AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

JAMES D. ann E. S. DANA, anv B. SILLIMAN.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS . Proressors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anv JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camsriner, Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON anp-A. E. VERRILL, or

New Haven, Prorgssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Patapecpata.

THIRD SERIES, * VOL. XXVII.—[WHOLE NUMBER, OXXVII.] Nos. 157—162.

JANUARY TO JUNE, 1884.

WITH FIFTEEN PLATES.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA. 1884.

— » > vn,

.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVII.

NUMBER CLVIL Arr. 1 a 52 — of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers; by

3 by I11.—New Device for me abe "Boxee! “by C.F. "BRACKETT, 20 IV.—Some poole in Clinaalnery: A rejoinder to Mr. Croll;

De Sis OR WOOME, Ob ei. CGh ey tC SU ek wher ie a 21

Vy Bx Toe melee: the Solar Corona without an Eclipse; by

QC a a Oe ee i sid 37

VI _—Elliptic Elements of Comet 1882, 1; F. rh Soggy veaant 32

VII.—The Minnesota Valley in the Tee Age: ; by W. Upwam, 34 IIL. —The —— Dimorphism in the Genus Cnutaten:

UR ekeng pap lea ys Sarat tall gn ta Selene ry arte Page gu kA al 42

1X. —brolition ae the American Trotting Horse; by F. E.

SU TOUS POs Ck aso es Cae ke 44

ae eins of J scibed Structure; by G. K. Girpmer,.....-. 47 XI,—A Theory of the Ea rthquakes of the Great Basin, with

a practical application; by G. K. Givpert,._...---.--- 49 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics. Sar pe hang a ai Soe niet lage! 53.— Pres-. ence of Sulphurous oxide in the air of Lille, LapurEav, mic weight of Antimony, Bone ey Conaticatien ae Galician Patton t peti 55. —Preparation of cia VARENNE: derivatives of Benzi], Burton, 56.—Relation betw he Sun’s spots and the Earth’ ra OLICH

eory he Fypnaiad-Bleotrit machine, CLAUSIUS mye Galvanometer, GOARANT DE TROMELIN, 57.—Heat produced in Iron and Steel b ver

Magnetization, J. TROWBRIDGE and W. N. Hitt, 58.—Properties of vite and Tce, re OQ. PETTERSSON, 62.—Hydrography of the Siberian Sea, by O.

na ma Mineralogy.—Second Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological durtes: J. W. Powstt, 64.—Third Annual Report of the U.S. Geological Survey, J. W. PowELt, 66,—Geology of Lehigh and Northampton Counties, Pennsylvania, 69. —Pennsylvania Geological Survey: Contents of a Bone Cave in the Island of gui

D. EAl-< IeEN: ‘Lenticular Hills,” C. H. Hrroncock, 72.—Probable occurrence of | Herderite in Maine, W. E. Hippen: Analyses of Brazilian yes bres : 73.—Groddeckite, a new mineral of re Chabazite te group, ARZRUN —Min- eral Resources of the United States, A. WitiiaMs, Jr.: Lehrbuch hy Mineral. ogie, G, TSCHERMAK, 75 Astronomy. e acabmneae upon the Comet Pons-Brooks made at the Observatory of Yale College, 0 . T. SHERMAN: Spectroscopic Observations of t Pon Brooks, N. p—E KonxKo xy, r 6.—Observations of the Great Comet of 1888 made at the U.S. Placa! Observatory, 7 é eu — Scientific Intelligenc poaetgh of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic ery for 1882, 77.—Annals of Mathematics, pure and | mane O, Stone and W. M. iol "3a

iv CONTENTS.

NUMBER CLVIUI.

Art. XII.—Examination of Mr. Alfred R. Wallace’s Modifi- cation of the Phys ry Theory of Secular Changes of asthe oy 3. CRONG, A 6 oe 2 5 8 a a

UL. Ee ig tation ‘teak the U. 8. Geological Survey, Rocky Mountain division.—V. On Sa rare ete., in the Nevadite of Chalk Mountain, Colona: by W. Cross. 94 —Occurrence of the Lower Burlington Limestone in a Mexico; by F. Sprincr 7

Page

e Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age; by W. bara 104, Xvi_ch hoi Drift in Montana and Dakota ; by C.

Wut

nbs Giawal and Champlain Periods about the mouth of

e Connecticut Valley—that is, in the New Haven © rae y J. D. Dana. (With Plates I and II)_--- 118

XVII. —-Supplement to Paper on the “ Paramorphic Origin of the Hornblende of the Cry ‘acallinie Rocks of the North- western States; by R. D. Irvine .—On Herderite (?), a glucinum calcium phosphate and fluoride, from Ostend County, Maine; by W. E. HippEen

and J. B. N

XX.—Dec ay of f Rocks in Brazil ; by O. As Derpy...._.- ee XXI.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs; by O. ARSH. Part On the Diplodocide, a new family of the Sauropoda. (With Plates III and IV).. 162 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,

themistry and Physics.—Perfect Elasticity - ne AE sm ra bodies, SPRING, 140.—Nitrogen selenide, BER

: Hyponitrous acid and silver hyponitrite, BERTHELOT and Dar 14i Cert ain new maeapinsatte of Silver, PoLeck and TatiMMEL, 142.—Velocity of Sound in Air, J BLAIKLEY, 143.—The Condensation of Aqueous V

uree spheric Tt Red Sunsets, 144.-—Physical Studies of Lake Tahoe, J LeConte, 145. se Mineralogy. —Geology of Wisconsin, Survey of 1873-79, T. C. f the Susqueha sone i iver region in the six awanna, Luzern e, Columbia, Montour and Northum- f , 149.—Da a E. Suess, 151.—Uncon- formability between the Upper and Lo ilurian ions i G. H. Cook: G 0 ) explored and mapped by Dr. . V. Hayden, 1869 to 1880: Emeralds from North Carolina, G. F. Kunz, 153. —Tourmaline from oe Main

oF, uRY: Illustrated ear att — of Gre ape Vin se a ce Beas isiveal, Busu & nine ee zea Law - Heredity: A Study of the Cause of Variation an . Br

Origin oe Living Organisms, W. OOKS, 156. Aone phy on ‘the | results of dredging onda | the supervision i sol

8. re Mivtmr, 158,—The

Miscellaneous Sotentifia Ite Mclen proposed Conference of Electricians at Philadelphia: Bust of Liebig, 1 ies

Obituary.—General ANDREW A. aie 160,

/

CONTENTS. Vv

NUMBER CLIX.

P Art. XXII.—Experimental Determination of Wave-Lengths in the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum; by 8S. P. Laneiey. weit © S00 Vijay ee oe ihe 169 XXII.—The Quaternary Gravels of Northern Delaware and Eastern Maryland; by F. D. Cuxsrer. (With Map),.. 189 XXIV.—On the identity of Scovillite with Rhabdophane ;

y G. J. Bau te S. L. Ra ee Ma we eae 200° «, XXV.—The San Glo 5 DY tia Pe SARE oe 201 XXVI. toe ke oo aiesinad Mises si Stoneham, Me. ;

Bea Oe a ero heh ose we a Be eae te 12

XXVIL. ~Contebatin to the bea of Rhode Island ; by ALE, (With a Map—Plate VI), ........._._. 17

XXVIIL i ystalline Form of the supposed Herderite from Stoneham, Maine; by E. 8, Dawa, ........ 2.2. ..--.-- 9

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics.—Relation between the Molecular row eh of ha i and mein t Velocity of Evaporation, SCHALL, 233.—Use of Nitrogen iodide in Pho- metry, Guya ARD: Production of Hydroxylamine from Nitric acid, 1 feast 234. —Oxidation of Phosphorus at low temperatures, CowPER and LEWES: Consti- tution of Benzene, KEKuLK, 235.—Observations on Phosphorescence, an: fa LA

e, new phosphorescent eye-p BL, 236.—Karth Cur VIER, 23 mn Bes periodically changing magnetic force, E. WARBURG d L. Hénie: Principles of Theoretical Chem rh with "Special reference . .

to the Constitution of Chemi cal Compounds, I. Rems logy and Paes History.—Huma ni foot-peliiurc on kas near Munaqua,

Nicaragua, G. H. Jonnson, ate 1 — Relat ive ages of certain River- a in incolnshire, A. x JUKE $-BRO 240.— . V. STEENSTRUP on the Glacier and Glacier-ice of North Euae mie Male esia, ODVARDO BeccartI: Thoughts

upon Botanical Taxonomy, T. CarvEL, 241. —Necrologia Botanica, 242.—Dr. GEORGE aa AN, 244

Astronom Mathematics.—Double Star observations made in 1879 and 1880 in the 34-inch pahnter of the Dearborn har greta Chicago, 8. W. Burn-

—Treatise on Projections, T. Crat ‘aneous Scientific Intelligence. ip ie the Magnetic Declination

the bs se ct im: agit Epoch January, }885, and Secular Variation of the : Magneti lina n the United States, etc., CHOTT, 245.—Maps > issued ce the sired Trane: Continental Survey, R. ‘PUMPELLY, 246,

Obituary.— ARNOLD HENRY Guyor, 246

vi CONTENTS.

NUMBER CLX.

Art. XXIX.—Recent Explorations in the Bf Ges: Walley 7 foi of Dutchess County, New York; by W. B.

Peewee aunt oo ol We Hiei cee

4 2 a Kinisipaced of Mr. Alfred R. Wallace’s modifica- tion = tite ig epee Theory of Secular Changes of Clim ORO. Sc ee oo hee ks oe XXXII. D edutbylon tb the Geology of Rhode Island ; by eet Meare Dine doi by Wan, XXXIV.—Tourmaline “aa associated minerals af ‘Auburn, Deena he te ONE od oo Sa eke etd V.—Andalusite ons ‘do rham, Maine; by G. F. Kunz, eaoge he ee Garnet from Wakefield, Canada; by G.

evar Ee linatal Motions at small Floating Bodies in

relation to the validity of the postulates of “the Theory 3

of Capillarity ; by J. LeConrr

XXXVI. — Principal characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs; by O. C. Marsu. (With Plates VIL-XIV XIX

), XX _—A new order of extinct Jurassic Reptiles (Mace- 3

lognatha) ; by O. C. Marss

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

try and Physics.—Reduction of Gases to normal abliget KREUSLER, —Influence exerted by the surrounding nage Medium on the Productio Hemp.

yt Electricity hk gory prone : Method employed for cleaning the Liebi

w nr ©

315. n of

ig Sta 316.—Combustion of the "Diam ond, FRIEDEL, 317.—Behavio 4 fag

Carbon ran cide toward air cod moist Phosphorus, REMs! = and KalIsER, 3

—Temperature ceo by Oxygen in a state of ebullition, and on the alia

eation of Nitrogen, M. 8. WrosLeski, 319.—Diary of a Magnetic c Survey portion of the Dominion of Canada. chiefly in the Northwestern Territories Notes

: bes s on Electricity sn “aren J. B. Mourpoor, 320.—R ol tive Proportions of the Steam Engine, W. D. MarKS: Ueber den gPneeien stim

den ee und Temperatur- cedeliaiont eines herpes und tiber

of a are fe ela-

ung von Tragheitsmomenten durch Bifilarsuspension, W. Hassock and F.

coca cack "33 1

Geology and Natural vag Phlghe ptesige case similarity of the East-American Soi , 321.—

ter soy and Potsda i R. P. W. movemen Notice Botanical works by tices FEFFER, SACHS, TIEGHEM Soinanc 82 322,—Tendeney in Tasintive, A. Gray, 326,

and

‘

CONTENTS. vil

NUMBER CLXI,

e Art. XL.—Remarks on Professor Newcomb’s “ Rejoinder ;” ie ODL: pie kahit a aie a ea gies Seri kee ee 343 XLL—An interesting serve of oe and other Min- oralss by W. F iipiapeiny ice, tebe eo ia 8 349 LII.—Notés on American Barchquckes : No. 13; by C. G.

MOCK WOOD, Ji Wes eerie S ... 358 XLUIL—Thermometer Exposure; by H. A. Hazen, ---.--.- 365 XLIV. —Hillocks of angular Gravel and outed Stratifi-

ation; by ORAMBRRLIN, 0) 20006 fo oa 378 XLV. ertinet Glaciers of the San Juan Mountains, Colo-

TANG + Oy Th, Co Sa al ds i eoy 391 XLVI.—Gender of Names of Varieties; by A. Gray,------ 396 XLVII.—Secondary Enlargements - Feldspar fragenchtn: in

certain Keweenawan sandstones ; b ” : ee years 399 XLVI. — Principal Characters “of American Cretaceous .

-Saghaee actyls. Part I. The Skull of Prarcanaan by

. C. Marsa. (With Plate XV), iowawae 423

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics. ge a is BeRTHELOT, 403.—On the Hypo- . nitrites, Divers and H Ferric ethylate and siauerpe bone hydrate, GRIMAUX, 405.—Synt ‘ess “of Piperi ridine and its Hom ,

Vacuum = for fractional Distillations, GODEFROY, “408. —New vege sbrte ture-regulator, L. Meyer, 407.

Geology and anes cecil ogy of the Panther Creek Basin or eastern end of

“ete Southern field, - A. ASHBURNER, 407,—Geological Survey of Bova Jersey,

Report for 1883, G. H. Coox, 408.—A ppendages of Trilobites, J. Mic —pearanee oP): Watcort, 409.—Glacial Boundary in Ohio, Indiana and Ken , G. RIGHT: Report on the Geol nd Natural History of Canada mes 1880 81-82, A mie and nam Floras of Bri lumbia and the Northwest prbdiadl —Bertrandite, a new mineral, DamouR and BeRtTRAND: Ti site) in the Blue Ridge Virginia: Meneghinite and Tennanite from Canad da, 411.—Materialien zur Mineralogie e Russland, von Koxscuarow: Allanite — Topsham, Maine, F. ©. Roprnson: Cu

descloizite from Mexico, 4 Botany and her —Bulle' ie of the oa Bogen é of Sciences, 413.— arwinism stated by Darwin himse pn Irpoeres : Wild Flowers of Ses

ioning t tions of the Cincin nati Observatory, No. Geo logical Society of Laude: Hermann Mueller Fund, 421. 1K Car Monument to eects 422. Obituary.—Quixtixo SELLA, 42

vin CONTENTS.

NUMBER CLXIL

ART. XLIX.—The aes of Terrestrial Rotation for (he. Deflection of Streams; by G. K. Ginpert, ..--..---.--- 427

~ L,—Examination of Wallace’ s Modification of the Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate; by Jas. Croxn, 432 LI.—Marsupial from the Colorado Miocene; ; by W. B. Scorn, 442

LII.—Method of obtaining Autographic Records . Free Vibrations of a Tuning-fork ; by A. G. Compton, .._.-- 44d oe ae grs fect of the Great Basin; ; by puis: Haar

BER

LVIL » Kaolinite, from Red Mountain, Col.; by R. C. Hints, 472

LVIII. Balen e Influence of Convection on Glaciation; by G. F. Lf oan 73

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. ~-New determination of Atomic weights, MARIGNAGC, eg

sition, ScHIrr, .—Discovery of the —— Law and i relati Atomic weights, J. A. R. 7. EWLANDS: sorption Spectra of Water, 485.— Magnetic effect of Electrical Convection, “roan: Hall’s Sieotbebne LEDUC, 86.—Text Book of the Principles of Phys . DANIELL: Pease anal in Electricity and Magnetism, A. Cnet 481- yn -Héat, P. G. Tart, 4 Geology and Natural History. ctheaied of Fossil Cephalopods, A. Hyaee 488.—— Geological rigid of Serpentines, T. S. Hunt, 489.—The Taconic question in Ham

‘ist of California n : : Clematides Megalanthes, Les Clématites, etc., A, LAVALLEE, 494.-—Porto Rico Plants: Rie Exsiccate quas distribuit V.B . WITTROOK, 495 agoray Scientific eoeae — British Association at Montre: al, 496. —A can Associat tion: Peabody Museum of American abi te 491 ac boriginnl peer can Authors and ae Profctions The Giiegiience, 4 Inpex TO VotuME XXVII, i

ERRATUM. Page 19, the top line should read :

“a stop cock in the tube / is then turned, cutting off the Sprengel pump ;”

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. 1.—The Effect of a Warmer Climate upon Glaciers; by . Capt. C. E. Durron, U. S. Ordnance Corps.

2 ©. EF. Dutton—Lfect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

tions would be required by the other seals or even whether any such modifications were at all necessary. conspicuous instance cf this faulty method is furnished by those who argue that in order to account for more extended glaciers than we

now have we must infer that a more copious snowfall prevailed in the Glacial period; that to provide this more copious snow-

fall we must infer that the air was more moist, the evaporation greater and o temperature of the atmosphere at large higher than now; in brief, that the climate of the earth was then warmer thnk: a present : probably by reason of a greater rate of solar radiation. The questions which this hypothesis raises are much more limited and less complex than those brought

up by other theories of a glacial climate, though even core the complexity is considerable. I believe that it can be brought

late In that conviction the following argument is sub- mitt te

will question the assumption that a warmer climate will increase the annual liquefaction and evaporation. It remains to inquire whether it will also increase the snowfall; and increase it to an extent which shall more than compensate the increased dissipation

Se ) It is sufliciently obvious that the amount of snowfall in

mount of ‘sn nowfall, and the question is fie resolved into the vd beldiary ones: Ist, will a warmer climate canse in any local- ity any increment in the time of snow precipitation in an av- erage year; 2d, will it cause any increase in the average rate? These will, so far as practicable, be considered separately. It will be most convenient to examine. first, the rate of precipita- tion. But before doing so it will be well to advert to two or three familiar but most essential facts. They are truisms,

never otherwise. If the two limiting temperatures between

which cooling takes place are both above zero (centigrade) the q

C. EL. Dutton—Lffect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers. 3

precipitation is necessarily all rain; for the precipitate must take the temperature of the menstruum. If the two limiting temperatures are both below zero the entire precipitation is one limit is above and the other below zero a part o the precipitation is rain and the other part snow. From this it follows that whatever moisture air may contain in excess of the quantity which is necessary to saturate it at zero can fall only as rain; and the only available supply which can form snow ts a portion of the moisture which is required to saturate air at zero.

4.) To avoid circumlocution it will be considered, unless dis- tinctly specified otherwise, that the air is saturated with mois- ture at all temperatures. The amount of precipitation is an increasing but complicated function of the amount of fall of temperature, Without such a fall there can be no precipita- tion. But equal falls do not give the same amount of precipi- tation in different parts of the temperature scale. Thus a fall from 20° to 19° precipitates much more than a fall from 10° to 9°, and this much more than from 0° to-1°. The exact form

average, and these averages are susceptible of perfectly rational ' €Xpreassion. Suppose we had thrice-daily observations for a thousand years of all the meteorological conditiong of a locality. The average of these observations would, in respect to eac

factor, give perfectly definite values and relations, Let us

4 ©. EF. Dutton—LHfect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

therefore consider an imaginary year which shall represent the average conditions of a thousand years. It would have such characteristics as the following: In most localities every day in the year would show some precipitation, but with one or more maxima in one or two parts of the year, and a corres- ponding number of minima. In a few localities it is just pos- sible that some part of the year might show no precipitation at all, the function becoming discontinuous. Hach day in the year would have some definite rate of precipitation (quantity divided by the time). Hach day would have its proper sea- sonal temperature and variations of temperature and all would follow some expressible Jaw determined by the general and

snowfall just now, be it observed, but the entire precipitation both rain and snow. We shall separate the snowfall after- wards. This is quite necessary, for the omission to consider the total effect of a general increase of climatal temperatures has been the stumbling-block of quite a number of those who

degrees fall of temperature, is implied in the second factor; for this amount is simply the rate multiplied by the time, and the time is now unity.

(7.) The quantity of air which at any time is yielding moisture to any locality is that quantity which blows over it as wind.

and as fast as one body of air is depleted another body of it takes its place. The quantity of air, then, which is to yield moisture is simply proportional to the velocity of the wind.

C. FE. Dutton—Lffect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers. 5

There is no doubt that the faster saturated air is supplied to a locality where it is cooled the faster (ceteris paribus) the rain or snow will fall. But the ratio of increment of wind velocity to increment of precipitation is not a simple one. It will be given farther on. Just here we are merely concerned with the inquiry, How would this air-supply or wind-velocity be affected y a warmer climate? Would it be increased? and, if so, in what ratio? Undoubtedly it would be increased. As regards the ratio, an answer will be attempted presently. The velocity of the wind is intimately associated with the second factor, rate of cooling, and it is first necessary to have the entire range of facts before us so as to dispose of the matter in its entirety.

(8.) Let us, then, consider the second factor which affects the rate of precipitation, viz: the rate at which air cools; and let us afterwards inquire how it would be affected by a change of climate consequent upon increased solar radiation, There are four known ways in which the cooling of air oceurs: (1) by the work done in expansion; (2) by contact with colder surfaces ; (3) by commingling with colder air bodies; (4) by excess of radiation over absorption of heat.

-) A moment's reflection will convince us that the first three modes of cooling are dependent altogether upon move-

ment, and, therefore, velocity. The rates of expansion, contact

unequally at any instant upon different places. It falls une

Statical equilibrium of the air; and further consequent is the rush of air to find a new equilibrium. Any disturbance of a

6 ©. E. Dutton—Effect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

body from a position of stable equilibrium which it seeks to reéstablish, is a case of the conversion of kinetic into potential energy. “The radiant energy which falls upon the earth is artially converted into potential which is in turn expended in producing the movements of the air. Having referred these movements back to their cause and having put the conditions of the question into the most general and comprehensive form, may now ask again, would the wind-potential be greater if solar radiation were to increase? Undoubtedly it would. But in what ratio? To this latter question, | believe, a sufficiently approximate answer can be given. The problem is purely a thermodynamic one.

(11.) The atmosphere, considered with reference to its winds, may be regarded as a series of thermodynamic engines oper- ated by an expansible and nearly perfect gas receiving heat and converting it into work. The amount of energy available for this work is directly proportidnal to the difference (in any given case) between the absolute temperature which the body of air

the sphericity of the earth, its rotation and seasons, its hetero- geneous surface—are in the main fixed in nature and constants ; while the motive power is the sun’s radiant energy. And since the solar radiation and the temperature-differences of the air are both heat-quantities, pure and simple, we have, apparently, no alternative but to conclude that they are proportional to each other. But the exact form of the ratio is unknown. Nevertheless, if we assume it to be a simple ratio for any range of variation in the amount of solar radiation which could be reasonably postulated in connection with the present discussions, we shall certainly commit no large error. Still less shall we err if we assume that the inequalities in the heating of the air are proportional in a simple ratio to the mean absolute tempera- ture of the air at the earth’s surface, and if that temperature were raised by increased solar radiation the inequalities which cause the winds would increase in the same ratio.

be disposed to postulate? Would 20° C. be sufficient ?

ing the mean temperature of the earth’s atmosphere at the surface to be (274°+16°) C. and adding 20° to it, we have 310°, and the ratio of 290:310=1-07, or an increment of seven per cent in the absolute temperature of the atmosphere. Assumin that the wind potentials are every where increased in like ratio, aud remembering that the velocity of the wind is proportional to the square root of the energy expended in producing it, the

C. EF. Dutton—Effect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers. 7

resulting mean velocity of the winds would be y1:07=1-035, or about three and one-half per cent greater than at present. But suppose the wind potentials increased in a geometrical ratio with the temperature of air. The result would of course depend altogether on the form of this ratio. But taking it in its simplest form (logarithm of the potential simply proportional to the absolute temperature) the increment in the wind-velocity, resulting from 20° increase of mean temperature, would be less than six per cent. Larger geometrical ratios can of course be arbitrarily postulated, but they would require a very stalwart defense to entitle them to a hearing.

(13.) Let us now go back and review our first two factors which determine the rate of precipitation; (1) air supply, (2) rate of cooling, We have seen that both are dependent—the first wholly and the second in great part—on the velocity of the winds. The first factor, air-supply, is evidently directly proportional to the velocity with which the winds move t

e found reason to believe that this velocity would not be very much increased, though it would to some extent, by an increment in the mean temperature of the atmosphere which most thinkers would probably consider very,large. The same conclusion attaches to the second factor, rate of cooling, in so far as it is dependent upon the velocity of the wind. But we have noted that this second factor depends for its value upon four subordinate or component factors, commingling, expansion, contact, and excess of radiation over absorption of heat. The first three depend for their value upon the velocity of air move- ments solely. The fourth component (excess of radiation over absorption) presents other considerations.

(14.) In the long run, radiation and absorption of heat by the atmosphere are equal. For if one or the other predomina- ted continuously the air would grow continuously warmer or colder. Practically during any short period of time, and in every locality one or the other does predominate ; but the ratio of the two perpetually oscillates to and fro about an equality.

ow if air were motionless for a long period of time this oscil- lation of temperature would soon cease to precipitate moisture upon the land though the vibration might still continue. t in reality fresh air laden with new supplics of moisture is con- stantly replacing the bodies of air which have been depleted. Again we find that the movement of air is a vital considera- tion. But the nature of the dependence of that portion of the

Wind is different from that of commingling expansion, ete. In the latter operations their efficiency is proportional in a simple

ratio to the velocity. Not so the efficiency of radiation. The

law in this case is a more complex one and the ratio has less

8 OC EF Dutton—Hfect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

e than a simple ratio. Inasmuch as it can be made intel- ligible only by the use of an algebraic expression, the analysis of it is given in the appended note.* The general result of

that analysis is that when air moves from a warmer to a colder

place, where it is cooled Zeck radiation, the amount of cooling (by sivaer ade simply) over any given area, does not increase in the same ratio as fe Heoloae of the wind, but in a ratio Which itself diminishes rapidly as the velocity increases.

(15.) We have thus examined the essential features of the first two factors which determine the rate of precipitation with reference to the changes they would probably undergo if the earth’s climates became warmer. These changes we find to be very small for any increase of warmth which would be postu- lated. So rai are they that hereafter they will be considered as unimporta

(16.) ‘The third factor which determines the rate of precipi- tation depends for its value upon the temperature at which the cooling of saturated air begins. It is by far the most impor- tant factor of the three. Its value is directly proportional to _ the maximum density of water vapor considered as a function of temperature, and it is well known that this density increases with the temperature, in a very rapid ratio. A roughly ap- proximate idea of it may be derived from the fact that at such temperatures as we are most concerned with, this density, or, what is equivalent, the so-called capacity of air for moisture, is about doubled for an increase of 10° C. in the temperature of

us consider an area of unit width over which air is passing. that while it is passing, some cause, the nature of which need not be specified, t som

e the air over sa tem mperature at which Sonera and absorption would become

instantaneous ltd of the Seeger eg as the s, this potential is con- stantly diminishing. Let then P be the initial een es the potential when vend

air first reaches the supposed area and let ‘ be its value after any time 7, durin

its passage over it. Then the change dp in the value of the Seren dutttig any time dé (taken so small that he its ateticn p may be as sen- sibly constant), is expressed by the —dp=pdt. Integrating this 9 petweet the values P and p for the seal ¢ nd cathe the corresponding values of 0 and ¢ for the time, we have log p—log P=log Oe t, and gd Now the

Leg cooling during the time ¢ of see unit volume of the air is equal to of potential; that is, P—p=P(l—e~). If ¢ be taken as the whole time pe

passing, and if v represent the velocity, then ta. Substituting this expression for

t, we shall have erga rycen of cooling of unit. vanes = by pes while

passing over area of unit width with the velocity »v the quantity of air

ere passes is dirootly § proportional to the velocity, and itgne the expres- sion by v we obtain the Eq.: Total cooling over given area =Pu(l—e =) ke

examination of we = shows the general result stated in the text.

tial P may also be riable and have a slightly increased value oe o a rues

climate, but any fick teersaonet would of course be very small.

C. £. Dutton—Lfect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers. 9

the atmosphere. So obvious are the considerations which arise from this fact that no further discussion of it is necessary.

(18.) Having found that the mean rate of precipitation would be largely increased by a warmer climate, the next step is to inquire whether the tame of precipitation would also be in- creased by the same cause. Here as before we must recur to the causes and conditions, which fix for any locality, the num- ber of rainy days and hours of the average year; but we only need to advert to them in their most general forms. We may recall again the statement that precipitation takes place when Saturated air is cooled—never otherwise. It cools when it moves from a place where the local conditions make it warmer, to a place where the local conditions make it cooler. Again

winds from certain directions bring wet weather, while th

double duty. In part, however, it presents independent consid- otly. ave

_ erations which will be adverted to prese

9

10 OE. Dutton—EHffect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

presumably bring the same quota of rainy and dry days—nei- ther more nor less. There are also what may be termed irreg- ular winds of which the cyclone class are examples, but for the caprices and anomalies of which no law has been found. In high latitudes the winds are vacillating and their vagaries. are still more obscure. Have we any reason to suppose that these winds as yet anomalous would yield any more wet days. if the climate were warmer? I see none. Their alternations

(21.) We do not find then any reason to suppose that either the directions or relative humidity of the winds has any relation

Sounded on known causes to suppose that a warmer climate °

C. £. Dutton— Effect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers. 11

would affect the time of precipitation in any manner whatever. Possibly other inquirers may be more ingenious and more for- tunate. Possibly the unknown operations of the intricate ma- chinery of the winds might be made to yield another result to more subtle analysis. And indeed I am tempted to suggest here a line of thought which if carefully pursued might lead to

argue otherwise,

12 O. EB. Dutton—Ffect of «warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

axis of Z be the scale of temperatures, and let PP’ represent the temperature of precipitation throughout an average year— the higher parts of the curve corresponding to summer and the lower parts to winter months. Draw pp’ below PP’ at such

C. £. Dutton—Lifect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers. 13 :

going is applicable be rendered warmer then the position of zero must be taken at a lower point on Z, as at c, or what amounts to the same thing the curves must be drawn higher up relative to the zero line. Then the integral amount of cool- ing available for snow will be represented by the space below ec’ and within the two curves. It is evident that according to this construction the warmer climate would decrease the amount of cooling available for snow except in the case of one so cold that the temperature is always below zero—which may be rep- resented by drawing the zero line above both curves at aa’.

(25.) But the same amount of cooling produces different amounts of precipitation in different parts of the temperature scale. While the amount of cooling available for snow has been diminished the efficiency of what remains has increased. In fig. 2, let Z, as before, be the axis for temperatures, and let Ss be the curve of saturation or maximum vapor density of water considered as a function of temperature. Let the vertical dimensions of the figures fand g represent equal amounts of cooling. Then their areas will exemplify the different amounts of precipitation in different parts of the temperature scale pro- duced by equal amounts of cooling. To combine the two fac- tors three axes are necessary.

(26.) In fig. 8, draw the three rectangular codrdinate axes, OX, OY, OZ. Upon the plane YZ draw a convenient portion of the saturation curve Ss. Conceive the plane figure Sszz’ to be a generatrix moving along the axis OX in positions always parallel to ZY. The line zz’ will generate a vertical plane face, the line zs a horizontal plane face, and the line Ss a curved face of an indefinite solid. Conceive now two corrugated cutting edges similar to that of a sheet of corrugated iron and having the curvature generally expressed in fig. 1, by the curves PP’ and pp’ be passed into the indefinite solid, moving parallel to YZ, so as to cut out of it the shaded solid as drawn. This definite solid represents graphically the annual precipitation

that precipitation takes place only when saturated air is coole The quantity of See et which cooling air will yield (per

14 OE. Dutton—Ffect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

unit volume of air) is dependent upon the extent or amount of cooling, i. ¢., the difference between its initial and final temper- ature, and upon the temperature at which the cooling begins. This is expressed by the length and positions of the vertical lines in the front face of the solid. The curved line PP’ repre- sents the locus of these initial temperatures for every day in the year, and the line pp’ represents similarly the locus of the final temperatures. I have drawn them about equally apart for the whole year. Asa matter of fact they should be une- qual, most probably ; for the range of cooling is not ordinarily uniform in the storms of different parts of the year. But it will appear farther on that this is of no consequence so far as the final conclusion is concerned. The reader may imagine the intervals between PP’ and pp’ to be arranged in any way he

n any case, The final conclusion will cover every admissible modification. Perhaps it will be said that at any given phase

pendent variable. The temperature itself, and therefore the y and z ordinates, are harmonic functions of the time, the form of which is not exactly known.

C.F. Dutton—Lffect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers. 15

(29.) The first effect to be considered is the shortening of the time of snowfall, so far as this time depends upon the changes of seasons. It is plain that the increment of tempera- ture due to increased radiation must pervade every portion of the earth and throughout the entire year. Quite likely the increments would be unequal in different latitudes and unequal at different seasons. Still there wou e an increase at all places and at all seasons. The summer would come earlier and stay longer; that is to say, the time during which it would be cold enough to snow would begin later in the autumn and end earlier in the spring.

(30.) The second obvious effect is that. the rate of precipita- tion, whether for rain or snow, would be increased. For by the hypothesis the precipitation would be the result of cooling air at a higher temperature than before and equal amounts of

g.

Thus the time of snowfall would be diminished, but the average rate of snowfall would be increased. The amount for the year is simply the product of the time multiplied by the average rate of snowfall. Since one of the factors would be

U of snowfall Lae increase, and the total annual snowfall would be diminished by a warmer climate. There is an exception or rather a class of exceptions which will presently be adverted to. The proof of the proposition is simple and conclusive. Since the warm weather is extended further into the autumn

into December; to push the snowfall of March (wholly or in part), back into February, and that of February back into Jan- uary. The snowfall which originally belonged to December and January, has simply disappeared. Meantime the former heat of June comes now in May and the heat of July goes over into August.* Two new thermal months have made their

*

ircumlocution. i : for a short period of time, having & Variable me rage habs 6b Se ae a definite aneion to the distribu- tion of temperature A cha aaa the year. This period may be of any length, from

~

16 OE Dutton—ffect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers.

ane: hotter than any ever known before, and add their potency to the annual liquefaction. A period of snowfall in midwinter has yes once without compensation ; a period of melting heat in midsummer has made its appearance as a clear gain to the _ Eauehaeton, This is the net result of the warmer climat

31.) Let us Vexandind this a little more in detail, taking a special case by way of illustration. Let us consider the climate

of a region situated in rather high latitudes, say in the neigh-

borhood of 50° to 55°, where the present mean temperature of precipitation touches zero on the 10th of October. For three or four weeks before and after that date the storms will some- times yield rain, sometimes snow—the rain at first being more and then less and less frequent until notbing but snow falls. Similarly in the spring (April 15th?) there is a date at which the mean temperature of precipitation rises up to the zero line and passes above it with a period on either side in which snow and rain alternate—the snowfall gradually vanishing. hoa we have four seasons, one of summer rainfall, one of winte snowfall, and two seasons (autumnal and vernal), where the rains and snows are dove-tailed with each other. It is also necessary to remember that we are now considering an average year as before described, and we must stop a moment to con sider the elements of which that year is made up. Every call endar date has a certain time, rate, temperature, and amount, of precipitation which is found. by averaging the supposed obser: vations of precipitation occurring on that date for hundreds of

duration siterdasiins with as many short dry intervals.

Suppose now a warmer climate supervenes with a heat incre- ment sufficient to postpone the time at which the mean tem- perature of precipitation touches zero until the 15th of Novem- ber. In that case the 15th of November takes the precipitation which now pertains to October 15th, subject to a qualification which will be ee speedily. November 20th takes the precipitation of October 20th and soon. Thus the winter is driven forward in seu. On the other hand the spring comes earlier; and, in inverse order, the winter is driven backward. The former may be called the procession of snowfall, the latter the recession of snowfall. In mid-winter the procession and recession meet and crowd out entirely a certain period of time in which snowfall formerly occurred. But the rate of precipi- tation during mid-winter has increased because the temperature is now higher at which ie ues takes place. But this

C. E. Dutton—LEffect of a warmer Climate upon Glaciers, 17

higher rate is merely the same rate which prevailed formerly at an earlier date. In the first half of the winter, the original rates and amounts of precipitation have only been postponed to later dates without change of value. In the last half of the winter the original rates and amounts of precipitation have merely been anticipated on earlier dates without change of value. The rates and amounts which have been anticipated and postponed have taken the place of rates and amounts which have disappeared entirely and without compensation.

2.) Let us now look at some of the qualifications to the

(33.) There is also one general exception which is indepen- dent of the distribution of wet weather throughout the year, and in which a warmer climate would produce increased snow- fall. Ifa region exists any where on earth, such that the mean temperature of precipitation all the year round is considerably

low zero, then a warmer climate will—up to a certain limit —have the effect of increasing the rate of precipitation without affecting the time, and hence there will be an increase of snow- fall. But the moment the temperature of precipitation passes above zero in any part of the year, then the shortening of the ume of snowfall begins and proceeds at maximum rate of short- ening for any further increase of temperature, and thereafter the conversion of snow into rain will subtract more snow than the increased temperature of precipitation will add.

(34.) The possibility of obtaining a greater snowfall by a warmer climate then is limited to such localities as are now ex- tremely cold—to localities situated either very near the poles, or at altitudes far above the present line of perpetual snow. In all other places a warmer climate would add to the rainfall and

Am. Jour, Sor.—TarEp Suries, Vou. XXVII, No. 157.—Jan., 1884.

18 F. Waldo—Filling of Barometer Tubes.

actually subtract from the snowfall, while increasing at the same time the annual liquefaction. The advocates of a warm, glacial climate have committed a most extraordinary oversight in failing to perceive that the moisture, which they would add to the atmosphere, can fall as rain only. Not until the air has discharged as rain all the moisture in excess of the quantity which saturates it at zero, can it begin to yield snow. This con- sideration alone ought to have deterred them from such a doc- trine and its mere statement might seem sufficient to refute the idea. But it has been deemed proper to investigate the sub- ject at some length, and to examine each component factor in its proper relations, in order to make ourselves sure that what seems to be a complete answer at the first glance, is still com- plete, however it may be tested in detail.

Art. Il.—On the application of Wrights Apparatus for distilling, to the filling of barometer tubes; by FRANK WALDO, Computer 0.0; 3.0.

[Communicated by permission of the Chief Signal Officer.]

this cock can be connected with the open end of the barometer tube to be filled, which latter will take the general position of the whole tube g of Professor Wright’s drawing.

he rubber tube must be covered with melted sealing wax. The impure mercury in a should first be washed in acids and dried before introduction. At the beginning of operations a is full of impure mercury, but the rest of the apparatus contains only air. The Sprengel pump is set in motion and gradually exhausts the air from 4, c, d, e and the barometer tube, until no air bubbles can be seen in the running mercury of the Sprengel pump, and until the sharp click is heard when the drops of

F. Waldo—Filling of Barometer tubes. 19

mercury fall. The tube f is then sealed or a stop cock in it turned, cutting off the Sprengel pump; the Bunsen burner under c¢ is lighted, and the mercury will distill over into the barometer tube, which will thus be filled without allowing the mercury to come into direct contact with the air.

The barometer tube should be constantly watched in order to detect any air bubbles that may be carried over; when seen ey must be cooked out by heating the tube slightly by means

a Bunsen burner. When the barometer tube has ‘become rth! with the mercury, the cock at x can be ¢ closed, the sealing wax broken and the tube replaced by ano >the

This method is similar to the one employed by Wig St. Petersburg, only he uses the Weinhold apparatus.

Hamburg, June, 1883.

20 0. F. Brackett—Measurement of Power.

A A New Device for Measuring Power; by C. F.

pee

Brackett, Physical Laboratory of the College of New Jersey. THE following account of a method of measuring the energy expended on or rendered by a dynamo- or a magneto-machine will be of interest to those who have to do with the production of eleetricity in the large way in Which it is now employed in the enterprises of the day.

The machine is so supported, on uprights, that it can freely turn through a small arc of a circle whose center lies in the geometrical axis of the armature. The support may be effected by means of knife edges or by means of smooth cylindrical bearings, attached directly to the machine or to a cradle on which the machine rests. In the latter case the cradle is made adjustable so that the bottom or floor can be raised or lowered, thus permitting machines of different construction, when placed thereon, to be brought into proper positions as regards axis of revolution and points of support. When the machine, thus mounted, is set in rotation, with closed circuit, the mechanical couple set up between the armature and field magnets tends to make the latter revolve in the same direction with the arma- ture. The value of the couple, thus operative, and which we desire to know, will be known if we know the-value of the couple, equal and opposite in direction, which is required to hold the machine fixed in its position of equilibrium. A lever arm is fixed to the machine or cradle in a horizontal position and provided with a sliding weight of known value, sufficient to hold the machine fixed in its position of equilibriam when in the performance of its duty. ip e couple required can thus. be known in terms of lever arm and weight. We then only need to know the number of revolutions in a unit of time when we have all the data needed in order to compute the energy.

| W denote the weight, L the lever arm and n the number of revolutions in a minute, we shall have: energy =22W Ln, as in the case of the well-known Prony brake.

For purposes of accurate scientific inquiry, the field magnets alone may be mounted and balanced on knife edges, so as to turn freely like the beam of a common balance. By this plan all useless work is excluded from the account. Friction at the bearings and at the brushes do not in this case have any ten- dency to make the field magnets revolve.

In the Physical Laboratory of this institution there are several machines having the construction here pointed out. The

leave nothing to be desired in point of sensitiveness or accuracy in their indications. Princeton, Nov. 23, 1883.

S. Newcomb—Some points in Climatology. 21

Arr. [IV.—On some points in Climatology. A rejoinder to Mr. Oroll; by Stuon Newcoms.

at we are concerned with is the inference that at some former epoch in geological history the mean temperature of the northern hemisphere was much lower than it is now. Assum- ing this as the basis of discussion, the question is, what was the cause of this “glacial epoch?’ To speak more accurately ; since we can only take the causes relatively, why was the

ical causes, combined with elementary considerations in dec the motion of heat and its relation to meteorological p ena. His conclusion is that a great eccentricity of the earth’s

not that Mr. Croll’s thesis was false, but that it was not proven.

Ido not deny the possibility that, when the laws of climate

Causa acting in this direction which has not been considered by Mr. Croll at all, Ex eriments on radiation, commenced with ’,

ulong and Petit, tend to show that N ewtons theory of ot cae Proportionality between temperature and radiation is not well |

22 S. Newcomb—Some points in Climatology.

founded, and that, as temperature rises, radiation increases in a much higher ra ratio. To speak more exactly, if we take a series. of temperatures in arithmetical progression, the corresponding rates of radiation of heat will not be in arithmetical progression, but in a series of which the differences continually increase.

An immediate inference from this general law is that if an

ive annum, its mean annual temperature will be a maximum when this radiation is oe and will be lower the more irregular the reception of hea

Now it is well ices that the total amount of heat received, not only by the earth as a whole, but by each hemisphere, is constant, notwithstanding the change i in the earth’s eccentricity, but in virtue of the law just stated, any portion of the earth’s

ted more uniformly. But roll does not, so far as I have ever noticed, adduce this ee at all. On the con trary, he assumes Newton’s law of radiation proportional to temperature under which the cause would not act in the way suggested.

One great source of in-conclusiveness in Mr. Croll’s results seems to me to be a lack of quantitative precision in hi guage. Though he may use numbers wherever it seems to him they are applicable, one can hardly fail to notice that the quan- rina terms he most uses are such as “great,” “very great,”

mall,” “comparatively small,” and these without any state- oer of the units of comparison relatively to which the expres- sions are used. Now I deem it not improbable that the differ- ence between a cold and a hot epoch may be due to the very small preponderance of one or the other of several antagonistic

causes; and, if so, quantitative precision is necessary to lead to.

any reliable ‘conclusion.

shall now enter into some details: Mr. Croll suggests that. I may have forgotten the researches of Pouillet and Herschel into the temperature of space. I reply that I regard the con- Sega that the temperature of space is —239° as having no

und basis. To speak with greater quantitative exactness, it rate precisely the same value as a photometric estimate of the intensity of star light, founded on observations of the sky, made in full day, with an attempt to eliminate the light re- flected by the sky so as to find what residue comes from the” stars. The fact is, that no observations of radiant heat from stellar spaces at large can be made below the uppermost —_ of the earth’s atmosphere, owing to the intervention in regions of the radiation from the atmosphere itself.

r. Croll concludes, using Newton's law of radiation, that the heat received from the stars is to that received from th

S. Newcomb—Some points in Climatology. 23

sun as 222 to 299. I wonder that he did not see in thisa reductio ad absurdum either of the results of Pouillet and Herschel, or the law of radiation which he assumes. Photo- metry shows that the combined light from all the stars visible in the most powerful telescope is not a millionth of that re- ceived from the sun, and there is no reason for believing that the ratio of light to heat is incomparably different in the two cases

In considering the question of the heat conveyed by aerial currents Mr. Croll quotes from my former paper so fully and, fairly that I do not see any necessity to repeat my views at length. I can only say that while I now see more plainly than before some reason why a body at the upper region of the earth’s atmosphere should, on the average, be colder than at the surface, I do not see that we have data for fixing the fall of temperature at 5° or 100°. If the degree of cold is greater than that due to expansion, then Mr. Croll is right in main- taining that the aerial current would not carry to the poles all the heat with which it left the equator, but even granting this condition I see no ground for supposing the quantity of heat conveyed to be insignificant.

shall now consider some of Mr. Croll’s reasons why the ocean should be warmer than the land. His assumed law that

adduces, in support of his thesis, the fact that water is more transparent to the solar rays than the rays which it would itself radiate; and that the upper layers of water would act like the glass of a green house and thus allow the water to stand at a higher temperature than it would otherwise do. This addition to the modus operandi seems to me quite sound, and, therefore, to show one true cause why water might rise to a higher mean temperature than the land, though I am unable to say whether the increase would be measurable with an ordinary thermometer. But Lam sorry to find that, notwithstanding his addition of a Sound cause, he adheres to views so diametrically opposite to what I supposed to be the fundamental laws of thermodynamics that I feel compelled to state the case more fully. His first reason why the ocean should be warmer than the land, is in the following words:

First.“ The ground stores up heat only by the slow process of conduction, whereas water, by the mobility of its particles and its transparency for heat-rays, especially those from the sun, be- comes heated to a considerable depth rapidly. The quant heat stored up in the ground is thus comparatively small, while the quantity stored up in the ocean is great.

24 - § Newcomb—Some points in Climatology.

thirty feet at the rate of 1° Fahr. per hour (day or week as the case might be). Thus only 1000 units of heat are stored up in a cubic meter of earth, while 5000 units per cubic meter are stored up in the ocean When stated in this form the question how hot the ocean

Second.—* The air is probably heated more rapidly by contact with the ground than with the ocean; but, on the other hand, it is heated far more rapidly by radiation from the ocean than from the land. e aqueous vapor of the air is to a great extent diathermanous to radiation from the ground, while it absorbs the rays from water and thus becomes heated.”

Here again the fallacy of the reasoning will be seen by giv-. ing the respective number of degrees, or any quantitative state- ment of the rate at which the air was heated by radiation from the ocean and from the land respectively. The fact I suppose to be that there is no rapidity of heating in question, but that the question is simply one of stationary temperature to be ulti- mately reached. I must repeat that I know not the slightest sauthority for the statement in the last sentence quoted and can

S. Newcomb—Some points in Climatology. 25

temperatures and not quantities of heat with which we are ultimately concerned and the inconclusive character of the reasoning will be at once apparen I shall next pass to the question of the non-melting of snow during a short perihelion summer, in which, as I stated in my former review, calculating temperatures by Mr. Croll’s formula, should have a mean temperature ranging from 100° to 150° Fahr. I had to acknowledge some embarrassment from Mr. Croll’s causes producing their effects through the two dia- metrically opposite modes of operation, to wit: Ist. By making the air exceedingly transparent and thus e.

see no use in arguing this point for the simple reason that

T do not know enough about the relations of temperature to the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere to admit of my saying anything of value on the subject. I would merely remark that I cannot see in Mr. Croll’s reasoning the slightest ground for admitting that the perihelion summer radiation would pro-

‘ce any other effect than it does now. Be

L am surprised that Mr. Croll should have been willing to Pigeoge reasoning so obviously inconclusive as that in which 1¢ endeavors to show that my objection to the reliableness of his dates for glacial epochs, on account of the insufficiency of the fundamental data for the secular variations of the plane- tary orbits, falls to the ground. My objection and his state- ment in reply I can leave to the judgment of the reader who chooses to refer to them. pe I conceive that some general remarks on the nature of the problem will be of more value than a further analysis of Mr. Croll’s reasoning. It is an observed fact that we now have a

26 S. Newcomb—Some points in Climatology.

glacial epoch at a comparatively moderate height in the atmo- sphere and on the tops of most high ranges of mountains far removed from the equator. It is evident that if, at any former epoch, the state of things at the surface of the ground was the same that it now is at the height of two or three miles in the atmosphere, there must have been a glacial epoch. To what cause are we to attribute the cold of the upper regions of the air? There are two known causes but we cannot assign an exact quantitative effect to each.

I. The passage of air from the lower to the upper regions is- accompanied by expansion, and the reverse motion by com- pression, which would naturally result in the upper regions be- ing colder than the lower: the exact amount of cooling, sup- posing no disturbing cause to come into play, is readily computed, and has, I think, been assigned by Professor Sir William Thompson and others, but I need not now refer to the results. é

II. Researches on radiant heat seem to show that the atmo- sphere absorbs the extreme rays of the spectrum, especially those of greatest wave length, more powerfully than the rays of mean wave length. The rays radiated by the earth are of longer wave length than the great mass of those received by the sun. The natural result of this selective absorption would be to make the temperature of the earth higher than if there were no atmosphere, or if the atmosphere exercised no selec- tive absorption on heat rays. It seems probable that this selec- tive absorption is due, very largely if not entirely, to aqueous. vapor in the air. If this be so, an epoch of dry air would be a glacial one.

A crude test of the efficacy of the first cause might be de- vised. In order that it may act it is essential that there shall be a continuous interchange of air between low and high alti- tudes. Now if there are any high table lands so extended that in their central portions the air has not during several days an ee to be replenished from lower regions, such air should be warmer than that at an equal height on isolated mountains. Probably the conditions for such an observation do not exist on the earth’s surface.

n conclusion I may be allowed to express my regret at not being able to make a contribution of positive value to the in- vestigation of this subject. The state of the question is about this: A well founded theory of terrestrial temperature can be built only upon an accurate knowledge of the laws of emission and absorption of radiant energy of different wave lengths, especially in the atmosphere, and the result will appear as a numerical calculation, more or less exact, of the temperature resulting from assigned conditions, and not as the conclusion of an argument to show one thing or another.

W. Huggins—Photographing the Solar Corona. 27

Art. V.—On Photographing the Solar Corona without an Eclipse ; by Witu1am Hueerns, D.C.L., LL.D, FBS. ©

[In the number of this Journal for last February is a state- ment, by Dr. Huggins, of his method of photographing the corona of the sun without an eclipse. The following account, of his more recently devised methods, and of the results ob- tained, was communicated to the British Association at South- port, and is furnished by him in proof from the British Journal

4

of Photography for this Journal. ]

Tam indebted to Miss Lassell for the loan of a seven-foot Newtonian telescope made by the late Mr. Lassell. The spec- ulum, which is seven and a-quarter inches in diameter, pos- sesses great perfection of figure, and still retains its original fine polish. I decided not to use more than three and a-half inches of the central portion of the speculum—partly for the reason that a larger amount of light would be difficult of man- agement, and partly because this restriction of the aperture would enable me to adopt the arrangement which is shown in the diagram.

Tt will be seen at once from an inspection of the diagram that in this arrangement the disadvantage of a second reflection by the small mirror is avoided, as is also the mechanical in- Convenience of tilting the speculum within the tube, as in the ordinary form of the Herschelian telescope. The speculum 4 remains in its place at the end of the tube aa. The sm ] plane speculum and the arm earrying it were removed. The Open end of the tube is fitted with a mahogany cover. In this cover at one side is a circular hole /, three and a-quarter Inches in diameter, for the light to enter; below is a similar hole, over which is fitted a framework to receive the “backs” Containing the photographie plates, and also a frame with fine ground glass for putting the apparatus into position. Imme- diately below, towards the speculum, is fixed a shutter with an

across more or less rapidly by the use of india-rubber bands 0! different degrees of eae f In front of the opening /is fixed —

a tube c, six feet long, fitted with diaphragms, to restrict as far

28 W. Huggins—Photographing the Solar Corona

as possible the light which enters the telescope to that which comes from the sun and the sky immediately around him. The telescope tube aa is also fitted with diaphragms, which are not shown in the diagram, to keep from the plate all light except that coming directly from the speculum. It is obvious that when the sun’s light entering the tube / falls upon the cen- tral part of the speculum the image of the sun will be formed in the middle of the second opening at d, about two inches from the position it would take if the tube were directed axially tothesun. The exquisite definition of the photographic images of the sun shows, as was to be expected, that the smal deviation from the axial direction—two inches in seven feet— does not affect sensibly the performance of the mirror. The

whole apparatus is firmly strapped on to the ro of the equatorial, and carried with it by the clock moti

The performance of the apparatus is very satiatootoee The photographs show the ser ’s image sharply defined; even small spots are seen. When the sky is free from clouds, but pre- senting a whity spend from the large amount of scattered light, the sun’s image is well defined upon an uniform back- ground of illuminated sky, without any great increase of illu- — mination immediately about it. It is only when the sky be- comes clear and blue in color that sureinnl appearances present themselves with more or less distinctness. n my earlier work with this apparatus I used cells contain- ing potassic permanganate in solution, which were placed close to the sensitive surface, and between it and the shutter. I was much troubled Lc the rapid decom position of the potassic permanganate under the influence of the sun’s light. When apparently clear to the eye, a lens revealed minute particles which Srosiiniok: themselves upon the glass plates of the cell, and gave an appearance of structure to any coronal appearance which was in the plate; besides, any diminution of the trans- parency of the solution by the presence of minute particles would produce scattered light on the plate. ' I then tried a solution of iodine in carbon disulphide, but the

same inconvenience presented itself. Very soon, under the sun’s light, the solution was found by examination with a lens to show signs of commencing decomposition.

ven when the solution was sensibly clear there was some disadvantage from the unavoidable imperfection of polish of. the surface of the plates, which reveals itself under the condi- tions of strong light in which they are placed.. If, however, the violet (pot) class which I used at first could be obtained annealed and free from the imperfections usually present in it, it would serve most usefully as a selective screen.

For these reasons, after some months’ work I decided to give

without an Eclipse. “ 29

up the use of absorbing media, and I came to the conclusion that the advantages they present, which are doubtless consider- able, are more than balanced by the possible false appearances. which they might give rise to if the solutions were not ina condition of perfect transparency.

As, for the reasons stated above, it seemed desirable to avoid placing media of any kind before the sensitive surface, the selective power upon the light had to be sought in the nature of the sensitive surface itself. The suggestion of staining the film presented itself, but after consultation with Captain Abney I decided to try an emulsion containing silver chloride only. Captain Abney kindly prepared some silver chloride emulsion for me, and the plates were developed with asolution of fer- rous-citro-oxalate. The silver chloride film, according to Cap- tain Abney, is strongly sensitive to light from % to H, an hardly at all beyond H. Since the middle of July these plates

ave been used as well as the ordinary silver bromide gelatine plates. A comparison of the two kinds of plates, when used under similar conditions, shows a decided advantage for this work in favor of the silver chloride. All the plates were backed with a solution of asphaltum in benzole. _ For the purpose of screening the sensitive surface from the intensely bright image of the sun, small circular discs of thin

rass_were turned about ;;th of an inch larger in diameter than the sun’s image. The brass dise was held close before the Sensitive surface by a fine metal arm when the sun was taken In the middle of the field, and attached to the inner edge of a _ circular diaphragm when the sun’s image was placed toward the

side of the field. A comparison of photographs taken under

Similar conditions with and without the disc showed less ad- vantage in favor of the disc than was anticipated. Indeed, it may be that with the short exposures given the scattered light Which comes upon the plate, when the sun’s image falls directly On the sensitive surface, may be favorable to the setting up 0 aa Photographie action by the comparatively-feeble corona

8

In consequence of the number of diaphragms which it was found desirable to introduce into the apparatus for the purpose of preventing any light but that from the sun and the sky im-

t The moving shutter being placed very near the sensitive sur- ace, and practically in the focal plane, could not give rise to effects of diffraction upon the plate; besides, the opening |

30 W. Huggins—Photographing the Solar Corona

the shutter was never less than half-an-inch in width, and often as much as an inch or even more, according to the sensitive- ness of the plates used.

he most serious difficulty with which I have had to contend has been the absence of clear skies. On many days of bright sunshine the wind has been in a northerly direction, bringin here the smoke of London, which produces a whity condition of sky, through which it was obviously hopeless to expect the coronal light to show itself upon the plates. The few occasions of a better condition of sky were for the most part of short duration, and did not allow time for a large number of photo- graphs to be taken.

uring the summer about three dozen photographs have been obtained, which show photographic action about the sun of a more or less coronal character.

I placed these plates in the hands of Mr. Wesley, who has had very great experience in making drawings from the pho- tographs taken during several solar eclipses, with the request that he would make a drawing for each day on which sufficient photographs had been taken, combining the results of the dif- ferent photographs in one drawing. This was desirable, as, whenever a sufficient duration of sunshine permitted, photo- graphs were taken on silver chloride films as well as on silver bromide plates. Some photographs were taken with the sun screened by the brass disc, others without it; also photographs were taken with the sun in different positions of the field, As a rule, Mr. Wesley has introduced into his drawings those coronal features only which are common to all the plates taken on that da

The apparatus is attached to the refractor of the equatorial in such a way that the direction of the length of the plate is in that of a parallel of declination; a line, therefore, across the plate, is in a direction north and south, and from the date of the photograph the angle of position of the sun’s axis can be found. On Mr. Wesley’s drawings the orientation is marked, as well as the position of the sun’s axis.

Four drawings accompany this paper. On one of them (August 13) are seen defined rays. As these are present in three photographs—one in which the sun is in the middle of the field aod the shutter in use, a second in which the sun was nearly in the middle but the shutter remained open, and @ third with the sun near the margin of the field and screened by a disc—Mr. Wesley has put them in the drawing. In most of the negatives more structure than is shown in the drawings is suspected when the plates are carefully examined. 4

I regretted greatly that on the sixth of May—the day of the solar eclipse-—the sky here was very unfavorable,

without an Lelipse. 31

_ Up to the time of writing this paper I have not seen the photographs taken during the eclipse. Mr. Wesley wishes me to say that he has not seen the photographs or any drawin of the eclipse, and that, therefore, he has been wholly without bias in making his drawings from my plates. If these draw- ings are compared with the photographs taken during the ‘eclipse, it should be borne in mind that the absence of sky- illumination during the eclipse would allow a larger part of the fainter and more distant regions of the corona to be photo- graphed, and that any peculiar conformations or detailed structure of these outer portions could not be expected to be seen on my plates. The comparison should be restricted to the regions of the corona at corresponding distances from the sun’s limb. It is probable that the short-exposure eclipse negatives will be found to admit of comparison with my plates better than those exposed for a longer time. ; protcgraphes of the sun have been taken on the days which ollow :—

ae Sepa 1 plate. Jthe (6 20. 1 plate. Bi aso ae te Oy AO lot 3 plates. os, Fee 2 plates. . 162 Bes see ky |: Sa ae oo Atigeat 825507054 oF May 1 1 plate oP BBL aus Pe ee. PERE 6 plates a Pe 7 nos) Pa ee Bob. Bute ate eos me Ee 3:

All these plates show a more or less distinct coronal appear- ance about the sun. On some of the days an unfavorable wind brought here the London smoke, which greatly increased the sky-illumination relatively to the coronal light which could reach the plate. On these days the photographic action on the plates around the sun, though distinctly coronal in character, possesses less definiteness of form. I entertain the hope that it may be possible, by a careful comparison of all the plates, to

corona, or been due to its motion, during the period covered y the observations,

[Professor Stokes, who read the paper, also read the followin letter from Mr. Lawrence, one of ihe observers of the eclipse of May 6th, at Caroline Island.] : “Dr. Huggins called upon Mr. Woods this morning i Showed us the drawings Mr. Wesley has made of his coronas. He told us that he particularly did not wish to see our negatives,

32 =F. J. Parsons—Elliptic Elements of Comet 1882, I.

but he would like us to compare his results with ours. We did so and found that some strongly marked details could be made out on his drawings, a rift near the north pole being especially noticeable. This was in a photograph taken on April 3d, in which details of the northern hemisphere are best shown ; while the details of our southern hemisphere most resemble the photo- graph taken on June 6th. In fact our negatives seem to hold an intermediate position. Afterwards I went with.Dr. Hug- gins and Mr. Woods to Burlington House to see the negatives. The outline and distribution of light in the inner corona o

pril 3d is very similar to that on our plate which had the shortest exposure, the outer corona is, I think, hidden by at- mospheric glare. As a result of the comparison, I should say that Dr. Huggins’ coronas are certainly genuine as far as 8’ from the limb.”

Art. VL—Elliptic Elements of Comet 1882, 1; by F ARSONS.

THE accompanying set of elements was derived from the following six normal places:

Mean R. A.

Prob. |No. of Mean Prob. ‘No. of 1882.0.

Time = Normal Error. | Obs. 6 1882.0. Error. | Obs.

places.

G, M. T.

iach 26.5 |271 36 46°99 |4+0°Tl| 63 [37 15 15°6)/4+0°41| 61 |Mar. 19—Apr. 3 April 12.5 \281 22 16°7 |+0°20) 70 |49 49 16°1/+0°66) 70 |Apr. 4—Apr. 21 May 25.5} 55 55 +0°45| 40 159 36° 4:1/+0°28) 40 |May 21—May 28 rh 2.5 | 66 45 42°3 |40°56) 18 (44 36 27°1)/40°53) 17 |June 1—June 5 9 * 4

27 |July 8—July 17 12 |Aug. 1-Aug. 16

August 7.5 |181 46 55°5 |4+1°17) 12 14 3°7/4+1°3

From the 2d, 8d and 5th of these normal places a prelimin- ary set of elements was co mputed 9 to the methods given in Gauss’ ‘ Theoria Motus,” as follow

T= June 1052908 O=204° a 18”°6 M log g=8°7836381 ws 59! sais ean eq. log e=9°9999998 73° 48" 34"-g5 ) 1882°0.

Rectangular equatorial I Coordinktes =F fe soso i sin ce 32 $3°° 24+) y=r [9°8608368 61° 11’ 4756+ z=r |9°9021136 196° 51’ 24°51 sa With these elements considering the eccentricity equal to unity, comparison was made with all six normal places, in order to make the final cnbecdon: to the preliminary orbit by means of a least square solution.

sin

LE, J. Parsons—Elliptic Elements of Comet 1882, I. 33

The differential coefficients with respect to the six elements being computed for the six normal places gave twelve equa- tions involving the following unknown quantities,

x=10000 dT, ‘ AES ee ag M sin y=d log qg (Briggian) or Yee a! z=dy'=da' + cos 7’dQ! v=dQ)' sin u=de or de=——, w=di'. sin 1

It was not thought worth while to apply weights systemati- cally according to the number of observations, but as the last normal place seemed to have considerably less precision than the others, the last two equations were given a weight of 0°5012 “ic ghana as a convenient approximation to a weight of one-

alf. -

The twelve resulting equations being solved according to the method of least squares give the following values for the unknown quantities:

w= 4°4771-4-1'°468 u=— 2'°2662+0'°877 Y= 2°4213+4 4°214 V= +10°952 42°495 @=—1°42954 0°875 w+ 9°035 4+2°739

Substituting these values in the equations of condition gives for the sum of the squares of the residuals [vv] =22°02. In the solution of the normal equations [nn°6]=22°09.

ese unknown quantities the following corrections to the preliminary elements are found @T= +0°000448 +0°000147 de=—0°00001098-+-0°00000425 d log g= + 0:0000051--0-0000089 dO’=+10'-952 4:2'495

do =—8'"024 26440 di’ = 4+ 9085 = 2739.

These corrections give as the most probable values of the elliptic elements, ;

T=June 1052953 G. M. T. 40°00015 log g=8°7836432 +-0°0000089 e€=0°99998902-+-0°00000425 G@=208° 59’ 33"-792 O=204° 56’ 29"-49 | Mean Equinox and Ecliptic 1882-0 t= 73° 48’ 417-82 co' = 196° 51’ 16”°-49-+4-2"°644 : Q’=210° 29’ 12”-254-2"-495 } Referred to Equator. a= 52° 57’ 417-04--2"°739 Rectangular equatorial codrdinates, x =r [9°9611023] sin (126° 22’ 497°33 He y=r |9°8608362] sin ( 61° 11’ 5804+ z=r | 9-9021280] sin (196° 51’ 16"°49+%) | Am. Jour. So.—Tump Senres, Vou. XXVIT, No. 157. —Jax., ime

34 W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age.

These elements correspond to a period of about 400,000 ears. : Recomputing the position of the comet for the dates of the six normal places and comparing gives the following results, the column headed ‘‘v” being the residuals obtained by sub- stituting in the equations of condition the values found above for the unknown quantities.

da cos 6 v v (C—O) (C—O) March 26.5 +1°36 +1°34 +1°01 +1°00 April 12.3 — 0°86 —0°71 —1°31 —1°31 May 25.5 +153 +1°52 +0°19 +017 June 2.5 —0°61 — 0°60 +0°04 +0°03 July 9.5 +0°37 +0°38 — 2°33 —2°16 August 7.5 —0°91 —0°95 + 4°30 +4°24

The planetary perturbations being small have not as yet been taken into account, as I intend to make a more complete discussion of the comet when all the observations have been published.

Field Memorial Observatory, Williamstown, Mass.

Art, VII.—The Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age;* by WarREN UPHAM.

occupies a very remarkable valley, the origin of which was

first explained in 1868 by General G, K. Warren, who attributed

it to the outflow from an ancient lake that filled the basin of the Red River and Lake Winnipeg. This valley or channel begins at the northern part of Lake Traverse and first extends southwest to the head of this lake, thence southeast to Mankato,

* Read August 16, 1883, at the Minneapolis meeting of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science.

«

W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age. 35

* and next north and northeast to the Mississippi at Fort Snell- ing, its length being about two hundred and fifty miles. Its

width varies from one to four miles, and its depth is from one hundred to two hundred and twenty-five feet. The country through which it lies, as far as Carver, about twenty-five miles above its junction with the Mississippi, is a nearly level expanse

of till, only moderately undulating, with no prominent hills or

notable depressions, excepting this deep channel and those formed by its tributary streams. Below Carver it intersects a belt of terminal moraine, composed of hilly till. Its entire course is through a region of unmodified drift, which has no exposures of solid rock upon its surface.

Bluffs in slopes from twenty to forty degrees, and rising one hundred to two hundred feet to the general level of the coun- try, form the sides of this trough-like valley. They have been produced by the washing away of their base, leaving the upper portions to fall down and thus take its steep slopes. The river in deepening its channel has been constantly changing its

‘distance, The Minnesota valley in many places cuts through the sheet

36 W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age

of drift and reaches the underlying rocks, which have frequent exposures along its entire course below Big Stone Lake. This excavation shows that the thickness of the general: drift-sheet upon this part of Minnesota averages about one hundred and fifty feet. The contour of the old rocks thus brought into: view is much more: uneven than that of the drift. In the hundred miles from Big Stone Lake to Fort Ridgely the strata are metamorphic gneisses and granites, which often fill the , whole valley, one to two miles wide, rising in a profusion of knolls and hills, fifty to one hundred feet above the river.. The depth eroded has been limited here by the presence of these rocks, among which the river flows in a winding course, crossing them at many places in rapids or falls.

Ulm to its mouth the river is at many places bordered by Cretaceous and Lower Silurian rocks, which are nearly level in stratification. These vary in height from a few feet to fifty or rarely seventy-five or one hundred feet above the river. From Mankato to Ottawa the river occupies a valley cut in Shakopee limestone underlain by Jordan sandstone, which form frequent bluffs upon both sides, fifty to seventy-five feet high. After excavating the overlying one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty feet of till, the river here found a former valley, eroded by pre-glacial streams. Its bordering walls of rock, varying from one-fourth of a mile to at least two miles apart, are in many portions of this distance concealed by drift, which alone forms one or both sides of the valley. The next ~ point at which the river is seen to be enclosed by rock-walls, is in its last two miles, where it flows between bluffs of Trenton limestone underlain by St. Peter sandstone, one hundred feet high and about a mile apart. This also is a pre-glacial channel, its farther continuation being occupied by the Mississippi River. The only erosion effected by the Minnesota River here has been to clear away a part of the drift with which the valley was filled. Its depth at some earlier time was much greater than now, as shown by the salt-well on the bottomland of the Min- nesota River at Belle Plaine, where two hundred and two feet of stratified gravel, sand and clay were penetrated before reach- ing the rock. The bottom of the pre-glacial channel there is: thus at least one hundred and sixty-five feet lower than the mouth of the Minnesota River.

Heights of the bluffs, which form the sides of this valley, composed of till enclosing layers of gravel and sand in some places, and frequently having rock at their base, are as follows, stated in feet above the lakes and river: along Lake Traverse, 100 to 125; at Brown’s Valley and along Big Stone Lake, mainly about 125, the highest portions reaching 150; at Or- tonville, 180; at Lac qui Parle and Montevideo, 100; at Gran-

W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age. 37

ite Falls, 150; at Minnesota Falls, 165; thence to Redwood Falls, Fort Ridgely and New Ulm, 165 to 180; at Mankato, 200 to 225; at Saint Peter and Ottawa, 220 to 280; at Le Sueur and Henderson, 210 to 225; at Belle Plaine and Jordan, about 230; and at Shakopee, 210 to 220. The morainic hills through which this valley extends below Shakopee are 225 to 250 feet in height. The expanse of till ‘through which this channel is eroded slopes from 1125 feet above the sea at Big Stone Lake to 975 at Mankato, in 140 miles; and thence it descends to 925 at Shakopee, in 50 miles. This channel or valley of the Miunesota River lies nearly midway between the belt, on its northeast side, of medial and terminal moraines, that extends from Lake Minnetonka 150 miles northwest to the Leaf hills, and the Coteau des Prairies on its southwest side; toward each of which, some fifty miles distant from this river, there is a gentle ascent, sufficient to cause drainage to follow this central line.

The height of Lake Traverse is 970 feet above the sea; the lowest point in Brown’s Valley between this and Big Stone Lake is only three feet above Lake Traverse; Big Stone Lake 18 962 feet above the sea, or eight feet below Lake Traverse ; and the mouth of the Minnesota River is 690 feet above the sea, the descent from Big Stone lake to the mouth of the river being 272 feet.

38 W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age.

the valley just below it by the Whetstone River. Fifteen miles. below Big Stone Lake, the Minnesota River flows through a marshy lake four miles long and about a mile wide. This may be due to the accumulation of alluvium brought into the valley by the Pomme de Terre River, which has its mouth about two miles below. ‘Twenty-five miles from Big Stone Lake, the river enters Lac qti Parle, which extends eight miles with a width varying from one-fourth to three-fourths of a mile and a maximum depth of twelve feet. This lake, as General Warren suggested, has been formed by a barrier of stratified sand and silt which the Lac qui Parle River has thrown across the valley. He also showed that Lake Pepin on the Mississippi is dammed in the same way by the sediment of the Chippewa River; and that Lake St. Croix and the last thirty miles of the Minnesota River are similarly held as level back-water by the recent de- posits of the Mississippi.

All the tributaries of the Minnesota River have cut deeply into the drift, because the main valley has given them the requisite slope. The largest of these extend many miles, and have their mouths level with the bottomland of the Minnesota River. The bluffs of all these valleys are also everywhere

time with that of the main valley. The short ravines are more recent in their origin, and the material that filled their place is commonly spread in fan-shaped, moderately sloping banks be- low their mouths, which are thus kept at a height from thirty to forty feet above the present flood-plain. The road from Fort. Ridgely to New Ulm runs along the side of the bluff at the only height where a nearly level straight course could be ob- tained, being just above these deposits and below the ravines.

e valleys of the Pomme de Terre and Chippewa Rivers, 75 to 100 feet deep along most of their course, and one-fourth of a mile to one mile in width, were probably avenues of drainage from the melting ice-fields in their northward retreat. Between these rivers, in the twenty-two miles from Appleton to Monte- video, the glacial floods at first flowed in several channels,. which are excavated forty to eighty feet below the general level of the drift-sheet, and vary from an eighth to a half of a mile in width. One of these, starting from the bend of the Pomme de Terre River, one and a half miles east of Appleton, extends fifteen miles southeast to the Chippewa River near the center of Tunsburg. This old channel is joined at Milan station by an- other, which branches off from the Minnesota valley, ranning four miles east-southeast; it is also joined at the northwest.

W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age. 39

corner of Tunsburg by a very notable channel which extends eastward from the middle of Lac qui Parle. The latter chan- nel, and its continuation in the old Pomme de Terre valley to the Chippewa River, are excavated nearly as deep as tue chan- nel occupied by the Minnesota River. Its west portion holds a marsh generally known as the “Big Slough.” Lac qui Parle would have to be raised only a few feet to turn it through this deserted valley. The only other localities where we have proof that the outflow from Lake Agassiz had more than one channel are seven and ten miles below Big Stone Lake, where isolated remnants of the general sheet of till occur south of Odessa Station and again three miles southeast. Hach of these former islands is about a mile long, and rises seventy-five feet above the surrounding low land, or nearly as high as the bluffs enclosing the valley, which here measures four miles across, having a greater width than at any other point Terraces and high plains of modified drift, found in many places along the valley of the Minnesota River from New Ulm to its mouth, show that it was once filled, doubtless at the close of the last glacial epoch, with stratified gravel, sand and clay, to a depth 75 to 150 feet above the present river. The rem- nants of this deposit include the plateau of modified drift, about a mile long and an eighth of a mile wide, upon which the west and highest part of New U!m is built; a terrace in section 27, Courtland, opposite the southeast part of New Ulm, more than a mile long and about an eighth of a mile wide; a larger terrace, four miles long and a half mile wide, lying also im Courtland, four to eight miles southeast from New Im, upon which Courtland depot is situated; a terrace extending about three miles northwest from near Minneopa falls, and varying from a few rods to a third of a mile in width; a ter- Tace three miles long east and south of Kasota; the “Sand Praine,” about four miles long and averaging a mile wide, west and north of Saint Peter ; Le Sueur prairie, six miles long and tom one to three miles wide, beginning east of Ottawa and teaching to Le Sueur; the plain five miles long and a mile wide, near the middle of which Belle Plaine is built; Spirit hill and “Sand prairie,” southwest and northwest of Jordan; a terrace eight miles long and varying from a few rods to two miles in width, extending through San Francisco, Dahlgren and Carver; and Shakopee prairie, eight miles long and aver- aging one mile wide. The height of these terraces and plains at New Ulm is about 115 feet above the river; in Courtland, and near Minneopa falls, 125 to 150 feet; at Kasota, Saint — Peter and Le Sueur, about 150 feet; at Belle Plaine, about 185; and at Jordan, Carver and Shakopee, about 125. ells on the “Sand prairie” near Saint Peter and on Le Suear prey

40 W. Upham—Minnesota Valley im the Ice Age.

go through sand and gravel, sometimes with layers of clay, to the depth of 75 or 100 feet, finding till below. At Belle Plaine the sand and gravel are about fifty feet deep, underlain by till. Shakopee prairie has forty or fifty feet of this modi- fied drift, lying upon limestone. The principal remnant of these deposits seen below Shakopee was a terrace about seventy- five feet high, an eighth to a third of a mile wide and four miles long, extending through Eagan in Dakota county, its north end being about two miles south of Fort Snelling. i valley was first excavated in till which rises in continuous bluffs on each side 50 to 100 feet above these high plains and terraces of modified drift. It was afterward filled along this distance of one hundred miles next to its mouth with fluvial

of Paleozoic tim

Scanty exposures of Cretaceous strata are found in many parts of Minnesota, enclosing sometimes marine shells, some- times impressions of leaves, and at a few places thin layers of lignite. The western two-thirds of the State were probably cov- ered until the glacial period by deposits of this age which have now been mainly oreided, with much from the underlying Pale- ozoic rocks, and constitute a part of the drift, irrecognizably mingled with detritus and bowlders that have been brought from Laurentian and Huronian areas far to the north and north- east. Excepting its partial submergence by the sea in the Cre-

rt sissippi River and valley has probably existed since the middle

W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age. 41

_taceous age, Minnesota seems to have stood wholly above the level of the ocean from the beginning of the Carboniferous pe-

Before the ice age the rocks had been long subjected to the nd Granite

49 W. Faxon—Dimorphism in the Genus Cambarus.

Ridgely, S. 60° E.; at Redstone, one and a half miles southeast. from New Ulm, S. 25° E.; at Jordan, noted by Foss, Wells & - Co., in quarrying and on the site of their mill, S.H.

Within the till are frequently found layers of sand or gravel, which yield the large supplies of water so often struck in dig- ging wells. Probably many of these veins of modified drift were formed by small sub-glacial streams and therefore cannot be regarded as marking divisions of the glacial period, nor even any important changes in the overlying ice. It appears, how- ever, by shells, remains of vegetation, and trees, found deeply

uried between glacial deposits in this and adjoining States, that the ice age was not one unbroken reign of ice, but that this retreated and re-advanced, or was possibly at some time nearly all melted upon the northern hemisphere and then accu- mulated anew. us periods of ice alternated with interglacial epochs, in which animal and vegetable life spread again north- ward, following close upon the retreat of the ice-fields. By each new advance of the glacial sheet much of the previous sur- face would be ploughed up and re-deposited ; hence we find only few and scanty remnants of fossiliferous beds in the glacial: drift. At the disappearance of the last ice-sheet these drifted materials, seldom modified by water in their deposition, formed a mantle 100 to 200 feet thick, which throughout the basin of oe River almost universally covered the older

[To be concluded. ]

Art. VIII.—On the so-called Dimorphism in the Genus Cambarus ; by WALTER Faxon.

THE existence of two forms of the adult male in all the species of the genus Cambarus was discovered by Louis Agassiz and Henry James Clark. The differences between the two forms affect more especially the first pair of abdominal append- ages, organs concerned in the act of coition, but also extend to the general form and sculpture of the body. In one form (un- happily called by Dr. Hagen the ‘‘second form”), the first pair of abdominal appendages have a structure nearly like that seen in all young males. _ ‘The hooks on the third joint of the third (in some species of the third and fourth) pair of legs are small, and in the scuipture of the shell and shape of the claws, this form approaches the female. In the other form (Hagen’s “first form”), the articulation near the base of the first pair of abdom- inal appendages is gone and the whole member is much more highly specialized, the terminal hooks being horny, more widely separated and in every way more highly developed; im

W. Faxon—Dimorphism in the Genus Cambarus. 48

those species with bifid tips to these appendages, the branches are longer, slenderer, more widely separated and stiffer; the hooks on the thoracic legs are longer and more perfectly finished ; the sculpture of the whole body is more pronounced and the claws are larger and more powerful. No intermediate condi- tions are found, and there is no relation between these forms and the size of the individual, the ‘second form” being large and the “first form” small, or vice versa. Hence we are for- bidden to interpret the two forms as stages in ordinary devel- opment. Dr. Hagen has shown that in individuals of the “second form” the internal generative organs are smaller than in the “first form,” but having only alcoholic material he was

sence of spermatozoa. He interprets the facts as a case 0: dimorphism and surmises that the “second form” males are sterile individuals.

n the autumn of 1875, I received a lot of living Cambarus rusticus Girard, from Kentucky, males of the “ first form” and females, which bred freely in confinement. After pairing, three of the males moulted and were thrown, while in the soft-shelled State, into aleohol together with their exuvie. An examina- tion of these specimens now reveals the fact that the soft-shelled Specimens are all of the “second form,” their exuvie of the “first form!” After attaining the “first form” and after pair- ing, the same individual has reverted to the ‘‘second form.”

t 1s now clear that we are not dealing with a case of true dimorphism such as is well known among insects and plants, ut it appears probable that the two forms of the crayfish are alternating periods in the life of the individual, the “ first form”

”

.

cing assumed during the pairing season, the “second form

often contain only one or a great preponderance of one, form of the male, is now explained.

quus Girard, from Wisconsin, belonging to the Peabody Museum of Yale College, which was taken in the act of moulting. The old Shell is “first form,” the soft shell emerging from it 1s ‘second form.”

It is remarkable that two forms of the male have not been detected in any other genus of crayfishes. ;

Fritz Miiller (Fiir Darwin) has pointed out the existence of two forms of the male in the genera Tanais and Orchestia which he considers as truly dimorphic forms. It is possible that these are to be explained in the same way as the two forms of the male Cambarus. | i

44 FEN ipher—American Trotting Horse.

Such a change as this connected with the reproductive periods is unparalleled, so faras I know, among the Inverte- brata, and even among the Vertebrata ; the cases of partia atrophy of the generative organs or shedding of antlers (as in the stag) after the rut is over are hardly comparable.

At the time I had the specimens alive my attention had not been drawn to the questions relating to the two forms of the males, so that I failed to make anatomical examination, and. the specimens have now lain too long in alcohol to be service- able for internal dissection. JI hope, however, that perp who are more —— situated will be able to throw mo light on this subject.

I will add that the males es extraordinary size which I have seen, are all of the “first for Do these very old scitbvichinti cease to moult? Do they Gaccnie permanently capable of re- production ?

Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 12, 1883.

ArT. [X.—Hvolution of the American ated Horse; by Francis EK. Nip

In the November number of this Journal, Mr. W. H. Picker- ing has criticised the method of reduction used in my paper in the July number, and has reached a conclusion very Y didtereah from my own. I wish to discuss his criticisms briefly.

Mr. Pickering thinks it objectionable to determine the value

of aT ot the change in speed per year, by taking alternate dif- ‘reid in s and T, and he has reduced the observations by

taking the differenoes between consecutive values in the table.

In this way he gets the values in the third column in the table below.

$ Year. —_ obs. | ee calc | E = | dT vege fe 141 1861-0 aoe to —01 131 1869-0 0-46 0-51 -or4 135 1872°6 as ton +04 151 aaa : 0-75 0-44 +1°8

LE. Nipher—American Trotting Horse. 45

. d Plotting the values of and the corresponding values of s, he then goes on to say, that the points so determined may be represented by a curve such that the value of aT increases

when that of s diminishes. Assuming as I had done, that a straight line will represent the values, he determines the values of the constants, and finds that the line intersects the s axis at & point where s is —25. This would mean that the horse would finally trot a mile in less than no time. hen making the first discussion of the subject, the writer ‘3

considered the propriety of determining av by means of conse-

values of - are determined with very different degrees of pre-

cision, Mr, Pickering has given them all equal weight, and this 1s the fatal defect which, it seems to me, entirely vitiates the con- clusion reachéd by him. A reference to fig. 1 of my paper in the uly number, will show that for the earlier dates, from 1854-0 down to 1872°6 the graphically determined dates differ from the real dates when the record was actually lowered, by from One to two years. It will also be seen that the dates 1878°3 1881-0 are subject to errors which may be as great as two €ars,

After having made a preliminary examination, these dates might indeed have been “ adjusted,” so as to make them agree tter with the others, and this without giving a “cooked” appearance to the reduction; but they now stand exactly as they did when first determined and before any. other work ha

been done. I have plotted the new values of aT with the

values of s, and the line representing the values so as to give most weight to the best determined values, I find to be repre- Sented by the equation

ds

—=—1° 0°0127 8. T 1°24+

46 FEF. E. Nipher—American Trotting Horse.

This line is nearly coincident with the line marked A A in the diagram in Mr. Pickering’s paper.

: 8 ; From this equation the values of ar were calculated as given

in the fourth column of the table above. The fifth column, headed H, gives the time in years by which the corresponding time intervals dT must be increased, in order to bring Mr.

Pickering’s values of It of the third column, into accordance

with the values calculated from the above equation. In this

subject to just such errors as this. If the date 1881°0 were made 1882°8, the value of os instead of being 0°75 would be 0°44.

Whatever these values of sa may be said to prove, there-

fore, they do not prove that my results as before published were absurd, and they do not indicate a limiting speed of one

mile in 25 seconds less than no time, but when qT? the

value of s from the last equation is 98 seconds.

esire to express my thanks to Mr. Pickering for his sug- gestion and his friendly criticism, as he has corrected a tendency whie had begun to feel, to attach too much importance to the numerical results reached ; but I maintain that his method, correctly applied, gives in general, substantially the same result as my own. It is not necessary to assert that this result is really correct, if any person feels inclined to doubt it. Ionly insist that the conclusion that the trotting horse will finally trot his mile in about the same time that the running horse will run, is not unwarranted-by the facts which we now know.

Most horsemen seem to think that the limiting speed of the trotting horse will be somewhere near a mile in 120 seconds. If this were true, the differential equation could hardly be a linear one. The equation

ds

apo Vvs—L

might, however, represent the values, L being the limiting

G. K. Gilbert—Origin of Jointed Structure. 47 value of s. But this equation gives on integration an equation of the form,

/s—L=C—AT.

According to this equation the horse would absolutely reach the limiting speed in a finite time x Practically this may be

true, as is in fact shown by my own equation (4) in the July number, so that some such equation might really represent the results sufficiently for all practical purposes. But the relation 18 not a rational one, since it cannot be supposed that the horse will really attain his limiting speed in a finite time. After he had come within a thousandth of a second, it would take a mighty effort, and a great interval of time to compass the next millionth of a second.

Moreover this equation will not hold after the limiting space shall have been attained, since it is the equation of a parobola, and the value of s will then begin to increase, which is evi- dently absurd. ;

Washington University, Nov. 10, 1883.

Arr. X.—On the Origin of Jointed Structure; by G. K. GILBERT.

may produce incipient slaty cleavage along certain lines per- haps determined by crystalline structure, and that the vertical

Mr. Walling and Mr. Crosby independently propose the the- pe : y independently propose ory that jointed structure is produced by earthquakes. Mr.

48 I Slher — Origin of Jointed Structure.

Walling’s paper appears in the proceedings of the Montreal meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Mr. Crosby’s, which is the more elaborate, was read to the Boston Society of Natura] History in October, 1882.

Mr. Crosby shows, first, that the earthquake vibration, by subjecting the imperfectly elastic material through which it passes to alternate stress and tension, is competent to produce fractures; second, that such fractures would be normal to the direction of wave propagation, and therefore vertical, except in the immediate vicinity of the earthquake focus, where they might be oblique; third, that such fractures, although actually curved, would have generally so great a radius of curvature as to be sensibly plane; fourth, that they would be parallel; and fifth, that the suddenness of the earthquake shock would tend to produce smooth fractures even in heterogeneous material. All these points sustain the hypothesis, and their collective effect is to give it great strength. ‘There are, however, two features of joint structure with which the theory does not prima facie consist.

In the first place the angle of intersection of two co-existent systems of joints is usually bigh. This is recognized as a diffi- culty by Mr. Crosby, and he says in explanation, ‘that, after the rocks have been broken by one set of joints, the layers or sheets thus formed possess a strong natural tendency to break at right angles; and, under such circumstances, oblique vibra- tions may give rise to rectangular fractures and blocks.” If I rightly understand him, he refers by the expression, “ strong natural tendency,” to the comparative ease with which an elon- gated body of amorphous material may be broken in the direc- tion of its least diameter, a property evidently dependent on the fact that fracture hringh the smallest diameter involves the overcoming of cohesion through a surface of minimum area. If this were the true explanation of the high angle assumed by secondary joints, each of the layers between primary joints would be affected independently and the planes of cross-joint- ing would be discontinuous. ith continuous planes of cross- jointing, the total cohesion overcome is not diminished by any modification of attitude.

existing joints, and would initiate a series dividing the terrane into rectangular blocks. The defect of this explanation is that

G. K. Gilbert—Earthquakes of the Great Basin. 49

in diminishing one difficulty it increases another, as will pres- ently appear.

The second feature of joint structure which occasions dif_i- culty with the earthquake theory is that the angle of intersec- tion of coexistent systems is sometimes very small. Mr. Jukes, in his Manual, mentions 5° as a measured angle; and,.without being able to cite measurements, the writer believes he has observed angles as small as that. The considerations set forth in the preceding paragraph sufticiently explain how this phe- nomenon constitutes a difficulty.

If these two features can be satisfactorily explained, there. seems no bar to the substitution of the earthquake theory for those previously entertained. :

Art. XI.—A Theory of the Earthquakes of the Great Basin, : with a practical application; by G. K. GILBERT.

[From the Salt Lake Tribune of Sept. 20, 1883.]

| turbed. The uplifted part of the crust is the mountain, and the storms carve out its cafions; the unlifted part remains a lowland or valley, and receives the debris washed out from the ‘Cafions.

A mountain is not thrown up all at once by a great con- vulsive effort, but rises little by little. The subterranean upthrust is continuous and slow, and would produce a continu- ous upward movement of the mountain if the mountain’s

50 G. K. Gilbert—Earthquakes of the Great Basin.

tion gives to slow motion an uninterrupted or rhythmic character.

The disagreeable jarring of a railway car while the brake is set is due to the interruption of motion by friction, the wheels alternately sliding and stopping. The musical vibration of a violin string is due to the alternate cohesion and sliding of the bow upon it, and fails when the friction of the bow is insuffi- cient. Attach a rope toa heavy box and drag it slowly, by means of a windlass, across a floor. As the crank is turned, the tension of the rope gradually increases until it suffices to. overcome the starting friction, as it is called. Once started, the box moves easily, because sliding friction is less than starting friction. The rope shortens or sags until its tension is only sufficient for the sliding friction, and it would continue in that state but that the box, having acquired momentum, is earried a little too far. This slacks the rope still more, and the box stops, to be started only when the tension again equals the starting friction. In this way the box receives an uneven, jerky motion.

Something of this sort happens with the mountain. The upthrust produces a local strain in the crust, invelving a certain amount of compression and distortion, and this strain increases until it is sufficient to overcome the starting friction along the fractured surface. Suddenly, and almost instantaneously, there is an amount of motion sufficient to relieve the strain, and this

height was somewhat recent.

Let us look a moment at this evidence. The material eroded’ from a mountain by the elements is washed out through the cafions and deposited in the adjacent valleys. The coarser part of it lodges at the mountain base, and is built into a

G. K. Gilbert—Earthquakes of the Great Basin. 51

sloping mass called the foot-slope, or colloquially the “ bench.” When an earthquake occurs, a part of the foot-slope goes up with the mountain, and another part goes down (relatively) with the valley. It is thus divided, and a little cliff marks the line of division. A man ascending the foot-slope encounters here an abrupt hill, and finds the original grade resume beyond. This little cliff is, in geologic parlance, a “ fault- scarp,” and the earth fracture which has permitted the moun- tain to be uplifted is a “fault.” In the course of time the same slow process of erosion and deposition which originally formed the foot-slope restores its shape and obliterates the fault- scarp. When a mountain ceases to grow, its fault-scarp soon disappears ; and conversely, when we find a fault-searp at the ase of a mountain, we are assured that the uplifting force has not ceased to act. Fault-scarps have now been found at the bases of so many ranges of the Great Basin, that it is safe to Say that the subterranean forces are generally active in this region, and this is especially true of all the large mountain masses. The Wasatch is a conspicuous example, and residents of this city need not go far for ocular demonstration. A fault- scarp, thirty or forty feet high, divides the powder houses north of the Hot Spring, so that some of them stand above and some elow it, and considerable grading was necessary to lead the road to the upper magazines. With one exception, all the lime kilns between the powder houses and the Warm Springs are built in the face of the fault-scarp, the lime rock being con- veniently delivered to the kilns from the upper level, and the lime as conveniently drawn out at the lower level. At the mouth of Little Cottonwood Cafion, a smelter has been built on the edge of the upper bench for the convenience of dump- ing its slag over the fault-scarp. At the mouth of Spanish Fork Cafion, the D. & R. G. Railroad encounters the scarp, and the engineers have started an embankment a long way back to climb it. Similar features may be seen, with rare intervals, all along the mountain base from Nephi to Willard. he fault-scarps of the Wasatch follow the western base. Those of the Sierra Nevada follow the eastern base; and it

number of feet below their previous positions, and one tract, Several thousand acres in extent, was not only lowered, but carried bodily about fifteen feet northward. The ground was — cracked in various directions, and several springs permaneatly ae

isappeared. All houses of adobe or stone in the immediate

52 G. K. Gilbert—Earthquakes of the Great Basin.

vicinity were thrown down, and about thirty persons sont their lives. In the little town of Lone Pine, numbering some three hundred inhabitants, twenty-one were killed by falling valle

ere was only one violent shock, and the damage was all done in a few seconds, but for two months there were occasional tremors. Theoretically, the main strain of the earth’s crust was relieved at once, but a complete equilibrium was brought about more slowly.

The surviving inhabitants of Lone Pine observed that the only houses that remained standing were of wood, and in re- building they employed that material exclusively. Such a course was natural, but I conceive that their precaution was unnecessary. They may, indeed, feel feeble shocks propagated from earthquakes centering elsewhere, but in their own locality rte accumulated earthquake force is for the present spent, re

many generations ae aegis ~ before it again manifests itself. The old maxim, “Lightning never strikes the same spot twice,” is mote A in theory and false in fact; but som si thing similar might truly be said about earthquakes. Thes which is the focus of an earthquake (of the type here diacdacks is thereby exempted for a long time. And conversely, any locality on the fault line of a large mountain range, which has been exempt from earthquake for a long time, is by so much nearer to the date of recurrence—and just here is the applica- tion of what I have written. Continuous as are the fault- scarps at the base of the Wasatch, there is one place where

city. From the Warm Springs to Emigration Cafion fault-

increasing, and some day it will overcome the friction, lift the mountains a few feet, and re-enact on a more fearful scale the catastrophe of Owens Val e)

It is useless to ask when ha disaster will occur. Our occu- pation of the country has been too brief for us to learn how

th

us this, Salt Lake City ‘will have been shaken down, and its surviving citizens will have sorrowfally rebuilt it of wood ; ; to use a homely figure, the horse will have sates hg the barn door, all too late, will have been closed behind

When the earthquake comes, the severest sine is likely to occur along the line of the great fault at the foot of the moun- tain. This line follows the upper edge of the upper bench — from Big Cottonwood Cation to the rifle targets back of Fort Douglass, cutting across each creek just where it issues from

Chemistry and Physics. 53

between walls of bed-rock, and passing only a short distance back of the fort. Ata point not far north of the targets, the fault divides; one branch continuing northward, across the spur, toward Farmington ; the other turning westward, running just back of that hopeless artesian boring, and following the upper edge of the gravel bench to the vicinity of the Warm Springs. Should the earthquake follow the former of these branches, the city, will not fare so badly as the fort; should it follow the latter, orfollow both, city and fort will alike suffer severely.

What are the citizens going to do about it? Probably nothing. They are not likely to abandon brick and stone and adobe, and build all new houses of wood. If they did, they would put themselves at the mercy of fire; and fire, in the long run, unquestionably destroys more property than earthquakes. It is the loss of life that renders earthquakes so terrible. Pos- sibly some combination of building materials will afford security against both dangers.

SCIENTIFIC. INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysiIcs.

f been placed beyond doubt by the researches of Kopfer. The ques- tion to be solved is whether the elements of water or of calcium chloride enter in any way into the molecule. Stahlschmidt repre- Sents the formation of bleaching powder thus:

OH\ ,/Cl) \ OH Cl (ca OH +(Gi ) =(caf Oui), +ea4 cit (4,0), Hence it must contain free calcium chloride. Odling’s formula ‘he

author sought to determine therefore, (1) th

Ca(ClO),, of CaCl,, and of Ca(OH), in dry bleaching powder, (2) the existence of free CaCl, and (3) the composition of the residue after removal of the CaCl,. Pure lime was hydrated and analyzed. oS It yielded from 21-27 to 39-02 per cent of water in different sam- Pies. It was then exposed to chlorine until no farther increase 1

54 Scientific Intelligence.

weight was observed. In order to fix the ratio of molecules, the total lime was precipitated as oxalate, the total chlorine deter- mined by boiling with ammonia and pre ecipitation with silver nitrate, the available chlorine by Bunsen’s method, the calcium hydrate by boiling with ammonia, evaporating to aero extract- ing with alcohol, and weighing the residue, and the water by igniting with lead oxide and wees t e evolved water in a cal-

chlorine combined with oxygen, the total chlorine less one half the available chlorine is the chlorine not combined with oxygen and the total CaO, less the free CaO, is the CaO combined with chlorine, all the needed values are obtained from the above data. Six examples of the bleaching powder were analyzed and the re- sults show that it contains the elements of calcium hypochlorite and calcium chloride in equal molecular proportions, but that the amount of calcium hydrate is variable, contrary to the conclusion of Stahlschmidt. The calcium chloride present in the bleaching powder was extracted by alcohol, and the total lime, the free lime, and the total and available chlorine determined in the residue. The results show that in the bleaching compound the lime is to the total chlorine.as 1:2, to the actual et chlorine as 1:1 and the actual oxidizing chlorine is to the total chlorine as 1:2;

all of which conditions are fulfilled and fulfilled only by the form- ula of Odling. The author therefore concludes: (1) bee the ex-

= of calcium hydrate present in bleaching powder is not a constant quantity ; (2) that the anor of the bleachiig com- pound is Cl-Ca-OCl; and (3) that by the action of water this

compound undergoes iecompesition as follows: ae oe Ca(OCl), + CaCl,.— J. Che eh xliii, 410, Oct t., 1883. G. F.

U tubes containing ie moistened with pure sulphuric acid,

d fragments of pure potassium hydrate, placed paciee tt then through Liehig’s potash bulbs. The experiment continued for several months, many hundred cubic meters of air se ing passed through the ‘apparatus. The potassium sulphites and pe phides were then oxidized to sulphates and the sulphuric acid determined as barium sulphate. As a result it appeared that each hectoliter of the air which passed through the apparatus contained 0°18 cubic pense =» of sulphurous oxide or 1°8 ¢, ¢, per eubic meter. The experiment was repeate oe taking a time when the air was quiet, and the result showed 2:2 c. c. of sulphurous oxide to the cubic meter. On the other hand, the amount fell to 14 c. ¢. when the weather was we On examining the rain water of

Chemistry and Physics. 55

the place, carefully collected, the sulphur products corresponded to a content of sulphuric acid of 0°022 grams per liter or 2-2 grams per hectoliter.—Ann. Chem. Phys., V, xxix, 427, July, 1883.

