current (from the w, let W_be the resistance in the circuit of the galvanometer (150,000 S. E. or 830,000 S. E.); let further 7 be the intensity of current in the galvanometer, 7’ that in y and 7?” that in w an I, that when E is closed through (7+ W) alone, i. e. I= ees }e If now we call the force of polarization P, we have according to Ohm’s laws i=7t'—i"; E=i’'y+iw; P=—?"w+iw, whence we obtain by substitution and transformation, pasty, w.i—-BE+iW or P=(t-1) eo + W If in this last equation we neglect y=100 at the most, as added to W=330,000, we have a Be | P=W, i—“(i-I (1) [ x ) From (1) we see that only when en Gan We put Pp=W., which is very seldom the case, for 7 rarely exceeds 5 or 6 S. E. and w varies between 0°38 and 5:0 S. E. ‘I increased the resist ance 7 to 100 S. E. in order to make * smaller and more accu rately determinable. All the values of polarization given below were calculated with formula (1). Inasmuch as these experiments on polarization were under- — taken with a view to testing whether we can a priori calculate the electromotive force of polarization from the thermal equiv lent of the chemical reactions which take place thereby, some side experiments, more or less directly allied to this questo” were made. For example, Exner* wishes to approximate the thermal equivalent of the compound PtCl, out of the difference in the polarization of HCl between platinum and betwee graphite electrodes, 1:26 D, and 1-60 D.; upon ue supposition that all the evolved chlorine in the one case dissolved off platt- num to PtCl, To prove the incorrectness of this suppositio® * F. Exner, Wien. Ber,, xxviii, 1878, und Wied. Ann., vi, p. 353, 1879. W. Hallock—Smee Battery and Galwanie Polarization. 215 &xist between the polarization of the same solution between platinum and between carbon electrodes, if we consider the force was H=0-68 D. at first, but gradually fell off There is nO apparent thermo-chemical equivalent for this current and the only visible cause for it is the transfer of the hydrogen m the more to the less saturated plate. Beetz* has also 6. Vantuns OF THE ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF POLARIZATION. The results here obtained are arranged in the tables on the following pages “88 unit, 4 is calculated from the formula 4= Ray ae =o 9? where the letters have the same meaning as in formula (1) and S is the surface of the electrode, 800°™". The values of “ P,” the Closed, calculated by formula (1); these values are given under 3 Buns. closed” and “2 Buns. closed,” the primary current Uae furnished by two or three Bunsen cells respectively. nder “open” are given the values determined after opening the Primary current, the length of time elapsing until the read- - Beetz, Wied. Be 29, May, 1880. t Compare here H. Helmholtz, Ber. Berl., p. 288, 1880; F, A. -igpuagnoei oe Mag. V, i, p. 142, 1876; and Helmholtz and’ Root’s, Pogg. Ann., clix, p. 416, ties “ unfortunately followed previous examples and kept the paecoheanay itd ed circuit con: it is evi : results comparable with each other is to keep the density of current on the elec- trodes constant, zation. 276 W. 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From the relations of the gneiss at the Jasper marble quarry it would seem proper to refer the gneisses and semi-meta morphosed shales between Mountain Town and Elijay to the Kno e same assignment would be necessary for the for- mations between Heath’s and the Blue Ridge monoclinal. The trip from Jasper to Spring Place was somewhat of a re~ versal of the section north of it through Elijay. The only difference being that Jasper is at the southwestern extremity o the Blue Ridge, or at least of that massive monoclinal whic : ° J. B. Elliott—Age of the Southern Appalachians. 295 gives the lofty mountains. Jasper is twenty-two hundred feet above the sea, but the mountains fade out northeast of it, Southwest of Jasper the “divide” is continued towards the phyritic gneiss was found similar to that found in Section III on the W. & Atlantic railroad. The bed on the tlan- He railroad was found just between the metamorphie beds on the west, Supposed to be Ocoee, and the gneissoid beds and decomposing hornblende slates on the east, near Aeworth, sup- Posed to be Knox. The relative position at Talking Rock was the same, namely, the shales and light colored gneisses lying €ast toward Jasper, being Knox, while toward the west was €ncountered undoubted Ocoee. Over this country to the west the road crossed and wound in among the heavy ridges of the Coosawattee hills composed of Ocoee gneiss and shale. The a slate was encountered only upon the western slopes of is F tom the Coosawattee River (which was crossed just at the Junction of the Ocoee with the Knox), to Spring Place the Smallest 296 J. B. Elliott—Ayge of the Southern Appalachians. CoNCLUSIONS. © The characteristics from which conclusions can be drawp concerning the age of the formations crossed in the several sections, are: Relative position, lithological peculiarities and topography. In these conclusions the fourth section will be considered first. The formation that permits no question as to its ge0- logical place is the marble bed at Jasper. No one who ex- amines the Jasper marble and the marble at Murphy can hesitate as to the identity of the two. Professor Bradley, who examined the marble at Elijay, regarded that also as the same. aking this as a fixed horizon from which age can be reckoned we find at Jasper a gneiss underlying the marble and so situ- ated as to leave but little doubt that it is the equivalent of the Knox sandstone. is gneiss has certain characteristics that softer, and even ‘“‘sandy,” while the Ocoee is quartzitic an dense; in being thin bedded, while the Ocoee is generally thick bedded and massive; in bei semi-metamorphic shales (also light colored where metamorph- ism 1s partial) which constitute by far the greater mass of the formation into which the two classes of rocks enter. These peculiarities when once recognized enable the observer to identify these formations wherever seen. The light colored gneiss was found in the N.W. dips of Wolf Mountain east of the Ducktown synclinal. They were found found between Jasper and Talking Rock in strata that were, from other considerations, deemed to be Knox. This same - dove-colored gneiss was found near Hendersonville where ib was judged to be above the supposed Ocoee of Caesar's Head and Table Rock. In all of these positions the gneiss forma- tions are associated with semi-metamorphic shales, or where metamorphism is more complete, with hydromica schists. a J. B. Eiliott—Age of the Southern Appalachians. 29% It should be stated that these lighter colored gneisses were at first regarded as varied forms of the Ocoee, but a final re- view of the sections, in the light of the J asper beds, warrants, it 18 believed, the conclusions that follow. These conclusions briefly stated, are: Ist. That the plateau land of northeast Georgia is based upon a great synclinal in the Ocoee. d. That the Great Smoky Mountains may be regarded as the western monoclinal edge of this synclinal and the Blue Ridge as the eastern. dd. That the great mass of the strata lying between these mountain chains in Georgia are above and younger than the coee, and are composed chiefly of the metamorphosed equiva- lents of the Knox Group. 4th. That the formations east of the Blue Ridge are the metamorphosed equivalents of the Knox Group. That the porphyritic gneiss of the W. & Atlantic rail- road section is identical with the porphyritic gneiss found near Talking Rock and is a form of the Ocoee. eae The second conclusion given above needs some qualification. Th the Ocoee Gorge in Tennessee there are several faults in the Ocoee which would cause a repetition of monoclinal edges be- fore the formation disappears as a final synclinal. This same characteristic marks the section of the Ocoee between Gregory’s and Mountain Town, and between Talking Rock and the Coosa- Wattee River. If the ridge east of Elijay is true Ocoee this general idea would require further modification as shown in the accompanying figure. Mountain 8 Blue Ridge. Armacolola a . 3 & s mie § =] x & The fourth conclusion is based upon the facts: Ist. That Professor Bradiey regarded the limestone near Gainsville and Clarkesville, Ga., as of the same age as the Professor Tuomey as ded as identical * 298 J. B. Elliott—Age of the Southern Appalachians. states contains actinolite (corresponding with the tremolite- bearing marble of Murphy, Knox dolomite), and the latter as being filled with interlacing calcite veins (corresponding with of the Smoky Mountains as are the representatives of the Knox Group between Jasper and Talking Rock. Moreover, the Air Line railroad from Atlanta to Spartanburg, S. ©. runs parallel with the strike of the strata east of the Blue Ridge and the same beds noticed near Acworth, i. e., sandy light colored gneiss, with mica schists and hornblende slates, show in every cut of the road. In these latter beds also occur manner of geological reconnaissances rather than of detailed surveys, en, however, it is remembered that in the four sections given the different formations:have been crossed an recrossed six times; that these formations are marked by peculiarities of structure that are strikingly characteristic, and that they present a topography singularly uniform over 1m mense areas, the conclusions will perhaps be deemed less 1neX- cusable. The writer takes pleasure in acknowledging his indebtedness to Professor Safford, whose report upon the Geology of ten nessee has been his guide in the study of these Lower Silurian formations ; to Professor Bradley, whose section through these metamorphic areas he has carefully studied ; and to Mr. Arthur M. Huger, of Charleston, S. C., to whom he is indebted for valuable information and suggestions, and for many collections of typical specimens from the formations traversed. : 3 W. H. Brewer—Evolution of the Trotting-Horse. 299 ArT. XXXL—The Evolution of the American Trotting-Horse ; by Wm. H. BREWER. called a definite breed in which the special and distinctive Incidental to the preparation of a paper pertaining to this e compiled and collated 1 as economic value, rn more interesting portion of he horse has several gaits assumed it, and until] within a century th cultivated nor wanted by any class of horsemen. fast trotters, had it been miraculously created, would doubtless Soon bave perished in that it would have had no use, satisfied no faney and found no place in either the social og industrial World as it then was. 300 W. H. Brewer—Evolution of the Trotting-Horse. Before the present century the chief and almost sole uses of the horse were as an implement of war, an instrument of sport and ceremony, an index of rank and wealth and an article of luxury best adapted to all these, however much he may have varied as to size, strength and fleetness, was one whose fast gait was the gallop or run rather than the trot. For leisurely horseback traveling the ambling gait (or pacing gait as it came to be called in this country), was preferred. With increasing use of horses for draft, certain heavy but slow breeds were developed in the Old World, of which the Dutch, Clydesdale and Norman breeds are examples. : The causes which led to the cultivation of the trotting galt in this country, and the evolution of a breed with which it should be instinctively the fast gait were various, and the sepa- rate value of each asa factor in the problem would be very differently estimated by different persons studying the subject from different points of view. Now that he is so valuable and plays such a part as a horse of use, it is easy to see why a bree of trotting roadsters should be produced to meet certain important demands of our modern civilization. But this does not explain how the process actually begun. Reasoning a priori, the trotter, as a horse of use, should have originated in western Europe; as a matter of fact, he not only did not begin there, but he was unpopular there until well developed here. Locomotives began to draw armies to the From early colonial times horses have been more generally owned by the masses of the people here than in any country of western Europe. They have had a more general use in agrh W. H. Brewer—LEvolution of the Trotting-Horse. 301 culture and in business, their ownership or possession has had less social significance, and they have had less importance as instruments of gambling. The colonists who settled north of Delaware Bay, although of various nationalities, were largely ' ocial educatio . . ose whose religious prejudices an unthrifty ways, even if not open to the objection of positive i d a unanimous on this point, but many add that what was lost n size and beauty was gained in hardiness and other useful qualities ak century this became ascendant, and string f the northern States. Sepia ip some way, (which meant running), trotting came in first. I very many thrifty people who were not sports 4 Measure considered a sort of democratic sport 1n Plow-horses could take part. Racing of any kind in those 302.) «W. XH. Brewer—Kvolution of the Trotting-Horse. days was a strife between two or more things, as it still is in most countries; no one thought that a single horse could run a race alone, but the instinctive inclination to see a spirited ame to be practised. We hear of it on the Harlem race- course in 1806, four years after the laws forbidding horse-racing had been enacted, and again, a little later, near Boston, and it was réputed that certain horses could trot a mile in three min- utes. This speed seemed so extraordinary that in 1818 a bet of a thousand dollars was staked (and lost) that no horse could be found that could trot a mile in three minutes. Some authorities date the beginning of trotting as a sport with this event. It is said that in betting the odds against the successful performance of the feat were great, which shows, strikingly, the horse-racing. Other organizations followed, and by 1830 the “training” of trotters was going on at several points, and trot- ting may be said to have become established as a sport. During this decade the record had been successively lowered to 2.40, 2.34 and 2.32. The times of performance were carefully taken at these “trials of speed,” as the statute called them, and ‘‘records” became established by more formal sporting codes. The ostensible object of these associations was the “ improve- of the breed of roadsters;” driving single horses 1 _ * For more details regarding the history of this development and the factors involved, see the paper already cited, Rep. Conn. Bd. Agr. for 1882, p. 215. W. H. Brewer—Evolution of the Trotting-Horse. 303 The material out of which this new breed is made is a lib- eral infusion of English Thoroughbred blood (usually more to mere adventitious variation and selection, I wil scus: The gain in speed is given in the following table, which is the best records at mile heats, omitting the names of the special performers : Be Best Date. Record Date Record. 1818, . | 1865, 18 1824, sae 1 yates, 2.18 ae 2.34 1867, 2.174 1830, 2.32 1871, 2.17 1834, 2.31} 1872, 2.168 1843, 2.28 i874, 2.14 1844, 2.264 1878, 2.13} 1852, 2,26 1879, 2.123 1853, 2.254 1880 2.10% 1856, 2.244 188] 2.104 1859 2.193 close of the preceding year, and since that time many lists, in one form or another, have been published. The figures for the animals with records ‘iid nature of the case, the table cannot be accurate in the evolution, whether of a breed or species. orses with records of 2.40, or better, is now stated to be over five thousand. 304. W. H. Brewer—Lvolution of the Trotting-Horse. I leave it to mathematicians to plot the curves which imme- diately suggest themselves, and determine how fast horses will ultimately trot and when this maximum will be reached. TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBERS OF HORSES UNDER THE RESPECTIVE RECORDS. 2:30 2227 2:25 2:23 2221 2:19 or or or or or or better. | better.| better. | better. | better. | better. 1843 - 1844 2 1 1849 7 2 1852 10 3 1853 14 5 1854 16 6 1855 19 6 1856 24 (4 z 1857 26 7 2 1858 30 qT 2 1859 32 9 2 1 ] 1860 40; ll a 2 1 1861 48; 14 4 2 1 1862 Lt 7 4 M 1863 59) 19 9 4 Be 1864 66| 22 12 4 1 186 29 15 5 2 1 1866 101; 32 ct 6 3 1 1867 124} 42 21 9 5 2 1868 146} 52 28 13 6 2 1869 Lt SG 34 15 10 4 1870 194} 72 35 16 ll 5 1871 233 | 99 40 17 12 6 1872 Sao |) os te we Ze Se 1873 BrG4) se 74 28 15 5 1874 H0G [0 40 16 11 1875 ~n aa 134 61 30 i3 1876 194 165 81 39 16 1877 836 ps 214 105 51 19 1878 | 1,025] —-- 270 129 68 24 1879 | 1,142 | 2. 325 64 88 33 1880 | 1,210) —. 366 192 106 4] 1881 soon | us 419 27 126 49 1882 | 1,684; ~~. 495 275 156 60 2:17 2:15 2:13 2:11 or or or or better. | better. | better. | better. 1 5 1 5 2 6 2 8 2 9 4 11 5 1 14 6 2 1 15 7 2 1 18 s 2 1 Chemustry and Physics. 305 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. ‘ 1. On the Reciprocal Displacement of the Halogens.—The ready t of bromine by chlorine is a well-known fact. It ct . I the simultaneous production of the inverse reaction, BERTHELOT n | mine more and of dissociation of which explain the phenomena obse ved. Thus his experiments showed that KCI, acted on ne equiva- lent of pure bromine, produced no appreciable effect either cold and nine distillations, 7°8 per cent was displaced. i bromine, after four hours of heating to redness and eight distillations, e decomposed ith AgCl, with two equivatents f Br in the cold py . With seven equivalents, e ; p in the cold five days, 7-2 per cent. With at a red heat for three hours, six distillations, 97 per cent. bromine chloride is a product common to all =KBr, +BrCl: —4:6+46+109= + '.=BaBr, + (BrCl), : —13°6 +92 + 20°8= + the chlorobromide of barium evolves heat as follows : 4+3°0 ealories. It therefore assists 10 the same . cal reactions the action 1s at first prompt, but becomes more and more slow as it goes OD. author attributes this to the formation of certain double salts and Secondary compounds, the heat of combination of which exceeds the heat called into play in the direct decomposition of the simple Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turrp Serres, Vou. XXV, No. 148.—APRIL, 1883. 21 306 ' Serentific Intelligence. salts. These secondary compounds resist the first action and they would resist indefinitely if they were not dissociable by the heat. Their slow dissociation, however, is determined by the destruction of the simple salts which maintained the equilibrium, the same simple salts normally yielded by the reaction being repreduced. —Bull. Soc. Ch., I, xxxix, 58, Jan., 1883. G. FB 2. On the Action of Nascent Hydroyen in increasing the Activ- ity of Oxygen.—Some time ago Hoppr-Sryier published some experiments showing that hydrogen in the nascent state, in pres- ence of oxygen, induced energetic oxidation. raube having called in question both the experiments and their explanation, n y reduction. In the same way, benzene agitated with ignite palladium and air gives no result, while phenol is formed if the palladium contains hydrogen; and in greater quantity the more . . t = highly is it charged with the gas. So petroleum ether, whet agitated with sodium hydrate and _ air, gives scarcely traces of oxidized products, even aft long time ; presence t acid, observed by t upon this acid. And as he shows that the former action is ~~ Chemistry and Physics. 307 n the Phosphorescent Flame of Sulphur.—Huvwann, hav- in the same way: cinnabar, antimonious sulphide, arsenous sul- phide, auram musivum, sodium thiosulphate, potassium xanthate, ite flame. The odor emitted when the sulphur thus burns is peculiar, recalling that of hydrogen per- : ne ce and is the odor ordinarily ascribed to sulphur vapor. On examining it closely, however, nothing could be recognized in it but sulphurous oxide.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xvi, 139, Feb. 1883. .¥. B 4. On the Hydrates of the Sulphydrates.—An extended memoir i pounds he calls sulphydrated hydrates. The compound with hydrogen sulphide itself was observed by W ohler in 1840. It is formed whe S and water are enclosed in a strong tube, in se 3 atmospheres. At low temperatures, however, ciation is very feeble. On analysis the crystals contained from 12-4 to 166 molecules of water for one of HS. As ( , formula H,S(H,9),,. and composition of the sul hydrated hydrates of the simple ethers of the fatty series and of hicks chlorine, bromine and iodine deriv- Atives, are described. Forty-eight substances were examine of these thirty yielded the sulphydrated hydrate. The general . 308 Scientific Intelligence. formula of these een is M+(H,S),+(H,O),,; that. - ser are composed of two hydrogen sulphide hydrate groups, in one of which a molecule of ether has replaced one of water. The crys- talline form vd all these hydrates is the regular octahedron. In the outtey chapter the tension of dissociation and in the third the heat of (acnation of these hydrates is discussed. In chapter fourth iaenitay bodies are described obtained with hydrogen s epee Ann. Chem. Phys., V, xxviii, 5, Jan., 1883 5. On Brominated Carbon compounds produced in the ae mine manufacture.—Dyson has mined a liquid obtained as a bye-product in the Semie sen utaenre It distilled almost en- observed as b bye-products by Hermann and Hamilton. But the author aes this is the first discover ZB of cblorebeoma = in bromine.—J. Chem. Soc., xliii, 36, Feb., 1883. G. F. erieniycat least iti the slortae ‘field oe by the author. The axes of no piezoelectricity are defined.— Ann. der aici und Chemie, No. 2, pp. 213-233, 1883. 7 Optica 1 behavior of quartz in an electrical field.— confirms the results of Réntgen u the change of Ka nee refraction in quartz due to Ave Bie stress. Figures are given which show the nicticht of electrical stress upon the optical phe- nomena. The compressive and dilative effects in hemimo! rphie crystals placed in an electrical field can be explained by the pieZ0- electric effects noticed in such erystals.—Ann. der si i ve Chemie, No. 2, pp. 228-233, 1883. Magnetic storms.—M. Mascarr has communicated a “the French Academy eye information ak the great —— storm of November 17, 1882, was also observed at Cape n, Accord- ing to M. Toten one ot the officers attached —e mission, the storm began at five o’clock on the morning of November 17t! and attained its full force during the following night. The d nation changed 40’ in three hours and the two components under- went variations of the same order. Comparing these observ i- Chemistry and Physics. 309 a a those of M. Renou, taken at the Observatory of Pare th n aur and allowing for the difference of longitude, it is seen at the principal perturbation took place at the two places at the same time.— Comptes Rendus, p. 329, Jan. 29, 1883. J. %. ? a Comet of 1882.—In the Comptes Rendus of Sept. 25, 1882, . HOLLON and M. Gouy gave the results of their observations e pris upon this comet, and, by means of a spectroscope of on prism, ge that the sodium lines seen in the spectrum of the comet ag popineed by an amount equal to one-quarter or one-fifth of 16" 12 spo seh ty ete ps but odo a of ligament well Nores on SEcOND CONTACT. observations,reads two minutes ear- e was made by the person who re- and embarrassed th é observation. 8 from the sun’slimb. The ther Was so good that the granulation of the sun’s Sas was well seen, though () Was considerable haze. ing 2 Mr. McNeill estimates = time of contact as 21" 16" 178, W. M. T., deduct- Seconds from the time ied. (a) The o hi riginal record of Dr. Alexander's 8 oat Bat 7g higg ks a mistake as to the min he, The sani ’s atmosphere was finely seen, ore than 20 seconds it formed a lump projecting fr » ¥ 326 0. A. Young—Observations of the Transit of Venus. OBSERVATIONS OF THIRD CONTACT (INTERNAL). Observer. Tbe Observer’s Remarks. 1 8k: 2h 30™ 498 | Very os a Ma black drop fu Ocho La, 4-% 39.37 adeomoteical con payee appears sete doubtful more than a second or t Clouds ried thick. (a) So..-o Doriact eit a 3. OC, G. R. 39 33 hac — Mare very oil ra sure that con- s past for 20 seconds 4, 0. 1. Y¥. 39 12 Contact aaa through “analie limbs boiling adly. 39 34 |Cusps ee a formed. 5. C. F. B. 39 43 |Very narrow gray space between the limbs. 39 47 |Black jena dos edges of sun and planet. 6. M. MeN. 38 59 |Contact—not reliable. Clouds very thick and images 39 53 |Contact clearly past. ee 7. W.L., Jr.) 39 43 |No black drop. Geometrical ‘ 8. Wo 8. MC 39 47 |Black drop clearly seen joining no oo. 0 88 34 First sus tact. (0) 39 04 |Certain that contact was over 10. H. L. B 39 46 |Very little black drop. Sun “jndistined through loud At South) Hadley. 11, R. H. W.| 2" 39™ 22s |Formation of —_ Seite: Geometrical contact at least 10 seconds late: Meee Notes oN TuHrrp CONTACT. (a.) The clouds at heogd Halsted Observatory were not quite so thick as ae other stations, and this may account for some of the discrepancies. Obrerv 3 5, 7, 8 and 10 seem re agree vey well upon a time some 10 to 15 seconds en all wae sure that the contact was past. The plese net’s simoep hey was inv aa e observers alte, be but at the Halsted Observatory the seeing was fair. all) hol 4 the contact seemed to take eran . promptly that the writer felt j recording even = gat ln — (b.) Query: error of o other The clouds at this olen were ‘more troublesome than at either of the 0 three, and the observations are probably less reliable. 0..A. Young—Observations of the Transit of Venus. 82 OBSERVATIONS OF Fourta CONTACT. Observer. bd ng 3 ton Observer’s Remarks. 2. C. A. Y. |3 00™ 13%-5|Notch disappeared promptly. No traces lingering on limb. G. RB. 3.0.G.R. |3 00 02 |Last moment when notch was certainly seen. 40.1 YY. |3 00 14 net gr tavolng 8 of notch. 5. C.F. B. (3 00 08 pins bro contact 00 22 parece sein of Cauenbiadh of limb at point of ee ptu 00 00 |Last trace of notch. 6. M. MeN. |3 |. W.L, Jr.|3 00 00 |Last trace of notch. kM. 3 00 06 (Lost sight of planet. ‘a 259 50 |Last seen of Venus at TC RATR eT eat ns POM Ee aE 0H. LB. 13 00 29 |Unsteady. Venus disappearing and reappearing. At South| Hadley. 2h 58m 30° |Very unsteady. Time probably much too early. a t Princeton, at the time of this last contac et, there was comparatively little caf but the air was very unsteady and the sun’s limb was serrated. Nothing Was seen of the planet's atmosphere between thi = cts except that for a few Ww moments, about 2 45™, W. saw fine — of light ‘unning out a little way from the sun’s limb on pei ps of the planet’s disc. VI. Micrometrric MmasuRgss. eye ring the Transit I made two sets of measures of the e's diameter; one with a double-image micrometer, the hee With a filar micrometer. The screw-values of the two instru- ments were obtained a fon. days after the Transit (when the temperature was about same as on y means — eoableiags measures ‘consisted of 4 sets, each of 10 he readings, Th ey 0° and 180°), 62'"33 For the north and — diameter a ang. 99° and 270°), 61°89 east and wes Maen, to unity distance, 16’°43. : 328 0. A. Young—Observations of the Transit of Venus. The filar micrometer measures consisted of 8 sets of 10 read- ings each, at position angles differing by 45°, They give: Pos. angle, 0° and 180°___--- 64°29 * i Ane S25". 3S 64°43 WU 0G 270. pau 63'°93 Ms 186° and 315°.._..2 64°57 Mean 64°23 Reduced to distance unity, 16’-99. The difference of 2’1 between the double-image and filar micrometer is more than would have been anticipated, and I am not now able to explain its magnitude. I shall reéxamine the micrometer constants, but suspect the difficulty lies in the observer. The double-image micrometer gave a power of about 600, and the images were always very pale and sometimes almost invisible; they were at no time sharply defined, clouds being very troublesome nearly all the time. ‘The power used on the filar micrometer was about 250. During its use the seeing was much better than it had been during the double-image observa- tions; it was never really very bad, and much of the time 1 Pines good, so that the details of the solar surface came out nely. VII. Sprecrroscoric OpsERVATIONS, Spectroscopic observations were made both by Mr. McNeill and myself. Immediately after second contact I uncovered the whole aperture of the telescope, and attached the Clark spectro- Scope with a diffraction grating of about 17,000 lines to the inc}. The slit was made tangent to the limb of the planet at the point most remote from the sun’s center. I first tried the spectrum of the first order, examining specially B, a, and the interval ] between Cand D. The clouds at the time were pretty thies ua ia : ‘ j ¥ a 5 ; C. A. Young—Observations of the Transit of Venus. 329 Mr. McNeill’s observations were made with the 94-inch equa- torial, carrying the Grubb spectroscope. This bas a dispersive wer of from 2 to 10 prisms, variable at pleasure. During the observations 4 prisms were used for the most part (i. e. 2 prisms transmitting the light twice). Mr. McNeill saw the vapor lines between and near the D's, and thought he noticed a slight strengthening of both A and B, He did not observe any change in a, but a fine line just above C was intensified, and the line at 759-2 of Kirchofi’s scale (A=6392) appeared to be distinetly affected. At South Hadley Mr. West attempted observations with a grating spectroscope upon the 8-inch equatorial, but did not get any results; the image of the planet was too unsteady. The effects of the planet’s atmosphere upon the spectrum were certainly much less marked than I had expected ; but I think raver can be little doubt as to lines of aqueous vapor near D, VIIL Puorocrarnic WorRK. During the Transit a series of 191 photographs were taken Y Professor Brackett and his assistants, Professor Libbey and t. Magie. The apparatus was a horizontal photoheliograph of the same general plan and dimensions as those used by our Government parties. The plates and chemicals were furnished y the Transit of Venus Commission, which receives the pic- tures for measurement and discussion. _The wind and clouds interfered somewhat with the opera- tions, About 40 of the photographs are strictly first-class, and some 80 are worthless; the remainder are of all grades of excellence, from very good to very poor, but are probably all measurable. MISCELLANEOUS, The atmosphere of the planet was seen by all the observers at Princeton between the first and second contacts. No one, OWever, saw the peculiar enlargement of the rin of light noticed by Professor Langley at Allegheny, though did par- Heularly observe that the structure of the ring appeared to be tadiate and bristling, with scintillant knots here and there. No satellite was detected. No ring was seen on the sun’s dise surrounding the planet except such as would necessarily result m the imperfect eolor-correction of the object-glass. No Spots or markings were seen upon the planet’s dise, which at ingress appeared slightly but deidincsty darker than the back- ground on which it was projected. March, 1883. ° 330 W.F. Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. Art. XXXIII.—Notes on the Occurrence of certain Minerals in Amelia County, Virginia; by Wm. F. FonTAINE. few years for the purpose of obtaining mica. This work has brought to light a number of interesting, and some very rare minerals. I have several times visited this locality and noted the occurrence of the minerals found there. It is my pure feldspar which serves as a gangue in which the masses al crystals of mica occur in a porphyritic manner. Some usually marked by the occurrence of the veins of giganule 0 tances. They occur more commonly “en echelon,” sometimes overlapping each other. Some of them, over limited distance at least, seem at one time to have been open crevices. e have remained undisturbed since their first filling, but others have evidently been reopened or disturbed more than once and have received new materials. he feldspar, mica and quartz, the essential minerals of these deposits, appear to have pretty constantly consolidated and crystallized in the same order of succession. The mica was the first to crystallize; the feldspar came next; and the quartz was the last to assume the solid form. a found here. They appear to have been trimmed into that form. It is quite possible that these slight excavations were made by Indians, perhaps from curiosity. About two miles from this spot is a considerable outcrop of potstone that has been quite extensively worked by Indians, for the manufacture of s ouse. Here two pits were dug, one on a hill of small alti- tude, and the other about one hundred yards distant, on a stream No.2. Neither exceeds eighty feet in ee From Occasionally small particles o found. More commonly, green mica occurs that looks as if it were ¢ The muscovite is sometimes bent, showin vein, Feldspar.