G. F. B. 3. On the atomic weight of Antimony.—Boneartz has made a series of determinations of the atomic wei

plates from which the last traces of sulphur were removed by fusion with sodium carbonate and subsequent washing with dilute ided metal was heated with a concentrated solution of potassium sulphide, the solution was saturated with hydrogen sulphide, and precipitated with sulphuric acid. The washed antimonious sulphide was treated as described by Classen, i. e., placed in a flask with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the escaping hydrogen sulphide passed through a vertical tube filled with glass beads over which an ammoniacal solution of hydrogen peroxide trickled. The last traces of H,S were washe out by a current of CO,, the absorption tube was rinsed with dis- tilled water, the solution acidulated and the sulphuric acid deter- mined as barium sulphate. The results of twelve experiments are as follows: 120°170, 120°157, 120°091, 120°106, 120°114, 120°175, 120°390, 120-305, 120°310, 1207155, 120-206, 120°139; the mean of all being 120-193. This atomic weight confirms the values here- tofore obtained by Schneider and by Cooke.—Ber. Berl. Chem. 3 x

Ges., xvi, 1942, Sept., 1883. i 4. On the constitution of Galician Petroleum.— Lacaowicz has submitted to examination the petroleu ryslaw in

ing a boiling point from 30° to 125°. This was separated into three portions, of which the first boiled below 50°, the second be- tween 50° and 80° and the third between 80° and 110°. From the first, isopentane boiling at 29°-30°, and normal pentane, boil-

° i ot = 3 oO Su ~] Ss Qo > i=) 5 ad = ge oO oad bp rome ber | 25) fs) So a°) = | = J o ® eo ~ S a © ie 6) bo ° ct ° pe] a] te ~~

to 148°5°, and decane, at 152° to 153° were separated. Careful examination failed to discover in Galician petroleum any trace of hydrocarbons of the ethylene series. Two fractions, one boiling from 30° to 125°, mentioned above, the other from 20° to 110°, as

56 Scientific Intelligence.

Beilstein and Kurbatow in Caucasian petroleum, eee probably present as shown by the specific gravity, were not isolated. fraction of Caucasian petroleum boiling between 95° and 100° has a specific gravity of 0-748, while the similar Galician fraction has a specific gravity of 0°7291 and that from American petroleum one a 7102.—Liebig Ann., ccxx, 188, Aug., 1883.

5 the preparation of’ Mesit itylene. —Varenne has made a series of experiments on the preparation of mesitylene based on the fact that this hydrocarbon results from a condensation of three molecules of acetone with the elimination of three sole,

sulphuric acid and allowed to stand for an hour. n it is dis- tilled over a naked fire, the heat being made uniform over the lower surface of the vessel. Toward the end w e mass

swells up, a current of steam is passed into the flask, the fire is.

extinguished, and the operation stopped when no more striz of mesitylene are seen on the condenser tube. The yield is satisfac- tory, the 180 grams of acetone giving 40 grams of crude product.

t is purified by washing with sodium carbonate, by solution in ether and by Soe from calcium chloride.—Bull. oe C, ne. II, xl, 266, Oct.,

6. certain sdarswctcaes of Benzil.—Burton has studied

pon an alcoholic ae of ben It is an addition prods of the foolisats C,,H,,0,(CHN), a and was regarded as the nitrile of oe acid. hen va. gerne it would ied nittle — an acid.

at 0°, and allowed to stand for some weeks with pnb agita- tion. From the solution, fine brilliant monoclinic crystals ma rated. On adding ammonium carbonate to the mother r liq white precipitate was thrown down, which after Seyaiaiiianbieds from alcohol, had the formula C,H,C(OH)CO. NH, | C,H,C(OH)CO. NH,

On account of its becoming viscous no exact determination of the fusing point could be made. It softens at 150°, but is not fully melted until the temperature. reaches 230°. It is soluble in hot

water and in alcohol but not in ether From its amide character

8 : tig weakly basic. It dissolves in hot HCl and separates

amide again. The amide has no acid properties and is insoluble in alkali carbonates and hydrates. he solution in sodium hy- drate becomes deep red on warming, and on addition of an acid, deposits red mae containing nitrogen.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges... xvi, 2232, Sept., 1883. G. F. B.

Chemistry and Physics. Pe?

7. Relation between the Sun’s spots and the Earth's temperature. —At a meeting of the Physical Society in Berlin, Oct. 19, Dr

any change in the temperature of the instrument used by Dr, Frolich consisted of a thermo-electric pile inclosed in a wide double walled pipe, opening in front in

nel, in which circulated a constant stream of water at atmospheric pressure. The exposed front of the pile was closed by a plate of rock salt. The apparatus was capable of revolving in all direc- ions. his apparatus was preferred to Langley’s bolometer, since the electrical resistance of thin plates is subject to consider- able variation during long periods of time. As a standard of heat the author employed a hollow screen filled with steam, one side cat was blackened with smoke and the other whitened ]

sh

. of the Dynamo-Electric machine.—CLAUvsivs enters. upon a theoretical discussion of this machine which is muc

needed at tlie present time. The article is too long and mathe-

matical for a suitable abstract. The question of the working of

every machine as a magneto-electric engine first and afterwards,

revolving core of the armature are also examined.—Ann. der ——. und Chemie, 1883, No. 11, pp. 353-372. > a

.

‘ts poles opposite to that of the needles immediately below it.

58 Scientifie Intelligence.

A a the Heat y eee in Iron and Steel by Reversals of - Magnetization ; ; by Joun Trowpripner and WattTER N, Hi1.— The object of our investigation was to che whic the heat which is generally attributed to Rede magnetizing and

are heated when gra are made the cores of electro-magnets, and are submitted to the effects of rapidly alternating currents, it was thought that ey pe exhibit differept degrees of heating, and

V 4 e called an electro-magnetic criterion of certain etaniey proper- ties of these metals. It is well known that chemical analyses o: steel and iron throw very “little light upon their physical pou ties, such as tenacity and “clasticity in genet ral. There is no sat

machi

method could be devised which de epened duets upon electrical —

and magnetic phenomena, it would be a valuable aid to the

metallurgist. The

He st ae demagnetization. If the nee is due oe alternating induction currents in the mass of metal, there should

[The pipers, given of the east pm is here o eS These results show that this method affords no criterion of the physical properties of iron and steel. The molecular structure of the various specimens employed was not sufficiently modified to enable us to determine any differences in molecular heating,—if

Chemistry and Physics. 59

‘the heat developed by magnetizing and demagnetizing is due to molecular heating. If it is due entirely to induction currents in the metals, the slight changes in electrical resistance produced by small quantities of sulphur, of phosphorus, and of carbon would be inappreciable in the masses of iron which we used, and we should expect to obtain under the same conditions the same rise in temperature for the different specimens of steel. Our previous work* on cobalt and nickel must therefore have been affected by some error,

We next determined to ascertain if the heating was confined to the surface of the metallic cores. Theory indicates this to be the

ably entirely due to conduction of heat, as can be seen by com-

communicate vibrations to a solid bar of iron one inch and a half in diameter. If the bar vibrates as a whole, a certain amount of heating of the bar takes place throughout its interior. The heat in the interior of the bar, however, must. be less than that at the ‘“xterlor, where the magnetization exists in full strength. e

coil magnetic attractions; for the note can be heard when the iron

an alternating current, shows very strikingly the fact that it takes me to magnetize, and that magnetism resides upon the exterior electro-magnets. Under the influence of strong currents

* Proceedings of the American Academy, 1878-79, p. 114.

60 Scientific Intelligence.

core of the joe ton babe raid the surface of the end of the cylinder entirely free from filin If filings are scattered upom

esting to refer to some experiments made by Lt.-Comm. A. Caldwe . S. N., and ourselves, on demagnetization. These experiments w ere made in 1880 , but have not “been published. Perfect demagnetization, or entire absence of magnetism in a mass capable of 1etism, is a condition of great spoils Approximate euinpneiteitiol has ae brought about with so difficulty, but delicate tests would show traces of polarity. e have, however, discovered a method by which complete demagnetization —— "be rapidly and easily produced. The prin-

vibration, by which all previous magnetic conditions are obliter- ated, and on the subsidence of which no polarity remains. This state of vibration is induced by an alternating current of sufficient strength. By this an effect is induced in the magnetized mass. which can only be compared toa ae or wave. The reversals. of the inducing current cause corresponding reversals of polarity in the body acted on, and as these rey ties are continuous and very rapid (5,000 to 6,000 a minute, for mple), a molecular sibencion probably arises. It is prob his “that a condition of strain or set is one of the phenomena of magnet

e particles have been made to assume a sorbate definite or

it

become complete,— —that is, involving the whole mass,—all pre- vious conditions of strain or “permanent set” will be overcome. It must be remarked that, in order to perfectly attain this result

in all cases, ses exciting force must be sufficient. - alternating current ceases, the body acted on is left tly free from polarity. It is, however, in a state of extreme Fnstivness and must be allowed to remain at rest for a short ime. If it is placed north and south, it will assume polarity, and Mes ey if struck with a hammer when held in the positiow

Demagnetization requires but a short time in most cases,—from one to three minutes if the current is properly adjusted. There

die away. Also, when the object is taken out of the coil, i ” carefully shielded ary the earth’s induction; or the coil may

e so constructed that it can be opened or divided at the center

Chemistry and Physics. 61

without breaking circuit, and then the object can be taken out Without stopping the alternating current. One of the coils we

Perfect demagnetization is attained with varying difficulty. Ordinarily, it is rapidly and easily accomplished. Sometimes a

With a reverser arranged for varying speeds. oe . ne application to this method is to the demagnetization of Watches. Watches strongly magnetized are completely demag- netized by one to three minutes’ exposure in the coil, Frequently unsuspected traces of magnetism cause annoying irregularity of ction of a watch. This method enables us entirely to remove this difficulty,

nothe pure

metic, and was demagnetized with great difficulty. Isplayed no general olarity, having consequent points irregularly

distributed. After demagnetization it received induced magnetism Ce

62 Scientific Intelligence.

and became polar, but it was a much feebler magnet than the previous specimen. Demagnetization was afterward nerforinel more easily than at first.

still more impure specimen was treated, but with the means at hand it was not perfectiy demagnetized, although so nana was this done that only traces of magnetism were i ati

The result of our work can be stated as follow

(1 pt heat developed by reversals of Slaghetiention is proba- bly due induction currents, and not to molecular vibrations; for socuieruble changes in the molecular structure of different specimens of ir so and steel fail to show differences in the amount of heat developed

(2) The heating of iron cores o electro-magnets, which are sub- mitted to alternating currents, is — to the surface until con- duction equalizes the heat of the ¢

he musical note emitted By the core is the note of the coil, due to dies number of reversals of the machine, and is merely strengthened by the metallic core ya the electro-magnet. This note should not, therefore, be used as an argument in favor of molecular vibrations of magnetic gartinlee.

(4) eased bs on demagnetization confirm what has long been known in regard to the effect of vibrations and shocks upon the magnetic condition of iron and steel. They do not invalidate our results upon the heat produced by reversals of magnetization; for a very slight change in position of the molecules might affect the magnetism of a bar, and yet be insufficient to produce the great es A observed in the armatures of dynamo-electric machines.— Proceedings American Acad, Arts and Sciences, May 29, 1883.

11. On the properties of water and ice ; by Orro PErrersson.

methods of jueswvidion In regard to the experiments with pure water, a series of tables gives the results of the experiments on the expansibility of pure water (ice) at the different iiss gee employed. The most important point brought out in them this : that the volume of ice, even the purest which can be cometh decreases with a rise in temperature when near the melting point and this is the more marked as the amount of salt contained in cee ater increases. In regard to this the author remarks that, “It is impossible to decide if absolutely pure water would be en- tirely free from this weakness or not, since we cannot assume that water, which has boiled for a quarter of an hour or more in @

Chemistry and Physics. ae

glass vessel, is absolutely free from minimal quantities of foreign substances, as e. g. sodium salts, silica, etc. For my own part I am rather inclined to think that absolutely pure water, if it could

4 >

gin C. or below. 5 this it is added that it must be acknowledged “that the ice masses of the glaciers are liable to contraction at temperatures

below their melting point.”

closed rine; the result reached is the same as that obtained in - a different way by Dr. Buchanan of the Challenger. Dr. Petters- son concludes that ocean-water is divided by freezing, not to pure water and a more or less concentrated solution of ordinary

brine in chlorides, The extraordinary variation both in saltness

however, ‘from a thermic point of view, is not entirely concluded With the solidification of the sea-water, by which it is divided into ice, solid eryohydrates, and liquid brine containing dissolved salts; for on further sinking of the temperature, still unfrozen ctyohydrates will be solidified and develop — — the whole

8S, at a sufficiently low temperature is a solid roc of mye oo

64 Scientific Intelligence.

lized matter. At the rise of temperature these substances will melt one by one, and absorb heat in so doing. 12. Contributions to the Hydrography of the Siberian Sea;

ETTERSSON.—This is a second paper by the same author as that above noticed, it tains a long and valuable series of observations m in apn wish the Vega expedi-

specific gravity and the per Sade of ocaies. as also that of salt deduced from the observed specific gravity. ese observa- tions were taken mostly in the Kara Sea, an admirable hydro- graphic chart of which accompanies the memoir.

Il. GroLocy AND MINERALOGY.

. Second Annual Report of the U. 8S. Geological Survey to ie “Seeretar y of the Interior, for the year 1880-81; Ree. ae WELL, Director. Washington, 1882; pp. iv and 588, 4to, with LXI Plates, Figs. 1-32, and a Map, in pocket, showing distribu- tion of the strata and eruptive rocks in the Western part of the Plateau Province.— volume is the first annual report of the Geological Survey ‘mca under the directorship of Mr. Powell, who, at the close of the fiscal year for which it is issued, had hel ld the position for less than three and a half months. The work reported upon was begun under the direction of his predecessor, My, Clarence King, and no change was made in his plans and h The volume opens with the Report of the eeu age which is followed by the administrative reports of the heads of divisions and by abstracts of the a copes raphs which are in preparation by the Survey. graphs. gn

San ral reading pub These papers are as follows: The Tels: fone of oa Grand Cafion District, by Capt. C. E. ; Contributions to the mg of Lake Bonneville, by o. a Gilbert; Abstract of Report on Geology ai Mining Industry of Leadville, Lake Cage, lovee by 5S. F. Emmons ; Summary of the Geology of the Comatock Lode and the Washoe District, by George F. Becker; Production of the Precious Metals of the United States, b "Careane King. The volume ends with a paper by Mr. G. Gilbert on “A New Method of Measuring Heights by Means of the Barometer.” Both of Mr. Gilbert’s papers, and also the one by Mr. Emmons, have already been noticed in this Journal, as have also two of the monographs which have been issued since the publication of this annual report, viz: those by Capt. Dutton and Mr. Becker.

The Report of the Director is introductory to the volume. It epitomizes the various papers included and details the plan of publication. Reference is made to a report, in preparation by Eliot Lord, on the history of the Comstock Lode, and an account is given of Dr. R. D. Irving’s investigation of the ig rat ats ii

Geology and Mineralogy. 65

demand. A scheme of colors for geologic charts and of conven- tional characters for diagrams is presented with illustrations, and the report concludes with a financial statement for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1881.

or mn ct f~] ot 2 oO jo ot +O = ct > @ fas] ° z. ct _e =) S to . =| fom) gS is) ° — 08 = o S a ° So i] eh =

several mining districts and some of the more important mining properties, and some observations on the relations of the ore

The latter will undoubtedly be one of the most valuable contribu- Am. Jour. 5 eens Serres, Vor. XXVII, No. 157.—Jan., 1884.

66 Scientifie Intelligence.

Beranioes this district has been considered a poor one for organic remains, but the present survey of it has secured a collection of nearly 5,000 specimens, which is probably the tor oa collection of Paleozoic fossils ever obtained from so limited an area in the far West. It is, however, not the number are re cimens nor the number of species represented, which Mr. Walcott has determined to be 359 (more than a third of them new), that gives greatest value to this collection, but the fact that it is a systematic collec- - tion in one district, extending through one series of 20,000 feet of Paleozoic sediments, included between the _ se of the Middle Cambrian and the upper Coal-measure limestone. The Cambrian auna embraces 119 species; the Devonian, 144, and the Car- boniferous, 83. In the Silurian the fauna is but slightly haat 8

Sinai "of the Drodacnie of a copper, iron, coud collection of these statistics was made ‘i sevion with t Census Bureau, and they embody the information obtained pa the canvass of 10, 440 mining establishm

The paper by "Mr. Clarence King o n th e Produetion of the

Survey. The present ry Roan the same as the one on

by . H. Holm sigue ae hand Sas lost none of thas ning.

A doable Sita index of twenty pages effectively sonstuden this valuable report.

2. Third Annual Report of the U. 8S. Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior, 1881-82. a - W. Powe, Director. Washington, 1883. 4to, pp. and 564, with XXXYV Plates and Figs. 1 to 56.—A few leanne copies of this report have been issued without the complete set of illustrations. The volume opens with the Report of the Director, which gives a résumé of the work accomplished during the yea rand presents a financial statement. Following this are diate re reports by Messrs. Clarence ere, ‘Arngld haves, G. K. Gilbert, T. C. Cham- berlin, 8. F. Emmons, G. F. Becker, L. F. Wa ‘a: J. Howard Gore and Gilbert Thesapson.

Mr. epee in his report states that he, in connection with Mr.

Geology and Mineralogy. 67 rwas published. The result of this investigation has been to cor-

r -calls the feldspars in certain rocks, sanidin, when they are really

Shasta and Lassen’s Peak, and the announcemen

t de they are andesitic volcanoes, not a single trachyte being included

. . .

to notice further, is a series of ‘‘ Accompanying Papers” as follows:

rica, by C. A. White. rof. Marsh in his paper gives a résumé of his investigations of

pec The basin of Lake Lahontan, a Quarternary lake of

characterizing three distinct deposits in the basin. They are— designated, in the order of their age, as lithoid, thinolitic, and den- dritie. The first of these reaches the level of the lithoid terrace

feet. The third and most abundant ‘of all the chemically formed rocks of the basin, is the dendritic tufa, which is locally twenty feet and possibly fifty feet thick, and extends about 300 feet

68 Scientific Intelligence.

above the present lake-level. These deposits aaah ast least three well-defined periods in the history of Lake Lahont sb the fi as formed, the lake, then a fresh-water bo ta

the fossils, filled the basin to within ~— feet of ‘hss highest water-line now scoring its sides. Later the water was 400 feet lower and it was highly charged with eae Then the thinolite

ary above this terrace and the sate’ tufa deposit was precipitated. There were, therefore, two moist periods, when the lake was deep, separated by a time of daniedion pa followed by the present period of aridit

Mr. Hague, in “his abstract on the geology of the Eureka Dis- trict, iio the Eureka section a thickness of 30 ,000 feet, divided

: Cambrian, 7,700 feet; Silurian, 5 000 feet ; Devonian, 8,000 feet, ‘and Carboniferous 9, 300 feet. The mingling of Coal- Measure and Lower Carboniferous types is more clearly shown in the Carboniferous rocks of the Eureka Basin than in any other western locality.

In the paper on the terminal moraine of the second glacial epoch, Prof. Chamberlin not only abstracts the results of recent investigations by himself and assistants, but combines therewith the observations of others; he e gives a description of a compound moraine traced continuously from the Atlantic coast in New En ng- land, through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, ie Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and finally Dakota, where the 103d meridian, it passes into British America, His ¢ onteinieitia . < yee geology is too important to be ies buletly. character-

, but space ee not permit of more at

r ©. e’s paper on the a fo fossil Mollusca of North America, Aehick concludes the volume, is one of the most interesting in it, especially to those who have followed the con- troversy as to the age of the Laramie group. The paper is accom- panied by thirty-two plates, one of which is devoted to Devonian forms, one to sere: ime Triassic, two to Cretaceous, three to. the Bear River Laramie, and the remainder to the Laramie ae proper. These plates ‘Sikidiuac an annotated catalogue which 1 a résumé of the subject by zoological families. A tabular view is also presented. There is be sides, an introduction which states

wi

reference to more than one or two points, Three categories of non- marine mollusks are embraced by those of brackish-water, those of fresh water, and those of land habitat. Dr. White points out : : Bl

nearly resembled. He also states the conclusion that the mollus- can fauna of the present Mississippi system is lineally descended from the faunz of the ancie ent lakes and seas of the me and

Geology and Mineralogy. 69

Heretofore the commingling of brackish-water and fresh-water fossils has been explained on the supposition that the beds in which they were found were estuary deposits. Dr. White says that there is evidence “that the fresh-water fauna proper of the Laramie system not only inhabited the streams which emptied into its sea, but that in great and shifting areas of the sea itself, the waters were sufficiently fresh to allow the existence in them of such Mollusca as Unio, Goniobasis, Viviparus, Campeloma, etc., and saline enough in other parts for the existence of Ostrea, Anomia, Corbula, etc.” The volume is handsomely illustrated and has a full table of contents and index.

flexure. Chance describes and figures sections of the slate-

70 Scientific Intelligence.

besides crinoidal remains, a few specimens of Orthis testudinaria, nearly + m. 8.W. of Stockertown, similar crinoidal stems, Cheetetes- lycoperdon and Orthis testudinaria ; y; at Churchville, along with

enton, in part Chazy, and infers doubtingly, on lithological evi-. dence, that the limestone on the north flank of the South Mount- ain range is Calciferous ; and since the Trenton limestone—in

many places holding its characteristic spades conformably beneath the eM epaR slates and shales, these slates and shales must be of Utica and Hudson River age; and he aa “there is. not a partede: of evidence that any of these limestones belong to Huronian or older periods.” At one locality graphite scales occur,. with traces of brachiopod shells. The limestone has in some parts intercalated layers of hydromica slate, and others of quartzyte. These and various other points connected — the limestone fotnatinns: are discussed at length in the re

Professor Lesley reviews the topography of No orthampton County and the associated region to the east, south and southwest ;. describes the sink-holes, and the underground drainage connected therewith, in the limestone region; and states in brief the geo-

id valle The questi

unconformability in Pennsylvania between the Lower Silurian and the ee beds—the Oneida Sone oe decided by him adversely. Professor Lesley continues wit iscussion of

to indicate a detarbated ‘afte ton i lur He com- mences: by saying that out of ie a ee Saists 9 an “hypothesis has been framed and ca toapply toa thousand miles of the con- tinent ;” but by whom, he does not state, or in what publication ; : the published conclusions, as far as the writer knows, confining the supposed upturning to the regions east of the Hudson, with a narrow strip west of part of it, and the extension of the uncon- formability southwestward being treated simply as a proper sub- ject for investigation. His arguments aga me the unconforma-

region, such as seem necessary to settle a question in stratifica- tion. The fact that dacs is a great gap in the series of forma~

Geology and Mineralogy. 71

tions above the Lower Silurian, including all of the Oneida, Medina, Clinton and Niagara formations, except a few yards of the latter, which all New York geological observers have described, is set aside by arguing the case. r. Davis’s statement with regard to the conformability of Lower and Upper Silurian strata at the eastern base of the Catskills, that gap in the series excepted, is cited as in opposition ; while in fact the region is outside (west) of the supposed area of upturning. Other arguments are based on facts derived from localities “far south of the Hudson River belts” in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, which also are outside of the area of Green Mountain disturbance, and affect only the question that future geologists will discuss with new facts—as

to the southwestern extension or limit of the Green Mountain dis- i

was left, in the writer’s hearing, by the New York geologists, at

‘.

cation of the limestone, the Archean rocks of South Mountain,” and the Ice-ace.

noticed, the survey has recently issued the following reports. —

No. AA, of plates, The Southern Anthracite Field, vol, IL—No.

AC, with an atlas, On the Mining Methods and add coag poe ; e

489. Washington, 1883. 30 pp. 4to, with 5 plates——This paper -18 a full description of the bones from the Anguilla Cave—par- — tally described by Professor Cope in 1868. The extinct species -

72 Scientific Intelligence.

are large Rodents of the genus Amblyrhiza and a small Rumi- nant, probably of the Bovide, besides others not la Boag d in the same cave were obtained a scraper or chisel made by man from the large shell Strombus gigas. Whether the Ambly- rhiza and the Ruminant are of the same era, or man and either of these species, is not ascertained. Professor Cope remarks that the deposit oe the Amblyrhiza is not in his view “ earlier than the Plio The paper closes with the following infer- ence. “The alana of Anguilla, now embracing but 30 square miles could not readily have supported a fauna of which these uge Rodents formed a part.” “This, and other facts mentioned by Pomel, lend brobelsbey to the hypothesis of the latter author, that the subm ergence of the ranges connecting many of the islands of the ‘Antilles has taken place subsequent to Pliocene times.” Such facts bear also on me question of a coral reef sub- sidence in those seas since the Pliocene. . On the aig’ sonar hege or em of North Carolina ; by A. A, Jutsen. (Proce. t. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxii, 141, December, 1882.)—In this Saye er Professor Julien shows that the well known dunyte of North Carolina, which occupies “ mainly a zone in the mountain plateau between the Blue Ridge and the Great Smoky Range 250 km. long and 15-30 km. wide” is dis- tinctly bedded, and is enclosed in a stratum of black and slaty hornblende-gneiss, in a region of gneisses and other schists. The

dip with nec local exceptions. wat a few localities it ia inter- i i i fesso

ae a to have originate: in sedimentary oe “of chryootie sand. ut the occurrence of the chrysolite stratum in an sing hornblende schists suggests that the Ladies of these schists and of the chrysolite was alike in metamorphic origin and source, and it seems to be hardly probable that the material so changed was throughout « ch solite.

“ Lenticular Hills. ote by gigs C. H. Hrrencoc.. (Letter to o J. D. Dana, dated Hanover, N. H., Nov. 27th.)—It is not common for me to find some of my views or descriptions ascribed to my father; but in your remarks about the “lenticular hills” (this Journal, TH, xXvi, p. 358), you speak of them as having been described by him. to glad to say that he would have invented a better as cg thiah “lenticular” hills, if he had described them. I suppose we may call them “drumlins,” as that term has been anid to them in Scotland.

Geology and Mineralogy. 73

On the probable occurrence of Herderite in Maine ; by Wm. Eart Hippen. (Communicated in a letter dated Newark, New Jersey, December 11, 1883.)—To Mr. . Perry, of South Paris, Maine, an earnest and successful collector of Maine minerals, and the discoverer of many new mineral localities in his State, I am indebted for a few specimens of a dark, oil-green mica, having implanted on it clear crystals of a mineral resem-

ling some varieties of apatite. he preliminary examination which I have made makes it probable that the mineral is the rare species Herderite.* The crystals are short, terminated prisms,

general physical characters of the mineral. This mineral had been previously called topaz, from its resem-

£ r herderite, so that there can be but little doubt of the correctness

454, p. 546, Dana’s Syst. Min.) The planes observed are: 0(001), 0), Z (110), 3-2 (302), 1% (011), 3-4 (031), 6-% (061), $ (522), ). Of these planes all occur on herderite except 3-4, 3-4, #.

53°; OA14=156° 40! for herderite=156° 59/; OA3=112° 40’

~~ herderite=112° 35'.—E. S. Dana.]

ville A. Derby in a letter dated Rio Janeiro, October 30, 1883).— Probably, according to trials by Plattner and Turner, an anhydrous phosphate

Prog and lime with fluorine, stbartiataibas with J. J=115°534,G. = 2985. dinger, Phil. Mag., IV, i, 1828. J. D. Dana’s System Min. p. 546. iS

74 Scientific Intelligence.

GorceIx gives the following analyses of minerals from Ouro — (formerly Villa Rica), in the province of Minas Geraes,

earn mica (fuchsite) ; specific gravity 3:1. SiO. Al.Os,Fe.0; Cr.O; MgO K.O Na,O Volatile matter. 3 7 7

46°5 37°2 09 08 Ae ai 4% = 993 Hydrargiltite ; specific gravity 2°3. Al,Os H,O 65°2 34°83 = 100-00 Wavellite ; specific gravity 2°34, P.O; F Al,O3 vert roe H,O 33-0 3°6 3671 26°2 = 99°4

_ Gorceix calls attention to the nee amount of fluorine present in this mineral; it was determined by the St. Claire Deville process. yr op yllite, in greenish white acicular crystals; specific grav- ity 2°76. 2 — FeO CaO H,O 5:3 8-0 7 0-4 55 = 100°9 In the same ee the po rebe of rolled crystals of monazite in the diamond sands of the Jequetinhonha near Gianntines is noted. A similar mineral, found abundantly in sands from Caravellas in the province of Bahia, consists cto of phosphate of cerium and other rare earths, but 2 Sore anboahs speci- mens in specific gravity (5°01) and in aspect. Its crystalline form could not be determined. By error it is stated to be from the Serra de Quebra Cangalha in the se iies of Sao Paulo. + 10. Groddeckite: a new mineral of the Chabazite group. —A

which was obtained in 1867 from the Franz-August vein at Andreasberg in the Harz. The mineral occurs in small trans- arent Se bees with vitreous luster, covering calcite crystals. e-crystals form snags bari he a prem one geek a scalenohe-.

dron nearly coincident with i m ; in habit and angles it is hardly of be dictingaished rg ors senate. The hardness is between 3 and 4. An analysis by Broockmann upon

0°0559 gr. gave the itewie results :

Sid. Al,O; Fe,0; CaO MgO Na,O H,O

61°2 12°0 TI Pe 33 [45] 20°2 = 100° A comparison of the seihaed with the percentage composition of gmelinite shows that the new species, or more properly new vari- ety, differs in the subutivatien of iron ses quioxide for of the alumina, and of magnesia for part of the lime. The high per- centage amount of silica is ascribed to an admixture of quartz, but the material at hand was too scanty to allow of direct proof of this point, or indeed of another and more complete analysis 5

Geology and Mineralogy. 75

the composition consequently must be considered somewhat doubtful. The mineral is named from Dr. A. von Groddeck, Director of the Bergakadamie at Clausthal.—Z. Kryst., viii, 343, 1883.

11. Mineral Resources of the United States; by ALBERT

and revised as additional facts are collected.

12. Lehrbuch der Mineralogie ; von Dr. Gustav TscHERMAK, IT Lieferung, pp. 369-589, Vienna, 1884 (Alfred Hélder).—The two preceding parts of Professor Tschermak’s Mineralogy.have already been noticed in this Journal (III, xxiii, p. 68; xxiv, p.

Pp

way of figures. h class of students for whom it has been prepared.

716 Scientific Intelligence.

Ill. ASTRONOMY.

1. Observations upon the ate ok oy Seer << at the. Ob- servatory of Yale College; by O. T. Surrman.—The comet Pons-Brooks has been followed, at the Ghectaor y, by the equa- ‘torial of 8 inches aperture (present ted by E. M. Reed, Esq.) as steadily as circumstances gataiogs Up to date (Dec. 10th)

thirty-four observations of position have been obtained; six

95” by 64” in extent, light almost pais diffused. nucleus. The direction of the elongation was about N. 15° Sept. 27—-Oct. 3, the rae ae ~ Aa brighter while the

ity, the cick of Deuce baie about S. 20° E. Oc t. 24— 27, there was a suspected tail about 10’ in extent, which had

surrounding it and a nebulosity of about 3’. aoe 17-19 there was again a suspected developm bh of the tail. Nov. 24 it

again presented a form similar to Noy, 2d, but with a fourth dis- tinction in brightness, oe dimensions being (PROX Say T4 for

coma 50”; inner nebulosity 8’; outer nebulosity 10’. On days immediately following, the distinctness of the third ese was lost and the coma became somewhat radiated. Dee. 3d, the coma

the slit being opened rather wide. The second head from the red end was the rightest, the third band was the next brightest, and the bed refrangible e band near the red portion of the spec- trum was the faintest. All three bands ended in a faint point. They were of unequal lengths; the brightest being the longest, the least refrangible next, and the band toward the more refrangi- ble end of the spectrum the shortest.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 7

There were moments in which for one or two seconds at a time

of the observations were made. The comet was observed first on the 19th of September by daylight, two days after the perihelion passage. It was last seen on the 4th of April. Eight diagrams

back toward the sun are all given in detail. H. A. N

IV. Misce,tnAngeovus Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

1. Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey for 1882. Washington: Government Printing Of- fice. 1883. 4to, 565 pages and 52 plates.—This report has just been received from the Public Printer and is now ready for dis- tribution. As usual the first part of the volume is devoted to a statement of the progress made by the various branches of the Sur- vey in all parts of the country and shows that the work is being prosecuted with vigor and a discriminating regard for the require- ments of the country at large, and the necessities of those portions of

ies ec base apparatus was constructed on a ae not

78 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

meters used by the French Committee in 1795. In connection with the construction of the base apparatus the — of ex

pansion of the Committee meter was elaborately redetermine A detailed account of the steps followed in the dc ceuiinétion of the coefficients of expansion and lengths of the various bars used, of the primary and secondary compensatio n, and of the resulting

Following this is a “paper by Professor Geo. Davidson, Assist- ant Coast and Geodetic Survey, giving an account of the meas- urement of the Yolo Base, of which work he had charge. He gives a short history of the base, its selection and survey, and method of marking the ends, and then goes into a more detailed account of the operations immediately connected with the meas- urement. The working yee was twenty-one persons, seven offi- cers and fourteen men. e operations of measurement were conducted under a large canvas screen moving on wheels and pushed forward by hand. The party, as well as the aay was thus protected from the direct rays of the sun. Daily per isons were made between the measuring bars and the Bitard:

On the first measurement heavy “kilometer stones” were put

ure ment comparisons were made. Whenever the field reductions indicated a difference between the two exceeding four millimeters the kilometer was again re-measured. This was, however, not nk

the introduction of — wipe, quantities of which no note could be taken in the hurried wor a field reduction made such cor- rections to the field io saneny ie the third measurement would nowhere have been necessary. The probable error from all sources

combined is 0°0096 meter. Expressed as a vulgar fraction this is

= the length. xt paper is a reprint, with additions, of the manual on the : Field work of the Triangulation,” by R. D. Cutts, Assistant

Coast and Geodetic Survey. This paper was originally printed in the Coast Survey Report for 1868, and again printed, with ad- ditions, as a separate publication in 1877. In its present form it is still further enlarged and is fully adapted to the needs and re- quirements of geodetic practice at the present day. The portion of the manual devoted to signals is elaborated in a separate paper on the Meee by C. O. Boutelle, Assistant Coast and Geodetic In this are given a number of tables cae will be of vik and assistance to those having such signals to In addition to the one already mentioned there are ace other apers from the fertile ene of Mr. Schott. One is a discussion * the results of the line of transcontinental spirit levelling now co ducting in connection with the triangulation of the 39th parallel Beginning with the mean tide level at 3 Hook, N. J., the of levels passes Hagerstown, Md., Grafton, W. Va., "Mitchell, ae and has now progressed seventy sles beyond St. Louis. The

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79

levels were executed by the use of the “ geodesic level,” a double line being run, not. simultaneously but forward and back over short spaces. The small difference between the two and the ver slow accumulation of error shows the great accuracy attainable with this instrument. discussion of the results shows a proba-

previously published work on the “Secular Variation of the Mag- netic Declination in the United States and at some foreign sta- The constant demand for this paper renders necessary its frequent republication and it is so well known that more detailed mention of it need not here be made. Following this is a paper

Alaska. It is accompanied by isogonic charts for the U.S. and. Alaska. The last chart of this character published by the Survey

occupied. They represent twenty-six States and Territories, from Vermont to Florida and Wyoming, and also Canada an w Brunswick. Observations for declination were made at 141, for dip at 94, and for intensity at 93 stations. Full abstracts of the results are given and the values were used in the preparation of the isogonic charts of 1875°0 and of 1885-0.

_ Hive papers devoted to the consideration of hydrographic ques- tions come next. these the most important is a “ Discussion of the tides of the Pacific Coast of the United States,” b

80 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Succeeding these are a paper by Professor Geo. Davidson giv- ing an account of the total solar eclipse of January 11, ne as

observed by him at Mt. Santa Lucia, California, and a « New Re- duction of Lacaille’s Observations of Fundamental Shane in in the Southern Heavens” (be 1749 and 1757), the computations

eara is re-computation, taking account of and correcting

e many imperfections of Lacaille’s instruments, will give the most valuable data for the determination of the proper motions of many of the southern stars.

This paper is followed by a report on a “ Si vb on Gravity Determinations, held at Washington, D. C., in May, 1882,” in which Hilgard, Herschell, Peirce, N ewcomb, Davide and Schott participated. The present state of the science was discussed and

opinions expressed as to the method of comanening previty observa- tions and the sense of the conference was formulated in distinct paneer statements and conclusions which are now published.

Finally, the Report closes with a tribute to the memory of the rai Carlile P. Patterson, LL.D., fourth Superintendent of the

urvey. 2. Annals rh Mathematics, pure and applied ; edited b Wriiam

Ormond Stone, Professor of Astronomy, and M. HORNTON, Professor of eat Pc both of the University of Virginia.— new Jou has its office of publication at the

University of Vir inia. Thi is announced as “the successor of the eee ee which has been edited for the past ten years by Mr. J. E.

Annals st Mathematics will appear aly other retin commencing with February Ist, in a small quarto form, and e

de and pati oe the ‘study of eee on pure and applied, in ral its branches; to stimulate independent mathematical inves- tigation by offering prompt publication of ‘te results ; to report the more important advances in mathematical discovery ; nd, to register the more valuable additions to mathematical literature. The subscription price is two dollars per annum. The Journal should have the support of all who are interested in the advance f mathematical studies and in methods of instruction.

Chemistry : Inorganic ome — with experiments, by Charles Loudon Bloxam. From the fifth and revised English edition. 738 pp. 8vo. Philadel- phia, 1883 (Henry C. 2 edition. Bei k Co.) This well known and standard work has I

ow Pp to A Manual of Chemistry, Physical and Inorganic, me Henry Watts, B.A., F.R.S., 595 pp. 8vo, Philadelphia, oan (P. Blakiston, Son & Co.) A new work by the author of the Dictionary of Chemistry ; it ers from most recent elemen works in that it gives so much space to

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES]

Arr. XIL—Examination of Mr. Alfred BR. Wallace's Modifica- hon of the Physical Theory of Secular Ohanges of Climate ; by James Crow, LL.D., F.R.S.*

ON the publication of ‘Island Life,’ upwards of three years ago, the author kindly favored me with a copy. He at the same time wrote to me stating that the volume contained some modifications of my theory of secular changes of climate, to

the last few months. This fact will account for the appear- ance of the following remarks at this somewhat late date. ave read the chapters relating to Geological Climate with

nevertheless implied in the theory. Other points, again, re- garded as modifications are simply facts lying nitogesOpe out- Side of the theory, which can in no way affect it. V

‘ e : a '

82. J. Croll—Kzamination of Wallace's Modification of the

that Mr. Wallace has advanced in explanation of geological climate I fully agree, but I am, nevertheless, wholly unable to perceive that any of his arguments or considerations do in reality materially affect the theory advocated in ‘Climate and Time.’ is I hope presently to show.

Before proceeding, however, to examine in detail Mr. Wal- lace’s modifications of the theory, it may be as well to consider one or two minor points on which I differ from him, as this will save the necessity of referring to them when we come to dis- cuss his main argument.

Effect of Winter Solstice in Aphelion.—At page 126 (‘Island Life’) he says :—“‘ We may therefore say generally, that during our northern winter, at the time of the Glacial epoch, the north- ern hemisphere was receiving so much less heat from the sun as to lower its surface-temperature on an average about 35° F., while during the height of summer of the same period it would be receiving so much more heat as would suffice to raise its mean temperature about 60° F. above what it is now.” Ina foot-note he adds that “the reason of the increase of summer heat being 60° while the decrease of winter cold is only 35°, is because our summer is now below and our winter above the average.”

There is surely a confusion of ideas here. It is of course true that, as our summer at present occurs in aphelion and our winter in perihelion, the temperature of the former is below and that of the latter above the average; but this can afford no grounds for the result Mr. Wallace attributes to it unless it be assumed (for which there are no astronomical grounds) that

“our summer is 25° further below the average than our winter is above it.

On the Storage of Cold.—In a section on the Effects of Snow on Climate, Mr. Wallace points out the different effects pro-

uced by water falling as a liquid in the form of rain and as a

solid in the form of snow. The rain, however much of it may fall, rans off rapidly, he states, without producing any perma- nent effect on temperature. But if snow falls, it lies where it fell, and becomes compacted into a mass which keeps the earth below and the air above, at or near the freezing-point hen the snow becomes perpetual, as on the summits of high moun- tains, permanent cold is the result; and however strong the sun’s rays may be, the temperature of both the air and the earth cannot possibly rise much above the freezing-point. “This,” be says, ‘is illustrated by the often-quoted fact that at 80° N. lat. Captain Scoresby had the pitch melted on the one side of bis ship by the heat of the sun, while water was freezing on the other side owing to the coldness of the air.” Doubtless this is perfectly correct; but on page 502 he states

>

x

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 83

that he has pointed out with more precision than has, he be- lieves, hitherto been done, the different effects on climate of water in the liquid and solid states. ‘This is a somewhat

those of England.’

_ “Another point,” he says, ‘of great importance in connex- ion with this subject is the fact, that this permanent storing-up of cold depends entirely on the annual amount of snowfall in proportion to that of the sun- and air-heat, and not on the actual cold of winter, or even on the average cold of the year.”

{igh Land and Heavy Snowfall in relation to the Glacial Epoch.— According to Mr. llace, “high land and great Moisture” are essential to the initiation of a glacial epoch.

indispensabl : a 8 to the second of these conditions, great moisture is evi- |

dently necessary only in order to produce a great snowfall ; oo

84 JS. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

great snowfall is necessary only in order that the snow may become permanent; and the permanent snow in turn is neces:

sary only in order to have permanent glaciation. But it has already been shown* that we frequently have permanent snow with a very light snowfall, even where the direct heat of the sun is excessive, as on the summits of lofty mountains. Green- land, for exa ample, has but a very small snowfall, and yet the snow and ice are perpetual. What is necessary is, that the small amount which falls should not all melt. If this be the ease, the ice will accumulate year by year, and a glacial condi- tion will ultimately result.

Suppose that the annual precipitation of snow on a continent is equivalent to only 10 inches of ice, and that at the end of each summer one inch remains unm melted, then, in this case, the ice will continue to accumulate year by year until the quantity annually discharged by the outward motion from the center of dispersion equals that annually formed. But in the case of a continent this condition can be attained only when the sheet at the center becomes of enormous thickness. Whether high land be necessary to a glacial epoch or not, 2 is —- that a beavy snowfall is not an indispensable conditi

As to the second of these conditions, avis , high land, it must be borne in mind that the question is Ae Could the causes which are now in operation bring about a alacial condi- tion of things without high land? but, Could thos@ physical agencies brought into operation during a high stats of eccen- pay produce a glacial state of things without high land?

allace’s answer is that t seh could not But [ am not satisfied with the grounds on which he bases this opinion. necessary condition to a glacial epoch is, of course, the exist-

bee snow nowhere exists on low lands.” Su up sing this were true (I have endeavored to show it is nets + still it does not follow that perpetual snow may not have existed on low- lands, or that, when the present condition of things changes, it may not yet exist. It is not difficult to conceive how, unde

certain conditions, the snow-line st hb in some places have been brought to the sea-level. In arc r even in subarctic re- gions, an excessively heavy eee followed by piercingly cold winds from the north, during t the whole of the summer

* American Journal of Science, October, 1883; Philosophical Magazine, October,

+ Philosophical Magazine, November, 1883.

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 85

months, would keep the snow at a low temperature and cer- tainly prevent it from disappearing. Keep the surface of the snow at or below the freezing-point, and melting will not take place, no-matter how intense the sun’s rays may be. A strong wind below the freezing: point will cool the surface of the snow more rapidly than the sun can manage to heat it. Another use which would tend to keep the snow at a low tempera- ture would be that, along with a cold northerly wind, there is usually a great diminution of aqueous vapor, thus allowing the surface of the snow to radiate its heat more freely into stellar space. For were it not for the aqueous vapor in the atmos- phere, the snow-line, even at the equator, would descend to the sea-level.* _ Perhaps it is owing to the warm southerly winds of the two midsummer months that Siberia, even with its inconsiderable snowfall, is not at the present day covered with permanent snow and ice. Mr. Wallace mentions that “in Siberia, within and near the Arctic circle, about six feet of snow covers the country all the winter and spring, and is not sensibly dimin- ished by the powerful sun so long as northerly winds keep the air below the freezing-point, and occasional snow storms occur. But early in June the wind usually changes to southerly, and under its influence the snow all disappears in a few days.” But what would be the consequence were these northerly winds to continue during the whole of June and July? It

_ *, * See American Journal of Science for October, 1883; Philosophical Magazine for October, 1883. + Phil. Mag. for N ovember, 1883.

86 J. Oroll—Examination of Wallaces Modification of the

Wallace maintains that they are high lands. ‘‘It is,” he says, “only where there are lofty mountains or elevated plateaus, as in Greenland, etc., that thes accompanied by perpetual snow cover the country. The north polar area is free from any accumulation of Soniadeut 3 ice, excepting the high tats of Greenland and Grinnel Land.” And in regard to the Ant- arctic continent, he says, ‘‘T'he much greater quantity of ice at the south pole is undoubtedly due to the presence of a large extent of high land.” Were it not for these extensive high lands and lofty mountains, Greenland and the Antarctic

permanent snow and ice. e, however, nowhere, so far as I. can find, offers any proof for the conclusion that those regions possess extensive highlands, elevated plateaus, and lofty moun- tains sufficient to account for these icy mantles. In the paper just referred to (Phil. Mag., November, 1883), I have discussed this subject at considerable length, and have arrived at conclu- sions ee the opposite of those advocated by Mr. Wallace, viz: that Greenland and likely the greater part of the Antarctic regions consist of land probably not much above sea-level, and that the mass of ice under which they are buried must be due to some other cause than elevation of se tare

Mr. Wallace's Modification of the Theory Examined. — Mr. Wallace’s chief, and, I may say, only real canades of my ct is this. I give it in his own words:

case Wi thern Sole: during the Glacial epoch, then the glacial conditions would be continued, and perhaps even intensi- fied, when sun approached nearest to the earth in winter, m-

stead of their _ being at the time, as Mr. Croll maintains, an almost perpetual spring.”—p. 503. “When geographical conditions and eccentricity combine to fe a severe glacial epoch, the changing phases of precession ave very little, if any, effect on the character of the climate, as mild or glacial, though it may modify the seasons; but when the eccentricity becomes moderate and the resulting climate less severe, then the changing phases of precession bring about a ¢ con- ages aes alteration and even a partial reversal of the climate.”

ce “It follows that towards the equatorial limits of a glaci- ated country alternations of climate may occur during a period of high eccentricity, while near the pole, where the whole country is completely ice-clad, no amelioration may take place. Exactly the same thing will occur inversely with mild Arctic climates.” —p. 154-

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. — 87

I have, on the contrary, maintained that the more severe the glacial condition of the one hemisphere, the warmer and the more equable would necessarily be that of the other; for the very same combination of causes which would tend to cool the one hemisphere would necessarily tend to warm the other.

he process to a large extent consists of a transference of heat from one hemisphere to the other. Consequently the one hemisphere could not be heated without the other being cooled, or the one cooled without the other being heated. The hotter the one, the colder the other, and the colder the one, the hotter - the other. It therefore follows that the more severe the glacial conditions, the warmer and more equable must be the inter- glacial warm periods. But, according to Mr. Wallace, there could be no warm interglacial periods, either in temperate or polar regions, except during the commencement and toward the close of the Glacial epoch.

elore, however, proceeding to examine in detail the steps by which he arrives at this modification of my theory, it will: be as well that the reader should have a clear and distinct knowledge of what that theory really is, and what it professes to explain. These I shall now briefly state in the most general terms, for misapprehension in regard to the main features of the theory lie at the root of most of the objections which have been urged against it.

General Statement of the Theory.—Ist. It is not professed that the theory will account for the condition of climate during all past geological ages. It treats mainly of the cause of glacial epochs; and one of its essential elements is that these epochs consist of alternate changes, to a greater or less extent, of cold and warm periods; or, in other words, that glacial epochs must consist of alternate glacial and interglacial periods. The chief, though not the sole, aim of the theory is to account

and Tertiary periods being inconsistent with my theory, the fact is, as we shall see by and by, that this theory affords the

} given. oo 2d. The theory is not that a high state of eccentricity will Recessarily produce a glacial epoch. No misapprehension has |

88 J. Oroll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

been more widespread or more difficult to remove than this. F very commencement I have maintained that no amount of eccentricity, however great, could produce a glacial Soares of things; that the Glacial epoch was the result, not

ee tate of eccentricity, but of a combination of physica

the present condition of the planet Mars been adduced as evidence against the theory. The eccentricity of Mars’ orbit is at present greater than that of the Earth’s even when at its superior limit; and its southern winter solstice is not far re-

moved from aphelion. It is therefore maintained that, if my theory of the cause of the Glacial epoch be correct, the southern hemisphere of Mars ought to be under a glacial condition, and the northern enjoying a perpetual spring—and this, as is well known, is not the case. Here it is assumed that, according to the e theory, eccentricity alone ought to produce a glacial epoch, ‘irrespective of the necessary physical a aie We know with pariainty that those physical conditions which, according to the theory, were the direct cause of the ‘Glacial epoch on our globe, cannot possibly exist on the planet Mars.t Just take one example ; either the properties of water on the planet Mars or the conditions of its atmosphere must be totally different from those of our earth; for were our earth removed to Mars’s distance from the sun, our seas would soon become solid ice and we could have neither snow nor rain , ocean-currents, nor any of the necessary conditions for secular change of climate. This is doubtless not the present state of Mars; but the reason of this can only be that the physical and meteorological con- ditions of the planet must be wholly different from those of the ear

of aqueous vapor, or in the condition of our sons ket effectually prevent the possibility of a glacial epoch rring on our earth, notwithstanding a high state of eccen- siete, we need not wonder that the planet Mars is not in a state of glaciation. But the eccentricity of Mars, though high, is still far from its superior limit, and the planet may yet, for anything — we know to the contrary, pass through a Glacial e 3d. pete: prevailing misapprehension is the ee that the theory does not recognize the necessity for geograph- ical conditions. In reading “ Island Life” one might be apt to suppose that one of the chief points of difference between Mr. Wallace and myself is that hewegards geographical dawibation * For this reason I prefer to term the theory the soe labia rather than the Eccentricity Theory, as it ~ been called by som + See ‘Climate and Time,’ p. 7

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 89

climate, whereas I entirely ignore this condition. Nothing could be further from the truth than such a supposition. I

distribution of sea and land. Take, as one example, the f- stream, a current which played so important a part in the phenomena of the Glacial epoch very slight change in

from the Carribean Sea. One of the main causes of the ex- treme condition of things in Northwestern Europe, as well as a eastern parts of America, during the Glacial epoch, was a large withdrawal of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream; and this was to a great extent due, as I stated in my very first paper on this subject,* to the position of Cape St. Roque, which deflected the equatorial current into the Southern Ocean.

hat a geographical distribution of land and water permitting of the existence and deflection of those heat-bearing currents 1s one of the main factors in my theory is what must be obvious to every reader of ‘Climate and Time.’

* Phil. Mag. for August, 1864.

90 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace’s Modification of the

at least in so far as the disappearance of the ice in Arctic regions is concerne To narrow the field of inquiry, and bring more prominently before the mind the real question at issue, I shall state the main points on which Mr. Wallace and I appear to agree. Points of agreement.—1. Mr. Wallace agrees with me that a high state of eccentricity could never directly produce a glacial condition of climate ; that the Glacial epoch was the result, not of a high state of eccentricity, but of a combination of physical — — into operation by means of this high. state. rees with me also in regard to what these physical agencies really were ; for the agencies to which he refers in his. ‘Island Life* are almost identically ie which I have ad- vanced in ‘Climate and Time elsew 3. Mr. Wallace agrees wits me in repend to the mutual reactions of the physical agents. He maintains with me that

actions, and says that seo “produce a maximum of effect which, without their aid, would be altogether unattainable.”

4. As has already been shown, we agree as to the ne- cessity of —_ geographical conditions for the production of the Glacial epoch. For although that epoch was mainly brought sei by the physical agencies, yet these agencies could not have produced the required effect unless the neces- sary geographical conditions - sky supplied, these belts necessary for their effective operat

5. Mr. Wallace admits, of course, that the necessary geo- graphical conditions existed during the Glacial epoch; for, unless this had been the case, no glacial epoch could have oc- curred. Therefore all that was required to produce glaciation was an amount of eccentricity sufficient to set the pea

conditions ete ocintents all that was te required to bring about the Glacial epoch was the operation of - physical agencies. The overlooking of this fact has led to much con- fasion: For example, 210,000 years ago, rik winter in aphelion, “the problem to be solved,” says Mr. Wallace, “is, whether the snow that fell in winter would accumulate to such an extent that it would not be melted in summer, and so go on increasing year by year till it covered the whole of Scotland, Ireland and Wales, and much of England. Dr. Croll and Dr- Geikie answer without hesitation that it would. Sir Charles

Physical Theory of Secular Changes in Climate. 91

Lyell maintained that it would only do so when geographical conditions were favorable” (p. 186). Here we have a complete misapprehension of the relation between Sir Charles Lyell’s views and mine; for I would certainly maintain (and, I pre- sume, Dr. Geikie also) as emphatically as Sir Charles could do, “that it would only do so when geographical conditions. were favorable.” For undoubtedly, according to the theory advo- cated in ‘Climate and Time,’ no glacial epoch could result without geographical conditions suitable for the operation of the physical agencies; and this is virtually what Sir Charles maintains. The Glacial epoch resulted during the last period of high eccentricity because the geographical conditions suit- able for the effective operation of the physical causes then existed.

6. It is assumed in ‘Climate and Time’ that, the general distribution of sea and land, and other geographical conditions, with the exception of those resulting from oscillations of sea-

as I knew we had no evidence of the existence of any such conditions. Besides, my aim was to account for that epoch

se. Although Mr. Wallace so frequently alludes to the impor-

fature occasion, I am unable to agree with this conclusion. Professor Geikie, however, does not believe that the climatic condition of that period was in any way due to this change.

92 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

barrier had extended from the British Isles, across the Far6e Islands and Iceland to Greenland, cutting off from Northern Europe the warm waters of the Atlantic, including the Gulf-

tream. ‘The result,” he says, “would almost certainly be that snow would accumulate on the high mountains of Scandi- navia till they became glaciated to as great an extent as Green- land.”’

It would be easy to multiply cases of this kind where a dis- tribution of land and water different from the present might have been more favorable to glaciation than the present; but the question is, Did any such difference favoring glaciation actually exist during the Glacial epoch? I have never been able to find any evidence that it did. Many a change in geo- graphical conditions has taken place during Tertiary times, some of which were doubtless favorable to glaciation; but have we any evidence that during the Glacial epoch the geographical conditions were more favorable than they are at present Unless this can be shown to be the case, there is no necessity for referring to a difference in geographical conditions during that epoch as a cause of glaciation. This being so, it does not follow, because in my explanation of the cause of the Glacial epoch I may not, like Sir Charles Lyell and others, have spec- ulated on the effects which might have resulted had the dis- tribution of land and water been different from what it is now, that I ought on this account to be charged with undervaluing the importance of geographical conditions.

r. Wallace refers to one case of a difference in geographi- cal conditions which he thinks might have aided glaciation. Professor Dana has expressed the opinion that, during the height of the Glacial epoch, Northeastern America was con- siderably elevated, bringing the wide area of the banks of Newfoundland far above water. This, Mr. Wallace thinks, would reduce the southward-flowing Arctic currents, causing the icebergs to hang about the American shores, chilling the air so as to produce constant fogs and clouds with almost per- petual snow-showers, even at midsummer. But Professor Dana has also shown that during the Glacial epoch Northeastern America was depressed as well as elevated. Now the point is: whether the elevation was contemporaneous with the cold, or . with the warm periods of the Glacial epoch? Mr. Wallace himself admits that depression, not elevation, of the land accompanied the increased cold; and he quotes Mr. Searles V.

ood, Jun., approvingly as holding the same opinion (p. 115). It was quite natural for Professor Dana to suppose that the ele- vation to which he refers occurred at the time the country was buried under ice; for when he wrote he believed the Glacial epoch was chiefly dae to elevation of the land caused by the

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 93

lateral pressure resulting from the shrinking of the earth's crust. It is now, however, pretty well established that the continental or elevated periods of the Glacial epoch, when our island was united to the mainland, were warm periods; for it was then that this country was invaded by tropical and subtropical mammals. Had the climate at that time been cold, and the

Trusting that these preliminary considerations may tend to remove the partial confusion in which this somewhat complex subject has been involved, I shall now proceed to examine Mr. Wallace’s main argument.

[To be continued]

x ed by him as the Glacial period; that this era was followed both in America and Kurope, by a subsidence of the same land initiating the Champlain period, and that this was the era of meltin northward, an impossible occurrence in America during the Glacial era; that another era of i f much less extent occurred subsequently in Europe, if not also in North America, probably commencing with th he change in the land to its present level, and that this was the occasion of the destruction of © mammals of North Siberia, and other faunal changes. The evidences believed to favor these conclusions are stated in his various papers and his Manual of logy, and need not be here repeated. The latest discussion by him of the facts from Eastern North America as to the Champlain subsidence is contained in this Journal for 1882. a’

Mr. 8 opini Glacial era (that is, the era as he defines it) was a conclusion from facts that had

: nd America, and not a supposition sugge , or thought to be sustained by, any theory as to the cause of the elevation, The e of maximum ice he always sup t of maximum or nearly maxi-

mum cold; and the Cham i

least) of milder climate, in which the Mammoth and the associated mammals and 1€r Species of life, animal and vegetable, of the colder temperate and temperate

latitudes, reached their farthest northern limit.—g. D. D.]

94 W. Oross—Sanidine and Topaz from Colorado.

Art. XIII.-—Communications from the U. S. Geological Survey, Rocky Mountain division.—V. On Sanidine and Topaz, etc., in the Nevadite of Chalk Mowntain, Colorado; by WHITMAN Cross.

CHALK MOUNTAIN is situated where Lake, Eagle and Sum- mit, Counties join, and is also upon the boundary of the maps of the Mosquito Range and of the Ten-Mile mining district, which are soon to be published with monographic reports by the U. S. Geological Survey. The description of the nevadite, which forms the mass of the mountain, will therefore be brief, and all references to manner of occurrence, etc., omitted. It is, however, thought desirable to describe at once the following interesting minerals occurring in the rock.

The nevadite, while showing local variations in structure,

of these notes.

The lustrous surface is in the ortho-diagonal zone and in- clined a few degrees to the ortho-pinacoid, as is evident, in the Carlsbad twins, usually polysynthetic, the luster reaching its maximum of brightness simultaneously in alternate plates. Microscopic investigation shows a most perfect parting parallel to the surface of luster and with a knife blade flakes can be split off in this direction even more readily than paraliel to the basal cleavage plane. Thin plates parallel to the base (O) show a very fine striation at right angles to the line of 7-2 and + to the directions of extinction. Thin flakes split off parallel to the lustrous surface show, under the microscope, that the luster is due to interference of light in passing the films of air be- tween the extremely thin plates Bia a by the parting. The thinnest flakes, composed of a few plates, are transparent and exhibit delicate colors of interference, while those composed of more plates are dull translucent, or opaque, the light having been completely extinguished by the repeated interference. The luster is, then, due to reflected light from the air films near the surface, and to its interference. By examination with a

ood hand lens a delicate play of colors may be seen upon the lastrous surface of the crystals.

W. Cross—Sanidine and Topaz from Colorado. 95

At one point in the mountain, the nevadite, here unusually coarse-grained, was found to contain many small, round irregular druses lined by minute but perfect transparent crys- tals, chiefly of sanidine and quartz.

referred to takes place. The adjoining cut represents one of these crystals, a ;

normal Carlsbad twin with a third and smaller plate, also i twin position. The faces shown are: J (110), 7-2 (010), O(001), 1-2(101) and 2:7 (201) as indicated. From all the out- lines and from basal cleavage or irregular fissures run dar lines, in uniform direction for each individual of the twin, and

the clino-pinacoid. Assuming the axial ratio BGs @:6:¢= 0°653:1:0°552 and #= 64°

as determined by Striiver* for free crystals of sanidine, the face corresponds closely to 1,5.-7 (15°0-2). This would require an i! :

the crystal figured was 72° 53’, Of course this can not be regarded under the circumstances as anything more than an

he arpa determination.

* Cited by Tschermak, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie, 1883, p. 455.

a

96 W. Cross—Sanidine and Topaz from Colorado.

probably identical with that above described. Unfortunately,

neither the original nor any references to it are accessible to me, hence I cannot draw any further parallel between the two cases.

Accompanying the quartz and sanidine in the cavities are minute leaflets of biotite, a few ore grains, and in a few druses only, very perfect crystals of colorless, transparent topaz. Usu- ally but a single crystal of topaz is present in one of the druses and that is larger and more perfect in development than any other. The topaz is attached directly to the walls of the cavity and often bears small tablets of sanidine upon it. The crystals which can be recognized as topaz vary from 0:5™" to 3™ in length, but it seems quite a that there are some smaller ones indistinguishable from quar

The determination as topaz foals upon the crystalline form, which is very distinct, a is that of common topaz. One erystal measuring gam j n length and 1™™ in thickness was removed from the rock and its angles measured with a Fuess reflection goniometer. This c se presents I (110), 2 (120) and 2-4 (021) as the Satie forms; O (001) is a narrow face and 4-4 (041) 2-7 (201), 2 (221) and 1 (111) are minute but very distinct. The angles measured are as follows:

See § 124° 16’ é-2 Ai-2 over ¢% 938° 7 O A 2% 136° 30’ ON1 134° 11’ OA2 115° 55’

2-7 appears as a very narrow face in the zone of 2 to2. This is the usual habitus with semanas addition of 7-4 and a more

with 4-2 and 2 also recognizable and there are no signs hemimorphism.

In some druses all crystals are say coated by a black in- <a which seems to be pyrolusi

as I can ascertain, all paiyisoaly known and described

acide on of topaz are in granite, gneiss or some other mem- ber of the series of metamorphic or crystalline schists. In the present case topaz is found in an eruptive rock, probably of early Tertiary age, while the appearance of the associated minerals certainly suggests that they may all be sublimation products, though it is not capable of direct proof. The sani-

dine crystals from the druses, examined microscopically, con- tain gas inclusions, while neither fluid nor glass inclusions were seen.

fF. Springer—Burlington Limestone in New Mexico. 97

Art. XIV.—On the occurrence of the Lower Burlington Lime- R.

stone in New Mexico; by FRANK SPRINGE

Tue Burlington Limestone has been generally recognized as a well defined group of the Subcarboniferous ; but its division into upper and lower beds has not been favorably received by

few feet in thickness, each containing its characteristic species, and these identical with those found at Burlington. In a col-

ol

98 F ices Limestone in New Mexico.

tion with large trachytic dykes, extending for miles in length. To the north and northwest limestone predominates, and the strata are upturned toward the west at an angle of about 20°, her er of dislocations by which the w ole series of strata are brought up to this angle several times, giving rise to a succession of faults on a north and south line, of several hundred feet vértical extent. These dislocations produce the limestone hills, whose general eastern slopes coin- cide with the dip of the strata, while the western declivities, in which the edges of the strata are presented, are abrupt, an sometimes perpendicular. [Faults occur in other directions also, caused by the eruption or intrusion of veins of quartz, or other siliceous material, bearing mineral ores. Upon the east- ern slope of one of these limestone hills, the celebrated group of Sierra mines occurs, from one of which—the Sierra Grande —over a million. dollars in silver was taken within a year.

rt. yielding good collections, fe, at one of these the following sec- tion was made—the measurements being only picks

No. 9. Cherty limestone, with irregular flinty m In Bar cg of a light gray color and full of éheokdal 30 feet.

n color, siliceons in ie ay Ps Np y partings be- saae the strata, containi ing shania crinoidal re- mains, bryozoa, corals, and piaameds. choetly silici-

: Thin-bedded bluish limestone, eiadas aie ve a ® sale containing crinoids, corals, brachiopods and 0ZO

40 feet.

FVOROS ce co waa aa ce et okt fo 20 feet. No. 6. Pinkish to bluish ar iporea hard and granular, = nities g a large proportion of sand,.._.____.____- 6 feet. 5. Finegrained, light yellow. sore “clays with flinty no sae kes Seon ee ee ein aie ee ee 15 feet. No. 4. Gumi ferruginous limestone, in irregular beds, with marly partings, containing corals, crinoid plates end etenie, os .g cleo 30 feet. —

£. Springer—Burlington Limestone in New Mexico. 99

No. 3. Dark brown ferruginous sandstone, heavy-bedded

and hard below, shaly above, ..-.--....-.--.---<- 12 feet. No. 2. Very light yellowish shaly clays, with irregular

flinty masses, without fossils so far as observed,_..>.. 8 feet. No. 1. Unexposed slope, covered by debris, probably

RESET. 20 NGOS Se a ek ee os. 7 and 8 are the most important of this section paleontologically, and from them almost all the fossils collected - were obtained. They are characterized by fragmentary disin- tegration, especially No. 7, which is generally found as a soft shale, and its fossils arc calcareous. From this bed were ob- tained most of the Blastoids, the Agaricocrinus, small Rhodoert- nus, Cyathocrinus, Barycrinus. In No. 8, most of the fossils are wholly or partially silicified, and the larger species of Pla- tycrinus and Actinocrinus seem rather to predominate. With these exceptions the crinoids are found irregularly throughout the two beds. The color of the rock is not a constant charac- ter, but is greatly affected by the proximity of mineral veins. In general appearance, and the mode of occurrence of the fossils, these two bedsare rather like the upper part of the Keo- kuk hmestone as it oceurs at Keokuk. They do not in the least resemble the Burlington Limestone in lithological charac- ters, but tested by their fossil remains, they belong unques- tionably to the Lower Burlington, which is developed here to a thickness not attained at any other known locality.

Aside from the echinoderms, the fauna in general resembles more closely that of the Mountain Limestone of Belgium, than any other with which I am acquainted. It embraces types that have been found in the Kinderhook group, and its repre- Sentatives, the Waverly, of Ohio, and the Choteau, of Missouri, and in all the formations from these to the Upper Coal-meas- ures. in their specific affinities, however, the fossils are un- mistakably Lower Carboniferous, the few exceptions being of types which have a great stratigraphical range, and are there- ore of least weight in determining the equivalency of the | Tocks. Nearly all the forms described from the Burlington limestone are represented here, if not by identical species, cer- tainly by similar types. T pods of this locality from descriptions, and by direct compari- Son with authentic collections from the Lower and Upper Car-

_ sting and valuable work in the systematic study of the Car-

boniferous mollusks of Western America. :

: he notes here given of the fossils of Lake Valley must be _ egarded as only preliminary ; they leave for future publication

j

100 F. Springer—Burlington Limestone in New Mexico.

and ae oscar the results of'a detailed study of the collec- tions from this and other Lower Carboniferous localities in the Rocky Againarie which I am convinced will yield very important data bearing upon the relations between the ‘great . Mississippi Carboniferous basin and its western equivalent.

BraAcHIOPODA.

Productus semireticulatus, var. closely allied to the variety of this species gine baie in the Kinderhook, and to the form de- scribed as P. setigerus, var. Keokuk, and its equivalent form in the Upper Burlington.

, closely allied to P. ean of the Keokuk, and a repre-

‘sentative form in the Bur on.

, of the type of P. eaibeiauiile of the Keokuk.

* of the type of P. areuatus of the Kinderhook. *

, of the type P. Shumardianus of the Kinderhook.

It is possible that the last two forms may be the young of the P. semireticulatus.

Chonetes (not Ha

Strophomena rhomboidalis, of the form found in the Kinder aa at Burlington, and also in the Waverly group in Uta

P. oP.

, closely allied to C. Logani Koren & Pratten

at Mountain Spring, Nevada, described by Dr.. White in the

Report of the ee Expedi ition. Hemipronites erent

str Orthis res we inata, ver much like the O, Swallovi of the vie

Burlin

Orthis ‘Miehelina, strikingly near to the Belgian form of the. re

specie Rhynchonella aoe iagatadliiony small. form of the species de-

seribed by Shum

Camarophoria are EEE Miller—closely allied to R. Cooper —

ensis of the Choteau, and still more to an ip vations form _ occurring in the Upper Burlington at Augusta, Iow Spirifer extenuatus Hall, of the Kinderhook of Fea apparent

identical with the form described under this name by Dr. White _

sod g™ Mountain Spring, Nevada. Also very similar to S. Car-

tert Hall (see Meek in Pal. Ohio, vol. i, p. 386), a ay Wa

verly. Probably only a variety of the Eu uropean

S. striatiformis Meek, a well marked form closely ‘allied to & i

striatus of Europe S. centronatus Win che lL.

S. B pater sede (?) Shumard, apparently aaa with the form | m Mountain Spring, Nevada, referred by Dr. White to this — ines ies. It is well bees a shows hi Ai hana and e

is probably a new s S. Nova Mexicana Miller. Spiriferina , Similar to S. spinosa of the Chester.

£. Springer—Burlington Limestone iu New Mexico. 101

Martinia , of the type of M. lineata, <A similar form from the Lower Carboniferous of Utah is referred py H. & W. to . otis

Cyrtina ——, proba ably new; allied to C. acutirostris of the Githo raphie Tiadion of Mo.

Athyris lamellosa. A. incrassatus, Hall. -A. parvirostris, M. & ie ese three forms are not distinguishable from similar forms occuring in the Keokuk, Upper and Lower Burlington,

_ and Waverly groups.

Lerebratula Burlingtonensis White ; Kinderhook.

TI. Utah H. & W.—very similar to the form from the L. Car- boniferous of Utah.

In addition to the brachiopods, there is an Allorisma like A. Hannibalensis ; a Conocardium, probably new ; Chemnitzia ; two Species of Platyceras ; Trematodiscus Rocks ymontanus Miller ; a Phillipsia and a Poste: a a entis and two other Corin; and a large number of Bryozoa

ECHINODERMATA.

It is the Echinoderms, however, that constitute the most im- portant feature of the collections. for they determine the equiv- ' alency of the formation, They consist of about 45 species of

Pees and 5 species of Blastoids, which are “deacated as ().

: IcHTHYOCRINID&. Taxocrinus Thiemei. CYATHOCRINID &. Cyathocrinus Iowensis - 3 ©. enormis. Vasocrinus macropleurus. — arycrinus Wa chsmuthi ; B. cornutus; B. pee went Coeliocrinus ventricosus. PLATYCRINID&. ae y eelents) P. planus ; P. pocilliformis ; P. pilei- ormis; P. verrucosus; P. regalis; P. corrugatus ;

vega | Burlingtonensis , . P. parvinodus; P. seulptus ; ie ‘Shumardi- : > anus ; and 3 undescribed species

Dichocrinus » undescribed.

i Ruopocrinip &. : Bote — Wachsmuthi ; R. Wortheni ; and one undescribed spec . ;

ACTINOCRINIDA.

Actinorinus proboscidialis ; A. coelatus; A. multibrachiatus; sis ‘

usculus ; A. tenuiseulptus; A. Copei. Agaricocrin nus aa onvexus ; A, Syvanetibatia Amphoracrinus divergens. :

moerinus eorbulis. Doryerinus — : parents ee

— Ornatus. Steganocrinus pentagonus; 8 ene

Fike ie a)

102 F. Springer—Burlington Limestone in New Mexico.

SYMBATHOCRINID &. Symbathocrinus ——, 2 species undetermined. BLASTOIDEA. Granatocrinus ——, 2 undescribed species. Troostocrinus , 1 undescribed species. Codaster , 2 undescribed species.

Of the crinoids the most abundant species is Actinucrinus proboscidialis, which is found in all its varieties of ornamenta- tion, size and form. This is probably the most characteristic fossil of the Lower Burlington Limestone, at the typical lo- cality. It is subject to considerable variation in the features — alluded to, yet is a very well marked species. Upon compar- ing a large number of well preserved specimens from Lake Vallev, 1 am constrained to believe that A. Dalyanus, de- scribed by Mr. Miller from this locality (Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Dec. 1881), is only A. proboscidialis. Next to this the

a ee a

ton—the first and last of these, however, being among the —

rarer species at Burlington. Every one of the species named

noids will entertain the least doubt that the rocks which pro- duce the species above enumerated are of the age of the Lower

Burlington.

The Blastoids, although all of undescribed species, are of the

types which prevail in the lower beds of Burlington. * wig aly che nn

uals were observed. he Rhodocrinides are comparatively — common, while the Platycrinide and Actinocrinide are numer —

ous in individuals as well as species. h

e collection is remarkable for the entire absence of Bato- : : crinus, which is one of the most common forms in the lower beds at Burlington. All observations as to the comparative —

_ abundance or the absence of certain forms must be taken with — - much allowance, for it has been found that here, as at Burling- ton, species which are very common at one locality, are rare OF

hee a

wholly wanting at another not far distant; and while the facts A above stated may be taken as fairly accurate indications as t0 ~

F. Springer—Burlington Limestone in New Mexico. 103

the oceurrence of the Crinoids at a few good exposures within a limited area, it is not improbable that they may be considera- bly modified by further researches, should other exposures be discovered in the same region.

he relations of bed 9, of the Lake Valley section, are not so clear. It exhibits in some places irregular layers of a light- colored semi-crystalline limestone, largely composed of the stem joints and plates of Crinoids, that strongly resembles’ the Upper Burlington. But among the few fossils discovered therein, I was unable to find any characteristic upper bed species, with the possible exception of two fragments of fish teeth—a Cho- matodus and a Petalorhyncus—which are common forms in the ‘Upper Burlington, but have not to my knowledge been as yet observed in the Lower. Further examinations may reveal a more chararteristic Upper bed fauna, but at present I am dis- posed to think this bed represents the cherty passage beds between the Upper and Lower Burlington.

The strata below No. 7 may be referred, in part at least, to the Kinderhook group, but I cannot determine the line of sep- aration, because these strata, as well as those of No. 7, are mostly obscured by their own debris and the éalus of the heavier beds above. The molluscan fauna of the lower part of

0. 7 is in many respects similar to that of the Choteau Lime- Stone. It may be that these mollusks were associated with many species of Lower Burlington Crinoids, and that in this case, as in some localities in Iowa, they have continued to flour- ish longer, and appear higher in the beds, than at the typical locality of the Choteau. Bed No. 8 is similar in appearance to No. 5 of White's section at Burlington (Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., vol. vii, p. 215), and Nos. 1 and 2 are apparently not un- like No. 1 of that section. A’ Rhynchonella found in form of casts in No. 3 very strongly resembles White’s A. pustulosa, and a small Spirifer, similar to his S. solidirostris, was collecte from No. Sufficient material has not yet been obtained from the beds below No. 7, for a satisfactory determination of

SO was called the “upper horizon,” a blastoid of the genus Gran-

atocrinus, Considering the information we have of these local- : ites, in connection with what has been observed at Lake =

*

104 = W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age.

“ART. XV.—The Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age; by WA HAM.

|

[Concluded from page 42.]

Two principal glacial epochs can be especially distinguished, each subdivided by times of extensive recession and re-advance of the ice,*us shown by features of the drift in this State. In the first Glacial epoch, when the ice attained its greatest area, all of Minnesota except its southeast corner was deeply covered by the continental ice-sheet, and its border was several hundred miles south of this district, in Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri and southern Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, extending somewhat. be- yond the Missouri River, but terminating north of the Ohio River, except in the vicinity of Cincinnati, where it reached a short distance across that river into Kentucky, as recently proved by Professor Wright. In the later very severely cold

epoch, the ice-fields were of less extent, and terminated in the.

central part of the United States from 50 to 800 miles within their earlier limit, covering all the basin of the Minnesota river, but not enveloping a large tract in the southwest corner of Min- nesota and leaving uncovered a much larger area than before in the southeast part of the State. The terminal moraines, which form conspicuous belts of rolling and hilly drift in Wis- consin, Minnesota, Iowa and Dakota, were accumulated in the boundaries of the ice of the last glacial epoch. Between these epochs the ice was melted away within the basins of the Min- nesota and Red Rivers, and probably from the entire State. The greater part of the till appears to have been deposited by

the earlier ice-sheet; and during its retreat this till was over-

spread in some places, especially along the avenues of drainage,

by beds of modified drift, or stratified gravel, sand, and clay, _ washed from the material that had been contained in the ice _ and now became exposed upon its surface to the multitude of

rills, rivulets and rivers, that were formed by its melting.

In the principal interglacial epoch, this drift-sheet was chan- —

nelled by water-courses until its valleys were apparently as nu-

merous and deep as those of our present streams. The inter-

glacial drainage sometimes went in a different direction from

that now taken by the creeks and rivers; and the valleys then

Be es

excavated in the drift, though partly refilled with till during oe

the last Glacial epoch, are still, in some instances, clearly marked by series of lakes, as in Martin County, in the south edge of

Minnesota. More commonly the interglacial water-courses must have occupied nearly the same place with the valleys of the

present time; and there seems to be conclusive proof that this ~ was true of the entire valley of the Minnesota River. Along

ee eae

SERS ET eet FE

W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age. 105

period intervened between the great glacial epochs; the earlier ice-sheet gradually retreated northward; a lake was formed in the Red River Valley by the receding ice-barrier on the north; the outflow from this lake, and the drainage of the Minnesota basin itself appears to have excavated the valley of the Minne- sota River nearly as it now is; and the further recession of the ice-sheet probably even allowed the drainage of the Red River basin to take its course northward, as nowy to Hudson Bay; this being indicated by fossiliferous beds, containing the shells and vegetation of swamps, and trunks of trees, underlain and overlain by till, within the area that had been covered by this interglacial lake and was afterward occupied by Lake Agassiz at the close of the last Glacial epoch.

Since all this, a severely cold climate again prevailed, accu- mulating a vast sheet of ice once more upon British America

and the greater part of Minnesota. Beneath this glacial sheet

the valley of the Minnesota River was partly refilled with till, _ but it evidently remained an important feature in the contour of the land surface. Perhaps it had been the pathway, along the lower part of its extent, of a sub-glacial river during this later epoch of ice. At the final melting of this ice-sheet, its waters, discharged in this channel, quickly removed whatever

8 : obstructing deposits of drift it had received, and undermined

its bluffs, giving them again the steep slopes produced by flu-

vial erosion. This partial excavation and sculpture anew were then immediately, followed, during the retreat of the ice-sheet, by the deposition of the modified drift 75 to 150 feet deep, remnants of which occur frequently as extensive terraces on the sides of this valley, from its mouth to New Ulm, and less

distinctly beyond. Had not the great valley existed nearly in | 7 its present form through the last Glacial epoch, it could not —

have become filled with this modified drift, which must belong

ex

~

1060 OW Upham— Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age.

ified drift which is probably an interglacial formation, supplied * the time of final melting of the earlier ice-sheet and spread ond its receding margin upon the unchanneled surface of

the till that had been formed during that earlier part of the ice e. The upper bed of till, thus apparently representing the

stratified yellowish gravelly clay, containing occasional rock fragments up to six or eight inches in diameter, but showing only two or three of larger size, these being two to three feet in diameter. The bottom of this upper till, seen clearly ex- posed along a distance of about 250 feet, is an almost exactly level line. Next below is the modified drift which is supposed to have had its origin from the melting ice-sheet of the earlier Glacial epoch. Its thickness is also sixteen to eighteen feet and consists of yellowish gravel and sand, containing pebbles up to x or eight inches in diameter, quite ferruginous in the lowest one to three feet, levelly stratified throughout, but having the horizortal layers often obliquely laminated, the dip of this lamination being to the east or northeast, toward the Minnesota river, and varying in amount from two or three to fifteen or twenty degrees. The underlying till was seen along an extent of 100 feet, the greatest depth cut into it being about eight _ feet. Its upper line, separating it from the modified drift, is approximately level, but undulating, with its highest points two or three feet above the lowest. This till, like the upper ars no marks of stratification; and ne ither sbows any interbedding or transition, but both are bounded by definite lines, at their junction with the intervening gravel and sand. The lower bed of till is’ aR bluish, excepting for about twenty feet from the face of t uff inward, where weathering has changed it to the same sehen color that characterizes the mod- ified drift and upper till. In other portions of the Minnesota valley, its bluffs frequently exhibit modified drift interbedded, sometimes in deposits of large extent and thickness, with the till, oy makes up the principal mass of these bluffs and of the drift-sheet. 3 peculiar stratification observed in several of the deposits

of clay which form part of the terraces of modified drift in the Minnesota valley in Scott and Carver counties, belonging to the time of departure of the last ice-sheet, appears to afford a measure of the rate of deposition. In Mr. Charles Rodell’s excavation for brick-making at Jordan, the clay is bedded in distinct horizontal layers from three to eight inches thick, aver- aging six inches. These layers are dark bluish, often ‘finely laminated, changing above and below toa nearly black, more unctuous and finer clay, — — the partings between

W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age. 107

them. These divisions are clearly seen through the whole extent of this excavation, which reaches twenty-five feet below the top of the clay and is four rods long. The height of its top is estimated to be sixty-five feet above the river. The excavation of Nye & Co. at Carver, where the exposure is four rods long and fifteen feet high, with about the same elevation above the Minnesota River as the foregoing, exhibits the same stratification, except that here the layers all have a nearly uni- form thickness of three inches. There is a tendency to split at the darker partings, which are seen to extend continuously, never passing one into another, and preserving a very constant. width of three inches apart, through the whole of the section exposed. They are from an eighth to three-quarters of an inch thick, gradually merging above and below into the less dark clay that makes up the principal mass of these layers. The bedding is nearly level, but dips one to two degrees away at each side. In this depth of fifteen feet there are thus about sixty layers, all closely alike. The alternating conditions which produced them were evidently repeated sixty times in uninter- rupted succession. The only explanation of this which seems possible is that these divisions mark so many years oceupied by the deposition-of this clay. Layers nearly like those in the clay at Carver and Jordan are also seen in other clay-beds in this valley and in that of the Mississippi in this State. The principal mass of each layer is regarded as the deposition dur- ing the warm portion of a year, and the very dark partings as: the sediment during winter when the glacial melting was less and the water consequently less turbid. ‘ At Chaska, situated in the Minnesota valley, two miles below

~

Carver, the clay used for brick-making is modified drift of : : mterglacial age. It varies from twenty to forty feet in thick-

ness, being underlain by sand and covered by till from two to six feet thick, holding bowlders of all sizes up to five or six

feet in diametér, many of which are planed and striated. This 2 till forms the surface, thirty to thirty-five feet above the river. ae The only fossils found here were fresh-water clam shells, which

occurred in considerable numbers upon a space four rods in >

diameter near the middle of Gregg & Griswold’s excavation,

lying in the upper foot of the clay, just beneath the till. This | .

interglacial clay, overspread by till, testifies that an ice-sheet covered this region after the Minnesota valley had been nearly as it now is.

eroded

Another observation which seems to give the same testi- ue mony, and to show that the modified drift forming high terra-

ey = plains in this valley was deposi Ee ho neath Of the ice-sheet, is presented, in the notably uneven suriace © the broad part of oh terrace of this’ valley drift in es

rm i f :

a

108 W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age.

county between Carver River and Beven’s Creek. On this — tract, composed, below the soil, of stratified gravel and sand, extending about two miles in width and elevated 125 feet above the river, are frequent depressions from ten to thirty rods in diameter and fifteen to forty feet in depth below the general level, often enclosed without outlet, and some of them contain- ing lakelets and sloughs. Such hollows have not been seen _ elsewhere in our exploration of these terraces along the Minne- sota Valley, which instead have generally a smoothly level contour. Their origin must apparently be referred to sedimen- tation while masses of ice occupied the places of these bowl- like depressions. Elsewhere the absence of such inequalities _ In the surface of the valley drift, as also the very rare occurrence of bowlders in it, and the fact that no portion of it, excepting that just mentioned at Chaska, is known to be interglacial by having become covered with till, together show that the depo- sition of these beds of modified drift took place outside the limits of the retreating ice-sheet. The valley appears to have remained from excavation in an interglacial epoch, and to have become rapidly filled with sediments as soon as the ice by which it had been enveloped was melted away.

Alluvial beds fill the Minnesota valley at Belle Plaine, as shown by the section of the salt-well, to a depth about 150 feet below the present river at its stage of low water. This _ well, situated on the bottomland at nearly the same height with the depot, or approximately 30 feet above the river an 725 feet above the sea, is reported bv Professor Alexander

_ Winchell to have passed through the following succession

- deposits before reaching the bed-rock : soil and gravel, 9 feet ;

clay and gravel, 9 feet; sand and gravel, 18 feet; quicksand, 54 feet, having its base 90 feet below the surface ; coarse sand, 1 foot ; clay, 6 feet, in which was found, two feet from its top, a piece of grapevine with bark; sand, 38 feet, varving from quicksand to coarse sand, in which at 114 feet, inflowing water, under pressure from the bottom, filled the pipe twelve feet with sand, and a second time, at 125 feet, filled it five feet > then gravel, quicksand, and coarse sand, 45 feet, having its — base 180 feet below the surface, yielding water at 144 feet, which filled the pipe with sand ten feet, and containing another — piece of grapevine at 168 feet; next, from 180 to 200 feet, blue — clay, 7 feet, and rock fragments, 13 feet, probably both bowl- — -der-clay or till; and, lastly, gravel, 2 feet; the whole depth of alluvium and drift being thus 202 feet, extending about 170 feet below the river. : At the railroad bridge which crosses the Minnesota rivet — lose to its mouth, borings were made to a depth of 60 feet below the river-bed without reaching the bed-rock. In the —

W. Upham— Minnesota Valley im the Ice Age. 109

deep well at Mankato, drift was found to extend 65 feet below the river. |

A summary of the glacial history of the Minnesota valley, as recorded in its physical and geological features here de- ‘scribed, is nearly as follows. This channel excavated in the Lower Magnesian or Calciferous formations far below the bot- tom of the present valley, appears to have been eroded by a river during the later Paleozoic and earlier Mesozic ages, be- fore the Cretaceous subsidence which carried much of this

till: During the ensuing inter-glacial. epoch, the drainage of this area cut a channel, which, because of the natural slopes of the basin determined by pre-glacial erosion, coincides alon

much of its lower part, where it crosses the nearly horizontal Paleozoic formations, with the old valley eroded in these Strata before the ice age. The pre-glacial, and probably also the interglacial river lay far below the present stream. The till of the later glacial epoch appears to have only partially blocked up this river-course along the greater part of its ex- _ tent, and portions which may have been obstructed were soon channeled anew, and this valley from its mouth to New Ulm or beyond was filled with modified drift, to the height of its present i ion, during the recession of the last ice-

the Saskatchewan River. As long as streams poured into this a

ie

Fae ee See EL,

Swept away, and the channel was excavated to a depth lowers

ssissippi at Saint Paul. Since the ice-barrier which used Lake Agassiz disappeared and that lake was drainet

110 = W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age.

northeastward to Hudson Bay, the Minnesota valley and that of the Mississippi below, carrying only a small fraction of their former volume of water, have become considerably filled by the alluvial gravel, sand, clay and silt, which have been brought in by tributaries, being spread for the most part somewhat evenly along these valleys by their floods.

The changes produced by this post-glacial sedimentation have been pointed out and ably discussed by Gen. G. K. War- ren, who thus added much to our knowledge of the geological history of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers. Lakes Trav- erse and Big Stone and Lac qui Parle occupy hollows in the

outlet of Lake Agassiz due to inequalities of these recent de-

. .

has brought more sediment than its branch, which is thus dammed for a distance of thirty miles, to Little Rapids, with a depth of 20 to 25 feet at low water. The current of this part of the Minnesota through the dry season is very sluggish or imperceptible, and its surface often becomes considerably cov- ered with the green scum of cryptogamous vegetation charac- teristic of pools and lakes. The channel here is from fifteen to twenty-five rods wide, with no lake-like expansions; but lakes from one to four or five miles long, and from a quarter to a half mile wide, lie near the river and parallel with it at each side, upon the bottomland. Lake Pepin, having a depth of about sixty feet, according to General Warren, lies in the continuation of this valley which was deeply channeled by the . outflow from Lake Agassiz, because it has become unequally filled below the foot of this lake by the deposition of alluvium from the Chippewa River. Two of the tributaries of the Mis- sissippi from the east were similar outlets of floods supplied by glacial melting after they had become free from their modi- fied drift by flowing through a lake. Lake Superior, held by an ice barrier on the northeast at a level about 500 feet above - its present height, overflowed at the head of the Bois Brulé River, by Upper St. Croix Lake and the St. Croix River. The Mississippi valley at the mouth of this river, as in the case of — the Minnesota River, has become more filled by post-glacial de- posits than its tributary, which is thus held as back-water twenty miles, to the head of Lake Saint Croix, which is 25 feet deep. Lake Michigan, till the receding ice-sheet was melted from its present outlet at the north, similarly discharged south- ward by the Illinois River, which, like the foregoing, is ob- structed at its mouth by the alluvium of the Mississippi. At _ low water the greater part of its length is dammed, and has a very slight and often imperceptible current through the two hundred miles from La Salle by Lake Peoria to its mouth. Major Long remarked: “This part of the river may with

posits. At the mouth of the Minnesota River, the Mississipp! bh

W. Upham—Minnesota Valley in the Ice Age. 11

much propriety be denominated an extended pool of stagnant water.” All these results of recent fluvial action show that

crops of section 82, Louisville. The recent accumulation of sediments that fill this avenue to a height slightly above the Little Rapids, has turned the river that way, so that it has abandoned its former course and now flows over ledges of sand- stone

Four features of the glacial drift in Minnesota seem to me T

referred to, this essay has receive important contribu- tions and suggestions. Therefore it seems fitting to pro here for the ancient river which fl in the Ice Age where

? Peay . fa a ih

112 C..A. White—Glacial Drift in Montana and Dakota. —

Art. XVL.—@lacial Drift in Montana and Dakota; by CHARLES A. WHITE.

4 [Published, in advance by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geol. Survey.]

In this Journal for March, 1883, page 206, I announced the ~

- presence of true northern glacial drift in the region about the mouth of Yellowstone River. While prosecuting geological work in Northwestern Montana last summer, including a row- boat journey down the, Missouri River, my observations of that drift were extended much farther westward. These observa- tions were largely confined to the immediate valley of the Missouri River, but a part of them extended to the vicinity of the Bear Paw Mountains. They extended continuously from the Great Falls of the Missouri, to Bismarck, Dakota; and more or less of the drift material was seen at intervals all the way, a distance of more than a thousand miles. As a rule, the

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Explanations.—A, Beacon Hill. B - I Fast Rock range, ‘contig of Bast Rock to be north. next "eo Ro wh ng south Snake Rock. F, ale. F. F Point, 0 L. Ola pe’ Quinnipiac. “G, "hese Str eet, J Judges Cave, on’ the West Rock ridge. Boo? Light House. “M. Mill Rock. Maitby Park. ©, Oyster Point, P, Fine pe hg Round Hill. Rt, Rabbit or Peters Rock. Sm, Sachem’s ridge. T, Turnpike : Tomlinson’s bridge, across the head of eu Haven Bay. V, Whitneyville. W, Wes Rock, the south end of West Rock ridge. r West Haven Point. Wh. BMPS eh Wintergreen ar in Nace eadows. ni, 7 diff seat an note es in : nd Poe upper and lower imam ys the Hamden Notch; n4, the Wintergreen

pea

7 gee

MAP OF THE TEN ry NEW HAVEN PLAIN SHOWING | ITS ORIGINAL FEATURES, | THE OUTLINES OF THE TERRACE AREA, THE RIVER-CHANNELS AND KETTLE HOLES AND ADJOINING AND INCLUDED HILLS.- Based on the BACHE Coast Survey Chart.

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into’ =% ab) ¢ > =— ee wv (G ae sabes or —_2 a ie : ~ | = Lay, a ee ) NORTHERN PART Ol 2 =e ¥ ) 5 = oe 32 » . = ts ipa ee = C) e = % 4, Og — caren 5 = / oF : z : g 4 = ~s

NEW HAVEN (|'

ee

i ae

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a

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Ss.

J. D. Dana—Phenomena of the Champlain Period. 118

These observations were all incidental to other work, and therefore incomplete; but they are deemed important as indi- cating the broad extent of the region over which the northern glacial drift has been distributed. 2

Art. XIII.—Phenomena of the Glacial and Champlain Periods about the mouth of the Connecticut Valley—that is, in the New Haven Region; by JAMES D. Dana. (With Plates I and IL)

In the last volume of this Journal the phenomena of the Glacial era in the New Haven region were described and dis- cussed. It remains to describe—

Il. THe PHENOMENA OF THE CHAMPLAIN PERIOD, OR THE CON- SEQUENCES OF THE GLACIAL FLOOD IN THE New Haven

In order that the facts connected with the flood-deposits may be clearly understood the map used for illustrating the former paper is here reproduced (Plate I) with the area of the great flood-plain or terrace-formation colored. ‘The scale of this map is four-tenths of an inch to the mile. Another map on a inuch larger scale—itwo inches t» the mile—of the middle portion of the region is presented on Plate II, giving the details with regard to the topography along the valleys and over the plain, the heights above mean tide, and by contour-lines the features of the adjoining country. The dotted line at the base of the hills is the boundary of the flood-plain or terrace-formation.

are cross-lined. The contour lines are for aioe 20 fe

Am, Jour. ero thlageis Series, VoL. XXVII, No. 158,—Fex., 1884,

20 feet; inthe ut the heightsin

114 J. D. Dana—Phenomena of the Champlain Period.

the map are above mean tide, which is 3 feet below mean high —

tide. The map (Plate II) gives the original square of the city, half a mile each way, as laid i over the whole breadth of the map.

Before describing the ‘“ Kettle-holes” of the plain and the valley-like depressions that look like deserted river channels, it is necessary, preparatory to a discussion of their origin, to review briefly the facts relating to the transporting agents of the region, although the facts are contained, for the most part, in former papers by the author.

I shall treat first, of the rivers; secondly, of the deposits made by the flooded rivers; thirdly, of the depressions over the flood-plain or terrace-formation.

1. The Rivers.

The order of size in the three streams which traverse the

New Haven Region on their way to the Sound, is now as

follows: Length. Approximate drainage-area. 120 sq. m.

1. Quinnipiac River 33 miles 2, Mill River ee 1G 66-28% 3. West River se el

out in 1638; the city now extends —

In the era of maximum flood the relative rank of the first two rivers was reversed, through a gain in length, on the part of Mill River, of 15 miles from the Quinnipiac, the upper balf,

and also the larger part of Farmington River. (This Journal, — xxv, 441, 1883). The size of the three streams thus became—

Length. Drainage-area. Ly amine Ser 18 m. 65 sq. m. 2. Mill River _ 7 4602 °*. 3. West River 162 Seay

The first two of these streams were changed by the flood

lines on trap ridges extending higher. West River flowed, a8 —

Fy

Sess teers SER are Way ane Sine eee ee Se eee tp oe eee te ee es ee |

Seesciest

Consequences of the Glacial jlood. 115

descent was Descentin9 miles. Descent per mile. 30 fee 34 feet.

On the Quinnipiac On Mill River (i ae oF On West River 260 * 2a

the northern part of the New Haven region. Even West miver was a stream of more power. In view of the relation m drainage areas and slope, I am led to conclude that the en- ergy or effective force of these streams, the Quinnipiac, West River and Mill River, may be approximately represented by _ the ratio 1: 4:95,

The slope of the land was probably less than now through a change of level, as deduced in a former paper; but any dimi- hution of slope would increase, not diminish the contrast; for 2 feet less would be a large deduction from 34 feet, but from 9 or 29 very small.

pies north of the latitude of the head of New Haven Bay.

on Plate [

s

~

116 J. D. Dana—Phenomena of the Champlain Pervod.

a. The Quinnipiac River—The Quinnipiac made deposits of sand, with some fine gravel, on its east side, east of its present broad marshes, but almost none on the west side; which factis evidence that the river transported but little, and that the ma- terial of the east-side deposits were mostly from tributary sup- plies. Along the borders of the Quinnipiac meadows there are clay-beds; but these are bottom or early deposits of the terrace formation, of quiet water origin, not those of full or half flood. They appear to rest on the unstratified drift or till that covers the sandstone, and derived the clay from the till.

South and southeast of Hast Rock, a high terrace, full a mile wide, stretches from Mill River eastward to Fair Haven, and for four-fifths of this distance it-fronts, or is south of, the wide Quinnipiac meadows. Topographically it is a Quinnipiac ter- race; and yet not so in origin, for it is in reality, as shown beyond, a Mill River terrace. =

Thus the Quinnipiae has little to show of its work in the New Haven plain. ,

b Wi

river alone. About Westville, where the stream escaped from —

its valley, the deposits are of the cobble-stone kind for a depth — from the top of 80 feet or more, and they are but little less coarse on the east side of the river, where it received the con- — tributions of Wilmot brook. The coarseness gradually dimin- ishes southward ; and three miles south, about its mouth, the — deposits consist mainly of sand—a change attributable to loss of velocity. ae 6 Mill River.—Mill River, the great central stream, spread - its flood waters across the whole region, mingling its deposi- —

ville gap at a level full seven feet above that of the Quin- z nipiac just east of it; and on reaching, a mile below, the end —

flow at this point; and a diminution of coarseness eastwal™ — corresponds to the loss of velocity as the waters spread eastward. — Moreover the terrace deposits to a depth of 25 feet from the top have the cross-bedded structure that would have De® produced by the flow of Mill River, proving that it had eo!

Consequences of the Glacial flood. 117

plete control in the deposition. The direction of dip in the ¢cross-bedding is the reverse of that in the finer and redder beds of the lower 25 feet, and the transition is an abrupt one.* Only this earlier portion, made before the waters were above half flood height, was stratified by the Quinnipiac current.

The torrential character of Mill River in the Whitney- ville gap is attested to by a number of large pot holes made in the sandstone of the west bank near the flood-level of the era. One of these pot-holes (44 feet wide and 7 deep) may now be seen by the road side, 140 yards above the dam and nearly 60 feet above tide level ; and two others were opened to view and cut away in the grading of the road a few years since. eee

Mill River, therefore, was the chief source of the stratified drift or terrace deposits of the New Haven region. e have, consequently, to look to it for an explanation of the more prominent features of the New Haven plain.

The general southward slope of the terrace-formation from Mt. Carmel to the Sound has been already given. The facts are still better before the reader on the maps accompanying this paper, the height being stated on the larger map, in figures. A review of them in this place is therefore not necessary.

3. The depressions of the New Haven plain.

The depressions of the plain are: _, (1.) The flood-made river-channels, bounded for the most part by the terrace-fronts facing the existing streams. ie -) Depressions in the plain made by drainage from its sur- face

(3.) The area of a low terrace, of 20 to 25 feet elevation, bordering the bay on the north side, and Mill River on the West and less widely on the east. me ,

(4) Two long depressions that look like portions of large river-channel

(5.) The “ Kettle-holes,”

(1.) The flood-made river-channels.—These broad river-ways of the flood era answer to the channels of the modern stream be- tween the terrace-fronts—the banks as they are ealled—of its modern flood-ground, and had, as I have elsewhere explained, the same mode of origin. Like them: (1) they were made along the course of the greatest velocity in flood-time; (2) their depth below flood-height is (excluding some later erosion at bottom) the depth of scour, which depth was dependent mainly on the velocity and the kind of bottom; and (3) ot

* See ) ; L ii, 1870, and tue Jura, vo pI ners fe nto of te formalin sowNE the

versed dip is introduced

.

>

118 J. D. Dana—Phenomena of the Champlain Period.

bordering terrace and terrace fronts are a consequence of loss,

on either side, of velocity in the transporting waters resulting —

in deposition. a 2.) Depressions from surface drainage-—Of the depressions which look as if referable to surface-drainage, two are of spe-

cial interest. These are Hast Creek and West Creek, east and —

terraces for nearly half a mile from the bay, and the latter of ©

the creeks admitted the ships of the early colonists for half that distance ;* but under city grading both creeks have disap-

_ peared, and the channels are fast becoming obliterated. The ~

terraces, and certain features common to both soon to be stated, lead to the conclusion that they may have a long history, evel antedating the existence of the plain, and are only in some later modifications a result of surface-drainage.

(3.) The low-lerrace area.—This area, as the larger map shows —by the heights given on it and a band of shading—extends — from the bay and West Creek valley northeastward over the lower half of the central square of New Haven and onward for a mile up the west side of Mill River, and also over a smal — region east of the southern part of this stream. In height the terrace is 15 to 20 feet below the normal upper terrace. VP

glancing over this area on the map (Plate I) and _ noting its <

relations to Mill River channel, it is manifest that it is simply the area of a low Mill River terrace ;.and the facts show that.

its existence was determined by the velocity of the waters — during the flood ; that it lies where the depth of scour was t00 —

great for the building up of the terrace-deposits to their NOT — mal height, or that of the New Haven plain elsewhere. Part

of the evidence consists in the exceedingly coarse, la aly

cobble-stone, character of the underlying gravel.

The direc- :

tion of the band of coarsest gravel indicates that Mill River fol-

lowed a nearly straight course from Whitneyville to the head —

of the Bay, this being one of the numberless examples of &

straight cut made in rivers by the great flood.

e low terrace is henee one of the phenomena manifesting —

the power and influence of Mill River.

(4.) The long depressions resembling fragments of former river

channels.—These channel:like depressions are called the Bae EL Pond Meadows and Pine Marsh Creek. Their location is give? iL 5 both maps, and their special features on the larger one, Plate * —

As there seen, they stretch southward through the middle pare

*The yessels came to anchor at what is now the corner of Congress Ave and Oak Street.

Consequences of the Glacial flood. 119

of the New Haven plain, between Mill Rock on the east and Pine Rock on the west, and each is about 1$ths mile long.* They are sunk 25 to 85 feet below the level of the plain, and are confined for the most part by terrace fronts of this height. They have a width mostly of 800 to 1,000 feet, and a botiom of peat meadows, though with some encroaching areas of sand deposits ; the level of the marshes in the Beaver Pond depres- sion is 27 feet above mean tide, and in the Pine Marsh, 83 to 35 feet. They are much like the West River channel-way be- tween its terrace fronts; or, rather, like fragments of it, for they are marvelously short for the great breadth and depth. The western depression—that of the Beaver Pond Meadows— is wholly isolated from any of the rivers of the region both to the north and south, but has a lateral connection by a valley with Mill River valley. Hach has its stream, one emptying by the lateral channel referred to into West River, the other join- ing Mill River by its north end. These streams, although not two miles long, which is very short for the great valley they occupy, are abundant in waters, that of the Beaver Pond de-

Pression supplying a mill the year around. These copious

waters are almost wholly sudterranean—whence it is that the deeper pools do not freeze over with the thermometer at 0° F.

_ As shown on the map, the more northern of the two depres- sions, Pine Marsh Creek, comes to its southern end abruptly in the plain southwest of Mill Rock; while the other, the Beaver

ond depression, begins almost as abruptly just west of this

place; the terrace-plain between them is for the most part at its ight

ows, by Mr. Sylvanus Butler, under the direction of the city of New Haven, the depth through the peat to firm gravelly bot-

© borings have been made through the bottom gravel to

the underlying sandstone, and hence the actual depth of the

‘rough to solid rock is unknown; we know only, from the fact

Just stated, that itis more than 25 feet below mean tide. From

this it appears to be certain that the Beaver Pond channel is

nly a depression in the plain or the terrace deposits ;

ae Pond depréssion terminates southward near the junction of Goffe Cent streets, and extends northward along the w

helton Avenue, north of Morse street.

Powy P The Pine Marsh depression has its southern termination near the extrem-

a : : s :

ee Sn <a

a

120 J. D. Dana—Phenomena of the Champlain Period. oe

on the contrary it covers probably an excavation in the subja- cent sandstone. On the western margin of the depression, rise — the low “ Beaver Hills,” and these are sandstone hills with a thin covering of unstratified drift. These hills (see map) have the trend of other sandstone hills of the region whose outline was plainly determined by the direction of movement of the ploughing glacier. :

No similar soundings have yet been made in the Pine Marsh depression. But the fact that the waters are subterranean, and its close resemblance to the Beaver Pond depression in all its features, are favorable to the conclusion that the two are alike in depth of excavation and of one mode of origin.

As to origin, we have the following basis for a conclusion:

1. The resemblance in each to the channel of a great river, both in width and in steep terrace-fronts.

2. The depth of the trough :—that of the Beaver Meadows extending much below the sea level, as if channeled out of the

ew Haven sandstone region by the glacier.

3. The fact that the Pine Marsh depression or channel-way, - and Mill River valley for three miles next north, have approx- imately the same compass course, coincident with the glacier flow, making them one channel-way; and that this channel way points directly through the open center of the New Haven — region (between Pine and Mill Rocks) nearly toward the head of the bay (which bay it is to be noted, is the termination of the Connecticut river valley or trough); while the course of Mill River below the junction with Pine Marsh Creek makes an angle of 40 degrees with that of the glacier-flow, and passes through a narrow gap, in trap, at Whitneyville.

Objections to the conclusion here indicated are apparent (1 in the abrupt southern termination of the Pine Marsh depres sion, and (2) the isolation of the Beaver Pond depression. ae

Before considering further this question of origin, the facts respecting the “ Kettle-holes”’ need to be surveyed. — s

4. The Positions and Characteristics of the Kettle Holes —The kettle holes are nearly seventy in number. Of these, (1) éwenly are situated on or near the borders of the Beaver Pond depres sion ; (2) thirty, by the Pine Marsh depression; and (8) seven- — teen at Augurville, near the junction of Sluice-way Brook with Mill River. The map Plate II shows their positions. :

All occur in the stratified drift ; that is, the well-bedded mate- rial of the New Haven plain, or that of the terrace-formation, — gravel-made and sand-made portions irrespectively, away 'rom all unstratified material, or till. This formation in their vicinity has its usual horizontal bedding and flow-and-plunge structure. — Whether the horizontal feature usually extends quite to te edge of the kettle-hole has not been ascertained, because of

al

Consequences of the Glacial flood. 121

the want of exposed sections. In a section of one near Pine Marsh Creek, made in laying out a new track for a railroad,

r layer of the terrace formation, about 6 to 8 feet in thickness, followed down the steep slope of the depression con- formably to its surface ; but this single case is not sufficient for any general conclusion; it may have been due to a slide, though not looking like it.

The kettle-holes are usually isolated; the coalescence of two or three in a single oblong or irregularly-shaped depression is alsocommon. They vary in diameter from 100 feet to more than 500 feet, and in depth from 16 feet to 50. The sides have the same slope as the terrace fronts along the river-channels, or generally 30° to 38°. They are often dry (if shallow), but generally are marshy at bottom, and not unfrequently contain a pond of water. :

The distribution, sizes, forms, positions, and relations to the Beaver Pond and Pine Marsh depressions of the kettle-holes are so clearly exhibited on the accompanying map (Plate II) that detailed descriptions are not necessary. It is seen that the most of them range along parallel with these depressions. On the west side of the Beaver Pond depression the holes are partly in coalescing groups of two to four ranging parallel with the depression, or oblong in the same direction. On the east side are other oblong holes which are ¢ransverse in direction instead of parallel, yet still have an undoubted relation in posi- tion to the great depression.

The cluster of kettle-holes near Augurville (see map, Plate It), at the junction of Sluice-way Brook with Mill River, is peculiar in its position. A map of the region on a larger scale (5 Inches to the mile) is here introduced to show better their forms and their position in relation to the two streams. The map 1s from the Coast Survey chart and gives its contour lines. The <ettle-holes vary from small circular shallow bowls to large irregular depressions having a marsh at bottom which is 46 feet below the surface and on a level with the water in the river. As the contour-lines show, they do not connect directly with the Mill River Channel. ‘The contour line of 83 feet occurs”

aaice-way waters, after passing the barrier of trap at the dam, ae Owed southward (as has been described) in a channel, s cae

or 30 feet wide, worn by the waters out of the red

122 J. D. Dana—Phenomena of the Champlain Period.

and then—re-enforced by tributaries from high hills to the northwest—followed the valley of the existing brook for three miles before reaching Mill River at Augurville. The descent in this distance is 25 feet a mile, while that of Mill River from the dam to the same point was only 10 feet a mile. The two

AUGURMIELE:

Kettle-holes at the mouth of Sluice-way Brook.

flooded streams came together with velocities corresponding t these different slopes ; and the coarse gravel deposits at the place of junction, some of the stones a foot or more in diameter, are evidence of the violence of the sluice-way torrent.

4. Facts bearing on the Origin of the Kettle-holes and the long channel-like depressions.

1. The relations between the kettle-holes and the Beaver

Pond and Pine Marsh depressions, above pointed out (as eX

hibited on the map), make it almost certain that there was

d of

community in origin for the two if not unity in metho

n. This community of origin as regards the two great depres:

2. sions was, with hardly a doubt, unity in origin and meth ao

Consequences of the Glacial flood. 123

of the arm there is a large and deep kettle-hole continuing the line toward the Beaver Pond depression. Further, the latter depression just southwest stretches out two long arms eastward, suggesting former junction. A dozen other kettle-holes lie to the south and southwest of the Pine Marsh depression ; and other arms extend toward them from the Beaver Pond area. Although the plain around has the normal height (as the map shows) the arms and kettle-holes look exceedingly (more so in the field than on the map) as if a former channel had existed and had become mostly obliterated by sand and gravel deposits.

3. A former union of Pine Marsh channel with the Beaver Pond channel almost necessarily implies a continuation of the channel to the head of the bay; and such a continuation is plainly indicated by the ranges of arms and kettle-holes ex- tending from the southeastern portion of the latter channel toward and into the Hast Oreek channel (see map). he arms. leading from the depression are in fact kettle-holes partially coalescing with it; and the kettle-holes make two almost con- ; Hnuous arm-like channels extending into the creek valley.* The southern of the two lines is over 1,000 feet long. Again, farther south, near the south end of the Beaver Pond depres- Sion, still another line about 2,000 feet long, consisting of two Kettle-holes (one 500 feet in diameter with formerly a pond at bottom) and a long depression,+ make another connection with

depressions are dissevered parts of the deep Mill River

of the Glacial era - that East Creek and West C ; Munson street runs between the two ranges of kettle-holes. { This depression is just south of Webster stree

West by city grading and will soon, like others, disappear.

124 J. D. Dana— Phenomena of the Champlain Period.

within the boundaries of the same great channel as it passed into the greater channel of the bay; and that this broad Mill River channel of the Glacial era through the soft sandstone was deepened at that time, if not made, by the excavating action of the ice and running water. The phenomenon is one now known to have been a common result of the glacier flood, in which a stream had its Glacial-era channel partly obliterated by the depositions from the waters as the flood from the melt- ing made progress. The deposits appear to have early blocked the channel, even before half-flood was reached, and thus forced

ill River to take its present course. It is probable thata diminished slope in the land aided the depositions in checking the stream.

The origin of the great depressions is thus traced to exca- vating-work in the Glacial era and subsequent depositions of drift material. They are the unfilled portions of the old chan- nel, and were left unfilled, while deposition was going on s0 freely, because of the depth of the excavation, or, for parts of

them, because of the position with reference to the main cur- .

rent. The waters of the rising flood made a new exit for each of them, the Beaver Pond depression having opened a western outlet to West River, and the Pine-Marsh depression taken its northern extremity for discharge into Mill River. The dis- charge of the Beaver Pond waters was of long continuance, and held on through the era of maximum flood; for the depos its of the terrace adjoining the exit channel are of very coarse gravel, while elsewhere about the depression they are of fine gravel or sand. : ;

The mean width of the Pine Marsh and Beaver Pond depres- sions has been stated to be 1000 feet. But the actual width in some parts is 2000 to 3000 feet; and as these depressions are only what was left after the burial, the mean breadth was

probably near the present extreme breadth, or at least half a

mile; and this comports with the supposed size of the stream. ~The connecting lines between the Beaver Pond depression and Kast Creek are half a mile apart, and they may be the outer portions of the one broad channel half a mile wide. Hast an est Creeks are only two-thirds of a mile apart; and these may have been the sides of the channel at its mouth, for the channel would not there have been narrower but rather wider

os See

rT ¢ : proves that they originated at the same time with the depres-

é

Consequences of the Glacial flood. 125

sions and under similar conditions. But was it by the same method ?

deep, the ice-masses must have been in place in the early part of the flood and have projected high above the waters during its whole progress. :

Some of the difficulties are thence the following : |

(1) In the early part of the flood (when only finer sand deposits of the terrace formation were in progress), there is no reason to believe that water enough existed in the stream to have floated masses 100 to 500 feet or more in diameter and 50 eet or more thick; for 50 feet of depth, at least, would have been required. The above are minimum numbers as no allow-— ance is made for waste by melting. oe

(2) The waters which flowed by the stranded nese Oe os the progress of the flood, deposited in their close vicinity beds

of sand and gravel having the flow-and-plunge structure, and ce

* Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, 4to, 1841, ii, 370.

\

s

126 J. D. Dana—Phenomena of the Champlain Period.

The other explanation, also—that the holes are places un- filled by depositions because of their depth and for the other reasons mentioned—has apparently its difficulties Itis a mat- ter for surprise that where so great depositions were in progress so many holes of the kind should have been left in the plain; and also that the terrace-formation should have been so gen-

gins. Such results lose some of their seeming improbability when

e flood, th

e - isolated ice-masses could not have lasted long enough, or 4

Consequences of the Glacial flood. 127

The cluster of kettle-holes at the mouth of Sluice-way Brook may be looked upon as a case similar to those of the great de- peesons just mentioned. For the large irregularly-outlined

ettle-holes making the center are much like a small example of a Pine-Marsh depression with kettle-holes bordering it. It is probable that in the Glacial era the course of Mill River from Centerville southward was a straight one right through the deep kettle-hole area, where the violent waters of Sluice-way brook struck (see map); and that the eastward bow-shaped bend of the present stream at Augurville, was a consequence of the depositions of drift, which forced the Mill River chan- nel to a more eastward position.

CoNCLUSION,

to the bay by the depositions of the plain, only fragments of hg survive in the Beaver Pond and Pine Marsh depres- ons.

A westward set in the water and its depositions would have resulted from the earth’s rotation, and either through this means or some other the river was forced to take its Garant eastward channel against the sandstone hills of the “Quinnt- plac” Ridge. The Beaver Pond and Pine Marsh depressions, after their isolation, continued to be filled full with waters from the flood until maximum flood was reached, and they

remained deep depressions, but shallowed in part by sands, ~~ :

because of the river-like discharge of their waters, one into

est River, the other into Mill River. These depressions and : : :

the kettle-holes were one in origin and history.

128 J. D. Dana— Phenomena of the Champlain Period.

Note on the Glacial flood of the Connecticut River Valley.

the e xplanations given in my paper on the ne val- have been imperfectly understood, I add 1 a few words on the subject. Professor C. H. Hit cheock, in 8 paper a before the American Adeosittics in 1882 (Proc. Am. Assoe., p. 825), og accepting the — adopted by Mr. Warren U ween ‘ delta-terraces” and “ highest normal terraces,” and abjectag to taking the aecalied . dextect aces” as the nor- mal highest, as done for many localities by me, remarks that “if e are not required to accept the deltas as a measuring rod, we shall greatly reduce the depth of the stream and thas learn why the velocity as calculated by Dana was far too grea No calculations of the velocity corresponding S ‘the reduced depth are given.

Tn my paper I state that one pr ominent ssl before me in my

- whe much delta oe as those ‘iad dus the progress of the

ing t ee flood; and yet they rise bn little, where at all, above the flood plain of the main stream, and have no claim to so ’ distinctive a name, Again, if the level of the “ highest normal terraces” of Upham

are taken as marking flood-level, they indicate an impossible water

surface for the river, since the heights given vary greatly in a few miles

24 miles farther south, at North Thetford, the waaet is 146 feet; and farther south, 170 to 180 feet for many miles. (The “ De Ita-

terraces” are in part still higher). us, within 83 miles, the followin carb in the level of

CEOS Siar

_ flood waters are indicated, if we take Mr. Upham’s “ highest ae oe, how:

mal terraces” as showing the water eiik: 166, 118, 80, 60 4 * This Journal, xxii, 451, 1881, xxiii, 87, 179, 360, xxiv, 98, 1882.

Consequences of the Glacial flood. - 129

Note on the two courses of the Glacier over the Connecticut River Valley.

The courses of flow in the glacier—that of the general mass and that of the valley—have been made out by me to be simultaneous on the theoretical ground that the flow in the direction of the valley—west-of-south—would have necessarily been most rapid, ' Supposing the slope of the land the same, when the ice of the valley to the north was thickest ; that the ice would have been thickest When the general glacier-mass was thickest, which was the time when the southeastward movement of the general glacier, or that determined by the siope of the upper surface, would have been most

State of Connecticut) of all traces of south-southeastward gla- cler scratches, and of underlying drift deposits derived from the orth-northwestward. If the valley movemen ent

to the southeastward flow and the latter had gone on through ee AM. Jour. Sc1.—Tarep Serres, Vou. XXVII, No. 158.—Fes., 1884. ae

130 B.D. Irving—Hornblende of the Northwestern States.

the chief part of the Glacial era, the earlier drift, or that from

the northwestward, should be found in spots somewhere over the bottom of the valley, beneath the valley drift; and southeast- ward scratches as we ‘ift. ut none such occur. e bowlders of the upper current, or those from the northwestward, are mingled with the valley till, occurring within it, and on top of it. All evidence opposes the idea that it was brought in before the valley movement supplied the valley drift; and all facts ac cord with the explanation given that the bowlders of the upper glacier current sunk into the lower or valley current, and were ‘deposited by the latter. Some of the bowlders taken from the region west of the valley in Massachusetts were carried 70 miles

southward without going eastward more than half away across—

the valley, or about ten miles.

Art. XVIII.—Supplement to Paper on the ‘Paramorphic Origin

of the Hornblende of the Crystalline Rocks of the Northwestern | by R. D. Irvine. .

7

States ;” by

a resenting the crystalline schists, acid eruptives and basic yah tives of a region some 400 miles in length by 300 in width, and of three distinct geological systems, I have found no horn- blende that is not clearly, or very probably, secon

i im the firs

ing independently on the rocks of this region, it may tend to a prevent possible future misconceptions if I give a brief his- . torical account of the microscopic work hitherto done, and the

bearing of the results on this question. This historical account

was omitted from my ‘ae gee above referred to, through fear of

making it too lengthy, it being supposed that lithologists be sufficiently cognizant of the facts.

R.D. Lrving—FHornblende of the Northwestern States. 181

The earliest microscopic work upon the erystalline rocks j¥

of the northwest that I have learned of was that of Mr. C. E.

greenstones from the Keweenawan and older formations. e gabbro from Duluth, Minnesota, he describes as “ hornblende- gabbro,” it containing hornblende in addition to the augitie ingredient, though he does not regard the hornblende as sec- ondary in nature, which I think it undoubtedly is."

In the same year Mr. C. E. Wright published descriptions of 37 rocks from Central Wisconsin. A number of bornblendic schists are here included. but no mention is made of any

Saw, though he never examined these rocks in the field. It is the only systematic treatise yet published upon the pone of this formation, and is one which will long be a standard,

formation are nearly altogether diabase (using the Rosenbusch homenclature), contrary to the previously received views, and S th

‘4

M some of these he shows that there eccurs a uralitic altera- DP: 21393), oa te ORE ae a

Parag Jahrbuch, 1877, p. 113; also R. Pumpelly, Geology of Wisconsin, — * Geology of Wisconsin, vol. ii, pp. 637-642.

Geology of Wisconsin, vol. iii, pp. 600-656.

i 4, 0 Ne oe ee

132 R. D. Irving—Hornblende of the Northwestern States.

tion to the augite.* He also shows that there are transition — forms between the relatively rare diorites and the diabases,’ — though he does not express the opinion that the former are altered from the latter. He also shows that the microscopic — characters of these greenstones indicate plainly their eruptive origin,” thus confirming the early views held by Foster and Whitney and numerous others, as against the later views of — Kimball, Brooks, et al. .

In 1878 appeared Professor Pumpelly’s ‘‘ Metasomatie De- velopment of the Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior,” 4 masterly account of the augitic greenstones of the Keweenawan series, and of the metasomatic changes they have undergone. — In this account the nature of the Keweenawan traps and amyg- — daloids was first shown, but no hornblende-bearing varieties — are mentioned.

Besides Wichmann, already mentioned, several other litholo- — gists give descriptions in the third volume of the Geology Wisconsin, their work having mostly been done between 1876 and 1878. Pumpelly, whose manuscript left him in 1878, de scribes a number of sections from the copper series of Northern — Wisconsin,” among them several uralitic gabbros,” in whi¢ the hornblende constituent has resulted from the change of diallage to augite. Pumpelly’s sections and manuscript de — scriptions were in my hands in 1878, and through them I first”

ecame acquainted with this form of alteration. In PartII1of — this volume” I myself give briefly, the descriptions having — been written in 1878-79, the results of a study of some 200 — thin sections from the Laurentian, Huronian and Keweenawan — of Northern Wisconsin, among them a considerable number of sections of hornblendic or uralitic gabbros™ in addition to — those described by Pumpelly. One of the latter besides Se eral others are figured on the colored plates." I also describe @ peculiar greenstone carrying “ basaltic” hornblende and argue < that the hornblende in it also is secondary to augite and show that in all the Keweenawan greenstones carrying hornblende, — and then examined, that mineral is secondary to augite. Part III, Appendix B, A. A. Julien gives descriptions of - eleven rocks, among them some hornblendie greenstones from — the Huronian of the Penokee region, but evidence of the se@ ondary origin of the hornblende was not found in his sections, — though it is evident now that these too are uralitic. oe

In Parts IV and VIII of the same volume Mr. ©. Ee Wright describes a large number of sections from the Huro — nian of the Penokee and Menominee regions, but although he >

6 pp. 607, 627, 628. 7p. 624. &p. 627. ® Proc, Am. Acad. Sci., vol. xiii, pp. 253, 309.” pp. 30-49." pp. 35, 36- 2 pp. 53~238. 18 pp. 170, 171, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183. . 4 Plate XVz, fig. 1, and Plate XVo, figs. 4, 5, 6. as

te

RR. D. Irving—Hornblende of the Northwestern States. 133

occasionally notices’ the occurrence of augite in the green- Stones, he still regards them as mainly diorites, even speaking of one case from the Menominee region as the only instance of diabase in the Huronian then known to him,” Of the others who give descriptions of the Marquette and Menominee rocks in this volume Alport, Hawes, Julien, Rutley and Torne-. bohm, the last named only, so far as I have found, describes any of the secondary hornblende; but the exception is an important one, since he says of the hornblendic rock of Light House Point that it is ‘no true diorite, since it contains re- Mains of augite.”” The others, however, confirm Wichmann mm saying that diabase is widely represented in the Marquette and Menominee Huronian," and Hawes says that to judge from the sections some of the diabases are eruptive.” Brooks also Says of the greenstones of these regions that the hornblendic — and augitic varieties “ appear to graduate into each other, but whether through alteration or original differences in composi- tion, cannot always be ascertained.” ”

Three months after the publication of the third eee of F é :

In these he gives the general results of the examination of a large number of thin sections. So far as the. Copper Series is

the pebbles of the Keweenawan conglomerates,—which had before been described macroscopically only, though correctly, by Pumpelly and Marvine—in which shows the frequent presence of the peculiar “quartz de corrosion’ descri Vy

that many of the hornblendic Huronian greenstones, as pre- Viously shown by Pumpelly and myself for the hornblendie : weenawan greenstones of Northern Wisconsin, are but —

oP 251. %p.691. %p,567, pp. 533-599. Meg, p. 570. - P- 519, 1 Bulletin of the Mus. Comp. Zool., vii. :

*

134 R. D. Irving—Hornblende of the Northwestern States.

which so far as [ know he was the first to do, that all of the

inally the same in origin, structure, composition and name,— basalt.”” In his view that these ancient greenstones were once “basalt,” Mr. Wadsworth is not wholly peculiar, since the same generalization has been extended by others as well as by hin over all ancient hornblendic eruptive rocks,” while the “ dio- rites” of many other regions have been shown to be merely altered augitic rocks.™

n 1880-81, I was engaged in a microscopic study of the rocks of the entire extent of the Keweenaw series, the results — of which study are given in a memoir forming vol. v of the monographic series of the publications of the U. 8. Geological Survey, and in an abstract of this memoir in the Third Annual

the paper above alluded to was printed we have examined many more sections from the Archzean rocks, from Lake Huron to the Mississippi, and have thus far found nothing to change our views.

22 p. 46.

% e.g. Judd, “ Volcanoes,” 1881, pp. 261-268; see also Wadsworth, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1879, v, 275-287; Science, 1883, i, 127-130. ae

% e.g. Belgium, see Geikie’s Text-Book of Geology, 1882, p. 143. See a Wadsworth, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1877, xix, 217-237.

% pp. 618-622 2 Geol. of the Wis., vol. iv, pp. 625-714.

-

¢ ,

Hidden and Mackintosh—Herderite Jrom Maine. 135

Art. XIX.—On Herderite (2), a glucinum calcium phosphate and Jtuoride, from Oxford County, Maine; by WinLtaM EARL Hippen and Jamus B. MACKINTOSH.

In the January number of this Journal, page 73, attention was called to the mineral ‘here described. Our specimens were obtained in October, 1883, from Mr. Nathan H. Perry, of South Paris, Me. They were then thought to be topaz, so much did

they also occur on muscovite: some little albite (var. cleave- landite) is often associated with them. The average size of the crystals is about 3™™ diameter, though one of 1™ and another of nearly 2™, length and thickness was noticed. This last crystal was the only one which gave a hint of cleavage

brachydome measured over O gave 113°. The observed planes are 0, I, 7-2 (?), three brachydomes, two macrodomes, three ctahedrons and two other octahedral planes beveling e edges between the regular octahedrons and the brachydomes.* _ * The best crystals which we have received have been placed in the hands of be E. 8, Dana for crystallographic determination, and his results will be 8 eye in the next number of this Journal. He has given us the following dat : * publication here: The fundamental angles obtained are 1-1 1-4, over 0,

136 Hidden and Mackintosh—Herderite from Maine.

The mineral is colorless to faintly yellowish, and is trans- ‘parent to sub-transparent. Streak white. Crystals very brittle, - with fracture small conchoidal. As the form, hardness, — streak, color, associations and mode of occurrence were nearly <- if not quite the same as those recorded for the rare species herderite,* it was concluded that these crystals must belong to that species and accordingly tests’ were made to positive identify it. specific gravity determination on a : quantity gave the result of 8, and on testing for a sepbaae ee acid it was found to be present in large quantit

These results, together with previously obtained erystallo- graphic data, seemed to point conclusively to the fact that ib was herderite, or a new mineral species. i no quantitative analysis of herderite has ever been published and as the gual- itative analysis accorded to it was uncertain, we commenced | a quantitative analysis of it in order to determine its formula. The methods pursued in its analysis were as follows: For the determination of phosphoric acid, 300™* were fused with sodium carbonate. e fused mass when treated with water ane nitric

excess 0 oer dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid The residue was fused with sodium carbonate, the silica separated

Mee 011) = 45° 54’, and 1-443 oe im » 331)= 57°71’. From these the axial ratio been calculated @ : 6: c=1: 0°6823:1°6114, The axial ratio pene by Haidin- for herderite is 1 : Abed: 15971. ‘ e of the more important angles (supple. ment angles) of the Mai se wc da i a with the Seapine angles of the original herderite, are as follow =

% Maine phosphate. Herderite. Pad (110% 110) =. 68" 39" 64° 77

1-i.1-4(101,.101) = 68° 37’ 68° 18’ 3 14.14(011,01]) = 45° 54’ 46° 2’ Po 6-% . 6-4 (061 . 061) = 137° 2” 137° 8” Gah iee = 38° 46’ 38° 41’ 043 (001,331) = 67° 27’ 67° 25’

These angles show — Seas form of the Maine phosphate approaches closely to that as the original herd 2 c ae

a as aay described, is orthorhombic, 7A [= 115° 53’, ONE &

brittl anhyarous phankee <5 eu nag and with fi pn B.B. fuse mel with difficulty ; becomes blue wit h cobalt solutio anedeas pisedered in muriatic acid. Found very rarely at the tin” mines of Ehrenfri — dorf, Saxony (‘also a good topaz locality’).. Resembles the asparagus vat" of apatite. (Dana’s Syst. Min., 5th ed., p. 546).

Hidden and Mackintosh—Herderite from Maine. 187

and the solution added to the main one. The solution was diluted to 500° and used to determine the other constituents. — 200° were taken and the lime precipitated as oxalate in an

acetic acid solution. 100° were taken and precipitated with ammonia. The precipitate contained all the phosphoric acid combined with part of the lime and all the other bases present. In the filtrate the excess of lime was determined as oxalate.

The fluorine was calculated from the excess of lime. The glucina was determined by subtracting the lime and _phos- phorie acid known to be present from the ammonia precipitate and proved to be glucina both by its equivalent weight and by its reactions when afterwards separated.

The results obtained are :—

Found. Calculated. : WO tg oe. oa, 99:9) |CaG: cc ik oo hee GIO (or GIO.) ..._._.. ere GIO. 2 es 15°39 Dg Hh oe es sed 44311 PD is oe 43°53 _ ee ee i339 2 11°64 104°60 104°89 less O 4°76 less O 9 99°84 100°00.

Corresponding to the formula 8CaO, P,O,+3G10, P,O,4+ CaF,+ GIF, or as it might be written, 3(4CaO 4G10), P,O,+ ($CajGI)F,.

The differences between the obtained and the calculated values are to be expected when the quantities used are con- sidered. The methods employed also would tend to make the

Mineral phosphoresces brightly and becomes white and opaque. When moistened with cobalt solution and reheated it becomes :

The results of “the analysis are of great interest, since it is the first time that glucina has been recognized in any mineral im any other form of combination except as a silicate or

aluminate.

In case the original determination of herderite, by Turner and Plattner, was correct, namely, an alumina lime phosphate

fluoride, then this mineral from’ Maine is not herderite but a a

138 O. A. Derby—Decay of Rocks in Brazil.

new species. However, the probability is, from the imperfect. — nature of the work previously done, that this mineral from Maine is identical with the herderite of Haidinger (Phil. Mag., iv, 1, 1828, Dana’s Syst. Min., p. 546). Should it prove to be otherwise, we suggest the name of Glucinite as appropriate.

Feeling under obligation to Mr. Perry for furnishing us with a supply of specimens for the purposes of this article, we take pleasure in here thanking him for his kindness.

New York, January 3, 1884.

Art. XX.—WNote on the Decay of Rocks in Brazil; by ORVILLE A. DERBY.

IN examining a collection of specimens from two borings made in the coal basin of Arroio dos Ratos, Province of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, the following observations bearing, 08

laid by clayey soil, and extends to a depth of 120 meters. Be- low that level the shale is sufficiently hard to be called stone, but

The other boring, 98 meters deep, traverses 20 meters of su- perficial sands and clays, terminating below with a gravel bed. —

O, A. Derby—Decay of Rocks in Brazil. 139

Then come 60 meters of clays (decomposed shales) very simi- lar to those above described, and evidently belonging to the same series, although it is impossible to exactly codrdinate the beds of the two borings. This, however, is not surprising, as such thin and rapidly alternating beds are not likely to preserve the same order and relative thickness over any considerable area. At the depth of 80 meters a gneissoid rock is met with which is quite as much decayed as the overlying shales. This rock appears to have been a highly micaceous gneiss contain- ing a few scattered crystals of feldspar which are completely kaolinized. The mica is in part completely altered to a bluish unctuous clay, part is only partially decomposed, presenting ill- defined flakes with a silvery luster, while occasional scales o black and unaltered mica can still be distinguished in the rock. The mass effervesces slightly with acids and has apparently received a portion of lime from the overlying shales which con- tain caleareous layers. j

ar as can be judged from the small fragments taken from the boring, this mass is a true gneiss decomposed in situ and not a bed of arkose intercalated in the shale. The shale bed immediately above it, about a meter thick, is homogeneous and of a dark umber color, without any appearance of having

140 Sezéentific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

stance was again subjected to pressure, this time for only a few ‘days. third measurement of specific gravity was then made. Thus lead, whose density before pressing was 11°350 at 14°, had a specific gravity of 11°501 at 14° after the first pressing, and of 11-492 at 16°, after the second. Antimony was 6°675 at 16° before, and 6°733 at 15° and 6-740 at 16° after pressing. Zinc, — 7°142 at 16°, was 7°153 at 16° and 7°150 at 16° after it was pressed. Potassium sulphate, 2°653 at 21°, was 2°651 at 22° and 2°656 at 22°, after the pressure. Potassium alum, 1°758 at 21°, became 1°756 at 16°5° and 1°750 at 16°5°. Potassium chloride, 1°980 at 22°, became 2-071 at 22° and 2-068 at 21°, after pressure. It will - be noticed that after the first pressing, the density of some of © th

not fundamental. Moreov is permanence of y oR t incompressibility of the materials, since their volume continually di hed as the pressure incre pis

the pressure however, the original volume was completely resumed; the elasticity of these solids being as perfect as that of liquids an¢ ases. Some time ago the author had shown that bodies oper :

.

Chemistry and Phisies. 141

amorphous mercuric iodide changes to the heavier red crystalline variety, amorphous arsenic becomes the heavier crystalline arsenic. Hence Spring enunciates the following law: Pressure can pro-

€8., XV1, 2723, Nov., 1883. G. F. B, 2. On nitrogen selenide.—BeRTHELOT and VrierLiE have exam-

NSe (93 grams)=N +Se:42°9 and 42°4 calories, or, as a mean 42°6; or 42-3 calories at constant pressure. Nitrogen selenide therefore is formed with absorption of heat (—42°3 calories), like ts congeners nitrogen sulphide (—31-9 calories) and nitrogen dioxide (—21-6 calories); the heat absorbed increasing with the chemical equivalent, following the ordinary law.—Buli. Soe. him., Il, x1, 420, Nov., 1883. G. F. B n Hyponitrous acid and silver apes RANE Si 3°

and Ocizr have examined the hyponitrous acid of Divers and

also its silver sa latter was pre y the process of the dis overer, dissolved in very dilute nitric acid and re ipi- tat ing the salt to undergo decomposition

ture and in the dark. Thus prepared it contained a trace of water

ut no reduced silver. On analysis it gave a slightly different formula from that ordinarily accepted, viz: Ag,N,O,. The acid would then be H,N,O,. The authors believe that this formula” accords better with the results obtained by a quantitative study of <3 reactions and with the existence of the acid salts discove

all the nitrogen not being evolved in this gas, but a part going to form nitric acid thus : |

(H,N,0,),=(N,0), + (HNO3)2+(H29);-

142 Scientific Intelligence.

Oxidation with iodine, bromine and potassium permanganate were resorted to. Iodine seems to have no action upon hyponitrous acid either free or combined; but bromine produces a character- istic reaction :

g,N,0,+(H,0),+Br,,=(HNO,),+ (HBr), + Ba 8 ction of permanganate is irregular unless a large excess sulphuric acid be employed; the oxygen absorbed is pes oigtl per cent omeparpaes to three equivalents. Nitrogen monoxide is produced as follo

Ag,N, G-rauae O=N,0+ (HNO,), +(Ag20)>. The silver oxide unites with the sulphuric acid. The heat of Job agwan of silver hyponitrite was determined by oxidizing it

bromine water. Five calorimetrical experiments made be- ees 12° and 14° gave 29: 65 calories, From this the value —9°3 calories is Ang Ree as the heat absorbed by N, + Ong+Ago> and —16°3 calories for N, +0 Zo For the acid itself the heat evolved in "the reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid upon silver hyponitrite pee measured, and from it the heat of formation was calculated as 38°6 calories. It is formed from its elements then with Sean of heat; whence its instability. 7 - Chim. II, xl, 401, , November, 1883

n certain ew Compounds ‘of Silver.—In 1879, * awed g on the fact i a

ach

this reaction. The silver ei sity euit. ae have, investigated weights of silver nitrate and water—and then the reaction is given by hydrogen yg ei phosphide and antimonide as well as ar senide. With hydrogen sulphide a yellow to yellowish greed spot appears, haha Hee by a black edge, the whole becoming

place. The on ‘shows a distinct y acid reaction. To isolate the yellow compound, H,S was passed into a concentrated solu- tion of silver nitrate "until the escaping gas blued a solution of iodide of zinc and starch. A yellowish-green precipitate W* produced, isele washed with ee _ acid and dried in the air, apie darker in color, and o alysis gave the formula - - (Ag,S.AgNO,). Its formation is en: in the equation : (AgNO,), +H,S=(Ag,S.AgNO,) +(HNO;),. On gently heating it decomposes thus : (Ag,S.AgNO,),=(NO,), + Ag, + (Ag,S); + Ag2504- This compound is obtained also by treating silver sulphide with fuming nitric acid. But if the nitric acid have a specific gravity of 1:18, a violet-brown kermes-colored powder is also obtained. This latter body is also produced by heating in a water a solution of 40 parts silver nitrate and 35 parts of water and adding :

bath @

Chemistry and Physics. . 143

5 parts of sulphur gradually with constant stirring. This powder has the composition (Ag,S.Ag,SO,). e compound which

mula Ag,As.(AgNO,),. Hydrogen phosphide gives a precisely similar body Ag,P.(AgNO,), ge?

Ag,Sb.(AgNO,),. With reference to the toxical application of this reaction the authors say that the lemon-yellow spot produced by arsenic, with its brown-black edge, becoming immediately black when moistened with water, is easily distinguished from the more greenish-yellow spot given by sulphur, which water does not affect, and the antimony spot which shows on its brownish edge a gray-white mirror. The spot produced by phosphorus is not easily distinguished from that of arsenic. But since phos- phoric acid is not reduced to hydrogen phosphide by nascent

free air. Before the author’s results are given certain criticisms of the results of previous observers are made, Determinations of

LeRoux in gun-fire experiments would ive closer results if they were corrected for this divergence.— Phil. Mag., Dec. 1883, pp. 447-455, J, 7.

144 : Scientific Intelligence.

6. The Condensation of Aqueous Vapor as a source. of Atmospheric Electricity —The evaporation of water and se con- densation of vapor have each in turn been ice Wie by many as

up the question whether condensation of aque vapor is @ source of electricity. He used a Kirchhoff quadrant electrometer

from local disturbances. The outsides of twelve large beaker glasses were co alits de tin foil and were filled with ice. _

h the ground. It was noticed that the deflections of the im strument were of the same sign and the same amount, whether the beakers were filled with ice or not. The deflections were- sometimes greater when the beakers were empty than when they were filled with ice. In order to test whether both kinds of elec

tricity appeared at once, the condensation water was: pe. a + ~

means pg apparatus we are not able to show that condensation of vap the formation of hail is a source of atmospheric elee pe fe Ann., No. 12a, 1883, pp. 614-620. 7. Red Sunsets.—The for eign journals contain accounts of the peculiar sunsets which have also been noticed in America. the Comptes Rendus of Dec. 3d, the marked sunsets of Nov. 2eth

nomenon. It is apparent to the observers that the se peculi sun

ge are not auroral in character. M.M. Bertrand, Dumas and."

’Abbadie give descriptions of the sunsets seen y them, and the latter Bes to the extent of the phenomenon over the earth 5 and is inclined to attribute it to the eruption of Java. The snow in parts of Norway has contained a gray powder which analysis may prove to be of the same constitution as the dust from v0

canic eruptions. The rosy light of the sunset is easily distin guished from the light of an aurora, It does not scintillate and has the appearance of light modified by layers of matter erate

‘

Chemistry and Physics. ee

trum.— Comptes Rendus, Dec. 10, 1883, p. 1384. 1%

Tahoe, also called Lake Bigler, is situated at an altitude of 6247 feet in the

1495, 1500, 1506, 1540, 1504, 1600, 1640, 1645. This depth ex- ceeds that of the Swiss Lakes proper—Lake Geneva, for exam- ple, has a maximum depth of 1096 feet—but is considerably less than that of Lakes Maggiore and Como on the Italian side of the A A series of observations of the temperature of the water were taken between the 11th and 18th of August. The average corrected results are as follows: :

Depth in feet. Temp. (C.) Depth in feet. Temp. (C.) re (surface) 9°4 _ 330 (bottom) = 17°2 100 12°8 480 (bottom) 69 150 10-0 50 67 200 “9 600 61 250 - $3 772 (bottom) 50 300 78 1506 (bottom) 40

a temperature, therefore, diminishes with increasing depth to 2 ut 700 or 800 feet, and below this remains sensibly the same “o wa to 1506 feet; or in other words a constant temperature of

heehee density of water, and it confirms the recent observations of frofessor Forel in Switzerland; he found, for example, that a

fepth of nearly 400 feet, the lake being covered with Inches of ice. "The explanation of the observed fact that Lake oe does not entirely freeze I i oe ae

the bottom which does not allow the necessary decomposition to

146 Scientific Intelligence.

- close of August or beginning of September showed that a hori- zontally adjusted dinner plate of about 93 inches diameter was visible at noon at a depth of 108 feet. The maximum depth of the limit of visibility as found by Professor Forel in Lake Geneva was 56 feet ; he showed, moreover, that this limit is much greater in winter than in summer as explained in part by the greater absence of suspended matter and in part by the fact that increase of temperature increases the absorbing power of water for light. The maximum depth of visibility in the Atlantic Ocean, as found by Count de Pourtales, was 162 feet, and Professor LeConte states his belief that winter observations in Lake Tahoe would place the limit at even a greater depth than this. The author gives a detailed and interesting discussion in regard to the blue color of lake waters, reviewing in full the results of previous writers on the subject, and concludes that while pure water un-

fine particles suspended in it.

The last subject discussed by the author is that of the rhythmical variations of level, or “seiches,” of deep lakes; he applies the usual formula to Lake Tahoe and calculates from it the length of a com- sag longitudinal, and of a transverse “seiche;” these are found to

e 18 or 19 minutes in the first case and 13 minutes in the second.

» Il. Grotogy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Geology of Wisconsin, Survey of 1873-1879; T. C. CaamMBERLIN, Chief Geologist; vol. I, xxiv and 726 pp. 8V®, with maps and figures; and vol. IV, xxiv and 780 pp., with 27 plates of figures 2 fossils, in 8vo, maps and sections in the text, —

1 vablished in 1877 and volume III in 1880. special interest and value, because of the range of the geologl- cal formations arid their products, and also the able treatment of the various subjects that come under discussion. - = Of the new volumes, volume I contains a popular review by

introduced; and also other brief reviews of the facts connected _ with the subject of minerals and rocks, by R. D. Salisbury and . Irving; lists of fossils, plants, crustaceans, lepidopters: elaborate paper OD th by F. H. Ki

the State, by Moses Strong, and another on the Lower St. Ce 2 district, by L. C. Wooster; a Paleontological Report, by RF

Geology and Mineralogy. 147

Whitfield, illustrated by 27 lithographic plates; report on the ore deposits (lead, etc.) of southwestern Wisconsin, by Prof. Chamberlin ; on the crystalline rocks of the Wisconsin Valley, by R. D. Irving and C. R. Vanhise; and on other subjects.

In the course of the part on General Geology, Prof. Chamberlin gives his views on the origin of the iron, copper and lead ores of the State. The great iron ore beds of the Huronian are regarded as originally deposits made in waters or marshes, approximately

og ores are now made. The same view is held by Prof. Irving. The opportunities for observation which the Archean ore 8 of the region afford give great. weight to the opinion of these geologists.

The copper and silver of the Keweenaw formation are attributed to the same deep-seated source with the igneous rocks in and near which they occur, they having existed in some condition in tle

eposits. rof. Chamberlin refers to the view (favored by the writer)

determinable trom their outcrops, “ give no warrant for the sup- position that they contain such ore deposits.” But in the writer’s

none where the extreme temperature was over 1,000° F., an _ possibly little short of that of fusion, where, consequently, what- ¢ver material was movable by means of vapor or otherwise, would

Tocks, and the concentration and distribution of the ores; chief

148 _— Seientifie Intelligence. i.

among whieh agents are heat and moisture, the former of almost. indefinite amount, and the latter in large ‘subterranean suppl

toward the surface if not abundant below. This “ subterranean ” must have been pe epics in the

Prof. Chamberlin discusses the subject of the erosion of Paleo- zoic formations in Wisconsin, with interesting conclusions. Speak- _ ing of the valley of the Mississippi, he observes that at La Crosse

now runs, according to an artesian boring in the gravel, at eet ay feet above its ancient bed. The basin of Lake Superior

made a geosynclinal trough (the bottom now 400 feet below the adsve formed in the period of the Keweenaw formation,

though more or less modified Phas tracted by erosion. Lake

fd a oat bottom of mud now 300 feet below the ocean level

vast aeletut of pions but not wholly a result of erosion ‘ ; : see

e ages) a very full account of the ore deposits in southwestern Jisconsin. It will be read with great interest in connection with the Missouri Report on the same general subject by Adolf Schmidt. The author, after an account of the observations of Dr. Percival in 1854-1855, and of J. D. Whitney in 1859, treats first Of the ores that were original to the beds—the “hare

iron carbonate , hematite and limonite ; coppe r carbonates ; with py ohasita and gypsum. The forms and constitution of the ores are treated of, the distribution of the ore deposits, with map illustrations, the origin of the cavities which contain the deposits, and the conditions under which the were made. He points out — that from Lake Superior to southern Illinois the feeble flexures oF

— m oO: a a n ct _— = ae is) = o <4 ms Oo Oo mn ct oy fae} és) oO a @ bs | @ ————s i ce S Qu S es = @ = a La) S 2 o

and origin of the cavities. The relations of the ores d the changes in them since their deposition are also reap oe

The theory of origin supposes that the deposits were made by

oceanic waters, which owed their metalliferous salts

Geology and Mineralogy. 149

paper in the last volume of this Journal (page 27). Prof. Wooster, in his account of the geology of the lower St.

HITE. of the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. 464 pp. 8vo, with sec- tions in the text and a finely colored geological map in two parts. Harrisburg, Pa., 1883.—The area covered by this report of Pro- fessor White contains about 2000 square miles, and is situated a the northeastern quarter of the State. The facts connected.

175 feet. Coarse gravel deposits (bowlder beds) occur in some

. f the buried valleys is that of the “old Susquehanna” ‘eben Pittston and Kingston, north of the present channe and passing under the town of Kingston, In different

s

185, 210, 180 feet, showing the valley to be buried at 212 feet or : ere. At Pittston, the course of the Susquehanna chan ot outh-southeast to about west-southwest, the latter the COREE oy

150 Screntifie Intelligence.

south sof Pittston and of the buried valley. The west-south- westward or east-northeastward course is continued eastward by the Lackawanna River, and along this stream the buried valley extends for some distance, a boring two miles north of Pittston reaching the bed rock at a depth of 80 feet. This

nape lead to enquiry for the continuation of the old water- way. Professor White’s views on the point (referred to on page 27), are not given in the Report. He has sent a statement of them to the writer, and from that we learn that he rejects the idea of a northward discharge, which Mr. Carl] suggested for the Alleghany and Beaver Rivers in pre-Glacial times) on account of the topographical difficulties; that he regards it as most_prob- able that the old channel was excavated by the river in pre-Glacial times, when the land to the north was at a higher level than now; that the filling with sands and gravel took place during the era of subsidence following the Glacial, the era of floods and deposr tion; and that after this, in the elevation which followed bringing the land to its present level, the amount of elevation experienced by the different regions to the north and south was unequal.

The rocks of the region range from the Medina sandstone on

the Salina formation in its New Yor position between the

Niagara and Lower Helderberg groups, but without its salt or

gypsum. .

Some of the most important facts in the Report relate to the

wide range of fossils of well-known limited positions in the

Devonian and Upper Silurian of New York. The Spirifere, S.

disjuncta, S. mesocostalis and S. mesostrialis, as determined by

Mr. Claypole for Professor White, instead of marking definite in New Y

ing whi Catskill and Chemung, and are called the pen te res beds. — : ra - ¥y . ra ‘oa

Again Chonetes setigerus, a Hamilton species in or

© 4

seen in the Chemung, is reported as found 2000 feet above the o

top of the Hamilton, along with the first two of the above Spit fere. Halysites catenvlatus is reported as very abundant ™ the

Lower Helderberg, in a bed underneath the Stormville limestone - of the Lower Helderberg group, while, according to Hall (98

-

group, as in New York, occur 1D alter-

Geology and Mineralogy. . 151

Paleozoic fossils of Pennsylvania would throw much light on the actual distribution of the species so well studied by Professor Hall in New York; and it is not at all improbable that com- mingling should exist of fossils that are confined in New Yor

distinct horizons, proving changes from migrations like those

gested by rules or conclusions regarded as “established” may Beyond the fact that the observations make

¢areful geological observers on the survey.

- Pas Antlitz der Erde, yon Epuarp Suzss, mit Abbildungen und Kartenskizzen. Erste Abtheilung, 310 pp. large 8vo. 1883. Prag (F. Tempsky) and Leipzig (G. Freytag).—The present vol- ume forms the first of three parts of which it is announced that the complete work will consist. The whole subject, after the introduction, is to be discussed under four heads, entitled—(1 The

he preceding statements, taken from the prospectus, will sir the scope of the work, as it is to be finally completed. Th volu division of the subject as above defined. The author opens the

~?

152 _ Seventific Intelligence.

garding it as deserving this prominence as being the most im-_ portant natural catastrophe of which there is any written record. Without following him in his examination of the biblical and other records, and of more recent phenomena in the same region which bear upon it, it is worth while to note his conclusion, viz that the Flood was an event confined to the lower Euphrates, consisting in an extended and devastating overflow of the Meso- potamian depression, the essential cause of which was a great earthquake in the region of the Persian Gulf or south of this, and that during the time of the most violent shocks a cyclone proba-

1 — in from the Persian Gulf on t

Ips, in which the 1¢ phenomena a are not connected with a volcano 5

ihe of the land in connection with ‘carthquakes—8 question which ike author decides in the negativ

The third chapter discusses the aed topic of co in the earth’s crust. The cause of these is Seagal in t vements:

produced by the diminution in the e of the vi giving rise to (1) tangential and (2) radial ak of which the first tend to produce horizontal and the s d vertical movements.

locations caused by tangential movement ; here numerous interest-

ing mples are given. of the folding over of strata, as in the Alps; secondly, dislocations produced ‘by sinking, for an example of which the author turns to the structure of the Plateau region of Utah as described by Dutton; finally, dislocations due to t the two soniepele ig nts of both tangential moverent and sinkin

of Central America, not yet a century old, together w! ith t

like Stromboli and alades which are in joasinuotdi activity 3 to is

the volcanoes which have frequent eruptions, as Vesuvius, Etna, or less frequent as Ischia, and still farther to those of whose

eruptions history gives no certain account, but which still retain

the cinder cone, as the Puys of Auvergne; next come volcanoes — which have been partially reduced to ruins, retaining meee: bares

skeleton of the cinder cone; then those cases in which t e lateral intrusion or injection of acid lavas has become vse as in the — Henry Mountains ; and further till the rock masses of the dept ths

are laid bare along the several lines of outbreak, or if oe anco¥ ene

Geology and Mineralogy. 1538

= Is visible; and finally to masses, “ batholiths,” which never

the surface in fluid condition but which solidified in the

depths, and of which evidence is sometimes had in the altered

strata which formed a part of the original covering. The author

thus passes from the ash deposits of the present to the granite. masses of the Erzgebirge and the Drammen granite of Norway,

and to the complex relations of the granites of the Alps.

The concluding chapter is devoted to the different classes of earthquakes, and their relation to earlier and more extensive movements in the earth’s crust.

This memoir by Professor Suess promises, when completed, to be an important contribution to geological science. The author's extensive reading, together with his personal observations, gives

im a wide and varied range of illustrations, which add much to the interest of his writings.

4. Unconformability between the Upper and Lower Silurian Formations in New Jersey, bearing on the question as to the limits of the Green Mountain disturbance. (Letter from Prof. G. H.

00K to J. D. Dana, dated New Bruns vick, N. J., Jan. 12, 1884.) ~I notice in your comments on the Pennsylvania Geological

w Jer 1868, p. 135, is a wood cut made to show the unconformability of the two rocks at Otisville. This was made from a sketch drawn on the spot in 1867. The various localities about Rondout ave undoubtedly the best exposures for seeing the unconform- ability of these Upper and Lower Silurian rocks. Professor Smock and myself examined them in 1867, when we were looking for good examples to show the relation of these rocks to eae other in New Jersey. 5. General Geological Map of the area explored and mapped ¥. V. Hayden, from the surveys under his charge, 1869 to

°F 41°03 miles to the inch. gee ae 8 Emeralds from North Carolina.—At a recent meeting ee

7

154 Scientifie Intelligence. (January 7), of the New York Academy of Sciences, Mr. George F.

A. D. Stephenson, of Statesville, North Carolina. Mr. Stephen- son says of them: “

J. QO. k denite Mining Company’s property, Stony Point, North Carolina, a short distance from the Lyons property (Smeaton’s), and are

7. Tourmaline from Auburn, Maine ; by Wa. Earn Hippxn. (Communicate planes, viz:— R, O, —4, 43, Zand 7-2 have been found in consid

following angles were obtained (with a hand goniometer), and —

are very nearly correct, viz:= —4\ —$==133°, —$A¢-2=113

4-2 A$%=142° 30’, 45A4$3=112° and 149° 30’, 1-2 A R=128° 30-

Hemimorphic crystals, consisting of the single plane O at one

a , and with —4, $3 and & at the other end were found. ems of p

~

ale colors could have been cut from many of the crys tals. For their crystallographic interest alone, aside from thelt ~~

much quartz and cookeite. A single erystal of columbite, : grams weight, was quite equal in polish and in richness of pat 2 to those from Standish, Maine. The locality promises to be 0

financial importance regarding the production of mater! oe ge ocket was much decomposed and nearly all ee crystal contents were in detached pieces, or in broken fragments. :

Botany and Zoology. 155

Ill. Borany anp Zoonoey.

1. Botanical Fragments ; by Sir Cuartzs J. F. Bunsury, Bart., F.R.S., ete. London, 1883.—A handsome volume of 370 pages, 8vo (including a full index), printed by Spottiswoode & Co., which, although not published, and therefore known only to 4 limited circle, is from beginning to end so thoroughly readable

on the Vegetation of Buenos Ayres and the neighboring districts ; while the fifth essay gives a similar and detailed account of the pages

been. collated even with the most recent authorities. ¥ © in our day has written such excellent and well-

— Iustrated Descriptive Catalogue of American Grape es, @ Grape Growers’ Manual ; by Busn

and the species from which they have been derived, are succinetl} indicated. As to the fidicehonk forms, this third edition of ero

a Scientific Intelligence. * 7

catalogue is made more valuable to the botanist, as well as to the cultivator, wn Dr. Engelmann’s revised and largely new account of the True

from a plant which was cultivated in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, perhaps a hundred years ago, which was also recognized as a species by the elder Michaux at the beginning of this cen _ tury (for, although unpublished, it exists in his herbarium as V. rubra, but was merged by the witer of his Flora in the nearly allied V. riparia), he having collected specimens on the banks of streams in Illinois. Finally it has been detected by Mr. Eggert of St. Louis, on the banks of the Mississippi, above that town; and Dr. Engelmann has iv this revision fixed its characters.

mann, and that he has taken care to publish successive MOnO- — i

graphical revisions, setting forth his latest additions to the stock — of knowledge, which, from first to last, we mainly owe to him. A. G

3. The Law of Heredity: A Study of.the Cause of Varia-

y By W. K. Brooks, —

Associate in Biology, Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore: Je nS Murphy & Co. 8:

which we hasten to announce rather than to review, is perhaps

of heredity; we should say rather of the cause or origin of varia — a

a * ba i This is developed and expounded with a great we ; illustration. The othesis is woven of the same tenuous mate-

rial which forms the staple of Darwin’s pangenesis; but 1 to be better adapted for wear than the original fabric.

a

Botany and Looloyy. 157

himself, who appears not to have set great store by his own con- ception, would have hailed Mr. Brooks’s version of it as an improve- me would have pounced at once upon the fact (which the

n Something tangible for the hypothesis to rest upon. But it will not be easy to prove that variation, commonly originating in reproduction, but sometimes without it, is due to the male element.

The proof-reading of this volume has been negligent, names of persons are sometimes wrongly written (Vilmorin is hardly recog- nizable as Vilmore); in a great gathering of facts some question- able ones find a place; and now and then there is an opinion or a bit of reasoning that may be assailed. A: @.

- fieports on the Results of Dredging under the Supervision of A. Agassiz in the Gulf of Mexico (1877-8), in the Caribbean Sea (1878-9), and along the U. S. Atlantic Coast (1880), by the Coast Survey Steamer Blake.—Report on the hint by A. AGassiz. 94 pp. 4to, with 82 plates. Memoirs of the Mus. Compar. Zool. at Harvard College, vol. x, No. 1.—Besides the

of the Pacific genera remain until now unchanged; while Atlantic

types have been added that previously found less favorable condi-

tions for their development than those which now exist. e view, g

hg, has not been sufficient to effect any very radical e in the Echinid fauna of the two sides.of the Isthmus. Phy Conditions, the a r observes, are so nearly alike on the two

the Jurassic; 10 to the Cretaceous; 24 to the early Tertiary; and only 4 to the later Tertiary. Seven of the genera are repre-

158 Scientific Intelligence.

periods about Great Britain has been thought to show that the Gulf Stream was probably flowing northward then as now and producing similar effects on British climate. This is not inconsist- ent with the conclusion above cited; since the connection between the Gulf and Atlantic, according to Mr. Agassiz’s deduction, was imperfect enough to have interfered much with the transfer of deep-sea life from one to the other, which condition would have required that the depth between the two should not have exceeded 75 or 100 fathoms, and in that case there would have been an Atlantic as well as a Pacific branch to the so-called Gulf Stream. 5. Glyptocrinus re-defined and restricted, Gaurocrinus, Pye- nocrinus and Compsocrinus established and two new species scribed by S. A. Mutter. Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat Hist., vi, Dec., 1883.—The following observations on the vault of Glypto- -_erinus decadactylus are from this paper, the author of which has in his collection all the species of thé genus excepting two from the Trenton and Hudson River group. They are from a letter on the paper received from the author.—The vault in this species is slightly convex in the central part and undulating toward each interbrachial area. It is composed. of rs a central tubercle or spine. Toward the margin the plates are smaller

sides of the ambulacral furrows. This continuation of the vault up the inner side of the arms I have observed for more than a0 inch above the vault, and have specimens at hand illustrating 1% and entertain no doubt that it extended as far as the arm furrows themselves. The pinuules do not cover the arm groove,

become free upon each side of it, leaving an angular roof betwee?

: } ; ; ” hand, no cowering has ever been discovered with true pinnule 5 and, finally, they come to the conclusion that the plates cover@s

I do not understand how or why pinnules should, in any coy act as a covering to the ambulacral groove, and I have

very numerous plates. — and each bea

;

never, seen any evidence of their performing such a function, and cap distinctly disprove it by specimens belonging to several different genera, ma

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159

The mouth (as I regard it) of G. dioadactytes is situated ne centrally, It appears as a subcircular, rounde d el

aud fragments are 1 ary rare

The Auk, a Quartets ly Journal rs Ornithology. Vol. I, No. 1, a ai 1884, Kditor, J. A, ALLEN; associate editors, E. ae gay R. Ripgeway, Ww. p Osa ang: and M. CHaMBERLAIN, 108

vo. Boston, Mass. Published by Estes & Lauriat for the HN holoutcal Union. Continuation of the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club. Price $3.00 a year.—This Journal has the best of American Sree bolos ay in its editorial corps. It promises, id its papers show, to be attractive to the popular reader as well 48 to the scientific, and should have a large circulation.

IV, MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1, The proposed ph liohe care of Electricians at Philadelphia.— Tn order to secure the advantage of holding the proposed Inter-

cidently with the meeting of the American Association for the

all the aid in their power. Communications on the subject should be addressed to'the Committee, which consists of M. nyder,

dwin J. Houston, William H. Wahl, with Wm. P. “Tatham, Ls . on the Franklin Tastitute,

and whic h is considered the best extant, are to be obtained from

the widow of the latter. The price in gypsum is $6; in ae

ee, $8 ; including packing. Fraa Prof. Waemdt: Bayerstrasse 25, Miinchen (Munich).

, Repertorium der Deutschen Meteorolo ogie. Leistungen der Deutschen in

Schriften rimagnetsn und Beobachtungen auf dem Gebiete Me

re intere magnetism, and who would be acquainted with its historical development. K Tee Sm der veraleishenden be a der Wirbelthiere auf Grundlage der utwicklungsgeschichte, bearbeitet yon Prof. Dr. Robert Wiedei

eim, Director os der dor snetomischen und vergl. Institutes der Universitat Freiburg, etc. uh ats 8 261 wood-cuts. ae

Concluding) Part, with 26

160 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

OBITUARY.

- Genera AnpreEw A. Humpureys.—Brigadier-General An- drew Atkinson Humphreys died in Washington, on the 28th of November last, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Gene

Humphreys was graduated at West Point with the rank of Second — Lieutenant on July 1, 1831. After active service in the war _ against the Cherokee Nation in Florida, and in the Seminole war in 1836, he entered the service of the United States as a civi engineer, to assist Major Bache on the plans for the Brandywine Shoal Light-house and the Crow Shoal Breakwater, Delaware Bay, and he was engage@ in this work until July 7, 1838, when he was

of the Coast Survey office at Washington. The topographic and

Creek. On June 27, 1865, he was placed in command of the ili-

Mississippi levees, a work which occupied him until Aug. 8, 1866,

when he was placed in command of the Corps of Engineers and

in charge of the Engineer Burean, in Washington, and promoted

own request, Colonel Horatio G. Wright succeeding him. Dur ing his service as commander of the Engineer Corps he also served m many important commissions, among which were the commis: — sion to examine into the canal routes across the Isthmus of Pat ama, from 1872 to 1877, the Board on Washington and George town Improvements, the Revising Boards for Bulkhead and Pier

APPENDIX.

i ee a ee Principai Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs ; by Professor O. C. MarsH. Part VII. On the Diplodocide, a new family of the Sauropoda. (With Plates II and IV.)

THE Sauropoda are now generally recognized by anatomists asa well-marked order of the Sub-class Dinosauria. In the previous articles of this series, the main characters of the two families of this order (Ailantosauride and Morosawride) already named by the writer have been given.* A third family is represented by the genus Diplodocus, a study of which, more. ®specially of the skull, throws light on the whole group of Dinosaurian reptiles.

’ THE SKULL. The skull of Diplodocus is of moderate size. The posterior —

Opening is at the apex of the cranium, which from this point slopes backward to the occiput. In front of this aperture,

muzzle, as represented in Plate III, figure 1. i _ Seen from the side, the skull of Diplodocus shows five open-—

) Yacuity (b), the nasal aperture (c), the orbit (d), and the lower hag poral opening (e) (Plate IV, figure 1). The first of these as not

lag etis Journal, xvi, 411, Nov. 1878; xvii, 86, Jan, 1879; xxi, 417, May,

S81; xxiii, 81, Jan., 1882; and xxvi, 81, Aug., 1883. =

Am. Jour. So1.—Turrp Serres, Von. XXVII, No. 158.—Fes., 1884. ul :

-

162 O. C. Marsh—New Family of Dimosaurs.

On the median line, directly over the cerebral cavity of the brain, the type specimen of Diplodocus has also a fontanelle in the parietals. This, however, may be merely an individual peculiarity.

ormed almost wholly of the basi-occipital, the exoccipitals en- tering but slightly or not at all into its composition. 1 he bast occipital processes are large and rugose. The paroccipital pro- cesses are stout, and somewhat expanded at their extremities, for union with the quadrates. :

The parietal bones are small, and mainly composed of the arched processes which join the squamosals. There is no tue parietal foramen, but in the skull here figured (Plate Ill) there is the small unossified tract mentioned above. In one specimen of Morosaurus, a similar opening has been observed,

ut in other Suuropoda, the parietal bones, even if thin, are complete. The suture between the parietals and frontal bones — is obliterated, in the present skull, and the union is firm m all | . the specimens observed. me

The frontal bones in Diplodocus are more expanded trans — versely than in the other Sauwropoda. They are thin along the median portion, but quite thick over the orbits. ;

e nasal bones are short and wide, and the suture between them and the frontals is distinct. They form the posterlol boundary of the large nasal opening, and also send forward ® — process to meet the ascending branch of the maxillary, thus forming in part the lateral border of the same aperture. d &

The nasal opening is very large, subcordate in outline, am is partially divided in front by slender posterior processes“ the premaxillaries. It is situated at the apex of the skull, be x tween the orbits, and very near the cavity for the olfactory — lobes of the brain. a

The premaxillaries are narrow below, and with the ascent gate. Along the media? .

functional teeth.

The maxillaries are very largely developed, more so thane" most other known reptiles. The dentigerous portion 18 Vo! high, and slopes inward. The ascending process is very“ & thin and flattened, inclosing near its base’an oval foramen; ®”

2 0. C. Marsh—New Family of Dinosaurs. 163

leaving a large unossified space posteriorly. Above, it meets the nasal and prefrontal bones. ong its inner border for nearly its whole length, it unites with the ascending process of the premaxillary. Hach maxillary contains nine teeth, all situated in the anterior part of the bone (Plate III, figure 1).

_ Along their upper margin, on the inner surface, the maxilla- nies send off a thickened ridge or process, which meets its fel- low, thus excluding the premaxillaries from the palate. Above this, for a large part of their length, the ascending processes of the maxillaries underlap the ascending processes of the pre- maxillaries, and join each other on the median line.

The orbits are situated posteriorly in the skull, being nearly over the articulation of the lower jaw. They are of medium size, nearly circular in outline, their plane looking outward and slightly backward. No indications of sclerotic plates have been found either in Diplodocus or the other genera of Sauropoda.

The Supra-temporal fossa is small, oval in outline, and directed upwards and outwards. The lateral temporal fossa is elongated, and oblique in position, bounded, both above and

elow, by rather slender temporal bars.

The pre-frontal and lachrymal bones are both small, the suture connecting them, and aiso that uniting the latter with the Jugal, cannot be determined with certainty. |

he post-frontals are tri-radiate bones. ‘The longest and most slender branch is that descending downward and forward er connection with the jugal; the shortest is the triangular Projection directed backward, and fitting into a groove of the Squamosal ; the anterior branch, which is thickened and ru- gose, forms part of the orbital border above. : ee

"he squamosal lies upon the upper border of the par-occipi- tal process. The lower portion is thin, and closely fitted over the head of the quadrate.

‘he .quadrate is elongated, slender, with its lower end Projecting very remarkably forward. In- front, it has a thin ete extending inward, and overlapping the posterior end of

€ pterygoid. ee

. 1€ quadratojugal is an elongate bone, firmly attached pos- 'erlorly to-the quadrate by its expanded portion. In front Ms the quadrate, it forms for a short distance a slender bar, Which is the lower temporal arcade.

The palate is very high and roof-like, and composed chiefly

of the pterygoids. “The basi-pterygoid processes are elongate,

much more so than in the other genera of Sauro, eae hy he pterygoids have a shallow cavity for the syne as these processes, but no distinct impression for a umella.

164 O. C. Marsh—New Family of Dinosaurs.

Immediately in. front of this cavity, the pterygoids begin to expand, and soon form a broad, flat plate, which stands

along its inferior border with the vomer. A little in front of © the middle, a process extends downward and outward for union with the transverse bone. In front of this process, uniting with it and with the transverse bone, is the palatine.

The palatine is a small semi-oval bone fitting into the concave anterior border of the pterygoid, and sending forward a slen- der process for union with the small palatine process of the maxillary.

The vomer is a slender, triangular bone, united in front by its base to a stout process of the maxillary, which underlaps the ascending process of the premaxillary. Along its upper and inner border, it unites with the pterygoid, except at the end, where for a short distance it joins a slender process from the palatine. Its lower border is wholly free.

THE BRAIN.

The brain of Diplodocus was very small, as in all Dinosaurs from ‘the Jurassic. It differed from the brain of the other

once from the Adlantosauride, which have a wide pituitary canal connecting the brain cavity with the throat. In the Morosauride, the pituitary fossa is quite small. ; ae he posterior portion of the brain of Déplodocus was dimin tive. The hemispheres were short and wide (Plate IV, figure 1), and more elevated than, the optic region. The olfactory — lobes were well developed, and separated in front by a vertic® osseous septum. The very close proximity of the external 8 nasal opening is a new feature in Dinosaurs, and appears 10: ne be peculiar to the Sauropoda. ©

Tur LOWER JAWS.

The lower jaws of Diplodocus are more slender than in 20Y of the other Sawropoda. The dentary especially lacks the massive character seen in Morosaurus, and is much less robust than the corresponding bone in Brontosaurus. The short dete 5 tigerous portion in front is decurved (Plate ILI, figure 1), and

O. C. Marsh—New Lamily of Dinosaurs. 165

‘its greatest depth is at the symphysis. The articular, angular, and subangular bones are well developed, but the coronary and splenial appear to be small.

THE TEETH.

edentulous. The teeth are entirely confined to the front of the jaws (Plate III, figure 1), and those in use were inserted in

slender. The crowns are more or less compressed transversely, . . . he

“oto rapidly replaced, as they wear out or are lost, by a ig of successional teeth, more numerous than is usual in Soe oo Plate IV, figure 3, represents a transverse sec- ] D through the maxillary, just behind the fourth tooth. The ster is shown in place (1), and below it is a series of five im- Emirs teeth (2 to 6), in various stages of development, prepar- — lik 10 take its place. These successional teeth are lodged in a ti 8© cavity (c), which extends through the whole dental por- 'on of the maxillary. The succession is also similar in the Premaxillary teeth, and in those of the lower jaws.

THE VERTEBRA.

The vertebral column of Diplodocus, so far as at present Own, may be readily distinguished from that of the other

n ag Sauropoda by both the centra and chevrons of the caudais, ~

* This Journal, xix, p. 255, March, 1880.

166 O. C. Marsh—New Family of Dinosaurs.

The former are elongated, and deeply excavated below, as shown in Plate IV, figures 4 and 5. The chevrons are espe- cially characteristic, and to their peculiar form the generic name Diplodocus refers. They are double, having both anterior and posterior branches, and the typical forms are represented in figures 6 and 7 of the same plate.

THE PreLvic GIRDLE.

The most characteristic bone of the two families of Sawropoda —

previously described is the ischium. In the Aélantosauride, the ischia are massive, and directed downward, with their ex- panded extremities meeting on the median line. In the Moro-

sauride, the ischia are slender, with the shaft twisted about 90°,

directed backward, and the sides meeting on the median line,

thus approaching this part in the more specialized Dinosaurs. The ischia referred to the genus Diplodocus, representing the new family here established, are intermediate in form and post-

tion between those above mentioned. The shaft is not

expanded distally, nor twisted, and was directed downward and backward, with the ends meeting on the median line. SIZE AND HaBits.

The type specimen of Diplodocus, to which the skull here figured apparently belongs, indicates an animal intermediate

in size between Atlantosaurus and Morosaurus, probably 40 oF

#

maxillary bone contains eight teeth, and at the premaxillary = suture measures 26™" in thickness. The series of teeth occupy

a space of 70™. A second specimen of apparently the sam species has since been found in Wyoming.

The geological horizon of all the Sauropoda from the Rocky 2 Mountain region is in’ the Atlantosaurus beds of the uppe 3

Jurassic. No Cretaceous forms of this group are known.

oe

0. U. Marsh—New Family of Dinosaurs. 167

CLASSIFICATION.

__ The main characters of the order Sauropoda, and of the three families now known to belong to it, are as: follows:- :

Order SAUROPODA.

late; five digits in manus and pes; tarsal bones unossified. Sternal bones in front, and united distally by cartilage ; no post-pubis.

(1.) Family Atlantosauride. A pituitary canal. Ischia directed downward, with expanded extremities meeting on median line. Sacrum hollow. Anterior caudals with lateral cavities,

(2.) Family Diplodocide. Dentition weak. Brain inclined back- ward. Large pituitary fossa. Two antorbital openings. Ischia with straight shaft, not expanded distally, directed lownward and backward, with ends meeting on median line. Caudals deeply excavated below. Chevrons with both anterior and posterior branches.

(3.) F amily Morosauride. Small pituitary fossa. Ischia slen- er, with twisted shaft, directed backward, and sides meeting on median line. Anterior caudals solid. nas

The Sa affinities with the Crocodilia, especially through some of the extinct forms. Diplodocus, for example, resembles Belodon of the Triassic, particularly in the large antorbital vacuities of the skull, the posterior position of the external nasal aperture, 48 well asin other features. The genus Aetosaurus, from the same formation, is an intermediate form, and represents a dis- tinct order, which may be called Aelosauria. The nearer rela- tions of these groups will be discussed by the writer elsewhere.

Yale College, New Haven, Jan. 21, 1884. .

. Ceteosaurus has been fi ith a single sternal’ bone by Phillips and other an gcse cain hs a

nal spe r of these bones, which strongly resemb of American Sauropoda. . 3

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE IIl.

Figure 1.—Skull of Diplodocus longus, Marsh; side view. Figure 2.—The same skull; front view. Figure 3,—The same skull; top view.

All the figures are one-sixth natural size.

PLATE IV. Figure 1.—Skull and sbrencgrag of Diplodocss longus, ae seen from above, one-sixth natural size; aperture in maxillary; 4, antorbital opening; ¢ ipsa opening; c’, cere hemis aren; d, orbit; e, lower temporal fossa ; f, fro hege cal ft fo nelle; m, ma axill ry bone; m’, ee n, nasal mace ie: ol, olfactory lobes; op, optic lobe; p, parietal 568 ee Of ‘re fontl bone; pm, pre-maxillary bone; 4, caine bone; 4); quadrato-jug sive meds teeth : — longus, Marsh; side view, one-half atural size; e, enamel; Figure 3.—Section of cedar ipieidoces longus, Marsh; one-half natural size, howe ‘Rosen tooth { (ourth) in position, dad five —— is al teeth in dental cayit neo , outer wall; b, inner wall; ¢, cavity; f, fora opens 4.-- Twelfth caudal vertebra of Diplodocus longus, Marsh; side view, one-

sixth State ral eee c, anterior face for chevron ; ce’, posterior ithe for chevron; 8, neural spine; 2, pre-zygapophysis; 2’ , post-zygapophysis.

Figure 5.—The same vertebra ; bottom view; size and letters as in Fig. 4.

Figure 6.—Chevron found poser bo — and oe vertebree of Diplodocus longus, Marsh; top and nth natural size; a, anteri or end; D; posterior end; v, faces for srasaiudes. ith ve 2a Te.

Figure 7.—Chevron = another individual ; top and side views; size and

‘ letters as in Fig.

AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXVII, 1884. Plate Ill.

SKULL of DreLopocus Lonevs, Marsh. One-sixth natural size.

AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXVII, 1884. Plate IV.

DIpLopocus LONGUS, Marsh. fo

Pty ie see RTE Pe eee eee eee TL Se ae

spectrum of a flint prism, I came upon cold band whose deviation indicated a (probably) very great

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

ArT. XXII.—Experimental Determination of Wave-Lengths in

the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum; by S. P. LANGLEY. (With late V.)

Note.—The following investigation was made at the expense of the Bache fund and is published here by the permission of its trustees. It is the subject of a still unpublished memoir presented in April, 1883, to the National Academy

ences, in whose Transactions the unabridged communication will be found.

In September, 1881, while engaged upon Mt. Whitney, in measuring with a linear bolometer the heat in the invisible pon a hitherto unknown

spectrum. The amount of energy in any region of the spectrum, such

as that in any color, or between any two specified limits, is a

* Since desi as “2.” Am, Jour. ee Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 159.—Marcu, 1884.

4

Pee ted). a! Soren

Le. ae Langley— Determination of Wave-lengths

g ere reason, I believe, to hope that the labors of Professor Rowland .

spectrum to the normal one. The reason why this, 0 = able information, has never been obtained before, 18 t o-fo ae

Ww (1st.) While the measurement in question can best be mace

in the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum. 171

heat is on the average less than one-tenth that from the prism. We must use too, if possible, a narrow aperture to register this heat; for a broad one might (on account of the compression of the infra-red by the prism), cover the whole field in which its work should be to discriminate. (2d.) We must have not only an instrument more sensitive than the common thermopile, but we must devise some way of fixing, with an approximate pre- cision, the point at which we are measuring, when that point is actually invisible. |

he apparatus I have devised for this double purpose, has done its work with a degree of accuracy, which if it may be

given e perimental data very far outside the visible spectrum, by which we may either construct an empirical formula and Supply its proper constants so that it will be trustworth y within extended limits, or test the exactness of such formule as Cauchy’s, Redtenbacher’s, ete., which, while professing a theo- retical basis, only agree in their results within the limits of the Visible spectrum (from which they have been in fact derived, and where they are comparatively unneeded). They contra- dict each other, as will be seen, as soon as they are called on for information in the region outside of it, where they would chiefly useful. oe the present work has been preceded by a new map of the

may be hoped that these experiments will be Prisms of other material, and by other observers, now that th Preliminary obstacles have been remo

] ved. bees nasi In order to map the spectrum on the normal scale, where i |

si

172 = 8. P. Langley— Determination of Wave-lengths

wave-lengths are equally spaced, from such a map as that —

shown in Plate III (this Journal, vol. xxv), in which the con-

sideration of wave-lengths does not enter, it is necessary to

establish some relation between the wave-lengths of rays and

their deviations, or between their wave-lengths and refractive

indices, which are connected with the deviations by the well- nown formula,

and its optical properties are in every way satisfactory. * of a white flint, which has proved singularly transparent to the

Apparatus for Measuring Obscure Wave-lengths.

In 1882, an apparatus was employed in which invisible rays after passing through the Hilger prism, at a known deviation, — fell on a Rutherfurd reflecting grating (either of 681 lines to

_ Several determinations were thus ‘made of wave-lengths it ¢ the upper part of the infra-red, where the heat is relatively =

confidence.

"er many essays, during which a great number 0

in the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum. 173

In May, 1882, I had the good fortune to secure one of the very large concave gratings, then newly constructed by Pro-

Ls

ae ten i ! ke for e 0 and, and which he was kind enough to ma yee 4 very short focus, so as to give a specially ae

a P. Langley—Determination of Wave-lengths

ical and optical arrangements for getting rid of the superposed spectra, were tried with unsatisfactory results, it became clear that, for this large and concave grating, it was necessary to let the ray fall first on it, and then on the prism, thus making the wave-length the known and the deviation the unknown quantity. . In the use of this form of grating, the slit is placed in the circumference of a circle, whose diameter is equal to the radius of curvature of the grating, and which touches its surface. The spectra are then formed, without the need of collimator, observing telescope or any further apparatus, all lying upon the circumference of the circle which contains the slit. The grating which was employed contains 18,050 lines, 142 to the millimeter, ruled on the surface of a concave mirror of specu- lum metal of 1-63 radius of curvature, and exposes a ruled surface of 129. By this large surface a spectrum is produced sufficiently hot, even in its lower wave-lengths, to affect the bolometer strips after the various reflections and absorptions to which the heat is necessarily subjected in passing through the apparatus, : Figure 1 illustrates the means finally adopted, and the course of the rays through the apparatus; although, for the sake of distinctness, the mechanical devices used to maintain the proper arrangements of the parts ure omitted. The rays of

light, coming from the 800™™ flat mirror of the large siderostat,

pass across the apparatus, and fall upon a concave speculum OF 180™" aperture at M, by which at a distance of about i”e they

are converged to a focus at S,. At this point is a vertical slit, adjustable to any desired width by a double screw, which

moves both jaws at once, so as to keep the center always in the

same place. This slit is protected from the great heat by®,—

plate of iron pierced with an aperture only a little larger than

‘9°

] A ve grating, the slit S,, and the heavy spectro-bolometer, is PIV

ry massive arm, carrying the

&

in the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum. 175

tion may be determined by observation; with the eye in the case of the visible, with the bolometer in that of the invisible ray.

To illustrate the use of the above described apparatus under | Somewhat unfavorable circumstances, let us consider as an example the observations of June 13, 1882, which were taken

Properly directed by the siderostat, the visible Fraunhofer line D,, of the third spectruin of the grating, was caused to fa Upon the slit S, of the spectro-bolometer. Then, according to

€ theory of the grating, there passed, through this slit, rays having the wave-lengths—

0-589 (3d spectrum—visibie. ) 138 480 spectrum— invisible.) ; 1767 (1st spectrum—invisible.) . : The prism having been removed, and the telescope SS Into line, an image of §,, of the same size as the slit itself, Was formed in the focus of the object lens, and on testing 2.

43" . 46° ao 45" 1°

With the bolometer, whose face was covered with a screen

| ae centrally with a 2™™ slit, the heat of this image’

176) oS. P. Langley— Determination of asia)

containing the D, line, was visible, and its deviation was found to be 47° 41’, agreeing with the value viven by the table. It

was the object of the experiment to find the place of the lower invisible band, by groping for it; 7. e., to determine its devia- tion by trials with the bolometer at intervals sufficiently close to avoid the possibility of missing it altogether. According to Briot’s formula, the deviation should be 45° 21’, and in the

imum effect was obtained nearer 45°15’. The approximate position having thus been found, the slit S, was narrowed to zm, and the following measurements taken, the horizontal pe giving the mean results of a series of thirty exposures of t bolometer, as it moved through the spectrum.

Tasie I.—Determination of the refrangibility of feeble heat-rays.

Prismatic deviation_........-.-- 45° 027 45° or 45°10" 45°157 45°20 — Means of sraivesiomiehe readings.. 4°6 6-0 58 art.

The maximum reading at 45° 10’ corresponds to a coincl- dence of the 2™" bolometer aperture, with the 2™ invisible image of the slit, whose position is songht. From a subsiciey curve drawn through the points whose codrdinates are spectively (c=45° 02’, y=4'6), (w= 45° 07’, y=5'6), (a=45° 10, .

y=6°0), ete., it was concluded that the deviation of rays whose : wave-length is 1"-767 is 45° 10’; and each point in this deter mination being obtained hoi the mean of five observations, the result is partly free from irregularities caused by chan hee in the state of the sky, and minute instrumental variations — from extraneous causes, which here become of great relative importance, owing to the feeble heat measured. ie

ubsequent determinations, like the preceding, gave pe the deviation of the same ray 45° 06’ and 45° 07’, and from a peep sideration of all, the deviation aoe was (instead of AB 21, ve iven by Briot’s —. 45° 08’, corresponding to a refracy j tive index of 1554 Le

* These three images, mig composed of rays’of different wave-lengtit’ could not all be in the same focus of the same lens ao - same time, since tor and objective of this be ase 26 vated were simple lenses. The ‘coat ae adjusted by means ofa table of focal dista old peoricey prepared, sO _throw a sharp (invisible) i diak of the band to be detected.

collima-

so

wm the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum. 177

By means of measurements like the one described above, the deviations of various obscure rays of known wave-lengths were determined. The indices of refrastion were then computed by

si d

sntier® where a=62° 34’ 43”. The results are contained in the following table, where, however, only the final results of successful days are given, most of the observations having been lost through changes of the sky during the course of one determination.*

the usual formula n=

TasLe I.— Experimental determination of dor nas a function of A (Hilger prism).

Date of observation. A ds n meee, F009 ot 1-910 +0°0053 46° 12” 15654 EE RE ae 1:200 £00069 45° 54’ 15625 ls) Saree 1°658 + 0°0091 45° 16’ 15562 Were cae STi oe 1°767 40-0094 45° 087 15549 ig BE aT 2:090 + 0°0104 44° 45’ 15511

eet eG oey ik Sc 23564070110 44° 257 15478

Spectrum alone, we can generally use with advantage a bolo- meter of as small an aperture us one-fifth of a millimeter, but that here it is advisable to open it to 2™" owing to the relative €xpansion of the spectrum and to the very feeble heat. wing to difficulties arising from the almost infinitesimal amount of heat in question, numerous subsidiary observations 7re requisite for a single determination, which it therefore takes long to make, each final value resting upon between 20 and 100 readings. If it should possibly appear to the reader birote in the three months of consecutive labor which were given to this part of the work, more than six points might have been ftermined in the curve, he is asked to remember that what is here difficult has till now been impossible. eee a3 Plotting the points given by the data in table II and drawing * smooth curve through them, we obtain the curve of “ obser-

“oe showing » as a function of A in the lower curve of ate \, :

There would be no gain in accuracy, at this stage, In at- tempting to work from a formula representing

trustworthy as the data. This I say with special reference to

* All these observati i i i een n and 7, can be ervations, for discovering the relation betw: — fonducted with at | much advantage by a powerful and constant electric

light at least as Gana by sunlight. The latter only, however, was at the obser

the equation of > the curve obtained, as the graphical construction is fully as :

ver’s actual com-

,

178. Ee Langley— Determination of Wave-lengths

the large original charts* which have been drawn by Mr. J. E. Keeler, of this observatory, and which seem to me favorable

" specimens of the accuracy attainable by this method.

e are now prepared to test the accuracy of the varius formule connecting refraction with wave-length, though it wi be convenient to first prepare a table showing what this rela- tion is in the visible part of the spectrum of the prism employed.

In the following table the deviations in the visible spectrum were measured by the spectrometer, reading to 10” of are, and which has been already described, in which for this special purpose, the bolometer was replaced by an achromatic observ- ing telescope with a micrometer eye-piece, and the indices of refraction were computed by the usual formula. ‘“O” in the ultra-violet was measured by aid of a Soret fluorescent eye- piece, and its wave-length is from Cornu. The other wave- lengths are taken from Angstrém, but the unit is here, the micron = ;;/;5 millimeter = (10,000 times the unit of Ang- strém’s scale). “A” is here the symbol for the wave-length.

The following indices in the visible spectrum, on which the computations for testing the formule are founded, are trust- worthy to the fourth decimal place here given:

Tasce III.— Observed indices in visible spectrum of Hilger prisi-

Line. d n A 076009 46° 49” 05" 15714 Occ ue cere 0°65618 47° 15’ 45" 15757 Dire sage .... 0°58890, 47° 41/ 15” 15798 Wide os 0°51667 48° 21’ 05 175862

es 0°48606 48° 44’ 15" 15899 1 ep eaten pene lh 0°39679 50° 34’ 05 1°6070 og cate Ge 0°34400 52° 43’ 00” 1°6266

_A smooth curve, drawn through points whose positions are given by the above table, represents with accuracy the relation between n and 2 in the visible part of the spectrum. This

method is however obviously inapplicable to the very extended |

invisible portion, below the A line, and accordingly attempt

e t made to effect the determination o corresponding indices and wave-lengths, by extending the curve derived from the above observations by means of formuls. Several formule

have} it will be remembered, been proposed by physicist ex- w

pressing » as a function of A, and containing constants | ich are to be determined by observation. But it has never hitherto

* These original charts were exhibitel to the members of the National Academy

of Sciences, at Washington, in April, 1883. en here given in illustra

possible by the originals.

tion e engravi , germ scale, will merely indicate the exactuess of interpolation oe

ah

ae ae

in the Invisible Prismatie Spectrum. <i?

been possible to test these formule far from the visible spec- trum, wifence their constants have been in fact derived. This. desirable test we are now prepared to apply The simplest as well as the most widely used formula is that. of Cauchy, which as it is commonly written Ge (neat i+5) contains three unknown quantities, requiring for their deter- mination three simultaneous equations. Selecting the lines A, and H for this purpose, we have from the table just given the three equations, ear b é 15 =a cian Diver hee eas tek caeues 4=4+ OrG000)7 + (076000) e (0°58890)? * (0°58890)'

13798 —@+4-

0004+ saga < rsoeTay from which by elimination a=1°5593 b6=0°006775 e=0°0001137 So that for this prism, the formula becomes,

es tg ind mois wh

— ause below this point the heat is absorbed by some! ent of our atmosphere

i ever great the wave-length of the ray transm 0 far below A as A is below D, is absolutely con

riments, and all extra-polations ma Le have been deter~ —

the visit ® visible spectrum in which its constants

ef

100-0 er. Langley—Determination of Wave-lengths

mined, are wholly untrustworthy, as will appear more fully later.

Redtenbacher oe the formula at bn +5 :

for expressing the same relation. gUsing the same lines as before for determining the unknown constants, we have for the - Hilger prism

1 0-0039220 —=0°412297—0°00098711—

- a formula which also satisfies the ope iarens in the visible ls ded t

spectrum, but fails when extende the invisible. The curve representing it has a minimum Spoink corresponding to

n=1°5647 for a value of 2 found from the equation /* =o in

. eae ae the special case of the formula above, where = is positive,

4=1-430; so that for every value of n greater than 15647, there are two real values of 4. This formula therefore is even less satisfactory than that of Cauchy.

riot gives a formula which has been asserted by other — investigators* to represent satisfactorily the results of observa: tion throughout the whole spectrum, namely:

Saat o(" a) +e +%(*).

m four equations like this, using values of n and A cor | fecponding to the Fraunhofer lines A, C, F and H, the values of the constants were determined+ as follows: e

a@=0°41028 b=—0-0013495 e—-0-000003379 k= +0°0022329 :

With the aid of these constants, the wave-lengths correspond: ing to given refractive indices were computed, and a curv representing the form ula was plotted. This curye, as well E :

dispersion

* Mouton, Comptes Rendus, vol. Ixxxix, p. 291 oN vol. a p. 1190. is formula has the practical preter ann = leading to eubie 7

either in 2? or A?, pat solution of which is so tedio as to forbid i u RG many places are independently Soest I te teen aided in the p lengthy wiille ae pedo by Professor M. B. Goff. 2

in the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum. 181

Taste IV.—Appromimate errors in wavelengths by Briot’s, Cauchy's. and Redtenbacher’s Sormule, for cold bands in infra-red. ;

(Comparison of theories with observation.)

Wave-lengths derived by extra-polation.

n Obsery’d| ————_____» _ From Briot’s From Cauchy’s la. osc ‘ Forticis, wovauie. From Redtenbacher’s Formu

Value. Error. |

Value. | Error. | Vaiue. | Error. | Value. |- Error.

15714 | 0-760 | 0-760 | 0-000 | 0-760 | 0-000 | 0-760 | 0-000 15697 | 0-815 | 0:815 | 0-000 | 0-818 | 0-003 | 0°820 | 0-005 15687 | 0-850 | 0-850 | 0-090 | 0-353 | 0°003 | 0-862 | 0-012

‘5678 | 0°890 | 0°891 | 0-001 0-900 | 0°010 | 0°915 | 0-025 | 2°230 | 1°340 ‘5674 | 0-910 | 0-911 | 0-001 | 0-920 | 0-010 | 0-941 | 0-031 | 2°170 | 1-260 6668 | 0°940 | 0-942 | 0-002 | 0-960 | 0-020 | 0-990 | 0-050 | 2°060 | 1-120. 6636 | 1130 | 1-170 | 0-040 | 1-270 | 0140 Imaginary. Imag inary.

5616 1°270 | 1°336 | 0°066 | 1-730 | 0-460 8604 1-360 | 1-450 | 0-090 | 2-460 | 1-100 8516 1540 | 1°750 | 0210 | Impossible.

15535 | 1:870 2°260 | 0°390 15520 | 1-980 2°460 | 0°480 15515 | 2-030 2°524 | 0°494 oS Se! ee Taper |

Nore—A part of the above values of n, where determined from observation by the bolometer, are liable to error in the fourth decimal place. For probable €rrors of 4, see Table II. “2 observed” is either from a direct —

or from an interpolation between two closely contiguous observations. = evident that Briot’s formula, though not exact, yet gives

results much more trustworthy than tbe others considered, and it was employed in constructing provisional maps of the

+ 2

€ must evidently conclude from the numbers in table IV and from the curve in Plate.-V which embodies them, that we

8reat distance from the origin. ith the danger of extra-polations presented to us In such — xamples as have been cited, we shall not attempt to generalize the results of our observations, further than to remark that, for rism in question, we find that the deviation tends within = the limits of observation to become proportional to the wave.

’

189 SP. Langley— Determination of Wave-lengths

lengths, as the deviation diminishes, and that, as far as we can

-see at present, there 1s scarcely any limit to. the wave-length

our prism can transmit except that fixed by rts absorptive effect.

The approximate limit of the solar spectrum of the Hilger prism is at n=1°5485, which, according to Briot’s formula, cor- responds nearly to 8-4, but which according to our bolometric observations corresponds to an actual wave-length of 2":8. For this same point, as will be seen by Table IV, the values by Cauchy’s formula are impossible, and those by Redtenbacher's formula are imaginary.

These last values rest, it will be remembered, on extra- polations founded on measures in the visible spectrum.

Wave-lengths of Cold Lines in Infra-red Prismatic Spectrum. 3

The following values (in table V) from Mouton, Abney and Draper are the ones I know previous to my own meas» ures where the wave-lengths of cold lines are given with most accuracy. Of these it is just to distinguish those by Abney as possessing a degree of exactness before unknown. There are some doubts about the band at 1-35 having really

ose

vaiues ’ first published in the Comptes Rendus, of the Institute of France, for September 11, 1882, in the form of charts, which were drawn from them. ese charts were so much reduced by the first engraver that though these values are still determinable from them, it may be convenient to repeat them here in thelr original tabular form, with the addition of the probable errors.

Taste V.— Observed values of cold bands in infra-red by differ

ent investigators.

M. Movron.* W. DE W. ABNEY.t ~ J. W. Draper.t S. P. LANGLEY.$ 0°824 0°815 0-835 0°815 +0°003 0°850 0°854 0°85 40°003 0°893 0-930 0:89 +0°004 0°905 0-91 +0°004 0°941 0-935 0-980 0-94 40°004 0-985 0°975 0-983 113 4+0°007 1-230 17240 1:27 +O" : . 0°00 1-480 possibly Abney’s “yp” f } rae + 0-008 1°54 40°009 X 158 +0°009 ¥ 181 +0°010\9 1°87 +0°010 1:98 +0°010 2°03 +0°010 a

* M. Mouton, Comptes Rendus, tome Ixxxix, p. 298; tome lxxxviii, P- 1190. W. de W. Abney, Phil. Trans. 1880, p. 653.

ty. W. Draper, . Am. Acad. 1881, p. 223.

§ S. P. Langley, Comp. Rend., Sept. 11, 1882; Am, Jour. Sci., March, 1

~

383, ete

in the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum. 183

Lines known. to previous Investigators.

0 sah Possibly corresponds to Draper’s /.

1:26.) Inconspicuous line. (1°35-37.) Very remarkable band. Almost absolutely cold and black. So broad and diffuse that it is difficult to mark its limits,

Tew! observations make it probably of telluric origin.)

Newly-discovered Lines and Cold Bands.

(1°55 and 1-59.) Inconspicuous lines.

(1°81 to 1-87.) Great Cold Band, first discovered on Mount Whitney. Probably: of telluric origin. It is not the furthest line, but is here called Q. on account of its being the last conspic- “ous break in the energy curve.

(1°98 and 2-04.) Small but definite lines. The last discovered by the bolometer. But the observable solar spectrum certainly extends to a wave-length of over 2-70 .

Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum.

Without an extra-polation, between our p : t Points of observation ; a deviation of 50° 58’ (corresponding to

the degrees of deviation, if represented, would be unequally belo entirely independent

If, besides making a map of the normal spectrum, we — to construct a curve representing the corresponding distri a

trum has, as we have ~

184. S& P. Langley—Determination of Wave-lengths

tion of energy, a further consideration of the relations existing between the two charts is necessary. The law of dispersion of the prism causes the Sungate of energy in its spectrum to — be quite different from vont have been observed with a

the same in both. The area between any two ordinates of the curvet may be considered to represent the amount of heat in the part of the spectrum included between them, and the total area of the curve represents the total amount of heat. If then we suppose the aig of the normal curve required to the

o cane at any two wave-lengths, shall be equal to that asda between the same wave-lengths © in the latter, and from this condition we can deduce a con- struction for effecting the required transformation.

* J. W. Draper, Phil. Mag., ne — p. 104, 1872. + See this Journal, for March, t See J. Miller . Pogg. Ann alm, “oh id Rls ee Pogg. Annalen, vol. ly,

y off upon a line, (fig. 4 ie “convenient ainteosk and divide it info equal ‘spaces to represent oat normal w e-length scale, and upon a line OD, at cee angles to the first, lay off the i deena and divide it into the same mber of parts, spaced eootie to the mi? of dispersion of the prism, as ™ bets Sevidength seale ma mg 2 n the bottom of the oocgea chart (Plate 11, Journal, vol. xxv). m

e e proper wave-length, Redrecomte n both lines at rik eum which lie nearest

each other, figure, where oe ordinates are shown; through e inter

section of ¢ detiae ing o ordinates voici the curve “EF, and upon CD," curve of distribution of ener: a. 3, ery small wavelength interval on the prismatic scale; ¢, same interval on the ‘nornall scale, and 6 and d Sag average np Be of the be aded part of the figure

senting, therefore, the portion of the total sane included betw

n these ee ef is a portion of the curve EF, fig. 4. Then, according to the condition f trans 2

formation

cd=ab whence ,Ord::e:a. From geometrical considerations, C:¢é:

ng ae where @ is the angle which the chowd EF, ne the intersections of the two ntly

pairs of ordinates makes with AB; conseque

tan @

pas,

m the Invisible Prismatic Spectrum. 185

Such a construction was applied to the prismatic energy curve of the Hilger prism.

Fe for each vibration number to get the abscisse, and (observ- ing that since y now =4, = —~ =) to use the multiplying fac- er z obtain the height of the new ordinate in each instance.

from which n 3 ; wa and c are indefinitely small, b and d are the ordinates of the pris- matic and normal energy curves, respectively, at a given wave-length, and ¢ is the ngle formed by the tangent to EF at their point of intersection. Hence, to . the height of the normal curve at a given wave-length, the corresponding ordinate of the prismatic curve must be multiplied by tan ¢. : 4,

F

D

A c - 22 : This Journal, for March, 1 oSaamaaaa ordinate of the normal curve is through an error in he dra ~ WD quite in its true position, nearly at A=0°55). & AM. Jour, So.—Tarep Senms, Vou. XXVII, No. 159—Mancu, 1594 . 43

i

"a 1,0 : 4 : IV (where, however, the - 883, Plates III and Le Se a

AB Sch

.

S. P. Langley—Determination of Wave-lengths. 187

uce a constant multiplier n, writing the equation of the inter- rh - rm !