—The feldspar presents some points worthy of note. Much the larger part of the feldspar found in both pits is i in pit No. when fresh, light-greenish in color. The feldspar of pit No. 2 is mainly yellowish-white. The orthoclase in both of these pits 1s preee always found in crystalline masses. At an opening ma oe some two miles to the northeast of these pit mate called pit No. 8, a nest of very large orthoclase eryst 332 W. F. Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. found. One of them, which is not the largest, is in the form of a rectangular prism, formed of the faces O and 72 much pro- tonged. It has at one end several prismatic faces, while the other end is broken, since it formed the place of attachment. This crystal is 50 centimeters long, while the cross-section shows in one direction the dimension of 224 centimeters, and in the other 20 centimeters. Pit No. 1 shows but little feldspar other than orthoclase, but a considerable amount of albite occurs in pit No. 2. The larger part of this albite occurs in forms that I have seem assumed sometimes by stalagmitic deposits when they fill up vertical crevices in limestone, and there is little doubt but that. this albite results from a secondary deposition of material, that made its way into an open crevice in the mass of material first deposited. This albite, for a depth of over twenty feet, formed a portion of the deposit composed of a closely-interlocked_net- work of plates of a beautiful bluish-white material. Often angular cavities and cells were left from the incomplete filling of the space. At the bottom of this cellular mass, an open where. Numerous crystals of smoky quartz lined the walls of this cavity along with pure white crystals of albite, some aS transparent as glass. The quartz has often mingled with 164 greenish powder that is evidently a decomposition product. The minerals found here were evidently‘deposited after. the for- mation of the mass of granitic material, forming the bulk © the vein. _A small amount of labradorite occurs dispersed in a porphy- ritic manner in the masses of orthoclase. It is usually of @ smoke-gray color, and sometimes shows a slight change of color on turning the specimens. A considerable amount of amazon stone is found, but most of it occurs in pit No. 2. It ranges in color from bluish-gree™ W. F. Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. 333 Some masses are formed of the yellowish feldspar and beryl so closely consolidated, that they seem to shade off into each other. In the quartz, however, the beryl crystals are tals, half a centimeter thick and under occur, that have a good luster, but not a deep color. ee a Crystalline masses that shatter easily into small fragments. nly a few particles show good cleavage. The mineral is usu- ally found occupying the irregular angular spaces left between m show a very deep, dark green color. The fluorite is remarka- ble for the great beauty and brilliancy of the phosphorescent light that it gives out at quite low temperatures. The light is rich bluish green in color. Aiter decrepitation it no longer gives out light. Columbite-—This mineral oceurs quite commonly, and it is more abundant in pit No. 2 than in pit No. 1. It is found quite often in erystals, some of them being of large size. They are, however very easily broken, and can almost never be centimeters, width 114 centimeters and thickness 11 centime- ters. It appears to be a mass formed by the aggregation of Crystals that have a flat shape from the predominance of the % faces. All of the masses of columbite found here are friable and easily break up into angular fragments. ; variety of columbite oceurs here rather rarely, that differs * A somewhat similar mineral had been previously found at Branchville, Conn., _ and analyzed by Comstock. 334 W. FE. Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. siderably more manganese than iron, and has the ratio of columbic to tantalic acid 1:1. In mass it has a dark chestnat- brown to dark reddish brown color. Some particles tend to assume a fibrous structure, and then the color is somewhat lighter. In very thin splinters the color is a rich hyacinth-red. The normal columbite, so far as known, is the only kind that occurs in the upper part of the vein. The variety now in question is found only in pit No. 2, and becomes more abund- ant with increasing depth, Mr. Search, a gentleman connected with the mining operations and a zealous collector of the rare minerals found there, informs me that just before the pit was abandoned he found in the walls, a few feet above the bottom, t spessartite, that shows quite a different mode of sacietee, an which is specially noteworthy on account of its intimate con- nection with helvite. This second form of spessartite occurs in the form of a loosely aggregated mass, composed of granules and angular particles, but never in crystals. The granular mass is intimately mixed with helvite, the latter filling the interstices between the particles of spessartite. The compound is inserted in the cavities left between the interlacing crystals of albite that were formed on the walls of the large cavity dis- covered in pit No. 2. Both this spessartite and the helvite are clearly minerals deposited in the vein after the filling of the greater portion of it by the more abundant materials composing the vein stuff. The order of deposition seems to have been a5 foilows. First, the beautifully clear albite crystals were formed on the walls of the cavity, producing an open network with large interstices. In some of these the spessartite was loosely deposited, and lastly, in some of the cavities between the partl- cles of spessartite helvite was laid down. The helvite is very rare, and does not occur associated with all of the spessartite- W. F. Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. 335 characters. Fusibi ity = 8; hardness = 6°5; 8 omposition : The spessartite thus associated with helvite has the following ili p. gr. = 4:20. RO. ain Scapa onde cuba cate 36°34 BA ciesteteees alent Maio 12°63 Oe RTP RRS RE ON ge 4°57 MN ee a ee 44°20 TN ee ee 1°49 PAO or a bec ae ee : Var... a faint trace. 99°70 The color is pale pink to flesh-red. Some fragments are brownish purple. The mineral looks more like some rhodonite than like garnet. It will be noted that the manganese is unu- sually high, and the iron and alumina unusually low. he above analysis, with the determination of the specific stavity and hardness, was made by Mr. C. M. Bradbury in the laboratory of the University of Virginia. _ Orthite.—Orthite is found in great abundance at the locality, pit No, 8, that furnishes the very large feldspar crystals men- honed above. Here some of the thin-bladed crystals may be Seen more than fifteen inches long. It is also not rare in pit 0. 2, but here the crystals rarely show lengths exceeding six to eight inches. In all cases both ends are broken off. ose of the greatest length do not exceed in thickness 4™ and in Width 2 to 24 “In shape they are much like an ordinary Wory paper cutter. he mineral, so far as I have observed, always occurs im- bedded in feldspar or a mixture of feldspar and quartz. It usu- ally has a decomposition crust of varying thickness, and some- times the whole crystal is altered. The crust has an ash-gray Color and is without luster. It is sharply distinct from the et interior. The internal sound portion has a velvet-black Color and a high pitchy luster. This saitieen ee Kobi analyzed, independently, by Profes- sors Keenig and Dunnington. For the analysis of Professor Keenig, see Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1882, p. 108; Tennes made for mica in the vicinity without finding it. he largest masses were found in pit No. 1, some twenty feet below the surface. These masses occurred in the northern end S26 Waa, Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. oO show often on the component parts several crystal faces. The single crystals, which are most numerous in pit No. 2, occur imbedded mostly in feldspar, but they are sometimes found in quartz, or in a web of quartz and mica. It is noteworthy that minute crystals are very rare. I have seen a few from 3 to 5™" in diameter, imbedded in quartz. The well-formed single crystals have usually the diameter of 1 to 14™. _ Micro- larger masses of the mineral are aggregates of crystals, and h difference in appearance was accounted for by the assumption that the microlite had been decomposed or altered to some extent. Hence, in the publication of his article on microlite, in the Am. Chem. Jour., ITI, ii, 180, Professor Dunnington showed. This mistake, however, would not lead to erroneous of the best characterized fresh material. This color, with te high resinous luster, and the broad, shallow conchoidal frac- ture, often causes the mineral to look like some of the gums. The single crystals show constantly the same forms. W. F. Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. 337 They are octahedrons, modified by small faces of O, J, and mm. All the faces of the same form are not always present, and when present, they are usually not equally developed. The largest single crystal that I have seen is slightly distorted. The longest axis has the dimension of 44. In the direction of onazite—Monazite has been found nowhere except at pits land 2. It oceurs much as the microlite does, and is often so much like it that it requires close inspection to distinguish the two minerals. It exists usually in larger masses than the microlite, and what is peculiar, never in single or small crys- tals. The masses, however, are aggregations of distorted erys- tals, and often show on the constituent parts, well-form The fracture is very uneven Means to distinguish it from microlite. The large masses are often formed by the aggregation of imperfect flattened crystals, mon One is yellowish brown, and the other dark grayish brown. In the mineral With the latter color, numerous fine particles of silvery-white mica are often found. Besides the above, an orange color is Sometimes seen. The different colors often occur together, the same specimen showing them in different parts. This mineral does not seem to have formed one of the later deposited ones, 4s it is not found in the cavity associated with albite, ete. The monazite is decidedly more prone to aiteration than the micro- lite. It is sometimes found with an earthy texture, having lost its luster and become more gray in color. rofessor G. A. Koenig first recognized monazite among the Amelia minerals. For his analysis, see Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. . Jour. Sc1.—Turep Series, Vou. XXV, No. 149.—May, 1883. 23 338 W. F. Fontaine—Minerals in Amelia County, Va. Philad., June 24, 1882. Professor Dunnington has analyzed this monazite also. For his results, see Am. Chem. Jour., vol. iv, p- 188. The most noteworthy feature of this analysis is the considerable amount of thorina found.* Helvite-—This mineral occurs very rarely, and is found only in pit No. 2. It seems to occur only in the walls of the cavity in this pit, and is deposited in the interstices of the light pink spessartite mentioned above, which is itself found in the open- ings between the albite crystals that formed on the walls of the open space. The helvite seems to have been the last min- eral to be deposited in the vein, and its constant association with such a highly manganiferous garnet, is an interesting fea- ture. It seems to have been deposited in the form of erystal- line granular particles, that rarely show crystal faces or forms. good deal of it is now ina pulverulent condition that may result from partial alteration. This mineral has been carefully examined in the laboratory of the University of Virginia by Mr. B. E. Sloan, pure material being taken. I extract the results of this examination from the “Notes of Work of Stu- salad ete., etc., published originally in the London Chemical ews. ‘Color, wax- to lemon-yellow ; streak, very pale lemon-yel- low; luster, vitreous; translucent; hardness =6; sp. gl = 3°25. Fusible before the blowpipe flame with intumescence. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the formation of gelati- nous silicic acid, and the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen. Analysis gave— a 31°42 Perce dc ugk setts elec see 10°97 BeOS __.. 40°56 MO ee ee ee 2°99 BIO Oe 0°36 My et ee from partial alteration, as it is quite intense on some particles. ness=6°5. Sp. gr.=6°82. In composition it is a tantalate, S, L. Penfield, in his analyses published in this Journal in October, oa wi — * Mr. (xxiv, 250), concludes that the thorina present is from mixture with thorite. J. C. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. 339 mainly of manganese, with a large amount of lime, anda small amount of iron. The examination was made by Mr. Dunning- ton who ascertained with certainty the absence of columbic acid. Possibly this mineral may be allied to Nordenskjéld’s 5 g 5 3 4g rs gQ 5 oO =! as za ie) Da] aa © ry ® =) S 5 © oy S B Su |! o 5 © Lag: 8 o D = ence of fluocerite. One or two additional minerals from this locality remain to be more fully examined, and they will probably prove to be of Interest, University of Virginia, Jan. 27, 1883. Arr. XXXIV.—On the Surface Limit or Thickness of the Con- tinental Glacier in New Jersey and adjacent States; by J. C. MOCK, New Brunswick, N. J. [Read at the Montreal meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. whole question. The results of field wor in sictgciey 2 by State. The existence of such a moraine an to the glacial drift in New Jersey was suggested to the nse ee in 1876, by Professor George H. Cook, State Geologist. Vu 340 J. 0. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. p croeron that report. The course across Staten Island and Long Island was given,—as the continuation of the New Jersey moraine. Its course in Pennsylvania was traced and described by Professor Frederick Prime, Jr., of the Geolog- the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences. Professor Chava has correlated the eastern and western terminal moraines in an article in this Journal for August, 1882. The eastern continu- ation of the moraine, on Long Island, was described by Warrel | Uphan, lately of the New Hampshire Geological Survey, 10 ci Journal in 1879.§ The results of the labors of Professor wis of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, in map- shoe out “the ae limit of the ice sheet in Pennsylvania, have not yet appea While engaged in a irate the course of the moraine in New Jersey, the questions of the thickness of the ice of the glacier and the rise of its upper slope, were suggested by the vary ing heliat of its mounds and the absence of drift on the higher peaks which stood in its course. The terminal moraine repre sents materials pushed forward under the foot of the glacier, and also earth and stone carried on its surface and dropped 48 it melted and retreated northward. The heights of these more in giving to it its present contours. It is possible to eS minimum estimate for the thickness of the ice from some of th® * — Am. Inst. of Mining Engineers, vol. vi, pp. 467-479, Easton, Pa. + Ann, ‘Rep. of the pee Geologist for 1877, pp. nhs ator aee 1877. oceedings of the Am. Philosophical Society, vo 1. xviii, p. 85. . This Journal, Ill, xviii, pp. 81-92, and 197-209. J. OC. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. 341 870 feet.* It is safe to conclude from these heights that the thickness of the ice sheet in this southern loop of the Hudson Valley was at least 200 to 400 feet. Other localities farther to the west and northwest furnish data of like nature. At Felt- ville in Union County, a bowlder limit is recognized at an elevation of 400 feet above tide. On Second Mountain, west of Feltville, there are scattered bowlders up to 440 feet. The general level of the sandstone plain on the east side of the First Mountain range is 150 feet, giving a difference of 250 to 0 feet as a measure of the ice at this point. Again, at Long Hill, near Chatham in Morris County, the glacial drift is Wrapped about the north foot of the ridge and pushed forward to the south on each side, The upper bowlder limit here is 890 feet high. The Passaic River, flowing in the bottom of the ed sandstone valley on the east of this hill, is 177 feet above tide or 200 feet below the bowlder line. Another locality, exhibiting like phases in the drift, is on Snake Hill, near Den- ville, also in Morris County. On the northern point of this sharp and rocky ridge of gneiss the moraine is traceable at an elevation of 670 feet, but scattered bowlders as high as 7 ~ feet indicate the latter elevation as the ice limit. The crest line of this range is 910 feet high. On each side the drift Three ranges, ‘ng drift phenomena. Separate masses of glac found lying about the northern ends of Potsdam — tidges, while the intervening valley is filled with exceedingly P. ana Lewis, Jr., in a note to Professor Dana in this Journal, III, vol. xin, . 235, 342 J. O. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. coarse bowlder drift, modified and made from the destruction of the once continuous moraine. These sandstone ridges also were but partially covered by the glacier as it here neared its most southern extension. The elevation of the drift upon them varies from 700 to 900 feet. The highest points on the Schooleys Mountain table-land are the summits of the moraine hills, which are 1,200 to 1,300 feet above tide. And this is of the State. The glacier pushed southward in the red sand- stone plain and attained a latitude of 40° 30’, at the mouth 0 the Raritan River. The most southerly point at which we have any record of it, in the Delaware Valley, was near Belvi- dere,—in latitude 40° 50’.. Both of these loops appear to have been thinner near their southern edges than the mass on the Highlands. The differences in elevation in these valleys and on the Highlands may give us the rate of increase in thickness from north to south. For example, at Dover the moraine 1 22 miles north of the latitude of Perth Amboy, and the eleva tion at Dover is 640 feet. If at Amboy the ice was referred to above. Inequalities in the surface over which the — ice moved, differences in the rate of accumulation of the snows and ice as well as in that of its wasting away and its retreat ‘ J. C. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. 348 made uniformity in the front of the glacier for even 100 miles of its course impossible. Recognizing the southern limit of the glacier and finding €xpect to find among the records left us by our continental glacier. Professor Nordenskjéld states “that in Greenland, when at the extreme point which he reached, thirty geograph- leal miles from the coast, he attained an elevation of 2200 feet, and that the inland ice constantly continued to rise toward the Interior, so that the horizon toward the east, north and south, was terminated by an ice-border almost as smooth as that of the ocean.”* Dr. Hayes and his party penetrated inward to the distance of about seventy miles. At that distance the altitude was 5000 feet, but the ascent had diminished from 6° to 2° on the Upper slope of the icy mass. But the ice has not covered Some of the highest peaks of Greenland and they stand out as islands in the ice and are known as “ice-bare islands,” or nunataks.” One of the most noted of them explored by Lieutenant Jensen of the R. D. navy is about fifty miles from the west coast, north of Frederigshaab and rises 3000 feet Above the ice, to a height of 5000 feet above sea level.t Here then we find a measure of the ice covering Greenland.t : henomena In *“ Climate and Time,” James Croll, p. 379. : par Brown in Ene. Brit., 9th ed. (N. Y¥., 1880), t 109% : “gn pp. 100 rofe ' a, in thi ust, 5 OS noone’ James D. Dana, in this Journal, Aug ial Era, as indicated b glacial scratches which were obser i rpepeny These scratches were found . “e ¥ none were found on the upper part of peaks, 8 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for November, 1878, pp. 344 J. C. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. limits of the ice sheet in Western Ross and Sutherland, we readily arrive at the depth of the ice sheet that filled up the pret. S 6a ss Measuring from the Cliseam, in North Harris, to the mountains of Torridon, we have a distance of fifty-six miles, so that the inclination of the surface of the Mer de Glace was very little, the fall not being more than 1400 feet, or about 1 in 211. But slight as that incline was, it was prob- ably twice as great as that of the Mer de Glace that filled up the German Ocean.” This inclination, in other terms, 1s In Switzerland, according to the Swiss geologists, a mighty Mer de Glace moved down from the Alps and carried huge blocks across the lower grounds to the Juras. “This vast sheet of ice not less than 3000 feet in thickness, stretched continuously outward from the Rhone Valley and abutted — the Jura, the higher ridges of which rose above 1s evel.” The lofty table land of the Pokono Mountains in Pennsyl- railroad, whose summit is 1970 feet above tide, was found cov- ered by glacial drift. A single ridge, however, of this same range and same geological formation, known as Pokono Knob, eight miles west-northwest of Stroudsburg, Pa., appears * “The Great Ice Age,” James Geikie, p. 371. J. C. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. 345: have stood above the ice. Bowlders and drift earth cover its flanks and constitute much of the surface material to within a vertical distance of 50 to 100 feet of the top. On the crest of the ridge the ledges of grayish white conglomerate are much broken up and lie in blocks. None of them show any glacial markings. Nor are there any erratics or drift earth on this crest. The absence of characteristic glacial phenomena leads © the conclusion that the ice did not attain this height. The Mountain is 2025 feet high and the glacial limit may, there- fore, be put at about 2000 feet. The whole country to the fastward and southeast, including the Kittatinny Mountain— at the Delaware Water Gap was covered by the glacier, and on it glacial markings are common vania Geological Survey, who has examined Pokono Knob is still more positive. He says: “During the past year (1881) I made the survey of Monroe County and ascended Pocono — the ‘ownship was subjected; for no appearance o fs Slacial scratches can be found on their sides or — . €se driftless peaks are about sixty-five miles north of - ais dere, the most southern point reached by the glacier in D f ise in th er slo elaware Valley. And the rate of rise in the upp Letter to the ‘author of this paper from Professor White, Morgantown, W. * Va., April 34, 1882 ; t The Geology of Susquehanna County and Wayne County,” by I. C. White, Harrisburg, 188), pp. 25 and 158-159. 346 J. 0. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. may have been near thirty-five feet per mile, although from the fact of the glaciation on the Pocono Highlands considera- bly farther south, we should infer that the rise was by no means uniform, but was much faster near the glacier front. Sam’s Point, the highest part of the Shawangunk range and 2341 feet high (according to Professor Guyot), which is in the same latitude as the Moosic Highlands, is glaciated to the top. Walnut Hill or Liberty Hill, in Sullivan County, New Yor also exhibits glacial abrasion and drift to within 200 feet of its suromit, or at an altitude of 2000 feet. During a short visit to the Catskill Mountain region, in the summer of 1877, the great height of the western and south- western peaks of that mountain group suggested the possibility of finding there the upper limit of the ice, and the ascent 0 unter Mountain was made that season. Visits have beep made to this region each year since, and many of the more great mass of the continental glacier these valleys were ne doubt occupied by detached glaciers. The torrents flowing from them evidently modified much of the older drift and de posited it in a stratified form in these valley bottoms as we now * This Journal, III, vol. xix, pp. 429-451. J. C. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. 347 see it. In this way the moraines were partly destroyed. Ascending these valleys to their head, the upper limits of the thick drift masses are reached, beyond which, on.the steeper mountain slope, the explorer finds the evidences of glaciation in roches moutonnées and scattered bowlders on y: e heights of these moraine limits vary somewhat :n the different valleys. Thus, at the head of the Batavia Kill Valley and hear Black Dome, it is about 2700 feet; west of the Catskill Mountain House, and near Tannersville, it is at least 2000 feet ; on the northern slope of Hunter Mountain it is 2200 feet; in the Stony Clove Notch it is about 2000 feet ; in the notch west of Slide Mountain, and at the headwaters of the Neversink, it is 2650 feet; near Summit Station, on the U. & D. railroad line, it is 2200 feet; near Margaretville, 2000 feet; on the Southeast slope of Mt. Pisgah, northwest of Margaretville, it is 0 feet; and near Stamford, at the head of the west branch of the Delaware, it is 2000 feet. Of course, it will be under- Stood that these thicker glacial deposits are, to a great extent, determined by the configuration of the rocky floors or valleys in which they were deposited, and their elevation is, therefore, ®pproximately that of these valleys. But, inasmuch as the slopes rise much higher, affording surface for deposition at greater altitudes, it is probable that the average of these eleva- tions, from 2000 to 2800 feet, was the upper limit of the moraine profonde, or till. The scratched ledges, sub-angular bowlders and gravel, and the glacial earth, which lie on the higher slopes, indicate that the ice encountered the more ele- vated mountain sides and left its marks upon them. And this Sparse drift was, doubtless, from the upper surface of the gla- “er. In order to ascertain the thickness of the ice the heights of these higher markings and deposits must be found. An here it should be stated that the examination of the higher may be given in the following order: Sex meal it the outcropping rocks are more abrupt and pre- Cipitous, even on the north slopes, and there are no marks o any abrading or polishing am No roches moutonnées have been discovered on these higher peaks and slopes. 348 J. C. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. 2. The outcrops and the surface on these summits and higher slopes are made up either of angular, sharp-edged rocks in place, or the slightly worn blocks and rock fragments and earth of the same nature as the ledges, and apparently derived from them. Much of this material seems to have been broken off by the action of frost. Had a glacier moved over these mountain tops it would have removed this débris, or rounded the stones and more prominent ledges. 3. There is a general absence of drift earth and of stones foreign to the rocks in situ. There do not appear to be any erratics nor mixed earths. A glacier would have left some for- eign materials to mark its course. ; 4. The phenomena on these higher peaks correspond with what are so common and so characteristic of the country lying south of the terminal moraine. No glacialist can avoid noting this resemblance. If the latter is unglaciated, the former must be also. , The only explanation left is that there was a limit to the ice sheet, above which it did not go. It was not thick enough to cover all of these peaks. The following table gives the elevations of glacial drift or markings. The heights were determined by barometric ob- servations, viz: On Black: Domes. 2206 i405 2940 feet. North Mountain -_.-...- 2500 “ Indian Head, or Round Top.---.--- 2800 ‘ Overlook Mountain (striz) -_.--..-- 3000 “ High Peak (old Round Top)------- 3250 “ unter Mountain 2800 “ Wittemberg Mountain. _..._-_.._.- 2900 “ Puce momen... oo a eee 3080 “ Mt. Pisgah (west of Margaretville)..2930 “ OTR oo Pe ce ee $306. * og, ee ete ern eget 3200 “ analogous to the snow coverings of all mountain peaks above the snow line. And in some cases they may have amounted J. 0. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. 349 to incipient glaciers, whose melting did much to mix materials and round off ledges and bowlders or loose blocks. The above, and the slightly rounded rock fragments found near them, may have had their origin in some such way. The direction of the strize and the grooves are omitted, as hot pertinent to the question. Suffice it to say here that they indicate a general southwest movement. That such an upper limit of the glacier was probable has been indicated repeatedly by Professor James D. Dana in his Manual of Geology and in articles in this Journal. In one of these latter, on the Mohawk Valley Glacier, he says: “On the Catskills the glacier scratches reach to a height of 2235 feet—the elevation at the Mountain House—and this implies the existence of ice and snow to a height of at least 2600 feet ; and if the snow had this height over the whole southern pla- tean it would have almost completely buried it, with the excep- tion of the higher Catskill summits.”"* This language seems almost prophetic. But the ice reached higher than Professor ana at that time supposed, though still not high enough to bury the higher sammits, The only mountains in New England which approach the height of the Catskills, and are in the same latitude, are Mt. Everett in Massachusetts and Greylock, in the same State, but little farther to the north. Of the first-named, Professor Dana says that its glaciated summit “affords evidence that the ice which covered New England in the Glacial Period overtopped i Perth Amboy—the distance vive a descent to the glacier sur- face of less than thirty feet to the mile, and less than one-half of adegree. But this rate corresponds closely with that ob- — by Professor Geikie for the Scottish Glacier, viz: 1 in Greenland glacier and the great From what is known of the sier and + the inclination of the Antarctic ice-cap we should infer tha * This Journal, II, vol. xxxv, p- 249, } This Journal, ITI, vol. x, p. 168. 350 J. C0. Smock—Thickness of the Continental Glacier. continental ice-sheet of the glacial epoch was not uniform The rise was probably steep near the margin. And the hig& glaciated points near the line of the terminal moraine indicate that such was the fact. Thus, near Feltville and Summit, the drift-covered Springfield Mountain, which is about a mile north of the line, is nearly 600 feet high. The high drift-hills near Mount Hope (960 feet) show a great thickness near the margin. The height of Schooleys Mountain drift has been referred to, and the thickness of the ice in the Musconetcong Valley. Northward the angle of the slope diminished and the glacier surface approximated to a great. level plain. The distance between the high, southwestern glacier. So that we have no outstanding peaks farther north. The great glacier appears to have sivaret’ the whole of New England and northern New York, and to have filled the Hud- son Valley to a depth of at least 3000 feet, as far south as the Catskills, burying the Berkshire: Hills, the Shawangunk Moun- tain range, and the Highlands of southern New York, in ts icy folds. Above it stood the higher peaks of the Catskills and the summits of the Moosic Highlands as isolated land- marks—or islands in the great Mer de Glace. Geological Chemistry of Yellowstone National Park. 351 Art. XXXV.—Contributions to the Geological Chemistry of Yellowstone National Park. Geyser Waters and Deposits. THE following include all the specimens analyzed which are hot distinctly siliceous. 1. Mammoth Hot Springs, Old 9th Terrace Spring. Grams to Imp. gallon. Sodium sulphate <:2.0-2. 022 34°44 Sodium chloride - 18°90 Calcium carbonate.__._-..-.-- 17°92 "Magnesium carbonate 8°68 RIGGS oe ea ae ot aes 3°36 83°30 2. Deposit from Mammoth Hot Springs.—This was in white Masses evidently incrustations. The structure was distinctly radiated. It was soluble in hydrochloric acid with efferves- cence, leaving only a trace of residue. Calcium carbonate Meus 98°80 Magnesium carbonate 1°36 Alumina and iron oxide --.---- 0°45 ea ee 0°25 Waiter . ue. a res ra 0°50 99°36 3. Cleopatra Spring. Sodium sulphate- ...--------- 1e CRIGOC cca nce cic wd 13°496 Calcium sulphate... -------- 13°587 Calcium carbonate ....-.----- 24°850 Magnesium carbonate .--. - --- 7455 ilica weer a 3°500 , 352 Geological Chemistry of Yellowstone National Park. Rocks of the Park ; by Witu1am Beam. 3. Rock from Yellowstone Cafion near Fails.—Consists of white, opaque fragments, rough to the touch. Fracture con- choidal, texture porous. Hardness, 35; sp. gr., 2°36; fusi- bility, 55. Gives a colorless bead with microcosmic salt and borax; moistened with cobalt nitrate and heated, it turns bright blue. Hydrochloric acid dissolves 14°6 per cent of the powdered mineral. Analyses gave: SiO weasels cae. 64°60 Al,O, and Fe,0, _. 25°65 fe, traces ho se Radigh te he oS see en en See 43 i oo 8-70 100°14 The rock has the appearance and qualities of a very compact or baked clay; it eres strongly to the tongue; when cause. 