I have drawn in this way (on a smaller scale than that of the normal or prismatic curves and following the smooth curve in the former as my original) four different schemes for the distri- bution of the energy. Curve A, fig. 5, represents the distribu- tion of solar energy (after absorption by our atmosphere) on the normal scale. Curve B, fig. 5, represents the same distribution on the scale of wave-frequency (general equation of interpolating

polating curve y= —, so that the multiplying factor becomes n

curve c= 7? proposed by Mr. Stoney.) Curve OC, fig. 5, repre- sents the distribution according-to a proposal (w=log A) of Lord Rayleigh.

Curve D (y=C) is quite different from any of the preceding. It gives the distribution on a scale I have never seen proposed, but which I have found useful. In this, the bounding curve is a straight line parallel to the axis of X. This construction is not well suited to exhibit the cold bands, but if we consider only the general distribution of the energy we shall find that curve D is not merely suggestive as illustrating what has already been re- marked here as to the conventional character of the methods of showing this distribution, but that it has more practical uses, for in this last construction, it is easily seen that the sums of the energies between any two wave-lengths whatever, are directly proportional to the distance between their ordinates, measured on the axis of X. If then we desire (for instance) to know what relation the invisible bears to the visible heat, or to enquire about what point in the spectrum the energy is equall distributed, these and similar problems are solved throug curve D by simple inspection. : ;

I have not been able yet to repeat the preceding determina- tions upon the lower part of the spectrum as often as I could wish. They are susceptible of improved accuracy by still longer experiment, but I think that within the limits of error — indicated ee may already be useful. I should add that

-~

188 S. P. Langley—Determination of Wave-lengths.

through all the details of which his aid has been more that of a coadjutor, than an assistant:

.

Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Pa., October, 1883.

article by Mr. H. Becquerel in the Annales de Chimie for September, 1883.

The wave-lengths assigned by M. Becquerel to the band at the limit of his researches at 1-460 to 1-480 appear to me too great, for this limit corresponds to the diffuse margin of the wide band the wave-length of whose coldest part is given at 1“:36 to 1:37 on my chart, published in the Comptes Rendus of the previous a (Sept. 11, 1882) and on a larger scale in the American

ournal of Science for March, 1883, and in the Annales de Chimie

Norr.—Since the above was in type I have seen the interesting Hid

lengths 1-80 to 1°-90, while M. Becquerel’s farthest band asI- have said is at 1-48 (according to him; but according to. my measures more nearly at 1-38). The present memoir will show what degree of reliance may be placed on these measurements.

It is understood that a photographic map of the spectrum to 1"-6, and therefore covering the ground of M. Becgnen’ but not extending as far as my (Q, will shortly be published from

may it

least, of the points in question. would call attention to the fact that M. Becquerel has stated

that the farthest band known to him in Sept., 1883 (except from

my own researches), had a wave-length of not over 14°50, accord- os

ing to his own estimate. a

EF. D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels. 189

Arr. XXTIL.—The Quaternary Gravels of Northern Delaware le Maryland ; by FrepERIcK D. Cuester. (With ap. ‘

oo = — > “= = S ° 2) 5

~G re 2. S

ag = 9 om © 2 one ~ ro a os a9

2 s Be, o)

bog a o | ° mn fe) 4

the formation or shore line of the Quaternary estuary has been traced for a ‘distance of forty miles, from the northeastern border of Delaware across the State into Maryland, to within a few miles of the Susquehanna, where it curves to the south, running parallel to the river until it reaches the head of the Chesapeake, west of Charleston. All of the area south of this line to a parallel marking the southern border of Cecil county has been systematically studied and is the territory presented for consideration. The entire Delaware and Chesapeake Penin-

wa S 2 a fe) (o) = ro) 3 is) fom) 4 ct = © RD ee S oa <3 Q. is) rr 2) ee or fA © -— & s rs) a (o) “4 =) © Seg =) 0g aS) i) 5 Q

as the present season of field work has been closed, and as the accumulated facts of the whole area would be too great for a single paper, the author has thought it best to divide the whole Peninsula into two or three divisions, and to treat each sepa- Tately, and as fully as the facts deserve. At the present time we shall therefore discuss what we shall call the northern area. “ee history of these deposits forms a part of the history bs flooded Delaware whose record is written upon both sides

te entered the region of glacial ice and débris. Although iY, Systematic study of the Delaware flood deposits has been,

ite pages of this history shall have been collected, they Me | form an interesting addition to our present knowledge o 8lacial and postglacial geology.

nag the chief among them being of a gently rc . b Tainic character due to the accumulation or irregular distr: — ution of gravel, varying in nature from the “pe ag pebbles, cobble stones, and bowlders of several tons in latifa . Were it not for the preconceive . os e, one might, from a narrow circle 0 Spee the region of the moraine projonde.

190 F. D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels.

physical importance of these morainic gravels that one is imme- diately led to the study of them in their relation to the Dela- ware flood history. _ Generally speaking, we may say that the whole region is covered with an upper stratum of yellow brick clay, sand, loam or loamy gravel, having an average thickness of about three feet, which is underlaid by a thicker stratum or series of strata of gravel and sand, varying largely in its characters and degrees of coarseness, and having a usual thickness of from 3 to 20 feet. The former homogeneous stratum we shall call, . after Professor H. C. Lewis, the Philadelphia Clay, and the latter less homogeneous deposit, after the same author, the Red Gravel. Although the Philadelphia Clay-and the Red Gravel are generally distinct deposits, with their well marked characters, such is not always the case, for the two often run into each other indistinctly, the underlying gravel becoming slowly argillaceous as the surface is reached, or again the june- tion between the two being entirely obscured, or at best but aa indistinct wavy line. We therefore regard the two as contem- poraneous deposits, with little or no break in the deposition, the one requiring quiet and the other troubled conditions of sedimentation. Considering these facts it seems proper that the two indistinct deposits, i. e, the Philadelphia Clay and the — Red Gravel should be included under one head, which we — shall hereafter cal] the Delaware Gravels. Bs The Philadelphia Clay—The Philadelphia Clay or loam 8

micaceous, and although sometimes entirely free from gravel 18 — upon the

So true is this latter statement that often the deposit assumes the characters of a true bowlder clay, which fact has led other

geologists to regard it as the same material transported —

i facie clay, and rising in high hills with intervening bowl-like depres: sions. This diluvial stratum which ranges in depth from =

Lf. D. Chester— Distribution of Delaware Gravels. 171

20 feet is found to rest directly upon the Cretaceous with an entire absence of the Red Gravel. Also between Gravelly Hill and Charleston the same features are prominent; the Philadelphia stratum varies from a refractory white clay to a coarse yellow and white gravel, while the surface is literally strewn with cobble stones and bowlders, making the country unusually barren, :

Near the neighborhood of Christiana, and from there to New Castle, the clay rises in high hills along the creek, where it is, In places, entirely replaced by bowlders and cobble stones, rep- Tesenting the Potsdam, Millstone Grit, and Trias.

he true brick clay is confined to the low flat lands along the border of the Archean hills, where the extensive brick yards of Wihnington, Newark and Elkton obtain material for the best variety of brick; but traveling to the south, especially between Kirkwood and the Canal, or to’ the southwestern limits of the region, the clay changes to a sandy loam or even & yellow and gray sand, which is always mixed with its due Proportion of gravel. eee Th ed Gravel varies still more than the clay in its litho- logical characters, and consists of coarse red, yellow and gray . Sands, mixed with very characteristic white oval quartzose pebbles varying in size from a bean toahen’segg. From the similarity between widely separated sections, the - Red Gravel seems to have a rough arrangement into three dis- Unct strata with quite constant lithological differences. This alTangement is no doubt continuous, although there are local €Xceptions where only two out of the group of three are repre- Sented. In all cases, however, the order of superposition re- Mains the same, while each stratum maintains its own In ividu- ality. Beginning with the base of the Philadelphia clay, the following is the order, with the characters of each stratum. "4,77 ted sand mixed with characteristic oval quartzose pe bles, varying in thickness from 8 to 10 feet. ‘'he amount of

192 F. D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels.

and railroads traversing the region, whenever the talus slopes ean be sufficiently removed to give perpendicular cuttings, yet

tain as great a thickness along the southern line of our present e north, one well near Middletown failing to pene-

area as to trate the red gravel at a depth of 35 feet. -- a 3 {+ MAP SHOWING ; &y ae DISTRIBUTION OF if een DELAWARE GRAVELS vf Greenbaly= A.’ 5 / WIKMING “V5 J Northern area FEDchester, / Minttowmes = "$- +" + lA Ns to Gree cae wre. s . al * ‘ * TANT? merge Te \ Vb as , e eee Vs pace 2 HEWERS ay

a CHRISTI

A ae - e is *

truck Holl * ~~ - --*

: INE SI ope gHiTpze="s aye * sping a . 7

——" Cc oe a! + % ff = ravelly Hilt | =» « oa awe es § ° Woodlawn: ea ‘‘ a = - te » - od ry « a * *@ - ~ mF a 2 fe i i m \* ve 2” ELKTON Sew ee og , Sine Sa, oem “5 er ag - ia so? ; > . 7 Ns ie eet fn 8. Ft ae RS va ak WORTHEAST > I> Ko DELR cat) ‘ arleston * * s ay * bY kyo o Per ae “7% “> @- . pen: Mpa ee GAC © QOS =.» Nsenmitaridgs Soe > » a) ofp 2 + * a3 » * i Ld A ~- “et. OR ga le . PO tae tee eS i a Sf lint, se Cit + ‘ «<. pens | a a +4 , Ree Bees - PES — bd oe Wey ihe « Page, “2. * “4 oder ete Oe Hi ‘oe >the +e - al « . ae | . om a4 os S MIDDLETOWS, « eon a a ,* a a Ss Owing ad eo* ° Pete Warwek | ss . ° « oe *. . on a < ag ea I * ‘ ns ys . Cecili °o « ‘s . . wh ' a « . . . ne . Ss « ~ a Pee = « ‘ 2 ae oe

From the identity of this gravel with the deposits described by Professor H. Carville Lewis* as found along the valley of the Delaware River both north and south of Philadelphia, it 15 evident that the same is a true river gravel and similar to al the deposits which our present streams lay down over the beds of the estuaries into which they empty.

From the universal coarseness of the gravel, also, together with the abundant evidences of flow-and-plunge structure, more particularly shown along the northern line, it is evident that the same must have been deposited by a swift current, and

* Geology of Philadelphia. Lecture before the Franklin Institute, Jan. 12, 1882-

F. D. Ohester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels. 198

yet from the vertical heights at which this gravel is found the current must have been deep as well as swift. A glance at the map will show that the northern limit of the Delaware Gravels runs approximately parallel to the river, where the same crosses the northern limits of the State. This river during the latter part or close of the Glacial period was, as we know, a swollen rushing flood, having a width of about ten miles and an average depth of over 200 feet. It emptied into the Dela- ware listuary near Wilmington, and its current, urged on with a tremendous head, instead of bending to the south and south- east, as is indicated by the present flow of the river, must have continued in its same southwesterly course entirely across the State into Maryland, until it reached the head of the Chesapeake, where it was stopped by the high hills which rise above the level of the shore line. A belt of gravel thus stretched across the bead of the estuary by the current of the river would be sieesncntly spread out by the waves as a broad sheet to the south.

process of construction, and extending approximately along the entire length of the shore line has offered most valuable aid, especially as the sections there are freshly cut.

Section on Baltimore and Ohio R.R., Newark, Del. Feet. 2

. Yellow brick clay, free from gravel ---. ‘ Red Sand, highly argillaceous, free from gravel ---- 8 Rock undecomposed.

ers

Section in Gravel Pit, Newark, Del.

- Yellow brick clay, free from gravel ....._.-------- 3°5 - Red micaceous sand, free from argillaceous matter

with coarse gravel and sand in lower part ---- ---- 12 3. White fire clay. Cretaceous.

ne

One mile north of Newark, on Pa, RR.

1. Yellow brick clay. ___. Oe OP et spt 2. Red sand, coarse, micaceous with oval quartzose

COieN 0b Gai eee eke ee sd 3. Alternate layers of gravel, wi

sand, irregular bedding SUIURLUTS 52.5 ee 4. Fine yellow clean sand

194 FE. D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels.

Two miles northeast of Stanton, Del., on Baltimoreand Ohio RR.

Anges

Feet. me Bees WO PY ClO es Si Se ee 4 2..Red, yellow and heck sand with alternate layers of pebbles, no argillaceous matter ery fine exam- led of flow-and-plunge structure, and other vari- Wer OF itreguiar. bedding .-s2 oo ea no ee 20+ Stanton, Del. 1. Yellow clay, sandy and micaceous __....-..----.-- . NONE 6 ole ad ie a ke a, oa Ua oe eg ee 3. Alternate layers of clean sand with coarse and fine > 14+ gravel, with flow-and-plunge structure -..- .------ : Newport, Del. (gravel pit.) WR ONUW CMY So SS i a a 2 2. Coarse og and gravel, compact and highly BrOUNeONS oc eho Se Cc eee 10 3. Yellow sand delicate examples of flow-and-plunge MUN in PSL eek ta sa os oe eo sks 2+ Wilmington, Del. (gravel pit), altitude 264 feet. Mop eee. GIAY bone ee a sk ia gee 3 2. Red sand, compact and argillaceous with pebbles -- - 6 3. Alternate layers of yellow and black sand with pe bles, flow-and-plunge structure ..._..----------- 10+ Christiana, Del. (gravel pit.) OW Wi ee a ee 8. 2. Coarse cline sand and gravel irregularly bedded ---- 6+ . Delaware City, Del. s Wellow Qy..c. coy. os 2°5 Irregular ae of red sand and coarse gravel ------ 4 Yellow and gray sand with fine oblique Tamination-- a Section 1°5 miles south of Kirkwood, Del. Fe Yellow, pravelly clay <2. 3. fe ns Se 35 2. Coarse red and black sand with gravel _-.._------- 4+ Gravelly Hill, Md., (altitude 388 feet). 1. Yellow em¥ousste 7 Sess oe ee a 9 2. Red compact gravel, highly argillageous - ate, ae well near this spot showed a depth of the “gravel 30-40 feet, with fine sand tine ) Middletown, Del. ti Yellow clay... .22.2 953 as 2 re Red sand and coarse gravel___..._......-.-------=- 35

F. D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels. 195

et, Feet, Back of Wilmington .__.. 264 Newark, Deliiiuevc cake 100 ‘Green Bank, Del... __ 269 |Elk Mills, Md......-..--. 166 ack of Newport ______. 284 |Brewster’s Mill, Md. ..--.- 216 Back of Stanton________ 249|Cherry Hill, Md._....-.- 255 Milltown, ae ee 260 |Back of New Leeds, Md.. 360 Pike’s Creek, Del. ._.._.- 92/Egg Hill, 370 White Clay Creek Church, Gravelly Hill, Md...-.--- 388 We ee 145 FE ese figures it is seen that the shore line is by no means a level one, and to a person acquainted with the region

disintegration, whereby all definite traces of a terrace have— been destroyed, and the author has found it to be generally true that wherever the gravels rose to great height, the underlying oes was hard and durable, and wice versa. At Newark the shore line rises only 80 to 100 feet above tide; here the rocks decompose rapidly, while between Stanton and Newport, along — the hills, the gravel rises over 200 feet higher, and here the — , a fine-grained quartzitic gneiss, is extremely durable. Also along the terrace between Gravelly and Egg Hills, the gravel rises to the greatest elevation along the line, while here

mits of the gravels as the ragged remnants of what was once

i terrace due to the varying durability of the hills on

aytbpar ently the line of the terrace, mingled with the angular See of gneiss. In places in Cecil —_- oils into the region of gravel, I have ofte *eached the shore lee by ae piles of cobble stones on every

*

196 FD. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels.

hand, when a few steps beyond would bring me into a regiom of angular fragments again, while still further beyond, the un- broken expanse of gravel would be reached. |

But the best evidence bearing upon this point is to be found near Newark. I have said that there the gravel only rises- about 100 feet above tide, where the rock is a very friable mica schist and plagioclase gneiss, both of which are now decaying with great rapidity. Iron Hill, as will be seen by the map, is. situated about three miles due south, and here I have found a few of the characteristic quartzose cobble stones within about 30 feet of the summit or at a height of about 225 feet above tide, instead of 100 as is the case at Newark. These facts are enough to convince us that the present shore line is not the original one, which would, in many cases, considering the topo graphy, have to be several miles to the north. Taking the — facts as a whole, however, the depth of the estuary waters, oF depression of the land, must have been at least 350 feet, which depression would have sufficed to cover the whole peninsula with water, uniting the Delaware with the Chesapeake. glacial arm of the sea we shall most fittingly call the Delaware

stuary. .

The floor of the Estuary.—The base of the Delaware gravels, which is both the: plastic clay of the Cretaceous, and the up- turned edges of the gneiss, has everywhere suffered erosion. The red clay is generally a wavy irregular line, while the gneiss when not decomposed has been well worn. Clearly marked diluvial grooves have in several cases been seen running wit?” the direction of the current, whenever the upper edges of the rocks happened to be freshly exposed, while again the edges have undergone a rough polishing as from the corrasive action of transported sand. i

Bowiders.—Besides the Delaware gravels, a most charactel! —

itself, although they are contemporaneous and have the same — rock representatives. They are usually quartzose, including : the glassy, flinty and quartzitic varieties, and vary in size from several hundred pounds to a ton or more in weight. Great c piles of these have been collected from numerous fields. The — uartzose varieties, even those of several hundred pounds — weight, are all well rounded, evidently by water, and show ele glacial scratches. Those made up of coarse constituents tet more angular, and in some cases have shown obscure @VF dences of glacial markings, though as a general thing they .

£. D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels. 197

face rather than ground beneath the glacier’s base. The largest ones are scattered over the low ground or Cretaceous plain, yet often those weighing several hundred pounds are found as high as 250 feet above tide. Among the rock species found in bowider examination, the following are the most prominent ;

; Fine grained red sandstone, certainly Potsdam. Dioritic trap, similar to Triassic bedded trap, (one 3'X 2}'X2’). Yellow friable-sandstone. Hornblende rock in massive bowlders, (one 2’ x 14/X 14'.) Black micaceous granite, foreign to the State, (one 24’ 2'X 1.) Gneiss far to the south, (one 2’ 1}’). ompact gray limestone. ®. Quartzose, (one 3’x2’ 9X2’).

TTS oR go o)

{

198 FE. D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels.

for the great thickness of gravel which washes their bases, but also for the enormous rounded bowlders of trap which cover their faces. The height of Iron Hill as stated in the previous. te and confirmed by a late measurement is 227 feet, or 275

eet above tide. This hill must have then been totally submerged. To those who still think that the trap bowlders are of dike ori- gin, it will be best to present the following arguments:

1. At the northern foot of Iron Hill, there was found an immense pile of rounded and sub-angular bowlders piled on top of each other, like stone dumped froma cart. These were not rolled bowlders, for their size of many tons would preclude all idea of their being thus piled up. With these were asso- ciated large quartzose bowlders of undoubted iceberg origin.

2. Bowlders similar to those covering the hills are found to the northeast, and in fact as far off as Christiana and Stanton.

8. Bowlders are found lying upon the ground above the iron ore pits, while no signs of a similar rock are found in the cut- tings either fresh or decomposed.

4. The trap bowlders of supposed dike origin are found associated with other rocks of which we have: one bowlder of red orthoclase granite, one bowlder of black micaceous gneiss, one bowlder of limestone, numerous bowlders of decomp ferruginous quartz, and bowlders of a coarse ferruginous sand-

eston which have been found scattered quite widely over the area —

to the northeast. These latter rocks were found in such large quantities upon the hill that they were utilized as trimmings for the Presbyterian church of Newark. —

With the main facts of the case thus briefly stated, it seems that there can be left no room for doubt as to the iceberg origi of the trap-bow]lders even in such isolated positions

Morainic Phenomena.—We have already referred to the m0-

rainic character of the whole region of which we have beet — |

treating. These hummocky elevations are cut through by

every road, whereby their internal nature is revealed. Some times they rise to a height of fifty feet, but have a general ele

vation of from ten to twenty. y are absent from no part

€ ee the region, and with the enclosed bowl-like depressions which . separate them, the whole country assumes a rolling characte This is generally due merely to a swelling of both’the clay and = underlying gravel, but as the clay has but slight thicknes® compared with the height of the moraines, and as this thickness 2

is usually uniform, the swelling becomes mainly confined to t

underlying gravel. This gravel deposited in the troubled w& ters of the glacial and post-glacial estuary, with its strong CUr rents, eddies, and waves, was therefore deposited unevenly over e the estuary floor. Taking into further consideration the a co which the gravel must have suffered during the deposiion

Ye See SS fa!

Fad

eg pie eyeing Rye ty Sai as Pie oe arte:

£., D. Chester—Distribution of Delaware Gravels. 199

the clay, with the comparatively slight erosion from surface washings and weathering, since the region became land, we can easily account for all the physical features of the surface.

But besides these mere swellings of the surface formations, there are occasionally found coarse gravel hills, which probably were shoal deposits. They rest upon the Philadelphia clay, with their bases ground into it. They are later in age than the latter deposit, belonging to the time when by the final eleva- tion of the land, the waters of the estuary became more shal- low and thus more efficient in piling up such shoal deposits. Between Newark and Elkton, a gravel hill rises to a height of 50 feet above the railroad. It is made up of coarse, clean, yellow sand, with pearly white quartzose pebbles. No stratifi- cation is visible and the gravel extends downward for the whole 50 feet before the true estuary deposit is reached.

odern alluvium.—Following the river, from the northern to the southern limits of the region one notices a belt of marsh land upon the Delaware side, beyond which are the gentle swellings of the gravels. This marsh land has been made in very recent times, and consists of black mud, blue clays and mver sand of great thickness. A boring made upon the Fort Delaware Island has penetrated through alluvium for a dis- tance of 100 feet.

This alluvial formation has no particular geological interest, xcept that it indicates a greater width, but not necessarily a greater height of the river than at present.

Resumé.—In conclusion, the following are, in brief, the main events of the Delaware flood history as revealed by the ob- Served facts. Toward the close of the Glacial period, the land of the peninsula became depressed to a distance of at least 350 feet. Into the Delaware estuary thus formed the river of the Same name, fed by the melting glacier, poured its swollen rush- ng Hood. such a tremendous head, . Pushed its way across the States of Delaware and Maryland, to —

=~ head of the Chesapeake. By means of this current and the ee distributing action of the waves, the red gravel was vOSIted, , +ater on, the extreme violence of the flood subsided, the land began to rise, and the glacier of the far north to break

Until the water became shallow, when the shoal gravels were

Piled up by the waves and tides, and the elevation still contin-

“hae the river began more and more to assume its presen

channel, and the waters of the Delaware and Chesapeake — ed f

_ “Slaware College, Jan. ist, 1884.

eee eR ae enoispe

200 Brush and Penfield—Scovillite and Rhabdophane.

Art. XXIV.—On the identity of Scovillite with Rhabdophane ; by Geo. J. BrusH and Samuget L. PENFIELD. ~

Last spring we described a hydrous phosphate of the cerium and yttrium earths from Salisbury, Conn., as a new mineral, giving it the name Scovillite.* Our attention has recently been called to the close resemblance of this mineral with rhab-

ophane, a mineral from Cornwall in England, originally de- scribed by W. G. Lettsom,t as essentially a phosphate of didy- mium and other cerium earths and supposed to be analogous to monazite in composition. A further investigation of rhab-

relative amount of the constituent isomorphous earn he

must conclude that the American mineral (scovillite) is esse ated with a carbonate of the composition R,(CO,), 3H,0. Assuming this to be true we have present in the analysis We have given 14-11 per cent of this carbonate with 85°72 per cent of R,(PO,), 2H,0. If we may calculate the theoretical compo sition of this phosphate, assuming the relation of the be _ to the cerium earths to be 1:4, we have P,O, 28°40, (Y,Er).8 11°12, (La, Di),O, 53-28 H,O 7-:20=100. This is in close sive * This Journal, III, xxv, 459, June, 1883. b va + Comptes Rendus, April 22, 1878. Communicated to the Academy PY ®” — de Boisbaudran. > ae Bulletin de la Société Minéralogique, iii, 61. ir Journal of Chemical Society, May, 1882, p. 210.

ee a oo) a

Hl. A. Hazen—The Shin Glows. 201

respondence with the results found by Hartley and ourselves, which calculated for comparison up to 100, are as follows :

Rhabdophane,* Scovillite. Theory. an 26°26 29°10 28°40 E203) ; 9:93 1112 (La, Di)sOs | ee 53°82 53°28 Fes0,, i!) H,0, 799 6°86 7°20 100-00 100-00 100-00

Of the Cornish mineral it is stated that only four specimens are known, and these are from old collections made in Corn- wall prior to 1820. It is a very interesting circumstance that this rare hydrous phosphate should be found in this country, ose here also only a few specimens have thus far been obtaine

Arr. XXV.—The Sun Glows ; by Henry A. Hazen. (Read Feb. 16th, before the Philosophical Society, Washington, D. C.)

THE recent brilliant lighting .up of the skies after sunset

4nd before sunrise have attracted universal attention, mingled

) 26, 1883, into the atmosphere from the Straits of Sunda, and f t these glows have been due to the diffusion of this gas, and ‘urthermore that this gas has so enveloped the earth as to keep a Summer warmth, so that a mild winter has resulted.

The ined unusual nature of the phenomenon, calling

the theory that the earth in its orbit has encountered a stream

of minute meteors or a cloud of cosmic dust, and that the glow

* Hartle & A ‘ te) . V8 analysis gave (Ce, La, Di, Yt,),03 61°69, P20; 24°64, AlzOs, FesOs, —

= 0, MgO with so e P.O; ae Si, 3°76, combined H.0 7-50=99°52. The excludes 5-69 impurities, loc. cit., p. ther analyses are given in the

ae ee One of which 23-19 per cent. cerous oxide, and 2-09 yttrium oxide were

2 SS Sour. Sc.—rarns Serres, Von. XXVII. No. 159.—Mareon, 1884.

202 H. A. Hazen—The Sum Glows.

Date. Place. 1883, Aug. 28. Mauriti 30

us . Maranham, Brazil ee 44 W.. Sept. 1s Diew, Weelna tier 6S. “1s 9. Venemelit 22222< 252 10 N. 65 W. aS = § 20 N. 156 W. 8. Ceylon 7 N. LE. 15. South Australia 38 S. 143 EB. 20. Cape of Geod Hope 35 S. 20 E. Oe 8 Pirie a a Be ae 82 W. 19. Yuma, Cal a0 NN. 114 W. Noy. 9. England 52 N. 0 20

. Turkey.

27. British Columbia, Ala., Cal., Conn., Dak., Fla., Ga., lls., Ind., lowa, ans., Me., Md., Mass., Mich., Mo., Neb., N. H., N. ¥.. N.Oy

Pa., Va., Wis., Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Sweden, ; Allowing for cloudiness, on certain days, it will be seen that before Sept. 8 a belt of the earth’s surface 15° on either side of | the equator was suddenly visited by the phenomenon. - i

first sight it might appear that there was a regular progression from the Indian Ocean westward, but on that supposition 1b

seen in the eastern United States on Oct. 80, when the Bia ance was very brilliant; the same sight presented 1tse f the next night, but after that it did not again appear as bright though carefully looked for, until Nov. 27. On this night m@ spectacle in the southwest was grand and acknowledged b all 8 the finest even to the presenttime. The fire engines, at ough: keepsie, N. Y., and at New Haven, Conn., were summon

it has appeared down to the present.

H.. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows. 203

_A very remarkable fact is to be noted in connection with the display of Nov. 26 and 27, and that is, the sudden brightening over an immense region extending over half of Europe, Over nearly the whole of the United States and British Co- lumbia, though it had not been specially noted for about a month previous.

t may be interesting to note a few of the more detailed

observations that have been made. _ fst. Just before and during the glow at night and after it in the morning, grayish, horizontally stratified, light clouds or Stri~ have appeared above the sun and have extended to right and left. These are invariably present with the glow, though the sky may be otherwise cloudless. On a careful examina- ton, in the evening, these strie will be usually found passing from a point 20 or 30 degrees to the left of the sun to the right and left and frequently overhead, reminding one forcibly of polar bands which are generally seen in eastern United States (where all these observations have been made) passing from S : to N.E.* In the morning in like manner strize are seen | passing above the sun and descending to the NE. or N. and SW. or S. Often the directions of these strise are confused and marked by cloud layers somewhat nearer the earth,

What are these strie? On Feb. 1 at 5 P. M. with the sun 10 high the strize were the plainest yet seen, many of them passing overhead in continuous lines to the NE.

On the right of the sun they were mgre distinct than on the left, and the radiated structure was very plain, emanating from the N.E. point of the horizon. The next morning thesky was : Clear, it was even possible to separate ¢ Lyre into its compo- ite the striz were not visible at the first blush of morning, puta careful examination finally revealed them though very

int and of limited extent. On February 2d the appearances ae about the same as the previous evening. In the S. a Plain Cirrus cloud was seen at a great hight, its well-marked

ki dipped to S.B. and W.S.W., appearing as if at the out-

ha of a great cloud system gradually advancing from S., Those the actual motion of the cloud was from west to east. i Streaks of cirrus while prominent did not have a sharp out-

s2é and were more or less broken up, while the strie to the - ght were sharply defined and unbroken. At 5.30, the sun

es Set, the cirrus streaks overlapped the striz and appeared ‘P'ainly between them and the eye. At 5.35 the glow had be-

; “> in the horizon but was at a very low altitude, the strie . Unchanged, while a slight blush just tinged the cirrus.

*

ty is due to perspective. The Germans use “ Fallstreifen,” and

_ Sch Word might well be coined in English.

ing me term “polar bands” is unfortunate as the stris are parallel and the sect. oe ag

204 H. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows.

streaks. At 5.388 the former were unchanged, the latter had become a bright red. At 5.43 a slight rosy appearance was noted on the stri, the color on the cirrus having slightly faded. At 5.44 the striz were a clear rose color, while the cirrus was only bright near the sun, all color having disappeared from it at 50° to the left. At 5.48 the upper striz near the sun were bright rose while nearer the horizon there was a deep red color, the cirrus were only seen as dark clouds against the bright red back-ground. The glow was very brilliant and lasted until 6.40. It is plain that the stria are far above the cirrus clouds and appearances show that they are similar in formation, Whether these striee are the cause of the glow or not is dis cussed later on.

Second. During the day with a cloudless sky the sun has ap- peared as if shining through a dense haze

Third. On four occasions, January 4, 5, February 2 and 3, |

the moon was seen shining through seeming water vapor ata great height, the appearance being similar to that frequently noted at other times than the present. There was no halo im these cases, but a distinct ring uniformly bright about 30° im diameter.

brighter glow. It is probable that this second glow w ent from the regular sunrise appearance at 7.13. O 3, at 6.15 a. M., the sky was very clear and the glow h ready begun. At 6.25 the first glow was at its height, it diminished until 6.35, when there was a very deep scarlet near the horizon. At 6.42 the red again developed rapidly,

6.47 the sight was fine, the lower deep red tapering to a rose # 25° altitude, and continuing up to 50°. At 6.55 only 4 fas

ad

and ab 2 at

oe

he morn: a cloud- Ar

n February x t then

- H. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows. 5 Se

tose color was left. Thus the morning appearances differ from those in the evening, in that they show distinctly this double phenomenon. The two are identical to the observer and th second can be seen even in a perfectly cloudless day. :

Seventh. Faint stars and clusters, notably Preesepe, have been easily seen even near the horizon. On Januar 27, in the mor- ning, while the sky appeared covered by several distinct layers 3 of cloud directly above the sun, yet it was possible to easily find Antares shining through the haze till twenty minutes before sunrise, ae

Seeking nowa probable cause for the glow, it is suggested that at least three conditions are necessary to show the best results. —

rst. The sky must be clear or nearly so.

Second. There must be an abundance of reflecting, diffracting or absorbing material, as is shown by the well nigh world-wide appearances,

rd. There must be some force to carry the material to a

great height or sustain it for a long time against the action of gravity. The lateness of the hour after sunset at which the atter-glow disappears indicates that the material may be at a great height, and the fact of the later long continuance of the phenomenon shows that some force must be acting to keep up the particles,

vapor is universally and somewhat uniformly distributed — the earth's surface, and has always been found in great abun

-'ozen moisture or frost particles at high altitudes, the follow- Mg experience of the writer may be of interest: ~» 8e. 15, 1883, an ascent of Graylock, in sn mie rae Was undertaken. This peak rises almost abruptly 2, ‘ The above a plain which is itself 780 feet above sea level. a Stmmit was reached at 7.80, and here a severe gale, ens Ps Ly miles per hour, was experienced. The temperature w ; air m , ‘ a _ “apor, the wet bulb, after most careful mani ulations, alt ; about half a degree higher than the dry. | hile there seem

ely particles, was plain from the beautiful ap

and shrubs which made it seem as if one had stepped |

ag

ves

206 EH. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows. «

into an ocean of gigantic coral formations. The frost work was from ‘560 to ‘75 inch thick upon the branches and trunks of the trees. The frost work after a time formed on the coat of the observer as if accumulated by degrees. These frost parti- cles were too minute to be seen directly, but could easily be recognized either by looking through a great depth or by the effect of the sun’s light upon them. ;

It is not definitely known what causes the ordinary sunrise and sunset colorings, but it is certain that they may occur in all their magnificence in clear skies. he opinion generally held, that they are caused by the absorption of the rays at the blue end of the spectrum by moisture or dust particles, will not ex- ‘plain the present glows. It has been thought, however, that they may be explained if we consider them due to reflection from definite particles in the air. One difficulty in this is that we must assume that reflection and absorption would produce an effect precisely similar to the ordinary phenomenon. It may be said that the ordinary coloring may be caused by reflection, — but it is a little singular that such an explanation has not be- fore been suggested by meteorological authorities.

nder the third condition suggested above, some form of electrical action may be mentioned as amply sufficient to fulfill the requirements. We have no means of deciding the height — at which frost particles are ordinarily sustained. Siemens has suggested that some form of vapor must be found at and be-— yond the limits of our atmosphere; however this may be, there

must be some cause for so large an increase in the amount of frost particles in the upper regions of the atmosphere as to pt — duce the present remarkable after-glows. That electrical actioh — has been increased of late is evidenced by the behavior of elee trical instruments in India immediatelv after the tremendous % convulsion at Krakatoa. Also we note the recent increase 2

tion. The following table of mean monthly sunspot numbers

tions have been made by Prof D. P. Todd, of Ambers Mass. I have added the observations since May, 1883, 10F comparison. :

H. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows. 207

Table of mean sun spot numbers 1880-83.

Month, No, Residuals. 38d Order of Means. Residuals. 41880, January, 11°5 —12°9 February, 6°4 —18-0 58 —187 March, 2°1 —22'3 64 —181 April, 91 —15'3 8 —147 May, 11-7 —12°7 125 —12°0 June, 148 <e 14:3 —10°2 aly, 118 —13°6 191 oe : August, 23°0 — 14 25°3 0°8 September, 33:4 9°0 25°4 09 October, 21-4 — 30 19°4 ee November, 15°6 ne OS 148 rene cember, 10°8 —13°6 15°4 — 1881, January, 18°5 . << 5 19°38 —<e February, 19°9 — 45 26°3 gt i March, 31°9 15 30°6 61 April, 36°5 12'1 29°6 251 ay, 20°4 an. 4° 29-4 4°9 June, 34:5 10°1 32'8 - July, 34-4 10-0 33-9 nie August, 36°0 116 30°1 va September, 25-7 13 24°6 ae October, 21°65 —-e 21°3 — 32 November, 198 — 46 20°1 — 44 mber, 21-0 — 3-4 20°6 ae 1882, January 16°6 — 78 24°] = os ebruary, $3] 17 30°8 oe : ch, 25°6 1:2 40°1 15°6 April, 51 32°7 43°4 189 May, 40°5 16°] 367 133 , June, 29°3 4-9 28°2 rk July, 27:0 ee ie 23°2 as ugust, 160 — 84 23-0 mie September, 271 2° 25:9 1s October, 27°4 3-0 25° 13 | November, 28-0 3°6 20° = 4% c cember, 12:4 —12°0 15:2 mee ; 1883, January, 12°2 —12°2 15°4 ~ oe ebruary, 19° ‘ 19°0 pinto March, 15-0 — 94 22-4 ages pril, 35°8 114 22-4 ei May, /* 17°0 26°3 June, 34°6 103 os odd : July, 48°7 24°3 355 11 : 240 el glen 320 September, 31-1 67 34° ro er, 41 17-0 STE 176 November, 55 lil ber, 835 10°9 . This table shows an pe of sale 2 pa ig when probably the max of the p =

‘ccurred and after that a ccarkie fall Sliced since say) :

by almost a steady rise. This fluctuation is still more pisoly

indica y the residuals in the third order 0 — vee be Sint : sal appaked an increase of solar spots Indl com : Tease of magnetical and electrical ote se aun ae

208 H. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows.

clude that the latter have increased within a few months, not. manifested however in their usual manner.

Lastly, the arrangement of the “strie” in the so-called “polar bands,” attributed by Professor Loomis to electrical action, also supports the view here presented. -

The three conditions, above, enable us to explain all the facts. thus far developed. First: They must all be existent for the best display. If either of the latter two gradually or suddenly — increase or diminish, it would account for the intermittent action. Second: Granting the presence of “ frost particles” im abundance, the appearances can be easily accounted for, as they are similar to those we recognize when water or frost particles are the cause, whether produced by diffraction or other wise. Third: The transparent nature of the frost particles enables us to see faint stars, which certainly an opaque oF

h

descriptions of glows January 27th, February 2d and 34, show that the strie or grayish, cloud-like, stratified forms are the true cause of the glows, for if there were other clouds there

immediately followed a “high” while the other a Boats, ? decided that watery vapor had nothing to do with the glow: are is evident that in order to come to such 2 conclusion, it must 0?

ently of either. Asa matter of fact most of the more brilliant after-glows have been seen in front of a high area, He ‘reasonable to suppose, is not due to an intimate conny h between the two or the necessity of the presence of the : hig b to show the glow, but simply to the clearing of the air 10 _ of the “high,” which gives a more favorable opportunity | observation. It is objected that there is a distinct inter’

sa S oF co = a — Bg 7 2

7

H. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows. 209

between the ordinary sunset glow upon clouds or vapor com- paratively near the earth and the later after-glow, whereas we should expect a continuous phenomenon if the vapor were uniformly distributed in depth. There is no evidence to show that the vapor is uniformly distributed; in fact Professor Vettin, of Berlin, has shown that the clouds havea tendency to arrange

themselves in well defined layers at nearly constant heights.

“Nature” for December 20th, 1883, gives the following table from his researches :— '

Cloud. Height in feet.

Lower 1600

Cumulus. - 3800

Cloudlets .._. 7200

Under Cirrus 12800

(pper Gite 26 se a ae 23000 The Suggestion is also made that this indicates a geometrical progression in the heights, with a ratio of two. such a ratio.

exists we can see that there might be a long interval between the highest and lower strata.

, +He most serious objection yet advanced however has been, that the rain-hand spectroscope shows an entire absence of watery vapor. This objection is answered by the results of an investigation made by F. W. Cory of England, and recently Presented to the London Meteorological Society. He found that a rainband as high as 70 per cent was followed by a light rain and one as low as 10 per cent was succeeded by a heavy Show, also that the spectrum is not affected previous to a snow fall except negatively, i.e. the rain-band diminished several days beforea snow. He suggests that when vapor is transformed into snow crystals it does not cause a rain-band and that there

48S no donbt that when rain falls, after a low eetghe = e

of rain-band, it is due to either melted snow or hail.

-Teport comes from Magdeburg that in the spectram of the ca

is ap-

*

210 H. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows. must be turned to different points in the sky. However this may be it would seem that the presence of an abundance of frost particles would not affect the spectrum as would the same ‘amount of aqueous vapor above a temperature of 32°. d A most singular hypothesis has been advanced to account for the material in the sky, namely, that the volcanic action at Krakatoa on Aug. 26th and 27th ejected, into the atmosphere, immense masses of ashes which have been distributed by air eur- rents over the earth’s surface. Vivid accounts of the terrific nature of this convulsion, whereby a mountain island 2000 feet in height was perceptibly lowered, have been published phy: 12

witnesses. The position of the volcano was in lat. 6 .) 28’

3d. The upper currents must have had sufficient velocity t0 carry the ashes a distance of 12,000’miles in 150 hours or at & rate of 80 miles per hour toward the west. We know little of velocities of air-currents at great heights, but they are probably

slight. The summer velocity on Mt. Washington, 6299 feet

too high, but, allowing for these, there seems to be a possl-

. . 7 s sé * ne r. bility of a gradual diminution in wind velocity at increasing —

heights above the earth’s surface. 4th.

at the ashes must have been mechanically dist uted first along a belt near the equator, and afterward, withoub

addition except possibly of a meager character, the cu h

must have been sufficiently uniform over the whole earth,

: RO m fiorth and south to above iatitade

rne. the - « few This is well nigh incredible. It seems probable that in a 1eW

rrents | :

H. A. Hazen—The Sun Glows. 211

fin b a desdription of a cloud of ashes poured forth from the crater of a voleano, carried in a stream in one direction and after- ward in another at right angles, but that there was no uniform distribution is plainly shown by the narrative.

Fifth. That the intermittent nature of the phenomenon pre- clades the idea of a dust envelope. +a:

Stzth. That ashes are opaque while the appearances indicate great transparency,

Holland, after a great wind and rain storm, which presented a Similarity to voleanic ashes, is well known. This evidence must be accepted with caution, however, and it should be shown tbat

Many of the objections before mentioned, and seems more sat- asfactory. The well nigh instantaneous appearance, the last of

Consider that there were two clouds of dust into which the €arth entered.

t is a matter of satisfaction that the phenomenon has attracted so much attention, and called are. ful- observations, These observations should be recorded, and especially any unusual development should be noted. 4 Study of the cloud conditions as a whole, over the earth, will 8lve an additional means of carrying on the discussion.

n

While all explanations of the gl e more or less matters } : glows are more signer eis Conjecture, 7 the field of conjecture is believed to be nar-

212 G. F. Kunz—Topaz from Stoneham, Me.

rowing, and we may hope ultimately to reach a satisfactory conclusion. February 3, 1883.

Note—February 6th.—* Nature” for January 17, 1884, contains: striking corroboration of some of these views. From Honolulu comes a note, that during November the glow somewhat dimin- ished, but since November 25, they have again increased in marked degree. A note from near Warsaw, Russia, gives November 30 as the date of an unusual brightening. Another observer in Frei- burg, Baden, reports brilliant red glow, on the morning of January 10th. he morning of January 11th, with a clear sky, the dis-

lay was confidently expected, but very surprisingly it did not

p appear at all, the sun rising after a twilight of pale yellow.” In -

the evening clouds arose in the west, at first showing the red mar- aa coloring of ordinary sunsets, but later on there came again,

istinctly higher than even the cirri, a very brilliant and lasting red luminosity.

Art. XXVI.—Topaz and associated Minerals at Stoneham,.

e.; by GrorGEe F. Kunz

[Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Minneapolis, August, 1883. ]

erystals, and about sixty kilograms of fragments of topaz, with

other interesting minerals. A personal visit to the — ee: er

much credit is due for his keen perception in finding and bis —

“ : |

The minerals to be described in this paper were all found within a radius of fifty square feet in a coarse granite on 66 summit of Harndon Hill, which is 100 feet wide by about 250" feet long. For a brief-mention of the locality, reference may be

G. F. Runzs—Minerals From Stoneham, Me. 213

The color in these rough crystals is more decided than in the finer ones and isa light shade of either green, yellow or blue. The specific gravity of the transparent material is 3°54, and the hardness the same as that of the yellow topaz from Oura Preto eoemesly Villa Rica), Brazil.

@ following forms have been observed :

0, +4; prisms i & i-§, ‘-2, i-3, i-d; macrodomes }-i, 2-2; brachydomes 2-%, 4-1; Pyramids 4,4 4 1, 2; 4-2, +3, >

Many of the crystals exhibit a pearly and at times an opa- lescent luster when viewed in the direction of the plane O, apart from the iridescence produced by fracture and cleavage.

A specimen of this topaz was sent to Professor J. W. Mallet for examination. In a letter to the writer, dated July 27, 1883, he says: 7

oer, Bradbury, of Petersburg, Va., has made what he himself believes to be a good and accurate analysis, and has ob- tained the following remarkable results : é

Aluminum rege Aas 3 SEDON co hae ee 14°64 Fluorine eg 29°21 Oxygen 28°56

99°55

Counting the oxygen as the sum of that equivalent to the alumi- num and Sie: ess one atom of oxygen for two of fluorine found. These figures lead to the usual formula for topaz,

but presents the sf remarkable anomaly that, instead of one-half of the oxygen

‘

214 G. F. Kunz—Minerals from Stoneham, Me.

equivalent to silicon being thus replaced, we have three-fourths re- d

I send you the results for what they are worth. This may be —

times transparent in very small fragments. The quartz at its junction with it is often stained black as if the mineral had — partly decomposed. . %

Triphylite—Only one very imperfect crystal of this mineral was found.

Montmorillonite.—Occurs in masses that vary in color from ® very delicate pink to a dark pink closely approximating 10% filling the cavities and interstices in the cleavelandite. hen the latter is broken, it falls out, and it so far retains the impres

; | resembling rhodocrosite on crystals of cleavelandite. This. mineral is evidently identical with that described by Professors —

al as

Columbite is scattered all through the evel either : on crystals of the latter in cavities, or else between the plates — of this mineral. These crystals vary in length from 1 to 10%, and are not very perfect. “In one curious occurrence a number — of acicular crystals of this mineral are so bunched together a — to have a fibrous appearance, yet each crystal is distinct. One -

int 4

Autunite was observed in minute scales on the cleavelanditt : _ Beryl occurs in large erystals all through the rock, and nies times in contact with the larger topaz which it strikingly ys * Resembling zwieselite of Fuchs. See Dana’s System of Mineralogy, bth obey

p. 544, + This Journal, IIT, xx, 283, 1880.

G. F. Kunz—Minerals from Stoneham, Me. 215 +

sembles. One vein in quartz with crystals nearly a meter long and one-third of a meter across, was traced for nearly forty feet, without, however, finding any fine crystals.

Zircon occurs in crystals from 1 to 15™ in length scattered through the cleavelandite. The faces are all dull and the crys- tals are occasionally altered to malacon; those observed were I, i-< and 1. ;

Garnet occurs sparingly in poor crystals and is evidently a color.

Cleavelandite occurs by the ton in fine large masses of plates,

The bursting of the fluid cavities yiah which they are filled ney

blue topaz, were found. : Biotite in slender crystals occurs in the muscovite crystals.

Very thin cleavages are dark brown by transmitted light.

One ¢rystal was found enclosed in muscov! ‘ Margarodite occurs here in abundance, « : oil-green color. The form of this mineral is nearly radiated.

_ “fuscovite occurs in large masses and hexagonal erystals that. through the

are from 2 to 6 inches across, also transparent ro’

Prism, and in masses with a fibrous cleavage, in color brown,

yellow and light green.

| Damourite—A curved mica occurs in large 8 _ cross, saucer-like in shape.

Manganesian variety of the species; it resembles triplite in — or

=

te. ‘ of a light yellowish —

hells 4 inches \

-

\

216 G. F. Kunz—Minerals from Stoneham, Me.

In addition to the topaz and other minerals from Stoneham, Maine, the finding of two beryls, of exceptional beauty for this country, may be mentioned; they were found several miles apart and some distance from the topaz locality. They were discovered by chance, within the last two years, by farmers, in pastures in this township. e first is only one-half of the original crystal and has been roughly used by some one who

ossibly discarded it as worthless after breaking it, or may toe broken it in taking it from the rock. It is 120™™ long and 54™™ wide, and was evidently at least 190™™ long and 75™® wide. The color is a rich sea-green as viewed in the direc- tion of the longer axis, and sea-blue of a very deep tint through the side of the crystal. The color and material in the crystal are the finest that have been found at any American locality, and if not broken, would be equal to the finest foreign spect mens known. If cut, it will still furnish the finest colored large gem of this mineral found in the United States, (see Uni- ted States Geological Mining Statistics, p. 487, 1883), weighing at Igast 20 carats, and a number of small ones weighing from one to six carats.

e other crystal referred to is doubly terminated, being 41™ long and 15™™ in diameter. Over one half of it is trans parent with a faint green color; the remainder is milky gree? — and only translucent. At the junction of the two colors in the — crystal there is the appearance of a flocculent precipitate, look: ing as if it had almost completely settled, leaving the upper half _ perfectly clear. The observed planes are: O largely developed,

J, 1-2, 1, 2-2, 8-g. The finding of these two crystals in such a — manner can but lead one to think that rich material must be — stored in the vicinity and would warrant further search. :

[Since the above paper was read the locality has been worked — to some extent, and a number of very fine crystals have beea found by several parties; among these are several transparent pieces, yielding nearly as fine gems as the ones described, and also some remarkable translucent crystals; one of these meas: ures 910" long and 110™™ in diameter and is of a very fair color.. One fragment weighing 660 grams (now in the posse’ — sion of Mr. Perry) that had originally been entirely transparent but was cracked by weathering, still has a very large clear space, and apparently is a part of the crystal described before There have been found also some very curious penetrating and enclosed beryls. In one case, a crystal about three inches long

L. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 217

Art. XXVII.—A Contribution to the Geology of Rhode Island ; by T. Netson Daz. With a Map—Plate V.

In a former paper on the Geology of Rhode Island* the writer gave a geological map of the southeast corner of the Island of Aquidneck and of the east shore of the eastern passage of Narraganset Bay from Fogland Point south to Seaconnet Point and West Island. also detailed sections of Easton’s Point, the vicinity of Taggart’s Ferry, Sachuest Neck, and “ Para- dise,” together with a general section embracing the main feat- ures of a belt about two miles wide extending from the proto- gine bed of West Island to the carbonaceous schists of “The Cliffs” at Newport. The structure of Easton’s Point was shown to be that of a simple anticlinal, consisting below of argilla- Ceous schists, containing here and there iron pyrites and earthy chlorite, overlaid by a coarse conglomerate of pebbles of finely stratified, slightly micaceous quartzyte with traces of Lingule,. possibly of Silurian age. It is uncertain whether the bed of conglomerate at present covers the schist entirely on the line of the section; toward the end of the point it has certainly been

and clay aggregate) containing in its upper part a few layers of black slate minutely veined with quartz and tale, and contain-

-{uereux describes as very common in Pennsylvania, 6 8 cially in the’ lower strata above the Millstone Grit.” At

alternating with as many of mica schist, constitute the three in-

tervening ridges, forming a monoclinal with a west-northwest q se ®,

hess and has lends some support to the theory that we have here oO

*

Am, Jour, Scr—Turep Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 159.—Maxon, 1884. 5 oe

218 T. N. Dale— Geology of Rhode Island.

conglomerates, and that subsequent flexure of both the horn- blende and the abutting conglomerates brought them into their present relations. In the general section referred to, a synclinal and an anticlinal axis were supposed to exist in the chloritic . argillytes between the line of West Island and Sachuest Neck, on account of the southeasterly dip of the nearest outcrops of these rocks farther north at Brown’s and Church’s Points on the Little Compton shore, also because of the W.N.W. dip of the beds at Sachuest Neck. Another synclinal was supposed to occur just east of Taggart’s Ferry, and another west of it. Then come the ruptured anticlinal, the faulted hornblende, chlorite and mica schists, and the elevated synclinal of “ Para- dise ;” still farther west is the anticlinal of Easton’s Point fol- lowed by a gentle undulation, now eroded, along Haston’s

each.

The beds were arranged in the following chronological order: —

‘01. Granite and protogine; 1. Hornblende, chlorite and mica schist series, 950 feet; 2. Chloritic argillytes and micaceous argillytes, both with minute passages of calcite, 500-750 feet; _

4. Quartz and clay aggregate, 750 feet; 5. Argillaceous schists

of Easton’s Point, 600 feet; 6. Quartzyte conglomerate with & few layers of argillyte (Conglomerate II), 750 feet; 7 and 8 Carbonaceous schists with some conglomerate, associate with — argillaceous schists, 1000 feet. (These last are followed by oF form part of the Coal-measures proper). ‘Total, 495 Be feet. The strata, especially those of Conglomerate I, were — found to be fissured more or less vertically and at right angles — to the axes of the folds, indicating possibly another system a uplifts with axes running W.N.W.-E.S.E,, but less powerful 10 their effects as would be the case if the strata had been prevr — ously corrugated in the opposite direction or had already be, _ come rigid by metamorphism. The cleavage of the pebbles of :

cession of vertical breaks. II, Contraction theory: the having been heated and beginning to cool at its extre would be fissured towards the middle by the resulting com tion. oe.

This second paper covers the southwestern part of the ee or Newport Neck and the tract between Easton’s Beach, 40%

trace.

T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 219

those bodies of land; politically the entire township of New- rt and parts of Jamestown and North and South Kingstown. € two papers, together, thus describe a belt across the lands which border and divide the mouth of Narraganset Bay, and afford an entire section across the southern extremity of the New England Carboniferous Basin.

Newport Neck has been pretty fully described * and Jack- Sons map covers the entire tract. The highly metamorphic character of the rocks of the region, as well as their complex “Stratigraphical relations, and the fact that half the area is under Water must account for the lack of clearness as well as the con- tradictions in some of the conclusions of the geologists who have studied it. Thus, Dr. Jackson regarded the granite of Newport Neck and Conanicut as intrusive and as having in

d argillyte of Carboniferous age. The part west of a line running south from Brenton’s Cove he calls Carboniferous, 4s he does the dolomite of Fort Adams, and “ The Lime Rocks,” and the various schists of ‘The Cliffs.” But Professor C. H.

Coal-meas bu ) glomerate of Coaster’s Harbor Island and Miantonomah Hill. *tofessor Shaler calls the siliceous argillytes of the neck “ Pri-

7, * Chas, Jackson, Geol. Survey, R. [., 1840, pages 40, 89-92. Ed. oe Sey pee My a | 552, Oh. H. Hitchcock, Geol. of teen of Aquidneck, Proceedings American Association Advancement Science, ‘Aquige 88 119, 121-126, 129-133, 136-7. N. 8. Shaler, Geol. of Island of 7 neck, etc, American Naturalist, vol. vi, 1872, pages 524-5, 616, 619, 752. Soc, Nat. Hist., vol. xiv, 1869. For full

re ‘unt, Proceedings . | cag and bibliography of R. I. Geology see first paper.

220 T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island.

In order to rectify these contradictions and, if possible, de- termine the structural and chronological relations of these beds: the following observations were taken.

Easton's Beach, the Cliffs, Newport City— At 1 (see map), at. east end Easton’s Beach, alternating layers of conglomerate and dark gray argillyte dip 5°-10°-20° E.SH.* The nearest: outcrop westward is at Bliss’ Cave, 2, where similar rocks dip 30° W.N.W. At 3, west end of beach, alternating argillaceous- and carbonaceous schists, grits and quartzyte conglomerates measure over 100 feet, dipping 45° W. At 4, corner of Gibbs avenue and Catherine street, 20 feet’ below the surface, pale greenish argillaceous schists with sparsely disseminated, minute,

erruginous nodules dip rou . As “The Cliffs” trend about N. 10° E., nearly with the strike, and as they advance and recede alternately the series is not easily made out.t The layers of conglomerate sometimes run out or fork. any veins of milky quartz, large and small, traverse the rocks, sometimes starting abruptly from the junction of the conglom- erate and slate and tapering upwards through the former, gen erally vertically and from K.-W. A little N. of 6 the dip is 90 ‘and slickensides occur parallel with strata. At 6 the dips 60° W. and slickensides are horizontal. At 5 and 6, among the shingle, quartzyte pebbles (possibly not from the outerop- ping conglomerate) containing Zingule with plumbaginous shells. The outjutting rocks opposite Narraganset avenue ane the like-shaped mass south are due to the converse of the process which formed the chasm “ Purgatory,” the rock be tween two H.-W. fissures being left. while that on either side has been eroded. At 7, opposite Miss Wolfe’s, about 20 feet of schist overlaid by about the same thickness of conglomerate — dip W. At Mr. Lorillard’s Breakwater, 8, the easternmost layers, grits and conglomerate, dip 65° E.S.E. ; then about 20 feet of grits and dark gray schists dip 45°-50° W.N. W. crossee by slickensides, dipping about 75° W.N.W. Thence to Ochre Point, pale greenish, argillaceous schists with occasional layers — of conglomerate, dip 85°-45° E.S.E., measuring perhaps 4" — feet. The outlying line of rocks at Ochre Point indicates the : direction of the strike and consists of the lowest conglomerate : of the Ochre Point series, In passing westward the dip — : denly changes to 25°-30° S.S. W., the rocks being pale greens possibly hydro-micaceous schists with minute crystals of magy netite, in places reddish yellow, ochraceous schists, and trave d a by several quartz veins. At 9, this bed seems to be unde by conglomerate and grit, dipping first 25° H.S.E. then 25 -°© * These points are all gi i iation. ge + Notwithstanding i dawcity Prctawes the Haaeioek gives a long series of : measurements. Op. cit., p..122—3. -

1. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 221

S.S.W. Near 10 the ochraceous schists recur dipping under a large vein mass of milky quartz at 15°-20°S.S.W. South of 10 about 75 feet of finely laminated, carbonaceous slates dip 30°-40° W.N.W. At 11 these dip 45° W.N.W. and continue to Sheep Point and 12, 13. Professor C. H. Hitchcock gives 18 species of coal plants from this bed and two seams of an- thracite, 6 inches and 12 inches thick, now probably concealed.* At 12, these schists dip 40° W.N.W. and contain ferruginous nodules several inches thick, minute veins made up of alter- nating lamin of quartz and anthracite, and give rise to a erruginous spring; at 18 they terminate with a high inclina- lon, The next outcrop along shore (about 25 feet off) consists of a soft, decomposed, light gray, argillaceous or talcose schist @pping at high angle westerly, about 45 feet thick, passing Into a harder, greenish, talcose schist which passes into a tough, dark gray, slightly purplish, coarsely schistose argillyte with minute veins of serpentine and passages of calcite. This rock forms the headland, 14, and, at 15, passes into an argillaceous Serpentine with occasional layers of chloritic talcose schist, nodules and veins of e idote, passages of chlorite and bot

“tge and minute veins of quartz, dipping about N.N.W. The islet and rocks to the east seem to be of the same character, thus bringing the’ easternmost exposure of this bed on a line With Ochre Point. On the south it continues to 16, where it is Mm close contact with protogine, hand specimens showing both rocks together. This protogine forms the whole point and Coggeshall’s Ledge, in places is characterized by large crystals of feldspar, according to Professor E. Hitchcock by faulted

Veins,+ at one locality is traversed by a vein? of yellowish ser- ~

Pentine, and at 17 near Bailey’s Beach underlies the epidotic 4nd chloritic schists again. These may be traced to 18 and 19. ‘ay contact occurs in this wise at 17: Lying immediately upon

whole length of Levin street, pt. 23. They are ee argilla- “cous and perhaps micaceous schists, with thickly di oB° Tate grains of, a ferruginous mineral, and dipping about 20

Similarly speckled schists occur at 1, 2, 22, and were eX-

* Op. cit., p..125. +Op. cit; p. 693.

of

i eA nt enpeenied

222 T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island :

coal was struck. At 25, near corner of Farewell and Marlbo- rough streets some black slates were exposed several years ago with Pecopteris arborescens and P. hemitaloides, together with a ‘new species which Lesquereux named P. Clarkii*; at 26, Fort Greene, and the adjoining “ Blue Rocks” dark gray argillaceous schists dip 30° N.W. : Miantonomah Hill, Coddington Cove-—At 27, in a ravine south of this hill, is an outcrop of more than 20 feet of light gray argillaceous schists associated "with a conglomerate of small quartzyte pebbles dipping 20° N. At 28, west of gt

rate, like that of Easton’s Point, 10-15 feet thick, overlying ® siliceous, argillaceous grit, all dipping 15° S.E.toSS.E.t These grits crop out again at 29. Schists, like those of 27, but of

changes to 25°-30° W., a little north to 30°-85° N. W., the ben in the shore being just opposite to that in the strike. ; the schist near 88 resembles that of Levin street, etc. Beyond, the strata strike N.-S. with a very high westerly dip an continue to 84. At 35, 20°-25° W., and a little south the re mains of a thick vertical quartz vein stand on the beach ass0- ciated with the regular conglomerate but both vein and rock contain much chlorite. oS Bishop Rock.—On the east side, argillaceous and carbona- ceous schists, alternating with grit and quartzyte conglomeralé, dip 80°-85° N. to N.N.W. The carbonaceous schists with fer ruginous nodules on the W. and N. side dip 45°-50° N. Coaster’s Harbor Island and Rock, Gull Rock —At 36 slaty, chloritic argillyte with small passages of calcite, a rock similar : at at Brown’s Point in Little Compton, dipping 207 ee) N.E. At Coaster’s Harbor Rock, which lies due $., the same rock recurs, dipping 15° N., and also at the Gull Rocks, pe ping 15°-20° N. with E.-W. vertical fissures. In the litt@ 7 * See IT Geol. Survey Pa., vol. P, text p. 261 and plate. «aot tnterest 4 +Two bowlders from this vicinity are of extra-limital stratigrapbical im eS One, found by Mr, Alexander Peckham SW. of 27, a reddish crinoid limeston® :

with a Spirifer and Strophomena. The other, from the east base of Miantono tite)” Hill, a dark argillaceous schist with minute crystals of Ottrelite he i

and an impression of a plant stem 14 inches long and 1 inch wide mark schist longitudinal grooves 13mm. apart. Bowlders and pebbles of Ottrelite S®™"” abound about Newport, but I have failed to find any outcrop of it. ee

T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 223

cove N.W. of 36, gray argillaceous schists, with minute nodules of some talcose mineral and ferruginous veinlets, dip 20°-25° N.E., reappearing on the W. side at 37, with a dip of 25°-30° N.E. The projection S. of 87 is “quartz and clay aggregate” like that of Sachuest Neck, with some carbonaceous slate. At 38, the conglomerate and associated beds commence, dipping a little farther north 35°-40° E.S.E, with N.N.W. fissures. The peculiar looseness of this conglomerate has been described by Prof. Ch. Hitcheock.* The pebbles inerease in size northward, the largest about 8 X10 inches; they are rather spherical, mainly quartzyte but sometimes argillyte. At 88, it contains pieces of carbonaceous slate and of the speckled slate of 36, ear 39 a piece over 6 inches wide of alternating lamin of anthracite and quartz, like the small veins near Sheep Point.’ his may have been a fragment from a seam of impure coal or, aS seems quite as probable, from its adhesion to the rock, may have been formed at the time of the deposition of the conglom- erate. This conglomerate occupies the remainder of the island, on the west side with schist and grit, at 39, dipping 25°-80° about S.S.E.; at 40, 30°35’ E.S.E., on the northeast side, N.N.W. at high angle, and at 41 and 42, with carbonaceous, — Speckled slate, 20°-25° N.N.W oat Island.— A boring recently made within the fort, after Passing through 50 feet of alluvial gravel and clay, entered the © chloritic argillytes with passages of calcite for about 150 feet. _ Little Lime” Rock (misleading in name).—Chloritic argillyte striking N.N.E.-S.S.W. and dipping almost vertically. At 43, on Hippee southward to the shore, these rocks recur, dip 15°—

The Lime Rocks.—The western one is a light gray, inclining icro-

to bluish, dolomite, traversed by veinlets of quartz. mi

Scopic section shows nothi ng but the structure characteristic of limestones, On the south side are a series of joints or layers with a rough easterly dip. This grayish dolomite forms also the western half of the eastern rock, its other half being a yel-

Newport Neck.—The line from 44 south to the west sid a: Beach forms the eastern boundary of a bed of proto-— ‘gine, ; i

*

* compass useless.

224 T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island.

Rock and 22, there is about half a mile square here of uncertain age. At 47 and 48, the protogine is bordered by a narrow strip of highly inclined, siliceous argillyte; at 51, these rocks are seen in contact. e protogine becomes a compound of greenish feldspar and hyaline quartz, and the overlying rock is a stratified flint. From 61 to 50 there is a low cliff probably ue to a fissure. From 57 to 58, the two rocks are again in contact and at 52 and 54 small insulated masses of siliceous argillyte overlie the protogine. At 46, distinct strata dip 40°- 50° W.N.W. crossed by vertical fissures running H.S.H.-

10°-15° E.N.E. In the northern part the dip is high and un certain, but the strike in several places is clearly N. SW.

tine. The point forming the east side of Brenton’s Cove 5 — a massive, dark purple, siliceous argillyte, with veinlets of ae | green serpentine, enclosing, at one spot, amorphous calcite, ane at 65, a bed of greenish gray tale several feet thick, W?" seems to recur at 64, where it is dark green and associated willl ~ asbestos and picrolite. Seams of serpentine are not infrequent : in that vicinity and the schist is somewhat plicated, but ¢ — old iocality of precious serpentine is now concealed.* Both on the north and south sides of the tract thin seams of black, SU — ceous argillyte occur. A little west of 63 the rock is very afB™™

ss box made of this serpentine was so magnetic as to render the — A

T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 225

laceous and schistose; also at 62, 70 and 66. At 62 and 70, this appears to be exceptional, for on Price’s Neck it is again more siliceous. At 66, it encloses fragments of chloritic argil- lyte. The adjoining rocks on the west are not dissimilar an ‘dip 15°-20 N.E., as do the slates a little north, which belong - to the siliceous argillytes. It is difficult to determine the pre- cise boundary at this point. Perhaps it should be drawn at 67 where greenish-gray slates dip 10°-15°-20° E.S.E., and hold nodules of a decomposed ferruginous quartz.

The rest of the neck is mainly occupied by bluish green and dark purple, slaty, chloritic argillyte. At 71, it is decidedly chloritic, dipping 85° N. 12° W., containing passages of calcite, and underlaid by a ferruginous, siliceous chlorite schist,* resem- bling Somewhat that at 17, Bailey’s Beach, but, still more, cer- tain layers in Church’s Cove, Little Compton, at the base o the chloritic argillytes. Some disturbance has occurred here, for these ferruginous rocks protrude through the overlying argillytes and a thick quartz vein with chlorite traverses close by. At 72, these argillytes with calcite dip 15° N.E., at 73, 10°-25° N.E., at 74, alternating with dark purple ones, 10

-E. A little west the purple and green run in stripes across the bedding and the layers seem somewhat talcose. At. 75, ‘faves Point, veins of quartz with chlorite; a little west, Black Point, the dip is 10°-15° N.E., at 76, 10°-15° E.S.E.

t 77, green and purple, very finely laminated and lustrous "Slates dip 15°-20°-25° NN, W.; at 78, the purple ones, 5°-10

NN, - abounding in calcite. A little north the dip ts 15°--20°_95 N.N.W. At Ragged Point, grits and purple slates, 15°-20° N.E., at 80, Ram’s Head, 15°-25° N.E. with quartz yelns containing chlorite and feldspar, and slickenside planes . 25°-30° S.S.B. At 81 the slates dip 10°-20° E.S.E. On the west side of Castle Hill the argillytes abound in calcite. At 82 purple and green slates dip 25°-30° E.S.E. A recent exca- vation south of 82, brought to light green argillyte containing “fge nodules of limestone traversed by small veins of erystal- line calcite. At 83, the dip is 35°-40° N.N.W., at 84, purple and green slates with calcite, dip 15°-20° E.S.E. From 84 to 85, Stayish, greenish and -purplish schists, here and there with sileite, dip 15°-35°-50° E.S.E. At 85, on Point of Frees Beach, Pieated schists of alternating lamin of quartz and slate crop Rg qbPing 20°-25° E.S.E. “At 86, the chloritic argillytes dip

‘S.E. and at 87, with calciteand pyrites, 10° ESE. From 87 Southwest to 73, there areanumber of outcrops. At 88, ‘ten slates dip 30°-85° E.S.E.; at 89, purple and green, the former enclosing dark purple jasper, dip E.S.E., and continue ina ridge trending N.N.E. smal! bowlders A bbles of dark purp e

5 * See Ch. H. Hitchcock, op. cit. p 126.

4

226 T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island.

and red jasper on the beaches about Brenton’s Point, probably originated here. At 90, which is 200 feet from the “ Flinty ES

with a similar dip. t 94, opposite the harbor, are exposed ab low tide green and purple slates containing nodules and pebbles of dolomite and red jasper, alternating with layers of a pinkish, yellowish, dolomite with veinlets of quartz like the dolomite in the eastern “Lime Rock” and enclosing pieces of slate. A microscopic section of it shows nothing but the structure char acteristic of limestone. These beds strike N.E., and the dip,

C. H. Hitchcock found to be 40°S.B-

1 x $ mile in area generally consisting of a pinkish and a greenish | feldspar, quartz and chlorite At 101, this is traversed by one large and several small veins of milky quartz striking N.We"

S.E. and dipping N.E. Near 100, the pink feldspar occurs 1D

large crystals, and at 100 the protogine is seen in contact with 9 siliceous argillyte, the two rocks being literally dovetailed ine

each other. This is due to faulting as may be seen from 4 eae foot long vein close by, which is faulted ten times. This pre : ous argillyte passes shortly into a serpentine and epidote s¢ aie containing nodules of crystallized epidote and some quart? Fhe : bles, resembling generally the schist at 15, at the end o Be oe He p. 131; see also Jackson, pp. 34, 91, 246, and Ed. Hitcheock, ie .

LT. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 227

Cliffs” in Newport. The dip is about easterly. There is a vein one foot thick of pink feldspar and quartz like those of 56, Lily Pond Beach. Near 99, this rock passes into a chlorite schist with a little mica and minute passages of calcite, and is identi- cal with that of a portion of Ridge III, “Paradise.” The “Dumpling” Islets seem to be of the same character, but the one 8.K. of 100 is protogine. At 99, the chloritic and epidotic schists terminate. From 98 to 97 the protogine is bounded by the regular siliceous argillytes, like those at Newport and Sachu- est Necks, which extend to 102, within half a mile of Jamestown Ferry ; at the east end of Hamilton avenue, dipping 15°-20° -; at 103, more highly inclined and striking W.-S5. From 97 to 96 the protogine is bounded by a triangular mass a quartz and clay aggregate,” the last outcrop of which is at

contact. The quartz of the protogine is dark colored, like that of the “aggregate” which lies upon it and which contains a few layers of dark gray slate. The dip is high and hardly determinable, but at 105, dark gray slates dip 10°-15° N.

nely laminated, argillaceous slate dipping successively 20°-38 0° N.N.W., 15°-20° N

North of Mackerel Cove, from 106 to 108, similar light and dark gray schists and slates recur, dipping successively 20°-20°, 45°, 25° ‘and 30° W. .W., with thickly disseminated, minute nodules of crystalline siderite, in some places striped across the bedding, and’ traversed by quartz veins with crystalline calcite which, from its color in weathering, must contain some carbonate firon. No satisfactory outerops exist east of the line just fol- lowed, but on the east side of the island at 102, beyond the northern termination of the siliceous argillytes, the argillaceous Slates of the east side of Mackerel Cove recur, dipping at 107, y W., a little south of the ferry, 25° S.S.H., at the ferry ‘S.W., and at Taylor’s Point, 10°-20°S.W. toSS.W. | The southern part of Conanicut consists entirely of the sid- entice, argillaceous schists described, although in some places the siderite is wanting. The overlying rocks occur at Beaver

nay -_, At 109, south of the Mackerel Cove beach, the schists 'p 15° N.W., at 110, north of that beach, 25°-80° N.W.; at py are dark colored as at 108; at 112 they dip 35°-40

phe? b Similar schists dip 40° S.S.E. to 90°. Between

and at 113

228 T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island.

inches across, and veined with quartz. At 115 these mica schists are interstratified with conglomerate of flat pebbles of quartzyte, micaceous and argillaceous schist, dipping 20°-25° - H.S.E. At 116 carbonaceous and argillaceous schists dip 45° EK. S. The siderite schists on the west shore of Mackerel Cove, from 109 south to 120, dip successively, 15° E.S.E., 15° N.N.E., 0°? N.E., 20°-25° N.E., 30° N.E., 25°-80° N.N.E., 20° N.N.E,, 25°-30° E. by S.E., 15° E.N.E., 10° N.N.E.; at 121 in Hull's Cove, 15° N.N.E.; from the west side of Hull’s Cove to Beaver Tail Light, successively ; 10°, 830° N.N.W., 5° SS.E., 5°-10° N. N.W., 10°-15° W-.S.W., 10°-15 N.N.W., 15° N.N.W., 6 N.W. or N.N.W., 15° N.W., 10° W.S.W., 30° W.N: W. ; from: Beaver Tail Light north to Austin’s Cove on-the west side of the island : 80°, 35°, 40°-45°, all W.N.W.; at 124, 40° W.; at 125, 40° N.N.W. ; at 126, 40°-45° N.W.; and at 127,—N.N.W. The following observations were made: From 109 to 120 the schist is often minutely plicated, one specimen showing 7 pli- cations to the inch, and sometimes folded at high angles. At 17 is a sheet of schist, broken off from the adjoining outcrop, measuring about 5’x5’ x6” which is folded twice at right an- gles. At 119 occur veins of quartz, with chlorite and ferrugin- ous, crystalline calcite like those between 106 and 108. The schists and slates are very finely laminated, greenish gray, waxy, possibly slightly talcoid or hydro-micaceous. The ml n ules of siderite vary in size and in distribution. Be tween 119 and 120 the schists are dark gray; at 120, striped light and dark across the bedding. Between 120 and 121 18a bed or vein 10 feet thick of a much decomposed, micaceous, siliceous and ferruginous rock. At 122, the dark gray slates recur with cubical pyrite, and continue to Lion’s Head, with one vein of quartz and calcite. The dark gray schist passes both vertically and horizontally into the light colored. At Lion’s Head, are striped schists. At 123 there is a vein pe ee 3 feet thick, running N.W.-S.E. at high angle, of ae quartz with cubical pyrite and crystalline calcite. Ne ver Tail Light, the beds are slightly ochraceous; on the. ipo ; side, north of the Light, they are alternately light or icchste striped; at 124, a vein like that of 123. At 126 the oxidize nodules of siderite stand out on the weathered schist which 8 finely veined with quartz. The largest nodules measure" — mm. in diameter. At 127, the summit of a 120 foot hill, 18 Ke i outcrop, traceable for about 1200 feet, consisting at the ith e, end of siderite schist which passes northward and horizontally into a micaceous schist. :

[To be continued. ]

llaceous

»

£. 8. Dana—Herderite from Maine. 229

Arr. XXVIII.—On the Crystalline Form of the supposed Hlerderite from Stoneham, Maine ; by Epwarp 8S. Dana.

.

Messrs. Hidden and Mackintosh have described a mineral from Stoneham, Maine, which, as they show, is probably identical with Haidinger’s herderite. The first notice of this mineral was given by Mr. Hidden in the January number (p. 73). Mr. Hidden has had the kindness to place in my hands the best of his specimens for crystallographic description, and I have also to thank Mr. George F. Kunz, of New York, for additional material furnished me for the same object. The study of these specimens has enabled me to make out the form of the mineral with reasonable accuracy. ; he crystals examined were mostly quite small, varying from 1 or 2 to 3™ in diameter, though there were also a ie larger crystals, A preliminary examination served to confirm the results of Mr. Hidden that the form of the Maine mineral approximated closely to that of the herderite from Saxony. Ae position in which the crystals are placed is consequently - Made to correspond with that of the herderite as given by Brooke and Miller (p. 490) and in Dana’s System of Mineralogy + p. 546).* The measurements and the optical examina- wal §0 to prove that the crystals belong to the orthorhombic stem.

In the preceding number of this Journal (III, XXvil, rites

The crystals are prismatically developed in the direction of the brachydiagonal axis, as shown in the figures (1, 2, 3), and ey are ordinarily terminated at both extremities of this axis. The commoner forms are those of figures 1 and 2, the habit varying according to the development of the pinacoids 4 and c. Occasionally more complex forms, as that in figure 3, are seen, and in one or two cases the erystals were farther modified by Several minute planes not. there represented ; these are J, n, ¢ (see below), and two or three others which could not be deter- Mined with certainty. The observed planes are fifteen in number, viz:

9 (001, c), 4-4 (010, 5); prisms J(110), «2 (120, Y), #-3 (130, m); macrodome

#7 (302, 9); brachydomes 1-% (011, u), 3-€ (032, #), 3-4 (031, v), 6-4 (061, 8); PyTa-

mids 1 (111, p), § (882, g), 3 (331, n); 3-3 (362, a); 3-3 (131, ye

Considerable difficulty was found in obtaining satisfactory fundamen

* By Haidinger, and after him Naumann, t=¢-} (230), and J=}-1 (032). |

tal angles, and a large number of measurements were =

230 £. §. Dana—Herderite from Maine.

made before these could be settled upon. The reason for this is that the planes, though in most cases bright, seldom afford sharp well-defined reflections. Their surfaces are sometimes irregularly striated, again uneven as if broken, and still more

frequently they are covered by minute pyramidal prominences. ~ In the last case it was common to obtain two or more equally bright reflections, and these prominences mark the tendency of the crystallization to produce “vicinal” planes in the place of the simple plane whose position they so nearly occupy. Sim- ilar elevations have been observed on the surfaces of the crys

tals of many species (see the memoirs of Scharff, Sadebeck and — others), and very recently Dr. Max Schuster has made a minute and careful study of them on the crystals of danburite from the Scevpi (Min. Mitth., 1883, 397), and’ has discussed their signifi- cance in the development of the crystalline form. It is notcom sidered necessary to go into the subject here, but it is evident that, in such cases as the above of multiple reflections, neither — one gives the true position of the plane in question; in gener

it was found that the mean of the two measurements corre

sponded to it more closely. 3 . The angles finally selected as the basis of calculation were those most nearly free from the irregularities named, the surf = of the planes being smooth and the reflections tolerably sharp — and well defined. These angles are: :

1tr,ltoverO (011,011) =45° 54” 1-4-3 adj. (0114331) 9 =57" 7 The axial ratio calculated from these angles is oe

&@:b:e=1: 16114: 0°6823 or 0°6206: 1: 074234

and the following list gives the most important of the calea- < lated angles. . oe

E. 8. Dana—Herderite from Maine.

© ~1-%, 001 . 011=22° at 32 2

at, EY oom as, COS=bi 7 Ce 4 061=—68 31 $4, -~302=45 40 <> 111==38 46 xi, -332=50 18 He; 331=67 27 a3-2, .362=58 30 n3-3, «131=55 16 44.1, 010.110=58 11 ni-2, ~120=38 51 pat 130=28 14 a i ~~ w1l1=0 48 x 4. a332=66 4 ~ 3, -331=60 51 ~ 3-2, 131=43 37 A383, «36248 24

comparison with the calculated, a

For resulta “4 guineas may be given, on being tak

110.110

302 . 331

rison with. herderite.

ith Tato given for hherderite are O (001, ¢ Bel) § 4-1 (032, 1), 6-4 (061, s), 1 (111, p), 3183 pearing this list with — given above, 1 it w

Meas

63° arias

88 45 54*

ryurdu nn

La T ov. i-7, 110-.110= 63° 39” i-2 At 2 ov, #-%, 120. 120= 77 43 30,1

i-3 he i-3

==. 56-29

3.7 A 3-7 ov. 0, 302 4 302= 91 20

6-% ~ 6-7

14 1 ov. 1, 1a 1 ov. 1-%, Lan iv. 0,

3.3 ov. 3-% 343 OV. 3-%,

63°40" 88 23

68°31” 88 38

that of the

061. 061=137 2

lllalll= 38 33 llla~lll= 64 18 lllall1l= 77 32 331 .331=— 58 17

02a 011= 49 57 024331= 72 56 302.4 331= 33 47 011.331= 57 7*

- Required. 63°3: ss°27’ = 88 40 5 50 45 54 103 35 1372 58 12 58°17

44 45

49 37 49 57 33 53 33 47 72 5

231

ngles the following ly the most reliable

—The only deyelt account of the f Haidinger

232 E. 8. Dona—Herderite from Maine.

that all of these planes except the macropinacoid and the pyra- mid 4 occur on the Maine mineral, while with the latter there are eight not given for herderite. ‘The axial ratio given for herderite is:

4:6: ¢=1: 15971: .0°6783 or 0°6261: 1]: 0°4247

The following list will show how far the angles correspond :

Maine phosphate. Herderite. 63° 397 64° 7”

re 110 «110, 1-4 4 1-1, 011 011, 45 54 46°23 : 6-% » 6-2, 061 ~ 061, 137 2 137 8 Gwits; 001 ~ 111, 38 46 38 41 0.3, 001 . 331, 67 27 67 25 1-i «1-i 101 « 101, 68 37 68 18

These angles are in the four principal zones and serve as well — as a much larger number to show the relation of the two

confirmed those of Haidinger. Neither the variation habit nor in angle is, however, sufficient reason for separatin

two minerals, but we must conclude that the results of

the — f the

pa i

Chemistry and Physies. 233

SCIENTIFIC. INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics.

On a Relation between the Molecular weight of L iquids and their Velocity of Evaporation. —On distilling successively in the me apparatus given volumes of benzene and of water, Scuann found that, even when the boiling was maintained as nearly uniform as possible, very different weights of these two substances passed over in the same time. Even in a rough experiment, the quantity of benzene in the receiver was double | that of the water. With a view to give the experiment greater exactness, the time

exact time of evaporation of equal weights parison, the values’ thus obtained appeared to be very nearly in the inverse Tatio of the molecular weights of the Ls a emplo; ed hus

orated in 12°7, 12:95 and 12°3 minutes ; ane the same ages chloroform, boiling pola 61°5° and density 1°4048, craporsted b in 143, 14-5 and 14°3 minutes. Or, pedo, to eqns) weights, i in 8°25, 84 and 828 m minutes. Since m:m' t, the first value gives for the molecular weight of bblnedtornt iio 84, the second 120°25, and the third 115: 88; the true value bein 119°5. Benzene, when compared with carbon disulphide, boiling point 45°3° and am 12212, evaporated in 12°3 minutes, whi le the same volume of C

Tequi red 19 minutes ; or 12°66 reduced to equal weights. This

0

26 minutes reduced to equal weights. This gives a molecular Weight of 17- 3 he vol f 68 instead of 18. Moreover, the ratio of the volumes hs Saale muvee evaporated in fies: times is the ratio of their molecu- F volum Thus the ratio for benzene and chloroform above

Sven, is obs : hues et 126:1::95°94 (the molecular vol-

Seki of benzene) 285-2 the molecular volume of chloroform) ; hitf obtained 84°65. The author has further observed that on

Mately ‘constant, hax | water gives 536°67 7X 18-= 9660" ere

_ aleohol gives 214-3 46=9857°8. Acetone gives 7523°76, silane oe ie Nae 5 and carbon tetrachloride 7161. Ethyl oxide oe sss co:

Sseipbide 6361-2 and ethyl chloride 6128-79.

chloride 11736 hyl ‘ an 6'4, arsenous auianids 12292°99 and ethyl acetate

a9 fe Phosphorous ceed 8970°5 and ethyl iodide 8938°8. 1884.

Jour. 7 —Turep Serres, V AAO No. 159.—Marcu,

.

f

234 _ Scientific Intelligence.

e remaining two are amy! alcohol, aoe gives 17954°64 and bromine, 7963": vd ese do not seem to belong to any of the above groups, unless the latter ng iheed | in sa oe ace- tone.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xv 3011, Jan., G. F. B.

2. On the use of Nitroge n iodide in Piicnere ts exp menting with nitrogen iodide, prepared . the action of iodine upon an aqueous solution of ammonia, Guyarp has observed that this substance is immediately eat in sunlight, nitrogen gas being evolved with effervescence. e minimum actio ces place in the violet, the maximum in the blue. In the red-orange the ‘action is sensibly ‘the same as in white light, and in the yellow it

mewh hite

ebpdce violent y. ut pontine ina Solutio

Baumeé, i. dion omposes quietly,

alf ammonium iodide ; trace

oduced. For be estimated either by weight

reaction of the oil on the nitrate, and 13) to A ccauithe the re

RG : 4 we 2 a = 2 x “a Bs

Br

~

a

Chemistry and Physics. 235

silvey, copper, mercury and bismuth. These metals form nitrite, nitrate and wate

yt from oxygen (hydroxyl) in seoareous witHo's cid, and not ot hy-

orm ammonia and generally sis see em do not produce

nitrous acid or nitrite with free nitric the other hand they readily form abit by acting on ‘their own nitrate. Two

. actions are noted: Ist, upon seven molecules of acid separating

as hydr nee the poten ogen of six of them by forming eavin nv

same as that existing in nitrates — —, these being its metal- a compounds.— 4. On

posed when exposed to sunlight into amorphous phosphorus and ee: oxide, Cowrer and Lewxs ha e men = view to verif them. eg obtained a perfectly

n to ye filled wae ie a. and on shakin S gotion.in alg the air it at once ook fire. Aik ier portion of the white deposit treated with pute, = filtered left a residue of phosphorus on the filter which took fire on drying. On peice ep is the white deposit proved to be a piscine of phos osph oric oxide ma eget bese 9°6 and phosphorus Gy difference) 19°83 ent. The so-called phos- phorous oxide of Irving is therefore rcamunlnls pcebiions oxide

aoe considerable free phosphorus.—/J. Chem sae xlv, 10, are 1884 Pom aa

On the Constitution of Benzene. —About coca years pound acta sadn the hypothesis that all aromatic had as a nucleus six tetrad carbon atoms united in <i ‘eae ring. The marvelous fruitfulness of this hypothesis has well ni re-created organic chemistry. In 1879, Gruber produced an aoe

by treating protocatechnie acid with nitrous acid, which he called

carboxytartronic acid, to which he assigned the formula C,H, On

4

is Be 3

236 Scientific Intelligence.

(OOH. a0 or OH—C—COOH. Barth, the following year, produced it from

~\ COOH. ' pyrocatechin by similar treatment, and maintained that its for- mation proved that in benzene one carbon atom must exist united to three others; contrary to the hypothesis of Kekulé. This lat- ter chemist has now made an elaborate investigation of the

tronate prepared from tartaric acid, is identical with that obtained - from pyrocatechin. It is therefore clear that carboxytartroni¢ acid cannot have the constitution hitherto ascribed to it, and hence is wrongly named. It should not be called carboxytar

uncertain owing to the difficulty of obtaining the water of stallization, yet no doubt exists that this acid stands in simple

through this layer as well as by observing it on the side which —

ne pegeweer together. The method of increasing the ¥}

ility of the ultra red is closely analogous to that of fluorescence”

by means of which the ultra violet is made visible. If the wav

yt ous

ERE cna (Eee Siceaat We he ee

Chemistry and Physics. 237

rogue, M. E. E. Buavier, who is engaged in studying electrical effects upon a line between Nancy and Paris, says, in substance:

ey question. In reply to the point that the resistance of the | th n the two stations varies with different conditions, lt

"3 adopted by M. Blavier had a resistance of 10,000 obms. Larroque believes that uncovered aerial telegraphic lines

reply to the : . he lin points that it is necessary that the

vormed wi small resistance, non-magnetic, well insulated

ie absolutely free from humidity, M. Blavier states that it 1s

aa 3 Ps prectaDly, = : 'nd that ‘earth currents could be observed on short lengths of

238 Scientific Intelligence.

1883, pp. 1551-1553. J, T. 8. Heat in iron due to periodically changing magnetic force. —The heat noticed has been attributed by some investigators to the movements of the magnetic molecules, and hence has been called heat of magnetic friction. Other investigators think that this heat is due almost entirely to electro-magnetic induction in the mass of iron. E. Warsure and L. Hénic have taken up the subject and their experiments lead them to believe that a large of the heat is due to magnetic friction. The magnetizing

single cycle, was greater than two. e authors examined the sources of error might arise from the change in character of the temporary permanent magnetism due to change in direc

der Physik und Chemie, No. 12°, 3, pp- —835, peauuaers 9. ciples of Theoretical Chemistry, with Special reference — to the Constitution of Chemical Compou Ina Kensie”

’ . ? mrtg ae adelphia, 1883. Henry C, Lea’s Son & Co.—This excellent little e bogk of Professor Retsen’s may fairly be considered a protest — uttered against the now prevalent notion that. the science ©

page 100, is as follows: “It cannot be denied that we are now} on a period of Chemistry which may fairly be called one of for” re worship. By weaker minds more value is attached to a formu

oe . > + ps terms “hydroxide” and “anhydride” -have been php ae

“gua; by Groran H. Jounson, Professor of Ma

_ George H.’Cook, of New Brunswick, N. J.,and comm

Geology and Natural History. 239

than to that which it is intended to represent. In consequence of this truth, it has happened that a large number of chemists have regarded the determination of a formula for a compound as the great object to be accomplished and forgotten that what we ought to know and what is of vastly greater importance for the Science is the chemical conduct of the compound.” Hence the author states in the preface: “I have endeavored to discuss in an impartial way, as objectively as possible, the principal hypotheses which at present play important parts in the science of chemistry. As, strictly speaking, we have no theory of chemistry, the hypoth- €ses are more or less disconnected; and as there is no general theory to keep them in check, some of them have assumed a vari- ety of forms.” What, precisely, is meant by the term “ constitu- tion” on the title page, he tells us on page 232: “A study of the preceding chapters on constitution will show that no absolute ; meaning is to be attached to the word. Constitutional formulas are those which suggest certain reactions and recall analogies. The formula CH,—OH does not mean that hydroxyl (OH) is nec-

~€ssarily present in the compound or that CH, is. present, but that

the different parts of the compound bear such relations to each, Other that when the compound is decomposed it acts as if the parts were united as the formula indicates. The formula suggests Possibilities; it may not represent realities.” The book is there- fore a valuable contribution to the chemical literature of instruc- ees and particularly at this time when so strong a tendency

Cal reactions,

talled for indicates that many chemical teachers have been found ready to endorse its plan and to adopt its methods. In thisedi- tion a considerable proportion of the book has been rewritten, :

up to date. We observe

Place of the simpler ones “hydrate” and “oxide,” whic “We e

te ae theory combined with the fullness with which, ina small com- — Pass, the present attitude of chemical science towa tution of j { Yond that accorded to the average text books of the day.

Il. Gronogy anp Natura History. te Human Joot-prints on sandstone near Manaqua, in. Ni a thematics and — (From a letter dated Osties : n Leon, N icaragua, Central Am., Noy. 5, 1883, to ia essor a

' Sineering at Leon, Nicaragua.

ee % bea i

240 Scientific Intelligence.

by the latter.)—Before coming to Leon we remained six weeks in Manaqua studying the language. While there I learned that foot-prints had been found on a sandstone at a quarry in the

a quarter of a mile west of the Plaza. Around the quarry were many blocks of sandstone about one cubic foot in size ; these had

the form of each toe. Most of the tracks were large enough for . hi

Yellowish-brown clay, 14 inches. Brown clay, 6 inches. Sandstone, 3 layers, 2°3 feet, : All the beds are approximately horizontal and of nearly unt form thickness. It will be seen from the section that the tracks

reason for supposing that Lake Manaqua, as well as the lake of : ing of a great volcano. i

2. On the relative ages of certain River-valleys in Lincoln shire; by A. J. Juxus-Browne. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.»

Geology and Natural History. 241

gth. Ww. J. M EENsTRUP on the: Glacier and Glacier-ice of geo-

within th , ; along th aan region; the position of the Carboniferous beds. ern and western coasts of Disko, on the peninsula

.

1s dey. Bore we know, to the publication of the author’s own of Indo-Mal ections, observations and discoveries upon the plants — tthe years hte and Papua, during his travels in those regions in | 65-1876. In the part now issued Dr. Engler of Kiel A. G

5. acee. ; Thoughts upon Botanical Taxonomy. Pensées sur la Tax-

J t.—A memoir by the most tany in Italy, now Academy in 1881],

Portion j rbitcher, the first.

ntrate re = fourth, the remainder in the fifth volume. T eo

at issue fills a little more than a hundred octavo pag nee hich the author

age

of 304: = tering te pages, and with 28 excellent lithographic plates. The work =

«

242 3 Scientific Intelligence.

well er should remain upon a morphological basis, wie mixture of other considerations. And his strength is main! voted to a natural arrangement of the families (orders of Tassie) under more comprehensive orders, cohorts and classes, ete. sacha he begins the series of Phanerogame, class reget he Monocotyledones. We should et do that now, if we had i begin anew, and if we keep Gymnosperme as a class, 80 as to give the latter ‘its proper position an eel the higher Cryp- iy pau and the er Pan ‘ale, Oe nes. Of course, a

first. includes amopetalous and ‘al ieeaiee orders generally;

the t

etc. ; the third has Begoniacez, Euphorbiaces, Urticacez, etc., as well as the Amentaceous orders, A class, Anthos erm y ha equivalent weight to Asiviosporme and Gymnosperme, is inter-

osed between - them, and consists only of the order Spermiflore (Loranthaces and Viscacee). We need not present the new

7 a of what used to be called Cryptogamia. Nees sh ae t the Phanerogamez, our only remark need be that such essays are full of interest, "perhaps s of future fitted na that — none of the recent schemes are in condition to replace the Jus- siwan and Candollian arrangements with all their imperfections.

6. Necrologia Botanica.—The annual record which aa ‘oak

lished in this Journal for many years has not appeared for the Jast three years; yet some biographical notices of deceased bot-

hie of March, at the a age 0 of 4 is. Cuar.es C. ee

Samusr B. Mxap of Augusta, Tllingte died spt 1, ata pout old age. ts the year 1881, January 4, died Professor —

Atrnonso Woop in the 71st year of his age. In 1882, THOMAS Pg James, one of our few adepts in Bryology, died Feb. 22, : in the 79th year of his age, leaving the venerable Lesquereux t0 sau Gh: in Manual of Mos pei

Geology and Natural History. : 243

ge Agrostologist, General Wii11am Munro, who died Jan. the age of 64; also of the two eminent Bryologists Ww. P. cries March 20, xt. 72, and of Ernest Hamps, Nov. 23, ®t. 85 5 of N. J. AnpErson of Stockholm, who had been infirm for several years, but survived until March 20; and of Roserr Forronr, who died April 13, at the age o In the year 1881, died Lupwre slag tec the Cryptogam- ist, April 24, a “the age of 76; Marratas Jacop ScHLEIDEN, a foremost name forty years ago, but whose botanical career was - ‘ brief, see te lived till June 23, and reached the age of 7 | years; Micuart Paxennam Eperworrtn, a brother of Maria Edgeworth, aa an adept in East Indian betaine July 30, et. 69; EWwerr Corrrett WATSON , who so sedu ae, raaeteee: et the particular distribution of plants i in Europe, July 27, et. 77; UNTHER Lorentz, who was professor of botany at Cordoba, i ie a i ne Republic, but who died at Concepciou in Uruguay, ‘ t. 52; and Orro WituHEetm SonpEer of Hambur rh, who ne died Shull 21, wt. 70,

In the year 1882 we lost Josera Decaisne, February 8, at the age of 75; Grorer H. aires, who died at Peradeniya, Ceylon, leaning 11, wt. 71; and here | : a. vy add the

So far as we are now informed ae Sie oc ngpuiabied bot- mel

“ * + NCENZ Gunes; i ‘until Loni ‘pattie of mie te in the versity, ‘sua director of the Botanic Garden at Naples, died

at Mila

his botanical work was done, all of a respectable but none of a ve aa order, N Mvetrer of Lippstadt, Botanist and Entomologist,

the enswied investigator of the mutual relations of insects and ‘OWeTs, as concerns ‘the fertilization of the latter, and the ada |

tive modifications of the one to the other,—died on the 25th of August t last, in the 54th year of his age. A brief notice of him, ) and of his latest and most notable work was given in th pig of this Journal, p. uit Meet: a fuller memorial was pak

setae ed in sail set Oct. 12, pnekiiel

ric a h, died,

expected in this Journa pat! me we have sustained a ‘loss in sng ree tase fe hinhene of Philadelphia, late curator of the Her Hears

the age 0 of 63. <A just t arm te to his memory was contrib- — uted by his associate, Mr, i pvoabrt a to the Proceedin sa 3 the

epee J of Natural Sciences, 1883, pp- 260-265.

24-4 Scientific Intelligence.

7. Dr. Grorce Encetmann.—Just as these pages were going to the press we are grieved to learn that our oldest associate and friend, the most venerable and eminent of our botanists, who had attained his 75th birthday on the second of February, died on the eleventh, at his ona in St. Louis, after a short illness. Al- though his health became seriously impaired a year or two ago,

et it was of late so far restored that he was able to continue his botanical work with zeal and vt aie se and the very last num-

_ ber of this Torna soutétned a notice of a recent publication which gave evidence of this. It must be left to a future pape to place upon recor ind some account $4 his life and of his many and important contributions to science A. rr ;

Ill. Astronomy AND MATHEMATICS.

1. Double Star observations made in 1879 and 1880 with the 183-inch refractor of the Dearborn Observatory, Chicago ; by 5. W. Bornuam.—This reprint from the memoirs of the Roy. Astr. Soc. contains Mr. Burnham’s thirteenth catalogue of new TFoable a and measures of 770 other

Class II. Total, 5s aN a extaloge of pot stars, 268 264 520 154 63 re

“ Pe «“ 91 314 , 405 He tain 98 1 g12 * 12 24 36 Herschel, It, * 3429 2 20 22 n G. Cla 14 1 10

All other observers, : 40 75

Hence, he concludes that the known pairs having a distance under Pu are less than 1400. The principal interest moe in “ futtire he believes belong to these close pairs. Double star below the 8th magnitude and having a distance exceeding 5 will nat prove of much interest. as Way has furnished to Mr. Burnham a larger Dune” ber of new doubles than the same area elsewhere. In magnitude of leading component the thousand stars are distributed is

ollows y 00 to 10, 2 8"I to 47-0, 11 "1 to 70, 173 9"0+ 69 Il to 2°90

2"-1 to 3-0, 11 5") to 60, 94 to 9-0, 300 Total, 1000 Particular attention se called by Mr. Burnham to the oe

couple O 2 535, (6 an lei). The two close compere’ of this

triple star are so n aay equal in iceuenads that severa

whose period is 10°8. years. The distance is pres mo: ot ee

6"'1 oa Oe 58 41 to 5” 0, 29. 71 to 8"-0, 303 el ‘ 81 i

Astronomy and Mathematics. 245,

We would remark that the observations of Mr. Burnham in 1880, 1881 and 1882, powether with nearly all the previous meas- urements of Struve and otl rers, (corrected, if necessary, by 180°) can be satisfied by an apparent orbit of 11°6 years, the principal star central, the semimajor axis 0’-38, and semiminor 0"°10.