4. Trachyle from Junction Valley.—The pieces were greenish- blue, interspersed with white and dark spots and small particles of free silica. Fracture uneven. Hardness, 4°5; sp. gr., 2°84 ; fusibility, 55. Gives reaction with borax for iron. Heated with cobalt nitrate, the whole parts become blue and the rest brown. Composition: oO ER ania Fo re Pe 69°90 AO ee 17°58 i ee eae ene Ti NRIRS See ba 2°41 ino a ee KO ee ae Mo as ee 2°41 H,O by ign eae ee os eae 3°65 C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. 353 Art, XXXVI.—Notes on American Earthquakes: No. 12. By Professor C. G. Rockwoop, Jr., Ph.D., Princeton, N. J. THis article embodies such information as the author has obtained in regard to the earthquakes which occurred on the American continent and adjacent islands during the year 1882, with notice of some earlier ones not before reported here. - tems which depend on single sources of information usually have their source indicated ; and if regarded as doubtful, are printed in smaller type. . “or assistance in collecting information the author is again indebted to J. M. Batchelder, Esq., of Boston; to Professor F. E. Nipher, of the Missouri Weather Service; to Dr. J. W. Dawson, of Montreal; to Charles Carpmael, of the Meteorolog- leal Service of Toronto ; and especially to Mr. Edwin Rockstroh, of the Ynstituto Nacional, at Guatemala, to whose kindness are ion, The Monthly Weather Review of the U. S. Signal Service has also furnished much valuable information. 1879, June 8—10.51 aw. An earthquake occurred at San José de Costa Rica. June 19.—3.00 a. a. A slight shock at Guatemala. Sept. 21.11.13 a. uw, A weak shock at San José de Costa Rica. Oct. 11.19.45 au. A slight shock at Guatemala, Nov. 18.—10,40 a. uw, A weak shock at San José de Costa Rica. Dee, 29.743 p,m. A somewhat strong earthquake at San José de Costa Rica. 1880, Jan, 114.—8,42 p,u. A slight shock at Guatemala. The following were all at San José de Costa Rica. Jan. 7 and 26. Weak shocks. ar. 3.—9.50 a.m. A weak shock. Mar. 17.10.32 a. ua, A strong shock, May 15.—8.31 p. a». A light shock. May 226.17 p. w. _A light shock. y 25.—2.58 a.m. A strong shock of seven or eight seconds’ duration. July 13.—7.30 Pp, a. A weak shock. 30.—10.04 p. m. An earthquake of three seconds’ duration. Am. Jour. Sor.—Tarap Serres, Vou. XXV, No. 149.—May, 1883. 354 CO. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. 1881. Jan. 23.—5.30 a.m. A moderate shock at Guatemala; reported also (5.55 a. M.) at San José de Costa Rica. Mar. 3. During the night of the 2d and 3d on slight oe were felt at San Marcos, a town northwest from Guatem Mar. 7.—7.52 A.M. A slight shock, _ lasting -ehies ceobud ae ported fous Dos Caminos, Mexic Mar. 15.—1.50 p.m. A moderate shoud lasting four seconds at the same Mar. 29. A moderate shock (N. to oun ye from Oaxaca (12.50 p. m.), and Tlacolula (12,55 Mar. eee Slight shocks reported at Villa ree Ixtlan (12.55 u., N ., 5 se mo 8 and at San Carlos Yautepec (1.30 p. m., E. to W., 4 to 6 seconds. The baat four dddenk are by E. R., from a Mexican paper. April oe oe Ape shock reported from San Salvador, Central = se ig) to ae More than fifteen moderate shocks, all vertical, reported from San Salvador during these six 8. April 27.—10.20 A. m. and 11.30 a. m., moderate shocks at Guate- mala. April 28.. At 9 p. mM. a violent shock with vertical movement, lasting more than fifty seconds, did some damage at Mana- gua, in western Nicaragua, — was followed by other shocks at 10.00, 11.00 and 11.30 Pp The first shock was also re- ported as very heavy at eg Juan del Sur and Chinandega, and was oe at various eee between these places. May 13.—5.30 A slight shock, 8S. to N., duration three seconds, at ean Carlos Vuikeke, Mexico. May 27.—12.15 p.m. A slight shock, duration three seconds, at ag Pn Villa Juarez Ixtlan, and San Carlos Yautepec (S. 10 N.), Mexico, and also at San “Cristobal las Casas (1 P. M., to May 29.—1.40 P.M. A eh shock at Guatemala. Aug. 13.—12.30 Pp. wm. A strong earthquake at San Marcos, Gua temala; — also — at the capital city. Sept. 25.—4.20 p.m. An earthquake of about two seconds’ dura tion at San ‘Cristobal ii Casas, (Chiapas) Mexico. Oct. 3.—9.30 Pp. mM. A slight shock at Acaponeta, ses Oct. 17. At 12.50 a. «. a shock of two seconds’ duration at Do Caminos, Mexico. At 1.55 P.M. a strong shock, "duration three —— at Chilpancingo. Also at Mexcala, hour not given, a strong shock of two seconds’ piaceseee probably coincident with that last mem tioned. C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. 355 Oct. 19.—4.20 p.m. A strong shock at Tehuantepec, Mexico, Agiition six e aceond Oct. 20,—2.58 p.m. Another shock at same place, duration four seconds ; Jeportes also at Juchitan, with direction E. to W. Oct. 21.—At Ma nici E. to W., duration three seconds at Tlacolula, hice 2 P.M. are 1. 30 pv. Mm. shocks of six and two seconds, at Tehuantepec, with subterranean rumblin ~—— A shock was reported the same day from Onraing hour not stated, direction E. to W., duration six age very likely coincident with one of those mentioned ab Oct. 22 to 27. Shocks were noted at Tehuantepec as a 22d, 4.10 a, m. (6 seconds); 8.15 Pp. mM. (3 seconds); 9.20 P. M. (3 seconds); 11.30 Pp. M. (4 seconds). 23d, 1. 00 A. M. ar sec- ay and rumbling); 8.53 4. M. (rumbling) ; 9.20 A. M., pes 1.38 a. M., 3.37 Pp. M., 7.05 P. M., 8.48 P.M. 10.00 (ail 3 or 4 seconds). 27th, 10.03 a. a. “(N. to 8, 3 jobdinde), nee the above items, in 1879-81, are from Mr. E. Rocksttohi of vatemala, 1882, Jan. 85.10 p.m. A shock of ten seconds’ duration at Cape Lookout, N. C. U. S. Weath. Rev. Jan, 20.—10,02 pw. A slight shock at Guatemala. Jan. 26. Two severe shocks in the evening at Centreville, Cal. Feb, 3.—2.40 a A sharp — direction apparently 8. to N., at San Gorgonio, Californ o's S. Weath. Rev. Feb, 12.—1.30 a, A sho ie at t Pagosa Bprings, Lake City, and Capitol City in in southwestern Color eb. 26.—6.25 p.m. A shock, lasting pen or four seconds, at Murray Bay, Quebec. Mar, ae At 2.48 a. Mm. a strong shock, lasting twenty-four sec- , was felt at Guatemala, and the neighboring places, fetny some damage i n Antigua, At 5.58 a. M. a less shock followed, tasting seventeen seconds. The direction of these two shocks at Guatemala was 8. same night five moderate dheake were reported from Salamé, & town miles north from Guatemala. E. R. Mar. 3,—7.4 mM OA ee earthquake, from N.E. to 8.W., in ‘San Fou ae Costa Ric ; duration, forty-seven seconds. ‘Tt was felt also in Puchiecas Alajuela, Heredia and mi ae were Die the ek ridge between the ocea s to acific h — $ follo wed in Puseaeee: at ih 30 P ak. os ‘and 4.30 a. m. of 4th. The | rst accounts of this hidiad ake were greatly exag- gerated, reporting a loss of several thousand lives. The real damage appears to have been very slight. 356 C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. Mar. 11.—4 p.m. A slight shock, N. to S., at San Diego, Pi fornia ; ae also from Poway, Califor nia, at 3.30 P Mar. 16.—1.15 a.m. A strong shock at San José de Costa Rica; ¢ duration, ah seconds. E. R. Mar. 16. A shock in the morning in the City of mene Y. Times. Mar. 16.—1.46 p.m. A light shock in San Francisco, California. U. S. Wea th. Rev. Mar. 21.—1.30 a.m. A weak, and at 2.42 a. M. a strong, shock at San José of ‘Costa Ric E. R. March. At Salinas City, ako light shocks twice during the month. U. S. Weath. Rev. April 2. At Newmarket, Va., several shocks reported in the evening. April 2. Two shocks in the morning at Amsterdam, N. Y. J. M. B. Aprilll.—llp.m. A bags shock in New Orleans, La. N. Y. Times. April 13.—6.30 a. A sharp shock, N. to 8., lasting about four seconds, in San Francisco, Cal, U. S. Weath. Rev. April 17. “A few minutes past two o’clock” a sharp shock at ae N. H. April 30. At 10.48 p.m. the vicinity of Portland, Oregon, was shaken by two earthquake shocks, a few seconds apart, the first light, the second more severe, with a low rumbling; vibration in a general west-east divcntion. Another light shock followed at 12.25 a.m. of May 1. The heavier shock ae reported as far north as Olympia, W. T., and A. Victo May 1. An earthquake at East Greenwich, R. I. J. M. B. May 8. About 4 A. M. a slight shock at Concord, N. H. Concord Monitor. May 11.—8 p.m. A slight shock at Pagosa ‘Springs, Col. U. 8. Weath. Rev. May 21.—9.37 p.m. A moderate earthquake in Guatemala. : nee ee At 11.52 p. m. of 8th, at 9.20 p.m. and 9.2 9th, os at 10.37 P.M. of 10th, moderate bean in Ghunteln E. R. June 27.—5. pry a.m. Two severe shocks at San Francisco and vicinity, each about ten seconds’ duration, with four seco were felt alon ibe coast from Petaluma t Hollister, and as far inland as Stockto July 15.—7.45 P.M. A mee! iow at as Francisco, Cal. felt slightly at Point San Jos July 19.—2.35 p.m. A very severe shock in the City of Mes lasting two and a half minutes. It was said to be the mos severe since 1864. July 20.—4 a.m. A shock, duration fifteen seconds, at Cairo, Ill July 22.—11.08 a. Mm. A very light shock at San Francisco, C U. S. Weath. Rev. 0. G. Rockwood—Americam Earthquakes. 357 July 28. A single shock, hour not stated, at Ironton, Mo. July 31. About noon a light shock at Cape Mendocino, Cal. U. 8. Weath. Rev. g 1—6Pp.m.. A light ae age at Point des Sielee at the mouth of the St. Lawrence Riv anadian Meteorol. Serv. Aug. 8, Light shocks, S.B. to N.W., at oo 2 U. & oc Rev, Aug. 9.—8.45 p.m. A light shook at San Francisco, Cal. U. 8. Weath. Rev. Aug. 15.—10.30 a.m. A strong earthquake at Point des Monts, Qu ebec Canadian Meteorol. Serv Aug, 24, Ge. 56 P. A moderate wdouaiaaes in Tecpan, Patzi- zia and Chiesabeehiaiss, Guatemala. E. R. During the month two severe alg be and several S eivor shocks occurred in Car accas, Venezue Jt i, Warner, an ‘Atlantic Monthly. Aug. At Salinas, Cal., shocks were felt twice during the month. U.S. Weath. Rev. Sept. 6. An earthquake in Aux Cayes, Hayti. Troy (N. Y.), Daily Times. Sept. 7. About 3.20 a. a. (var areal). ake from 3.15 to 3.24), the isthmus of Panam ma was shaken by a very severe earth- This violent shock had ollowed by another | sock after half an hour, and by other lighter shocks fon ee that and the succeeding davs, especially at 1 P. M. an A.M. of da lost. by falling walls. Th anama was injured in many pe road-bed and the breaking of culverts, and the ag cable from Aspinwall to Jamaica was *proke eight persons killed, twenty-six woun ee totally destroyed ‘and sixty-seven 0 Sept. : _ the evening a slight shock reported in Caledonia, Livingston County, Sept. 19.417». m, A moderate earthquake in Guatemala. E. R. Sept. 20. At noon a light earthquake at oy des eae Nie bec. - Canadian Meteor 358 C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. Sept. 27. At 4.20 a.m. (St. Louis, Mo., time), a somewhat severe earthquake was felt throughout southern vine: Its influence extended west and east from Mexi 0., to Washington, Ind., pad Hondas n, Ky.; and nor Pil nd south from Springfield, Il., to Piuachep ville, Ill., being reported from numerous places within these limits. The area affected sda therefore be an ellipse, measuring 250 miles east and west by 160 miles north and south. From many places. cua about this area and in its borden came the report that no shock was felt, so that its boundary is pretty well defined. The time stated above is based u upon several closely anne ant and trustworthy observations in and near St. Lou west motion which i is sned hattape ee by the form of the dis- ard, Mo., distinetly reported that o sound was yo ibieds The moti sufficient to crack chimneys, ov yerthrow small obi as toilet ae ee ear set os vibrating. This summary is based on rep from over fifty different places, for seal of which I am eapeGatly indebted to Professor F. oper Sept. 30.—10.57 a.m. A sharp shock wat Campo, Cal., ene two seconds; direction S.E. to N.W U. 8. Weath. Rev Gok Ag 200 4 we. a heay vy shock, een several ate at San Diego, Cal.; felt generally in ’the surrounding country Oct. 8.—5.00 a. mM. A sharp shock at Antigua, W. 1 N. Y. Time. Oct. 9, News of this date from Cape Haytien, W. L, says: Bek ae shocks of earthquake were felt here during the pas Oct. ret 15 a.m. A slight shock at Montreal; felt also at Lachine, St. Hiliare, Huntingdon and other points nea Oct. 11.—11.15 P. M. “A slight shock at Panama, Oct. ge “An ea ee cater! is reported to have been felt in the southern rt of Humboldt Co U. S. Weath. Fi Oct. 13. —4 P.M. Two stake shocks at St. Thomas, W. L Oct. 14-15. About midnight southern Illinois penid. i several shocks of earthquake similar to that of Sept. 27th ee oe “ts 0. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. 359 4and5 a.m. At Manchester, Pett ay Me the times were given as 12,33 a, M. and observers reported only two of the Gace shocks, some the Gx: o and others the last two. Centralia, Ill., was the only state where all three were reported. Oct. 15. At12.30 P.M. a slight shock reported at Murphy, N. C. U. S. Weath. Rev. oti m. be a. m., and this be a part of the earthquake in Illinois already Oct. 20.—1.40 a. M. A slight shock‘at Lima, Peru. WU. Y. Times. Oct. 20.—2.15 a.m, A severe shock at San Francisco, Cal., felt lightly at Point San José Oct. 20. At 7.30 (A. M. ?), & slight shock at San Salvador, ee a N. Y. Tim Det —At a. M., Indianapolis time, a slight nba at Gicenville, Bond Co. Ill. Oct. 722. About 4.15 p.m. an earthquake was felt in omer m ort of time hd from Wichi Kan. whieh: gave 4.19 p. m., Jeffers » Mo., time. cre y places two or three pitibatiote ne noticed, having a derasi on of about thirty seconds in all, moly orts of direction are too various to be cla ssified. No damage was done other than overturning movable articles and Snacking bricks from chimney-tops. Oct. 23. About 7 P. aa slight shock reported at Newberne, N.C. U. S. Weath. Rev. Oct. 31.—6.45 p.m. A sharp shock at San Fvandinns: Cal., felt also at Sonoma, Napa, Petaluma and San Rafael ; vibration east and west. Nov. 7. About 6.30 P.M. a Colorado, Wyoming and Utah. ht was reported from Salt Lake City and all along the Union Pacific R. Laramie Cit ty and Cheyenne, Wyoming o¢ Ter.; from George- town and Louisville, Col. ; fro m Denver, W where we clocks and from Salina, Kans: At Some places three shocks were noticed. The anneal was generally east and west, and the intensity sufficient to set chandeliers vibrating. Nov. 14. In the morning an earthquake at Panama, sides of the isthmus. age eo A light ed — at St. Louis, Mo., 9.14 P. M m, (9.163 . Kribben); at St. Charles, 9.21 Pp. M., and at » by B. Collinsville, I, 9,174 P. M. felt on both 360 C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. Nov. 27.—6.30 p.m. Asevere shock occurred at Welland, Allan- burg, Port Colborne “no other eso ae the Welland Canal between Lake Erie and Lake Ont Nov. 28.—5.15 p.m. A ined tba at San Shtesdiéd. Cent. Amer. Noy. 30. A second lighter shock at daylight at the same place NV. Y. Tribune Dec. ~ — slight shocks at Santiago de Cuba followed bs a severe one on the morning of the 12th. WW. Y. Tim Dec. = " Abont 5.20 Pp. Mm. a shock occurred in the ouchiaadah Pp w Hampshire. It was felt at Dover fete P. M.), Beatoosook (5.20 p.m), Concord (5.24 p. m.), New Market 5.25 Pp. M.), and other neighboring places. It lasted several seconds and was accompanied by a rumbling noise. Dec. 19. Two slight shocks at Panama. Dec. 19,—11.45 Pp. ma. Two light shocks, east to west, at Visalia, Cal. U. S. We ev. Dec. 31. About 10.05 p. m. a decided shock with rumbling noise was _ in —— N. S. and other places along the railroad was also reported from Eastport (9.55 P. M.), Roakiand oe 00 p. mM.) and Bangor (9.30 p, m.), in Maine. he above record for 1882 includes seventy-two items, of which thirteen are in small type. They may be class sified geographically as follows: Cenlce, 500s ne eee 6 New England, 5, 3 doubtful. AMANO Stated, 2.005 stake 6, , ean bee Mississippi Valley, -.....----- it, Beats EOS COMBE ae. wee ibe Mexico and Central America, - 18 SOONG 8s ek ce Poe Indies, Sie a . 1 . roe 1 72 13 The following may be selected as the more important of the earthquakes noticed above: March 2, Guatemala; March 8, Costa Rica ; April 30, Ore- gon ; June 27, California ; Sept. 7, Central America; Sept 27, [llinois ; Oct. 14, Lllinois ; Oct. ‘22, Arkansas, Kansas, et; Nov. 7, Colorado and Wyoming. Thirty- six items are added to the record of previous years. They all refer to the Central American region, and are distrib- uted as follows: 1879, six; 1880, nine; 1881, twenty-one. Princeton, N. J., March 12, 1883. ; : i T. H. Streets—Earthquakes in Japan. 361 Arr. XXXVIL—A Four Years’ Record of Earthquakes in Japan, studied in their Relation to the Weather and Seasons ; by THos. H. Srreers, M.D., U.S. Navy. humerous storms, warm and da ’—(Reclus, Earth.) Humboldt, likewise, seemed to have been impressed with the Importance of this relation. says, “ but if no meteorolog- morning of the shock or a few days previously, the influence of naga periods of the year (the vernal and autumnal equinoxes), ec long drought, cannot be overlooked even though the genetic the interior of our globe, is still enveloped in obscurity. — (Cosmos.) In the first place I think we may eter gives no indication of the approach of an earthquake ; but the charts would indicate that they are Was rising and when it was falling, Steady. At first sight it would appear as if the shocks were associa- ted with atmospheric commotions. About 75 per cent of them preceded, or accompanied, rainy or threatening weather, or heralded clearing qroutter. To one unacquainted with the 362 T. H. Streets—LKarthquakes in Japan. Date Number. Time Barometer. Sky. Remarks, 1878 Jan. 22/2 shocks ; toe oa 29°91 rising ‘clear 24\smart shock | 3.30 Pp. M.30-00 rising jclear _[1°23 in. of rain on the 26th. Feb. 5/slight shock | 3.27 Pp M./29- e falling cloudy Light rain and sleet. 11/shock 7.26 P. M. 30°04 steady cleari r 54 in. of snow-fall 17\3 shocks A. M./30° > falling cloudy | Light rain next day. 19\slight shock | 1.16 Pp. M.|29°82 rising cloudy {Midnight strong winds. 23/2 shock: A. M.|30°21 cloudy 24'shock 9.45 a. M./29°69 rising |rain 25 smart sh 10.24 Pp. M.|29°84 ris clearing 27 light shock | 0.26 A.M./30.25 rising |clear |28th, a. M., rainfall of 1:26 in. Mar. 5\sharp shock | 3.00 p. M./30.24 he l’'w’d by rainfall of 1°17 in. 6 t shock | 2.06 P, M./29°59 fallin ng |cloudy sot mie Sati at 3.30 P, M. ht shock 10.25 Pp, M.|29°74 rising (clearing een by 9 d. of el’r sky. Apr. 9/slight shock | 2.45 Pp. M.|30°16 falling rain Follo sib by 8 days of rain 28\slight shock | 4.05 P. M./29°80 risin n and cloudy weather. May 10 slight shock | 9.10 Pp. M./29°78 rising |clearing 11light shock 14 A. M,)29°86 rising (cloudy |Light rain next day. Jun.11/smart shock 15 P. M.|29'86 falling |clear 17)smart shock | 5.20 a.m./29°94 rising [clearing | After a apap of 1°47 in. sh Se 00 Mm. |29.52 clearing | Li; etc! bette 7 28 hock | 6.34 P. M./29°72 rising |rain Rainfal of 2 July 4 light shock | 4.39 a.M.|29°72 falling rain Sky shoe dene day. 0|shoe 46 a.M.|29°75 falling cloud 15 art shock | 3.45 Pp. M.|29°93 rising clearing |11 rainy days since the Ist. 20/light shock | 8,46 P.M.|30.03 rise ‘clear — |StrongS.W.wind during day- ug. o earthquakes during this onth: 19 rainy days. ° Sep. 30)light shock | 5.32 a.m./30°00 falling cloudy 18 rainy days during month Oct. 8\slight shock |10.48 p. m.|30°24 rising ‘clearing|After 2 days light rain. smart shock | 1.20 P.M. fallin Followed by light rain. [rain shock 10.25 a. M./30°31 risi Began to ext d. 31 \light shock /10.15 Pp. M./30°10 falling |clearing | After 2} hours of rain. Nov. cy shock | 0.57 Pp, M./30°C3 falling [rain Ollight shock | 1.47 a.M./30°10 rising |clear |p. m. ~ sg a — rain. 29 vere shock/11.12 P. M.|29°83 clear |Light rain in the morning. 26'smart shock | 8.24 Pp. M.|30°31 clo sid Raining a aaee 27 light shock | 2.13 a. M.|30°30 falling jrai iny days during month. Dec. l4'smart shock 10.37 a. M.|29°99 falling elondy Light rain in const cf rig bs art shock | 7.55 a. M./30°10 Barometer falling Jan. 3 shock 9.58 Pp, M./30°13 ane clear 21 shock 40 A.M./30°28 rising [clear | Barometer falling next day, 3 light shock | 1.45 a. M.|29°80 falling rain [with rain- 26 ight yee: 4.00 p. M./30°18 rising |cloudy 27/smart shoc 30°25 falling jcloudy | Followed by rain. 28 light esc 1.00 a, M./29°92 falling rain ‘ Feb. 2/smart shock /10.00 P, m./30°12 falling |clearing| After a light rain in morning- 11.00 p. M.|30°14 rising |cloudy |Rain and sleet on the 6th. 27\smart shock | 2.45 30°34 steady clear | Barometer falling next A. M- Mar. 4;heavy shock | 4.44 p. M./29°72 4\shock 00 P. M.|29°74 rain ‘| Rain fell from Ist to eth. 10/shock 4.35 Pp. M.|29-76 falling |rain 9.32 and ae : 10|2 shocks 9.45 P. ule? 75 rising |clearing Apr.14)light shock | 9.20 a.m.|30°14 falling |cloudy |Heavy rain next day. T. H. Streets—EKarthquakes in Japan. 363: Date Number. Time. Barometer. Sky. Remarks. 1879 May 2/2 shocks ; = hr and 30°10 ite — Be rain next day P. M. 20 shock 11.28 P. M./29°9 Tal se s during month. Jun. 12/light shock | 9.24 A. M./29° 7 falling rain te ys during month. July 18|2 sh 4.45 P. M.|3 falling clear (Re bot ag ites for 10 pay 24 shock 8.15 P. M./29°88 steady clear [at 9.30 P. M. Aug. 6smart shock | 8.27 P. M./29°83 falling Thunder, lightning and Gate 28/light shock | 8.36 P. M./29° ae falling ‘cloudy Rag ll for month, °92 in. Sept. o earthquakes: 11 Paka Oct. 17/2 shocks { ; pedo 30°17 rising (clear [on the hag 18/severe shock} 1.52 Pp. m./30°33 fallin Li eae — next day; heavy 25)li 0.40 A, M.|30°00 falling jcloudy — “oy 30)light shock | 9.44 a. mM /30-05 steady /clear nate op he during month. Nov 15/2 shocks 5 ? es “ee 30°08 rising |cloudy pein on the 16th. ave 3)severe shock| 7.09 A. M./29°96 Light rain next day. ie 6light shock | 4.28 P.M.|29°74 rising |clear Clear until 2Ist, and 3 Frost 19/light shock | 1.00 a. M./30-03 falling [previous. Feb. 12 light shoc 9.00 P. M.|29°82 rising |clearing | After 4 days 22 severe shock} 5.03 A 76 rainin pone raining shortly afte 25/light shock | 6.40 P.M.|30-44 arometer fell the next day: Mar. 5/light shock | 4.40 a. M.|30°23 clear » Tai 21\slight shock | 4.39 a.m./30°00 rise {clear ‘| Rainfall of 1°97 in. on 20th. 29'shock 25 P. u./29°99 steady |clear Barometer fell at night; rain on 3 ie 31 slight shock |11.16 A. M.|29°70 falling rain Rainfall o Apr.14'smart shock | 4.10 a. M.|30.32 rising ‘Barometer “falls code rain. 25\light shock |11.04 a. M./29°59 rising |clear ee ieeg preceding shock. 27\smart shock 50 A 0-08 falling jcloudy 8 W. gale next. ay 14/light sh 10.00 P. M.J29°77 falling cloudy ay. 23\light shock | 2.30 Pp. M.|29°76 rising jclear _ Rain on the day preceding. June 5light shock | 5.12 P. M.|29°93 clondy jOn 7th, a. M., a heavy rain. Tilight shock | 9.50 P. M./29°33 rising jclearin 10'sma ock | 1.20 Pp. M./29°84 eta cloudy /Light rain next day. July15\smart shock | 4.00 4... 29°99 rising {clear [Light rain on the ith. 19 light shock [11.55 a. M. 29° 87 falling clear 19 smart shock | 8.24 P. M.) ingjclear {Followed by 3 days of rain. 25 smart shock | 2.05 P. w. 29°70 steady Light rain at night. Aug. 6 smart shock | 9.27 A.M. clear Tlight shock | 1.20 P. um /29-90 Followed by 6 days of rain. 13'smart shock | 4.50 a. M. 29°53 r ron clear 23, shocks .26 A.M. 29°80 falling |cloudy |Str’ng S.W. galeon 25th, Pp. a. 30 light shock |11.16 P, Mm. 30°02 falling jcloudy |Rain next day. Sept. No earthquakes: 10 rainy d Oct. 2 light shock | 3.11 P.M. 29:95 falling jrain Typhoon midnight of the 3d; barometer, 28° _ Nov. 3 smart shock | 5.43 A. M. 29°90 steady |cloudy [Be t scale. 10\smart shock | 1.00 a.m. 29-88 rising |clear [Sk y very bright. rt shock | 6.30 P. M. 30:20 falling jrain Rain continued for 2 days. Dec. 20 smart shock |10.00 P. a. 29°90 clear rag breeze. 23 severe shock|10.57 P. M. 29°72 rising Barometer fell with a. 28 smart shock | 1.30 A. Mm. 29°80 falling |clear |Norainy days acing month. 364 T. H. Streets— Earthquakes in Japan. Date. Number. Time. Barometer. Sky. Remarks. 1881 d Jan. T\light shock | 6.24 a.m 29°33 falling /clear |Barom. ee —— — 3rd; nrising at 9 slight at 3 P. 20/light shock | 0.15 a. m./29°46 rising Snow on 19th, rain on 21st, fol’w’d by 2 d. cl. weather 24)smart shock | 5.52 A. m.|29°68 falling/clear jAt3 Pp. mM. barometer 29°38, when “it mare clear throughou 24 shock 30 A.M. falling jclear oi llight shock | 4.00 P. M. rising jclear Feb. Tlight shock | 4.00 P.M. falling |clear 12)smart shock | 2.40 A.M. rising |clear |Rainfall of °50 in. on 14th; also rained on the 11th. 12 light shock | 2.00 p.m. rising |clear 28|smart shock | 3.14 P. M.|30°13 falling |cloudy vest rain next day. Mar. 8|severe shock! 0.17 P. m./30°34 falling |snow - from noon to midi 14 light shock | 4.15 a.m./29°80 eran rain rash wad and heavy rain. L5\light shock | 0.26 Pp. Mu. 16 light shock | 6.00 a.m.|29°9 rising clear 16 light shock | 3.00 Pp, m./30- rad rising \clear 17 light shock | 2.40 a.m. 7 heavy sh 50 A. M./30.13 clear 29 light shock |11.20 p. m.|29°88 steady |clear |Fresh wind next day. pr.11 light shock {10.00 a. ,|30-13 falling ollowed by 3 4. light rain 18 smart shock | 8.00 a. M.|29°59 rising Followed by clear weather; 1°32 n on the 17th. 26 shock 8.27 P. M./30°03 falling Strong §.W. winds, squally, and By ek rain throughout : the May 3light shock | 2.13 a.m.|29-90 rising |cloudy |From Ist t vith cloudy, with light rain; on 7th a heavy et P. M. ariD 2 cen shock | 1.20 P, m. rising jcloudy |Only 1 clear d. during month Jun. 18 smart shock |10.27 a. m.|29.80 steady rain in. fell to 4 P. M- meas ih shock 3.30 Pp. M. m “85 steady c lear ing 18th and 1 19th being rainy- .35 P. M.|29°93 steady |clearin Aug. . . No . during the Sept. 3jlight shock 10.30 a.m. steady |clear From "20th to pe raining very day; total rain ofall ; for the ohh t 11°99 in. Oct, 25 light shock | 9,25 p. m.|30°16 falling |rain Nov. No earthquakes ee the month ; total rainfal Dec. rt ryt shock | 1.00 a. m,/29-96 falling |clear = : 2 shocks 0.25 P.M, falling |clear mer on the 30th ained so for several anys a 2 & 4 Ga —* co - | OQ 3 ——+. doonde 3 i 4 { 0 5 Aan hat r ~ 5 | | | boy & { reed td : | 1 | a Ceeeee| Ne ee ae ae anne oe ee O rr | i 366 T. H. Streets—Earthquakes in Japan. climate of Japan this might imply some relation; but I am inclined to believe that the connection is only incidental. This climate is remarkable for its humidity. In March, 1881, there were nine shocks, and but two of them were associated with any noticeable meteorological disturbance; six were accompanied by remarkably fine weather. On the other hand, in April and May of the same year, we have it recorded of the former that there were light rains throughout the month, and three shocks, and of the latter that there were two shocks and but one clear day. Again, in December, 1880, there were three shocks, two of which are set down as smart, and one as severe, and the month presents no rainy days; and in December, 1881, the two shocks that occurred were associated with fine weather. On the other hand, August and September are remarkable for their excessive humidity. They have the greatest average rainfall, and are accompanied with violent atmospheric commotions; they are likewise periods of earth- quake calms. Other inconsistencies might be picked out, but quakes which occurred at Basle, and the countries around it, ascertained, to the surprise of the scientific world, that these phenomena are much more frequent in winter than in sum- mer.”—(Reclus.) The same results are obtained in the present analysis. They are here arranged as they occurred in the months and seasons : Dec. 8 Mar. 18 June 9 Sep. 2 Jan.15 } 41 winter. Apr. 9} 35 spring. July 11} 27 summer. Oct.10 } 21 autumn. Feb. 18 May 8 Aug. 7 Nov. 9 A gradual decline is noticed running through the seasons. If December be omitted, and March substituted as a winter month, a more remarkable contrast is observed. We should then have 51, or 41 per cent, of the whole number of earthquakes occur ring in those three months. February and March are the months of the greatest earthquake activity. Professor Cleveland Abbé believes that the greater preva lence of the shocks in winter than in summer is dependent 0? climatological considerations. He says: “If it were an annua period independent of wet and dry climatological seasons, before alluded to, it would be of deep import.” Earthquake, A ppleton’s hee tae In Angust, 1878, there were 19 rainy days and a rainfall of 6°62 inches; in September, of the same year, there were 18 rainy days and a rainfall of 17°97 inches, and but one shock oceurred, on the 30th of the latter. month. In 1879, September had a rainfall of 5°80 inches an@ T. H. Streets—Earthquakes in Japan. 367 ll rainy days; in August, of the same year, when there were two shocks, there was a rainfall of but ‘92 inch. In Septem- t on the 3d of the same month, and a rainfall of 11°99 inches. It rained continuously from the 20th to the 30th, but no more shocks occurred until October 25th. March is likewise a wet month, but the amount of rainfall is less than in September. In voleanic regions the rain is thought to supply steam, which equinox and the time of the greatest frequency of earthquake shocks, the one occurring in August and Sep ( Other in February and March, being separated by a period of four months either way. I am aware that this conclusion differs from the opinion usually held, which is, that earth- quakes are associated with the equinoctial period of atmos- ‘There occurred two shocks sufficiently severe to do damage December that the country has ex rienced since 1850. period is observed, oer i uch a period has been stated by st. Some to exi 368 “R. P. Whitfield—Age of Bernardston rocks. Art. XXXVIII.— Observations on the fossils of the Metamorphic rocks of Bernardston, Mass.; by R. P. WHITFIELD. I HAVE received from Professor J. D. Dana, and from Pro- fessors Emerson and Clark, of Amherst and Northampton, Mass., collections of fossils from metamorphic sandy shales at Bernardston, Mass., and also some from a bed of crystalline limestone below them, with a request to examine them with a view to determining their age. : In the shales I find many casts and impressions of Brachio- of which might be classed with Meristella, but are extremely uncertain. There is also a cast of a species of Petraia or Strep- telasma, which might represent equally well the species from the Niagara, Lower Helderberg and Hamilton groups. — 4 From the limestone I recognize two species of Favosites, 40 several stems of Crinoids of large size; also from specime sent to the American Museum of Natural History, by. S fessor C. H. Hitchcock, a form strongly resembling a species © Syringopora, but somewhat doubtful. avosites are not in a condition to be identified s cally with certainty. One of them, however, has many charac ters resembling F. favosa, and forms a mass about four inches in diameter by about two in height. The other form 1s age sitic around a large crinoid stem, and has cells of about — size and form of Astrocerium venustum Hall; yet distinguish in it the peculiar features of that genus. id rom the evidence furnished by these specimens I shou! conclude that the limestones may be of Middle Silurian 23% and that the shales were most probably of Middle Devon'#® ecifi- - RR. P. Whitfield—Age of Bernardston rocks. 369 _ age, the forms mostly resembling those from the New York ee ey Ca ae ee ee Chemung group. In the spring of 1882 we received at the museum a collection of rocks and fossils from near Littleton, N. H., sent by Pro- fessor C. H. Hitchcock, who has kindly permitted me to use the evidence furnished by them in this connection. Among them I recognize the corals Halysites catenulata and Favosites Magarensis, also a finer form of Favosites which I identified, with but little doubt, with Astrocertum venustum Hall, and an undetermined Cyathophylloid coral. There are also many frag- ments of a Pentamerus, which I identified without question with P. nysius H. & W. (24th Rept. State Mus. N. Y., p. 184. pl. x, fig. 1-7 of 27th Rept. State Mus.), a type of Pentamerus Which ranges from the Clinton to the Guelph limestones, but Which is not known above the latter horizon. rom this assemblage of fossils.there can be no doubt of the Middle Silurian age of these Littleton limestones (probably Niagara) ; and as they were supposed, from stratigraphical evidence alone, to be the same as the Bernardston limestones before the ils were examined, I think these are strong reasons for not only making them equivalents, but also for considering both 48 of the age which I have assigned to them. apparent. The calcareous material I have attributed to a e Same series. with fxaminations correct my inference as to one oO : rofess6r _Emerson hopes to make further discoveries, that will AM. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Sertes, VoL. XXV, No. 149.—May, 1883. 25 370 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. -Art. XXXIX.