é couple in 1883 was ve ery close. The measures then taken are Hot, however, are ge bbe well by this orbit. They indi-

the he peri now known, will be watched hereafter shes au in Senge on Pr ojections ; by THomas Craia, 4to pe

and

treats of the whole subject of map. projections. It consists of two separate portions, the are and larger one being devoted t the Mathematical Theory of Projections, and the second to the ‘ Construction of Projection

€ first section in he: first t part is given to the various kinds of perspective projections of a spherical surface on a plane, Then n follow two sections on orthomorphic projections, or those im which figures on any one surface are represented upon any

Phic, ~~ pF aviealens and the Development pesleas

cond part is independent of the first, ak is a intended’ for practic <3 ise. It gives the methods of constraction of the several Projections, and is followed by slnetycme tables. H. A. Ny

IV. Misce,.tanrovus Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

Distribution of the Magnetic Declination in the United Staies at the Epoch January, 1885, with three isogonie charts and One plate. Secular Variation of the Magnetic Declination in the United States and at some foreign stations, (Fifth pore

plat °

With four es he above are titles t important

sie siggy r. © A. Scnorr, published (as stated

a 42 of = volume), as append to the report for 1882 of t and Geodetic pct J. E. th Superin-

246 | Miscellaneous Intelligence.

(it was reproduced in this Journal, vol. xix, p. 178). The present chart is on a larger scale than the former, and being based upon a greater number of observations it differs from earlier charts in showing the local disturbances in the direc- tion of the magnetic needle; in the case of the New England States and Missouri, for example, the minor irregularities in the

distribution of the magnetism are given with considerable ac curac The ppc nee memoir She a table, bite).

edestin summary of the facts ae +0 the secular variation of

based. . A special plats shows the position of the region in north- eastern Maine and beyond, where the needle has reached its western elongation and Sesaine stationary ; and also of that in the west, across Idaho, Nevada and Arizona, where the needle is also stationary, having reached its eastern elongatio on. The pro te motion of the secular change from east to west may ® be

of the i isogonic syst em in the vicinity of this agonic sane as repre , sented by this line, has been since 1600 in the direction of ” hands of a watch. : 2. Maps ies by the Northern Trans-Continental Survey; Rapuart Pumpexty, Director.—The Northern rine ae ' Survey, peeing in 1881 ox sto interest of the principal railroads — of the Northwestern Terri s, has recently issued Map Bulletio : No. 1, prepared by the Dpage ‘pKical Department, A. D. W “ _ Chief To opographer, associate h R. W. Goode

two sheets; Colville Region, W. T.; Judith Bsn ee in two sheets; Crazy Mountains, Montana. The m excellently executed by Julius Bien, of New York.

OBITUARY. Arnotp Henry Guyor.—Professor Guyot, for many, b As ae ee | the prot of Geoloxy and Physical Geography. in

in his "Tith "wa ear Neuchatel, Switzerlan 1807; seule at the chteane of Stuttga Berlin, adding to theology, at the latter place, physical |

y, # = under Karl Ritter, and V geology sei Hoffmann ; an

a widened Sierpebhohatnn with regard to the relations of phy

Miscellan cous Intelligence. 247

his preparation for work by studies from 1835 to 1839 at Paris. In 1839 he was called to the Professorship of History and Phys- ical Geography at Neuchatel, where Agassiz, his early compan- ion, and but four months his senior, had occupied, since 1832, the chair of Natural History

and 200 wide, and demonstrated the morainic character of th

+ = i) @ co (=) o c= a te 2) is?) = 5 = =a ee ie) > fr) 6 5 co 2 ee es ™H } oe > @ ° al i fe) wt % = wm > =] 5 y ¥

recently been named the Guyot Museum. Pekan’ The “Systeme Glaciaire,” published in 1847, has for its full title, “Systéme Glaciaire, ou Recherches sur les Glaciers, leur mecanisme, leur ancienne extension, et le réle quils ont joné “es PHistoire de la Terre, par MM. L. Agassiz, A. Guyot and

bo revolutionary movements in Switzerland which were destruct: — Ive to the Neuchatel University. Guyot’s views appeared in brief > in the Bulletin of the Neuchatel Society of Natural Sciences, and :

n 1848 Guyot came to ni country, following the course of Agassiz who reached America two years before. Switzerland lost much in this removal of two of het ablest professors, ee America gained vastly more. While Agassiz infused new ideas: into the people and the schools and other educational institutions: ; of the land as to the value of natural science and the methods .

' instruction, Guyot gave, with like effect, new methods and

‘

948 : Miscellaneous Intelligence.

geography to man and history, and to the true objects of geo- grapical stu six years was employed by t {assachusetts Board of Education as lecturer to the normal

it. The year affer his ann in thescountry elivered in-

French a course of lectures in Boston, which were afterward translated by Professor Felton, , of Harv ard, and published under Man

the title of “Earth and n.” The volume exhibits the broad

philosophic views nee aed tone of mind and heart of its author, and commenced his period of influence over geographical education a

In 0 he organized the system of meteorological observa- tions ree aie action by the Smithsonian Institution, and advised as to the construction of instruments for the purpose. In 1851 to 1859 he prepared a volume of saa hi hag and Physical tables,

ublished by air, neat He bega at the same time a

ai. summe ; btw een 1862 and 1879, the latter tw ng after he had bau his 70th birthday. It was a work of great diffi- culty on account of the pathless forests spreading over many 0 the summi its, which were mostly featureless, and the necessity in

some cases of climbing to the tops of the highest trees to gain

a view of the neighboring summits for triangulation. He carrie his survey through with wonderful precision, considering the diffi- bales discovered heights among t a ater than had

before been known, and ms given an excellent map of the region. (This Journal, volume x , 1880.

Professor Guyot’ theological and scientific training fitted him to make a tadoun exposition of the first chapter of Genesis. A

last proofs ha read just before hi . ofeesor Guyot believed in the spiritual not less than J the material; 1 Nature’s laws, and in the Infinite Lawgiver, the Author of

Christian faith. Professor pg received his Nar pad ae tig iat in

1855. He was one of cagl pei tg member he National Academy of Relenos es. His excellent wife, itis Siskin bis was the daughter of ex-Governor Races of New Jersey.

* Published by Scribner’s Sons, New York, the, publishers of his on = ps. .

- geographies, atlases, and ma

y gt Aig } { ’ AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXVII, 1884.

——

Plate V.

A a es

hee

————

| Cauchy

Redrenbach 24 ee ieee

“oe =|

ae — aan

en

rm aris

See O35» vg Pr

= —— . —

a eLep

— _ bret ee

— — — |

— — ae 4

~ *

AM, JOUR, SCI., Vol. XXVII, 1884.

Plate VI. GEOLOGY of R.T. T.NELSON DALE

oot ee Roe . we , quartz and clay |> S+.* +" aggregate. = eet we ) Toate » seenliiniliaiaetalemelinerlonied so 5. sideritic ar-| > tote gillyte. CER = (lower argillace-| > sess === ous schists) = ee 5 6. oS : quartzyte ee yi Hoek poor 5 conglomerate. = ast Zi Conglomerate I) a 3%) re) * 7,859 2

AZ. es hloritic x argillyte . coal measures. | == a ©9 990 Gorld. * e .\Na ogo quartzyte fof South Ferr. > ‘Ooo o| Conglomerate of | ss uncertain position. 3 G a a

+ > > > e » ors ata g ea * = &~ = aks a ‘. = = esque es Oy = GP mgt ° * BR -* < ‘he > ¥ wm en Py) . uf 5 23 Watson's Pier E owl ‘ee : 0 ae Ps “syrie a > 7 Pe: es ie = al hati vere inn wt CMa eve, 8 aa aA nd of eS D\ Beer eons % pie err S 7a wee or tte ie ey noes “a s; ge os ar hen ee tetee vey Vere" GA Fr4 wry : u LA oe ~ x wv

NARRA

=f lochre Pt- 19

wae ~ D shalls wed oP

Ld H . miles y SRR Ses Aiea ee

1 2 3 n 1

Scale 0,000

anien an Aa ayer Paes a a fee, es LCs re. were hece Bee, he ee, gf Ped Fy ' eek ey he etd oc’ 7 bere {7 7, A / Rock See o& r. fj fi 2 bet vets een tre Hef Black A havg Rock

Horizontal Scale 50000 Vertical Scale £456

wares’ anset— Du } e oe s

nese

Niece” Almys Pond “The Cliffs

———

Plate VII.

AM. JOUR, SCI., Vol. XXVII, 1884

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. XXIX. — Recent Explorations in the Wappinger Valley Lnmestone of Dutchess County, New York ; by Prof. WILLIAM B. Dwieut, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. With Plate VIL. ‘

No. 4.—Derscrirtions or Carcrrerovs (?) Fossirs.

In a previous paper of this series, four years ago,* the writer made known his identification of Calciferous, as well as Tren- ton rocks, in the limestones of the Wappinger Valley. This determination was founded on the presence of the ordinary but very unsatisfactory fossils considered characteristic of the Cal- ciferous in the United States.

ne year later announcement was made, in a brief note,t of his further discoveries, in the same apparently Calciferous stra- tum, of fossils far more striking and important. These were Stated to be gasteropods and one or two small brachiopods, accompanying orthoceratites lying crowded together, in some localities, and in much variety of structure and of size, reach- ng in some cases a length of 9 inches, and in others a width

1

_. The long interval which has followed without the publica- tion of the details in this series of papers has been unavoidably due to the extent of the problems, and of the work, thus sud- denly and unexpectedly presented. The question of the true age of the stratum was at once re-opened; new, careful and extended exploration for all attainable facts was imperatively

* This Journal, January, 1880, + This Journal, January, 1881.

: Am, Jour. pb teape Series, Vou. XXVII. No. 160.—Aprit, 1884.

4 ‘ * it

“ , . fea

250 W. SB. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley.

stone which is beyond question Trenton. IL. Its orthoceratites differ notably from any similar collec- tion, taken as a whole, as far as I know, in either the Trenton or the Black River groups, in the facts that no species are found among them whose septa are more distant than about

nine to the inch, most of them having septa standing much —

more closely; and the additional feature that with the rarest exceptions the siphons are lateral, if not marginal, with a ten- ency to be proportionally very large throughout the group. _ Ill. Everywhere closely intermingled with the orthoceratites are various gasteropods appearing " accounted characteristic of the Calciferous of the United States and of Canada. Notably there are admirable specimens of the

Ophileta compacta, fortunately fully described and illustrated —

Op

by Salter. (Geological Survey of Canada, Decade I, p. 16. Except for the presence of thes be

to be identical with those

a

bay

lt eee Ee

———

vg ee Lon

INTE, ER gr a ne

Finke iat. LAS a2 Be te Pa hs 1 * b u SRelte :

es)

“he

W. B. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley. 251

Calciferous group. But the presence of these new fossils, to say nothing of existing doubts as to the true stratigraphic relations of much that has elsewhere been called Calciferous, suggests great caution in deciding upon the horizon.

n the other hand, thege fossils as a whole, cannot at pres- ent be safely assigned to any other group with so much justifi- cation as to the Calciferous. They will be so assigned at this time, but with the understanding’ that it is a provisional arrangement.

A more full discussion of the age of this rock will be appropriate after the fossils have been more fully described, including the important gasteropods above mentioned.

This Calciferous formation, accompanied in many places by the Trenton in much smaller masses, displays. its fossils for a number of miles above and below Poughkeepsie, in the Wap- pinger Valley. By far the richest locality, however, is at the hamlet of Rochdale ; especially are the orthocerata the largest, and the most crowded together in a low ledge on a hill-side about 900 feet northwest of the woolen mills.

Tam much indebted to the kindly and most valuable assist- ance of Mr. R. P. Whittield in the difficult study of the specimens as well as in the drawing of some of the figures. Figures 1, la, 4 and 5 were outlined by him from the type

_ Specimens.

In my descriptions of Rochdale fossils, the richly fossiliferous

ledge exposed for 200 or 300 feet each side of the cross-wa between the farms of H. Titus and W. Badgely, about 900 feet _ northwest of the woolen mill, will be named D. Another Cal- _ ¢iferous locality, next to the one just mentioned in paleonto- logical importance, designated F, consists of a series of out- _ ¢rops barely above the surface of the ground in W. Badgely’s field extending from the northerly extremity of ledge D, be- tween two hills, to the Pleasant Valley turnpike, with which it _ is about on a level throughout. This locality is specially rich in small and neat annulated and other orthocerata, while the : ledge D is filled with the larger Cephalopods. ;

ae CRUSTACEA.

_ Quite a number of fragments of trilobites have been collected _ at locality D. One which is a portion of a thickened margin of a cephalic shield, is 5™ long and 18™™ wide. But the frag- ments which are sufficiently well preserved to admit of specific description are small, belonging to animals probably 5% or _ Under in total length. The cephalic shields of the two species here described are not sufficiently complete to justify a satis- factory decision as to the genus. The courses of the facial

i

a

259 W. B. Dwight—Fossile of the Wappinger Valley.

sutures are especially incomplete. While they in many re- spects strongly resemble Bathyurus, they do not appear in all

ints to conform to that type. or the present, however, they will be provisionally classed under that genus.

Bathyurus taurifrons, n. sp. Fi

gs. 1, la, 2, 2a, 26 and 3.

lines joining the outer ends of each pair would divide the sur-

face nearly into quarters. With the above exceptions the —

anterior edge of the cephalic shield. In the specimens de- — scribed this summit elevation is 75". From the anterior dor- —

segments not Known

.

Pygidium, anterior margin a gentle curve, posterior and lat- —

eral margin semicircular. The axial lobe well defined, in front one-third of entire width of pygidium, tapering considerably — to the rounded posterior termination which does not quite a

tain the junction posteriorly of the lateral lobes; its length 15 two-thirds that of the entire pygidium. It is quite conve™ — 7 m front to — rear. Its surface is without furrows and quite smooth, except : ing a slight angularity along the median line of its summit, 4

: q transversely, while it also curves rapidly down iro

it Hi

a ee Bios oe Ste

W. B. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley. 253

and two tubercles situated close together at its posterior termi- nus. The lateral lobes are less convex than the axial, and marked by three or four faint furrows, some of which may be traced across the margin by close inspection. he depressed murginal band is rather wide, being about

one-eighth of the greatest width of the pygidium; it is but little narrower at the extreme posterior portion.

The elevation of the anterior portion of the axial lobe above the marginal edge of the pygidium, is nearly equal to the greatest width of that lobe; about 4™™ in present specimens.

specimens, the c with the cephalic shield described, can only be inferred from

glabella in the new species, while the pygidia vary in many features. Loeality—Calciferous, Ledge D, Rochdale.

4 Bathyurus ? crotalifrons, n. sp.

4 Figs. 4, 4a, 5 and 6,

| Glabella low, convex, strongly conical, its sides being some- what concave a little anteriorly of the center. Its maximam _ width is very little less (about 34,) than its length exclusive of the occipital ring, and is found at about one-sixth of this length _ anteriorly to the occipital furrows. In the anterior third, the transverse diameter diminishes to two-thirds of the maximum and less. The front border and the posterior angles are well

Shallow groove at the exterior margin over the eye. e an-

the latter, exclusive of the occipital ring. The posterior limb of the cephalic shield extends out laterally at nearly right angles to the longitudinal axis. Movable cheeks low convex, tuberculated, with a rounded at margin ; ocular sinus moderate. General outline of

>

Sf

254 WB. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley.

&

cephalic shield not thoroughly defined in the specimens. Tho- rax and pygidium unknown. :

Locality—Calciferous. Ledge D, Rochdale, N. Y. Frag- ments of half a dozen individuals found.

CEPHALOPODA.

Cyrtoceras Vassarina, n. sp. Fi nd 8.

_ Shell stout, large and smooth, varying in the same individual rom 1™ to 2™" in thickness; considerably curved in most specimens ; the transverse-section is more or less distorted by

one-fifth shorter than-the dorso-ventral axis. Taper gradual, about one part to nine near the chamber of habitation. ta from 10 to 15 or more to the inch, deeply concave, the ‘concavity exceeding by one-half the depth of the interseptal spaces; their marginal sutures but slightly curved along the lateral margins, arching somewhat forward toward the concave ventral margin, and very strongly forward toward the convex dorsal margin. The extent of this forward deflection near the dorsal and siphuncular side, about equals three of the inter: — septal spaces, while that near the ventral side is somewhat less — than one interseptal space. In several of the most marked specimens, the line joining in a cross-section, the points of max!l- — mum deflection to the front, on the opposite margins (shown DY the dotted line in fig. 7a), would show a considerable angular deviation from the dorso-ventral line. iphunele marginal, somewhat flattened, and of moderate proportional size, which is probably somewhat variable in dif- ferent individuals of the species. In the specimen described

The chamber of habitation is capacious. Locality —Oaleif

especially at Ledge D.

W. B. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley. 255

This is one of the most prominent and abundant of the ortho- ceratites in the Wappinger Creek valley; it occurs mostly in small fragments, sometimes closely crowded together; the largest known specimens have an incomplete length of five or six inches, implying a complete one of eight or nine inches. Several orthocerata of the latter length have been collected which are probably referable to this species, but lack of evi- dence as to the septa and siphuncle leaves the question at present in doubt. Although the specimens here described, and many similar ones, appear to belong under “ Cyrtoceras,” yet there is reason for doubt on this point. This arises from the presence of quite a number of orthoceratites closely resem- bling these, as faras can be judged in their imperfect state, but which are nearly or quite straight. It is possible that this latter group on further examination may disclose a specific difference in the shape of the cross-seetion, and especially in the rate of increase in the diameter of the shell which seems to differ from the taper above described. A local name has been assigned in honor of the college in whose vicinity these Specimens occur.

Cyrtoceras ? dactyloides, n. sp.

Siph barely perceptible flattening parallel to the margin: it is on the convex dorsal side; and is proportionally large for a Cyrto-

_ than 2™™", or one-fourth the diameter of the shell at that point, _ while at the larger end, its diameter is 3°75™™ or about one-

third the whole diameter of that portion. This species bears —

considerable resemblance to Orthoceras sordidum Billings (Can.

Net ead:G eol., vol. iv, Calciferous group), yet the aus,

| dian fossil, the type specimen of which, by the kindness

=

(ot a Eh Be Sn ‘ ee eer Ng . x PAR sy et Gite

256 .W. B. Dwight— Fossils of the Wappinger Valley.

Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, I have been able to examine, differs in several points, as lack of curvature, less proportional size of siphuncle, different shape of cross-section, stronger forwa arching of the septa near the siphancle, and other features. Locality—Calciferous, Ledge D, Rochdale, N. Y.

Cyrtoceras microscopicum, i. sp.

Fig. 11 Shell very small and with exceedingly thin, delicate walls. It is known only in the exhibition of a longitudinal section of a single specimen. It is much curved on the inner margin,

and very moderately on the outer one; its taper is apparently

very rapid, but as some of this appearance may be due to pos- sible obliquity of the section, no definite rate can be stated. Septa extremely delicate and crowded together at the rate of about 96 to the inch, with a gentle concavity, and meeting the dorsal and ventral margins at the same level. Neither the siphuncle nor the cross-section are known. The only specl men collected has a length of 6°5™™, while the transverse diam- eters at the extremities are respectively 5™™ an Locality—F, Calciferous, Rochdale, N. Y.

Locality—Calciferous, Ledge D, Rochdale, N. Y.

Orthoceras Henrietta n. sp. Figs. 13, 14 and 14a,

one to ten, annulated, with generally from eight to ten Tl

‘

_ “nstriction on that side near the front.

pee

W. B. Dwight—Fossile of the Wappinger Valley. %'T

ellipticity of three to one, much greater than that indicated in ure

Siphunele lateral, but probably not marginal, circular, with a diameter of a little less than a millimeter (zz inch), where the shell has a diameter of 6:3"™, Locality—Calciferous, one or two specimens at Ledge D, but chiefly at locality F, Roch- dale, N. Y. i

I have thought it proper to give these graceful orthocerata a Specific name in honor of Mrs. Henrietta Manning of New

ork City, since her generous contributiorg toward the ex- Penses of developing this field of paleontological research have much facilitated the work and have constituted her a patron of Science,

Oncoceras vasiforme, n. sp. Figs. 10 and 10a.

aye vertical section, nearly, but not quite, at right angles

with the dorso-ventral axis. ‘Shell small and delicate (4° in length and gmm maximum width), amount of curvature Un-

and gently ; one margin in the vertical section exhibited, is °0Vex externally throughout to the aperture, the sh

‘8 Convex for about one-half the distance and sees ae % ae changes into a gentle‘concave line, showing a special Dut sig ae

<

Fig. 26. Profile view of sam Fig. 3. Pygidium of

258 W. B. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley.

From the above mentioned position of maximum ventri- cosity in the chamber of habitation, the shell diminishes with a rapid taper posteriorly to the apex. At the distance, how- ever, of eight or nine septa from the first one, the rate of taper,

which up to that point has been as one to three, diminishes a

- little for the remaining apical portion, causing a slight concay-

ity in 15 outline in that vicinity.

made across this fossil 4™ anterior to its posterior termination, reveals one (dorsal ?) half of the transverse section and shows that the complete section must be a little elliptical (if not = The siphuncle, which is shown in this section near the end of the longer axis of this semi-ellipse, is very small, with a diameter of *65™" where the shell has a diameter of 6™™; it is circular and quite close to the shell, though not actually in contact. The septa are frequent, about twenty- three to the inch, two or three nearest the chamber of habita- _ snes much closer together. ney are nee Liste

tained in the cross-cut of Sie: position of the eee removes

all doubt that it is a distinct species. It is certainly no nearer

to O. constrictum Hall, and appears to be new.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.—WAPPINGER VALLEY FOSSILS.

e specimens here illustrated are — the Calciferous (?) at Rochdale, 4

All N. Y., and are represented in their natural siz

BATHYURUS i TAURIFRONS.

Fig. 1. Glabella and fixed cheeks, the ormer showing the furrows and median

ng t gular line. The furrows apa r much too conspicuous in the cut. Fig. la, Profile view of the same s

pecimen. sane a Fig. 2. A pygidium found in close pro | » the above, probably of the

species, if not of the same indivi verse contour of the enteror

@ pygi another fadividaal of same species, showing distinctly the two posterior es on the axis. ;

%

_ Fig. 2a. Vertical transverse section of the ae: " showing the elevation and — | a limb. .

W. B. Dwight—Fossils of the Wappinger Valley. 259

BATHYURUS (?) CROTALIFRONS. Fig. 4. View of a gutta percha - taken from a natural mould, showing the glabella and fixed chee Fig. 4a. Profile view of s Fig. 5. View of gutta percha ‘cast of pa ee of the i ebegs i rei of ing the o

ted on the right side of the glabella, especially the sich ines han fn acter belonging perhaps to some other individual.

ORTHOCERAS VASSARINA. Fig. 7. adi view of a ternal cast, carrying portions of the smooth shell, owing euatty the chamber of habitation, septal sutures, and curva- nies of the septa. The smooth surface to the right mane, % has been ; polished to show the siphuncle which appears i sa che fi Fig. Ta. Transverse section of upper portion of same, showing the oak tion of the siphunel in part of fig. the dorso-ventral axis. The sags part of this section shows a dis- sae mee by flattening. The broken straight eb oe the points of - mum forward deflection or the septal su Fig. 8. Dorval arose of internal mould (wi og dpe of shell) of another individual, showing the upward arching ee the septa, and the m: ok gana siph nuncle- a little pai at its points of junction with the septa.

CYRTOCERAS DACTYLOIDES. Fig. 9, A yes defined specimen, the lower third of which is the eylindri rnal mould, showing the sutures, while the upper two-thirds cgi i secti me, showing the

Fi arge marginal siphon, and the curvature of the sep 'g. 9a. A transverse aon at “the lower end, showing the size of the eiphapole: at that poin

ONCOCERAS VASIFORME. Fig. 10. A ari vertical median plane section, not iiies rectangular to the ventral ax

Fig. 10a, ‘. artificial transverse section of the rete 4m from the lower end, showing the position of the siphun

Cristiani MICROSCOPICUM.

Pe ILA eet vertical median —_ section passing probably nearly in the plane of the dorso-ventaal a

ORTHOCERAS SPISSISEPTUM. ie 12 & hetural longitudinal section, showing a few of the septa.

" ORTHOCERAS HENRIETTA.

Fig. 13. 4 Sagemoepi vertical section showing the chamber of habitation, and some of the septate

Rig. 14. A similar , Somewhat oblique section of another individual, showing ee

siphuncle nal lower e: Fig. la. a polished transverse section of the lower end of the same showing the : _ position of ¢ the siphuncle. '

260 B. F. Koons—Kettle-Holes near Wood’s Holl, Mass.

Art. XXX.—Upon the Kettle-Holes near Wood's Holl, Mass. ; by Professor B. F. Koons.

In the study of the glacial phenomena about Wood’s Holl, Mass., I have gathered many facts concerning the Kettle-Holes of the region as to depth, size, direction of the longer axis, their groupings, and other points, which may throw light upon their origin. No special study of them as regards some of these points had been made, and, therefore, without previous convictions as to what conclusion the facts would lead, 1 deter- mined during the last summer to give them a careful examina- tion as far as my work in connection with the United States Fish Commission at Wood’s Holl would allow. Professor War- ren Upham, who has made many observations on the terminal

moraine along southern New England and the adjoining islands, regards the deposits as a part of that terminal moraine, and others hold the same opinion. There is perhaps no more re -markable region on the whole line than the vicinity of Wood's Holl, both over the point of the main-land, and on the adjoining eastern islands, Uncatina, Nonamesset, and Naushon, of the Elizabeth group, which extend southwestward between Buz- zard’s Bay on the north and Vineyard Sound and the ocean on the south. The trend of this group of islands is north 60° east. The hills are masses of earth, sand, gravel and bowlders tum- bled together in the greatest confusion. In places the surface is well covered with granite and gneiss bowlders, some 0 gigantic size, as will be seen by reference to table No. 2. The theory that this isa part of the terminal moraine, seems - i when the country is viewed from some of the high ills a mile or two to the east of Wood's Holl. To the south west stretches away the long line of islands; and to the north-

zard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound, where the land is not mor than three-fourths of a mile wide. One of these localities of

fe d

m

jf

1

a

B. F. Koons—Kettle-Holes near Wood’s Holl, Mass. 261

(No. 18 on the map below) upon the steep border, seventy- three feet above the bottom.

At another place, upon a similar deposit several feet thick,

lies a bowlder weighing several tons. On the island of Nau-

shon, opposite Tarpaulin Cove, upon the summit of a hill over feet above the sea-level and where the island is not more than two-thirds of a mile wide, there is a stratified deposit. which has been partly cut away by the winds and thus its char- acter made known. It has at top a bed of fine yellow sand ten inches thick; beneath this a layer of white or smoky white sand, then again a black layer, and beneath this a ferruginous layer two inches thick, all very similar to those of Gay Head at the west end of Martha’s Vineyard. And within a few rods of this stratified deposit the surface over a considerable area is - completely covered with bowlders, two of which, Nos. 7 and 8 of table No. 2, are of unusual size.

) ox y nee st s 4 ee gs a bie) pave grat. 4 fe ( fe 9 nha PD & Yy Y CaF 8s fy el aa é of a eae ww 8)

oe AR ‘ Sea ee 2 . | P oR gt s ~ g s ad 4h ae e oe wr Seale of. miles. : ve

OST ENE Fd ania ies Map of the vicinity of Wood's Holl and the neighboring Elizabeth Islands, showing: ositions and direction of the larger diameter of the Kettle-Holes. _ .

of only

In my study of thi ion I kept a record generally é ts yo is region ep gs ae

mules, were carefully. holes could be bites ke

6

7 hy é We eget Y gon

262 B. F. Koons—Kettle-Holes near Wood's Holl, Mass.

owner of the land that its depth is eighteen feet. The map — here given, shows with approximate correctness, the distribu- tion of the kettle-holes, and also the direction of the longer axes. By a glance at the map it will be seen that the general trend of the longer axes is nearly that of the terminal moraine.

Some few kettle-holes were found with circular depressions and these were omitted, but all with the longer diameter trans- verse to the general trend were measured and recorded.

Over the hilly region to the northeast of Wood’s Holl, many of the gulleys or ravines ran northeast and southwest, about in line with the trend of the Elizabeth Island; the hills also have largely this direction. The small bays among the islands usually have their longest axis trending approximately north- east and southwest. .

Some of these kettle-holes are upon a truly grand scale; as for example No. 61, which contains several smaller within

forty feet above the small lake at its center; and on the sout

side, near its border, but upon still higher ground, bowlder No.

6, of table No. 2, stands projected against the southern sky

like a huge sentinel as the observer views it from the bottom —of this immense pit.

_It occurred to me before entering upon this study, that pos- sibly observations on the direction of the longer axis, the side upon which the highest border is found, position of the outlet, distribution, ete., might throw light on the origin of these kettle-. holes. But there seems to be no uniformity in any of these characters except the first and second. After examining all the facts, I am led to conclude that the arrangement of this axi8 — supports the theory that the depressions were made by ice. 1 cases it appears as if a long, narrow block of ice, broken from the front of the glacier, had lodged against the material which was in front of it, and then had become covered up OY other materials; finally on melting it left the long kettle-hole with a high southern border. A couple of these are found just at the edge of the village of Wood's Holl, while in many others the appearance suggests that the ice mass was covered by terial from the northwest, and the result was a kettle-hole with a high steep northwest border. Many of the kettle-holes hav ing either a high border on the southeast or northwest, OF 3p proximating these points, seem to sustain this view. In a

r si

Ns Tae fe Hs 1d . '<

B. EF. Koons—Kettle-Holes near Wood’s Holl, Mass. 263

Slope of the island. I could command time for only one day's work upon this island, and in it was assisted by Professor

upon the point. As to those upon Nonamesset, the mainland,

No. 1. - On the Mainland. ‘ D wo, Phosienct Egualtl. Heoarht Meteo Blehert dle, Pelt 1 N.10°W. 12rods. Grods. 10ft, 25 E. ft. 2 N.40°R 8 6 4 25 5 3 N.50° E. 7 5 5 24 E 3 eR 40° WP 46 6 5 30 5 5 N. 10° W. 6 3 5 “9 E. by N ae 6 N.50°R 40 25 45 15 6 7 N.20° W 30 12 18 40 Seas 6 SON, 20° & 10 4 12 25 ---+ ee BOON. 16° 10 3 15 Lu Ned 10 N.20° 5 7 5 20 mide -~ : N. 25° E 40 12 bo 76 N.E 2 : N. 30° E 15 25 50 N.E ot “ N. 5° E 25 10 40 68 S.W -* 44 NN. 38° E 12 10 rs 26 SE. a : N. 60° E 8 5 5 25 8. by E -- : N. 5° R 25 8 45 66 W.W:48E. <. Bae 20 10 25 60 8. a 5 40° E 60 43 42 73 N. -- o Nase gs 7 ee ny 20 N, 20° 30 10 6 5.W . we N. 35° EF 30 12 25 95 8.S.E. -- - N.10° W 16 9 “ag 50 -- 23 N.80°H. 50 40 25 a iar al 24 +N.10°R 10 6 Os 38 E.S.E. 3 On the Island of Uncatina. 25 NOR 25 10 8 18 N.W. -- 26s N, 60° BE,’ 18 q 5 0 N.E. oo 27 N. 8 6 4 25 N.NS -- ee M.90° R16 12 12 N. - on N. 28°, ag 20 12 25 S.E. N. 30 16 z q 17 ay N. 30° | ll 3 25 8 -- "7 5 23 ete Ae

* At the level of the outlet.

Oo BIH ow ne

SS iy jae Pe

MPO ez 7

bg ct ng at long axi

Greatest length. 24 tt. 24

On the Island of Nonamesset.

Length of can be - ies as Highest Position of Depth of long axis.* short a utlet. . border. highest border. water. 12 6 ae ft 30 s. 4 ft. 10 5 5 35 N. 5 14 9 10 35 W. ae 20 12. 5 40 N. 5 12 7 8 28 N.W. ee 6 4 2 28 N. ae 6 4 5 20 E. “ 20 10 16 28 W. by.8. oe 8 4 12 20 W. q 4 10 25 S.S. W. Abie 13 5 10 25 Wty Sw 16 9 12 30 N.W. ace 8 5 5 25 8. E. 5 8 3 5 18 N.W. Fe 18 8 7 20 a oe 18 6 14 23 B. a 18 3 8 50 5. 3 8 4 4. 25 N. by E. 2 20 12 5 26 N.N.W. ar 60 25 15 30 N. 6 On the Island of Naushon, . 60 40 1850 va More 20 8 10 25 N. swamp 20 8 5 35 saw os = 18 12 4 35 be iat -- 20 6 8 40 inafa'e -- 30 4 6 50 Ee see “- 6 4 5 25 wees ee 40 6 20 45 pee 75 40 40 150 S.W. 5 ft 80 10 25 100 S. by W 5 10 5 e 32 55 S.W. 5 * At the level of the outlet. No. 2. . Dimensions of Bowlders. Greatest height Greatest ep picton urface width. and, — ee 2 10 ft. 9 Of Center of onde 10 4 Center of N ance) and buried very deep in groun 18 7 Center of Sonaciianet; and buried very : Il 6 9 6 10 5 15 12 18 4 16 16

(264 BL FE. Koons—Kettle-Holes near Wood's Holl, Mass.

r Physical Theory of Secular Changes in Climate. 268

Arr. XXXI—Ezamination of Mr. Alfred R, Wailace’s Modifi- cation of the Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate ; by JAMEs Crott, LL.D., F.RS.

[Continued from page 93.]

4 Iy the examination of Mr. Wallace’s main argument, I shall _ _ __ Consider it, first, in relation to physical principles, and, secondly, ™m relation to geological and paleontological facts.

L Physies in relation to Mr. Wallace's Modification of the Theory.

;

:

: _ The grand modification, that during the height of the glacial = epoch the snow and ice would not disappear when precession g brought the winter solstice round to perihelion, I have already . siven in Mr. Wallace’s own words. As the reasons which he assigns for this modification are very briefly stated by him, I ___may here give them also in his words.

2 ter describing the state of Northeastern America and the North Atlantic, to which I have already alluded, he says:

foetal epoch), can we suppose that the mere change from the istant sun in winter and near sun in summer, to the reverse,

could bring about any important alteration—the physical and geo- hical causes of glaciation remaining unchan, For, cer- ainly, the less powerful sun of en though lasting some-

ms to me = ation has been brought about by high eccentricity combined with favorable geographical and : iti 7 may a, 41

_ bination it is doubtful whether extreme glaciation would ever occur),

but these ice-sheets cannot, I believe, increase or diminish to any ce. ot extent unless some geographical or physical change first eres. ee LOO | cs = Again,—“ It is quite evident that during the height of the lacial | ee i there was a combination of causes at work | : oS ae of Northwestern Europe and Eastern America b

Se s ® 2 = 5 o (mag ° a | © & o> ® a | o a = or Ps 5 = 2 Q é E 4

¥

266 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the —

*

these causes we must reckon a diminution of the force of the Gulf- Stream, or its being diverted from the northwestern coasts 0 Europe; and what we have to consider is, whether the alteration from a long cold winter and short hot summer, to a short mild

winter and long cool summer would greatly affect the amount of

ice if the ocean-currents remained the same. The force of these currents are, it is true, by our hypothesis modified by the increase or diminution of the ice in the two hemispheres alternately, and they then react upon climate; but they cannot be thus changed till after the ice-accumulation has been considerably affected by other causes.” —p. 148.

There are some further reasons assigned, which will be con- d

recognized by Mr. Wallace in the above quotations, as well asin

astronomical agénts is to set and keep 'the physical agencies in i pee 8

* ‘Climate and Time,’ chap. iv; American Journal of Science, Oct» 1883; Phil. Mag. Oct., 1883. eee ig — eee

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 267

permanent and passive conditions enabling the active causes to produce their required effects. Had the Glacial epoch resulted from elevation of the land, as some geologists suppose, then

such means, nor by any change in the physical geography of the globe. <A certain geographical condition of things was, of Course, requisite in order to the effective operation of the astro- — homical and physical causes. This condition existed at the ime of the glacial epoch; and it is only in this sense that that epoch can be referred to any thing geographical.

It is true that a cause, as Sir William Hamilton states, may be defined as “all that without which the effect would not hap- pen;” but this is far too general an expression of cause for practical purposes. We therefore fix on the particular antece--

ent or antecedents, through the activity of which the event is tainly brought about, and term them the causes of the event, and the others the necessary conditions.

Tcannot help thinking that the way in which geographical Conditions are spoken of as causes of the Glacial epoch has tended to confusion.

During the Glacial epoch there were frequent submergences — and elevations of the land, or rather oscillations of sea-level, and these, it is true, would produce a change in the relative

_ &xtent of sea and land. But whether we sappose it to have been the sea which rose and fell in relation to the land, or “the land in relation to the sea, it equally follows that the geo- graphical change resulting therefrom could not possibly have been a cause of the glacial epoch. It is now a well-established. fact that submergence accompanied glaciation ; the glaciation ae may have been that which led to the submergence; but it could not possibly have been the submergence which led to the = glaciation. An elevation of the land would have favored gla- ce Clation, but submergence would not. Its tendency would rather — fe

2€ in the opposite direction. It is now also establi : that Oy during the continental period, or period of elevation, the cli- ee mate was warm and equable; for it was then, as has been ~

Temarked, that this country was invaded by tropical and sub- _ tropical animals, Now it is equally plain that the elevation

_ could not have been the cause of the heat Elevation of the _

land might produce cold, but it could not have been a cause of _

_ the heat. It follows therefore that the geographical change

*

-mate, if it had any, was in opposition to that of the astronom- eal and physical agencies. It would prove a hindrance nota

elp. Referring now to Mr. Wallace’s argument. When glacial conditions in the North Atlantic attained their maximum de-

lion, and the physical causes to remain unchanged. It 18 ussumed as possible that the astronomical conditions might be

o a | et me oe} > — fe s = a ra) BD oe ag oO er oO ee Qu ct 5 | 2) ard 4 =H ° me n 2) sss | ° § oD 2 jo]

n v solstice being in aphelion during a high state of eccentricity, 2 — glacial condition of things is produced, will the fact of the — solstice-point being moved round to perihelion remove the gla- 4 cial condition, if the physical causes remain unchanged m their mode of operation? My reply is, it certainly would not. Here — it is assumed that the physical causes are working in opposition to the astronomical; that when the solstice is in perihelion the —

action of the physical causes, instead of being reversed, as It should be according to theory, still continues to produce and | maintain a glacial state of things, the same as it did when the — solstice-point was in aphelion ; and he asks, will the astronomical causes in this struggle manage to overpower the physical and produce a melting of the ice? I unhesitatingly reply, n0;,70° the physical causes are far more powerful than the astronomical, The astronomical causes, as we have seen, are perfectly unable — to produce a glacial state of things without the aid of the nie ‘ ical. How, then, could we expect that they could remove this glacial state if the physical causes were actually working” against them. ee In thus setting the physical causes against the astronomical, Mr. Wallace is basing his argument for the non-disappearayy” of the snow and ice on a state of things which cannot possibly under the circumstances exist. His question, to have cons®™

An ‘ Bs

- hemisphere and to warm the other, toaccumu

bring about any important alteration—-the geo- graphical causes of glaciation remaining unchanged?” If the question is put thus, and it is the only form in which it can be pat to be consistent with the theory which Mr. Wallace him- self advocates, then my reply is, that the change from the distant sun in winter and near sun in summer to the near sun in winter and distant sun in summer, aided by the change in the physical causes which this would necessarily bring about, would certainly be sufficient to cause the snow and ice to dis- appear without any change in the geographical condition of things. The combined influence of the astronomical and phys- ical causes, when the winter solsticé is in perihelion, is perfectly sufficient to undo all that they had previously done when the solstice was in aphelion. When the action of the causes is

simply due to an elevation of the land, as some have argued, sai it would not likely have disappeared till the land became Owered. But it was the result of no such cause. It was due, hot to an elevation of the land, but to a number of physical sauses, brought into operation by a-high state of eccentricity. This Mr. Wallace fully admits and maintains. A certain geo-

and this was really all that geographical conditions had to doin.

the matter, Let this be observed, however, that the same geo-

of the cooling of the other. It is the transference of heat by

ion to the one in

€ latter warm. Hence a change in geographical conditions is”

‘Northern or the southern.

€ tendency of the combined influence of all the causes— astronomical, physical, and geographical—is to cool the one

el

late the ice on the

+ Sle

cde uate MTR OA Tee Hee pn) Maat SUNG ae PON Mae SPREE STUY MER ihe re Fa iMag Se %

270 J. Oroll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

one and remove it from the other. Consequently the same — total combination of causes which will produce an accumula — tion of ice on either hemisphere when the winter solstice isin — aphelion will produce a melting of that ice when the solstice — moves round the perihelion.

_ Another impossible condition assumed. — ‘‘ What we have to consider,” says Mr. Wallace, “is whether the alteration from

a long cold winter and short hot summer, to a short mild win- ter and long cool summer, would greatly affect the amount of | ice if the ocean-currents remained the same.” Here, again, we have an impossible state of things assumed. It is assumed that, notwithstanding the change from an aphelion to a_perihe- lion winter, the ocean-currents would still remain the same. And it is asked, would the. astronomical causes in this case remove the glaciation. I would be disposd to say that they would not.

diminish to any important extent unless some geographical or : physical change first occurs.” The first thing required to altech

perature of the polar and equatorial areas” for any increase |

C2 RAR at rR TE as ere Ny e q ft ee Rige” Write enti PEE ad deer Py i aay ‘ ie ie.

oe ‘. -

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 271

_ This Sweeping conclusion seems to“be based on two assump- _hons, both of which appear to me to be erroneous. First, that

___ been stated in a former article* in reference to the condition the antarctic continent, I think it is likely that it consists ot

: together by

: ‘Sheet of ice. In fact, it seems highly prob

rg okt of the ice rests on ’a surface w eve

hich is under the ;

Sea-]

gua 1 The Jee of Greenland and the Antarctic Continent not due to Hlevation of ne Land,” Phil. Mag. November, 1883. ae

the ice then disappeared.

In fact this is a result which would be even still more likely to occur were the views held by Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker an some others as to the nature of the antarctic ice proved to. be correct. Sir Joseph thinks that much’ of the Antarctic 1¢e- sheet, thousands of feet in thickness‘as it is, was formed by the successive accumulations of snow year by year on pack-ice. The snow fall in the Antarctic regions he believes to be enor- mous during both summer and winter; and as but a very small portion of it melts, the accumulated snow is perfectly sufficient to form such a sheet. He does not consider that there is land

interglacial period, be broken up, dispersed, and melted by an inflow of equatorial water. : I think, however, that the whole of that enormous sheet from

that there is much to favor the assumption that there are large areas within the antarctic circle consisting of low flat gro 1a islands separated by broad and shallow seas which have 2) — become filled with solid ice. It is quite possible that the 1c@

re

S = os

verted into ice, was + mass would gradually sink till it rested on the sea-bottom-7

* Phil. Mag., November, 1883, p. 357. : + In this eh I am glad to fina that Sir Joseph to a certain extent ae for in a letter to me on the subject he says:—“I cannot doubt but that parler rgs have originated from the ice of the great southern barrier; a0

- Suspect is that much of this barrier-ice originated in k-ice over ve bays, increase success 0 . age mer is enormous south of latitude 50°-60.° Certainly it fell on half the aye each ing the three seasons we spent in those seas, 2D@ © ©” —

° all 4U melt, but some of it remains year by year,

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 278

ene a it would assume all the characteristics of continental the North ng have oannies of things exactly similar in uring the heigh . :

mate and Time,’ p. eae cht of the glacial epoch (see ‘ Cli- f such be the condition of the antarctic ice, we can readily

the . yr * oat age of eccentricity on climate I cannot do better quote Mr. Wallace’s own words on the subject. Referring

toi ts effects on south temperate America, he says:

veo Th

" . p

with a high de ale rahe

ey £ gree of eccentricity in producing glaciation should C

°nsider how the condition of judi canara America

mow > ge = ae ae a 6200 feet high produce immense laciers which the sea-level; while in the latitude of Cumberland,

Valley j glacial epoch, when every hha oa. bose Cumberland, and Scotland had ‘ta glacier ; and to this state of things be imputed, if not to the fact that

in one in the Reeth fell every day. There is no summer melting of sn o ic as there is in the Arctic regions. It is the only region known to ”

ihe wh " ere there is perpetual snow on land at sea-level.

ions at the sea-level does not : ice | at the

Sea-ley year, then ‘tog whether it be on frozen pack or on the ground. must be a necessary — If this be so, it cannot be true, as My. Wallace affirms, that there-

mee ce, & * no Permanent ice formed but on high land.

ow andi. 7

274 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

there is now a moderate amount of eccentricity and the winter of the southern hemisphere is in aphelion ? The mere geograph- ical position of the southern extremity of America does not seem especially favorable to the production of such a state of glaciation,

he land narrows from the tropics southward, and terminates altogether in about the latitude of Edinburgh; the mountains are of moderate height ; while during summer the sun is three millions of miles nearer, and the heat received from it is equivalent toa | rise of 20° F: as compared with the same season in the northern hemisphere.”—P. 142.

. In a similar glacial condition are the islands of South Geor- 3 ga South Shetland, Graham Land, Enderby Land, Sandwich and. There can be little doubt that the present extension of ice in the antarctic regions is to a considerable extent due also to the influence of eccentricity. et us now glance for a moment at the influence which this

" -

ern. Another result which a follows, as has also been shown, is that the great a atorial e currents are made to lie at some distance to the nort uy

present small amount of eccentricity, how much greater mush: | have been the effect during the glacial epoch, when the ecceD” — tricity was more than three times its present value and the — southern winter also, as now, in aphelion! All those effects which we have just been considering would then have eee magnified far more than threefold. As

Climatic conditions of the two Hemispheres the reverse 10,000 e or 12,000 years ago: Argument —Ten or twelve thousand’

*

| , Jears ago, when our northern winter solstice was last in ap

Society of Glasgow in 18 co! ed tha’ time of the d tion ot

eee 67, I concluded that at the Cie) mice :

_ the Carse-cla a te: j te rature was probably 10° or 15° rthan “Clays the mean winter tempera | P | sf | age

_ Tim 403 :

te

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 275.

lion, the climatic conditions were in all probability the reverse

of what they are at present. There appears to be pretty good geological evidence that such was the case. This, under the present small amount of eccentricity, shows not only to what

an extent climate is affected by eccentricity, but also (and with

this we are at present more ‘particularly concerned) that its tendency is to cool the one hemisphere and warm the other, to accumulate the snow and ice on the one and melt them onthe - _ other. And this result, to a large extent, is doubtless brought

‘about by its influence on ocean-currents

There are good reasons for concluding, as Prof. J. Geikie has fully shown,* that at a very recent date (during the time of the formation of the 40-feet raised beach and the deposition of

i hhe regret the climate was much colder than it is at pres-. “ent,

he seas surrounding our Island appear to have hada lower temperature than they have at present; and our High-. land valleys seem to have been occupied by local glaciers.t The Carse-clays of Scotland are best developed in the val- leys of the Tay, the Earn, and the Forth. These deposits Consist of finely laminated clays and silt. ‘“ Now and again,” Says Prof. J. Geikie, “the ‘deposits consist of tough tenacious brick-clay, which does not differ in appearance from similar brick-clays of glacial age.” The clay is usually free from

A erie appear to coincide with the most recent period of Joc glaciers. . _ During that period some of the glaciers, as Professor Geikie has shown, appear to have even reached t

es Prehistoric furo ‘ 3 i _ pe. ; tn a paper “On the Obliquity of the Ecliptic,” read before the Geological —

Teeresent, and the Gulf-stream considerably Climate and e& pp. —410, , . : Pe

eet)

\

276 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

ee s+

For example, at the mouth of Glen Brora, in Sutherland, there is a well-marked moraine with large blocks resting upon, an apparently of the same age as, the deposits of the raised beach.* ert Chambers also observed moraine matter resting

upon the 30-feet beach at the opening of Glen Iorsa, in Arran. In many of the Highland sea-lochs, says Professor J. Geikie, glaciers appear to have come down to the sea and calved their icebergs there. This, he thinks, is probably the reason why the 40-50-feet beach is not often well seen at the heads of such sea-lochs. The glaciers seem in many cases to have flowed on for some distance into the sea, and thus prevented the forma- tion of a beach and cliff-line. ,

The greater magnitude and torrential character of the rivers _ of that period were no doubt due to the melting during sum- mer of great masses of snow and ice. The presence of the large Greenland whale, found frequently in the Carse deposits, would seem to indicate a somewhat colder sea than now sur- rounds our island. A decrease of temperature of the sea 1s what would necessarily occur from a slight diminution in the volume of the Gulf-stream, arising from the greater deflection of equatorial water into the southern hemisphere. ig : nother circumstance deserves notice here, as it seems to indicate that the climatic conditions of the two hemispheres — were at the period of the Carse clays the reverse of what they ce) are at present. During that period the sea stood higher in relation to the land than it does at the present time. To this — circumstance alone no great importance can be attached; but

probability is further increased by the fact that during the growth of the ancient Forest, which immediately underlies the lent t notes

when the winter solstice was in perihelion; and at this time owing to a somewhat greater amount of eccentricity than a * ‘Prehistoric Europe,’ p. 411. ne ian Those who doubt the equable and warmer character of the climate of pee submarine Forest-bed period should study the mass of evidence on this pr ‘given in ‘ Prehistoric Kurope,’ can } For the probable dates of the Carse-clays and the submarine Forest-beds age Appendix | |

4 :

i ”

St ea ee 5 ES

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 977

present, the quantity of ice on the southern hemisphere might be expected to be greater and that on the northern less than now

Forest flourished 10,000 or 12,000 years prior, the winters were

in perihelion, and there was a fall of sea-level, due in all likeli-

hood to the preponderance of ice on the southern hemisphere.

But this is not all: the strata which underlie the buried Forest ]

level, which took place during the latter part of the Postglacial period, are just what should have taken place on the supposi- tion that they were the result of those astronomical and phys- leal agents which we have been consi ering. us, imme-

"Wight belong to a period 50,000 years prior to the Carse-days; but I am now sat- eee _ isfied that the ot beaches both belong to the period of the Carse-clays, as Pro- oe fessor ikio 9 : : es Ae

A

‘ za

ia na

matic conditions are brought about on the two hemispheres; that, when the winters are in perihelion, the melting of the snow and ice and the increase of the Gulf-stream and other northward-flowing currents are as necessary a result as were the formation of the snow and ice and the decrease of the Gulf stream and those currents when the winters were in aphelion. And if this holds true in reference to recent and postglacial imes, when the eccentricity was small, it must, for reasons — which will presently be stated, hold true in a higher degree in reference to the glacial epoch, when the eccentricity was more — than three times its present-value. Melting of the Ice.—-When the winter solstice is in aphelion It sets in operation, according to theory, as has been shown,4 —

action of the physical agents, one another. ‘The effect of this mutual reaction is very

winters are in aphelion, but their efficiency in bringing about: this result is actually strengthened by their mutual reactions — on one another. ‘To illustiate this effect I quote the following

i : aoa

from a former article: Be, ‘To begin with, we have a high state of eccentricity. This — leads to long and cold winters. The cold leads to snow, and -

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 79

tion increases, because the quantity of snow and ice melted . becomes thus annually less and less. In addition, the loss of

the rays cut off by the fogs lowers the temperature of the air ; and leads to more snow being formed, while again the snow _ thus formed chills the air still more and increases the fogs. ___ Again, during the winters of a glacial epoch, the earth would be radiating its heat into space. Had this loss of heat simply ~ lowered the temperature, the lowering of the temperature would have tended to diminish the rate of loss; but the result 18 the formation of snow rather than the lowering of the tempe- rature,

tropics more to the warm hemisphere than to the cold. Sup- posing the northern hemisphere to be the cold one, then, as the

of that hemisphere, more particularly the Gulf-stream, begin to. decrease in volume, while those on the southern or warm hem-

tease. On the other hand, as the ocean-currents diminish, — the snow and ice still more accumulate. Thus the two effects, _ 4so far as the accumulation of snow and ice is concerned, mu- i tually strengthen each other.’

a 1s

187-140 (“Island Life’) he gives a very clear statement of the

€lfect of these mutual reactions in the production of glaciation, and says that were it not for them it is probable the astronom- teal and other causes would not in our latitudes have been suffi-_

_ TMust have underestimated their importance as regards the 5 _ moval of the glaciation. He, however, recognizes the 4 i _ that these mutual reactions produce an a ieee effect on t es

i on, a

_ Me by means o 4nd all this again reacts on the northern hemisphere, increasi ee _ Yet further the supply of moisture by the more powerful ae

7

280 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the :

westerly winds, while still further lowering the temperature by — the southward diversion of the Gulfstream.’

Now if, during the glaciation of the northern hemisphere, these mutual reactions produce the opposite effect on the south- ern hemisphere, it is evident that they must produce this same opposite effect on the northern hemisphere when its winter solstice is in perihelion. Their effect then would be to increase — the temperature and melt the ice. When the winter solstice is moving towards the aphelion, the physical agents begin to act and also to react on one another, and this action and reaction goes on increasing in intensity till the solstice-point reaches the aphelion ; but an exactly similar thing is going on in the other hemisphere, only the effects are the reverse. While the actions and reactions leading to an accumulation of ice are increasing — in intensity, we shall suppose, on the northern hemisphere, the — same increase is taking place on the southern hemisphere; but —

the cold periods the greater would be the amount melted during | the warm interglacial periods. .

Another reason assigned why the ice does not melt.—Mr. Wal- lace assigns the following as an additional reason wh the ice does not disappear during the interglacial periods when the eccentricity is high : :

big

a ‘ #

upon it, its temperature cannot be raised above the freezing-point

comes filled with fog, and this keeps off the sun-heat, and then snow falls even during summer, and the stored-up cold does not

the adjacent ice. It follows that; towards the equatorial limits

For'the past nineteen years I have been maintaining that, when a country ig covered with ice, it becomes a permanent

all along maintained this to have been one of the chief causes”

Which led to the country being so deeply covered with ice.

Ih fact, had it not been for some such conservative, power In

the - a glacial epoch resulting from the causes which I have na

ll next consider Geological and Paleontological facts

é - a 40 relation to Mr. Wallace’s modification.

~ AM. Jour, Sor.—Tairp Series, VoL. XXVII, No. 160.—ApRu, 1884. 19

282 T. N. Dale—Geology of Phode Island.

Art, XXXIL—A Contribution to the Geology of Rhode bland ; by T. Nretson DAL.

[Continued from page 228.]

Dutch Island.—The mica schist and conglomerate of 116, Beaver Head, recur here at 128; the conglomerate, measuring two feet, reappears at 129; the mica schist is garnetiferous, plicated and folded. These plications characterize the whole east side of the island. A remarkably fine section of them is exposed at a small recess between the upper and lower docks, 130, where, in a cliff fifteen feet high, the schists are folded two or three times, the last fold being directly over the first, and the strike N.N.E. At one place a fold has ruptured and a fault ensued. Portable and most instructive specimens of — plicated schist can here be obtained. One such, measuring now 54’’X10” x# inches, when each bend is measured, gives

are

1

no outcrops. At 134, two beds of highly carbonaceous and graphitic schist, separated by a layer of light colo

= 5 fins ith rang

PST Ge Po ae

.

T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 283

mica schist and conglomerate, dip 45° E.S.E. It is quite pos- sible that these pass horizontally into the regular graphitic coal. In proximity to them at 134 is a layer of carbonaceous, -garnetiferous argillyte. At 135 the mica schist dips 70° E.S.E. | Packard's Rocks, Bonnet Point, Narraganset Pier.—At 188, on the mainland, West Passage, alternating dark and light mica schists, without garnets, dip 85°-40° E., the difference between them lying in the relative proportion of black mica. ese schists extend north to Plum Beach and N.W. to 187 and be- yond, and recur south at Packard’s Rocks with the same dip. There the light colored layers are a highly metamorphosed grit with some large quartz pebbles. At 138, one and one-quarter mile south, these rocks dip 25°-35° E.S.E., then 25°-30° > Saale are crossed by a granite vein. North of the ‘South Ferry” the dip is E.S.E., and a vein eight feet thick of cream-colored granite crosses H.S.H.—W.N.W. about verti- cally. The mica schists recur just south of the ferry, and, at 139, are disturbed by a vein mass of cream-colored granite, 25'-50’ thick, with large crystals of feldspar and mica an large masses of unerystallized feldspar and quartz. A little south of 139 the schist contains nodules of feldspar and quartz and dips 25°-45° E.S.E. It makes up the whole of the cliff, here sixty feet high, “the Bonnet,” dipping as high as 60° but averaging 45° E.S.E., and crossed by veins of granite. On the other side of Wesquage Beach the light and dark mica schists recur and southward to Watson’s Pier and 140; dip 55°-75° E. 10° Numerous granite veins, from }” to 3!

It River, and also at 142, on the.other side, occurs a fine grained, light colored granite or gneiss. The next outcrop south is just

_ Ward it becomes finer grained and its feldspar ieee colored

Until near Quohog Rock it differs considerably from that of

Narraganset Pier. Between 144 and Point Judith Light, two

*

284 ZN. Dale-Geolagy of Rhode Island.

granite or gneiss ledges occur. Jackson, on bis map, indicates plumbago in granite two miles west of Bonnet Point, and the range of Tower Hill back of the river he has down as granite and gneiss.

CoNCLUSIONS.

Stratigraphical_—From the stratification at 46, 58, 17, on Newport Neck, and at 148, near Narraganset Pier, it is evident that the protogine masses of that neck are not intrusive, and it is therefore improbable that that of Conanicut is so. As pro- togine occurs also at West Island, and thus on both sides of the Carboniferous basin, it seems highly probable that all these masses .of protogine belong to the same metamorphic bed or series of beds, and that these isolated masses in the center were thrown up either before or after the deposition of the Car- boniferous strata or partially at both times. No eastward dips have been observed in the eastern half of the main protogine tract of Newport Neck, but for convenience such have been assumed. If the dip is uniformly W.N.W., a fault must be assumed at Almy’s Pond between the protogine and the Car- boniferous beds, or an original unconformity must be supposed to have been subsequently changed to a conformity in direc- tion, but not in angle of dip; for the metamorphism of a bed

overlying carbonaceous, fossiliferous beds into protogine ve :

highly improbable and intrusion. has been shown to be out 0 the question.

In intimate contact with these isolated masses of protogine

we find, at the Dumplings and Bailey’s Beach, certain epidotic

and chloritic schists, some parts of which closely resemble the —

chlorite schist of ‘‘ Paradise,” which, therefore, on lithological grounds, would, together with its associated mica schists, seem

n

Rose Islands we find them below the “ Quartz and Clay Aggte ate.” The dotted line on the map, from Castle Hill to Rose — sland, the Gull Rocks, Coaster’s Harbor Island, Little Lime — Rock and Brenton’s Cove, bounds the probable submarine ¢X- _ tension of these rocks near Newport. Bai the western bound- 4 ary of this tract almost touches the chloritic and epidotic © schists of the Dumplings, which dip about easterly; and the — chloritie argillytes of the northern half of Newport Neck dip H.S.E.; therefore, probably, the latter overlie the former

pe Bl Bi

Again, the chloritic argillytes at 71, west of Price’s Neck, are underlaid by a layer of ferruginous chlorite, which occurs also

SIN ela ot goa Mn gh ON a NR Bree Nh ae Sy EO iia hg aS gs ee CET ee OS Ee i re og) oe

_ May be supposed that they come up an

LT. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 285

in Church’s Cove, Little Compton, at the base of these argil- lytes and near the protogine; and a ferruginous chlorite o slightly different appearance occurs near the top of the proto- gine at Bailey’s Beach; and it is natural that rocks abounding in chlorite should be followed by some a little less chloritic. For all these reasons the normal position of the chloritic argil- lytes would seem to be above the chloritic and epidotic schists of 15 and 17 and the chlorite and hornblende schists. of —

Paradise,”

The dolomite at 94 and the Lime Rocks is associated with purple slate, and these slates belong to the chloritie argillytes, and so the dolomite. These two outcrops, as stated by

inne it is evident that the Series of (what may be provisionally termed) Pre-Carboniferous rocks is but incompletely repre Sented at any one point. Thus at Rose Island the Carbonifer- ous rocks rest on the chloritie argillytes, at Sachuest Neck on the siliceous argillytes, but in Conanicut directly upon the pro- togine, On Newport Neck the siliceous argillytes lie upon the

Protogine, but in Little Compton apparently the chloritic argil- lytes take that place. On Newport Neck the siliceous are J8Xtaposed to the chloritic argillytes, but their relative age is n0t clear. The following indications, however, throw some

light on the question. The Conglomerate I associated with the

Siliceous argillyte at Sachnest Neck contains pieces of ret Jasper, and that occurs in this vicinity only in connection with the dark purple slates and dolomite of the chloritic argillyte “cries, At 66 the siliceous argillyte contains fragments

. At 6 | chloritic argillyte. The conflicting flexures throughout the

ys'on diminish the value of dip indications; but it is notice- able that the dip of the chloritic argillytes on Newport Neck is almost uniformly toward the siliceous argillytes, and that as the former nowhere come up again to complete t

Gh before reaching the exposed portion of the protogine on the neck, F he relative strike of the st

" rom t gut ag .. at Sachuest Neck and that of the chloritic argillytes of Little a

*

iliceous argillytes

986 T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island.

Compton it seems probable that the former overlie the latter unless we suppose the protogine to recur under water on the east side of Sachuest Neck. Serpentine in layers and minute veins is characteristic of the siliceous argillytes, and Jackson found that in the northern part of the State chlorite and horn- blende slate are followed by dolomite or serpentine, i. e the chloritic rocks underlie the serpentines. From these data it seems somewhat probable that the true position of the siliceous argillytes with serpentine is above the chloritic argillytes with dolomite.

The lowest rocks of certain Carboniferous age, the quartz and clay aggregates of Sachuest Neck, recur at Rose, Coasters Harbor and Conanicut Islands. Lying upon them in Mackerel

ove, and also probably at Coaster’s Harbor Island, are the argillaceous schists with siderite and pyrites, in all probability belonging to the same horizon as the Easton’s Point argillytes with pyrites (lower argillytes of first paper) which there under- lie conglomerate II, and which, on account of their relation to

Re eee

3 Ss © oO ié 2] > Fras} fon] a g Me oe Heat yy 5 32 8 aaah 3" 4 ) ny a SB © “<< = oO o S — o ° w o 4 S co - S Oo ra) Qu a. =e [oF o Seg = o Q go ) Oo bed S (TQ oO me — = s p ee 2 & ‘ ° =. oO 2% = = no ge 2) po a jo) ee < 5 ?

& ge - ae) g fo) =, | ° 4 ° a a & fe) 5 S > 2 ° =) oy ic) a S r o S oe 2) _ ‘s =] 3 Lory re) 3 oan

=

& th 4°) - ™m Soe = ° 5 er = => ) =, © 8 at “J wm a = on 3 ° he 3 —_ al a] S on at O° (2) r=] eet 2. e) ot th So pon)

the outcrops of conglomerate above the “Cliffs” series to which Professor Ch. Hitchcock alludes on the east side of Almy$ Pond, and which he coérdinates with that of Miantonomah il]. What relations exist between the coal-measures of “ The Cliffs” and the epidotie and chloritic schists south of Sheep — Point is uncertain. A fault has been supposed and the slicken-

oe

:

T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. —- 287

4 was formed by erosion of the softer beds. But this does not explain the presence of the coal-measures between the epidotic schists at 14 on the S.E. and the protogine at 44 on the N.W ust resort to the supposition either of Archzan Islands and shallows in the Carboniferous estuaries, or of a double system of faults or of folds followed by erosion of the softer beds.

besides, the protogine at ‘the pier is not prevalent, the rock being more enerally micaceous than chloritic, whereas the pposite case exists at Newport and Conanicut. From the relative dip and position of the mica schists of Bonnet Point, etc., and of the gneiss, granite and protogine south, these mica schists would seem to overlie the latter, but if we consider them as “ pre-carboniferous ” a question as to their relations to the epidotic, chloritie and hornblendic schists, which in other sa Succeed the protogine, arises. They may provisionally Supposed as synchronous with these or as underlying them. In accordance with these views the accompanying geologi Map and section have been prepared. They continue west- ward, the map (Plate I), and the general section (Plate IIT), of the first paper,* and the following table enumerates an de-

_ Scribes all the beds of the south end of Narraganset Bay in

* The la “ : a: yers of “quartz and clay aggregate” in con with protogine i Mackerel Cove are more inclined ane in the section, and the overlying sideritic what like the beds of Dutch are § d to dip away in ease of the chloritic argillytes, in — of first paper, at the other side of the basin, hical possibility that these beds dip against the y i f ine in its center, and as the underly- ica schists (02).

288 T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island.

their chronological order, as far as determined, beginning with the oldest:

‘Ol. Granite, Gneiss, Protogine—Coarse and fine granite and gneiss, of black mica, more or less pinkish feldspar, and quartz, passing in some places into a protogine of chlorite, pink, or a

pinkish and a greenish feldspar, and quartz, in others into a granite of light-colored mica, cream-colored feldspar and quartz.

The bed of plumbago probably belongs in the gneiss. Veins -

of coarse, pink granite, sometimes without mica, and of erypto- erystalline, pink feldspar and quartz. One vein or seam 0 yellow serpentine. (West Island, Narraganset Pier, Newport, and Conanicut.) 1300’+.

‘02. Mica schist, dark and light colored, both with black mica, the light more quartzose and with quartz pebbles. Veins of oo granite of cream-colored feldspar, light mica and quartz.

5

and also sometimes with crystals of feldspar, . also veins of zoisite. (‘' Paradise” in Middletown.) 950’.

5. Epidotie and chloritic schist.—In places argillaceous, — 3 serpentine or talcose, with nodules and veinlets of crystalline

epidote, massive and schistose chlorite, the chlorite schist with

a little calcite; sometimes with pebbles of quartz. A few

layers of ferruginous chlorite, and of quartzyte with quartz eb-

bles, in the lower part. Veins of eryptocrystalline pink eld- — :

spar and quartz, and of milky quartz. 400’-600’".

A similar series seems to occur near Providence {see Jackson, pp. 75, poe D . :

* and near New Haven (see J. D. Dana, Manual of Geology, third edition, the fourn:l, III. vol. vi. On the Rocks of the Helderberg era in the valley of Connecticut, ete. ate

L. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island. 289

- Quartz and clay aggregate—A’ highly metamorphic, coarsely stratified, dark gray or black aggregate of very coarse quartz grains and fine argillaceous matter, including a few layers of fine, carbonaceous slate with Carboniferous plants. Annularia longifolia. Veins of milky quartz. 750’.

5. Sideritic argulyte—(Lower argillaceous schist of first

Peper) Light and dark gray, argillaceous, in some places .

ydro-micaceous or talcose, schist, generally with disseminated,

ron pyrites, in several localities striped, light and dark, across the bedding. Veins of milky quartz with chlorite, frequently also with ferruginous, crystalline calcite. One or two veins of argillaceous rock with cubical iron pyrites. 600/-2000’. uartzyte Conglomerate.—(1st and 2d conglomerate of Ch.

6 . Hitchcock, Conglomerate II of first paper) consists of large : Pebbles and bowlders of finely stratified quartzyte with a little —

a lea (or very quartzose mica schist), containing, in certain ccalities, Lingule, and cemented together with an argillaceous snd siliceous, in places a micaceous cement containing crystals

_ OF magnetite. Veins of milky quartz. (“ Paradise,” “ Purga- tory,” ete.) 750’, F

28, 9. Coal-measwres.—Alternating dark and light gray, argillaceous schists (sometimes ochraceous or with minute fer-

eh beds of plumbaginous anthracite. At D 1 argillaceous schists are replaced by garnetiferous, mica schists

I hist.* “Veins of milky quartz, rarely with chlorite, at Dutch sland both hyaline and milky, with feldspar. ay be hese beds give a total thickness of seo » OY, supposing 1 to be synchronous with 1. 12,850’. Of ‘iene Git Nos. £9, or 3700'-4100’, $f Carboniferous age. Professor Shaler assigns No. 3 to the timordial, but it is unfossiliferous as are all below 4. Prof. W. 0. Crosby,

are certainly

Hunt refers 2 and 8 to the Huronian. Mr. W. eee tallized siderite, — a

* At the Portsmor es cies ; : G ith coal mines, in this basin, crystallize and calcite, as well as graphite and asbestos, occur in proximity to the coal beds.

00 to 13,800 of 8,250! to

ae uae a few layers of garnetiferous, hornblende or chlorite =

rk

’

290 . T. N. Dale—Geology of Rhode Island.

after studying certain hornblendic and chloritie rocks in Rhode

Island and Massachusetts, and examining the granite near Tiverton,* is disposed to assign them to the Montalban; and as

is of weight here, but the metamorphic character of the whole series, including the coal-measures, should make us cautious in the application of chemical methods of classification which might be valid in a region where the Carboniferous beds had preserved their normal constitution.

An analysis of 200 measurements of the dip at the south end of the bay yields these results: There are 12 different directions ofthe dip: A, W.N.W.-E.S.E.; A”, W.-E.; B, N.N.E.-S.S.W

B’ N.E-SW.; B’, N-S; GC NN.W-SS.E. Of these, A”,

aM,

”, B’”’, varying but 22° one way or the other from A, B, G, may be attributed to minor causes, leaving three main flexures 45°-90° apart. As none of the twelve dips are confined to the Pre-earboniferous beds the flexures must all have taken place,

.N.W.-E.S.E. fissures which characterize the whole region,

especially the quartzyte conglomerate.t Two main synclinal

gard to their lithologieal character. As the same bed is often exed in several directions it is not easy to determine whether unconformable deposition took place anywhere. What appears

like unconformity is often the result of lateral pressure an@ —

faulting, but, as there is some reason to suppose that the proto- ne and associated schists in the center of the basin were above

water in Carboniferous times, it seems probable that on their . borders the Carboniferous beds must lie unconformably, but. 23 the highly metamorphic character of the protogine and the

subsequent flexure of the entire series has obscured the evl- dences of it. The irregular vertical distribution of the mem bers of the Pre-carboniferous points either to flexures in those

more ancient times, or to changes or differences in the character

Eastern Massachusetts. Boston Society of Natural History, 1880, pp. 107, 108, 127, 133, 134. 2 + Professor Ch. H. Hitchcock notes the complex dips at the coal mines, P-

127.

SPSS oh ee pe ee

de otge te POLE year

He

T. N. Dale— Geology of Rhode Island. 291

the Cliffs,” on one side, and Sachuest Neck, on the other, and the lands back of them, with so little regard to anticlinal or

Newport, R. I, December, 1883.

be

292 L. F. Ward—Mesozoic Dicotyledons.

Art. XXXITIL—On Mesozoic rit heady ; by Luster F. War :

In the following remarks on Mesozoic Dicotyledons, I confine the term Dicotyledons to that sub-class of the vege- table kingdom which is embraced under the term Angzosperms in most modern text-books of botany. This is the usage of most vegetable paleontologists' and the reasons for adopt- ing it have been frequently stated.”

The Dicotyledons occupy somewhat the same position in the history and development of plants that the Mammalia occupy

They include nearly all the deciduous forest trees, the shrubby

undergrowth, the leafy herbage and the weeds of all temperate

regions,

But this has not always been the case. In fact the reign of the Dicotyledons, geologically considered, has been very brief. Although there is evidence that the earth has been covered

Tecognized group of the Cretaceous—the Urgonian. Until

an the Miocene was so r é that it was with the Tertiary

puke than with the Gees that the psn dominant —

vegetation of the globe was assumed to have origin

otwithstanding this, some of the earliest, if aa the very

earliest, discoveries of these forms were in cretaceous strata. th

In the stone-quarries of the Harz mountains near Blanken- _ burg, were found, near the ee mang of the eighteenth one

prints of large leaves which the workmen believed to be t

of the grape vine, and which were mentioned by Seheuchzeh - Wal oe

Briickmann, and Walch, but without = attempt at their scientific determination.

A brief historical review of the discovery, identification wed a ta of

elesbingeets of dicotyledonous species in Cretaceous stra urope and America, including the arctic regions, will show the

Esa which this subject is assuming among paleontolo- — a gists. ee

" Géppert, Geinitz, and one or two others conform to the Jussiw#an system. ? See the American Naturalist, vol. xii (June, 1878), de: 359-378.

LER a Pear ae ee

ATI ge eee Ee

Sct

Ee

~ Nova Acta

L. F. Ward—Mesozoie Dicotyledons. 293.

cies belonging to two genera. One of these genera he rightl

names to them. pa The next year Geinitz* identified three species in the lower Quader of Saxony at Niederschéna, the fossil flora of which place was so well worked up by Ettingshausen in 1867. oe n 1845 Corda’ figured some dozen leaves from poate: Luschitz, Perutz, and Weberschan, in Bohemia, some of "ili localities he placed in the Gault, but they are probably dk sa the Lower Quadersandstein, or Cenomanian. He made no attempt to refer these forms to genera and s ecies, orate nger’s Synopsis’ appeared the same year, in whic a ‘ species of Cretaceous Dicotyledons are recognized down to ‘hia ate. Géppert,* however, admitted only thirteen species in 7 table published in Bronn’s Naturgeschichte, which also appeare in 18

Debey*® in 1848 enumerates sixteen species as pes published and adds to these twenty-seven iti ee he neighborhood of Aix-la-Chapelle, most of which, Sed ae 2 contents himself to call Phyllites, and as no nc etal a poss \tis probable that some of these were not Dicoty : ee also gives four Carpolithes which he identifies with dicoty nous orders. gs eee The same year Géppert” published a supplement . ie oe of the Quadersandstein in which a number of Dicotyle Tecognized. u : In Ettingshausen’s Proteaceen der Vorwelt, 1851, — ae a Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Urwelt, von Jonathan Carl Zenker. bain. | 83. ce a * Ueber die fossile Flora der ae, in Schlesien, etc., in Natur Curiosorum, vol. xix, Taf. xlvii, li, Wii, Exheniechele * Characteristik der Schichton und Petrefacten. re 1842, Kreidegebirges, von Dr. Hans Bruno Geinitz. Heft 3, Dresden Pie p. 97,

. * r Em. * In: Die Versteinerungen der béhmischen Kreideformation, von Aug Reuss, Stuttgart, 1845-46, Taf. 1, li.

Natur, ijj inri : Stuttgart, 1849, pp. 44-5 pbs pe : Ui ec Be dae urwctlichen Pedaet des Kreidegebirges a nr ert Aachener Kreideschichten insbesondere, von Dr. M. Deney, ” er! : Aaturhistorischen Vereines der preussischen Rheinlande, Our, xxii, } *° Zur Flora des Quadersandsteins, in Nova Acta Nat. C rlichen A '" Sitamgsberichte der mathem.-naturw. Classe der kaise Wissenschaften, Wien. Bd. vii, Heft iv, 1861, p. 711.

294 L. F. Ward—Mesozoic Dicotyledons.

Br species are enumerated, and Von Otto” in his Addita- te, 1852—54, also dese ribed Proteaceze from the Quader of eacandik while Miquel? i in 1853 eee a few Dicotyledons from the upper Cretaceous of Limbur, 4 n 1856 Dunker™ described and fgared in the Paleonto- graphica four species from Blankenburg in addition to those of Zenker, and one cluster of fruit which he believed to belong to Oredneria, and to indicate strongly that those ancient plants belonged to the Poly gonacee, Zenker had divined that they might be amarantaceou One year later Stichler reviewed in the Palwontographica the whole aa of the Cretaceous flora of the Harz mountains,

a o all previous results the discoveries made by Hampe, a sataamiist of hans aay tiictcg in the marls near that place. Out of the veel oat for f Credneria he carves a new genus which he call is Ba ingahanibest and of which be —

makes eight species. Ee admits seven species of Credneria, and figures several others which he calls new species, but with- out assigning specific names to the ;

Thus far America had contributed nothing to the flora of the ‘Soeadinny but in 1858 Heer described in the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia" eight species of Dicsiylodbns which had been collected by Doctor Hayden in

nsas and Nebraska. These, however, he erroneously be- lieved to be Miocene.

The next year Mr. Lesquereux" contributed a paper to this Journal in which a number of fossil hear By from Nanaimo, Yan-—

fe AAsimmonte: ri Flora dis Quadergebirges in Sachsen, von Ernst von Otto. Heft . erage 4, p. te a. @ fos fae n het ne es pe hertogdom Limburg, Haarlem, 1853. Verhand. Geol ee rt Nederl. j pp. 3 ae ber an nzenreste aus jy Quad prercrr you Panera yon oa witel Donker: Paleeontographica, iv, 1856, pp. 179-183, tab. xxxfi- _ mntniss der ie teria Flora des Kreidogebines i iss, von August Wilhelm Sree Palzeontographica, VI PP. oh ‘Tat. ix-X¥- 16 Fossil Plants of me Ayr T theadeken beds of Kan i Nobraski ae ue Oswald —_ Proc. A Nat. Sei. Phil, 1858, pp. 265, 266. a. me fossil nse, of recent formations, by L. Lesquereux, Am. Journ Sci. EG Put 1859, 59-# ~ vid Deseriptions of fossil plants collected by Mr. gad Gibbs, ae U. §. Northwest Boundary Commission under Mr. hibald Campbell, U Guava “a S. Newberry. Boston Journ. Nett tae, Vii, 1863, PpP- §24,

sae

L. F. Ward—Mesozoie Dicotyledons. 295

declared the horizon Cretaceous, and among the plants described

were four Dicotyledons.

In 1866 appeared the somewhat famous PhyJlites crétacées du Nebraska of Capellini and Heer,” the latter of whom determine the fossil plants which the former had himself helped to collect at Blackbird Hill, Nebraska, in the tow well known Dakota Group. The Cretaceous character of these fossils was here te grdgiog! y conceded and has never since been seriously

oubted.

flora of the west. These were Dr. Newberry’s Notes on the iater

Stag followed the same method and reached the same results. .

oth authors give lists of the American Cretaceous Be

known up to that date, Dr. Newberry enumerating 20 and Mr. | : a Lesquereux 21 Dicotyledons. The number of species described ae :

7 Verhandl. d. schweiz. Geselisch. d. Naturf. Zurich, 1866.

*

6 Kreideflora von Niederschoena in Sachsen, ein Beitrag zur ae =e :

e = rc dltesten Dicotyledonengewachse, von Const. Freih. v. Ettingshausen. Abth. 1, pp. 235-264, Taf. i-iii Kreidepflanzen aus Oesterreich, von Dr. F.U

2¢ : res corresponding in the main to the SCriet aoe published in separate forth by the U.S. G. and G. Survey of the Territories, F. ee ayden, Geologist-in-charge, under the title: “ Illustrations of Cretaceous and

oe s i : Tertiary Plants of the Western Territories of the United States,” which did not

&

nger, l. c. pp. 642-654, Taf, sata oa weak :

296 FB Ward—Mesozoic Dicotyledons.

by Dr. Newberry as new was 45, and the number by Mr Lesquereux was 47. Nine species ‘from Fort Ellsworth, foe = included in Mr. Lesquereux’s list, the descriptions of which did not appear until the following year,” do not enter sto the figures above given. It will thus be seen that about seventy-five species of Dicotyledons had been described from

the Dakota Group and other American Uretaceous strata down _

to the year 1869.

Far less could be said for Europe at this date. Hosius,” in —

1869, was able to enumerate in his Geognosie Westfalens twenty-

five characteristic species of the eaten which had been

described and figured either by Von der Marck” or by himself.”

In this year, ts Heer published his Fossil Flora of i im

Mihren, which belongs to the lower Quadersandstein ase

Cenomanian. ‘Twelve species are described and "carafe gured.

In Hayden’s annual reports of the geological survey of the Territories for 1870 and 1871” Lesquereux continues to enlarge the list of American species, and in 1872, Heer,” in his Fossid Flora of Quedlinburg makes further additions to that of Europe.

Weare thus brought down to the year 1874, which 18 :

marked by three very important publications. Schimper’s Traité de Paléontologie Végétale was completed in that year, in the fourth volume® of which 109 species of Creta-

ceous Dicotyledons are recognized. Of these 46 are American,

which shows that the ued was far behind in the literature of

the subject. He also expresses serious doubts as to the Creta-

33. species in the higher strata of Atane, which are mow gener- & ‘

*4 On féssil leaves from Fort Ellsworth, Nebra Transactions of the

neigealogs Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, vol. te ons series, pp. 430-433,

pl. x (ele “3 e eee Westfalens), von A. Hosius. Miinster,

6 Foss Pan anzen aus dem Plattenkalk von Sendenhorst. Paleeonto- a

graphica, mig

7 Ueber Beas Dicotyledonen der Dh dreacecacercay Kreideformation, Paleonto-

graphica, xvii, fet pp. 89-104, Taf. xii-

*® Beitrige zur Kreideflora i Pines’ yon Moletein in Mabren, Zurich, 1869- 9 On th il plants of the Cretaceous and Tertiary aeons of KansaS

iiiceties hon Ps 1870, p. 370. Fossil Flora, Cretaceous Ann, sc a ‘1871, 301. < e zur ag Se Il. Zur Kreideflora von Quedlinburg. oi Pp. 617 -679.

der Westfilischen Kreideformation vorkommenden Pflanzenrest® —

om

aes

“dee eee BRS a VS ue Bos Se

L. F. Ward—Mesozoic Dicotyledons. 297

ally believed to correspond with the Cenomanian of Europe. These researches of Heer appeared too late to be embodied in himper’s great work.

Finally, as crowning this fruitful year’s labor, appeared Mr. Lesquereux’s important quarto volume on the ‘Cretaceous Flora of the Western Territories,”® reviewing the results of all previous researches in this country, and describing and illustra- ting 107 species of American Cretaceous Dicotyledons. In Hay- den’s annual report for the same year® 26 species are described and some figured, but most of these were also more fully

treated in the Cretaceous Flora.

Flora der westftilischen Kreideformation, an important work reviewing the entire Cretaceous flora of Westphalia. Although fossil plants had been found throughout almost the entire Cre- taceous series as there represented, still it was only in the Seno- nian that any Dicotyledons were detected. At two quite distinct horizons within the Senonian such plants were found, 37 Species being credited to the upper and 24 to the lower

Collected in the vicinity of Aix-la-Chapelle no less than two hundred species of dicotyledonous plants, and it is to be hoped that this paper may form a beginning, at least, of the much- needed work of acquainting vegetable paleontologists with the nature of this remarkable flora. . The sixth volume of Heer’s Flora Fossilis Artica appeared in 1882. In this the Cretaceous flora of Kome and Atane are reviewed with fresh materials. While, unable to find any com-

*? Contributi i Western Territories, Partl. The Cretaceous Tides. By T taentacade Hees ape of the U 8. Geological Sur- a the Territories, F. V. Hayden, Geologist-in-charge, vol. vi. Washi

Ep. 27143 i-viii

- Vol, xvi, 1880. es oe oie aa — les feuilles querciformes des sables d ato ee ae sh 1889 8, 1881. (Compte rendu du Congrés de botanique e ,

*° Schimper, Traité de Paléontologie Végétale, Paris, 1869-1874. -Tome iii, pp.

671, 673.

Am. Jour. Sct—Turep Serres, Vor. XXVII, No. 160.—APRIL, 1884. ° 20 -

,

298 L. F. Ward—Mesozoie Dicotyledons.

panions for the solitary Populus of Kome, he adds largely to the dicotyledonous flora of Atane. From 33 species in 1874 this flora now rises to 95. In the seventh volume of the same work, which unfortunately must now be the last, a new Creta- ceous flora is announced, that of Patoot, also in Greenland, which is regarded as extreme upper Cretaceous. Dicotyledons here abound and no less than 74 species are made known in Heer’s work. '

Within the past few months an important paper has been contributed to the Royal Society of Canada by Principal Daw- son,” in which 30 species, mostly new, from two distinct hort- zons of the Cretaceous of British Columbia are described and

figured. Lastly I am able to add to this enumeration one of the most important works that has ever n produced on vegetable

again exhaustively reviews the entire subject of the Amer- ican Cretaceous flora, and we find the number of Dicotyle- dons thus far yielded by the Dakota Group to have tee

Large as these

Ss (@) bs | ° ma) 2 re) ° o <4 ee Oo Qu ° =] _B ot ge S Rn 5 =) a ho tes @ Qu is) _ bo

If we now turn from this strictly chronological enumeration ,

is sought to compare widely separated regions. The attempt —

and North American Cretaceous can therefore at best only la

p ‘ here made to correlate the sub-divisions of the European, Ar¢ eS claim to approximate accuracy. ae

85 Transactions, pp. 15~34, pl. i-viii.

t1G

L. F. Ward—Mesozoie Dicotyledons. 299

The Quadersandstein of Germany, in which the greater part of the European fossil plants have been found, is an extensive

formation, reaching in Saxony and Bohemia from the lower

Cenomanian to the White Chalk, or upper Senonian. Its middle portion is occupied by the Pliner sandstone and Planer marls, which extend downward into the upper Cenomanian and upward to the base of the Senonian. The somewhat local. character and indefinite boundaries of the Quader formations have rendered it customary on the Continent, even with Ger- man geologists, to adopt the system of d’Orbigny as now mod- ified and to speak of the Cenomanian, Turonian and Senonian instead of Lower Quader, Pliner and Upper Quader, and it is

so how common to apply these terms to formations in other parts of the world which are supposed to occupy the same stra- graphical positions.

‘The leading Huropean localities from which Cretaceous Dicotyledons have been collected are: Saxony (Niederschéna),

schéna lying near its base. The Cretaceous of the Harz

district, is probably lower Senonian. In Westphalia, Hosius

and Von der Marck find fossil Dicotyledons at two different

horizons, both of which, however, they place in the Senonian.

ic e ie about Legden, Ahaus, Haltern, etc, is regarded as wer

beds, as already remarked, are distinctly fixed in the Urgonian, Which is lower Cretaceous, and lies between the Neocomian and the Gault. The discovery of a dicotyledonous plant at this horizon is one of the most interesting facts of paleontolog- leal science. The beds of Atane, where the greater part of the

Hills of our Western Territories.

The localities in British Columbia from which Cretaceous Dicotyledons have come are all regarded by the od 8eologists as upper Cretaceous. The inland portions, situate:

300 L. F. Ward—Mesozoie Dicotyledons.

on the Pine and Peace rivers, are said by Dr. Dawson to corres- pond to the Niobrara of the northwestern United States, which he also correlates with the lower Senonian of Europe. Van- couver’s Island and the localities on the Pacific coast are higher

fras mirabile Lesqx.) and pares connecting this with Platanus

I have in this paper intentionally omitted all consideration of the great Laramie group although this is regarded by many as Cretaceous. is is because it seems at least to be more recent than any of the European, Arctic or British AmericaD plant-bearing beds, while its abundant flora consists in large part of types represented in the Miocene of Euro

marine forms of animal life are chiefly found. ew Dict

a . sag telonnensis from Toulon, while the Colorado Group (Fort Ben- — proved i.

now we take up the several subdivisions of the Cretaceous —

formation in their stratigraphical order, beginning with ©” —

L. F. Ward—Mesozoic Dicotyledons. 301 lowest, we shall see that in the Neocomian, or lowest member, no plant remains of the sub-class we have been studying have as yet ever been detected.®

In the Urgonian, or next higher group, one species, Populus primeva Heer, has been collected at Pattorfik in Greenland. In volume vi of his Flora Fossilis Arctica, which appeared in 1882, or eight years subsequent to the original description of this plant, Heer continued to adhere to this species as well as to its anomalous stratigraphical position.

chiefly of living genera have been described. It was formerly supposed that the beds at Blankenburg occu-

of Heer’s Quedlinburg Flora in his table of distribution of the Cenomanian. It is now quite certain, however, that the Creta- ceous of the Harz district is much higher, and authorities seem to agree in placing it in the lower Senonian. On the other hand the upper boundaries of the Cenomanian in France and

sep- arated from each other by a considerable interval. In view of

upposed Neocomian Dicotyledons of Russia (Eichwald, Lethsea rossica, st : (Fl. foss. arct. iii, Theil 2, S. 26) to come

ding t rict. Spitzi rgen to the Gault (L c. = pe van i i in the Cretaceous of Haina nine new spacies of fossil plants in Lhegecy trap ee

4 8 n (Mém, de lacad. Royale de Belgique, xxxvi, 1867) which *rritories, vol. viii. Washington, 1883.

302 L. F. Ward—Mesozoic Dicotyledons.

The following table exhibits the number of dicotyledonous species thus far recognized in each of the groups of the Creta- ceous for the four principal geographical areas within which they have been collected :

Cretaceous Dicotyledons. British United

Geological Position. Europe. Greenland. America. States. Total. Upper Senonian -- 81 74 24 is 179 Lower Senonian __..- 67 = 14 be 81 Turonian. ey shal es os ee Cenomanian ) ..... §3° 114

85] Dakota Group Sood s ‘ ae ay 184

ault. ve mie =e ge se Cirgani kee om 1 we AB 1 Neocomian eu ‘ce oe . --

Total 201 189 38 184 | 612

As all the plants with which we are here concerned are found in the Cretaceous some may be surprised that this paper should have been entitled Mesozoic rather than Cretaceous Dicotyledons. The reason for the title chosen is simply that it may tend some- what to enlarge the view of the true history and age of this great type of vegetation. When we see that more than three hundred and fifty species of fully developed Dicotyledons, implying the existence of many more, were flourishing all their present luxuriance in the: middle Cretaceous, and that even in the lower Cretaceous one species is known to have ‘existed belonging to a genus that still survives, we cannot if we would, repress the thought that the ancestors of these forms must have come down through older periods of the Mesozotc.

That we shall ever discover the true progenitors of the — known Dicotyledons it is, of course, impossible to say, but that . they had progenitors science no more hesitates to assume than any one would hesitate to assume that a foundling child must

h w and secular —

have had parents. Moreover, such is the slo

lants as were the Dicotyledons in the Cenomanian age bat attained that condition in anything short of a vast geologic

d eo It is to be hoped that we are at last approaching the begin: —

ning, at least, of a solution of this truly great problem of ke

specimens co fessor Wm.

G. F. Kunz—Tourmaline and associated Minerals. 303

and gymnospermous vegetation that characterizes that earlier e. hat i i

forms cannot now be told, but it is to be hoped that the Mesozoic strata, not only in Virginia, but in all parts of the world may be diligently searched and the materials care- fully studied, with a view to discovering these ‘certainly merely “missing links” of a chain that can but have been once complete.

It is remarkable that both in its flora and its fauna the life of this continent has been thus abruptly truncated. e sudden ruption of a perfectly developed mammalian fauna at the.

appearance unannounced of many hundreds of species of highly organized dicotyledonous plants in the middle Cretaceous.

he advocates of special creation, and likewise the hunters after a lost Atlantis, were they informed upon the facts which science Itself go plainly teaches, could ask no stronger argument for either of their positions. But such persons are usually not so Informed, and it seems almost impossible for them to become

i

Ess

Arr. XXXIV.—On the Tourmaline and Associated Minerals of Auburn, Maine ; by Grorce F. Kunz.

[Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Minneapolis, August, 1883.]

Ty 1868, the Rev. Luther Hills called attention to a specimen r. Hatch on the farm of the latter.

# Superficial one. (See The Tourmaline, by Dr. ; Pp. 72, 73). After this considerable searching was made an

304. G. F. Kunz—Tourmaline and associated Minerals.

have heen found, from very small ones 10™ to the largest

n mm long. They differ in general appearance from the other Maine tourmalines, and are as a rule somewhat lighter in color and of more brilliant polish. They are found color- less, light pink, light blue, light puce colored, bluish pink,

found in one erystal. As a rule sections show the charac- teristic variety of color, such as blue and pink, green and pink, colorless and green or pink, or bluish, when viewed through the length of the crystal. Some of the faintly colored crys- tals afforded gems that deepened very much in color after cutting.

awed. Faces commonly observed are: O, R,— 4, L 1-2. Lepidolite was found in some abundanee, in distinct isolated

The albite, which “resembles the cleavelandite, of Chesterfield, : € :

er associated minerals are orthoclase, beryl, ere cassiterite, gummite, autunite, muscovite, leucopyrite, cookente, Z

aA ES pee

G. F. Kunz—Andalusite Jrom Gorham, Maine. 305

biotite, amblygonite, zircon and a mixture of orthoclase and quartz forming a graphic granite. _ To Mr. N. H. Perry much credit is due for his care and zeal in developing this locality, and I am indebted to him for his kindness in furnishing all the information at his command, and for loaning specimens without obligation to purchase.

Angust, 1883.

ART, XXXV.— On Andalusite from Gorham, Maine; by EORGE F. Kunz.

[Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1883.]

gust,

The crystals are opaque but translucent in pieces of from 3™ to 5°" in thickness. A broken crystal measured 90™™ (a), 58™™ (0), 48"" (c). Several measured over 80™ in length, and one frag- ment of a large crystal measured 55™™ on one face, and may have measured originally over 70™ on the prism. Some crys-

0 determined as yet, but are possibly 1-2 and 1-2. #

through which are beautiful small crystals of pyrrhotite. These

306 G. BF. Kunz— White Garnet from Wakefield, Canada.

Art. XXXVI.—On the White Garnet form Wakefield, Canada ; by GeoreGE F. Kunz.

{Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Minneapolis Meeting, August, 1883.]

Av McBride’s, Lot 7, Range 1, Township of Wakefield, 21

miles north of Hull on the right bank of the Gatineau River, - Canada, there have been found some remarkable white garnets. This occurrence has been known to a number of collectors for some years, but as yet little information regarding it has been _ published. On visiting the locality I found that the garnets occur in a vein from several inches to over one foot in width in the crystalline magnesian limestone, and I traced the vein east and west a distance of over 75 feet. This vein has been fol- lowed to the depth of more than six feet. The crystals vary in size from 1™ to 80™™ in diameter and in color from color- less to yellow and brown; some of them are transparent enough to yield small gems. The brown color is very often the result of the oxidation of the associated pyrrhotite. The form is that of a dodecahedron, either alone or modified by the trapezohedron 2-2.

Associated with the garnet are crystals of pyrrhotite and fine crystals of a white pyroxene, the adhering crystals being held together sufficiently by the pyroxene to form fine groups of this mineral when thé limestone has been removed by acid. Perfect isolated crystals are very uncommon. Determinations of the specific gravity of the mineral gave 3°6002 and 375948; of the Orford garnet 3°52 and 3°53. An analysis of the garnet by C. Bullman, Ph.B., yielded the following results:

SUMOR Sore ieee ee Ses 38°80 bee rhs © Weir AL Ta AN SS Closes tag at eee Allee (RES Ugur a ge 22°66 Sesqinoxide Of tron 5c. oe 1°75 Oxide of manpanese. “0s Se iste ACG oe re a oe tale 35" MReKONA. AST ae, Se Ce eae ae 5 ee 99°19

The spectroscope gave no potassium lines, soda was not de-

termined. : F An analysis of white garnet from Orford, Canada, bye

Sterry Hunt (see Geological Survey of Canada, p. 496), gave SiO. AlO; CaO MgO Fe0,MnO # Na,0,K.0-_ ign

‘38°60 . 22°71 34°83 0°49 160. - 0°47 110=99°80

bbe

J. LeConte—Horizontal Motions of Floating Bodies. 307 *

Arr. BER VI =i Horaondil Motions of small Floating Bodies tm relation to the Validity of the Postulates of the Theory of Capillarity ; by Joun LeConre.

as pointed out in the articles of Mr. J. T. Riley an ir A. Worthington,+ served to fix my attention on the difficulties and ambiguities which invest one the most obscure an

a.

A more careful and somewhat prolonged consideration of these difficulties has led me to question the validity of one or more of the fundamental postulates of the generally accepted physical theory of capillarity, and to seek for a solution of some of these perplexities in the erroneous assumptions,

hese postulates, as enunciated by the late Prof. J. C Maxwell (ncyc. Britannica, ninth edition, Article “ Capil ction”), may be stated as follows: :

1. “For any given liquid surface, as the surface which sepa- fates water from air, or oil from water, the surface-tension 18 the Same at ever int of the surface and in every direction. It is also practically independent of the curvature of the surface, although it appears from the mathematical theory that there is 4 slight increase of tension where the mean curvature of the Surface is concave, and a slight diminution where it 1s convex.

€ amount of this increase and diminution is too small to be

Clerk- l

ary

breadth, that is, it must exert surface-tension. the sheet of india-rubber, however, depends on the extent to Which it is stretched, and may be different in different ese tions ; whereas, the tension of the surface of a liquid remains the - This Journal, III, vol. xxiv, pp. 416-425, December, 1882. Also Phil. Mag., Vol. xv, pp. 47-56, January, 1883. t Phil. Mag., for March, 1883, p. 191 et p. 198. + Phil, Mag., for October and November, 1883, p. 309 et p. 339.

308 J. LeConte—Horizontal Motions of small

. same however much the film is extended, and the tension at any point is the same in all directions.”

M. Simon (of Metz),* confirmed as they have been e experimental researches of Béde,—do not seem to h 1s turbed co in the essential validity of the fundamental

inconsistencies of the theory, revealed in the remarkable post- umous memoir of M. G. Wertheim,+ do not seem to have attracted the attention which they deserve. The results ob- tained by the last mentioned experimenter, Prof. J. P. Nichol} regards as invalidating the basis of the mathematical theory, and he maintains that the whole subject needs to be re-investl- gated under a fuller and wider view of the conditions of the physical problem. Indeed, it is very evident, that notwithstanding the classical researches of Laplace, Gauss and Poisson, and the more recent investigations of Dupré and Maxwell, the mathematical theory of capillarity presents difficulties which have not yet been fully - surmounted. In common with many other problems in molec- . ular physics, we here encounter difficulties and uncertainties originating in the different physical interpretations of the math- ematical processes and their results. They involve the consid: eration of the true signification of mathematical results which are known to have been reached by processes which are not rigorously exact, Many of the differential equations are utterly unmanageable and incapable of integration unless cel tain assumptions are made. Hence questions arise in relation ©

ao

* Ann, de Chim, et de Phys., III, vol. xxxii, pp. 5-41, 1851 + Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., III, vol. lxiii, pp. 129-201, 1861. __ ; ¢ Cyc. of the Physical Sciences, Article *Capillarity,” Third Edition, 1868.

*

Floating Bodies and the Theory of Capillarity. 309

it must be borne in mind, that in problems of this character, no deduction from analysis is worthy of confidence which does not admit of a rational physical interpretation, capable of being tested by observation or experiment.

Restricting myself to the consideration of the physical cause of the horizontal motions of small floating bodies when brought near to one another, it is evident that if the surface tension is Precisely the same in all parts of the liquid surface and is not at all modified by the formation of the adjacent meniscuses,— and further, if the angle of contact of the liquid with the solid remains constant—the horizontal as well as the vertical com- Eapent of the elastic reaction of the intervening tense film must e independent of its radius of curvature. Now, the question 1S, are these two conditions or postulates realized in the class of phenomena under consideration? Some payee have thought it possible that the angle of contact might vary with the curvature of the film adjacent to the wall of the solid; but the invariability of this angle, at least in the case of liquids Which wet the surfaces of the solids,—seems to be generally

nen . _ 4n fact, the assumption of the constancy of liquid films at given temperatures, un

310 J. LeOonte—Horizontal Motions of small

ow, 1 e radii of curvature of the meniscuses are not very small. € movements of the floating bodies are observed to take place when they are more than two centimeters distant. The ques- tion of fact to be decided is, do the tensions of the external and internal meniscuses change with the alteration of the curvature of the united intervening meniscus due to the proximity of the partly immersed floating solids? If experiment answers this question in the affirmative, then the horizontal components of the tensile reaction of the exterior and interior meniscuses be-

surface-tension of a ioe film is measured. his important

surface-tension per unit of contour, for the numerical values of these two quantities are equal.” Hence in the ease of a ies surface in contact with the surface of a solid, the whole su tension at the line of contact of the liquid film is equal to 4X — length of contour in unit lengths.

Assuming the constancy of the angle of contact and the constancy of the surface-tension (T), it is easy to deduce Ju- rin’s law for the elevation or depression of liquids in tubes ane between parallel plates; and conversely, to find the numerical — value of T, the assumed constant of surface-tension. Thus !et

d = diameter of vertical tube,

and d'= distance between vertical parallel plates. |

T = tension per unit-length of contour, for tubes, a and 'T’ = tension per unit-length of contour, for paral

plates. :

@ = angle of contact (constant), for tubes, :

and @ = angle of contact (constant), for parallel plates, : * “Encyc, Britannica,” Ninth Ed., Article, “ Capillary Action.”

Floating Bodies and the Theory of Capiliarity. 311

w = weight of unit-volume of liquid, for tubes, and w= weight of unit-volume of liquid, for parallel plates. hk =mean height of meniscus above level, for tubes, and A’= mean height of meniscus above level, for parallel plates.

Then for cylindrical tubes, the whole force exerted at the Margin of the surface of the liquid in the interior =zdxT; and is vertical component = zdxTxXcos a. This latter must be in equilibrium with the weight of the column of liquid elevated or depressed above or below the hydrostatic level. This weight

ye x wxh. Hence, equating this force with the vertical com- ponent of the tension, we have “d*xwxh = 2dX TX 008 a. *."

4T x cos a ; = 5p i ; which gives Jurin’s law of inverse diameters.

_ &Xw 2T’ a et Similarly, for Parallel Plates, we have, h’= x. And,

€ must have T = it follows from the above, that when d=d’, h! = z=.

as according to the Reger for any given liquid and solid, WwW ve . :

From the foregoing equations, expressions for the values of T and T’ can be readily deduced: Thus, we have,

hxdxXw ,_Wxdxw te 4c0s @ » and T= 2cos a ~

In the case of water in a clean glass tube which has been Well wetted with that liquid, the angle a is very generally as- sumed to be zero, that is to say, the interior wall of the tube

1s tangential to the marginal surface of the meniscus,—so that COs @ =

for, in the case of all liquids which wet the surface of glass tubes, experiment shows, that the value of a depends upon temperature. It appears from the experiments of Briinner and of Wolf on the elevation of ether, bisulphide of carbon, oil of

312 J. LeConte—Horizontal Motions of small

ted by even the best epee that the value of a for water in aclean glass tube is ze Moreover, even under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure, the careful experiments of Quincket prove, that at the temperature of 20° (C.), the actual angle of contact (a) of water with clean glass in the presence of air =25° 32’. How- . ever, this factor being constant for any given temperature, its absolute value does not alter the result so far as the experimental test is concerned. For any given liquid at a given temperature if the postulate, that T or 'T’ is invariable, is true, we shou id have ALO aR ae Constant. Now, if A and h’, and 4xXcosa@ 2Xcos a d and d’ are measured in centimeters, in the case of water w=1 gram weight; so that the formule give the values of T and T’ in grams weight per centimeter of contour. Consequently, for water in contact with clean glass, we have

-T per centimeter of contour = neeKS grams weight.

, ud T’ per centimeter of contour = iat 2cos a

Now, gles to this fundamental postulate of the capillary

grams weight.

are not inconsistent wi the remarkable deductions Boscrssicet by the pet:

p=molecular attraction ie the aioe for the liquid. Then, Clairaut in nese following laws: (1) When p=— the age is horizontal ; (2) When p> the meniscus is coneave ; (3) When p<t, the meniscus is convex. Now, in es case of water, alcohol, ether, ete., in seit with clean glass, at ordinary tempera Z tures, p> —: and assuming that when the temperature augments, the attraction ‘of the solid for the liquid (p) diminishes faster than the attraction of the ta for itself (P); it is evident, that at a certain definite temperature, p must = — and bonseq yen, the meniscus becomes horizontal; and at a still higher tem perature pes, and the meniscus becomes convex. The experiments of Brimnet — and of Wolf have verified these deductions in the case of several liquids which ; wet glass. On the contrary, in the case of mercury in contact with glass, “ |

so that, when the Yasser go augments p becomes still smaller, the m

increases in ey and the depression is augmented. This last result cy been confirmed by the depo of Frankenhoin, who found the depress! mercury in glass tubes to be augmented se of te

+ Phil. Mag., IV, vir xli, p. ba (Table X), pert In a later memoir Qut oe (Phil. Mag., V, vo ol. V, p. 325, 1878,) found this angle (a)=28° 48” for bast! , soi nea gee ig tubes. His $ experiments show that the value of a depen

of the glass; but it never became zero, except under 5 Oat

>

Floating Bodies and the Theory of Capillarity. 318

theory, these values should be the same for the same liquid at the same temperature ; and moreover, these values ought to be the same for all variations of h a nd d, and h’ and d’ respect- ively. Finally, as this postulate depend upon the verification of Jurin’s law, it follows that the products, hxd and h’xd’ respectively ought to be constant for each pair of the factors;

and also, that when d=d', h'xd’= bine

These deductions of theory can, unfortunately, only be ex- perimentally tested in the case of water in contact with clean glass. In order to make the comparison of the results of the- ory and experiment, I have computed the following table in which the values of d d, h, d’ and h’ are furnished by the admi- rable experiments of M. Simon (of M etz).* The value of a 's taken, in accordance with Quincke experiments, as =25° 32’; bat inasmuch as this divisor is assumed to be constant, its abso- lute value is of no consequence in the sen ea a

WATER IN TUBES. WATER BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES. ; xd iat a A in =Aeosal| @ in h’ in ~Y2 cosa milime- | millime- | xd. | in grams || millime- | millime-| A’ x d'. | in grame “tere. percen tim.|| ters. ters. - | percentim, of contour. of contour. Peet ih Ee 25°30 , 0019 0-481 00013 || 23-000 0.021 0-49 00027 18-000 0°200 3°600 | 0-0100 |] 18-000 0-062 112 0-0062 14-000 0-440 | 6160} 06-0171 || 14000 | 0140 | 1:96 | 00109 8°600 151¢ | 12-986 | 9-03 10-000 | 0:340 | 3-40 | 00188 5-400 3°650 | 19-710 | 0-0546 || 5°000 | 1:250 | 625 | 0-0346 2"200 12°800 | 28-160 | 0-0780 || 2-090 | 4:230! 884 | 0°0490 1:250 24-000 | 30-000 | 0-0831 || 1-260 | 7-420 | 9°35 | 0-0518 0570 55°600 | 31°692 | 9-u878 0°518 | 19°300 | 9°91 0:0549 "360 89000 | 32-040 | 0-0888 || 0-404 | 26-000 | 10°10 | 0°0560 9140 | 233-000 | 32-620 | 0-0904 || 0-140 | 73°780 | 10°33 | 0-0572 9050 | 663-000 | 33-150 | 0-091 0°025 ne 000 | 33-325 | 0-0923 0-012 00 | 34-608 | 0-0959 0061 | 6828-000, 41-651 | O-1154. |

cl eh ate at the numbers ene a) in the foregoing table early in vie the following conclusio : ; Then € numbers in the columns headed ax and d’x‘h sone that Furinta | law fails to be even paige sone verified, when and a’ respectively exceed 0-2 of a centimeter 2. That when d=d', d’xh’ in all cases falls ‘short of being

equal to xh. ; the ratio of the products, under these condi-

eee de Chim. et de Phys., III, vol. xxii, pp. 12 et 19, omg Am. Jour. Scr.—Turep Serres, Vor. XXVII, No. 160.—Arntt, 1884. 21

314. J. LeConte—Horizontal Motions of Floating Bodies.

tions, instead of being as 1 to 2, as the theory demands, is more nearly as 1 to z,,as pointed out by Simon. 3. The numbers in the columns of T and 'T’ show that if the ngle of contact remains the same, the computed values of the paren tensions in the cases of tubes and parallel plates, are not constant under variations of d and d’ respectively ; in fact, they do not even approach constancy until ¢ and d’ become respectively less than 0-2 of a centimeter. On the contrary, and ‘I’ respectively augment with the diminu- tion of dand d’. Thus, a change in the value of d from 18 to 1-4 centimeters increases T in the ratio of 100 to 171; and a similar change in d’ augments the value of T’ in the ratio of 62 to 109. pret a change in the value of d’ from 1°0 to 06 centimeters, increases T’ from O-OL88 to 0-0846 grams per cen- timeter o 4. The same walatned show, that instead of T being equal to T’ (as required by theory), the former, under the same values of d and a’, always exceeds the latter in nearly the ratio of 16

to 1, or toh

come compaintively large as their proximity y seen other terms, we have seen that the value of the surface- ate instead of being constant under all conditions, as the theory of capillarity assumes, is, in reality, an inverse function of the radius of curvature of the meniscus; so that the elastic pare < tion of the tense liquid film acts uneque ally on the oppos att sides of the floating bodies, and thus becomes the true physic” —

cause of their motions. ie Thus far I have considered the phenomena in question a8 — due exclusively to the change in the surface-tension incident wi : the proximity of the floating solids; but it is evident that & * # The value of the assumed “ capillary constant,” T, for water given by Quineke _ 0°08253 grams per centimeter of contour, evidently ¢ corresponds to its phe o glass tube whose internal diameter is about 0°15 of a centimeter. In the 0.

system this is equivalent to 008253 x g=80°96 : + This Journal, III, vol. xxiv, p. 421, December, 1882.

Chemistry and Physics. 315

change in the magnitude of the angle of contact, would like- wise produce similar results. It is, @ prior, by no means im- probable that, at the same temperature, there may be some change in this angle with a change in the radius of curvature of the meniscus; but inasmuch as such alterations in this angle could hardly have escaped observation, it seems more probable that the phenomena are due to the changes of surface-tension In portions of the film investing the floating masses.

tis highly desirable that similar comparisons of the results of theory and experiment should be extended to other liquids than water; in other words, Simon’s experiments should be repeated with other liquids.

tis not my purpose to supplement my previous article by any further discussion of the difficulties and inconsistencies of the hydrostatic explanation of this class of phenomena :—like Prof. J. D. Everett, I find it difficult to “conceive of negative

Berkeley, California, January 15, 1884.

——..

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. di 1. On the reduction of Gases to Normal Volume.—In the or- ary methods of measuring gases, long and tedious calculations re required to reduce the results to normal volume. EUSLER

4 jacilitated, It consists of a U-tube, one of whose legs terminates na funnel and the other in a pipette-like enlargeme ending above in a capillary tube. The gas-vessel thus f

-Tesponding to this capacity. A graduation

aes rs ee _ 'S continued downward as far as is necessary; to 120 in the author’s

316 Scientific Intelligence.

with mercury nearly to the 100 mark, and, as the measurement is generally made on moist gas, adding a Jayer of water of equal depth on each surface. A calculation is then made to determine the space which 100 units of volume of dry air at the normal tem- perature and pressure would occupy when moist and under the tem- perature and pressure shown by the thermometer and barometer at the time of the calculation ; and the water meniscus is brought carefully to this exact reading on the scale of the instrument. The capillary tube above is then closed with wax; or after re peated experiments have proved the adjustment correct, it 18 closed by fusion of the glass. To use the apparatus, the mercury is brought to stand at the same height in both legs of the tube, and the level of the water meniscus is read off; call it v. Then for any volume V of a gas at the same temperature, the volume V, dry and at normal pressure is given by the proportion v : 100

st V2 V.3 whence VV An By surrounding the bulb with

water it may readily be brought to any required temperature. second form of the apparatus, less exact but smaller and more portable, is described in the paper.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges, XV 28, Jan., 1884. G. F. B. 2. On the Influence exerted by the surrounding Gaseous Pega EMPEL

ity. For this purpose the axis of the machine was made vertical, passing air-tight through an iron table upon which a glass bell to | contain the machine, was secured. ‘The uscless space in this bell was filled with paraffin. The quantity of electricity was measured by the number of discharges which took place in the air between the poles of the machine from a Leyden jar in circuit, for a given number of turns of the machine. When the machine was enclosed

. .

in hydrogen 850 rotations per minute gave 9 discharges from the

carbon dioxide, 850 rotations gave 47 discharges, a portion of the

gas being decomposed into carbon monoxide and ozone. bes

per minute, On lowering the pressure to half an atmosphere, bce jar could not be charged. An attempt to surround the machine —

Ges., xvii, 145, Feb., 1884 » :

3. the method employed for cleaning the Liebig Statue — On the 6th of November, the marble statue of Liebig, 1D Maxt . milian Place, Munich, which had been erected only the previo’™®.

Chemistry and Physics. 317

August, was found to be covered with black spots and streaks, some miscreant having attempted to disfigure it. At first

the

consisting of Drs. Max von Perrenkorer, ApoLtF BaxryeR, and CLEMENS ZIMMERMANN, was entrusted with the matter and em-

owered to examine the question chemically and devise a method for restoring the statue. Onexamination about 300 of these black Spots, nearly all round and of the size of a hazel-nut, were counted upon the statue itself, fourteen being on the face. The granite base of the monument was similarly stained. On testing one of these spots, formed under one of the feet, the presence of man-

OV

of removing these stains, which penetrated some millimeters into the marble. The process finally determined on was to treat these

a ¢ trated solution of soldi ayaseae After four hours the stains appeared fainter ; and on renewing the application, not the slight- st trace of the stain was observable on the following day. The Work was then carried forward uninterruptedly, and on the 13th of December the statue was completely restored to its original purity and beauty; a result confirmed by the authoritiés on the 22nd in

a Liebig potash bulb and a series of U-tubes containing pumice soaked in potash, caustic potash in sticks, pumice moistened with Sulphuric acid and phosphoric oxide, the junctions being made with- - out rubber. Bohemian tubes proving too soft at the tet t

; duired, tubes of porcelain were used in the combustion, being heated by a Wiesnegg combustion furnace: The products of com-

318 Scientifie Intelligence.

bustion passed through two U-tubes containing pumice moistened with sulphuric acid and phosphoric oxide, then through a Liebi potash bulb and a tube with pumice moistened with potassium

phorus, having shown the production of eae dioxide, the ap paratus was reconstructed with the greatest care so as to exclude organic mattet of every kind, the joints being all of ground gle

The air, contained in a gasometer of 30 liters capacity, was assed slowly, two or three bubbles per second, first through a red-hot —

last baryta water, and finally into a bell jar over mercury,

which floated a glass pan containing the phosphorus. From t

bell jar the ozonized air passed through two wasb bottles, the

first containing distilled water and the second baryta water. Be he r

Chemistry and Physics. — 319

tected.— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., xvii, 83, Jan., 1884. ee _ 5. On the Tenperature obtained by Oxygen in a state of Ebulli- hon, and on the Solidification of Nitrogen; b ROBLESKI

showed no sign of liquefaction at the temperature of —| ; Even when this gas is submitted, at the above temperature, to a pressure of 150 atmospheres, and the pressure is then sudden] r 2 ee : Vv

dently, in order to liquefy hydrogen, we must employ a lower temperature than the minimam obtainable by means of liquid ich are

more difficult. to liquefy than ethylene, and which might be used for the production of'a much more intense cold, oxygen appeared to me to be the most serviceable.

The conditions under which the liquefaction of oxygen takes place being already ascertained by my previous researches, it fol- lows that this gas can, at the present time, be liquefied in consider- able quantities with ereat ease. umberless processes and appa- ratus are conceivable which would allow of this liquefaction being effected in such a manner that the commercial production of liquid

a ae solidify like carbonic acid, but it leaves a crystalline residue on the bottom of the vessel in which it was contained in the liquid

liquid oxygen as a cold-producer, is the necessity of ust

apparatus capable of great resistance.

able to obtain oxygen in a stable liquid con Th i

°xygen produces at the moment when the pressure moved. As these apparatus are in part constructed of glass, great mncon- ‘ ious explosions.

venience results owing to the constant danger of ser

320 Scientific Intelligence. After several accidents had occurred during these experiments,

worked without masks. But the greatest difficulty. to contend with is the short duration of the ebullition of the oxygen, and consequently the too short duration of the cold.

ave attempted to measure the tesoneraunra which the boiling oxygen produces. For this purpose I have adopted a method of thermo-electric measurement which, in addition to being highl sensitive, allows us to record all the sudden changes of temperature ofthe medium. The indications of the apparatus employed have been poe bares ei those of a hydrogen-thermometer between +100° and —130° ©. The nature of the function connecting these Biheatious sais of an extrapolation being made. teserv-

duced on the liberation from pressure of lique he d oxygen

Ihave submitted nitrogen successfully to the action of this cold. This gas compressed, cooled in boiling oxygen, and then slightly released from pressure, solidifies and falls like snow in crystals of Feb. 1884 size.— Comptes Rendus, Dee. 31, 1883.—PAil. Mag.,

e

y of a Magnetic prey of a portion of the Dominion

of Riau chiefly in the Northwestern Territories ; executed in the ‘Aris cg 44, by Lizur. Lerroy, R.A., now General Sim J. roe Bs B., etc., with maps, 192 pp. 8vo.. London, 1883. Longisans, Geoge & Co 0.). —The magnetic observations made

ieutenant Lefroy in the years 1842-44 have been, since thatt

Peace River an epee Fort Good Hope on the Mackenzie In addition, the Deelinenary observations made in Canada and the United States a e also given. The discussion of the instruments

wi ge de: Oo the varia fen in the magnetic elements observed

large mare give the positions of the magnetic lines for the same — epoch over the region covered by Lieutenant Lefroy, in preparing

which observations by Captain R. W. Has aig, Captain T. E. L oore and some others have oa, 5 Fai 8. Notes on Electricity bikes ped designed as a com panion to Silvanus P. pson’s a eal ary Lessons by J. B. Murpock. 139 pp. yee otee York, 1884. "(Macmillan & Co)

Pare

Geology and Natural History. 321

" . > on Trdg- coefficient eines Magnetes und iber die pa aay icone heitsmomenten. durch Bifilarsuspension. — Messrs.

nd F. Kourer

coun ient of in- determine the polar distances of a mpagnet ine cost given by duction and temperature, and the moment o ‘ te memoir will be the method of bifilar suspension. The comple published later.

Ww and Potsdam groups.— R. HITFIELD, dolesis. of N we Primordial fossils, contained in the Am Museum, expresses the York, published in Bulletin No. 5 of the Mu ’

o ate lower beds j Wisconsin, for the same type of ¢ tir cat te sal in euithrs aes the Brachiopods, Orthis eae cae ily i Cina Acadica (if a Brachiopod), are of newer type

in fauna. s to the Dis

: . ; ‘ibed from New York. Moreover, his Orthisina isc hear 20 in the paper, from Geor ia, Vermont, he sac Shas epin Orthi- and may be identical with the Wisconsin an — St j f Hall. he Ro oy tea Schenciets ste a paper pease enteritis Sas Dublin Society in November, 1882, Professor ements in throwing tion to the effects of land-slips or soil-cap mov

~

322 Scientific Intelligence.

dams across valleys and making lakes, and refers to a case at

“Naina Tal in the Himalayas where a land-slip appears to have pro-

duced this result. He points out, also, that they make bowlder deposits resembling those of glacier cone and sometimes cause a shallowing of channels and sea-borders which might be taken as evidence of an elevation of the land. tiie cites from a_ paper by Dr. Co ppinger in the Quarterly Journal of the Geologie Society of ie on (xxxvii, 245, 1881), about soil-cap slides over sloping satos of rock in western Patagonia, which carried along, besides trees and other plants of the s urface, “a moraine profonde” of rocks, stones and trunks of nen: filling valleys and lakes, that, after a removal by water of the finer part, became a deposit of bowlders piled on one another, in true glacier-made style.

Handbuch der Botanik, von Pr ofessor Dr. N. J. ©. omic: Se 2 Biinde (648, 482 pp.), 8vo. Heidelberg, 1

Pflanzenphysiologie. Hin rata des ofeoohait und Kvigfriosohids in der rk Soi von Dr. W. Prerrer, Professor an der Universitit Tubinge 2 Bande (383 u. 474 pp-), 8vo. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1881.

Vorlesungen “iiber Pflanzenphysiologie, von Junius Sachs. (Professor an der Universitit a (991 pp.), 8vo. Leip- zig, Engelmann, 7.

Traité de Botanique Van Tizauem, Professeur au ee Histoire a eatte (1656 pp-) 8vo. Paris, Librairie

avy.

sands Ju Botanik, herausgegeben von Professor Dr. A. ScueNk, unter mitwirkung, von Cohn, Detmer, Drude, Frank, Kienitz, Gerloff, sate eres (zu Lippstadt), "Sadebeck, u. & 8vo. Breslau, Trewen . [Now publishing in parts which appe@? somewhat inroguany, as the first portion of an Encyclopedia of Natural

hese a nie principal comprehensive works upon their respec tive pos facie which have appeared within the last few years. A treatise upon Pharmaceutical and Medical Botany by Luerssen rivals these in size and in carefulness of management throughout, ae cannot be described in detail in the present n notice. Neithe

both for the Laie and special reader. It has altogether to? much mathematical physics in it for the former, and too little for the latter ; that | is, it stops just short of being what it could have been made ander a pir tok treatment. By a slight reser A

ing 0 rams which are nowhere explained, it would be a stimulatin _ handbook for a certain class of botanical students. But, a" —

Geology and Natural History. 223

Pfeffer’s Vegetable Physiology is a masterly treatise. It pre- sents In sys ic form, and with references throughout, a

r of nitrogenous compounds within the plant, a subject to which Pfeffer has devoted much time, is treated pretty fully but is not

tion, especially that which is known as “ intra-molecular,” so ex- tensively presented as it appears to deserve. In the second vol- ume, the release of energy is discussed under growth, movement, and the production of light, heat and electricity. Nearly every page exhibits personal familiarity with the phenomena described and not merely with the literature. The propositions are every- where well presented, but the arguments in support 0 them are

as clearly put. Part of the fault comes no doubt from the unwillingness to place headings at the proper places

his publishers to prepare a fifth edition of his text-book, but he felt so much un-

satisti e systematic portion is turned over ost pr ising young professor who has recently established himself at Rostock, an work -has already appeared under Goebel’s

name and with Sachs’s sanction. 2 been wholly recast, and is now published as a series of forty-s lectures, Tt may be said at the outset, that the lectures are in-

324 Seientifie Intelligence.

teresting in the extreme. They are characterized by felicity of expression and by the exclusion of unnecessary matters, so that from first to last the reader’s interest is not permitted to flag. Their thoroughly attractive character ensures the early transla- tion into other languages.

The first series comprises eleven lectures upon the histological and morphological characters of plants in general. All plant organs are placed in two categories, root and shoot. The former comprises that part of the plant which on or in a substratum serves as a hold fast, and in the latter case acts as an organ for

ing organs of reproduction which are

roots. That both fulfill their characteristic func-

, , leaf, plant-hair. In the first eleven lectures the whole field of general histology and morphology 38

habitat, etc., the most general phenomena presented by 4 living plant, to wit: osmotic power, turgescence, tension of tis-

Geology and Natural History. 325

very largely to work done either by him or in the Wirzburg laboratory. The notes do not pretend to cover the literature of the subject.

, 40 many American students of Botany, Professor Van Tieghem is known as a successful investigator of some difficult problems In histology and physiology, and for his work in the department of cryptogamic botany. But he is more widely known in this country as the editor of a French translation of Sachs’s Text-book.

portional share of attention. This book closes with a study of close fertilization, cross-fertilization and hybridization, and wit rae f the origin of species. Of the latter, the

.

° mg i) g Z 5 i]

"nsolved without it.” “ But if we wish to preserve to this theory

The second part of the work is devoted to a special the orders of lower and of higher plants. The arrang

326 Scientific Intelligence.

novel in some particulars, although not now calling for remark.

The work closes with a consideration of the paleontological and

geographical relations of plants. Thus it will be seen that the treatise is a general work of wide range. It is characterized

jects wry eeperi OY as the works are themselves cited by him ust be said that these cases of omission are com- petals fei and do not seriously i cat ame the value of the excel; lent treatise.

The encyclopedic handbook now in course of poblicaten uni the editorship of Professor Schenk, promises to be a valuable collection of morphologicai, histological and ohvaisloptont ae graphs, Of course, in a work pr epared by many hands, the repe- titions are numerous and there is much waste of energy. On the other mand, we are given several views of the same subject and this may lead t —— conception of matters in doubt. The most Avante papers thus far at hand are the following:

C the poe ns of Plants ‘ea Goebel. There does not appear to be any “editing ” in the true sense of the word, if indeed be gee thing were possible with so diverse contributions. baer ccu-

4,. Tendency in Variation. —In the review in this oa

of Darwin’s Origin of S ecies, which appeared very shortly

after the. publication of that “epoch-making” work, the writer

intimated that there was reason to believe ‘that variation has

been led along certain beneficial ear like a stream ‘alon 799 Mr. 1

ubte a was 80, siikonet he has convinced a t of his followers, who, as -often -happens, were more & teolls belingael than their master. A d many years have passed ; and now, wherever

a 80 we turn from the speculators to the investigators who have ede -

working upon the problem of descent with variation, we me

with this idea of definite tendency. The suggestion, and the need of it, are well brought out by that veteran investl ator of the Foraminifera, Dr. Carpenter, in his recent paper im the

Geology and Natural History. | 327

“I propose, in the last place, briefl sia th a ast place, briefly to examine the bearing of on case of ‘ descent with modification,’ which I cas ny athe sp dae the general ‘Theory of Descent’ and of the “ - “ahaa spa ais in ‘natural selection’ or the ‘survival of the ssoameit “sufficient explanation of the ‘origin of species,”

from ;

self. seas the fundamental question is (as Mr. Darwin bim-

mens ei = at any rate in his later years), what gives rise to

ep saad “ exercise of ‘natural selection’ could produce ve changes presented in the evolutionary history of

nal. ‘ :

ine middle-sized O. duplex and a small 0. complanata,

without the the trained eye of the naturalist canno distinguish iy € assistance of a magnifying-glass.

)

selectj a ton’ can give no account of either the origin or the perpetu- Orbitolites complanata. ‘ series a to exclude the notion of ‘casual’

codic cor ss it ; : = eyo of a-young Cornuspira, and the discoidal body of an €, with its thousands of sub-segments disposed with the

and unifor i i

eat modes, who (in the absence of the intervening links)

ean suspected any genetic relatio to construct a pedigree? And yet :

from sieni ety one to the other to be not only most complete, but often as se cant of further progress; many of the changes being such ont, Dave: 8 i ticipations of greater

penta o meaning except as an ges to come. Thus, the slight constrictions that show them-

328 Scientific Intelligence.

selves in the.first spiral coil of O. tenuissima are what constitute

the essential difference between the spire of Cornuspira and that

of Spiroloculina; marking an aes septal division of the

spire into chambers, which cannot be conceived to affect in any )

assumption of the Peneropline stage. Again, the incipient widen- ing-out of the body, previously to the formation of the first

complete septum, prepares the way for that great lateral exten- sion which characterizes the next or Orbiculine stage ; this exten-

“In. 0; ir te et the first spiral sta ct ng-together (as it were) of the ‘spiroloculine’ coil into a

siieeha spiral stage is fully retained. In V. duplex, the abbreviated Milioline center is still retained, but the succeedin bi spiral is almost entirely dropped out, quickly giving tegee o the eyclical plan. And in the typical O. complanata the Milioline center is immediately surrounded by a complete annulus, 80 that ren remains “ ~ Sha ae spire save the one turn

APPENDIX.

bee AX XVI Principal Characters of American

Jurassic Dinosaurs + by Professor O. C. Marsn. Part VUL The Order Theropoda. (With Plates VII-XIV.)

The fortunate discovery of two nearly perfect skeletons of this order, as well as a number of others with various impor-

writer of the results are here presented. A more detai of these fossils, and others allied to them, will be given i another communieation, ; : the carnivorous Dinosaurs from the American Jurassic,

osdurus, and the new genus Ceratosaurus, r

In the present article, Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus wil mainly used to illustrate the more important characters of the order, and the relations of the other genera te them will be indicated in the classification presented in conclusion. fa This J ournal, vol. xxiii, p. 81, January, 1882. See also vol. xxi, p. 423, May,

81; p. 339, April, 1881; and vol. xvii, p. 89, January, 1879.

AM. Jour, So.—Turep Series, Vou. XXVIJ, No. 160.—APRIL, 1884,

: eae

distinct fami A oth ie amily. These genera are fate described

330 O. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda.

The specimen of Ceratosaurus here first described presents several characters not hitherto seen in the Dinosawria. One of these is a large horn on the skull; another is a new type of vertebra, as strange as it is unexpected ; and a third is seen in the pelvis, which has the bones all codssitied, as in existing Birds. Archwopteryx alone among adult birds has the pelvie bones separate, and this specimen of Ceratosaurus is the first Dinosaur found with all the pelvic bones anchylosed. Another feature of this skeleton, not before seen in the Theropoda, is the presence of osseous dermal plates. These extend from the base of the skull along the neck, over the vertebre. The plates appear to be ossitied cartilage. |

his interesting fossil is quite distinct from any hitherto described, and, as it represents a new genus and species, may be called Ceratosaurus nasicornis. It also belongs to a new family, which may be named the Ceratosauride.

he skeleton, which is almost perfect, is over seventeen feet in length by actual measurement. The animal when alive was about half the bulk of the species named by the writer Allosaurus fragilis, which is from the same geological horizon. — A second skeleton, some parts of which, also, are here described, is referred to the latter species. |

THE SKULL.

antorbital A fifth :

characteristic of the y Ef her da, and are found also in the a

0. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda. 331

The parietal bones are of moderate size, and there is no parietal foramen. The median suture between the parietals is Aiahadenias but that between these bones and the frontals is

Inet.

The frontal bones are of moderate length, and are closely united on the median. line, the suture being obliterated. Their union with the nasals is apparent on close inspection.

The nasal bones are more elongate than the frontals, and the suture uniting the two moieties is obsolete. These bones sup- port entirely the large compressed, elevated horn-core, on the median line. The lateral surface of this elevation is very rugose, and furrowed with vascular grooves. It evidently sup- ported a high, trenchant horn, which mnst have formed a most powerful weapon for offense and defense. No similar weapon is known in any of the Dinosauria, but it is not yet certain whether this feature pertained to all the members of this family, or was only a generie character.*

€ premaxillaries are separate, and each contained only three functional teeth. In the genera Compsognathus an egalosaurus, of this order, each premaxillary contained four teeth, the same number found in the Sauropoda. In the hus Creosaurus, from the American Jurassic, the premaxil-

aries each contain five teeth, as shown in Plate IX, figure 3.

The maxillary bones in the present specimen are large and Massive, as shown in Plate VIII, figure 1. They umite, in front, with the premaxillaries by an open suture; th hasals, laterally, by a close union; and, with the ugal behind, *Y Squamosal suture. The maxillaries are provided each with fifteen functional teeth, which are large, powerful,

* The “horn” of Iguanodon described by Mantell, and since regarded as a carpal spine, proves to be the distal phalange of the thumb.

332 O. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda.

trenchant, indicating clearly the ferocious character of the animal when alive. ese teeth have the same general form as those of Megalosaurus, and the dental succession appears to be quite the same. _ Above the antorbital foramen on either side, is a high eleva- tion composed of the prefrontal bones. These protuberances would be of service in protecting the orbit, which they partially overhang.

The orbit is of moderate size, oval in outline, with the apex

mga is a pas hook, on the upper half of the outer sul —

ace. Into this hook of the quadrate, a peculiar process of the

strong, curved, transverse bone, which projects down

below the border of the upper jaws, as shown in Plate Vill,

figure 1, ¢.

There is a very short, thin columella, which below is closely : E

united to the pterygoid by suture, and above fits into asm depression of the post-frontal.

he palatine bones are well developed and, after joining | the pterygoids, extend forward to the union with the vomey

The latter are apparently of moderate size

The pre-sphenoid is well developed, and has a long pointed ©

anterior extremity

Mane 6 ote : The whole palate is remarkably open, and the Bi bones —

P >

composing it stand nearly vertical, as in the Sawropodd.

}

O. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda. 333

THe BRAIN.

THe Lower JAWS.

The lower jaws of Ceratosawrus are large and powerful, especially in the posterior part. In front, the rami are much compressed, and they were joined together by cartilage only, — as in all Dinosaurs. There is a large foramen in the jaw, similar to that in the crocodile, as shown in Plate VIII, figure 1, f. The dentary bone extends back to the middle of thi foramen. The sihietal is large, extending from the foramen forward to the symphysial surface, and forming in this region a border to the ‘upper margin of the dentary. There were fifteen teeth in each ramus, similar in form to those of the upper jaws.

A J culiar dentary bone, recently found, and here referred to Labrosaurus, is shown on Plate LX, figure 4. It is edent- lous in front, and the posterior portion is much decurved. The teeth are more triangular than in the other hanes of an order. The species it represents may be called Labrosaure

THE VERTEBRA.

The cervical vertebree of Ceratosaurus differ in type from those in any other known Reptiles. With the exception of the atlas, whi

| 334 O. OC. Marsh—The Order Theropoda.

Midi ds Sie ee a weak joint.. This feature is shown te &, fi figures 2, 3, and 4

The ans of this new So of vertebra shows that the terms opisthoeclian and proccelian, in general use to describe the centra of vertebree, are inadequate, since they relate to one end only, the other being supposed to correspond in form. The terms convexo-concave, concavo-convex, plano-concave, etc., would be more accurate, and equally e uphonious.

In Ceratosaurus, as in all the 7) b hepadi. except Calurus, the cervical ribs are articulated to the centra, not codssitied with them, as in the Sawropoda. The latter order stands almost alone among Dinosaurs in this respect, as both the Rigor and the Ormithopoda have free ribs in the cervical regio

The dorsal and foinbad vertebree are bi-concave, vith ‘only moderate concavities. The sides and lower surface of the cen-

in Plate XIV, fi

All the presacral vertebrae are very hollow, and this is also true of the anterior caudals.

There are five well coéssified vertebrae in the sacrum in the present specimen of Ceratosaurus nasicornis. The trans- — verse processes are very short, each supported by two vertebra,

they do not meet at their distal ends.

ee the type specimen of Creosawrus, there are only two sacral vertebrae codssified. In Megalosawrus, there are five,

and the number appears to vary in different genera of the BR as it does in the Sawropoda.

The caudal vertebrae are bi-concave.. All the anterior cau- dals, except the first, supported very long arava indicating a high, thin tail, well adapted to ‘swimmin he tail was quite long, and the distal caudals were very short.

THE Fore Lips.

- a limbs in AJdlosawrus, and in fact in all known were very small. The scapula and coracoid re-

which formed most effective weapons. These claws, in some allied forms, have been referred to the hind feet, but the lat- ter, in all the known Theropoda, have their claws round, 5 BNE not compressed. a) fore limb of Adlosaurus fragilis Wo, shown on Plate XII ae:

0.0. M arsh—The Order Theropoda. 335

THE Petvic ARCH.

he pelvic bones in the Theropoda have been more gener- ally misunderstood than any other portion of the skeleton in Dinosaurs. The ilia, long considered coracoids, have been since usually reversed in position; the ischia have been regarded as pubes; while the pubes themselves have not been considered as part of the pelvie arch. Fortunately, in the present specimen of Ceratosaurus, the ilium, ischium, and pubes are firmly codssified, so that their identification and relative positions cannot be called in ques- tion. The ilia, moreover, were attached to the sacrum, which was in its natural place in the skeleton, and the latter was found nearly in the position in which the animal died. Th es of Ceratosaurus and of Allosaurus are shown in

late XT.

The ilium in Ceratosawrus has the same general form as in Megalosaurus. In most of the other Theropoda, also, this bone has essentially the same shape, and this type may be regarded as characteristic of the order. In Creosaurus, the anterior wing is more elevated, and the emargination

sch hina well backward, and for the last half of their lengt

forward, a : Seen from the front, they form a Y-shaped figure, which varies in form in different genera. The upper end i a a large surface, and the ischium by a smaller attachment.

he united distal ends are expanded into an elongate, massive foot, as shown in Plate XI, which is one of the most peculiar and characteristic parts of the skeleton. le

The pubes of Jegalosaurus have not yet been identified, but there can be little doubt that they are of the same general

omen as an “abdominal hremapophysis and h

(

336 O. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda.

The extremely narrow pelvis is one of the most marked features in this entire group, being in striking contrast to the width in this region in the herbivorous forms’ found with them. If the Zheropoda were viviparous, which some known facts seem to indicate, one difficulty, naturally suggested in the case of a reptile, is removed.

Another interesting point is, the use of the large foot at the lower end of the pubes, which is the most massive part of the skeleton. The only probable use is, that it served to support the body in sitting down. That some Triassic Dinosaurs sat down on their ischia is proved conclusively by the impressions in the Connecticut River sandstone. In such cases was bent so as to bring the heel to the ground. The same action in the present group would bring the foot of the pubes to the ground, nearly or quite under the center of gravity of the animal. The legs and ischia would then naturally aid in keeping the body balanced. Possibly this position was assume habitually by these ferocious biped reptiles, in lying in walt_

or prey:

Tue Hinp Lips.

In the foot of Allosaurus fragilis, represented: in Plate XH, no tarsal bones of the second row were found, although the adjoining bones were nearly in their natural position. ether — the former were imperfectly ossified, or lost, in this instance — cannot be determined with certainty, but there is evidence — of the presence of these bones in several other members of the group. In the present foot, there were three functional digits — The metatarsals are very long, and fitted closely to each othet especially at their upper ends. The phalanges and claws were — mostly found near the positions here assigned to them.

* Compsognathus is cited as an instance of this union, but in a careful study . the original specimen in Munich, the writer found evidence that the astraga ig distinct, although closely attached to the tibia. i roved a. conclusively (Morpholog. Jahrbuch, VIII). In the Stegosauride alone, among

Dinosaurs, is the astragalus codssified with the tibia. This, however, not a character of much importance. :

bail

O. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda. 337

The Specimens of Zheropoda here first described, including the type specimen of Ceratosaurus na sicornis, are from the Atlantosaurus beds of the Upper J Aig in Colorado, where they were found by Mr. M. P. Felch. The asso sociated fossils are various Sawropoda, eee and Ornithopoda, together with Jurassic Mammal

CLASSIFICATION.

The main characters of the order Thero We ees aid of the families now known to belong to it, are as f

Order THEROPODA.

Large antorbital opening. Ver tebre more or less hollow. Fore limbs very small; limb bones ie Feet digitigrade ; digits With prehensile claws. Pubes projecting downward, with distal ends codssified.

(1.) Family Megalosaurida. Anterior vertebrae convexo-concave ; remaining vertebre bi-concave. Pubes slender. Astragalus with ascending ioe ss.

Gen (Poikilopleuron), Allosaurus, Oe siewas ge heruiols "Dryptosaurus (Leelaps).

(2.) F amily Ceratosauride. haan on skull. Cervical vertebree pla ave, remaining vertebre bi-concave slender. Pelvic bones codssified. Osseous dermal plates. Astragalus with ascending process.

Genus, Ceratosaurus.

(3.) Family Labrosauride. Lower jaws edentulous in Ss Cervical and dorsal vertebr convexo-conca s

slender, with nn margins united. aracalie with

ascendin g proc Genus, poten:

(4) Family Zanclodontide. Vertebrex bi-concave. Pubes broad

elongate plates, with anterior ee united. Astragalus Without ascending process. Five digits in manus and pes. Genera, Zanclodon, cue * The ® presence of various genera of Dinosaurs closely allied to these A merican forms in essentially one eek igh in the Isle of Wight, su esosts | rs the pore in hich they occur are not Wealden, as generally supposed, Dut Am. Jour, Sor—Tare Series, VoL. XXVII, No. 160.— ie, tk

338 0. oe Morsh—The Order Theropoda.

(5.) Family Avphieineict Vertebree renters Pubes rod- i Five di oy in manus, and three 8.

Genera, Amphisaurus ash ? Bath aa

J Ulgpapanivas Paleosaurus, rb dats aioe

Sub-order COLLURIA.

(6.) pune Celuride. Vertebre and beanie of skeleton pneu-

Anterior cervicals convexo-concave; remaining

Pact bi-concave, Cervical ribs “cobssified with vertebra. Metatarsals very long, and slender

Genus, Colurus.

Sub-order COMPSOGN ATHA.

(7.) ey wale iaehabi Cervical vertebra convexo-con ning vertebre bi-concave. Thre ¢ functional digits in manus and pes. Ischia with long avin phy on median line :

Genus, Dobie

Of these seven well marked families, the Amphisauride ad iB Zanclodontide are Triassic, the Megalosauride are Jurassic — and Cretaceous, while the éthiers are all Jurassic alone. i.

There are still some very diminutive carnivorous Dinosaurs P that cannot at present be referred to any of the above families; but this may in part be due to the can condition 1 —

which their remains have been found. .

The peculiar orders Hallopoda and Aétosauria inclu sll y ~ earnivorous reptiles which are allied to the Déinosauria, but — they aad from er group in some of its most characteristie fea In both Aétosawrus and Hallopus, the caleaneum is

oe produged Awe In the former genus, the entire — limbs are crocodilian, and this is also true of * e 7 cover” C : th has

this may be the case in true alg capecia ally f rias. Future discoveries will # edna bring to li ht Mm nter- e mediate forms between these orders and the typical Dinosa

Yale College, New Haven, March 17, 1884.

0. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda. 339

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE VIII. Figure 1.—Skull of Ceratosaurus nasicornis, Marsh; side view. Figure 2,—The same skull; front view. rate ee same get top v

sal open b, horn-eore; «¢, ie Geis bital opening; * pei e, lower t pcm fonat: 7, foramen in lower jaw; ¢, transverse bon

All the figures are one-sixth natural size.

PLATE IX. Figure 1.—Skull and vonage of Ceratosaurus nasicornis, Marsh; seen = above, one-sixth natural s a, os SY Sih ng; b, horn-core; c, antorbital opening; c’, cerebral hemispheres ; d, orbit; ¢, lower ma eo fos none A oo bone; h, supra-temporal fossa ; J, jugal bone; m, maxillar m’, ulla; m, nasal bone; 0c, “nin condyle ; ol, olfactory 1obéa oe prefntal bone ; pm, pre e-maxillary bone ; %, quadra te bone ; qj, quadrato-jug: Figure 2. Seta of same skull; side view. One-fourth natural siz ¢, cerebral hemis sphere ~~ cb, rob ellum ; m, medulla; of, otactory lobes ; On, Optic nerve ; op, optic a lener Pp, pituitary body. FIGURE 3.—Ki ight. pre-maxillary bone of Creosaurus atrox, Marsh; front view ; one-sixth natural 2a, lateral view, dicedic outer side ; 2b, lateral view, showing inner surface. Figure 4.—Left @ dentary bone of Labrosaurus ferox, Marsh; superior view ; one- sixth natural size. FIGURE 65,—The same bone; lateral view, outer side. FiguRE 6.—The same bone; lateral view, inner side.

PLATE X.

Figure 1.—Ailas of Ceratosauris nasicornis, Marsh.

Figure 2. —Axis of Ceratosaurus nasicornis.

Figure 3. —Third vertebra of Ceratosaurus nasicornis ass 4, side view; b, front view; ¢, posterior view; 4, top view ; ¢, inferior é

Figure 4, —Sixth vertebra of Ceratosaurus nasicornis ; side view.

FigURE 5.—Dorsal vertebra of Ceratosaurus nasicornis ; side view. | a .

Fiourr 6.—Fifth caudal vertebra of same species, with chevron in natural —

tion; side vie :

All the Neaked are aie natural size.

+

340 O. C. Marsh—The Order Theropoda.

PLATE XI,

Figure 1.—Pelvis of Ceratosaurus nasicornis, Marsh; side view, seen from the left.

Figure 2.—Pelvis of Allosaurus Fragilis, Mate; the same view. _ a, acetabulum ; 4, ilium ; és, ischium; p, pu Both figures are one-twelfth natural size. Figure 3.—Pubes of Celwrus agilis, Marsh. a, side view; 6, front view ; ¢, foot, or distal end; one-fourth natural size.

PLATE XII.

FiGuRE 1.—Bones of left fore leg of Allosaurus fragilis, Marsh. Figure 2.—Bones of left hind leg of Allosaurus fragilis. Both figures are one-twelfth natural size.

PLATE XIII.

Figure 1,—Cervical vertebra of Calurus fragilis, ee front view. la, side view; 10, transverse section of same vertebra FiguRE 2.—Dorsal vertebra of Celurus fragilis ; front view. 2a, side view; 2b, transverse section of same. FiguRE 3.—Caudal vertebra of Celurus fragilis ; front view. gts side view; 20, ttanavers section of same; o anterior ; Pp, , posterior c, cavity; f, lateral. foramen ne, neural ca nal; codssified rib; s, neural spine; 2, anterior zygapop ie sis; 2’, posterior aygapophysts. All the figures are natural size.

PLATE XIV.

Figure 1}. —Left ilium of Creosawrus atrox, Marsh; seen from the left. FiguRE 2.—The same, seen from below; both one-tenth natural size. a, anterior, or pubic, articulation ; 6, posterior, or ischiadic, articulation. Figure 3.—Lumbar vertebra of Creosaurus atrox ; front view. Figure 4.—The same; side su — _ ee both one-sixth natura a, anterior articular face cular face; s, neural gree d, diapophysis; z, anterior neuen np eden zy gapophysis.

AM. JOUR. SCl., Vol. XVII, 1884. Plate VIII,

AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XXVII, 1884. Plate IX.

1, 2, CERATOSAURUS;

VERTEBRAE OF CERATOSAUAUS NASICORNIS, Marsh. One-sixth natural size.

“AM, JOUR. SCI, Vol. XXVII, 1884.

Plate XI.

1, CERATOSAURUS;

2, ALLOSAURUS:

3, C@LURUS.

Plate XIII.

VERTEBRE OF C@LURUS FRAGILIS, Marske. Natural size.

-Plate XIV.

CREOSAURUS ATROX, Marsh.

SS gn pe ee ee yee ee

ae OEE, © oe ee

O. C. Marsh—Extinct Jurassic Reptiles. 341

i Art. XXXIX.—A new order of extinct Jurassic Reptiles » ‘ M ey

MACELOGNATHA); by O. C. Mars

A NEW type of reptilian life is represented in the Yale Museum by various remains, the most characteristic of which are the two dentary bones of the lower jaws. These bones resemble in many respects the corresponding parts of a Turtle, but are broader, and more nearly horizontal. The jaws were evidently covered with a horny beak in front, but further back they contained teeth. The edentulous portion is flat and thin,

a and nearly horizontal. The two rami meet in nearly the same

oie and are united at the symphysis by a close suture. The form and general characters of these specimens are represented in the eut below.

Jaws of Macelognathus vagans, Marsh. Seen from above. One-half natural size.

The teeth were implanted in distinct sockets, in front, but further back, the walls between them become thinner, and a groove appears to gradually take their place. The form of the teeth cannot be d

d r Ptero- dactyles. With Serpents and Lizards they have evidently only remote affinities. The close union of the rami by suture separates them from the Dinosaurs, and the endentulous beak,

from Crocodiles. So far as now known, they appear t

ar to be nearest allied to the Chelonia, although Turtles without teeth occur in the same strata wit m.

The geological horizon of these peculiar remains is in the Atlantosaurus beds of the Upper Jurassic. The locality is in Wyoming Territory.

Yale College, March 21st, 1884.

Am. Jour. jon Dee Serres, VoL. XXVII. No. 160,—ApRIL, 1884.

: 22

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES,] ——_eo -—___—_

Art, XL.—Remarks on Professor Newcomb’s ‘‘ Rejoinder ;” by James Crouu, LL.D., F.R.S.*

‘done me the honor to reply to my remarks in the October humber on his Review of ‘Climate and Time,’ which appeared 'n this Journal, May, 1876. With regard to this Rejoinder of

the views which I actually hold. I have no desire to continue this Controversy, but may be allowed briefly to refer to those

Points on which I have been so thoroughly misunderstood. — Of course I fully concur in Professor Newcomb’s opening remarks as to the desirability of “a purely mathematical inves- hgation of the subject.” Such an investigation, however, Is, think, impossible at present. In a question so complex and difficult as that of the cause of the Glacial epoch, depending aS it does on the consideration of so many different elements, Some of which are but little understood, logical analysis rather than mathematics will require to be our instrument in the The question must first assume a clear, definite

mean time, . hag logical form before mathematics can possibly be applied }

Prof. Newcomb objects that my language is wanting in quan- : “ great,

lative precision—that I use such terms as “g very * Communicated by the Author.

_ Aw. Jour, Sct—rarep Series, Vor. XXVII, No, 161.—May, 1884, ‘ 23

Pig " mgr eI a q

344. =. Croll—Professor Newcoml’s “ Rejoinder.”

great,” “small,” “comparatively small,” and so forth, without any statement of the units of comparison relatively to which these expressions are employed. No one reasoning on the combined influence of a multitude of physical causes could well avoid the almost continual use of such terms. Besides, my critic forgets that in almost every case in which I use these terms numerical exactness is not attainable; and even if it were, it would, as a rule, be of little service, seeing that the conclu- sion generally depends on the simple fact that one quantity is less or greater than another, not on how much less or how much greater the one may be than the other. Although my argu: ments are logical, few writers, I venture to say, have done more than myself to introduce definite quantitative exactness into the questions I have discussed. -

Prof. Newcomb gives his readers to understand that I assume Newton’s law of cooling to be correct; and that I apparently nowhere adduce the more correct law of Dulong and Petit— viz: that if we take a series of temperatures in arithmetical progression, the corresponding rates of radiation of heat will not be in arithmetical progression, but in a series of which the — differences continually increase. If he will refer to the ‘ Rea- der,’ Dec. 9, 1865, Phil. Mag., Feb. 1870, ‘Nature,’ April 1, 1880, and ‘Climate and Time’ (the book he reviewed), p. 87, he will there see the question discussed at considerable length. He will also find reference made to a remarkable circumstance connected with radiation which perhaps may be new to him. It is this: the law of Dulong and Petit (that as the temperature of a body rises the radiation of the body increases in a muc higher ratio) holds true only of the body considered as a mass- The probability is, as has been shown by Prof. Balfour Stewart, that the individual particles composing the body obey N ewton’s aw in their radiation; in other words, the radiation of a mate- rial particle is directly proportionate to its absolute temperature.

Further, in estimating the extent to which temperature 1S affected by a change in the sun’s distance, Newton’s law maxes the extent too great; while the formula of Dulong and Petit, which is an empirical one, makes-it, on the other hand, too

conclusion from Dulong and Petit’s law favorable to my theory — of the cause of the Glacial epoch, which certainly did escape

Jk Tea ee. ae Tee ee hy a — . : Se ae ae eee

J. Croll— Professor Newcomb’s “Rejoinder.” 345

we rere . n and Time’ will know that I adopted —239° as the temperature

oy to eccentricity. My opinion all along has been that the

Mperature of space is little above absolute zero. . the omg argument against the conclusion that space can have a 8) temperature assigned to it by Pouillet and Herschel, eng ae Photometry shows that the combined light from € stars visible in the most powerful telescope is not a

ture as high as —239°, is just the very argument advanced b d

—fember 9, 1865, and afterwards reproduced in ‘Climate and

Time,’ at page 39, from which I quote the following :— “

i. We is at least 493° below the melt-

= Point of ice. This i

know that absolute zero inthe : is 222° below that of space. Conse- tens y, if the heat derived from the stars is able to maintain a east: ture of —2 or 222° of absolute temperature, then Ba ye as much heat is derived from the stars as from sun. light ? So, why do stars give so much heat and so very little a at I e radiation from the stars could maintain a ther-

ee ; ‘Evaporation and Kceceutricity as Co-factors in Glacial Periods,” Geological

; Eva : Magazine for November, 1841

346 = J. Croll— Professor Newcoml’s “ Rejoinder.”

suppositions is probably true. The probability is, I venture to resume, that the temperature of space is not very much above absolute zero.”

In regard to Professor Newcomb’s objections to the reasons which I have adduced to show that the ocean ought to be warmer than the land, I am at a loss to understand how he can have so completely misunderstood me on that point. thonght I had expressed my views with sufficient clearness, but now fear I cannot have done so. need not, however, again go over my argument in detail, but shall simply state what the views are which I have all along maintained. This will suffice to show that these views are diametrically the oppo site of those which my critic has attributed to me.

The temperature of a body can remain stationary only when the rate at which it is losing equals that at which it is receiving heat. If heat be lost more rapidly than it is received the

temperature will fall. The fall of temperature will diminish the rate of loss till the rate of loss equals the rate of gain. After this the temperature becomes stationary. If we have

the fact that theagueous vapor of the air is far less ciation

*

. ofessor e : Which has reference to m: : “ia

J. Croll—Professor Newcomb’s “Rejoinder.” 347

the land. The result is that the temperature of equilibrium of the ocean must be higher than that of the land. In other words, before the ocean can manage to throw off its heat into space as rapidly as it is receiving it, its temperature must be higher than that of the land.

he foregoing conclusion follows so obviously from the known properties of aqueous yapor and the principles of ther- modynamics that I can hardly believe Professor Newcomb will eall it in question. But he will ask how can the transparency

of the ocean for heat-rays, the mobility of its particles, and

the greater store of heat which it possesses, be a reason why its mean temperature should be higher than that of the land? I thought I had made all this clear. The reason becomes ap- parent when we consider why it is that the surface of the ocean during night and also during winter is warmer than the surface of the land. The ocean in temperate regions seldom sinks to the freezing-point, while the land is frequently frozen for months. The cause is obvious enough: at night, when the Surface of the ocean becomes cool, the cold particles sink and their places are supplied by warm particles from below, and so long as the heat stored up remains, the surface can never be-

Tays, it would be impossible that the ocean could obtain a sup- Ply of heat sufficient to maintain its surface-temperature during

the Warmth e Atlantic,

ocean is consumed tion of this he durin

heat fro ‘at former ig rere it not Store m ‘ | to part with

So much of its heat to the land during wi ar and still maintain

Newcomb’s mise

348 J. Croll—Professor Newcoml’s “ Rejoinder.”

stated, what every physicist knows to be perfectly correct, that

the aqueous vapor of the air radiates back a portion of its

heat; and the ocean, for reasons which have been already

stated, absorbs this radiation more freely than the land. Radi . ation from 1

each other by their mutual radiation. This is not the state of the case at all, for both bodies receive their heat from the sun ; their mutual radiation simply retains them at a higher tempera- ture than they could otherwise have. Here Professor Newcom

appears to get into confusion owing to the meaning which he attributes to the word “heating.” The views which I have advocated in reference to this mutual radiation are as follows: According to the dynamical theory of heat, all bodies above absolute zero radiate heat. If we have two bodies, A at 200

and B at 400°, then, according to Prevost’s theory of exchanges, A as truly radiates heat to B as B does to A. The radiation of A, of course, can never raise the temperature of B above 400° ; but nevertheless the éendency of the radiation of A, in 80 far as it goes, is to raise the temperature of B. This is demon- strated by the fact that the temperature of B, in consequence of the radiation of A, is prevented from sinking so low as It would otherwise do. All this is so well known to every stu dent of thermodynamics, that I can hardly think Professor

In bis Review of ‘Climate and Time,’ Professor Newcomb : advocated, as a fatal objection to my theory, that the pape: |

my reply (this Journal, Oct., 1883, p. 264), is based _——

* Were this objection correct it would prove that there could have aoe Glacial Epoch; for it is obvious that had not the sun’s heat failed to melt pee winters snow, not during the course of a few days merely but during the enure” - summer, there could not possibly have been permanent ice.

my

"9 ?

W. F. Hillebrand—Lillingite and other Minerals. 349

must be proportionate to the amount of heat received from the sun, In proof of the erroneous nature of this assumption, I refer to the fact that on the lofty summits of the Himalayas and Andes, for example, the quantity of heat received from the sun would be sufficient to melt at least fifty feet of ice per annum, and that is no doubt more than ten times the quantity actually required to be melted; yet notwithstanding the snow Temains permanent. The cause of this non-melting I showed is due to the fact that at these elevations, owing to the dryness

I was much pleased to find that Professor Newcomb has not only adopted these views regarding the effects of an absence of aqueous vapor, but suggested that they may yet afford an €xplanation of the cause of the Glacial epoch. Every one familiar with the subject, however, knows that that epoch was hot due to a dryness of the air, but the reverse.

Arr. XLL— Communications from the U. S. Geological Survey, ltocky Mountain Division. VI. On an interesting variety of Liliingite and other Minerals; by W. F. HILLEBRAND.

[Read before the Colorado Scientific Society, April and Dee., 1883.]

AROUND the base of Teocalli Mountain, on Brush Creek,

OU Gunnison Count , Colorado, there occurs, in several mines, te of such

attention at a giance.

€xcited, that a series of observations was.und the results are embodied in the following. : The precise locality of occurrence of the specimens examined was unknown to Mr. William McCree, who presented them to the Colorado Scientific Society, but Mr. J. G. Ridgley has ob- i as

he northwest slope of Teocalli Mountain. : Ridley, associated with native silver, prous-

/ 350 W.F. Hillebrand—Lillingite and other Minerals.

tite, argentite, pyrargyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, siderite, barite and calcite, the last three composing the gangue. Much of it

but even in the densest portions the radiate structure is gener- ally distinctly discernible. ;

tn order iscover, if possible, a clew to the crystallographic structure, and also to obtain material for analysis, specime were treated with hydrochloric acid without previous crushing, whereby the siderite and the arseniates of iron, cobalt and nickel were entirely dissolved. The ldllingite remained quite black on all parts where the gangue had been eaten away, but. surfaces of previous fracture retained their white color. The star-like forms were then seen to be composed of a consider- able number of long flattened ellipsoids, interpenetrating ata common center in every direction. When one of these clusters was broken through the star form appeared on the surface © fracture. The aggregates were joined together loosely, noW that the cementing material had been removed, though fre- quently in large clusters of many hundreds of all sizes, from those visible only with the aid of a microscope, to others an eighth of an inch or more in diameter. :

A microscopic study of the finer part of the material liberated from its imprisonment in the gangue, and broken off from the larger pieces during the treatment with acid and subsequent washing, furnished the solution to the question as to what was the crystallographic form of the flattened ellipsoids composi?

e fundamental

is

dome, as in fig. 1.* Frequently these two forms are equa

developed, producing a resemblance to a low pyramid : .

tetragonal system. Very few even of the most minute crysta sare the accompanying figures. with the exception of fig. 1, were ont © ee

aid of a camera lucida. and therefore make no pretensions to crystallograpnle

ig. 4 is magnified about 15 diameters, the others from 40 to 150

diameters-

t

W. F. Hillebrand—Lillingite and other Minerals. 351

Parallel to the combination edge of the prism and macrodome ere is almost always on the prism a striation (more coarsely

combination edge the reproduced dome face becomes relativel y larger than that of the prism, the consequence of which is a_

Tepresented in fig. 2, an ellipsoidal form with a slight ndge

through the center representing a pris e. Frequently the Corners of a crystal, occupying the position of fig. 1, appear as if modified b e, but no form has been ob-

e un Even where the macrodome is well developed it generally

352 W.F. Hillebrand—Léillingite and other Minerals.

shows a continuation in some degree of the prismatic striation parallel to the same combination edge.

The first step toward the complex twin structure is the forma- tion of a simple twin, or rather trilling, by interpenetration of three single crystals having the basal section in common, an face of the prism as the composition face (fig. 3). A basal sec- tion shows a six-rayed star, with angles of very nearly 60°, by microscopic measurement, between the axes of the rays. In the microscopic twins one individual frequently predominates greatly in size over the other two, these appearing often as thin leaves, projecting but a short way out of the larger crystal. These trillings are finally found again interpenetrating, not ac- cording to any recognizable law, but seemingly in every direc- tion, and in indefinite numbers, forming thus the complex aggregates first spoken of. All these stages of change in form may be observed with. great ease under the microscope, the very smallest crystals alone showing crystallographic faces ‘well defined. s the crystals, single or twin, increase in size, the faces gradually grow more and more indistinct, and finally dis- appear entirely in consequence of increasing striation.

Notwithstanding repeated attempts, the basal cleavage men- tioned in text-books as characteristic of léllingite could rarely be produced, and never a cleavage in any other direction, eX- cept in the case of the trillings. Here an individual frequently broke off at the line of union of the three, that is, in a plane parallel to the brachy pinacoid. . :

side from the forms distinctly recognizable as Jdllingite are, however, others belonging, apparently, to two different minerals. The first of these became visible on dissolving the gangue, when there came to the surface of the aci and the water used for washing out the latter a great number of minute but brilliant metallic particles which resolved themselves under the loupe, and still better under the microscope, into thin leaves or blades, of which fig. 4 represents one of the more perfect examples. Its forms appear to consist of two pinacoids of the rhombic system, one very broad, the other very narrow, and a

lengthened prism with an angle of very nearly, if not quite, 90°. Repeated measurements gave values fluctuating between

So b | . latter figure only the outlines, not the faces of the different horizontal individuals, are shown, nor do the numerous vertical attachments present appear either in this figure or in fig. Occasional instances of three prisms, crossing at right angles like the axes of a rectangular system, were observed, and also 4 single instance of the form represented in fig. 9 where each of the arms showed a domatic face. The most striking feature of all but the last of these different forms is the invariable pening at the point of union or intersection, as shown in the gures,

fe) s 5 — tS © o © Ss % S ie) S

assumed specific gravity, 2°65, the true specific gravity of the mineral becomes 7°400.

I EB Ae oe a 71°18 Lose Cia Cea nse cms Vad etapaaons Mae # oes pee

| ee ae eee tee Sata 0-08 eu : One oe 0°39 oie Pee ee 22°96 22°69 O66 oe ie 4°37 4°20 Ne ope Se Ot O19

354. W.F. Hillebrand—Léllingite and other Minerals.

instead of the brachydome mentioned by Sandberger as pecu- liar to the rhombic CoAs, render necessary, however, its classi- fication with léllingite.

CoSsALITE.

In the collection of the Colorado Scientific Society, are a few specimens of a mineral from the Comstoc i

The outer zone of the small bodies spoken of is found on close examination to be a mixture of two or more minerals, among which minute grains of pyrite were alone recognizable. Sufficient material was however obtained for analysis, ie from all impurity, except a little pyrite and 1:29 per cent of -

»

* Inaugural Dissertation, Freiberg, 1883.

W. F. Hillebrand—Léllingite and other Minerals. 385

i RP en Soh aataen ey fog Me RI 42°97 PE iki os Vea aS 8°43 _ i RCE ecerte Vpn Be BM repent We eg 7°50 | cd « MORI Mp paee Glen isan! Sash isin 22°49 26 LO ie a ee ee 0°70 V A COW ha manent Kec et iy Stic 9 trace eo er eee ee ee

99:20

Allowing for the iron and a proportionate amount of sulphur

as pyrite, the atomic ratio deduced from the above is:

Boo. ee cee

2°07 x 1°00 eee showing the general formula for the mineral to be 2RS+Bi,S,, wherein R represents Pb and the double atoms Ag, and Cu,,. The ratio of Ag,+Cu, > Pb is 1: 1°11. ) ~ Although copper was absent and but 2°65 per cent of silver present in the mineral originally described by Genth as cosalite, it does not appear advisable in the absence of any data as to the crystallographic form to consider this a distinct species, but to class it, as has been done with bjelkite, under cosalite.

A PROBABLY NEW MINERAL.

356 W. F. Hillebrand—Léillingite and other Minerals.

however, be freed altogether from quartz and chalcopyrite. The specific gravity at 17° C. was 5-75. Making correction for 443 per cent of quartz and 698 per cent of chalcopyrite of assumed specific gravities 2°65 and 42, this becomes 6:31. The analysis appears under I below.

The more compact material, excluding as far as possible, the needles, gave, after deducting 59°75 per cent of gangue, the results under IT.

III is the analysis of a mineral presented by Mr. William McCree as coming probably from the Missouri mine. In ap- pearance it differs in no respect from the compact material already described, except that no chalcopyrite is distinctly visible in the small specimens at my disposal and the quartz

grains are less firmly cemented together. It contains, however, some lead which is entirely wanting in the other specimens analyzed, although the general formula is the same, hence I am led to believe that it came from some other portion of the workings or from an adjacent mine where ore like that from the — Missouri mine is reported to occur. The specific gravity was 3°869 at 15° C., which becomes 6°680 on making correction for ‘47-57 per cent of gangue of ascertained specific gravity, 2°64. be most marked blowpipe reactions for I, IT and III were entirely similar, a sublimate of sulphur appearing in the closed tube, sulphur dioxide escaping in the open tube and the fused fragment or powder on charcoal affording the bismuth reactions with great intensity. All were soluble in nitric and chlorhy- dric acids, in the latter with precipitation of silver chloride.

; I I ul Bi 60-80 63°42 62°51 A 0°89 4:09 9°89 Cu 15-96 12°65 6°68 74 Fe 2°13 0-59 0°10. Zn 0°10 0-0 0°07 S 19°94* 18°83" 17°90 99°82 99°65 99°89

After subtracting from I, 6-97 per cent; from H, 1°91 per cent, and from III, 0°83 per cent of chalcopyrite with the pro- sina of sphalerite represented by the zine, the atomic ravios

ecome : |

R : Bi, : Ss I 3°00 : 3°91 eet iy ts II 3°00 : 3°99 + - 14°98 Ill 3°00 : 4°06 7 LBs

* Calculated.

W. F. Hillebrand—Liilingite and other Minerals. 357

where R repesents Pb and the double atoms Ag, and Cu,. In each case the ratio is nearly 8:4: 15, which leads to the gen-

and Colorado Smelting Works assures me that it is frequently much richer, running as high as 40 ozs. to the ton.

Before conferring a name upon this mineral or even definitely claiming it is a new species, I purpose investigating more fully the’ similar ores which are said to occur in other mines in the neighborhood of the Missouri mine. As this further investi- ation will, of necessity, be. postponed for some time, the re- sults already arrived at are now put on record,

HUBNERITE.

Same axis in a cleavage section a8 observed by DesCloizeaux for wolframite. In the plates

SO a ae won ce (0°62 wo. ed sce Spe MOG lisse coger tai 23°40 FOO oa 0-24 OB ooo ven ae ee 0°13

358 C. G. Roekwood—American Earthquakes.

which agrees very closely with that required by theory for the formula MnW0Q,,.

This mineral is also found in a mine near Meatinggat 8: Mon- tana Territory, according to Mr. Richard Pea The speci- _ mens in the collection of the Colorado Scientiin. Society show large flattened crystals of imperfect form in quartz. Mr. A. H.

ow, Chemist at the Boston and Colorado Smelting "Worcs has analyzed the mineral approximately and found—

aa 74°82 ee a, ee ee 25°00 POO ee ee ie SE eee 0°06 99°88

Art. XLII. — Notes on American Earthquakes: No. 18; by Professor C. G. Rockwoop, Jr, Ph.D., Princeton, N. J.

Tus article, the thirteenth in the series, embodies such

America and the adjacent islands, during the year 1883. The information has been derived from the current news apers ; from the Monthly Review of the U. S. Signal Service; and from Professor F. E. Nipher, Director of the Missouri Weather Service; Charles Carpmael, Superintendent of the Canadian Meteorological Service; and J. M. Batchelder of Cambridge,

Items which are regarded as doubtful are, as heretofore, printed i in smaller type; and in many cases the source of the information is indicated. Also, to avoid tne danger of con- founding a.m. and p.m. dates, ‘the system of numbering the hours of the aivil ay from one to twenty-four has been pete

1883.

- 1.—At 2° 58™ bee 8" 28™ two earthquake shocks at Addi- | Rev

Jan son, Me—J. 8, Wea

A shock in other es of Wine and Nova Scotia about 22" on

the aH Abge ies day was noticed in the last report (this J ournal, XXV, 60).

ae an. . — Betw he 25 and 3% a shock was wernt to have been felt in northern Ohio.—N. Y. Tim

Jan. 9.—At 3 a shock from east to west at Huntingdon, Ont.— Ooaadtin Meteorol. Serv

é

15 oa 2h a decided shock was felt ites a to Memphis

Jan. 11.—Between the Midsisipp; ae from St. Louis, Mo., t-

C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. 359

Tt was reported from numerous places as far east of the river as Shelbyville in central Illinois, Shawneetown on the Ohio River, and Clarksville and Nashville, Tenn., and from places in south- eastern Missouri; but doe s not seem to have been felt west of a line joining St. Louis and rslsaaph re unless a doubtful report from Protem, Taney ¢ ounty, in southwestern Missouri, of a cso shock at about ok of the 10th is to be referred to the same,

time was from St. Louis, where the report was: “Four distinet shocks, Seginniig at 18 11™ 308, each shock bag ttgl by tremors lastin ing five to ten seconds, direction S.E. to N.W., no sound, entire siiie 50 to 60 seconds.” At other sala the time was ag all the way from 1" to 2°, with a preference for 1:15 or

1:20. In most of the reports no mention is made * BS iy than one shock; but at Memphis three were phe de nd at Cape if arrest deau , Mo., two; while at Anna, IIL, slight honk had b noticed at 1425" of the 10th. The saber of the mioyedions Was greater than in either of the two earthquakes which in the September and October previous had affected this region. Build- igs were rocked, chandeliers caused to ee engine bells fe etc. The greatest motion was reported from Ca airo, IIl. ae Maes also is about the middle of the area shaken

t 34™ a strong earthquake shock was felt at

Tquiqne, Piskvun Dolores, Posa “Almonte, La Noria and Huanil- los, allin southern Pert. The motion lasted about 30 seconds, and a ighter shock followed a Post minutes afterward.

Ja —At 5" a slight earthquake at Los Angeles, Cal., vibra- tion rie north to south. Two distinct shocks noe felt, sep separated

_ by an interval of about two seconds.—

Jan. 23.—At 23" 40" a vg shock at ei Francisco, Cal. and Vicinity.— U. S, Weath. Rev eb. 4.—At 5" a ela shock was felt at Bloomington, IIL

_ and at various places in northern Indiana and southern ichigan,

At the former place a prolonged rumbling was heard, followed At St. Loui hi

Several observers, as “two sharp sounds about four seconds apart,” which were not at first attributed to cepavicneee causes, Until it was found that they had been heard by many persons. eb. 4.—At 15" 5™ a slight shock was felt at Wolfborough, » followed ten nee later =. ~ second shock which was at 1

, ‘ also reported at Cornish,

Feb. 5.—At 10" 37™ a ea rp sien was a felt at Panama and i Gasent: parts of the Isthmus. ‘The Central and South Atnoriosin es — ny’s submarine cable was somewhat injured. bale

eb. ‘fer 16" 30™ a slight vob sees at San Diego, Ca direction of movement from north to south.— U. S. Weath. Rev.

Feb. 27,—At about 22" 20" what ‘cr to be a double shock of shiek Seats eae by loud noises, was felt in

Ax. Jo THIRD i. XXVIL No. 161.—May, 1884.

360 C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes.

nerergiale Connecticut, southern Rhode Island and adjacent rts of Massachusetts, and was so reported by many newspapers. t appears, however, that a brilliant meteor passed over the

tion of the occurrence by Prof. H. A. Newton of Yale College, renders it probable that all the phenomena of vibration and noise were due to the explosion of this meteor and not to an earthquake.

—“A strong earthquaixe shock was felt at Monte oink province of ©

Feb. 28. Manobi, Ecuador. The earth trembled a several seconds, but no damage was done. ‘le (N. J.) Daily Advertise

Mar. 5.—A shock at Tarbo, State oF oo (U.S. of Colombia), pay ae to Carthagena on the Atlat

Mar. 7.—At 23" 23" a ae hick . “Ane ee

pia. C Atrato it was sharp but Feb dangerous. In the State of Antioquia -

it was more severe; and in the towns of Ant tioquia, Santa [osa, ‘oS pm ge and others, the lata and other buildings were injur This and the as preceding notices are from Panama letters in ie Pe Oe Be —At i. 57™ and 11" 7™ two Hating shocks felt at Waterloo, St. Johns, and Cowansville, Quebe

Mar. 11,—At 18" 57 a slight shock with Sahin was felt in

parts of Harford and Baltimore Counties, Maryland; sufficiently strong to rattle dishes and alarm many recites A second shock was fe seas to have occurred between midnight and 1” of the 12th.

Mar. 23,—At 21" 25" a ees shock at Huntingdon, Quebec.— Canario Meteorol. Serv

Mar. 27.—At oe 35" a slight neat at Iquique, Peru, preceded . ¥. Tim .

by ita noise

Mar. 30.—At ah ag 45", 7°62" 8 15™ light shocks were felt at San Francisco, Cal. and southward. At Watsonville, Santa Cruz County, nine shocks were felt; at Hollister, San Ben ito: ei plate glass windows were "broken, and brick walls

ril 1.—At 1" a smart shock at Hamilton, Ont. — Canadian —

Apri Meteorol. Serv. April 2 — Francisco, Oa U.S,

April 12 thirty eeaniale. vibration s. S.W. t .—Newspaper advices from abla iain June, contain

April vague re} of seismic area. fa the valley of the Atrato, — of Oc Colombia, oor

the last of April, by which Rio Sucio, forty m the Atlanti

durin Turbo, on the Gulf of baa suffered injury; but bere pire of the phenomen& to hand

have not come

.

8" 50" two light — north to south, at San pals th. Rev

Pech phe felt at Cairo, Ill, lasting N.N.

C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. 361

ama, on July 4, in a vague and probably exaggerated form.

Although the fact of some eruption there seems to be confirmed

by later advices, no reliable details are known.

May 4,.—At 11" 45™ a slight shock at Helena, Montana, from east to west.

Ma ay 10.—During the night of the 10th-11th a Apes from north to south was felt in Victoria, British Colum

Ma ay 19.—A severe earthquake occurred in Rouse creating alarm in Quito and still more in pnb oe fifty-five miles south of Quito, where a number of hou were overthro The

May 21.—“ At 7a. ma eal earthquake was felt at Mompos, on the river Magdalena, in "8 — of Bolivar; which was fol- lowed by a arper o . M. on the 22d, on which da . were ahs felt at pan ‘Salvador and gesciaa: »— NV.

May 22.—At 23" 30™ two distinct shocks were felt at Catletts- burg cps

May —At 21" 55™ two earthquakes occurred in Valparaiso, Chili, in iit succession

Jute 3.—At da aylicht s a strong and somewhat prolonged earth- quake was experienced in Callao, Peru, but did no damage.

as me Ge ame day, a much slate er movement was felt in Lima.

—At 9" a shock lasting six seconds at Martinique, Wes huey M. B. une 19.—A new volcanic outbreak, accompanied vl crt dope: is reported to ir occurred in the island of Ometepe i in Lake Nica ne 21 and 23.—Several earthquake shooks were experienced

7 t Andes, Meee, and at 2" 55" of the 23d a sharp shock was felt

oad uly } —At 3" a slight shock at Carson City, Nevada—JU. 8. _ Wad s ey cm 11" 15" a light shock at Cairo, Ill., lasting five ds.

July 7—At 10" 50™ a light earthquake at Los Angeles, Cal., direction not determined.— U. S. Weath. Rev

July 7 and 9.—At midnight on the ah and at 2" Bg the 9th, sharp shocks were felt in San Salvador.—W. ¥. Tim

362 CO. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes.

Jul —At 1" 30™ a light shock, lasting eight seconds, at Cairo, “Th, , reported also at Wickliffe, Ballard Co. 4: ees

20.—At 16" 48™ a severe nace was felt at Pane Y: Tim

ireceion west and east.—WV. Y- July 30.—Two shocks, eli rumbling ad were reported at Gilroy, Cal.; hour not stated. me Y. Tim ug. urgeon Main, at Brownsville, Texas, in a report to the Surgeon ese of the Marine Hospital Service, says: “Karly in August there was an earthquake shock at t Pachuea, were causing wehane deaths and the destruction of twenty houses Aug. 4.—At 11" and 12" 50™ light shocks, east to wise at Seah Cal.— U. 8. Weath. Rev Aug. 19.—At 2" 55™ three slicbt shocks at Carson City, Nev. —U. 8. Weath. Rev. Aug. 27.—Prof. Geo. Davidson of San Francisco, reported to the U. 8. Coast Sines. that at 1" earthquake waves commenced

Aug. 28 ae Taloshustio, Chili, earthquake wayes were re- ported, commencing just before noon asi continuing the rest of

Aug. 28.—At ai 5 i ects shock was felt at St. Thomas, west Indies.— NV. ¥. Times.

were reports of shocks felt in ——— Colombia and Ecuador, but no Sage are known to the w

Aug. 30.—Two shocks at St. Thomas: W. L, almost simultan- eous ; shay first light, the second ’severe.—J. Y. "Times.

Sept. 1—At 8" 25" a light shock at ae Angeles, Cal., ve

tion north to south, followed by a second shock after four z ‘ th. Rev ae

seconds.— U. S. Wea

Sept. 5.—At pete (4 15™) ae Wilmington, Cal., the vibrations were . and were —— “to cause "chandeliers tos andes motio ' Sept. 6. rar? 2 * prolonged shocks were felt at Lima, Pera. U. sf Weath. R

Aug. 29.—At 20" a strong shock of earthquake lasting about fifteen seconds was felt at Guayaquil. At the same time there —

42 30m, shocks were felt at Los Angeles, oe =

C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes. 363

Sept. 1 4h pie a strong shock at Lima, Peru, duration

15 ston cei S. t

Sept. 13.—Panama Maio of Oct. 28 say that a ees earth- quake aa rumbling noises occurred at Cucuta, Santander, on this vee and that on the previous da ay a eta ae been felt at cata Rosa, Manizales and Medellin.—N. Y. Times

Sep —At 145 30™ a hago lasting five seconds, at Santa eal twee, S. Weath. Rev

Sept. 21.—At 6" 45™ a heavy rmbiae noise followed by an earthquake shock, occurred at Greensborough, Guilford Co., N. C—U. 8, Weath. Rev

Ses — About midnight two slight shocks were felt at Portland, cies —

la was 8 lit in two sara a series of pi arig: waves started in the

Coast Survey, in Seieng ce, eka i, p. It May be added that ees et been re rh of volcanic

hand. See articles a W. H. Dall, eet iii, 89, and Geo. Davidson, Science, iii, 282.

Oct. 9-10.—At 23" 8™ of the 9th, two light shocks, of about two seconds ranicttion were felt at San Francisco and vicinity. At 1 2” of the 10th, a much more severe shock followed. It

but only slight dama age ed as done. At Oakland loud an longed rumbling noises accompanied the shock. The direction of oes was north a h.

—On nee ‘htes the tide-guage at Colon, Isthmus n of the sea, which

9 ear has reached the writer. The tide eereee © on a oe showed nothing abnorm 15.—A rthquake “at night” at sg ae Monts, on the ° Gat of St. aieeoee — Canadian Meteorol. t. 16.—At 3° 15™ a slight shock at Cape Mendécino, Cal.— Ur, 8. Weath, Rev ; Oct, 17. af 3% 30m a shock at Contoocook, N. H.—v. I. B Oct. 20.—About 13" 15" a sharp shock was felt inanion the island, of Bermuda, but no damage was done. Th ion enthined ten seconds, the direction being from west to east.

-364 C. G. Rockwood—American Earthquakes.

Oct. 24.—At 16" 14™ a severe shock, continuing about ie seconds, “sos tae at 0% echoed Cal., gerbe from 8.5 to N.N.E.— . Weat

Oct. 30.—* oe the icin’ ig me light shocks at Oakland, Cal., from north to south.— UW. 8. th. Rev

Noy. 4.—A shock at Cove Creek, Utah.—w. Y. Tribune.

Nov. 5.—A strong earthquake “ at night” at Point des Monts on the ‘Gulf of St. Lawrence.— Canadian Meteorol. Serv.

Nov. 11.— At 18" sp a slight shock at Poway, San Diego Oo.,

Cal.— U. 8. Weath.

No — Panama cri 3° Nov. 17th say: ‘Slight earthquake shocks w ere ie on the Isthmus on the 13th ay and a week earlier other shocks occurred,’

ark (N. J.) Daily sea

is 22.—At 11" two sis at Point des Monts, Gulf of St. Lawrence.— Canadian Meteorol. Serv

Dec, 5.—At 9" 20" shocks Jeanine at esa Izard Co., and Rovenen Springs, Ark., accompanied by a loud noise.

Dec. 12.— At 23 40" a slight shock occurred at sk Angeles, Cal., aia on the 13th another.— Weath. Rev.

Dea. 16 ?—At 15" a slight shock at Poway, San Diego Co., Cal. —U. 8. Weath. Rev

22.— At 20 a an earthquake at Point des Monts, Gulf of St.

Dee Tawa mnadian Meteorol. Serv.

fo oregoing notes include seventy-eight notices, of which

e eee are in small type. They are distributed by localities a8 0

Gaia ee

New o4s

Atlantic States RORY

Missiskippt Valley cc ce Sas cee 11

sepa Coast -- - 23

Mex aro |

West TH die 4

Central Aulesion Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador-..--- 14

Peru and Chili an

Not counted (Feb. 27, June 19) - 2

18 The following may be selected ot the more important euttbe quakes of those above noted: Jan, 11, Cairo, Ill. ; Mar. 8, Pan- ama; May 19, Ecuador; Au feet exico; Oct. 6, "Alaska. The

ed

reat majority of the ‘shocks were very ’ moderate and caus little or no damage. Princeton, N, J., as, 26, 1884.

i

H. A. Hazen— Thermometer Exposure. 365

Art. XLITL—Thermometer Exposure; by H. A. HAZEN. [Read before the Philosophical Society, Washington, D. C., October 13, 1883.]

THE subject of thermometer exposure may be discussed under two general divisions. The first of these relates to the locality _ Many large region where the thermometer shall be exposed, in

order that it may give the true air temperature of the locality. The second relates to the immediate environment of the thermometer which shall fulfill the same requirement.

Of local heat effects; character of ground, ete., are all import- ant. A creat diversity of opinion relative to many of these

& low level, and moreover, unless exposed on the summit of

hill, there will be danger of an interruption to the wind, so that in hot, nearly calm weather the air will become stagnant, thus Vitiating the result we seek. For example, mean monthly 44 feet above

ed uotable exceptions, for example, the following: table ex- bits the mean relative humidity for four months’ observa- tions. Relative humidity at various heights. Month. 19 Meters. 15°9 Meters 26°83 on

June, 1873 63°3¢ 59°0%

uly, : ena 62-0 60-7

June, 1874, 576 ! 56" 557

July, 721 T1'4 76°2

It seems impossible to explain these peculiar results which lo not follow any law with respect to height; on the whole, however, the humidity has a tendency to increase with ap- _ Proach to the earth’s surface.

366 H. A, Hazen—Thermometer Exposure.

locality for exposing a thermometer, table I is eto hd _shows temperature and humidity at "various places in Wash- ington, . (These and many other experiments have been

tried and introduced in this paper since its original presenta- tion to the amine Society).

Tas.e I. Date. Time. Locality. Dry. Wet. |R. H./Dist.fr’m Root. 1883. Nov. 17, 6.45 P. M. Roof. , 36-1 | 29°5 | 41 |, 6.60: > * Hae 36°7 29°5 | 44 6.00-.:"* Ro 3p'6 29:2 42 hdl Pa. av. oa 1th a 35°0 | 28-3.) 39 } block. Pa. av. and 164 st 33°1 | 27-5 " T5pe; © nd 15th st. 4°0 27-6 | 40 34 blocks. K and he . $3°9° | 29b. 1 30 | SN M and 15th s 329 | 273 | 45 | 6 “ R. Island av. and fai st. | 303 | 25°9 | 53 yaa ‘P and 15th st. 306. 1° 261:. 7) 63-1.9)5: 25 S148 Q and 15th st. 29°9 25°6 | 54 | 10 is Corcoran fo 15th st. 19:5 1. 264.7 6T 4 1b =14 mile. Nov. 19, 6.45 P. M. Roof. 482 | 41:0 | 48 ET a, Roof. 48°1 41:0 | 49. 115 On ground. 44°5 | 38°5 | 53 Pa. av. and 164 st. 42°6 373 56 h st. 23 ars 58 L306 * L and 16th st. 39°9 35'9 | 64’ Sst. 38°8 35°1 66 Coreoran and 16th st. 38:3 | 34:9 | 68 $.00;. + R and 16th st. 36°9 34°0 | Tl Corcoran and 15th st. 37°8 34°7 71 Nov. 20, 6.30 a. M.} Corcoran and 16th st. 31-4 | 303 | 88 P and 16th st. 31i°9 30°4 , 84 M and 16th st. 32°0 30°4 | 83 H and 16th st. Bay 80°38 [83 Pa. av. and 17th st. 33°1 81°3 | 82 Tse Roof. 35°9 32°8 | 70 7.08. Roof. 363 | 33:1 | 69 | PO ees

ence of 23 per cent in the relative aia The cule are

not strictly comparable owing to the difference in time between

the observations, yet as the temperature was changing but

slowly this consideration can have little weight. Experiments

are still under way relative to this matter.

pe,

tote: up now the second division of the subject, we Baia | Oe:

the necessity of an uniform and satisfactory shelter

for thermometers has long been recognized. The tematioal a

i

HT, A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure. 367

bility of more extended experiment. Thermometers suspen- ded in free air, in the shade of a dwelling or wall during the

desired to critically study the past records, or what is more Important to compare observations, whether mean or daily, at different stations it will manifestly be necessary to eliminate from them all effects of improper exposure, ore

ttmay be argued that the most important consideration is that of uniformity and that constant errors may be neglected, provided they are the same in all the exposures. If, however, varying atmospheric conditions diminish or intensify constant sources of error, it is wise to avoid these as much as possible. The essential point to be regarded is that a shelter shall at any and all times give an air temperature influenced as little as possible by harmful causes.

fulfills the first condition above. The east an 7 Pieces however, employed for screening from the morning and afternoon sun, would seem to check very light winds on those sides, and there does not seem to be sufficient provision against soil or sod radiation. A shelter similar in plan to this has been adopted as a standard in Melbourne, Australia. This shed on 144 square feet of horizontal surface, two roofs, of pelvaot . iron, nine inches apart, the ridge of the outer roof eight fee

above ground, the thermometers suspended in a wire cage one

368 ~ A. A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure. |

foot below the inner roof. On the east and west are louvres to shield it from the rising and setting sun. In calm weather it

radiation, and at night the same number of degrees too low by radiation to the sky and from surrounding objects. The Stevenson shelter is also in great favor in England, and con- sists of a cubical screen, of double louvres, 18” long and high and 10” wide. This is placed at a height of 4’ above sod. Professor Mohn, of Christiania, has shown that in the sun this shelter gives too high values. It is undoubtedly too small an close to give good results. A shelter similar to the above has _ been devised by Rev. F. W. Stow, of England. (Quart. Jour.

et. Soe., vol. viii, p. 234.) This is somewhat larger than Ste- venson’s and has metallic louvres instead of wooden. It has the advantage of great ease in construction and of good ven- tilation.

In Spain a double metallic shelter has been used. This has an inside louvre box 14X14X17 inches, between the inside and outside louvres there is a free air space and connected with this there is acommon vane ventilator. In Russia, Professor

shelter is open to the objection that it prevents a free access of air, the double boarded south side cutting off all south wind 18

It is of the utmost importance that there should be a stand- ard of comparison in all experiments, and this we have 10 the

swung thermometer, called by the French thermometer fronde, -

which is a common thermometer attached to a string or wire, and rapidly swung through a circumferance whose radius 38 the length of the string. After experimenting some ume a

.

*

H, A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure. 369°

form of dry and wet bulb “fronde” was devised, which has: been in constant use since and has given good satisfaction. The thermometers were lashed together, the stem of one two inches longer than the other, in such a manner as to bring the wet bulb about two inches below the dry. This permits of im- mersing the wet bulb without wetting the dry. A few swings only are needed in making an observation, it is swung perhaps forty or fifty times, then read, swung again and read, ete., it

brought in contact with a large mass of air it must give its tem- perature unless the results are vitiated by other causes. It has been objected, for example, that friction with the air will tend to raise the temperature, and that the centrifugal force will on ‘the contrary tend to depress the mercury column. Repeate

Ment, when the air was still or had very little motion, with the result that at midday with a clear sky, in the summer time, the temperature given by “fronde” may be ‘7 to 10 degree higher in the sun than in the shade. It cannot be considered however, that such a shade temperature as was used represents the exact air tem perature, but it was nearly correct, perhaps the true value of the air temperature was somewhat higher, and that the effect of the sun heat is a little less than 07°, : ince a thermometer exposed to the clear sky reads at times One degree lower than if sheltered, we might conclude that the “fronde” will be liable to the same effect unless entirely over-

370 H. A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure.

come by its rapid motion through a large body of air. Obser- vations on clear nights in September and October have shown the ‘‘fronde” sometimes ‘2 or ‘8 degrees higher and some- times the same amount lower than a thermometer from which all radiation was cut off. Experiments are still needed in sum-

mer and in different situations to fully settle the question, but

it seems probable that the “ fronde,” if shielded from direct. sun heat during the day, will give at all times the most accu- rate temperature that can be obtained.

The following brief description of some of the previous experiments in this field, will serve as an introduction to subse- quent work. Possibly the most complete results hitherto pub- lished are those from observations taken, under the auspices of the English Royal Society, upon a large open field at Strath- field Turgiss. The observations were taken at 9 A. M., 3 P. M, and Y p. M., from November, ’68 to April, 70 inclusive, January,

70 only being omitted. The stands tested consisted of eight forms ranging between the open stand like Glaisher’s and the closed like Stevenson’s. Asa result of these tests it was deci- ded that the Stevenson was least faulty, though it was nob. claimed that even this was all that could be desired, and espe-

35° (it would be a matter of much interest if the atmospheri¢ conditions giving such large differences between two shelters so near each other could be studied), These comparisons would seem to show a lack of ventilation in the Wild shelter ree

was so much higher than the other that the wind should have — had freer access to it. lso a mere agreement between the

two cannot be regarded as proving the accuracy of either, bat since there are manifest defects in the Stevenson we may COD

clude that neither is satisfactory. Comparisons are also given

HT, A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure. 371

between the Stevénson shelter and the Kew thermograph records which show the latter 49° higher at 9 A. M. and ‘82° owerat 9 P.M. Possibly these differences may be due in part

should be good size and a free access of air to the interior. This shelter is 4x38 feet with single louvre work on a

sides three inches wide and inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. The roof is double and the bottom close. The north side is a door which can be removed. By the kindness of Mr. Clark, opportunity was granted for conducting the experiments upon the roof of one of his buildings in a thickly settled part of Washington. This roof is about 60 feet above ground, and Is free to air currents save from the southeast. here were

metallic screen inserted, after several weeks’ comparison this

Screen with its thermometers was placed in the upper ‘“‘ Pattern,”

its door having been removed. - The following plans and precautions were taken to determine

a adaptability of these shelters, and to check the thermome- rs;

4 single reading a few times each day will hardly give what we Wish except for the mean ; while continuous observation, under

372 Hl. A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure.

known conditions which are slowly changing, will enable us to follow effects due to gradually rising or falling temperature, the increase or decrease of wind velocity, the shifting of the wind, slowly changing humidity, etc.

The following are a few of the results collected from the observations since September 1, 1883.

To determine the least size of a shelter necessary to over- come the effects of heat from the sides, there were arranged

Table II shows the results of these observations.

Considering the difficulty of comparing thermometers hung side by side in free air, the accordance of these results is very satisfactory. In the morning there is a mean difference of 1'8° between the east and west sides; a fall of °55° or nearly 4 the whole amount, in the first 9 inches, and one of 1:2° or $ in the first 18 inches. In the afternoon there is a fall of 15°

thermometer exposed on the outside of “ Pattern.

olumn 1 gives the mean time of each set or of five succes- sive observations, the next five columns give, the dry and wet thermometers, the relative humidity from these, the black thermometer and the difference between this and the dry, 1? A); the next five give the same values for (B); the next five for (C); the next three give the dry and black and their dif-

373

Lf, A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure.

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Hl. A. Hazen—Thermometer. Exposure. B75

ference as determined from traveling thermometers placed suc- cessively in (B) and (C); ‘the last column gives the temperature from a free thermometer.

Taste IV.— Comparative observations in Stow A, Russian B and Pattern C shelters.

a eee Stow. Russian. | Pattern. Date, No. | Wind. | Weath ane Oe, Dry. | Wet,|R. w.| Dry. | wet. | Dry. Wet, [R. H. Sept. 20, 25 | Light.| Clo. | 71-4) 57-4! 37-3] 71-2) 57-3) 37-4] 71-1] 67-0] 36°6 2h 95 | Light | Fair. 34 59°1| 37-9| 73°0| 58°9| 38°3| 72°9| 58-7| 37-8 , 26: 140 | Brisk. | Clear, | 59°0) 48°4) 40-1 58° 44°6) 58-3) 48°5| 43-6 , 2h 65 | Brisk.| Fair. | 71-3) 61:8) 55-5] 71°3/ 62°1| 56°9| 70-9] 61°7| 56°6 28, 100 | Light | Ha 7-5! 67°6| 52-6) 77°5| 67°5| 57-2| 76°8| 6771) 58°0 29, Brisk. | Fair. | 68-8 61°7| 64°7| 68°6| 61°3| 63°7| 68-1] 61-1] 64°8 a 45 | Light. | Clo 3°5| 56°2! 60°7| 63-6) 56-5 61-6) 63°3) 56°3) 62-1 gio 50 | Light.| Fair. | 55°0) 45°5| 41-6) 54°9| 46-1) 45°5) 54-4 45°4| 43°8 , 20, 4. M140 | Light. | Clear. | 69-2) 60°7/ 58-5] 69:1) 61-3, 61 7) 67-8) 60-0; 60 9 10) BM} 95 | Light.} Clear 74°0, 63-1) 51-5] 745) 63°9 53°1) 73°6 62°7| 51°6 . iam) 8 risk. | Clear. | 69°8 59:5) 51°1| 70°0} 59-9, 52°0| 69°8) 59-2) 49°7 ll, “ | 75 | Brisk. } Clear. dite 62°0| 34°2| 78°3| 62°2, 35-7) 78-3] 611; 32°0 Be alin ederasedadnd Moen... ae 58°6| 49°2| 69°2| 58°8, 50°6| 68-8] 58°2/ 49.8

OBSERVATIONS WITH RUSSIAN AT 16 FEET AND PATTERN AT 12 FEET.

Oct. 31, 15 | High. | Clear. ) 67-1| 52°8| 31°7) 67°0) 53-0) 32°7| 67°2) 62-8) 31-1 Nov. 1, 25 | Light. | Clear. | 43°3| 35-4) 37°4| 43-0) 35-8) 38-4) 43-0) 34-9) 34°6 She 65 | Brisk. | Clear. | 51:2) 41:8} 37°) 50°1) 41.6) 41°8) 50°9) 41-4) 36°7 gh Ae MM} 40 | Ca ear. | 55 4| 48°T| 59°6) 55°56) 49°0} 60°1) 56-2) 49°1) 57-2 5, P. M.| 20.| Calm. | Clear. | 63°2| 53-2) 47°5| 62-4) 52-9) 50°O| 62°8| 62°8) 47-2 aes 20 | High. | Clear. | 50°1| 42-2] 46°5| 49°7/ 42-2| 48°) 50°1) 422/465 ‘nee 185 | | Mean .___ 55°0| 45°7| 43°4) 54-6) 45°8| 45°2| 65-0] 45°5| 42°2

Am, Jour. So1.—Tup Serres, Vou. XXVII, No. 161.—May, 1884. 95 ay

*

376 H. A, Hazen—Thermometer Exposure.

In the first series we find “ Pattern” giving a mean tempera- ture ‘4° lower than ‘“ Russian” with a mean relative humidity *8 per cent lower. In the second series we find the “ Pattern’ which is now twelve feet above roof giving “4° higher nies ture and a relative ee | 3°0 per cent lower. Taking th mean of the two series we find no difference in the compara while the “ Pattern” gives a relative humidity nearly 2°0 per cent lower

The lack of ventilation in the Russian may be best shown by taking observations of the wet bulb when its temperature is below freezing. As shown in “ Science,” June 8th, 1883, it is _ under these conditions that ventilation is most needed.

Table V exhibits individual readings of dry and wet ther- mometers. Ist, “fronde;” 2d, “ Russian ;” and 8d, “ Pattern.”

Taste V.— near of dry and wet “fronde” with Russian and Pattern.

a

"Mean, omitting the four observations in which wet was higher than dry in Russian "i

‘*Fronde,” 14 ft. | Russian, 16 ft. Pattern, 12 ft. Wea- a Sai ARSE: Sei Time. Wind. ther. Dry. | Wet. |R. H.| Dry.| Wet. R. H.| Dry. | Wet.|R. H. Nov. 13| 31-7] 26-3) 45 | 31°5}31-5| -. | 31-6] 26-9|52 | 7.23 a.m.| Calm. _|Clear. 32-0| 26°7| 47 | 31-9] 31°41 95 | 32-3] 26-8] 44 | 7.31 “ ¥ 32°8| 26°9| 42 | 32°9] 30°5| 75 | 33°2| 24-3143 | 7.44 ii 3 34°4| 28-7] 47 | 34-7] 30°6| 62 | 35-1] 29°7/ 50 | 8°09 . Nov. 14 | 32-8) 26-4) 38 | 33°1| 27-1) 42 | 39-8 26-7| 40 | 7.03 p.m.| Brisk N.W.| © 33°1| 26°3| 34 | 33-21 28-0) 49 | 32°9) 27-1|43 | 7.16- i : 32-9] 26-2] 35 | 33°0| 27°3| 44 |32-7) 26-5|39 | 7.25 . Nov. 15 | 22-8] 20°4/ 68 | 23-0) 31-2) __ | 23-0 29-7|96 | 7.05 a.m.) Calm. : 23°5| 20°7| 63 | 23°3}30°0| __ | 23-2! 21-2] 73. | 7.15 2 i 23°8| 21-4168 | 23-5) 24-2] __ | 23-7) 21-7) 74 | 7.25 Light S. 35:4 27-9 32 | 35:3) 30-4| 55 | 36-2| 31-8| 58. |11.03 a. m.|Light S.S.W. 35°1| 28°5| 40 | 35°3| 31°6| 58 | 36-0) 29-6| 43 {11.19 “ 35*1/ 28°1/ 36 | 35-4| 30-6! 56 | 36-6| 30°5| 46 {11.30 . un 35:1) 28°2) 37 | 35:4) 30-1) 51 | 36-2! 29-8] 43 {11.35 " ‘ Nov. 17} 4171) 31-7} 23 | 40°5| 33°3) 38 | 42-7, 33-2] 94 | 3.00Pe.m.| Calm. ; 41-6 311/20 | 411/323 27 |41-4\31-7.21 | 3.17 [Light S.S.W. “ 36°1| 29°65} 41 | 35°4! 30°6| 56 | 35-2/ 30°31} 54 | 6.45 P ‘a 35°1| 29°56, 44 | 36°4| 30°4| 54 | 35-3) 3071/52 | 6.50 e is 35°6| 29°2| 42 | 35-2] 30°3| 55 | 36°2) 30°1\ 53 | 6.55 ss Nov. 20 | 35-9 32°8| 70 | 35-0) 34-41 94 | 34-9' 33-9! 86 | 7.03 a.m] Calm. ‘i 36°3] 33°1| 69 | 34°9| 33°3| 84 | 34-9) 33-0! 81 | 7.08 . i 35°2| 32°7| 75 | 35°1| 33-4| 83 | 34°8| 33-2) 84 | 7.18 i me 36°9| 33°1/ 72 | 35-3! 33-7] 86 | 35-2) 33-3| 81 | 7.30 n “ 36°1| 33-4| 73 | 35°6| 33°8| 82 | 36-4| 33-6 81 | 7.35 : ee : ae Mean ._| 33°8| 28-3) 48°4/ 33°5/ 30-8] ___ | 33-8) 29-2| 56-7

35°4| 29°5) bar 35°2) 31:2{ 62-3] 35-4! 30-4, 53°3 | bona os es ey as

¥

i

H, A. Hazen—Thermometer Exposure. 377

The mean results in Table V show nearly identical air tem- peratures by the three methods, but a relative humidity more than 16 per cent too high for “ Russian” and over 7 per cent for “ Pattern.” :

The following conclusions are advanced :

Ist, Thermometer shelters when exposed to direct sun heat should be at least 36” long.