—Review of DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants; with Annotations upon certain American Species ; by Asa Gray and J. HAMMoND TRUMBULL. Parr II. THE fourth chapter of “Z’ Origine des Plantes Cultivées” relates to plants cultivated for their fruits; the fifth to those cultivated for their seeds. Our present annotations concern a few species or forms of Cucurbitacee, the history of which has been involved . ord, in passing, upon the Peach, upon the history of which this volume throws some new light. DeCandolle had while they had peaches of various sorts long before. Upou Pyrus, there is a note relating to botanical orthography, p- 183, notes may be put upon record, M. pumpkin (“potiron”) by English writers, as ‘an example e the confusion of popular names and the greater precision © scientific names.” Such confusion becomes more perplex!ng botanist—complained, in 1640, of ‘our modern writers who for some make that Pepo that others call Melopepo, and aire: Cucurbita.” (Theater of Planis, p.770.) Scientific names of wae 16th century are as obsolete as popular names of the peat period. They do not help us to distingush Dagenaria ha : Cucurbita, or Pepo from Melopepo oe Citrouille” from Citru * “LOrthographe Pyrus, adopté par Linné, se trouve dans Pline. Historia, 1631, p. 301. Quelques botanistes ont voulu raffiner en écrivant Pirus, ety | 8 $ deux endroits, ou risquer de croire que les Poiriers ne sont pas dan a En tous cas le nom des anciens est un nom vulgaire, mais le nom vraiment ocrit- ique est celui de Linné, fondateur de la nomenclature adoptée, et a ” s pass Pears and Apples were prehistoric in Kurope, both wild and cultivated. DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 371 lus. Harly voyagers to America wrote cucurbita, calabaga, courge or zucca, as a name for any ‘gourd’ or pumpkin, an occasionally for a ‘calabash’ which was not even a cucurbit. The relation of the first voyage of Columbus repeatedly men- tions the calabazas used by the natives of St. Domingo and other islands for carrying water (Navarrete, Ovilec. i, 188), and, Dec. 3, 1492, Columbus saw, near the east end of Cuba, fields planted with calabazas and other productions of the country (7d. p. 225). Yet we know from Peter Martyr that some of the gourds (“cucurbite ”) used in the islands grew on 4; pp. 88, 246). This tree, Crescentia crete, is described by Oviedo (Hist. gén., lib. viii, c. 4) under its Hayti — re) S = 9 5 BS rr B & Ty 1526. Oviedo (Hist. gen. y Nat, lib. vii, c 8) observes that the same kinds (de las mismas), long and round, or banded (efiidas), and of all the shapes they usually have [in Spain].” Islands and the Main,” and “are one of the common things that the Indians cultivate in their gardens.” They were not caltivated for food— for they do not eat them ’—but for car- Ying water; “‘aud they have other ca/abagas, that are in all o for) taste; and there are many of these that grow of themselves, without cultivation.”+ The same author (lib. xi, e. 1) in a list of plants introduced from Spain, names melons and cucumbers he relation of the voyage of Amerigo Vespucci, 1489, in a description of the Indians of Trinidad and the coast of Paria, “ays that ‘‘each carried, hanging at his neck, two small dried gourds (cucurbitas), one containing the plant that they were Xecustomed to chew, the other, a certain whitish flour,” ete., ~ Not _Cujete—unless j has the German sound. The Tupi name is formed from oo Lery) ‘the shell’ or hard rind of a nut or fruit (and the ‘ bowl’ or cala- | made from it) and efé ‘good, precious.’ : : lan DeCandolle, p. 198, citing this passage from Ramusio’s Italian translation _ ®t Oviedo’s Historia Natural, etc., has “zucche” for “calabacas” of the Spanish ee Mginal, and takes no notice of what is said of their spontaneous growth, y 372 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. and that each woman carried a cucurbita of water (Navarrete, at d;’ tdyurumé ‘nar- row-mouthed gourd ;’ 2% ‘long-necked gourd;’ tdobé ‘wide- gourd’ (used for making spoons); %éapé ‘small gourd, used for drinking ;’ tdqud ‘great gourd; tdécué ‘gourd like a great dish or bowl, ete.: not including the derivatives of cui, or the edible “ calabagas ”—to be mentioned hereaf etc. (Hist. nat. y moral de las Indias ; translation, revised by is attributed to America, and a reference to Nuttall’s record that the warted squash was grown by the Indians on the upp Missouri is the only mention of any aboriginal cultivation squashes in North America. In the present volume, there !§ merely a reference, in this respect, to Dr. Harris’s article 10 this Journal (xxiv, 1857), and to Mr. Trumbull’s note in the . al- letin of the Torrey Club (1876), with the comment that: “Cela nous apprend seulement que les indigénes, un siécle apres © découverte de la Virginie, 20 4 40 ans aprés la colonisation pa! W. Raleigh, faisaient usage de certains pis de Cucurbitacées. ‘“S names of varieties, into the present centur : Sop ious sight (que era gloria vella)!” See Navarrete, _ i, DeCandolles Origin of Cultivated Plants. 373 Nevertheless Cucurbita Pepo, wpon botanical indications solely, iS attributed to temperate North America in the general table, _ toa Mexican or Texan origin in the body of the work. This Tests upon the collection by Lindheimer, in Texas, of a form of this species, ‘“ apparently indigenous.” That was between all that country by the aborigines. If ever found truly indi- genous, it will probably be farther south than Texas. m ma is now set down as from Guinea, on the strength of a Single finding of it “apparently indigenous” on the banks of the Niger. ©. moschata (to which Vilmorin refers the Canada ‘took-neck Squash) is in the list of species of completely unknown or uncertain origin. > iy and many varieties, ‘were largely cultivated throughout ‘America, from the tropics to Canada, before the voyages of Jolum bus. Allusion has already been made (under Lagenaria) to the tote -O present this evidence, as nearly as possible in the order of me, we refer, first, to the relation of the first voyage of Columbus. Dec. 8, 1492, entering a small river [the Rio near th te d of the island of Cuba, he found ar the eastern en FE eM aba: is not certain that these calabazas were not ds (Lagenaria), but it is, to say the least, highly improb- 374 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. able, that the enthusiasm of Columbus would have been so In July, 1528, Cabeca de Vaca found, near Tampa Bay, in orida, “maize, beans and pumpkins in great plenty, and beginning to be fit for gathering.” In 1535-6, when passing _ through Texas, the Indians supplied him with prickly pears and, occasionally, maize; but after crossing “a great river coming from the north "—probably the Rio Grande—he and his companions came to a region having “fine dwellings of civilization, whose inhabitants lived on beans and pumpkins — and, when the.season was not too dry for raising it, maize (Relacion, 1542; transl. by B. Smith, 1871). - In the summer and autumn of 1539, De Soto found the chestnuts” (Oviedo, lib. xvii, cc. 24, 28; True Relation, es Ahr of Elwas; transl. by Buckingham Smith, pp. 45, , 285). Oviedo writes “ calabagas,” but the author of the the method by which the Indians hastened the germination of the seeds of these “citrouilles du pays,” and “raise them with great ease.” Lahontan (Nowy. Voyages, 1708, ii, 61) describes the Citrouilles ee of (southern) Canada—‘sweet, and of a different kind from | . DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 375 those of Europe, where,” as several persons assured him, these would not grow. ‘They are of the size of our melons; the flesh, yellow as saffron. They usually bake them in the oven, etc, Lahontan had as little doubt as Sagard had, that these citrowilles (cultivated by the Indians of Canada from the time of Cartier, at least) were genuinely “du pays.” : As to the Cucurbitacew of Virginia, M. DeCandolle admits, only, that the natives, a century after the discovery of Vir- a twenty to forty years after the colonization by W. Raleigh, w e . 201 escribes ene “macock gourds” in nearly th (Trav. into Virg., p. 72); elsewhere, he says the “ macokos is of the form of our pumpions—I must confess, nothing so good,— tis of a more waterish taste,” and he mentions also, the “ pum- they “seeth, and put into their walnut-milk, and so make a kind of toothsome meat” (p. 119). “The Indian Pumpion, the water-melon, musk-melon,”’ ete., are named among fruits intro- duced into Bermuda, by the English, before 1623 (Smith’s Gen. wst., 171).* Among Johnson’s additions to Gerarde’s Herball, 1636, there L’Ecluse (Clusius) heard of these Macocks in 1591, or earlier. In his Exotica 41605 ; lib. iii, ¢, 2) he describes a fruit—“ Macocqwer Virginiansium, forte’ —which . had Yeon sent hi im from London by James Garet, brought from “ the province of Wingandecaow, which the English call Virginia.” He conjectured that this might be “the fruit whic the natives of that region call Macocqwer” —but his figure and . ion do not favor this identification. The fruit, he says, is nearly or : lar; four inches in, dia ; with a hard rind, yellowish on the outside; m } shaped (“cordis, ut vulgo pingitur, formam referentia”’) Seeds, flat and L’Ecluse thought it might be one.of the gourds which the natives used for rattles, 88 the Brazilian their Zamaraca, etc. i old and dried, the pulp blackened, the rind covered with a dark membrane, “per quam sparse _ Guadam. fibre 4 pediculo ad summum.” This must have been a fruit of Crescen- @ cucurbitina, a calabash, which is a native not only of West Indies, but also of Southern Florida. i Be Beale Kd pcs ae 376 DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. — is a description of “ Macocks Virginiant, sive Pepo Virginianus ; the Virginian Macock or Pompion” . 919, 921). The de- scription is dated, 1621, and signed by John Goodyer. The plant has “great broad shrivelled yellow flowers, like those of ” 2 the common Pompion. e fruit, ‘somewhat round, not larger than the Pompions, and have a long narrow neck, ee he Cushaws and Pompions they lay by, which will keep several months good, after they are gathered” (p. 152). Bart- ‘“We abound with . . . sundry sorts of fruits, as musk-melons, water-melons, Indian pompions, Indian pease, beans, and many , who to 1633, says, of the Indians of Massachusetts: “In summer, _ DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. 377 in the dialect of New England, asg, plural asquash, ‘green Eliot, in his version of They gather the squashes and immediately place them on the fire without any further trouble. . . . The natives makes great account of this goed Deseript. of N. Netherlands, 1656; transl. in N. Y. wt. Soc. Coll.,.2 Ser., i, 186. Thus far, we have cited, with one or two exceptions, Ameri- can authorities. M. DeCandolle, after mentioning “the three 878 _DeCandolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants. ° America” (p. 204). A collation of the descriptions of ‘‘ Pepones” or “Cucurbite,” given by European botanists of the 16th cen- tury, does away with this ambiguity. , Tragus (Hieron. Bock) De Stirpiwm Nomenelaturis, ete., 1552, p. 880, described and figured “ Melo, Pepo, Cucumis, and Citreo- lus;” and (p. 832) named, also, Cucumis sylvestris. In the next chapter (p. 834) he wrote “ De Cucumere seu, ut vulgo oquuntur, Zucco marino”—with a figure. “Many kinds of strange plants,” he says, ‘have been brought from remote parts, into Germany, in the last few years.” Among others, these “poma estiva,” of which some are large, some small, some round, some oblong, some sweet, others bitter, of various colors. “Some call these Cucumeri, and assert that they are Turkish Cucumeres, with which opinion I cannot agree. . . . I call them Mala cstiva & Indica,” of which he distinguishes four kinds, Mf. Indica crocea, lutea, citrina, and nigra. ‘ Commonly,” he says, “they are called Zucco marina, because they first came to Us from parts beyond the sea, some from Syria, some from India, which the names given them attest; for they are commonly called, Zucco de Syria and Zucco de Peru.” : The figure of “ Cucumer marinus, Ital. Cocomere marino,” etc., in the Efigies Plantarum of Fuchs, 1549, is a reduced copy of Bock’s, and substantially agrees with that of Pepo rotwndus 10 Lyte’s Dodoens, p. 587, which was “called, also Cucumis marr nus; of some, Zucco marino ; in French Concombre marin, Pom- pons Turquins,” ete. : Matthioli, of Padua (Comm. in Dioscor., ed. 1559, p. 292) 1 more explicit. “There are,” he says, “various kinds of cucar bits foreign to Italy, which can be kept fresh far into the wim ter. They say that these came into Italy from the West Indies, whence they are called by many Indian. " Their taste is sweet ish, not so insipid as ours,” ete. ; and his figure of “ Cucurbua Indica” agrees with that of Bock’s Zucco marinus (or “ Zuceo de Peru”) and with Lyte’s Pepo rotundus. It is certain, then, that the botanists of the 16th century to whom M. DeCandolle refers, used Indian—when applied to varieties of Qucurbita—in the sense of American. In the 17th century, the evidence is not less direct. Parkinson (Theatr Botanicum, 1640, pp. 769, 770) figures and describes (1) Cu- curbita lagenaria mayor, the greater Bottle Gourd ;” (2) “ ¢. reg ndica, ovalts; pyriformis, & fere rotundus, Indian Gourds, oval, peat fashionee and almost round.” Of these “Indian Gourds,” he ae “There is very great variety of these Gourds (or Millions, Chemistry and Physics. 379 some call them, or Pompions, as I may call them) that came out of America or the West Indies, from sundry places, both farther south among the Spanish colonies, and nearer hand, in our own of Virginia, New England, ete.” He notes the great variety of Size, shape and color, ‘some as great as our pompions, some as small as an apple, some discolored on the outside, green with whitish or yellowish stripes, . . some also reddish, spotted or striped, and some of a deep yellow.” Piso and Maregrav (Hist, nat. Brasil, 1648, p. 44) describe and figure a plant called Jurumu [= Yurumu} by the Brazil- Mins, and by the Portuguese, Bobora. M. DeCandolle, p. 201, 8 inclined to agree with modern botanists in referring this to . maxima ; but, as he remarks, it appears to have been a cul- hvated plant. If introduced from abroad, the name given it’ by the Tupis was probably formed, by prefix or affix, from that of Some native (or naturalized) species to which it had some resemblance. In Montoya’s Tesoro, 1639, we find Yurud “ cala- bagillos silvestres,” small wild calabazas: but the name Yurumu —— dias BO cia ae lei SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, I. CHEemistRY AND PHysICcs. Te thus givin .'ree distinct classes of salts were employed : possible; and (3) those Which may unite to produce double salts. On mixing solutions of KCl and of NaCl of various strengths and in various proportions, “ontraction took place in amount varying from 3-4 to 99 volumes ™ 100,000. Diluting these solutions with an equal volume of Water, gave a contraction for NaCl of 15°8 volumes; for KCl of . olumes; of 5NaCl (in 100 molecules of water) a contrac- tion of 144°5; and of 5KCI one of 135°0, The difference in con- ‘action on dilution between NaCl and KCl is 3-8; and between 380 Scientific Intelligence. was 3°4 and 9°8 respectively. Moreover, the contraction observed on mixing salt solutions of different strengths, is the difference between the contraction produced by the dilution of the strong one down to the mean strength C, and the expansion due to the concentration of the weak solution up to the mean, E; C—k= observed contraction. Hence Cy, —Ex, =99, and Cx —Ex=87, the sum being 186; while Cy, —Ex=92 and C,—Ey, =96, the h salts for water. (2) That double decomposition takes place in solution and that the volume change is an index and even a aqueous or alcoholic solutions, when tested with a drop ither he solution of rosolic acid or of phenol-phthalein ; its salts react ac If, therefore, an alkali solution be added to the solution of an an taken from the aniline was determined and in every case whole was removed. This complete displacement of aniline i? other bases is in entire accordance with Berthelot’s principle "i maximum work, the heat of combination between these bases 2” hydrochloric acid being as follows: KHO 13-7 calories ; Nab’ 13-7; (BaH,O,),, 13°8; NH, 12:3; (CH.).N 8-7; C,H,, H, e place under these conditions, is not sustained by these experr ments, stronger bases displacing totally the weaker. Nor ons Berthollet’s theory of mass find any support here. In a seco! series of experiments, Menschutkin pn? 3 twice the quantity aniline salt with the same result. Moreover the reactions ¢ Chemistry and Physics. 381 place equally well in sloahabis ag RtiOn. Since the heat of combi- nation of triethylamine i above that of aniline, experiments were next tried on its Fh pro But since an aqueous solu- tion of triethylamine shows a decided alkaline reaction, it became hecessary to use alcohol as the solvent. The salts used were the - aleoholic solution of alka bers were obtained which showed the complete displacement of the triethylamine by the alkali; thus again disproving the law of Be am acetate, in alcohol, when titeredl with alkali piney showed complete displacement. In titering back, the first drop of Ag fs tthollet. Besides the importance of these facts in chemical theory, the author has founded upon them a quantitative method for the volumetric estimation of the or eae bases referre aS : eee a. Gee xvi, 315, hard ing to the la Sn,As,, thus obtained, is a white metallic mass, brittle with foliated clube fusible at a higher temperature than tin 48 difficultly Soluble in hydrochloric acid with evolution of H,A he cad- ay a menine required three pressings, and gave a ‘br itl metallic Yo compound of as high a composition in arsenic, Cd, As could ‘a formed by fusion. Copper combines with were under pressure only with difficulty. After eight pressings a hom mogene- 4S metallic mass resulted, brittle and granular, orayish- -white in Color. Silver acts similarly, giving a “bluish-gra homogeneous Metallic mass. Arsenic itself, when submitted to 6, 500 atmos- Pheres, ee a metallic luster and a specific gravity of 4°91, Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges. xvi, 324, February, 1881 F 1872 Critve determined the atomic wei of yttrium to be 5, the pure earth hav ing been obtained by the partial decomposition 382 Scientific Intelligence. itations of the solution of its nitrate by means of —— acid, the molecular weight being determined in each fracti When this became constant, four fractions were obtained, sack ‘of which was converted into sulphate and a sensibly. the same pasa of yttria, 48°507, 48°526, 48-497, 48-494 per cent. As a mean of twelve analyses ‘made on different fr bistlons, the number 48° 503 +0°0029 was obtained as the percentage of yttria in the sul- phate. Taking O as 15-9633+'0035 and S as 31-984+-0°012, the atomic weight of Ak bp is 88°94-0°027. If SO, be taken as 80, the atomic weight is 89°02; or in round num 89. Cuive has also redetermined the atomic weight of lanthanum. The value which he obtained in 1874 was in round numbers 139. ts 0 urer pro ) kilograms of the mixed oxides, he converted them into nitrates, heated these up to » pirtial decomposition, and dissolved in water; thus removing entirely the cerium and thorium. The solution ighed 150 gr. aay pure. Tea! volition though colorless still showed the didy- mium bands. It i twelve atomic weight determinations, the minimum being 138°07 and the maximum 138°35. Taking the strictly accurate values of O and §, oA lyase weight as a mean is seal te Taking SO, as 80, the value is 138-22; confirming B results. Cléve avilatin his former value by the great aificulty of driving off all the sulphuric acid in the ignition without pro ducing a trace of dissociation.— Bull. Soc. Ch., Il, xxxix, ae an pAyiiteent 1883 5. On the Synthesis of Cryptidine.—Among the bases sbtained from ae tar, Williams found wi C,,H LEEDs ; : h mixed with water, having an alkaline reaction. A porous remained in the retort. After removal of the water, the oil drie at 100° weighed 11 grams. It was converted into the hydrochlo- rate, repeatedly otvaealiioe! and then eric easy with potassium drate. The oil was collected, washed and again dried a t 100°. It boiled constantly at 270° , had a erin color and “lisagreeable n analysis it ga ve numbers ¢ responding to the crypt dine formals, The hydrochlorate sé petalilies in fine, thin co less tabular crystals which sublime on careful heating. The Pi tino-chloride falls in fine yellow needles when PtCl, in excess is % Geology and Mineralogy. 383: added to its Saar It is easily soluble in both water aut i hol— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., xvi, 289, February, 1883. 6. A Text-book on the Elements of Physics, for High Gobpela and Academies; by Atrrep P. Gage, A.M. 414 pp. 8vo. Bos- ton, 1883. (Ginn, Heath & Co. This will be found to be, in all essential respects, a very satisfactory book for the use for which it isintended. It presents the fundamental principles of the science with great clearness from the experiment pi side, and throughout Il. GroLtoey AND MINERALOGY. l. Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey, vt ] 192 pee the account of “ ee olegic® al work in pro ress” this pet, by Professor G. H. , treats of the Sandstone or so-called Triassic ese i pes eruptive rocks of ussex County Iron Mines, Plastic Clays, and Shore Changes. With regard to ape Red ust, eat it states that the pda higpiroygr are confined ma to the northwest border, but occur also in the central oe (p. 18), and ” the southeastern hordes 33), : ey a nitic. The sandstone is usually seven-eighths or more gt qua ste but contains feldspar, * which is often unaltered, and in some cases much feldspar. and a similar case between an eastern and a wester North Carolina, Professor Cook expresses his yes to adopt sandstone for- Carolina, were once in some wa yc onnected, those farther northeast in the British Provinwe® 7 - and that this The pres is i dae The Ovigss 3 ‘the "ane iias of Eastern (1.) gee aa area, a thousand miles long, if extending from Nova Rad to South Carolina, covering various regions that 384 Scientific Intelligence. are now a thousand feet or more above the sea-level, must be assumed to have been either under marine waters, or else under the fresh-waters of an immense lake. The deposits, as all admit, are not marine; and too, they are not lacustrine. ose of the Connecticut valley correspond well, in all parts, to those of fluvial lake, this would not have been true, forithese rocks would have been submerged, and could not have contributed much, if any, to the sediments. 3.) The beds bear evidence of swift currents and slow inter- mittedly, and often locally distributed, in the varying coarseness and fineness of the beds, answering precisely to the characters of the later valley deposits of the Connecticut ; and these are fluvial, not lacustrine, conditions. 4 e coarse deposits are most common along or toward the borders of the area, yet are not excluded from other parts, and occur at intervals, not continuously, on these borders. The finer cylinders of limestone which are possibly of concretionary org!”, like the common “ clay-stones ” of clay beds. Th ness of : h unusual i.) The coarseness of much of the sandstone, the ; a Geology and Mineralogy. ‘ 385 also ice-floes; for water alone could not make such local drop- pings among the fine deposits. The characteristics are, in fact, quite closely those of the strati- Jied drift of the valley. The abundant mica and the occasional pebbles of mica schist in the Portland beds (east of Middletown, Ct.) were evidently brought in by a stream from the northeast flowed ov mica schist. The great and thick conglomerate of Montague and Sunderland, Massa- chusetts, wonderful for its coarseness, its stones being. gener- ley; and judging from the greater extent of the Triassic deposit, they must have been vaster floods, or else longer continued, than those from the melting glacier. And “occasional masses three or four feet in diameter ” (E. Hitchcock) make certain the presence of ice-floes, © great ice-carrying floods seem to demand for their origin a laciated condition for the Monadnock region and the White ountains and other elevations of New Hampshire and New England, hus the facts seem to show that the era of the Red sandstone Was one of great precipitation, with one or more long intervals of excessive cold. nd the character and limits of the deposits are Sides) in American geological history. t 1s a strong argument, I think, against the supposed cross “onnection of the areas that they all have a direction parallel to the earlier lines of uplift. The area passing through Pennsy|- Vania has igmoid form which characterizes 386 Scientific Intelligence. ing evidence of shallow-water origin. An artesian boring at New Haven, now in progress by the Winchester Arms Com pany, has gone down into the sandstone 1500 feet below the sea-level without reaching the bottom of the formation; and, only two miles west, the metamorphic schists rise to a height of ‘nearly 400 feet above the sea. The tro ugh is here, consequently, over 1900 feet deep, and the pitch into it on this western side is at the rate of about 1009 feet a mile; and it may prove to be much greater when the artesian Doring has gone down its next proposed 1000 feet. The maxim m depth along the center of the trough may reatly exceed the y aepth near New Haven, whatever the amount. The valley in its independent movements, and its relations to the mountain-making disturbances of oe ped has nothing to favor the idea of any connection with that of New Jersey in the Tri- assic bey unless possibly through en Lata Sound; and this, if a fact, would not be of the kind implied in Professor Cook’s bipothedte J. D. D. 2. Life of Sir William E. Logan, Kt., LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS., etc., First Director of the Geological ‘Survey of Canada, by Ber- warp J. ARRINGTON, Ph.D., Professor of Mining in McGill University, late Chemist and Mineralogist to the Geological Sur- merica; and his peau bad roved to have the best of “est ities; they stand, and American Geological Science is being built upon t them. The “ Azoic rocks” had been che ra ro el schistose rocks, and trace out # ante th map t e folded strata of lime- stone they include, so as to give intelligible shape to these bottom terranes of the geological series. e Green Mountains, and the country subordinate to them on the west with the included Taconic range, had pre eviously been jous upturned beds; ae he ended in Pein in his dg tr: the Lower Silurian age of the main system of beds, the Taconic group included, and their Onainda' deere to the meet te mire é RL BLE Me Tn os ORS oe TS | Geology and Mineralogy. 387 strata about the horizon of the Chazy and micaad ear forma- : oO ins 3 an the contormability én superposition between the quartzyte and _ the same associated formations in many sections through the States of Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut,—so thor- As in Canada, so to ‘the south, the quartzyte often overlies (some- ae nearly horizontally) the ‘limestone and schists; but whether 0 through overturns or not is unsettled.* a the course of the writer’s explorations of Berkshire (Massa- ehusetts) he was told, when at one of the hotels, of an unknown mer in hand, and returned, laden with specimens, at dusk: it was Logan in 1866, studying the anadeton as to the relations of the limestones and the associated rocks. The large, colored, Geological Chart of Canada prepared under Logan’s direction, embo ying the results of his survey and also through the aid expetially of Professor J a Hall—the distribu- tion of the geological formations over the Northern United States own to Central Pennsylvania, is another oon work by Logan, 5 only American geological map yet published that in exactness and fulluess of detail and style of execution compares favorably ie. ‘the Zo char ts of the — of epi on tains a valuable article on the Quebec Group by Principal Daw- >i and a list of Sir William Logan’s more important publica- om a. D. the Utility a the Method of the Pennsylvania State Oat Survey in the Anthracite Field. Extracts from a by Bens. Sat Bg tae (late Geologist of Jone?) read on the American Institute of Mining Engineers in February. * The writer has in progress an investigation bearing on this point. 388 Scientific Intelligence. methods ‘of illustration, and the vast amount of practical instruc- tion conveyed. What is chiefly wanted from such a survey is of course direct or indirect aid toward turt to man’s benefit the resources of nature, and in this case rai facilitating the mining of anthra- much coal is there? where is it ? at what depth? with how steep a dip? in what direction ? with what basins and saddles of what length, breadth, depth or height? in what direction would level drifts run? where would the coal be best attacked b y shafts or drifts ? what beds of rock or coal lie above or below the coal worked, and at what distance ? what is the situation of the coal with reference to water courses or other features on the surface of the ground ? and the like; and it is easily conceivable that it uld be impossible to give indications of this kind so fully and saiistactarily with a whole volume of words merely, as with a properly constructed map. Thirty years ago, Protessor Lesley A be d and ag into use a mothod of Repreeen ones such the bed upon paper, “esd shire g further to hope for in pre- cision and clearness and compactness of iba information. The method has never before nee ~— to so large @ field, with such completeness in minute * The State price of this atlas is $1.50, and it can be obtained pane in rolled sheets in a eth ag oard tube or folded sheets in an octavo pocket, a ing FE. W. n, Clerk of Survey Commission, 223 Market Street, + Mr. pees pa was p in charge of the Anthracite Esc ‘a vA ngast, 1880, when a reconnaissance of the coal fields was commenced. In the following November a plan was submit na te chokgh ete cays for mapping the coal basins. rk has bee January the field work in one third of the region had been completed Geology and Mineralogy. 389 formity of shape than had hitherto been supposed, as irregularly in fact as a carpet crumpled together by a push from one side ments for working a mine are plainly set forth; and money need I h addition to the extremely valuable and elaborate under- stound map of the surface of the Mammoth Bed, on a scale of 800 feet to an inch, there are three sheets of twelve cross sections ally seen throughout or not; and a small skeleton map of the basin (3200 feet to the inch) to show the places of the sections. All these sections across the basin are on the same scale vertically as horizontally, and hence show the geological structure undistorted, Which is of course their true object. But on such cross sections of the structure the scale has to be too showing the true relative order, thickness and distance apart, 0 all the important beds, whether of coal or of rock of different inds. On the same sheets are added five similar columnar sec- Hons, on a smaller scale (100 feet to the inch), of the Pottsville Conglomerate underlying the set of workable coal beds; anc be- Sides, a diagram, on a scale but one-third as large, of twelve columnar sections of the Pennsylvania Geological Formation, No. AIT, and up to the Mammoth Coal Bed; also a convenient repeti- Hon of the little skeleton map to show the places of the sections. uch sections of course, if compared with what is found in a shaft °r boring or in natural exposures, show how vain it would be to : coal at many a point where perhaps a small _ Streak of coal or black slate, or dark colored earth, may (as so often has h ppened with consequent immense loss of money) ea for a time, illusory hopes of diseovering a valuable coa lhe > 390 Scientific Intelligence. of slate. On the same sheet there is in addition a diagram (200 identification of the beds of different mines is plainly of very great importance in giving a knowledge of what beds may be expected Another sheet gives a topographical map of the surface on scale of 1600 feet to an inch, half less in scale than the under- ground map, and with contour lines every ten feet. To give a knowledge of the situation of the basin with reference to the whole anthracite region, a sheet is added with a general map of the northeastern corner of Pennsylvania, on a scale < nearly five miles to an inch, showing all the different fields im their relative position. On the same sheet there are eleven col- umnar sections, on a scale of 300 feet to an inch, to show the coal beds of the different basins and their relation to one another. It is striking here how variable is the number of coal beds in the different sections and at what variable distances apart. The sheet has further a list of the 340 collieries in operation, with their yield in 1881, amounting in all to thirty and one-half millions of tons. _The total annual yield of anthracite year by year from the be- ginning is given on a separate sheet, divided, too, in separate the kind published for many years by Mr. P. er Vith such enormous drafts upon the fixed deposit of coal the very weighty question presses forwar w long before the ow large the amount of coal is that we are drawing upon 5 for on the underground map the actual extent of the Mammoth Coal Bed and of its comparatively small portions hitherto worked out is given, and the HA phic sections show by what thickness pite of its inclina- tion at different points and even of its overturned condition 1» Geology and Mineralogy. 391 Some places. The drawing shows both the horizontal extent of the bed as it now lies and the space it would take up if flattened out. The same sheet has tables of figures to show the extent of the different workable coal beds in the basin. Every Pennsylvanian and American, directly or indirectly in- terested in the anthracite lands or mines, or in the price of anthra- cite, or iron, or other articles for which anthracite is largely con- 4. Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey. No. 1.—This first number of the Bulletin of the United States Geological Sur- itic ro abstract in this Journal, xxv, 139), with a geological sketch of Buffalo Peaks, by S. F. Emmons, Geologist-in-charge of the Rocky ivision. 5. Paleontology of the Geological Survey of New York. Vol. v, Part L Lamellibranchiata, by James Hat.—This of the plates. No descriptions are given excepting brief charac- ters of the new genera proposed, These plates were lithographed Several years since, and 3,000 impressions, the usua Ww Struck off by order of the State. The text has been ready for publication, ut for more than three years no printing € one on the Paleontology, the needed appropriation b the legis- lature not being made. Descriptions of the species wi probably 392 Scientific Intelligence. appear in the publications of the State Museum in the course of the year, ee all is uncertainty as to the appearance of the text of volume V. in the Paleontology. The delay works evil to geolog- ical science te impeding the work of others who need to use the rent in the study of the fossils of other States, and by hinder- ing ; ies. 6. North American Fossil Mammals.—In the March number of the American Naturalist, Professor Cope has an important paper on the Extinct Dogs of North America, with many illustra- tions; and in that for April, a continuation of his memoir on the Extinct Rodentia. 7. Annelid Remains from the Saget ve the Isle se re by G. J. Hrxpr. (Communicated to the Swedish dem Sciences, Sept., 1882.)—Mr. Hinde bias prontntite his disobeoeies of Annelid remains face Canada and England to the Island of Got- nd. The specimens described in this paper from the latter region are Saersie! and their figures cover three plates. observes that the nearest living representatives of 2 ancient Annelids are those in the family of the Eunicea, an opinion sts- Anneli by Professor Ehlers, the principal authority on living - n A Rites of the non-marine Fossil Mollusea; by CuaR A. ae 144 pp. large 8vo. Extract from the Ann yal Report of nn Director of the U. 8. Geological “Survey, {981-100 formation of all : ages ond Report “of the State Mineralogist of California, hen sg 1, 1880, to October 1, 1882. 288 8v0, = State, ‘and also in the peri s and deterhtindi6n of minerals, and otherwise i in giving information as calle d for. The Report also Geology and Mineralogy. 393 duction of gold at foreign localities. Some of the other topics discussed in the report are: the iron ores and iron industries of manufacture; mud voleanoes and Colorado Desert; diamonds in California. The A pend. —_— S papers on the forest trees of poral ia by A. Kello . Rs Wt obi : se description of the various voleanic rocks collected and studied by him and of the accompanying minerals, As older eruptive rocks are recioghthed foyaite, syenite, diorite and diabase; as younger eruptive rocks: leucitite (rare), phonolite, tephrite, basanite, Piagioclase -basalt, nephelinite, nepheline-basalt, limburgite, pyrox- ite. The author has applied the various modern me the examination of the different rocks, a ud his descriptions are age amount in mae they enter. The rock salad pyrononite i is described as a limburgite, or magma-basalt, withont olivine, in other words, a rock consisting essentially of augite, magnetite, and @ glassy base, with, as an accessory, haiiynite and rarely plagio- arr nephelite and olivine econdary mineral, occurring at several spots on the island a Aiode Antonio, erevices on the lava, the author de- Scribes a new member ‘of the alum group, ander the name of Dumreicherite. Yt forms crusts on the lava, with fibrous struc- ture. An optical examination showed it to be probably mono- clinic ; this result was s confi st ; t cr ystallization, An analysis by F. Kertscher gave; SO; Al,Os MgO H,0 36°65 T14 11°61 45°01 Na, Cltr. = 10041 - se age Speke formula is 4MgSO, + Al,S,O,, +36 aq. Poster: ing Quartz “Cr rystals.— =r. W. E. Hrppen has 394 Scientific Intelligence. become detached by process of disintegration and were imbedded in the mud. The cry i i expos ight in the III. Borany anp Zoouoey. 1. Essay on the Development of the Vegetable Kingdom, espe cially on the Distribution of Floras since the Tertiary period: Ver- such einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt, inbesonder€ der F'lorengebiete seit der Tertidrperiode; von Dr. ADOLPH Go LER, Ord. Professor an der Universitit Kiel. 8vo. 1879, 1882. Leipzig, W. Engelmann.—This interesting treatise is in two parts» or volumes; the first, published in 1879, discussing the develop- Botany and Loology. 395: predecessor, Der Vegetation der Erde nach ihver klimatischen Anordnung, of the late Prof. Grisebach, is conceived in a differ- 0 d i more modern spirit _ a <) = = oO % o 5 fu 2 © < oO, ° s © =) which he reached the conclusion—which the scientific world h then Just come to—that the present character and distribution of : O a8 respects the northern hemisphere and its floras, where the key to the mystery was to be sought, Heer and Unger were reviving im this interest Plato’s idea of the Atlantis. But the very next year, 1856, the first memoir of the present writer was published (Mem. Amer, Acad., vol. vi), and what Nathorst and Saporta unite. iM pronouncing “ the true solution of the problem,” was brought to ight.* m these lines and from the doctrine of natural selection volume to the elucidation of the distribution of the vegetation of ame temperate part of the northern hemisphere. This part opens With a 7 N . ean torest during the Miocene, and its gradual transformation es * Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 6, xv. 153.—Count Sarporta adds in a foot-note that Asa Gray was not the only botanist who had the idea of explaining the presence 5 . * - ore: } Whence these vegetable races had radiated in one or several : en pa the remarkable works of Prof. 0. Heer,” ete. : The paralle}] memoirs there referred to are one by Count Saporta, published in i Marion. The first of these appeared in the same year with “Sequoia and its History iri i i Advance- ent of Science,” August, 1822: but the initial memoir, in . Amer. Acad., the publication of Heer’s researches upon the arctic Miocene ad r disadvantage—of developing the principal ideas from a consideration of the exi ing vegetation only,—not so well, im as has i Pp dopted, it haps worth while to reproduce these dates. The explanation (given in 1878) ‘Or the extinction of Tertiary elements of the flora in Europe, which have be: in America and Asia, is recapitulated by Nathorst, as likewise by Wallace, in his Island Life (pp. 119 and 120), in the latter case without allusion to its source SE. Scientific Intelligence. into the present vegetation and segregation into the present floral regions. The relations of this flora to that of N. E. Asia and to that of Europe are then very briefly illustrated; and farther on, after a consideration of the eastern and central Asiatic floras parative lists given in ocer e inces, outlined in the last chapter of the work, as defined on the one ha Botany and Loology. 397 povee names, fifty-one in number. Among them he identifies a etula near to our B. lenta, Ostrya Virginicu, Fagus ferru- ged, Vitis Labrusca, and a Magnolia allied to our M. acumi- nata or cordata, Among the indeterminable leaves are some resembling those of Carya amara and of Quercus aquatica. Of Species identified with or nearly like living Japanese species, a ekova, two species of Styrax, Deuizia scabra, Acer pictum, Dictamnus Fraxinella, and Stuartia monadelpha, may be men- tioned. The bearing of this evidence, as supplementary to that ih f : e 3 ican and northeastern Asian floras, is obvious, and is well discussed y Nathorst in this paper, the generclia of which are now made accessible to us in the French abstract for which Saporta is to be on recently noticed in this Journal, p. humerous wood-cuts in the letter-press, and by eleven fine photo- graphs in quarto, and, moreover, is made accessible by an i G. appended translation into French. with some additions 3. Stre gy. By Groree W. Trvon, Jr., Vol. I, 8v0, 312 pp., 22 plates. Philadelphia, 1882.— figures. The principal sources from which it has been compile are Woodward’s executed with more care. Nevertheless, it will undoubtedly be ‘found very useful by a large number of persons to whom the larger and more elaborate works are not accessible. The present volume includes chapters on anatomy, habits, geographical and geological distribution, nomenclature, classification, and collect- “ng, ¥. 398 Miscellaneous Intelligence. TV. MiIsceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. and Geodetic Abate Sor » the year ending June, setts report exhibits in a striking manner the extension of work expressed in the change of name of the Survey by the addition thereto of Geo- detic. The carrying of the primary and secondary triangulation from the coast over the States has been prosecuted in earnes st. This will be of the highest value to the States, since it will give them a uniform and connected frame-work for use in all local surveys. Incidentally to this is begun the measurement of the are of the 39th parallel nearly 50° long, and of the 99th degree of longi- tude, which in the United States is 23° long, an and which may be extended north and south to a length of 50°. This will furnish two lines of the highest value in solving the great problem of the figure of the earth. The western part of the 39th parallel is admirably situated for using long lines in the primary ba ie ula- tion. One of those actually observed on is 192 miles lon Among the appendices should be tina f named: ar report sec the results of the Longitudes of the Coast and Geodetic Survey river, by Dr Livre ; a treatise the plane table, Rams matwenes on the deter bide Ain of time, longitude, latitude and azimuth, by Mr. Scuorr; report on the currents and tempera tures of Bering Sea and the adjacent waters, by Mr. Datr; and an attempt to solve the problem of the first ‘landing place of noe sebede in the new world, by Capt. G. V. Fox ott gives in his four papers on the determination of time, longitude ‘latitude and azimuth a new edition of paper s that had tuvilo ne Mr. Dav a Ns 2. Teleseopie Meteors.—In the Mheerssvony for April, Mr. Den- meteors is as 22 to 1.” He remarks on the apparent slow mouep Miscellaneous Intelligence. 399 The time, direction, length of path, rcleaid, brightness, etc., of such meteors, with — of ii and magnifying power, would be desirable items in such a record. This would be par- oem true for nights of anoent fh Se eS like the 10th of Augu The area which Mr. Denning names as one that can be “ee staal by an observer is, we believe, much too great (this Journal, II, xli, 191). On the other hand, it is doubtfat whether . St eas 4 > (a OS oo R z oe 5 5 ~~ cs) “h > ® = 4 8 ~~ aS & — = > = DS 8.5 *d ® 8 ~~ - © ~~, = S S a ee 3 the whole field “of a comet-seeker can be wil commande ~The gold medal of the pubaactane al has ee gene this year to Dr. B. A. Gould for his asoocas Argentina. 4. Medals awarded by the Geological Society of London,—At the annual general meeting of the Geological Society, held Feb- Tuary 16, 1883, the awa ards by the Council of the various erg weré announced. The Wollaston Gold Medal was awarde Mr. WwW. T. Bla — “in recognition of services to geolo o8y. 4 oa Géppert, of Breslau, i sey Saag of his labors in fossil botany.” ety balance of the same fund was given to Mr. John Young, half of the balance of this fund was given to Mr. P. Herbert Carpenter, author of papers on Jurassic Crinoids, Cretaceous ’ Comatule, ete.; and the other half to M. E. Rigaux, of Boulo ogne, author of researches on the Jurassic forma‘ions of the oe and their gre fossils. The Bigsby Gold Medal wa sented to Dr. Hicks, in “ nioeselation of his labors abot sa aaa fosilieryen and the Archean rocks of Great Britain an da.” Hyat ice- presidents, Professor H. Newell Martin of Johns Hopkins Univer- "sity and Professor * S. Packard, Jr. of Brown; Secretary, 400 Miscellaneous Intelligence. gc Samuel F. Clarke of Williams; Treasurer, Professor William B. Scott of Princeton; these ait exdoutive committee. The object of the society is “the associa- i s 8 - vestigation and wetted laboratory technique and se administration, and other topics of interest to investigators an ‘a teachers of natural history, and for the adoption of such measures as shall tend to the advancement and diffusion of the knowledge of ie history in the community.” Membership is limited to instructors in natural history, officers of museums and other scien- tif institutions, and other persons “sarge oe engaged in some , branch of natural history. Meetings are to be held at differ- ent_places Sadek ts by the society, not outside of the Rass National Acad at Washington in April, Profeisir oO. C. ‘ , as Vice-President, had been the Acting-President since the decease of Professor Wau. B. Rocrrs, was elected - . R the office of President. a following persons were elected m bers of the Academy : Graham Bell, Dr. John 8. Billings, Professor G, K. Gilbert, Spiciones H. B. Hill and Professor C. n Clausius, DeCandolle, Dumas, Helmholtz, Hooker, Huxley, Kirch- hoff, Kélliker, Oppolzer, Pasteur, Richthofen, Sylvester, Stokes, Struve, Thomson, Virchow, Wu On Thursday, the 19th, the Ac delay participated in the cere- monies connected with the pena: of the statue of JosEPH ENRY, under the a — of the Smithsonian Institution, at eminent physicist. = list of the papers read at the meeting is to another number. Index to the Pople Science Monthly tor the twenty volumes deo 1872 to 1882, and of the three en of the s upPlem ne 169 pp. 8vo. New York: 1883. (D. Appleton & C —Th publishers of the sieliiitiors Popular seiabes Monthly bane done its “heat an important service in issuing this one Index. Omission.— Contributions to the Geological Chemistry lostone National Park, The — on page 351 are by Lurr AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES] and Potsdam Sandstones, and in certain Archean Quartzites, in ; [Published by authority of the Director of the United States Geological Survey.] In his address before the Geological Society of London, delivered Feb. 20th, 1880, Sorby describes sands whose grains are bounded externally by crystalline faces, but have on the gli is in “perfect optical and crystalline continuity ” with the interior grains, each broken fragment having been changed toa “definite crystal.” He shows, further, that such crystalline Sands occur in the sandstones of various ages “ from the Qilites down to the Old Red,” and that they are commonly little coherent, but that in some specimens ‘a number of grains may often be seen cohering more strongly than the rest; and these Show clearly that the cavities originally existing between the See have been more or less completely filled with quartz. oreover, on carefully examining the less coherent grains by Surface-illumination, we can see, not only the planes and angles _ due to unimpeded crystallization, but also more or less deep Mpressions due to the interference of contiguous grains, thus Proving conclusively that the deposition of crystalline quartz took place after the nuclei were deposited as a bed of normal 4M. Jour. an Series, Vor, XXV, No. 150,—Junz, 1883. 402 R. D. Irving—St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. and. The very imperfect consolidation sometimes met with is, perhaps, not so very surprising, when we reflect on the very small coherence of many large quartz crystals which are yet in close juxtaposition. However, it does seem probable that this erystallization of quartz sometimes contributes very materially to the cohesion of the grains in hard and compact quartzites. In such examples as the Gannister of the South Yorkshire coal-field we can see, in a thin section, that the grains fit along- side one another in a very striking manner, and it is only by extreme care that good proof can be obtained of the actual deposition of quartz between them. owever, in the case of a highly consolidated sandstone from Trinidad, the proof of the deposition of quartz is as complete as possible; the outline of the original grains of sand is perfectly distinct, and the cavities between them are filled with clear quartz in crystalline contin- uity with the contiguous grains, so that the whole is a mass 0 interfering crystals, each having a sand-grain as a nucleus. The rock has thus been converted into a hard quartzite, almost lized in situ. All my specimens of these quartz rocks are really highly quartzose mica-schists ; and, so far, I have failed in my endeavors to trace the connection between them an true sandstones, though possibly this could easily be done 12 some districts which I have not examined.” These very highly interesting and important observations of Sorby have received surprisingly little attention, an had missed them altogether, so that it was not until after I had But more than this, to this deposition of interstitial quartz, I find certainly true. in certain Archean quartzites, and crystalline schists of the northwestern states, 1 select . quartzites as likely to yield the most readily, to this sort of i pad OO “Again _ meteoric influences, a kind of lustrous q' Le. D. Irving—st. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. 403 investigation, evidence of the nature of the metamorphism mvolved in their formation,’ The frequent gradation of the Most compact, non-granular, often vitreous quartzites into plainly arenaceous and even pebbly, water-deposited rocks, and the small number of minerals and consequent proba- ble simplicity of any chemical reactions involved, encour- aged me to hope that I might find some clue to the solu- formation is more indurated in its lower portions. The amount of induration varies greatly, in some cases being a barely per- ceptible hardening, and again ranging through various degrees to an extreme in which the rock becomes a compact almost Vitreous quartzite, the thin slabs ringing like steel’ when struck ith a hammer. Now it is certain that in such an unaltered ordinary orthodox regional metamorphism through which the crystalline schists are generally believed to have passed. More- Over, I had often observed a peculiar hardening and vitrifica- tion of both this sandstone and that of the St. Peters, on ex- posed surfaces, which is plainly a result of weathering and therefore of a necessity wholly unlike such a thing as a general Te-crystallization. This peculiar effect of weathering, which I av i * In Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, pp. 158, 333, the exposed blocks of Eocene ‘Sandstone which are known as “grey wethers” in Wiltshire, and which occur in in the region of the Ardennes in France, are spoken of as becoming, under uartzite. . 404 R. D. Irving—St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. above alluded to. Beginning first with the Baraboo quartzites. I noticed at once in many sections, as viewed in ordinary light, a distinct clastic structure, rounded grains of quartz, out- lined often by a little film of iron oxide, making up most of the section, but with a clear quartz in the interstices. Often some of the quartz grains would seem ill-defined, and look as though they melted away into the interstitial quartz; an appearance which has been noted by other observers in sections of the quartz-rocks of various regions. In polarized light, however, it was often observed that all appearance of a clastic nature or to restore a broken crystal, after the lapse of many ages, was to me a new conception, and one which seemed to call for very rigid demonstration before acceptance. There was little difficulty in proving that the apparently fragmental quartzes LR en rena a de aU Seninscy Senge an 2 ss Lt. D. Irving—St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. 405 _ Were indisputably of that nature, while the proof that such a thing is possible as the deposition of quartz upon a quartz sur- face, in such a manner as to be erystallographically continuous with it, was also forthcoming. At this stage of the investiga- may now describe briefly a series of specimens illustrating these different degrees of alteration, beginning with the least indurated. The first specimen is of the Potsdam sandstone from the quarries at New Lisbon, Wis.—the same as described by Mr. - A. Young in this Journal for July, 1881. It is a very fine- rained, pink- and white-mottled sandstone, from which the i i i The indura- readily in the fingers. The crumbled sand, mounted in balsam, shows every grain edged with more or less of the deposited quartz, which is always optically continuous with the original grain. The line of junction between the new quartz and the old is always strongly marked, either by a contrast between 406 BR. D. Lreing—st. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. the cloudiness and worn surface of the original grain and the pellucidity of the deposited quartz, or by the presence upon the surface of the original grain of a coating of oxide of iron. Only the smallest of the grains seem to show perfect crystalline faces, the supply of new quartz having been so great as to pro- duce some interference in most cases. This is indicated by the indentations observable in the crystalline outlines, as shown in figs. 1, 2 and 38, which represent grains of this sand as seen mounted in balsam. In this mounting the crystalline faces 0D the upper sides of the grains are not readily seen, but only the rough surfaces of the original grains, and the crystal outlines of the deposited quartz. The interference has, however, never extended very far, every grain showing some traces at least of the crystalline faces when viewed in a dry mounting. vb ently the small amount of induration in this sandstone 18 t be connected with this relatively slight amount of interference. As shown by Sorby,* the most perfect crystalline outlines are to be met with in quite unconsolidated sands, the quartz having then had full opportunity to develop perfect faces. In the figures drawn from the mountings of this sand, I have placed the three grains with their elasticity axes in a comme direction. 4 The second specimen on the list is from the Potsdam sand- stone of the quarry at the depot at Black River Falls, Wiscon- sin. It is a white, much coarser-grained, and perceptibly wpa indurated rock, than the last, but many crystalline facets 0: some size are perceptible. The cause of the greater induration becomes readily apparent when the balsam mounting of crum- with that of some contiguous grain. * Op. cit., p. 37. _ ton, Columbia Co ER. D. Irving—St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. 407 grains of this rock are shown in contact, the line drawn on each indicating the position of its elasticity axis. On the upper side of the upper one of the two grains the pyramidal outline is apparent, but below the * deposited quartz of this grain interferes with that of the next one, upon which no linear out- lines whatever are visible, the interference with the deposited quartz of contiguous grains hay- ing evidently been complete. € next specimen is one from an outlier of St. Peters sandstone, in the town of Arling- , Wis. The larger part, of the specimen shows a fine-grained, very loose, saccharoidal sandstone, in which there is almost no trace of induration, but in which numerous flashing points t indicate the presence of crystal coatings to the grains. ou one-fourth of an inch, however, on the weathered side of the Specimen, presents the appearance of a completely vitreous quartzite. Seen under the microscope a thin section of this vitrified crust shows plainly the original rounded grains of the Sandstone, but everywhere between them a deposited quartz which is divided off into areas codrdinating optically with the Original grains. The interference between the different areas of this deposited quartz has been nearly always too great to allow of the formation of crystalline outlines. Figs. 5 and 6 repre- Sent portions of the section of this crust. The smooth curved lines of the figures show the outlines of the original grains, while the shading indicates the way in which the original and deposited quartz polarize together. The next specimen is one of St. Peter’s sandstone from Gib- raltar Bluff, a very bold and prominent point on the south side of the Wisconsin River in the town of West Point, Colum- bia Co, Wis. This rock is one which, if found among the crystalline schists, would undoubtedly be classed as a quartzite. Itisa very much indurated, light-colored rock, in which a very fine arenaceous texture is perceptible only on the closest inspec- tion. The thin section of this rock in polarized light shows 408 R. D. Irving—St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. only interlocking grains of quartz. These interlocking grains are of two very different sizes, the larger ones predominating . while the smaller here and there fill up spaces between the larger. Close study of this section in ordinary light brings out the fact that each of the larger ones of these areas, and here and there one of the smaller ones, is made up of a rounded, smoothly outlined worn grain, and a border of deposited quartz, the border and the worn grain within polarizing together. outlines of the bordering quartz are exceedingly irregular, the ifferent areas interlocking with one another more or less 1ntrl- cately. I have attempted to represent a portion of this section diagrammatically in fig. 7, the smoothly outlined areas of this figure representing as before the original worn grains and the different shading indicating the areas that are optically contin- uous. The lines marking the junction of the original grains with the deposited quartz are marked sometimes by a difference 1D the purity of the two quartzes, but more especially by the pres ence along the lines of flakes of ferrite and of numerous cavl- ties, the ferrite flakes evidently representing a ferruginous coat ing on the surfaces of the original grains, while the cavities are plainly produced by the great irregularity of the surfaces UpoP which the new quartz was deposited. Some of the smaller areas of interstitial quartz above alluded to may have been wholly produced by deposition, the infiltrated quartz in this case not coordinating itself with original grains. It would evidently be difficult, however, to prove this to be the case, since the out- lines of the original grains are now perceptible only when they were well coated with iron oxide or were rough enough to pro duce cavities in the deposited material. a) e next specimen is from the Archzean quartzite of Devil 8 Lake, Wis. As I have indicated elsewhere* the larger portion of the quartzite of this region is without arenaceous appe ‘i : being usually of a non-granular, flakey texture, and of a color — * Geology of Wisconsin, vol. ii, p. 505. Bees oat : a “i 4 es j R, D. Irving—St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. 409 from nearly white, through gray, pink and purple to purplish- red, and even brick-red. Now and then a tendency to an are- naceous texture is observable, and occasionally small areas are little more than moderately indurated sandstone. It is from one of these least indurated portions that the present specimen is taken. The rock is only a little more indurated than that above described as from the Pots- dam of Black River Falls. The 4 i interference has been too great to allow the formation of any crystal- e line outlines in the deposited quartz. nd The rock is, however, much further from a true quartzite than either of those above described from the St. Peter’s sandstone. Figures 8 and 9 represent grains broken from this rock. _ The sandstone thus described grades immediately into a more indurated rock, A specimen taken a few inches rom it shows a rock much like that of the St. Peter’s at Gibraltar Bluff, both as to texture and amount of induration; and this resemblance f deposited quartz The only dis- ii a vi YH th fis Within a few inches from the point at which the specimen 410 &. D. Irving—St. Peters and Potsdam Sandstones. last described was taken, the rock has become hard, vitreous, urple quartzite, without trace of arenaceous appearance; in other words the ordinary quartzite of the region. The thin section of this rock, in polarized light, shows no trace what- ever of a fragmental origin, the grains being completely inter- locked, but in ordinary light, here and there, may be distinctly seen the rounded outlines of an original grain, polarizing with the deposited quartz surrounding it. As in the Gibraltar rock, ‘so also in this section, there is much of a fine interlocking interstitial quartz which may have been in part or wholly deposited. specimen shows numerous large quartz fragments embedded n a finer non-granular matrix, which is distinctly schistose, being apparently a clayey quartzite. At first sight the thin section of this rock seems to show no trace of fragmental origin, being made up of relatively large quartz particles embedded 1n a matrix composed of finer angular quartz particles and much of a kaolinic material. The quartz grains show throughout a tendency to have their longer axes in a common direction. Occasionally in the finer matrix are developed small but dis- tinct muscovite scales. Close study of the section brings out here and there the same feature as heretofore noted, namely, the presence in the interlocking angular quartzes of cores compose of rounded grains. The section of this rock is indistinguishable from a number that T have examined of the argillaceous quartZ- ites of the Lake Superior Huronian. It thus appears that the alteration which has produced from sandstone certain Archean quartzites and quartz-schists is of undisturbed and elsewhere wholly unaltered sandstones, and even as the surface induration produced in some sandstones by atmospheric waters upon occasional feldspar particles in “ sandstone. A similar origin may be assigned for the silica of + s White and Cope—The Green River Group. — 411 most of the indurated rock of the St. Peter’s and Potsdam sand- stones; but in some cases there are indications that the indura- tion has followed lines of faulting, where the silica may be extraneous.* In the case of the Archean quartzites of the Baraboo region an extraneous source is suggested by the fre- quent occurrence in these quartzites of strings and veins of white quartz, often supplied with cavities lined with quartz crystals. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, February, 1883. Art, XLI—On the existence of a deposit in Northeastern Mon- tana and Northwestern Dakota that is possibly equivalent with the Green River Group; by CHARLES A. WHITE. [Published in advance by permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. ] THE great fresh-water’ Eocene series of strata known as the Green River Group occupies, as is well known, a very large Utah and Colorado; but in the absence of positive evidence it may well be doubted whether the strata of that group ever ex- * See T. ©. Chamberlin’s description of the formation at Ironton, Wis., Geol. of Wis., vol. iv. ; * 412 White and Cope—The Green River Group. these buttes are composed are approximately horizontal, and ley, the strata of the Laramie Group were traced out into the country upon either side, and up into the higher lands, includ- thickness of coarse sandstone strata, the lower half being more i This sandstone presents a precipitous front at almost all sides of the irregularly Resting directly and conformably upon this sandstone 1S mass of light gray fissile caleareous shales which, to one familiar with the aspect of the typical shales of the Green River Group, at once suggests their identity. These shales are plainly a rem White and Cope—The Green River Group. 