» With proper precautions the thermometer “ fronde” both dry and wet will give the most correct air temperature and relative humidity.

3d, The interposition of a second louvre seems hardly neces- Sary; 1t not only prevents the free access of air, but also if ventilation is used it must affect the air which is propelled to the thermometer. .

_ 4th, While the thermometers in a single louvred shelter may in heavy storms be wet, yet it takes but a moment to wipe the bulb dry, besides in rainy weather both dry and wet indicate nearly the same temperature.

th, For obtaining even approximate relative humidity in calm weather single louvred shelters are necessary, and for the best result an induced air current is essential especially in the

; cared in northern countries,

t the same time that the above experiments were being

made without artificial ventilation. As many are not in a situation to use any but a window shelter the following sug- 8estions are added for places north of 35° lat. N.

378 = 7. C. Chamberlin—FHillocks of angular Gravel

shut blinds can be easily arranged as mentioned above, the blinds being widened if necessary to cover the shelter ‘with their shadow. Experiments are still being carried on upon this matter. The Chief Signal Officer has kindly permitted the publication of these results preparatory to a more ex

haustive study.

Art. XLIV. Ean ad Angular Gravel ie Disturbed Strati- fication; by T. C. CHAMBE

MucH interest has tes awakened in recent years in the pe- culiar gravel mounds and ridges—in part embraced under the

terms Kames, Bakers and Osars—which are disposed in varying

frequency over a large part of the drift areas of both the eastern and western continents. Numerous writers, foreign and native, have made descriptive and theoretical contributions to the lite- rature of the subject.* With increased attention there has

* Among these the following may be cited as having more ie less immediate relevancy to 2 present topic: Edw. Hitchcock, Geol. of Mass. 184], Trans ssoc. Am, Geol. and Nat., 1840-42, Smith. Cont. es 1857; i, W. Mathes Geol. of N. Y. lst Dist, 1842; J. Hall, Geol. of N. Y., 4th Dist 842; L. Vanuxem, Geol. of N. Y., 3d Dist, 1842; Ch. Martins, Bulletin de "ia coat

uy Chambers, T. dete rege at 1850, a tes we w Phil. Journal, 1853, liv, 229; T. F. Jamieson, - Drift a

860, xvi wg Ad tes. ibid, 1865, xxi, p. 161, also se 1874, p. 329; H. phic ee nd Geol. of Maine, 1861, pp. 271 274, 1862, pp 388-391 ; Geol. of New rabies iii, 1878; G. H. Kin ahan, On the Eskers of the Central Plain of rcleane <i Geol, Soc. Dublin, 1863, x, p. 109, also Dublin Quar. Jour ., 1864, iv, p. ., 187 ; C. Whitulesey, Fresh ve ter pai eae Bi the North Western States, S$ mith. ’ Contrib’s, 186

mena in hecere Geol. Sket oe ae p. 101 (originally in ‘Auantie aoe

Phe Monthly, xix, “Feb., 1867); A. Erdmann, Exposé des formations quaternaires ci voy

rdmann, Ex ms beanie? gt N. H. Winchell, Surface Geol. of Northwestern Ohio, Proc xxi, D- 65, also Geol. Reports of Minn. and Ohio; D.

Rallsténsiidaingar ; K. Svenska, Vet. Akad : Mandingen 1874; James pe é

Great Ice 1874, pp. 201-237, Riv. Ed, 1876, Kames, pp. 210-229

The Eskers, 395-6, syed 407-409; J. S. Newberry, Geol Survey of Ohio, vol th 4, p. 41, vol. iii, 1878, 40; N. 0. Holst, Om de Glaciala faggot ea

, Geol. f6 h ns. W ce.

Origin of Kames or Eskers in New Santee fic Am. Assoc i G. F.

xix, 47, also, The Kames and Moraines of New En ALS, Packard, Glacial Marks on the "Pacific and pene coasts sntees Nat., 1877, xi, ie E. Or os Surv. ms! peg vol. iii, 187

: WwW

?

and Disturbed Stratification. 379

been progress in analytical delineation, classification and uo- menclature. That there is still abundant room for amplifica- tion in these regards is broadly manifest.

$ a minor contribution to the subject it is the object of this paper to direct attention to a class of hillocks whose character-

Which the “drums,” ‘“dramlins,” “lenticular,” or “ elliptic hills” of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York and Wis- consin are special shapely examples), () with the longitudinal Crevasses of the glaciers, and (¢) with snperglacial and, to a measurable extent, sub-glacial drainage.

he second class drop into comparison (a) with terminal and

Jour. Sei., vol. xxii, Dec., 1881; N.S. Shaler, Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface, Glaciers, 1881, p. 66, On the Origin of Kames, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1884, Fe’ . 6 (unpublished and contents unknown to the writer); A. Geikie, ong iy

1 “ : i r, 4; Robert Bell, Report of Progress Geol. Surv. of Canada, LBOO-DA-=82, C. vi, p. 9.

380 = T. OC. Chamberlin—Hillocks of angular Gravel

recessional moraines, and all forms of peripheral ridging, (6) with transverse crevasses, and (c) with marginal drainage. By marginal drainage I mean either that which was intimately as- sociated with the ice-margin, or was essentially limited in its action as a genetic agency to the periphery of the glacier. The waters may have had their ulterior origin back from the mar- gin, either upon or beneath the ice, and, of course, they flowed away from it to the sea, but their efficiency in constructing gravel hills was essentially peripheral.

If correlated with rock topography, it may be observed as a broad and somewhat loose generalization that the first class usually conform, with measurable divergences, to the general rock slopes, while the second are disposed in much negligence of associated rock contours, and often stand in seeming inde- pendence if not antagonism to them. If, however, the study of their relationships be carried into detail, the subjacent topo- graphy will be found more or less influential in determining

not exceeding ten or twelve feet in height to more sharply

Geol. of Wise., vol. ii, pages 207 to 211—Le Kettle moraine et les mouvernents des glaciers qui lui ont donnés naissance. Comptes Rendus, Congrés Internationa’ de Géologie, Paris, 1878.—Extent ignificance of the Wisc. Kettle Moraine, Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci., 1876-77. :

and Disturbed Stratification. — 381

till or till-ecovered rock in which ease they constitute unsym- metrical embossments of varying forms.

Angular gravel, natural size; from a hillock one mile north of Midway, Madison County, Ohio,

up chiefly of gravel and subordinately of sand, clay and bowlders. Special in-

by forceful rubbing rather than rolling. There are not infre-

other portions, till from which most of the clay has been re-

Moved ; still other portions consist of the rock-fragments of.

the till with a meagre amount of clay in the interstices ; while

yet other portions consist of the subangular gravel above de-

scribed, quite thoroughly separated from the clay and slightly * The illustrative examples are here described, not the whole class.

382 = T. ©. Chamberlin— Hillocks of angular Gravel

served, is from the smaller grade of gravel, which presump- tively suffered more transportation and rolling than the larger fragments.

Striated limestone fragment, natural size, from the above locality.

These specimens were taken from a representative collection n. Fig

The character of the sand and clay comports perfectly with the derivation above indicated. e sand, instead of the familiar well worn grains of quartz, consists, in large part, of particles of limestone with which are mingled minute frag- ments of shale and some rounded grains of quartz. Numerous acid tests of these sands made in the field invariably elicited prompt and active effervescence, which indicates unleac : limestone particles. Under the lens, the grains present, in the main, clean fresh surfaces of characteristic textn

A character, 130 grains, selected indiscriminately from the small- could b |

less than 1™ in diameter) were dropped in succession 1nt0 dilute hydrochloric acid slightly warmed. These were D

and. Disturbed Stratification. 383

addition a few minute quartz particles, probably nuclear points or particles that adhered unobserved to larger ones when dropped in the acid.

forth a few bristles of magnetite. Examined under a polarizing microscope the associated dust is seen to be largely quartz, and the finer grains to be mainly quartz and fragments of granular limestone and dolomite, to which are added a few splinters of clean crystalline calcite, an occasional grain of magnetite, and not infrequent dark or black, nearly or quite opaque grains, whose character was not determined. —

An analysis of the leading ingredients by Professor E. G. Smith gave:

— Insoluble in HCl. ; Soluble in HCL al see 2 2 CaCO, = 44294 Al,O, 1057 MgO0, 26-070 Fe,0, 839 CaO trace, undetermined 70°364 MgO “ “

23°053 P,O, undetermined HO ate

Fe,0, “ A

6°583 subject to correction for loss or gain.

100°00

384. = T. C. Chamberlin—Hillocks of angular Gravel

A second sample of finer grain gave: Insoluble in HCL.

iO, = 21°507 Al,O, 2°480 Fe,0, 409 E MgO undetermined CaO “6 24°396 Soluble in HCl. CaCO, undetermined MgCo, &

e,0, a 75°604 estimated by loss; sub- Al,O; % ject to correction for P.O 5 loss or gain.

H,O é srs 100°00

Insoluble in HCl. Soluble in HCl. SiO, = 29°34] CaCO, = 31°079 Al, O, 14°516 MgCO, 7°885 ‘Fe,O, 1°964 — CaO trace, undetermined 38°964 Mg oe ““c

45°821

Fe,O, undetermined : . 15°215 subject to correction

e . for loss or gain. Al,O, 3

100°00

This shows a much less, but still large proportion of lime- stone derivatives and a much greater ingredient of a clayey oF shaley character. ye

The clays, associated with some portions of the gravel Ve

and Disturbed Stratification. 385

mass of these hills, have not been analyzed, but acid tests in the field indicate the abundant presence of the carbonates. Two conditions of the clay may be recognized, linked by inter- mediate gradations. The one, in which it constitutes a matrix embracing the stony fragments after the manner of bowlder clay—indeed the mass is indistinguishable from pebbly till— the other, in which it is only a coating of the angular gravel, or a partial filling of its interstices, giving the impression that 1t 18 a secondary inter-deposition. These two varieties are con- nected by intermediate gradations, giving rise to an interesting series of clayey gravels and gravelly clays.

Cor tren

37 Fish Ve te

: Raat ahs Sh catia, De:

Section of a portion of a gravel hill, showing highly inclined and contorted oo nila Kast line of Sec. 28, T. XXI, R. 5 W., Jackson, Tippecanoe Co., jana,

fectly represent the general aspect of the interior structure of these hillocks. To fully appreciate their real complexity, it is necessary that the study of the actual section should be carried into detail.

It thus appears that these hills present gradations (1) of ma- terial from mixed stony clay nely assorted sand an gravel; (2) of attrition, from that of the glaciated till fragments

386. C. Chamberlin—Hillocks of angular Gravel

to moderately worn sand and gravel, and (8) of stratification, from contorted and disturbed beds to almost complete horizon tality. The interesting fact is that this occurs within the lim- ited compass of a single hill, it may be a mere hillock, scarcely exceeding in size an artificial tumulus.

~ Inferences.—The following ‘inferences are drawn, if not alto- gether from the brief statements above made, at least from the wider range of facts observed.

4.

—_——— Wiese cid Sane

Section of a portion of a gravel hill near Midway, Madison County, Ohio, show- ing discordant and contorted stratification.

The angular gravel is an immediate derivative from the ad- jacent ill. This is manifest from its passage into till through a complete series of gradations, and from the identity of its stony constituents with those of the till.

fi sandstones, limestones and shales, nor even from these com- bined ratably with the formations adjacent to the deposits. _ If a uniform shaving were cut from the face of the successive strata from the Canadian heights to the locality of the deposits, it would not give the higher percentage of calcareous an mag-

with the drift. The character of the material indubitably indi-

cates that, while a minor portion was brought from distant

and Disturbed Stratification. 387 sources, the great’ mass was gathered from the adjacent lime- stones

TIL These hills were formed in the presence of an intermittent disturbing agency. It seems quite impossible to explain the curious relations of the disturbed and undisturbed portions of the mounds by postulating a single thrust, or even a succession of disconnected sudden impulses. It seems necessary to assume

SS ® ~ 7: > = = & = jo] = 7 kK = v. = gy Q iva) 3 o ~ ® ~~ oN 8 Q Pepe rand ~ Ps S S S d a com) oe o

V. I infer, therefore, that these hills could not have been

vi. Their inherent characteristics, taken in connection with their association with morainic belts, supports the opinion that they were formed along the edge of the great ice sheet by numerous marginal streams. The disturbance of bedding and the intrusion of the till masses are attributable to the oscilla- tory action of the ice, while the partial assortment, feeble attrition of the gravel and the multiform phases of stratifica- tion, were accomplished by the issuing streams. e localiza- tion of these streams was of course determined by the special conditions of glacial drainage then existent, but now largely 6 determination. The heaping of the gravels is thought to

ave been aided by the ice which restrained both the stream

and the dispersion of its products. The special phases of accu-

-tMulative action were probably somewhat variable, being some-

times purely marginal, the heaping being at the debouchure of

the streamlets, sometimes within the walls of subglacial tun-

nels * or small marginal ice cafions,t and sometimes, perhaps, * Hummel, loc. cit. Upham, loc. cit.

388 7. 0. Chamberlin—Hillocks of angular Gravel

at the base of moulins, so near the edge of the glacier that uffer obliteration by subsequent me-

very rare, if not altogether wanting, in superticial debris.

an end of it. But at the outset of this article the manifest need of a stricter classification was alluded to. This must necessarily carry with it, or at least eventuate in, a more pre- cise use of terms. These terms should be either simply struc- tural or simply genetic, or else indicative of a given structure having a given origin. At present the term, kames, is applied broadly to embrace, on the one hand, mounds, hummocks and peaked hills, and, on the other, extensive branching gravel

»

and Disturbed Stratification. 389

wr conception of the formation of osars, one or two hundr miles j

faction afforded by the view that they were formed progres-

* By reference to the discussions of thirty and forty years since, it will be found that the term osars, in its Angiici form, was in common use as the accept H

390 = 7. ©. Chamberlin—Hillocks of angular Gravel.

sively in channels cut back into the retreating edge of the ice by superglacial streams.* — -

Not to enlarge upon the subject here, suffice it to say that there are many features of the great branching osars that strongly invite the belief that they are the products of the drainage system of practically stagnant glaciers.+ If this view be sustained—and that will depend, of course, not so much upon its aptness as an explanatory hypothesis, as upon collat- eral and independent evidence that the dissolving ice sheet, in its closing stages, became stationary in the areas involved— there will be room for a wide dynamic distinction between these by-products of ice under minimum motion, and the kames associated with terminal moraines, which are the offspring of glaciers at a stage of nearly maximum activity.

To what an extent it may be found serviceable to use dis- tinctive genetic terms for these several classes, can only be ad- judged when their respective prevalence, and the success with which they can be trustworthily discriminated, shall have been determined. Meanwhile the general structural distinction be- tween elongated osars and hummocky kames is needed to avoid

most distinctive, though perhaps not most common, types.

* Upham, Origin of Kames or Eskers in New Hampshire. Proc. Am. Assoc., TRTG, X2V; S16:

Prof. Stone, who has studied these special forms more extensively than any one else in this country, expresses the conviction that the flow of the ice as @ whole had ceased at the time of their deposition. (Kames of Maine, p- 469.)

e

R. C. Hills—Extinct Glaciers of Colorado. 391

Art. XLV.— Extinct Glaciers of the San Juan Mountains, Colo- rado; by R. CO. H1xts.*

THAT portion of the Rocky Mountain range which, for the es of this paper, will be considered as the San Juan Mountains, includes the whole of the elevated region embraced in the Counties of Hinsdale, San Juan, Ouray, San Miguel, Dolores, Rio Grande and La Plata. . 5

‘he drainage east of the Continental Divide constitutes the source of the main branch of the Rio Grande, while that to the westward includes the principal tributaries of the San Juan and the southern tributaries of the Grand and Gunnison. The volume of water conveyed into the Rio Grande is small com- pared with that which, flowing westward, furnishes more than half the total volume of the Colorado River. [In fact the vol- ume of the Rio Grande from this source only does not exceed that of either the Dolores or Animas, streams which are simply tributaries of the Grand and San Juan. see

The extent of glacial action in the past seems to have been, in @ great measure, proportional to the magnitude of the existing river systems, and it is found that not only was there a greater thickness of ice on the western slope but the area of glaciation was many times more extensive. Evidence of the former existence of glaciers in the Rio Grande drainage area is most decided in the region lying west of Wagon Wheel Gap. Fora

* A paper read before the Colorado Scientific Society, October 1, 1883.

= _ AM. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vou. XXVII, No. 161.—May, 1884. ae 26

’

392 R. C0. Hills—Ezxtinet Glaciers of Colorado.

A short distance down the valley from the Falls the ice stream was divided, one portion entering the Rio Grande Valley at Antelope Park and the other portion at Antelope Springs, three miles to the eastward. The latter branch formed the depression known as Santa Maria Lake, and, during its retreat, the huge termina! moraine one mile above the springs.

rom the Continental Divide at the head of the Rio Grande

leaving an irregular line of escarpments and low hills facing | the Needle and La Plata Mountains. These escarpments are

especially noticeable between the Animas and Mancos ae where the depth of erosion from this cause alone is fro s

to 500 feet. Similar escarpments occur fronting the Mast: : Wilson and Lone Cone groups of mountains. In the Animas

ear

foes

Mented by large additions of glacial material from the Need

hk. C. Hills—Extinet Glaciers of Colorado. 393

River region bowlders of quite large size, usually granite, are distributed over the country five miles west of the town of Durango and nearly sixty miles from the source of the Animas River. No rocks are exposed in the vicinity older than the Colorado Cretaceous, and the nearest exposure of granite is at Elbert, eighteen miles up-the river.

In the Rio San Miguel region the ice moved westward with the general course of the San Miguel River, and crossed diago- nally the course of the south branch of that stream. To what distance it extended I am unable to say, but I have observed erratic bowlders of eruptive rock on the mesas flanking the

an Miguel, thirty-five miles from the source of the river.

this area is marked by a Jong ridge of Archean rocks running diagonally from the Cimarron southwesterly to the Uncom- pahgre Valley and known as the Vernal Mesa. Consequently, the greatest extension of drift is toward the latter, where

try lying between the Cimarron and the mouth of Indian Creek on the Lake Fork of the Gunnison.

As the ice sheet retreated it became divided and finally sep- arated into distinct glaciers corresponding to the principal val- leys. Of these the Animas glacier was probably the largest. Tt formed the beautiful and fertile Animas Park in La Plata County and Baker’s Park in San Juan county. It was aug:

e and Cascade Mountains, and a short distance above Elbert was probably at one time nearly three miles wide. Between Elbert and Silverton the rounded surfaces of the crystalline schists

oye glacial scratches 1200 to 1500 feet above the old glacier bed.

- ‘Two parallel terminal moraines cross the lower end of Animas Park at Animas City. There is a moraine at the lower, and another at the upper end of Baker's Park.

__-Yext in importance was probably the Hinsdale glacier, oceu- ting the upper valley of the Lake Fork of the Gunnison. It ormed the basin of Lake San Cristobal, and, as shown by the adrift covering the low hills northeast of Lake City, was at one “me nearly a mile wide. Lake City is about twenty-four miles from the source of the river and about fifteen miles from the

s

394 R. C. Hills—Extinet Glaciers of Colorado.

nearest point on the Continental Divide. Owing to kaoliniza- tion and other causes the rocks bordering the lower portion of the district have not retained the characteristic glacial scratches, and the only indication of the probable thickness of the Hins- dale glacier is the presence of drift material which is abundant 800 feet above the level of Lake San Cristobal.

he Uncompahgre glacier was eighteen miles long, extend: ing to the foot of Uncompahgre Park and to within a short distance of the mouth of Dallas Creek. It deposited the huge

On the San Juan, Navajo, Los Pifios, Piedra, Florida and Dolores, all of which streams I have visited, local glaciers ob greater or less extent once existed; but those I have deseribe@ were probably the most important, at least their history 1s the | best preserved. eae

uring the period of the extension of the ice sheet the Up per and Middle Cretaceous rocks were eroded from 200 to 500 — feet, in some places more, the amount of erosion being greater where shales Po as for instance, in the section of country immediately north of Animas City. a

That a long period of time elapsed between the retreat of the — ice sheet and the final retreat of the local glaciers is show? hf

RL. C. Hills—Extinet Glaciers of Colorado. 395

the depth of erosion in the South Fork of the San Miguel. As

before remarked, the course of this stream is diagonal to the direction of movement of the San Miguel portion of the ice sheet, which was approximately that of the main valley. The South Fork glacier cut down through not less than 800 feet of Cretaceous sandstones and shales, forming a cafion nearly half a mile wide bordered at intervals by. escarpments of sandstone. The erosion of this cafion must have taken place since the retreat of the ice sheet and before the retrograde movement of the local glacier had reached the junction of the South Fork with the main stream. However, the’ South Fork cafion does hot represent the average depth of erosion by local glaciers, but rather the maximum, for in most instances it has not ex- ceeded half this amount.

Since the retreat of the local glaciers to the upper valleys the rivers have excavated chasms, or, what are usually termed “box cafions,” fifty to one hundred feet deep, according to the velocity of the current and character of the eroded rock. Evi- dence of this nature is shown in the Uncompahgre cafion near Ouray, in the cation of the Animas above Elbert, on the Dolo- res above Rico, and on the Lake Fork of the Gunnison above

City. The depth of these chasms gradually decreases toward the heads of the streams, notwithstanding that the fall rising in the San Juan Mountains we find localities where the water is flowing but a few feet below the striated rock surface of the old glacier bed.

Tt iS not unusual to find in these mountains limited aceumnu- lations of névé that never entirely disappear. There are two of these at the head of Henson Creek, near the point where the Animas Forks wagon road crosses the divide, at an elevation of 13,000 feet, They are seldom less than fifty feet thick, from

100 to 300 feet wide and from 400 to 600 feet in length. I ‘Visited the smaller of the two on the 20th of September of the present year and found a stream of water, caused by the melt- Ing of a recent fall of snow, running the whole length of its trough-like surface. Scraping away some of the loose snow I discovered that the mass was solid ice, into which light was transmitted some distance. It seems moderately certain that the Glacial period of this portion of the Rocky Mountains ex-

n Wousky up to the present time and that the névé accumu- lations found on the bead of Henson Creek, and elsewhere, are the remnants of the ice envelope, whic

“

gradually increases, and around the sources of all the rivers .

396 A. Gray— Gender of Names of Varieties.

)

rocks of different localities indicates that the present curve rep- resents approximately the trend of the Continental D.vide at the close of the last period of disturbance, for we find rocks belonging to the more recent overflows dipping from the Contl- nental Divide into the Rio Grande valley, so that the rocks occurring between Del Norte and Wagon Wheel-Gap are con- temperaneous with those found near the divide, north, south and west. Asa result, nearly four-fifths of the region circum- scribed by the contour of 8,000 feet is thrown west of the

direction.

AMONG other subordinate questions in Natural-history No- menclature, it has been asked whether names of varieties, like

those of species, should conform in gender to the genus, or a whether they may not as well conform to the word varvelas, —

and so always be feminine.

Linnzeus introduced the current practice of nam her te a ut

ties by the letters of the Greek alphabet, a, f, 7, ete

some varieties, evidently to the more important, he gave names — These names, when adjectives, were always (so far as we know) ne

made to agree in gender with the generic name: eX. gT-—

Viburnum Opulus, B rosewm. Asparagus officinalis, a maritimus, 2 altilis

Mesembryanthemum ringers, a canium, 8 felinum. ha a In our days named varieties play a more and more mei : portant part; and all botanists, as a rule, appear to have 0°

lowed the Linnean model, with now and then a divergence

Art. XLVI.—Gender of Names of Varieties; by ASA GRAY.

ES — a

A. Gray—Gender of Names of Varieties. 397

which is readily explained, and which may be said to be acci- dental, such as Ripogonum album, var. leptostachya, Benth. This is as one writes “forma albiflora” or “ Var. albiflora,” a white-flowered form or variety. But that this is not the

pattern nor the true construction of varietal names appears at

n reference to ordinary cases. us, for example, in “Nasturtium amphibium, a indivisum, Syst.”

an undivided variety of the species that is meant, but a name which stands in the same grammatical relation to Nastur-

Viburnum dentatam, var. a glabellum, 8 semitomentosum. Rhus Toxicodendron, var. a vulgare,’ {3 quercifolium

The editor of the Gardener’s Chronicle (March 22, p. 378), having put this kind of question to M. Alphonse de Candolle whom we should consider the highest living authority upon nomenclatural matters), understands him to reply that “ the Insertion of the abbreviation var. for varietas, which is femi- tine, demands a feminine termination; but if the word var. be Omitted, then the rule would be for the variety to follow the specific name ;”—meaning probably the generi¢e name, for in one of the examples given, “ Thymus Serpylium, 8 montanus,” it does not follow the specific.

From this point of view, viz: that where the nature of the group (in this case, variety) is expressed the adjective name Should be feminine, but where only understood, it might be masculine or neuter—we must commend the editor's closing re-

‘Perhaps the simplest and most easily recollected rule, would be to make the varietal name feminine in all cas ther the var. or varietas, were expressed or understood. This at least would be intelligible, and would conduce to uniformity of practice.” 2

t would also be logical, and the logic also would require all specific names to be feminine; for the word understood, species, 18 feminine. : ”

Now we do not suppose that M. de Candolle would tolerate

a double set of genders for the names of varieties. His doctrine

1s that the “yar.” should be discarded and the Greek letters

398 A. Gray—Gender of Names of Varieties.

only employed, not only for numbering the varieties, but for designating the fact that the name they are prefixed to is a variety.

It is not difficult to perceive why it has come to pass that “English writers generally use the abbreviation var.,” and that some continental botanical writers follow the practice. One reason is, that it enables us to cite an author’s variety by its

> Ve AS ‘ . ah i a * . ea AR “a indivisum foliis omnibus integerrimis serratisve, non aut vix basi auriculatis.’

In English we can still less abide it. So we prefix “ Var.,” and either number our varieties with Greek letters or, preferen- tially, leave them out.

ut, we did not suppose that by the employment of the word “ Var.” we bad interfered with the relation of the name of the variety to that of its genus. Var. indivisum, in this

Ranunculus aquatilis, L.

Subsp. heterophyllus.

Subsp. hederaceus, etc. : : If the proposition which we deprecate is adopted these names would have to be written heterophylla and hederacea by an author who ranked them as subspecies but heterophyllus and hederaceus by one who took them as varieties and simply numbered them by Greek letters. Obviously the propositions in the Gardeners Chronicle had not been thoroughly worked out.

C..A; Vanhise— Enlargements of Feldspar. 399

Art. XLVIL—On Secondary enlargements of Feldspar frag- by C. A. VANHISE

ments in certain Keweenawan sandstones ; by C. A. V

Spar (not perhaps always of the same species) may have been

enlargements of feldspar fragments. In the slate conglomerates of the north shore of Lake Huron, I have found what seem to be enlarged feldspar grains, but the evidence that any of the material is of secondary origin is not sufficiently satisfactory, the ines of separation between the supposed new material and the nuclei being ill marked. However, I have found what seem certainly to be additions to grains of that mineral, in certain of the Keweenawan feldspathic sandstones. The specimens in which these supposed enlargements were first found are taken

t On the N ature of the Induration in the St, Peters and Potsdam Sandstones,

1883; Philips and Bonney, 8 : : Q Same Occurrence was noted in the quarizites of Eureka, abel ne dings and Arnoi ague as long ago as the summer of 1881, although these ob-

a

400 C. A. Vanhise— Enlargements of —

from those portions of the petintecice alot in contact with overlying basic eruptives. This location is evidently a favor- able one for the development of such enlargements, the heate alkaline waters which would naturally descend from the over- lying lavas supplying approprts conditions. Then too, quartz enlargements when most easily found, are shown by lines o ferrite about the nuclei, id are ordinarily best seen in the less indurated quartzites. The Keweenawan cere are highly ferruginous, and are of an open texture ; hence, if among them feldspars have taken new growths, the pouatine for their de- tection are favorable.

Fig. . Part of section of sandstone from sre Harbor, Mich., x 100; in polar- .& steed light. AAA, fra s, each from a single fe ldspar indivi idual ; : films of iron oxide on a nh ers of es agen grains; BBB, secondary :

pag secre of the original B ewet ©, quartz grains; DD, unfilled s spaces EE, secondary fe soniye: grains pola ee independently ‘of the ware grains.

with the vended a waht. effervescence. in thin section the. sandstone is seen to be composed largely of grains of different feldspars, next to which in abundance are rounded complex fragments derived from a granitic porphyry,* consisting of *The Copper Bearing Rocks of Lake epee ty £ h. oe Third An- nual a — States Geological Survey, p. 1 eae

s £

O. A. Vanhise—Enlargements of Feldspar. - 401

feldspars penetrated by a saturating quartz. Next in order of

abundance are complex fragments of some altered basic rocks.

Finally a few grains of quartz and a little secondary calcite are oted

ned twinning bands. e grains are all ro , their boundaries being marked by broad lines of ferrite. However

2. 3.

Fig. 2. In polarized light; x 100. Plagioclase from Eagle Harbor sandstone, _ showing crystallographic continuity of original grain and secondary enlarge- ment.

Fig. 3. In polarized light; x 100. Fragment of a grain of a granitic porphyry from Eagle Harbor sandstone. ee

This newly added material appears to be feldspar which has coordinated crystallographically with the grains about which it has deposited. It possesses, no optical properties which would exclude that mineral, but cleavage and decomposition being absent, no comparison with the feldspars can be made

as to those characteristic features. The belief that the new |

rita is feldspar is, however, supported by the following acts. !

When the enlarged feldspar is orthoclase, the deposited eube

Stance polarizes uniformly with the nucleus about which itis

402 = =©. A. Vanhise—Finlargements of Feldspar.

seen (fig. 1), exactly as quartz enlargements polarize with the grains on which they have grown. Further, when plagioclase is enlarged, as it frequently is, the new material has twinned uniformly with the old, the twinning bands in polarized light running continuously across cores and the added borders (fig. 2). This phenomenon was observed in many different grains and in different sections.

Again, the complex fragments above mentioned as derived from a granitic porphyry, and as containing quartz and feld- -spar, often have borders of new material and the added por- tions resemble, and usually polarize with, the feldspars instead of with the quartz, with which they would naturally codrdi- nate, if with either, were they composed of silica. Frequently the exteriors of this class of grains are apparently all of feld- spar, even when a third or more of the edges of the original fragments (and in some places for considerable spaces con- tinuously) are of quartz (fig. 3). The grain figured consists of part of a single, orthoclase individual, including several areas of quartz. The secondary enlargement polarizes with the feldspar throughout its area.

* Fig. 4. Jn -polarized light; x 100. Part of section of Eagle Harbor sandstone, re hoclase fi oken and re-cemented b. naary material crystallographically continuous with the original fragment and with the border of newly deposited material. |

of new material. ese basic grains are often very feldspathic,

Here an en- largement instead of being a unit, as it commonly is in the rhe cedi duals e feldspars at the edge of the nucleus have ordinarily controlled

Chemistry and Physics. 403

were less favorable for renewed growth—or other minerals, if such chanced to be in contact with the division line between the clastic fragment and its border of new material. _ The change which has taken place in one grain of orthoclase 1s of some interest. The grain has been broken into two parts, which have spread somewhat, and is now cemented with a new ' Material which extinguishes with the original fragments, and also with the exterior second growth, with which it is continu- ous In one place (fig, 4). .

In some cases the new material deposited on a grain, instead of continuing as a single individual antil it meets a similar growth from another grain has crystallized independently in small interlocking grains (fig. 1). This independent feldspar i we are correct in so considering it) is more plentiful about the basic fragments than about the feldspar grains or those of the granitic porphyry. ,

neovered thin sections were prepared and the supposed

feldspar enlargements tested—so far as practicable—as to hard- nes

well with the idea that the borders are feldspars, and show that they cannot be a carbonate. :

Most of the sections of the Hagle Harbor sandstones also show quartz enlargements, but in one none were seen. ‘ This same secondary material has been found in other sand- Stones in the Keweenawan series, and in two cases the sand- stone directly underlies “greenstone.” Descriptions of these, however, will not be given, as they furnish no additional points of interest.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

oxide gas, and d : : , y crystallization. Though called anhydrous bisulphite by Muspratt and Marignac, it was found to have the formula 8,0,K,. It is characterized by the heat of its formation, by its se obs its

e ormal bisulphite, and by its pyrogenic reactions. ay better >

404 Scientific Intelligence.

on saturating with potash only 12°9 calories are evolved in place Hence the bisulphite undergoes this change to metasul-

io) ~ or «

the solution, gives 12°6 as before. Even if the solution of meta- sulphite be heated to boiling and preserved three days, it still evolves 12°5 calories on being saturated with potash. Solutions of bisulphite on the wcaen ty recently prepared, give 15°2 calories

The anhydrous bisulphate S,O,K, is transformed into normal :

bisulp ate i ence of water, with evolution of heat (1°45

without losing any sulphurous oxide. This view is confirmed by ° the heat of solution, which is the same for the anhydrous and the

ydrated metasulphite. Under the action of heat, the dry metasul- phite does not change at 150°; but toward a dull red heat it

5

evolves sulphurous oxide thongh without producing any neutral

sulphite; the reaction being (S,O,K,),=(SO,K,),+SO,+5. Hence

the metasulphite has relations to the normal pisul phite resembling

those which distinguish the ethylsulphites properly so called (C, -K,O.8,0, produced b ntpositi

tad = @

2 } co 0 ether by alkalies, from the ethylsulphites (C,H,),8,0,,K,0 (other- wise called hydreth ylsulphates) obtaine xidation of ethyl

Ratio S: K. Sulphide K,S,+53; hyposulphite 8,0, 3: metasulphite S, sth, + 184°6 ; hyposulphate S,0,K,+205°77 . bisul- phate (metasulphate) S,0,K,,+236°6; persulphate 5. OK, : ad

2

Chenustry and Physics. 406

list, ratio S: K,. Sulphide SK,,+102°2 ; sulphite K,SO,,+272°6 ; sulphate SO,K,, +-342:2..—Ann. Chim. Phys., V1, i, 81, Jan. 1884. G. F. B. 2. On the Hyponitrites—Divers and Haca have replied to the criticisms of Berthelot and Ogier upon the hyponitrites. The latter chemists, finding a low percentage of silver in the silver hyponitrite prepared by them, assigned to it the formula Ag,N,O

’

: Crone Gea instead of AgNO given by Divers. The former chemists point

substance analyzed was not thus admixed, and that the formula 1s antecedently quite improbable. wever, to establish the

prove upon these results in the future.—/. Chem. Soc., xlv, 78, March, 1884, ie G. F. B.

On Ferric ethylate and colloidal Ferric hydrate-—Grmavx has succeeded in producing a colloidal ferric hydrate by a new method. If 3-25 grams ferric chloride be dissolved in 25 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and a solution of 1:4 grams sodium in the

sodium chloride is at once forme d dark brown liquid con- tains all the iron in the of ferric ethylate with not a tra of chlorine. On distilling off the alcohol, a black pasty mass of

liquid is obtained which presents all the appearance of the colloi- dal ferric hydrate described by Grah

a a

‘sa

,

406 Scientific Intelligence.

of this base. Picoline from animal oil, boiling between 134° and 139° and hence a mixture of a-methvl-pyridine with some f-methyl- ridine, was treated as above, distilled, saturated with HCl and evaporated to dryness. The residue was converted into the ‘nitroso-compound, extracted with ether and decomposed with HCl. The hydrochlorate, distilled with , and purified, gave a colorless oil boiling at 121-124°, consisting essentially of a-methyl-piperidine C,H,(CH,)NH isomeric with the methyl- piperidine prepared by Hofmann C,H,.NCH,. The author has also prepared ethyl piperidine from y-ethyl-pyridine by the same reaction.—Ber. Berl. Chem Ges., xvii, 388, March, 1884.

ma

air is drawn through this tube into the exhaust. A graduation permits the difference of level of the mercury in the two tubes and B to be read ‘off, and thus the pressure under which the distillation is effected, to be determined.—Ann. Chim. Phys. Vi, _ : ak. |

Geology and Mineralogy. 407

6. On a new Temperature-regulator.— Loraar Mryer has devised a modified form of temperature-regulator which is ex-

lower end of which rests upon the end of the glass rod. Since the expansion of glass is only about half as great as that of brass, the outer end of the lever is moved down as the heat rises and up as it falls. To this arm of the lever, and adjustable as to

distance, is hung by me f a chain, an apparatus like the upper part of a Kemp-Bunsen regulator. T S passes na

II. Grotoagy AnD MINERALOGY.

1. Geology of the Panther Creek Basin or eastern end of the Pens son Oy 9 URNER. 208 pp. 8vo, with an

A rtance, he sec- tions have much geological interest as illustrations of the subject of Hexures in rocks. We here reproduce one of them, but much reduced in scale and with the omission of the statements as to the kinds of intervening strata and the parts of the coal beds that have

: EK’, a outcrops of the “Mammoth bed,” 13 to 27 feet thick; F to F, of the overlying Red Ash coal bed, 8 to 23 feet thick. The whole

An. Jour. Sct—Turep Surtes, VoL. XXVII, No. 161.—May, 1884, 27 ‘ :

e

408 Scientific Intelligence.

thickness of the anthracite beds. from the mouth of the tunnel through the Mammoth bed, E, to F inclusive (the lower Red Ash coal bed), is 56 feet. The section illustrates (1) the doubling of a - bed on itself, so doubling its thickness; (2) the uncertainty of

determinations of the thickness of beds of rock in a region of flex- ures (the two parts of F at F* being separated by only a thin

: Baa

» i

ee ee re it AWN Oe GAY: ;

outcrop of the thick strata, wholly unlike what intervenes between F" and F’, and between F* and F*; (3) the increase 1D

the vertical depth of a bed where it is doubled up in the central

2. Geological Survey of New Jersey; Report for 1883, G. H -8vo.—Like all of Professor

— ro) pee «fee = poet — my ~] ce 5 Lae) a 2 et el & —— wR @ < -_ a fe) =} ie) oO © a ° 4 a ° = z ta) z = n 7A Oo “ eS = fo

various facts adduced sustaining the opposing opinion—-that ; . the trappean ranges are alike of a later age than the Red san@ — -

Geology and Mineralogy. 409

d or new minerals formed where there was no moistur to aid the heat. Professor Cook states that the dip of the Trias- Sic sandstone is not everywhere westward, as has often been said, but that over a considerable tract of country in the valley of the Raritan there is eastward dip.

The kinds, positions and other characteristics of the Archean formation are briefly considered, and interesting sections are given showing the conformable relations of the iron-ore beds (magnetite) to the enclosing rock. rofessor Cook states that he b of : . si of

folded, faulted and pinched, as are the rocks about them... . Hence en vie in connection with the associated stratified rocks, the conclusion is unavoidable that they were deposite 48 sediments and are of the same age with them.”

The Report for 1874 (p. 56), mentions its detection in the trap rocks of New Jerse

account. of the preservation of the ; : > ag appendages. His article is illustrated by a lithographic Plate.

The specimen has been studied also by Mr. C. D. Watcorr, and the general result of Mr. Mickleborough confirmed, but with new developments as to the structure. Mr. Walcott’s article,

410 Scientifie Intelligence.

“The legs beneath the thorax show seven joints in two instances.” The general arrangement and position of the appendages are very much as they were represented by Mr. Walcott in his resto- ration of Calymene senaria (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., viii, 1881). Mr. Walcott also states that, on a careful examination, numerous fine slender filaments were discovered, both beneath the thorax

nd pygidium and also near the posterior end of the latter, slender jointed appendages not half a millimeter in diameter, and he appears to regard these as branchial, as he did the spiral and ribbon-like filaments discovered in his dissections of specimens of Calymene.

north shore of Lake Superior. In the 800 miles, he found only seven mines and one stone quarry that were worked, and only one, the Silver Islet Mine, that was profitably so. The Reports in the volume are as follows: on the geology of the pepe part of Quebec, by Dr. Serwyn; on the Bow

and on the Gaspé peninsula, by R. W. Exts; notes on some © the mines in the province of Quebec, by G. W. WiLLIMorT ; and chemical report, by G. C. Horrmann. of volume III on Paleontology, consists of a paper °”

Paleozoic fossils by J. F. Whiteaves, illustrated by 8 plates.

‘ taceous and Tertiury Floras of British Columbia and the Northwest Territory —Dr. J. W. Dawson has a memoir on this subject in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,

Geology and Mineralogy. 411

for May, 1883, It is illustrated by 7 plates. He states that the anthracite beds of the Queen Charlotte Islands are now known to be Middle Cretaceous, and equivalent of the upper part of the Shasta group of California, and: that the coal beds of the Nanaimo and Comos ins, Vancouver Island, are er Cretaceous, equivalent to the Chico and Tejon groups of California. The Lignitic or Laramie group is admitted to be a transition group between the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene. The paper reviews ig! previously described species, and describes others that are new.

A n ER- TRAND have recently pate an account of a new mineral from ; antes, to which M. Damour has given the . name of Bertrandite. An analysis by him yielded: SiO, BeO Fe.0s3 H,0 49°26 42°00 1:40 6°90 = 99°56 for which the formula 2(Be,SiO,)+H,O is proposed; in other words it is near phenacite but differs in containing water. Ac- cording to Bertrand it crystallizes in the orthorhombic system With a prismatic angle of 121° 20’; the erystals are generally tabular In habit through the extension of the basal plane or of the brachypinacoid, they are sometimes twins. he erystals are transparent, colorless or slightly yellowish, luster brilliant, vitre- ous, hardness a little less than six, specific gravity 2°586—2°593, The mineral occurs in cavities in pegmatite implanted on quartz or feldspar with apatite, arsenopyrite, pyrite —Bull. Soc. Min., 8

Tin ore ( Cassiterite) in the Blue Ridge in Virginia.—The ober last, contains a note by Prof. H. D. d

to Canada. One of these is meneghinite. It occurs in massive | form near Marble Lake, township of Barrie, Ontario. Its specific gravity was 6 33. An analysis afforded 8 Sb As Cu Fe Ag 1681 1937 tr 6145 136 O07 0:08=99'14 The tennantite occurs massive at the Crown mine, Capelton, Quebec, associated with pyrite, chalcopyrite, quartz, etc. Its Specific gravity was 4-622. An analysis yielde Ag

: s Cu Fe Zn Pb insol. 27°99 15-34 «452 4642:09 3°77) «456 = 0°25 | «O21 «=: 0°09 = 98°82

412 Scientific Intelligence.

Strontianite occurs sparingly in cavities in concretionary masses of limestone contained in the Utica shales of St. Helen’s Island, Montreal. Acmite is shown by Dr. Harrington to be an impor- tant constituent of the nepheline syenites of Montreal and Beleeil.

aterialien zur Mineralogie Russland, von N. von Koxks-

memoir on the species caledonite, but supplemen- tary notices are also given of monazite, rutile, pachnolite and xanthophyllite.

11. Allanite from Topsham, Maine ; by F.C. Roprnson. (Communicated.)—Some time ago there was brought to my no- tice a peculiar, and to me then unknown mineral which a student had discovered in the granite on what is known as “Sprague’s Hill,” Topsham, Me. We have just completed an analysis of it, and proved it to be allanite. It occurs in the above locality in considerable abundance and in the form of brownish crystals partially decomposed, and looking like rusty nails driven into the granite. Occasionally fair crystals are found. Up to the time of its discovery no cerium mineral was known to occur here,

occur in the same locality as the allanite, but is associated with columbite and gahnite. Other minerals of this locality are also being analyzed by us and notices of them will be published from time to time. The analysis of the allanite was made under my supervision by J. Torrey, Jr. Si0, Al,0O; FeO; CeO LaO DIO CaO H.O Na,0 K,0* 37°20 10°24 24:46 8°66 9°57 684 «1°74 1:26=99°97 This analysis gives the approximate ratio for R: R: Si=1: 1:3. ples seemed to vary somewhat in composition,

0 us som sg amounts of Mn and less Fe; some also gave little Mg. HO

I . Rammelsberg read a paper before the Berlin

a described by 8. L. Penfield in this Journal for November. The description as given by Penfield agrees in most respects with that of Rammelsberg, only the specific gravity was found to be 67202.

ENS ade was only a trace of K,0. Its exact amount will be hereafter deter- mined,

Botany and Zoology. 413

The analyses are as follows: (1) by Rammelsberg, (2) by Penfield. V20; As.0; P20; PbO CuO ZnO FeO H,O SiO, ) 22°47 0°28 O17 54:03 813 12°62 2°62). = 100-22 3) 18:95 3:82 O18 54:93 674 12°24 0-06 S105 O12 7 OSs 8 was shown by Penfield, the mineral is essentially identical with descloizite. Whether the fact that it contains copper replac- ing part of the zinc entitles it to a ae name is a point about which there may be difference of opinio

b>

Ill. Borany And Zoouoey.

1. Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences, No. 1. Feb. 1884, pp. 59, 8vo.—With this issue Ghia California Academy begins a new series of its s proceedings and publications, super- seding the Journal, as we suppose, though there is no announce- ment of this,

he contents are distributed under the heads of Zootoey, (a single paper, by Miss Rosa Smith, characterizing Squalius Lem- mont, a new fish), eS Sncrios, five papers; Microscopic SECTION, five papers upon Fung which, there is a certain relief in finding outside the dowiiti of botin ny ; AsrRONOMY, six papers, or rather notes, by the worthy President, Professor Davidson. The title of one of these Suey the cover suggested a stra be botanical paper, yet it was easy to make out that “ Intra-Mer- curial Plants” were ane which had dropped a vowel. Lastly MINERALOGY, a paper on Colemanite, a hydrous borate of lime,

vans.

by Mr. The first botanical paper may also seem to have wandered afield. I one, on Veatchia ( V. stint rat a

s of Anacardiacee, by Asa Gray, remarkable for i utricular fruit. It had been described by Dr. Kellogg in the de r.

arly me bers of the California Academy, upon which he bestowed is col- lections in Lower California, it was m

to correct certain faults of punetuation and the ala misprint which more or less mar the s

Dr. Behr and Dr, Kellogg ste oe forces in the coke ppertses of an Anemone pipe which grows on Tamalpais, and which several times cole in the California Coast Ranges, which Dr Torry first and other botanists since have taken for a — form of the Linnean A. remorosa, probably with good re

Dr. Kel ong follows with two new species of Lower California : Asirigiiies insularis, have no opinion to offer, and Phacelia ixodes, a well marked species, which has also ‘been receatty collected by Mr. Oreutt.

414 . Scientific Intelligence.

Mr. Greene describes a econ Californian species, one of them a re-publication of Dr. Kellogg’s Brickellia — and another, Spatganium Californicum, “from three nine feet high,” said to be erhaps too near S. eurycarpum, Engelm.” Our lamented associate was unable to Spal nar it jen that

is race f t S Haneuiabial papers, by Messrs. Cooke and Harkness, heey Phillips and Harkness, Messrs. Plowright and Harkness, Messrs. Ellis and Harkness, and a lar arger number of new species and genera by Dr. Ha rkness aba: it is not for = ie See maces? is becoming, as it were, a kingdom of i . Darwinism stated b Darvin hime if. Chovameialea Pas- d

eee Srom the writings of Charles Darwin: selected and ar Nat

ranged by THAN pees ee York: Appleton & Co. 1884, pp. 350, 12mo.—A thoro ughly vitlg and unbiased idea of Darwinism is to be obtained only fr m Darwin’s own writings.

violate There is no dau qung. 2 hy Pchey wea noe for there i is ne aw ws of note or co

ALE, rey Protessor ist (Botany in Haiy ard Univer re Boston: Cassin 1882, wel de —We pro tertg noticed the earlier fas-

feicee-yres and atty portraitures, in which the chromorlithographic printer has really done justice to Mr. 8 rague’s elegant and faith- ful paintings, we wish to call attention to it. We believe that the copies were so promptly taken up that it is entirely out of

print; and we are uncertain if the publisher can pode: it,

though that, and the continuance of the work, were greatly to wished. While all the plates are of very high order except that a ile are — Cade “ following are amo ng} the most ex-

sweet water-lily and the May-flower. A word must be said for

the letter press, which has nt poetry and thread-bare se senti- ent, and has managed to combine, in a readable and interes narrative, much good desotpied: matter, curious informat:

La

‘

Botany and Lootogy. 415

: A. G. 4. A Catalogue of the Native and Naturalized Plants of the } . Day. Buffalo, 1883. pp. 215, 8vo.—This is published by the Buffalo Society of

“ presents the names of all the plants which have been detected

and other interesting details. It has set a good example including, upon the basis. of real investigations, all the crypto- ayons plants of the region which have been fairly determined.

date of publication. The phenogamous species are 1,217, in 106 orders, Imost exactly half of them are in the ten larger orders, and are distributed as follows: Composite, 143. Labiate, 39. Cyperaces, 105. anunculacee, 36 Graminex, Crucifere, Rosacew, 52. Orchidacee, 34. Leguminose, 45. Liliacex, 31. Labiate would not hold this position except for its adventive and naturalized representatives, c e up one-third of its

ames. + & 5. Die Pflanzenkrankheiten; by Professor Dr. B. Frank. — (In vol. i of Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik, Trewendt, Breslau.)

243 pp., 46 ills.—This is one of the important monographs Avner ia o

me of these investigations have been of the most and untrustworthy character, and the conclusions must be receiv

416 Scientific Intelligence.

with great caution. In the volume now before us, the more

difficulties, upon the consideration of which we cannot now enter, except to say they mostly spring from the transfer to such simple

classification of plant-diseases proposed by Frank is plain and_ reasonably comprehensive. Four groups are made, viz:

Effects of injurious mechanical influences, as distortions through lack of room for growth, and the many forms of wounds. 2. diseases induced by inorganic nature, such as come from too

them rather than with their morphology. He speaks of three general effects produced by these parasite 1. a consumption of the living matter and its stored food. 2. Destruction of tissues 3. Irritation inducing abnormal growth ughout

is painstaking, which makes it of great utility as a wor reference, the citations being given with extraordinary accuracy. : G. I

Researches on the Structure of Diatomacew, from the d

a excellent plates, and also facts of geological farereat connected — with them. The diatoms are filled usually with calcite, but

contain sometimes minute erystallizations of pyrite inside or as

a coating; and the pyrite occurs commonly in the parts of the diatom (the perforations, especially) where the organic matter existed, to provoke the chemical reaction necessary for its pre cipitation. The author discusses also the origin of the pseudo-

-

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 417

morphs of pyrite after diatoms that had been posaicintg from the London clay, and explains their formation by first a coating of pyrite ae then a substitution of pyrite for the tina as it is slowly removed, molecule for molecule. By dissolving away the pyrite Ae patie ‘still a delicate siliceous skeleton remainin ng.

. Report of the es Dr. C. V. Rizey, for the year 1883; from the Report of the Department of Agriculture. 80 pp with pla tes. pin 28 Ri iley’s report contains much important Information on insects injurious to vegetation, ot the best means of preventing their destructive work; and t e plates contain figure es of apparatus which bean toe for the latter purpose, besides illustrations of the insects, A valuable ee

bee kar 8. Resul e Dredging under A. Boast in_ the “ Blake.” ER.—T se

Report on “the Isopoda, vy Oscar Harerr.—The species of Isopod Crustacea here described ne figured by Harger come from depths of 500 to 7,000 feet and are in as new to

the American coast. They etuate. species of Cirolana, Aga, Rocinela and Syscenus.

Exploration oy the Aigo’ Lal bess of the Gulf Stream ; by A. Agassiz. Vol. viii , No. 2 of the Memoirs of the Mus. ye Zool. Harvard Coleg 2 This memoir ue Aaa the Por-

mp. 2) consists chiefly of plates illustrating Comp, embryology Comatula, at eet Asteroids, Echinoids, and Holothurioids, 48 made out by the res esearches of different zoologists. They are here bronghi together under the supervision of Mr, Agassiz, ao the aid of students in zoology, and make a very instructive ries, il, a of the Revenue Steamer Corwin in Alaska and the Ne “Bier ctie Ocean, in 1881. 120 pp. 4to, with many plates. ington, 18 1883. —This oes contains an illustrated memoir a ae Behring Sea and the Arctic Ocean, by E. W. NELson; Nera ological } Ehsan with plates, by Dr. Lo. Rosse; Botanical Notes, by Joun M

IV. MiscetuANeous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

1. National Academy of Sciences.—At the recent meeting of the National Academy, held at Washington from April 15th to 2 the following papers were entered for reading: iene the 8 ate yg of the Transit of Venus taken at the Lick Observatory: by Whig ears is a minimum perooptible difference of sensation: by ©. S. Peirce and J. Jasrro

The ataractir of the heat radiated from the soil: by S. P. LANGLEY in making a new photograph of the spectrum: by H. A. fowiaxn:

418 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Some ee upon the spectra of oxygen: by A. W. WRIGHT.

On the dept lo ies the western part of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, with an exhib of a relief model ;—On the relative levels of the western part of the phoma ‘ean and Gulf of Mexico with oe ct to the Gulf Stream;—An account of some recent pendulum experiments in erent parts of the world, made in connection with the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; b

Reduction o s to sea level; by Ex1as LOOMIS.

e Krakatoa atmo spheric waves, and the cae of a connection between

hiahexnettio pressure and atmospheric electricity: by H. M. Pauu. (By invitation.)

On the voleanic sand which fell at Unalaska, Oct. 20, 1883, and some considera- tions concerning its composition: by J. S. DILLER. (By i inv vitation

The - welslasao estimation of carbon in Sead phosphorus ; -__Redaction of halogen Saitvative of carbon compounds: Ira REMSEN.

On ae Fritts site pase m ce ae Api s pote voltmeter: by Gno. F. BARKER.

Recent progress in electr cal fus : by Henry L. ABBOT. The eis ciency of te rrestrial tothiioe to deflect river courses: by G. K. GILBERT. The origin of crystalline rocks: by T. Srerry Hunv. - On he este hei of sherry in native silver from Lake Superior: by Gxo. J. RUSH. On the ss cen of tin ore in the older rocks “ ey Blue Ridge: by B. SILLIMAN. ogeds imple s from Alaska: b . CLA oological rest of the deep-sea dredging erpadelen of the U. S. Fish Com- mission Laciou

. E. VERRILL. : On th aeons and affinities of tiayeiomi: a still living genus of sharks of the Carhoniterus period ;—On the North American species of Mastodon: by

‘The proarh aarag ti of the lyomerous sing -—On the classification of the apodal fishes: by Tux. GiuL and Joun A. Ryp

Memorandum on com otographs in grace hit a Jone 8.1 "BILLINGS.

. y E ES.

Some recent 2g of eh Sigal nay aural teaching of the deaf, oii the com- bined system

The study of suivanases gee Be by C. 8S, PEIRCE.

Memorial addresses were delivered by General H. L. Abbot on the ee. ‘Segke al G. K. Warren; by Professor C. A. Young on panel Stephen Alexander ; ; by Professor elie on Professor

pute a mith; and by Dr, Samuel H, Scudder on Dr. John

The folanion new members were —- Bae: w. K. Brooks of Baltimore; a C. B. Comstock, U. Army;

Professor yg! sin S. Dana of New Ha sven "Captain = i Dutton,

by the U. 8. Signal yraklore since 1870, the rainfall (snow being

gna ; reap increased, during the peer from 1830 to 1880, from

Potsdam and Albany, places in the center, northern and easter? parts

rts of the State, taken by periods of ten years, show that little |

~

| Miscellaneous Intelligence. 419

change has taken place; but at Pierrepont Manor and Oswego there is an indication of some increase. The last two places with Buffalo and Rochester, are near Lake Ontario; and Mr. Gardiner concludes that excepting’ in the vicinity of Lake Ontario little change in amount of precipitation has taken place, notwithstand- ing the large removal of forests.

ith regard to the relation between drainage and rain-fall the report states that the average flow of the west branch of the Croton for four years was found to be 63 per cent of the rainfall. The basin covers about 20 square miles, 1s mostly wooded, and the subjacent rocks are metamorphic. In Massachusetts the same average for the Cochituate basin, west of Boston, for the inter- val 1852 to 1875, is 45 per cent; and for the Sudbury basin, which has an area of 77°76 square miles; about 50 per cent. In both of these cases also the rocks are metamorphic, but the basins are only partially wooded.

€ maximum precipitation at Rochester and Buffalo, for the two months, March and April, is stated to be about 10°42 inches. The total amount of water to be disposed of during March and April—the time of maximum flow—is therefore often 10 inches,

wooded areas, that are similar to the above mentioned regions in

climate and other conditions, any channel capable of carrying off

the Spring flow is not liable to be flooded between May an ovember. ;

At the receiving reservoir in New York, between 1864 and 1880, the evaporation amounted to 80 per cent of the rain-fall, it being so great because wholly from a water-surface, and one in no part protected by forests from winds and the direct sun’s rays.

ote on the condition occasioning the Ohio River flood of

an excellent review of the facts as to this and other Ohio floods,

i Science of February 22 fl

% rst from Feb. 3 to 5, in which about 33 inches of yain fell at Cincinnati, and the second, on Feb. 10, 11, in which the rain-fall was about 2 inches. These storms extended to the head waters of the Ohio and fell upon

*

420 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

warm which the feeders of the Ohio come.” The condition as to frozen

round, which was true of a large part of the drainage area is not in the latter sentence, but is implied by the connection. The floods also of 1880, 1881, 1882, 50 to 58 feet in height, occurred in February; and 19 out of the 27 between 1858 and 1884 were within the four months, December, January, February and March.

Facts bearing on this subject are given by the writer in his paper of 1882, on the “ Flood of the Connecticut River from the melting of the Quaternary Glacier.”* It is there deduced from the tables of precipitation kept at different points in the Connec-

ticut valley, and from the amount of discharge of the river as

pi soil.

In 1874, when the discharge of the Connecticut was so great, the two months of largest discharge were January (135,491 millions

ini sources of the Connecticut, was 4-02 inches, and for May, 3°81 inches; yet in April with a mean precipitation of 4:49 inches, the

ae os wy. . precipitation of 3°74 inches, the discharge was only 55,018 mill- o

ions. April is usually a month of frozen ground over the northern —

half of the valley, but not always to so great an extent. Again, in February, the discharge amounted to 96,674 millions (half more than in April and two-thirds that of January), although the mean precipitation for the valley in that month was only 1°93 inches, showing that thawing was the chief cause, not the precip tation of that month.

urther, in 1877 (the year of minimum flood), during the month of October—too early for frozen ground except on the high mountain tops and yet always a cool month—the amount of discharge of the river was only 31,772 millions of cubic feet, although the mean precipitation in the valley for the month was 5°45 inches, which is greater by one third than in the months of greatest discharge in 1874,

*This Journal, III, xxiii, 368.

~

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 421

It is here evident that the frozen condition of the earth’s sur- face has a vast deal to do with the height of the winter floods, and the extent of the forest region very little.

he conditions affecting the amount of discharge are (1) the loss by evaporation; (2) the loss by absorption.

Loss by evaporation becomes greater (1) as the seasons advance from cold to warm; (2) as forest regions become changed into dry fields of earth, or earth and rock ; (3) as obstructing dams are multiplied, making the stream more or less a string of ponds. It is least, other conditions équal, when streams are deep in propor- ion to their breadth ; and when the velocity is great, the time

inished, _ Loss by absorption becomes greater as the season advances from cold to warm, but only after the ground of the drainage area has become unfrozen ; (2) the more the area is forest-covered ;

(3) the more porous, fissured, or cavernous the underlying ig oe i i j is least

phic rocks; where the cold has produced a frozen surface—rock- like—over the drainage area, : Hence the best conditions for a great flood are a frozen drain-

atory, No. 7,—The Observations of Messrs. Stone and Wilson upon nine comets in 1880-2, both for positive and physical, are given in this valuable contribution. Ten plates illustrating the physical observations are added.

. Lar- n fund to

UX. : 6. Hermann Mueller Fund.— The citizens of Lippstadt in ommittee to collect funds for a

mnasium of that town, an : al relations of insects and flowers. The proposed fund is “to preserve the memory of Professor Mueller, and ae his family by creating a foundation, whose revenues shall

429 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

nie, M. Inst. C. E., F. R. Met. Soc., F.G.S. sire to receive copies of records of rainfall extending from as

ters; that the name of the observer and the Py of ob inni i all, Bradford, ¥ ork-

. Monument to the great Paleontologist, Barrande.—No more

faithful or successful worker in Paleontology has lived than Bar-— rande. Subscriptions to a monument to his memory will be for- warded by Professor A. Hyatt, Technological Institute, Boston.

OBITUARY.

Stenor QurntINo SEtxa, President of the R. Accademia dei Lyncei, of Rome, and for many years Minister of Finance 12 Italy, died on the 14th of March. His scientific researches were chiefly in crystallographic mineralogy, in which department his papers are of the highest excellence. His able statesmanship se

; peo address at a memorial session of the Chamber of Deputies, connects his name with three great achievements in the recent progress of his nation: “La restaurazione finanziaria della n

ties has appropriated 20,000 dollars for a monument to his memory- A letter from Mr. T, McKenny Hughes, in Nature of Mare 27,

“it is proposed to place a bronze wreath on the tomb of the

. -

small subscription.

-

re . to five a One species referred to this ge y small,

APPENDIX:

Arr. XLVI IL—Prineipal Characters of American Cretaceous Prerodactyls ; by Professor O. C. Marsu. Part LL The Skull of Pteranodon. (With Plate XV.)

THE first remains of Pterodactyls discovered in this country Were found by the writer, in the antumn of 1870, near the Smoky Hill iver, in Western Kansas. These belonged to a Sigantic species, which was described by the writer in 1871, and is now known as Pteranodon occidentalis. The geological horizon of these fossils was in the Middle Cretaceous, in the Same deposits that contain the Odontornithes, or Birds with teeth. In the following year, additional specimens were Secured by the writer in the same region, and referred to two hew species of the same genus.*

In 1872, the writer again visited this region, and made a careful search for other specimens, and for several subsequent years had parties exploring the same deposits systematically, with good results; so that at the present time the remains 0 more than six hundred individuals of these reptiles have been

Secured from this horizon, and are now in the museum of

Yale Colle The most of these remains represent gigantic species, the largest having a spread of wings of nearly, or quite, twenty-five eet. These all belong to the genus Pteranodon, and pertain renus Was com-

ournal, vi

* This. J ol. i, p. 472, June, 1871; vol. iii, p. 241, April, 1872, and p. 374, May, 1872. ‘ au ;

424 O. ©. Marsh—Skull of Pieranodon.

All these Cretaceous Pterodactyls, so far as known, differ, widely from the members of this group in the old world, especially in the absence of teeth, and hence have been’ placed

y the writer in a new order, the Pe lontia, from the typical genus, Pteranodon.* Other important characters of this order have since been made known by the writer, showing that these strange reptiles constitute a well marked group, much more specialized than any hitherto discovered.

n the present paper, the skull of one species of Pteranodon is described and figured as typical of the order, and the remaining part of the skeleton will be discussed in subsequent communications.

THE SKULL.

The skull in the genus Pteranodon is very large, and much elongated. e facial portion is greatly produced forwards, and an enormous sagittal crest extends far backward, and _ somewhat upward, as shown in Plate XV, figures 1, 2, and 3. Seen from the side, the jaws project forward like a huge pair — of pointed shears. They are very long, sharply pointed in

The bones of the skull are nearly all of extreme tenuity. With the exception of the occipital condyle, and the lower ends of the quadrates, all seem to have been pneumatic.

Seen from above, the skull appears extremely narrow. A sharp ridge extends from the end of the premaxillaries alone the median line to the true cranium, and is continued backwar by the thin elevated crest. The large antorbital openings thus seem near the middle of the skull, and, as they are directly

* This Journal, p- 507, vol. xi, June, 1876; p. 479, vol. xii, Dec., 1876, , and vol. xxi, p. 342, April, 1881. See also vol. xxiii, p. 251, April, 1882.

O. C. Marsh—Skull of Pteranodon. 425

The premaxillaries are very large, and have coalesced with the maxillaries. They appear to extend backward to the large antorbital vacuities. These apertures apparently include both the anterior nares, and the lachrymo-nasal fossee, which are separate in most recent birds.

he orbit is of moderate size, and oval in outline, the apex

being below. There was apparently no ring of bony sclerotic

aon since in the best preserved specimens no traces of this ave been found. :

The quadrate is firmly codssified with the other cranial bones, and projects strongly forward. Its distal end is one of the most characteristic parts of the skeleton.

The sagittal crest is of enormous size, and serves to balance the elongated jaws. It is very thin transversely, and during ite was probably more or less exible. In form and direction, it resembles the corresponding crest in the recent genus Basilicus.

_ The occipital condyle is very small, and nearly hemispher-

‘cal in form. It is directed backward, and but slightly down-

ward, thus differing from this part in most of the members of he group.

THe LowER J AWS.

The lower jaws are very long, and quite sharp in front, corresponding closely in this respect with the end of the upper jaws. The rami

Length, from extremity of sagittal crest to end of pre- maxillary, about 30 inches, or ---- --------------

Tranverse diameter of occipital condyle, ---- ---- --- ---- 8

Distance from occipital condyle to distal end of quadrate, 105°

Length of lower jaw, about, 23 inches, or-.------------ an Greatest’ depth, 2.0 oa eae ee sane et oot - Depth at articulation for quadrate,--.----.------------

426 O68. Marsh—Skull of Pteranodon.

The skull of Pteranodon ingens, described by the writer ‘from the same geological horizon, is about four feet in length.

The skull of Pteranodon differs especially from that of the other known Pterosauria, in the following particulars: (1) the absence of teeth; (2) the absence of anterior nasal apertures distinct from the antorbital openings; (8) the presence of the elongated occipital crest ; (4) the whole jaws were apparently covered with a horny sheath, as in recent birds.

Yale College, New Haven, April 24th, 1884.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.

Figure 1.—Skull and lower jaw of Pteranodon longiceps, Marsh; side view. ‘ Figure 2.—The same skull ; top view.

Figure 3.—The same skull; bottom view. |

Figure 4.—Lower jaw of Pteranodon longiceps ; top view.

a, Antorbital aperture; }, orbit; c, sagittal crest; d, angle of jaw; ¢ lower margin of upper jaw ; e’, upper margin of lower jaw ; / articulation of lower jaw; oc, occipital condyle ; q, quadrate bone; s, symphysis of lower jaw.

All the figures are one-sixth natural size.

Plate XV.

SKULL OF PTERANODON LONGICEPS, Marsh. One-sixth natural size,

AM. JOUR. SCI, Vol. XXVII, May, 1884.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Arr. XLIX.—The Sufficiency of Terrestrial Rotation for the Deflection of Streams; by G. ILBERT. [Read to the National Academy of Science, April 15, 1884.]

It was long ago perceived that rivers flowing to the north or to the south should by the rotation of the earth be thrown sev- erally against their east or west banks. It is even many years Since it was shown by Ferrel that these tendencies are but illustrations of a more general law, that all streams in the northern hemisphere are by terrestrial rotation pressed against their right banks, and all in the southern are pressed against their left banks, the degree of pressure being independent of the direction of flow. Yet the question of the sufficiency of the cause for the production of observable modifications in the topography of stream valleys is still an open one. A number of geologists have observed peculiarities of stream valleys which they referred to the operation of the law, while others, including myself, have looked in vain for phenomenal evidence of its efficiency. Nevertheless, it is my present purpose to maintain the sufficiency of the cause. |

ar as I am aware, all those who have attempted to con- sider analytically, the mode in which the lateral tendency arising from rotation should modify the channel or valley of a Stream have reached the conclusion that no appreciable . results can be produced, and for the most part their conclusions legitimately follow their premises. own different conelu- Sion is based upon an essentially different analysis of the

Am. Jour. oe Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 162.—Jonz, 8

y i ne f i

428 G. K. Gilbert—The Deflection of Streams.

processes involved. In the celebrated discussion in the French Academy of Science, it was computed by Bertrand that a river flowing in lat. 45° with a velocity of three meters per sec- ond exerts a pressure on its right bank of ;z4,, of its weight, and he regarded this pressure as too small for consideration. It has been pointed out by Henry Buff that the deflecting force, by combining with gravitation, gives the stream’s surface a slight inclination toward the left bank, thereby increasing the depth of water near the right bank, and consequently increast jing the velocity of the current at the right. ‘To this incremen- of velocity he ascribed a certain erosive effect, but regarded it as less than that assiznable to wind-waves on the same water- |

nel, centrifugal force is developed. This centrifugal foree is

velocity from the center of the channel toward the outer bank- .

G. K. Gilbert—The Deflection of Streams. 429

‘The conditions of symmetry in the profile of the cross-section are thus destroyed. The outer bank 1s eroded; a deposit is accumulated on the inner bank. Moreover there is no com- pensating tendency to restore an equilibrium, for the erosion of the outer bank increases the sinuosity of the channel instead of rectifying it. ' Curvature of course thus causes a stream to shift its channel laterally, and in this manner enlarge its valley. It is the mos Important condition of lateral corrasion. s shown by Ferrel, the deflective force due to terrestrial ith the velocity of the stream. It

Let F=deflective force, per unit of mass, due to rotation. n=angular velocity of the earth’s rotation. v=velocity of stream. A=latitude of the locality. -p=radius of a curvature of the stream’s course. f=the centrifugal force, per unit of mass, developed by such curvature. 2

Then f= = - - - : (1)

cand, from Ferrel, F==2vn sin A - - : : (2)*

Let v,=velocity of a rapid-flowing thread of the current, Bem oe ae slow ce o oe oe

Represent by F,, F,, 4, and f, the corresponding deflective forces due to rotation and curvature, then F,—F,=(v,—v,) X 2n sin A - - (3) y2—y? RN fj fee te - . : - (4) I . | F,—F, evidently expresses the selective power due to curva- ture; f.—f similarly expresses the relative power due to rota-

'_ * This Journal, IT, xxxi, 29, equation (5). _Ferrel’s expression is modified above “by the substitution of the sine of the latitude for the cosine of the polar distance.

430 GK. Gilbert—The Deflection of Streams.

tion. Where the curvature has a convexity to the right, these two influences conspire, and their resultant is deducible by addition. ' Where the curvature has a leftward convexity the influences are opposed, and their resultant is deducible by sub- traction. [The terminology here and through the remainder of the paper is adjusted to the northern hemisphere exclusively.]. If we represent by R the joint selective power on curvatures of right hand convexity and by L the joint selective power on curvatures of left hand convexity, then we deduce by simple combinations and transformations of equations (8) and (4).

R _v,+2,+2pn sin : ‘ (5) L™~ v,+,—2n sin A

v, and v, may be the velocities of any two threads of current. moving at different rates, but for purposes of convenience and simplification we now assume that they are symmetrically re- lated to the mean velocity v; and introducing this relation in (5) we obtain ,

Ro +pn sin r : : (6) L v—pnsinaA

together with all other channel features, are determined by the water at its flood stage. It is therefore proper to consider 10 this connection the mean flood velocity. That was determined by Humphreys and Abbott to be, at. Columbus, Kentucky, 8° feet per second. The latitude of the locality is 37°. Giving these values to p, v, A, and substituting for 7 its numerical value ‘000072924, we obtain from (6)

R e =< 081

ple suffices to show that while the influence of rotation is sma¥', as compared to that of curvature, it is still of the same ord

G. K. Gilbert—The Deflection of Streams. 431

of magnitude, and may reasonably be expected to modify the results of the more powerful agent. In the present state of hydraulic science it is impossible to define the quantitative relation between the tendency of swift threads of current

' relation may be, I conceive that rotation is competent to pro- duce appreciable results wherever those due to curvature are reat.

(2.) A stream engaged in the deposition of detritus, as on a, delta or an alluvial fan, shifts its channel from side to side by a process entirely distinct from the one just described. It builds up its bed until it is higher than the adjacent plain, and then transfers its current bodily to a different course. Rota- tion has its share of influence in determining the direction of this transfer, and it thereby induces the stream to build its alluvial plain higher on the right than on the left; but, the difference of level having been established, the stream has thereafter no more tendency to one side than the other. Deflec- tive effects of rotation are therefore not to be sought in regions of alluvial deposition.

t may be remarked also that the tendency of a stream toward one bank or the other by reason of curvature and rota- tion is often overpowered by an opposite tendency due to obstructions. These include resisting members of the eroded terrane and alluvial dams deposited at one bank or the other by tributaries. :

A general curvature in the course of the valley through which the stream flows has the same tendency, though in a less degree, as does the curvature of a short bend, and this tendency must in many instances nullify or conceal the results of rota- tion.

Lewis in this Journal for February, 1877, and which has re- . Mr. The

al

432 J. Croll—Examination of Wallaces Modification of the

the interior to the Atlantic ocean. It is crossed by a great number of small streams which have excavated shallow valleys in the homogeneous modified drift of the plain. Each of these little valleys is limited on the west or right side by a bluff from ten to twenty feet’ high, while its gentle slope on the left side merges imperceptibly with the general plain. The stream in each case follows closely the bluff at the right. There seems to be no room for reasonable doubt that these peculiar features are, as believed by Mr. Lewis, the result of terrestrial rotation. As the streams carve their valleys deeper, they are induced by rotation to excavate their right banks more than their left, gradually shifting their positions to the right and maintaining stream cliffs on that side only.

Arr. L.—Examination of Mr. Alfred R. Wallace’s Modification of the Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate; by James Crouu, LL.D., F.R.S.

[Continued from page 93.]

Parr IL—Geological and Paleontological Facts in relation to : Mr. Wallace's Modification of the Theory

Mr. Watiace’s chief, and indeed only real modification of my theory, is to the effect, as I have pointed out, that the alternate phases of precession causing the winter of each hemisphere to” be in aphelion and perihelion each 10,500 years would produce a complete change of climate only when a country was partially snow-clad. According to his view, when the greater part of Northwestern Europe was almost wholly buried under snow and ice, those glacial conditions must have continued, and per- haps have even become intensified, when the winter solstice’ moved round to perihelion, instead of being replaced, as I have - Maintained, by an almost perpetual spring. In_ short, Mr.

allace’s conclusion is that, during the Glacial Epoch proper, 4 warm and equable Interglacial Period could not have occurred.

In the preceding part of this paper I have endeavored to show that physical principles do not warrant such a conclusion. — I shall now proceed to consider what the direct testimony 9 Geology and Paleontology is on the subject; and I believe we shall find that the facts of Geology and Paleontology are as muc opposed to the conclusion as are the principles of Physics.

On this point I may quote the evidence of a geologist who, more than any other, has devoted special attention to all point relating to Glacial and Interglacial periods. Prof. J. Geikie, after devoting upwards of 500 pages of his‘ Prehistoric Europe

ca

GRRE AN See err

Physical. Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 438

to the consideration and accumulation of facts from all parts of

this country and the continent relating to Glacial and Inter-

glacial periods, gives the following as the result of bis investiga- on

“We note,” he says, “as we advance from Pliocene times, how the climatic conditions of the colder epochs of the Glacial

they cease to return. The genial climate ofsInterglacial ages probably also attained a maximum toward the middle of the Pleistocene Period, and afterwards became less genial at suc- Cessive stages, the temperate and equable conditions of early Postglacial times being probably the latest manifestation of the Interglacial phase.” (‘Prehistoric Europe,’ p. 561.)

I shall now quote the same author's description of an Inter- glacial Period as demonstrated by its flora and fauna. The reader must, however, observe that by Pleistocene Period, Pro- fessor Geikie means the so-called Glacial Period with its alter- nations of severe arctic climate and mild and genial conditions.

°

434 J. Oroll—Examination of Wallace’s Modification of the

Pleistocene Europe was, for some time at all events, remarkably equable and somewhat humid. The summers may not indeed have been warmer than they are now; the winters, however,

were certainly much more genial.” (‘Prehistoric Europe,’ p. 540.

which have been adduced by Mr. Wallace himself. Ina sec- tion on alternations of warm and cold periods during the Glacial

Irish elk, the horse, reindeer and mammoth. - Here we have evidence of two distinct periods of intense cold, and an inter vening milder period sufficiently prolonged for the county ae

i psn

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 485 become covered with vegetation and stocked with animal ife.”

Let us now see to what all this leads. It has been proved beyond the possibility of a doubt that, at the time the till was being formed which overlies the Scottish interglacial beds, the whole of Scotland, Scandinavia, the bed of the North Sea, and a great part of the north of England was covered with

Baltic, overflowed Denmark and Holstein, and advanced into North Germany as far at least as Berlin. It has also been

) Reap fauna as that of the Selsea bed, where it is mixed up with the remains of some of those pachyderms, as well as of some other features, it has seemed to me that the climate of the earlier part of the Post-glacial Period in England was pos- sibly even warmer than our present climate; and that it was Succeeded by a refrigeration sufficiently severe*to cause ice to form all round our coasts, and glaciers to accumulate in the valleys of the mountain districts.’ That these faune indicate 4 warm and equable condition of climate is further evident from Mr. Wallace’s remarks: “The fact,” he says, “of the hippopotamus having lived at 54° north latitude in Eng- land, quite close to the time of the Glacial Epoch, is absolutely inconsistent with a mere gradual amelioration of climate

436 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

‘close association with glacial conditions must be held to bea

strong corroborative argument in favor of the reality of an ”

tion of the Upper Till of Scotland. , he position of these Hessle beds to which Mr. Wallace:

prior to the last great extension of the iée) in all pe and Ireland. Interglacial beds belonging to the same period have been found in Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, North America, and other places, all indicating a mild and equable ona

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 487

There is another class of facts, almost entirely overlooked, which prove even more conclusively the warm character of interglacial periods. These facts will, however, be more appro- priately discussed when we come to consider the question ot warm polar climates.

It would be impossible within the limits of the present. paper to give even the briefest outline of the recent discover- les in regard to interglacial periods. But though this were edit it would be wholly unnecessary, as the facts which

ave already been adduced by Mr. Wallace himself are per- fectly sufficient for our present purpose.

If now it be true, ‘as it undoubtedly is, that the Hessle bowlder-clay of England belongs to the same age as the pper Till of Scotland, and that the last warm interglacial period, when the Cyrena fluminalis and Unio littoralis, the bippo-

last and penultimate ice-sheets was not so great as to warrant the supposition of any considerable difference in the amount of eccentricity at the two periods when these ice-sheets were respectively developed. In short, if the last great ice-sheet ean be explained without the supposition of a high state of eccentricity, then there does not appear to be any real necessity for any theory of eccentricity in accounting for the Glacial h

dvocate ; _ and equable condition of

*

438 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace’s Modification of the

perihelion, is as much a necessary result as a cold and glacial condition when they occur in aphelion. The facts of Geology thus to me appear so far to be as much cpp to Mr. Wallace’s modifications as are the principles of hysies. ifficulty in detecting the Climatic Character of the earlier Interglacial Periods.—I\t follows according to theory that, other things being equal, the greater the amount of eccentricity the more equable and mild will the interglacial periods be. It is probable therefore that some of the earlier interglactal periods were milder and more equable than the last. It may be difficult in the present state of our knowledge to prove this conclusion

glacial periods have been preserved is a conclusion which we

eo We: ese beyond the limits reached by the ice-sheets of the Glacial Epoch we may expect, of course, to find the

remains of many of the plants and animals which lived during

the probability is that they would be classified as preglacial. “ I fully agree with Prof. J. Geikie, that many. of those plan's

«

Physical Theory of Secular Changes of Climate. 489

periods is only 21,000 years; for the mean rate of motion o the perihelion during the Glacial Epoch was considerably less than has been assumed. It will be seen from the table of the ‘Longitude of the Perihelion, given in ‘Climate and Time,’ p. 320, that it has taken the perihelion 231,000 years to make one complete revolution. -

If, therefore we assume, what of course is not certain, that

~

440 J. Croll—Examination of Wallace's Modification of the

periods can hardly be expected, there have nevertheless been found in old preglacial buried channels and other sheltered — hollows three, four, and in some places five, bowlder-clays, sep- arated from one another by immense beds of sand, gravel and clay. Some of these beds are found to be continuous for long ~ distances. It is true that these intercalated beds have yielded ©

w or no organic remains, but it may well be that further re-

. . . . - . u . aA during interglacial periods mildness and equability of tempera ture rather than heat are the characteristics both of summer and

thickness of 2000 or 3000 feet. All this enormous quan

Physical Theory of Secular Changes in Climate. 441

ice would have to be melted off the ground before the warmth of the interglacial period would commence. So long asa single inch of ice covered the surface of the country, the cold would ‘continue. Ice, as we have seen, by chilling the air induces fresh snow to fall; and of course it is only when the amount of ice annually melted exceeds that being formed from the falling Snow, that a diminution in the thickness of the sheet would begin to take place. .A real melting of the ice, and consequent decrease in.the thickness of the sheet, would probably not com- mence till the astronomical and physical agencies in operation during the glacial period began to act in an opposite direction. In short, it would be the favorable conditions of the interglacial period that would effectually remove the ice; and it would be then, and only then, that the warmth would begin. While, again, at the close of the period, when the first inch of ice made its appearance on the surface of the country, the interglacial condition of climate would come to an end. The time require

present. This, as we have seen, is a conclusion which is fully borne out by geological and paleontological facts.

‘T’be question as to the probable cause of warm polar climates will next be considered.

442 W. B. Scott—Marsupial from the Colorado Miocene. —

Art. LI.—A new Marsupial from the Miocene of Colorado ; by W. B. Scort.

_ Attuover there can be no reason to doubt that Marsupial

animals of the opossum type existed in North America during Miocene times no remains of them, so far as I am aware, have hitherto been found. The Princeton expedition of 1882 ob-

but very obviously distinct from that species.

This species may be called Didelphys pygmca, and is defined as follows. Opossum very small, intermediate in size between D. murina and D. elegans of South America. Lower margit of the jaw nearly straight, and the ramus beneath the molar teeth of nearly uniform depth; coronoid oe very weak,

projecting considerably behind the condyle. Molar teeth con- structed on the ordinary opossum type, antero-internal cusps of penultimate molar very small, and heel of last molar con- sisting of two cusps instead of three, as in D. virginiana.

F.C, A.

Left ramus mandibuli of D. pygmea, seen Svech the inner side; 4 times the natural size,

This little animal was doubtless an insectivorous opossum, some three or four inches long, and finds its nearest living re f

p- resentatives in the small insect-eating opossums 0 South , America

‘opportunity to do this. Such opossums probably abounded in

the sub-tropical Miocene forests of our western territories, 1D ile, This

f re

xs we

5

W. B. Scott—Marsupial from the Colorado Miocene. 443

prise that a far larger number of very small mammals should be found there than in the coarser matrix of the White River ~ district in Dakota.

Morphologically this new species is of very small value, as it throws no important light upon questions of descent. But as a contribution to geographical zoology it is of great interest. It demonstrates the fact that the small insectivorous opossums, now characteristic of South America, existed in Miocene times in North America, and is additional evidence that the latter continent is the source from which the former received the greater part of its animal population, just as the great Pale- arctic continent seems to have been the original source of the modern faunas of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. us, the tapir, the llama tribe, many edentates, the peccaries, and in all probability the monkeys and cats, have been traced to their origin in North America.. The smal! opossum just described gives another characteristic feature of the South American fauna; and I may add that a small lizard from Chalk Bluffs, now in the Princeton Museum and as yet undescribed, points in the same direction.

MEASUREMENTS. Length of molat series. ¢-2-..- 74. -.--25 0-007 s Po eee ee 0-005 sé “ec ev ee eas 0'002 es bs a ie tao kee eee Goan 0°002 " Site ea a ee 00015 Height of €th molar. 220 ue oo gs 0-002 Depth of ramus beneath Ist molar- --- ---- 0°0035 Depth of ramus beneath 4th molar ------- 0°004

For the accompanying sketch, as well as for the exceedingly delicate and difficult work of preparing and mounting this minute specimen, I am indebted to Curator B. C. Hill. )

Princeton, N. J., May 5, 1884. Am, Jour, Sc1.—Tarrp Szrrms, Vou. XXVII, No, 162.—June, 1884, 30

t

444 A. G. Compton—Method of obtaining Autographic

_ Art. LIL—On a method of obtaining autographic records of the free vibrations of a tuning-fork, and on the autographic record- ing of beats; by ALFRED G. COMPTON.

THE exact determination of the rate of vibration of a tuning: fork by means of the siren has heretofore been attended with errors resulting from imperfections of the recording gear, and difficulty of maintaining and counting the beats of the two tones. I have sought to remove these errors by obtaining autographic records of the rate of the siren and of the differ- ence between this rate and that of the fork. The exper menter, while obtaining these records, being freed from the “necessity of even counting the beats, no personal element enters ‘into the observation, and the records ‘being permanent, can be _ studied at leisure. The following is the method of obtaining the autographic records. -

A strip of chemically prepared paper, which rests on 4 metal wheel, beiig drawn by clock-work under three platinum pens placed in electric circuits, three simultaneous electro-chemical records are received ne of these is a line of dots made at the rate of one a second, by a chronometer placed in the cir- cuit of the same battery with one of the pens. The second 1s a row of dots made by the closing of the same circuit by a siren once in each revolution, while singing nearly in unison with the fork. The third is a row of dots made by the closing of the circuit of a second battery, once for each beat of the fork and the siren.

It thus results that from the same strip of paper can be.

counted the number of revolutions made by the siren in any number of seconds (from which the number of impulses pro

same time,—which is the difference between the number. of Shocks imparted to the air by the siren and the number 1m parted by the fork. The record being made without throwing work upon the fork, the rate of vibration of the uncon- strained fork results. The following description will give an idea of the details of the method. A break-cireuit chronometer J and a relay W are included in the circuit of a battery B of one carbon cell. The arma- ture A is therefore freed from the magnet once a second by

oe

the break-cireuit mechanism of the chronometer. When the —

armature is thus freed, a platinum point P closes the circuit of

another battery B’, the current of which then passes thromey ee to

the armature A, the platinum contact point c, the pen ee

metallic wheel R on which the pen point rests, and so back to

i \

Records of the Free Vibrations of a Tuning-fork. 445

the battery. When the circuit of battery B is closed, the re- lay-armature makes contact at CU’. From ©’ a wire passes to the framework of a De la Tour’s siren S. Attached to the frame of the siren is an insulated support carrying a platinum spring K, which bears against an ebonite drum on the axis of the siren, and touches at each revolution a strip of metal em- bedded in the drum, and in electrical communication with the axis. From the spring, a wire passes to the platinum pen G.

3)

a co} see. cE {

4 S ||

OU a cance

[t follows that, when the armature is in contact with C’, which is about +°%; of each second, the current of the battery B’ flows through the post D, the armature A, the contact point O° and the siren S to the pen G, and so to the battery. A clock-work gives motion to a fillet of paper moistened with a solution of lodide of potassium, drawing it between the pens and the

446 A. G. Compton—Method of obtaining Autographic

record is a whole number of seconds in which an exact whole number of revolutions of the siren has been made; otherwise

rangement is used.

The fork N is mounted before the mouth of a Helmholtz resonator O, which is nearly or exactly in unison with It. To the small opening of the resonator se eted a cylindrical drum, of which the farther end is closed by a membrane to w ich 1s

between the point and the disk being so adjusted that the at cuit B” is broken once at every beat, the beats noord: ier selves on the fillet as a row of dashes side by side with the other two records.

Records of the Free Vibrations of a Tuning-fork. AAT

The contact of a rigid platinum point being found to inter- fere too much with the motion of the membrane, the point was attached to one end of a light spring about 115™™ long, the other end of which is soldered to the lever Q. The spring is made by flattening a piece of copper wire. It lies close to the lever and has very little play, but answers its purpose perfectly.

It may be thought that the relay X might be dispensed with, the battery B” being made to record directly through the pen

- By the use of the relay, however, the dash made by the pen H at each beat, can be reduced to any convenient length; and besides, the distinct clicks of the relay at the beats, are much easier to observe than the beats themselves, particu- larly when these are not more frequent than two or three to the second. The variations in the rate of these clicks give clear indications of changes in the rate of the siren, and their cessation shows when the excursions of the membrane are too small to cause a record of the beats.

in front of the roller. Of course the roller and all the contact points must be kept clean. :

Care must be taken that the armature A, while very close to the poles of the magnet, shall not touch them, otherwise the residual magnetism will retard its release. I find it most con- venient to place the plane of the mouth of the resonator nearly parallel to the plane in which the fork vibrates, as the resona- tor is then not in the way of the bow. The best effect of the fork in producing beating vibrations of the membrane occurs, however, when the opening of the fork is not exactly in front

depends on the distance of the siren. The t position is found by sounding the siren and the fork, and moving the

which gave the best results, the center of the siren was 80™" in front of the plane of the mouth of the resonator and 50™ to the right of the center of the mouth, while the center of the fork was 20" in front of the plane of the mouth, and 50™™ to the left of it. :

448 A. G. Compton—Method of obtaining Autographie

been broken several times, not merely by the maximum In- ward vibration of the membrane, but by several preceding and following it. But generally, these dots flow together, and only appearas a dash. In the accompanying specimen records, the dashes have a length equal to that of about three siren-rev- olutions or thirty vibrations.

or membranes, I have used thin sheet rubber, paper, gold- beater’s skin, thick vuleanized rubber (about 2™™), and leather. The best results have been obtained with white kid such as is used in the making of organ bellows. The membrane

by means of a thread wound round asmall wrest-pin.. The exactness of the coincidence between seconds and siren

tion of the break in the siren-circuit at A over the duration of the siren contact at S. If the whole siren contact 1s comncl dent with any portion of the break a, the siren-record will be

*

Records of the Free Vibrations of a Tuning-fork. 449

--(a—b). The possible error therefore in the counting of the number of siren revolutions in the interval between two coin- cidences amounts to 2(a—b), and is0 when a=0. If, however, the chemical record does not begin till a time ¢’ after the con- tact is closed and continues for a time ¢’” after it is broken, then making t=?’ ¢’’, what may be called the “ effective ” or “chem- ical” contact will have the duration 6-:t, and the error may amount to 2(a—b-t). The quantity ¢ may be due to either the delay in the starting or the stopping of the chemical action after the circuit has been made or broken, or to the dragging of the color under the point of the pen when the paper is too wet. The former appears from experiments to be inappreci- able, the latter becomes large arid uncertain if the paper is too wet, but is apparently insignificant when care is taken to have the paper only just wet enough to let the current pass. If a<, the siren-record will never be completely elided, but it may be shortened at either end or cut into two. It may be thus so

set-screw. After adjusting the magnet and the spring of the relay W, so as to give the shortest possible excursion of the armature A, the duration of the siren contact was made equal to that of the excursion by moving the spring to the proper position. In effecting this equalization, the duration of the siren-cotnact was measured by drawing the

paper very rapidly under the pen, while the siren was rotating, and measuring the length of the dashes and the distance between the middle points of two consecutive dashes. The ratio of the first to the second, gives the dura- tion of the contact in terms of the duration of a revolution, which latter is known. The duration of the armature excursion is found oe by stopping the siren, setting it in such position that its circuit 18 closed, drawing a paper rapid!y under the pen, and measuring the ratio of the short gaps in the now nearly continuous record, to the interval between the centers of two gaps, which latter is

450 A. G. Compton—Method of obtaining Autographic

one second. In this way, after several. adjustments, the dura- tion of the armature-excursion and that of the siren were made very nearly equal and each equal to about 0°009 second.

ith this adjustment, the ‘‘ frequency” of the fork as found by counting the number N of revolutions of the siren and the number n of beats in a number N’ of seconds, would be, if the siren was higher than the fork and if the number of holes in

j 1oN—n ‘ nee the siren was 10, —,—-; and this determination would be

exact, if the two coincidences were exact. As the error in the coincidences is + (a—b +1) the possible error in the frequency of the fork would be, neglecting 4, or 5 were nearly equal and N’, as was frequently the case, was as great as ten or twelve seconds, the method would seem to promise a high degree of precision.

e following table shows the results obtained with one of Koenig’s vowel-sound forks (marked OU) :

) so that when a and

Vibration No. of Vibrations Time Vibrations Exp. of siren, beats. of fork. seconds. per second. i Oe 8 1730 25 1705 5 341-0 gAuvmi te 3100 30 3070 9 34171 3 “10 1040 16 024 3 341°33 Pee | 3100 316 3068-4 9 340°93 Meas Sete 8 2770 43 272 8 340°9 & oy 1390 25 1365 4 341°25 igo it 2060 15 2045 6 340°83 $2 MOE 4470 415 28°5 13 340°66 Qoi2% Sy 1040 16°7 1023°3 3 34171 16,9" 8 49 2071 26°6 2044°4 6 340°73 tL. te 00 115 8 sh 341°2 19: 4 %.48 3099 29°6 3069°4 9 341-04 4092°07 Mean, 341°

The temperature during the experiments varied from 68° to 73° F. and the rate of beating from 14 to 6 beats a second. _

Nine selected experiments on October 20, 27 and 30, being experiments in which the coincidences were the most perfect and the records the clearest, gave the following results:

Repos eae sheala: Nae oe Seana

1 3780 29°25 3750°75 340

2 1730 25-6 1704 5 340°88 3 3460 51-6 2408 10 340°84 4 2410 23°5 2386 7 340°93 5 1030 725 1022-75 3 340°92 6 5 1023°5 3 341-17 q 4130 38°45 4091-55 12 340°96 8 2750 22-98 2727-72 8 340°96 9 5540 8 515552 340°97 T=173° Mean. 0°96

Records of the Free Vibrations of a Tuning-fork. 451

~~

The specimen records illustrate the character of the autograph. The record A is that of the experiments 2 and 8 of the second series. The dots in the middle row represent the siren revolu- tion, the heavy dashes on one side of them the beats, and the light dots on the other side the seconds. It will be observed that the first two seconds of the record were useless for want of a coincidence. The first coincidence occurs at the mark. |, a second one similarly marked occurs three seconds later, a third five seconds after the first, a fourth at the end of ten

and

seconds. Kixperiment No. 2 of the table gives the results recorded in the interval between the third and eighth seconds, and experiment No. 8 is the result of the w hole ten seconds. The “ marginal remark” on the original bent is “ coincidences not quite perfec t, but errors similar and equal.” es record B is a ected o “lapse Ci of October 20. will be seen that the ies: second’s dot does not quite coincide with the siren record, though the nearest siren dash is partly effaced. If this were taken as a coincidence, the result would of

1884—14 : 4 = 38415 showing how the accuracy

be much

452 A. @. Compton—Record of Vibrations of a Tuning-fork.

method depends upon the exactness of the coincidence. It might be estimated that'the first fraction of a revolution in this

: , ; 1378—14 record is 0°8 in which case the result would be --—— -=341; but it is preferred to reject the result, particularly as the time, four seconds, is short.

C. 7 : | ea | ae ' aha : . ' i | ' y ' ' i | ' i i i / a } | 1 \ ! i 1 i ! ! 1 ' y | ! ! Be | I i ! u 1 { ! £5. I r i i 1 ’ t { ' I | ! | ' i I ' | 1 | ' t | : \ ' 1 ' 4 ! : 1 : | ; rl \ i ' t ! y i ‘ ' ' ' i ' * ' i) ' : ‘ ' { I ' t | | , ' y i ' ' ' 1 ', ! ! ' | 1 ' { pe ' ‘ ' ‘ : i 1 f ! ; ' : ' rey i 1 i : i | i J ' 1! 1 { ' | a i ! ' ' et ! 1 : | ' 1 i 1 ! ' ; ' { 1 ’ i f y ! i : ' ! | i i \ ! ' ; ‘ | _ ' 1 | | a, ; ate y : = | oo , i ' ; | \ t ' i i 1 t ' ‘ } 1 ‘ i i { i ‘ { 4 ! 4 i 4 ‘ et eee | y ‘ '

_The records A and B having been rendered somewhat indis- tinct in the photographic reduction, the record C is added, and _ 1s reproduced without reduction or reversal. It shows the —

Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin. 453 exact coincidences at the first, fourth, sixth, seventh and ninth seconds, and the imperfect coincidences at the second, third ”

and fifth. The rate of the fork as determined from it is 3 50—22° The above results are submitted as the first obtained by the proposed method. I believe that, with certain improvements in some of the mechanical details, a considerably higher degree of accuracy may be attained, and the method be made as exact as the optical methods, with the additional advantage of per- maneuce.

Art. LITI.—Notes ov the Voleanie Rocks of the Great Basin ; by ARNOLD HaGueE and JosepH P. Ippines, of the U. S. Geological Survey.

published reports and maps of the exploration. In volume vi of these publications Professor Zirkel* presented the results: of his investigation and: determination of the crystalline rocks ased upon an examination under the microscope of many hundred thin sections. : : One result of this work has been to give a great impetus to — _ the study of microscopic petrography both in this country and -in England. Since the publication of Zirkel’s work micro- scopic petrography has made rapid strides, new methods have been introduced and many errors pointed out. Perhaps the * Microscopical Petrography, Washington, 1876.

\

454 Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin.