413 buttes in this region, but the fissile shales were found only on Sentinel Butte. It is probable, however, that they will be found at the top of other buttes in that region. Searching these shales I found the two species of fishes which are described in following paragraphs by Professor Cope, but no other traces of fossils of any kind were discovered in them. It will be seen from Professor Cope’s remarks that. these fishes are not closely related to any hitherto described, and they are therefore not of service in directly identifying the strata from which they come with the Green River Group or With any other. They are, however, of such a character that they may have lived in such lacustrine waters as the Green River Group was deposited in. In the absence of paleontological evidence we must rely upon the stratigraphical relations of this deposit in considering its claim to be regarded as a part of the Green River Group. am by no means confident that this small deposit is a part of that group, and once continuous with the same to the south- westward; or that it is in any sense equivalent with the same; but the following facts are worth considering in that connection. (1.) This small fish-bearing deposit follows in regular order, and rests conformably upon certain sandstone strata, which in turn rest conformably upon typical Laramie strata. The Green River Group at its typical localities in like manner rests con- _ formably upon the Wahsatch Group which in turn rests (in many places at least) conformably upon the Laramie Group. (2.) The lithological characteristics of this fish-bearing de- posit are surprisingly like the fish-bearing layers of the Green River Group. (8.) Although the fishes of this deposit are not identical with any known forms in the Green River Group, their characteris- ties are such that. no reason is apparent why they may not have lived at the same time and in similar, if not the same, waters as those that have been discovered in that group. (4.) Their nearest affinities are with fishes that have been found in the Green River Group, and none like them have ever en found in the Laramie Group. It may be objected that in the Green River region the great Wahsatch Group exists between the Green River and Laramie roups; and that it has not been shown to be present in con- hection with the small fish-bearing deposit in question. In re- ply it may be remarked that although so thin, the coarse sand- Stones between this small fish-bearing deposit and the Laramie Strata on Sentinel Butte may be reasonably Tae to repre- sent both the Lower Green River Group of Powell and the Wahsatch Group of Hayden. Indeed it seems plausible that 414 White and Cope—The Green River Group. whether the typical strata of either the Green River or Wahsatch Groups were ever continuous with these northern strata or not, we have in that upper one hundred feet of Sentinel Butte the chronological representatives of the Upper and Lower Green River and the Wahsatch Groups combined. Whatever the facts of the equivalency of the strata here discussed may be, I have no doubt that the small fish-bearing deposit in question was laid down in waters that immediately succeeded the close of the Laramie Group, and that it is not properly a part of the same although it rests with apparent conformity upon it e following is Professor Cope’s description of the fishes referred to in the foregoing remarks : On a new extinct genus and species of Percide from Dakota . Territory ; by E. D. Cops. The specimens of fishes submitted to me by Professor C. A. White represent four individuals and two species. These be- long apparently to the Centrarchine division of the Percide, and although the future discovery of the structure of the ven- tral fins may invalidate this conclusion I do not anticipate such a result. JI am also unable to determine whether there are teeth on the vomer or not. As regards generic affinity the species do not enter any of the genera now known from American or Hu- spinous rays originating posterior to the line of the anterior border of the spinous dorsal fin. i Plioplarchus, and give the following diagnosis. Family charac- ters, etc.: Mo 1 uninterrupted. The species may be described as follows :— Plioplarchus Whitei Cope. General form elongate oval, the dorsal and ventral outlines of the body about ie ae convex, The length of the head enters that of the head and body to the extremity of the cauda White and Cope—The Green River Group. 445 vertebrae, three times; and the depth of the body at the ventral fins enters the same two and two-thirds times. The muzzle is short and obtuse, and the mouth opens obliquely upward. The orbit is very large, and entgrs the length of the head to the border of the operculum three times, and is one-third of itself longer than the muzzle. The radial formula is: D. IX—12; C+17+; A.V—14; V.?; P. 18. All the soft rays are fissured distally. The dorsal spines merease in length to the last one, as do also the anals. The pectoral rays reach to below the sixth dorsal spine, and beyond the extremity of the ventral fin, which does not quite reach the anal. The soft rays of the anal extend to a point below the extremity of the vertebral column, forming a well-developed n. The extremity of the soft dorsal is lost. The external rays of the caudal fin are a little longer than the median. The Spine of the ventral fin is not strong. The caudal pedunele is moderately narrow. The vertebral column is convex upwar anteriorly : no., caudal XVI; abdominal XII to the edge of the operculum. A caudal vertebra preserved in place has two lat- eral fossee separated by a horizontal keel. The abdominal cav- ity extends posterior to the anterior spinous rays of the anal in, so that the anterior interhemals are directed upward and backward. The ribs are long. There are four interneural bones anterior to the dorsal fin. The postcoracoid is elongate. There are seven or eight longitudinal rows of scales visible above the vertebral column, and sixteen below it; the size diminishing rapidly downward. All the bones of the head excepting the muzzle and jaws are covered with scales. There are six rows on the cheek below the eye. The scales of the body have the basal radial grooves and ridges few and coarse. The external surface is finely but strongly rugose with tuber- cles or grains, with a trace of fine concentric lines across the superior and inferior edges. Marginal denticles small. The interior faces of the scales which cover part of the fossil dis- play numerous very close and fine concentric lines, with a small triangular rough area extending from the edge toward the center. Measurements : Total length, with caudal fin ...-.....---+-------+-+<.= .116" PigGh ot Croat of dovaal Oy cos ens ee wenn ee 033 Wength of caudal fin to base of vertebra..--... -------- °0247 weneth of caudal vertebra... ... .-..-----+4- ---+ 6+7-.-=4¢ 0365 nL Of base OF AGIOAL FM ooo won na on cee ke eee oe 0325 amneth of base of sult Goraal-...- .. .. .-------- ---~++4- 015 Length of seventh dorsal spine -----..---------------- 017 sength of third dorsal ray = -------.<-------.--------- 020 - 416 White and Cope—The Green River Group. Ree ee PIS 8 to 0165 ween er BUMS PRY OS el 022 Beemtmer Beeb Oe BURL Min ee oc eee 0245 Length of pectoral fin -..----_- Br ee Got. Poe ae 020 meme Oh Verte! far! 2202 Ler Gl Fe PR ie 017 arepen Of caudal peduncle 2... i... SL es 012 Depth of head at orbil, ‘gedaialy wet ou SoU REG. ual 026 The aia specimen of this fish is in excellent preserva- tion. The species is dedicated to Dr. C. A. White, the distin- euished Ba ADE and paleontologist. Plioplarchus sexspinosus Cope. This species is represented by two specimens, both of which lack the head and body anterior to the dorsal fin. One of the specimens is accompanied a. its reverse. The ata gyn Pe formula. shows more numerous spinous, ae less ‘enters ous span inten rays. The formula is ; O+17+4+; . VI-—9. The last anal radii are somewhat jancad and these may have been more than nine, but no trace of others exist and it is clear that they were less numerous than in P. Whitet There are about eighteen series of scales below the vertebral column at the front of fous dorsal fin. Their external surfaces are not so rough as in P. Whiter, as the granules are confined 8 the center of the scale, and in the concentric lines are mu more obvious, and form a wider border. Ctenoid denticles ais tinct. Caudal fin openly emarginate Measurements : Depth at anterior edge of anal fin ..____......_-------- 0206" Length from do. to the end of the — vertebree _.---- 0305 Length of caudal fin to vertebral centra _._.._.--------- 020 Length of baie of doteal 8 (62 2 oe ee 0282 Length of base of soft doteel 20 oe 2 eee 015 Length of ae GP OMNI cE oe eo ye eis 017 Length of base of spinousanal . 2... 25. 2-2 22h 008 Length Of (i006 Gormal Wolds, 0 013 Length of Siti sil apie te 015 Depth of caudal peduncle, about ...........-.--------- oll Remarks :— Among the known extinct types of fishes it is Mioplosus Cope that approaches nearest this one. The former is charac- teristic of the Green River beds of the Lower Eocene. - e It only permits the general statement that its age may be tiary or Upper Cretaceous. 4 . : J. LL. Smith—Concretions in Meteoric Irons. 417 Art. XLII.—On the Peculiar Concretions occurring in Meteoric frons ; by J. Lawrence Smita, Louisville, Ky. _ BOR some time after meteorites, either stony or iron, became special objects of interest, little attention, comparatively, was Z1ven to their chemical and mineralogical constitution, and it 1s not much over forty years that good and reliable information On these points has been furnished. Much of the work that has been done deserves to be repeated by our improved methods as regards both their mineralogy and chemical con- Stitution. This study is necessary in order to guide us in the future to some correct view of their lithological position €. e developed by the sections of them that have been thus far made. Notably among this class is the Dickson County iron, that was seen to fall in 18385. Whether this would hold good, is not known that can be placed in the same category. ut the presence of concretions is the general rule. re these concretions? Those which first attracted Ss. he second kind of concretion noted is of a brighter yellow color than the last, with which it was long confounded, until artsch pointed out that it consisted essentially of phosphorus and iron; it is seen in a very marked manner in the Lockport, Oluca, Tazewell and many other irons. A third concretion, of a dull black color, frequently more or less mixed with the sulphuret, was found to be a form of graphite, as in the Sevier and Toluca irons. A fourth concretion, found by me in two different irons, was in small parcels and consisted of protochloride of iron. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tutrp Sprnms, Vou. XXV, No. 150.—Juns, 1883. 28 418 J. L. Smnvith—Concretions in Meteoric Irons. A fifth concretion I discovered in 1876 in the Cohahuila masses, called the Butcher meteorites. It is second to none in twelve inches square, which is now in the hands of Professors DesCloizeaux and Daubrée for inspection, and for the present n t is chromite. The . in the cabinet of the Garden o detailed mineralogical description of them, for they are well known by their dark bronze color, which color in troilite of the pure type extends unaltered to the very boundary of the enclosing iron. They are either granular in structure, or more solid with a marked cleavage in one direction; the latter kind I have found to be the purest form. It is readily acted on by dilute chlorhydric acid, especially when slightly warmed, and is was for some time considered identical with the magnetic sul- phuret of iron (pyrrhotite); but my labors in 1853* proved Ne to be a protosulphuret of iron (FeS); and further examinations with the purest specimens have confirmed the first results. Rammelsberg and others have, by independent analyses, sus- tained this Sospumbenlien. Troilite is hence a meteoric min- eral having no terrestrial representative. att The iron immediately enclosing these nodules, and within & milligram or two of them, gives but a trace of sulphur on analysis. The finest type of pure troilite I found is 1n the Sevier County iron, although this iron contains nodules of it largely mixed with other minerals, ‘Sate (Phosphuret of iron and nickel (Ni,Fe,P)—We do not have to go far in the examination of troilite saben before finding some of them coated or penetrated by a bright * This Journal, vol. xix. OY ee ee ; pou _ June, 1876, Ann, de Chem. et de Phys. 1876. J. L.. Smith—Coneretions in. Meteoric Irons. 419 yellow mineral, quite like some sulphurets of iron but unlike troilite. It is also found in fissures and small irregular cavi- ‘of the longest diameter is now in the cabinet at the Garden of Plants. Most frequently the graphite present is largely mixed * This Journal, vol. xix, p. 151. Annales de Chem. et de Phys., iv-xix, 392, 1870, and xxx, 419, 1873. arches in solid earbon com ds in meteorites. This Journal, May and 420 J. L. Smith—Concretions in Meteoric Irons. with troilite. It is never crystalline in structure like that im the interior of cast iron; it is quite like the graphite of Cum- berland, England. On treatment by ether or petroleum spirits,. a minute quantity of a crystalline substance is dissolved, that will be referred to later on as mixed with su Daubréelite—This is one of the most interesting concretion- ary products in meteoric iron. I discovered it in 1875, in the Butcher meteorites; and since then I have found it in other meteorites, but so finely divided and mixed through troilite nodules that it would have escaped notice altogether had it not been for its very marked and prominent mode of occur- rence in the above mentioned meteorites. Being easily separated from the iron, I was enabled to study its properties thoroughly, and thereby furnish a process by which it could be detected in other meteorites when completely obscured from the eye. his mineral occurs in the Butcher meteorites in the manner already fully described.* It is commonly associated with troilite: but the lines of demarcation are so distinct that par- ticles of the pure mineral are mechanically detached without difficulty. Its composition is now well known to be FeS+ €15,, being analogous to terrestrial chromite, with the oxygen of the latter replaced by sulphur. There is no terrestrial mineral of the same composition.t Full details of its mineral characteris- tics, chemical composition, ete., are found in a previous publica- t which is at present in the Mineralogical Museum of the Gar < eo. of Plants at Paris In mass it is perfectly black; in sma fragments under the microscope it is translucent and of a dar ruby color. This translucence of chromite was first noticed & few years ago by an assistant of M. Fouqué of the College of France. Lawrencite.—This mineral, so-called by M. Daubrée, I first found in the Tazewell meteoric iron as described by me 1858,§ and still later in the Rockingham iron. It is 4 solid green protochloride of iron with probably nickel. The quan tity obtained was small and could not be analyzed. * Comptes Rendus de |’Acad. des Sciences, 1876. + This Journal, vol. xvi, Oct., 1878, will be found a full and complete account, analyses, etc. Comptes Rendus de |’Acad. des Sciences, 1881]. d This Journal, vol. xix, p. 151, 1853. J. L. Smith—Coneretions in Meteoric Irons. 491 Aragonite.—I first discovered carbonate of lime in small Hach of the concretions enumerated, in all six excluding the last, is almost as characteristic of meteoric iron as the nickel- iferous alloy of the metal. It is true that we find graphite Segregated in artificial iron from the blast furnace, but in this iron it is always in crystalline flakes, which I have not found Im meteoric iron. ‘ he above facts do not exhaust the interesting facts con- nected with these concretionary minerals of meteoric iron—for Some of them, if not the majority, are somewhat complex in their character, being mixtures of the various substances found in two or more of the purer nodules; and besides there are other compounds not visible to the naked eye and only reached by chemical means, I will describe some of them that are apm and give the method of separating the different com- pounds, - Before, however, passing to this part of the subject I will say a word about Célestialite, for, while it does not occur in a con- ereted form in any part of meteoric iron, it is found associated With the graphite, and also in the troilite containing graphite. A full description of it has already been given. . Berthelot has supposed that the ether used in the experiments had some- thing to do with its formation, but I have since repeated all my ormer experiments with petroleam ether in his presence with Similar results, here is also an undefined Cobalt mineral occurring in the troilite of some of the veins, which will be referred to beyond. Compound nodules.—The difficulty of obtaining a sufficient quantity of these concretions from many irons, t i : Scribed my research to those coming from three irons: Ist, the Only for a partial examination; 2d, the 1e 5 the Sevier County—the latter two furnished the principal ma- terials for my research. I will simply detail my process with the results from the * This Journal, vol. xliii. + This Journal, vol. xii, 1876. + This Journal, May and June, 1876. 422 J. L. Smith—Concretions in Meteorie Irons. treatment of a nodule of eight grams of a compound troilite nodule from the Cranbourne iron, for this is most accessible: to any one desiring to repeat the experiments. This nodule was very finely powdered and treated with petroleum-ether (boiling under 72° C.) for about one hour, filtered and washed with the same petroleum, and the entire amount of liquid evaporated slowly to dryness, This gave me a few minute crys- tals of celestialite mixed with sulphur. But as this substance is so enveloped in the mineral maiter, it is only in a subsequent part of the process that the greater part of the celestialite is obtained. After the treatment by petroleum, the dried powder is treated by dilute chlorhydrie acid (1 acid to 1 water) and warmed over a water bath for an hour or two, and after all action has ceased more acid is added (1 acid to 1 water) for about half an hour; this will dissolve entirely all the troilite with the evolution of SH,, leaving a black residue. The solu- tion of troilite is filtered and the residue washed. The troilite solution was analyzed and found to contain a very minute quantity of nickel, 0°40 per cent, and the merest trace of cobalt; sometimes more of the cobalt will be found than nickel, but this arises from another mineral in the compound nodule that has been partially attacked. The residue was then treated with petroleum-ether in the manner already stated, and the filtered solution on slow evaporation in a small beaker gave beautiful long needle-shaped crystals that weighed 045 grams— a mixture of sulphur with a sulphur-carbon compound. The residue from the last irons was treated twice over a water bath with strong chlorhydrie acid, and the soluble portion filtered off and concentrated gave a greenish-blue solution which heated with nitric acid did not acquire a red color and on analysis was found to contain cobalt-oxide with a little nickel, 028; bersite for I have obtained it from other meteoric irons by treating them with chlorhydric acid, and then verifying the composition of the crystals by analysis. ‘ t which was not magnetic was then treated with nitric acid, evaporated to dryness, and treated again with a lit- tle nitric acid and water and filtered; an intensely green solu- * Rose found it in square prismatic crystals in the Braunan iron, but he could not determine either its composition or precise erystalline form. J. L. Smith—Coneretions in Meteoric Irons. 493 tion is obtained, composed of €r -010, Co ‘015, Fe,O, ‘028; in fact it is daubréelite with cobalt and oxide of iron coming from an unknown cobalt compound that had made itself very mani- fest in a previous part of the examination, The residue, which has been now reduced to a few milli- grams, is found to be graphite with a few minute particles of a siliceous mineral. The only novel feature of importance in the results above stated is the appearance of considerable amounts of cobalt in certain parts of the process. It is evident that this IS not a part of the composition of the troilite, for chlorhydric acid removes this latter mineral and i One time in a plastic state from the effect of heat. Some may think otherwise from the fact that petroleum-ether dissolves Sulphur and sulphur carbon compounds from the concretions im the iron. But the fact is that my observations and experi- Ments on cast iron show that this objection has no weight. As by a proper treatment I dissolve crystals from most cast iron by the agency of ether or petroleam-ether—a note of which fact I have already publicly announced—my experiments on this point are both clear and convincing although I have not yet completed them, So far as they have gone they were shown €xperimentally to M. Berthelot and others, and if my health Permits I shall complete them before many months. 494 J. LeConte—Mineral Vein Formation. Arr. XLIL—On Mineral Vein formation now in progress at Steamboat Springs compared with the same at Sulphur Bank ; by JosEPH LECONTE. formed by deposit from the water. The mounds, however, run ‘ It forms here, in fact, a shell-like deposit, firm, hard, and ringing under the lies against the slope of the western hill and reaches to neat the bottom of the valley. (Fig. 1. * Laur, Annales des Mines, for 1863, p. 423. Phillips, Phil. Mag, 1871, vol xiii, p. 401. . J. LeConte—Mineral Vein Formation. 425 water still issuing from a narrow crevice in the middle, some is conspicuous and in some cases the filling of fissures by suc- Cessive deposits has given rise to a vertica 9. banded structure like that found in veins. Fig. 2 is an ideal section of such a vein of >i the natural size. This structure, however, =| 3 as == previous observers. The deposits in many places are stained and clouded with metals, especially iron oxide and cinnabar. Wherever the issuance of the hot water is still going on slowly the silica is found in a gelatinous condition. Other observers have found in small quantities many other metallic sulphides, and even free gold is said to have been found in these sul- phides. Here then undoubtedly mineral veins are now forming _ under our eyes, but their metallic contents are in very small Kage aig ms to issue lower down to th I g found active vents and even feeble geyser eruptions which are said to have been more violent at one time than now. It will be seen then that there are indeed here fissures filled and now filling with quartz veinstone of ribboned structure and containing metallic sulphides, yet these are not fissures and ‘iis: 496 FLeonte Mineral Vota Formation: veins in ‘the country rock, but only in the crust deposit. The country rock is completely buried under this crust probably 20 to 30 feet deep, and therefore completely concealed from view. The hot alkaline waters loaded with silica seem to have de- posited so abundantly that they cover and choke up their own vents, while other vents are constantly formed by the expan- sive force of steam fissuring the crust previously formed. The great fissures described above were probably formed in this way, and perhaps opened by a slight bodily sliding of the crust toward the bottom of the valley. The analogy of the filled fissures to veins is not so complete as I had expected, or as it is at Sulphur Bank. If we could get beneath the erust and find fissures in the country rock filled by deposit, then indeed the analogy would be complete. This is exactly what we actually find at Sulphur Bank. In the immediate fumarole area, the country rock is concealed, but wherever not covered by de- posit its character is evident. On the hill slope and in the valley to the very margin of the deposit it is everywhere a quartz-trachyte or rhyolite. Along the crest of the western ridge, however, there is an outburst of black, very basic rock, probably basalt. This ridge is probably a basaltic dyke break- ing through a rhyolitic country rock. It is not improbable that the fumaroles are the feeble remnants of a voleanic activity Inuugurated by the basaltic outburst. innabar mines in the vicinity.—About a mile to the west- ward of the springs, cinnabar mines have been opened and reduction works established. A considerable amount of cinna- bar has been taken out, but the work is now abandoned. Here the surface appearances are entirely different from those at Steamboat Springs, and more like those at Sulphur Bank. There is no crust deposit, but on the contrary the whole bill- side rock is decomposed by acid vapors into a white chalky earth like that at Sulphur Bank, except that in this case the rock being rhyolite, the chalky earth is full of disseminated grains of free quartz. Tunnels have been driven into the hill- side at various levels and the ore extracted from the decom posed earthy matter, but the sound rock has not been reached. In this loose earth are found in considerable quantities both cinnabar and sulphur—the former in streaks as if deposited 12 water-ways, the latter more irregularly and widely distributed as if formed by oxidation of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Ip some places. sulphates of iron aad alumina are very abundant, . even more so than at Sulphur Bank. There can be no dou t, therefore, that here there came up, and probably are still comin up, hot waters containing alkaline carbonates and alkaline sa phides, carrying in solution and depositing sulphides of mer cury and iron by cooling, and by oxidation depositing also sul J. LeConte—Mineral Vein Formation. 427 . and forming sulphuric acid. In a word the phenomena are re very similar to those at Sulphur Bank, except that here the up-coming solfataric waters are less abundant and perhaps. less rich in metallic. sulphides. This, however, can only be determined with a certainty by deep explorations. Comparison +of Steamboat Springs with Sulphur Bank.—A comparison of the phenomena at these two places is interesting. The surface phenomena, it is seen, are very different: in fact in complete contrast. At Steamboat Springs the whole country tock is covered 20 to 30 feet deep and completely concealed by a hard crust of deposited silica; at Sulphur Bank, on the con- trary, there is no crust but only a soft chalky residue from the acid decomposition of surface rock—a residual silica from whic At the California Geysers—so-called—we find also solfataric action with its invariable accompaniment of acid decomposition idue, but the freight of ited. In true geysers like those of : land, the super-heated waters contain usually only alkaline car- _ bonates, and therefore carry in solution and deposit only silica~ 428 O. H. Landreth—Tramsit of Venus. Thus then, we have a connected series of deposits from -super-heated waters, their characters depending upon the com- position of these waters: 1. rue geysers the waters being ure alkaline carbonates deposit only silica. 2. At Steamboat prings there are some alkaline sulpbides, and, therefore, some metallic sulphides, but not enough to prevent a crust of depos- ited silica. 3. At the California Geysers—so-called—solfataric action is conspicuous and therefore no crust is formed, but only earthy residue of acid decomposition of surface rocks. Here we have also metallic sulphides deposited, but these are of little value. 4. At the cinnabar mines, near Steamboat Springs, we have solfataric waters depositing cinnabar and other metallic sulphides in considerable quantity, but whether in profitable quantity cannot be known certainly unless deeper explorations be undertaken. 5. Finally, at Sulphur Bank, the deposit of metallic sulphides is abundant and the formation of metallifer- -ous veins is illustrated in the most perfect manner on accoun of the deep explorations undertaken at this place. In connection with the idea so common, that the metals are ‘derived immediately from igneous rocks, it may be well to draw attention to the fact, that igneous rocks are by far most abundant and igneous action most conspicuous at Yellowstone ‘Geysers and at Steamboat Springs, where there are little or no metals; while at Sulphur Bank the country rocks beneath a depth of 20 to 80 feet are stratified sandstones and shales of ‘Cretaceous age, the igneous rocks being very superficial and evidently contributing nothing to the metalliferous deposits. It would seem that igneous action supplies a necessary condition (heat) for the formation, rather than that igneous rocks supply the materials of metalliferous veins. Art. XLIV.— Observations of the Transit of Venus, Dec. 6th, 1882, at the Vanderbilt University Observatory, Nashville, enn.; by Ouin H. LAnpReErs, Professor of Engineering; Vanderbilt University. By the courtesy of Dr. L. ©. Garland, Chancellor and Pro- fessor of Astronomy of this institution, in granting me the use -of the University Observatory during the Transit of Venus of Dec. 6th, 1882, I am enabled to make the following report of the observations and results obtained in connection therewith. given. ; Observations of external and internal ingress were wholly a ‘d O. H. Landreth—Transit of Venus. 429) prevented by clouds which continued to obscure the sun almost without interruption until 641" 12", after which the sky re- mained clear during the day. Instrumental Constants and Circumstances. Adopted latitude of equatorial dome = +36° 87 5877-25. Adopted longitude of equatorial dome = +0* 39™ 0-68" from Washington. perture of equatorial Focal length of equatorial = . Magnifying power used = 210 diameters, Value of one revolution filar micrometer screw I — : IE 211297, Diameter of cross-wires in filar micrometer = less than 0/34 (15 measurements). Aperture of transit circle used for time determination = 3-92 inches. Focal length of transit circle used for time determination = 54°00 inches. The adopted latitude and longitude depend on the position of the astronomical station of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Ing students, with an engineer’s transit and a suspended fine steel wire corrected for deflection, temperature and inclination. The adopted value of the astronomical position of the coast. survey station as furnished me by the office is: Latitude = +36° 10’ 1°37. Longitude = +0" 38™ 55°897° from Washington, clock rate and correction to the assumed clock error. lue of one revolution of the micrometer screw was the “double distance” between the two positions of symmetri- cal tangency of one wire with the other, as determined by the narrowest possible line of light visible between the two wires. Finat RESULTS. Times of Contacts. Internal egress “suspected,” (a) Dec. 64 2 40™ 103° Washington mean time, “a * ‘ “ a a eden “ee ci. « ‘ — = Eh A ” +“ a m 92-98 sh “ ‘ certainly past,” (d) 64 3b 1™ 23°8 430 O. H. Landreth—Transit of Venus. Filar Micrometer Measures of Planet's Diameter. Polar diamete: 941 (4 observations), mean at 25 25" 68. Equatorial ae — sigs 24 (4 observations), mean at 22 34™ 355. Remarks on the Observations.—Concerning the phenomena -seen at the two recorded instants (a) and (4) my note-book says: * “The two recorded times at third contact are those at which the narrow band of light between the sun’s limb and planet became so narrow and faint as to cause ‘suspicion’ E tainty’ of its being only the light around the planet. At 10* or 11° after “ in grheee: (a), I glanced to see if tangency had yet occurred and found it, as near as I could judge, pete ‘and again saw it bar etity past just before ‘ waranty past,’ (2), which was recorded when the narrow band of light had cer- tainly quieted down into a Venus halo.” This closed band otf light continued visible for about 20° after (4), and remained as an are of 45° from sun’s limb on north side of planet until 2" 48™. At fourth contact the recorded times (c) and (a) are those at which the obliteration of the notch on the sun’s limb S = Qs o fq*) ~ 00" 1° a. M. and at 2" 00" 00° Pp. Mm. Vanderbilt mean time. ‘Time was taken and recorded for me during the observations by J. T. McGill, Ph.D., Fellow and Assistant in Chemistry. am also indebted to Assistant Engineer W. B. Boggs, U. 5. N,, Instructor in Engineering, for aria a charge of the distribu- tion of time signals, as well as to C. L. Thornburg, B.E., Fellow and Assistant in searches oo efficient and extended assist- ance in the determination of time and instrumental shan In order to give Mr. E. E. wd the advantages of t observatory time-determination and geographical position, be was invited to observe the omen from the observatory grounds. This he did, having his time-sounder in electric circuit with the observatory eo clock. His results are given in his letter appended. I am gratified to be able to state tbat Mr. Barnard has since been appointed to a fellowship in astronomy in this institution. March 30, 1883. Transit of Venus, Dec. 5th and 6th, 1882; as observed by Mr. E. E, Barnarp. Latitude +36° 8’57’-88. Longitude 39™ 0-781» west from Washington. The following are Observed Times of Phenomena described, Washington mean time. ; 3 a. b. rv. 215 16™ 325 2h 40™ 505 2h 41™ 408 2h 46m 298 ‘gh y= 15°78" O. H. Landreth—Transit of Venus. 431 Point of observation, about 200 feet west of Vanderbilt Observatory telescope. Five-inch Byrne refractor mounted as a simple equatorial, with tangent screw motion in R. A. Mag- nifying power for contacts 178, used with wedge-shaped sun rism. Time obtained from the observatory by means of a telegraphic sounder beside the observer, and in circuit with the observatory Dent sidereal clock. Several minutes before and after calculated contacts, the minutes and intervening ten seconds were called from the observatory. First. contact lost in dense clouds. Second contact uncertain, the sun being glimpsed for a moment; Venus seen, I am confident, at or very close upon tse this time is noted as II. Clouds until afternoon. re tange the black drop, and probably a little lat I think this observation can be relied on as being very close. Full aperture was used at second contact without any sun- shade, The other observations were with aperture reduced to 4$ inches. 432 S. Calwin—Fauna at Lime Creek, Lowa. Art. XLV.—On the Fauna fotantt at Lime Creek, Iowa, and its relation to other Geological Faunas; by S. CALVIN,: State University of Iowa. A PAPER by Professor H. 8. Williams, in this Journal for February, 1883, “On a remarkable Fauna at the base of the Chemung Group i in New York,” appears to me to record more than one remarkable aiasoveey: The finding of fossil peice at High Point, New York, identical with species that hav heretofore been known only fr from the Rockford Shales, atone Lime Creek above Rockford, tows is a most interesting fact and well deserves immediate record. In discussing the signifi- cance of his discovery, however, the author of the above-men- tioned paper, misled no doubt by information from untrust- worthy sources, bas fallen into a few errors pone in the interest of clearness in geological matters, should be set For the better understanding of the aueinious involved let me give a catalogue of the Lime Creek fauna as far as the species have been described. Some of the species enumerated below have not been catalogued from this locality by previous writers, but my own collections, made personally, embrace all the species of this list, except Letorhynchus iris which is in- cluded on the authority of Mr. R. P. Whitfield. Stromatopora incrustans H. Stromatopora expansa H. & ea solidula H. & " unopora planulata H. & Fistulipora occidens H. & W. Alweolites Rockfordensis H. & W. ulopora Towensis H. & W. Aulopora saxivadum H. & W. Z ‘aphrentis solida H. & W. Campophyllum nanum H. & W. Chonophyllum ellipticum H. & Cystiphylhom mundulum FH. & Pachyphyllum solitarium H. & achyphyllum Woodmani White. Acervularia inequalis H. ee bak Smithia Johanni H. Smithia multiradiata A & W. Stomatopora alternata H. & W Crania famehii aH. & W. Strophodonta arcuata Hall. Strophodonta canace H. & W. Strophodonta cabbie Calvin. S. Calvin—Fauna at Lime Oreek, Iowa. 433 Strophodonta exilis Calvin.* Strophonella reversa Hall. Strophonella hybrida H. & Streptorhynchus Ohemungensi re is ¢ Productella Uissimilis Hall. P roductel a Spirifera Whitneyi Hall. Spirifera Hunger ord Hall. Sp hi estes & W. Abe Cyrtina Dowaicnntes var. recta H. Aitrypa reticularis Lin. Atrypa hystric Hall. Rhynchonella contracta, var. saxatilis H. Leiorhynchus iris Hall. Leiorhynchus (undescribed species). Gypidula occidentalis Hall. ‘mi Orthoe Plates of Placoderm fies. allied to Dinichthys. That the High Point fauna, as given by Professor Williams, bears a close resemblance to the Lime Creek fauna, will be . This species was described by me in the Ballet of the cos — Geo- logical Survey of the Territories, vol. iv, No. 3, a op quadra . epher hame, however, was preoccupied by Professor ‘aialiow (Proceedings Academy of a 1860), and I, therefore, propose to substitute the above name in Poni that originally a applied. é This fi f Spirifera is not very rare in the Rockford Shales. It dif- t ne esti of Sp ry Pe ee acs ie from all described forms in many important parti rticulars. h of ssor T. H. persion of 434 S. Calwin—Fauna at Lime Creek, Towa. Chonophyllum and Cystiphyllum among its corals, is © strik- ingly Carboniferous in aspect” (this Journal for February, p. 98) is an opinion that will not be shared by many paleontologists. Even the little Productus, Productella dissimilis Hall, that Pro- fessor Williams regards as so “ decidedly Carboniferous in aspect’ (10th line, 1st par.) is a true Devonian type; and there 1s not another species in the whole list that even remotely suggests any Carboniferous affinities. Spirifera fimbriata, as far as I know, occurs in eastern strata belonging to the Upper Helderberg and Hamilton ; not in the ‘Chemung. Now the specimens found at Lime Creek agree 1n size with the Upper Helderberg rather than with the Hamilton forms, a fact that, so far as it has any significance, points toward the lower Devonian rather than in the opposite direc- tion. strata near Iowa City, one of which has been described by Dr. C. hite as Strobilocystites Calvin’. Previous to this dis- covery it had been very generally supposed that the cystideans became extinct in the Upper Silurian ; certainly they did not persist very far into the Devonian. Nevertheless, last year, at another locality near Iowa City, I found the Lime Creek species, Productella dissimilis and Spirifera Whitney, in a thin bed of shale associated with plates of cystideans. The signifi- cance of this fact does not need to be stated: Then again, in 1876 and 1877, a number of Lime Creek species, including Productella dissimilis, were found associated with a peculiar fauna in some black shales below the limestones at Independence, Iowa. This fact was noted by me in a paper published in the Bulletin of United States Geological Survey, vol. iv, No. 3, in 1878. The Independence limestones have been referred by all geologists who have studied them, to the Hamilton, though Dr. Barris refers beds containing a simular fauna at Davenport, Iowa, to the Upper Helderberg. Acervularia profunda, A. Davidson, Phillipsastrea gigas and some other species that occur in the Independence limestones, are found in strata that have been referred to the horizon of the Upper Helderberg in Canada and Ohio. For a shell with a “de cidedly Carboniferous aspect,” Productella dissimilis has the somewhat questionable habit of always keeping company 1" Iowa with Lower Devonian types. ie In a note in this Journal for April, p. 311, Professor Williams withdraws the statement near the top of page 99, that Professor Worthen had referred the Lime Creek beds to the Kinderhook ; but the statement farther on, on the same page that “ the Lime Creek fauna is certainly more closely related to the fauna gf the Kinderhook group of Missouri, Indiana and Illinois than S. Calwin—Fauna at Lime Creek, Iowa. 435 Indiana and Illinois. Not only are all the known species dif- ferent in the two formations, but very few even of the Lime Creek genera are represented in the Kinderhook. Of the Atrypas and Strophodontas that constitute so conspicuous a feature of collections from Lime Creek, the Kinderhook has not so much as a single representative. It would be a more hopeful undertaking to attempt to prove a close relationship i) first two, the Atrypa reticularis, and the genera are strikingly Similar as shown in the following table: Niagara. Lime Creek. Kinderhook. Stromatopora, Stromatopora, Alveolites, Aiveolites, Cystiphyllum, Cystiphyllum, Stromb: ; Smithia,* Strophodonta, _ Strophodonta, Strophonella, Strophonella, Streptorhynchus, Streptorhynchus, Streptorhynchus, Orthis, Orthis, Orthis, Productella, Productus, Spirifera, Spirifera, pirifera, Atrypa, Aurypa, Pentamerus, Gypidula, Rynchonella. Rhynchonella, Rhynchonella. Some genera omitted from the Lime Creek list are not repre- sented in either of the other two groups. A glance at the table will show on which side the relation is most marked, an yet I think few geologists would claim that any very close re- lationship exists between the Lime Creek and Niagara faunas. The fish faunas of the Lime pte and Kinderhoo beds crowded full of the teeth of Cladodus and other Carboniferous Hybodonts. The last sentence of Professor Williams’s brief note in the i t New York wosaint with which, not only these beds, but all our Devonian strata are to be correlated, is questioned by some and hence “not satisfactorily determined.” The discovery at * The two species of Lime Creek fossils referred to Smithia are certainly not generically distinct from Strombodes. (See remarks of Rominger on this point, Geol, of Mich., vol. iii.) 436 FF. D. Chester—Stratified Drift in Delaware. all the Devonian fauna of Iowa as well, leaves the question of exact equivalency still doubtful. ing for the Kinderhook beds of Iowa and Iilinois,* it the Crinoids, the representatives of the Productide, and other groups of fossils, all assume Carboniferous features which ally the Kinderhook with the Burlington and other undoubted Sub- carboniferous strata. Art. XLVI.— Observations upon Stratified Drift in Delaware; by F. D. CHESTER. Ir a line should be drawn from the city of Wilmington to the village of Newark until it touched the Maryland boundary line, it would follow approximately the southern limit of the rchzan rocks of the State. These gneissic and schistose strata strike in the common northeast and southwest direction and dip at high angles to the southeast. Resting upon the south- ern flanks of the latter rocks, occur unconformable Cretaceous strata, whose subdivisions and positions exactly correspond to those of the New Jersey series. The dip of these latter Creta- ceous clays, sand and marls is so small that the surface of the country is extremely level. The Archean region, on the contrary, is one mass of hills, separated not by wide but by extremely narrow valleys, and generally by mere hollows, depressions or ravines. ; xaminations throughout this hilly country point distinctly to the fact that these elevations and depressions have_ carved out by the forces of erosion—these forces being ordinary aerial disintegration of the gneissic and schistose rocks, an erosion along drainage lines. That mere hollows entirely surrounded by hills could have been dug out only by aerial disintegration is certain. e enclosed hollows serve to separate the majority of all the eleva- tions of this Archean region. Often hollows connect hollows by short passages, the hills sloping in all cases gradually. Often, again, hill-slope will meet hill-slope, while the ravine separating winds along for distances varyin m a few haa: > | dred feet to several miles. Still oftener it is seen that hill *Some authors still regard the Goniatite beds of Rockford, Indiana, as Po sibly Devonian. ee B f. D. Chester—Stratified Drift in Delaware. 48% Slopes are scarred by broad shallow gouges. To describe all the details of form in this irregular but picturesque region id suffi 0 ess Baie of them, those containing an excess of black mica, resist Waters than through direct atmospheric contact, hence no But that this erosion was not entirely aerial in character is evident. The creeks of the region wind for miles through Qu is) co = on oe = @ ie) ° = oO ie) S: ° =} 2) = 4 ix) Ps oO a oe =a ° bce o cI m fs] 5 QQ e ° ce] 0g oO 9) Lae | ct ) pede S lines has been a great factor in the wor n. mine clearly their gneissic origin. Quartz grains, finely rounded, hornblende particles, round ut with less smooth surfaces, particles of white mica and rarely grains of magnetite. The 438 F. D. Chester—Stratijied Drift in Delaware. clay present was the element giving variety of color to the soils and was found coating and cementing the particles. To sum up the results of numerous observations upon the surface deposits we have the following general section : WS See ee ee eee 6”—18” enw UIAY 22.52 ee SO Se ee 6' —14' Red sand and water-worn pebbles, highly stratified. 4’ —12’ bles. It often happens that this stratification of the soil was no way appparent, but whenever the materials became coarse, such stratification was distinctly seen. fo The exact position of these forms in the classification of drift phenomena is uncertain, unless they be termed, after Hitchcock, Terrace-moraines. Their origin is still more uncertain, and the only probable explanation is some checking of the motion of the waters at certain points, whereby a greater amount of ma- terial was deposited in particular localities. F. D. Chester—Stratified Drift in Delaware. 439 There are two facts which seem to point to the depth of the waters in which the stratified drift of northern Delaware was deposited. ‘The first of these is the presence of stratified sands upon the top of Polly Drummond’s hill, 250 feet above the Cretaceous plain. This elevation is well known as the highest point in the State, and therefore the highest point at which such deposits could have been made. The materials were well- washed reddish and yellowish quartzose sand, unassociated with pebbles, and the section seen showed the most eminent strati- fication running in a horizontal direction. The second fact is the occurrence of two hills of unstratified glacial detritus and bowlders three miles to the south, called respectively Iron and Chestnut Hills (see this Journal, Jan., 1883). These hills are no doubt piles of débris dropped from one or more ice-floats moving upon the surface of waters which covered the region. The highest of these elevations is 227 feet above the level of the Cretaceous plain upon which the hills rest. _ Upon the very top of the highest elevation, the whole surface 1s strewn with enormous bowlders of dolerite, a few of which measure twenty-five feet in circumference. It is quite evident that so large bowlders could have been transported only by floating ice-rafts, while their present position upon the very summit of one of the hills was probably due to the fact that the ice-floats must have been carried upon the surface of water which was higher in level than the tops of the hills. But per- haps the most conclusive proof of all, in this latter connection, regarding the depth of the waters, is the slightly modifying action which in places this unstratified drift has undergone, for upon the very top in an excellent eutting, I saw in places a perfect arrangement of the materials, showing the slight modi- fying action of the water over the top of the bill shells in this red sand. The total thinning out southward of the latter deposit is entirely characteristic of all sea-border 440 J. D. Dana—Discharge of the Flooded Connecticut formations, and hence we are safe in attributing to it this origin. At this time the Archzan depressions had not yet been carved out, but merely a universal sea spread over the whole peninsula depositing the sands of Polly Drummond's Hill, while upon the surface of the waters, ice-rafts floated southward dropping the materials of Iron and Chestnut Hills, and scattering the bowl: ers found in various parts of New Castle County. dr the sea level stood even 1000 feet higher during the Champlain laware College, April 2, 1883. Art. XLVIL—On the Western discharge of the flooded Con- necticut, or that through the Farmington Valley to New Haven Bay; by James D. Dana. THE discussion with regard to the flooded Connecticut re- quires for its completion a revision of the facts with respect to the Farmington valley discharge, presented in my paper of 1875.* It was there shown that the height of the flood from Northampton southward, as indicated by the terraces, was great enough for the waters to have passed the Hampton “divide” be- tween Northampton and Westfield, and the Southwick, between Westfield and the Farmington valley ; that they had a height of about 270 feet above mean tide at Simsbury (130 feet above low water in the river), and 223 feet at Southington (85 above low water); and that, from this latter place, while the rapidly * On the Overflows of the flooded Connecticut, TI, x, 438. low enough to have afforded a shallower passage-way, and one : e Quinnipiac feet above mean tide, there being a fall of nearly forty feet from Southington ; while the head of Mill River in Cheshire, The map of the Connecticut River region, in vol. xxiii, Plate 2 (1882), shows the country and its streams from Northampton along the Farmington Valley and the Quinnipiac and Mill Rivers to New Haven. For the convenience of the reader, the map of the two regions which was published in the paper of 1876 is re- produced as Plate 5 in this volume. In order to complete a profile of the flood, it became neces- sary to make new measurements, and also to settle the rival claims of the two streams, the Mill and the Quinnipiac. Un- expectedly little Mill River was proved to have taken all the waters of the Farmington valley when the flood was at its This fact was proved by (1) the continuation of the high ter- race of the Southington region over the Cheshire region, along Mill River as well as the Quinnipiac, in spite of the lower position and offers of drainage of the Quinnipiac water-way ; (2) the high water level (164 feet) indicated on the Mill River valley south of Cheshire at the Mount Carmel gap; (8) the cobble-stone coarseness of a large part of the stratified valley deposits from Southington southward over the Cheshire region and thence all the way down Mill River valley to New Haven ay; and then, in contrast with these evidences of high and violent flood along the Mill River route, (4) the very low ter- race on the Quinnipiac, as it enters the Meriden valley above Hanover Pond, and (5) the generally sandy nature of the ter- race deposits in this part and to the southward along through Wallingford where the sands make barren sand-fields, and be- yond to New Haven Bay. It is plain that the Quinnipiac channel was closed by a dam, probably an ice-dam. The river now leaves the Farmington valley by a gorge that goes eastward through high sandstone hills, and after more than a mile in the gorge or cafion enters the Meriden valley. The gorge was easy of obstruction by rout teu €C Conn ded 0 of the Flo ischarge Disc o- Dan D. Be 442 ; er riv e € so - Oe and w t bis ice, Belo pura the ing d. in ou its a hea begi es ae baie ks = lost to slop ing lea = a m eiv hat nd ate 358) it rs fro n, rec ly hi b al a a be 3 wate eglo on hroug se is : rr re t oO al ST am oS . ] tte sou let als sm 3a seeps sh =e 8 a er m Ce ily est wi wT) > rm va ar men 2 4 fo ter cess he wae apie. = in the s ne d as a. Dv SUNHD N30 re) hence nd wa han org on ot He vibrate ae ra oe oth tcted kept Island eo fe nid an aes ‘€ the obs O ng ae ao ae ~ ‘cae ot Lo file of a= ace Rermnington ine Te al. re aes aig gobi sy id Be as Eis ai ‘accomp eign mee aid i a7 ¢ x a ee sles fe 25 ahe the Farsnat age BOF a = teal & ae € riv he F to th er c eee ae: th t lace ts to rena i weoan Be . ao "ne va a ag So s) in the nist fea S¢s ce doe = Aa pai or- ¢ Peat exhi Mie aaa ntal a S 5 i) oug early mp rizon Ss, a 7 er con ase sree = gm Bes “eae as inch elve et. ight, vs sae ets * = to 400 ges ve ; NOLONIAY Wie hr n 1n O u i- otey. 23 8 responding shows "appre ‘- ee e : Tt- g= 3 the ~ line oute, eby iH Sade Eg 5 per the r ther flood an ti d g b 3 up g nd the mea sse 23 s ray 00 feet pit depth of ® n - a ma 29 noe ee e a ss eens: oe ae ay a ea een. Ba ea nouns gus the than espe ees low a 335 ore joe ts ar oF c 2 Ess = “ge abo ariaget te: : Th ¥ 341s Ses at ht o nt is t pitts ting 1s ss ees heig nine reams. res & js =3 ae ore a om ecco : ae lena s thal aes m a " = ran water line aban the y fro [=] g vgs st . e H t alle Cape nog 5 a lowe tid ec he v se one” ; wh SEs 7 it long ichouse of a = 2m nde d a Lig ; mes 30d nvH ea2 U ure r Bay am ovou oa > Seen sae ‘ea g ete the i ace 3 SS ae f Ne be Ae Thee Fy a gees le A 3 523 lig 7 BS = a = NOLAWYHAHON a = Es 5 a 3. | along a ipal places | Cl prin the Me : Hough’ through the Farmington valley to New Haven Bay. 443 route where the Veen registered were made, with their distances from this cape.* L Section Jrom Northampton along the Farmington, Quinnipiac, and Mili Rivers to New Haven and Long Island Sound. Distance from|U pper terrace} Low river sg 4 2 terrace Sound in above mean level above above low miles. tide. an tide. river level. Northa sles aac ies. TT 290 108 182 Hanger Po 68 286 Hampton Pra “waindery 64 [249-256] 231 MIBBIROIG oon ke oe 62 122°4 am. S. of Tariffville-...) 45°5 275 143°5 1315 PMN oh i Each oe RE 274 130 Farmington 33 264 151 110 Beas Ties gh wattage es 29 250 17 76 eee GION. ic 24°50 225 138 87 2m. N. of Cheshire $ 20 200 159 41 to WE i fe) eshire St... 104 to E 14 m. S. of sina oe St. 16°50 181 142 39 N. line of Hamden_...- 15 169 129 40 Mt. Carmel g: tee Beal hd EY 12 164 94°5 to 69°5 Mt. Carmel Station_...-| 11°50 L185 o26 36 of Centerville___ 10 60 43 Centerville Station ____- 8-75 38 47 Hamde . KE. Church... 16 50? m. N. of N. H. Bay -.- 55 61 tide level Im . BAY o 2. 4°5 48 W. of N. end of Bay (N.) 3°5 38 W. Haven, Im. S. of end of Bays in ooo. 2°5 28 we res hic S. of N. of Bay Ral ep ee es 15 25 w. Bases, 24m. 8. of N end of Bay 1:0 23 Lighthouse Point E Usne of Bay ooo 0 * The height of the terrace at Hampden Pond is from a valuable paper by Mr. J. S. Diller, published in this Journal in 1877, giving careful measurements of the terraces about Westfield and the “ divides” north and south. Ls states that on Westfield River, sixteen miles west of the village, the highest river terrace is 289 feet Set sea-level; and that, allowing for the most probable slope in the stream, ight over Westville village is probably not less than 280 feet. (This Jour- nal, TH xiti (1877), heights o er s south are from my measurements, for which I used as a base the levels of the New Haven and Northampton railroad, iv om the engineer o These levels above tide are as follows: at Mt Ca = Station and Gap, 132 feet; at N. line of Hamden, 135 Cheshire Station 5; 2m. N. of ibid., 163; Hitchcock's, 1645; Sout 45°76; Plainville, 185: rmingto 24 ; Allen’s Station, 277; Avon, 201; Simsbury, 164-25 + “To W.” signifies above the a of low water on the Cheshire or western side, and “to E.” above the same on the Quinnipiac or eastern side, just below 8 mills. 444. J. D. Dana—Discharge of the Flooded Connecticut The heights are also given in the preceding table, in which the first column contains the distances from the east or Light- house Cape of New Haven Bay ; the second, the heights of the upper terrace; the third, those of low-river levels, above mean tide; and the ‘fourth, the height of the upper terrace above the low-river levels. e above profile shows also, by means of a dotted line (d, ”) the : a by the course of the =o valley. On this stream tide-level is reached at North Haven s the heights of the terrace-deposits and river from Southington, southeastward and southward, by this latter route. Il. Section from Pet cthare, ~jg along the Quinnipiac to Fair n (E. n).* . of New Haven Lvtituinee from|Upper terrace} Low bee terrace ‘Sound (north-| above mean - el above above low ings) in miles, tide. tide. river level. SOUTHINGTON __---. | 95°25 225 138 87 16 m. 8. of Southington, at Atwater’s factory _- 23°60 207 129 78 2°05 f Southington, at sy factory... 23°20 120 $m. Hough’s mills|) 20°75 200 102 98 oct ne below dam) 20°25 200 96-95 104-105 Head of Hanover Pond. 19°75 105 86 19 Foot of Hanover dam 19°75 105 69 36 Ab. he oo Sanford’s Taotory 62s oe | 18°33 96 52°5 43°5 Yalesvilio —— s fact.) 17°67 93 49 44 Wallington. oo 0.5 ou. 15 16 13 63 Quinnipiac factory ----- 13°25 68 5 63 Ab. mean tide North Haven... 2.2.2. 10°25 60 0 60 rey N. of Montowese GMO Sis 115 52 0 52 Junction Hartford and Air Tine RB. R. .... 5 49 0 47 Fair Haven R. R. and Perkins St. crossing -- 4°5 43 0 43 E. Cape of Bay... 0 * The heights of the terraces here given were obtained by leveli ing from the surfaces of the mill-ponds as a base, the heights of the mill-ponds having been h . §. C. Pie ghts of low water are heights to the base of the dams. The heights = these dams are as ollows, commencing to the south: the Quinnipiac, on the soul yed), 6; H rson, by leveling from Meriden, to have a height above ridge the S height of the track of the railroad at Meriden station being ing 124° 63 ae through the Farmington valley to New Haven Bay. 445 The profile and the tables with the other observed facts make manifest : First. The fact of the Quinnipiac dam, as already explained ; the first table showing a gradual decline in the heights of the upper-terrace level from Southington through Cheshire; and the second, the continuation of the high-level Quinnipiac terrace of Southington to Hough’s Mills, or 44 miles, where the terrace has a height of 200 feet and is one and the same with that o Mill River; then a drop down of 95 feet, the terrace just above the head of Hanover Pond having a height of.only 105 feet above mean tide, and but 19 feet above low water in the stream, * tinued on as the upper, with gradual slope, to New Haven Bay. The water-fall is indicated in the section, page 442, under the number 164. The height of the terrace two miles north of the gap is some indication as to flood-level at the gap. But direct evidence is afforded by deposits of very coarse gravel, partly cross-bedded, hear the top and under the lea of the western trap ledge of the gap ; and also (2) by the continuation of these deposits south- ward, many of the stones of which for the first mile are one to three feet in diameter, all well smoothed and none scratched ; and (3) by the existence of remains of a great well-smoothed trough or sluice-way, about 30 feet wide, in the sandstone, which was the work evidently of a violent torrent, several long oblique recesses on its sides, one to three feet broad, being marks of its revolving flow; the smoothed surfaces are nowhere 8cratched, and in this and other ways show that they are not of glacier origin. The accompanying figure is a profile of the gap, with the height exaggerated only two times. Mt. Carmel (on the east) is an east-and-west ridge, chiefly of trap, 789 feet in greatest height above mean tide. It is the eastern portion of a range _ ‘The divide has a height of 185 feet above mean tide, which was ete Nek below the level of the flood at Hartford; and the terrace topping the Aa height of about 20 feet. 446 J. D. Dana—WDischarge of the Flooded Connecticut of trap and sandstone which continues westward to the West — Rock trap range. The gap is about 250 yards wide; but it is partly obstructed by ledges, and Mill River occupies only 100 feet of its breadth. The waters of the sluice-way flowed out (at H) west of the summit of the western of these ledges (C); the lowest level over which at H is now 164 feet. The stratified gravel referred to as under the lea of this ledge (visible from the railroad cut R) has a height of about 152 feet; and the upper limit now visible of the excavated trough or sluice-way near the Mt. Carmel station, half a mile south of the gap, has a height of 145 feet. This trough or sluice-way in the sand- stone was uncovered in grading for a new lay-out of the rail- road, it offering the lowest level for the track. It can be traced along the course of the railroad for 200 yards below the station ; it then passes to the westward of the road and becomes the — head of a partly cobble-stone paved valley whose stream Joins Mill River at Centreville (see section). The sluice-way torrent must finally have worn away part of the east side of the trough and so made a passage into Mill River valley. The height of the trap at D above mean tide is about 240 feet. (3.) The slope of the flood-level was widely different above and below Farmington.—The slope of the terrace (or of flood-level) for the first 33 miles, that is, from Northampton to Simsbury (Sd on plate 5) was only 6 inches a mile; and for the first 44 miles, or to Farmington, about 7 inches: while southward, from Farming- ton toa point 2 miles north of Cheshire, where the high land of Cheshire begins, it was about 5 feet a mile; from the latter. place to the Mt. Carmel gap, about the same; and from Mt. Carmel village to New Haven Bay, 10 /eet a mile. A reason for this change in slope at Farmington exists in the fact that the flooded Farmington River here entered the valley from a0 extensive region to the northwest, and the Pequabuck add : waters from the west; the two draining a high portion of © western New England about 200 square miles in area. The flood consequently received its greatest accessions at this point; and the waters were so rapidly supplied that the slope north: Se ward was diminished and that southward increased. On the west side of the valley to the north of Farmington station, the , ‘ is 4 : tee through the Farmington valley to New Haven Bay. 447 upper terrace is well displayed, and especially along by Sims- bury and for a mile and more to the north, where it is 130 feet above low water in the river and quite wide. But on the east side of the valley the terrace above Farmington is for the most small, no large stream, capable of affording transported mate- nal, flowing from that direction because of the nearness of the “es range region of many slopes, was under one continuously sloping water-plane, having a fall, if reckoned on the basis of the pres- ent slope of the land, of 290 feet in 77 miles. The northward- Owing streams and the streams at equilibrium as to erosion and deposition, or at “base level,” if any there were, were merged with the southward flowing streams into one great southward hurrying flood, the depth exceeding 120 feet at maximum height and 40 feet where shallowest. It is an exam- ple, though on an extreme scale, of the kind of change over a region which a modern flood may produce in hydraulic condi- Hons and in the activity of fluvial forces. The flood produced other effects over the New Haven region south of the Mt. Carmel gap, which are of much geological in- terest. These will make the subject of another article. A few words only are here added as to the bearing of the facts reviewed on the question with regard to the slope of land in the era of the flood. n my paper on “flood of the Connecticut River valley,” in volume xxiii of this Journal (1882), it is apparently proved that the southward slope of the land was much less during the flood than now—the calculated mean diminution from the Sound to Springfield being one foot a mile, and from Springfield to Haverhill 24 feet a mile. Hence we should expect to find evidence of some corresponding difference of slope 448 Experiments to determine variations in length to the westward of the Connecticut over the Farmington valley. But it follows from the facts presented that the diminution outh of Farmington the coarse deposits may have been made with the slope diminished a foot or more. : In the Meriden valley, where the terrace formation consists mainly of sand, the present pitch of the terrace-level is much too great for such depositions. From Hanover Pond to North Haven the mean slope, according to Table II, is 44 feet a mile; and about 4 feet, from the same point to Fair Haven. Art. LXVIIL—Results of some experiments made to determoné the variations in length of certain bars at the temperature melting ice; by R. S. Woopwarp, KE. S. Waeeer, A. Fuiint and W. Voter. THE precision attained of late in comparisons of standards of length, and in geodetic work dependent on such standards, has rendered the question whether a given bar can have differing lengths at the same temperature an important one. In ord to obtain some data bearing directly on this question the au thors of this paper have undertaken on their own account? series of experiments with bars of various metals. : For the purpose of making these experiments the following apparatus has been provided : Ist. I'wo micrometer-microseopes designated F and W a’ es spectively. The optical work on these is by Bausch and eee : of Rochester, N. Y., and the micrometers and stands were mat’ — ie, hee eda a th te) Si rl *, of bars at the temperaturefof melting ice. 449 3d. Gide aine bar, which is 1°03" long and 27™™ square in cross-section. It was cast in the summer of 1881. The ordi- hary zine of commerce was used, and the bar was cast in a vertical position. About 0-2" of the upper end of the casting was cut off. The top half of the bar at each end is cut away for a distance of 2™, so that the graduations cross the neutral axis. This bar was also oraanedl and its length and expan- sion were determined by Professor Rogers. It is designated Z,. 