_most important advance made lies in the direction of more

accurate methods for determining the species of feldspars. Tnvestigations in recent years have shown that many feld-

be more species of triclinic forms. This is noticeably the case with the rocks of Hungary and the volcanic islands of the Mediterranean, like Santorin. In consequence many - lavas formerly determined as trachytes are now more properly refer- red to andesites. Again, since Zirkel’s work a large number of new thin sections have been prepared from the rocks not heretofore examined in the collection of the Fortieth Parallel

oe

Hague and Tddings—Rocks of the Great Basin. 455

our observation, that- there are none which can be classed as trachytes,—using the term, of course, in the strict sense in which it is now employed by most petrographers and probably by all-who make use of the microscope in the determination of crystalline rocks. A trachyte is that variety of voleanic rock in which the predominating feldspar is orthoclase, but which is so low in silica as to be free from secretions of quartz if fully crystallized. This definition agrees with that of both Zirkel* and Rosenbusch,+ “a Tertiary or Post-Tertiary quartzless ortho- clase rock.”

strongly had this idea intrenched itself in the mind, that those feldspars whose thin sections showed twinned lamella only at one end were thought possibly to be orthoclase containing lamelle: of a triclinic feldspar, as suggested by Zirkel.t

he application of optical tests to the feldspars of these so- called trachytes and questionable rocks of the Great Basin leaves no doubt as to their true nature. Simple Carlsbad twins when cut so as to give symmetrical extinction angles or good cleavage, prove to be quite basic plagioclase ; indeed a scarcity

characteristic of the smaller sized porphyritic feldspars, the striations of the larger ones being usually so well developed as to be noticed in the hand specimen upon careful search with a pocket lens. ee

Chemistry fully confirms these optical determinations. This” is well shown in the analytical work of the late Dr. George W. Hawes upon the “trachyte” of Mt. Rose, Washoe, Nevada, the results of which are published in detail in Mr. Becker's § recent report, —

Similiar results bave been obtained by us from the “tra- chyte” of the Wahsatch Range, from characteristic rock of Eureka, Nevada, and from the voleanoes of the Pacific Coast. |

In these cases the feldspars were isolated by the Thoulet F, Zirkel, Mikroskopische Beschaffenheit, 1873, p. 290. F. Zirkel, Explora- the Fortieth Parallel, vol. vi, 1876. p. 6. a si Rosenbusch, rage sip 8G ee Array main 1877, vol. ii, p. 179.

Lode, p. 67. ks ; : ue | Notes on the Voleanoes of California, Oregon and Washington Territory, this Jour., Sept., 1883.

-

456 Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin.

solution of the double iodide of mercury and potassium and were found upon analysis to be andesine or oligoclase. Again,

. .

in examining the feldspars in these so-called trachytes applica-

~ tion was made of Dr. Szabd’s method of determining feldspar

they possess many of the superficial aspects which formerly”

pylite and trachyte in the Great Basin we classify all the

_ volcanic rocks of the region under the following types, arrang-

ing them for the purposes of the present paper according to their basicity rather than according to their geological relations: asalt, pyroxene-andesite, hornblende andesite, hornblende- miea-andesite, dacite and rhyolite. Within the limits of the present article it is only designed to point out some of the more important mineralogical and structural features, leaving all questions of their mode of occurrence, order of succession and chemical relations till the final report. _ Basalt.—These rocks may be divided into two general types: (a) the porphyritic, consisting of a glassy and microlitic or

‘microcrystalline groundmass, bearing relatively large crystals

of olivine, feldspar, and occasionally augite, a structure show- ing close relations to that of many andesites; (6) the granular (granular in the sense used by Rosenbusch,*) an aggregate 0 quite uniform grains composed of well-developed plagioclase and olivine crystals with ill-defined patches of augite and mag- netite, and frequently with considerable glass base.

The porphyritic variety is the type most frequently observed in the collection of the Fortieth Parallel Exploration and 18 probably by far the most abundant in the Great Basin. It 18 well described by Zirkel in his report. It is not, however;

_ always holocrystalline, often dst ying aeatderabls glass base.

* Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, etc., 1882, Band 2.

‘ at

Hague and lddings—Rocks of the Great Basin. . 457

In this variety of basalt there is great variation not only in the

relation of groundmass to porphyritic crystals but also in the

size of individual erystals. No sanidins could be detected. In

some basalts the larger secretions are confined to olivine, in

others to small feldspars, with olivine in minute grains, while

augite only occurs occasionally among the larger crystals, and

only in exceptional cases are all three minerals found associated | together as porphyritic secretions.

Other varieties show less and _ less olivine, and with the gradual increase of silica and the coming in of more and more hypersthene, rocks occur intermediate between normal basalts and those with the typical andesitic composition and structure. The granular variety of basalt occurs far less fre-

of the rock which forms the top of the lava plain at Shoshone Falls, and there is reason to believe is well developed on the great table-land of the Snake Plains.

roxene-andesite.—For the purposes of the present paper this provisional designation may be used to include both hypers- thene-andesite and hypersthene-augite-andesite, two varieties of andesitic rocks not always easily distinguished. | Whether there are any extrusions in the Great Basin which should be classed as augite-andesite is a matter of some doubt, and presents & question which can only be answered by the investigation of similar rocks in various quarters of the globe, and by litholo- pee coming to some conelusion as to where the line should be

microscopical erystals of plagioclase, ene and augite. ine.

not till Mr. Whitman Cross* published his description of the rock from Buffalo Peaks, Colorado, was the —. hypersthene-

* Bulletin of the U. 8. Geological Survey, No. 1, 1883. ee + Niedzwiedzki described a hypersthene-andesite from St. Egidi in Sonth- Steiermark in 1872. Tschermak’s Mineralogische Mittheilungen, 1872, iv, p. 253, _ } This Journal, Sept., 1883. ‘ ee

458 Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin.

the line of Pacific Coast voleanoes, but that all the pyroxene- andesites examined by them from along this belt' may be referred to. hypersthene-andesite. ;

ver the wide-area of the Great Basin hypersthene is found in nearly all varieties of voleanic rocks. Its microscopic char- acters are very constant and quite similar to those given for this mineral in the andesites of the volcanoes of California, Oregon and Washington Territory. It is of a light brown color in thin sections and with few exceptions strongly pleo chroic, being green parallel to the ¢ axis and_yellowish- brown at right angles to it. The strong pleochroism, generally gray or yellow color between crossed nicols and the constant parallelism of its extinction with the direction of the ¢ axis dis- tinguish it from the accompanying augite. The hypersthene varies somewhat in the strength of its pleochroism, which, as - shown by analysis, probably corresponds to a variation in its chemical composition. Its determination rests upon a micro- scopic study of the thin sections, together with optical invest ations upon isolated crystals showing their orthorhombic

all the hornblende anda little pyroxene, and the other made of a mixture of hypersthene and augite. By repeated

the purest hypersthene patents indicated that considerably less |to augite. An analysis by Mr. S. L. Penfield, of the Sheffield Scientific School, is given in column L.

given a calculated theoretical composition of the hypersthene and augite based upon Mr. Penfield’s analysis of the mixture —

of the two minerals. » - This Journal, Sept., 1883.

Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin. 459°

t It i Mixture. Hypersthene. Augite.

SiO, 51°16 1°39 02 1,0, 3°50 3°26 5°64 EV), “73 73 73 FeO 15°46 16°45 6°45 MnO "56 56 56 MgO 19°22 19°75 14°37 JaO 8°84 7°31 22°60 Ignition “42 “42 “42 99°89 99°87 99°79

_ Wherever the two minerals occur together, the hypersthene 's seen to be of earlier crystallization than the augite, and, at the same time it undergoes decomposition much more readily,

except typical olivine basalts and the most acidic rhyolites. It forms an essential ingredient in many of the hornblende-ande- sites, occurs sparingly in daciteand has been detected in some varieties of rhyolite, presenting almost as wide a range as augite.

ily rsthene occurs as an essential ingredient in the rocks from Wishes described as augite-andesite by Mr. George F. Becker in his recent work on the Comstock Lode. nat

Indeed it may be said that there is no pyroxene-andesite in the collection from this district in which hypersthene does not equal and in most cases surpass the augite in amount. It pre-

* Geology of the Comstock Lode, p. 128. Am. Jour. Scr.—Tuirp Srerims, Vou. XXVII, No. 162.—Junr, 1884. 31 .

1

460 Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin.

oughly characteristic cleavages, extinctions, etc. Others are partially converted to chlorite, and yet others are wholly replaced the uniaxial dichroitic green mineral.” In the light of the present investigation it is now perfectly evident that the decomposed mineral is mainly referable to hypersthene. _ The relationship already pointed out by us as existing between olivine and hypersthene in the rocks of the Pacific Coast volcanoes* holds equally good for the Great Basin, the olivine increasing and replacing the hypersthene as the rock becomes more and more basic

Hornblende-andesite-—This rock forms a well characterized

andesite, showing transitions into pyroxene-andesite, while, on .the other hand, mica gradually comes in as the rock becomes more and more acidic. Hornblende-mica-andesite—Under this head may be classed a large number of andesitic extrusions scattered throughou the Great Basin from the Sierras to the Wahsatch in which rs as a characteristic and essential ingredient. Indeed a large proportion of the rocks formerly regarded as trachytes properly fall under this division. In these rocks the feldspars have a decidedly vitreous appearance, while the texture of groundmass possesses a rough porous character presenting what is known as the “trachytic habit,” but, as already shown, the entire absence of orthoclase among the porphyritic crystals prevents their being considered in any other light than as andesites. While, as already stated, sanidin is regarded by most lithologists as the prevailing feldspar found in trachytes, it should be remembered that von Richt- hofen recognized an “ oligoclase-trachyte” in which sanidin was not even an essential ingredient; this rock agreeing with the hornblende-mica-andesites of the Great Basin.t Dacite.—Following the development of the mica, quartz

secretions begin to appear as the rock passes more and more —

into acidic varieties, and with the appearance of quartz, horn- blende and pyroxene rapidly diminish. This gives a well- efined rock composed mainly of plagioclase, quartz and mica, * This Journal, Sept., 1883. + Natural System of Voleanic Rocks, San Francisco, 1867, p. 36.

“

ba a

Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin. 461

feldspar. The rhyolites have been so well discussed and iste 4 i in the reports of the Fortieth Parallel Exploration and their microscopical characters described in such great detail by Zirkel that very little need be said within the limits of this paper except to give their subdivision and to point out some of their relations to other rocks.

All the rhyolites of the Great Basin may be classified under one or the other of the following heads :

Nevadite,

Nevadite-—This rock is characterized by an abundance of porphyritic crystals imbedded in a relatively small amount of groundmass. It bears a strong superficial resemblance to granite, produced, as von Richthofen says, “ by the similarity of color, which is of light shades of gray and red, and by some affinity in mineral composition.” This resemblance, however, does not hold in a strict lithological’ sense, as the nevadites

462 «Hague and Iddings—Rocks of the Great Basin.

same ingredients. partite, —This rock in distinction from nevadite 1s char- acterized by a small number of porphyritic crystals imbedded

basalt and hypersthene-andesite, between hornblende- and -pyroxene-andesite, or any two closely allied species. Indeed, where the conditions for the developement of sanidin seem favorable it usually comes in strong force; the change from plagioclase to orthoclase being in many cases quite marked. — * Microscopical Petrography, p. 8. + Ibid, p. 8. { H. Rosenbusch, Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1882, vol. ii. f § It seemed necessary to enter somewhat fully into an explanation as to the position of nevadite, partly because its exact relations to other volcanic lavas has,

in our opinion, been misunderstood, and partly because in the paper on the “ Vol-

’ to bé classed wi reat Basin which form such characteristic extrusions in the state of Nevada,

: | L. ©. Wooster—The Copper-hearing Series, 463

Again the distinction between dacite and rhyolite is somewhat sharply drawn by a large development of biotite in the dacites, whereas as soon as the sanidin makes its appearance as the predominant feldspar mica loses its prominence, and in most rhyolites of the Basin, although there exist a few marked exceptions, mica plays a very subordinate part.

t might seem natural to suppose that where the basic rocks are largely characterized by anorthite and labradorite, the inter- mediate rocks by andesine and oligoclase, and the acidic varieties by orthoclase, that the trachytes would be represented by at least some minor extrusions. Investigation, however, shows that the typical trachyte known to occur in other parts of the world has never been brought in from this region. Over this Wide area with its great variety of volcanic rocks sanidin only makes its appearance after quartz has come in as an essential constituent among the porphyritic crystals. It may be laid.

P “andesites and trachytes” or “ trachytes and rhyolites.” It Seems to us that in future such expressions should be more carefully considered, it having been shown that at least in the Great Basin such an association of lavas is unknown.

Our work leads us to believe that trachytes occupy a far more restricted position among volcanic rocks than has hereto- fore generally been supposed. The independence of rhyolite and trachyte from a geological point of view seems quite clear, for in regions of widespread volcanic activity it is far more frequently associated with andesitic than with trachytie eruptions,

Art. LIV.—Transition from the Copper-bearing Series to the Potsdam ; by, L. C. WoosrEr.

During the summer of 1883, some facts throwing light upon the relationship existing between these formations along the St. Croix River, Wisconsin, fell under my observation, and, though not new in kind;* they may be of interest to those who: are endeavoring to find in the East a correlative of the Wis- consin Potsdam. .

In northwestern Wisconsin the Potsdam sandstone has a total thickness, from the Laurentian granite below to the Lower Mag- nesian limestone above, of about one thousand feet. There are two horizons in which fossiliferous remains are especially

* See vols. i, and iii, Wisconsin Geological Reports.

464 L. 0. Wooster—The Copper-bearing Series.

abundant, viz: (1) the middle of the formation, and (2) the middle of the upper third.

t Osceola Mills, about four miles from the southernmost outcrop of the Copper-bearing or Keweenawan Series, the second of these two horizons is found at an elevation of about

casts of Holopea Sweeti anda Bellerophon in great abundance.

nawan series at the northward. The sandstone here became variable in color and hardness, being on the whole darker and in certain places exceedingly compact, or as Capt. Knapp

expressed it, baked. But no fusion or evidence of heat from

lying outcrops of Copper-bearing rock. Under the guidance of Capt. Knapp, the locality was visited late one afternoon, and the “most curious deposit” was found to consist of “ trap’ conglomerate. The conglomerate composed a ridge which stretched to the westward from the river bank to the bordering ledge of sandstone one-fourth of a mile back. The river end of the ridge is about fifty feet in height and one hundred feet in breadth at its base. mit e component bowlders, bowlderets and oes of the conglomerate varied in size from those at the

7

with an unchanged center of “trap.” The matrix of this con- ose consisted of the same material as the imbedded bow!l-

FE. Nipher—Eaxpression of Electrical Resistance. 485

heat was discovered, all the alterations being evidently the work of infiltrating waters continued through countless ages. onclusions: 1. The material of this conglomerate, all bein

more or less rounded, and the shells, being without exception fragmental, must have been subjected to violent wave action along clitts of Copper-bearing rock at this exposed point of the ancient (not to say Archxan) island. 2. There was some evidence to show that this fifty feet in depth of conglomerate not only graduates into sandstone above, but also on each side. Hence the ridge may mark the mouth of a primordial mountain torrent. 3. The age of the deposit seen must be late Potsdam since it graduates into sandstone of that

4. This conglomerate is not exceptional, since the Potsdam is conglomeritic along its shore margin in Wisconsin, and on the St. Lawrence River in New York (as seen by the writer). This conglomerate is well shown in the vicinity of Laurentian granite at Chippewa-Falls and Eau Claire, Wisconsin, and near Oak

Croix above Osceola. 5. The Keweenawan series is older than, unconformable with, and has supplied much of the material for, the Potsdam sandstone. These conglomerates bordering the Laurentian, Huronian and Keweenawan areas must have supplied a large part of the bowlders of the drift deposits of the Northern States. |

Arr. LV.—On the Expression of Electrical Resistance in Terms of a Velocity; by Francis E. N1pHER.*

* From Trans. Acad. Science of St. Louis. Read March 17th, 1884.

466 F. E, Nipher—Kapression of Electrical. Resistance.

in energy being due to work done on the sphere by some external source, causing the sphere to collapse. If the element ds sweeps through a distance dr, the stored energy will be

’ dE=dF dr (1)

in which both dF and dr are essentially negative. Substituting in (1) the above value of dF’ and remembering

a that are and ds = r°dw,

where dw is the solid angle subtended by the element ds, we have dE = @ i d@, 87 Tr or E'~ka@ [fF de, 8x r

where one integration is carried over the surface of the sphere, and the other is carried inward between the limits r and”. Performing the integrations, we have

ni-E=€(—-+) (2)

r r Lg But 5 s is the energy of a sphere of radius 7’, charged with

@ units of electricity, and hence the potential of the sphere on itself between the limits 7 and 7’ is equal to the difference in 1ts initial and final energy. ;

If the sphere were connected with the ground by a wire of resistance (/2), the radius (r) might be changed in such a man- ner as to preserve the potential (V) constant. In this case 4 current of constant intensity would flow through the wire, and as V= 2 it is clear that + must change at a uniform rate, or

as , Pe ee (3) v

where ¢’—t is the duration of the operation. Further,

4 2 Fae Ss ee eodern Tt r

hence dE=dF dr=20 p ds dra dr dw,

FE. Nipher—Expression of Electrical Resistance. 467 epcuwe ae . HOF =e J fir dao =>(r-1/) (4)

This is the stored energy during the operation. But the en- ergy of the electrification at first was 4rV’, and at the end is $7’ V’, so that there has nevertheless been a diminution of energy

of EE = (r—r’) (5)

t appears that, under conditions of our experiment, the sphere has less energy at the close of the experiment than at the beginning by a quantity (r—7’), while the equal energy

represented by the potential of the electrification on itself was added. The total energy lost by the shell was, therefore,

EH= V"(r—r’) (6) The current in the wire was, by Ohm’s law, Ov fF. cde oe hence Q—-QV= re-%), and hence the energy of the current during the operation was vos =>, (¢ —t), Ver—r' et 7 or by (3), = fie (7)

The expressions (6) and (7) must be equal to each other, and 1 hence Be eA Or. mes

where v is the constant velocity of each point in the surface of the shell during the operation. This problem 1s well known, and a solution of it is given in Mascart and Joubert’s treatise. The above solution is new to the writer, and embraces some features of interest.

466. J. M. Schaeherle—Lateral Astronomical Refraction.

Arr. LVI.—Laieral Astronomical Refraction; by J. M. SCHAEBERLE. ~

IN astronomical investigations where an extreme limit of

can, in general, be eliminated.

In the theory of astronomical refraction as given by Laplace, Bessel and others, each investigator assumes that the refraction always takes place in a vertical plane, and all refraction tables in use at the present time are constructed on this hypothesis, which therefore, assumes that all layers of atmosphere of the same density, over any given locality, are parallel to the horizon. That such an assumption is frequently the cause of errors, by no means insensible, which can, at most observatories, be removed by computation, will now be shown.

Let us suppose that two observers at points A and B, on the same level and separated by the short distance D, observe at the same instant, equal temperatures, the barometric pressures how- ever being p, ow in order that the pressures over the two stations shall be the same, the observer at B must ascend through the distance 4h corresponding to a decrease in the pres- sure p, equal to p,—p, A line drawn from A to the elevated

: Py edagocag! station will then be the line of equal pressure, and the inclina-

tion of this line to the horizon will equal tan-*s) which, since

: : 4h this angle will always be small, can be placed equal to D:

As the differences between the refractions computed for inclined and for horizontal strata will always be very small, an error in the assumed law of refraction will have little or D0 effect on these differences; terms of the second order becoming sensible only at great zenith distances. The familiar expresso? ' r=a tan z

giving nearly the observed mean refractions, and nearly corre- sponding to the refractions that would be produced by a homo- geneous atmosphere 5°12 miles high, having an index of refrac- tion m=1-00028, can for the present purpose be assumed to ‘represent the observed mean refractions.

J. M. Schacherle—Lateral Astronomical Refraction. 467

Ah Pere aor Let D be the inclination of the plane of equal density to the

horizon, and let ¢ be the angle which a vertical plane, perpen- dicular to the line of intersection of the inclined and horizontal planes, makes with the meridian, reckoned from the south .point toward the west through 860°; the angle ¢ always being in that quadrant in which the préssure is greatest.

_ Now a ray of light from a star lyingin the plane whose azimuth is ¢, and making with the normal to the horizontal plane the

angle ¢, will make the angle C+ with a normal to the in-

clined plane. For a homogeneous atmosphere the refractions for the first and second cases would then be given by the equations

2%

‘ m ails: S10 2-2 and. sis sin

C : Ah sin (: + 3) ra=t—z di 8 Esa D.. ; Ah : or goca@. tan:2 ? =a tan ( a Fy very nearly.

The error in the computed refraction due to the inclination of the strata will therefore be

play r=a (tan 2— an satel

which, if we neglect terms of the second order, can be written . Ah Ar=a —- sec*z. D

_ The ref sacdhion 4r will moreover be wholly in zenith distance, and all rays, lying in the vertical plane whose azimuth is %, will be refracted in a vertical plane. If ¥’ denotes the angle which any other vertical plane makes with the meridian, all rays of light in this plane will, after refraction, lie in a plane which is inclined to the horizon by the angle 90° —a = sin (W— ¥”) The vertical and lateral components of refraction due to the Inclination will then be respectively j ah . A ad a sec? 2 COS (W'-W") and ay os z2sin (V-¥"). The second expression giving, for the zenith distance z, the angular distance of a star from the vertical circle in which it

ye

468 J. M. Schaeberle—Lateral Astronomical Refraction.

actually lies, while the first expression gives the displacement in zenith distance,

As the corrections resulting from the introduction of the term = would only be applied to observations made with the best instruments, we need but deduce the formule, and tables for the corrections to meridian observations. In other words the corrections to the observed times of meridian transit, and to the reduced zenith distances. Let da and dz denote these corrections, then we evidently have, since 2’’=0

@ oh were TI D cos z sin Y sec 0

dea sec? z cos W,

practically the same amount, and as we have only to deal with the differences in the refractions at the two stations, the results obtained will not, in general, be sensibly in error. The last equation, if we neglect small quantities, can be put into the following form :

rr =a(e (T,—T,) +Pe—Ps) tan zZ.

0

his value of a is 57’

See Chauvenet’s Spherical and Practical Astronomy, vol. i, p. 160.

J. M. Schaeberle—Lateral Astronomical Refraction. 469

Now the term r,—r, being due to the difference in the density of the atmosphere at the two stations, the layers of the same density will not be parallel to the horizon. The equivalent inclination of the layers of equal pressure, for a uniform tem-

perature, will depend upon the term eet adh, while the 0

sure, will depend upon the term ¢(c,—7,)=Jh’. ese layers

and meridian planes will then be respectively, Al ' , > sin ¥, cil sin’, and a cos ¥, coe P. Hence the complete expressions for 4a and dz will become a fOr; An’ . ° ! 4a= a (5 sin Y +57 sin (180° + ¥ )) cos z sec 0

Ama cos YW + ls cos (180° + v')) sec? z,

.If D and D’ are expressed in miles, 4h and 4h’ must also be |

expressed in the same unit. As the adjacent lines on maps differ by 0°10 inch for the isobars, and by 10° F. for the isotherms, we have* O10. ,_. 9°59 dh= = 512 Ah! = — Now let 6 denote the inclination of the axis of rotation of a meridian instrument, then if for 6 we substitute

ra > sin WY oat sin (180° + vy)

5°12.

D by and use this value in the reduction of the observations, the corrections to the times of transit, for meridian refraction In right ascension, will be wholly allowed for. * If still greater accuracy is desired, the mean of the two given pressures should be used in place of 29°6.

470 J. M. Schaeberle

Lateral Astronomical Refraction. ,

In order to show the facility with which these corrections are applied, as well as to give a general idea of the magnitude of the corrections, the following tables are given:

I. IT, Dv’ Ah’ Ah D ¥ | sin. miles. ay 1 7 AP miles: a et O00 t) Gace 10 | 0"59 | O10 | 10 Me jones kg 20 30 | 0-05 20 et hace 30) 2 “0! 30 ne ars a 40 18 03 40 3 ie 50 42 | 02 | 50 AT 60 87 | 30 60 10 “02 60 10. |. 94} 20 70 08 ‘01 70 so | 98 |. 10 80 07 01 | 80 90 | 100) 0 90 07 01 90 ie 100 0-06 O01 100 eos 4... ¥

ILL— Corrections to the reduced zenith distances.

¥=0 a D’ sec? z, a —— D’ u 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80 10 | 059 |0"-61 |0"67 |0"-79 | 1"-00 |1%42 | 2"35 | 47-99 | 18°87 20 os . 3 39 50 hike 2:50 | 943 30 20 22 26 33 47 “78 | 1°66 6:29 40 WO) 46) tt 590 | as | 86.) 89, [198 | a 50 1) Rs AR te 00 98) et oo fot 60 10 10 ‘ji 13 ‘1% 24 39 83 14 a6 08 | ‘09 | *10 t¥ 7 9a 90 34 2°69 80 07 “08 08 10 13 18 29 62 2°38 90 07 07 “07 09 1 ‘] 26 56 2°10 : 100 06 06 07 08 10 14 3 50 89 | ‘ eo 0 a&— sec? z. ; s D

2 20 05 6 ‘08 “12 1°60 30 03 03 04 "06 08 13 98, 107 02 03 03 04 06 10 1

01 01 02 02 021 -03 06 12 46 Oi ft 01 O1:|" 02 02 03 ‘ll 40 Ot tO) “OL D1 02 03 37 01 | “01 OT? Vi a 02 | “04 08 32

= J -

J. M. Schaeberle—Lateral Astronomical Refraction. 471

To obtain the correction to be applied to the level constant bd

b, of the instrument, we have but to multiply the values a@ D'

Sh and @ > taken from table I, with the arguments D’ and D, by

the sines of the angles. 180°+ ¥ and ¥ respectively, and take the algebraic sum of the products. Similarly the quantities in table IIT are to be multiplied by the cosines of the angles 180°+ ¥ and ¥ respectively. For stars north of the zenith dz must have the opposite sign from that given by the equation.

An inspection of the weather maps of the Signal Service, as published by the War Department, will show that the distance

etween two adjacent isobars or isotherms is frequently less than thirty miles, and at times not more than one-half of this distance. “As the times of observations will not in general correspond with the times for which the maps are constructed, the values of D,¥ and D’,¥%’, can when necessary, be interpo- lated for the middie tirne of the observations and assumed to remain constant for the series. A glance at the map will at once indicate whether the corrections will be sensible or not. At an isolated station, if the hourly thermometric and barometric changes are noted, the observer can still deduce the corrections, provided he has any means for finding the veloctiy and direc- tion of motion of the thermometric and barometric waves.

The most reliable data would of course be obtained from — simultaneous observations made (while the astronomical work 1S going on), at three or more nearly equidistant stations on the same level and lying within a radius of fifty miles. One of these stations would be at the observatory itself.

Where the aim of an observatory is to determine absolute positions, an arrangement of this kind, if not indispensable, is at least most desirable.

Ann Arbor, Mich., March 18, 1884.

_ Posrscrrer.—The formule for finding the magnitude and diree- tion of inclination of the strata from observatio

Le anal eee he—hy ee | eae and D,

=to,

(A, —h,=4h, etc. being found according to the method already

given). If 55 =# denotes the inclination of the strata to the

e horizon, we have, with all desirable accuracy, the equations

¢ cos (A,— V)=7, t cos (A,— Y)=%,.

-

472 R. C. Hills— Kaolinite from Colorado.

A,+A As A, and A, are constants, let us put Ee Sa A, and Ds A _ al; the at ions then become a oe the above equations then become P tg +7 i cos (A, — P)=5 ae a’ Sout A eke ti x ean ae é

from which ¢ and VY are easily found. The most favorable values of A, and A,, give A,— A,=+ 90°. The angle ¥’ should (in order to use the formule already given for Ja and Jz) be taken in the quadrant of greatest temperature; then in order that ¢ may always be considered positive we substitute, as before, the value 180° + W’ in the equations for Ja and 4z. The argument D can be found by means of table I from the expression ai=a >.

D Ann Arbor, April 12, 1884.

Arr. LVII.—Kaolinite, from Red Mountain, Colorado; by | CHARD C. HILLS.

AT a recent meeting of the Colorado Scientific Society, Mr.

~Whitman Cross called attention to an interesting variety of

kaolinite found by the writer in the National Belle mine at Red Mountain, Ouray County, Colorado.

e€ appearance of the mineral in question is that of a mass of small glistening white scales visible to the naked eye. UN der the microscope these scales are resolved into remarkably perfect transparent crystals, all of which differ from those hith- erto described under the head of kaolinite in the development of well-defined pyramidal planes, to the exclusion, in most In- stances, of those m the prismatic zone. The general form !s shown in the annexed diagram, which is a camera lucida draw- ing of three of the observed crystals.

The mineral occurs in considerable quantities, associated with galena and its oxidation products, in the huge vuggs, or cham-

bers lined with ore, found irregularly distributed through an se mass of quartz, the latter being enclosed in a highly

im kaolinized rock of eruptive origin.

4

G. F. Becker—Injfluence of Convection on Glaciation. 473

Art. LVITI.—The influence of Convection on Glaciation; by Gro. F. Brecker.

increase the accumulation of ice a it? In this form the question is one of great complexity, for it involves a knowledge h

Sr understand Captain Dutton, he would reply to this latter question that the accumulation in each period would be the same, the whole excess of moisture of the warmer period falling as rain below the snow-line, His statement might have been made somewhat more broadly, for the same argument shows that upon his suppositions the precipitation above any isotherm is independent of the temperature at sea-level. If, for example, the characteristic temperature at sea-level in the cooler period were 10° and in the warmer period 20°, then the entire excess of moisture evaporated during the warmer period would

*This Journal, vol. xxvii, p. 1. + This Journal, vol. xxvii, p. 167,

Am. Jour. Scr.—Thirp Series, Vou. XXVIL. No. 162.—June, 1884,

32 :

474 G. F. Becker—Influence of Convection on Glaciation.

be precipitated below the isothermal line or surface characterized uring the same period by a temperature of 10°. His suppost- ‘tions are two: that the atmosphere is saturated (unless special exception is made, which is not the case in his concluding remarks), and, as the results of a calculation that the difference in the velocity of the wind in the two periods is insignificant. Granting for the sake of argument the insignificance of the dif- ference in the velocity of the wind,* it is certain that, if the supposed complete saturation of the atmosphere would produce no essential alteration in the problem, Captain Dutton’s result is immediate and inevitable; but as complete saturation repre- sents an extreme case, it seems desirable to examine its bearing on the results. : No one of course would think of denying that the mean saturation of the whole atmosphere is never complete nor even

the earth the rise of air bodies, and sometimes other causes,

tend to chill the air below its dew-point, while at the same time

* It appears to me improbable that the additional energy which a warmercli- mate am impart to the air currents would be disteibuted:simaply among existing

G. EF. Becker—Influence of Convection on Glaciation. 475

If a comparison is made between a warmer and cooler period, the conditions otherwise being equal, it will not be denied by any one that the lower strata of the warmer atmosphere contain a greater absolute amount of moisture than the lower strata of

must be a minute evaporation during their passage. It seems, however, hardly possible to maintain that this addition to the

* Tt is of course supposed here that the sea-level temperature remains constant.

476 E. N.S. Ringueberg—Dinicthys from New York.

which would tend to increase precipitation at this line inde- saebnaeag of the relative humidity; so that if the relation

etween relative humidity and precipitation is not simple an direct, it is probable that precipitation at the glacial isotherm increases more rapidly rather than less rapidly than the relative humidity.

I must conclude therefore, as I did before, that ‘‘ the rate of decrease of temperature and the mean saturation will probably be greater in the warmer period . . . near the glacial isotherm, and indeed on the same grounds, for I prepared a passage for my former paper presenting in a more condensed form precisely the arguments here offered, but omitted it as being manifest without special mention. ;

e argument here presented does not include all the impor- tant factors involved in the relations of temperature to glacia- tion, some of the others being sketched in my previous paper.

at here offered, however, may serve to show the essential part which convection plays in the distribution of precipitation.

San Francisco, Office U. 8S. Geological Survey, Feb., 1884.

Art. LIX.—A New Dinicthys from the Portage Group of Western : New York; by Euarene N. §. RINGUEBERG.

TAKING advantage of one of the pleasant days of January to make a short trip, down among the black carbonaceous shales of the Portage Group, to a fine exposure extending along the lake shore at Sturgeon Point, a projection of land about twenty miles below Buffalo, principally for the purpose - of obtaining some of the Calamites found there, I was so tor- tunate as to obtain, besides a quantity of undetermined fish scales, the fossil here described

mmense placoderms of the genus Dinicthys have been known for quite a number of years past from the Huron shales of Ohio; but none till now have been recognized from Its equivalent in this State. |

The specimen found consists of a dorsal shield belonging to a Dinicthys which exhibits such distinctive specific variations from the two Ohio species, D. Hertzeri and D. Terrelli Newb. both in size (which is only one-fifth of that of the largest of this species), and in form, as to require a specific description.

_ Dinicthys minor (n. sp.) Dorso-median shield. Surface having a fine grained rugose

appearance. Plate gently arched anteriorly and gradually : 5 toward the flattened posterior eatald which is but

E. N.S. Ringueberg—Dinicthys from New York, 477

I.

eS eR at pe a one z bi dp: Stas ag rn nes

igh a sn cate Bunty \ ay " ws posal aH ms vi ny i oe

Sa

' Dinicthys minor. Sickdedeiuattah shield, dorsal waibii one-half natural size.

2.

weortr heres

N _ Diagram of anterior inferior — atural size, showing all that is exposed to view of the | inferior median er ce as, Ba aeiean being Seen & *: Slab of shale.

478 E. N.S. Ringueberg—Dinicthys from New York.

Anterior margin describing an almost perfect semicircle of five and one-half inches in diameter, which comprises the anterior five ninths of the plate, and represents its widest extension; a slight sinus half way from the crest on either side. The highest point of the shield is on a ridge situated a little back from the anterior median margin and extends at right angles across the upper part, from which elevation the surface is beveled off toward the outer margin.

Posterior portion rather squarish, strongly sinuate ; the two lateral sinuses sharply cut out nearest the forward part, where they end with a well defined angle at their junction with the anterior semicircular portion; posteriorly, curving around the sub-obtuse latero- anterior angles into the lateral posterior sinuses. Posterior margin with a wide shallow median sinus, and two smaller lateral ones.

The latero-posterior angles are placed on a line with the cen- tral portion of the median sinus, and the shield is one-half inch narrower here than at the median transverse diameter. A slight median Sse ebaciaest depression along the central portion

hi

lateral sinus in the specimen figured is slightly deeper than the left. It must have been of large size, though but a pigmy compared with its congeners of the adjacent seas, some of which were from two to three feet across their armor-clad backs.

E. 8S. Dana—Mineralogical Notes: Allanite. 479

Art. LX.—Minerclogical Notes ; by E>warp S. DANA.

1. ALLANITE.

SOMEWHAT more than a year since, Professor James Hall Bleed in the hands of the writer a crystal of allanite for crys- tallographic description. This crystal was Haak from the tagnetite ore bed at Moriah, Essex County, New This locality has in time past afforded specimens of hie same min- eral and sometimes of very considerable size, but the erystal in question is remarkable for this locality and the species, both in

lar in form, through the predomination of the orthopinacoid, and is in general rectangular in outline. It measures about

3% by 44 inches; the planes are smooth, their intersection lines mostly sharply defined and the entire orystal is nearly perfect and symmetrical except where the surface is penetrated by

magnetite. The habit of the crystal is shown in the’ adjoining figure,* which is one-fourth of the natural size. The eceurring planes are as follows:

ii (100, a) —1-i (101, «) O (001, e) +1-i (101, r) T (110, J) 4+2-¢ (201, 0) i-2 (210, u) l-i (011, 0) —}-i (102, m) <1 1, @ +1 (11), 2)

\

Allanite.

The position here adopted is that of Kokscharof (Min. Rassl., iil, 844), and the letters are the same as his except those of the pinacoids and the unit prism: a=Z, c=M and /=z. For comparison it should be stated: that in the figures on p. 286, Dana’s System, 5th edition, 1-/ is the orthopinacoid, and 7-7 the basal pinacoid ts Kokscharof (a and ¢ respectively of the above figure); the position taken in Dana’s System is that of Mohs. The angles on this crystal could be measured dnly with the contact Ses errs and hence they are not sufficiently accurate to give a basis of comparison with those obtained in more favorable circumstances; they are consequently not quoted n general it may "be said that they i satisfactorily wit hae generally accepted for the species. figure was inserted. by mistake of the printer, in a paper by the present writer Stibnite in the number of the Journal for September, 1883 (IIT, xxvi, Pp.

480 ELS, Dana—Mineralogical Notes; Apatite.

2. APATITE,

Several years ago the writer, through the kindness of Mr. Samuel R. Carter of Paris, Me., was able to examine a crystal of apatite of so unusual form as to deserve a special notice.

he examination was completed at that time but the results are now for the first time published. The crystal was from the tourmaline locality at Paris, Me., and when received was partly coated by a film of cookeite which, however

O (0001, c) } (7073, w)* I (ioto, 7) 3 (3031, 2) (1120, #) 9-9 .(1121;'8) +4(i-§) (74150, hk) = +- (2-4) (73142, 0) 4 (1012, r) +(3-3) (72131, m) 1 (1011, a) +(7-1) (74371, 9)* 2 (2021, y) —(4-4) (71341, n)

Of these planes, the two marked by an asterisk are new to the species, namely 4 (w), which was determined by the fact of its

eing in the zone J to O, and also in the zone between m and m (2131 and 3211). The form 7-3 (g) was determined in part by the zone 7-2, 3-$, etc. (1120, 2131), and also by the measured angle on 7-2=11° to12°. The planes g were uniformly rough ‘and allowed of only approximate measurements. The calcu-

lated angles for both these forms (taking ¢=0°784608 as given by Kokscharof) are : |

On% , 00017073 = 63°12’ In% , 10107073 = 26 48 On7-§, 0001.4371 = 79 2 Tn7-j, 10104371 = 27 25 2-7-4, 1120,4371 = 11 56

E. 8. Dana—Mineralogical Notes: Tysonite. 481

3. TYSONITE.

tinct cleavage parallel to the unit prism £ ‘The observed planes for the species are then:

O- (0001, c) 1 (LOI, p) I (iol) 2 (2021, 9) i-2 (1120, 4) 2-2 (1121, s)

+ On two crystals the angle between O and 1 admitted of accu-

rate measurement; the result was O.~1, 0001,1011 = 38°25’ and 38°24}!

Of these the former is accepted as the fundamental angle, as the planes affording it were best suited to give accurate results. The length of the vertical axis is then. |

c = 0°68681; and the more important angles calculated from it are: Calcula Measured. ra ee 0001..1011 = 38°25’* 38°25’ and 38°24)’ a2, ~2031 = 6746 67.42 a 2-2, P12) =. 6S 6F 53 42 approx. 7, 1010 .1011 = 51 35 al (ov. 2-2),1010.0111 = 171 54 iy Y ~2021 = 3214 ~ 9-8, 51 = 46 34 i-2 ~ 2-2, 1V0 4 1190 = 6 8 1 23; 1011, 1121 = 26 20 26 50 approx. be 1 (pyr). OTL 301K: ee 6 8 141 (basal), 1011, 1011 = 103 10

x

482 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. New Determinations of Atomic Weights.—The results which have recently been reached with the rarer earths by successive fractional precipitations or decompositions, showing that ele- ments whose oxides are closely allied in properties may yet have widely different atomic weights, have led Marianac to submit some of the more common oxides to a similar course of fractional rogressive variation in the atomic weight. In the case of bismuth, a solution of the

208-82, 208-08, 20856; the mean being 208°60. A second set of experiments was made by converting a known weight of the oxides obtained by fractioning into sulphates and weighing. Six determinations gave 208-06, 207-94, 208713, 208°33, 208711 and 208°36 ; or 208°16 as the mean. To prepare the manganese oxide the nitrate was partially precipitated by oxalic acid, the filtrate evaporated to expel excess of nitric acid, diluted and again pre- cipitated with oxalic acid as before. Seven separate f ractions as oxalates were thus obtained, of which 1, 3, 5 and 7 were Cole verted into oxide by roasting, and this reduced to manganous

d ¢ and the chlorine determined in a weighed portion by titrition. 65°28; OF

nesium two sets of experiments were made. In the first, magne sium nitrate was fractionally calcined, giving five successive

yy *

*

Chemistry and Physics. 483

and a last fraction of the sulphate was acres which had erys- tallized from an acid solution. The values obtained were 24° 38, 24°35, 24°39,'24°37, 24°35, 24°37, 24° 41, 24: "31, 24°37, 24°37, 24° 36, 24° 38, and 24° a7; excluding the seventh as erroneous from the presence of a trace of calcium, the mean of the above values is 24°37 for magnesium.— Ann. Chem. Phys., Vig 289, aap pai

2. On a new Se <8 Fee Carbamate. —The. bates ,H,,NO,, obtained by H r by the action of cyanogen on sodium-bor neol, was baer ed £6 split up under the action of alco holic gine into potassium peer water and borneol. The body C,,H,,NO,, obtained by Arru by acting similarly on men thol spits ‘in the same way. As these bodies have the composi: ae and properties of carbamic ethers, the latter chemist under- ok an examination to ascertain whether this behavior was

Sacra of the class of urethanes. On submitting ethyl sky lve to the action of boiling cat ay potash in a flask with nh upward condenser for hal ul e liquid contained

abundant hard brilliant Genta of potassium cyanate. Th

urea. Hence the rab reaction is general.— Bull. Soc. Chim. II, ane 334, stan. 18 G. F. ‘On. ‘the synt pis esis of a Glucoside of Tart aci a a ARD ‘Be succeeded in effecting the synthesis of a ee of tartaric acid, by projecting the anhydrous tartaric acid of Fremy into melted ‘glucose until the mixture becomes pasty and less fusible. An abundant evolution of aqueous vapor is observed

minutes with a dilute acid, glucose pe tartaric acid result.— we. ee Bagel UH, xli, 291, March, 18 On e Physical Isomerism 0 Cienginkseediaken — The ae obtained by Hatter ets the action of cyanogen on lc aan and which has been shown by Arth above to mphol-urethane, rotates the polarized beam to the right and aryetalliec in ieiciedeat crystals. Haller has now prepare this urethane from left-camphol obtained from the borneol of Ngai. Its aqueous rere on cooling deposited Boa of left- ' camphol-urethane i in fine needles Pal at 126°-127°. e solu- tion rotates the polarized beam to the left aD= 2 ‘ e crystals while hemihedral like those of a gisampha ~aretha ane, are so in an inverse sense. In the right-handed variety certain op exist onl on one side of the erystal while they are absent on the other me om left- ee variety these planes are present but in a n opposit se, hers n the oats ie instead of the ae

- observed in the Eat and left gain, ee tee tartrates. _ borneol carbonate formed simultaneously with the urethane is —

484 Scientific Intelligence.

the same whether the camphol be right or left, having the con- stant fusing point of 226°-227°. By the action of alcoholic bok ash it splits into camphol and pomenine carbonate. Bratt Chim., I, xli, a3, April, 1884 G.

this Cat at the boiling point. ‘For this purpose a U-tube was employed, the two sides of different diameters, hung in the _ vapor of the liquid with which it was filled. From the differ-

ence of level in the two legs, the capillary constant was readily calculated. Beside this value, which the author represents by @, _ he uses $a’s to represent the weight of the raised liquid for unit length of the contact line, where ¢ is bis specific gravity of the

liquid. If m= the molecular weight, — — =v, the molecular vol- 4a’s =i m : raised per unit length of the contact line between the liquid and the wall of the solid. Since the value of N is small, the author multiplies it by 1000. The results of the measurements are given or 60 organic liquids, water being first_measured. For this liquid, il _ found to ce 15090 at 8°9°. Hexane gives «’=4" 514,

ume, and —— ot os eee the relative number of molecules

ha’s= and N= 16-1 at the boiling point, 68:1 For belies ‘she valu are, a "= 4495, $a7s==1°710, and N=162 at 135°9°. ss de socks, a = 4°782, 4a" $=1°765 and N=38"4 at 78°, ete. aring now together chemically analogous bodies,

the values of a and of N are closely similar. Thus isobutyl- alcohol, ethyl formate and ether, bodies which have different

the — ae die fatty series those with thee highest boiling

raised sole cules e the converse holds with the aromatic st ,n chose’ wi betlosens be compared which give age cally the same e value for N, as for example 16, we have h oe

» BIV- 16°0, 15°9, 16 pach 16: 2, and compound etiers of the formula es giving 15°8, 15°6, 15-6, 15-9 and 15-7. Now ©,H = s C

©; less ‘and H, more than .H,,. Hence, relatively to the stant N, C.=H, C.H,, has C, more and O, less than CH,05 and therefore C, groups give the same results _ From the above it follows that Ca. om =H,. From dime _ thyl-acetal and chloroform it appea Cl=H,. These values ‘enab

e us to substitute a certain senor or hydrogen atoms fon

~

Chemistry and Physics. 485

the chlorine, carbon and oxygen atoms in any molecule and thus to formulate a substance which, if it could exist in the free state eee have the same capillary constant as the original body. ce, two substances having the same value for N, ma

means of these equivalents be represented by the same number of hydrogen atoms. Thus CH,O=H,, the value of N being 59°8;

C,H,O,=H,,, N be coh 20°4 ; ‘CH, O=H,, N being 8°7; and 50 on. If a curve be drawn’ with these hy drogen values as ordinates and the cotnes ponding, nalias of N as abscissas, then ahay seta havitig jk any substance containing C, or ts formula may, by using the above equivalences, be tranclated. inte its hy- drogen scniealien and then from the curve, its capillary con- stant be obtained. In other words, from the molecular formula

calculated. Since N=$a’—v, the value of either @ or v (the he

calculated and observed values of N as given in the paper are very close. With regard to the equation of the curve, which is concave toward the axis of abscissas, the author finds it to be y= _ PSM -VOTESS the equation of a logarithmic curve. A complete table of the liquids tested, their formulas and values of a*, ta’s, and N, concludes the paper. — Liebig’s Annalen, eexxiii, 47, March, 1884.

On. the Discovery of the Periodic Law and on Relations among the Atomie weigh a; ay Jonn A. R. N EWLANDS, F

pp. 12mo.

t which he anticipated Mendelejeft i in the latter’s subsequent devel- opment of the same subject. The book - a er oat scares as a

Sarasin, have. studied the absorption spectra of the water taken from different localities. The water was contained in four tubes of glass 1°10 meters in length, and 0°05 meters in diameter. One of these tubes did not produce a sensible absorption in the solar Spectrum. But with two tubes, that is with a length of a little over two meters, an obscure band appeared in the orange. This band was very feeble and narrow. It was a little tens refrangible than the D line and corresponded very nearly with the cheb a

‘

486 Screntific Intelligence.

grows darker, but still remains of a not pronounced gray tint. he water was taken from various localities—from the conduits near the city of Geneva—from the Arve. Distilled water was

and orange were perhaps too much enfeebled, either by the great length of water traversed by the light or by the employment of a too feeble source of light. Through four meters and even eight meters of water the author could not detect the band between E and 6 which Vogel found in the light in the grotto of Capri. . This appears to indicate that this band is due to substances In solution in the water.— Comptes Rendus, March 10, 1884, pp- 624-626.

duced at the temperature 0 at a point where the magnetic intens- ity is 1 and @ is a constant. Fo i i

silver it varies from 0-008 to 0:009. This deviation can be con- sidered as due to a heterotrophy which the metal assumes in the magnetic field and is analogous to that which light undergoes In falling normally upon a doubly refracting substance. he-

.

ep nomenon is very feeble in an alloy of bismuth and lead of equal

weight which is very malleable. It is zero in lead according to Dr. Hall. The crystalline state of bismuth appears therefore to

Chemistry and Physics. 487 ©

oles of an electro magnet, and publishes a table in which he finds great agreement between the direction of the Hall effect and the thermo-electric effect of strain in different metals. Mr. Hall has replied in Science, March 28, 1884, and shows that if the Strain is proportional to the magnetic force, as Mr. Bidwell sup- poses, the Hall effect should be proportional not to the current, as actually is the case, but to the cube of the current.

Professor 8S. P. Thompson and Mr. C. C. Starling have also varied Dr. Hall’s experiment by using a very large sheet of tin foil, so that the wires and connections should be entirely outside

Peltier effect in the thin strip of metal interposed between the ] .

Danient, M.A., Lecturer on Physics in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 653 pp. . London, 1884 (Macmillan & Co.).— Teachers of Physical Science will welcome a text-book, which

Summary ot physical phenomena. According to the modern

the development of heat, sound, radiant energy, electricity and magnetism. These latter subjects, consequently, ty treated in : ; arli

Anprew Gray, M.A., ete. 207 pp. 12mo, London, 1884 (Mac- millan & Co.).—The universal adoption by electricians of the Series of electrical units, based upon the absolute system, which was recommended by the Paris Congress of 1881, has served to put electrical measurements upou a basis of precision, which was Impossible as long as the old methods were adhered to. This little volume of Mr. Gray starts with the explanation of the rela- tions of these units, and goes on to develop the principles involved in absolute measurements, and the practical methods and instru- ments employed in them. The subject is one of great importance

488 Scientific Intelligence.

at the present time, especially in view of the wide interest felt in the practical applications of electricity, and the excellence of this treatise cannot fail to be appreciated by all who use it. 2; ’ . G. Tarr, M.A., etc. 368 pp. 8vo. London, 1884 (Macmillan & Co.).—The well-known name of the author is

whose design is more strictly scientific, for there is a freshness in the method of treatment which makes it valuable and suggestive to all. :

II. GroLtogy AND Narurau Hisrory.

1. Genera of Fossil Cephalopods ; by Professor A. Hyatt, (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxii, April, 1883). — Professor Hyatt gives in this memoir the last results of his extended study of the Nautiloid, Ammonoid and other groups of Ce halopods. Of these results not the least important are his interesting deduc- tions as to the genesis of the group, based on comparisons of the successive forms of the whorls in individual shells, and with the Successive forms in geological time. He appears thus to prove iv

opment of an individual, and for the different stages in the

since, to announce the “law of acceleration in develo ment’’ as - ‘an explanation of quickened or abrupt steps under the theory of evolution, which he now prefers to designate the law of “con-_

Geology and Natural History. 489

centration of development.” He speaks of the sudden appearance of distinct types in Paleozoic and later time as an “acknowl- _ edged” fact; of distinct types as far most numerously evolved in

Paleozoic type than later; of the field of variation as decidedly narrower in the Mesozoic than in the Paleozoic; observes that the Separation of the grander groups under the general type took place rapidly in the Paleozoic ; and states as deduced principles that “types are evolved more quickly and exhibit greater struc- tural differences between genetic groups of the same stock while still near the point of origin than they do subsequently ;” that

Mr. Hyatt makes no reference to the vastly greater length of Paleozoic than Mesozoic time— robably not less than five times longer, if not ten—which fact bears on the value of such. deduc-

_ The uncoiled forms which occur in the later part of Mesozoie time are recognized as degraded or retrogressive forms, the em- bryonic forms in all these uncoiled kinds being coiled; and the return to the earlier Paleozoic forms is made part of the proof as to the derivation of the group from those early species.

Tn connection, he makes the following reasonable statement :

“Slaves of the embryological lamp consider that they must associate all forms which have similar embryos, and dissociate in classification all forms having different embryos. As a matter of experience the surest guides of affinity are the adult gradations of forms. These show that the Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea, with comparatively distinct embryos, are nevertheless more closely — related than the Belemnoidea and Ammonoidea which have pre- cisely similar embryos, and that Sepioidea and Belemnoidea, ze have very distinct embryos, must also be closely affili- ated,

2. The Geological History of Serpentines, including Studies of — L're- Cambrian Rocks ; by T. Srprry Hunt. Trans. Roy. Soe. Canada, i, section 4. 1883. Montreal.—Dr, Hunt, reviewing’ a

the subject are overlooked. No sufficient use is made of the Am, Jour. Sct.—Turep Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 162.—Junz, 1884. ; 33

me

=

490 Scientific Intelligence.

illustrated on a grand scale and with details that are exceedingly instructive. Other facts might have been given from the Tilly

tine is exemplified with wonderful fullness; where white dolo-

€ Part I. Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. Vol-

.

ume i, section 4, 1883, Montreal.—The deficiencies and one-sided- ness of the historical review in this “ Part I” are so great that the views cannot be ae eed considered before the appearance

The subject has been the topic of former

publications by the author. , ps é )

chiefly Jrom the Range of Mt. Lebanon ; by Cuartes E

f

© region are chiefly due to the results of this post-Eocene disturb- — §nce, for it not only caused the elevation of the Mesozoic beds,

*

Geology and Natural History. 491

sae to the age of the stratified rocks of Palestine and the

ebanon region. It is now an established fact, that the great

Sinai, spreads also over the greater part of Palestine and the tanges of Lebanon and anti-Lebanon, and probaby prevails east of the’Jordan and the Dead Sea, in Gilead, Moab, and Idumea. The earlier explorers seem to have been misled by the strong external resemblance of the light-colored limestones which they observed in Palestine to the rocks of the White Jura of Europe,

are Cretaceous, and probably later than the Cenomanian stage. As to the Tertiary formation, he states, from Fraas and Lartet, that the Eocene occars in Syria south of Tarabulus (Tripoli) ;

Primordial or Cambrian group passes gradually into under- lying crystalline schists without unconformability or any abrupt» lithological chan Primordial includes argillytes and

e. The fine-grained mica schists (which are sometimes staurolitic, chlo-

ritic and oceasionally contain tourmaline) together with quartzyte or sandstone, and limestone. :

The upturning of the series of beds in the Cantabrian Moun- tains is attributed to lateral pressure, and occurred, as he shows, tion of the parallels of latitude.

e Mesozoic beds overlie the upturned edges of the Carbon-

8t or toward the close of the Carboniferous, acting in the direc- d

.

but also modified sensibly the relief of the Paleozoic masses,

Ee eneed the great difference of level between the coal beds of | t :

Asturias, which are worked eve w the sea-level at

7

n belo 7 Arnao, and those of the Cantabrian chain in which they have a

492 : Scientific Intelligence.

height of 2000 meters. The author draws attention to the fact of the transverse directions in the great uplifts of the two moun- tain-making disturbances.

r. Barrois detected coccoliths in the Devonian rocks and con- cluded that these microscopic convex or plano-convex disks are of inorganic origin and not organic (p. 46)... The Paleontological part of the volume contains many observations of wide interest, but there is not space here for a review of them.

6. Catalogue of the Fossil Sponges in the Geological Depart- ment of the British Musewm (Natural History), with Descriptions of new and little-known species, by Grorcr J. Hive, Ph.D., F.G.S. 248 pp. 4to, with 38 lithographic plates. —The remark- able fullness of the British Museum in its collection of fossi sponges has enabled the learned author of this volume to make a general review of the subject and contribute largely in species and facts to this branch of paleontology. e genera repre- sented by species in the museum are 141 in number ; of these 120

-are of Siliceous sponges, and the rest of Calcareous; 32 species

are from the Paleozoic, 16 from the Triassic, 96 from the J urassic, 245 from the Cretaceous and 3 from the Tertiary. The many plates are well filled with, excellent figures. The text closes with a full bibliography... :

Geologist of Alabama, reports the discovery of important vig me : erry

ee von ie averaging 10 per cent in its phosphoric acid; (4) whitish

and micaceous sands, holding small oyster-shells, with

some phosphate, and, below a level of 20 to 30 feet, rage ee : _ bluish Sands in which there is considerable green sand. —

Geology and Natural History. 493

letter states the probability that these phosphatic beds are con- tinued beneath the Rotten limestone across the State of Alabama, through Eutaw and other places to Farmington in Mississippi. Green sands from Eutaw have been found on analysis to contain — 8 per cent of phosphoric acid.

om ulexite. Colemanite was found in Southern California, and named after Wm. T. Coleman of San Francisco; descri ed J.T. Evans in the Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences, Feb., 1884. : Brigeerrre —This name (after the Norwegian mineralogist, — W. C. Brégger) has been given t W. Blomstrand to a ura-_ nium mineral near cleveite, both of which are allied to uraninite, The specimen examined is from the neighborhood of Moss, Nor- way; it formed part of an octahedral crystal having an iron-black color, with hardness 5 to 6, and specifie gravity 8°73. An analysis afforded Cerium, Yttrium UO,’ UO, PbO ThO, earths, earths FeQ (a0 SiO, HO ice 38°82 41:26 841 5°64 35 242 1:26 0:30 0°81 0°83 = 11012

494 7 Scientific Intelligence.

For this the author writes the formnla UO,, RO, UO, or more _ exactly 6URO,U+U,(0,U),, in which the *R includes the tho- rium, cerium and ttrium “earths and ead. The author gives an extended discussion of the constitution of the related tranium minerals.— Geol. For. Forh. Stockholm, vii, 59, 1884. KriTE.—A mineral describe . Sjogren as occurring in small tabular monoclinic crystals, flattened parallel to the orthopinacoid ; according to H. Sjé is ne at mbers of the vivianite group. Hardness 4—5, specific gravity . 3°83-3°85. Color yellow to green, mirongly, pleochroic (whence the name). An analysis afforded , As,0. MnO FeO, MgO, CaO HO 8°57 ‘9 1-1 9°01 = 100-65 For this eke ah a 4H,O is given. os occurs with other manganese minerals at the oss mines in Nordmark, mee — Geol aM . Forh. Stockholm, vii, 109, 1884. Sab —A manganesian bbe of chloritoid from beget” Balginui, Gaeahibed by Eug. Prost (Geol. Soc. Belg.) It o in irregular masses with coarse saeasiacetdal structure and pene color. Hardness 5 to 6, specific gravity 3°38 of material contain- ing a little quartz. An analysis afforded SisO0 =Al,Q,;° Fe.0; FeQ MnO CoO MgO CaO H,0 Quartz 19°14 33-66 3:38 13-05 7.14 0-04 179 0°30 6:32 15°06==99'88 12. Clematides Megalanthes, Les Clematites a Grand Fleurs: Description et Iconographie des Espéces cultivées dans P Arbore- _ de Segrez ; par ALPHONSE Lava atthe. Paris, 1884. hee

pate, from ae awings by Bergeron, in pihe form and style of the t enter ris in _and liberal-

a” = ® "Re & iS] ~~ 2 = = =| ° ry , iv 2] a

capacity and the publi spirit to carry on such an aoa as

the Arboretum of Segrez and the publications which illustrate both its treasures and the botanical | acumen of its founder

The first section of this work is occupied with the investigation

and iconography of the Japanese species of Clematis, such as C.

patens, . florida, etc., which have of late years become 80

attractive in cultivation, and which especially deserve mat name

of great-flowered Clematis. But the scientific interest to us

: . centers in tis orth ‘Auigok species, and in some cultivate

species of doubtful origin, which may have American bl

M. Lavallée figures and describes as per Be goon ¢. oylin- drica rte Bot. Mag., and (. eri. robably this s t view, although we had ut the ey tog Z

commend these

pane ge and southern “Atlantis States, and srs for var plants - | dri pecimens in flower par fru ‘Phe C; mete ety Lavallée ngures, from a ciltivated Git of unknow

ot

asin ; é es ar - U .

Geology and Natural History. 495

from Bot. Mag. t. 1892, we should say belongs to his (. crispa, and that from Bot. Rep. t. 71, to C. cylindrica. As to C. erioste- mon of Deeaisne, the C. Hendersoni of the gardens, we cannot think that this is at all of American origin, and we hold to our former guess that it is a hybrid of C. Viticella and C. integrifolia.

C. Viorna and C. reticulata are well figured, the latter in a form with under-sized flowers. . Pitcheri_is well figured in one of the larger-flowered forms ; and the new C. Sargenti, if we are not, much mistaken, is only a smaller-flowered form of the same

dentally dropped in transcription and the last sentence joined to the preceding one, so as quite to spoil the sense.

appendix gives a brief review of the tubular-flowered Species, lately in controversy, in which M. Lavallée corrects the determinations of the lamented Decaisne in some respects.

16. _ 13. Porto Rico plants.—A botanical exploration of this island is undertaken by P. Sintenis under the direction of Dr. T. Urban, of Scheneberg, near Berlin, who wishes to receive the

names of subscribers, at 30 marks ($7.50) per hundred specimens, —

payable on delivery. The mountains of Porto Rico ought to yield a good harvest

clude them in the beautiful work which he has now begun. For |

f

:

496 Serentifie Intelligence.

regions, from Arkansas and Texas to the Pacific Coast. Their contributions, which are hereby solicited, will be repaid in kind. Botanists who are willing to extend their aid and who are de-

sirous of details, may communicate with the writer of this article, at Cambridge. The present fascicle, a thin folio pale is de- voted to the #. vulgaris type, in its various forms good wood-

cut figure : corolla and stamens is given on the leading ticket of each specie

Til. MisckLuANEous ScreNTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

The British Association at Montreal.—The meeting of the British orgie eae oe Montreal will commence on Wednesday, Augus e reception rooms will be open on the Monday siveline at 1 P, M., aes on the following days at'8 A. M., for the issue of tickets to members and associates (and ladies), and for supplying information as to lodgings, ete. he general secre- the executive committee is Mr. J. D. Crawford. The tickets will contain a map of Montreal, and particulars as to the rooms .appointed for sectional and other m eetings. A ge eneral meeting will be held Weditaday evening, opens at 8, at which President Cayley will resign the chair and the Right t Hon. Lord Rayleigh, President-elect, will assume the baal de tesk and deliver an address. n Friday evening a will be a discourse by Pro- fessor W. G. Adams, ni on the evening of the following Monday a'discourse on “The modern Gaistiwes vs in researches on the least and } owest forms of life, ” by the Rev. W. H. Dallinger: on Sat- urday evening a lecture on comets, for the citizens of ntreal, will be delivered by Professor R. S. Bal 1, of Dublin University

‘Contributors of papers to the ater & are required (ander an

arrangement dating from 1871), to send to the “ General Secreta- ries of the British ‘Association, dee be Aiberarie street, London, W., an abstract of the paper, suitable for insertion in the eraigactious

of the association, together with the paper, with a sieesoiesie as. for whic

to the section Ww it is intended, that the committee may decide, in advance of the time of meeting, as to the acceptance and we of reading. ocal Executive Committee has issued the following ps

aed "with regard to membership and the enrolling of new me

neh

(1) Life members for a wnat oedema of $50, which entitles them to all the privileges o mbership for life, and to receive . fe a which the sais ction may publish after the date of

me) aries members for a _— of $10 the first year (85 of which i is the entrance fee), and $5 each consecutive year there-

ssociate members for a payment of $5. Associates are

Miscellaneous Intelligence. | 497

Persons who are already members of me ep) geass may be re-enrolled by paying the annual dues ae members will be re-enrolled without payment. No per a las is not a member is admitted to any of the meetings of "the Anacctiisne: The privilege of reduced fares by the railway and steamboat lines is limited to the life, annual and associate members i for admission to membership may be addr essed to Crawford, General Secretary of the Citizens’ Committee, Post- office box’ 147, Montreal.

The Circular is signed by Tuomas Cramp, Chairman, and Davin A. P. Warr, Secretary, and dated Molsons’ Bank Cham- bers, 198 St. James street, Montreal, ane

2. American Association. —The Phi iadelphia ane of the

merican Association commences its session on the 3d of ep- tember, under ais ‘ptesiden cy of Professor J. P. Lestey. The vice-presidents of the sections are: A, Mathematics and Astron- omy, H. T. Eppy, of Cincinnati; B, Physics, Joun TROWBRIDGE, of Cambridge ; °C. Jie Joun W. Laxaey, Aon n Arbor; D, Mechanical Science, R. H. Taurston, of Hoboken; E, ow and Ceouraphy, N, i. Waa. of Msineapolis iology, D. Corr, of Philadelphia; F, Histology and Microscopy, ‘3 irae: of Philadelphia ; HL, Anthropology, E. 8. Morsz, of Salem ; ) F Economic Science. and Statistics, J. Earon, of Wash-

ton.

he Permanent Secretary of the association is stash F. W. Purnam, of Cambridge; the General Secretary, ALFR p SPRINGER, _ of Cincinnati; the Assistant General Secretary, E. 8. HotpEn, of

Madison ; the Treasurer, Witiram Linty, of Mauch Chunk.

3. Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnot- ogy of plasty te Mass., 16th and 17th Annual Reports. Cam-

ridge, 4.—American Archeology is making rapid through het labors of Professor Putnam and the work ‘tie publi- Cations connected with the Harvard Peabody Museum. The volume issued contains various original papers besides the report of the curator. A few facts are here cited from it:

(1) The meteoric iron ‘*found on the altar of mound No. 3, of the Turner group of earthworks in the Little Miami valley, Ohio, has been analyzed by Dr. L. P. Kinnicutt. One piece was found to have G.=6-42, and to consist of Iron 86°66, nickel 12°67, cobalt 0°33, copper J ‘ace, insoluble residue 0°10 ; the second speci- men, to ha ave we il nd to consist of Iron 88° 37, mike 10°90,

— bron polished piece o gave well-marked Widmanstattian figures, and the second appeared to be of the Same charac he other r Specimens were similar, in containing:

game Y era proving ‘that all the iron sation the mound was of meteoric

eSuntkes mass of iron weighing 767°5 grams, from the altar in mound neh: 4, of the same group, contained large concretions 0

498 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

olivine, like the « pallasite ” section of meteoric irons, and had a specific Se pore NY of toa Neg staal by Professor = An analysis of the iron by Me Pacene “fecled ae ie: ia nickel 10°65, cobalt 0°45, cop- per and phosphorus ¢races ; of the olivine, Silica 40°02, iron protoxide 14°06, manganese protoxide 0° 10, magnesia 45°60. Specific gravity of the olivine, 3°33; of the iron, 7°894. Small grains of bronzite were detecte d. r. Kinnicutt states that the external resemblance of the specimen to those of the Atakama iron is striking. _ Bu chner’s

36°92 per ak of sete but the analysis needs revision, since the

iron and manganese are given as sesquioxide, and if reckoned as

proinde (its shualition: in unaltered olivine), the analysis shows a large loss.

2) A cee gg tooth has been found by Dr. C. C, Assor

in the gravels near Trenton affording paleolithic implements. It

is a rolled sang worn oe ane is sic lo fee of the same age with |

_ origin of the portion of a human skull dota bit some youth since at Trenton by Dr. Abbot from a person who stated that it was found in the gravel.

Professor apa in the course of his report, : adds a word on 3) fraudulent antiques, He says that Indian pipes, dishes and other relics are made for the ethnological market in Philadelphia ; a large business has been done in Ohio in the so-called gorgets - cut from slate and in hematite celts ; and much Indian pottery has been put into the trade in southern Illinois, A carved stone eee a ee child was sue A sent, eras Eureka, in

e ciekee a paling ee in the Nahuatl-Spanish dialect of Nicaragua ; edited by D. G. Brivron. 96 pp. 8V0. Philadelphia, 1883. Ao al American Authors and their

oductions ; by Dantet G. Brinton , A.M., M.D. 64 pp. 8vo. prpemninees 1883. Brinton? 8 Shae of Aboriginal ae he Literature.—These two volumes are works of much research and historical ‘interest, by one of the ablest of t inbtioat axphesale ; gist -

and under each the titles of Articles referring

INDEX TO VOLUME XXVII*

A Borany— Abbott, . C., human tooth from gravels Vote Dray, ath of, Gray, 396. hear Lrenton, 498, re cena California, Bulletin of, 413. pi eae: geri Grou Aid, fa nal, ee ng of, 417. st 2 evice ae ge 1 pbnntte $, 141 nitric, pieduntion of hydroxylamine meen Pe , Aboriginal American

he Giiegiience. pate W.K,, arm poe Heredity, 15 Brush, G. J., ‘identity of scovillite aed mabidophan e, vee ce hai of Gulf Stream, 417, | Bunbury, © 1B "Botanical Fragments, ‘ rer from Embryological Mono- ree ates 'S.W., double stars, 2 Tapps, fi ed Annals of Mathematics, 80, aes rene Catalogue of American

/tarane, synthesis of a glucoside of,

4 et Bek isis of the Blake Expe-

oan groddeckite, ts new m shourner, o

Creek bas A ogy of th the Panthe Campbell, H. n ore in Virginia, 41 Association, glee af Philadelphia, Camphot urehanes physical isomerism

Capiilarty, theory of, Le Conte,

=a British, at Montreal, 496. a ag weights, 1 new determinations of, ae ae COnIanS and chemical ‘compo- re a fs caren. ‘monoxide, behavior ne toward Auk, the, “ee SORE LAI air and moist phosphorus, 3 Caruel, T., Botanical Muxonsmy, 241, B Chamberlin, T.-C., nal moraine, 68. goolee? of Wiseons nsin, 146. Barker, G. ¥., chemical abstracts, 53,| ;, niles: of angular gravel, 3 140, 233, 315, 403, 482. ter, F. ?. distribution of pater ; Barometer tubes, filling of, Waldo, 18. wen wes 189. Barrande monum ent, 4 Climate, see under gr vad on C., the Paleozoic of Spain, 491. | Coast what Report, 7 — Beceai i, O., Male noticed, 241. Comet, Pons-Brooks, observations of, at Backer, ae diacnce of convection on} Yale (o ollege, 76. glaciation n, 473. spectroscopic observations of, —

_ Benzene, constitution of, 235. 76.

_ * Benzil, “aioe derivatives of, 56. of pont vs aig of, Parsons, 32. ‘Bigler, , See s of great, at U.S." Bleaching ane ‘constitution of, 53. sal Observatory,

sane Compton, A. autographie records of alo catalogue of plants, 415. vireions ofits 444, California plants, 413. Cook, G. H., snconforaabty in Silurian Clematis, large-flowered, 494. of New Jerse: Diatoms, structure of, 416. — Jerse 5 ctouiialé urvey, 408, an sg) American, 155, E. D., Anguilla Bone Cave, 71. Tax, thoughts on, 241. | Corona, see Sun.

* This Index contains the general heads BOTANY. i ae ‘Miva ata ORITUARY, ZOOLOGY,

500

Corwin, sg ra oth eo sone Craig, T., Tre jectio ons, 245 Croll, J., ‘Wallace’ s a eae of the physical an of secular changes of ores 81, rot. nee Made rejoinder, 343. oro, W sanidine and topaz from Colo-

D Dale, - aes , geology of Rhode Island, 21%, na, A S, herderite from Maine, 73, 9.

22 mineralogical notes, 479. gene be Die Fe cna ira geological

Man cial climate phenomena of the Champlain period,

of Wisconsin, 146. obituary of G h

Daniell, A., Principles of Physi awson, J. retaceous eae “ert ry Floras of British, Columbia

Day, Dz F., eee of the Mae of ong

Derby, O. ee aaasiad minerals, 73. rocks in Brazil. 138.

Diamond, fash eae tanh of the, 317.

Dutton, a warmer climate

on glaciers ight, W. B. cinsit the Wappinger

Valley limestone e,

Dynamo-electric uehine: theory of, 57.

E Earth, structure of, Suess, 1

Barthquakes, Bigs inaase foc 358. EOLOG

rG Blastiiy of solide, 140. preg ts of, 159.

on pro-

duction of, by indue tion-machines, 316.

istance, expression of, Nipher,

465. source of atmospheric,

theory of dynamo echt ig

carbamate, new reaction of, 4 stigniease and molecular Weighs 233,

; ae w, dimorphism in the genus - Cambarus, 42,

INDEX

Ferric hydrate, clloda, 403. Floating bodies athe theory of capil.

aes of Ohio Tver, eae Dana, 419. Fossil, see GEOLO Frank, B., Die Pianeankeaak balan 415.

G Galvanometer, aperiodic, 5 Gardiner, J. T., Report - New York

S$ ‘418, Gases, reduction to — Halsoens 315,

abe OLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— Canada, 410, 496. New Jersey, 408. New York, 418 ] ’ennsylvania, 6 89, 71, 149, 153, 407. Territo : penenbeiys “at United States, th “16, 94, 349. Wisconsin.

aft Society of London, 421. and Potsdam groups, simi- d, 321.

ars: ; Alabama, phosphatic " deposits in,

Andesites of the Great Basin, 66, 453.

Buried valleys in Poh. = sy hate 149. Burlington limestone in New Mexico, __ Spring otek

w, Dwight, 254. ants sa

te, " gee Glacial Clim

Canoe and lead o| of “Wisconsin f, Cha iin

Copper bearing prin aay Potsdam,

Crinoids, fossil, Miller, \

Decay of Delaware gravels, Ches

Devonian of ae Whit 150.

Didelphys pygmea, Scott, inichthys os Ringueber, eerie ah rican Jurassic, ten. 161, Diplodoes s, characters of, Marsh, 161. Dunyte =y N. Carolina, Julien, 72. Sr ies raed of the Great

Foukprioas human, in inate rege Fossils erystalline limestone eastern Pennsylvania, Prime, 69.

rocks in Bra “Der 138. ©

t Basin, Gil-

INDEX.

Glacial “erprgee in the middle States,

eli Sa _tiseusin " ade 81,

a 343, 432; ; Dana sel

iif in ’ Montana and Dakota,

112. tot in in the New Haven region, an. i ay great terminal, 68, 410 eriod, ‘Minne sota valley in the,

Upham, 34, | Glaciation, influence of convection on, , 473.

Glaciers” effect of warmer climate on, Gna. net of seerart iy Hills, 391. Gravel, hillecke of angular, Chamber- oe laware, Chest

Greenland, glaciers of, 241. Hornblende the Northwestern

er, 189,

s Chamberlin, 147. Jointed piles ade f, Gilbert, Kames, Chamberlin, 388 Retile-holes near Wood’s Holl, Mass.,

47,

oe region, rocks of, irving, Leathe hills, Hitchcock, 72.

Lower Silurian, ;unconformability to, 153.

of upper, 70, Macel “

e, Scolt, 442. and Pacific, former con-

nection oe 157. Minnesota valley in the ice age, Upham,

2° “bs

Plants, Mesozo he a of the Great + Basin, 454. taceous,

Cre! Marg 4 Pyroene-dndesit of te bape Basin, = ad Lddings, 4

501

GEO Re pi’ new order of, rm 341. Rhode Island, Dale, 21% River valleys in Linco igs — pore , in Brazil, Derby, Great Basie 66, 453. Serpentine, suit history of, 489. of Italian,

eology Statietion, pe anecain Chamberlin,

Saisaue hanna region, |

pled ersey, not true

verflow: Trilobite, appendages of, 409. s, Dwight, 251.

Vei “Mat.

Voices mie ee Great Basin, 66, 453

Wappinger Valley limestone fossils,

River, Upha

Gilbert, G. K., origin ‘of jointed strue- 47.

ture, 4 earthquakes of the Great Basin, 49. 427.

Goodale, G. L., jetanioal peer 322, Wild cli of Same 414, beni ar Measurements

Gr 413, 4

Brooks’ law of aang a 4 156. necrologia hotanica, 2

sae orig in variation, nae gende ae f names of paristiont 396. Clematides Megalanthes, 494.

Griantant. “sauolent of, 241.

H Hague, A. soy on Eureka Hill Min- ing District, 6 , 68. on the voleanic rocks of the fer es ration a the 40th parallel, 66, 4 Halloe researches on seresettien: Hall’s phenomenon, 486. Hamlin, ©. E. webs iaes Molluscan Fossils, 490

502

- Hanks, H. oo California Mineralogical

Report, 4 Harger, 0O., Sisson of Blake Expedi- tion, Hayden, F. V., Geological Map, 153. Hazen, H.

‘iS

posure,

Hill, W. N., Sem Leah by reversals

magnetiz

of m erate W. e ‘Jéllingite and other

minerals, 349. Hills, R. C, extinct glaciers of Colorado, 391.

kaolinite from Red Mountain, Colo- rado, 472. Hinde, G. “ Catalogue of the Fossil Sponges of the British pee Sauk - Hitchcock, C. So — ar hills, 7 Horse, see Zoo Huggins, a Bbotiovevbing the solar a ah unt, T, s. “Geological History of Ser- Barone The ves Question, li, A., Fossil Ce Seriiionst, 488. spoil 405.

ie Ice age, see Glacial Period. iddings, J. P., volcan rocks of the Great Basin, 6 Tron, see Cuneo Irving, R. D., horablende ih she, north- western States, 1

INDEX.

G. F., ecco a feugerns, = rn, Me.

epi ss white garnet from Wakefield, Dann 306.

Lake Tahoe, pees studies of, 145. Langley, 8. Pw pics dae ae the in- visible pattie pica eae pehres ée, A., Clematides Moesiunihee FeLi. oP physical studies of Lake Tahoe ; sariecntil motions of wea? one and the Agents of Saas ; Lefroy, J. Ary Magne tid. Canada, Lesley, as z, _ Pennsylvania ‘Geological Report, 6 Liebig, bust ie statue, parce f cleaning at 316. Lille, sulphurous oxide in air of. 5 tti, B., Origin of the Italian Serpe

ges of

tine, 492

M. Mackintosh, J. B., herderite from Maine,

Magnetic ecg or he fe) 4 "938.

nae Magnetization, heat sete by rever- of, 58. Marks, W. he Proportions of the Steam

Engine, 3 Marsh, . ve ‘the inca oage et 16).

the order Theropoda, 3 J new “rd of Jurassic pil, 4 : a wees G. H. human footprints in a gin oe n Oretaceous pterodacty!s, -Browne a McGee, W. J., ages of river-valleys in ~ Sis wise roe: , ages of river-valleys his icahtens. 50. ( ws J Mesitylene, preparatio ay lion, A. A, + duniyte of N. Carolina, 72. rede niphites, Berthelot, Mickel I iocometors ore of pe a Kinnieut, L. meteoric iron from operad a on Salona. 158. a mound i in on io, 497. INERAIS— rts ar sch, F., researches on magnet-| Albite, hpvoks Maine, Kune. 304, Allaktite, 494.

: 321. : cokiek N. v., Materialen zur Min- eralogie Russla nds, 412. de, spectroscope observa- 8,

cons, B. F., keeles near Wood's ot, Mass

unz, G. F., copiatl from North Caro- law

Allanite, "41 24 479, pes: Gorham, Maine, Kunz, 305. Apatite ie Maine, Kunz, 215, 304;

Dana, ‘aananies from —— Kune, 214. Bertrandite. Beryl from ‘Maine, Kunz Biotite from Maine, Kwnz

nz, 21A.

=

- topaz from Stoneham, Maine, 212.

, 215 , analysis of, 493.

{

.

INDEX. -

INERAL

Cass iter ite, Virgini ia, : Ceavetandit hig Gialog Kunz, 215. ae 493.

Colu alee ane: 214.

Cosalite, Titania

Cupro-descloizite irom Mexico, eh

Damourite from Maine, Kun ral

e Maine, 73, 135, 229. Hibnerite, Hitlebrand, 357. Hydrargillite, 74. ; Tron, meteoric from mound, 4

native, in New Jersey Peas

Coo. Kaolinite, Colorado, Hills, 4 Lepido lite, Au uburn, ra fou 304, Léllingite, Hillebran . Margarodite from Maen "ins, 215. Meneghini re om Canada, 411.

Mica, gre

Mon tmorillonite, — Kunz, 214. Muscovite fro e, Kunz, 215. P eneeiba a 4,

o~,

Juartz from m Maine, Kunz, 215, 304, Ree I Brush and Penfield, 200. Ps l ©;

: anidine from Colorado, Cross, Scovillite identical with Set stan,

rush and Penfield, 200. Tennantite from Canada, 411. Top orado, —_ 94

: a Ku UNA, from Maine, EPA 303. Tephgive pe bripag! Kunz, 214, Triplite from ne, Kune Nz, 214. eo Colorado, ‘Dana, 481. n fro ite ae 215. Miller, ‘Hermans, fund, 4 weeny y Nod. ©, tiandionets der Botanik,

Murtock, 7 B., Electricity and Magnet-

"asc ys oe oo Cambrid apork ah. 4 gy, VCamoridge,

N Nelson, E. Y ihe = of Behring Sea and — Arctic omb, S., eee fs imatol 21. Newlands, J. A. R., Periodic ‘Law, and Relations of tes 485. Newton, ton, He As Preleemrcizsa notices, 77,

Power,

Craig’s Treatise on Projections, 245.

503

Nipher, F. £., evolution of the trotting

_eectiea hc nr expeeaes in velocity, 4 Ni trogen aera 141, dification of, 319. Nomenclature, botanical, Gray, 396.

0 we Cosa esees 243. gelmann, Dr. Gent ge, 244, coe Arnold ue etd 246, Heer, Oswald, 2 Humphreys, Gen. ah Poe 160. iller

eneebs Signor Quintin Obse rvatory, Cincinnati, publications of,

Ohio River flood of 1884, Dana, 419. Oxygen, boiling point of, 319.

zs vs, F. J., comet 1882, I, 32. Ponield A S. és fgporazs of scovillite and rhabdo

hin pein of Galician, 55. Pettersson, O., water and ice, 62. Hyd y of the Siberian Sea, 64. Pflanzenphysiologie, 322.

Pfeffer. Phosphorescent eye-piece, Phos oe is tion of at low tem- peratu Pho iret shes repre in, 234. Piperidin, synthesis of Plants, see BOTANY y and Powell, 7 W., a of C. Ss. S. Geologi-

cal Surve ey, 64, 66. device for measuring, Brackett,

Prime, F,, limestone of Northampton Co., Penn.,

Prin 2, W, structure of Diatomacese, 416,

Pumpelly, R., Maps of the Northern

Trane Continental Survey, 246.

R gee and flood in New York and eles: ere, Gardiner, 4 in Ohio en Gonneetient val- leys, J. "D.

returns, . ee ag Pre astronomical, 466.

Remsen, I., Theoretical Chemistry, 238. Riley, C. v. ie tomin igh se tte 417. i N. aa new Dini shthys

> Woe New York, 476 obinson, F. C., Allanite oe Topsham, Maine, 412.

504

Rockwood, C. G., American earthquakes,

Roth, Es eee und chemische Geologie,

Russell, I. its 67.

oy

O. Take Lahontan, its depos-

s Sachs, J., Pilanzenphysiologic, 322. Schaeberle, co fa ral astronomical refractio Schenk, ry Handbuch der Botanik, 32 Schott, C. Besesas ye Declination in the United ‘States Variation of the Magneto Declina- tion, 245. Scott, 'W. B., new ree a from the art of Colorado, Selwyn, A. R. C., inset Geological Report, Shepard, N, Darwinism stated by Dar- win himself, 4 er mut:

Sh n, O. f., pameticias of the Pons- Diceke 76, faded dem , 14 ounds of, |

Smith. ". A., ph osphatic abel in the Cretaceous of Alabam a, 492. Solar, see Sun. Sound, velocity oh in air, 143. Spectra, absorption, of water, 485, Spectrum, wave-length in the invisible,

_ Lang ry rs L Wild Flowers of America,

picoet :, Burlington limestone in New te o%, Stars, Sacre Steenstrup, ‘K. ‘x v. Jerrad and Glacier- ice “of ( 7 eo , O., Annals of Mathematics, 80.

reams, deflection of, by the earth’s rotation, Gilbert, 43 Suess, E., Das Antlitz der Erde, 151. — photographing corona of, Huggins, Sun-glows, Hazen, 201. Sunsets, red, 144. Sun-spots and earth’s temperature, 57,

és Tah e Lake Tahoe. Taf P, ‘6, Degscet rrtoaigt 488,

_ ‘Tempe ulator, Thermometer exposure, ps 365.

INDEX.

Trowbridge, J., physical notices, 57, 143, uel

at produced by reversals of mag- Sted chermak, G., Lehrbuch

Tsi der Miner

alogie, | Tuning-forks, afi at records of 444,

- vibrations of, Compton

Upham, W., Minnesota valley in the ice age, 34, 104.

Vacuum regulator, Vanhis any a ie naa of feldspar eal, 5 Van Tiegh, Ph., Traité de Botanique, Vapor, Senge i of as a source of electricity,

Variation, ae in

Wale

of thie 409

on the Great t Basin, 65 Walds "ailing o of barometer tubes, Ward, L. F., Mesozoic esta sine 292. Water and Petter. gue shag rs)

ri nin of Sonning fossil

iteaves, J. F. esoz Fossils, Queen Charlotte Island, 496. : Whitfi agra | y of Acadian

and Potsdam groups, ¢

Williams, A., ee Resources of the ited Sta

eee bee ina, We es iirnee Exsiccatee,

Wooster 1 Bes pegged a“ copper-

beari ; Wright @. ¥ the viacial 1 boundary in Ohio ‘

a GY -— Cambarus, dimorphism in, Faxon, 42. Echini of the West Indies, 157. er evo) Anti tion

See farther under GEOLOGY.

uae

Varieties, gender of tt er Gray, 396. a

WwW OD, uniter! appendages |

of the trotting, =

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500 pages. Each volume a be completed, as nearly as is consistent sei the supply of uses within a year. Subscription price for the volume $3.00; ae ‘single ni umbers 50 cents. : Rees I, HU, Ill and IV, 1879-82, are now complete. Price $3.00 each. bscriptions and communications of all kinds should be addressed to IRA “sy Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. [Exe.]

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICS 220. 2 PURE AND APPLIED. ~ Published under the auspices of the Jouns Hopkins UNIVERSITY.

In volumes of | about 384 quarto ages, “eageged four numbers issued quar- ' Fifth vo pee ublished the prese

prit s the publication me ad original ph nota oe Systematic . and briet expositions o of we yeesints thods will also be given.

| SYLY te Bator in charge, WILLIAM B.

£ Was rrosnlie A. A. NEWTON,

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. FOUNDED BY PROFESSOR SILLIMAN IN 1818,

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, ° Physical Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History, cattgaey and Meteorology, and giving the latest discoveries - in these departments

Epirors: JAMES D. Dana, Epwarp 8. a aud B. SrLLIMan.

oe soot aera peste ne ag AY, J. P. Cooks, JR., and: JoHn Trow- BRIDGE, of Cam ge, NEw and A. a Seda ad "Yale. and G. F. ephiuae of the wanes of Peuinsyl Tasted Philadelphia.

o volumes of 480 pages each, published noun 3 in piesa NUMBERS.

This oes Rade its jirst series of 50 volum uarterly in 1845, and its second s 50 volumes as a two-monthly in 1870. "The monthly series com- sheiieadl Se in 18° ar

Tw eopies of each original en. are, if requested, struck _ se the pas without charge; and m ¢ the author’s expense, provide mie ber of copies desired is.stated on the einusatios or communicated to the printers

Jouraa

The of communication the ee On. Autiles edt be sent in ‘we ‘onthe before we time of issuing the number for whic: Sie are inte: wipe Notice is ven ashy communications — pian gs e been, or are to wt ho He shed rhe i ther Journal oe

Subseries price $6. nt, Ww complete sets on sale of | the first and second series.

- Address the PROPRIETORS, J. D. and E. Ss. DANA, New mayen Conn.

‘DANA'S: ‘WORKS.

———

— ‘Tay LOR. s te New Yorke Ian 1

aS Ivisoy, Brat a Dasa

Micra cage intelligence. the New Yo

a rasa aneannauesins

CONTENTS.

age Art. XL.—Remarks on Professor Newcomb’s “ Rejoinder ;” BS ot COU ages es ee eS 343 XLE—An interesting eeney ev sce and other Min- erals ; by VE. i toe RRR a ny hee Os Ace ee 349 XLIL.—Notés on American aaieaaakes: No. 13; by-C. G. POUCE WOOK: CRA ie oe i eo Le el 358 ALI, -Phemnoueter Exposure; by H. Hazen = 365 XLIYV. mare tks of angular Gravel jeik pecan Str atifi- cation; by T..C. CuPenbiiing acc eu. eee 378 XLV.—Extinet penton ve the San Juan Mountains, Colo- wae ti to Ree et ae i ee ea re 391 XLVL ae of Raines of Varieties; by A. Gray, .---- 396 XLVIil.—Secondary Enlargements of Weldon | fragment in certain Keweenawan sandstones ; by C. A. Vanuise,. --' 299 XLVI. — Principal Characters of American Cai aeows pps tls Part IL. The Skull of Pteranodon; by . C. Marsu. CW Mi Pints AV) oe kote ee ADE

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On oe rai iy, a Berraecor, 403.—On the Hypo- nitriles. Divers and H Fert and colloidal Ferric hydrate, GRIMAUX, 405, —Synthesis. ‘of Piperi ridin nf its Homologues, LADENBURG : Vacuum regu lator for ay Distillations, GopEFROY, 406.—New Tempera- ture-regulator, L, Meyer, 407. Geolegy and eRe ony. Geology of the nieowad Creek Basin or eastern end of the Southern field, C. A. ASHBuRNER, 407.—Geological Survey of New Jer se Report for 1883, G. Hf cla 08 Auaepeagec ort ilobites, J. MICKLEBOROUG ©. D. Waeorr, 409.—Glacial Boundary in Ohio, Indiana and - Lenrnek y, ro F. Wrigut: — on ay het ogy aiid 8 x oe History of Canada for 1 Bs Q- 81-82, A, LW ea : Serer a Ter ary Floras of British ae and the No Peat Ter ate a vew mineral, Damour and SERTRAND : Pah ore (Cassterite) in ae Bine Ridge in Virginia: Meneghinite ip Tennanite. from Canada, —Materialien = eo oe Russland, von > angel : Allanite fom Toe, Maine, F. C. Ropiyson: Cupro- Senciriatic from Mexico, 4 Botany and Zoology —B kin of the Sa lee alos of a ae ate Darwiuism stated by Darwin himself, N. : Wild Flowers of A yt. aoa and G. L Goopa ALE, 414 sosipiess ae of the Native and aus nF ized Plants of the City of Buffalo ~~ Vie icinity, D. F. Day: Die Pflanzenkrank- heiten, B. FR RANK, 415.—Researches on the Structure of Diatomacese, W. PRINZ and E Van iricercne 416.— Report of the K ist, € of Dredging under A; Agassiz in the lake :” Report on the Isopoda, VU. Hacer: Se aig spt of the Surface Fauna of the Gulf Stream, A. AGASSIZ: — m Erabry eg a Monographs: Cruise of the Revenue Steamer Corwin it hadi and the N. W. Arctic Ocean, in 1881, 417.

—National Academy or Sciences. 417.—Report

k. State Survey, J. T. GARDINER, 418.—Note ae a eondition

sioning the Ohio River flood of February, 1884, J. D. Dawa, —Publica- tions of the Cincinnati Observatory, No. 7: logical Sexe "ot London : Hermunn Mueller Fund; 421.-—Rainfall returns: Monnaie to Barrande, 422,

i Obituary. —QUINTINO SELLA, 422.

1884.

JUNE,

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in 1818

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN

blished by

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AMERICAN

OURNAL OF SCIE

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EDITORS

LIMAN

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AND B.

DANA,

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JA

, JOSIAH P. COOKE, «

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TATE EDITORS

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ROFEssoRS AS

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AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL. |

This Journal contains original articles by American and Foreign chemists ; reviews of works relating to chemical science; report progress in the various s departments of Chemistry; and items of eines ope < Chemists. Published

in numbers of from 64 to 80 pages; six numbers forming a volume of from 400- 500 pages. Each volume will be completed, as nearly as is consistent with the supply of material, btu a year. Subscription price for the volume $3.00; single numbers 50 cents.

Volumes T, U, Ir and IV, 1879-82, are now complete. Price $3.00 each.

_ Subscriptions and communications of all kinds should be addressed to Tra Remsen, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. : Dlcwes

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MATH EMATICS |

PURE AND APPLIED. "Published under the auspices of the Jouns Hopxiys UNIverstry. oh volumes of about 384 quarto pa; ees, smo gates four numbers issued quar- arly. Fifth volume published the present yea ts primary Dbject. is the publication of o eufnel vibe a ong os : aynonel ibliographies and ae expositions of gees seule tea be given Editor in chief, J SYLVESTER; Associate Editor ms charge, WintiaM E. Story; with the coberatin of SIMON wawosue of Washington, H. A. Newrox, of New se OWLAND, of Baltimore. 60 5 volume; — numbers, $i. 50. * —

“WILLIAM. B. STORY, | Hopkins Univ ais Baltimore, Md.

* satacpion price,

| TWERALS, SOL iL nage & MEDICAL BOOES. SHELLS, FOSSILS, DS, E _And all objects of NATURAL Hi stone ag are housht: sold and exchanged.

No. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, Pen 4Professor of Se ceee | Fellow of ies see meric — at ings p for the Advancement of Seience; Life Sotiper of the Aad reories of Nat. Sci ciences, Phila., and An an Museum of Nat. Hist., Central Park, N.Y. Cit Specimens sent to il part of the world by mail. Specimen copies of the illustrated monthly epecceoaete e Hour of 32 pages sent iseeg Subscription 75 cents a year, for club rates and premiums see each pouthiy issue. a received the lg cone award piece to any one at the Centennial “xposition of 1876, and the only award and y American for “Collections of Minerals.”

My Mineralogical Catalogue of 10

ary cents, bou na

Cloth 50 ce ants, a sheep 75 cents, feat $1.00, haere ree esi fig 00, fen teat ot $1.25, 14 cal Tleaved $1.50, (price-list alone, 16 ae eénts). It is aligcnar oa iuseret, pak The. printer and engraver reed me about Bye ,000 before a copy was struck nig = the table of species and accompanying

ables, most tbe sit 3 may be verified. The price-list i shes ck list, containing the ge i aod all ae ies, an —o. este aiphabotieatiy, sp preceded by the spee

ties nu eee indicates the plac mineral in the table of species, where will us cally} te. found the cies name, streak ep cleavage oF fracture, hardness, specific avits. &e., &c., ch ibility and crystalli- Hion, [ have se ecies not on rice-lis st, and fia fs that Phad in 1876 are no longe i n stoc ie OLLECTIONS OF MINERALS for ae ne eiprrey Physics, eta

The collections of 100 illustrate all the prin pipet cies and a and subdivisions in ‘Dat ana and —— orks on Mineralogy; all the Sept Ores, &e. ollecti abe lle oe ith printed label that ¢

= fhe Soepsede by soaking. The labels of the $. ree hig cher ained collections give Dana’s specie es num visa

re

e, lo an and in mos t eases, the eo peste saci agi ¥ ineral ; the $5.0 = higher,

t f spec thes s ome smaller, many larger.

: ; a be fe ‘ ‘

eaten OF Goxvrens in box. | in box. | in box. | stg sate ~—

Me nun frapminles a ee | $50 | $100 | $200 | g100 $200) $3 00 Brewing, larger 6 eo ce ee es | 230 | 300 | 600 | 500 | 1000| 25.00

eur’s size, 244 in.xi}s Seek coe ee sf | | 10 25 00) 50 School or Academ e, 214x334 in., Shelf Specimens, - | 25 00 50.00 | 100 00 &ge size, 3)¢x6in., 8 helt Becolnene 4 es es } | | | 50 50 00 | 300 00 Tharye now over 70 ton ns, and over $60,000 worth of Minerals, mostly crystallized, in stox I can ot to following Gentlemen and Colleges, all of Memon with thousands of others, have bought ve me pod tof

™ hee 5. Ba spe special pe Tr names as r hag nce

Baird, Pr of. J. W. “Powell, Prof. Fr ve Hayden, Pri cR Pum pelly, Prof. C. LS Riley, Dr. Joseph kay y, Prof. J. D. and E. S. Dana, = Re Edison, Prof. G. J. Brush, "Prof. Je Pp. Bo oke, E. B. Coxe, Agassiz Museum, Tard University Prof. A. & N. H., Prof. C. 8. Sargent, Prof. €. E. Bessey, lowa State Agl. “College , Dr. John 8. lings, Prof. Winchell, * le J. F. Newberry, D.8. Jordan, Prof. R. H. Richards, on en 8. ichards, Prof, us uae Prof. T. Sterry Hu ors &. Bement, Prof. A. E. Smith, Beloit College, Prof. G. A. Koenig, ie Lib rary Cincinnati, Cincinna . Seciety, M. Buisson, Minister of Inst ng ay Paris, France, Lan- (te 9 Malheiro Lisbon oe wt Prot, “Orton, Prof, Ira Remsen, Gen. A. Gadolin, Teg Behool o f Mines, St reburg, Nt Prof. i. 2 Nordenschiold Roy: al stone Stoekholm, Sweden, D icolo Mowe! Imperial seam, o de Jane eiro, A eaail, ish Museum, Ro 9 Mas seum Berlin, Dr: EB. Defferari ong, re ; rsity, Malvers ity © California, Universtiy ot Ne a, Oregon 2 State Ce Ph Yale Colleg se, a iseonsin University: Columbia, Bees, Michigan University, Wellesley = lege, be Industrial Unity ¥, Massa- setts Institu e ser nology, Col. Scho ce of Mines, Univer: of Virginia, University of Miss ak ine

te University. Minnes a State Normal School, Meqill College, hashes mh College ‘Chicago Unive arsity, Uni- ity of Notre Dame, Prints ston pagers “Ee. Johns Hopkins University, University of Georgia, Jniversity of Ohio, mmer School Boston, and many oth — Nevada, Washington Territory, Canada, Maine, Texas, Peru, Chi li, Sland, Brazil, env fe Austria, ete.

Shells &c.—I ca jou of he is at the following low rates: 25 Genera, 25 species, $1.00; in box, 50 ‘Genera, 100 ‘spec ies, $5.00; in box, $6.00. 100 Genera, 300 species, $25.00; 200 Genera, 1,000 species,

#0); 250 Genera species, $500.00.

Calais ogue Of 2,506 spe i of a made for by George W. Tryon, es sii has labelled nearly all my

iis, Scents. inte on — paper "with genus label list, 10 cents. y have purchased one or two of the most tated collections known, and have now oer t 0 Ibs., Se species, aod 30,000 specimens of Shelis and

2k stock. ai ag of a Rexe, Eye Seine, ete., 3 cents, Catalogues of various classes of

“Atifie Books, 32 pv., ea. 3 cts. Medical Mocks. 80 pp., Pap (Please specify exactly what class of books wish catalogues of.

pend for the Naturalist’s Leisure pec ees = fuli perie™ Specimen copy free. You will confer ~

fe favor by handing this hysician or other person interested in science.

: CONTENTS.

Pa Arr, XLIX.—The Sufficiency of be ides en for the )

Deflection of Streams ; by ts i. Grae. oo ee 427% (| ‘L—Examination of Wallace’s Modification gi the Physical a a heory of Secular Changes of Climate ; by Jas. Crori, 432 if LI.—Marsupial from the ed oan Miocene; by W. B. Scorr, 442 rap

ibrations of a Tunin -fork: by A. G. Gousvox, ee oe 444 | L—Volcanic Rocks of the Great Basin: ; by Arnotp Hacue 1 ee ee PO ONGe, cree Lk es 453 V.—Transition from seco 2 Copper-bearing Series to the Pots- a dun: re eae. Webern 1 63 ‘ Ly. pm nee of Blectriea Resistance in Terms of Veloc- : ‘ee oy woe NEE a a ae 465 y WES Lateral Astronomical Refraction; by J. M. Scwae- BERL EM ee ae a Be 466 aie a from Red Moustain: Cal; by R. GC. Hiris, 472 *

ence * Convection on Glaciation; by G. F.

473 N.S, Riyouxsuns, ...........---- "476 | Nao Poy s. sea eae ete 479 |

rae ese shits, Ma RIGNAC, 482. | ; RTH: nba pep ag ee Tar -—— of Ca re! HALLER,