4th. Two glass meters. They are of French plate, 1-02" long, 8™ thick and 51™ deep. Half the depth of either bar at each end is cut away for a distance of 2™, and the gradua- tions cross the neutral axis. They are designated G, and G, respectively. : . One copper meter. It was cast in February, 1883, and 18 1°02™ long, 20™ wide and 22™™ deep. Its graduations cross the neutral axis. It is designated C,. : 6th. One brass meter. It was cast in February, 1883, and is composed of ten parts of copper to three of zinc. It is of the Same form and dimensions as the copper meter. It is desig- hated B.. Comparisons are made in the following manner: The bars to be compared are each placed in a wooden box 1-1™ long, 0-1" wide and 0-1™ deep. The bars are supported in their boxes at two points distant about one-fourth and three- fourths the length of the bar from either end. Tbe boxes are filled with finely powdered ice so as to completely surround the bars except at small spaces near the graduations. The boxes are placed on a shelf under the microscopes. Each box has three leveling screws which rest on plates of glass, so that the bars may be easily adjusted to any requisite position. The Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuiep Series, VoL. XXV, No. 150.—Junx, 1883, 30 450 Experiments to. determine variations in length graduated surfaces of the bars are brought into a horizontal plane within 1’ by means of a long striding level. The micro- scopes are focused. on the graduations at the ends of a level bar, made vertical within 1’ and their readings on the lines of colli- mation determined. Micrometer readings are then made on the bars alternately, these readings being near the lines of col- limation. The values of the micrometer screws are determined at intervals by reading on spaces of known value. No account ing microns or millionths of a meter. The revolutions increas¢ in the direction F—W; so that if F, and W, are the readings on Z,and F, and W, the readings on S,, we have from these readings Z,—S,=(F ,—F,) 92°1¢—(W, — W,) 95°83" of bars at the temperature of melting ice. 451 Comparisons of 8, and Z, at the temperature of melting ice. Micro-readings. | ' Date. | ‘Time. | Bar. Observer. Remarks. KF WwW 1883 Jan, 28|11 45a.M.| Si | 28°059| 24°462) A. R. F. ye bars packed in ice ten min- 058} 462) and s before readings on them 061} 463) R.5. ake made 060 458 51 Z, | 28°044| 24:371 050 374 039 370 048 374 56 S; | 28°010} 24°387 27°998 334 9 339 9 4) 59 Z, | 277943) 24°260 950 262 939 257 950 57 12.04p.m.| S, | 27°697| 24:243) E.S. W 701 1 680 238) W. V 688 59 09 Z, | 27°861) 24°190 861 83 857 176 848 176 is Si | 27690) 24°189 686 186 687 189, 688 186 re Z, | 27689) 24-018 692 020 682 018 679 020 Jan. 29} 8.27 S, | 28-122) 25°088| A. R. F. Both bars fully packed in ice at 31 11 153' 031; and 10 P. M. 35 , | 165 134 E.S,W./Temperature of comparing-room 38 Z, 002) 24°855 56° F. 42 1 01 949 45 1 | 27°988 846 48 1 935 909 51 i, | 28°020 913 55 + (27918 905 58 ‘i 892 ee. 9.01 : 99: 962 Jan. 30) 7,23 , |28°208) 121| B.S. W. |Both bars arn = covered with 30 : $1 099 ‘ ice at 7.0 36 1 273; 164 temperate te ‘comparing-room 40 iy 262 066 45 2 124; 039) R. 58. W. 49 = 430} 241 55 1 161 102 59 iy 509} 332 8.03 1 034) 23°971| E.S. W. 06 1 161) 24°010 12 , | 27808) 23-822) R. S. W. 2 ‘ 890| 771 452 Experiments to determine variations in length Comparisons of 8, and Z, at the temperature of melting ice—con'd. E.S. W. Both bars have remained in ice all night. ~ w Zinc bar has remained in melting: 28°532| 24-460 ice constantly. 0) i) ee : AS TTP A » Micro-readings. | Date. Time. Bar. Observer. Remarks. F Ww 1883 Jan.31| 7.57P.M,| § 1 | 27°926) 23-830} EH. S. W. |Steel meter was fully packed in 8.05 By 915 700 ice at 6.55 P. M., and zine meter 14 8, 749 695 at 17 Zi 556) 411 The temperature of the ice (gren- 22 8: 716} 660 ulated snow brought in 26 1 5 out doors at 6.55 M.) Ww: 30 1 | 28°272| 24-217; R.S.W.| found to be below the melti 35 1 point. Hence both boxes were 40 1 361] 324 placed near a furnace fire until 50 Ly 321 177 the snow woul adher 55 1 064) 064 the bars. Temperature of com- 59 1 OTT) 23°956 paring-room 50° F, 9.02 1 | 27997} 994 ~ a P.M. Z, was put inside and raised Feb. 2} 8.55 1 | 28°800) 24-223) EK. S. W. t 84 inch from bottom of tin be 9.02 | Z, |29-486| 23-310 ce ier tnnies wan rconaaiat 09 1 | 27°94 H 4 F. ater w o 1 test ee pose 1S 1 | 28°661} 22°54) FO WAS 8ta: 3 n 24 1 |. 208] 23-680] B.S, W.| semeteed'et cor tomperatare, soul 27 1 | 29-069} 22-95¢ 2. Wie taken out of water wt Clee 30 1 | 27-909) 23-395 packed in ice at 8.45. 36 1 | 28°475) 22-406 S$, was packed in ice at 8.30. Feb. 3 1A a, as 23 1 2 Both bars remained packed in i 92 : 41¢ 508 ane wen of gorge - Se si om Kee oukel ae additional ice a 36 : 29-068 197 remained so until readings 9& 40 , {28918} 05s — 45 1 16 496 49 1 | 27°850 252 55 1 | 28°463} 22°619 Feb. 3| 7.29p.m.| S, | 28°361/ 23-979| E. S. W. |Both ba bars have been kept packed 38 1 858 300 in ice since 1] 44 1 peoies 552 49 1 8°502| 24°145 58 a 837 R. 8. W 8.03 1 | 29°474] 23-910 10 : 6 176 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 a 1 | 801] 23°662 of bars at the temperature of melting ice. 453 _ Comparisons of 8, and Z, ut the temperature of melting ice—con'd. Remarks. Date. Time. Bar, Observer. F | Ww 883. Feb. 5] 8.18p.u 4, | 29°135} 23°980] B.S. W. : 21 1 | 28°406} 24°33 24 = 780 702 29 41 | 29°196 va 34 i 383 268 at 8, 198} 25'118 46 : 067 005] R. 8S. W 50 1 464) 24-280 57 1 345 21 .00 1 | 28°802 752 Feb. 6) 7.23 d 211) 23°866| E.S. W. 35 1 618 22) 45 1 | 29°081 656 52 vy 1 27°966 634 8.03 1 | 287004 685| R. 8S. W ! il 1 517 135 q 18 : 435) 069 a 21 Pa eee gee 433 feb. 7 7.46 1 | 28°533} 24-214] B.S. W. of 8.03 ty | 29°218]| 23°782 eS 10 1 | 28°618 29 a 17 1 | 27994} 646 : 23 1 | 28°369] 24°019| R. 8. W 26 1 | 815} 23°516 35 ‘ 865| 565 40 , 446] 24-119 ; 43 ‘ 753 425) B.S. W. 47 1 | 29°404 062 _ Feb. 8) 9.28 , | 28350} 110) R.S. W. ; 35 " 727) 23°428 38 1 764 453 42 1 260 979 45 1 388) 247111 48 i 952) 23°610 52 1 967 629 55 : 444) 24-148 Feb. 9} 5.18 1 438 220| B.S. W. 23 1 | 29°098| 23-778 28 " 176 861 32 1 | 28°626} 24°394 38 1 Ti 504| R.S. 40 1. | 29°420 ll 48 1 454 163 50 . 730 488 Feb, 10 11.4la.m.| Z, | 28-330 249 45 : 631; 284 50 2 341 016 55 i 407 308 12.01 1 372 287 04 | 498 181 09 1 796 49. 14 a 744 639 19 Zy 410 309] B.S. W. 21 8: 410 101 Zine bar mee remained in melting ice constantly. ; oe pried has = aera Se brtiee in ast even Stel ba was packet | in ice about Temperiar of air in comparing- 44° F,. .|Both bars have been unpacked and exposed to the air of the oe roe during the past 4 hours. ‘ Reaversinre of air in comparing- 44° room 4 ice Pasig Packed in ice about Both bars have been out of the ice during the past 24 hours They were packed in ice about ‘Temperature of air in comparing- room 45° F. Both bars have been out of the ice since 10.00 P. M. Feb. 8th. Both bars were ae n out of the ice at 5.55 P. At 9.30 Pp. mM. Feb. 9th, the zinc bar was placed in its peg taken out —— and left ont all night. At arg Feb. 10th, a thermometer wh ich bh nad Jain alongside the zine bar b Le the ge tread —# stag 1 7.30 rk gc zine bar n gran nulated 6 and bong got the comparin “roo! oom in the temperature of the air was The, steel bar was packed in ice about 9.00 A. M. 454 Experiments to determine variations in length Comparisons of 8, and Z, at the temperature of melting ice—cowd. Micro-readings. Date Time. | Bar Observer. Remarks. F | Ww 1883. Feb. 10) 7.59pm.| S, | 28°374| 23-979) E.S. W. |Both bars have presage ei onesie 8.12 1 345| 24°126 in ice since 12.21 P. 21 1 028] 23-825 25 4 052 649 35 1 27 901| R. 8S. W. 38 1 684) 24°507 50 1 ae 212 54 1 564 179 Feb.11)10.42 am | S, 526) 24°192| E. S. W. ee hse has emerge packed 49 1 | 591} 460 ce during past night. 58 i 231| 100 Steel co was Bares in ice about 11.03 1 283 28 . M. 08 i 486| 24°139| R. S. W 13 iy 5TT 8 23 by 859 T1T 26 1 833 493 ‘ Feb. 12} 8.00e.m.| S, 126; 090 Both bars were packed in ice at 03 iy 006 013 7.30 P. M. 08 1 259 267 11 2 273 42 13 4 122 080) FE. 8. W. 15 208 48 2) 1 208 258 Ms ; vt cae f the ice at o waa re alg rn MESO ree by isteand left compen 36 ty | 27°990| 23°850) was then taken into a room where the 39 1 | 28-386) 24-446) ee ee ete ae. Lt wae rr ia i R.S. W. |yempeFature of alr in comparing-room 47 GY 534 383. iSteel bar was fully packed in ice at 8.00 50 : 340] 4211 hvee The foregoing include all the comparisons which have thus far been made of the zinc and steel bars. The mean differences in length of the two bars for the vari- ous sets of comparisons are given in the following table. Their probable errors are derived from the discrepancies between the mean and individual differences resulting from successive com- parisons in a set. : ‘ ; : 4 : of bars at the temperature of melting ice. 455) Mean differences of Zine and Stéel bars. | Zy — 5; Remarks. (geen F Me + 12°2+2°8 Before heating Z,. P.M. + 90+40°5 + 99+40°5 31 + 10°4+40°4 Feb. 2 + 1491407 After heating Z, to 208° F.. 3 A.M. + 1166404 Z, remained constantly in melting P.M. +112:°340°8 ice from 8.45 P.M. Feb. 2d to. 8.21 4 A.M. +103 340° P.M. Feb. 6th. 5 PLM. +100°14+1°0 6 +100°44 0-4 vi + 95°341°8 8 + 98°2+40°5 9 +101°040°8 10 A.M. — 21°240°7 After cooling Z, to about ~8° F. 10 P, Me. —~ 185405 Z, was in melting ice from morn- 11 A. M. — 20140°4 ing of Feb. 10th to evening of 12 P.M. — 55407 Feb. lith. © 13 + 211402 After heating Z, to about 70° F. the comparisons of January 28th showed larger residuals than any subsequent set of comparisons. The comparisons of this Before packing it in ice on January 28th, the zinc bar had been or many months warmer than 32° FP. time it shorten , leaving it still 90" longer than its initi length. Exposure to the air of the comparing-room (tempera- ture about 45° F.) during the intervals between comparisons then warmed to the temperature of melting ice. This dimin- 456 Experiments to determine variations in length ished its length to 80" less than its initial length. The bar was kept constantly in melting ice for one and a half days, during which time no marked change in length occurred; but expos- ure to the air of the comparing-room for an interval of one day was followed by an increase of 15” in the bar’s length, leaving it still 15” shorter than its initial length. 3d. The bar was exposed to an air temperature of about 70° F. for four hours and then cooled to the temperature of melt- ing ice. This increased its length 26” over the length it had = the previous day, leaving it 11/ longer than its initial ength. 4th. The total range in temperature to which the bar was subjected was about 216° F. tal range in length of the Differences in Length of the Steel Meters. Date, 1883. | §,—S8, Mean. Remarks. February 12 +11°0 fe oy 13 + 96 + 99 Before heating 8; tc 14 + 90 * 15 + 99 : After heating ee. 10° oy ot 18 : va +9 8, to near 212 F. as 23 + 92 c 25 +12°1 : After cooling Soa §, to near -6° F. Ss AS Sethe her bbl a eee party | St = an = em a of bars at the temperature of melting ice. 457 Differences in Length of Steel and Copper Meters. Date, 1883. §,—C, Mean. Remarks. March 4 +43°7 4 +50°5 fe - 5 +452) +4471 Before heating C, 45 5 +475 bs 6 +48°8 4 7 +45°1 | { 9 +474 ; = 9 +51°4 Ze C, to near 212° F. - 10 +47°7 - 10 +45°6 el SOTy $4r9) 4462 ppt “% 12 +45°6 Differences in Length of Steel and Brass Meters. Date, 1883. S,—B, Mean. Remarks. ft March 10 +40°1) a ng ll + 36°T é * B ua 12 4.36'1 +372 Before heating B, ee 13 +36°0 3 13 aay After heating " 14 +36°7 +35°8 9° F. uc 15 +36°8 B, to near 21 " 20 +38°4 i og +417) 439°6 a es berate) a e 23 +38°6 The probable error of a single difference of length in the above tables may be derived preferably from the formula oe7454/ L el, in which m is the whole number of Seoul n the number of groups of comparisons and [vv] the sum of the squares of the diedieratiges between the mean and individual results for the several groups. Including the results for the glass bars given below, this probable error is found to be oh 8. ae The i th etive groups of comparisons of the eee el ee a ‘th a standard, do not differ steel, copper and brass meters wit temperature of melting ice) was produce cooling anes although the brass net was aprersne length- ened by heating and aay iby cooling ifference between the mean results ft e brass Fee after heating and after cooling it, viz: 38, fam * a measurable quantity is quite within the range which cult be inferred from the above Pp | 458 Experiments to determine variations in length of bars. For the comparisons of the glass meters G, and G,, the steel meter S, was used also as a standard, and the same program was followed as with the other bars. By accident, however, G, was broken just subsequent to the second set of comparisons after heating it. The results of these comparisons are given in the following tables. Differences in Length of Steel and Glass Meters. Date, 1883. G,—S, Mean. Remarks. February 20 +154°1 ia 21 +1549} +154°9 Before heating G, +3 21 55°8 “i 21 . +1591 : After heating “99 +1580 t dioeiste: G, to near 212° F. Differences in Length of Steel and Glass Meters. Date, 1883. 8,—G, Mean. Remarks. March 15 +40°8 Ku a3 4 > e “ : od +410 Before heating G, . 17 +384 s 17 38°2 : After heating e 18 +37°8 38-2 3 ts 19 439.3 Si G, to near 212° F. ss 20 39°4 : i 21 4+36°8 438-1 After a 7 . 23 + 38°1 ar -6° F. The means of the groups of results before and after heating the glass meters indicate that each bar was slightly lengthene (at the temperature of melting ice) by the heating, the quantity has been heated to 212 cubical expansion of mercury is about per degree F., a change of 0° F. in the position of the freezing: point of a thermometer would correspond to a linear change of gs}op or to 167 in the length of a meter. If, as that is, if this means a decrease of pressure — which allowed re moisture or other material in a8 melted rock : os : . Geology and Mineralogy. 475 0 become vapor toward its surface or in its outer portion. But the indications of moisture in the tra _of the ridges are not the AL a ior on -: she rap, rendering it siitor itic at ‘ahi expense of the pyroxene or pyroxene and feldspar. Oft ten a very small part only, if any, of a hydrous trap ridge is amygdaloidal ; the hydrous seve ae aioe te slong et the mass. And trap (sometimes sallod vacluphy fy, being fraqueatly the only kind. The feature is wae ie ent of pressure, and is a pre- requisite to the amygdaloidal. The distinction to which the observations of E. S. Dana seemed to lead was that the masses of the several trap ridges in Southern Connecticut became gradu- ally more and more chloritic, or hydrous, on going from west was a subordinate one, occasionally observed where ge pean tion was oe st. that he is “ by no means a scienti fate ? We believe this statement, and see little else in the paper to _ with so much confidence. The author informs his readers much that nobody else know Streams “ underneath the glacier,” “wild and turbid streams, ridge or back bone of the island; and their depth was so great that the water-worn stones were carried by the current—* not by the drift” - the top of Harbor Hill, the higshinet point of the island. [The greatest height according to the Coast Survey i is oe feet. | This ineredible fact is thought not to seem bahar when we remember that the glacier was from ten to ere feet in thickness,” and that “it was under the leis a these mighty torrents Lag ailed.” Relations of the ‘‘Felsyte” to the Co nglomerate on Central eeu Milton, Mass,, to the south of Bostou.—Professor M. E. Wapswortn has given the results of his observations on the Milton *“ felsyte” in the Harvard University Bulletin of October, 1882. They differ widely from those of Professor W. O. Crosby in vol. xix of this Journal (1880). He states that the felsyte is only a somewhat pis 19 tion of the associated conglomerate. ains in some parts many argillaceous pebbles only Leer obliterated, and the two cores or aduate into one another 476 Scientific Intelligence. wes than the argillyte; and Mr. Wadsworth also observes that the conglomerate is of different age from the Roxbury conglomerate of the same part of the Boston basin . Jointed structure in rocks,—In a paper on the origin of jointed structures, in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History for October, 1882, p. 72, Professor W. O. Crospy explains the joints ordinarily so-called, having great uni- formity in direction, to the vibrations of earthquakes, stating that the character of the vibrations is such as necessarily to produce fractures, and that all formations have been subjected to sever shocks of indefinite number. Note on Jointed structure.—It would appear from Mr. W. J. McGee’s note (this Journal, February, 1883, p. 153), that his observations on jointing are strongly in favor of their being due to the contraction of rock masses. As has been mentioned in es es ut in depth they have not opened, being still mere lines, that 18, he “ head ” . ;. H, KINAHAN. 9. Origin of the Crystalline Ivon Ores.—Dr. A. A. Julien read a paper on this subject before the New York Academy 0 Sciences, in October last (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., ii, p. 6) of magnetite.” Dr. Newberry discussed the subject in reply, admitting that some beds may have been made by “the sorting wer of shore waves,” but urging that such cases are excep- tional, and arguing in favor of the more common theory that they , f Geology and Mineralogy. 477 are derived from the precipitation of iron oxide from its soluble salts in waters receiving the drainage of a region, the waters times strata e- Stone or of ‘late, en made by quiet methods of deposition, jasper, another ro ae’ of fine and quiet sedimentation; and the existence of beds of aluminous magnetites, which contain almost no silica. Dr. Julien states rightly that some magnetite is asso- o much overlooked. But Dr. New wherry’s position appears to a the right one—that on method is not the usual one, an sot Pins thin seams o The scnditions ne 8 such as woul ate sea-bottom i Saposii of the ore ;- and it is sjunetionalls ater in aopoee so formed the iron-sands are not always: epee He ce ie imatat the sediments, as is so commonly the case in sands e successive phases of a naar acc tiere open seas have alternated with immense salt-water mud-flats or marshes, beco ca as to confined areas fitted for chemical iron-ore deposits. uch are the conditions which the writer has had in view when speak- Ing of the ore as originally a marsh-made deposit ; and _ he understands to be the view of Dr. Newberr 10. Overturn folds in the Glaronnaise Alps —The pe of a double overturn fold in the Glaronnaise Alps, first presented by ~ssrared and against: adopted and illustrated with full details by Heim, led to an excursion over the region in 1882 by a party of Messieurs Lory, de Grenoble, Rothpletz of Munioh and Vilanova of Madrid. The the general ee of Heim’s conclusion as to the enormous overturn. as fully con- vinced as to the double fold. M. Rothpletz adinitved the exist- ence of the southern fold, but objected to that of the northern, explaining the position n of the formations in the latter region by a fault combined with a sliding of the beds —M. & Favre, Ar- chives des Se, Phys. et Nat., II, ix, 180, Feb., 1888. 478 Scientific Intelligence. e Dimetian, Arvonian and Pebidian formations. — These subdivisions of the Pre-Cambrian, proopsed by Dr. Hicks from his observations at St. David’s, on the ground of mutual intersecting the Cambrian; and the Arvonian, eruptive quartz- porphyries or elvans associated with the granite—proof of which was found in natural oe ns showing the actual intrusion of the ne across the be of the rocks. On the results of Recent explorations of erect trees contain- te yp tact remains in the Coal Formation oS Nova Scotia ; by J. W. Dawsoy.—Part II- of Dr. Dawson’s memoir is pub- lished in the Philosophical Transactions for 1882 13. Lethea Geologica; etl, Lethoa Paleozoica, von Frerp. Roemer. Textband, ae Lieferung. 327-544 pp., with 65 wood-cuts. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1883. (E. hat tip a As —This part Ls of the Lethza, by Roemer, is devoted wholl ossil Corals, and wil ound of great service to ra pa paleontologists He or yte . Dan n the writer’s paper “on spores mica as a characteristic ingredient under the same coacnal name with those that are essentially hornblendic. Accordian in my articles on the Cortland rocks in this Journal for 1880 on page 198 of volume xx, I called a rock of the kind here referred to simply a hog Shopng in allusion to its resembling granite in aspect and in being a compound of feldspar and mica, with more or less quartz, and to its containing a cae lime feldspar, oligo- clase, instead of orthoclase. As it is best that the rock should have a distinctive name I would propose for it that of Hemidioryte, which recognizes its relation to dioryte, without merging it in the Bacpl An group. 15. ee anew mineral—M. Damour has recently de- scribe a w borate of alumina from Siberia under the name eae and ye in habit, Harton 6°5, specific eae 28, analysis yie ed: Botany and Zoology. 479 BaQs ot riggs tice Fes,O, KO [40 19] 5°03 4:08 0-70 = 100 These Spc pk Sie nine mene with the formula (AJ,O,,Fe,O,) l Solution it yields a fine blue. It is not attacked by acids except when first ignited at a red heat, when heated sulphuric acid dis- solves it. The locality from which this interesting mineral was obtained by the engineer whose name it bears is the Soktoui, southeast of Adun- Tschilon in western Siberia.— Bull. Soc. Mi in, vi, 20, 1883. 16. Pier cro-epidote, a new magnesian epidote.—MM. Damour and DusCioizwavx have described a new member of the soulae group in which magnesia enters in the place of lime. e crys- tals which have been examined by M. DesCloizeaux, though too imperfect to allow of exact determination, correspond with ordi- nary epidote in angle and in optical pro erties. The crystals are small, transparent to translucent, and of a white or slightly yel- lowish tint. They seratch aria and are infusible in the blowpipe ame. M. Damour has shown as the result of some qualitative tests that the mineral is a silicate of alumina and magnesia with associated with lapis lal calcite, dolomite, diopside and pyrite. The “geo is Lake Bai ext-Book of eats with an extended sheep a ee ind oie and Physical Mineralogy ; Sart y¥ Dana. Revised edition. 521 pp. 8vo. New ak 1883, i: Wiley & Son. pee new oe of the Text-Book of tl study ‘of their optical properties, lustrated by numerous wood- points ; further, brief descriptions of new ae aang % state- ment of i important new facts in regard to the characters — occur- as “gah of old species. The larger portion of the book remains it was in the earlier edition except as regards ocea egal corree- tions, references, an The book has _ re-paged, and a new and complete index concludes the volum Ill. Borany anbd ZooLoey. a. sal abacdaee des K. Botanischen Gartens und des Botanischen zu Berlin. Band I, 1883.—The second volume of this new a eek ‘has promptly come to hand. Dr. Ercn.e ER, the Direct- or of Gardens, and Dr. Garcxsg, Ceram of the Museum, are asso- ciated in the editorship : the latter was the editor of the Linn nwa, Which the present publication supersedes. The leading article 480 Scientific Intelligence. In Dicotyledons, the ray-cells are united to the vessels by means of pores which sometimes attain a surprising size. Finally, e . The decisive plant to study in this regard is Sidaleea diploschypha. And we beg seeds of this from our Californian correspondents, that we may place them in the hands of the proper investigators, A, G. 2. Flora of the Southern United States.—The crying want has at length been supplied. Dr, Chapman has brought out a second edition of his Flora of the Southern States east of the Mississipp!. The preface to the new issue has the date of December 26, 1882. The Supplement was printed and some copies distributed at the Botany and Zoology. 48} os aaa of Florida; some are naturalized foreigners, a con- siderable number from the mountains, a fair number first made hg Genera Plantarum.— Auctoribus G. Brntruam et J. D. COKER. Vol. III, part 2, pp. 447-1248.—This concludes the in the hands give some further account of this concluding volume. ae 4. Monographie Phanerogamarum. Auct. ALPHONSO et Casi- eo re-elaboration of the Burseracew an efining a little on the genera as admitted by DeCandolle and by Hasler restores not only Zithrwa of Miers, ut also Cotinus and Metopium of old authors. Fifteen plates oR A Seum, No. 16. 8vo, 1018 pp. Washington, 1883.—In this volume Am. Jour. Sor.—Tuirp Serres, 32 482 Scientific Intelligence. the authors have brought together descriptions ee = the families genera and species, known from North Amer both o e marine and fresh-water fishes. The work seioh ia 1340 ieee es to sha genera, and 130 families. A-large part of to print a large © appes containing corrections and new infor- mation of various kind siderable number of new species are included in the work. There i is a full table of contents and a copious index. This book will form a convenient and valuable manual of North American fishes AL BOY. 7. The Atlantic Right Whales ; by J. B. Hotper. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. i, No. 4, three large folded plates and one artotype plate. New Yor ” Ma 1883.—In this number Dr. Holder has given a detailed account ig skeleton. The artotype, showin e athe skull and whalebone, is excellent. A hiaiory of the knowledge of this species, — has formerly been much confused, is also included. v. 1V. Asrronomy. 1. Draper Astronomical Medal.—At the recent meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, ies at Washington (this ‘volume, . . 400), it was announced that Mrs. Mary A. Draper, widow 0 rofessor Henry Draper, had a in trust to the Academy the sum of six thousand dollars, the income of w rhic h is to be use 0 years, to any person in the United States or elites ere a “shall have made an investigation in astronomical physics worthy, in the opinion of the Academy, of this honor. It is fur- ther provided that if the income of the fund shall exceed the amount required for the medal, the surplus may be used to assist investigations by a citizen of the United States, in the department of astronomical physics. This gift by Mrs. Draper is a fitting memorial to Dr. Draper, haste labors in this same field were crowned _ so pes er su in obtaining ee ‘meridian lines , fix ring a esteem measuring ae and forward a d detailed survey of e land, and to remain correcter Le readjuster of oundasiae - INDEX TO VOLUME XXV.* ‘Abney, photographs of solar corona, 130. Academy, National, April meeting, 400, 482. of Nat ural Sciences, Davenport, Proceedings 0 Wisconsin, Thegsainetions of, 233. . Acetoxi ae 228 sypeatd catechol Hotational coefficients of, Hall, Meteoric irons, concretions in, Smith, alt. Meteorology, contributions to, espa: Ie and ear lara ae yes fe Meteors, telesc vane Michelson, A. A. ned for determin- ~ ing the rate of taming -forks, 6 Miller, : A., American Paleozoic Fos- sils, ; Minchin, nepliee Masago Kinematics and Fluids. Mineral vein i foibatind: ‘Letiinte 424. INERAL = Ghataciee Ch i Ch Clinohumite Colu a nti $33. Graphite Smith, 419. INDEX. Helvite, 160, 338. Hum Tron, rie site meteoric, Smith, 417. Jeremeie Law rence, “Sith, 420. Lead, n Micrélites ; Bint, 335. Mimetite Minium, a ouazite, Fontaine, 337. rthite, Fontaine 335. Palladium m8, native, 161. Picro-epidote, Pyrochlore, Oost ine, wag, Qu sabes optica cal beha ie ce sandst Schreier Smith, Sco ush and Pov, 459. Sodan minerals, 158, Stibni ontaine Sulphur depts ‘Utah, 15 Topaz, Stoneham. Maine Troilite, Smit th, “418, Turquois, Blake, 197. ee Nephiialas molecular compounds of, Nathorat A. G., Fossil Flora of Japan, Naturalist Posse of, 3 Newberr Tedeosat Survey of Olio, rf Newcomb, 8, transits of Mercury, 317. ewton, H. = , astronomical notices, 164, notice of Minchin’s ——,: bi of Coast hed Report, Nitrogen micnile 4 27 Nyman, iS tie Co: onspectus Flore Euro- pee, | Seybert, Henry. Observatory, , % Sank observations, prone life, distribution in depth, Fuchs, Ohm, determinations of the, 309. 8, effect of on waves, 231. 487 ome of a baie and 61” Cygni, 165. , Seo Penfield, S: L villite, a new phos- phate, 459 Peters, C. H. 'F, pce! Peorsiy Be ge Pinner, A., Organ Plants, see et rer Plowrigh sd re ps Heteroecism of the redin Po eth Scionce “Monthly Index, 400. Pyramid problem, 482. Quartz, optical behavior of in electrical field, 308. oe 8 Si inslangors oi 314. Tonks Liddletown, Conn., Ward, 118. Hébrition, double, of qua 08. He ne C. G., American ribo Sassen: F., Lethzea Geologica, 4 Ru 0% I. O,, sulphur eosin: Tish, Salt, radiations of rock, 4 Salt solutions, mixture fe: ate. Saporta’s Algues Fossiles, Schacbert % M,, celtmation count of rele, transit ¢ Scien, prospects of 87, 240. Seamon, W. H., ni @ palladium 161. Siemens, addre ry of ue sun. , 78, 148, 2. Siera “, wage drodite a ap peetr r pacts batter 68. mith, J. i: sscnoraeiiis in meteoric ie H epanr J. C, thickness of the conti- ental glacier, 339. Salar see Sui Spectroscope “ot great dispersion. Spectrum, repre gees in dhs eas eu solar, measurement of way’ in gin 30. hosphorography of the infra- red, a3. inger, F., genera of Silurian crinoids, 256. Standards, electrical, 309 eets, T. H., earthquakes i in ren ogrsitg 361. | Streets, ‘Sulphur, phosphorescent flame 488 Sun and artificial lights, 1 heat and light of, ye 169. photog eclipse, Huggins radiatior mn at Siemens’ theory of the 78, 148, 230, see also Spe Ca bars, Woodward, 4 Thorium, hope Pech ot 146. metallic, 146. Time, conference for the adoption of 1 a stan dar os observations at the a Lick Obse bvsiorronte Transit circle, collimation constant of, |. 4. abservations at Allerheny Ob- ~siiaanataly at ae Lick Observatory, Todd, 131, at Princeton, Young, 321 . at Vanderbilt Univer., Land- reth, 428. ‘at. Washburn Cerne ni Tro sebridge, Zz physical notices, 76, 148, 229, ie 469, Trumbull, J A, wi ge origin of cultivated plants, 241, Tryon, G. W. Concholo, Tuning-forks, her of, Michelson, 61. vU | University of Virginia, laboratory ste from, 159. es Vv Vegetables, see BOTANY. Vein gee Le Conte, (424. Venus, ansit, Verrill, 4. E., zoological ° notices, 316, 397, 4 Vesie, Z. movement of water in plants, Mog bes Plantes Potagéres, 935. riations in length of bars 448, : White, C. A. , Stru ctural rae Systematic 397. f Ca ape Verdes, 393, Volcanoes, Hawaiian, Dutton, 219. INDEX. . ‘ | ant, e, genera of Silurian ¢ crin- raphing fg, without ae +. @ oids, 255: Wadsworth M. £; the Mitton “felsyte, a War, H. er A. | rain-fall in: ‘Middletown, Conn; SON, s. ena notices, Si Watso Waves, a ct of oil 0 - Wheeler Temperature Moen in length “Of | variations in length of bars at fe reeving poin , glacial- art i in nthe Upper be Lars amie group, 2 Green Ever C 3roup in eo nt non-marine fossil rp Det co Gh geology of Pike: end ee oe’ Counties, Penn., 471. Wh itfield, i re 4 age of Bernardston rocks, 3 Whitney. 7 ‘D, Climatic Changes of lator Geolo gical Tim ee Gy caer ‘Téehinoloey, atime EE: S,, fauna of the Chemung group, Lime Creek beds of Towa, 311. “ore N. H., Minnesota.’ oe 155. Woodward es variations in length | of bars.at freezing — 448. Young, C. A., observations of the transit of Vout Yttrium, sebade weight of, 381. Zinc. 1 direct formation on 76. Crhugiiie: ct the. Canon Sea, 238. peer ods — on ‘of - the» oe yea fauna of, 83. fia? Meloé, antenne of, Hill 137. Oceanic life, distribution f.. ‘ Rhi genus of, Brady, 84. ha a ot 8 N. “Amerie , Grote, 210. Ch Uloboras, bee webs of bleh 203. a oaaosne under GEoLoG AM. bean SCI, XXV, +883. Plate V. + seen etesninsnp ss eae t Oe. a ats Dotted line to the east, and the line of heights, M, M, M, to the west, boundaries of the Triassic sandstone, and approximately of @S.HADLEY FALLS ~ he Connecticut valley estuary of WILL T Triassic time. North-and-south enitonce A ridge extending south from Mt. a Tom, the Mt. Tom Trap range, or Divide Range, dividing the old es- AMT yy Ea, % tuary area and separating the valley of the modern Connecticut from that Ege ee re Mee urna = [Peers Of Farmington River and others. Abbreviations._—_In the western @ ENFIELD valley. beginning below: S R., Savin Rock; N. H., New Haven; W., southern end of West Rock im trap range, at Mati Ni# Mm North Haven: . Hough’s Mills U t fs on the eae kan Sb., 5 seabtoate. iam In the eastern or Connecticut val- \ Hes EPRR ae vs SK, sane KSS., Essex ; Sw fia 1H., Chester ; AD., Hadslais: VF / ee ceca PO., Portland f / Sandstone quarries. Raitroads.--N. H. & N. R. R., New Haven and Northampton; N. H. & H., New Haven and Hart- ford: Air Line R. R. to Middletown and Willimantic; SH. L. I Shore Line Railroad. = z SB BG 7a Map oF THE ConNECTICUT VALLEY REGION SouTH oF NORTHAMPTON. EXPLANATIONS, hes